THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
WHAT INDUSTRY OWES TO 
 CHEMICAL SCIENCE 
 
 By RICHARD B. PILCHER and FRANK 
 BUTLER-JONES, B.A., A.I.C. With an 
 Introduction by Sir George Beilby, LL. D. , 
 F.R.S. Crown 8vo. 3s.6d.net 
 
 "The book is a good one and much wanted. It con- 
 tains information accurate in itself and clearly stated." 
 
 The Analyst. 
 
 11 The work can be recommended with confidence to 
 the general reader who wishes to gain a comprehensive 
 insight into the far-reaching ramifications of chemical 
 industry." Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. 
 
THE PROFESSION 
 OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 BY 
 
 RICHARD B. PILCHER 
 
 REGISTRAR AND SECRETARY 
 
 OF THE 
 INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 25, PARK PLACE 
 
Printed in Great Britain 
 
PREFACE 
 
 WHEN a boy turns a room probably his bed- 
 room into a laboratory and starts making 
 experiments the results of which are commonly ob- 
 noxious to the other members of his home, and when the 
 household is startled by explosions and the smell of 
 sulphuretted hydrogen penetrates to his father's study, 
 the family becomes alternately alarmed and annoyed ; 
 but the head of the house is set wondering whether the 
 new enthusiasm is only a phase through which so many 
 boys pass, or whether he has discovered an indication 
 of the boy's choice of a calling. The question imme- 
 diately occurs to the parent, " How can the boy become 
 an analytical chemist ? " Afterwards, he learns that the 
 adjective analytical is too restrictive ; but we,. will deal 
 with that later. 
 
 Probably not one in ten of those who, at one time 
 or another, seem bent on chemistry as a profession 
 ultimately becomes qualified to practise, but most boys 
 nowadays know something about the science, and this 
 publication is designed to let them, their parents 
 and schoolmasters know something about the pro- 
 fession. 
 
 The importance of the science of chemistry can 
 hardly be overrated. Scarcely any other branch of 
 
 432047 
 
vi THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 practical science can claim so close a connection with 
 the material progress of mankind, and there is hardly 
 a Department of State or other Public Authority, or 
 an industrial or commercial undertaking of any magni- 
 tude, which does not benefit by its aid. So wide are the 
 applications of the subject and so deep are its ramifica- 
 tions that it is certain to hold a most prominent and 
 increasingly important position in public affairs, in 
 industry and commerce. For this reason, there should 
 always be a demand for chemical knowledge of the 
 highest order. 
 
 The secretary of a professional body receives en- 
 quiries on many and varied matters for the answers to 
 which he, in turn, must often look to others better 
 informed, and thus in the course of time accumulates a 
 fund of information to be drawn upon as occasion 
 arises. To decide how much of that information should 
 be included in this book has been not the least difficult 
 part of the work. 
 
 Some things we have to say may appear too obvious 
 or too trite ; yet it is often the obvious of which we 
 need most to be reminded, being so near that it 
 escapes notice. Apart from information, the book 
 includes much in the nature of advice. We are told 
 by Steele that there is nothing which we receive with 
 more reluctance, and by Johnson that we are never 
 more impatient of it than when we need it most. 
 All who attempt to give advice, however good 
 their intentions, lay themselves open to criticism. 
 Being very conscious of the difficulties of our task, we 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 realise that this first attempt to provide anything 
 approaching a comprehensive account of one of the 
 most important of modern professions may, in the 
 light of criticism, be improved upon in any subsequent 
 edition. 
 
 Following this preface we give a synopsis of the 
 education and training recommended for the profession 
 of chemistry, and of the possible careers open to 
 chemists. For the consideration of parents, and possibly 
 of schoolmasters if that suggestion is not too pre- 
 sumptuous our first chapter is devoted to the subject 
 of preliminary education, which must be a matter for 
 serious thought, whatever may be the career eventually 
 selected. We then discuss the title "chemist," show- 
 ing the distinction between chemists and pharmacists, 
 and deal, in turn, with the technical training, examina- 
 tions, and qualifications for the practice of analytical, 
 consulting and technological chemistry ; with post- 
 graduate training and research ; and with the societies 
 and institutions concerned with chemical science. 
 Next, we consider the various branches of practice, and 
 the prospects offered therein, devote a chapter to the 
 recognised procedure of members of the profession in 
 their relations to one another and to the public, and, 
 after referring briefly to the prospects of women 
 chemists, conclude with a short record of some of the 
 services rendered, by chemists in the war. 
 
 Our aim, therefore, is to review generally the position 
 of the profession of chemistry ; but we would remark 
 that, even while the book has been in preparation, it 
 
viii THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 has been necessary to have regard to the constantly 
 changing opinions on many of the subjects dealt with, 
 e.g. education, technical training, and organisation 
 which obviously cannot be settled for all time and will 
 no doubt be modified with the trend of future develop- 
 ments. 
 
 The writer desires to express his grateful thanks 
 to a few friends who have read the proofs and 
 have given him the benefit of their advice. He 
 hopes that the book will be useful to those for 
 whom it is intended and that it may be ac- 
 cepted as a partial discharge of his obligations to 
 the profession which he has had the honour and 
 pleasure to serve for over twenty-five years. It should 
 be clearly understood, however, that notwithstand- 
 ing his official position, the views expressed herein 
 are not necessarily to be read as bearing the authority 
 of the Council of the Institute of Chemistry. 
 
 R. B. P. 
 
 30 RUSSELL SQUARE, LONDON, W.C. i. 
 January, 1919. 
 
SYNOPSIS OF (A) THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING 
 RECOMMENDED FOR THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 AND (B) OF THE POSSIBLE CAREERS FOR A 
 CHEMIST. 
 
 A. EDUCATION AND TRAINING 
 
 General Education, on as broad lines as possible, up to about seven- 
 teen years of age. 
 
 Matriculation or other recognised Preliminary Examination, in- 
 cluding English, Mathematics, at least one Foreign Language 
 and one other subject. 
 
 Technical Training, extending over at least four years day courses, 
 comprising Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics and at least one 
 additional scientific subject : 
 
 (a) At a University, College, or Technical School ; or 
 
 (b) At least three years at a University, College, or Technical 
 School, and one year in a suitable laboratory or works. 
 
 In cases where sufficient means for systematic day training 
 are not available the student may obtain experience in a labora- 
 tory or works and attend evening classes in the necessary 
 subjects. 1 
 
 Qualifications, A Degree in Science or Arts, including Honours in 
 Chemistry, with Physics as chief subsidiary subject, or a recog- 
 nised College Diploma. 
 
 The Associateship of the Institute of Chemistry (A.I.C.). 
 An Associate is recommended to join a Local Section of the 
 
 1 The Council of the Institute of Chemistry will consider applications for admission 
 to the Examination for the Associateship from Candidates who are not less than 
 twenty-seven years of age, provided (i.) that their cases are recommended, for special 
 consideration, by at least three Fellows of the Institute ; (ii.) that they have passed an 
 approved preliminary examination ; (iii.) that they have received systematic instruc- 
 tion, by day or evening classes, in the prescribed subjects, and have passed the class 
 examinations therein ; and (iv.) that they have been engaged in the study and practice 
 of chemistry for at least ten years. 
 
x THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 Institute and, as soon as means allow, one or more of the 
 chemical societies : Chemical Society, Society of Chemical 
 Industry, Society of Public Analysts, and, if possible, one or 
 more Societies interested in Chemical Technology. 
 
 Higher Qualifications. Post-graduate training (including research) 
 for a higher degree such as M.Sc., 1 or D.Sc., and/or experience 
 in a suitable laboratory or works, or training in chemical engi- 
 neering ; and 
 
 After three years as an Associate of the Institute of Chemistry 
 qualify by examination, or otherwise, for the Fellowship (F.I.C.). 
 
 B. POSSIBLE CAREERS FOR A CHEMIST 
 
 (1) Consulting Practice, general or specialised : Assistant ; Chief 
 Assistant, with prospect of transferring to an appointment in 
 industry ; partnership ; independent practice. 
 
 (2) Industrial Practice 
 
 (a) Analytical Chemist : Junior Assistant ; Assistant ; pos- 
 sibly transferring to Research or to Plant Control, or 
 becoming Chief Assistant or Head of Analytical Laboratory. 
 
 (6) Research Chemist : Junior Assistant ; Chief Assistant ; 
 possibly transferring to Plant Control or becoming Head 
 of Research Laboratory ; Partner or Director ; or establish- 
 ing Consulting Practice. 
 
 (c) Works Control Chemist: Departmental Plant Control; 
 
 Assistant Manager ; Manager ; Managing Director ; 
 possibly becoming Partner or Director; or establishing 
 Consulting Practice. 
 
 (d) Consulting Technological Practice ; Chemical Engineering. 
 
 (3) Official Chemical Appointments. The Government Labora- 
 tories and other Departmental Laboratories : Junior Assistant 
 Chemist ; Assistant Chemist ; Principal Assistant Chemist ; 
 Superintending Chemist ; Deputy Chief Chemist ; Chief Chemist. 
 
 1 Probably the degree of Ph.D., or something equivalent, will also be introduced 
 into the curricula of several British Universities. 
 
SYNOPSIS xi 
 
 Other Government appointments, technical, educational, etc. 
 (Probably) Technical Commissions with Navy, Army, and Air 
 Force. 
 
 Municipal, etc. : Assistant to Public Analyst ; Public Analyst ; 
 Official Agricultural Analyst ; Gas Examiner ; Water Examiner ; 
 Chemist in Public Health Laboratory ; Chemist to Sewage 
 Rivers Boards, etc. 
 
 Public Institutions : Research and Analytical Appointments. 
 
 (4) Teaching 
 
 (a) School : as general -Science Master or Chemistry Master (in 
 
 public or secondary school). 
 
 (b) Technical Schools, Medical Schools, Agricultural Colleges, 
 
 etc.: Assistant Demonstrator ; Demonstrator ; Lecturer 
 (general or in a branch of chemistry, inorganic, organic, 
 physical, metallurgical, biological, etc.) ; Lecturer in 
 Technology ; Head of Department ; Principal. 
 
 (c) University or College : Assistant Demonstrator ; Demonstra- 
 
 tor ; Lecturer (general or special) ; Assistant Professor ; 
 Professor (general or special) ; Chair of University ; Dean 
 of Faculty and higher University appointments ; Ex- 
 aminerships. 
 
 (5) Employment combining two or more of the above. 
 
 (6) Other employment in which chemical knowledge and ability 
 
 are advantageous, though not necessarily the primary 
 factors. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF TRAINING AND POSSIBLE CAREERS FOR A 
 
 CHEMIST . . . . . . . . ix 
 
 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION . .... . . i 
 
 General considerations ; English ; the classics and 
 science ; early specialisation ; public indifference to 
 science ; preliminary examinations. 
 
 PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS . . . . . 16 
 
 The claim of pharmacists to the title " chemist " ; 
 alchemists ; apothecaries ; druggists ; pharmaceutical 
 organisation ; qualifications for pharmacists and 
 " chemists and druggists " ; the foreign equivalents of 
 " pharmacist " and " chemist " ; definition. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL TRAINING . . . ~ . . . .40 
 
 Beginnings and progress of technical education ; the 
 Institute of Chemistry ; schemes of training ; research ; 
 examination for A.I.C. ; specialised training. 
 
 PROSPECTS AND CONDITIONS OF PRACTICE . . .. 78 
 
 Branches of work ; general considerations. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION . , . . . .; 96 
 
 Societies and institutions concerned with chemistry ; 
 their work and influence. 
 
 PUBLIC ANALYSTS AND OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL ANALYSTS no 
 
 The Society of Public Analysts ; the Sale of Food and 
 t$H Drugs Acts ; public analysts and their duties ; official 
 Agricultural Analysts ; the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs 
 Act. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE . ; . . . . -. 130 
 
 Fees ; trading advertisements and certificates ; solicit- 
 ing practice ; legal evidence. 
 
xiv THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY ....... 141 
 
 The field of work for chemists in industry ; analysts, 
 research chemists, control chemists; examination in 
 chemical technology ; syllabus discussed ; general con- 
 siderations of British chemical industry ; consulting 
 technologists. 
 
 CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE . . . . . .172 
 
 The Government and science ; the Government Labora- 
 tory ; Government Departmental Laboratories ; official 
 chemical appointments ; chemistry in its relation to 
 " key " industries of importance to the State. 
 
 TEACHING . . . . . . 7 183 
 
 Qualifications and prospects of teachers of chemistry. 
 
 WOMEN IN PROFESSIONAL CHEMISTRY . . . .189 
 
 CHEMISTS IN WAR ........ 190 
 
 INDEX . . . . . ' . . . . . 197 
 
THE PROFESSION OF 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 
 
 | 
 
 A> we have indicated in the preface, this chapter 
 has been written for the consideration of parents 
 whose boys are still at school : the importance of the 
 subject must be our excuse for dealing with it at some 
 length. 
 
 Chemistry as the science which treats of the com- 
 position of matter is one of the chief keys to the study 
 of nature. It is indispensable in the arts and manu- 
 factures and ancillary to many other branches of 
 science. The training of the mental faculties of those 
 who intend to practise in chemistry should be no less 
 comprehensive than that prescribed for any other 
 learned profession. The boy who has a liking for 
 science should not be allowed, therefore, at too early 
 a stage to become absorbed in it to the detriment 
 of his general development. A good general education 
 is essential in every profession using the term pro- 
 fession in the limited sense in which it applied to 
 medicine, the law, architecture, and the like and it is 
 advisable that anyone who intends to follow a profes- 
 sional career should remain at school until at least the 
 age of seventeen years the usual age for passing the 
 Matriculation or Entrance Examinations to the Uni- 
 versities. 
 
2 tit ,THE t PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 In recent years /the need for overhauling our school 
 iystem fci$ ,be*eri much discussed. The present demand 
 in all affairs of life is for practical good sense and 
 trained intellectual capacity. The typical British 
 public-school boy, whatever his shortcomings may be, 
 has developed a straightforward and sturdy indi- 
 vidualism invaluable to those who are destined eventu- 
 ally to occupy positions of responsibility and control ; 
 but a measure of education has become the common 
 heritage of all classes, and the public-school boy has 
 to face the ever-increasing competition of those from 
 the modern schools, to whom the earning of their living 
 is an absolute necessity. With the introduction of 
 free primary education, the demand has arisen for a 
 higher standard of both general and special knowledge 
 in every grade of social life. 
 
 The public-school curriculum covers a comprehen- 
 sive programme, including, in most cases, religious 
 and ethical instruction and the inculcation of a respect 
 for law and order ; English language and literature ; 
 Latin, and sometimes Greek ; French and, if no 
 Greek, probably another modern language ; history 
 and geography ; mathematics ; science ; drawing ; 
 physical drill and athletics. The instruction given in 
 each subject may be little or much ; but, in any case, 
 neither ethics, languages, science, nor athletics should 
 be neglected. 
 
 Prior to the sixteenth century for those who were 
 educated at all Latin was the primary subject and 
 few youths understood much of their own mother- 
 tongue. Thus, John Palsgrave wrote, in 1540, that 
 scholars in the University " who could write an epistle 
 quite Latin-like, and thereto speak Latin "... were 
 yet . * . " not able to express their conceit in their 
 
PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 3 
 
 vulgar tongue." To write in English on subjects of 
 scholarship was not altogether approved, though books 
 written in Latin were occasionally translated. In 1551, 
 however, Thomas Wilson in his Art of Rhetoric boldly 
 advocated that the writing of genuine English should 
 first be learned among all lessons ; and in 1557 Sir 
 John Cheke in a letter to Sir Thomas Hoby also 
 advised the writing of pure English, " unmixed and 
 unmangled with borrowing of other tongues." 1 
 
 The study of our language is even now generally 
 treated so lightly that comparatively few are able to 
 write good English until they are considerably advanced 
 in years. Essay writing may be practised occasionally ; 
 but in many cases the opportunities for composition 
 are limited to the writing of exercises in general sub- 
 jects and answering examination papers. The study 
 of literature, on the other hand, is promoted by the 
 reading of selected plays of Shakespeare, by the 
 memorising of poems, and reading works of well-known 
 authors as holiday tasks. It is obvious that good 
 composition cannot be expected of a boy until he has 
 acquired knowledge and formed definite ideas ; yet 
 we suggest that the accurate use of language is not 
 sufficiently insisted on. Good reading especially the 
 reading of biographies and essays, when youths are 
 old enough to appreciate them is to be commended 
 as tending to induce the habit of methodical thought 
 and expression in writing and speaking. 
 
 Latin as an educational subject is not so fully appre- 
 ciated as formerly, and much of the time which was 
 allotted to the classics is now devoted to more directly 
 utilitarian subjects. The Institute of Chemistry was 
 
 1 The Beginnings of the Teaching of Modern Subjects in England. 
 Foster Watson. 
 
4 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 one of the last of the professional bodies to make Latin 
 optional instead of compulsory in the Preliminary 
 Examination, and it is worthy of note that the majority 
 of the University professors of chemistry, at that time, 
 were really opposed to the change until the pressure of 
 outside opinion compelled it. However, they felt 
 obliged to advise the change and the Council of the 
 Institute adopted it, though with reluctance, in order 
 to fall in with the practice of the modern Universities 
 classics being no longer obligatory at Matriculation. 
 
 The advocates of a classical education hold that 
 recruits from the " modern side " are often lacking 
 in a comprehensive knowledge of English and the 
 science of words ; their vocabularies are limited 
 and, consequently, they not only fail to express them- 
 selves concisely, but also experience difficulty in 
 grasping the meanings of unfamiliar terms, which are 
 clear to those possessing even an elementary know- 
 ledge of Latin and Greek. Indeed, it has been re- 
 marked by University Professors that students who 
 have an acquaintance with the classics are quicker in 
 learning generally. 
 
 On the other hand, it is ^ contended that modern 
 languages afford equally good mental training ; that 
 lucidity of construction can be as easily cultivated by 
 the study of modern authors, and that an acquaintance 
 with modern foreign languages is more useful as giving 
 access to the advance of knowledge in other countries, 
 and, therefore, to be preferred. 1 
 
 The question whether classical education is really 
 useful is an old one, and may be pursued a little further 
 
 1 The Report oj the Committee appointed by the Prime Minister to 
 enquire into the position of Modern Languages in the Educational 
 System of Great Britain [Cd. 9036 : 1918] deals very fully with 
 this part of the subject. Some scholars believe, however, that Latin 
 will come again into common use as a universal language. 
 
PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 5 
 
 in order to consider it in another aspect. Classical litera- 
 ture provides a mental association with some of the 
 wisest and greatest thinkers of the past, from whose 
 teaching our mental equipment is largely derived, while 
 its influence works insensibly, yet perceptibly, in the 
 mass of well-educated men. Bosweil discussed the ques- 
 tion with Johnson ;* Arnold, of Rugby, who was largely 
 instrumental in popularising the teaching of modern 
 languages, modern history, and mathematics as parts 
 of the regular school course, dilated upon it in the 
 Quarterly Journal of Education. 2 Ben Jonson tells us 
 that Shakespeare " had little Latin, and less Greek " ; 
 but the standard by which Jonson judged was un- 
 doubtedly very high and would have applied equally 
 well to the great majority of educated men of his time 
 and since. Dr. Samuel Johnson said of Shakespeare 
 
 1 " Dr. Johnson and I (Bosweil) took a sculler at the Temple 
 Stairs, and set out for Greenwich. I asked him if he really thought 
 a knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages an essential requisite 
 to a good education. Johnson. 'Most certainly, sir; for those who 
 know them have a very great advantage over those who do not. 
 Nay, sir, it is wonderful what a difference learning makes upon 
 people even in the common intercourse of life, which does not 
 appear to be much connected with it.' ' And yet,' said I, ' people 
 go through the world very well, and carry on the business of life to 
 good advantage, without learning.' Johnson. ' Why, sir, that may 
 be true in cases where learning cannot possibly be of any use ; for 
 instance, this boy rows us as well without learning as if he could 
 sing the song of Orpheus to the Argonauts who were the first sailors.' 
 He then called to the boy, ' What would you give, my lad, to know 
 about the Argonauts ? ' ' Sir,' said the boy, ' I would give what I 
 have.' Johnson was much pleased with his answer, and we gave 
 him a double fare. Dr. Johnson then turned to me, ' Sir,' said he, 
 ' a desire of knowledge is the natural feeling of mankind, and every 
 human being whose mind is not debauched, will be willing to give 
 all that he ha*s to get knowledge.' " Bosweil, Life of Johnson. 
 
 On another occasion (speaking of Garrick) Dr. Johnson said : 
 " He has not Latin enough. He finds out Latin by the meaning, 
 rather than the meaning by the Latin." 
 
 8 " Expel Greek and Latin from your schools and you confine 
 the view of the existing generation to themselves and their im- 
 mediate predecessors ; you will cut off so many centuries of the 
 world's experience, and place us in the same state as if the human 
 race had first come into existence in the year 1500." 
 
6 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 that " he had Latin enough to grammaticise his 
 English/' His construction was classical, and he had 
 at call an extraordinarily extensive vocabulary largely 
 drawn from the classics. It is the case, however, that 
 many men of light and learning, men who have 
 attained distinction in science and in statecraft, have 
 become eminent without having received a classical 
 education, though it is probable that such men felt the 
 need of it more than the average. 
 
 Charles Lamb tells us of the fine old pedagogues who 
 believed that all learning was contained in the lan- 
 guages which they taught, and who despised every 
 other acquirement as superficial and useless. Yet it is 
 rather surprising to find that he also wrote, over a 
 century ago, " The modern schoolmaster is expected to 
 know a little of everything, because his pupil is required 
 not to be entirely ignorant of anything. He must be 
 superficially, if I may so say, omniscient. He is to 
 know something of pneumatics, of chemistry, of what- 
 ever is curious, or proper to excite the attention of the 
 youthful mind ; an insight into mechanics is desirable, 
 with a touch of statistics ; the quality of soils, etc., 
 botany, the constitution of his country, cum multis 
 aliis." 
 
 An Eton master has recently stated that in his 
 experience the boys who are best at classics are also 
 best at science ; but, perhaps, this experience is not 
 very general. With all our predilection for the classics, 
 our great classical scholars are comparatively few ; 
 and while occasionally our men of science show a con- 
 siderable acquaintance with the classics, seldom does 
 a classical scholar claim any special knowledge of 
 science. 
 
 The progress of science and its introduction into the 
 
PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 7 
 
 school curriculum have raised the question in another 
 form : not so much its importance to the individual 
 as its importance to the State. While it is held that 
 the extent of the study of classics has hitherto been 
 out of proportion to its value as mental exercise 
 compared with that of science subjects, yet in the 
 secondary and private schools and in the 'majority of 
 the Universities a marked advance has been made 
 in the direction of science teaching during the past 
 seventy years. It has developed in many a real en- 
 thusiasm for knowledge of natural phenomena ; has 
 encouraged observation, intelligent enquiry and 
 criticism ; and, perhaps, has afforded a relaxation 
 from less attractive tasks. Its introduction, however, 
 was gradual, not only because, at first, there were few 
 teachers, but also on account of the alterations which 
 had to be made to allow time for the study of the 
 new subjects. In most cases, the time devoted to 
 classical languages had to be curtailed to make room 
 for chemistry, physics, geology, botany, and the like. 
 
 The difficulty of generalising on educational matters 
 can hardly be fully realised except by those who have 
 to educate. The schools must of necessity have some 
 regard to the temperament, bent and capabilities 
 of individuals, since it is neither possible nor desir- 
 able that they should all be cast in one mould. In 
 most cases there is a mental bias towards some form of 
 knowledge which can be strengthened by judicious 
 encouragement. It is generally agreed, we think, that 
 so long as steady progress can be made, the education 
 should be as " all-round " as possible, although it is not 
 unusual to allow each individual a choice of subjects 
 in the later stages of school life, in order that scope may 
 be given to variations in natural aptitude. 
 
 The wisdom of differentiating between classical and 
 
8 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 modern sides in schools has often been questioned. In 
 any case, if differentiation is desirable, it should 
 reasonably provide for literary, scientific, commercial 
 and perhaps other tendencies. The objection raised is 
 that such classification is commonly determined at a 
 period of development in the individual when an en- 
 forced broadening of culture, if practicable, would, in 
 the long run, carry him further than a too narrow con- 
 centration on a few subjects. 
 
 There is a danger that early specialisation may inter- 
 fere with general development, and it is doubtful 
 whether it is wise to encourage it at the expense of 
 other attainments for the acquisition of which there is 
 little opportunity when once the professional train- 
 ing has commenced. 
 
 In every intellectual calling, however, specialisation 
 at the right time is not only profitable to the individual 
 but, in the higher stages, highly desirable in the 
 interests of the advancement of national prestige and 
 efficiency. The difficulty lies in deciding the right 
 time for and the manner of its introduction. 
 
 When events of the war emphasised the necessity of 
 introducing science as an integral part of the education 
 of the coming generation, authoritative bodies showed 
 that, although the effects of the application of science 
 to practical purposes were evident, and the scientific 
 workers of the nation were as capable as those of any 
 other country, full advantage had not been taken of 
 their discoveries ; that scientific endeavour had not been 
 sufficiently encouraged ; that the co-operation of science 
 with industry had not been properly developed, and 
 that our educational system had not made adequate 
 provision for science teaching. They contended, more- 
 over, that all attempts to induce the public schools to 
 give greater attention to the matter would fail so 
 
PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 9 
 
 long as the public services maintained a preference for 
 classical attainments in the competitive examinations. 
 The Government was, therefore, urged to effect reforms 
 in the public examinations, with the result that, when 
 a Treasury Committee was appointed to deal with the 
 matter, they recommended a complete change in the 
 system of examinations for Class I of the Home Civil 
 Service. The new scheme includes, among the subjects 
 to be taken by all candidates, " questions on general 
 principles, methods, and applications of science," and 
 among the optional subjects, 'under Mathematics and 
 Science, a fair and liberal choice for those who elect to 
 be examined in chemistry, physics, botany, geology, 
 physiology, zoology, and engineering, provided that 
 they produce satisfactory evidence of laboratory train- 
 ing in an institution of University rank. Thus there 
 is some probability that a reaction in favour of 
 science may be found soon in the curricula of the 
 public schools. 1 
 
 Most subjects provide mental discipline, yet the 
 average individual cannot take a real interest in, let 
 alone be enthusiastic over, every subject. This is 
 admitted, but it is unfair, to say the least, to allow 
 one class to have a marked advantage over another 
 in the public examinations, and it is unwise, since the 
 result has exposed a lack of an important class in our 
 administrative offices. 
 
 It is sometimes questioned whether any subject is 
 advanced by its being made obligatory in an examina- 
 tion ; but if attention to a subject is forced on a 
 number of pupils there is a greater chance of rinding 
 some who will be attracted to it. 
 
 1 See the publications of the British Science Guild and of the 
 Committee on the Neglect of Science (1916); also the Report of the 
 Committee appointed to enquire into the position of Natural Science in 
 the Educational Systems of Great Britain. [Cd. 9011.] 
 
to THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 One reason for advocating the claims of science, 
 moreover, appears not to have been advanced so 
 forcibly as to secure sufficient prominence in the dis- 
 cussion, and that is the imperative necessity of pro- 
 viding well -trained recruits for modern professions 
 brought into existence by the progress of scientific 
 discovery. To teach boys and girls to appreciate 
 nature, to excite their inquisitiveness, to awaken their 
 imagination, and by easy stages to lead them to the 
 serious study of natural phenomena must inevitably 
 tend to attract to such professions a greater number 
 of those who are destined to become leaders of scientific 
 thought. Such leaders are so essential to our national 
 existence that to ignore their importance courts certain 
 disaster in times of crisis, while to neglect taking 
 advantage of the assistance of such leaders, refusing 
 to recognise their ability, discourages the pursuit of 
 discovery and invention and much that makes for 
 material progress. Seeing, then, how the welfare of 
 humanity under present conditions is dependent on 
 such professions and how far-reaching an influence 
 they exercise on the happiness, prosperity and safety 
 of the public, to persist in the policy of leaving affairs 
 of State exclusively in the hands of the literati is 
 assuredly shortsighted and dangerous. 
 
 The demand for more science in general education 
 was not necessarily associated with the idea of neglect- 
 ing classical study and literature, but it was made in 
 order to secure that all classes of the community should 
 be given the opportunity of knowing sufficient of the 
 fundamental principles of mechanics, physics, chemis- 
 try, and biology to enable them to appreciate their value 
 in the affairs of everyday life. A more general acceptance 
 of that view would do much to counteract the apparent 
 apathy of the public towards matters scientific. 
 
PRELIMINARY EDUCATION II 
 
 The fact that occasionally teachers in the Colleges 
 complain that boys who have taken science at school 
 have much to unlearn or forget before they can make 
 real progress, rather implies inferior tuition than an 
 argument against school science. When the teaching 
 of science is directed to a useful acquaintance with 
 fundamental principles, with illustrations ' of their 
 practical applications, it may be made an important 
 part of a liberal education, while it tends to the dis- 
 covery here and there of an enthusiast who will have a 
 definite idea with regard to his choice of a career. Very 
 few of the headmasters of public schools are " science 
 men " ; the idea that the majority should be science 
 men cannot be generally accepted, but it is hoped that 
 the proportion will increase and that the teaching of 
 science will be steadily developed on practical lines ; 
 also that the number of scholarships in science may be 
 extended to encourage boys to proceed to higher 
 training. 
 
 In a presidential address delivered before the 
 Institute of Chemistry on ist March, 1916, Sir James 
 Dobbie summed up the position as follows : 
 
 A more general diffusion of the knowledge of scientific 
 method and of scientific facts has become one of the 
 necessities of our national existence, and the need must be 
 met if we are to continue to hold our place in the world. 
 But it appears to me that the demand which is sometimes 
 put forward that science must henceforth be the dominant 
 factor in education confuses the real issue and needlessly 
 arouses opposition to the reforms which are essential. 
 Surely what is wanted is not education in which science or 
 any other subject is predominant, but education which 
 embraces all the elements that are necessary for stimulating 
 and developing the various faculties of the mind. Such an 
 education must include science, not a smattering, but a 
 training as thorough and as continuous as that now devoted 
 to linguistic studies, and education on these lines should be 
 
12 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 continued until the proper age for specialisation arrives. 
 By that time the natural bent of the pupil will have asserted 
 itself and, if no extraneous inducements are held out to him 
 to choose one side of the school rather than the other, it 
 may safely be predicted that at least -as many will choose 
 the scientific as the classical side. In any case, all will 
 have received the elements of a scientific education as well 
 as of a classical education. 
 
 A parent or guardian can rarely be certain of select- 
 ing a calling which will be acceptable to an individual 
 until the education of that individual has begun to 
 make a marked impression on his character arid in- 
 clinations. It is, therefore, safer in all cases, and more 
 likely to be productive of satisfactory results, if he is 
 educated on as broad lines as possible up to the thres- 
 hold of manhood, bringing out the best that is in him, 
 without particular reference to his future career. The 
 broadex the basis of his education, the better will be his 
 general self-development and the greater the likelihood 
 of discovering his special bent. To be a good runner 
 or good boxer needs something more than running and 
 boxing : the whole body must be trained to secure 
 efficiency. Similarly, a sound general education is 
 necessary for the race and the contest of life. 
 
 Circumstances impel us at times to seek the lawyer 
 or the medical man : in legal and health matters most 
 of us have some idea of the limits of our own know- 
 ledge and have sense enough to realise when it is 
 necessary to obtain professional advice ; but the time 
 has been slow in coming though it is coming when 
 every man in commerce and industry will understand 
 enough of science to enable him to take full advantage 
 of the services of those who have made it their special 
 study. 
 
 It is sometimes said that the general ignorance of 
 
PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 13 
 
 the public on scientific matters is due to the lack of 
 popular writers on such matters, and that the public 
 would take more interest in science if they knew more 
 about it ; but the fact is that they do not want to know 
 about it. It is not easy to popularise science, for we 
 cannot force an individual to take a real interest in 
 what he does not understand any more than we can 
 force him to learn to play the violin ; if he does not like 
 it, he will never play it nor desire to listen to the 
 performance of others. When a matter of scientific 
 importance is reported to the Press, the ordinary reader 
 seldom gets further than the heading ; if a public 
 lecture on a scientific subject is announced, the 
 ordinary man will not go to it or, if he does, will not 
 understand much of it and will soon forget all about 
 it. This is not always the fault of the lecturer, who 
 must assume that the majority of his audience have 
 some fundamental knowledge, or his time will be 
 mainly occupied with preliminaries. The only hope 
 for a change in the attitude of the general run of the 
 people towards science lies in the introduction of the 
 elements of such subjects as mechanics and chemistry 
 as a part of the usual school curriculum. However, 
 when we come to consider the fact that some form of 
 instruction in science is given in seventeen Univer- 
 sities, over 250 technical colleges and institutions, and 
 over 600 public and secondary schools in Great Britain 
 and Ireland, and there is every indication that science 
 will receive still greater attention and encouragement 
 in the future, we do not despair of seeing less in- 
 difference to it ; though there will be difficulty in 
 arousing enthusiasm on subjects beyond the com- 
 prehension of the lay mind, until reforms of which we 
 now begin to see some promise have been clearly 
 established. 
 
14 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 The Universities provide systematic courses for 
 Degrees in Science, and many of the technical Colleges 
 provide instruction by day or evening classes up to a 
 similar standard. At a large number of the public 
 schools provision has been made for science teaching 
 up to Intermediate University standard ; they possess 
 well-equipped chemical and physical laboratories for 
 practical work, by which the interest of the pupils is 
 forcibly aroused, with the result that an increasing 
 number of boys are attracted to chemistry as a pro- 
 fession. The majority of the boys in secondary schools 
 are trained in science subjects, and the teaching is 
 steadily improving in efficiency and method. 
 
 In this connection, we may mention that in the 
 Pass Lists of the years 1913 and 1914 of the Inter- 
 mediate Science Examination of the University of 
 London the names of sixty Secondary Schools appeared 
 against the names of successful candidates. 1 
 
 The progress made in technical educational matters 
 has hitherto been slow but steady : the legislature is 
 now extending the facilities for technical education 
 and providing substantial funds for research. 
 
 When the individual has determined on a career in 
 chemistry, he should acquire sufficient knowledge of the 
 
 1 However, it should be noted that a recently published 
 pamphlet on Education : Secondary and University, by Sir Frederick 
 G. Kenyon, President of the British Academy, embodying a report 
 of conferences between the Council for Humanistic Studies and the 
 Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies, contains the following 
 resolution : 
 
 " A clear distinction in kind between the first-year studies of a 
 University in any faculty and the upper form studies of a school is 
 a fundamental principle of education. A school year should, 
 therefore, in no case be reckoned as the equivalent of a University 
 year, and the practice of allowing pupils to present themselves for 
 a University examination, beyond the Matriculation, before or 
 upon entrance to a University is to be deprecated as confusing the 
 educational functions of school and University and leading to an 
 inappropriate type of teaching at both." 
 
PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 15 
 
 subject to enable him to enter on the higher technical 
 training for which provision is made in the Universities 
 and Colleges. He will be required to matriculate or 
 pass a college entrance examination before he can be 
 admitted to the courses for a Degree or a Diploma. 
 For registration as a Student of the Institute of 
 Chemistry the qualifying Body for chemists other 
 than pharmaceutical he will be called' upon to 
 produce a certificate of having passed an approved 
 Preliminary Examination in (a) English Language ; 
 (6) Elementary Mathematics ; (c) at least one foreign 
 language, and (if not more than one language) (d) 
 Higher Mathematics or some other approved subject. 1 
 It should be noted, however, that although only one 
 foreign language is compulsory in the Preliminary 
 Examination for the Institute, a useful knowledge of 
 French and another language is expected in the Exam- 
 ination for the Associateship (A.I.C.), and this require- 
 ment is also usual in the University Examinations for 
 the Degree of B.Sc. A working knowledge of German 
 is practically essential to chemists, in view of the ex- 
 tensive chemical literature published in that language. 
 
 While a good general education increases the chances 
 of success of the average individual, defective general 
 education in a professional man is a serious hindrance 
 and is likely to bring discredit on his calling. For all 
 professional work the first essential is the production 
 of good men with high ideals, and the duty of pro- 
 ducing such men rests very largely with the schools. 
 The aim should be to secure an education which 
 will exercise and cultivate the mental faculties, 
 strengthen the character, the will, and the judgment 
 of every citizen, and thus contribute to the strengthen- 
 ing of the character of the State. 
 
 1 See Regulations of the Institute oj Chemistry. 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 
 
 IT must be understood that the main purpose of 
 this book is to deal with the education, technical 
 training and professional work of analytical, consult- 
 ing, and technological chemists, and teachers of 
 chemistry not of pharmacists, dispensing chemists, 
 or druggists. 
 
 The fact that the title chemist is used for the two 
 distinct callings acts detrimentally to the former class, 
 for the reason that the general public know less of 
 then: work and imagine all who call themselves chemists 
 to be associated with pharmacy. It is to be deplored 
 that such chemists will need, for some time yet, con- 
 stantly to explain that they are not pharmacists, and 
 as this is a subject on which the student should be 
 informed, a digression will be made in order to 
 emphasise the distinction between those who practise 
 in pharmacy and those who practise in chemistry 
 applied to the arts and manufactures. 
 
 Pharmacists commonly base their claim to the title 
 chemist on the declaration of Paracelsus (1493-1541) 
 who may be considered as one of the last of the 
 alchemists that " the true use of chemistry is not to 
 make gold but to prepare medicines " ; but, apart 
 from the circumstance that Basil Valentine (circa 
 1450) is also credited with having first suggested the 
 use of chemical preparations in medicine, chemistry 
 was studied before Paracelsus, and his authority 
 cannot be accepted for confining the science to such a 
 
 16 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 17 
 
 limited sphere. The science may be said to have 
 originated in its applications to the arts and manu- 
 factures by the Ancient Egyptians. 
 
 The origin of the word chemistry is much disputed ; 
 but it is held that from Egypt we have the earliest 
 known record of a chemist, Zosimus of Chemmis, 
 " whose writings are clearly on chemical subjects 
 and whose drawings are clearly of chemical ap- 
 paratus/' 1 From Egypt, too, we have the earliest 
 known records of many industries : for instance, 
 various branches of husbandry and its correlated 
 industries, including brewing and distilling, weaving (of 
 flax, silk, and wool) and the production of leather and 
 parchment, oil, perfumes, and spices. Soap was made 
 from olive oil and potash, the latter being obtained from 
 alkaline plants growing on maritime marshes. Natron 
 (soda), too, was used in embalming operations. From 
 Egypt, also, we have records of dyeing, e.g. scarlet or 
 crimson (from cochineal) and purple (from the murex). 
 In metallurgy we find that copper was known to the 
 Israelites and Egyptians before the Exodus and, at an 
 early period, was alloyed with tin to make bronze ; 
 gold was a medium of exchange in the time of Abraham 
 and coined in that of Ezra ; Abraham was " rich in 
 silver " ; lead was employed in the purification of 
 silver ; iron was in use in Egypt under the Pharaohs, 
 and we may note, by the way, that Damascus, not a far 
 cry from Egypt and regarded as the most ancient city 
 in the world, produced steel of celebrity in very remote 
 times. 
 
 The Greeks, who drew largely on the wisdom of the 
 Egyptians, investigated the origin and nature of 
 matter, including the properties of plant juices for 
 
 1 See Boerhaave's New Method of Chemistry. Translated by Dr, 
 Peter Shaw. London, 1753. 
 c 
 
18 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 medicinal purposes, but their labours were in the 
 domain of pharmacy rather than that of chemistry. 
 
 In the light of what we know to-day, however, not 
 much can be claimed for the chemical knowledge of 
 peoples with whom the elements were limited to earth, 
 air, water, and fire, even though one of the wisest of 
 them Aristotle conceived the idea of a fifth : the 
 quinta essentia which the alchemists of later times 
 regarded as necessary to effect transmutation. Dio- 
 cletian (circa A.D. 290) ordered all Egyptian alchemical 
 records to be burnt for fear that the Egyptians might 
 utilise the wealth gained by the study of them to revolt 
 against the Romans ; many of the supposed ancient 
 books in existence in the Middle Ages were nothing 
 but forgeries. The beginnings of chemistry are, there- 
 fore, too obscure to enable us N to judge of their con- 
 nection with the arts and manufactures in early times. 
 
 The Alchemical Period was devoted first to the 
 search for the alcahest or universal solvent, then to the 
 transmutation of metals, and, lastly, to the discovery 
 of the elixir of life ; but the search for the elixir was 
 not vigorously pursued until the sixteenth century. 
 
 Sir Thomas Browne writes in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury describing alchemy as "the cradle of chemistry," 
 and it is acknowledged that to the alchemists 
 although undoubtedly many were arrant humbugs 
 we owe the discovery of many useful compounds and 
 some knowledge of bodies and their properties. 1 The 
 nature of ferments was a subject of speculation with 
 them ; they made a distinction between acids and 
 alkalis, and other observations which led to the 
 chemical treatment of disease. 
 
 However, the basis of the teaching of Paracelsus, 
 
 1 ' ' The Alchemists have made many discoveries and have 
 presented mankind with useful inventions." Bacon. 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 19 
 
 sometime Professor of Medical Science at Bale, lay in 
 the idea that the human body was composed of chemical 
 matters, and that illness resulted from changes caused 
 by chemical functions, and could, therefore, be cured 
 by chemical means. Medicine, he said, rested on four 
 pillars : Chemistry, Philosophy, Astronomy, and 
 Virtue. On the assumption that organic bodies con- 
 sisted of salt, mercury and sulphur, he proceeded to 
 explain that an increase of sulphur caused fevers ; an 
 increase of mercury, paralysis ; and an increase of salt, 
 diarrhoea ; a deficiency in sulphur caused gout, and so 
 on. Further, he assumed a connection to exist between 
 certain disorders and the stars, and at times postulated 
 the influence of evil genii. Nevertheless, he introduced 
 a large number of preparations of remarkable efficacy 
 and was successful in the judicious use of laudanum. 
 
 The Apothecaries, who had their origin in the Spicers 
 (circa 1200) and had until this time (i5th century) been 
 mainly concerned with roots, herbs, syrups and the 
 like, were stimulated by the teaching of Paracelsus to 
 take up the study of chemistry. Controversies arose 
 in which the doctrines of Paracelsus were opposed, 
 and the many contradictions and the charlatanism 
 contained in his writings were exposed. Those who 
 attempted to emulate him not infrequently misapplied 
 his preparations with serious consequences. The 
 medical faculty of Paris condemned his innovations 
 and the Parliament of Paris prohibited the prescription 
 of his antimonial preparations. Later, of course, a more 
 rational use was made of chemical preparations without 
 disregarding the older forms of medicine ; the fallacies 
 of Paracelsus became duly recognised, and a better un- 
 derstanding arose as to the position of chemistry in its 
 relation to medicine. Our point is that the subject Para- 
 celsus chose to call chemistry was nothing of the kind. 
 
20 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 Many physicians at that time prepared their own 
 medicines and practised pharmacy until 1518, when 
 the College of Physicians was founded. The followers 
 of Paracelsus the iatro-chemists or medical spagirists 
 aimed at the discovery of chemical remedies of 
 mineral origin. The druggists imported and dealt in 
 herbs, roots, and other vegetable as well as animal 
 substances ; and the apothecaries compounded the 
 products of both for the physicians. 1 Next, the 
 druggists usurped the functions of the apothecaries 
 who, after they had endeavoured without success to 
 restrain the former, began to prescribe, and thus, in 
 tnrn, usurp the functions of the physicians, leaving the 
 druggists as the recognised preparers and compounders 
 of medicines. 
 
 1 Chaucer (1340-1400), who lived before Paracelsus, clearly 
 shows the relation between the doctor of physic and the com- 
 pounder of drugs and the name by which the latter was known : 
 " Ther was also a Doctour of Phisik, 
 
 Full redy hadde he his apotecaries 
 To sende him dragges, and his lectuaries." 
 
 Shakespeare (1564-1616) also uses the word apothecary for the 
 compounders of medicines : 
 
 " Give me an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to sweeten my 
 imagination." 
 
 Burton (1621) in his Anatomy of Melancholy refers to Alchemists, 
 Apothecaries, Druggists, and Druggers. 
 
 Johnson in his Lives of the Poets quoted parallel passages from 
 Donne (1573-1631) : 
 
 " And as no chymic yet th' elixir got, 
 But glorifies his pregnant pot, 
 If by the way to him befal 
 Some odoriferous thing, or medicinal. . . . ' 
 and Cowley (1618-1667) 
 
 "... though the chymic his great secret miss, 
 (For neither it in Art nor Nature is) 
 
 Yet things well worth his toil he gains ; 
 And does his charge and labour pay 
 With good unsought experiments by the way " 
 which indicate that at that period the elixir was the great desidera- 
 tum : the " chymic " was not the apothecary but the alchemist 
 searching for the elixir, 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 21 
 
 So far, in the story, the chemical philosopher the 
 chemist in the wider sense in which we use the term 
 has not come very much into the limelight ; but he 
 had existed as an experimentalist and not always 
 solely an alchemist. Such was Roger Bacon (thirteenth 
 century), a pioneer in experimental research, to whom 
 is attributed the discovery of gunpowder. 
 
 It seems clear that the apothecary robbed the 
 physician of his practice and the pharmacist of his 
 proper title ; and though, for long after, attempts 
 were made to restore the title apothecary to the phar- 
 macist, he assumed the patronymic of the chemical 
 philosopher, at first tacking the word chemist on to 
 druggist, then asserting a claim to it alone, finally 
 acquiring a limited legal right to the designation, which, 
 however, he was not able to maintain against com- 
 panies, as will also be shown. 
 
 We propose to trace the history of pharmacy, show- 
 ing the use of the words in which we are now interested 
 by quotations which should assist in elucidating the 
 matter. We will take for this purpose a few abstracts 
 from the Historical Sketch of the Progress of Pharmacy 
 in Great Britain, by Jacob Bell (1841). 
 
 In 1540 the physicians were empowered to enter the 
 houses of the Apothecaries in London, "to search, 
 view, and see the Apothecary-wares, drugs, and stuffs," 
 and to destroy such as they found corrupt or unfit for 
 use ; and in 1553, they obtained an Act giving them 
 authority to " examine, . . . correct, . . . and punish 
 Apothecaries, Druggists, . . . and sellers of waters and 
 oils, and preparers of chemical medicines/' ..." accord- 
 ing as the nature of his or their offences may seem to 
 require." 
 
22 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 It is uncertain at what period the Physicians gave 
 up the practice of preparing their own medicines, but 
 from a work entitled Short Answers to Tentamen 
 Medicinale (1704), the following is quoted : 
 
 Tis very well known there was no such thing as a 
 Company of Apothecaries in the beginning of King James 
 the First's reign, but what drugs and medicines were then 
 in use, were sold in common by the grocers ; and as for 
 the preparing and compounding of them, that the Physi- 
 cians principally took care of themselves. But this 
 growing too servile and laborious a business, and no other 
 means being likely to be found out for easing themselves 
 of it, but by lopping off a considerable number of grocers 
 who had mostly been brought up that way, and constituting 
 them a company by themselves, wholly to be employed in 
 the business of pharmacy, in selling of drugs and preparing 
 and compounding of medicines, according to the Physicians' 
 orders and directions ; in order to this they obtained a 
 charter for them to the number of a hundred and fourteen. 
 
 This number coincided with the number of Physicians 
 who were then in practice in London. 
 
 The Apothecaries were separated from the Grocers, 
 with whom they had been incorporated since 1606, and 
 obtained the charter above mentioned in 1617. It was 
 enacted at the same time that no grocer should keep 
 an Apothecary's shop, and that no Surgeon should sell 
 medicines. The power of searching the shops of 
 Apothecaries within seven miles of London, and 
 examining their drugs, was also vested in the chartered 
 body. 
 
 The Society of Apothecaries shortly after took into 
 their serious consideration the frauds and artifices 
 practised by the Grocers and Druggists from whom 
 they obtained their drugs ; and, in order to remedy 
 this evil, established, in the year 1623, a dispensary for 
 the purpose of making some of the more important 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 23 
 
 preparations for the use of their own members. This 
 institution was placed under the inspection and 
 superintendence of a Committee of Apothecaries, and 
 was conducted, in the first instance, on a small scale, 
 being confined to the manufacture of a limited number 
 of preparations. 
 
 The Medicinal compounds formerly employed were 
 chiefly empirical nostrums, or heterogeneous mixtures 
 of substances, some components of which neutralised 
 others, or were selected without any regard to scientific 
 principles. The science of Chemistry was so little 
 advanced that the real composition of ordinary 
 remedies was seldom understood, and in many cases 
 different virtues were attributed to the same sub- 
 stance, according to the source whence it was ob- 
 tained. 
 
 Culpeper's translation of the Pharmacopoeia was 
 published in 1653. The Materia Medica was divided 
 into two classes, Chymicals and Galenicals : " Chymical 
 Medicins " of mineral origin, and prepared by fire ; 
 " Galenicals " composed of herbs, roots, and other 
 vegetable or animal substances. The trade in these 
 articles was also distinct, and the Chymists alluded to, 
 in works of the date now under consideration, were 
 those who prepared the mineral compounds for the use 
 of the Apothecaries. These chymists would corre- 
 spond, then, to our wholesale manufacturing chemists 
 of to-day. 
 
 Here we would remark that in the time of King 
 Charles II, who gave a Charter to. the Royal Society 
 and considered himself its Founder, the study of 
 chemistry was the common hobby of the educated 
 gentleman, especially among the nobility and clergy ; 
 t and we find in the History of ike Royal Society, by 
 
24 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 Dr. Thomas Spratt, Lord Bishop of Rochester 
 Section XVII that he recognised three classes 
 of chymists, of whom he says that " they may be 
 divided into three Ranks : Such, as look after the 
 knowledge of Nature in general ; such, as seek out, and 
 prepare Medicines ; and such, as search after Riches, 
 by Transmutations, and the great Elixir. The two 
 first have been very successful in separating, com- 
 pounding, and changing the Parts of Things ; and in 
 shewing the admirable Powers of Nature, in the 
 raising of new Constituencies, Figures, Colours, and 
 Virtues of Bodies ; And from their Labours, the true 
 Philosophy is like to receive the noblest Improvements. 
 But the Pretensions of the third Kind are, not only to 
 indow us with all the Benefits of this Life, but with 
 Immortality itself : And their Success has been as 
 small, as their Design was extravagant." 1 
 
 From a pamphlet entitled The Wisdom of the Nation 
 is Foolishness (1671), Jacob Bell quotes a passage con- 
 firming the nature of the business of the Chymists of 
 that time. " Such Chymists which sell preparations 
 honestly made, complain that few Apothecaries will go 
 to the price of them. ..." One of these, Ambrose 
 Godfrey Hanckwitz, had a house and shop, with a 
 laboratory on the Bedford Estate in 1706, and " was 
 a maker of phosphorus and other chymicals, which 
 
 1 One of the founders of the Royal Society was the Honble. 
 Robert Boyle (1626-92), renowned as " the son of the Earl of Cork 
 and the father of modem chemistry," author of The Sceptical Chemist 
 (1669), who introduced the use of chemical reagents and did much 
 to place the science on a saner basis. He refers to druggists and 
 drugsters : " Common nitre we bought at the druggists." " Com- 
 mon oil of turpentine bought at the drugsters." 
 Dryden (16311700) uses the word apothecary : 
 
 " Wand'ring in the dark, 
 
 Physicians, for the tree, have found the bark ; 
 With sharpen'd sight some remedies may find 
 Th' apothecary-train is wholly blind." 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 25 
 
 were rare at that period, and which he sold in different 
 parts of the country during his travels. His laboratory 
 was a fashionable resort in the afternoon, on certain 
 occasions, when he performed popular experiments for 
 the amusement of his friends." 
 
 The druggists sold herbs, roots, etc., in the unpre- 
 pared state. The Chymists, as we have shown, pre- 
 pared chiefly medicines which required the aid of fire 
 minerals, earths, or preparations of the metals. These, 
 then, and the chemical philosophers " such as look 
 after the knowledge of Nature in general," referred to 
 in the first class of Bishop Spratt, both derived their 
 origin from the alchymists. 
 
 In 1671 the Society of Apothecaries added a Chemical 
 Laboratory to their establishment, the object con- 
 templated being the preparation of chemicals, since it 
 had been found no less difficult to obtain this class of 
 substances in a state of purity than the ordinary drugs 
 which were sold by the Merchants and Grocers. This, 
 obviously, was, at that time, a laboratory for manu- 
 facturing rather than experimental work. 
 
 By the year 1694 says Jacob Bell the Apothe- 
 caries had become a very influential body, and by 
 practising medicine as well as Pharmacy, excited the 
 jealousy of the Physicians, who suffered materially from 
 this encroachment, and endeavoured to reduce their 
 rivals to their original condition of vendors of drugs. 
 On one side it was alleged that the improvement which 
 had taken place among the Apothecaries was a great 
 benefit to the public, and that the Physicians, by 
 endeavouring to restrain them, were undoing the 
 labour of their predecessors ; while the other party 
 animadverted on the extortionate charges of the 
 Apothecaries, and the loss which the public sustained 
 in being deprived, in many cases, of the advantage of 
 
26 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 the best advice, for which it was impossible to pay both 
 the Physician and the Apothecary. The Apothecaries 
 also objected to the Physicians establishing dispen- 
 saries in opposition to them. 
 
 The dispensaries prospered, however, and enjoyed 
 the patronage of the public ; the Assistants employed 
 and instructed by the Physicians at these institutions 
 became dispensing Chemists on their own account ; 
 and some of the Apothecaries who found their craft in 
 danger followed their example. From this source says 
 Jacob Bell we may date the origin of the CHEMISTS 
 and DRUGGISTS. (The italics and capitals are his.) 
 
 Boerhaave (1668-1738), who published a great Text- 
 Book of Chemistry in 1732, clearly recognised the 
 existence of chemists other than those who practised 
 pharmacy by his statement : " Nothing has proved 
 more fatal both to the chemical and medicinal art, 
 than an idle opinion, that all kinds of chemical pro- 
 ductions were proper to be made use of as medicines." 
 He showed that although the chemical art " furnishes 
 us with proper help for securing and restoring of 
 health," it also " opens to the human mind the powers 
 of nature/' 1 
 
 The distinction between the Apothecary and the 
 manufacturing Chemist is indicated by another publica- 
 tion which appeared about 1748, viz. An Enquiry into 
 the designs of the late PETITION presented to Parliament 
 by the Company of Apothecaries, whereby the Apothe- 
 caries' monstrous profits are exposed, are compared with 
 those of the Chemist, with respect to practice and retail, to 
 
 1 The Rev. Dr. South in his Sermons published in 1697 ' " They 
 have no other doctor, but the Sun and the fresh air ; and that, such 
 an one, as never sends them to the apothecary." 
 
 Bishop Francis Atterbury wrote in 1740 : " They set the clergy 
 below their apothecaries, the physician of the soul below the drag- 
 sters of the body." 
 
 Compare Bishop Spratt, ante, p. 24. 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 27 
 
 which is annexed a Scheme to prevent the empirical 
 Apothecary from practising ; and the Chemist from pre- 
 paring and vending sophisticated medicines, from which 
 it is shown that the chemists made the galenicals for 
 the Apothecaries, who sought power to search the 
 shops of the former. " This privilege/' says Jacob 
 Bell, " was not granted, and the author of the- pamphlet 
 endeavours to prove that the Chemist who prepared 
 medicines is a more competent judge of their quality 
 than the Apothecary who procures them ready made." 
 Prof. John Attfield discussing the title Chemist in 
 the Chemical News (vol. xxxvii, 1878) says: "The 
 Apothecaries' Charter of 1748 was intended to re- 
 strain chemists and druggists from practising phar- 
 macy, that is, compounding prescriptions. It failed. 
 The apothecary (originally only ' a preparer of drugs 
 for medicinal uses ') was then gradually becoming what 
 to-day he is, namely, a medical practitioner, while the 
 chemist and druggist was as gradually succeeding him 
 as a preparer and compounder of medicines." 
 
 Dr. George Berkenhout, in the Preface to his Theory 
 and Practice of Philosophical Chemistry, published in 
 London, 1758, protests against the confusion then 
 arising from the use of the title " Chymist " by com- 
 pounders of medicine : " Persons, who know nothing 
 more of Chemistry than the name, naturally suppose 
 it to be a trade exercised by the shopkeepers, called 
 Druggists and Chemists who are thought to be chiefly 
 employed in preparing medicines for the use of apothe- 
 caries ; Chemistry, therefore, they imagine, belongs 
 exclusively to physic ; but if, excited by curiosity, 
 they become better acquainted with this bewitching 
 science, they will soon discover its intimate connection 
 with every other branch of human knowledge ; and 
 
28 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 that the arts and manufactures so peculiarly conducive 
 to the prosperity of nations, constantly look up to 
 Chemistry in their progress towards perfection. In 
 this point of view, it claims the support of ministerial 
 power in all countries." 
 
 Dr. Johnson (i 709-84),* who was fond of chemical 
 experiments, denned chymistry as " the art of separ- 
 ating natural bodies by fire ; preparing chemicals/' 
 and a chymist as " a professor of chymistry " ; phar- 
 macy as " the trade of an apothecary " and druggist 
 as " a person who sells physical drugs/' 
 
 The chemists and druggists succeeded to the dis- 
 pensing practice of the Apothecaries, who in the year 
 1793 " instituted an inquiry into defects and privations 
 which existed among them . . .", which arose from 
 certain causes of which the first was " the encroach- 
 ment which Chemists and Druggists have of late years 
 made on the profession of the Apothecary, by vending 
 pharmaceutic preparations, and compounding the 
 prescriptions of Physicians." The Apothecaries deter- 
 mined to form a Society with the title of " The General 
 Pharmaceutical Association of Great Britain " to 
 attack the " Chemists and Druggists " who had by 
 that time so increased in number that there was 
 " scarcely to be found a village or hamlet without a 
 village or a hamlet Druggist," and, on this, Jacob Bell 
 remarks that " at this period, the Chemists and 
 Druggists were entering upon that position which they 
 now occupy, as dispensers of medicine." The result 
 of these exertions of the Apothecaries was not so 
 successful as was anticipated. 
 
 1 July 1 8th, 1763 : "I observed an apparatus for chemical 
 experiments, of which Johnson was all his life very fond." Again, 
 under the date of 1783, Boswell gives some particulars supplied by 
 a mutual friend : " Chemistry was always an interesting pursuit 
 with Dr. Johnson." 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 29 
 
 In 1802, for a short time, the two classes were 
 brought together for the purpose of protecting their 
 mutual interests against the injurious operation of the 
 Medicine Act, passed on the 3rd of June of that year ; 
 but the Apothecaries soon lost ground in the " trading " 
 department of their profession and, according to Dr. 
 Burrows (circa 1816), complained that the .profits of 
 their business had been greatly deteriorated by dis- 
 pensing Chemists and Druggists. The practice had 
 existed so long, however, that it had acquired from 
 Custom the force of law. " It had indeed become dim- 
 cult to define who was, or who was not, an Apothecary." 
 
 The " Chemists and Druggists " then began to 
 organise themselves seriously ; but, shortly before this 
 had been definitely accomplished, the Chemical 
 Society was established at a meeting held in the rooms 
 of the Society of Arts on 23rd February, 1841, " For 
 the advancement of Chemistry, and those branches of 
 science immediately connected with it ; for the com- 
 munication and discussion of discoveries and observa- 
 tions relating to such subjects ; the formation of a 
 library of scientific works, and a museum of chemical 
 preparations and standard instruments." The objects 
 of the Chemical Society were purely scientific ; it in- 
 cluded among its members men in various professions 
 who were devoted to the study of Chemistry, and 
 embraced within its sphere of interest every depart- 
 ment of that science (see p. 100). 
 
 Less than two months later saw the foundation of 
 the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, " at 
 a public meeting of the Trade, held at the Crown and 
 Anchor Tavern, in the Strand, on Thursday, April i5th 
 instant," when it was resolved " that for the purpose 
 of protecting the permanent interests, and increasing 
 the respectability of Chemists and Druggists, an 
 
30 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 Association be now formed under the title of 
 the ' PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN/ " 
 The primary object of the Pharmaceutical Society, 
 then, was to provide " chemists and druggists " with an 
 organisation for self-defence in support of their rights, 
 and it resulted eventually in the creation of a national 
 institution for the advancement of pharmacy. 
 
 Jacob Bell shows definitely his view of the matter, 
 when he refers to " Our predecessors, the original 
 Apothecaries, who were merely compounders of 
 medicine . . ." and when he says " the Members of 
 the Pharmaceutical Society are following in the foot- 
 steps of the original Apothecaries." 1 
 
 A paper by Mr. Morson in the first volume of The 
 Pharmaceutical Journal, moreover, tells us that the 
 " Spicers " (circa 1200) " were the first apothecaries or 
 chemists and druggists in Europe," and that when the 
 Apothecaries regularly studied Physic, " the retail 
 Chemist became the only true Apothecary. . . ." 2 Bell 
 in another place says : " The Apothecaries' Company, 
 (which) was originally a company of Pharmaceutical 
 Chemists. ..." Again : " The ultimate object of the 
 Society is to qualify every Druggist in the Kingdom." 
 
 Prof. Theophilus Redwood, at the conclusion of an 
 introductory lecture on pharmaceutical chemistry, very 
 
 1 Lord Byron (1788-1824) wrote : " For Inez called some 
 druggists and physicians." 
 
 Macaulay (1800-59), in his History of England (chap, xv), says : 
 "... the common drugs with which every apothecary in the smallest 
 market town was provided. ..." 
 
 a A footnote on p. 179 of Vol. I of the Pharmaceutical Journal is 
 also interesting : 
 
 " The Dispensing Chemists in America are called Apothecaries. 
 The word being derived from airo and nBrifju, to put together or 
 compound medicine, this designation is more correct than our term 
 Chemist and Druggist." 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 31 
 
 naturally mentions the existence of the analyst. He 
 refers also to synthesis, and indicates the importance 
 of chemistry to pharmacy : " We must not ... be 
 unobservant of, or unacquainted with, the investiga- 
 tions of the analyst, and especially those investigations 
 in organic chemistry which are calculated so largely to 
 enrich, as they have already enriched, the storehouse 
 of our remedial agents. It is by the application of 
 correct analysis, and of exact synthesis, that we can 
 alone hope to obtain for Pharmacy that position beside 
 her sister science Chemistry, which, from the nature 
 of the subjects comprehended, and the importance of 
 the objects contemplated, she is so much entitled to 
 hold. 
 
 " Through the investigations of the analytical 
 Chemist, have been discovered and procured the 
 active proximate principles of a great part of the 
 vegetables employed in medicine ; and these con- 
 stitute some of the most valuable remedies in the 
 hands of the Physician. By the same means we are 
 brought acquainted with the proximate constituents 
 of the animal organs and secretions, 'a branch of know- 
 ledge which, judging from the progress it is now 
 making, is probably destined to contribute, more than 
 any other, to the successful alleviation of the sufferings 
 contingent upon disease. By means of analysis we 
 have determined the nature of many of the produc- 
 tions of the pharmaceutical art, which before were not 
 understood ; and through the continued application 
 of this species of investigation, in connection with the 
 other branches of our science, we may hope eventually 
 to arrive at that perfection in the preparation of 
 medicines, which would enable us to determine the 
 constitution and the action of every remedy, upon 
 unerring principles," 
 
32 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 We will now proceed with the consideration of the 
 development of the craft of pharmacy to the present 
 time. 
 
 The use of vegetable drugs for purposes, good and 
 bad, obviously dates from the most remote and 
 primitive ages, and trading in such drugs may be 
 traced as -far back as the time of Solomon. Modern 
 times have seen their systematic cultivation, while 
 their commercial importance has increased by leaps 
 and bounds. 
 
 Concurrently with the advance in medicine towards 
 the close of the eighteenth century, considerable pro- 
 gress was made in pharmaceutical chemistry, and, 
 from that time, in the place of an accumulation of 
 recipes, many of doubtful use and efficacy, a new 
 system of pharmacy was steadily introduced, which, 
 by the middle of the nineteenth century was of no 
 mean order. 
 
 The first pharmacopoeia was produced by the London 
 College of Physicians in 1721, and was followed by 
 others (1746, 1788, 1809, 1836) forming the basis of the 
 practice of pharmacy, which, as we have shown, had 
 no distinct organisation apart from the original 
 Society of Apothecaries until the foundation of the 
 Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain in 1841. 
 
 The first Pharmacy Act, 1852, was passed to prevent 
 ignorant and incompetent persons from pretending to 
 be pharmaceutical chemists, but it did not restrict the 
 practice of pharmacy or the sale of poisons. Later 
 editions of the Pharmacopoeia, published in 1864 and 
 1867, tended to improve the supply of drugs both as 
 to purity and uniformity, and in 1868 a further Phar- 
 macy Act was passed, imposing a penalty on any 
 person compounding any medicine of the British 
 Pharmacopoeia except according to its formularies. 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 33 
 
 The British Pharmacopoeia thus supplied the 
 necessary standards for preparation ; the Pharma- 
 ceutical Society of Great Britain, having determined 
 the qualifications for its membership, became duly 
 constituted as the organisation for examination and 
 registration of " chemists and druggists " ; and the 
 sale of poisons retail was restricted to competent 
 persons duly examined and registered by the Society. 
 Later, under the Poisons and Pharmacy Act, 1908, the 
 sale of poisons for medicinal purposes still remained 
 safeguarded, but the law was altered to allow, under 
 certain conditions, the sale of poisonous substances 
 used exclusively in agriculture or horticulture for the 
 destruction of insects, fungi, bacteria, or as sheep dips 
 or weed killers, by traders licensed by local authorities. 
 The Acts of 1852 and 1868 had reserved certain 
 titles to registered individuals ; but the law had been 
 interpreted so that this restriction was held not to 
 apply to companies. The Act of 1908, however, made 
 it illegal for a pharmaceutical company to use the 
 title " chemist and druggist " unless the sale of poisons 
 by them was under the actual superintendence of a 
 qualified person, and unless each branch or shop of the 
 company was under the charge of a qualified person. 
 
 A pharmacist, therefore, is a person who is legally 
 qualified to conduct the business of " chemist and 
 druggist," including the sale of poisons and the com- 
 pounding of the prescriptions of duly qualified medical 
 practitioners, and the title " pharmacist " is reserved 
 solely for any person duly qualified under the Phar- 
 macy Acts, the Pharmaceutical Society being further 
 empowered to prescribe a course of training for in- 
 tending candidates, which would improve the status 
 of pharmacists and promote their usefulness to the 
 public. 
 
34 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 A candidate for registration, under the Pharmacy 
 Act, 1868, as a " chemist and druggist " is required 
 (i.) to pass a Preliminary Examination, including 
 English, Mathematics, and two optional subjects; 1 
 (ii.) to be registered as an Apprentice or Student and 
 to be practically engaged for three years in the trans- 
 lation and dispensing of prescriptions ; and (iii.) to 
 pass the Minor Examination, comprising Botany, 
 Chemistry and Physics, Chemistry (Practical), Materia 
 Medica, Pharmacy, Practical Pharmacy and Dispens- 
 ing, Latin and Prescription Reading. In preparation 
 for this examination, in addition to the apprentice- 
 ship, candidates are recommended to obtain systematic 
 instruction occupying a period of not less than six 
 months, including at least sixty Lectures in chemistry, 
 eighteen hours' work in each week in Practical Chem- 
 istry, forty-five lectures and demonstrations in Botany 
 and twenty-five lectures and demonstrations in 
 Materia Medica. Candidates for registration as Phar- 
 maceutical Chemists under the Pharmacy Act, 1852, 
 are required to pass the Major Examination, comprising 
 Botany, Chemistry and Physics, Chemistry (Practical), 
 and Materia Medica. 
 
 Pharmaceutical chemists and " chemists and drug- 
 gists " are trained, examined, and registered for the 
 protection of the public. They are held answerable for 
 the purity of the substances in which they deal, though 
 except in comparatively rare instances few of them 
 are able to devote much of their time to laboratory 
 work in this or other connections. 
 
 In these circumstances, greater responsibility has 
 devolved on the wholesale manufacturing chemists. 
 
 1 Junior and Senior Local, School Leaving, and Matriculation 
 Examinations of the Universities are accepted by the Pharmaceutical 
 Society for this purpose. 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 35 
 
 The physician would be unable to prescribe, with any 
 hope of curing or relieving his patient, unless he could 
 feel assured that the constituents of his medicines were 
 properly compounded by the pharmacist who, in turn, 
 must be assured of the efficient production of such 
 constituents in the first place by the chemists engaged 
 in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products. 
 
 Ampng the latter are not a few trained originally as 
 pharmaceutical chemists who occupy positions of great 
 responsibility, requiring special chemical as well as 
 pharmaceutical knowledge and frequently considerable 
 acquaintance with physiology and pathology. Such 
 chemists have made discoveries of far-reaching im- 
 portance in the chemistry of botanical products useful 
 in medicine, while by the study of the chemical pro- 
 cesses of the animal organism, as well as by their work 
 in connection with synthetic drugs, narcotics, anaesthe- 
 tics, antiseptics, and in the production of various sera, 
 they have clearly illustrated the advantages of science 
 in their industry, which demands the service of chemists 
 of the highest standard of competence. 
 
 The pharmacists have learned to rely on the manu- 
 facturing chemists, and while the commercial side of 
 their business has been developed, the wholesale pro- 
 duction of proprietary medicines and preparations 
 in convenient form has reduced the work of the dis- 
 pensary. The medical profession has taken advantage 
 of this production, so that the prescription of ready 
 prepared remedies represents a considerable proportion 
 of modern practice. At the same time, the sale of 
 " patent " medicines, which has increased enormously, 
 has also contributed to the reduction of dispensing. 
 It would seem that, in order to recoup themselves for 
 the loss of much of the more skilful and remunerative 
 
36 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 part of their calling, the pharmacists have been forced 
 to trench on other businesses, and thus, in spite of the 
 increasing stringency of the qualifying examinations, 
 the craft is in danger of becoming more commercial 
 and less scientific ; and, in any case, more that of the 
 druggist and less that of the chemist. 
 
 Notwithstanding all the evidence we have culled from 
 the history of British pharmacy, it has been held that 
 the pharmacist has acquired a prior right to the title 
 chemist on the other grounds, including the following : 
 
 First, because some of the earliest applications of 
 chemistry were to be found in pharmacy and medicine ; 
 though these relate only to a limited field in the vast 
 domain of chemical science. 
 
 Second, because the Pharmacy Acts were passed 
 before the scientific and industrial chemists of the 
 present day came into existence ; though British 
 chemistry can claim such men as Boyle, Black, Priestley, 
 Cavendish, Dalton, Davy and Wollaston as workers in 
 " pure " chemistry, and Bessemer, Pattinson, Welldon, 
 Perkin, Abel, James Young and others, in applied 
 chemistry, in most cases before the Act of 1852 and in 
 all before that of 1868. 
 
 Third, because the chemist and druggist sells not 
 only medicines and drugs, but other substances used 
 for manufacturing and domestic purposes insecti- 
 cides, vermin killers and disinfectants ; though the 
 seller is not necessarily a producer. He does not 
 claim to be a brushmaker because he sells brushes. 
 We have shown, moreover, that local authorities may 
 license other traders, not necessarily chemists at all, 
 to sell some of the substances referred to. 
 
 Fourth, because he is examined and certified in 
 chemistry, a much more legitimate claim ; though 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 37 
 
 it is obvious that (he scope and character of his ex- 
 amination, designed to meet the demands of his 
 business, are elementary, unless he proceeds to the 
 major examination, which indeed is of a high standard 
 for its purpose. 
 
 Fifth, because of the rights conferred by the Phar- 
 macy Acts and by usage ; though Section HI clearly 
 shows that the Acts are not intended to interfere with 
 the chemist to whom we apply the title. 1 The rights 
 conferred on the pharmacist did not remove the right 
 to the title previously enjoyed by chemists who did 
 not practise pharmacy, but it was necessary to define 
 those to whom the Acts of 1868 applied. Public usage 
 so far as it has been established has not at any time 
 denied the title to any man distinguished in chemical 
 science ; and pharmacists themselves could not refer 
 to such men except as chemists. 
 
 It is admitted that the change which we desire to 
 see brought about would involve considerable expense ; 
 still, we are hopeful that if pharmacists admit the 
 justice of our views, and cease to style themselves 
 chemists, they will not shrink from the loss which may 
 be involved by changing their facias, labels, bill and 
 letter headings, etc., although this may be no small 
 consideration when it affects some 9000 establishments. 
 
 The Pharmaceutical Society cannot restrict the use of 
 the title chemist unless the user unlawfully keeps open 
 
 1 Section III. Chemists and Druggists within the meaning of 
 this Act shall consist of all Persons who at any Time before the 
 passing of this Act have carried on in Great Britain the Business of 
 a Chemist and Druggist, in the keeping of open Shop for the 
 compounding of the Prescriptions of duly qualified Medical Prac- 
 titioners, also of all Assistants and Associates who before the passing 
 of this Act shall have been duly registered under or according to the 
 Provisions of the Pharmacy Act, and also of all such Persons as may 
 be duly registered under this Act. 
 
38 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 shop for the sale and dispensing of poisons. There is, on 
 the other hand, no desire on the part of analytical, con- 
 sulting, and technological chemists to interfere with 
 the business of the pharmacist or druggist. The 
 general community, however, being in closer touch 
 with the " pharmaceutical chemist " and " chemist 
 and druggist " has been largely ignorant of the ex- 
 istence of consulting, analytical, and technological 
 chemists. The latter, therefore, would welcome the 
 more general adoption by the former of the title 
 " pharmacist," which enables a definite distinction to 
 be made betw r een those who practise pharmacy and 
 those who practise chemistry. 
 
 We have shown how the confusion arose in this 
 country, and will now show that it does not so exist in 
 any other, by giving the following schedule of equiva- 
 lents : 
 
 French Medecin pharmacien 
 
 Pharmacien Chimiste 
 
 Apothicaire (term of contempt) 
 
 Italian Farmacista Chimieo 
 
 Spanish Apozicari Quimico 
 
 Farmaceutico Chimista 
 
 Boticario 
 
 Portuguese Boticario Chimist 
 
 Pharmaceutico 
 
 German 1 Apotheker Chemiker 
 
 Arzeneibereiter 
 
 Dutch Apotheker Chimist 
 
 Artsenigmenger Scheikundige 
 
 Danish j Apotheker Kemiker or 
 
 Norwegian / Chemiker 
 
 1 In an autobiographical sketch of Justus voii Liebig, translated 
 by Prof. Campbell Brown, occurs this interesting passage : "... my 
 father took me to an apothecary at Heppenheim, in the Hessian 
 Bergstrasse ; but at the end of ten months he was so tired of me 
 that he sent me home again to my father. I wished to be a chemist, 
 but not a druggist." 
 
PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 39 
 
 Swedish Apotekare Kemist 
 
 Russian Aptickari Chimiki 
 
 Pharmatsicobi 
 Greek Pharmachopoios Chemichos 
 
 Pharmakeutes 
 
 Pharmakeus 
 
 Apotheke 
 
 Professors of Chemistry in our Universities and 
 Colleges teach chemistry, not pharmacy. The head of 
 the Government Laboratories is styled the " Govern- 
 ment Chemist," of the Admiralty Laboratories, the 
 " Admiralty Chemist," whilst many other officials, to 
 whom we shall refer in a later chapter, are engaged on 
 chemical work and are styled " chemists " ; certainly 
 not " pharmacists." The representative body of 
 pharmacists is rightly styled The Pharmaceutical 
 Society, and that of chemists The Institute of Chemistry. 
 
 Modern dictionaries define Chemist primarily as one 
 skilled or versed in the science of chemistry, and 
 chemistry as the science of the elements and the laws 
 which regulate their combination and behaviour under 
 various conditions. The profession with which we are 
 concerned herein is that of chemistry according to that 
 definition and not pharmacy ; and when we consider 
 the remarkable advances made in chemical science 
 and the vast ground it covers, we feel justified in 
 maintaining that, if any chemist deserves to use the 
 title without any qualifying adjective, he should be 
 a thoroughly trained all-round chemist, before all 
 things a chemist, and should so style himself. 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 
 
 BEFORE the general utilisation of steam power, 
 the expression " technical education " had no 
 reference to special training in science : it was used gener- 
 ally to denote the training in manual skill and in the 
 use of tools in the practical arts, formerly acquired by 
 artisans and operatives under apprenticeship. The 
 superior skill of artisans and mechanics was then the 
 predominant feature essential to industrial success 
 whilst, compared with modern standards, knowledge of 
 the sciences was exceedingly elementary. Science was 
 regarded chiefly as a pursuit for men of leisure, and, 
 as such, was devoted rather to the methodical arrange- 
 ment of established facts than to the determination 
 of methods of discovery. Chemistry was studied 
 to a very limited extent by medical students for the 
 purposes of their vocations and comparatively rarely 
 by others. Apart from the professors in the Uni- 
 versities, there were few practitioners. Technical 
 schools and Colleges, as we now use these terms, 
 scarcely existed, and laboratories for practical instruc- 
 tion were very few in number. Students were seldom 
 afforded opportunities for individual practical work, 
 which was usually taught by demonstration. 
 
 The progress made in the use of steam power and, 
 later, electrical power in machinery, particularly for 
 locomotion, effected great changes in economic relations, 
 and the increasing applications of scientific knowledge 
 
 40 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 41 
 
 to industrial operations in other countries, brought the 
 realisation that this country was in danger of being 
 overtaken in her hitherto unchallenged commercial 
 supremacy. Industrial conditions became changed in 
 a variety of ways, and one remarkable result of inter- 
 national competition was the creation of a demand for 
 a new order of intelligence in all branches of industry. 
 
 To meet this demand, " technical education/' with 
 a new meaning, was introduced ; so that the last 
 seventy-five years have witnessed the establishment 
 throughout the country of numerous institutions, the 
 main object of the majority being to provide practical 
 and utilitarian in addition to purely academical train- 
 ing. The Universities and University Colleges, also, 
 while for the most part preserving their function of 
 maintaining and advancing pure science, have in 
 recent times established faculties of applied science. 1 
 
 Bacon complained that, in his time, the Universities 
 were opposed to the progress of knowledge, and con- 
 tended that in the Arts and Sciences, as in mines, all 
 around should echo with the sound of new works and 
 further progress. We may claim, therefore, that the 
 Universities have since made considerable advance in 
 that direction, and whereas in Bacon's time objects 
 unattained were held to be impossible, the fact is now 
 established clearly that the more we achieve the 
 greater become the possibilities of further achieve- 
 ment each succeeding generation building on the 
 work of its predecessor. 
 
 Some of the colleges in our great cities have made 
 such progress that they have been reconstituted as 
 universities, in which most of the students are found 
 
 1 The History of the Institute of Chemistry (1877-1914) contains 
 a concise account of the foundation and progress of many of the 
 principal chairs of chemistry in Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
42 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 in the science faculties. Thus, University education 
 has been made readily available to those who lean 
 towards scientific pursuits, as well as to those whose 
 mental faculties are turned to literature and the arts. 
 Situated in great manufacturing centres, they supply 
 a real want ; local industries have thereby been 
 stimulated and have materially benefited. En- 
 deavours have been made to meet the special require- 
 ments of particular centres, and the interest of manu- 
 facturers has been secured by the election of men 
 identified with industry as members of the governing 
 bodies. The older universities and colleges also have 
 rapidly developed their scientific departments to meet 
 the needs of the times. 
 
 We have already remarked that there are seventeen 
 Universities and over 250 Technical Colleges and 
 other institutions in Great Britain and Ireland pro- 
 viding courses of training in chemistry and allied sub- 
 jects, and that in all the Universities and in many of 
 the Colleges courses are provided for the preparation 
 of students for degrees in science. Provision has 
 been made, therefore, for the training of professional 
 chemists and a constant supply of competent men 
 is thereby rendered available for the service of the 
 community. 
 
 The progress of chemical science depends upon the 
 work of analysts, consultants, and technologists, as 
 well as on that of the teachers. * There is no antagonism 
 between pure and applied chemistry, but on the con- 
 trary each is dependent on the other. Credit for 
 advances in theory and practice is due to both teachers 
 and practitioners. It is essential, therefore, that the 
 
 1 For simplicity, we refer to those who are chiefly engaged in 
 teaching as teachers, although in some cases they may also under- 
 take consulting practice. 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 43 
 
 closest relations should be fostered between all chemists 
 for the furtherance of their interests, educational and 
 professional. 
 
 The chemist with experience of the problems occur- 
 ring in practice can clearly take a part in education by 
 indicating the trend of scientific applications in in- 
 dustry and in everyday life, and by making his technical 
 knowledge available to those who are chiefly engaged in 
 teaching. A proper estimate of the training necessary 
 for the profession can best be secured, therefore, by a 
 body representative of those having experience in its 
 various branches. This is one of the main advantages 
 to be derived from an organisation such as the In- 
 stitute of Chemistry, whose work in relation to the 
 professional training of chemists will now be discussed. 
 
 The Regulations prescribed by the Institute, framed 
 and developed by successive Councils, represent an 
 authoritative consensus of opinion in determining a 
 system of technical training which should make a 
 sound foundation on which the student can build his 
 subsequent experience. The Institute has in this way 
 co-operated with the Universities and Colleges in pro- 
 moting the steady improvement of the standard of 
 education in chemical science. 
 
 These Regulations provide for the registration of 
 students preparing for the Examination for the Associ- 
 ateship (A.I.C.). Such registration is not obligatory, but 
 it is advantageous in that it brings the Students at an 
 early stage into touch with the work of the Institute. 
 Through the published Proceedings, they learn some- 
 thing of matters of professional interest and become 
 acquainted with the nature of the qualifying examina- 
 tions ; while from the Lectures given before the 
 Institute, published gratis to all members and students, 
 
44 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 they obtain an insight into the actual work of various 
 branches of practice. 
 
 It is advantageous, moreover, for the Students to 
 feel assured that, although the Regulations are liable 
 to be changed from time to time, they can proceed 
 under those in operation at the time of their registra- 
 tion and make their arrangements accordingly. 
 
 From the foundation of the Institute in 1877, a 
 minimum of three years' systematic training at a 
 recognised institution was prescribed as the main 
 requirement of candidates for the Associateship 
 (A. I.C.), though two years' experience under a Fellow 
 in an approved laboratory could be reckoned in lieu 
 of one year at an institution. As, in. the course of 
 time, the majority of the recognised institutions be- 
 came universities, candidates in most cases completed 
 their college training, and took a Degree in science 
 before entering for the Associateship examination of 
 the Institute. Compared with former times, however, 
 the ground to be covered has attained such dimensions 
 and is constantly being so much extended that, in 
 spite of all improvements in the methods of teaching 
 and in the equipment of laboratories, four years must 
 now be regarded as the minimum period for a satis- 
 factory training. The Regulations adopted in 1917 
 offered several alternative schemes to candidates for 
 the Examination for the Associateship ; but further 
 modifications, to which we will refer shortly, have now 
 been adopted (pp. 50-51). For the present, we re- 
 produce the alternative schemes referred to, as they 
 provide the prospective chemist with a definite idea 
 of the extent of the requirements : 
 
 (a) A four years systematic day training in the prescribed 
 subjects including Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics 
 and one optional subject at a University or College 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 45 
 
 recognised by the Council, passing the class examina- 
 tions in the said subjects ; or 
 
 (b) A three years systematic day training as above, passing 
 
 the class examinations, and two other years approved 
 experience 1 under a Fellow of the Institute, or in a 
 laboratory or works approved by the Council ; or 
 
 (c) A degree, including Chemistry in the degree Examina- 
 
 tion, taken otherwise than in accordance with (d) and 
 (e) below, at a recognised University and (i.) a 
 further year's training in Chemistry at a recognised 
 University or College, or (ii.) two other years 
 approved experience 1 under a Fellow of the Institute, 
 or in a laboratory or works approved by the Council ; 
 or 
 
 (d) A degree with first or second class honours in Chemistry 
 
 or other diploma recognised by the Council as equiva- 
 lent, after a three years systematic day course, and 
 (i.) a further year's training in Chemistry at a recog- 
 nised University or College or (ii.) two other years 
 approved experience 1 under a Fellow of the Institute, 
 or in a laboratory or works approved by the Council ; 
 or 
 
 (e) A degree with first or second class honours in Chemistry 
 
 or other degree or diploma recognised by the 
 Council as equivalent, after a four years systematic 
 day course ; 
 
 provided in every case that the Candidate produces satis- 
 factory evidence of training and examination in Physics, 
 Mathematics, and an optional subject. 
 
 The optional subjects prescribed are Agriculture, 
 Bacteriology, Biology, Botany, Geology and Mineral- 
 ogy, Higher Mathematics, Mechanics, Steam and 
 Chemical Engineering, Metallurgy, Higher Physics, 
 and Physiology. 
 
 1 " One year may be accepted by the Council as sufficient where 
 the approved experience in a laboratory or works has been acquired 
 subsequently to the prescribed training in a recognised University or 
 College." 
 
46 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 With the increase in the number of technical in- 
 stitutions giving instruction in science, the Council of 
 the Institute have had to meet the difficulty of deciding 
 which should be placed on the list of those formally 
 recognised as affording a satisfactory preparation for the 
 Associateship. Having in view the interests of students 
 seeking adequate preparation for their profession, the 
 Council have to satisfy themselves with regard to the 
 general status of the institutions, the constitution of 
 the teaching staffs, the syllabus of courses provided to 
 meet the requirements of the Institute, the equipment 
 of the chemical and physical laboratories, and the 
 character of the work done by the students, as in- 
 dicated by the successes achieved. 
 
 The success of an institution in preparing candidates 
 for University Examinations provides a means of 
 gauging the efficiency of the institution seeking 
 recognition, so that from among those which maintain 
 a good record of such successes the Council of the 
 Institute may, from time to time, add to the list of 
 institutions formally recognised. 
 
 For many years the problem was simplified by a 
 regulation under which day classes only were accepted. 
 Many technical schools providing only evening courses 
 were thereby excluded from the recognised list. Train- 
 ing by evening classes was not and still cannot be 
 regarded as entirely satisfactory, as it entails a heavy 
 physical strain on the student otherwise engaged 
 throughout the day ; but we will show that due pro- 
 vision has now been made for the admission of evening 
 Students to the examination for the Associateship. 
 
 It will be observed, moreover, that a candidate who 
 has passed the Final Examination for the Degree of 
 B.Sc. in chemistry in an approved University, is 
 entitled to apply for admission to the Associateship 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 47 
 
 Examination, provided he has had some experience of 
 practice and can satisfy the Council with regard to 
 his training in Physics, Mathematics and an optional 
 subject. To such candidates, therefore, no hardship 
 arises from the fact that they have been trained in 
 evening classes or at an institution which has not been 
 formally recognised. 
 
 The Council, in fact, have made special provision for 
 candidates whose circumstances have not allowed of 
 their following the normal curriculum. They will con- 
 sider applications for admission to the Examination 
 for the Associate ship from candidates whose training 
 has not been strictly in accordance with the schemes 
 referred to, provided (i.) that they have passed an 
 approved Preliminary Examination in subjects of 
 general education, (ii.) that they have received system- 
 atic instruction satisfactory to the Council, by day or 
 evening classes, in the prescribed subjects, and have 
 passed approved examinations therein, (iii.) that they 
 have been engaged in the study and practice of 
 chemistry for at least ten years, and (iv.) that their 
 cases are recommended for special consideration by 
 Fellows of the Institute personally acquainted with 
 their work. 
 
 By accepting degrees as evidence of training, the 
 Institute has encouraged many Candidates to take full 
 University courses, and to this, no doubt, is largely due 
 the fact that, although the majority of the members 
 were admitted prior to the advent of the modern 
 Universities, over 70% of the Fellows and Associates 
 are graduates. In the past the training for a Degree in 
 Science was often rather academic than practical, and, 
 therefore, conducive to the production of science 
 
48 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 teachers rather than of chemists preparing for other 
 professional practice. Incidentally we would mention 
 also that lack of suitable openings deprived them of op- 
 portunities of proving their capacity in other directions. 
 The Institute, however, endeavoured to promote 
 the practical side of training, thereby setting a balance 
 against the preponderance of theoretical instruction 
 over laboratory work ; so that in these circumstances 
 a further course of practical training was often found 
 advisable. In recent years, however, the character of 
 the training and examinations of the Universities has 
 been modified to render their honours graduates in 
 chemistry better prepared than formerly for the more 
 practical branches of the profession ; and this has been 
 recognised by new Regulations of the Institute to 
 which we will refer in due course. 
 
 So long as the recognised Institutions remained 
 Colleges, the Institute provided a qualification for 
 those who complied with its regulations and passed its 
 examinations ; but when the Colleges became Uni- 
 versities, many of their graduates were disinclined to 
 take further examinations and proceeded to appoint- 
 ments in various branches of chemical work without 
 qualifying as Associates of the Institute. Thus, in the 
 course of time, an increasing body of well-trained 
 chemists remained outside the ranks of the Institute, 
 which, therefore, was becoming proportionately less 
 representative of the chemists of the country. The 
 diplomas of Fellowship and Associateship, however, 
 signified a very high standard and the influence of the 
 Institute was not inconsiderable when brought to bear 
 on public matters affecting the interests of the pro- 
 fession as a whole. 
 
 Under the conditions arising from the war, the 
 demand for chemists in industry increased the oppor- 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 49 
 
 tunities for gaining practical experience ; so that the 
 Institute, in its endeavours to assist the Government 
 in meeting that demand, extended its appeal for 
 chemists far beyond the roll of Members and Registered 
 Students. The need for more complete organisation 
 became generally acknowledged and the Council of the 
 Institute had in view a scheme for effecting that object 
 when an independent movement in the same direction 
 led to a well-attended meeting being held at Manchester 
 in November, 1917, for the purpose of forming a new 
 body to be known as the British Association of Chemists. 
 The promoters, however, not being desirous of creating 
 any unnecessary additional organisation, proposed that 
 if the Institute would undertake the objects they had in 
 view, they would not proceed to any formal incorpora- 
 tion. The objects sought were, briefly, to obtain power 
 to act as sole registration authority for all chemists ; to 
 have the word chemist legally redefined ; to safeguard 
 the public by obtaining legislation ensuring that certain 
 prescribed chemical operations should be under the 
 direct control of a chemist ; to raise the profession of the 
 chemist to its proper position among the other learned 
 professions, so that it might attract a larger proportion 
 of the best intellects, and thereby secure a supply of 
 highly trained chemists adequate to the industrial needs 
 of the country. 
 
 Obviously, the primary problem was to determine 
 who should be accounted a chemist. The Institute by 
 its Regulations provided a standard of qualification ; 
 but there were undoubtedly many outside the mem- 
 bership whose claim to rank as chemists could not 
 be denied. The new Association could not become 
 rhe sole registration authority, since the Institute 
 already possessed registration powers under Royal 
 
50 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 Charter, and there was the Pharmaceutical Society to 
 be reckoned with on the definition of the word chemist. 
 On the latter point representatives of the Institute had 
 already been in conference with those of the Phar- 
 maceutical Society and had elicited information which 
 tended at least to make the position clear. The objects 
 referred to above were, in any case, already part of the 
 recognised policy of the Institute. 
 
 In these circumstances, there remained only the funda- 
 mental question of establishing the qualifications re- 
 garded as essential to chemists who should be registered. 
 
 It should be recorded that the Council of the In- 
 stitute had already made provision for the admission 
 of trained chemists who had been prevented from 
 taking the Examinations of the Institute owing to 
 the war. This step had been taken after very careful 
 consideration ; but clearly involved a departure from 
 the previous practice of requiring all candidates for the 
 Associateship to pass an Examination conducted by 
 the Institute. 
 
 The " British Association of Chemists " was pro- 
 visionally constituted on the understanding referred 
 to ; meetings were held in various parts of the country ; 
 Local Sections were formed ; and an Executive Com- 
 mittee was appointed to confer with the Council of the 
 Institute. As a result of the negotiations between the 
 two bodies an agreement was reached with regard to 
 the question of qualification, and in April, 1918, the 
 Council of the Institute called an Extraordinary 
 General Meeting of the Fellows and Associates to 
 discuss the proposals involved, having in view the 
 desirability of effecting the more complete organisation 
 of properly trained and competent chemists. 
 
 At this meeting it was decided that it was desirable 
 to modify the existing requirements of the Institute, in 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 51 
 
 order to include as many chemists as possible in its 
 Membership (Associateship and Fellowship), so far 
 as such a course was within the provisions of the 
 Royal Charter ; and, therefore, that any candidate 
 who had complied with the following conditions 
 should be accepted as eligible to apply for admission 
 to the Associateship of the Institute without further 
 examination : 
 
 That he has attained the age of twenty-one years ; and 
 either 
 
 (a) That he has obtained a degree with first or second class 
 
 honours in Chemistry (or other degree or diploma 
 recognised by the Council as equivalent) after a three 
 years systematic day course, and (i.) has taken a 
 further year's training in chemistry at a recognised 
 University or College ; or (ii.) has had two other 
 years approved experience 1 under a Fellow of the 
 Institute or in a laboratory or works approved by 
 the Council ; or 
 
 (b) That he has obtained a degree with first or second class 
 
 honours in Chemistry (or other degree or diploma 
 recognised by the Council as equivalent) after a four 
 years systematic day course ; or 
 
 (c) That he has obtained a degree with first or second class 
 
 honours in Chemistry after training (by day or 
 evening classes) and experience equivalent in extent 
 and character, in the opinion of the Council, to the 
 training and experience specified in the two pre- 
 ceding paragraphs ; 
 
 Provided in every case that the Candidate has pro- 
 duced satisfactory evidence of training and exam- 
 ination in Physics, Mathematics and an optional 
 subject. 2 
 
 Further, it was considered desirable to prescribe that, 
 until December 3ist, 1921, any Candidate who could 
 
 1 One year to be accepted by the Council as sufficient where the 
 approved experience in a laboratory or works has been acquired 
 subsequently to the prescribed training in a recognised University or 
 College. 2 See optional subjects, p. 45. 
 
52 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 produce evidence satisfactory to the Council of having 
 had a sufficient general and scientific education, and of 
 having practised pure and applied chemistry for not 
 less than seven years, and who held a responsible 
 position, should be accepted as eligible to apply for 
 admission to the Associateship of the Institute with- 
 out Examination, provided that he had complied with 
 the provisions of the Charter of the Institute with 
 regard to age, general education, and scientific train- 
 ing in Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, and an 
 optional subject and had passed approved examina- 
 tions in those subjects. 
 
 It was stipulated, however, that in considering 
 applications under this last clause, the Council should 
 expect candidates to produce evidence of having been 
 trained and occupied in a manner which, in the opinion 
 of the Council, was equivalent to fulfilling the condi- 
 tions required of candidates admitted under (a) above. 
 
 It was agreed that Candidates who had not complied 
 with the conditions specified, or with the regulations 
 adopted as a temporary (War) measure (p. 50), should 
 be required to comply with the Regulations adopted 
 and published by the Council hi July, 1917 (pp. 44-45) ; 
 and that the list of Institutions recognised by the 
 Council for the training of chemists should be recon- 
 sidered with a view to its further extension. 
 
 Resolutions were also passed to the effect that local 
 sections of the Institute should be formed to maintain 
 the interest of the members in the general welfare of 
 their profession and to promote social intercourse ; 
 and that the system of election to the Council should 
 be revised with a view to securing direct representation 
 from different localities and from different branches of 
 the profession. Further reference to these matters 
 will be made later. 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 53 
 
 With regard to elections to the Fellowship, and 
 elections to the Associateship under the temporary 
 (War) conditions, the Council will review its policy 
 from year to year, immediately after each Annual 
 General Meeting. 
 
 The Council have modified the constitution and 
 Regulations of the Institute, making impossible for 
 adequately trained and competent chemists in any 
 branch of the profession to become duly registered by 
 the recognised professional body; but, notwithstand- 
 ing -the adoption of this policy, a newly constituted 
 British Association of Chemists has been formed, 
 which we understand is intended to deal mainly with 
 the economic interests of chemists. 
 
 Among the degrees and diplomas recognised by 
 the Council of the Institute as equivalent to a degree 
 with first or second class honours in chemistry, we 
 would mention Degrees in Arts of recognised Uni- 
 versities wherein the requirements in chemistry are of 
 equivalent standard, Degrees in Science wherein an 
 equivalent standard has been attained under a 
 different designation, and in the case of matriculated 
 students, Diplomas such as Associateship of the Royal 
 Colleges of Science, London and Ireland, and the 
 Associateship of the City and Guilds of London 
 Institute, Finsbury Technical College. 
 
 It has been noted (p. 17) that in the Colleges provid- 
 ing a diploma course, students who wish to take the 
 diploma are required to matriculate or to pass an 
 entrance examination to the College, and, in any case, 
 such students must pass an approved Preliminary 
 Examination, or otherwise satisfy the Council with 
 regard to the standard of their general education, 
 if they wish to qualify for the Associateship of the 
 
54 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 Institute. The subjects required to be taken at the 
 entrance examinations to the Colleges usually corre- 
 spond with the subjects of the courses provided, the 
 object being to ascertain if the students have already 
 acquired sufficient elementary knowledge at school to 
 enable them to proceed to the more advanced work of 
 the Colleges. 
 
 We will now venture to make a few general observa- 
 tions on the training of a chemist. 
 
 With the commencement of College work the 
 student enters on a new phase of life, giving him greater 
 freedom than he has enjoyed at school, but entailing 
 greater responsibility and self-reliance. Technical educa- 
 tion usually commences at about the age of seventeen. 
 
 The sciences with which a chemist must be acquainted 
 are so connected and so enlighten one another that it is 
 impossible for him to attain a competent knowledge 
 of any one branch, without an acquaintance with at 
 least the fundamental principles of several allied 
 branches. Though he has comparative mastery over 
 one science, he will find the study of that obscure if he 
 neglects others ; and these, though subsidiary, should be 
 pursued to such an extent that the knowledge acquired 
 is real and useful. The man with a smattering is found 
 to be a source of danger in his profession, whilst he con- 
 tributes to the crowding out of the more competent. 
 The trained technical man's bag of tools is his brain ; 
 the tools consist of the departments of knowledge he is 
 able to exercise ; the better he is able to use them by 
 the aid of his " common sense," the more successful is 
 he likely to be in practice : the broader his training, 
 the better his equipment. 
 
 With these considerations in view, there should be no 
 question of avoiding the additional subjects. It is not 
 sought to impose hardship on the students, but to 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 55 
 
 advise and require what is best in their own interests. 
 It is not our purpose here to follow the technical 
 details of the course or the choice of particular text- 
 books. These matters must be left to the judgment of 
 teachers. We would mention one point, however, 
 which is often ignored. Students taking chemistry as 
 their principal subject have usually evinced a liking 
 for the science while at school, and there is in most 
 instances considerable enthusiasm, since their choice 
 of chemistry as a profession is deliberate : not a mere 
 drifting into a profession. It is absolutely essential, 
 however, that the students should work and acquire 
 the habit of " working hard." There should be no place 
 in a College laboratory for those who do not, and here 
 let it be well noted that laziness and dilatoriness are 
 seldom chargeable to the evening class technical school 
 man, with whom the more regularly trained graduate 
 may sooner or later come into competition. 
 
 Chemistry, theoretical and practical, must, of course, 
 be regarded as the principal subject, the other subjects 
 occupying a relatively smaller proportion of the 
 student's time. 
 
 The science of chemistry is based upon experiment. 
 A useful knowledge of the subject can hardly be 
 acquired from books alone. Without knowledge of the 
 substances which he handles a student may carry out 
 experiments to the danger of himself and others ; he 
 may follow a book with some degree of safety and 
 repeat series of operations limited by his resources in 
 apparatus and materials. He may possibly learn 
 something by his results and by his mistakes ; but, 
 without proper direction, he will make little progress. 
 
 The education of the student during his school 
 career has largely consisted in memorising facts. 
 He has to be trained to think, and ta deduce con- 
 
56 . THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 elusions from known facts. Chemistry particularly 
 calls into use his common sense as well as his natural 
 faculties. The faculty of observation should be 
 cultivated in all practical work, as, for instance, in the 
 recognition of substances by their appearance and, 
 with limitations, smell, taste, and touch. The im- 
 pressions thereby conveyed frequently assist in deter- 
 mining the course of an investigation. The aim of 
 modern teaching is to produce thinkers, not mere 
 accumulators of book knowledge, not mere testing 
 machines, but men able to exercise their knowledge in 
 scientific enquiry and to develop initiative and resource- 
 fulness. The training should be clearly defined and 
 efficiently carried out on broad lines, forming a sound 
 basis for experience. 
 
 The student must acquire some understanding of the 
 character and effects of the more important chemical 
 changes and processes in nature and the arts in order 
 that he may realise their relation to the affairs of 
 everyday life. His course should embrace the scientific 
 study of typical technical processes on the large scale. 
 
 It is not sufficient to work through the usual ana- 
 lytical tables and to repeat simple operations in 
 qualitative and quantitative analysis. The student 
 who is to be properly trained must be instructed 
 systematically in the philosophy and history of chem- 
 istry ; not simply to learn but to understand and to 
 form a proper judgment upon the results of his work. 
 
 The main objects of training, therefore, are to 
 induce in the student the habit of thought on general 
 principles, in order that he may realise their practical 
 bearing ; to enable him to carry out operations with 
 an intelligent appreciation of their meaning and 
 purpose, and to express his results and conclusions in 
 proper form. 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 57 
 
 The methodical keeping of records of practical work 
 and the preparation of reports should form an im- 
 portant feature of the training. The records of prac- 
 tical work should be made at the time, omitting no 
 essential details, the results and -conclusions being 
 summarised in a concise and logical statement. Candi- 
 dates presenting themselves for the examinations of 
 the Institute, and usually those who are taking the 
 University degree examinations, are expected to 
 submit the actual notebooks used during the latter 
 part of the University or College training, for inspec- 
 tion by the Examiners, who take them into account 
 in arriving at a decision. 
 
 Reverting to the Regulations of the Institute, it should 
 be specially noted that before presenting himself 
 for the Examination for the Associateship, the Candi- 
 date, unless he has graduated or obtained a recognised 
 diploma, is required to show that he has passed satis- 
 factorily the class examinations of his College in each of 
 the requisite subjects. A careful inspection of the sylla- 
 bus and of past papers set at the A.I.C. Examination 
 will give the Candidate a good general idea of the extent 
 of the knowledge he is expected to possess. In addition 
 to receiving systematic laboratory instruction, every 
 candidate should be accustomed to use the microscope, 
 spectroscope, polarimeter, refractometer, and other 
 instruments commonly employed in chemical labora- 
 tories, and should also be able to draw diagrams of 
 apparatus and instruments. 
 
 Modern chemistry is so closely allied to electrical 
 science that a chemist, particularly if he intends to 
 practise in industry, would be poorly equipped without 
 systematic training in physics, at least up to Degree 
 standard. The minimum course prescribed in mathe- 
 
58 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 matics, however, is of such a character that many 
 students have already covered the ground at school. 
 On the other hand, a working knowledge of the 
 calculus has become practically essential. 
 
 In the selection of an additional subject the student 
 will be guided by its usefulness in the line of work to 
 which he feels attracted. Obviously, a chemist intend- 
 ing to practise in mineral chemistry would find it 
 necessary to know something of mineralogy and 
 geology ; the prospective public analyst, something of 
 physiology and botany; and the biological chemist, 
 something of biology and zoology. In fact, candidates 
 taking Branch (e) the Chemistry of Food and Drugs, 
 etc. in the Associateship Examination (pp. 65-67) are 
 required to produce satisfactory evidence of having 
 taken a course in Elementary Botany, with practice in 
 microscopy ; and, similarly, candidates taking Branch 
 (/) Biological Chemistry, etc. are required to pro- 
 duce satisfactory evidence of having taken a course in 
 Elementary Biology, and of having passed the Class 
 Examinations, respectively, in those subjects. 
 
 Students should have a sound grasp of fundamental 
 principles before they attempt any specialisation, and 
 for this reason it is generally held to be desirable that 
 they should undergo systematic training at an insti- 
 tution before proceeding to a private or industrial 
 laboratory. As the training approaches its close, how- 
 ever, it may be modified according to the bent and aim 
 of the individual. 
 
 Promising students are frequently selected towards 
 the end of their curricula to assist a professor in the 
 conduct of research, either of purely academical 
 interest, or such as involves the application of know- 
 ledge and skill to directly practical purposes. It is 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 59 
 
 futile and a waste of time for those to attempt research 
 who are not well equipped with theoretical know- 
 ledge and prepared by practical training. On the other 
 hand, for a well-trained student to have opportunities 
 of working with a skilled investigator, to think with 
 him and to assist in carrying out his ideas, affords 
 experience which cannot be overvalued when it brings 
 the student under the immediate influence of a dis- 
 ciplined mind accustomed to reasoning out the logical 
 inferences from the results of experiment. If he 
 possesses any aptitude for research, his genius will be 
 fostered by emulation, and any latent powers he may 
 possess will enable him to take advantage of the 
 chances offered him at this period. 
 
 The universities have for many years required original 
 research as a condition precedent to the granting of the 
 highest academical qualifications, such as M.Sc. and 
 D.Sc. ; and in some universities, as at Oxford, can- 
 didates for honours in the Bachelor Degree are now 
 required to submit an original thesis as an obligatory 
 part of the Examination. It is very probable that 
 a similar requirement will be introduced by other 
 Universities in their examinations for degrees in 
 science. 
 
 The experienced research chemist constantly notes 
 problems for solution ; determines the direction of a 
 selected enquiry, having first acquainted himself with 
 what has already been published on the subject ; 
 inspires his assistants with the train of thought under- 
 lying the operations. The Professor who acquires a 
 reputation for research attracts students to his College 
 and, though all cannot realise the hope of intimate 
 association in his work, the majority will come under 
 the influence of his enthusiasm. 
 
 After research experience in a University or College, 
 
60 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 the chemist who finds this branch of work attractive 
 may become a candidate for a Research Fellowship 
 or Scholarship which will enable him to extend his 
 experience, or he may obtain an appointment in a 
 research laboratory connected with an industrial con- 
 cern, or possibly in a laboratory maintained by an 
 association of manufacturers, of which there are 
 several established in various industrial centres ; or 
 he may become attached to the staff of an Institution, 
 such as the Imperial Institute, the Lister Institute, 
 the National Physical Laboratory, or an Agricultural 
 Experimental Station ; or take a position with a 
 consulting chemist whose practice includes investiga- 
 tions bearing on definite industrial problems. 
 
 Good research chemists are comparatively rare. 
 They vary greatly, from the solid straightforward 
 thinkers, who achieve results by the laborious method 
 of exhaustion, to those whose mental activity is of such 
 a character that they seize upon the direct line of 
 attack by some indefinable instinct or intuition. 
 Others again have a greater faculty for directing 
 than for carrying out the work themselves, like the 
 looker-on who sees most of the game. They have time 
 for reflection and by pertinent questioning and reason- 
 ing elucidate ideas of importance which might other- 
 wise escape notice. Accurate analysts with manipula- 
 tive skill are always desirable in the research laboratory. 
 Those who are first-rate glass workers or handy with 
 the ordinary tools of the carpenter and plumber are 
 invaluable. 
 
 Often the discovery of new phenomena fails to find 
 immediate practical application, but the importance 
 of pioneer work is sooner or later recognised at its 
 true value. The far-reaching effects of the investiga- 
 tion of the derivatives of benzene afford a striking 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 61 
 
 illustration of the result s of enquiry primarily con- 
 ducted solely for scientific interest ; again, when helium 
 was discovered, who could have foretold that it would 
 be used for rilling dirigible airships, thus rendering 
 them immune from explosive bullets. 
 
 The creation of the Department of Scientific and 
 Industrial Research, the increase by the Government 
 of the amount allowed for grants in aid of scientific in- 
 vestigation, and the establishment of Research Associa- 
 tions in connection with various industries promise 
 well for the further encouragement of research chemists 
 and the future development of applied science. 
 
 The Universities and Colleges of to-day, accepting 
 the principle that it is not only their business to educate, 
 but also to advance knowledge, have adopted the prose- 
 cution of research as one of their most important 
 functions ; but research is by no means confined to the 
 Universities and Colleges ; and it is no longer the 
 practice to restrict the term to investigations in pure 
 science. The science of chemistry has been advanced, 
 particularly by the discovery of new analytical methods 
 and the invention of new apparatus, by consultants 
 and analysts in practice ; while applied chemistry has 
 naturally been promoted in the main by chemists 
 directly engaged in industry. 
 
 Teachers undoubtedly have the great advantage in 
 research work that they are constantly reviewing the 
 great and general principles, the full importance of 
 which is always before them ; and it would seem that 
 the nearer a discovery is related to such principles the 
 wider are its ultimate applications. The Universities 
 are increasingly alive to the fact that they have to 
 produce chemists who can be relied on to take their 
 places in the workaday world. During the war, for 
 instance, it was of supreme importance to the troops 
 
62 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 to devise, quickly and efficiently, the means of defence 
 against poisonous gas attacks, or a cheap and effective 
 antiseptic for use in surgery, or a useful substitute for 
 leather or rubber, leaving for more peaceful times the 
 problem of adding further links to some multi-syllabic 
 organic compound for which no immediate use was 
 likely to be found. Comparatively few are able to 
 occupy themselves in the pursuit of truth solely for 
 the pleasure it affords and without reward ; but we 
 must be grateful that some such exist, and acknow- 
 ledge that these chemist philosophers often produce 
 remarkable results. 
 
 Much has been said of the relation of research to 
 invention, and it is not so easy to determine where the 
 one leaves off and the other begins, nor do we need to 
 attempt it ; but it is interesting to note how they may 
 follow one another in a cycle. An investigation of 
 purely scientific interest may lead to the establishment 
 of a new principle ; next, to the invention of a new 
 contrivance for the application of the principle, which 
 in its turn may aid investigators in making a further 
 discovery. Thus Newton, observing the production of 
 a spectrum of colours by the passage of sunlight 
 through a hole in the shutter, is the accredited dis- 
 coverer of the principle underlying the spectroscope, 
 which has become an important instrument in many 
 branches of scientific investigation. 
 
 Few have the good fortune or the ability to initiate 
 new theories or to make epoch-making discoveries ; 
 the majority must be content to understand theories 
 and facts as they are revealed to them. Success in 
 scientific investigation as in everything else depends 
 in the long run on the selection of the right persons to 
 control and to carry put the work. 
 
 The pursuit of industrial research demands not only 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 63 
 
 a high standard of trained intelligence but practical 
 acquaintance with methods and conditions of working 
 on the large scale, such as are not ordinarily at the 
 command of those who have not had experience in 
 industry. At the same time, it must be remembered 
 that industrial processes are no longer determined by 
 purely empirical methods, but by the application of 
 chemical and physical principles, and that a proper 
 laboratory training must precede work of that kind. 
 
 In some of our great manufacturing centres, labora- 
 tories have been established for the benefit of certain 
 industries and maintained at the expense of a group of 
 concerns for their mutual advantage, and this system as 
 we have already indicated is now being encouraged by 
 the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. 
 
 A Scientific Research Association has also been 
 founded, having its origin at Cambridge. The member- 
 ship is open to all who have published research or 
 are engaged on researches for publication, and the 
 associate -membership to all who, without being 
 engaged in research, have its interests at heart. The 
 aims of the Association are to advise scientific in- 
 vestigators and bodies administering public funds for 
 research, to promote a wider understanding of the 
 value of scientific method, and to consider the 
 possibility of organising a scheme of permanent 
 national endowment for research. 1 
 
 The institution of scholarships by County Councils, 
 City Companies, and private beneficence, has done 
 much to bring students to certain colleges, but in 
 many instances they are attracted by the high reputa- 
 tion of the professors, by the equipment of the labora- 
 tories, and by the facilities afforded for research ; 
 but while the publication of researches by the 
 
 1 Nature, Nov. 28, 1918. 
 
64 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 teachers and students brings into prominence those 
 institutions which produce men capable of conducting 
 original investigation, the best gauge of efficiency is 
 the success of the students in professional life. This 
 must be held to apply to the general run of the 
 students and not to a brilliant example here and 
 there, for exceptional ability will assert itself even in 
 the face of adverse circumstances. 
 
 One of the great advantages of university and 
 college training lies in the influence which such training 
 with its associations exercises on individual character. 
 The provision of Students Unions and Debating 
 Societies affords opportunities for discussion among 
 those preparing for the professions and fosters self- 
 reliance, which is a particularly valuable asset. In pro- 
 portion as the students of a department realise that they 
 can assist in producing among themselves a high tone at 
 College, so subsequently they may materially assist in 
 raising the status of the profession they ultimately join. 
 
 The cost of training at the Universities and Colleges 
 varies considerably. At some of the principal Colleges 
 in London the fees amount to as much as 35 per 
 annum, but they are less at others, and considerably 
 less at certain provincial Universities and Colleges. 
 Information on this point can be obtained directly 
 from the Secretaries of the Institutions. 
 
 Students preparing for the Associateship of the 
 Institute of Chemistry should endeavour to keep in 
 touch with modern developments in the branch of 
 work which they intend to select in the examination, 
 and should take every opportunity of learning some- 
 thing of the practical applications of the selected 
 branch. Those whose aim is to take the Examination 
 in Chemical Technology are advised to devote particu- 
 lar attention to the study of Physical Chemistry, 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 65 
 
 Physics, and Mechanics. We shall deal specially with 
 this branch in a chapter devoted to Industrial 
 Chemistry. 
 
 Under the Regulations of the Institute, part of the 
 training may consist of approved experience under a 
 Fellow in private practice, or in the laboratory of a 
 public Department or in works. For some .branches 
 of the Examination for instance, (b) Metallurgical 
 Chemistry, and (e) the Chemistry of Food and Drugs, 
 to which reference will be made in due course such 
 laboratories often afford preparation of a kind which 
 cannot easily be obtained in some of the Universities 
 and Colleges. The same work may be taught in the 
 Colleges perhaps more systematically but the con- 
 ditions of working are different and though students 
 trained entirely at Colleges are successful in the 
 Examination, they miss the advantages of private 
 pupilage : training in working quickly and the ex- 
 perience of actual practice. 
 
 Each candidate for the Examination is required to 
 show, in addition to a general knowledge of all branches 
 of chemistry, a thorough acquaintance with at least one 
 of the following branches, to be selected by himself : 
 
 (a) Mineral Chemistry : including general inorganic quali- 
 
 tative and quantitative analysis, and the preparation 
 of pure inorganic substances. 
 
 (b) Metallurgical Chemistry : Sampling, analysis and 
 
 assay of metals, ores, fuel, metallurgical products, 
 and minerals used in metallurgical processes, with 
 reports thereon ; analysis of producer and other fuel 
 gases, and of furnace gases ; calorimetry of fuels ; the 
 principles involved in the preparation of alloys ; 
 practical knowledge of electrolytic methods, and of 
 the construction and use of electrical furnaces and 
 other apparatus employed in metallurgical in- 
 vestigations. Metallography : preparation of speci- 
 
66 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 mens, and recognition, under the microscope, of the 
 characteristic structures of steel and common 
 alloys, and of the typical structural changes produced 
 on them by various forms of thermal and mechanical 
 treatment. Pyrometry : calibration of pyrometers ; 
 determination of the temperatures of furnaces and 
 the melting-points of metals and alloys ; observation 
 of critical changes in alloys, including steel. 
 
 (c) Physical Chemistry : Candidates are expected to show 
 
 special theoretical and practical knowledge of the 
 methods, instruments and apparatus employed in 
 physico-chemical processes and investigations. 
 
 (d) Organic Chemistry : the preparation, examination, 
 
 analysis, and detailed investigation of organic 
 materials generally, including commercial products. 
 
 (e) The Chemistry (including Microscopy) of Food and 
 
 Drugs, Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs, Soils, and 
 Water : including the examination and analysis of 
 any article within the scope of the Sale of Food and 
 Drugs Acts; Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs, Soils, 
 and Water ; the detection and determination of the 
 active ingredients in crude drugs, pharmacopceial 
 and antiseptic preparations and prescriptions ; the 
 application of the principles of toxicological analysis ; 
 detection of blood stains ; the examination of urine. 
 Candidates are expected to produce duly authenti- 
 cated notebooks containing evidence of systematic 
 instruction and practice in Microscopy. They must 
 be familiar with the microscope and its accessories 
 and other physical apparatus employed. They are 
 given practical work and a written paper in Micro- 
 scopy. There is also an oral examination in the 
 recognition of chemicals and drugs ordinarily found 
 in commerce. They are required to show a general 
 knowledge of the commoner impurities and falsifica- 
 tions in drugs, their recognition and importance with 
 respect to the pharmacological action and thera- 
 peutical value of the drugs ; the toxicological effects 
 of chemicals and drugs, and a knowledge of the 
 dangers from poisoning by chemicals used in trade 
 processes. They are also expected to possess a 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 67 
 
 < 
 
 general knowledge of the Acts relating to the Sale of 
 Food and Drugs, to the Sale of Poisons, and to 
 Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs. 
 
 (/) Biological Chemistry and Bacteriology; Fermentation 
 and Enzyme Action : with special reference to the 
 Chemistry and Bacteriology of foodstuffs, water 
 supply, and sewage disposal, and the application of 
 Biological Chemistry to industries and manufactures. 
 
 (g) Chemical Technology: Candidates are expected to 
 give evidence of a good general knowledge of 
 chemical technology, comprising : The application 
 of well-known chemical and physical laws to in- 
 dustrial operations ; the development, control, and 
 transmission of power and heat ; a working know- 
 ledge of operations and plant, of which general use 
 is made in chemical industry for the treatment and 
 handling of materials, finished products, waste pro- 
 ducts and effluents, including a practical acquaint- 
 ance with fittings and stores ; the properties of 
 materials which affect their application to the con- 
 struction of plant and apparatus in chemical works ; 
 some ability in interpreting drawings of plant and 
 in making rough sketches ; the calculation of work- 
 ing costs, and a general knowledge of works accounts. 
 The Candidate is required to select one important 
 branch of industry, by which his knowledge of the 
 subjects of the examination may be decided. At 
 least two papers are set on the general principles 
 of chemical technology and two papers on the 
 selected industry. In the oral part of the examina- 
 tion, the candidate is required to interpret drawings 
 and /or models of plant and fittings, and to show a 
 general knowledge of the working of plant. The 
 practical work includes technological analyses, the 
 examination of raw materials and products con- 
 nected with the selected industry. 
 
 The Associateship (A.I.C.) Examination occupies at 
 least five days, during which the Examiners are at 
 liberty to apply any test which they think desirable, 
 either orally or by writing, or by experimental work, 
 
68 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 in order to obtain evidence of the candidates' know- 
 ledge of theoretical and practical chemistry. Candi- 
 dates are required to answer a paper of questions, 
 chiefly on the branch selected, and are examined orally 
 as to their general knowledge of chemistry. They are 
 also required to translate, to the satisfaction of the 
 Examiners, technical literature from French and from 
 one other foreign language allowed by the Council, 
 with the aid of dictionaries. 
 
 They must also be familiar with the use of such 
 scientific instruments as are commonly employed in 
 chemical laboratories. 
 
 Any candidate is at liberty to present a thesis or 
 dissertation upon any chemical subject, or any original 
 investigation, to which he has given special attention, 
 and the Examiners will take it into account in arriving 
 at a decision. 
 
 During the practical part of the examinations, candi- 
 dates are at liberty to consult any books of reference 
 which they may bring with them, or which are in the 
 Library of the Institute, or, in the case of a local examin- 
 ation, in the Institution where the examination is held. 
 
 Examinations, in spite of their defects, have proved 
 a valuable incentive to educational progress. At school 
 and at the Universities some form of periodical examina- 
 tion is an aid to determining the fitness of the student 
 to proceed to higher instruction. Examinations thus 
 provide the student with a definite aim : the attainment 
 of a higher, standard ; until eventually a standard is 
 reached of such a character ,as to form a basis on 
 which he may begin to build his experience. 
 
 In common with other professional bodies, the 
 Institute of Chemistry is concerned with the problem 
 of supplying the demand of the public for evidence of 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 69 
 
 competency. Those who are responsible for the con- 
 duct of the examinations are fully alive to the object 
 in view, viz. to ascertain whether the candidates are 
 likely to prove useful professional men. The A.I.C. 
 examination fulfils that object. The Board of Exam- 
 iners consists of representative teachers and practising 
 consultants, and under the method adopted in .con- 
 ducting the examination, many of the drawbacks 
 common to such tests are reduced to a minimum. 
 There is a sense of proportion in the relative standards 
 required in the various parts of the examination, so 
 that it constitutes a satisfactory test as a whole, and 
 is of such character and scope that it tests real know- 
 ledge rather than memory ; ability and initiative 
 rather than an intimate acquaintance with text -book 
 drill. Candidates are expected to give definite evi- 
 dence of their usefulness for practical purposes : to 
 show that they can carry out a reasonable amount of 
 work accurately and in a reasonable period of time. The 
 examination consists largely of problems occurring in 
 everyday practice, requiring not merely an acquaint- 
 ance with analytical charts, but the possession of a 
 sound knowledge of chemical laws and a deal of common 
 sense. There is little room for guess-work, and it is a 
 sound policy for the candidate, both in written and 
 practical work to make sure that what is done is done 
 well, rather than to attempt too much and do it 
 badly. Importance is attached to the manner in which 
 the work is recorded ; every step of consequence 
 must be noted with all essential calculations. 
 
 We have mentioned that candidates are allowed to 
 consult books of reference during the practical work 
 and dictionaries when they are translating foreign 
 technical literature ; and, in general, it may be 
 said that an endeavour is made to place them as 
 
70 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 nearly as possible under the ordinary conditions of 
 practice ; but collusion is strictly forbidden. The 
 Examiners are in constant touch with the candidates, 
 and are thus the better able to arrive at a just decision 
 in each case. Such a system gives the candidate a fair 
 chance, eliminates the possibility of the incompetent 
 passing, and frustrates the tendency to " cram." The 
 examination is not in any sense competitive. Local 
 examinations are held in various centres at home and 
 in Overseas Dominions where suitable supervision 
 and accommodation can be provided. 
 
 The passing of examinations, however, though it 
 indicates enterprise and a determination to get on wi 
 the world, is obviously of less importance than the 
 training it necessitates ; the real value of the training 
 is shown by the ability of the candidate to deal with 
 the problems with which he is confronted, not only in 
 the examinations, but in professional life when he must 
 learn to form his own opinions, rely on his own judg- 
 ment, and acquire initiative in tackling questions the 
 answers of which are not always readily available in 
 books. We will indicate in a subsequent chapter how 
 he may derive considerable advantage by associating 
 himself with societies devoted to his subject, which, 
 by means of meetings for the reading of papers and by 
 the publication of journals, disseminate useful know- 
 ledge, afford opportunities for mutual help, keep their 
 members in touch with progress, and thereby widen 
 the horizon of their respective spheres of work. 
 
 Apart from the passing of the necessary examination, 
 the successful candidate has the satisfaction of knowing 
 that he has attained a definite position in having ac- 
 quired membership of a recognised professional body 
 and he can therefore take a part in promoting the 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 71 
 
 general welfare of his calling. He should make it his 
 business to advance the interests of his profession in 
 any way that lies in his power, and particularly by 
 maintaining a high standard in his professional work 
 and conduct. 
 
 Though our educational system may have its short- 
 comings, we think it may be claimed that' our leaders 
 of industry find our trained chemists at least as well 
 prepared for their profession as those of other coun- 
 tries. Frequent and progressive reforms of regulations 
 and curricula are essential ; there will never be a time 
 when the cry for such reforms will be silenced. No 
 ideal is everyone's ideal, and if any be thought to be 
 attained it must in the course of time be modified 
 with the trend of progress. 
 
 It is obvious from the foregoing considerations that 
 we possess the machinery for the production of a 
 constant supply of well-trained chemists capable of 
 adapting themselves usefully to the needs of the 
 country, and we may now consider the position of this 
 product of the Universities and Colleges. He has 
 probably taken a degree or qualification and pro- 
 ceeds to seek an opening for a career, or, if means 
 are available perhaps by obtaining a scholarship, 
 he will undergo some form of special training for 
 a higher Degree, such as Ph.D., M.Sc., or D.Sc., in 
 the hope of increasing his chances of making a good 
 start. Possibly he may, for a time, devote himself to 
 research, or he may go abroad to gain the advantage 
 of working under other teachers, and to improve 
 his acquaintance with foreign languages. He may 
 specialise in a branch of technology, though in this 
 case he should be careful to avoid losing touch with 
 
72 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 the current work of his profession or he may find that 
 when openings are not plentiful in the branch he has 
 selected he is not readily equipped for others. 
 
 Some of the Universities and Colleges have established 
 courses in the applications of science to particular 
 industries, and grant diplomas in various branches of 
 technology. Again, as at the Royal Technical College, 
 Glasgow, and the Imperial College of Science and 
 Technology, many of the students supplement their 
 normal training by a course covering a wide field 
 of chemical technology, so that they gain an in- 
 sight into several industries. At Glasgow, too, facili- 
 ties are afforded them for visiting and working for a 
 time in some of the works in the neighbourhood. The 
 results of this training have been clearly illustrated by 
 the success of the students from the College, who are 
 to be found in responsible positions, both in this 
 country and abroad. 
 
 Much has been done to promote specialised training, 
 and the following schedule, though mostly prepared 
 before the war and probably incomplete, may serve a 
 good purpose in indicating the institutions providing 
 courses of this character : 
 
 Agriculture : Marischal College, Aberdeen University ; 
 The University College of Wales, Aberystwyth ; Agri- 
 cultural College, Aspatria, Cumberland ; University 
 College of North Wales, Bangor ; Agricultural College, 
 Bedford ; The University, Bristol ; The University of 
 Cambridge ; Essex County Technical Laboratories, 
 Chelmsford ; Dauntsey Agricultural School, West 
 Lavington, Devizes ; Royal College of Science for Ire- 
 land, Dublin; Edinburgh and East of Scotland College 
 of Agriculture ; West of Scotland Agricultural College, 
 Glasgow ; College of Agriculture and Horticulture, 
 Holmes Chapel, Cheshire ; The Midland Agricultural 
 and Dairy College, Kingston-on-Soar, Derby ; The 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 73 
 
 University, Leeds ; Armstrong College, Newcastle-on- 
 Tyne; Harper Adams Agricultural College, Newport, 
 Salop ; The University, Oxford ; The Harris Institute, 
 Preston ; University College, Reading ; Horticultural 
 College for Women, Swanley ; Agricultural College, Tarn- 
 worth ; Agricultural and Horticultural College, Uckfield, 
 Sussex ; Usk : Monmouthshire Agricultural Institution ; 
 South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent. 
 Applied Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Technology : 
 Merchant Venturers' Technical College and the Uni- 
 versity, Bristol ; Royal College of Science for Ireland, 
 Dublin ; Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh ; Royal 
 Technical College, Glasgow ; Municipal Technical School, 
 Hull ; Battersea Polytechnic, London ; East Ham 
 Technical College, London ; Imperial College of Science 
 and Technology, London ; University College, London ; 
 Municipal School of Technology, Manchester ; The 
 University, Sheffield. 
 
 Biological Chemistry, Bacteriology, Fermentation, etc. : The 
 University, Birmingham (Brewing) ; The University, 
 Bristol (Bio-Chemistry) ; The University, Cambridge 
 (Physiological Chemistry) ; University College of South 
 Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff (Hygienic Chem- 
 istry) ; The University, Glasgow (Bacteriology) ; The 
 University, Liverpool (Bio-Chemistry) ; Battersea Poly- 
 technic, London (Bacteriology) ; King's College, London 
 (Bacteriology) ; Sir John Cass Technical Institute, 
 London (Brewing, Malting and Fermentation) ; Uni- 
 versity College, London (Pathological Chemistry and 
 Physiological Chemistry) ; The Victoria University, 
 Manchester (Biological Chemistry) ; The Municipal 
 School of Technology, Manchester (Brewing). 
 
 Fuel and Gas : Municipal Technical School, Birmingham 
 (Gas) ; City Technical College, Bradford (Gas) ; Royal 
 Technical College, Glasgow (Gas) ; Central Technical 
 School, Leeds (Gas) ; The University, Leeds (Coal, Gas 
 and Fuel Industries, with Metallurgy) ; Imperial College 
 of Science and Technology, London (Fuel) ; Sir John 
 Cass Technical Institute, London (Fuel) ; Armstrong 
 College, Newcastle-on-Tyne (Fuel and Gas) ; School of 
 Mines, Treforest, Glamorganshire (Coal, Fuel, etc.) ; 
 
74 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 Wigan and District Mining and Technical College, Wigan 
 (Fuel and Metallurgy). 
 
 Glass Technology : University of Sheffield. 
 
 Leather and Tanning : The University, Glasgow ; The 
 University, Leeds ; Leathersellers' Technical College, 
 London ; Municipal Technical Institute, Warrington. 
 
 Metallurgy : The University, and the Municipal Technical 
 School, Birmingham ; City Technical College, Brad- 
 ford ; The University, Cambridge ; University College 
 of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff ; Central 
 Technical School and The University, Leeds ; The 
 University, Liverpool ; Birkbeck College, London ; 
 Royal School of Mines (Imperial College of Science and 
 Technology), London ; King's College, London ; Sir 
 John Cass Technical Institute, London ; S. W. Poly- 
 technic, Chelsea, London; The University and the 
 Municipal School of Technology, Manchester ; Armstrong 
 College, Newcastle-on-Tyne ; University College, Notting- 
 ham ; The University, Sheffield ; Staffordshire County 
 Council ; The Technical College, Swansea ; Wigan and 
 District Mining and Technical College. 
 
 Mining : The School of Mines, Camborne ; Fife Mining 
 School, Cowdenbeath ; Birkbeck College, London ; The 
 Royal School of Mines (Imperial College of Science and 
 Technology), London ; Armstrong College, Newcastle-on- 
 Tyne ; School of Metalliferous Mining, Redruth ; The 
 University, Sheffield ; Staffordshire County Council ; 
 The School of Mines, Treforest, Glamorgan ; Wigan and 
 District Mining and Technical College.' 
 
 Oil and Fats, Soap, etc. : Central Technical School, Leeds ; 
 Battersea Polytechnic, London ; City of London College. 
 
 Optics : Imperial College of Science and Technology, 
 London ; Northampton Institute, London. 
 
 Papermaking : Royal Technical College, Glasgow ; Batter- 
 sea Polytechnic, London ; Municipal School of Techno- 
 logy, Manchester. 
 
 Photography: Central Technical School, Leeds; Municipal 
 
 School of Technology, Manchester. 
 Physical Chemistry and Electro-Chemistry : The University, 
 
 Aberdeen ; The University, Birmingham ; University 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 75 
 
 of Liverpool ; University College, London ; Imperial 
 College of Science and Technology, London ; The 
 University, Manchester. 
 
 Pottery : Staffordshire County Council ; North Stafford- 
 shire Technical School, Stoke-on-Trent. 
 
 Sugar : Royal Technical College, Glasgow. 
 
 Textile Manufacture : Royal Technical College, Glasgow ; 
 The University, Leeds ; Municipal School of Technology, 
 Manchester. 
 
 Tinctorial Chemistry, Dyeing, Bleaching, Calico Printing : 
 Municipal Technical Institute, Belfast (Bleaching, Dye- 
 ing) ; City Technical College, Bradford (Dyeing) ; 
 Royal Technical College, Glasgow (Bleaching, Dyeing 
 and Calico Printing) ; Technical College, Huddersfield 
 (Tinctorial Chemistry) ; The University, Leeds (Dyeing 
 and Tinctorial Chemistry) ; Battersea Polytechnic, 
 London (Dyeing) ; Municipal School of Technology, 
 Manchester (Bleaching, Dyeing, Printing, etc.) ; Technical 
 College, Paisley (Dyeing) ; Technical School, Rad- 
 cliffe, Lanes. (Cotton, Dyeing and Bleaching) ; Royal 
 Technical Institute, Salford (Dyeing and Calico Print- 
 ing). 
 
 With the progress made in thus developing our 
 technical educational system, students can proceed 
 from one institution to another to secure such special- 
 ised instruction ; those who have taken such courses 
 generally reap the benefit of doing so, and seldom 
 lack opportunities of finding appointments suitable 
 to their attainments. The provision of these courses 
 has encouraged the better equipment of students for 
 taking part in the conduct of many processes on the 
 large scale, by supplying them with much of the border- 
 land knowledge between science and industry, though 
 some manufacturers, who prefer to take a hand in 
 shaping their chemists to their own liking, still hold 
 the opinion that such knowledge can best be acquired 
 by experience in works, and rely on the Colleges to 
 
76 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 teach what cannot be learned on the works. All are 
 agreed, however, that a good all-round training is 
 essential, so that the chemist may be more generally 
 adaptable, especially as the advance in industrial 
 methods is so rapid that it is very difficult for the 
 College courses of instruction to keep an even pace 
 with modern progress. 
 
 Students intending to enter industrial work should, 
 in any case, take advantage of every opportunity of 
 seeing manufacturing operations, and of broadening 
 their views on the applications of their science, which 
 must remain somewhat narrow so long as their experi- 
 ence is restricted solely to the laboratory. They should 
 endeavour to see something of metals in the working 
 with their furnaces, steam-hammers and rolls ; of 
 heavy chemicals with their great stills, lead -lined 
 tanks, iron evaporating pans, pressure eggs, stone 
 filters, filter presses, and other appliances ; and of 
 many other important industrial products, with the 
 method of handling them and the special plant em- 
 ployed in their manufacture. 
 
 The Institute of Chemistry has established a scheme 
 of lectures by technical chemists of experience in 
 various branches and by publishing the lectures has 
 provided useful monographs on the history and 
 development of the industries to which they relate. 
 Similar lectures have been given from time to time in 
 some of the Universities and Colleges, and have tended 
 to illustrate to students the difference between work- 
 ing with grams and tons of material. 
 
 Before passing to the consideration of the various 
 branches of practice and the prospects they offer, 
 mention should be made of the fact that Associates 
 of the Institute who can show, to the satisfaction of 
 the Council, that they have been continuously engaged 
 
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 77 
 
 in the study and practice of applied chemistry for three 
 years since their admission can proceed to the Fellow- 
 ship by examination, or those who have carried out 
 original research, or devised processes or inventions, 
 or otherwise satisfied the Council that they have ful- 
 filled equivalent conditions, can apply for election to 
 the Fellowship without examination. The Fellowship 
 (F.I.C.), in any case, represents a minimum of seven 
 years' systematic training and experience. The stimulus 
 given to Associates to pursue original investigation in 
 order to attain the higher grade should, we think, 
 exercise a marked effect on the progress of British 
 chemistry at this critical juncture. 
 
PROSPECTS AND CONDITIONS OF PRACTICE 
 
 "DECKER in his Physica Subterranea describes 
 JZ) chemists as " a strange class of mortals impelled 
 by an almost insane impulse to seek their pleasure 
 among smoke and vapour, soot and flame, poison and 
 poverty." The last word from the quotation will not 
 appeal to the modern student of chemistry or to 
 those who bear the expense of his education. Riches 
 are not always to men of understanding, nor yet 
 favour to men of skill ; but time and chance hap- 
 peneth to them all. 
 
 Among the Greeks it was held that the standard of 
 thought was lowered by attempting to turn scientific 
 knowledge to practical ends, 1 and until comparatively 
 modern times, men of science pursued their investiga- 
 tions mainly without thought of material gain. Even 
 if science is held to be non-humanistic and too material- 
 istic, it is none the less a manifestation of the progress 
 
 1 Bacon, who tells us that the true and legitimate goal of the 
 sciences is none other than to endow human life with new dis- 
 coveries and resources, protests against the view held in his time, 
 that the majesty of the human mind was impaired by long and 
 frequent employment upon experiments. He also states that Plato 
 held that practice led men from the contemplation of truth and so 
 degraded their intellect ; and that Archimedes was half ashamed of 
 his inventions. 
 
 " Archimedes regarded the engines of war which he invented 
 not as being constructed by serious labour, but as the mere holiday 
 sports of a geometrician, and although he acquired the glory of a 
 more than human intellect he would not condescend to leave behind 
 him any writings about his engines, regarding the whole business of 
 mechanics and the useful arts as base and vulgar." Plutarch's 
 Lives : Marcellus. 
 
 78 
 
PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 79 
 
 of man, the result of his inquisitiveness, and one of 
 the highest forms of mental activity and achieve- 
 ment. To what does it all lead, but to the better 
 realisation of his place in the universe ? There can be 
 nothing derogatory in making a right use of know- 
 ledge gained and it is no longer supposed that those 
 who pursue science are only assisting the machina- 
 tions of the evil one. We look more and mere to science 
 to provide all that we require our clothes and food, 
 and, indeed, everything that contributes to our comfort. 
 Yet, even less than forty years ago, there was pro- 
 nounced opposition to the idea of creating a chemical 
 profession, though it is interesting to observe that 
 some of those who cried loudest against the pursuit 
 of science for gain have become, in the course of years, 
 leaders in agitating for its fullest applications. 
 
 We have shown that the profession of chemistry is 
 attracting an increasing number of well-trained and 
 energetic workers who are alive to the fact that it is 
 no longer solely an occupation for the dilettante. In 
 this may be read a reversal of the dictum of Paracelsus 
 to which we have already referred. The business of 
 the chemist is not only to make medicines, but to 
 make gold by the applications of his science to the 
 affairs of e very-day life. Generally speaking, however, 
 chemists do not appear to regard the matter only in 
 that light : they seek knowledge rather than affluence. 
 The work of the chemist, in its character, its origin- 
 ality or otherwise, its scale of operations, and its 
 responsibility necessarily varies ; but whether it be 
 simple or complex, original or routine, on the laboratory 
 or the works scale, merely of experimental interest or 
 involving heavy financial or other responsibility, it 
 should be carried out in a scientific spirit. 
 
8o THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 To be successful in almost any professional career a 
 man must not only be properly qualified, but be known 
 and esteemed among his brethren. His initiation into 
 the practical business of life is commonly the result 
 of the recommendation of someone who knows him 
 and can speak well of his work, and his advancement 
 depends largely on the repute in which he is held by 
 his fellow workers. The chemist, therefore, will be 
 well advised to join one or more of the recognised 
 societies connected with his science, to which further 
 reference will be made later. The choice will be deter- 
 mined to some extent by the nature of his work ; but 
 this should be the first step to be taken as soon as he 
 has commenced to earn his living by his profession. 
 If he is able to submit an original paper or two and 
 contribute usefully to the discussions, he will be judged 
 by his work and opinions ; and, in the course of time, 
 find his place among those who are active in furthering 
 the common interests of his science and his profession. 
 
 We have indicated that the middle of the nineteenth 
 century was marked by an enthusiasm for science 
 which led to the provision of increased educational 
 facilities. With a more restricted field the old training 
 was probably more thorough, so far as it went ; but 
 until the seventies there were very few places where 
 practical chemistry was taught ; and for practical 
 physics there was scarcely a laboratory in the country 
 until 1866, when Prof. Carey Foster started one at 
 University College, London ; though it is true that, 
 Thomson Lord Kelvin had students working with 
 him at an earlier date. There were giants in those 
 days, men of renown. There are giants in our time, 
 and no doubt many not yet come to their full stature, 
 but some of those who have devoted their lives to 
 the study of their subject and have established their 
 
PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 81 
 
 positions are rather apt to overlook the fact that 
 students of the present day, during their short training, 
 have to cover the far wider field which has been ex- 
 plored and opened up during the intervening period. 
 Chemical science is perhaps hardly in the prospecting 
 stage, but the coming generation have an even greater 
 chance than the present of distinguishing themselves 
 in its development. 
 
 A chemist may be engaged, either as a principal or 
 as an assistant, in a variety of positions : (i) in 
 private practice, which may be consulting and analy- 
 tical practice, either general in character or with a 
 marked bias towards some particular branch, such as, 
 in the case of a public analyst, the chemistry of food 
 and drugs, or in the case of an agricultural analyst, 
 the chemistry of soils, fertilisers, feeding-stuffs, etc. ; 
 (2) in industry, either as a consulting technologist, 
 practising independently, with a bias towards a 
 particular industry or group of industries, or as 
 a member of the staff of an industrial concern, 
 either in the directorate, or the management, or in 
 the control of a department, or as a research chemist 
 or as an analyst ; (3) in a governmental or a muni- 
 cipal appointment, in which the nature of the work 
 may be general or specialised and the duties may 
 occupy whole or part time ; (4) in teaching, which may 
 be general or specialised in the case of University or 
 College appointments, but is usually general in school 
 appointments and, in the latter case, frequently asso- 
 ciated with other science subjects ; or (5) in a com- 
 bination of two or more of the branches of work above 
 indicated ; or (6) in other employment in which his 
 technical knowledge and ability are advantageous, 
 though not necessarily the primary factors. 
 
 We propose to devote special chapters to public 
 
82 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 analysts and official agricultural analysts, who are 
 usually associated with the first branch indicated, and 
 also to the industrial, governmental, and teaching 
 branches. For the present we will endeavour to give 
 some general hints, dealing first with private practice. 
 
 A sound knowledge of the main principles of their 
 science is necessary to all chemists, yet some special- 
 isation is not merely inevitable, but is likely to 
 afford opportunity for successful practice, provided 
 its applications are not too narrow. The chemist who 
 acquires a reputation for a particular branch of work 
 often looks to a steady flow of work in that branch as 
 his mainstay. 
 
 To establish a consulting and analytical practice 
 without any immediate clientele requires financial re- 
 sources and considerable patience. Experience with a 
 well-known practitioner for a year or two will usually 
 be found advantageous, until the opportunity arises 
 for making an independent beginning. If the practice 
 with which a chemist becomes thus associated is of a 
 special character, a premium may be required, though 
 a well-trained man may take a position as an assistant 
 on reciprocal terms giving his services for experience 
 gained or at a nominal salary. If circumstances 
 allow of it, experience of this kind may be more 
 valuable than -that afforded by a subordinate paid 
 appointment. The fact that a young chemist has 
 worked with a practitioner of repute will stand him in 
 good stead in his subsequent career. 
 
 Fresh from an academic atmosphere, he finds that, in 
 spite of his training and qualifications, his knowledge is, 
 after all somewhat superficial ; his subject is a very wide 
 one, and his training has not been so comprehensive as 
 to embrace all the varied problems submitted to him. 
 He has only laid the foundation for experience, 
 
PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 83 
 
 The conditions of working are different from those 
 of the college ; he has to work much more rapidly and 
 probably to conduct several analyses concurrently and 
 with accuracy. He must acquire business habits and 
 equip himself generally for professional life in which 
 there is much to learn which lies outside his college 
 training. Take, for instance, the question of sampling, 
 which is one of importance to chemists who undertake 
 the examination of coal, ores, cement, fertilisers, oils, 
 and other substances sold in large bulk. The results 
 of analysis may affect considerable financial interests, 
 with corresponding responsibility on the analyst. Sub- 
 stances are often dealt in commercially on the basis of 
 the figures reported by an analyst agreed upon by the 
 parties to a contract ; or each such party may appoint 
 an analyst, and agree upon a third to arbitrate in the 
 event of discrepancy in results, which may arise owing 
 to differences in sample, or in the analytical methods 
 employed. It is often advisable, therefore, that the 
 samples and the methods of analysis involved should 
 be agreed upon before examination. The sampler may 
 be one experienced in the particular trade concerned, 
 independent of buyer and seller, or the analyst him- 
 self may be responsible for taking samples. He should, 
 in any case, be acquainted with the recognised methods 
 of sampling, which sometimes entail considerable 
 knowledge. Thus, some substances vary under vary- 
 ing conditions of temperature, and so forth, or it may 
 happen that a portion drawn from the top of a cask 
 or drum may be very different from that taken from 
 the bottom. Sampling in prospecting, for minerals or 
 oil, also requires technical experience. In the sampling 
 of water, too, it is helpful to the chemist that he should 
 be fully acquainted with its source and general sur- 
 roundings, and similarly with effluents. 
 
84 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 Again, the form of report to be adopted in varying 
 cases is also a matter of importance both in connection 
 with official work under statutes and in general prac- 
 tice. Further reference will be made" to certificates 
 when we consider matters of professional procedure. 
 
 It might not occur to the average student that a 
 knowledge of certain statutes is sometimes of impor- 
 tance. He should, for instance, be informed with 
 regard to licences for stills. Under an Act entitled 
 " An Act to prevent the Use of Stills by Unlicensed 
 Persons " (9 and 10 Viet., cap. 90, 1846), an excise 
 duty of los. is imposed on every person, not being a 
 licensed distiller, rectifier, compounder of spirits, or 
 vinegar-maker, keeping or using a still or retort for 
 carrying on any trade or business requiring the use of 
 a still. The duty is payable yearly, and the licence 
 must be renewed so long as the still or retort is kept 
 or used. Any infraction of any of the provisions 
 enacted involves liability to a penalty of 50 and the 
 forfeiture of the still, still-head, worm, or retort, in 
 respect of which the offence is committed. 
 
 The Commissioners of Inland Revenue, to whom is 
 entrusted the task of levying the duty imposed by 
 the Act, are empowered, however, to grant exemptions 
 from duty in the case of stills kept or used for experi- 
 ments in chemistry, or for the manufacture of articles 
 other than spirits or spirit mixtures. Manufacturers 
 of coal-gas do not require a licence for the use of the 
 ordinary retort, and a still used for the distillation of 
 tar or tar products is exempt, provided that no spirit 
 mixture is used or produced on the premises, and that 
 the name of the person keeping the still is registered 
 by the proper officer. 
 
 In consequence of representations made in 1892 by 
 
PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 85 
 
 the Council of the Institute of Chemistry, the Board 
 of Inland Revenue allow professors and teachers of 
 chemistry, and analytical chemists who carry on no 
 business involving the manufacture of any article for 
 sale from, or containing spirit, to use a still or stills in 
 the bona fide exercise of their profession without 
 taking out a licence. 
 
 What constitutes a " still " within the rrieaning of 
 the Act has not been specifically denned, but any 
 apparatus capable of being used for the distillation of 
 liquids is liable to licence duty, and, excepting under 
 the conditions above mentioned, the keeping of a 
 still without licence is an offence, no matter for what 
 purpose it may be kept. Persons who desire to obtain 
 exemption from licence duty must make application 
 to the Board of Inland Revenue ; such application 
 being made usually through the local supervisor of 
 Inland Revenue. 
 
 Again, in some laboratories the recovery of spirit is 
 a matter of much economic importance. The Board 
 of Inland Revenue reserve t'o themselves the right 
 to insist, in every case in which it appears to them 
 necessary in the interests of the Revenue, on a strict 
 observance of their regulations, but have no desire to 
 exercise that right in such a manner as to interfere 
 unduly with the ordinary practice of an analytical and 
 consulting chemist. The Board, however, request 
 that a formal application be made by chemists who 
 desire to recover or purify methylated spirit. 
 
 To resume the consideration of the conditions of 
 practice, we may with some confidence expect, in the 
 future, a wider outlook in consulting work. 
 
 In some cases, analysis is becoming a relatively 
 subsidiary part of chemical practice, which now 
 
86 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 demands initiative and resource often of a very high 
 order for the solution of the practical problems with 
 which the chemist is constantly confronted. 
 
 When gas-lighting was a novelty, those who under- 
 stood it could command a good fee for superintending 
 gas-fitting ; similarly, with the installation of electric 
 bells and later with electric lighting. With the progress 
 of science these and many other advantages of a scien- 
 tific order have become things of everyday account, 
 valued less as they become more ordinary. Some ac- 
 quaintance with the principles of analysis will in time 
 be part of every boy's education no more mysterious 
 than the fitting of electric bells to-day. The chemist, 
 therefore, must be something more than an analyst. 
 If an assistant has had experience in research, he may 
 be given an opportunity of w r orking on industrial 
 problems, and, if successful, his principal may be able 
 to recommend him to an appointment, perhaps in the 
 works of a client, and he will thereby find a career in 
 industrial chemistry. If he has been with a public 
 analyst or official agricultural analyst he will have 
 acquired the experience necessary for obtaining the 
 qualifications demanded for official analytical appoint- 
 ments and may thus secure a nucleus for establishing 
 an independent practice. 
 
 The chemist who does not need immediately to earn 
 his living may with advantage devote himself inde- 
 pendently to research on industrial problems. We 
 have known this branch of work lead to very profit- 
 able results from investigations directed to devising 
 processes which have been patented. The chemist, 
 however, if he hopes to reap the benefit of this work, 
 will, of course, find the need for the assistance of a 
 reliable patent agent well qualified to act for him on 
 chemical matters. 
 
PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 87 
 
 In chemistry, as in other professions, there is always 
 scope for the best. Broadly speaking, professional suc- 
 cess is achieved by competence, based on sound general 
 education, systematic technical training, and close ac- 
 quaintance with modern practice, capability the skill 
 to apply knowledge and experience and individuality, 
 which comprises trustworthiness, tact, energy, en- 
 thusiasm, foresight, and general force of character. The 
 result lies almost entirely with the individual. In any 
 case, he cannot expect to command success without 
 merit, patience, and persistent hard work. 
 
 The discipline of the technical training, the mental 
 exercise involved and the social advantages of his 
 college life all tend to render the chemist a useful man. 
 Occasionally he will turn to a career in which his 
 science is directly useful, though it may not be the 
 main part of his business. Thus, a few' chemists 
 have qualified for the bar, practising in cases con- 
 nected with technological matters, patents, etc. ; 
 others have become patent agents, or educational 
 inspectors, or mining prospectors, or scientific jour- 
 nalists, or have secured commercial positions in 
 industries on which chemistry has a bearing. The 
 chemist seldom, however, entirely relinquishes his 
 profession ; change of career becomes more difficult as 
 time passes, and, in general, it is found that the older 
 a man gets the less likely is he to succeed by making a 
 change. 
 
 The possession of means may enable a chemist to 
 purchase an interest in a practice or an industrial 
 undertaking, or warrant him in waiting for an oppor- 
 tunity of securing an appointment suited to his in- 
 clinations, whereas his less fortunate brethren must 
 perforce take what they can get. During the first 
 year of experience particularly if he has no indepen- 
 
88 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 dent financial resources he should carefully consider 
 whether his position affords a prospect of advance- 
 ment. If not, he will be wise to look to his own 
 interests, or he may become so concerned with the 
 interests of those with whom he is associated and so 
 engrossed in his work as to overlook the fact that he 
 has his own career to make. 
 
 Every man can strive to get himself out of the 
 ordinary ruck and do his best to attain, if not a con- 
 trolling position, at least one in which he can exercise 
 initiative and find opportunities for relying on his own 
 resources. If he does not have regard to the future 
 and neglects to improve his position he will find him- 
 self falling behind and sooner or later blame himself, 
 or more probably the profession he has chosen, for the 
 fact that suitable appointments in his particular branch 
 are not offered to men of his age and experience 
 unless they have acquired an exceptional reputation. 
 
 Complaints that the profession is unremunerative 
 are largely raised by those who have neglected to 
 exert themselves while they were still young and 
 active. It serves no purpose for a professional man to 
 feel aggrieved that he earns less than a workman ; or 
 that a man in trade " makes " as much in a few 
 minutes as he (the professional man) does in as many 
 years. He may reasonably hope to leave the workman 
 far behind ; but he must bestir himself if he wants to 
 get on in the world, and so long as it is in his power to 
 effect an improvement in his position he should not 
 despair. Although it is true that about fourteen per cent 
 of the members of the Institute were abroad at the 
 outbreak of war, it is no less a fact that difficulty in 
 placing well-qualified men was often experienced 
 because they would not venture away from home, or 
 did not want to go into another branch of work, or 
 
PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 89 
 
 were in some way particular as to the disposition of 
 their services. Those who are devoid of ambition do 
 not usually make leaders of men or contribute to the 
 advance of industries or the progress of nations. The 
 success of the profession depends, as we have said, 
 mainly on the individual effort of its members. The 
 aim of the individual, therefore, should be to acquire 
 knowledge, skill, and experience of the highest order, 
 so that he may render himself available for suitable 
 opportunities as they arise. 1 
 
 Opportunity is a great thing ; but a greater is to 
 be prepared for the opportunity. It will not come for 
 the asking, but will come more certainly to anyone 
 who is prepared for it . Clever men. make opportunities ; 
 yet those who have risen rarely know why they have 
 done so ; in most cases, they have become sufficiently 
 appreciated for their ability and personal qualities to 
 be sought after. Comparatively few professional men 
 get rich quickly ; the majority work many more hours 
 a week than any craftsman, and yet few earn any- 
 thing approaching what they deserve until they have 
 obtained considerable practical experience ; but the 
 chemist has a chance as good as, if not better than, 
 many other professional men to give evidence of his 
 worth : his field of work is so wide. However, not- 
 withstanding all that we have said, chemistry has not 
 yet acquired that recognition which is its due. It is 
 only by united effort in educating public opinion that 
 its claims will be brought home to the uninitiated. 
 
 We have expressed the view that the chemist, in 
 that he chooses his profession deliberately and because 
 he likes it, is to be envied ; but he is to be pitied if 
 he is subsequently confined to routine work, without 
 
 1 "He that chiefly owes himself unto himself, is the substantial 
 man." Sir Thomas Browne (1605-82). 
 
90 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 opportunities of developing new ideas or solving new 
 problems. 
 
 The poor remuneration of industrial chemists in the 
 past has been due, in many cases, to the fact that their 
 work often consists largely of routine analysis which can 
 be carried out sufficiently well by youths who have had 
 a short training in a limited variety of analytical pro- 
 cesses and who are willing to accept positions affording 
 them experience. An analyst in charge of a fairly large 
 laboratory may occupy a reasonably remunerated 
 position ; but for routine work there is a limited 
 value. The well-trained man needs to secure a posi- 
 tion commensurate with his attainments, which was 
 formerly a difficult matter while the demand for such 
 chemists was small. It is often very necessary to 
 remind the chemist that his sphere need not be re- 
 stricted to the operations of the laboratory. If it 
 should be his ambition to occupy a controlling position 
 in industry, he should lose no opportunity of becoming 
 acquainted with processes on the manufacturing scale ; 
 but if he finds his outlook restricted to analysis with 
 no opportunity for developing ideas of his own, and no 
 prospect of going on the works, he is well justified in 
 seeking another appointment. 
 
 There have been frequent complaints with regard 
 to the payment of chemists in whole-time official 
 appointments. Such complaints are by no means con- 
 fined to those holding chemical appointments : clergy- 
 men, lawyers, medical men, schoolmasters, architects, 
 accountants, engineers in fact, all classes of profes- 
 sional men are at one time or another expected to be- 
 come candidates for appointments offered on ridicu- 
 lously low terms and unsatisfactory conditions. In the 
 long run such matters are adjusted by the laws of supply 
 
PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 91 
 
 and demand. Many considerations may enter into the 
 question whether candidates will be willing to apply for 
 a position : the nature of the duties and the responsi- 
 bilities involved ; whether previous experience is ex- 
 pected ; what advantages in the way of experience or 
 prospects are attached to the appointment ; whether 
 it carries a pension ; whether the holder is free to 
 undertake practice independently in his spare time ; 
 whether the individual concerned is so modest in his 
 requirements as to consider his labour a hobby, or 
 perhaps a duty to the State and not merely a means 
 to earning a livelihood ; and so forth. 
 
 Is it too much to hope that no author of the future 
 will have cause to write in the strain of John Ruskin 
 in Sesame and Lilies ? 
 
 " I say we have despised science. ' What,' you exclaim, 
 ' are we not foremost in all discovery, and is not the whole 
 world giddy by reason, or unreason, of our inventions ? ' 
 Yes ; but do you suppose that is national work ? That 
 work is all done in spite of the nation ; by private people's 
 zeal and money. We are glad enough, indeed, to make 
 our profit of science ; we snap up anything in the way of a 
 scientific bone that has meat on it, eagerly enough ; but if 
 the scientific man comes for a bone or a crust to us, that is 
 another story." 
 
 Long after Ruskin wrote that (1864), a chemist 
 without previous experience but with good qualifica- 
 tions could only with difficulty obtain an appoint- 
 ment at all. Frequently a practising consultant would 
 take into his laboratory a newly qualified man at a 
 nominal remuneration, as a pupil-assistant, in order 
 to give him an opportunity of gaining experience. To 
 obtain an appointment at 100 a year was regarded 
 as a fairly good start and many were obliged to accept 
 less. As the demand increased or showed signs of 
 
92 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 gaining on the supply, the position was slightly im- 
 proved. At the outbreak of war, however, before the 
 urgent need for chemists was realised, and while many 
 were prepared to make sacrifices to assist the country, 
 the terms of certain official assistantships were practi- 
 cally on the 100 a year basis, with decidedly un- 
 satisfactory conditions attached. Nor was there any 
 marked change until the demand increased and, even 
 then, having regard to the rise in the cost of living, the 
 general position was not really much improved. These 
 considerations, however, applied mainly to non-special- 
 ised work . Where highly special experience was called for, 
 fairly reasonable salaries were obtainable, particularly 
 in new establishments rendered necessary by the war. 
 
 There is not and cannot be " a minimum wage " 
 acceptable generally to men of such varied attain- 
 ments ; but a scale might be agreed upon, to be 
 varied according to economic conditions, having regard 
 to the education, training, qualifications and experience 
 of the chemists, as well as the character, importance and 
 responsibility of the work entrusted to them. With all 
 these circumstances to be taken into consideration, the 
 matter becomes complicated ; but the broad principle 
 of making the practice of chemistry attractive to a due 
 proportion of the possessors of the best brains in the 
 country should not be ignored, while it must be remem- 
 bered that in the main they are more directly product- 
 ive compared with those of some other professions. 
 
 On the other hand, the matter may be approached 
 from the point of view of the employers, who get, in 
 the long run, what they pay for. If they offer a small 
 salary, they have a corresponding selection of candi- 
 dates to choose from and must either take what is avail- 
 able or improve the terms ; but if they are inclined to 
 be liberal, they will get a good selection of candidates 
 
PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 93 
 
 and stand a better chance of obtaining results out of 
 all proportion to the increased expenditure involved. 
 At the present time (January, 1919) several companies 
 employing fairly large staffs decline to engage any 
 chemist at less than 250 a year ; others place the 
 minimum at 300 a year. If the candidates for 
 vacancies are not deemed worthy of the suggested 
 salary, they are not engaged, or if they fall -short of ex- 
 pectations their agreements are either soon terminated 
 or they remain in junior positions ; if they are worth 
 more, a definite contract is entered upon for a term of 
 years on a basis mutually agreed upon. If manu- 
 facturers generally adopted such a plan the chemists 
 would know what to expect and there would be -less 
 cause for complaint. The figures indicated above do not 
 represent the value of services rendered by the chemist, 
 but rather the initial salary the companies are prepared 
 to pay him. When he has acquired experience in 
 their industry and proved the value of his services his 
 position should, of course, be correspondingly improved. 
 
 In industrial positions, the conditions are likely to 
 improve because the control is passing gradually, but 
 surely, to men of science ; but where this is not the 
 case, the outlook will be promising from the chemists' 
 point of view only where the principals concerned 
 are properly appreciative of the importance of science 
 and are able to judge of the qualifications requisite 
 for the appointments under their control. 
 
 It was anticipated in some quarters that after the war 
 there would be an unprecedented demand for chemists, 
 and we hope that this view may not prove to have 
 been too sanguine. It is early, yet, to judge. Unless 
 they can be advantageously employed the profession 
 may become overcrowded; but it is certain that if 
 reasonable salaries are offered, the supply will be forth- 
 
94 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 coming. The Germans employed more chemists because 
 they carried on industries of a different character : the 
 manufacture of dyes, fine chemicals, pharmaceutic and 
 photographic materials, necessitating expert control by 
 numbers of chemists specially trained for the work. 
 In some cases, their supplies of natural resources 
 enabled them to make such things more economically ; 
 in others, they worked on a larger scale ; and in yet 
 others, they secured the control of foreign supplies 
 of starting materials. Germany's export trade in 
 chemicals approached 100,000,000 a year, whilst ours 
 was not more than a fifth of that sum. We hope to 
 see a marked change in these conditions. 
 
 The qualified chemist in Germany is said to enjoy 
 an acknowledged social standing, and though it is 
 doubtful whether he is better paid than our chemist 
 at the outset, he is probably better recompensed in the 
 long run, for results achieved. Before the war he 
 rarely received more than 100 a year as a com- 
 mencing salary, and his services were generally secured 
 by hard-and-fast contracts binding him to secrecy and 
 the surrender of all rights in any improvements or dis- 
 coveries of which he might become the author. Yet, 
 as we have indicated, the low salary received by the 
 technical chemist on the Continent at the outset of 
 his career was to some extent compensated for by the 
 status accorded him. The Herr Doktor was apparently 
 content to adopt a modest standard of living, but he 
 was respected for his attainments ; studious, ambitious, 
 fond of debate and prone to advertise his accomplish- 
 ments, his position as a man of " Kultur " was under- 
 stood, and he was not confounded with the "apotheker." 
 
 The memorandum of the German Ambassador, 
 Lichnowsky, published in the Politiken, of Stockholm, 
 
PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 95 
 
 telegraphed to this country by Renter's correspondent 
 in March, 1918, and later published under the title of 
 " My Mission to London, 1912," contained the follow- 
 ing statement at the conclusion of his remarks on 
 Society in England : "A hospitable house with 
 pleasant hosts is worth more than the profoundest 
 scientific knowledge ; and a savant with provincial 
 manners and small means would gain no influence in 
 spite of all his learning/' The impression of such a man 
 is noteworthy, but it is only true in part. "Society" 
 here is not much interested in science. If Lichnowsky 
 found his friends mainly among politicians he would be 
 hardly likely to find many men of science among them. 
 
 We will refer again to some of these matters in sub- 
 sequent chapters. 
 
 We must maintain that the profession of chemistry 
 in all its branches should be accorded the position and 
 emoluments which are its due as one of the liberal 
 professions on whose knowledge modern civilisation 
 relies in times of peace, and whose power is indispen- 
 sable in the time of war. 
 
 Appointments Register. 
 
 The Institute of Chemistry maintains a register of 
 Fellows and Associates who are available for appoint- 
 ments, and circulates particulars of suitable vacancies. 
 Several Universities do the same for their graduates. 
 Authorities and firms increasingly look to the Institute 
 and the Universities to assist them in securing the 
 services of well-trained chemists ; so that by this 
 means many are introduced to their first appointments 
 or are enabled to improve their positions. The Hon- 
 orary Corresponding Secretaries, in Overseas Dominions, 
 assist in this as in other departments of the work of 
 the Institute. 
 
PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 
 
 NOT only among labouring men but also among pro- 
 fessional men the value of some form of organisa- 
 tion has long been recognised. Every profession derives 
 benefit from the existence of a representative body 
 established to define a standard of qualification and to 
 act in the interests of the profession as a whole. Such 
 organisations aim at the maintenance of the efficiency 
 and integrity of their profession while they engender a 
 sense of fellowship and mutual responsibility among 
 their members. Membership should be sought, there- 
 fore, from a desire to assist in maintaining the prestige 
 of the profession generally as much as for any direct 
 advantage to the individual. 
 
 The earliest records of professional organisation in 
 this country appear to be those relating to the schools 
 of Law, which were in existence in the thirteenth 
 century ; those relating to medicine dating from the 
 fourteenth. The majority of the other representative 
 professional bodies representing architects, engineers 
 (civil, mechanical, and electrical), accountants and 
 actuaries, chemists, surveyors, journalists, patent 
 agents and so forth have come into existence since 
 the early part of the nineteenth century. 
 
 In all professions there is a continuous agitation for 
 more complete organisation, having in view the im- 
 provement of the status of their practitioners. On the 
 other hand, the tendency to specialise inevitably leads 
 
 96 
 
PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 97 
 
 to schisms. Sooner or later other bodies are formed 
 working separately yet with similar though more 
 specialised aims. One of the objects of such bodies 
 has been to provide registers of competent men for 
 the service of the community, but none of these 
 bodies, except those relating to the law, medicine and 
 pharmacy, has acquired statutory powers of compul- 
 sory registration and there is very great diversity of 
 opinion as to the desirability of their doing so. General 
 rapid advancement has resulted, however, from pro- 
 fessional bodies aiming at the encouragement of 
 efficiency and integrity, for which purpose the 
 principal professional societies and institutions have 
 been officially recognised by incorporation under 
 Royal Charter. They exist, in that respect, as much 
 for the public good as for their own advantage, though 
 they may establish rights and privileges of member- 
 ship and mutual obligations in the relations of their 
 members to one another and to the community. 
 
 In aiming at the enhancement of status, there is 
 constant agitation for further organisation in matters 
 educational, technical, and ethical. It is not reason- 
 able to expect that these matters can ever be definitely 
 established for all time to the satisfaction of every- 
 body ; but under the influence of these movements, 
 there is a general tendency towards higher standards 
 and higher ideals. 
 
 As there are many men styled " engineers," there 
 are likewise many styled " chemists." Although a 
 large number start out on their professional careers 
 well educated and thoroughly trained, others, as we 
 have previously remarked, offer their services with far 
 less qualification, or make their first practical acquaint- 
 ance with the application of science as laboratory 
 attendants or " testers " engaged in routine analysis 
 
98 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 in works or possibly in private laboratories during the 
 day, supplementing what they learn in this way by 
 attending evening classes at local Technical Schools. 
 
 We have mentioned also that the profession com- 
 prises chemists in practice as consultants, chemists 
 engaged in industry, public analysts, agricultural 
 chemists, chemists in Government service, and pro- 
 fessors and teachers of chemistry. There are also 
 chemical engineers, metallurgists, and other chemical 
 advisers with special experience in one or more branches 
 of technology. Some, again, combine two or more of 
 these departments of work. All these are " chemists/ '- 
 whether engaged in analysis or synthesis or in advising 
 on the elucidation of technical problems, perhaps in- 
 volving considerable financial outlay, or holding ap- 
 pointments as professors in Universities or science 
 masters in schools, provided they are properly trained 
 and competent. 
 
 The status of chemists differs, but there should be 
 scope for the humblest assistant to improve his position, 
 and, indeed, many laboratory boys have attained 
 very good positions, some in practice independently, 
 some in works, some in Government employ, and so 
 forth. 
 
 To effect the complete solidarity of men so diversely 
 qualified and engaged in such a variety of ways under 
 one organisation appears to be impracticable. If an 
 attempt were made to classify them in groups according 
 to ability, it would be found that whereas some have 
 general knowledge and skill of a high order but are not 
 specially expert in any one particular branch, others 
 have specialised knowledge of perhaps a limited sphere 
 of work and are lacking in knowledge of some of the 
 fundamental principles of their science. They cannot 
 all be cast in the same mould ; some are highly skilled 
 
PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 99 
 
 analysts, some research chemists and investigators, 
 while others have a preference for control of plant and 
 others for teaching. It would be as easy to. organise all 
 who call themselves artists, from the Royal Academi- 
 cian to the pavement variety, or from the prima donna 
 to the street singer. 
 
 From time to time it has been suggested that there 
 should be legislative restriction on the practice of 
 chemistry. Compulsory registration in any case does 
 not prevent anyone from giving advice : it may pre- 
 vent the unregistered from recovering fees and assist 
 the public to discern who are competent. The char- 
 tered professional qualifying bodies serve the latter 
 purpose. We feel, however, that little support would 
 be given to any measure for the restriction of chemical 
 practice, except in matters affecting the health and 
 well-being of the community, as in the case of public 
 analysts and official agricultural analysts and of 
 chemists engaged in dangerous industries, for which 
 special skill and experience are requisite. In chemistry 
 there is scope for those who are competent to under- 
 take only routine testing as well as for those who are 
 thoroughly equipped for higher analytical and research 
 work or for the control of operations in industry or the 
 conduct of professional practice as consultants and 
 analysts. 
 
 The latter half of the nineteenth century witnessed 
 the foundation of many societies and institutions for 
 the promotion of the study and practical application of 
 different branches of science. Their continued vigorous 
 existence is a proof of their utility, while their work 
 has undoubtedly exercised a stimulating influence on 
 the growth of knowledge during the same period. 
 From small beginnings they have become a great 
 power by promoting the efficiency of their members, 
 
ioo THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 by disseminating useful knowledge, establishing facts 
 and exposing errors, and by bringing scientific and 
 practical men into close association to their mutual 
 advantage. 
 
 Anyone who has not previously had occasion to 
 enquire into the question, is invariably surprised to 
 discover the number of Societies and Institutions 
 interested more or less directly in the advancement of 
 chemical science. TJiey include (i) Bodies aiming at 
 the promotion of all natural science, and (ii) those con- 
 cerned with chemistry in particular, either in its 
 purely scientific or in its professional and more utili- 
 tarian aspects. 
 
 In the first category, we have the Royal Society of 
 London, the parent society of the scientific bodies in 
 this country, founded in 1660 ; the Royal Dublin 
 Society, in 1731 ; The (Royal) Society of Arts, in 
 1754 ; The Manchester Literary and Philosophical 
 Society, in 1781 ; The Royal Society of Edinburgh, in 
 1783 ; The Royal Institution of Great Britain, in 
 1800 ; The Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 
 in 1802 ; and The British Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science, in 1831. 
 
 In the second category we have the Chemical Society 
 founded in 1841 and incorporated by Royal Charter 
 in 1848 ; the Institute of Chemistry, founded in 1877 
 and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1885 ; the 
 Society of Chemical Industry founded in 1881 and 
 incorporated by Royal Charter in 1907 ; and the 
 Society of Public Analysts and other Analytical 
 Chemists founded in 1874 and incorporated in 1907. 
 To the Pharmaceutical Society and the British Associa- 
 tion of Chemists we have already referred in an earlier 
 chapter. 
 
 The Chemical Society, numbering about 3450 
 
PROFESSIONAL ORGANISAT ION 101 
 
 members, aims at the general advancement of 
 chemical science, by the discussion and publication 
 of new discoveries and the interchange of valuable 
 information respecting them. Every Candidate for 
 the Fellowship is required to produce a certificate 
 signed by not less than five Fellows of the Society, to 
 three at least of whom he must be personally known. 
 The certificate is read at three Ordinary Scientific 
 Meetings of the Society, and election is then decided 
 by ballot. The Journal, which is published on the last 
 day of each month, includes the Transactions of the 
 Society and Abstracts of papers published in other 
 Journals. The Society also publishes an Annual Report 
 on the Progress of Chemistry containing an epitome of 
 the principal advances which have been made during 
 the year, and possesses a good Library to which other 
 societies contribute. (Admission Fee, 4. Annual 
 Subscription, 2. Life Composition, 30.) 
 
 The Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and 
 Ireland, which registers over 2500 Fellows and Asso- 
 ciates and over 400 Students, aims at the maintenance 
 of the status and efficiency of the profession of 
 chemistry, by promoting the better education of 
 persons desiring to follow that profession ; by setting 
 up a high standard of scientific and practical pro- 
 ficiency ; by the examination of candidates and the 
 registration of such as have been found to be com- 
 petent ; and by insisting upon the observance of strict 
 rules with regard to professional conduct. The Regula- 
 tions with regard to the training and examinations 
 required for the qualifications for Membership A.I.C. 
 and F.I.C. have already been reviewed in the chapter 
 relating to professional training. Lectures are given 
 before the Institute by acknowledged authorities on 
 technological and professional subjects, mainly for the 
 
102 , YHE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 'benefit of advanced students and the younger members, 
 and are issued gratis to Fellows, Associates, and Regis- 
 tered Students. An Appointments Register for the 
 benefit of members who are seeking appointments is 
 kept at the Offices of the Institute. The Proceedings 
 are published in four parts annually, and contain 
 particulars of the work of the Council and abstracts 
 of the reports of the Examiners, besides dealing with 
 matters of professional interest. Local Sections are 
 being formed to maintain the interest of members in 
 matters of professional importance and to promote 
 social intercourse. Committees are also formed when 
 necessary to represent the interests of special branches 
 of the profession. In accordance with the policy 
 recently adopted the provisions for the registration of 
 Students will be extended ; steps will be taken towards 
 closer co-operation between the work of the Institute 
 and that of the Universities and Colleges ; the ques- 
 tion of increasing the publications of the Institute will 
 be considered ; further endeavours will be made to 
 bring before the public the importance of chemistry 
 to the country ; and generally to forward the interests 
 of chemists in every way possible. (Students, Regis- 
 tration Fee, 55. a year ; Examination Fee, 5 55. ; 
 Fellows, Annual Subscription, 2 2s. ; Associates, 
 i us. 6d. ; Entrance Fee to Fellowship, 5 55. ; Life 
 Composition, 26 55, or according to age.) 
 
 The Society of Chemical Industry numbers about 
 5000 members, including other than British subjects. 
 Its principal objects are to advance applied chemistry 
 and chemical engineering in all branches ; to afford 
 its members opportunities for the interchange of ideas 
 with respect to improvements in the various chemical 
 industries, and for the discussion of all matters bearing 
 upon the application of chemical science ; and to 
 
PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 103 
 
 publish information thereupon. The following Local 
 Sections of the Society have been formed : Birmingham, 
 Canada, Liverpool, London, Manchester, Newcastle-on- 
 Tyne, New England, New York, Nottingham, Scotland 
 (Glasgow and Edinburgh), Sydney (New South Wales), 
 and Yorkshire. The Journal is issued fortnightly, and 
 contains a review of matters of interest to chemists, 
 papers read before the Sectional Meetings, abstracts 
 of current chemical publications and of patents, and 
 other classified information. (Entrance Fee, i is. ; 
 Subscription, i los.) 
 
 The Society of Public Analysts and other Analytical 
 Chemists numbers about 450 members. The objects 
 of the Society are to cultivate the study of analytical 
 chemistry, by holding periodical meetings and by the 
 publication of a journal devoted mainly to analytical 
 chemistry ; to study questions relating to the adultera- 
 tion of articles of food, drugs, and commercial pro- 
 ducts generally, and means for its detection ; and to 
 promote the efficiency and proper administration of 
 the laws relating to the repression of adulteration. 
 Every candidate for membership must be twenty-one 
 years of age, be, or have been, engaged in analytical 
 consulting or professorial chemistry, and be recom- 
 mended by at least four members, three of whom 
 must testify from personal knowledge to his scientific 
 and social fitness. The recommendation is read at 
 two Ordinary Meetings and is printed in the notice 
 convening the Ordinary Meeting at which election 
 is decided by ballot. The Analyst, the official organ 
 of the Society, is issued monthly, and contains reports 
 of the proceedings of the Society, the papers read at 
 its meetings, abstracts, and information as to analytical 
 methods. (Entrance Fee, i is. ; Subscription, i is.) 
 
 Thus, for practical purposes, chemists have been 
 
104 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 organised to some extent by these Societies, each 
 having its particular work. The suggestion has often 
 been made that the chemical interests of the nation 
 should be further concentrated. A Federal Council of 
 Chemical Societies has recently been constituted for 
 the promotion of the interests of pure and applied 
 chemistry. This Council will take action to ensure 
 the adequate appreciation of the claims of chemical 
 science ; consider matters involving the common in- 
 terests of its constituent bodies, and take appropriate 
 action in connection therewith after consultation with 
 any bodies concerned or identified with the matters 
 under consideration ; and consider such references as it 
 may from time to t^me receive from its constituent 
 bodies or otherwise, and, if desirable, act thereon. 
 
 When the chemist has passed his examinations and 
 secured his qualification for practice, he must keep 
 abreast of the times for chemistry is of all things a 
 progressive science. He must endeavour to keep pace 
 with the progress of his science and with its applica- 
 tions to-day, and to regard its possible applications in 
 the future ; and since he cannot afford to neglect 
 opportunities of extending his knowledge and gaining 
 experience, he finds it advisable to keep in touch with 
 his professional brethren, by joining one or more of 
 the chemical societies. Yet, if he would maintain 
 broad views he should associate frequently with those 
 who follow other lines of thought and exert himself 
 occasionally out of his immediate circle. 
 
 There are, in addition, bodies such as the Iron and 
 Steel Institute, the Institute of Brewing, the Institu- 
 tion of Mining and Metallurgy, the Society of Dyers 
 and Colourists, the Institute of Metals, the Concrete 
 
PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 105 
 
 Institute, the Institution of Petroleum Technologists, 
 and the like, the members of which include professional 
 chemists interested in the industries with which these 
 institutions are concerned. All such bodies encourage 
 research and discovery and, by their meetings and 
 publications, assist chemists to keep in touch with 
 modern developments and progress. If a chemist 
 wishes to be successful, he must not cease to be 
 a student of his science throughout his career. 
 
 Such bodies afford their members who have made 
 practical discoveries facilities for bringing these 
 under the scrutiny of their brethren and others 
 likely to be interested. Some seek to establish facts, 
 others to apply them to practical purposes. New 
 views and ideas are evolved from collective reasoning 
 and debate, and the subject may be still further 
 advanced by open criticism and friendly rivalry. The 
 publication of research and invention affords a chemist 
 legitimate means of acquiring status and reputation. 
 He need not be content to remain always a spectator ; 
 if he is able to advance his science, he deserves well of 
 his fellows and becomes known by his work. Thus, 
 the publications of the chemical societies contribute 
 to the vast storehouse of knowledge and, in the main, 
 record the progress of chemical science. 
 
 In addition to the Journals and publications of the 
 Societies and Institutions, we may mention The 
 Chemical News, founded by Sir William Crookes in- 
 1859, The Chemical Trade Journal and Chemical 
 Engineer, founded by George E. Davis in 1887 ; both 
 published in this country. Two American publications 
 are also to be noted : Industrial and Chemical Engineer- 
 ing, published by the American Chemical Society, and 
 Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, published by 
 the McGraw Hill Co. 
 
lo6 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 For matters of general scientific interest, Nature 
 finds many readers among chemists, and we suggest 
 that our leading engineering and electrical engineer- 
 ing journals can hardly be neglected by those who are 
 concerned with the progress of chemical technology. 
 
 Libraries, too, are essential to the man who would 
 endeavour to keep pace with his subject. Besides those 
 of the Chemical Society and the Institute of Chemistry, 
 special mention should be made of the Patent Office 
 Library, which contains one of the most comprehensive 
 collections of modern scientific works of reference. 
 
 Although there is a need for more complete organisa- 
 tion of the profession, which the Institute of Chemistry 
 is actively endeavouring to effect, recent events have 
 brought into prominence the public utility of the 
 various chemical Institutions and Societies, professional 
 and social, as organisations available for the needs of 
 the country in times of stress. Their services in the war 
 have been acknowledged by the Government and the 
 services rendered by chemists individually have proved 
 invaluable ; they have contributed their share beyond 
 all expectation and in spite of all difficulties ; so that 
 the general community, in normal times apathetic to 
 the doings of chemists, has been forcibly reminded of 
 their indispensability. 
 
 Other bodies interested in chemistry have been 
 formed from time to time, some for local purposes, 
 social and professional, others with wider aims. In 
 recent times, there have been movements towards the 
 organisation of some form of union for industrial 
 chemists. The difficulty of dealing with the rate of 
 remuneration of chemists is apparent, for the limits 
 of capability and the tasks to be allotted in scientific 
 work cannot be determined as in the mechanical 
 
PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 107 
 
 crafts. A " minimum wage " or " flat rate " would tend 
 to affect adversely those who are more capable and more 
 energetic : there will always be some, even among those 
 engaged on routine testing, more capable than others, 
 more trustworthy, quicker in their work and keener to 
 make progress in their science. It is difficult to imagine 
 chemical practice being subject to control, as to time 
 and output, on the lines of the usual trades union 
 system, and it may be questioned whether men who 
 hope eventually to attain positions of responsibility 
 in their profession would for long be content to submit 
 to any system tending to restrict initiative and am- 
 bition. The chemist who really cares about his science 
 is not likely to leave an experiment for the reason 
 that he has completed so many hours to the day ; 
 though, of course, there should be mutual under- 
 standing some idea of " give and take " between 
 him and his principals. An educated and properly 
 trained man should be able to establish his claim to 
 the proper recognition of his services : reasonable 
 employers are not likely to overlook men of decided 
 promise, and the latter are usually able to secure 
 positions elsewhere if they find that their services are 
 not fully appreciated. 
 
 We have indicated that there is a demand in certain 
 quarters for some form of organisation to represent the 
 " economic interests " of industrial chemists, but in 
 any case, the need will remain for an organisation to 
 promote the highest standard of competence and in- 
 tegrity among qualified men of science who pursue 
 chemistry as a career. It is the individual, the leader, 
 the man of character and initiative in thought and 
 action, who makes for progress, not only for himself 
 but for everybody, and it is all the more essential, 
 therefore, that high aims should be encouraged in order 
 
io8 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 that as many as possible may approach the attain- 
 ment of strong individuality. 
 
 We incline to the view, foreshadowed in the previous 
 chapter, that the varied nature of chemical practice 
 and the different degrees of competency which can find 
 employment in it make the idea of a " trade union "" in 
 the ordinary sense practically unworkable. We regard 
 chemistry as a profession in which the practitioners 
 must rely for success mainly on their individual 
 capacity, skill, and force of character. Those who 
 occupy whole-tune positions will be successful only by 
 proving their worth and by showing themselves able 
 and willing to co-operate- to the full in the progress of 
 the concerns to which they are attached. 
 
 A general strike among chemists would be a calamity 
 a greater calamity than many imagine ; but it is 
 hardly feasible while the majority of well- qualified 
 chemists are not dissatisfied. Yet it is quite possible 
 for chemists to learn how their brethren are treated 
 in various concerns. A company may be known by 
 the chemists it keeps. 
 
 The founders of the Institute of Chemistry had no 
 trade union idea in view. They hoped by promoting 
 thorough education and training to provide a body of 
 men competent in their respective branches of 
 chemical work to whom the public could look with 
 confidence for help in all matters on which chemical 
 science has a bearing. An organisation composed of 
 such varied members including chemical consultants 
 and analysts in general or specialised practice, chemists 
 in governmental or other official appointments, chemists 
 in industries, as directors, owners, or as analysts, re- 
 search chemists or control chemists, professors and 
 teachers can hardly adopt the functions of a " trades 
 union " in the generally accepted meaning of the term. It 
 
PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 109 
 
 does, however, endeavour to safeguard their general 
 welfare, by aiming at high ideals, encouraging 
 the highest training, organising the competent for 
 the good of the community, and supporting the pro- 
 fession in all public affairs affecting its interests. 
 These objects have been consistently pursued. The 
 Institute, moreover, has maintained among its Fellows 
 and Associates a high standard of professional integrity. 
 Its Regulations are wide and interpreted so that any 
 chemist who has been properly trained for his profes- 
 sion can become associated with its work. They 
 supply a definition of " a chemist " formed by repre- 
 sentatives of all branches, men of experience and 
 acknowledged repute. The Institute provides, there- 
 fore, a register of chemists conforming to that 
 definition. 
 
 The qualifications of Fellowship (F.I.C.) and Asso- 
 ciateship (A.I.C.) are officially recognised by Govern- 
 ment Departments and other authorities in connection 
 with chemical appointments at home and in overseas 
 dominions. The aid of the Institute is always avail- 
 able to chemists : many who have not taken steps to 
 join it, have benefited directly or indirectly by its 
 existence ; especially during the war, assistance was 
 rendered without stint to all comers, and such help was 
 sought far more frequently by those who were not 
 previously associated with the Institute than by the 
 Fellows and Associates. 
 
 By the formation of local sections it is hoped that 
 the senior members of the profession will become better 
 acquainted with the aspirations of their younger 
 brethren, and will thus be better able to further them, 
 while the activities of the sections will tend to make 
 the work of the profession generally better known 
 and appreciated. 
 
PUBLIC ANALYSTS AND OFFICIAL 
 AGRICULTURAL ANALYSTS 
 
 AMONG the officials in the courts of princes in 
 mediaeval times, not the least important were 
 the tasters, whose duty it was to ensure that no poison 
 or other injurious matter was introduced into the food 
 of their lords. In like manner, ale-tasters or ale- 
 conners were appointed by municipal bodies, to look 
 to the goodness of ale and to inspect the measures 
 used in public-houses. The liverymen of the City of 
 London, in Common Hall, on Midsummer's Day each 
 year, appointed such an officer ; and history relates 
 that Shakespeare's father held the post at Stratford- 
 on-Avon. It is said that one of the methods of tasting 
 or rather testing employed was to pour some ale 
 on a Windsor chair in which the officer, garbed in 
 buckskin breeches, seated himself : when the breeches 
 adhered firmly, it was supposed that sugar had been 
 added. 
 
 We have already alluded to the authority given 
 to physicians in the sixteenth century to examine 
 the preparations of apothecaries and druggists, and 
 we may refer those who are interested in the early 
 history of adulteration to an essay on the subject in 
 Dr. Wynter Blyth's book on Foods : Their Composition 
 and Analysis. 
 
 With the progress of time, the testing of foods and 
 drugs has become an important branch of chemical 
 
 no 
 
PUBLIC ANALYSTS in 
 
 science and practice, affecting intimately the welfare 
 of the public both in health and pocket. 
 
 The first volume of the Proceedings of the Society 
 of Public Analysts, published in 1876, contains an 
 account of the origin of that Society and indicates 
 how the investigations of Dr. Hassall and other 
 chemists were instrumental in directing the attention 
 of Parliament, in 1860, to the question of checking 
 adulteration of food. Legislation was demanded for the 
 protection of the consumer without placing unfair 
 restrictions on the producer. The first Adulteration 
 Act, passed in that year, was practically inoperative ; 
 and the second, passed in 1872, though an improve- 
 ment on the first, was not satisfactory in administra- 
 tion. That it was only partially enforced was largely 
 due to the scarcity of analysts available for carrying 
 out its provisions, but also to the fact that it had been 
 drawn in such a manner as to perplex magistrates, 
 whose decisions on the prosecutions coming before 
 them were frequently at variance. 
 
 The introduction of these Acts appeared to the 
 traders at the time as a vexatious interference with their 
 liberties ; but it was in reality contributory to their 
 well-being, in that such legislation protected honest 
 vendors from nefarious competition, apart from the 
 more important consideration of the public benefit. 
 This form of legislation, however, was greatly resented 
 by tradesmen, and the general public appeared to be 
 then much in sympathy with their grievances. The 
 defects in the Act of 1872 soon came into prominence 
 and, two years later, a Select Committee of the House 
 of Commons was appointed to enquire into the work- 
 ing of the measure, with a view to its amendment. 
 Numerous witnesses were examined and a Report 
 with the detailed evidence was published as a Blue 
 
H2 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 Book, which in addition to suggesting the probability 
 of further legislation, impressed the Public Analysts 
 then in office with the desirability of forming an 
 Association. The foundation of the Society of Public 
 Analysts was decided upon at a Meeting held on the 
 7th of August, 1874, and at the first general meeting, 
 held four months later, the Society arrived at a 
 definition of "an adulterated article " and, at the 
 same time, elected a Council. Membership of the 
 Society was at first open to " all analytical chemists, 
 but no others/' Meetings were arranged at which 
 papers were read and discussed, the early proceedings 
 being published in the Chemical News, by arrange- 
 ment with Mr. now Sir William Crookes, and later 
 in the form of the volume referred to, which also 
 contains notes on adulteration cases. From that time 
 the Society has carefully watched the introduction of 
 fresh legislation, and has encouraged amongst its 
 members the mutual interchange of opinions on methods 
 of analysis and the interpretation of results, particu- 
 larly in connection with the examination of articles of 
 food and drink. 
 
 After the new Bill had been printed and circulated, 
 the Society devoted itself to securing the modification 
 or removal of objectionable clauses, its suggestions 
 being considered while the Bill was in Committee. 
 The Society received support from the public and the 
 Press, put itself in communication with the Local 
 Government Board and forwarded a sehedule of sug- 
 gested amendments, which, with few exceptions, the 
 President of the Board readily approved ; so that the 
 Bill was much improved before proceeding to the House 
 of Lords. Considerable support was also obtained in 
 the House of Commons, notably due to a speech de- 
 livered on the second reading of the Bill, by Dr. Lyon 
 
PUBLIC ANALYSTS 113 
 
 later Lord Playfair ; but opposing influences were 
 also exercised and the Society was then confronted 
 with criticism, both in the House of Commons and in 
 the Press, especially with regard to the competence 
 and integrity of public analysts. The reference of 
 disputed analyses to " Somerset House " Laboratory, 
 at that time a department of the Board of Inland 
 Revenue, was regarded as an injustice to analysts of 
 standing, and, when it was suggested that " Somerset 
 House " decisions should be considered final, the 
 Society entered a strong protest, recommending that, 
 in cases of prosecution, whoever made an examination 
 of a reference sample should be required to testify to 
 his analysis on oath, since the reputation of a public 
 analyst might otherwise be at the mercy of a Govern- 
 ment subordinate who might be of no greater com- 
 petence. It was ascertained subsequently that the 
 intention of the Government was to make both 
 equally liable to give the figures of analysis on oath 
 and to be subject to cross-examination. The Press 
 commented on differences in analytical results, almost 
 invariably casting discredit on the public analysts 
 concerned, though in some cases samples taken under 
 the Act were known to have been deliberately tam- 
 pered with. The Society, therefore, gave careful con- 
 sideration to the methods of taking, dividing and 
 sealing samples, and its recommendations on this part 
 of the Bill were subsequently incorporated in the Act. 
 Indeed, it may be said that through the intervention 
 of the Society, the Bill in its later stages was so entirely 
 different from the original as to render it practically a 
 new Bill ; and although when the Act was eventually 
 passed it contained provisions of which the Society 
 did not approve entirely, it could not on the whole be 
 regarded as a bad compromise, and was a much more 
 
 I 
 
H4 "THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 satisfactory and comprehensive measure than either 
 of those it repealed. 
 
 The subsequent working of the Act showed that 
 some of the objections raised by the Society were not 
 altogether well founded. For instance, in the matter 
 of taking samples, there appears to have been a sug- 
 gestion that collusion was likely to occur between un- 
 scrupulous vendors and inspectors, which has only 
 rarely been found to exist in practice and, again, the 
 system of referring samples to " Somerset House " 
 (now the Government Laboratories) in cases of dispute 
 has not proved an unsatisfactory arrangement or re- 
 vealed a great amount of discrepancy in results. 
 
 In practice the public analyst sees only one-third 
 of the official sample, and it is, therefore, not unlikely 
 in the case of certain substances, such as lard, butter, 
 etc., that the sample may not have been uniformly 
 mixed. This condition of affairs has naturally led to 
 cases in which the results of analysis differed. 
 
 The relations between Public Analysts and the 
 Government Laboratory, in the early days somewhat 
 strained, are now reciprocally cordial ; the Society 
 and the Laboratory co-operate in the interests of the 
 public, the differences which arise being more commonly 
 differences in interpretation than in actual results ; in 
 the latter instances, some satisfactory explanation is 
 usually forthcoming. Such relations are ensured so 
 long as a high standard of training and qualification is 
 insisted upon on the part both of the chemists of the 
 Government Laboratory and the Public Analysts, and 
 provided there continues to be a mutual interchange of 
 opinion on methods of analysis and like matters, 
 
PUBLIC ANALYSTS 115 
 
 Prior to the passing of the 1875 Act, the appoint- 
 ment of public analysts by local authorities was per- 
 missive and not compulsory, except at the request of 
 the Local Government Board. The local authorities 
 in many cases had ignored the earlier Acts : twenty- 
 seven counties neglected to appoint public analysts, 
 and these .only gradually fell into line under the 
 encouragement of the Local Government Board. 
 Where the Acts were not enforced, adulteration was 
 far more prevalent : of the samples taken in various 
 parts of the country the percentage of adulterated 
 varied from seven to forty-eight ; yet wholesale 
 traders indignantly denied the prevalence of adultera- 
 tion, though they protested strongly against giving 
 warranties of purity or guaranteeing retailers against 
 loss incurred by prosecutions under the Acts. 
 
 When the Adulteration Acts were first enforced, the 
 number of competent analysts available was very 
 limited, and in the absence of any standard of qualifica- 
 tion a number of appointments were made which had 
 subsequently to be revoked. Some who might reason- 
 ably have claimed to be -analysts had no special 
 experience of the new work they were called upon to 
 do. In a few instances, medical men, with practically 
 no knowledge of analytical chemistry, were appointed 
 and some of them endeavoured to sub-let their analy- 
 tical work ; where incompetent men were entrusted 
 with the duties, the reputation of the profession was 
 considerably damaged, owing to their mistakes. How- 
 ever, in the course of time they were removed and, 
 thus, the few who were recognised as competent 
 received further appointments. 
 
 Under the stress of competition in trade and with 
 the gradually increasing restrictions on adulteration, 
 the artifices adopted to evade the law became more 
 
n6 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 subtle. To combat such sophistication the necessity 
 arose for more definite evidence of competency on the 
 part of candidates for appointment as public analysts. 
 Up to that time, no definite endeavour had been made 
 to organise the profession of chemistry. The need for 
 some authority to test the .competency of those who 
 wished to practise the profession in this branch was 
 one of the main considerations leading to the founda- 
 tion of the Institute of Chemistry. 
 
 By the appointment of public analysts, chemistry 
 as distinct from pharmacy became an organised 
 branch of public service, and by its practical applica- 
 tions became more and more essential to the well- 
 being of the community. Candidates for appointment 
 were required to possess " competent knowledge, skill, 
 and experience," and the Local Government Boards, to 
 whom such appointments were referred for approval 
 and confirmation, were empowered, before giving such 
 approval, to require the production of satisfactory 
 proof of competency. 
 
 The Select Committee of the House of Commons on 
 Food Products Adulteration (1894) reported that the 
 method of testing the qualifications of candidates was 
 not wholly successful and suggested that the production 
 of a recognised diploma or certificate should be re- 
 quired. The Council of the Institute, therefore, 
 established a special examination in the Chemistry of 
 Food and Drugs, which was duly approved by the 
 LocaJ Government Boards as qualifying candidates 
 for these appointments, with the result that the public 
 analysts to-day form a body of highly skilled and 
 competent chemists who have rendered excellent 
 service to the community and have in no small degree 
 advanced the science and practice of analytical 
 chemistry. 
 
PUBLIC ANALYSTS 117 
 
 It was anticipated that Public Analysts would receive 
 many samples for analysis (under the Act) from private 
 persons, but this has not proved to be the case. The 
 mention in the Act of a fee of ten shillings and sixpence for 
 the examination of such samples is greatly to be deplored, 
 since that sum cannot be regarded as a standard. 
 Many investigations cannot be conducted at such a fee 
 by any professional chemist making a reasonable 
 charge on his time, leaving out of the question the cost 
 of his training, the upkeep of his laboratory and the 
 value of his experience and opinion. The public 
 analyst is in most cases obliged to regard his appoint- 
 ment as a whole, accepting an average fee for samples 
 of all kinds ; otherwise, if the samples submitted in- 
 cluded a preponderance of those requiring difficult and . 
 complex analysis, he could not hold appointment at 
 the fees now commonly paid. For this reason, it is well 
 that water was not included in the Act, though Public 
 Analysts are usually entrusted with its analysis. 
 It is the general opinion certainly of many public 
 analysts who maintain laboratories in the city of 
 London that an average fee of ten shillings and six- 
 pence leaves no margin of profit when all working 
 expenses have been taken into account. The appoint- 
 ments have been held in many cases mainly to form a 
 nucleus for practice and possibly to attract to the 
 holders a proportion of the private consulting work, 
 not necessarily connected with food and drugs, arising 
 from the industry and commerce of the county or 
 borough for which the public analyst is appointed. 
 The adulteration acts have been considerably ex- 
 tended during the past forty years, and many regula- 
 tions have been introduced tending to increase the 
 duties and responsibilities of these important public 
 officers. Moreover, the public analysts themselves 
 
n8 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 have so much advanced the science of their branch of 
 work as to render it often necessary for them to con- 
 duct with increased expense of time and money a 
 far more exhaustive examination of the articles sub- 
 mitted to them than was formerly regarded as suffi- 
 cient or even possible until -new methods had been 
 devised. 
 
 These matters, however, are little understood by the 
 local authorities, who in many cases do not appreciate 
 the nature and value of the service of the analyst, and 
 have too frequently shown a tendency to reduce rather 
 than increase the fees allowed for analyses, in spite of 
 the fact that the expenses of living have advanced and 
 'the remuneration, of other citizens in practically every 
 walk of life has steadily risen. Apathy and lack of 
 appreciation will tend in the course of time to counter- 
 act the desire of trained chemists to undertake public 
 work of this character, except as whole-time officers 
 working under authorities bearing all the expenses of 
 laboratory maintenance. 
 
 The Local Government Boards, who are charged 
 with the control of the administration of the Acts, 
 persistently decline to intervene in the question of 
 remuneration, and it is unlikely that anything short 
 of an Act of Parliament stipulating a definite and 
 adequate fee will put the matter on a proper basis. 
 
 Apparently some members of the profession, fully 
 qualified to do the work, have reasons of their own for 
 accepting less than the usual fees. Probably, in some 
 cases, their establishment expenses are not so great 
 and their laboratories are in localities where rents are 
 low, or it may be that the bulk of the samples taken 
 require only analyses of a simple character. It is 
 reasonable to suppose, however, that in cases where 
 the fees are exceptionally low the public analyst cannot 
 
PUBLIC ANALYSTS 119 
 
 be expected to carry out his investigations with the 
 same thoroughness : a state of affairs which is hardly 
 in the best interests of the community. 
 
 When public analytical appointments have been 
 offered at inadequate salaries, the Councils of the 
 Institute of Chemistry and Society of Public Analysts 
 have advised chemists to refrain from becoming 
 candidates for them. Similar action in relation to 
 other professional appointments and Work has been 
 taken by the British Medical Association, the Royal 
 Institute of British Architects and other bodies, but, 
 when such advice is disregarded, it does not appear that 
 its acceptance can be legally enforced. 
 
 The Institute of Chemistry has endeavoured to 
 fulfil the duty imposed by its Charter of providing the 
 community with a body of highly competent chemists 
 for the public service, and has provided the State with 
 the recognised means of ascertaining those who are 
 qualified for these appointments. It has a right to 
 expect in return that the public should recognise that 
 the services of highly trained and qualified professional 
 men should be rewarded consistently with the nature 
 of their work and the responsibility of the public 
 duties with which they are entrusted. The aim of the 
 administration should be to secure efficient service. 
 The remuneration and conditions of these public 
 appointments should, therefore, be such as will pro- 
 mote efficiency with integrity. 
 
 The question has been frequently debated as to 
 whether the object of the legislation for the suppression 
 of adulteration is directed to the punishment of fraud 
 or the maintenance of the public health. Whereas it 
 was stated in the preamble to the Act of 1872 that " the 
 practice of adulterating articles of food and drink for 
 sale in fraud of Her Majesty's subjects, and to the 
 
120 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 great hurt of their health and danger of their lives, 
 requires to be repressed/' and the preamble to the 
 1860 Act was very similar, the Act of 1875 merely 
 stated that it was desirable that those Acts should be 
 repealed and the law requiring the sale of food and 
 drugs in a pure and genuine condition should be 
 amended. Thus the preamble of the Act of 1875 
 ignored equally the explicit statement of " fraud " 
 and " health " reasons and may, therefore, be held to 
 have included both. 
 
 In France, a similar statute is regarded as mainly 
 directed against fraud, but it includes provisions in the 
 interests of health ; in Belgium, legislation is directed 
 against adulteration with noxious substances ; in 
 Italy, Switzerland, and Germany, the chief object of 
 legislation in these matters appears to be to prevent 
 the sale of unsound or injurious food, providing penalties 
 for fraud and ignorance, carelessness, or negligence in 
 manufacture. In Germany, however, the restrictions 
 do not apply to substances intended for export. 
 
 Since profit is commonly the object of adultera- 
 tion, the question of fraud should certainly weigh in 
 the judgment of such matters ; the penalties imposed 
 should be a real check to the fraudulent trader. 
 
 In the early days of this legislation local authori- 
 ties occasionally appointed their Medical Officers 
 of Health as Public Analysts. While there were 
 insufficient professional chemists for the work there 
 was little enough justification for this procedure, 
 except where the medical officer was competent to 
 undertake the work which was very rarely the case. 
 It is a false notion that medical men generally and as 
 very few possess a competent knowledge of chemistry 
 such are capable of controlling chemical laboratories ; 
 in any of its branches ; the two officers are drawn from 
 
PUBLIC ANALYSTS 121 
 
 two distinct professions : their duties are distinct in 
 their nature and require an entirely different training. 
 The smattering of chemistry required in the ordinary 
 medical curriculum and for the Diploma in Public Health 
 is totally inadequate for the practice of chemistry. 
 
 Under the Act of 1875, provision is made for the 
 taking of samples by Medical Officers of Health, 
 sanitary inspectors and police, so that local authori- 
 ties have commonly entrusted this duty to the medical 
 officers ; but since the Act declares that those who 
 take the samples are to submit them to the public 
 analyst if they suspect the same to have been sold con- 
 trary to the Act, it is clearly not the intention that 
 such officers should also act as public analysts. 
 
 Moreover, there is no indication that it was in- 
 tended to place the public analyst in a position in any 
 way inferior to that of the medical officer of health 
 and the latter is not specifically required by any 
 statute to take any further part in the administration 
 of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts, and though he 
 may be required by other statutes to report on domestic 
 water supplies and on tuberculous milk he will usually 
 refer such matter to a qualified chemist. 
 
 The most ingenious defences are devised to evade 
 the penalties of the law on purely technical grounds. 
 One of the chief of these is in connection with Section 25 
 of the Act, under which the defendant retailer may 
 rely on a written warranty received at the time he 
 purchased the substance, to relieve him of the respon- 
 sibilities which he may incur if it should be sold contrary 
 to the Acts. 
 
 In the Act of 1875, food was defined as every article 
 used for food or drink by man other than drugs or 
 water ; but it is significant that the word adulteration 
 was not defined. 
 
122 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 The Public Analyst must be acquainted with the 
 statutes under which he performs his duties, but is in 
 no sense a Public Prosecutor. He has to examine to 
 the best of his knowledge and ability any sample of 
 food or drug submitted to him and to report whether 
 or not it is of the nature, substance, and quality 
 demanded. He is required to state his opinion on the 
 genuineness of the sample and to specify the per- 
 centages of any foreign ingredient present. In the 
 case of drugs, the courts have construed adulteration 
 as " impurity " if the sample has been sold in such a 
 state " as to affect injuriously the quality or potency of 
 such drug." 
 
 It was at one time not infrequently advanced by the 
 defence in cases of prosecution that the public pre- 
 ferred certain admixtures in articles which come within 
 the meaning of the Acts. Thus, for instance, the 
 public might show a preference with regard to the 
 colour of a substance such as butter or milk and 
 the dealer would endeavour by the use of colour- 
 ing matters such as annatto to meet this fancy. 
 
 A number of articles such as cheese, whiskey, and 
 brandy appear to need definition. The employment 
 of brandy and whiskey as alcoholic stimulants in 
 medicine illustrates the importance of the question. 
 The discretion of the analyst must be used to decide 
 how far the purchaser has obtained what he had a right 
 to expect, which in the absence of standard is often 
 difficult to determine. 
 
 In 1905, the Local Government Board for England 
 and Wales established the Department of Inspector 
 of Foods, the staff including both medical men and 
 chemists, whose duties have embraced scientific 
 investigation, reports on which have been published 
 from time to time. 
 
PUBLIC ANALYSTS 123 
 
 The Department has been largely instrumental in 
 preventing the importation of diseased meat in 
 various forms, of unwholesome canned foods and 
 of other unsound articles of food and drink for human 
 consumption. The Department has advocated the 
 dating of tinned foods, and the careful examination 
 of any that have been tinned for more than a year ; it 
 has recommended that the presence of two 'grains of 
 tin to the pound should be accepted as an indication 
 that the food is likely to be deleterious to health. 
 
 Under Section i of the Public Health (Regulations 
 as to Food) Act, 1907, the Local Government Board is 
 empowered, moreover, to make regulations authorising 
 measures to be taken for the prevention of danger 
 arising to the public health from the importation, 
 preparation, storage, and distribution of articles of 
 food intended for sale for human consumption. The 
 Board has framed many such regulations and has 
 issued numerous circulars of instructions to local 
 authorities. 
 
 The Annual Reports of the Board, with regard to the 
 working of the Acts, have shown that special attention 
 has been paid to dairy products, the prevalence of 
 adulteration indicating that the penalties imposed 
 have been usually too lenient. A supply of pure milk 
 is essential owing to its importance as an article of 
 food, particularly for infants and invalids. On account 
 of the varying quality of milk under different con- 
 ditions, there has been a laxity in adjudicating cases 
 with strict regard to the standards prescribed. The 
 prevention of tuberculosis being one of the main 
 objects, the public analyst has been obliged to give 
 attention to the study and practice of bacteriology. 
 Greater attention is now given to the cleanliness of 
 cows, sheds, utensils, and milkers ; and greater pre- 
 
124 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 cautions are taken against contamination by dust in 
 transit, in shops and in the houses of the consumers, 
 but much remains to be done to ensure a wholesome 
 supply of a substance so liable to contamination. 
 
 One disadvantage of fixing standards is that the 
 fraudulent trader is enabled to lower the quality of 
 produce to the limit at which prosecution may be 
 avoided. Thus, the resources of science can be applied 
 to promoting adulteration as well as to detecting it. 
 The purity and soundness of food should be protected 
 both in the factory and in the shop. In the production 
 of butter, various substitutes have been employed 
 which defy detection except by the most expert 
 analysts. It has been suggested, therefore, that 
 butter factories should be registered and subject to 
 inspection, and that the introduction of fats or oils 
 which might be used for sophistication should not be 
 allowed into such factories. 
 
 The Sale, of Food and Drugs Acts permit the use of 
 preservatives, but -there must necessarily be a limit to 
 such use, and the public analyst has often a difficult 
 task in deciding whether foods containing preserva- 
 tives are genuine within the meaning of the Acts. 
 Opinions differ as to the effect of such substances on 
 the health of the consumer ; the law on the subject is 
 by no means clear, and the findings of magistrates are 
 at variance. A great deal of food must be brought to 
 the consumer from a distance, and much comes from 
 abroad. The object of preservatives is to check decom- 
 position in transit and in storage ; it is obvious, 
 therefore, that if the use of preservatives is forbidden, 
 other means must be found to produce the same 
 result and that if preservatives are allowed they 
 should not be used in unnecessary or unwholesome 
 quantities. Unless, however, the articles sold are of 
 
PUBLIC ANALYSTS 125 
 
 the nature, substance, and quality demanded, the 
 use of preservatives cannot be defended, but the 
 traders keep within the requirements by labelling 
 articles so as to indicate their constitution. The 
 principle of caveat emptor applies in these instances ; 
 but the buyer is not usually capable of discernment 
 in such matters and knows little of what he should 
 beware, and this is especially so in the case, of 
 drugs. The main point is that their efficacy for 
 medicinal purposes should in no way be diminished. 
 The provision of definite standards is, therefore, 
 essential to ensure their safe and successful use. 
 Advancement in knowledge of therapeutics could 
 scarcely be hoped for without the quality of drugs 
 administered being properly guaranteed. 
 
 The administration of the Acts also calls for the 
 employment of chemists, not necessarily public 
 analysts, for the defence of vendors in cases which 
 come into court, and many manufacturers and traders 
 engage chemists either on their staffs or as con- 
 sultants, to keep a check on their products and mer- 
 chandise, to advise them as to standards and so forth. 
 It should be mentioned, however, that in the event of 
 legal proceedings, whilst such chemists are required to 
 support their findings personally, the certificate of a 
 public analyst is accepted as evidence without his 
 attendance at court, though he may be required to 
 attend for cross-examination by the defence. 
 
 The public analyst who makes a mistake suffers in 
 prestige. In the law, judges may frequently express 
 the opinion that the litigants have been badly advised : 
 for instance, that a case should not have come into 
 court. This is a matter between solicitor and client. 
 In medicine, eminent physicians may make a faulty 
 diagnosis, and scarcely anyone hear of it. In archi- 
 
126 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 lecture, mistakes can often be rectified before the 
 building is completed. The public analyst, however, 
 whose practice as such consists largely of investigations 
 bringing usually but a small return, is answerable as a 
 public official and his reputation is at stake on any 
 lapse from accuracy, though it may be the result 
 of an accident for instance, through a confusion of 
 samples, or lack of uniformity of a sample unevenly 
 mixed. 
 
 It has been suggested that the promoters of this 
 legislation " had their tongues in their cheeks " when 
 they entrusted its administration to the Borough and 
 County Councils, seeing that it is directed in the main 
 against the possible dishonesty or carelessness of 
 tradesmen, who are usually well represented on such 
 bodies. 
 
 The Acts were and still are administered very un- 
 evenly. In many prosecutions offences are regarded 
 lightly by the magistrates who impose, for serious 
 impositions on the public, trivial fines, representing 
 but a small fraction of the ill-gotten gains made by 
 fraudulent traders. 
 
 The Acts still need a far more rigid enforcement ; 
 far more samples will have to be examined and the 
 penalties of infringement greatly increased before a 
 pure supply of food can be ensured. 
 
 In the Alkali, etc., Works Regulation Act and the 
 Factory Act, the administration lies with the central 
 authority, and it has often been debated whether the 
 same system should not apply in the administration 
 of the statutes against adulteration. Formerly, the 
 constituent members of local authorities had no 
 knowledge of the training and experience necessary 
 for the proper conduct of professional chemical prac- 
 tice ; they did not understand the nature of the 
 
PUBLIC ANALYSTS 127 
 
 analysts'- duties ; but there are signs of a better appre- 
 ciation of these matters since the regulations as to 
 competency of public analysts were framed by the 
 Local Government Boards. The standard of com- 
 petence is now well defined, the Boards accepting, as 
 sufficient documentary evidence of the requisite 
 qualification, the Fellowship or Associateship of the 
 Institute of Chemistry, together with the certificate 
 granted by the Institute after an examination con- 
 ducted by them on lines approved by the Board in 
 therapeutics, pharmacology, and microscopy. 
 
 Public Analysts should be men of the highest 
 character, receiving sufficient remuneration and 
 occupying such a position as to place them beyond the 
 reach of any inducement to relax their duty in any 
 respect, or in any sense misuse the advantage of their 
 positions. 
 
 If the appointments are made unattractive to the 
 best men, the administration of the Acts will suffer. 
 The responsibility lies with the local authorities and 
 with the Local Government Boards. The latter are 
 loath to interfere with local authorities in the question 
 of remuneration, but they are fully empowered to en- 
 force proper administration. Such administration can 
 only follow when the local authorities realise the im- 
 portance of selecting competent and reliable officers, 
 and these can only be obtained and retained perma- 
 nently by making their positions and the conditions 
 governing them in every way commensurable with their 
 training, experience, and status. The Board have rightly 
 condemned attempts to offer these public appointments 
 to tender. Good results could scarcely be expected if a 
 local authority placed its confidence in the man who 
 placed the least value on his services. Men must be 
 chosen who command respect and confidence, and they 
 
128 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 should be assured reasonable security of tenure of 
 office protection against the possibility of dismissal 
 at the caprice of the local authorities. 
 
 Where the appointments are not " whole time," 
 they constitute a useful nucleus to the consulting 
 chemist who is free to undertake, in addition, other 
 professional work The public analyst is frequently 
 engaged as a consultant to manufacturers of all kinds 
 of food, such as flour, bread, biscuits, chocolate, 
 milk preparations, margarine, preserved meats and 
 fruits, pickles, jams, etc. Occasionally, too, he is 
 required to investigate cases of suspected poisoning, in- 
 volving the -examination of viscera, both human and 
 animal. Thus, the work coming to a public analyst 
 covers a very wide sphere and not only requires know- 
 ledge, skill, and experience, but frequently entails heavy 
 responsibility. Chemists who are competent to hold 
 appointments as Public Analysts are often entrusted 
 with the examination of water, and the periodical 
 inspection of the supplies to the districts for which 
 they act. Similarly, they are often qualified for hold- 
 ing appointments as official agricultural analysts, in 
 which capacity they examine samples taken under the 
 Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act, analyse and advise 
 upon soils, and conduct other investigations for 
 agriculturists. 
 
 The first Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act was 
 passed in 1893 and was amended in 1906. The position 
 of the official agricultural analysts as such is less 
 satisfactory than that of the public analysts, the Act 
 being very inadequately administered so far as the 
 utilisation of the services of the analysts is concerned. 
 Less than 4000 samples are submitted annually under 
 the Act to the holders of about 100 appointments in 
 England and Wales. 
 
PUBLIC ANALYSTS 129 
 
 Notwithstanding the importance of science and 
 particularly of chemistry in the cultivation of the land 
 and the feeding of cattle, agricultural chemistry can 
 scarcely be regarded as providing much scope for 
 practice except as an adjunct to other professional 
 work. The competition of public institutions renders 
 it of small advantage for chemists to engage in this 
 branch, unless they are retained by one or mo're of the 
 well-known agricultural societies, and can establish a 
 connection with large commercial concerns manu- 
 facturing or importing fertilisers and feeding stuffs, 
 the most responsible and the only really remunerative 
 part of this department of work. Yet there is hardly 
 an industry which owes more to the chemist than 
 agriculture. As the source of food and, to a large 
 extent, of textile production and all that is necessary 
 to the maintenance of life, agriculture of all industries 
 demands the closest attention of men of science. The 
 application of chemistry and bacteriology to the 
 treatment of soils has vastly improved the output 
 and quality of all agricultural products. As the crops 
 exhaust the life-maintaining constituents of the soil, 
 means must be found for restoring such constituents, 
 or the soil becomes barren. The introduction of 
 chemical fertilisers is the outcome of scientific dis- 
 covery ; the continued satisfactory supply of such 
 substances depends largely on the supply of com- 
 petent chemists. 
 
 Before passing to the subject of industrial chemistry, 
 some consideration will be given in the next chapter 
 to questions of professional conduct and procedure as 
 they are mainly of concern to chemists in independent 
 practice, though it is always possible that information 
 on such matters may be of use to chemists engaged in 
 other branches. 
 
PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE 
 
 IT is clearly material for every student preparing 
 for a professional career to know something of his 
 obligations as well as of his privileges. These obliga- 
 tions affect mainly his ideas of loyalty, discipline, and 
 unselfishness. 
 
 All who are concerned with the advancement of 
 professional interests recognise that it is as essential 
 to maintain a high standard of conduct and to create 
 a fellowship conforming to recognised ethics as it is 
 to maintain a high standard of competency. 
 
 Any departure by a member of a recognised pro- 
 fessional body from the accepted code renders the 
 offender liable to have his conduct enquired into with 
 the possibility of reprimand, suspension, or .expulsion. 
 The ill-considered action of an individual member may 
 affect adversely the general body in the estimation of 
 the public. It should be a matter of personal concern 
 for every practitioner, whether or not a member of any 
 professional organisation, to assist in maintaining the 
 reputation of his calling by refraining from any doubt- 
 ful course of action, and to do what he can in his own 
 domain of work to advance both his art or science 
 and his profession. These matters are largely a 
 question of taste : good taste is the proper appreciation 
 of what is fitting. However, we must beware how we 
 judge others, since the circumstances may be im- 
 perfectly known and appreciated except by those most 
 intimately concerned. Their intentions may be good, 
 
 130 
 
PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE 131 
 
 their motives free from self-interest, or they may be 
 more sinned against than sinning. 
 
 The chemist starting in practice for himself is 
 thrown on his own resources ; he must use his own 
 judgment, acting according to his conviction of what 
 is right, bearing in mind that his conduct in the early 
 days of practice will probably influence his subsequent 
 career. He may be free to place what value he pleases 
 on his time and professional knowledge and skill ; as 
 in other professions, his fees may vary with the cir- 
 cumstances for instance, the financial interests and 
 responsibility involved but he should realise his 
 position as a member of a profession and endeavour to 
 conform to its standards. His education and technical 
 training give him a definite status and warrant him in 
 supporting the profession generally by requiring 
 adequate material reward without having recourse to 
 unfair practices. 
 
 The fee also may sometimes determine the extent 
 of the investigation and the attention to be given to it, 
 while in all such matters the public take men very 
 much at their own estimation and expect to get what 
 they pay for. 
 
 Attempts have been made to formulate schedules 
 of fees for analyses, but the conditions of practice are 
 so various that it is impossible to decide definitely the 
 fees or remuneration applicable to all cases, having 
 regard to such considerations as the locality, the value 
 of the work to the client or employer, the nature and 
 scope of the investigation and the professional status 
 of the chemist concerned. Chemists may be equally 
 well qualified, but some will place a higher value on 
 their services than others. At the same time, pro- 
 fessional men are under a common obligation to one 
 another not to create a competitive spirit or to " under- 
 
132 THE PROFESSION OF- CHEMISTRY 
 
 cut " deliberately the fees commonly charged for any 
 particular kind of work. Each individual is expected, in 
 this as in other matters, to support the position taken by 
 his profession as a whole, and to be prepared on occa- 
 sion to make some sacrifice in the general cause. 
 
 The main point for every practitioner is to avoid any 
 course of action which is likely to injure the interests 
 of his profession. In any case of doubt, an older 
 practitioner will usually readily give a beginner the 
 benefit of his views on such matters. 
 
 The maintenance of status of a profession cannot be 
 secured solely by ensuring the competence of those who 
 practise. Those who cannot command proper recog- 
 nition for their services, in the form of adequate 
 remuneration, obviously have no status. The adoption 
 of a low standard is a fundamental error very difficult 
 to rectify, attracts the least desirable forms of practice, 
 and is injurious to the profession generally. " That 
 which is not for the interest of the whole swarm is not 
 for the interest of a single bee." 
 
 The chemist can only establish his position by good 
 work and integrity. He must keep himself in- 
 formed of the current work in his science, and be ready 
 to cope with any problem reasonably within his sphere 
 of practice. He should devote the best .of his know- 
 ledge and skill to the interest of his client, but it 
 is sometimes questionable whether he should under- 
 take difficult problems outside his usual work ; 
 indeed, he may run the risk of failure and his 
 reputation may suffer, since clients are apt to discredit 
 men who pretend to omniscience. Sooner or later 
 such pretence becomes unbearable, " the mask becomes 
 an instrument of torture." 1 When in doubt the 
 
 1 Essays Written in the Internals of Business. Sir Arthur Helps. 
 In the Essays of EHa, also, we find this passage bearing the same 
 
PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE 133 
 
 chemist can always refer a client to a practitioner 
 having special experience in the subject ; or, if his 
 client prefers to retain him in the matter, suggest a 
 conference with a specialist. Tact comes with ex- 
 perience. In any case, to talk over the heads of 
 clients, to resort to mysticism, or to conceal facts by a 
 vague style, will not secure their confidence. It is 
 equally dangerous to form hasty conclusions without 
 full investigation of facts. Advice should be directed 
 to some practicable and not merely to an ingenious 
 solution ; if it is destructive in character, something 
 constructive will be looked for as a reasonable sub- 
 stitute. 
 
 One of the principal functions of a recognised pro- 
 fessional body is the promotion of a proper under- 
 standing as to the conduct of its- members in their 
 relation to the public and to one another. In the 
 guidance of members in matters of professional conduct 
 the example of the medical profession has been fre- 
 quently taken into .consideration. The General 
 Medical Council, who are elected by the practitioners 
 and whose decisions are subject to appeal to the Privy 
 Council, are empowered to remove after due enquiry 
 any practitioner deemed guilty of " infamous conduct 
 in a professional respect." Their existence has con- 
 tributed to the strengthening of the organisation of the 
 medical profession, not only in the maintenance of a 
 standard of qualification for practice, but also in the 
 establishment of a code of professional honour. As in 
 medicine, so in chemistry, that kind of competition 
 which takes the form of self-advertising or appealing 
 
 lesson : "... the fact is, a man may do very well with a very little- 
 knowledge, and scarce be 'found out, in mixed company ; every- 
 body is so much more ready to produce his own, than to call for a 
 display of your acquisitions. But in a tte-d-t$te there is no shuffling. 
 The truth will out." 
 
134 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 in any irregular manner for patronage, is properly dis- 
 countenanced, as is also the giving of " trade puffs." 
 
 Advertising is seldom resorted to by professional 
 men : barristers, solicitors, and members of the Stock 
 Exchange are forbidden under severe penalties to 
 advertise. It is not only a matter of taste, but amounts 
 to an admission that those who resort to it are unable 
 to secure a clientele by legitimate means. 
 
 A passage from Boswell's Life of Johnson is interest- 
 ing in this connection: Boswell : "You would not 
 solicit employment, Sir, if you were a lawyer/' John- 
 son : " No, Sir, but not because I should think it 
 wrong, but because I should disdain it." Boswell's 
 comment on this was that the doctor had made a good 
 distinction, which would be felt by men of just pridi. 
 Johnson proceeded : " However, I would not have a 
 lawyer be wanting to himself in using fair means. I 
 would have him inject a little hint now and then to 
 prevent his being overlooked." 
 
 There should be no difficulty in a man of good sense 
 determining for himself the manner of injecting " the 
 little hint." It should clearly not be by means of 
 advertisement, or personal soliciting, or by deliberately 
 striving to deprive another practitioner of a client. 
 
 The giving of trade certificates for " puffing " 
 purposes is also rightly regarded as a modified form of 
 self-advertisement. Nothing reflects so much dis- 
 credit upon professional chemistry as the issue of 
 certificates in favour of questionable articles, or such 
 as contain merely laudatory or irrelevant statements. 
 It is quite unjustifiable, for instance, to give publicity 
 to comparisons between the manufactures of a client 
 and those of other firms in the same trade. The 
 chemist is expected to be correct in his statements of 
 fact, and to found his opinions on facts. The best 
 
PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE 135 
 
 methods of investigation known should be used and all 
 data ascertained by careful experiment, properly con- 
 firmed. Reports should be in definite and intelligible 
 language, and should neither be liable to be misunder- 
 stood nor capable of being misinterpreted. 
 
 A chemist should decline to undertake work the 
 report on which he is aware will be used for an im- 
 proper purpose. Cases have occurred in which it has 
 been clearly proved that false reports have been pub- 
 lished under the names of well-known practitioners, 
 and others in which reports have been used without 
 any authorisation, or garbled, or abbreviated with 
 omission of essential statements. Obviously it is 
 equally detrimental to the interests of his profession 
 for a chemist to be associated with any organisation 
 which adopts the methods of conducting practice to 
 which we have alluded, and such association may 
 bring him into disrepute among his professional 
 brethren. 
 
 The chemist engaged in matters of legal and quasi- 
 legal enquiry may be brought prominently to the 
 public notice and his position is often one of great 
 difficulty. He has to do his best for his client even if the 
 latter is in the wrong, but he should adhere strictly to 
 the facts. He is not a witness by profession, but a pro- 
 fessional witness, and his duty is to assist in the proper 
 determination of the subject of dispute, by giving his 
 evidence clearly and fairly. Facts must not be dis- 
 torted so as to convey a wrong impression to the un- 
 initiated ; when the other side is heard such artifice 
 will usually recoil severely on those who attempt it. 
 The chemist when consulted on a matter likely to be 
 the subject of litigation should explain the position 
 clearly and impartially to his client, and should point 
 out that his evidence must be in accordance with the 
 
136 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 facts determined. He cannot commit himself to 
 giving a favourable opinion beforehand as he may 
 sometimes be expected to do, and he must risk the 
 displeasure of his client in this, if he values his good 
 name and professional position. He cannot allow him- 
 self to acquire a reputation for bolstering up unsatis- 
 factory cases. 
 
 In the past, the evidence given by scientific 
 witnesses in legal cases was not infrequently so con- 
 flicting that considerable discredit was thrown on those 
 appearing on both sides, to their common injury and 
 to the detriment of the profession generally. It is, 
 however, long since a Master of the Rolls, losing his 
 patience with the scientific witnesses in a case, said 
 that he did not pay the slightest attention to their 
 evidence, remarking that they attacked one another in 
 a most reprehensible manner. 
 
 The conflicting testimony of equally qualified 
 experts must in most cases be attributable to the circum- 
 stance that neither has had the full facts brought under 
 his notice. The chemist may not be in possession of all 
 the essential facts ; he may unwittingly be asked to 
 undertake an investigation with only part of the 
 material facts before him, and may be led into com- 
 mitting himself to an opinion which would be modified 
 if he were more fully informed. In some cases the 
 employment of chemical referees as a kind of court of 
 arbitration, or the provision of means whereby the 
 advisers of both sides can meet in consultation, may 
 prove a great saving of expense to those who would 
 otherwise be litigants. This system may result in the 
 reduction of the work and fees of chemists engaged, but 
 that should be more than counterbalanced by the desire 
 to assist in the proper settlement of such matters, and 
 the recognition that fewer reputations are injured and 
 
PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE 137 
 
 much expense saved to those from whom the profession 
 derives practice. 
 
 The main ethical point is the observance of respect 
 for the other side : a professional man should not dis- 
 parage another member of his profession, 1 and should 
 avoid forming an unfair estimate of an opponent -merely 
 because the latter happens to hold opinions contrary 
 to his own. The facts have probably been presented 
 to each in a different light, and one or the other may be 
 possessed of additional information. Adverse criticism 
 of the opinion of another is not the function of the pro- 
 fessional witness. Both are engaged in a common duty 
 for the service of the public, and should appreciate the 
 idea that their profession constitutes a bond of fellow- 
 ship even though they cannot always agree. The 
 chemist may be compelled to contradict the opinion of 
 another, but this can be done with courtesy. His 
 business is to substantiate his own views, which must 
 be founded on his knowledge deduced from scientific 
 experiment and established fact. The accuracy of 
 instruments and vessels, purity of reagents, etc., may 
 be questioned, but he should be careful how he exposes 
 
 1 This is a matter for wider application than to proceedings in 
 the courts of law. Caution in criticism of the work of others is 
 always advisable, since the experience of the past has so often 
 shown what seemed most unlikely to be established fact. We recall 
 the rancour existing among the alchemists, which may be illustrated 
 by a reference to the foreword to The Art of Distillation (1651), 
 wherein Dr. John French though many of his own remarkable 
 experiments may be questioned stigmatises some of his con- 
 temporaries as " sophisticating and cheating mountebanks, 
 who deserve to be bound to the peace " and anticipates their re- 
 prisals. Occasionally, a discovery is made of somewhat novel or 
 astonishing character, drawing from the unwary comments which 
 they are bound later to retract to their discomfort. Davy opposed 
 Dalton's atomic hypothesis ; later, Newlands' Law of Octaves was 
 regarded at first as rather frivolous and, still later, the discovery of 
 Argon by Ramsay and Rayleigh was seriously open to doubt, which 
 seemed reasonable enough to many, for who could suppose that we 
 did not at that time (1894) know the constitution of the air ! 
 
138 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 what he considers mistakes on the part of his opponents. 
 He will be wise also to guard against talking of the case 
 while it is yet undecided. 
 
 [^Scientific evidence, if it is to carry conviction, should 
 be precise and definite, and given with caution and 
 moderation. It should be given clearly and in language 
 reasonably free from scientific terms not easily under- 
 stood by judges or ordinary jurymen. The results of 
 actual work in the experience of the chemist are of more 
 value than any opinion derived from books. Even if his 
 answer is adverse to the side for which he is acting he 
 must give it frankly, although he may be able to add 
 qualifying expressions by way of explanation. Fencing 
 with cross-examination or shirking questions will not 
 command confidence ; the volunteering of information 
 is frequently unjustifiable, being regarded as an 
 attempt to change the course of the evidence. 
 
 The scientific witness may decline to answer ques- 
 tions outside his knowledge ; he can ask for time to 
 consider or opportunity to experiment. If a chemist 
 expresses an apparently different opinion on a point 
 in a subsequent case, he should be ready with reasons 
 justifying his change of mind. 
 
 To each question put by counsel he is expected to 
 give a direct answer, and his manner, whether prompt 
 or halting, may not be interpreted correctly. He may 
 be sensitive, sometimes, about answering questions 
 relating to his professional work ; but it is his duty 
 to testify to facts or to give his opinion, as the case 
 may be, on matters which are special to his knowledge, 
 in order that the court may give due weight to his 
 evidence ; the questions put to him, therefore, should 
 deal mainly with his science and skill. No one is 
 entitled to consider himself infallible ; so that if on 
 being confronted with an opposite view a chemist who 
 
PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE 139 
 
 is to be called as a witness feels disposed to vary his 
 own, the client should be informed as soon as possible, 
 in order that he may be spared further litigation. The 
 reputation of the chemist himself will suffer less than 
 if he were to allow his client to proceed with an action 
 the result of which cannot be satisfactory. 
 
 Public analysts and the official analysts to the Home 
 Office are called in for investigations arising in con- 
 nection with cases of suspected poisoning, or it may be 
 for the identification of blood-stains in cases of sus- 
 pected murder or foul play, or in other criminal in- 
 vestigations. In such matters, possibly involving 
 evidence on which the life of a human being may 
 depend, the necessity for skilled experts is apparent, 
 and it is equally obvious that what they state as fact 
 should be absolutely established and that their opinions 
 should bear the most stringent examination. 
 
 Probably there have been few better examples than 
 that of the late Sir Thomas Stevenson for the straight- 
 forwardness and certainty of his evidence ; the 
 importance of the cases in which he appeared made 
 him subject to the most formidable kind of cross- 
 examination, but he could not be led into giving any 
 opinion not definitely founded on facts. Lord Bramp- 
 ton Mr. Justice Hawkins before whom Sir Thomas 
 frequently gave evidence said of him that he was con- 
 vinced that he was always right in his evidence, 
 adding that he had always respected him for his 
 courage and candour and truth, and after sixty years' 
 experience in the law if he were asked to name the man 
 on whose evidence he could most implicitly rely he 
 would turn to Dr. Stevenson. 
 
 In recent years there has been an increase in the 
 number of counsel and judges who have sufficient 
 technical knowledge to enable them to grasp the 
 
140 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 details of scientific cases. Suggestions have been ad- 
 vanced for the formation of juries composed of 
 scientific experts, but such an arrangement would 
 scarcely be satisfactory ; probably their own opinions 
 would be at variance, and not of greater value than 
 those of the opposing experts. 
 
 Among the Romans the office of Censor was much 
 revered ; it conferred great powers, especially in 
 examining men's lives. Professional bodies of our 
 time also appoint Censors to investigate complaints 
 regarding the professional conduct of their members. 
 By the influence of the Censors of the Institute of 
 Chemistry and by conferences on matters of this kind 
 much has been done to bring about a high standard of 
 professional procedure in this country, so that there 
 exists among our chemists a sense of mutual respon- 
 sibility in their relations to one another and to the 
 public. 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 
 
 A LTHOUGH the alchemists sought riches and the 
 jfjL elixir, their successors of the eighteenth century 
 for the most part regarded the study of chemistry as a 
 pastime ; its connection with industry was scarcely con- 
 ceived, and few workers in science pursued their experi- 
 ments with any idea of making their fortunes. The pro- 
 prietors of works were mainly commercial men relying 
 on foremen more or less acquainted with the operations 
 involved, but possessing themselves little knowledge 
 of the principles on which they were based. In many 
 concerns it was seldom that deliberate thought was 
 given to the question of seeking improvements in 
 working methods. The processes adopted were 
 commonly founded on empiricism, or accumulated 
 experience, handed down from generation to genera- 
 tion. If the owners were beaten by competitors in one 
 direction, they might be doing well in another, 
 and were then inclined to be content to "make 
 on the swings what they lost on the roundabouts." 
 Much importance was attached to processes being kept 
 secret : sometimes it happened that the secret was 
 lost through the death of a partner or trusted foreman ; 
 more often the " secret " was the common property of 
 the industry. There are secrets, however, and many are 
 kept for long years ; so that the most recent techno- 
 logical literature published may contain all but what 
 we are most anxious to know. In the course of time, 
 
142 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 the introduction of trained men of science sometimes 
 revealed the secrets and led to the discovery of 
 better ones, speedily effecting changes in the direction 
 of methodical improvement ; but even then, the 
 chemist was not infrequently denied the run of the 
 works lest he should learn too much. Later, as the 
 advance of his science elucidated manufacturing 
 problems, and he became more closely connected with 
 the large scale operations, he was not infrequently at a 
 disadvantage through lack of engineering knowledge. 
 
 The invention of a process is not complete until the 
 plant for it has proved efficient on the manufacturing 
 scale. The designer must possess both scientific and 
 engineering knowledge and skill, and thus even where 
 the chemical character of the processes predominates, 
 the chemist who is not equipped for such work often 
 finds himself occupying a comparatively subordinate 
 position. 
 
 We propose now to give, some indication of the 
 nature of the work and the prospects of the chemist in 
 industry ; to show how the old order changes giving 
 place to the new. 
 
 The realisation of the advantages to be gained by 
 the employment of trained men of science and the keen 
 competition resulting from improved processes were 
 among the main causes of the widespread promotion of 
 technical education in this and other countries. 
 
 In the increasing applications of science to indus- 
 trial development, the co-operation of the profession 
 of chemistry is of primary importance, though there 
 has been in the past a tendency to belittle the signifi- 
 cance of this domain of scientific endeavour. So little 
 has been heard of successes and so much of failures 
 that it might be supposed that few industries had done 
 well ; but it is obvious that our manufacturers in 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 143 
 
 various branches of industry could not have main- 
 tained their position so well as they have done if 
 they had not constantly consulted chemists in 
 practice or employed them in the works. Chemists 
 are attached to almost every productive industry of 
 any importance throughout the country. The follow- 
 ing list, selected from the schedule adopted in the 
 Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, affords 
 some idea of the range of industries with which they 
 are connected : l 
 
 Gas. Electro-metallurgy. 
 
 Oils : fats, waxes. Paints, pigments, varnishes, 
 
 Distillation : fermentation resins. 
 
 industries. Indiarubber, gutta-percha. 
 
 Dyes : colouring matters, Leather, bone, horn, glue. 
 
 bleaching, calico printing, Sugar, starches, gums. 
 
 finishing. 
 
 Textiles : fibres, cellulose, Fertilisers. 
 
 paper. Foods : feeding stuffs. 
 
 Acids : alkalies, salts, chem- Pharmaceutical substances : 
 
 ical reagents. drugs, essential oils. 
 
 Glass : ceramics, cement, Photographic materials. 
 
 building materials. Explosives, matches. 
 Metals : iron and steel, cop- 
 per, alloys, etc. 
 
 The list indicates a wide scope for the application of 
 scientific knowledge, but it by no means covers the 
 whole field open to chemists. Staffs of chemists are 
 required by railways, shipbuilding yards, dockyards, 
 arsenals, mines, agricultural experiment stations, and, 
 apart from industries, in mints, in sewage disposal 
 works, by rivers boards and so forth. 
 
 Thus, not only in the manufacture of chemical pro- 
 ducts, but in practically all productive industries as 
 in many other spheres of activity, chemists are now 
 recognised as a part of the essential organisation, and 
 
 1 See also " What Industry owes to Chemical Science." 
 
144 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 our leaders of industry are becoming increasingly 
 alive to the advantages to be gained by their help, 
 whether from frequent conferences with consultants 
 or through the more extensive employment of chemists 
 on the controlling staffs of their concerns. 
 
 It is fully recognised that however well the work 
 may be carried out by those engaged in the actual 
 manufacture, the commercial man the man who buys 
 and sells is also of such consequence that the success 
 of an industrial undertaking must always depend to a 
 large extent on his ability, but rule of thumb methods 
 of manufacture have been steadily replaced by 
 scientific, and thus a demand has arisen for competent 
 chemists in the following capacities : 
 
 (a) Analytical chemists, for the examination of raw 
 materials, intermediate products, products and by- 
 products. 
 
 (b) Research chemists, to investigate problems 
 arising in connection with the operations of manufac- 
 ture, and to assist in devising new methods or intro- 
 ducing new products. 
 
 (c) Control chemists, to devise, direct, and supervise 
 processes on the large scale. 
 
 (d) Consulting chemists and chemical engineers 
 with experience in technology, to advise periodically on 
 the general progress of the work, on the development 
 of new projects and the design and erection of plant. 
 
 Without an army of such men no country can 
 hope to maintain its position in industry and 
 commerce. 
 
 Largely because of the nature of the industries 
 which have been developed for war purposes, the 
 chemical staffs of many concerns have lately been 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 145 
 
 greatly augmented, so that in quite a number of cases 
 thirty or forty chemists, and in a few instances over 
 200 chemists, have been engaged for analytical, 
 research, and control work. 
 
 In spite of the fact that our Universities and Colleges 
 were almost denuded of chemical students, it was 
 repeatedly urged that we should make every pro- 
 vision for the future supply of chemists for industries ; 
 but it is by no means established that the demand 
 for them will be greatly in excess of the supply which 
 is likely to be available. The success of German 
 industries in the past and the lesson of the war, which 
 have clearly shown the value of science, should convince 
 leaders of industries of all kinds that chemists in con- 
 siderable numbers will be required for any serious 
 endeavour to develop their undertakings when the 
 opportunity offers. 
 
 How can good business in buying and selling be done 
 except with the help of analysts ; or new products be 
 devised, waste products utilised, or works problems 
 be solved, without research chemists ; or new processes 
 be suggested and put to the proof of experiment with- 
 out chemists on the works ? How can a board of direc- 
 tors know what is feasible when a scientific proposition 
 is made if they have no scientific directors or advisers ? 
 Manufacturers should encourage research by main- 
 taining research laboratories in their own works and 
 by encouraging the training of research chemists in the 
 problems of their industries. Consultants should be 
 employed ; the help of reliable specialists is often 
 imperative ; but there should be many more specialists 
 having a more intimate interest in industry than that 
 afforded by occasional consultations. There should be 
 a liberal attitude towards science, and initiative should 
 be encouraged by ensuring that results will be as sub- 
 
146 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 stantially recognised as they are abroad. There will be 
 little or no result if the treatment of chemists is not 
 materially changed from what it has too often been 
 in the past. Adequate prospects must be assured to 
 attract a continued supply of men of the right stamp. 
 We have never been deficient in our supply of chemists ; 
 and this should be apparent from the fact that good 
 chemists well-trained graduates were willing to 
 accept very moderate salaries right up to the out- 
 break of war ; they could always be obtained when 
 satisfactory conditions were offered ; but comparatively 
 few suitable openings were then available to them. 
 This would apply also, though at times in a less degree, 
 to those experienced in research ; yet there were young 
 chemists in plenty who would have welcomed an 
 opportunity of working with experienced investigators. 
 
 Works Analysts. 
 
 The chemist starting in industrial work is not in- 
 frequently engaged at first in the laboratory. Ex- 
 perience with a practising analyst, where knowledge 
 can be gained of rapid methods of analysis of com- 
 mercial samples, often affords a good preparation for 
 the works laboratory. 
 
 In most manufacturing concerns of importance a 
 staff of analysts under the control of a highly com- 
 petent chemist will be engaged on routine tests. Many 
 such analysts have been trained in works to carry out a 
 limited variety of operations of more or less simple 
 character according to their ability. .Such analysts 
 may have made their first acquaintance with science 
 as laboratory attendants, and of these a considerable 
 number make little endeavour, or lack the capability, 
 to rise above ordinary routine ; others, by attending 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 147 
 
 evening classes and making the most of their oppor- 
 tunities, may improve in knowledge and skill and 
 eventually attain positions of responsibility. Others 
 again are trained men with good qualifications taking, 
 at first, minor positions to obtain experience. These 
 also may find opportunities for showing initiative in 
 the improvement of methods of analysis or possibly in 
 suggesting research bearing on the manufacture con- 
 cerned. 
 
 For certain purposes, analysis in the works laboratory 
 must be in the highest degree accurate, while for other 
 purposes rough tests only are required. Results on 
 which the price of raw material or of products in 
 large quantities may be fixed are compared with those 
 of external analysts representing the interests of 
 sellers of the former and buyers of the latter. Deter- 
 minations of important constituents of intermediate 
 products are also made, rapidly and sufficiently 
 accurately, for the information of chemists controlling 
 the manufacturing processes. The laboratory, there- 
 fore, should be suitably fitted for the routine work in 
 order that results may be available with as little delay 
 as possible. 
 
 Works Research Chemists. 
 
 Bacon would have defined pure research as " light 
 bearing " experiments, tending towards the discovery 
 of causes and axioms ; and industrial research as 
 " fruit bearing," tending towards the practical utilisa- 
 tion of the former. . ; . 
 
 Chemists engaged in the research laboratory should 
 be qualified to tackle new problems or to devise means 
 for overcoming difficulties. The main lines of in- 
 vestigation lie in the following directions ; 
 
148 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 (i.) improvement of quality ; 
 
 (ii.) increase of yield ; 
 (iii.) reduction of working costs ; 
 (iv.) utilisation of waste ; 
 
 (v.) introduction of new manufactures. 
 
 We do not suggest, however, that there should be any 
 limit to this domain, for the true research chemist is 
 an artist who should be allowed scope for following 
 his inspirations, wherever they may lead him. 
 
 Every manufacturing concern of any magnitude 
 should retain a staff of chemists for experimental 
 research and a number of probationers to be trained 
 for investigation in industrial problems. Conferences 
 with control chemists and engineers should be held 
 from time to time as the work proceeds. Profitable 
 results are constantly obtained and they are occasion- 
 ally of such revolutionary character as to abundantly 
 repay the whole cost involved. 
 
 Technological research is usually more likely to be 
 useful and successful when conducted in the works and 
 as nearly as possible under works conditions with due 
 regard to financial considerations. If the problem is one 
 for urgent attention, or if it necessitates full knowledge 
 of the processes involved, it is, generally speaking, of 
 little use to refer it to anyone who has not the necessary 
 experience and all the starting knowledge of chemistry 
 and physics with which those in the works are already 
 equipped, and the efforts to attain much of which 
 would otherwise be duplicated to little purpose 
 Results depend mainly on whether the problems are 
 entrusted to men of the right type. 
 
 As in other branches of chemistry, so in chemica 
 technology, those who hold responsible positions cannol 
 Afford to neglect the current scientific literature 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 149 
 
 'technical books and journals, patent abstracts, etc. 
 ire vie wing the industries with which they are con- 
 cerned in the light of modern theory and practice, 
 i "rom studying processes and watching the develop- 
 ment or failure of industries generally, the chemist 
 acquires ideas which may be applicable to the 
 (particular industry in which he is himself engaged, 
 Iwhilst from the study of the interdependence of 
 industries, he frequently finds means of securing 
 more advantageously the material he requires or of 
 disposing of products or by-products of his concern, 
 i Problems may also be suggested by the special re- 
 quirements of various trades. With these possibilities 
 in view, questions affecting the utilisation of by- 
 products and waste products are kept constantly in 
 | mind and duly investigated. 
 
 A suggestion is referred to the laboratory and be- 
 comes the subject for research. Records of work 
 bearing on the subject are looked up and the results 
 already achieved carefully noted ; for, in this pursuit, 
 if a chemist would acquire knowledge, he must take 
 knowledge with him. The extent of investigation 
 may thus be shortened considerably ; indeed it 
 may be found that the identical problem has already 
 been solved. On the other hand, the findings of 
 previous workers may have to be checked and aug- 
 mented in the light of modern progress ; a new view 
 of the subject may be obtained and a new road found 
 to the object sought. Often the work is tedious, 
 calling for the exercise of thought, skill, and patience 
 over a single problem for a considerable period. This 
 is the discipline of the research chemist ; but the goal 
 may come in sight at any moment if he but persevere 
 and maintain the will to get there. 
 
 The investigation should be directed to a definite 
 
150 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 aim. The mind of the investigator should have full 
 freedom and not easily be satisfied by sudden notions. 
 The solution of the problem should be pursued to its 
 fullest development, the work being based on clear 
 perception, sound reasoning, and keen discrimination. 
 
 A new discovery may at first be regarded merely as 
 an interesting curiosity. Men of affairs are apt to 
 measure its value according to its usefulness. Though 
 the chemist is convinced of the utility of his projects, 
 he finds not infrequently that opposition is raised to 
 giving them a practical trial, even on a moderate 
 experimental scale, until he has secured the full con- 
 fidence of his directorate. The conservative notion of 
 letting well alone has often been the cause of a well- 
 founded concern falling behind in the face of com- 
 petition. Yet, he should not be disconcerted, but 
 rather attempt the further improvement of his scheme 
 in the hope of securing the reconsideration of it at a 
 favourable opportunity. 
 
 Examples of the influence of research on industrial 
 progress would fill many volumes. Among those most 
 frequently quoted may be mentioned the synthetic 
 preparation of dyestuffs from coal tar. The discovery 
 of artificial indigo resulted in the reduction of an 
 acreage cultivation of the natural indigo from 755,900 
 to 329,800, i.e. 426,100 acres in two years. Soon the 
 industry was practically transferred from India to Ger- 
 many, the price of the artificial product being eventually 
 about one-third that of the natural. Similarly, alizarin, 
 which was prepared from madder a plant largely 
 grown in the Levant, in France and in various parts of 
 Southern Europe has been replaced by the manu- 
 facture of the artificial Turkey Red from anthracene, 
 which is obtained by the fractional distillation of coal- 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 151 
 
 tar. The output of this synthetic dyestuff is about 
 2000 tons a year or about three times the quantity 
 previously obtained from the natural source. 
 
 Many other colours, as well as drugs, disinfectants, 
 fertilisers, and numerous useful chemicals have been 
 derived from the same source coal-tar. 
 
 The Report of Mr. A. P. M. Fleming on Industrial 
 Research in the United States of America, published 
 in 1917 by the Department of Scientific and Industrial 
 Research, affords much instructive information on the 
 subject. From this Report we learn that the General 
 Electric Company spends 80,000 to 100,000 a year on 
 a research staff of 150, mostly mathematical physicists ; 
 that Du Pont de Nemours & Co. employ about 250 
 chemists ; that the American Rolling Mill Company 
 spend 10,000 a year on the maintenance of a 
 Research Laboratory, though the staff numbers only 
 fifteen ; that the Pennsylvania Railroad Company 
 spend about 60,000 on their main laboratory, the cost 
 of maintenance being about 100,000 a year, repre- 
 senting, however, only about 0-6 per cent, of the value 
 of the material examined and tested ; and that the 
 Eastman Kodak Company spends, on research, 
 30,000 a year, which sum represents less than I per 
 cent, of the profits of the Company. 
 
 We may also remark that developments on such a 
 scale have largely tended to attract some of our most 
 promising chemists to positions overseas no less than 
 15 per cent, of the Fellows and Associates of the 
 Institute of Chemistry, though not all of them engaged 
 in industry, being abroad before the war. 
 
 Few British firms have utilised or taken advantage 
 of science to the same extent as the German or 
 American. Thus, the early discoveries in dyes tuffs 
 made in this country, when owing to the shortsighted- 
 
152 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 ness of the owners of works due precautions had not 
 been taken to protect their patent rights, were de- 
 veloped at Crefeld, with the result that our products 
 were soon ousted through competition with those 
 from Germany. There is hope for the future, how- 
 ever, and we may mention, as examples, on the 
 other hand, that the Colonial Sugar Refining Company 
 (Sydney) spend about 20,000 a year on their scientific 
 staff, thereby reaping advantage estimated in normal 
 times at 75,000 to 100,000 a year ; and Messrs. 
 Tootal Broadhurst, Lee & Co., Ltd., Cotton Spinners, 
 manufacturers and merchants (Manchester), have 
 decided to set aside 10,000 a year for five years for 
 the encouragement of research and education, in 
 addition to supporting the British Cotton Research 
 Association. 
 
 We may here note a quotation from our seventeenth- 
 century philosopher, Sir Thomas Browne : " When 
 industry builds upon Nature we may expect pyramids ; 
 when that foundation is wanting, the structure must 
 be low." 
 
 Works Control Chemists. 
 
 Chemists should be selected for control of all opera- 
 tions dependent on chemical science. Their training 
 is distinctly a training in the " law and order " of 
 things, and fits them for control where law and order 
 are essential to successful working. Just as in a com- 
 mercial concern certain duties are deputed to a manager 
 and a staff of clerks, so highly competent chemists, 
 in direct association with the principals, are given 
 authority to delegate routine chemical work to trained 
 lieutenants in various departments. Thus, there is 
 intimate co-operation between the business principals, 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 153 
 
 the chemists on the works and the chemists in the 
 laboratories, in order that the technical and commercial 
 aspects may be simultaneously built up and stimulate 
 one another. 
 
 Chemists engaged on the works are required to be 
 well and systematically trained in the theory and 
 practice of their science generally, but they are often 
 confronted with problems lying outside the ordinary 
 academic curriculum. 
 
 The following schedule which is the syllabus of the 
 examination in Chemical Technology prescribed in the 
 Regulations of the Institute of Chemistry indicates 
 the many directions in which the work of such chemists 
 extends : 
 
 (a) The application of well-known chemical and physical 
 
 laws to industrial operations. 
 
 (b) The development, control, and transmission of power 
 
 and heat. 
 
 (c) A working knowledge of operations and plant, of which 
 
 general use is made in chemical industry for the 
 treatment and handling of materials, finished pro- 
 ducts, waste products and effluents, including a 
 practical acquaintance with fittings and stores. 
 
 (d) The properties of materials which affect their applica- 
 
 tion to the construction of plant and apparatus in 
 chemical works. 
 
 (e) Some ability in interpreting drawings of plant and in 
 
 making rough sketches. 
 
 (/) The calculation of working costs and a general know- 
 ledge of works accounts. 
 
 This syllabus was formulated after careful con- 
 sideration by a Special Committee who secured in the 
 first place the views of a large number of technologists 
 of wide experience in chemical industry. A brief con- 
 sideration of each section should, therefore, prove 
 useful. 
 
154 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 (a) The application of well-known chemical and 
 physical laws to industrial operations. 
 
 In many works, the application of the laws of 
 physics are no less important than those of chemistry. 
 Often the success of a process depends on the provision 
 of plant the construction and use of which demands 
 a knowledge of electricity and magnetism. Students 
 who intend to practise in industrial chemistry are, there- 
 fore, well advised if they take courses in advanced 
 Physics as well as in Physical Chemistry. Preference 
 is given, in many cases, to those who have taken, in 
 addition, courses in technology bearing on the industry 
 concerned, and have thereby advanced a step to- 
 wards bridging over the gap between academic train- 
 ing and practical experience. The influences arising 
 from the scale of the operations, and the factors of 
 time, temperature, pressure, and concentration in 
 large-scale operations should all be regarded as matters 
 for constant study in the works. The main point of 
 this section is that principles must be understood before 
 it is possible to understand processes ; hence the neces- 
 sity for a broad technical training. 
 
 (b) The development, control, and transmission of 
 power and heat. 
 
 Though this is primarily the concern of the engineer, 
 the control chemist should have a useful knowledge of 
 the principles of engineering. The extent and character 
 of such knowledge will vary according to the 
 extent and character of the works. The chemist 
 should study the practical applications of the laws of 
 heat to chemical operations, the generation of heat by 
 combustion, the transference of heat by radiation, 
 conduction, and convection, the transformation of 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 155 
 
 heat into other forms of energy. He will invariably 
 find it a great advantage to be acquainted with the 
 construction of boilers and engines, though in many 
 works, when once the plant is in working order, he will 
 probably have little to do with such things as the staff 
 will include mechanics well able to attend to ordinary 
 repairs and to effect minor alterations. 
 
 Many industries depend in a large measure on an 
 efficient supply of suitable fuel. The quantity must be 
 sufficient to allow for emergencies, and the quality 
 must be suitable for the purpose. The chemist should 
 be competent to appreciate the results of calorific 
 tests made in the laboratory, and to advise on the 
 value of coal and coke. He should understand the 
 methods of sampling and analysis of fuels and of flue 
 gases and the significance of the results obtained. 
 Again, the treatment of water supplies for boiler 
 purposes is a matter of great importance, involving a 
 knowledge of the chemicals employed for softening 
 and how they are respectively applied on the large 
 scale. Due regard should also be paid to the pos- 
 sibility of utilising waste steam : for instance, for 
 drying purposes. Economy in the utilisation of 
 water is often as important as economy in the use 
 of fuel. Condensed steam from boilers is frequently 
 employed in manufacturing operations. 
 
 (c) A working knowledge of operations and plant, 
 of which general use is made in chemical industry for the 
 treatment and handling of materials, finished products, 
 waste products and effluents, including a practical 
 acquaintance with fittings and stores. 
 
 The majority of productive works are engaged in 
 transforming raw materials into finished products. 
 The chemist must, of course, be acquainted with the 
 
156 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 value of the raw materials to be used, and should know 
 something of the natural distribution, of such materials 
 where found or grown and how produced. 
 
 In the selection of a site for the establishment of a 
 new works due regard must be paid to the accessibility 
 of material, and to the means for distributing the 
 material on the works and for sending out the finished 
 products proximity of railways, canals, and rivers. 
 
 As machinery in an increasing degree takes the place 
 of labour, so the chemist * should become acquainted 
 with engines and the plant employed in manufacturing 
 operations, including not only boilers but such appara- 
 tus as pumps, presses, refrigerators, cranes, conveyors, 
 and so forth, and he should be able to supervise in a 
 general' way the proper disposition of such apparatus 
 and ensure its maintenance in working order. 
 
 The plant, of course, varies very greatly in different 
 industries, and may include such as is necessary for the 
 preparation of materials by breaking, grinding, pulp- 
 ing, levigating, washing, steaming, bleaching, filtering, 
 crystallising ; or for evaporation or desiccation ; or it 
 may be' for processes involving electrolysis, fusion, or 
 distillation, or refrigeration ; or possibly for the hand- 
 ling of large volumes of gases under various conditions 
 of temperature and pressure. 
 
 The chemist should lose no opportunity of gaining 
 an acquaintance with the accessories of the work 
 generally. The value of his services will increase in 
 proportion to his understanding of the whole scheme. 
 In the course of tune, as he becomes better acquainted 
 with the processes involved, he learns to appreciate 
 the influence of scientific method on large scale opera- 
 tions and the difference between the employment of 
 glass beakers and tanks, porcelain basins and evapor- 
 ating pans, distilling flasks and metal stills, funnels 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 157 
 
 and filter presses respectively. He learns his business, 
 much as an engineer does, by practical experience. He 
 should not be too fastidious about taking off his coat 
 and making his hands dirty. He may, hi emergencies, 
 have to handle implements or materials personally, or 
 to go into plant to inspect its inner machinery ; in 
 fact to do anything that the workmen under him are 
 required to do. He should aim at becoming as familiar 
 with any part of the plant as the workers who are 
 regularly engaged on it ; otherwise . he will find it 
 difficult to control those under him and to instruct 
 new-comers. If he is not prepared, at any time, will- 
 ingly to take a part in the hard work of a factory, he 
 will be well advised to turn his attention to some other 
 branch of the profession. The chemist, moreover, may 
 be required to advise on questions of ventilation, to 
 provide safeguards against fire and explosions, or 
 against poisoning or other dangers, such as injury from 
 dust arising from grinding processes ; and to devise 
 means for the prevention of pollution of the air with 
 noxious gases from chimneys, or of rivers and streams 
 with objectionable waste liquors from effluents. He 
 may have to take an important part in modifying 
 existing plant, or in advising on the construction of new 
 plant for the translation of a laboratory operation into 
 a large-scale operation. Ability to advise in such 
 matters implies the faculties of initiative, ingenuity 
 and resource, combined with knowledge of technology 
 to be attained only by experience. 
 
 tlis ingenuity may need to be exercised in the 
 utilisation of products hitherto regarded as waste, for 
 it may be possible to turn to profitable account what 
 is coming from the chimneys or going into the drains 
 as worthless. The waste products of certain industries 
 are the bases of other industries, so that the problem 
 
158 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 is often pursued with most advantageous results, in 
 some cases of such far-reaching importance that a 
 subsidiary branch may, in time, even supersede in 
 importance the initial manufacture. 
 
 (d) The properties of materials which affect their 
 application to the construction of plant and apparatus in 
 chemical works. 
 
 The bearing of this part of the syllabus should be 
 obvious, since the chemist is expected to be acquainted 
 with the possible reactions between materials of con- 
 struction of vessels or piping and the substances they 
 are intended to contain or convey. The choice of 
 material may be limited on this account, due con- 
 sideration being given to the relative cost of various 
 materials resistant to such reactions, as well as to 
 the size of the vessels and their general adapta- 
 bility to requirements. This involves some knowledge 
 of the current prices of metals iron, copper, lead, zinc, 
 aluminium and of wood of different kinds, glass, 
 rubber, and other materials. The physical properties 
 of materials of construction timber, iron, steel, 
 masonry, etc. their resistance to stress and strain, 
 and possibly their conductivity of heat or of elec- 
 tricity may also have a bearing on their suitability 
 for the purposes for which they are to be used. 
 The methods of preserving materials against weather- 
 ing may also come within the purview of the chemist, 
 who should know, for instance, why brick is often to be 
 preferred to stone in factory construction, and the 
 objections to the use of lime from magnesian limestone 
 in the mortar employed. 
 
 Science often destroys or renders obsolete the things 
 of its own creation. New inventions rapidly effect 
 great changes in industry, and large sums may be 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 159 
 
 involved in any new step. Thus, the introduction of 
 new methods may render obsolete costly plant which 
 must be scrapped, unless it can be adapted to new 
 conditions. The responsibility of the chemist in such 
 matters may be very great. 
 
 (e) Some ability in interpreting drawings of plant and 
 in making rough sketches. 
 
 To be able to make a sketch of a proposed structure 
 or piece of apparatus large or small giving dimen- 
 sions or at any rate a fair idea of the relative pro- 
 portions of the 'various parts, is of great assistance 
 in explaining requirements to engineers, architects, 
 apparatus makers, carpenters, plumbers, etc. Simi- 
 larly, to be able to interpret plans and sectional draw- 
 ings prepared to scale, and to visualise the finished 
 structure or apparatus is of importance in order to 
 avoid making subsequent alterations. 
 
 In improvising experimental apparatus and half- 
 scale plant, such ability is invaluable. It necessi- 
 tates sometimes an acquaintance with the common 
 engineering terms, many of which with other useful 
 information can be obtained by taking a friendly 
 interest in the fitter's shop as occasion arises. 
 
 (/) The calculation of working costs and a general 
 knowledge of works accounts. 
 
 When a new project is suggested, the chemist should 
 be able to prepare a business-like cost sheet, showing 
 clearly the cost of the materials and plant required, 
 the cost of handling and manufacture, and the value of 
 the probable output. Without it, he is unlikely to be 
 allowed to proceed with the proposition. It must be 
 submitted to the test of profit and loss. The economic 
 side of the business cannot be placed in the hands of 
 
160 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 men who have no knowledge of matters of this 
 kind. 
 
 The chemist, in his training, has not been con- 
 cerned with values, cost of material, cost of labour, and 
 working expenses. He is given, perhaps, a sample of 
 a substance containing a valuable constituent which 
 can be extracted profitably on a small scale. He must 
 not be content with first impressions on the subject. 
 The process proposed may be quite good, but the 
 business of transporting and handling material and 
 products in bulk, the disposal of by-products, the 
 utilisation of " waste " and a host of other questions 
 must be solved before the business man is satisfied. 
 
 Unless the works are run at a profit, they are not 
 likely to run for long. Besides looking constantly for 
 means to improve the processes employed, saving 
 waste, or otherwise perfecting the general control of 
 his part of the work, the chemist should keep careful 
 records of the progress made. If the process is such 
 that it may be regarded in the light of a laboratory 
 operation conducted on a large scale, he should be able 
 to determine whether and in what respect the result 
 falls short of what should be expected the theoretical 
 yield and may find in this problem the prospect of 
 referring to the research laboratory investigations of 
 far-reaching consequence. The checking of material 
 and the tracing of losses through the various operations 
 of a process will involve careful analytical tests, for 
 which, being of a routine character, special provision 
 should, as we have already mentioned, be made by 
 setting up the necessary apparatus as a permanent 
 part of the equipment of the laboratory. It is some- 
 times found advantageous to use vessels and apparatus 
 simulating in their general arrangement, structure 
 and material the plant used on the large scale, and. 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 161 
 
 in such cases, ingenuity is needed to reproduce the 
 operations of the works on a small scale. The reports 
 of the laboratory afford all-important guidance in the 
 general control of operations, pointing to increased 
 efficiency in output and economical working. 
 
 When the demand for a product is constant, the 
 value varies according to competition, competition 
 according to the cost of production, the cost of pro- 
 duction according to the cost of labour. As, however, 
 the demand cannot be constant for an indefinite period, 
 the other factors must vary accordingly. The cost of 
 labour, usually the ultimate factor, may be influenced 
 by the introduction of new means whereby labour is 
 superseded. Unless, therefore, those in control are 
 constantly on the alert to revise their system of work- 
 ing, the position of an industrial concern in relation to 
 its competitors may speedily be affected. It may lead, 
 or just hold its position, or, under lax management, it 
 will be overtaken. Everybody and everything coming 
 into the works has a value and there must be a maxi- 
 mum theoretical return to be aimed at, based on 
 scientific as well as business data, having regard to all 
 costs raw material, fuel, water, labour, general 
 running and trading expenses in their relation to the 
 value of the products. 
 
 Obviously, then, the control chemist must know a 
 good deal of what is called business ; we do not suggest 
 that he is expected to be a bookkeeper, but he should 
 have a general knowledge of commercial arithmetic 
 and bookkeeping, 
 
 In fine, so varied and divergent are the matters 
 which come within the sphere of a chemist occupying 
 a managing position, that he cannot afford to lose any 
 opportunity of gaining experience and knowledge of 
 almost anything ! He may with advantage learn some- 
 
162 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 thing of insurance of various kinds, political economy 
 and taxation, mercantile law (covering such matters 
 as contracts, specifications, partnerships), company 
 law, and patent law, with any of which he may in the 
 course of time be concerned. Even forty years ago, a 
 writer in the Chemical News 1 expressed the view that a 
 " works " chemist should after a thorough technical 
 training, including " volunteer " experience of two or 
 three years in works, make himself master of the 
 differential and integral calculus, of descriptive 
 geometry, mechanical technology, machine-making, 
 architectural planning, and designing and land sur- 
 veying ! 
 
 It is hardly possible, of course, for any man to meet 
 all these requirements ; but under proper encourage- 
 ment chemists in the course of a few years have fully 
 shown their ability to deal with emergencies as they 
 arise, and have thereby become firmly incorporated in 
 the concerns to which they are attached. Such men 
 are essentially practical, possessing the faculty of doing 
 things, not necessarily in the best way, or the most 
 expedient, or the quickest, but the most reasonable in 
 the circumstances, while they are conscious of their 
 limits and know when to call in more expert advice 
 and assistance. 
 
 Chemists newly introduced into works should not 
 always be expected to produce immediate results, 
 though it is true that, in numerous instances, well- 
 trained men have by their work and advice more than 
 saved their first year's or several years' salary within 
 a short time of their appointment. With careful 
 selection, the manufacturer can make no sounder in- 
 vestment, but the result is largely dependent on what 
 
 1 See Chemical News, Oct. nth, 1878. 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 163 
 
 he is prepared to invest. The chemist has also made 
 an investment : his education and training have been 
 expensive, and he should be afforded a definite prospect 
 of obtaining remuneration commensurate with his 
 outlay and the value of his work. 
 
 Chemists in works are often appointed under con- 
 tract for a term of years at a remuneration increasing 
 by increments at stated periods, the appointments 
 being renewable at the end of a term, and subsequent 
 advancement being dependent on results .achieved. 
 Sometimes it is stipulated that all the results of their 
 work for the time being become the property of the 
 principals, but the chemists on their part may stipu- 
 late for a share in the profits accruing, both during and 
 after the termination of the period of appointment, 
 from inventions or improvements introduced by 
 them. The latter course is obviously a more en- 
 couraging arrangement for the chemists. 
 
 Where a concern is in the hands of employers who 
 do not properly appreciate the value of scientific con- 
 trol, it may happen that they will look for a paragon 
 at very low salary and expect too much for what they 
 offer. Often they have no definite views as to the 
 nature or the value of the service they expect to get, 
 and regard a chemist, in spite of his technical training, 
 very much as a junior clerk required for the office. 
 The remuneration offered in such case will attract only 
 men of mediocre ability ; failure is inevitable, and 
 the distrust of scientific men is engendered ; but as 
 the control of productive industries passes more and 
 more to scientific men, greater discrimination is exer- 
 cised in the selection of well-trained men and more 
 substantial inducements are offered to secure and 
 retain their services. 
 
 Frequently the success or failure of important 
 
164 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 operations depends entirely on the knowledge and skill 
 of the chemist in charge, but although he may be 
 responsible for operations upon which large financial 
 interests depend, he is not always rewarded on a com- 
 mensurate scale. In all these matters, however, the 
 personal character and capacity of the individual are 
 dominant factors. Some manufacturers are apt to 
 regard chemists solely as analysts, whilst others expect 
 them to solve with ease problems of great technical 
 difficulty. 
 
 It is commonly said that scientific and business 
 ability are not often combined in the same individual ; 
 but if a careful inspection is made of the registers of 
 members of the representative chemical bodies, there 
 will be found a high proportion of them who have made 
 themselves not only fully cognisant of the science 
 underlying the concerns to which they are attached, 
 but have been thoroughly successful as men of affairs. 
 Needless to say, such men are seldom heard complain- 
 ing of the failures of our industry : they are otherwise 
 occupied. 
 
 General Considerations. 
 
 When an industry based on scientific principles 
 fails, the science side of it will surely be blamed ; if it 
 succeeds, the business side of it will as surely be 
 praised. Yet such industries have passed from one 
 country to another entirely on the failure of business 
 capacity in their directorate. The proximity of the 
 supply of suitable raw material may be a dominating 
 factor ; the ill-considered selection of a site may 
 render profitable working impossible ; but the want of 
 appreciation of suggested improved methods or apathy 
 to schemes for the utilisation of waste products, not 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 165 
 
 infrequently contributes to failure. The main demand 
 is for competent men of science who are men of business 
 to whom our great manufacturing concerns can look 
 to enable us to maintain our position in scientific 
 industries. There is always a demand for men of the 
 right stamp, men of practical ability, initiative, and 
 energy, and capable of grasping the full significance of 
 large-scale operations. When once they have estab- 
 lished themselves they can usually find success in an 
 industrial career. Many have proved themselves to 
 be so invaluable that they have become managers and 
 directors, and thus the number of scientific men in 
 control of industries has been steadily increasing 
 during the past quarter of a century, while, as a con- 
 sequence, there is a feeling of greater confidence 
 between manufacturers and their chemists. 
 
 It has sometimes been suggested that the com- 
 petency of British chemists employed in industry is 
 inferior to that of foreign chemists ; but we maintain 
 that although they have been deplorably fewer in 
 number, they do not suffer by comparison in the 
 standard of their work, or in their initiative in dis- 
 covery and invention. 
 
 In Continental works where many chemists are 
 engaged, the majority receive lower remuneration than 
 that usually paid to beginners in our factories, and are 
 dismissed or remain in the rank and file unless they 
 show decided promise. Where our manufacturers 
 employ foremen, the German manufacturers more 
 often employ chemists, whose technical knowledge is 
 brought to bear directly on practical operations. This 
 system is justified by results and the increased cost is 
 but small in comparison with the results obtained. 
 The education and training of the chemists should give 
 them authority, and as they may be transferred from 
 
166 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 one department to another they not infrequently 
 devise new methods or improvements in the processes 
 under their control. From large numbers, there is a 
 greater chance of discovering a few of outstanding 
 ability who are promoted and rewarded accordingly. 
 If the ability is there, it will find opportunities for 
 development. German manufacturers have been as 
 successful in this country and elsewhere as in their own ; 
 so we must conclude that their success is not entirely 
 due to the natural resources of Germany or to the lower 
 cost of labour, but also to their system of organisation. 
 
 Even in the strictly commercial departments of 
 manufacturing concerns considerable advantage may 
 be obtained from the employment of men who can 
 speak with some authority on the scientific aspects of 
 the business. In connection with chemical products 
 especially, a representative possessing technical know- 
 ledge can better understand the requirements of 
 customers, and may be instrumental in suggesting new 
 products to meet such requirements, or it may be new 
 uses for existing products. Foreign competitors have 
 frequently reaped the benefit of employing chemists 
 in the capacity of representatives, so that they may be 
 able to advise users of dyestuffs, for instance how to 
 manipulate products to the best advantage. 
 
 The power to control men is not the least quality 
 required of a leader in industry. He should have a keen 
 sense of duty, enthusiasm, strength of will, self- 
 control and tact, combined with organising ability. 
 The real leader speedily becomes a centre of opinion 
 and of action. 
 
 Success is dependent on abilities of different stan- 
 dards, those of capable managers and capable workers. 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 167 
 
 In the matter of organisation the business heads 
 of large concerns have the appointment of men to 
 control the main and subsidiary departments. The 
 distribution of labour can only be entrusted to men 
 who are thoroughly capable of controlling and directing 
 the work. 
 
 The power of estimating the capacity of men and 
 women, and the judgment involved in making the 
 selection of workers, are among the rarest of gifts. 
 However, natural adaptiveness and intelligent applica- 
 tion to certain forms of manual labour appear to be 
 indigenous to certain industrial centres ; the supply 
 of men and women for particular industries, there- 
 fore, is usually to be relied on. Workers who are 
 constantly handling a material acquire an instinctive 
 knowledge of its quality within certain limits, so that, 
 for instance, men who are accustomed to work in 
 certain metals are often able to judge their general 
 nature from mere inspection, just as an experienced 
 carpenter becomes a connoisseur of different kinds of 
 wood. Similarly, with chemical products : the appear- 
 ance, the touch and, within limits, the taste and smell 
 of a substance afford, in many instances, valuable 
 indications of quality. 
 
 In operations based on scientific principles, it is not 
 expected that all who are engaged on them will under- 
 stand such principles, but something can be done to 
 arouse their interest and encourage them to understand 
 the causes and effects involved. Young workers who 
 are capable of improvement should be induced to attend 
 classes and to improve their minds. Dissatisfaction 
 not infrequently arises among the least competent, 
 who are often the least inclined to admit their short- 
 comings ; but those who are incapable of improvement 
 
168 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 are usually the first to be dismissed when a reduction 
 of staff becomes necessary. 
 
 The prosperity of an industry is often very largely 
 dependent on the existence of a proper understanding 
 between employer and employed. Men are not 
 machines of equal calibre, performing just so much 
 work at a certain rate ; but all should be encouraged 
 to take an interest in their work and to do their best. 
 This is only possible where those in control have gained 
 the esteem of the employees. 
 
 We are not concerned here with the disastrous 
 influence of trade disputes on industry, but from 
 whichever side we look at the question, whether from 
 that of the employer or the employed, it is certain that 
 the settlement of differences often depends to a greater 
 extent on tact than on argument. Our view is that 
 there should be a fair wage as distinct from a com- 
 petitive wage ; but we hold that a fair wage can only 
 be really fair when the worker is unrestricted in his 
 endeavours to do his best and is paid accordingly. 
 
 In many cases employers have promoted the im- 
 provement of the conditions of living by providing 
 housing accommodation and catering arrangements, 
 and have encouraged thrift by establishing savings 
 banks, sick clubs, and pension schemes. All endeavours 
 in these directions conduce to the happier relations of 
 employers and employees, and should make for mutual 
 help and the furtherance of a loyal interest in the 
 general advancement of the common cause. 
 
 The exigencies of war have brought into the ranks of 
 labour many especially women who were formerly 
 dependent on others for their maintenance. The 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 169 
 
 altered condition of affairs should make for industrial 
 progress in the future, inasmuch as the prosperity of a 
 nation is proportionate to the number of hands and 
 minds usefully employed ; or, in other words, it varies 
 as the number of the producers approaches that of the 
 consumers, being, dependent on the earning capacity 
 of the people of all classes. Their well-being, therefore, 
 depends mainly on the demands for labour which must 
 depend in turn on capital, and the initiative and 
 efficiency of the management. 
 
 Without capital, labour cannot find employment at 
 all ; and it must be remembered that while shareholders 
 look for the regular payment of dividends, those in 
 control have to supply their products at a reasonable 
 price, in the face of competition, having due regard to 
 the importance of allotting a proportion of profits to 
 experiment and development. 
 
 No organisation can be completely successful with- 
 out leaders of initiative and enterprise. Wherever 
 there are such leaders there will be followers and work 
 in plenty. The success of large concerns depends on the 
 judgment, knowledge, and experience of men who are 
 prepared to take risks in the establishment and develop- 
 ment of their industries. They have constantly to watch 
 the variation in the cost of material, its effect en the 
 cost of manufacture and on the value of products 
 matters lying outside the knowledge of the ordinary 
 run of the workers, but which may exercise a far- 
 reaching influence on their welfare. In a properly 
 controlled business the workers feel confidence in 
 being assured of continuous work, and they should 
 recognise, therefore, the responsibilities of their 
 employers in order that the interests of both should be 
 mutual. 
 
 Recent indications of a desire for co-operation in 
 
170 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 industrial enterprise, such as the foundation of the 
 Association of British Chemical Manufacturers, point 
 to better organisation of effort and also to a general 
 desire to render the country capable of producing 
 necessaries for which we should be independent of 
 possible enemy sources. Individualism and competi- 
 tion are being replaced by organisation, as are also the 
 pooling of knowledge and business, and co-operation 
 both in buying materials and distributing products. 
 The provision of useful directories of manufacturers, 
 of adequate bureaux of information, and the develop- 
 ment of the Joint Trade Intelligence Department of 
 the Foreign Office and the Board of Trade, should 
 improve official knowledge of industries and tend to 
 increase industrial efficiency generally. If the spirit 
 of determination which has pervaded all classes during 
 the war finds a corresponding outlet in the preparation 
 of our youth for the business of life there can be no 
 doubt that we shall be able to face competition and 
 maintain our national prestige in the future. 
 
 Consulting Technologists and Chemical Engineers. 
 
 Consulting chemists available for advice on techno- 
 logical matters have usually had considerable ex- 
 perience in industry before establishing an independent 
 practice, but some have acquired, as an adjunct to 
 an analytical practice, special experience in certain 
 branches of manufacture. Thus, there are metallur- 
 gists, assayers, and mining chemists ; fuel and gas 
 technologists ; specialists in refractory materials, 
 pottery, porcelain, glass, cement and building materials; 
 technologists concerned with petroleum and other oils ; 
 chemists devoting special attention to the brewing, 
 fermentation, and sugar industries ; and chemical 
 
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 171 
 
 advisers on textiles, paper, rubber, leather, dyes, 
 explosives, and so forth. We have in this country a 
 considerable body of such men who occupy a position 
 analogous to specialists in other professions, and may 
 be called into consultation in cases of difficulty, to 
 advise on new projects, or to revise methods of work- 
 ing, to assist in matters of litigation affecting patents 
 and so forth. 
 
 A periodical overhauling of manufacturing opera- 
 tions by men of the highest ability and experience leads 
 to improvements and at a time like the present should 
 form part of the preparation for the commercial 
 activity and competition which are anticipated with the 
 return of peace. 
 
 It should be noted here that the Society of Chemical 
 Industry is forming a special section " for the promo- 
 tion and study of chemical engineering." Attention is 
 to be given to chemical engineering research and the 
 proper training of chemical engineers. Steps are also 
 being taken to institute Chemical Engineering courses 
 in several Universities and Colleges. 
 
CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE 
 
 PUBLIC opinion has lately been roused to the 
 necessity for including among our legislators and 
 administrative officials a greater number possessing a 
 knowledge of physical science of the principles of 
 chemistry, physics, mechanics, and allied subjects. 
 In an early chapter we have indicated that this desider- 
 atum is likely to be met to some extent by the intro- 
 duction of science subjects, hitherto only optional, as 
 compulsory in the system of examinations for Class I 
 of the Home Civil Service, the marks for each being 
 allotted on an equal basis with the classics. 
 
 This step should result in the hit reduction of more 
 science in the education of the classes from whom Civil 
 Service officials are drawn, and tend to promote a 
 higher appreciation of the importance of science to the 
 state. 
 
 It is remarkable that, although a few great states- 
 men notably the late Lord Salisbury have taken 
 some practical interest in science, with the exception 
 of Lord Play fair, no trained professional chemist 
 has attained the position of a Cabinet Minister 
 in the British Government, and very few have 
 been elected to Parliament. Lack of knowledge or 
 even of appreciation of the importance of science 
 in affairs of State, in peace and war, has been held 
 responsible for many shortcomings. 
 
 In times of war, measures of offence and defence 
 
 170 
 
CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE 173 
 
 dependent on science can be met only with science ; 
 due provision should be made for men of science in the 
 administration, as well as in the field and in the 
 munitions factory. We will relate in our concluding 
 chapter how chemists have been employed with the 
 forces, as well as for the examination of food and 
 water supplies, to deal with hygienic matters, and to 
 control the production of explosives and other material 
 of war. It should be unnecessary to say that we need 
 administrators who know that substances such as 
 cotton and fats should, if possible, be prevented from 
 entering an enemy country, seeing that both are 
 urgently required in the production of explosives 
 cotton to be nitrated into guncotton, and fats as a 
 source of glycerine, to be nitrated into nitroglycerine, 
 which is used in the manufacture of cordite, dynamite 
 and other blasting explosives. There should be such co- 
 ordination among the Departments that administrators 
 responsible for controlling such matters should have 
 ready access to the necessary scientific advice and be 
 able to apply it promptly. 
 
 In times of peace, it is equally necessary that legis- 
 lators and administrators should realise the vast range 
 of questions on which science has a direct bearing, and 
 the extent of its influence on the productive industries 
 and the commerce of the country. In the economic 
 struggle with which all the world will soon be faced, 
 the possession of able men of science will be a domi- 
 nating factor, only a due appreciation of which will 
 enable the country to maintain its position or have any 
 chance of improving it. 
 
 If science were better represented in Parliament 
 possibly through the Universities as well as in the 
 Civil Service, and a fuller use made of the existing 
 scientific departments and institutions, the country 
 
174 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 would undoubtedly benefit by the greater recognition 
 accorded to scientific thought and method. We need 
 both statesmen with a knowledge of fundamental 
 scientific principles and men of science with an ac- 
 quaintance with economics : at present both are 
 rare. 
 
 It is not intended to suggest that the importance 
 of the subject has been altogether ignored. Enquiry 
 will show that this is not the case, and that definite 
 provision has been made for the utilisation of highly 
 trained chemists and other men of science in many 
 departments. 
 
 The Government Laboratory was originally estab- 
 lished in 1842 to assist the Inland Revenue Authori- 
 ties. At that time the prevalence of adulteration 
 of tobacco, often to the extent of 50 per cent., 
 seriously affected the Revenue, and the Com- 
 missioners with the aid of the Laboratory speedily 
 checked and indeed in the course of a few years almost 
 entirely suppressed the practice. The importance of 
 this work will be readily understood when we mention 
 that in normal times nearly 110,000,000 Ibs. of tobacco 
 are cleared from bond annually, representing a revenue 
 of over 17,500,000 ; to-day the amount is very 
 much greater. Gradually the investigations of the 
 Laboratory have been extended to all kinds of excis- 
 able commodities and to other questions affecting the 
 interests of the Revenue, special attention being given 
 to brewing materials. 
 
 In 1858, accommodation was found for the Labora- 
 tory in the western portion of Somerset House, 
 and its operations then included investigations and 
 analyses for all other Government Departments 
 requiring chemical advice and assistance. 
 
CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE 175 
 
 " Proof Rooms " for testing the alcoholic strength of 
 spirits were attached to the Customs establishments 
 towards the close of the eighteenth century ; the work 
 of these was increased from 1856 by the operation of 
 the sugar duties, and, in 1862, by the application of 
 alcoholic standards to wines. The duty on imported 
 spirits was assessed solely by means of the hydrometer 
 until 1881, but as rums and brandies frequently con- 
 tained colouring and sweetening matter, the true 
 percentage of spirit was not determined by that means. 
 Testing by distillation was therefore introduced with 
 considerable benefit to the Customs Revenue. 
 
 In 1894, the Treasury decided to place the two 
 revenue laboratories under one chief, and erected for 
 the purpose the building in Clement's Inn Passage, 
 with suitable accommodation for the largely increased 
 work devolving upon the Principal Chemist and his 
 staff. 
 
 In 1911, the Department of the Government Chemist 
 was duly constituted as a distinct department having a 
 separate Parliamentary Vote. It is available, as we 
 have already mentioned, to all other departments re- 
 quiring chemical services, and controls laboratories at 
 Clement's Inn Passage, at the Customs House, and in 
 Chemical Testing Stations situated in various ports 
 and inland centres. 
 
 The duties of the staff include the analysis of 
 samples in connection with the Assessment of Revenue 
 and Drawbacks ; the analysis of samples of stores 
 supplied to Government Departments on tender and 
 on contract ; of milk, butter, cheese, and other agricul- 
 tural produce for the Board of Agriculture and 
 Fisheries ; and of samples referred by magistrates 
 under the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts. Beverages of 
 a non-alcoholic character, such as cider and perry, are 
 
176 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 also examined in the interests of industry to detect 
 infringement of the Merchandise Marks Act, and 
 samples of " patent medicines " are examined under 
 the Medicine Stamp Acts. During the war, many 
 thousands of samples of foodstuffs and other supplies 
 have been analysed for the War Department, afford- 
 ing a useful check on the supplies of contractors, both 
 in the interests of the health of the forces and of the 
 Exchequer. The total number of samples examined 
 by the Department approaches 400,000 annually. 
 
 The permanent staff of the Laboratory consists of 
 the Government Chemist, the Deputy Government 
 Chemist, four Superintending Analysts, and twenty- 
 one analysts divided into two classes all pensionable 
 officers. There is also a large staff of tempo- 
 rary assistants, composed partly of revenue assistants 
 lent by the Customs and Excise, engaged on chemical 
 work connected with the Revenue service, and others 
 appointed by the Government Chemist. For these 
 appointments the possession of the Fellowship or 
 Associate ship of the Institute of Chemistry is regarded 
 as a qualification of the first importance. Promotions 
 to the position of Second-Class Analyst on the per- 
 manent staff are made on the results of a competitive 
 examination by the Civil Service Commissioners of 
 candidates nominated by the Government Chemist. 
 
 Other Departments have laboratories for special 
 purposes. 
 
 The Admiralty Chemist's Department at Ports- 
 mouth Dockyard is mainly concerned with chemical 
 matters arising in connection with naval construction. 
 etc. The Admiralty has also its duly appointed 
 advisers on technical subjects, for instance, petroleum ; 
 and there are Professors of Chemistry in the Naval 
 
CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE 177 
 
 Colleges, as well as chemists engaged as Inspectors of 
 Victualling Stores. 
 
 The War Office has its scientific advisers, and Pro- 
 fessors of Chemistry are attached to the Ordnance 
 College, Royal Army Medical College, Royal Military 
 Academy, Sandhurst, Wellington, etc. Chemists are 
 engaged in large numbers under the Ministry of 
 Munitions, for research and inspection work, as well as 
 for the supervision of the manufacture of war material 
 at arsenals, factories, and controlled establishments. 
 Chemists are also attached to the Royal Air Force, to 
 the Aircraft Factories, Aeronautical Inspection 
 Department, etc. 
 
 The Board of Agriculture is concerned with the 
 administration of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs 
 Act, and also the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts in their 
 relation to agricultural produce. The Government 
 Chemist is ex officio Chief Agricultural Analyst, whilst 
 all County Councils and many boroughs have their 
 official agricultural analysts in connection with the 
 above Acts (see pp. no et seq.). 
 
 The Home Office has its duly appointed official 
 analysts, whose services are called upon in connection 
 with the investigation of crime, and chemical advisers 
 on explosives, petroleum, and matters arising in con- 
 nection with the administration of the Factory Acts, 
 etc. 
 
 The Local Government Boards are responsible for 
 the administration of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts, 
 involving the confirmation or vetoing of appointments 
 of the Public Analysts to the counties and boroughs 
 (see pp. no et seq.). The Board for England and Wales 
 possesses a laboratory attached to the Department of 
 the Inspector of Foods. The Local Government Boards 
 are also concerned in the administration of the Alkali, 
 
178 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 etc., Works Regulation Acts, 1881-1906, under which 
 chemists are engaged as inspectors for the administra- 
 tion of the Acts. 
 
 The Board of Trade appoints the Gas Referees under 
 the Metropolitan Gas Acts, and has the advice and 
 assistance of chemists both at the Patent Office and in 
 the Commercial Intelligence Department. 
 
 Chemists are also appointed as assayers to the Royal 
 Mint, the Bank of England, and the Assay Offices. 
 
 The London County Council has a chemical staff for 
 investigations on behalf of its many departments and 
 for gas testing. 
 
 We would protest, however, that the importance to 
 this country of the technical work of chemists in the 
 Civil and Public Services is not sufficiently realised, and 
 that the remuneration and conditions attaching to the 
 appointments have not in the past afforded a satis- 
 factory prospect. There may, perhaps, be compensations 
 in the way of reasonable working hours and holidays 
 though even these have not been possible in recent times 
 and a pension if the Fates are kind ; but the pay has 
 not been adequate and promotion cannot always be 
 reckoned upon, for the ways of Government are un- 
 certain, and a chemist on the point of succeeding to 
 a higher office, which he has long had in view as the 
 reasonable height of his ambition, may find his hopes 
 frustrated by some rearrangement under which he finds 
 himself answerable to a new official, possibly not even a 
 member of his profession. 
 
 A change of attitude, on the part of the Government, 
 with regard to these matters is seriously called for, and 
 the Council of the Institute of Chemistry have recently 
 formulated and forwarded to all Government Depart- 
 ments concerned a carefully prepared statement 
 
CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE 179 
 
 suggesting a definite scheme of organisation for the 
 Government Chemical Service, which it is hoped may 
 be adopted in due course. 1 
 
 In this statement the Council have expressed the 
 opinion that the time is opportune for taking steps to 
 secure for the profession of chemistry a position corre- 
 sponding to that occupied by other learned professions, 
 and their view that much would be accomplished towards 
 the attainment of that aim if, in the first place, adequate 
 and uniform conditions of appointment were accorded 
 to chemists directly engaged in the service of the State. 
 
 The necessity for a definitely organised Chemical 
 Service (both in peace and war) for all purposes of the 
 State on which the science of chemistry has a bearing 
 has long been recognised in the chemical profession, 
 and representations have been made from time to 
 time to ministers of State, Government Commissions 
 and other public authorities. As an example, it may 
 be mentioned that, as the result of representations 
 made by the Institute, the qualifications for appoint- 
 ment of public analysts under the Sale of Food and 
 Drugs Acts have been determined by Regulations 
 framed by the Local Government Boards for England 
 and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, under which the 
 country has undoubtedly secured, as we have already 
 indicated, the services of a body of chemists highly 
 qualified in that branch of work. 
 
 We have pointed out also that the Department of 
 the Government Chemist has been organised under a 
 separate Treasury vote. Other departmental chemical 
 establishments, however, have not been brought into 
 line, and it does not appear that the position of chemists 
 in the Government service generally is sufficiently 
 understood and appreciated to obtain for them that 
 
 1 Proceedings of the Institute, Part IV, 1918. 
 
i8o THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 measure of recognition which should be accorded to 
 professional men of this type in the interests of the 
 safety and well-being of the State. 
 
 " A List of Official Chemical Appointments " issued 
 periodically by the Institute of Chemistry contains 
 information with regard to the majority of these and 
 other positions held by chemists in the Government 
 and Municipal Services, both at home and in the over- 
 seas dominions of the Empire. The publication has 
 been temporarily discontinued, but new editions will 
 be forthcoming when normal conditions are restored. 
 
 Soon after the outbreak of war, the interest of the 
 Government in science was evinced by the assistance 
 given from the public funds to the dye and other 
 industries ; and, later, by the vote of a grant in Parlia- 
 ment in aid of scientific and industrial research, and by 
 the appointment of a Committee of the Privy Council 
 and an Advisory Council for the organisation and de- 
 velopment of a scheme for the administration of the 
 grant. The Department has now been formally incorpor- 
 ated under Royal Charter for this purpose. Such action 
 should prove a direct stimulus to British industry and 
 should induce manufacturers to encourage the further 
 prosecution of research by chemists employed in their 
 own works. 
 
 The Government has learned lately, and the lesson 
 must not be forgotten, that in a number of industries 
 which we were previously content to leave to others, we 
 must render ourselves self-contained and independent. 
 Often in the past there has been a lack of information 
 about our own natural resources, and too little considera- 
 tion given to the fact that the importation of a slightly 
 cheaper foreign article means loss of employment to our 
 own workers. To remedy these shortcomings, chemists 
 
CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE 181 
 
 had to a large extent to prepare the way, while manu- 
 facturers had to be sought who were willing to establish 
 new industries. For example, it was found that the 
 shortage of suitable laboratory apparatus and other 
 requirements was a cause of anxiety, particularly in 
 industries concerned with the supply of armaments and 
 munitions. Glass and porcelain apparatus, filter paper 
 and even fairly common analytical reagents all 
 essential to industry had hitherto been imported 
 from abroad, and mainly from Germany and Austria. 
 With regard to reagents, the Councils of the Institute 
 of Chemistry and the Society of Public Analysts 
 prepared and published a list of standards and tests 
 forming a guide to the requirements of chemists in this 
 direction, and there was no lack of enterprise on the 
 part of the manufacturers, who were soon able to 
 supply satisfactory products. Filter paper, too, 
 manufactured under scientific control, was forth- 
 coming at an early stage, fully equal if not superior to 
 any previously imported. Porcelain for laboratory 
 purposes, a much more difficult problem, was investi- 
 gated by several leading firms who have steadily im- 
 proved their products, which we may hope will take 
 the place of those hitherto obtained from Berlin. 
 Different varieties of glass, for laboratory purposes, 
 for pharmaceutical and medical use, for X-ray 
 apparatus, for miners' lamps and other purposes, and 
 also of optical glass, were urgently needed. In this 
 matter the Institute of Chemistry, supported in the 
 course of time by grants from the Department of 
 Scientific and Industrial Research, largely assisted in 
 overcoming the difficulty. A series of formulas was 
 devised by Sir Herbert Jackson, working in conjunc- 
 tion with a Special Committee appointed by the 
 Institute ; and under the ultimate organisation of the 
 
i8z THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 Department of Optical Munitions and Glassware 
 Supply, these formulas were entrusted tc reliable 
 manufacturers with whose co-operation the country 
 has been reasonably able to supply its own needs in all 
 ordinary forms of laboratory glass apparatus and in 
 many other respects. 
 
 Other " key " industries could be cited, but we have 
 noted these as examples and as indicating some 
 matters in which the Government has recently shown 
 interest. 
 
 The Report of the Government Committee on Com- 
 mercial and Industrial Policy (1918) states that " war 
 requirements have enormously increased our pro- 
 ductive capacity in certain great branches of industry, 
 notably in the steel and chemical trades, and in 
 numerous directions British manufacturers have 
 shown much adaptability and resourcefulness." 
 
TEACHING 
 
 TOWARDS the middle of the nineteenth century, 
 the teaching of chemistry in Universities and 
 Colleges was mainly of an elementary' character. 
 There were few students taking a systematic training 
 in chemistry and consequently few chemists. It was 
 usual, alike for professors and practitioners, to under- 
 take both teaching and practice : professors more 
 commonly than now held appointments as consultants 
 and some acted as public analysts ; private practitioners, 
 in most cases, took articled pupils. When the facilities 
 for obtaining instruction became greater and the 
 profession increased in numbers and activity, this 
 overlapping of work led to controversy ; but, in the 
 course of time, the educational work of the teachers 
 increased and the tendency of practitioners to take 
 pupils, except for special training, decreased ; so that 
 a better understanding arose with regard to the two 
 spheres of work. 
 
 We will not attempt to deal more than briefly with 
 the art of teaching. As the chemist who wishes to 
 follow this branch has himself been through the pro- 
 cess of being taught, he may be assumed to know a 
 good deal about it when he starts on his career ; but, 
 to be consistent in our scheme of considering the 
 various branches of work open to the chemist, we will 
 venture a few remarks on what is certainly one of the 
 most difficult. 
 
 The methods of teaching science or indeed any 
 
 183 
 
184 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 subject are not fixed. Every student appears to 
 require individual treatment and every teacher is met 
 with the difficulty of finding the best way of bringing 
 out the best that is in his students. 
 
 On the personal characteristics necessary to a teacher 
 enthusiasm, patience, and tact we do not feel called 
 upon to dilate. Those who do not possess them in the 
 necessary degree will probably be the first to recognise 
 the advisability of turning to another branch of work. 
 
 Chemistry as a subject affords endless possibilities 
 of arousing interest both by practical demonstration 
 and by illustrating the application of its principles 
 to the affairs of everyday life healih, industry, 
 commerce, and the State. Students have to be 
 trained, not only in the methods of conducting experi- 
 ments, but in observation and the interpretation of 
 results, and in the wider meaning of the work how it 
 may be applied to practical purposes. The spirit of 
 enquiry must be maintained from the beginning if the 
 student is to be an investigator or something more 
 than a routine worker. 
 
 It is a lamentable fact that not a few chemists show 
 evidence of having suffered in their youth and in- 
 experience from accidents in the laboratory, and we 
 feel, therefore, it should not be out of place to suggest 
 that students should be warned of the risks of handling 
 dangerous substances before they are left to their own 
 devices. The careless handling of a bottle of sulphuric 
 acid has caused the stopper to jump and the liquid to 
 spurt so as to deprive a boy permanently of the sight of 
 an eye ; a retarded action in a test tube held above the 
 level of the head has produced the same unfortunate re- 
 sult. Burns, arising from thoughtless handling of highly 
 volatile and combustible substances, and cuts, from 
 injudicious performances with cork borers and glass 
 
TEACHING 185 
 
 tubing, are far too common incidents of the laboratory, 
 and such disasters are apt to have far-reaching after- 
 effects, apart from the accompanying damage to in- 
 struments and property. Students should also be 
 taught something of the value of materials and to have 
 a respect for scientific instruments with which they are 
 entrusted. 
 
 The teacher, quite as much as the practitioner, 
 finds that he must keep in touch as far as possible with 
 current theory and practice, and constantly revise his 
 courses accordingly. One of his functions is to advise 
 students on the use of books both for theory and 
 practical work, so that they may seek for themselves 
 the information bearing on the problems before them 
 and determine and apply the methods to be adopted. 
 He should be on the watch for new literature ; indeed, 
 students and chemists generally would find progress 
 very difficult without access to standard works of 
 reference. 
 
 The teacher, moreover, if he is a student of human 
 nature, is afforded exceptional opportunities of pur- 
 suing that alluring subject ; for not only is chemistry 
 to be taught to those who intend to be chemists, but in 
 a lesser degree to engineering and medical students, 
 and many others ; so that he must acquire in the 
 course of years a wide interest in human intellectual 
 progress. The practical nature of his subject neces- 
 sarily brings him into close relation individually with 
 those who are specially drawn to it. He will mark 
 their different temperaments, finding some students 
 casual and disinclined to bestir themselves while 
 others are industrious and cover the ground quickly. 
 Yet the latter are not always the more successful : 
 in some students the knowledge attained is but 
 superficial ; in others, perhaps slower, it is more 
 
i86 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 thoroughly assimilated. He will endeavour to under- 
 stand these dispositions and to make allowances for 
 initiative and spontaneity, especially in the later stages 
 of training. By maintaining a personal interest in his 
 students, he can better advise them as to their future 
 and often place them to advantage. 
 
 The junior teacher who hopes to give advanced 
 instruction in his subject is fortunate if he secures 
 a demonstratorship in a University or College, from 
 which, if he is capable, he may proceed to a higher 
 appointment. His chances of success are improved if 
 he shows aptitude for research and obtains a doctorate 
 degree. He may eventually reach a Professorship, but 
 the number of senior appointments has hitherto been 
 too limited to afford a satisfactory prospect, except to 
 men of outstanding ability. Few Professors of Chemistry 
 receive a stipend of more than 1000 a year, and 
 though their salaries may be supplemented by examiner- 
 ships and literary work, such work is arduous and 
 hardly to be relied on as a regular source of income. 
 A great deal of gratuitous work in the public interest 
 is expected of and rendered by chemists occupying 
 such positions : much of their tune is given to matters 
 of educational organisation and the administrative 
 affairs of their institutions. 
 
 Where technological instruction is required, particu- 
 larly in Universities and Colleges in industrial centres, 
 there is an increasing tendency to require evidence of 
 practical experience in industry. It is not to be 
 expected that chemists with such experience will be 
 attracted to teaching, however, unless the prospects 
 are comparable with those in industry. 
 
 The appointments of masters for giving instruction 
 in general science, in public, secondary and private 
 schools, are, of course, very numerous, and many 
 
TEACHING 187 
 
 chemists have followed this branch of work through 
 lack of opportunities in other directions. From a 
 chemist's point of view teaching has been probably 
 the least remunerative branch of the profession ; yet, 
 in the past, a very large proportion of graduates in 
 science have become teachers in schools, seldom 
 having the opportunity of taking pupils beyond the 
 standard required for the University Intermediate 
 Examinations, and in most cases not beyond that 
 required for Matriculation. 
 
 The criticism levelled at our science masters in 
 schools is that they are inclined to impart knowledge 
 without indicating its usefulness, so that its con- 
 nection with the realities of life is not fully appre- 
 ciated. This criticism is probably well founded in the 
 case of many who teach general science, but not in 
 that of the teacher who is enthusiastically devoted to 
 his own particular subject. , 
 
 It is remarkable, however, that the teaching in 
 Secondary Schools is so good, seeing that the salaries 
 of the teachers are generally inadequate and their 
 duties so burdensome that they have no time for 
 research or other work. The prospects of the average 
 science master were in pre-war times commonly limited 
 to an income of about 300 per annum, which hardly 
 warranted his University training ; the teacher in a 
 technical school might become head of a department 
 at 400 to 500 a year ; in a secondary school, even if 
 he were able to take classes in several subjects, he 
 would not usually receive so much. 
 
 Municipal bodies have spent large sums on imposing 
 buildings for their technical institutions, but in many 
 cases have been disinclined to disburse with the same 
 free hand on their equipment or on the salaries of the 
 staffs engaged for them. 
 
i88 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 The great defect of a teaching career, regarded 
 generally, therefore, has been the poverty of the out- 
 look ; but there is good reason to hope that recent 
 agitation for further and improved teaching in science 
 will tend to improve the conditions, and that this 
 important branch of work will thereby become more 
 attractive* 
 
WOMEN IN PROFESSIONAL CHEMISTRY 
 
 THE Institute of Chemistry was one of the first 
 of the Chartered professional bodies to admit 
 women to the qualifying examinations, the first 
 woman successful in passing the examination for the 
 Associate ship having been elected in 1892. Since then 
 about thirty have qualified for A.I.C. and F.I.C. 
 Many women, however, have taken science degrees, 
 including chemistry, at the Universities and several 
 have attained considerable recognition as teachers 
 and as research chemists, while others have been 
 successful in scientific journalism. Some, indeed, 
 have shown marked manipulative skill, but, under 
 normal conditions, there has not been hitherto a wide 
 scope for women in professional practice. During the 
 war, however, a considerable number of women 
 chemists, in most cases teachers, have successfully 
 taken the places of men serving with the forces or have 
 been engaged on special work not usually required in 
 times of peace. For those who are distinctly capable, 
 there will probably be more appointments in the future, 
 as assistants to consultants, or in industrial laboratories, 
 in the latter especially, as it appears likely that their 
 brethren will find increasing scope for their knowledge 
 and ability in the control of operations in the works. 
 The remuneration of women chemists will depend to a 
 great extent on their general ability to adapt them- 
 selves to the requirements of the positions to which 
 they attain. 
 
 189 
 
CHEMISTS IN WAR 1 
 
 OWING to the conditions of modern warfare 
 chemists have been more than ever in request. 
 To give a full account of their work, if it were possible, 
 would be imprudent, but it is well to place on record 
 a statement confined to what it is permissible to relate, 
 giving some indication of the importance of the pro- 
 fession of chemistry to the nation in recent times. It 
 may be doubted if the general community realises that 
 the chemist plays a part in the production of all iron, 
 steel, copper, and other metal, of every explosive, of 
 cloth, leather, rubber, glass, and material of war 
 generally, and that his help is no less necessary in 
 connection with the supplies of food, pure water and 
 medicine. 
 
 During the war the Government secured the guidance 
 of chemists and other men of science to assist in the in- 
 vestigation of suggestions and inventions and to bring 
 their knowledge and experience to bear on measures 
 and devices of offence and defence, while apart from 
 those acting in an advisory capacity, chemists were 
 called for service in the field as well as in the 
 factory. In such times there is a demand for the 
 solution of problems of an unusual character which can 
 only be entrusted to men of the highest scientific 
 training, with initiative and foresight. 
 
 So much had we come to rely on foreign sources of 
 
 1 Reprinted and modified, with slight additions, from the 
 Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry, Part I, 1917- 
 
 190 
 
CHEMISTS IN WAR 191 
 
 supply for many of our needs, that means had to be 
 found for dealing promptly and efficiently with diffi- 
 culties some of which, unless overcome, threatened 
 serious disaster. The chemists of the country were not 
 found wanting. 
 
 The laboratories of our universities and colleges 
 became small factories for the preparation of drugs 
 and medicaments, and many institutions were en- 
 trusted with the examination of materials used in the 
 manufacture of explosives. The measures taken in 
 this emergency secured uniformity in method and the 
 standardisation of processes which would otherwise 
 have been difficult to attain. Under the supervision 
 of their professors, students unfit for service with the 
 colours were thus helping the country and at the same 
 time gaining useful experience. 
 
 More than a thousand chemists were engaged 
 to assist in the laboratories and in the works of 
 Government and controlled establishments supplying 
 armaments, munitions, and other materials of war. 
 Many of these found an opportunity of helping 
 the country, through the registers maintained by the 
 Institute of Chemistry and other societies for this 
 purpose. In cases where the number of men having 
 technical experience in some branches was limited, 
 the authorities made arrangements for probationary 
 training, so that their services should be available 
 when required in new factories. 
 
 The staffs of the chemical departments of Woolwich 
 Arsenal and other Government factories were consider- 
 ably augmented, as also that of the Government 
 Laboratory, which, as recently published reports show, 
 was largely responsible for the examination of food- 
 stuffs and many other requirements of the Expe- 
 ditionary Forces, 
 
192 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 In previous wars the authorities had considered 
 officers of the R.A.M.C. sufficiently trained for all 
 necessary military duties involving chemical know- 
 ledge, but in the recent conflict, with an unpre- 
 cedented demand for medical men, qualified chemists 
 volunteered in such numbers as to give practical 
 force to the suggestion that they should be engaged 
 for the purification and examination of water supplies 
 and for dealing with matters of hygiene requiring 
 chemical knowledge. As a result many received com- 
 missions and were engaged for scientific work, not 
 only with the R.A.M.C., but also with the R.A.F., 
 A.S.C., A.O.D., and other units, as well as with the 
 Secret Service. Attached to various forces at home, 
 with the armies on the Continent, in Asia, and in 
 Africa, chemists thus rendered valuable service. 
 
 In consequence of methods of offence initiated by 
 the enemy, such as the employment of poisonous gases, 
 there arose a further demand for men with training in 
 chemistry for service in the field. Rumours that the 
 enemy intended to employ such means reached the 
 Allied lines in April, 1915, but were not believed ; so 
 that when the first attack with chlorine gas was made, 
 our troops were quite unprepared. Steps had to be 
 taken in the direction of retaliation. For the duties 
 involved the authorities deemed it expedient to enlist 
 men with chemical training, rather than entrust them 
 to men without any scientific knowledge, and the 
 unit formed was a fighting force. With the assistance 
 of the universities and technical colleges and the 
 various bodies interested in chemistry, an entirely new 
 force was brought into existence. At that time there 
 was no question of compulsion, yet it was raised with 
 little difficulty, being subsequently augmented by the 
 addition of other troops. The men went voluntarily, 
 
CHEMISTS IN WAR 193 
 
 and were sent abroad at very short notice, and after 
 short training went into action. The officers were 
 mainly selected from chemists who already held com- 
 missions, while sergeants and corporals with know- 
 ledge of chemistry were transferred from other 
 units. That they did their work well is shown by the 
 following abstracts from dispatches of Lord French 
 and Sir Douglas Haig : 
 
 LORD FRENCH, October I5th, 1915 : 
 
 Owing to the repeated use by the enemy of asphyxiating 
 gases in their attacks on our positions, I have been com- 
 pelled to resort to similar methods ; and a detachment was 
 organised for this purpose, which took part in the opera- 
 tions commencing on the 25th September for the first time. 
 
 Although the enemy was known to have been prepared 
 for such reprisals, our gas attack met with marked success, 
 and produced a demoralising effect in some of the opposing 
 units, of which ample evidence was forthcoming in the 
 captured trenches. 
 
 The men who undertook this work carried out their 
 unfamiliar duties during a heavy bombardment with con- 
 spicuous gallantry and coolness; and I feel confident in 
 their ability to more than hold their own should the enemy 
 again resort to this method of warfare. 
 
 SIR DOUGLAS HAIG, May igth, 1916 : 
 
 The valuable nature of the work performed by the 
 officers of the Central Laboratory and the chemical advisers 
 with the Armies in investigations into the nature of the 
 gases and other new substances used in hostile attacks, and 
 in devising and perfecting means of protecting our troops 
 against them, is deserving of recognition. The efforts of 
 these officers materially contributed to the failure of the 
 Germans in their attack of I9th December, 1915, as well as 
 in the various gas attacks since made. 
 
 SIR DOUGLAS HAIG, December 23rd, 1916 : 
 
 The employment by the enemy of gas and of liquid 
 flame as weapons of offence compelled us not only to dis- 
 cover ways to protect our troops from their effects, but also 
 o 
 
194 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 to devise means to make use of the same instruments of 
 destruction. Great fertility of invention has been shown, 
 and very great credit is due to the special personnel em- 
 ployed for the rapidity and success with which these new 
 arms have been developed and perfected, and for the very 
 great devotion to duty they have displayed in a difficult 
 and dangerous service. The Army owes its thanks to the 
 chemists, physiologists, and physicists of the highest rank 
 who devoted their energies to enabling us to surpass the 
 enemy in the use of a means of warfare which took the 
 civilised world by surprise. Our own experience of the 
 numerous experiments and trials necessary before gas and 
 flame could be used, of the great preparations which had to 
 be made for their manufacture, and of the special training 
 required for the personnel employed, shows that the em- 
 ployment of such methods by the Germans was not the 
 result of a desperate decision, but had been prepared for 
 deliberately. 
 
 Since we have been compelled, in self-defence, to use 
 similar methods, it is satisfactory to be able to record on 
 the evidence of prisoners, of documents captured, and of 
 our own observation, that the enemy has suffered heavy 
 casualties from our gas attacks, while the means of pro- 
 tection adopted by us have proved thoroughly effective. 
 
 Sir Douglas Haig, referring to the work of the Royal 
 Engineers, in his despatch on the March (1918) Retreat, 
 published on October 22nd, 1918 : 
 
 On different occasions, and particularly on the Third 
 Army Front at the commencement of the Geiman offen- 
 sive, personnel of the Special Brigade (Gas Services) 
 became involved in the infantry battle, and behaved with 
 a like gallantry to that which they always displayed in the 
 performance of their special duties. 
 
 Finally, in the " Victory "dispatch, yth January, 1919, 
 after detailing the operations of the Gas Services : 
 
 In all these different operations, all ranks of the Gas 
 Services have shown their accustomed courage and devotion 
 to duty. 
 
 High qualifications were 'unnecessary for the work 
 
CHEMISTS IN WAR 195 
 
 of the rank and file, but many very competent men 
 joined, and it may be mentioned incidentally that it 
 was remarked on an early occasion that generally 
 speaking the best qualified chemists proved the best 
 soldiers. The majority of the university graduates and 
 men possessing recognised diplomas, who originally 
 enlisted as corporals, subsequently received com- 
 missions, and when the force was more completely 
 organised a considerable number were withdrawn and 
 transferred to the Ministry of Munitions in 'order that 
 their services might be available in work of a more 
 scientific character. 
 
 In December, 1915, the enemy employed phosgene ; 
 but by that time means of protection had been supplied 
 and when the danger was increased by greater gas 
 concentration, more efficient respirators were pro- 
 vided. In the course of time, the gas cloud was 
 largely superseded by the use of shells containing 
 noxious liquids or solids which became vaporised by 
 the explosion. Lachrymatory shells were the first of 
 this order, but were soon followed by others more 
 poisonous and deadly in effect, each in turn demanding 
 counteracting measures. Thus the researches of the 
 laboratory were utilised for providing methods of 
 offence and defence. 
 
 Mention should also be made of the fact that during 
 the campaign against the rebels in South Africa and 
 the Germans in South-West Africa chemists were 
 attached, on the personal order of General Botha, to 
 the different brigades and rendered valuable service. 
 
 From the experience gained in the campaign it is 
 clearly advisable that the State should have control 
 of such an organisation of professional chemists as to 
 ensure at any time their efficient service in the many 
 
196 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 requirements of the naval, military, and air forces. In 
 addition to competent chemical advisers of undoubted 
 standing, the following appear to be essential : 
 
 Chemists to control the manufacture of munitions, ex- 
 plosives, metals, leather, rubber, oils, gases, food, drugs. 
 
 Chemists for the analysis of all such materials, for 
 research, and for Secret Service purposes. 
 
 Chemists, on active service, to assist in the control 
 of water supplies, in the detection of poison in streams, 
 in the analysis of water and food, in the disposal of 
 sewage, and in other hygienic matters. 
 
 Chemists, both at home and on active service, to 
 assist in devising safeguards against enemy contri- 
 vances of a scientific nature, and methods of offence 
 to meet the same, as well as for the instruction of troops 
 in such matters. 
 
 It has been called a " chemists' war " and an " en- 
 gineers' war." Many regarded it largely as a conflict 
 between the men of science of the countries engaged. 
 Our chemists were not dismayed at that, but it was 
 impossible to foresee to what length the enemy was 
 prepared to go in the application of science to warfare, 
 and we cannot reproach ourselves with having set any 
 example of frightfulness. 
 
 To sum the matter up, chemists met the situa- 
 tion with a spirit of true patriotism and were 
 promptly organised for the service required of them. 
 It is not too much to hope that, as the discoveries 
 of science .have been applied to the destruction of 
 humanity, they may now be devoted more and more to 
 the furtherance of the arts of peace. 
 
 British chemistry, which has played so important a 
 part in the war, will undoubtedly contribute to making 
 good the ravages of war and the building up of our 
 industries and commerce. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Admiralty Chemist, 176 
 Adulteration Acts, 1 1 1 et seq. 
 , against fraud and injury, 
 
 119 
 
 Advertising, 134 
 Agricultural Analysts, Official, 
 
 128 
 
 Agriculture, Board of, 177 
 A. I.C. Examination, 65 
 Alchemists, 18 
 Alkali Inspectors, 177 
 Analyst, The, 103 
 Analysts, Works, 147 
 Apothecaries, 19 et seq. 
 Applied Chemistry, 141 
 Appointments Register, 95 
 Association of British Chemical 
 
 Manufacturers, 1 70 
 Attfield, J., 27 
 
 Bacon, Francis, 41 
 
 , Roger, 21 
 
 Bank of England, 178 
 
 Becher, 78 
 
 Bell, Jacob History of Phar- 
 macy, 21 
 
 Berkenhout, G., 27 
 
 Blyth, A. Wynter, no 
 
 Board of Agriculture, 178 
 
 Trade, 178 
 
 Boerhaave, 26 
 
 Brampton, Lord, 139. 
 
 British Association of Chemists, 
 49, 53 
 
 Certificates, Trade, 134 
 
 Charlatanism, 132 
 
 Chemical Engineers, 144, 170 
 
 Industry, 141 et seq. 
 
 Manufacturers, Association 
 of British, 170 
 
 Chemical News, 105 
 
 Chemical Society, The, 29, 100 I 
 
 Chemical Technologists, 170 
 
 Technology, Syllabus, 153 
 Chemical Trade Journal, 105 
 Chemist and Druggist, 16 et seq. 
 Chemist and Pharmacist (Foreign 
 
 equivalents), 38 
 , Definition of, 28, 33 
 , Standard of qualification, 50 
 , The designation of, 16 et seq. 
 Chemistry and the State, 172 
 , Early records of, 17 
 Chemists, Dispensing, 16 et seq. 
 , Remuneration of Industrial, 
 
 90 
 
 Official, 178 
 
 Classics, 4 
 
 Conditions of Practice, 78 
 Conduct, Professional, 130 
 Consulting Chemical Engineers, 
 
 144, 170 
 
 Technologists, 170 
 Control Chemists, Works, 152 
 Crookes, Sir William, 105, 112 
 
 Degrees, in Science, 44 etseq., 59, 71 
 Department of Scientific and 
 
 Industrial Research, 61, 152, 
 
 180, 181 
 Druggists, 1 6 et seq. 
 
 Education, Preliminary, i 
 Egyptian industries, 17 
 Employment, 95 
 Engineering, Chemical, i$<\etseq. 
 Engineers, Chemical, 144, 170 
 English Language, 2 
 Ethics, 130 
 Etiquette, 130 
 Evening classes, 46, 47 
 Evidence, Legal, 135 
 Examinations, 65 et seq. 
 
 F.I.C., 76 
 
 Federal Council, 104 
 
 197 
 
198 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 
 
 Fees, Professional, 131 
 Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs 
 
 Act, 128 
 
 Fleming, A. P. M., 151 
 Food and Drugs Acts, in et seq. 
 
 , Chemistry of, 66, 1 10 
 
 Forensic Chemistry, 135 
 Foster, Carey, 80 
 French, Lord, 193 
 
 German Chemists, 94 
 German Chemical trade, 94 
 Government Chemist, 174 
 
 Chemistry, 172 
 
 Laboratory, 113114, 174, 
 191 
 
 Greek philosophy, 78 
 
 Haig, Sir Douglas, 193 
 Hassall, A., in 
 Home Office, 177 
 
 Industrial and Chemical Engi- 
 neering, 105 
 Industrial Chemistry, 141 et seq. 
 
 Research, 147 
 
 Institute of Chemistry, 3, 39, 43 
 et seq., 101, 108, 116, 119, 153, 
 181, 191 
 
 Institutions, Chemical, 99 et seq. 
 
 Jackson, Sir Herbert, 181 
 Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 5, 28, 134 
 Journals, Chemical, 105 
 
 Kelvin, 80 
 
 Latin, 2 
 
 Lectures (Institute of Chemistry) , 
 
 76 
 
 Legal evidence, 135 
 Libraries, Chemical, 106 
 Lichnowsky, 94 
 Local Government Boards, 112, 
 
 116, 177 
 London County Council, 178 
 
 Medical Officers of Health, 120 
 Metallurgical and Chemical En- 
 gineering, 105 
 " Minimum Wage," 107 
 Ministry of Munitions, 177, 182 
 Mint, Royal, 178 
 
 Nature, 106 
 
 Notebooks (practical chemistry), 
 57 
 
 Official Agricultural Analysts, 
 128 
 
 " Official Chemical Appoint- 
 ments," 1 80 
 
 Optical Munitions and Glass- 
 ware, 182 
 
 Optional subjects (training), 45, 
 
 54. 58 
 Organisation, Professional, 96 
 
 Paracelsus, 16, 18 
 Patent Office, 178 
 Pharmaceutical Society, 29 
 Pharmacist and Chemist (foreign 
 equivalents), 38 
 
 Definition of, 28, 33 
 Pharmacists, 16 et seq. 
 Pharmacopoeia, 32, 33 
 Pharmacy Acts (1852), (1868) 
 
 and (1908), 32, 33, 37 
 
 Definition of, 28 
 
 Qualifications for, 34 
 Physicians, College of, 20 
 Physics, 57 
 
 Playfair, Lord, 113, 172 
 Poisoning cases, 128, 139 
 Practice, Branches of, 81 
 
 Conditions of private, 82 
 
 Prospects and conditions of, 
 
 7 8 . 
 Preliminary Education, i 
 
 Examination, 14 
 Professional Conduct and Pro- 
 cedure, 130 
 
 Organisation, 96 
 
 Training, 40 et seq. 
 Prospects of practice, 78 
 Public Analyst and Medical 
 
 Officer of Health, Relations of, 
 
 I2O 
 
 Analysts, no 
 
 Society of, 103, in 
 
 Qualifications of, 116 
 
 Remuneration of, n jet seq. 
 
 Redwood, Theophilus, 30 
 Remuneration, 88 et seq., 106, 
 
 163 
 Reports, Professional, 84, 134 
 
INDEX 
 
 199 
 
 Research Association (Cam- 
 bridge), 63 
 
 Research Chemists, 144, 147 
 
 , Works, 147 
 
 Research (College), 58 
 
 , Department of Scientific and 
 Industrial, 61, 152, 180, 181, 
 
 , Industrial, 147 
 
 Restriction of practice, sug- 
 gested, 99 
 
 Royal Air Force, 177, 192 
 
 Society, 23, 100 
 
 Ruskin, 91 
 
 Salaries, 88 et seq., 106, 163 
 
 Salisbury, Lord, 172 
 
 Sampling, 83 
 
 Science in Civil Service Examina- 
 tions, 9, 172 
 
 Schools, 6 et seq., 187 
 
 Scientific Witnesses, 135 
 
 Societies, 99 et seq. 
 
 Society of Chemical Industry, 
 102, 143 
 
 Journal of, 144 
 
 Public Analysts, 103, in, 
 
 119, 181 
 
 Soliciting practice, 135 
 
 " Somerset House," 113-114, 174 
 Specialisation, 8, 58, 72 
 Spirit, Recovery of, 85 
 Stevenson, Sir Thomas,^ 139 
 Stills, Licences for, 84 
 Students, Registration of, 43 
 Subjects of training, additional, 
 45. 54. 58 
 
 Teaching, 183 
 Technical Education, 40 
 
 Institutions, 40 
 Technology, Training in, 72 
 Trade Intelligence Department, 
 
 170 
 
 Trade " Puffs," 134 
 Trade Union, 106 
 Training, Cost of, 64 
 
 specialised, 58, 72 
 
 War, Chemists in, 174, 190 
 War Industries, 180 
 War Office, 177 
 Women Chemists, 189 
 Woolwich Arsenal, 177, 191 
 Works Analysts, 146 
 
 Chemists, 144 
 
 Control Chemists, 152 
 
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 jo 5^00^8 a^aiduioo ^soui aq^ si saAjaqs ano UQ 
 
 3Hi 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 MAR 9 1934 
 
 N'.' 
 
 : - 
 
 LD 21-100m-7,'33 
 
Tb 16042 
 
 i 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY