THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY WHAT INDUSTRY OWES TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE By RICHARD B. PILCHER and FRANK BUTLER-JONES, B.A., A.I.C. With an Introduction by Sir George Beilby, LL. D. , F.R.S. Crown 8vo. 3s.6d.net "The book is a good one and much wanted. It con- tains information accurate in itself and clearly stated." The Analyst. 11 The work can be recommended with confidence to the general reader who wishes to gain a comprehensive insight into the far-reaching ramifications of chemical industry." Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY BY RICHARD B. PILCHER REGISTRAR AND SECRETARY OF THE INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND NEW YORK D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 25, PARK PLACE Printed in Great Britain PREFACE WHEN a boy turns a room probably his bed- room into a laboratory and starts making experiments the results of which are commonly ob- noxious to the other members of his home, and when the household is startled by explosions and the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen penetrates to his father's study, the family becomes alternately alarmed and annoyed ; but the head of the house is set wondering whether the new enthusiasm is only a phase through which so many boys pass, or whether he has discovered an indication of the boy's choice of a calling. The question imme- diately occurs to the parent, " How can the boy become an analytical chemist ? " Afterwards, he learns that the adjective analytical is too restrictive ; but we,. will deal with that later. Probably not one in ten of those who, at one time or another, seem bent on chemistry as a profession ultimately becomes qualified to practise, but most boys nowadays know something about the science, and this publication is designed to let them, their parents and schoolmasters know something about the pro- fession. The importance of the science of chemistry can hardly be overrated. Scarcely any other branch of 432047 vi THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY practical science can claim so close a connection with the material progress of mankind, and there is hardly a Department of State or other Public Authority, or an industrial or commercial undertaking of any magni- tude, which does not benefit by its aid. So wide are the applications of the subject and so deep are its ramifica- tions that it is certain to hold a most prominent and increasingly important position in public affairs, in industry and commerce. For this reason, there should always be a demand for chemical knowledge of the highest order. The secretary of a professional body receives en- quiries on many and varied matters for the answers to which he, in turn, must often look to others better informed, and thus in the course of time accumulates a fund of information to be drawn upon as occasion arises. To decide how much of that information should be included in this book has been not the least difficult part of the work. Some things we have to say may appear too obvious or too trite ; yet it is often the obvious of which we need most to be reminded, being so near that it escapes notice. Apart from information, the book includes much in the nature of advice. We are told by Steele that there is nothing which we receive with more reluctance, and by Johnson that we are never more impatient of it than when we need it most. All who attempt to give advice, however good their intentions, lay themselves open to criticism. Being very conscious of the difficulties of our task, we PREFACE vii realise that this first attempt to provide anything approaching a comprehensive account of one of the most important of modern professions may, in the light of criticism, be improved upon in any subsequent edition. Following this preface we give a synopsis of the education and training recommended for the profession of chemistry, and of the possible careers open to chemists. For the consideration of parents, and possibly of schoolmasters if that suggestion is not too pre- sumptuous our first chapter is devoted to the subject of preliminary education, which must be a matter for serious thought, whatever may be the career eventually selected. We then discuss the title "chemist," show- ing the distinction between chemists and pharmacists, and deal, in turn, with the technical training, examina- tions, and qualifications for the practice of analytical, consulting and technological chemistry ; with post- graduate training and research ; and with the societies and institutions concerned with chemical science. Next, we consider the various branches of practice, and the prospects offered therein, devote a chapter to the recognised procedure of members of the profession in their relations to one another and to the public, and, after referring briefly to the prospects of women chemists, conclude with a short record of some of the services rendered, by chemists in the war. Our aim, therefore, is to review generally the position of the profession of chemistry ; but we would remark that, even while the book has been in preparation, it viii THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY has been necessary to have regard to the constantly changing opinions on many of the subjects dealt with, e.g. education, technical training, and organisation which obviously cannot be settled for all time and will no doubt be modified with the trend of future develop- ments. The writer desires to express his grateful thanks to a few friends who have read the proofs and have given him the benefit of their advice. He hopes that the book will be useful to those for whom it is intended and that it may be ac- cepted as a partial discharge of his obligations to the profession which he has had the honour and pleasure to serve for over twenty-five years. It should be clearly understood, however, that notwithstand- ing his official position, the views expressed herein are not necessarily to be read as bearing the authority of the Council of the Institute of Chemistry. R. B. P. 30 RUSSELL SQUARE, LONDON, W.C. i. January, 1919. SYNOPSIS OF (A) THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING RECOMMENDED FOR THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY AND (B) OF THE POSSIBLE CAREERS FOR A CHEMIST. A. EDUCATION AND TRAINING General Education, on as broad lines as possible, up to about seven- teen years of age. Matriculation or other recognised Preliminary Examination, in- cluding English, Mathematics, at least one Foreign Language and one other subject. Technical Training, extending over at least four years day courses, comprising Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics and at least one additional scientific subject : (a) At a University, College, or Technical School ; or (b) At least three years at a University, College, or Technical School, and one year in a suitable laboratory or works. In cases where sufficient means for systematic day training are not available the student may obtain experience in a labora- tory or works and attend evening classes in the necessary subjects. 1 Qualifications, A Degree in Science or Arts, including Honours in Chemistry, with Physics as chief subsidiary subject, or a recog- nised College Diploma. The Associateship of the Institute of Chemistry (A.I.C.). An Associate is recommended to join a Local Section of the 1 The Council of the Institute of Chemistry will consider applications for admission to the Examination for the Associateship from Candidates who are not less than twenty-seven years of age, provided (i.) that their cases are recommended, for special consideration, by at least three Fellows of the Institute ; (ii.) that they have passed an approved preliminary examination ; (iii.) that they have received systematic instruc- tion, by day or evening classes, in the prescribed subjects, and have passed the class examinations therein ; and (iv.) that they have been engaged in the study and practice of chemistry for at least ten years. x THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY Institute and, as soon as means allow, one or more of the chemical societies : Chemical Society, Society of Chemical Industry, Society of Public Analysts, and, if possible, one or more Societies interested in Chemical Technology. Higher Qualifications. Post-graduate training (including research) for a higher degree such as M.Sc., 1 or D.Sc., and/or experience in a suitable laboratory or works, or training in chemical engi- neering ; and After three years as an Associate of the Institute of Chemistry qualify by examination, or otherwise, for the Fellowship (F.I.C.). B. POSSIBLE CAREERS FOR A CHEMIST (1) Consulting Practice, general or specialised : Assistant ; Chief Assistant, with prospect of transferring to an appointment in industry ; partnership ; independent practice. (2) Industrial Practice (a) Analytical Chemist : Junior Assistant ; Assistant ; pos- sibly transferring to Research or to Plant Control, or becoming Chief Assistant or Head of Analytical Laboratory. (6) Research Chemist : Junior Assistant ; Chief Assistant ; possibly transferring to Plant Control or becoming Head of Research Laboratory ; Partner or Director ; or establish- ing Consulting Practice. (c) Works Control Chemist: Departmental Plant Control; Assistant Manager ; Manager ; Managing Director ; possibly becoming Partner or Director; or establishing Consulting Practice. (d) Consulting Technological Practice ; Chemical Engineering. (3) Official Chemical Appointments. The Government Labora- tories and other Departmental Laboratories : Junior Assistant Chemist ; Assistant Chemist ; Principal Assistant Chemist ; Superintending Chemist ; Deputy Chief Chemist ; Chief Chemist. 1 Probably the degree of Ph.D., or something equivalent, will also be introduced into the curricula of several British Universities. SYNOPSIS xi Other Government appointments, technical, educational, etc. (Probably) Technical Commissions with Navy, Army, and Air Force. Municipal, etc. : Assistant to Public Analyst ; Public Analyst ; Official Agricultural Analyst ; Gas Examiner ; Water Examiner ; Chemist in Public Health Laboratory ; Chemist to Sewage Rivers Boards, etc. Public Institutions : Research and Analytical Appointments. (4) Teaching (a) School : as general -Science Master or Chemistry Master (in public or secondary school). (b) Technical Schools, Medical Schools, Agricultural Colleges, etc.: Assistant Demonstrator ; Demonstrator ; Lecturer (general or in a branch of chemistry, inorganic, organic, physical, metallurgical, biological, etc.) ; Lecturer in Technology ; Head of Department ; Principal. (c) University or College : Assistant Demonstrator ; Demonstra- tor ; Lecturer (general or special) ; Assistant Professor ; Professor (general or special) ; Chair of University ; Dean of Faculty and higher University appointments ; Ex- aminerships. (5) Employment combining two or more of the above. (6) Other employment in which chemical knowledge and ability are advantageous, though not necessarily the primary factors. CONTENTS PREFACE SYNOPSIS OF TRAINING AND POSSIBLE CAREERS FOR A CHEMIST . . . . . . . . ix PRELIMINARY EDUCATION . .... . . i General considerations ; English ; the classics and science ; early specialisation ; public indifference to science ; preliminary examinations. PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS . . . . . 16 The claim of pharmacists to the title " chemist " ; alchemists ; apothecaries ; druggists ; pharmaceutical organisation ; qualifications for pharmacists and " chemists and druggists " ; the foreign equivalents of " pharmacist " and " chemist " ; definition. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING . . . ~ . . . .40 Beginnings and progress of technical education ; the Institute of Chemistry ; schemes of training ; research ; examination for A.I.C. ; specialised training. PROSPECTS AND CONDITIONS OF PRACTICE . . .. 78 Branches of work ; general considerations. PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION . , . . . .; 96 Societies and institutions concerned with chemistry ; their work and influence. PUBLIC ANALYSTS AND OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL ANALYSTS no The Society of Public Analysts ; the Sale of Food and t$H Drugs Acts ; public analysts and their duties ; official Agricultural Analysts ; the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act. PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE . ; . . . . -. 130 Fees ; trading advertisements and certificates ; solicit- ing practice ; legal evidence. xiv THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY PAGE INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY ....... 141 The field of work for chemists in industry ; analysts, research chemists, control chemists; examination in chemical technology ; syllabus discussed ; general con- siderations of British chemical industry ; consulting technologists. CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE . . . . . .172 The Government and science ; the Government Labora- tory ; Government Departmental Laboratories ; official chemical appointments ; chemistry in its relation to " key " industries of importance to the State. TEACHING . . . . . . 7 183 Qualifications and prospects of teachers of chemistry. WOMEN IN PROFESSIONAL CHEMISTRY . . . .189 CHEMISTS IN WAR ........ 190 INDEX . . . . . ' . . . . . 197 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY PRELIMINARY EDUCATION | A> we have indicated in the preface, this chapter has been written for the consideration of parents whose boys are still at school : the importance of the subject must be our excuse for dealing with it at some length. Chemistry as the science which treats of the com- position of matter is one of the chief keys to the study of nature. It is indispensable in the arts and manu- factures and ancillary to many other branches of science. The training of the mental faculties of those who intend to practise in chemistry should be no less comprehensive than that prescribed for any other learned profession. The boy who has a liking for science should not be allowed, therefore, at too early a stage to become absorbed in it to the detriment of his general development. A good general education is essential in every profession using the term pro- fession in the limited sense in which it applied to medicine, the law, architecture, and the like and it is advisable that anyone who intends to follow a profes- sional career should remain at school until at least the age of seventeen years the usual age for passing the Matriculation or Entrance Examinations to the Uni- versities. 2 tit ,THE t PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY In recent years /the need for overhauling our school iystem fci$ ,be*eri much discussed. The present demand in all affairs of life is for practical good sense and trained intellectual capacity. The typical British public-school boy, whatever his shortcomings may be, has developed a straightforward and sturdy indi- vidualism invaluable to those who are destined eventu- ally to occupy positions of responsibility and control ; but a measure of education has become the common heritage of all classes, and the public-school boy has to face the ever-increasing competition of those from the modern schools, to whom the earning of their living is an absolute necessity. With the introduction of free primary education, the demand has arisen for a higher standard of both general and special knowledge in every grade of social life. The public-school curriculum covers a comprehen- sive programme, including, in most cases, religious and ethical instruction and the inculcation of a respect for law and order ; English language and literature ; Latin, and sometimes Greek ; French and, if no Greek, probably another modern language ; history and geography ; mathematics ; science ; drawing ; physical drill and athletics. The instruction given in each subject may be little or much ; but, in any case, neither ethics, languages, science, nor athletics should be neglected. Prior to the sixteenth century for those who were educated at all Latin was the primary subject and few youths understood much of their own mother- tongue. Thus, John Palsgrave wrote, in 1540, that scholars in the University " who could write an epistle quite Latin-like, and thereto speak Latin "... were yet . * . " not able to express their conceit in their PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 3 vulgar tongue." To write in English on subjects of scholarship was not altogether approved, though books written in Latin were occasionally translated. In 1551, however, Thomas Wilson in his Art of Rhetoric boldly advocated that the writing of genuine English should first be learned among all lessons ; and in 1557 Sir John Cheke in a letter to Sir Thomas Hoby also advised the writing of pure English, " unmixed and unmangled with borrowing of other tongues." 1 The study of our language is even now generally treated so lightly that comparatively few are able to write good English until they are considerably advanced in years. Essay writing may be practised occasionally ; but in many cases the opportunities for composition are limited to the writing of exercises in general sub- jects and answering examination papers. The study of literature, on the other hand, is promoted by the reading of selected plays of Shakespeare, by the memorising of poems, and reading works of well-known authors as holiday tasks. It is obvious that good composition cannot be expected of a boy until he has acquired knowledge and formed definite ideas ; yet we suggest that the accurate use of language is not sufficiently insisted on. Good reading especially the reading of biographies and essays, when youths are old enough to appreciate them is to be commended as tending to induce the habit of methodical thought and expression in writing and speaking. Latin as an educational subject is not so fully appre- ciated as formerly, and much of the time which was allotted to the classics is now devoted to more directly utilitarian subjects. The Institute of Chemistry was 1 The Beginnings of the Teaching of Modern Subjects in England. Foster Watson. 4 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY one of the last of the professional bodies to make Latin optional instead of compulsory in the Preliminary Examination, and it is worthy of note that the majority of the University professors of chemistry, at that time, were really opposed to the change until the pressure of outside opinion compelled it. However, they felt obliged to advise the change and the Council of the Institute adopted it, though with reluctance, in order to fall in with the practice of the modern Universities classics being no longer obligatory at Matriculation. The advocates of a classical education hold that recruits from the " modern side " are often lacking in a comprehensive knowledge of English and the science of words ; their vocabularies are limited and, consequently, they not only fail to express them- selves concisely, but also experience difficulty in grasping the meanings of unfamiliar terms, which are clear to those possessing even an elementary know- ledge of Latin and Greek. Indeed, it has been re- marked by University Professors that students who have an acquaintance with the classics are quicker in learning generally. On the other hand, it is ^ contended that modern languages afford equally good mental training ; that lucidity of construction can be as easily cultivated by the study of modern authors, and that an acquaintance with modern foreign languages is more useful as giving access to the advance of knowledge in other countries, and, therefore, to be preferred. 1 The question whether classical education is really useful is an old one, and may be pursued a little further 1 The Report oj the Committee appointed by the Prime Minister to enquire into the position of Modern Languages in the Educational System of Great Britain [Cd. 9036 : 1918] deals very fully with this part of the subject. Some scholars believe, however, that Latin will come again into common use as a universal language. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 5 in order to consider it in another aspect. Classical litera- ture provides a mental association with some of the wisest and greatest thinkers of the past, from whose teaching our mental equipment is largely derived, while its influence works insensibly, yet perceptibly, in the mass of well-educated men. Bosweil discussed the ques- tion with Johnson ;* Arnold, of Rugby, who was largely instrumental in popularising the teaching of modern languages, modern history, and mathematics as parts of the regular school course, dilated upon it in the Quarterly Journal of Education. 2 Ben Jonson tells us that Shakespeare " had little Latin, and less Greek " ; but the standard by which Jonson judged was un- doubtedly very high and would have applied equally well to the great majority of educated men of his time and since. Dr. Samuel Johnson said of Shakespeare 1 " Dr. Johnson and I (Bosweil) took a sculler at the Temple Stairs, and set out for Greenwich. I asked him if he really thought a knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages an essential requisite to a good education. Johnson. 'Most certainly, sir; for those who know them have a very great advantage over those who do not. Nay, sir, it is wonderful what a difference learning makes upon people even in the common intercourse of life, which does not appear to be much connected with it.' ' And yet,' said I, ' people go through the world very well, and carry on the business of life to good advantage, without learning.' Johnson. ' Why, sir, that may be true in cases where learning cannot possibly be of any use ; for instance, this boy rows us as well without learning as if he could sing the song of Orpheus to the Argonauts who were the first sailors.' He then called to the boy, ' What would you give, my lad, to know about the Argonauts ? ' ' Sir,' said the boy, ' I would give what I have.' Johnson was much pleased with his answer, and we gave him a double fare. Dr. Johnson then turned to me, ' Sir,' said he, ' a desire of knowledge is the natural feeling of mankind, and every human being whose mind is not debauched, will be willing to give all that he ha*s to get knowledge.' " Bosweil, Life of Johnson. On another occasion (speaking of Garrick) Dr. Johnson said : " He has not Latin enough. He finds out Latin by the meaning, rather than the meaning by the Latin." 8 " Expel Greek and Latin from your schools and you confine the view of the existing generation to themselves and their im- mediate predecessors ; you will cut off so many centuries of the world's experience, and place us in the same state as if the human race had first come into existence in the year 1500." 6 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY that " he had Latin enough to grammaticise his English/' His construction was classical, and he had at call an extraordinarily extensive vocabulary largely drawn from the classics. It is the case, however, that many men of light and learning, men who have attained distinction in science and in statecraft, have become eminent without having received a classical education, though it is probable that such men felt the need of it more than the average. Charles Lamb tells us of the fine old pedagogues who believed that all learning was contained in the lan- guages which they taught, and who despised every other acquirement as superficial and useless. Yet it is rather surprising to find that he also wrote, over a century ago, " The modern schoolmaster is expected to know a little of everything, because his pupil is required not to be entirely ignorant of anything. He must be superficially, if I may so say, omniscient. He is to know something of pneumatics, of chemistry, of what- ever is curious, or proper to excite the attention of the youthful mind ; an insight into mechanics is desirable, with a touch of statistics ; the quality of soils, etc., botany, the constitution of his country, cum multis aliis." An Eton master has recently stated that in his experience the boys who are best at classics are also best at science ; but, perhaps, this experience is not very general. With all our predilection for the classics, our great classical scholars are comparatively few ; and while occasionally our men of science show a con- siderable acquaintance with the classics, seldom does a classical scholar claim any special knowledge of science. The progress of science and its introduction into the PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 7 school curriculum have raised the question in another form : not so much its importance to the individual as its importance to the State. While it is held that the extent of the study of classics has hitherto been out of proportion to its value as mental exercise compared with that of science subjects, yet in the secondary and private schools and in the 'majority of the Universities a marked advance has been made in the direction of science teaching during the past seventy years. It has developed in many a real en- thusiasm for knowledge of natural phenomena ; has encouraged observation, intelligent enquiry and criticism ; and, perhaps, has afforded a relaxation from less attractive tasks. Its introduction, however, was gradual, not only because, at first, there were few teachers, but also on account of the alterations which had to be made to allow time for the study of the new subjects. In most cases, the time devoted to classical languages had to be curtailed to make room for chemistry, physics, geology, botany, and the like. The difficulty of generalising on educational matters can hardly be fully realised except by those who have to educate. The schools must of necessity have some regard to the temperament, bent and capabilities of individuals, since it is neither possible nor desir- able that they should all be cast in one mould. In most cases there is a mental bias towards some form of knowledge which can be strengthened by judicious encouragement. It is generally agreed, we think, that so long as steady progress can be made, the education should be as " all-round " as possible, although it is not unusual to allow each individual a choice of subjects in the later stages of school life, in order that scope may be given to variations in natural aptitude. The wisdom of differentiating between classical and 8 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY modern sides in schools has often been questioned. In any case, if differentiation is desirable, it should reasonably provide for literary, scientific, commercial and perhaps other tendencies. The objection raised is that such classification is commonly determined at a period of development in the individual when an en- forced broadening of culture, if practicable, would, in the long run, carry him further than a too narrow con- centration on a few subjects. There is a danger that early specialisation may inter- fere with general development, and it is doubtful whether it is wise to encourage it at the expense of other attainments for the acquisition of which there is little opportunity when once the professional train- ing has commenced. In every intellectual calling, however, specialisation at the right time is not only profitable to the individual but, in the higher stages, highly desirable in the interests of the advancement of national prestige and efficiency. The difficulty lies in deciding the right time for and the manner of its introduction. When events of the war emphasised the necessity of introducing science as an integral part of the education of the coming generation, authoritative bodies showed that, although the effects of the application of science to practical purposes were evident, and the scientific workers of the nation were as capable as those of any other country, full advantage had not been taken of their discoveries ; that scientific endeavour had not been sufficiently encouraged ; that the co-operation of science with industry had not been properly developed, and that our educational system had not made adequate provision for science teaching. They contended, more- over, that all attempts to induce the public schools to give greater attention to the matter would fail so PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 9 long as the public services maintained a preference for classical attainments in the competitive examinations. The Government was, therefore, urged to effect reforms in the public examinations, with the result that, when a Treasury Committee was appointed to deal with the matter, they recommended a complete change in the system of examinations for Class I of the Home Civil Service. The new scheme includes, among the subjects to be taken by all candidates, " questions on general principles, methods, and applications of science," and among the optional subjects, 'under Mathematics and Science, a fair and liberal choice for those who elect to be examined in chemistry, physics, botany, geology, physiology, zoology, and engineering, provided that they produce satisfactory evidence of laboratory train- ing in an institution of University rank. Thus there is some probability that a reaction in favour of science may be found soon in the curricula of the public schools. 1 Most subjects provide mental discipline, yet the average individual cannot take a real interest in, let alone be enthusiastic over, every subject. This is admitted, but it is unfair, to say the least, to allow one class to have a marked advantage over another in the public examinations, and it is unwise, since the result has exposed a lack of an important class in our administrative offices. It is sometimes questioned whether any subject is advanced by its being made obligatory in an examina- tion ; but if attention to a subject is forced on a number of pupils there is a greater chance of rinding some who will be attracted to it. 1 See the publications of the British Science Guild and of the Committee on the Neglect of Science (1916); also the Report of the Committee appointed to enquire into the position of Natural Science in the Educational Systems of Great Britain. [Cd. 9011.] to THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY One reason for advocating the claims of science, moreover, appears not to have been advanced so forcibly as to secure sufficient prominence in the dis- cussion, and that is the imperative necessity of pro- viding well -trained recruits for modern professions brought into existence by the progress of scientific discovery. To teach boys and girls to appreciate nature, to excite their inquisitiveness, to awaken their imagination, and by easy stages to lead them to the serious study of natural phenomena must inevitably tend to attract to such professions a greater number of those who are destined to become leaders of scientific thought. Such leaders are so essential to our national existence that to ignore their importance courts certain disaster in times of crisis, while to neglect taking advantage of the assistance of such leaders, refusing to recognise their ability, discourages the pursuit of discovery and invention and much that makes for material progress. Seeing, then, how the welfare of humanity under present conditions is dependent on such professions and how far-reaching an influence they exercise on the happiness, prosperity and safety of the public, to persist in the policy of leaving affairs of State exclusively in the hands of the literati is assuredly shortsighted and dangerous. The demand for more science in general education was not necessarily associated with the idea of neglect- ing classical study and literature, but it was made in order to secure that all classes of the community should be given the opportunity of knowing sufficient of the fundamental principles of mechanics, physics, chemis- try, and biology to enable them to appreciate their value in the affairs of everyday life. A more general acceptance of that view would do much to counteract the apparent apathy of the public towards matters scientific. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION II The fact that occasionally teachers in the Colleges complain that boys who have taken science at school have much to unlearn or forget before they can make real progress, rather implies inferior tuition than an argument against school science. When the teaching of science is directed to a useful acquaintance with fundamental principles, with illustrations ' of their practical applications, it may be made an important part of a liberal education, while it tends to the dis- covery here and there of an enthusiast who will have a definite idea with regard to his choice of a career. Very few of the headmasters of public schools are " science men " ; the idea that the majority should be science men cannot be generally accepted, but it is hoped that the proportion will increase and that the teaching of science will be steadily developed on practical lines ; also that the number of scholarships in science may be extended to encourage boys to proceed to higher training. In a presidential address delivered before the Institute of Chemistry on ist March, 1916, Sir James Dobbie summed up the position as follows : A more general diffusion of the knowledge of scientific method and of scientific facts has become one of the necessities of our national existence, and the need must be met if we are to continue to hold our place in the world. But it appears to me that the demand which is sometimes put forward that science must henceforth be the dominant factor in education confuses the real issue and needlessly arouses opposition to the reforms which are essential. Surely what is wanted is not education in which science or any other subject is predominant, but education which embraces all the elements that are necessary for stimulating and developing the various faculties of the mind. Such an education must include science, not a smattering, but a training as thorough and as continuous as that now devoted to linguistic studies, and education on these lines should be 12 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY continued until the proper age for specialisation arrives. By that time the natural bent of the pupil will have asserted itself and, if no extraneous inducements are held out to him to choose one side of the school rather than the other, it may safely be predicted that at least -as many will choose the scientific as the classical side. In any case, all will have received the elements of a scientific education as well as of a classical education. A parent or guardian can rarely be certain of select- ing a calling which will be acceptable to an individual until the education of that individual has begun to make a marked impression on his character arid in- clinations. It is, therefore, safer in all cases, and more likely to be productive of satisfactory results, if he is educated on as broad lines as possible up to the thres- hold of manhood, bringing out the best that is in him, without particular reference to his future career. The broadex the basis of his education, the better will be his general self-development and the greater the likelihood of discovering his special bent. To be a good runner or good boxer needs something more than running and boxing : the whole body must be trained to secure efficiency. Similarly, a sound general education is necessary for the race and the contest of life. Circumstances impel us at times to seek the lawyer or the medical man : in legal and health matters most of us have some idea of the limits of our own know- ledge and have sense enough to realise when it is necessary to obtain professional advice ; but the time has been slow in coming though it is coming when every man in commerce and industry will understand enough of science to enable him to take full advantage of the services of those who have made it their special study. It is sometimes said that the general ignorance of PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 13 the public on scientific matters is due to the lack of popular writers on such matters, and that the public would take more interest in science if they knew more about it ; but the fact is that they do not want to know about it. It is not easy to popularise science, for we cannot force an individual to take a real interest in what he does not understand any more than we can force him to learn to play the violin ; if he does not like it, he will never play it nor desire to listen to the performance of others. When a matter of scientific importance is reported to the Press, the ordinary reader seldom gets further than the heading ; if a public lecture on a scientific subject is announced, the ordinary man will not go to it or, if he does, will not understand much of it and will soon forget all about it. This is not always the fault of the lecturer, who must assume that the majority of his audience have some fundamental knowledge, or his time will be mainly occupied with preliminaries. The only hope for a change in the attitude of the general run of the people towards science lies in the introduction of the elements of such subjects as mechanics and chemistry as a part of the usual school curriculum. However, when we come to consider the fact that some form of instruction in science is given in seventeen Univer- sities, over 250 technical colleges and institutions, and over 600 public and secondary schools in Great Britain and Ireland, and there is every indication that science will receive still greater attention and encouragement in the future, we do not despair of seeing less in- difference to it ; though there will be difficulty in arousing enthusiasm on subjects beyond the com- prehension of the lay mind, until reforms of which we now begin to see some promise have been clearly established. 14 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY The Universities provide systematic courses for Degrees in Science, and many of the technical Colleges provide instruction by day or evening classes up to a similar standard. At a large number of the public schools provision has been made for science teaching up to Intermediate University standard ; they possess well-equipped chemical and physical laboratories for practical work, by which the interest of the pupils is forcibly aroused, with the result that an increasing number of boys are attracted to chemistry as a pro- fession. The majority of the boys in secondary schools are trained in science subjects, and the teaching is steadily improving in efficiency and method. In this connection, we may mention that in the Pass Lists of the years 1913 and 1914 of the Inter- mediate Science Examination of the University of London the names of sixty Secondary Schools appeared against the names of successful candidates. 1 The progress made in technical educational matters has hitherto been slow but steady : the legislature is now extending the facilities for technical education and providing substantial funds for research. When the individual has determined on a career in chemistry, he should acquire sufficient knowledge of the 1 However, it should be noted that a recently published pamphlet on Education : Secondary and University, by Sir Frederick G. Kenyon, President of the British Academy, embodying a report of conferences between the Council for Humanistic Studies and the Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies, contains the following resolution : " A clear distinction in kind between the first-year studies of a University in any faculty and the upper form studies of a school is a fundamental principle of education. A school year should, therefore, in no case be reckoned as the equivalent of a University year, and the practice of allowing pupils to present themselves for a University examination, beyond the Matriculation, before or upon entrance to a University is to be deprecated as confusing the educational functions of school and University and leading to an inappropriate type of teaching at both." PRELIMINARY EDUCATION 15 subject to enable him to enter on the higher technical training for which provision is made in the Universities and Colleges. He will be required to matriculate or pass a college entrance examination before he can be admitted to the courses for a Degree or a Diploma. For registration as a Student of the Institute of Chemistry the qualifying Body for chemists other than pharmaceutical he will be called' upon to produce a certificate of having passed an approved Preliminary Examination in (a) English Language ; (6) Elementary Mathematics ; (c) at least one foreign language, and (if not more than one language) (d) Higher Mathematics or some other approved subject. 1 It should be noted, however, that although only one foreign language is compulsory in the Preliminary Examination for the Institute, a useful knowledge of French and another language is expected in the Exam- ination for the Associateship (A.I.C.), and this require- ment is also usual in the University Examinations for the Degree of B.Sc. A working knowledge of German is practically essential to chemists, in view of the ex- tensive chemical literature published in that language. While a good general education increases the chances of success of the average individual, defective general education in a professional man is a serious hindrance and is likely to bring discredit on his calling. For all professional work the first essential is the production of good men with high ideals, and the duty of pro- ducing such men rests very largely with the schools. The aim should be to secure an education which will exercise and cultivate the mental faculties, strengthen the character, the will, and the judgment of every citizen, and thus contribute to the strengthen- ing of the character of the State. 1 See Regulations of the Institute oj Chemistry. PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS IT must be understood that the main purpose of this book is to deal with the education, technical training and professional work of analytical, consult- ing, and technological chemists, and teachers of chemistry not of pharmacists, dispensing chemists, or druggists. The fact that the title chemist is used for the two distinct callings acts detrimentally to the former class, for the reason that the general public know less of then: work and imagine all who call themselves chemists to be associated with pharmacy. It is to be deplored that such chemists will need, for some time yet, con- stantly to explain that they are not pharmacists, and as this is a subject on which the student should be informed, a digression will be made in order to emphasise the distinction between those who practise in pharmacy and those who practise in chemistry applied to the arts and manufactures. Pharmacists commonly base their claim to the title chemist on the declaration of Paracelsus (1493-1541) who may be considered as one of the last of the alchemists that " the true use of chemistry is not to make gold but to prepare medicines " ; but, apart from the circumstance that Basil Valentine (circa 1450) is also credited with having first suggested the use of chemical preparations in medicine, chemistry was studied before Paracelsus, and his authority cannot be accepted for confining the science to such a 16 PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 17 limited sphere. The science may be said to have originated in its applications to the arts and manu- factures by the Ancient Egyptians. The origin of the word chemistry is much disputed ; but it is held that from Egypt we have the earliest known record of a chemist, Zosimus of Chemmis, " whose writings are clearly on chemical subjects and whose drawings are clearly of chemical ap- paratus/' 1 From Egypt, too, we have the earliest known records of many industries : for instance, various branches of husbandry and its correlated industries, including brewing and distilling, weaving (of flax, silk, and wool) and the production of leather and parchment, oil, perfumes, and spices. Soap was made from olive oil and potash, the latter being obtained from alkaline plants growing on maritime marshes. Natron (soda), too, was used in embalming operations. From Egypt, also, we have records of dyeing, e.g. scarlet or crimson (from cochineal) and purple (from the murex). In metallurgy we find that copper was known to the Israelites and Egyptians before the Exodus and, at an early period, was alloyed with tin to make bronze ; gold was a medium of exchange in the time of Abraham and coined in that of Ezra ; Abraham was " rich in silver " ; lead was employed in the purification of silver ; iron was in use in Egypt under the Pharaohs, and we may note, by the way, that Damascus, not a far cry from Egypt and regarded as the most ancient city in the world, produced steel of celebrity in very remote times. The Greeks, who drew largely on the wisdom of the Egyptians, investigated the origin and nature of matter, including the properties of plant juices for 1 See Boerhaave's New Method of Chemistry. Translated by Dr, Peter Shaw. London, 1753. c 18 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY medicinal purposes, but their labours were in the domain of pharmacy rather than that of chemistry. In the light of what we know to-day, however, not much can be claimed for the chemical knowledge of peoples with whom the elements were limited to earth, air, water, and fire, even though one of the wisest of them Aristotle conceived the idea of a fifth : the quinta essentia which the alchemists of later times regarded as necessary to effect transmutation. Dio- cletian (circa A.D. 290) ordered all Egyptian alchemical records to be burnt for fear that the Egyptians might utilise the wealth gained by the study of them to revolt against the Romans ; many of the supposed ancient books in existence in the Middle Ages were nothing but forgeries. The beginnings of chemistry are, there- fore, too obscure to enable us N to judge of their con- nection with the arts and manufactures in early times. The Alchemical Period was devoted first to the search for the alcahest or universal solvent, then to the transmutation of metals, and, lastly, to the discovery of the elixir of life ; but the search for the elixir was not vigorously pursued until the sixteenth century. Sir Thomas Browne writes in the seventeenth cen- tury describing alchemy as "the cradle of chemistry," and it is acknowledged that to the alchemists although undoubtedly many were arrant humbugs we owe the discovery of many useful compounds and some knowledge of bodies and their properties. 1 The nature of ferments was a subject of speculation with them ; they made a distinction between acids and alkalis, and other observations which led to the chemical treatment of disease. However, the basis of the teaching of Paracelsus, 1 ' ' The Alchemists have made many discoveries and have presented mankind with useful inventions." Bacon. PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 19 sometime Professor of Medical Science at Bale, lay in the idea that the human body was composed of chemical matters, and that illness resulted from changes caused by chemical functions, and could, therefore, be cured by chemical means. Medicine, he said, rested on four pillars : Chemistry, Philosophy, Astronomy, and Virtue. On the assumption that organic bodies con- sisted of salt, mercury and sulphur, he proceeded to explain that an increase of sulphur caused fevers ; an increase of mercury, paralysis ; and an increase of salt, diarrhoea ; a deficiency in sulphur caused gout, and so on. Further, he assumed a connection to exist between certain disorders and the stars, and at times postulated the influence of evil genii. Nevertheless, he introduced a large number of preparations of remarkable efficacy and was successful in the judicious use of laudanum. The Apothecaries, who had their origin in the Spicers (circa 1200) and had until this time (i5th century) been mainly concerned with roots, herbs, syrups and the like, were stimulated by the teaching of Paracelsus to take up the study of chemistry. Controversies arose in which the doctrines of Paracelsus were opposed, and the many contradictions and the charlatanism contained in his writings were exposed. Those who attempted to emulate him not infrequently misapplied his preparations with serious consequences. The medical faculty of Paris condemned his innovations and the Parliament of Paris prohibited the prescription of his antimonial preparations. Later, of course, a more rational use was made of chemical preparations without disregarding the older forms of medicine ; the fallacies of Paracelsus became duly recognised, and a better un- derstanding arose as to the position of chemistry in its relation to medicine. Our point is that the subject Para- celsus chose to call chemistry was nothing of the kind. 20 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY Many physicians at that time prepared their own medicines and practised pharmacy until 1518, when the College of Physicians was founded. The followers of Paracelsus the iatro-chemists or medical spagirists aimed at the discovery of chemical remedies of mineral origin. The druggists imported and dealt in herbs, roots, and other vegetable as well as animal substances ; and the apothecaries compounded the products of both for the physicians. 1 Next, the druggists usurped the functions of the apothecaries who, after they had endeavoured without success to restrain the former, began to prescribe, and thus, in tnrn, usurp the functions of the physicians, leaving the druggists as the recognised preparers and compounders of medicines. 1 Chaucer (1340-1400), who lived before Paracelsus, clearly shows the relation between the doctor of physic and the com- pounder of drugs and the name by which the latter was known : " Ther was also a Doctour of Phisik, Full redy hadde he his apotecaries To sende him dragges, and his lectuaries." Shakespeare (1564-1616) also uses the word apothecary for the compounders of medicines : " Give me an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to sweeten my imagination." Burton (1621) in his Anatomy of Melancholy refers to Alchemists, Apothecaries, Druggists, and Druggers. Johnson in his Lives of the Poets quoted parallel passages from Donne (1573-1631) : " And as no chymic yet th' elixir got, But glorifies his pregnant pot, If by the way to him befal Some odoriferous thing, or medicinal. . . . ' and Cowley (1618-1667) "... though the chymic his great secret miss, (For neither it in Art nor Nature is) Yet things well worth his toil he gains ; And does his charge and labour pay With good unsought experiments by the way " which indicate that at that period the elixir was the great desidera- tum : the " chymic " was not the apothecary but the alchemist searching for the elixir, PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 21 So far, in the story, the chemical philosopher the chemist in the wider sense in which we use the term has not come very much into the limelight ; but he had existed as an experimentalist and not always solely an alchemist. Such was Roger Bacon (thirteenth century), a pioneer in experimental research, to whom is attributed the discovery of gunpowder. It seems clear that the apothecary robbed the physician of his practice and the pharmacist of his proper title ; and though, for long after, attempts were made to restore the title apothecary to the phar- macist, he assumed the patronymic of the chemical philosopher, at first tacking the word chemist on to druggist, then asserting a claim to it alone, finally acquiring a limited legal right to the designation, which, however, he was not able to maintain against com- panies, as will also be shown. We propose to trace the history of pharmacy, show- ing the use of the words in which we are now interested by quotations which should assist in elucidating the matter. We will take for this purpose a few abstracts from the Historical Sketch of the Progress of Pharmacy in Great Britain, by Jacob Bell (1841). In 1540 the physicians were empowered to enter the houses of the Apothecaries in London, "to search, view, and see the Apothecary-wares, drugs, and stuffs," and to destroy such as they found corrupt or unfit for use ; and in 1553, they obtained an Act giving them authority to " examine, . . . correct, . . . and punish Apothecaries, Druggists, . . . and sellers of waters and oils, and preparers of chemical medicines/' ..." accord- ing as the nature of his or their offences may seem to require." 22 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY It is uncertain at what period the Physicians gave up the practice of preparing their own medicines, but from a work entitled Short Answers to Tentamen Medicinale (1704), the following is quoted : Tis very well known there was no such thing as a Company of Apothecaries in the beginning of King James the First's reign, but what drugs and medicines were then in use, were sold in common by the grocers ; and as for the preparing and compounding of them, that the Physi- cians principally took care of themselves. But this growing too servile and laborious a business, and no other means being likely to be found out for easing themselves of it, but by lopping off a considerable number of grocers who had mostly been brought up that way, and constituting them a company by themselves, wholly to be employed in the business of pharmacy, in selling of drugs and preparing and compounding of medicines, according to the Physicians' orders and directions ; in order to this they obtained a charter for them to the number of a hundred and fourteen. This number coincided with the number of Physicians who were then in practice in London. The Apothecaries were separated from the Grocers, with whom they had been incorporated since 1606, and obtained the charter above mentioned in 1617. It was enacted at the same time that no grocer should keep an Apothecary's shop, and that no Surgeon should sell medicines. The power of searching the shops of Apothecaries within seven miles of London, and examining their drugs, was also vested in the chartered body. The Society of Apothecaries shortly after took into their serious consideration the frauds and artifices practised by the Grocers and Druggists from whom they obtained their drugs ; and, in order to remedy this evil, established, in the year 1623, a dispensary for the purpose of making some of the more important PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 23 preparations for the use of their own members. This institution was placed under the inspection and superintendence of a Committee of Apothecaries, and was conducted, in the first instance, on a small scale, being confined to the manufacture of a limited number of preparations. The Medicinal compounds formerly employed were chiefly empirical nostrums, or heterogeneous mixtures of substances, some components of which neutralised others, or were selected without any regard to scientific principles. The science of Chemistry was so little advanced that the real composition of ordinary remedies was seldom understood, and in many cases different virtues were attributed to the same sub- stance, according to the source whence it was ob- tained. Culpeper's translation of the Pharmacopoeia was published in 1653. The Materia Medica was divided into two classes, Chymicals and Galenicals : " Chymical Medicins " of mineral origin, and prepared by fire ; " Galenicals " composed of herbs, roots, and other vegetable or animal substances. The trade in these articles was also distinct, and the Chymists alluded to, in works of the date now under consideration, were those who prepared the mineral compounds for the use of the Apothecaries. These chymists would corre- spond, then, to our wholesale manufacturing chemists of to-day. Here we would remark that in the time of King Charles II, who gave a Charter to. the Royal Society and considered himself its Founder, the study of chemistry was the common hobby of the educated gentleman, especially among the nobility and clergy ; t and we find in the History of ike Royal Society, by 24 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY Dr. Thomas Spratt, Lord Bishop of Rochester Section XVII that he recognised three classes of chymists, of whom he says that " they may be divided into three Ranks : Such, as look after the knowledge of Nature in general ; such, as seek out, and prepare Medicines ; and such, as search after Riches, by Transmutations, and the great Elixir. The two first have been very successful in separating, com- pounding, and changing the Parts of Things ; and in shewing the admirable Powers of Nature, in the raising of new Constituencies, Figures, Colours, and Virtues of Bodies ; And from their Labours, the true Philosophy is like to receive the noblest Improvements. But the Pretensions of the third Kind are, not only to indow us with all the Benefits of this Life, but with Immortality itself : And their Success has been as small, as their Design was extravagant." 1 From a pamphlet entitled The Wisdom of the Nation is Foolishness (1671), Jacob Bell quotes a passage con- firming the nature of the business of the Chymists of that time. " Such Chymists which sell preparations honestly made, complain that few Apothecaries will go to the price of them. ..." One of these, Ambrose Godfrey Hanckwitz, had a house and shop, with a laboratory on the Bedford Estate in 1706, and " was a maker of phosphorus and other chymicals, which 1 One of the founders of the Royal Society was the Honble. Robert Boyle (1626-92), renowned as " the son of the Earl of Cork and the father of modem chemistry," author of The Sceptical Chemist (1669), who introduced the use of chemical reagents and did much to place the science on a saner basis. He refers to druggists and drugsters : " Common nitre we bought at the druggists." " Com- mon oil of turpentine bought at the drugsters." Dryden (16311700) uses the word apothecary : " Wand'ring in the dark, Physicians, for the tree, have found the bark ; With sharpen'd sight some remedies may find Th' apothecary-train is wholly blind." PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 25 were rare at that period, and which he sold in different parts of the country during his travels. His laboratory was a fashionable resort in the afternoon, on certain occasions, when he performed popular experiments for the amusement of his friends." The druggists sold herbs, roots, etc., in the unpre- pared state. The Chymists, as we have shown, pre- pared chiefly medicines which required the aid of fire minerals, earths, or preparations of the metals. These, then, and the chemical philosophers " such as look after the knowledge of Nature in general," referred to in the first class of Bishop Spratt, both derived their origin from the alchymists. In 1671 the Society of Apothecaries added a Chemical Laboratory to their establishment, the object con- templated being the preparation of chemicals, since it had been found no less difficult to obtain this class of substances in a state of purity than the ordinary drugs which were sold by the Merchants and Grocers. This, obviously, was, at that time, a laboratory for manu- facturing rather than experimental work. By the year 1694 says Jacob Bell the Apothe- caries had become a very influential body, and by practising medicine as well as Pharmacy, excited the jealousy of the Physicians, who suffered materially from this encroachment, and endeavoured to reduce their rivals to their original condition of vendors of drugs. On one side it was alleged that the improvement which had taken place among the Apothecaries was a great benefit to the public, and that the Physicians, by endeavouring to restrain them, were undoing the labour of their predecessors ; while the other party animadverted on the extortionate charges of the Apothecaries, and the loss which the public sustained in being deprived, in many cases, of the advantage of 26 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY the best advice, for which it was impossible to pay both the Physician and the Apothecary. The Apothecaries also objected to the Physicians establishing dispen- saries in opposition to them. The dispensaries prospered, however, and enjoyed the patronage of the public ; the Assistants employed and instructed by the Physicians at these institutions became dispensing Chemists on their own account ; and some of the Apothecaries who found their craft in danger followed their example. From this source says Jacob Bell we may date the origin of the CHEMISTS and DRUGGISTS. (The italics and capitals are his.) Boerhaave (1668-1738), who published a great Text- Book of Chemistry in 1732, clearly recognised the existence of chemists other than those who practised pharmacy by his statement : " Nothing has proved more fatal both to the chemical and medicinal art, than an idle opinion, that all kinds of chemical pro- ductions were proper to be made use of as medicines." He showed that although the chemical art " furnishes us with proper help for securing and restoring of health," it also " opens to the human mind the powers of nature/' 1 The distinction between the Apothecary and the manufacturing Chemist is indicated by another publica- tion which appeared about 1748, viz. An Enquiry into the designs of the late PETITION presented to Parliament by the Company of Apothecaries, whereby the Apothe- caries' monstrous profits are exposed, are compared with those of the Chemist, with respect to practice and retail, to 1 The Rev. Dr. South in his Sermons published in 1697 ' " They have no other doctor, but the Sun and the fresh air ; and that, such an one, as never sends them to the apothecary." Bishop Francis Atterbury wrote in 1740 : " They set the clergy below their apothecaries, the physician of the soul below the drag- sters of the body." Compare Bishop Spratt, ante, p. 24. PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 27 which is annexed a Scheme to prevent the empirical Apothecary from practising ; and the Chemist from pre- paring and vending sophisticated medicines, from which it is shown that the chemists made the galenicals for the Apothecaries, who sought power to search the shops of the former. " This privilege/' says Jacob Bell, " was not granted, and the author of the- pamphlet endeavours to prove that the Chemist who prepared medicines is a more competent judge of their quality than the Apothecary who procures them ready made." Prof. John Attfield discussing the title Chemist in the Chemical News (vol. xxxvii, 1878) says: "The Apothecaries' Charter of 1748 was intended to re- strain chemists and druggists from practising phar- macy, that is, compounding prescriptions. It failed. The apothecary (originally only ' a preparer of drugs for medicinal uses ') was then gradually becoming what to-day he is, namely, a medical practitioner, while the chemist and druggist was as gradually succeeding him as a preparer and compounder of medicines." Dr. George Berkenhout, in the Preface to his Theory and Practice of Philosophical Chemistry, published in London, 1758, protests against the confusion then arising from the use of the title " Chymist " by com- pounders of medicine : " Persons, who know nothing more of Chemistry than the name, naturally suppose it to be a trade exercised by the shopkeepers, called Druggists and Chemists who are thought to be chiefly employed in preparing medicines for the use of apothe- caries ; Chemistry, therefore, they imagine, belongs exclusively to physic ; but if, excited by curiosity, they become better acquainted with this bewitching science, they will soon discover its intimate connection with every other branch of human knowledge ; and 28 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY that the arts and manufactures so peculiarly conducive to the prosperity of nations, constantly look up to Chemistry in their progress towards perfection. In this point of view, it claims the support of ministerial power in all countries." Dr. Johnson (i 709-84),* who was fond of chemical experiments, denned chymistry as " the art of separ- ating natural bodies by fire ; preparing chemicals/' and a chymist as " a professor of chymistry " ; phar- macy as " the trade of an apothecary " and druggist as " a person who sells physical drugs/' The chemists and druggists succeeded to the dis- pensing practice of the Apothecaries, who in the year 1793 " instituted an inquiry into defects and privations which existed among them . . .", which arose from certain causes of which the first was " the encroach- ment which Chemists and Druggists have of late years made on the profession of the Apothecary, by vending pharmaceutic preparations, and compounding the prescriptions of Physicians." The Apothecaries deter- mined to form a Society with the title of " The General Pharmaceutical Association of Great Britain " to attack the " Chemists and Druggists " who had by that time so increased in number that there was " scarcely to be found a village or hamlet without a village or a hamlet Druggist," and, on this, Jacob Bell remarks that " at this period, the Chemists and Druggists were entering upon that position which they now occupy, as dispensers of medicine." The result of these exertions of the Apothecaries was not so successful as was anticipated. 1 July 1 8th, 1763 : "I observed an apparatus for chemical experiments, of which Johnson was all his life very fond." Again, under the date of 1783, Boswell gives some particulars supplied by a mutual friend : " Chemistry was always an interesting pursuit with Dr. Johnson." PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 29 In 1802, for a short time, the two classes were brought together for the purpose of protecting their mutual interests against the injurious operation of the Medicine Act, passed on the 3rd of June of that year ; but the Apothecaries soon lost ground in the " trading " department of their profession and, according to Dr. Burrows (circa 1816), complained that the .profits of their business had been greatly deteriorated by dis- pensing Chemists and Druggists. The practice had existed so long, however, that it had acquired from Custom the force of law. " It had indeed become dim- cult to define who was, or who was not, an Apothecary." The " Chemists and Druggists " then began to organise themselves seriously ; but, shortly before this had been definitely accomplished, the Chemical Society was established at a meeting held in the rooms of the Society of Arts on 23rd February, 1841, " For the advancement of Chemistry, and those branches of science immediately connected with it ; for the com- munication and discussion of discoveries and observa- tions relating to such subjects ; the formation of a library of scientific works, and a museum of chemical preparations and standard instruments." The objects of the Chemical Society were purely scientific ; it in- cluded among its members men in various professions who were devoted to the study of Chemistry, and embraced within its sphere of interest every depart- ment of that science (see p. 100). Less than two months later saw the foundation of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, " at a public meeting of the Trade, held at the Crown and Anchor Tavern, in the Strand, on Thursday, April i5th instant," when it was resolved " that for the purpose of protecting the permanent interests, and increasing the respectability of Chemists and Druggists, an 30 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY Association be now formed under the title of the ' PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN/ " The primary object of the Pharmaceutical Society, then, was to provide " chemists and druggists " with an organisation for self-defence in support of their rights, and it resulted eventually in the creation of a national institution for the advancement of pharmacy. Jacob Bell shows definitely his view of the matter, when he refers to " Our predecessors, the original Apothecaries, who were merely compounders of medicine . . ." and when he says " the Members of the Pharmaceutical Society are following in the foot- steps of the original Apothecaries." 1 A paper by Mr. Morson in the first volume of The Pharmaceutical Journal, moreover, tells us that the " Spicers " (circa 1200) " were the first apothecaries or chemists and druggists in Europe," and that when the Apothecaries regularly studied Physic, " the retail Chemist became the only true Apothecary. . . ." 2 Bell in another place says : " The Apothecaries' Company, (which) was originally a company of Pharmaceutical Chemists. ..." Again : " The ultimate object of the Society is to qualify every Druggist in the Kingdom." Prof. Theophilus Redwood, at the conclusion of an introductory lecture on pharmaceutical chemistry, very 1 Lord Byron (1788-1824) wrote : " For Inez called some druggists and physicians." Macaulay (1800-59), in his History of England (chap, xv), says : "... the common drugs with which every apothecary in the smallest market town was provided. ..." a A footnote on p. 179 of Vol. I of the Pharmaceutical Journal is also interesting : " The Dispensing Chemists in America are called Apothecaries. The word being derived from airo and nBrifju, to put together or compound medicine, this designation is more correct than our term Chemist and Druggist." PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 31 naturally mentions the existence of the analyst. He refers also to synthesis, and indicates the importance of chemistry to pharmacy : " We must not ... be unobservant of, or unacquainted with, the investiga- tions of the analyst, and especially those investigations in organic chemistry which are calculated so largely to enrich, as they have already enriched, the storehouse of our remedial agents. It is by the application of correct analysis, and of exact synthesis, that we can alone hope to obtain for Pharmacy that position beside her sister science Chemistry, which, from the nature of the subjects comprehended, and the importance of the objects contemplated, she is so much entitled to hold. " Through the investigations of the analytical Chemist, have been discovered and procured the active proximate principles of a great part of the vegetables employed in medicine ; and these con- stitute some of the most valuable remedies in the hands of the Physician. By the same means we are brought acquainted with the proximate constituents of the animal organs and secretions, 'a branch of know- ledge which, judging from the progress it is now making, is probably destined to contribute, more than any other, to the successful alleviation of the sufferings contingent upon disease. By means of analysis we have determined the nature of many of the produc- tions of the pharmaceutical art, which before were not understood ; and through the continued application of this species of investigation, in connection with the other branches of our science, we may hope eventually to arrive at that perfection in the preparation of medicines, which would enable us to determine the constitution and the action of every remedy, upon unerring principles," 32 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY We will now proceed with the consideration of the development of the craft of pharmacy to the present time. The use of vegetable drugs for purposes, good and bad, obviously dates from the most remote and primitive ages, and trading in such drugs may be traced as -far back as the time of Solomon. Modern times have seen their systematic cultivation, while their commercial importance has increased by leaps and bounds. Concurrently with the advance in medicine towards the close of the eighteenth century, considerable pro- gress was made in pharmaceutical chemistry, and, from that time, in the place of an accumulation of recipes, many of doubtful use and efficacy, a new system of pharmacy was steadily introduced, which, by the middle of the nineteenth century was of no mean order. The first pharmacopoeia was produced by the London College of Physicians in 1721, and was followed by others (1746, 1788, 1809, 1836) forming the basis of the practice of pharmacy, which, as we have shown, had no distinct organisation apart from the original Society of Apothecaries until the foundation of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain in 1841. The first Pharmacy Act, 1852, was passed to prevent ignorant and incompetent persons from pretending to be pharmaceutical chemists, but it did not restrict the practice of pharmacy or the sale of poisons. Later editions of the Pharmacopoeia, published in 1864 and 1867, tended to improve the supply of drugs both as to purity and uniformity, and in 1868 a further Phar- macy Act was passed, imposing a penalty on any person compounding any medicine of the British Pharmacopoeia except according to its formularies. PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 33 The British Pharmacopoeia thus supplied the necessary standards for preparation ; the Pharma- ceutical Society of Great Britain, having determined the qualifications for its membership, became duly constituted as the organisation for examination and registration of " chemists and druggists " ; and the sale of poisons retail was restricted to competent persons duly examined and registered by the Society. Later, under the Poisons and Pharmacy Act, 1908, the sale of poisons for medicinal purposes still remained safeguarded, but the law was altered to allow, under certain conditions, the sale of poisonous substances used exclusively in agriculture or horticulture for the destruction of insects, fungi, bacteria, or as sheep dips or weed killers, by traders licensed by local authorities. The Acts of 1852 and 1868 had reserved certain titles to registered individuals ; but the law had been interpreted so that this restriction was held not to apply to companies. The Act of 1908, however, made it illegal for a pharmaceutical company to use the title " chemist and druggist " unless the sale of poisons by them was under the actual superintendence of a qualified person, and unless each branch or shop of the company was under the charge of a qualified person. A pharmacist, therefore, is a person who is legally qualified to conduct the business of " chemist and druggist," including the sale of poisons and the com- pounding of the prescriptions of duly qualified medical practitioners, and the title " pharmacist " is reserved solely for any person duly qualified under the Phar- macy Acts, the Pharmaceutical Society being further empowered to prescribe a course of training for in- tending candidates, which would improve the status of pharmacists and promote their usefulness to the public. 34 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY A candidate for registration, under the Pharmacy Act, 1868, as a " chemist and druggist " is required (i.) to pass a Preliminary Examination, including English, Mathematics, and two optional subjects; 1 (ii.) to be registered as an Apprentice or Student and to be practically engaged for three years in the trans- lation and dispensing of prescriptions ; and (iii.) to pass the Minor Examination, comprising Botany, Chemistry and Physics, Chemistry (Practical), Materia Medica, Pharmacy, Practical Pharmacy and Dispens- ing, Latin and Prescription Reading. In preparation for this examination, in addition to the apprentice- ship, candidates are recommended to obtain systematic instruction occupying a period of not less than six months, including at least sixty Lectures in chemistry, eighteen hours' work in each week in Practical Chem- istry, forty-five lectures and demonstrations in Botany and twenty-five lectures and demonstrations in Materia Medica. Candidates for registration as Phar- maceutical Chemists under the Pharmacy Act, 1852, are required to pass the Major Examination, comprising Botany, Chemistry and Physics, Chemistry (Practical), and Materia Medica. Pharmaceutical chemists and " chemists and drug- gists " are trained, examined, and registered for the protection of the public. They are held answerable for the purity of the substances in which they deal, though except in comparatively rare instances few of them are able to devote much of their time to laboratory work in this or other connections. In these circumstances, greater responsibility has devolved on the wholesale manufacturing chemists. 1 Junior and Senior Local, School Leaving, and Matriculation Examinations of the Universities are accepted by the Pharmaceutical Society for this purpose. PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 35 The physician would be unable to prescribe, with any hope of curing or relieving his patient, unless he could feel assured that the constituents of his medicines were properly compounded by the pharmacist who, in turn, must be assured of the efficient production of such constituents in the first place by the chemists engaged in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products. Ampng the latter are not a few trained originally as pharmaceutical chemists who occupy positions of great responsibility, requiring special chemical as well as pharmaceutical knowledge and frequently considerable acquaintance with physiology and pathology. Such chemists have made discoveries of far-reaching im- portance in the chemistry of botanical products useful in medicine, while by the study of the chemical pro- cesses of the animal organism, as well as by their work in connection with synthetic drugs, narcotics, anaesthe- tics, antiseptics, and in the production of various sera, they have clearly illustrated the advantages of science in their industry, which demands the service of chemists of the highest standard of competence. The pharmacists have learned to rely on the manu- facturing chemists, and while the commercial side of their business has been developed, the wholesale pro- duction of proprietary medicines and preparations in convenient form has reduced the work of the dis- pensary. The medical profession has taken advantage of this production, so that the prescription of ready prepared remedies represents a considerable proportion of modern practice. At the same time, the sale of " patent " medicines, which has increased enormously, has also contributed to the reduction of dispensing. It would seem that, in order to recoup themselves for the loss of much of the more skilful and remunerative 36 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY part of their calling, the pharmacists have been forced to trench on other businesses, and thus, in spite of the increasing stringency of the qualifying examinations, the craft is in danger of becoming more commercial and less scientific ; and, in any case, more that of the druggist and less that of the chemist. Notwithstanding all the evidence we have culled from the history of British pharmacy, it has been held that the pharmacist has acquired a prior right to the title chemist on the other grounds, including the following : First, because some of the earliest applications of chemistry were to be found in pharmacy and medicine ; though these relate only to a limited field in the vast domain of chemical science. Second, because the Pharmacy Acts were passed before the scientific and industrial chemists of the present day came into existence ; though British chemistry can claim such men as Boyle, Black, Priestley, Cavendish, Dalton, Davy and Wollaston as workers in " pure " chemistry, and Bessemer, Pattinson, Welldon, Perkin, Abel, James Young and others, in applied chemistry, in most cases before the Act of 1852 and in all before that of 1868. Third, because the chemist and druggist sells not only medicines and drugs, but other substances used for manufacturing and domestic purposes insecti- cides, vermin killers and disinfectants ; though the seller is not necessarily a producer. He does not claim to be a brushmaker because he sells brushes. We have shown, moreover, that local authorities may license other traders, not necessarily chemists at all, to sell some of the substances referred to. Fourth, because he is examined and certified in chemistry, a much more legitimate claim ; though PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 37 it is obvious that (he scope and character of his ex- amination, designed to meet the demands of his business, are elementary, unless he proceeds to the major examination, which indeed is of a high standard for its purpose. Fifth, because of the rights conferred by the Phar- macy Acts and by usage ; though Section HI clearly shows that the Acts are not intended to interfere with the chemist to whom we apply the title. 1 The rights conferred on the pharmacist did not remove the right to the title previously enjoyed by chemists who did not practise pharmacy, but it was necessary to define those to whom the Acts of 1868 applied. Public usage so far as it has been established has not at any time denied the title to any man distinguished in chemical science ; and pharmacists themselves could not refer to such men except as chemists. It is admitted that the change which we desire to see brought about would involve considerable expense ; still, we are hopeful that if pharmacists admit the justice of our views, and cease to style themselves chemists, they will not shrink from the loss which may be involved by changing their facias, labels, bill and letter headings, etc., although this may be no small consideration when it affects some 9000 establishments. The Pharmaceutical Society cannot restrict the use of the title chemist unless the user unlawfully keeps open 1 Section III. Chemists and Druggists within the meaning of this Act shall consist of all Persons who at any Time before the passing of this Act have carried on in Great Britain the Business of a Chemist and Druggist, in the keeping of open Shop for the compounding of the Prescriptions of duly qualified Medical Prac- titioners, also of all Assistants and Associates who before the passing of this Act shall have been duly registered under or according to the Provisions of the Pharmacy Act, and also of all such Persons as may be duly registered under this Act. 38 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY shop for the sale and dispensing of poisons. There is, on the other hand, no desire on the part of analytical, con- sulting, and technological chemists to interfere with the business of the pharmacist or druggist. The general community, however, being in closer touch with the " pharmaceutical chemist " and " chemist and druggist " has been largely ignorant of the ex- istence of consulting, analytical, and technological chemists. The latter, therefore, would welcome the more general adoption by the former of the title " pharmacist," which enables a definite distinction to be made betw r een those who practise pharmacy and those who practise chemistry. We have shown how the confusion arose in this country, and will now show that it does not so exist in any other, by giving the following schedule of equiva- lents : French Medecin pharmacien Pharmacien Chimiste Apothicaire (term of contempt) Italian Farmacista Chimieo Spanish Apozicari Quimico Farmaceutico Chimista Boticario Portuguese Boticario Chimist Pharmaceutico German 1 Apotheker Chemiker Arzeneibereiter Dutch Apotheker Chimist Artsenigmenger Scheikundige Danish j Apotheker Kemiker or Norwegian / Chemiker 1 In an autobiographical sketch of Justus voii Liebig, translated by Prof. Campbell Brown, occurs this interesting passage : "... my father took me to an apothecary at Heppenheim, in the Hessian Bergstrasse ; but at the end of ten months he was so tired of me that he sent me home again to my father. I wished to be a chemist, but not a druggist." PHARMACISTS AND CHEMISTS 39 Swedish Apotekare Kemist Russian Aptickari Chimiki Pharmatsicobi Greek Pharmachopoios Chemichos Pharmakeutes Pharmakeus Apotheke Professors of Chemistry in our Universities and Colleges teach chemistry, not pharmacy. The head of the Government Laboratories is styled the " Govern- ment Chemist," of the Admiralty Laboratories, the " Admiralty Chemist," whilst many other officials, to whom we shall refer in a later chapter, are engaged on chemical work and are styled " chemists " ; certainly not " pharmacists." The representative body of pharmacists is rightly styled The Pharmaceutical Society, and that of chemists The Institute of Chemistry. Modern dictionaries define Chemist primarily as one skilled or versed in the science of chemistry, and chemistry as the science of the elements and the laws which regulate their combination and behaviour under various conditions. The profession with which we are concerned herein is that of chemistry according to that definition and not pharmacy ; and when we consider the remarkable advances made in chemical science and the vast ground it covers, we feel justified in maintaining that, if any chemist deserves to use the title without any qualifying adjective, he should be a thoroughly trained all-round chemist, before all things a chemist, and should so style himself. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING BEFORE the general utilisation of steam power, the expression " technical education " had no reference to special training in science : it was used gener- ally to denote the training in manual skill and in the use of tools in the practical arts, formerly acquired by artisans and operatives under apprenticeship. The superior skill of artisans and mechanics was then the predominant feature essential to industrial success whilst, compared with modern standards, knowledge of the sciences was exceedingly elementary. Science was regarded chiefly as a pursuit for men of leisure, and, as such, was devoted rather to the methodical arrange- ment of established facts than to the determination of methods of discovery. Chemistry was studied to a very limited extent by medical students for the purposes of their vocations and comparatively rarely by others. Apart from the professors in the Uni- versities, there were few practitioners. Technical schools and Colleges, as we now use these terms, scarcely existed, and laboratories for practical instruc- tion were very few in number. Students were seldom afforded opportunities for individual practical work, which was usually taught by demonstration. The progress made in the use of steam power and, later, electrical power in machinery, particularly for locomotion, effected great changes in economic relations, and the increasing applications of scientific knowledge 40 PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 41 to industrial operations in other countries, brought the realisation that this country was in danger of being overtaken in her hitherto unchallenged commercial supremacy. Industrial conditions became changed in a variety of ways, and one remarkable result of inter- national competition was the creation of a demand for a new order of intelligence in all branches of industry. To meet this demand, " technical education/' with a new meaning, was introduced ; so that the last seventy-five years have witnessed the establishment throughout the country of numerous institutions, the main object of the majority being to provide practical and utilitarian in addition to purely academical train- ing. The Universities and University Colleges, also, while for the most part preserving their function of maintaining and advancing pure science, have in recent times established faculties of applied science. 1 Bacon complained that, in his time, the Universities were opposed to the progress of knowledge, and con- tended that in the Arts and Sciences, as in mines, all around should echo with the sound of new works and further progress. We may claim, therefore, that the Universities have since made considerable advance in that direction, and whereas in Bacon's time objects unattained were held to be impossible, the fact is now established clearly that the more we achieve the greater become the possibilities of further achieve- ment each succeeding generation building on the work of its predecessor. Some of the colleges in our great cities have made such progress that they have been reconstituted as universities, in which most of the students are found 1 The History of the Institute of Chemistry (1877-1914) contains a concise account of the foundation and progress of many of the principal chairs of chemistry in Great Britain and Ireland. 42 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY in the science faculties. Thus, University education has been made readily available to those who lean towards scientific pursuits, as well as to those whose mental faculties are turned to literature and the arts. Situated in great manufacturing centres, they supply a real want ; local industries have thereby been stimulated and have materially benefited. En- deavours have been made to meet the special require- ments of particular centres, and the interest of manu- facturers has been secured by the election of men identified with industry as members of the governing bodies. The older universities and colleges also have rapidly developed their scientific departments to meet the needs of the times. We have already remarked that there are seventeen Universities and over 250 Technical Colleges and other institutions in Great Britain and Ireland pro- viding courses of training in chemistry and allied sub- jects, and that in all the Universities and in many of the Colleges courses are provided for the preparation of students for degrees in science. Provision has been made, therefore, for the training of professional chemists and a constant supply of competent men is thereby rendered available for the service of the community. The progress of chemical science depends upon the work of analysts, consultants, and technologists, as well as on that of the teachers. * There is no antagonism between pure and applied chemistry, but on the con- trary each is dependent on the other. Credit for advances in theory and practice is due to both teachers and practitioners. It is essential, therefore, that the 1 For simplicity, we refer to those who are chiefly engaged in teaching as teachers, although in some cases they may also under- take consulting practice. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 43 closest relations should be fostered between all chemists for the furtherance of their interests, educational and professional. The chemist with experience of the problems occur- ring in practice can clearly take a part in education by indicating the trend of scientific applications in in- dustry and in everyday life, and by making his technical knowledge available to those who are chiefly engaged in teaching. A proper estimate of the training necessary for the profession can best be secured, therefore, by a body representative of those having experience in its various branches. This is one of the main advantages to be derived from an organisation such as the In- stitute of Chemistry, whose work in relation to the professional training of chemists will now be discussed. The Regulations prescribed by the Institute, framed and developed by successive Councils, represent an authoritative consensus of opinion in determining a system of technical training which should make a sound foundation on which the student can build his subsequent experience. The Institute has in this way co-operated with the Universities and Colleges in pro- moting the steady improvement of the standard of education in chemical science. These Regulations provide for the registration of students preparing for the Examination for the Associ- ateship (A.I.C.). Such registration is not obligatory, but it is advantageous in that it brings the Students at an early stage into touch with the work of the Institute. Through the published Proceedings, they learn some- thing of matters of professional interest and become acquainted with the nature of the qualifying examina- tions ; while from the Lectures given before the Institute, published gratis to all members and students, 44 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY they obtain an insight into the actual work of various branches of practice. It is advantageous, moreover, for the Students to feel assured that, although the Regulations are liable to be changed from time to time, they can proceed under those in operation at the time of their registra- tion and make their arrangements accordingly. From the foundation of the Institute in 1877, a minimum of three years' systematic training at a recognised institution was prescribed as the main requirement of candidates for the Associateship (A. I.C.), though two years' experience under a Fellow in an approved laboratory could be reckoned in lieu of one year at an institution. As, in. the course of time, the majority of the recognised institutions be- came universities, candidates in most cases completed their college training, and took a Degree in science before entering for the Associateship examination of the Institute. Compared with former times, however, the ground to be covered has attained such dimensions and is constantly being so much extended that, in spite of all improvements in the methods of teaching and in the equipment of laboratories, four years must now be regarded as the minimum period for a satis- factory training. The Regulations adopted in 1917 offered several alternative schemes to candidates for the Examination for the Associateship ; but further modifications, to which we will refer shortly, have now been adopted (pp. 50-51). For the present, we re- produce the alternative schemes referred to, as they provide the prospective chemist with a definite idea of the extent of the requirements : (a) A four years systematic day training in the prescribed subjects including Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics and one optional subject at a University or College PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 45 recognised by the Council, passing the class examina- tions in the said subjects ; or (b) A three years systematic day training as above, passing the class examinations, and two other years approved experience 1 under a Fellow of the Institute, or in a laboratory or works approved by the Council ; or (c) A degree, including Chemistry in the degree Examina- tion, taken otherwise than in accordance with (d) and (e) below, at a recognised University and (i.) a further year's training in Chemistry at a recognised University or College, or (ii.) two other years approved experience 1 under a Fellow of the Institute, or in a laboratory or works approved by the Council ; or (d) A degree with first or second class honours in Chemistry or other diploma recognised by the Council as equiva- lent, after a three years systematic day course, and (i.) a further year's training in Chemistry at a recog- nised University or College or (ii.) two other years approved experience 1 under a Fellow of the Institute, or in a laboratory or works approved by the Council ; or (e) A degree with first or second class honours in Chemistry or other degree or diploma recognised by the Council as equivalent, after a four years systematic day course ; provided in every case that the Candidate produces satis- factory evidence of training and examination in Physics, Mathematics, and an optional subject. The optional subjects prescribed are Agriculture, Bacteriology, Biology, Botany, Geology and Mineral- ogy, Higher Mathematics, Mechanics, Steam and Chemical Engineering, Metallurgy, Higher Physics, and Physiology. 1 " One year may be accepted by the Council as sufficient where the approved experience in a laboratory or works has been acquired subsequently to the prescribed training in a recognised University or College." 46 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY With the increase in the number of technical in- stitutions giving instruction in science, the Council of the Institute have had to meet the difficulty of deciding which should be placed on the list of those formally recognised as affording a satisfactory preparation for the Associateship. Having in view the interests of students seeking adequate preparation for their profession, the Council have to satisfy themselves with regard to the general status of the institutions, the constitution of the teaching staffs, the syllabus of courses provided to meet the requirements of the Institute, the equipment of the chemical and physical laboratories, and the character of the work done by the students, as in- dicated by the successes achieved. The success of an institution in preparing candidates for University Examinations provides a means of gauging the efficiency of the institution seeking recognition, so that from among those which maintain a good record of such successes the Council of the Institute may, from time to time, add to the list of institutions formally recognised. For many years the problem was simplified by a regulation under which day classes only were accepted. Many technical schools providing only evening courses were thereby excluded from the recognised list. Train- ing by evening classes was not and still cannot be regarded as entirely satisfactory, as it entails a heavy physical strain on the student otherwise engaged throughout the day ; but we will show that due pro- vision has now been made for the admission of evening Students to the examination for the Associateship. It will be observed, moreover, that a candidate who has passed the Final Examination for the Degree of B.Sc. in chemistry in an approved University, is entitled to apply for admission to the Associateship PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 47 Examination, provided he has had some experience of practice and can satisfy the Council with regard to his training in Physics, Mathematics and an optional subject. To such candidates, therefore, no hardship arises from the fact that they have been trained in evening classes or at an institution which has not been formally recognised. The Council, in fact, have made special provision for candidates whose circumstances have not allowed of their following the normal curriculum. They will con- sider applications for admission to the Examination for the Associate ship from candidates whose training has not been strictly in accordance with the schemes referred to, provided (i.) that they have passed an approved Preliminary Examination in subjects of general education, (ii.) that they have received system- atic instruction satisfactory to the Council, by day or evening classes, in the prescribed subjects, and have passed approved examinations therein, (iii.) that they have been engaged in the study and practice of chemistry for at least ten years, and (iv.) that their cases are recommended for special consideration by Fellows of the Institute personally acquainted with their work. By accepting degrees as evidence of training, the Institute has encouraged many Candidates to take full University courses, and to this, no doubt, is largely due the fact that, although the majority of the members were admitted prior to the advent of the modern Universities, over 70% of the Fellows and Associates are graduates. In the past the training for a Degree in Science was often rather academic than practical, and, therefore, conducive to the production of science 48 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY teachers rather than of chemists preparing for other professional practice. Incidentally we would mention also that lack of suitable openings deprived them of op- portunities of proving their capacity in other directions. The Institute, however, endeavoured to promote the practical side of training, thereby setting a balance against the preponderance of theoretical instruction over laboratory work ; so that in these circumstances a further course of practical training was often found advisable. In recent years, however, the character of the training and examinations of the Universities has been modified to render their honours graduates in chemistry better prepared than formerly for the more practical branches of the profession ; and this has been recognised by new Regulations of the Institute to which we will refer in due course. So long as the recognised Institutions remained Colleges, the Institute provided a qualification for those who complied with its regulations and passed its examinations ; but when the Colleges became Uni- versities, many of their graduates were disinclined to take further examinations and proceeded to appoint- ments in various branches of chemical work without qualifying as Associates of the Institute. Thus, in the course of time, an increasing body of well-trained chemists remained outside the ranks of the Institute, which, therefore, was becoming proportionately less representative of the chemists of the country. The diplomas of Fellowship and Associateship, however, signified a very high standard and the influence of the Institute was not inconsiderable when brought to bear on public matters affecting the interests of the pro- fession as a whole. Under the conditions arising from the war, the demand for chemists in industry increased the oppor- PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 49 tunities for gaining practical experience ; so that the Institute, in its endeavours to assist the Government in meeting that demand, extended its appeal for chemists far beyond the roll of Members and Registered Students. The need for more complete organisation became generally acknowledged and the Council of the Institute had in view a scheme for effecting that object when an independent movement in the same direction led to a well-attended meeting being held at Manchester in November, 1917, for the purpose of forming a new body to be known as the British Association of Chemists. The promoters, however, not being desirous of creating any unnecessary additional organisation, proposed that if the Institute would undertake the objects they had in view, they would not proceed to any formal incorpora- tion. The objects sought were, briefly, to obtain power to act as sole registration authority for all chemists ; to have the word chemist legally redefined ; to safeguard the public by obtaining legislation ensuring that certain prescribed chemical operations should be under the direct control of a chemist ; to raise the profession of the chemist to its proper position among the other learned professions, so that it might attract a larger proportion of the best intellects, and thereby secure a supply of highly trained chemists adequate to the industrial needs of the country. Obviously, the primary problem was to determine who should be accounted a chemist. The Institute by its Regulations provided a standard of qualification ; but there were undoubtedly many outside the mem- bership whose claim to rank as chemists could not be denied. The new Association could not become rhe sole registration authority, since the Institute already possessed registration powers under Royal 50 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY Charter, and there was the Pharmaceutical Society to be reckoned with on the definition of the word chemist. On the latter point representatives of the Institute had already been in conference with those of the Phar- maceutical Society and had elicited information which tended at least to make the position clear. The objects referred to above were, in any case, already part of the recognised policy of the Institute. In these circumstances, there remained only the funda- mental question of establishing the qualifications re- garded as essential to chemists who should be registered. It should be recorded that the Council of the In- stitute had already made provision for the admission of trained chemists who had been prevented from taking the Examinations of the Institute owing to the war. This step had been taken after very careful consideration ; but clearly involved a departure from the previous practice of requiring all candidates for the Associateship to pass an Examination conducted by the Institute. The " British Association of Chemists " was pro- visionally constituted on the understanding referred to ; meetings were held in various parts of the country ; Local Sections were formed ; and an Executive Com- mittee was appointed to confer with the Council of the Institute. As a result of the negotiations between the two bodies an agreement was reached with regard to the question of qualification, and in April, 1918, the Council of the Institute called an Extraordinary General Meeting of the Fellows and Associates to discuss the proposals involved, having in view the desirability of effecting the more complete organisation of properly trained and competent chemists. At this meeting it was decided that it was desirable to modify the existing requirements of the Institute, in PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 51 order to include as many chemists as possible in its Membership (Associateship and Fellowship), so far as such a course was within the provisions of the Royal Charter ; and, therefore, that any candidate who had complied with the following conditions should be accepted as eligible to apply for admission to the Associateship of the Institute without further examination : That he has attained the age of twenty-one years ; and either (a) That he has obtained a degree with first or second class honours in Chemistry (or other degree or diploma recognised by the Council as equivalent) after a three years systematic day course, and (i.) has taken a further year's training in chemistry at a recognised University or College ; or (ii.) has had two other years approved experience 1 under a Fellow of the Institute or in a laboratory or works approved by the Council ; or (b) That he has obtained a degree with first or second class honours in Chemistry (or other degree or diploma recognised by the Council as equivalent) after a four years systematic day course ; or (c) That he has obtained a degree with first or second class honours in Chemistry after training (by day or evening classes) and experience equivalent in extent and character, in the opinion of the Council, to the training and experience specified in the two pre- ceding paragraphs ; Provided in every case that the Candidate has pro- duced satisfactory evidence of training and exam- ination in Physics, Mathematics and an optional subject. 2 Further, it was considered desirable to prescribe that, until December 3ist, 1921, any Candidate who could 1 One year to be accepted by the Council as sufficient where the approved experience in a laboratory or works has been acquired subsequently to the prescribed training in a recognised University or College. 2 See optional subjects, p. 45. 52 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY produce evidence satisfactory to the Council of having had a sufficient general and scientific education, and of having practised pure and applied chemistry for not less than seven years, and who held a responsible position, should be accepted as eligible to apply for admission to the Associateship of the Institute with- out Examination, provided that he had complied with the provisions of the Charter of the Institute with regard to age, general education, and scientific train- ing in Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, and an optional subject and had passed approved examina- tions in those subjects. It was stipulated, however, that in considering applications under this last clause, the Council should expect candidates to produce evidence of having been trained and occupied in a manner which, in the opinion of the Council, was equivalent to fulfilling the condi- tions required of candidates admitted under (a) above. It was agreed that Candidates who had not complied with the conditions specified, or with the regulations adopted as a temporary (War) measure (p. 50), should be required to comply with the Regulations adopted and published by the Council hi July, 1917 (pp. 44-45) ; and that the list of Institutions recognised by the Council for the training of chemists should be recon- sidered with a view to its further extension. Resolutions were also passed to the effect that local sections of the Institute should be formed to maintain the interest of the members in the general welfare of their profession and to promote social intercourse ; and that the system of election to the Council should be revised with a view to securing direct representation from different localities and from different branches of the profession. Further reference to these matters will be made later. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 53 With regard to elections to the Fellowship, and elections to the Associateship under the temporary (War) conditions, the Council will review its policy from year to year, immediately after each Annual General Meeting. The Council have modified the constitution and Regulations of the Institute, making impossible for adequately trained and competent chemists in any branch of the profession to become duly registered by the recognised professional body; but, notwithstand- ing -the adoption of this policy, a newly constituted British Association of Chemists has been formed, which we understand is intended to deal mainly with the economic interests of chemists. Among the degrees and diplomas recognised by the Council of the Institute as equivalent to a degree with first or second class honours in chemistry, we would mention Degrees in Arts of recognised Uni- versities wherein the requirements in chemistry are of equivalent standard, Degrees in Science wherein an equivalent standard has been attained under a different designation, and in the case of matriculated students, Diplomas such as Associateship of the Royal Colleges of Science, London and Ireland, and the Associateship of the City and Guilds of London Institute, Finsbury Technical College. It has been noted (p. 17) that in the Colleges provid- ing a diploma course, students who wish to take the diploma are required to matriculate or to pass an entrance examination to the College, and, in any case, such students must pass an approved Preliminary Examination, or otherwise satisfy the Council with regard to the standard of their general education, if they wish to qualify for the Associateship of the 54 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY Institute. The subjects required to be taken at the entrance examinations to the Colleges usually corre- spond with the subjects of the courses provided, the object being to ascertain if the students have already acquired sufficient elementary knowledge at school to enable them to proceed to the more advanced work of the Colleges. We will now venture to make a few general observa- tions on the training of a chemist. With the commencement of College work the student enters on a new phase of life, giving him greater freedom than he has enjoyed at school, but entailing greater responsibility and self-reliance. Technical educa- tion usually commences at about the age of seventeen. The sciences with which a chemist must be acquainted are so connected and so enlighten one another that it is impossible for him to attain a competent knowledge of any one branch, without an acquaintance with at least the fundamental principles of several allied branches. Though he has comparative mastery over one science, he will find the study of that obscure if he neglects others ; and these, though subsidiary, should be pursued to such an extent that the knowledge acquired is real and useful. The man with a smattering is found to be a source of danger in his profession, whilst he con- tributes to the crowding out of the more competent. The trained technical man's bag of tools is his brain ; the tools consist of the departments of knowledge he is able to exercise ; the better he is able to use them by the aid of his " common sense," the more successful is he likely to be in practice : the broader his training, the better his equipment. With these considerations in view, there should be no question of avoiding the additional subjects. It is not sought to impose hardship on the students, but to PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 55 advise and require what is best in their own interests. It is not our purpose here to follow the technical details of the course or the choice of particular text- books. These matters must be left to the judgment of teachers. We would mention one point, however, which is often ignored. Students taking chemistry as their principal subject have usually evinced a liking for the science while at school, and there is in most instances considerable enthusiasm, since their choice of chemistry as a profession is deliberate : not a mere drifting into a profession. It is absolutely essential, however, that the students should work and acquire the habit of " working hard." There should be no place in a College laboratory for those who do not, and here let it be well noted that laziness and dilatoriness are seldom chargeable to the evening class technical school man, with whom the more regularly trained graduate may sooner or later come into competition. Chemistry, theoretical and practical, must, of course, be regarded as the principal subject, the other subjects occupying a relatively smaller proportion of the student's time. The science of chemistry is based upon experiment. A useful knowledge of the subject can hardly be acquired from books alone. Without knowledge of the substances which he handles a student may carry out experiments to the danger of himself and others ; he may follow a book with some degree of safety and repeat series of operations limited by his resources in apparatus and materials. He may possibly learn something by his results and by his mistakes ; but, without proper direction, he will make little progress. The education of the student during his school career has largely consisted in memorising facts. He has to be trained to think, and ta deduce con- 56 . THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY elusions from known facts. Chemistry particularly calls into use his common sense as well as his natural faculties. The faculty of observation should be cultivated in all practical work, as, for instance, in the recognition of substances by their appearance and, with limitations, smell, taste, and touch. The im- pressions thereby conveyed frequently assist in deter- mining the course of an investigation. The aim of modern teaching is to produce thinkers, not mere accumulators of book knowledge, not mere testing machines, but men able to exercise their knowledge in scientific enquiry and to develop initiative and resource- fulness. The training should be clearly defined and efficiently carried out on broad lines, forming a sound basis for experience. The student must acquire some understanding of the character and effects of the more important chemical changes and processes in nature and the arts in order that he may realise their relation to the affairs of everyday life. His course should embrace the scientific study of typical technical processes on the large scale. It is not sufficient to work through the usual ana- lytical tables and to repeat simple operations in qualitative and quantitative analysis. The student who is to be properly trained must be instructed systematically in the philosophy and history of chem- istry ; not simply to learn but to understand and to form a proper judgment upon the results of his work. The main objects of training, therefore, are to induce in the student the habit of thought on general principles, in order that he may realise their practical bearing ; to enable him to carry out operations with an intelligent appreciation of their meaning and purpose, and to express his results and conclusions in proper form. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 57 The methodical keeping of records of practical work and the preparation of reports should form an im- portant feature of the training. The records of prac- tical work should be made at the time, omitting no essential details, the results and -conclusions being summarised in a concise and logical statement. Candi- dates presenting themselves for the examinations of the Institute, and usually those who are taking the University degree examinations, are expected to submit the actual notebooks used during the latter part of the University or College training, for inspec- tion by the Examiners, who take them into account in arriving at a decision. Reverting to the Regulations of the Institute, it should be specially noted that before presenting himself for the Examination for the Associateship, the Candi- date, unless he has graduated or obtained a recognised diploma, is required to show that he has passed satis- factorily the class examinations of his College in each of the requisite subjects. A careful inspection of the sylla- bus and of past papers set at the A.I.C. Examination will give the Candidate a good general idea of the extent of the knowledge he is expected to possess. In addition to receiving systematic laboratory instruction, every candidate should be accustomed to use the microscope, spectroscope, polarimeter, refractometer, and other instruments commonly employed in chemical labora- tories, and should also be able to draw diagrams of apparatus and instruments. Modern chemistry is so closely allied to electrical science that a chemist, particularly if he intends to practise in industry, would be poorly equipped without systematic training in physics, at least up to Degree standard. The minimum course prescribed in mathe- 58 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY matics, however, is of such a character that many students have already covered the ground at school. On the other hand, a working knowledge of the calculus has become practically essential. In the selection of an additional subject the student will be guided by its usefulness in the line of work to which he feels attracted. Obviously, a chemist intend- ing to practise in mineral chemistry would find it necessary to know something of mineralogy and geology ; the prospective public analyst, something of physiology and botany; and the biological chemist, something of biology and zoology. In fact, candidates taking Branch (e) the Chemistry of Food and Drugs, etc. in the Associateship Examination (pp. 65-67) are required to produce satisfactory evidence of having taken a course in Elementary Botany, with practice in microscopy ; and, similarly, candidates taking Branch (/) Biological Chemistry, etc. are required to pro- duce satisfactory evidence of having taken a course in Elementary Biology, and of having passed the Class Examinations, respectively, in those subjects. Students should have a sound grasp of fundamental principles before they attempt any specialisation, and for this reason it is generally held to be desirable that they should undergo systematic training at an insti- tution before proceeding to a private or industrial laboratory. As the training approaches its close, how- ever, it may be modified according to the bent and aim of the individual. Promising students are frequently selected towards the end of their curricula to assist a professor in the conduct of research, either of purely academical interest, or such as involves the application of know- ledge and skill to directly practical purposes. It is PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 59 futile and a waste of time for those to attempt research who are not well equipped with theoretical know- ledge and prepared by practical training. On the other hand, for a well-trained student to have opportunities of working with a skilled investigator, to think with him and to assist in carrying out his ideas, affords experience which cannot be overvalued when it brings the student under the immediate influence of a dis- ciplined mind accustomed to reasoning out the logical inferences from the results of experiment. If he possesses any aptitude for research, his genius will be fostered by emulation, and any latent powers he may possess will enable him to take advantage of the chances offered him at this period. The universities have for many years required original research as a condition precedent to the granting of the highest academical qualifications, such as M.Sc. and D.Sc. ; and in some universities, as at Oxford, can- didates for honours in the Bachelor Degree are now required to submit an original thesis as an obligatory part of the Examination. It is very probable that a similar requirement will be introduced by other Universities in their examinations for degrees in science. The experienced research chemist constantly notes problems for solution ; determines the direction of a selected enquiry, having first acquainted himself with what has already been published on the subject ; inspires his assistants with the train of thought under- lying the operations. The Professor who acquires a reputation for research attracts students to his College and, though all cannot realise the hope of intimate association in his work, the majority will come under the influence of his enthusiasm. After research experience in a University or College, 60 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY the chemist who finds this branch of work attractive may become a candidate for a Research Fellowship or Scholarship which will enable him to extend his experience, or he may obtain an appointment in a research laboratory connected with an industrial con- cern, or possibly in a laboratory maintained by an association of manufacturers, of which there are several established in various industrial centres ; or he may become attached to the staff of an Institution, such as the Imperial Institute, the Lister Institute, the National Physical Laboratory, or an Agricultural Experimental Station ; or take a position with a consulting chemist whose practice includes investiga- tions bearing on definite industrial problems. Good research chemists are comparatively rare. They vary greatly, from the solid straightforward thinkers, who achieve results by the laborious method of exhaustion, to those whose mental activity is of such a character that they seize upon the direct line of attack by some indefinable instinct or intuition. Others again have a greater faculty for directing than for carrying out the work themselves, like the looker-on who sees most of the game. They have time for reflection and by pertinent questioning and reason- ing elucidate ideas of importance which might other- wise escape notice. Accurate analysts with manipula- tive skill are always desirable in the research laboratory. Those who are first-rate glass workers or handy with the ordinary tools of the carpenter and plumber are invaluable. Often the discovery of new phenomena fails to find immediate practical application, but the importance of pioneer work is sooner or later recognised at its true value. The far-reaching effects of the investiga- tion of the derivatives of benzene afford a striking PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 61 illustration of the result s of enquiry primarily con- ducted solely for scientific interest ; again, when helium was discovered, who could have foretold that it would be used for rilling dirigible airships, thus rendering them immune from explosive bullets. The creation of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the increase by the Government of the amount allowed for grants in aid of scientific in- vestigation, and the establishment of Research Associa- tions in connection with various industries promise well for the further encouragement of research chemists and the future development of applied science. The Universities and Colleges of to-day, accepting the principle that it is not only their business to educate, but also to advance knowledge, have adopted the prose- cution of research as one of their most important functions ; but research is by no means confined to the Universities and Colleges ; and it is no longer the practice to restrict the term to investigations in pure science. The science of chemistry has been advanced, particularly by the discovery of new analytical methods and the invention of new apparatus, by consultants and analysts in practice ; while applied chemistry has naturally been promoted in the main by chemists directly engaged in industry. Teachers undoubtedly have the great advantage in research work that they are constantly reviewing the great and general principles, the full importance of which is always before them ; and it would seem that the nearer a discovery is related to such principles the wider are its ultimate applications. The Universities are increasingly alive to the fact that they have to produce chemists who can be relied on to take their places in the workaday world. During the war, for instance, it was of supreme importance to the troops 62 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY to devise, quickly and efficiently, the means of defence against poisonous gas attacks, or a cheap and effective antiseptic for use in surgery, or a useful substitute for leather or rubber, leaving for more peaceful times the problem of adding further links to some multi-syllabic organic compound for which no immediate use was likely to be found. Comparatively few are able to occupy themselves in the pursuit of truth solely for the pleasure it affords and without reward ; but we must be grateful that some such exist, and acknow- ledge that these chemist philosophers often produce remarkable results. Much has been said of the relation of research to invention, and it is not so easy to determine where the one leaves off and the other begins, nor do we need to attempt it ; but it is interesting to note how they may follow one another in a cycle. An investigation of purely scientific interest may lead to the establishment of a new principle ; next, to the invention of a new contrivance for the application of the principle, which in its turn may aid investigators in making a further discovery. Thus Newton, observing the production of a spectrum of colours by the passage of sunlight through a hole in the shutter, is the accredited dis- coverer of the principle underlying the spectroscope, which has become an important instrument in many branches of scientific investigation. Few have the good fortune or the ability to initiate new theories or to make epoch-making discoveries ; the majority must be content to understand theories and facts as they are revealed to them. Success in scientific investigation as in everything else depends in the long run on the selection of the right persons to control and to carry put the work. The pursuit of industrial research demands not only PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 63 a high standard of trained intelligence but practical acquaintance with methods and conditions of working on the large scale, such as are not ordinarily at the command of those who have not had experience in industry. At the same time, it must be remembered that industrial processes are no longer determined by purely empirical methods, but by the application of chemical and physical principles, and that a proper laboratory training must precede work of that kind. In some of our great manufacturing centres, labora- tories have been established for the benefit of certain industries and maintained at the expense of a group of concerns for their mutual advantage, and this system as we have already indicated is now being encouraged by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. A Scientific Research Association has also been founded, having its origin at Cambridge. The member- ship is open to all who have published research or are engaged on researches for publication, and the associate -membership to all who, without being engaged in research, have its interests at heart. The aims of the Association are to advise scientific in- vestigators and bodies administering public funds for research, to promote a wider understanding of the value of scientific method, and to consider the possibility of organising a scheme of permanent national endowment for research. 1 The institution of scholarships by County Councils, City Companies, and private beneficence, has done much to bring students to certain colleges, but in many instances they are attracted by the high reputa- tion of the professors, by the equipment of the labora- tories, and by the facilities afforded for research ; but while the publication of researches by the 1 Nature, Nov. 28, 1918. 64 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY teachers and students brings into prominence those institutions which produce men capable of conducting original investigation, the best gauge of efficiency is the success of the students in professional life. This must be held to apply to the general run of the students and not to a brilliant example here and there, for exceptional ability will assert itself even in the face of adverse circumstances. One of the great advantages of university and college training lies in the influence which such training with its associations exercises on individual character. The provision of Students Unions and Debating Societies affords opportunities for discussion among those preparing for the professions and fosters self- reliance, which is a particularly valuable asset. In pro- portion as the students of a department realise that they can assist in producing among themselves a high tone at College, so subsequently they may materially assist in raising the status of the profession they ultimately join. The cost of training at the Universities and Colleges varies considerably. At some of the principal Colleges in London the fees amount to as much as 35 per annum, but they are less at others, and considerably less at certain provincial Universities and Colleges. Information on this point can be obtained directly from the Secretaries of the Institutions. Students preparing for the Associateship of the Institute of Chemistry should endeavour to keep in touch with modern developments in the branch of work which they intend to select in the examination, and should take every opportunity of learning some- thing of the practical applications of the selected branch. Those whose aim is to take the Examination in Chemical Technology are advised to devote particu- lar attention to the study of Physical Chemistry, PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 65 Physics, and Mechanics. We shall deal specially with this branch in a chapter devoted to Industrial Chemistry. Under the Regulations of the Institute, part of the training may consist of approved experience under a Fellow in private practice, or in the laboratory of a public Department or in works. For some .branches of the Examination for instance, (b) Metallurgical Chemistry, and (e) the Chemistry of Food and Drugs, to which reference will be made in due course such laboratories often afford preparation of a kind which cannot easily be obtained in some of the Universities and Colleges. The same work may be taught in the Colleges perhaps more systematically but the con- ditions of working are different and though students trained entirely at Colleges are successful in the Examination, they miss the advantages of private pupilage : training in working quickly and the ex- perience of actual practice. Each candidate for the Examination is required to show, in addition to a general knowledge of all branches of chemistry, a thorough acquaintance with at least one of the following branches, to be selected by himself : (a) Mineral Chemistry : including general inorganic quali- tative and quantitative analysis, and the preparation of pure inorganic substances. (b) Metallurgical Chemistry : Sampling, analysis and assay of metals, ores, fuel, metallurgical products, and minerals used in metallurgical processes, with reports thereon ; analysis of producer and other fuel gases, and of furnace gases ; calorimetry of fuels ; the principles involved in the preparation of alloys ; practical knowledge of electrolytic methods, and of the construction and use of electrical furnaces and other apparatus employed in metallurgical in- vestigations. Metallography : preparation of speci- 66 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY mens, and recognition, under the microscope, of the characteristic structures of steel and common alloys, and of the typical structural changes produced on them by various forms of thermal and mechanical treatment. Pyrometry : calibration of pyrometers ; determination of the temperatures of furnaces and the melting-points of metals and alloys ; observation of critical changes in alloys, including steel. (c) Physical Chemistry : Candidates are expected to show special theoretical and practical knowledge of the methods, instruments and apparatus employed in physico-chemical processes and investigations. (d) Organic Chemistry : the preparation, examination, analysis, and detailed investigation of organic materials generally, including commercial products. (e) The Chemistry (including Microscopy) of Food and Drugs, Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs, Soils, and Water : including the examination and analysis of any article within the scope of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts; Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs, Soils, and Water ; the detection and determination of the active ingredients in crude drugs, pharmacopceial and antiseptic preparations and prescriptions ; the application of the principles of toxicological analysis ; detection of blood stains ; the examination of urine. Candidates are expected to produce duly authenti- cated notebooks containing evidence of systematic instruction and practice in Microscopy. They must be familiar with the microscope and its accessories and other physical apparatus employed. They are given practical work and a written paper in Micro- scopy. There is also an oral examination in the recognition of chemicals and drugs ordinarily found in commerce. They are required to show a general knowledge of the commoner impurities and falsifica- tions in drugs, their recognition and importance with respect to the pharmacological action and thera- peutical value of the drugs ; the toxicological effects of chemicals and drugs, and a knowledge of the dangers from poisoning by chemicals used in trade processes. They are also expected to possess a PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 67 < general knowledge of the Acts relating to the Sale of Food and Drugs, to the Sale of Poisons, and to Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs. (/) Biological Chemistry and Bacteriology; Fermentation and Enzyme Action : with special reference to the Chemistry and Bacteriology of foodstuffs, water supply, and sewage disposal, and the application of Biological Chemistry to industries and manufactures. (g) Chemical Technology: Candidates are expected to give evidence of a good general knowledge of chemical technology, comprising : The application of well-known chemical and physical laws to in- dustrial operations ; the development, control, and transmission of power and heat ; a working know- ledge of operations and plant, of which general use is made in chemical industry for the treatment and handling of materials, finished products, waste pro- ducts and effluents, including a practical acquaint- ance with fittings and stores ; the properties of materials which affect their application to the con- struction of plant and apparatus in chemical works ; some ability in interpreting drawings of plant and in making rough sketches ; the calculation of work- ing costs, and a general knowledge of works accounts. The Candidate is required to select one important branch of industry, by which his knowledge of the subjects of the examination may be decided. At least two papers are set on the general principles of chemical technology and two papers on the selected industry. In the oral part of the examina- tion, the candidate is required to interpret drawings and /or models of plant and fittings, and to show a general knowledge of the working of plant. The practical work includes technological analyses, the examination of raw materials and products con- nected with the selected industry. The Associateship (A.I.C.) Examination occupies at least five days, during which the Examiners are at liberty to apply any test which they think desirable, either orally or by writing, or by experimental work, 68 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY in order to obtain evidence of the candidates' know- ledge of theoretical and practical chemistry. Candi- dates are required to answer a paper of questions, chiefly on the branch selected, and are examined orally as to their general knowledge of chemistry. They are also required to translate, to the satisfaction of the Examiners, technical literature from French and from one other foreign language allowed by the Council, with the aid of dictionaries. They must also be familiar with the use of such scientific instruments as are commonly employed in chemical laboratories. Any candidate is at liberty to present a thesis or dissertation upon any chemical subject, or any original investigation, to which he has given special attention, and the Examiners will take it into account in arriving at a decision. During the practical part of the examinations, candi- dates are at liberty to consult any books of reference which they may bring with them, or which are in the Library of the Institute, or, in the case of a local examin- ation, in the Institution where the examination is held. Examinations, in spite of their defects, have proved a valuable incentive to educational progress. At school and at the Universities some form of periodical examina- tion is an aid to determining the fitness of the student to proceed to higher instruction. Examinations thus provide the student with a definite aim : the attainment of a higher, standard ; until eventually a standard is reached of such a character ,as to form a basis on which he may begin to build his experience. In common with other professional bodies, the Institute of Chemistry is concerned with the problem of supplying the demand of the public for evidence of PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 69 competency. Those who are responsible for the con- duct of the examinations are fully alive to the object in view, viz. to ascertain whether the candidates are likely to prove useful professional men. The A.I.C. examination fulfils that object. The Board of Exam- iners consists of representative teachers and practising consultants, and under the method adopted in .con- ducting the examination, many of the drawbacks common to such tests are reduced to a minimum. There is a sense of proportion in the relative standards required in the various parts of the examination, so that it constitutes a satisfactory test as a whole, and is of such character and scope that it tests real know- ledge rather than memory ; ability and initiative rather than an intimate acquaintance with text -book drill. Candidates are expected to give definite evi- dence of their usefulness for practical purposes : to show that they can carry out a reasonable amount of work accurately and in a reasonable period of time. The examination consists largely of problems occurring in everyday practice, requiring not merely an acquaint- ance with analytical charts, but the possession of a sound knowledge of chemical laws and a deal of common sense. There is little room for guess-work, and it is a sound policy for the candidate, both in written and practical work to make sure that what is done is done well, rather than to attempt too much and do it badly. Importance is attached to the manner in which the work is recorded ; every step of consequence must be noted with all essential calculations. We have mentioned that candidates are allowed to consult books of reference during the practical work and dictionaries when they are translating foreign technical literature ; and, in general, it may be said that an endeavour is made to place them as 70 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY nearly as possible under the ordinary conditions of practice ; but collusion is strictly forbidden. The Examiners are in constant touch with the candidates, and are thus the better able to arrive at a just decision in each case. Such a system gives the candidate a fair chance, eliminates the possibility of the incompetent passing, and frustrates the tendency to " cram." The examination is not in any sense competitive. Local examinations are held in various centres at home and in Overseas Dominions where suitable supervision and accommodation can be provided. The passing of examinations, however, though it indicates enterprise and a determination to get on wi the world, is obviously of less importance than the training it necessitates ; the real value of the training is shown by the ability of the candidate to deal with the problems with which he is confronted, not only in the examinations, but in professional life when he must learn to form his own opinions, rely on his own judg- ment, and acquire initiative in tackling questions the answers of which are not always readily available in books. We will indicate in a subsequent chapter how he may derive considerable advantage by associating himself with societies devoted to his subject, which, by means of meetings for the reading of papers and by the publication of journals, disseminate useful know- ledge, afford opportunities for mutual help, keep their members in touch with progress, and thereby widen the horizon of their respective spheres of work. Apart from the passing of the necessary examination, the successful candidate has the satisfaction of knowing that he has attained a definite position in having ac- quired membership of a recognised professional body and he can therefore take a part in promoting the PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 71 general welfare of his calling. He should make it his business to advance the interests of his profession in any way that lies in his power, and particularly by maintaining a high standard in his professional work and conduct. Though our educational system may have its short- comings, we think it may be claimed that' our leaders of industry find our trained chemists at least as well prepared for their profession as those of other coun- tries. Frequent and progressive reforms of regulations and curricula are essential ; there will never be a time when the cry for such reforms will be silenced. No ideal is everyone's ideal, and if any be thought to be attained it must in the course of time be modified with the trend of progress. It is obvious from the foregoing considerations that we possess the machinery for the production of a constant supply of well-trained chemists capable of adapting themselves usefully to the needs of the country, and we may now consider the position of this product of the Universities and Colleges. He has probably taken a degree or qualification and pro- ceeds to seek an opening for a career, or, if means are available perhaps by obtaining a scholarship, he will undergo some form of special training for a higher Degree, such as Ph.D., M.Sc., or D.Sc., in the hope of increasing his chances of making a good start. Possibly he may, for a time, devote himself to research, or he may go abroad to gain the advantage of working under other teachers, and to improve his acquaintance with foreign languages. He may specialise in a branch of technology, though in this case he should be careful to avoid losing touch with 72 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY the current work of his profession or he may find that when openings are not plentiful in the branch he has selected he is not readily equipped for others. Some of the Universities and Colleges have established courses in the applications of science to particular industries, and grant diplomas in various branches of technology. Again, as at the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, and the Imperial College of Science and Technology, many of the students supplement their normal training by a course covering a wide field of chemical technology, so that they gain an in- sight into several industries. At Glasgow, too, facili- ties are afforded them for visiting and working for a time in some of the works in the neighbourhood. The results of this training have been clearly illustrated by the success of the students from the College, who are to be found in responsible positions, both in this country and abroad. Much has been done to promote specialised training, and the following schedule, though mostly prepared before the war and probably incomplete, may serve a good purpose in indicating the institutions providing courses of this character : Agriculture : Marischal College, Aberdeen University ; The University College of Wales, Aberystwyth ; Agri- cultural College, Aspatria, Cumberland ; University College of North Wales, Bangor ; Agricultural College, Bedford ; The University, Bristol ; The University of Cambridge ; Essex County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford ; Dauntsey Agricultural School, West Lavington, Devizes ; Royal College of Science for Ire- land, Dublin; Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture ; West of Scotland Agricultural College, Glasgow ; College of Agriculture and Horticulture, Holmes Chapel, Cheshire ; The Midland Agricultural and Dairy College, Kingston-on-Soar, Derby ; The PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 73 University, Leeds ; Armstrong College, Newcastle-on- Tyne; Harper Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Salop ; The University, Oxford ; The Harris Institute, Preston ; University College, Reading ; Horticultural College for Women, Swanley ; Agricultural College, Tarn- worth ; Agricultural and Horticultural College, Uckfield, Sussex ; Usk : Monmouthshire Agricultural Institution ; South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent. Applied Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Technology : Merchant Venturers' Technical College and the Uni- versity, Bristol ; Royal College of Science for Ireland, Dublin ; Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh ; Royal Technical College, Glasgow ; Municipal Technical School, Hull ; Battersea Polytechnic, London ; East Ham Technical College, London ; Imperial College of Science and Technology, London ; University College, London ; Municipal School of Technology, Manchester ; The University, Sheffield. Biological Chemistry, Bacteriology, Fermentation, etc. : The University, Birmingham (Brewing) ; The University, Bristol (Bio-Chemistry) ; The University, Cambridge (Physiological Chemistry) ; University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff (Hygienic Chem- istry) ; The University, Glasgow (Bacteriology) ; The University, Liverpool (Bio-Chemistry) ; Battersea Poly- technic, London (Bacteriology) ; King's College, London (Bacteriology) ; Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London (Brewing, Malting and Fermentation) ; Uni- versity College, London (Pathological Chemistry and Physiological Chemistry) ; The Victoria University, Manchester (Biological Chemistry) ; The Municipal School of Technology, Manchester (Brewing). Fuel and Gas : Municipal Technical School, Birmingham (Gas) ; City Technical College, Bradford (Gas) ; Royal Technical College, Glasgow (Gas) ; Central Technical School, Leeds (Gas) ; The University, Leeds (Coal, Gas and Fuel Industries, with Metallurgy) ; Imperial College of Science and Technology, London (Fuel) ; Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London (Fuel) ; Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne (Fuel and Gas) ; School of Mines, Treforest, Glamorganshire (Coal, Fuel, etc.) ; 74 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY Wigan and District Mining and Technical College, Wigan (Fuel and Metallurgy). Glass Technology : University of Sheffield. Leather and Tanning : The University, Glasgow ; The University, Leeds ; Leathersellers' Technical College, London ; Municipal Technical Institute, Warrington. Metallurgy : The University, and the Municipal Technical School, Birmingham ; City Technical College, Brad- ford ; The University, Cambridge ; University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff ; Central Technical School and The University, Leeds ; The University, Liverpool ; Birkbeck College, London ; Royal School of Mines (Imperial College of Science and Technology), London ; King's College, London ; Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London ; S. W. Poly- technic, Chelsea, London; The University and the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester ; Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne ; University College, Notting- ham ; The University, Sheffield ; Staffordshire County Council ; The Technical College, Swansea ; Wigan and District Mining and Technical College. Mining : The School of Mines, Camborne ; Fife Mining School, Cowdenbeath ; Birkbeck College, London ; The Royal School of Mines (Imperial College of Science and Technology), London ; Armstrong College, Newcastle-on- Tyne ; School of Metalliferous Mining, Redruth ; The University, Sheffield ; Staffordshire County Council ; The School of Mines, Treforest, Glamorgan ; Wigan and District Mining and Technical College.' Oil and Fats, Soap, etc. : Central Technical School, Leeds ; Battersea Polytechnic, London ; City of London College. Optics : Imperial College of Science and Technology, London ; Northampton Institute, London. Papermaking : Royal Technical College, Glasgow ; Batter- sea Polytechnic, London ; Municipal School of Techno- logy, Manchester. Photography: Central Technical School, Leeds; Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Physical Chemistry and Electro-Chemistry : The University, Aberdeen ; The University, Birmingham ; University PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 75 of Liverpool ; University College, London ; Imperial College of Science and Technology, London ; The University, Manchester. Pottery : Staffordshire County Council ; North Stafford- shire Technical School, Stoke-on-Trent. Sugar : Royal Technical College, Glasgow. Textile Manufacture : Royal Technical College, Glasgow ; The University, Leeds ; Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Tinctorial Chemistry, Dyeing, Bleaching, Calico Printing : Municipal Technical Institute, Belfast (Bleaching, Dye- ing) ; City Technical College, Bradford (Dyeing) ; Royal Technical College, Glasgow (Bleaching, Dyeing and Calico Printing) ; Technical College, Huddersfield (Tinctorial Chemistry) ; The University, Leeds (Dyeing and Tinctorial Chemistry) ; Battersea Polytechnic, London (Dyeing) ; Municipal School of Technology, Manchester (Bleaching, Dyeing, Printing, etc.) ; Technical College, Paisley (Dyeing) ; Technical School, Rad- cliffe, Lanes. (Cotton, Dyeing and Bleaching) ; Royal Technical Institute, Salford (Dyeing and Calico Print- ing). With the progress made in thus developing our technical educational system, students can proceed from one institution to another to secure such special- ised instruction ; those who have taken such courses generally reap the benefit of doing so, and seldom lack opportunities of finding appointments suitable to their attainments. The provision of these courses has encouraged the better equipment of students for taking part in the conduct of many processes on the large scale, by supplying them with much of the border- land knowledge between science and industry, though some manufacturers, who prefer to take a hand in shaping their chemists to their own liking, still hold the opinion that such knowledge can best be acquired by experience in works, and rely on the Colleges to 76 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY teach what cannot be learned on the works. All are agreed, however, that a good all-round training is essential, so that the chemist may be more generally adaptable, especially as the advance in industrial methods is so rapid that it is very difficult for the College courses of instruction to keep an even pace with modern progress. Students intending to enter industrial work should, in any case, take advantage of every opportunity of seeing manufacturing operations, and of broadening their views on the applications of their science, which must remain somewhat narrow so long as their experi- ence is restricted solely to the laboratory. They should endeavour to see something of metals in the working with their furnaces, steam-hammers and rolls ; of heavy chemicals with their great stills, lead -lined tanks, iron evaporating pans, pressure eggs, stone filters, filter presses, and other appliances ; and of many other important industrial products, with the method of handling them and the special plant em- ployed in their manufacture. The Institute of Chemistry has established a scheme of lectures by technical chemists of experience in various branches and by publishing the lectures has provided useful monographs on the history and development of the industries to which they relate. Similar lectures have been given from time to time in some of the Universities and Colleges, and have tended to illustrate to students the difference between work- ing with grams and tons of material. Before passing to the consideration of the various branches of practice and the prospects they offer, mention should be made of the fact that Associates of the Institute who can show, to the satisfaction of the Council, that they have been continuously engaged PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 77 in the study and practice of applied chemistry for three years since their admission can proceed to the Fellow- ship by examination, or those who have carried out original research, or devised processes or inventions, or otherwise satisfied the Council that they have ful- filled equivalent conditions, can apply for election to the Fellowship without examination. The Fellowship (F.I.C.), in any case, represents a minimum of seven years' systematic training and experience. The stimulus given to Associates to pursue original investigation in order to attain the higher grade should, we think, exercise a marked effect on the progress of British chemistry at this critical juncture. PROSPECTS AND CONDITIONS OF PRACTICE "DECKER in his Physica Subterranea describes JZ) chemists as " a strange class of mortals impelled by an almost insane impulse to seek their pleasure among smoke and vapour, soot and flame, poison and poverty." The last word from the quotation will not appeal to the modern student of chemistry or to those who bear the expense of his education. Riches are not always to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill ; but time and chance hap- peneth to them all. Among the Greeks it was held that the standard of thought was lowered by attempting to turn scientific knowledge to practical ends, 1 and until comparatively modern times, men of science pursued their investiga- tions mainly without thought of material gain. Even if science is held to be non-humanistic and too material- istic, it is none the less a manifestation of the progress 1 Bacon, who tells us that the true and legitimate goal of the sciences is none other than to endow human life with new dis- coveries and resources, protests against the view held in his time, that the majesty of the human mind was impaired by long and frequent employment upon experiments. He also states that Plato held that practice led men from the contemplation of truth and so degraded their intellect ; and that Archimedes was half ashamed of his inventions. " Archimedes regarded the engines of war which he invented not as being constructed by serious labour, but as the mere holiday sports of a geometrician, and although he acquired the glory of a more than human intellect he would not condescend to leave behind him any writings about his engines, regarding the whole business of mechanics and the useful arts as base and vulgar." Plutarch's Lives : Marcellus. 78 PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 79 of man, the result of his inquisitiveness, and one of the highest forms of mental activity and achieve- ment. To what does it all lead, but to the better realisation of his place in the universe ? There can be nothing derogatory in making a right use of know- ledge gained and it is no longer supposed that those who pursue science are only assisting the machina- tions of the evil one. We look more and mere to science to provide all that we require our clothes and food, and, indeed, everything that contributes to our comfort. Yet, even less than forty years ago, there was pro- nounced opposition to the idea of creating a chemical profession, though it is interesting to observe that some of those who cried loudest against the pursuit of science for gain have become, in the course of years, leaders in agitating for its fullest applications. We have shown that the profession of chemistry is attracting an increasing number of well-trained and energetic workers who are alive to the fact that it is no longer solely an occupation for the dilettante. In this may be read a reversal of the dictum of Paracelsus to which we have already referred. The business of the chemist is not only to make medicines, but to make gold by the applications of his science to the affairs of e very-day life. Generally speaking, however, chemists do not appear to regard the matter only in that light : they seek knowledge rather than affluence. The work of the chemist, in its character, its origin- ality or otherwise, its scale of operations, and its responsibility necessarily varies ; but whether it be simple or complex, original or routine, on the laboratory or the works scale, merely of experimental interest or involving heavy financial or other responsibility, it should be carried out in a scientific spirit. 8o THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY To be successful in almost any professional career a man must not only be properly qualified, but be known and esteemed among his brethren. His initiation into the practical business of life is commonly the result of the recommendation of someone who knows him and can speak well of his work, and his advancement depends largely on the repute in which he is held by his fellow workers. The chemist, therefore, will be well advised to join one or more of the recognised societies connected with his science, to which further reference will be made later. The choice will be deter- mined to some extent by the nature of his work ; but this should be the first step to be taken as soon as he has commenced to earn his living by his profession. If he is able to submit an original paper or two and contribute usefully to the discussions, he will be judged by his work and opinions ; and, in the course of time, find his place among those who are active in furthering the common interests of his science and his profession. We have indicated that the middle of the nineteenth century was marked by an enthusiasm for science which led to the provision of increased educational facilities. With a more restricted field the old training was probably more thorough, so far as it went ; but until the seventies there were very few places where practical chemistry was taught ; and for practical physics there was scarcely a laboratory in the country until 1866, when Prof. Carey Foster started one at University College, London ; though it is true that, Thomson Lord Kelvin had students working with him at an earlier date. There were giants in those days, men of renown. There are giants in our time, and no doubt many not yet come to their full stature, but some of those who have devoted their lives to the study of their subject and have established their PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 81 positions are rather apt to overlook the fact that students of the present day, during their short training, have to cover the far wider field which has been ex- plored and opened up during the intervening period. Chemical science is perhaps hardly in the prospecting stage, but the coming generation have an even greater chance than the present of distinguishing themselves in its development. A chemist may be engaged, either as a principal or as an assistant, in a variety of positions : (i) in private practice, which may be consulting and analy- tical practice, either general in character or with a marked bias towards some particular branch, such as, in the case of a public analyst, the chemistry of food and drugs, or in the case of an agricultural analyst, the chemistry of soils, fertilisers, feeding-stuffs, etc. ; (2) in industry, either as a consulting technologist, practising independently, with a bias towards a particular industry or group of industries, or as a member of the staff of an industrial concern, either in the directorate, or the management, or in the control of a department, or as a research chemist or as an analyst ; (3) in a governmental or a muni- cipal appointment, in which the nature of the work may be general or specialised and the duties may occupy whole or part time ; (4) in teaching, which may be general or specialised in the case of University or College appointments, but is usually general in school appointments and, in the latter case, frequently asso- ciated with other science subjects ; or (5) in a com- bination of two or more of the branches of work above indicated ; or (6) in other employment in which his technical knowledge and ability are advantageous, though not necessarily the primary factors. We propose to devote special chapters to public 82 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY analysts and official agricultural analysts, who are usually associated with the first branch indicated, and also to the industrial, governmental, and teaching branches. For the present we will endeavour to give some general hints, dealing first with private practice. A sound knowledge of the main principles of their science is necessary to all chemists, yet some special- isation is not merely inevitable, but is likely to afford opportunity for successful practice, provided its applications are not too narrow. The chemist who acquires a reputation for a particular branch of work often looks to a steady flow of work in that branch as his mainstay. To establish a consulting and analytical practice without any immediate clientele requires financial re- sources and considerable patience. Experience with a well-known practitioner for a year or two will usually be found advantageous, until the opportunity arises for making an independent beginning. If the practice with which a chemist becomes thus associated is of a special character, a premium may be required, though a well-trained man may take a position as an assistant on reciprocal terms giving his services for experience gained or at a nominal salary. If circumstances allow of it, experience of this kind may be more valuable than -that afforded by a subordinate paid appointment. The fact that a young chemist has worked with a practitioner of repute will stand him in good stead in his subsequent career. Fresh from an academic atmosphere, he finds that, in spite of his training and qualifications, his knowledge is, after all somewhat superficial ; his subject is a very wide one, and his training has not been so comprehensive as to embrace all the varied problems submitted to him. He has only laid the foundation for experience, PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 83 The conditions of working are different from those of the college ; he has to work much more rapidly and probably to conduct several analyses concurrently and with accuracy. He must acquire business habits and equip himself generally for professional life in which there is much to learn which lies outside his college training. Take, for instance, the question of sampling, which is one of importance to chemists who undertake the examination of coal, ores, cement, fertilisers, oils, and other substances sold in large bulk. The results of analysis may affect considerable financial interests, with corresponding responsibility on the analyst. Sub- stances are often dealt in commercially on the basis of the figures reported by an analyst agreed upon by the parties to a contract ; or each such party may appoint an analyst, and agree upon a third to arbitrate in the event of discrepancy in results, which may arise owing to differences in sample, or in the analytical methods employed. It is often advisable, therefore, that the samples and the methods of analysis involved should be agreed upon before examination. The sampler may be one experienced in the particular trade concerned, independent of buyer and seller, or the analyst him- self may be responsible for taking samples. He should, in any case, be acquainted with the recognised methods of sampling, which sometimes entail considerable knowledge. Thus, some substances vary under vary- ing conditions of temperature, and so forth, or it may happen that a portion drawn from the top of a cask or drum may be very different from that taken from the bottom. Sampling in prospecting, for minerals or oil, also requires technical experience. In the sampling of water, too, it is helpful to the chemist that he should be fully acquainted with its source and general sur- roundings, and similarly with effluents. 84 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY Again, the form of report to be adopted in varying cases is also a matter of importance both in connection with official work under statutes and in general prac- tice. Further reference will be made" to certificates when we consider matters of professional procedure. It might not occur to the average student that a knowledge of certain statutes is sometimes of impor- tance. He should, for instance, be informed with regard to licences for stills. Under an Act entitled " An Act to prevent the Use of Stills by Unlicensed Persons " (9 and 10 Viet., cap. 90, 1846), an excise duty of los. is imposed on every person, not being a licensed distiller, rectifier, compounder of spirits, or vinegar-maker, keeping or using a still or retort for carrying on any trade or business requiring the use of a still. The duty is payable yearly, and the licence must be renewed so long as the still or retort is kept or used. Any infraction of any of the provisions enacted involves liability to a penalty of 50 and the forfeiture of the still, still-head, worm, or retort, in respect of which the offence is committed. The Commissioners of Inland Revenue, to whom is entrusted the task of levying the duty imposed by the Act, are empowered, however, to grant exemptions from duty in the case of stills kept or used for experi- ments in chemistry, or for the manufacture of articles other than spirits or spirit mixtures. Manufacturers of coal-gas do not require a licence for the use of the ordinary retort, and a still used for the distillation of tar or tar products is exempt, provided that no spirit mixture is used or produced on the premises, and that the name of the person keeping the still is registered by the proper officer. In consequence of representations made in 1892 by PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 85 the Council of the Institute of Chemistry, the Board of Inland Revenue allow professors and teachers of chemistry, and analytical chemists who carry on no business involving the manufacture of any article for sale from, or containing spirit, to use a still or stills in the bona fide exercise of their profession without taking out a licence. What constitutes a " still " within the rrieaning of the Act has not been specifically denned, but any apparatus capable of being used for the distillation of liquids is liable to licence duty, and, excepting under the conditions above mentioned, the keeping of a still without licence is an offence, no matter for what purpose it may be kept. Persons who desire to obtain exemption from licence duty must make application to the Board of Inland Revenue ; such application being made usually through the local supervisor of Inland Revenue. Again, in some laboratories the recovery of spirit is a matter of much economic importance. The Board of Inland Revenue reserve t'o themselves the right to insist, in every case in which it appears to them necessary in the interests of the Revenue, on a strict observance of their regulations, but have no desire to exercise that right in such a manner as to interfere unduly with the ordinary practice of an analytical and consulting chemist. The Board, however, request that a formal application be made by chemists who desire to recover or purify methylated spirit. To resume the consideration of the conditions of practice, we may with some confidence expect, in the future, a wider outlook in consulting work. In some cases, analysis is becoming a relatively subsidiary part of chemical practice, which now 86 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY demands initiative and resource often of a very high order for the solution of the practical problems with which the chemist is constantly confronted. When gas-lighting was a novelty, those who under- stood it could command a good fee for superintending gas-fitting ; similarly, with the installation of electric bells and later with electric lighting. With the progress of science these and many other advantages of a scien- tific order have become things of everyday account, valued less as they become more ordinary. Some ac- quaintance with the principles of analysis will in time be part of every boy's education no more mysterious than the fitting of electric bells to-day. The chemist, therefore, must be something more than an analyst. If an assistant has had experience in research, he may be given an opportunity of w r orking on industrial problems, and, if successful, his principal may be able to recommend him to an appointment, perhaps in the works of a client, and he will thereby find a career in industrial chemistry. If he has been with a public analyst or official agricultural analyst he will have acquired the experience necessary for obtaining the qualifications demanded for official analytical appoint- ments and may thus secure a nucleus for establishing an independent practice. The chemist who does not need immediately to earn his living may with advantage devote himself inde- pendently to research on industrial problems. We have known this branch of work lead to very profit- able results from investigations directed to devising processes which have been patented. The chemist, however, if he hopes to reap the benefit of this work, will, of course, find the need for the assistance of a reliable patent agent well qualified to act for him on chemical matters. PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 87 In chemistry, as in other professions, there is always scope for the best. Broadly speaking, professional suc- cess is achieved by competence, based on sound general education, systematic technical training, and close ac- quaintance with modern practice, capability the skill to apply knowledge and experience and individuality, which comprises trustworthiness, tact, energy, en- thusiasm, foresight, and general force of character. The result lies almost entirely with the individual. In any case, he cannot expect to command success without merit, patience, and persistent hard work. The discipline of the technical training, the mental exercise involved and the social advantages of his college life all tend to render the chemist a useful man. Occasionally he will turn to a career in which his science is directly useful, though it may not be the main part of his business. Thus, a few' chemists have qualified for the bar, practising in cases con- nected with technological matters, patents, etc. ; others have become patent agents, or educational inspectors, or mining prospectors, or scientific jour- nalists, or have secured commercial positions in industries on which chemistry has a bearing. The chemist seldom, however, entirely relinquishes his profession ; change of career becomes more difficult as time passes, and, in general, it is found that the older a man gets the less likely is he to succeed by making a change. The possession of means may enable a chemist to purchase an interest in a practice or an industrial undertaking, or warrant him in waiting for an oppor- tunity of securing an appointment suited to his in- clinations, whereas his less fortunate brethren must perforce take what they can get. During the first year of experience particularly if he has no indepen- 88 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY dent financial resources he should carefully consider whether his position affords a prospect of advance- ment. If not, he will be wise to look to his own interests, or he may become so concerned with the interests of those with whom he is associated and so engrossed in his work as to overlook the fact that he has his own career to make. Every man can strive to get himself out of the ordinary ruck and do his best to attain, if not a con- trolling position, at least one in which he can exercise initiative and find opportunities for relying on his own resources. If he does not have regard to the future and neglects to improve his position he will find him- self falling behind and sooner or later blame himself, or more probably the profession he has chosen, for the fact that suitable appointments in his particular branch are not offered to men of his age and experience unless they have acquired an exceptional reputation. Complaints that the profession is unremunerative are largely raised by those who have neglected to exert themselves while they were still young and active. It serves no purpose for a professional man to feel aggrieved that he earns less than a workman ; or that a man in trade " makes " as much in a few minutes as he (the professional man) does in as many years. He may reasonably hope to leave the workman far behind ; but he must bestir himself if he wants to get on in the world, and so long as it is in his power to effect an improvement in his position he should not despair. Although it is true that about fourteen per cent of the members of the Institute were abroad at the outbreak of war, it is no less a fact that difficulty in placing well-qualified men was often experienced because they would not venture away from home, or did not want to go into another branch of work, or PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 89 were in some way particular as to the disposition of their services. Those who are devoid of ambition do not usually make leaders of men or contribute to the advance of industries or the progress of nations. The success of the profession depends, as we have said, mainly on the individual effort of its members. The aim of the individual, therefore, should be to acquire knowledge, skill, and experience of the highest order, so that he may render himself available for suitable opportunities as they arise. 1 Opportunity is a great thing ; but a greater is to be prepared for the opportunity. It will not come for the asking, but will come more certainly to anyone who is prepared for it . Clever men. make opportunities ; yet those who have risen rarely know why they have done so ; in most cases, they have become sufficiently appreciated for their ability and personal qualities to be sought after. Comparatively few professional men get rich quickly ; the majority work many more hours a week than any craftsman, and yet few earn any- thing approaching what they deserve until they have obtained considerable practical experience ; but the chemist has a chance as good as, if not better than, many other professional men to give evidence of his worth : his field of work is so wide. However, not- withstanding all that we have said, chemistry has not yet acquired that recognition which is its due. It is only by united effort in educating public opinion that its claims will be brought home to the uninitiated. We have expressed the view that the chemist, in that he chooses his profession deliberately and because he likes it, is to be envied ; but he is to be pitied if he is subsequently confined to routine work, without 1 "He that chiefly owes himself unto himself, is the substantial man." Sir Thomas Browne (1605-82). 90 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY opportunities of developing new ideas or solving new problems. The poor remuneration of industrial chemists in the past has been due, in many cases, to the fact that their work often consists largely of routine analysis which can be carried out sufficiently well by youths who have had a short training in a limited variety of analytical pro- cesses and who are willing to accept positions affording them experience. An analyst in charge of a fairly large laboratory may occupy a reasonably remunerated position ; but for routine work there is a limited value. The well-trained man needs to secure a posi- tion commensurate with his attainments, which was formerly a difficult matter while the demand for such chemists was small. It is often very necessary to remind the chemist that his sphere need not be re- stricted to the operations of the laboratory. If it should be his ambition to occupy a controlling position in industry, he should lose no opportunity of becoming acquainted with processes on the manufacturing scale ; but if he finds his outlook restricted to analysis with no opportunity for developing ideas of his own, and no prospect of going on the works, he is well justified in seeking another appointment. There have been frequent complaints with regard to the payment of chemists in whole-time official appointments. Such complaints are by no means con- fined to those holding chemical appointments : clergy- men, lawyers, medical men, schoolmasters, architects, accountants, engineers in fact, all classes of profes- sional men are at one time or another expected to be- come candidates for appointments offered on ridicu- lously low terms and unsatisfactory conditions. In the long run such matters are adjusted by the laws of supply PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 91 and demand. Many considerations may enter into the question whether candidates will be willing to apply for a position : the nature of the duties and the responsi- bilities involved ; whether previous experience is ex- pected ; what advantages in the way of experience or prospects are attached to the appointment ; whether it carries a pension ; whether the holder is free to undertake practice independently in his spare time ; whether the individual concerned is so modest in his requirements as to consider his labour a hobby, or perhaps a duty to the State and not merely a means to earning a livelihood ; and so forth. Is it too much to hope that no author of the future will have cause to write in the strain of John Ruskin in Sesame and Lilies ? " I say we have despised science. ' What,' you exclaim, ' are we not foremost in all discovery, and is not the whole world giddy by reason, or unreason, of our inventions ? ' Yes ; but do you suppose that is national work ? That work is all done in spite of the nation ; by private people's zeal and money. We are glad enough, indeed, to make our profit of science ; we snap up anything in the way of a scientific bone that has meat on it, eagerly enough ; but if the scientific man comes for a bone or a crust to us, that is another story." Long after Ruskin wrote that (1864), a chemist without previous experience but with good qualifica- tions could only with difficulty obtain an appoint- ment at all. Frequently a practising consultant would take into his laboratory a newly qualified man at a nominal remuneration, as a pupil-assistant, in order to give him an opportunity of gaining experience. To obtain an appointment at 100 a year was regarded as a fairly good start and many were obliged to accept less. As the demand increased or showed signs of 92 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY gaining on the supply, the position was slightly im- proved. At the outbreak of war, however, before the urgent need for chemists was realised, and while many were prepared to make sacrifices to assist the country, the terms of certain official assistantships were practi- cally on the 100 a year basis, with decidedly un- satisfactory conditions attached. Nor was there any marked change until the demand increased and, even then, having regard to the rise in the cost of living, the general position was not really much improved. These considerations, however, applied mainly to non-special- ised work . Where highly special experience was called for, fairly reasonable salaries were obtainable, particularly in new establishments rendered necessary by the war. There is not and cannot be " a minimum wage " acceptable generally to men of such varied attain- ments ; but a scale might be agreed upon, to be varied according to economic conditions, having regard to the education, training, qualifications and experience of the chemists, as well as the character, importance and responsibility of the work entrusted to them. With all these circumstances to be taken into consideration, the matter becomes complicated ; but the broad principle of making the practice of chemistry attractive to a due proportion of the possessors of the best brains in the country should not be ignored, while it must be remem- bered that in the main they are more directly product- ive compared with those of some other professions. On the other hand, the matter may be approached from the point of view of the employers, who get, in the long run, what they pay for. If they offer a small salary, they have a corresponding selection of candi- dates to choose from and must either take what is avail- able or improve the terms ; but if they are inclined to be liberal, they will get a good selection of candidates PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 93 and stand a better chance of obtaining results out of all proportion to the increased expenditure involved. At the present time (January, 1919) several companies employing fairly large staffs decline to engage any chemist at less than 250 a year ; others place the minimum at 300 a year. If the candidates for vacancies are not deemed worthy of the suggested salary, they are not engaged, or if they fall -short of ex- pectations their agreements are either soon terminated or they remain in junior positions ; if they are worth more, a definite contract is entered upon for a term of years on a basis mutually agreed upon. If manu- facturers generally adopted such a plan the chemists would know what to expect and there would be -less cause for complaint. The figures indicated above do not represent the value of services rendered by the chemist, but rather the initial salary the companies are prepared to pay him. When he has acquired experience in their industry and proved the value of his services his position should, of course, be correspondingly improved. In industrial positions, the conditions are likely to improve because the control is passing gradually, but surely, to men of science ; but where this is not the case, the outlook will be promising from the chemists' point of view only where the principals concerned are properly appreciative of the importance of science and are able to judge of the qualifications requisite for the appointments under their control. It was anticipated in some quarters that after the war there would be an unprecedented demand for chemists, and we hope that this view may not prove to have been too sanguine. It is early, yet, to judge. Unless they can be advantageously employed the profession may become overcrowded; but it is certain that if reasonable salaries are offered, the supply will be forth- 94 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY coming. The Germans employed more chemists because they carried on industries of a different character : the manufacture of dyes, fine chemicals, pharmaceutic and photographic materials, necessitating expert control by numbers of chemists specially trained for the work. In some cases, their supplies of natural resources enabled them to make such things more economically ; in others, they worked on a larger scale ; and in yet others, they secured the control of foreign supplies of starting materials. Germany's export trade in chemicals approached 100,000,000 a year, whilst ours was not more than a fifth of that sum. We hope to see a marked change in these conditions. The qualified chemist in Germany is said to enjoy an acknowledged social standing, and though it is doubtful whether he is better paid than our chemist at the outset, he is probably better recompensed in the long run, for results achieved. Before the war he rarely received more than 100 a year as a com- mencing salary, and his services were generally secured by hard-and-fast contracts binding him to secrecy and the surrender of all rights in any improvements or dis- coveries of which he might become the author. Yet, as we have indicated, the low salary received by the technical chemist on the Continent at the outset of his career was to some extent compensated for by the status accorded him. The Herr Doktor was apparently content to adopt a modest standard of living, but he was respected for his attainments ; studious, ambitious, fond of debate and prone to advertise his accomplish- ments, his position as a man of " Kultur " was under- stood, and he was not confounded with the "apotheker." The memorandum of the German Ambassador, Lichnowsky, published in the Politiken, of Stockholm, PROSPECTS OF PRACTICE 95 telegraphed to this country by Renter's correspondent in March, 1918, and later published under the title of " My Mission to London, 1912," contained the follow- ing statement at the conclusion of his remarks on Society in England : "A hospitable house with pleasant hosts is worth more than the profoundest scientific knowledge ; and a savant with provincial manners and small means would gain no influence in spite of all his learning/' The impression of such a man is noteworthy, but it is only true in part. "Society" here is not much interested in science. If Lichnowsky found his friends mainly among politicians he would be hardly likely to find many men of science among them. We will refer again to some of these matters in sub- sequent chapters. We must maintain that the profession of chemistry in all its branches should be accorded the position and emoluments which are its due as one of the liberal professions on whose knowledge modern civilisation relies in times of peace, and whose power is indispen- sable in the time of war. Appointments Register. The Institute of Chemistry maintains a register of Fellows and Associates who are available for appoint- ments, and circulates particulars of suitable vacancies. Several Universities do the same for their graduates. Authorities and firms increasingly look to the Institute and the Universities to assist them in securing the services of well-trained chemists ; so that by this means many are introduced to their first appointments or are enabled to improve their positions. The Hon- orary Corresponding Secretaries, in Overseas Dominions, assist in this as in other departments of the work of the Institute. PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION NOT only among labouring men but also among pro- fessional men the value of some form of organisa- tion has long been recognised. Every profession derives benefit from the existence of a representative body established to define a standard of qualification and to act in the interests of the profession as a whole. Such organisations aim at the maintenance of the efficiency and integrity of their profession while they engender a sense of fellowship and mutual responsibility among their members. Membership should be sought, there- fore, from a desire to assist in maintaining the prestige of the profession generally as much as for any direct advantage to the individual. The earliest records of professional organisation in this country appear to be those relating to the schools of Law, which were in existence in the thirteenth century ; those relating to medicine dating from the fourteenth. The majority of the other representative professional bodies representing architects, engineers (civil, mechanical, and electrical), accountants and actuaries, chemists, surveyors, journalists, patent agents and so forth have come into existence since the early part of the nineteenth century. In all professions there is a continuous agitation for more complete organisation, having in view the im- provement of the status of their practitioners. On the other hand, the tendency to specialise inevitably leads 96 PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 97 to schisms. Sooner or later other bodies are formed working separately yet with similar though more specialised aims. One of the objects of such bodies has been to provide registers of competent men for the service of the community, but none of these bodies, except those relating to the law, medicine and pharmacy, has acquired statutory powers of compul- sory registration and there is very great diversity of opinion as to the desirability of their doing so. General rapid advancement has resulted, however, from pro- fessional bodies aiming at the encouragement of efficiency and integrity, for which purpose the principal professional societies and institutions have been officially recognised by incorporation under Royal Charter. They exist, in that respect, as much for the public good as for their own advantage, though they may establish rights and privileges of member- ship and mutual obligations in the relations of their members to one another and to the community. In aiming at the enhancement of status, there is constant agitation for further organisation in matters educational, technical, and ethical. It is not reason- able to expect that these matters can ever be definitely established for all time to the satisfaction of every- body ; but under the influence of these movements, there is a general tendency towards higher standards and higher ideals. As there are many men styled " engineers," there are likewise many styled " chemists." Although a large number start out on their professional careers well educated and thoroughly trained, others, as we have previously remarked, offer their services with far less qualification, or make their first practical acquaint- ance with the application of science as laboratory attendants or " testers " engaged in routine analysis 98 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY in works or possibly in private laboratories during the day, supplementing what they learn in this way by attending evening classes at local Technical Schools. We have mentioned also that the profession com- prises chemists in practice as consultants, chemists engaged in industry, public analysts, agricultural chemists, chemists in Government service, and pro- fessors and teachers of chemistry. There are also chemical engineers, metallurgists, and other chemical advisers with special experience in one or more branches of technology. Some, again, combine two or more of these departments of work. All these are " chemists/ '- whether engaged in analysis or synthesis or in advising on the elucidation of technical problems, perhaps in- volving considerable financial outlay, or holding ap- pointments as professors in Universities or science masters in schools, provided they are properly trained and competent. The status of chemists differs, but there should be scope for the humblest assistant to improve his position, and, indeed, many laboratory boys have attained very good positions, some in practice independently, some in works, some in Government employ, and so forth. To effect the complete solidarity of men so diversely qualified and engaged in such a variety of ways under one organisation appears to be impracticable. If an attempt were made to classify them in groups according to ability, it would be found that whereas some have general knowledge and skill of a high order but are not specially expert in any one particular branch, others have specialised knowledge of perhaps a limited sphere of work and are lacking in knowledge of some of the fundamental principles of their science. They cannot all be cast in the same mould ; some are highly skilled PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 99 analysts, some research chemists and investigators, while others have a preference for control of plant and others for teaching. It would be as easy to. organise all who call themselves artists, from the Royal Academi- cian to the pavement variety, or from the prima donna to the street singer. From time to time it has been suggested that there should be legislative restriction on the practice of chemistry. Compulsory registration in any case does not prevent anyone from giving advice : it may pre- vent the unregistered from recovering fees and assist the public to discern who are competent. The char- tered professional qualifying bodies serve the latter purpose. We feel, however, that little support would be given to any measure for the restriction of chemical practice, except in matters affecting the health and well-being of the community, as in the case of public analysts and official agricultural analysts and of chemists engaged in dangerous industries, for which special skill and experience are requisite. In chemistry there is scope for those who are competent to under- take only routine testing as well as for those who are thoroughly equipped for higher analytical and research work or for the control of operations in industry or the conduct of professional practice as consultants and analysts. The latter half of the nineteenth century witnessed the foundation of many societies and institutions for the promotion of the study and practical application of different branches of science. Their continued vigorous existence is a proof of their utility, while their work has undoubtedly exercised a stimulating influence on the growth of knowledge during the same period. From small beginnings they have become a great power by promoting the efficiency of their members, ioo THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY by disseminating useful knowledge, establishing facts and exposing errors, and by bringing scientific and practical men into close association to their mutual advantage. Anyone who has not previously had occasion to enquire into the question, is invariably surprised to discover the number of Societies and Institutions interested more or less directly in the advancement of chemical science. TJiey include (i) Bodies aiming at the promotion of all natural science, and (ii) those con- cerned with chemistry in particular, either in its purely scientific or in its professional and more utili- tarian aspects. In the first category, we have the Royal Society of London, the parent society of the scientific bodies in this country, founded in 1660 ; the Royal Dublin Society, in 1731 ; The (Royal) Society of Arts, in 1754 ; The Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, in 1781 ; The Royal Society of Edinburgh, in 1783 ; The Royal Institution of Great Britain, in 1800 ; The Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow, in 1802 ; and The British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, in 1831. In the second category we have the Chemical Society founded in 1841 and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1848 ; the Institute of Chemistry, founded in 1877 and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1885 ; the Society of Chemical Industry founded in 1881 and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1907 ; and the Society of Public Analysts and other Analytical Chemists founded in 1874 and incorporated in 1907. To the Pharmaceutical Society and the British Associa- tion of Chemists we have already referred in an earlier chapter. The Chemical Society, numbering about 3450 PROFESSIONAL ORGANISAT ION 101 members, aims at the general advancement of chemical science, by the discussion and publication of new discoveries and the interchange of valuable information respecting them. Every Candidate for the Fellowship is required to produce a certificate signed by not less than five Fellows of the Society, to three at least of whom he must be personally known. The certificate is read at three Ordinary Scientific Meetings of the Society, and election is then decided by ballot. The Journal, which is published on the last day of each month, includes the Transactions of the Society and Abstracts of papers published in other Journals. The Society also publishes an Annual Report on the Progress of Chemistry containing an epitome of the principal advances which have been made during the year, and possesses a good Library to which other societies contribute. (Admission Fee, 4. Annual Subscription, 2. Life Composition, 30.) The Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland, which registers over 2500 Fellows and Asso- ciates and over 400 Students, aims at the maintenance of the status and efficiency of the profession of chemistry, by promoting the better education of persons desiring to follow that profession ; by setting up a high standard of scientific and practical pro- ficiency ; by the examination of candidates and the registration of such as have been found to be com- petent ; and by insisting upon the observance of strict rules with regard to professional conduct. The Regula- tions with regard to the training and examinations required for the qualifications for Membership A.I.C. and F.I.C. have already been reviewed in the chapter relating to professional training. Lectures are given before the Institute by acknowledged authorities on technological and professional subjects, mainly for the 102 , YHE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY 'benefit of advanced students and the younger members, and are issued gratis to Fellows, Associates, and Regis- tered Students. An Appointments Register for the benefit of members who are seeking appointments is kept at the Offices of the Institute. The Proceedings are published in four parts annually, and contain particulars of the work of the Council and abstracts of the reports of the Examiners, besides dealing with matters of professional interest. Local Sections are being formed to maintain the interest of members in matters of professional importance and to promote social intercourse. Committees are also formed when necessary to represent the interests of special branches of the profession. In accordance with the policy recently adopted the provisions for the registration of Students will be extended ; steps will be taken towards closer co-operation between the work of the Institute and that of the Universities and Colleges ; the ques- tion of increasing the publications of the Institute will be considered ; further endeavours will be made to bring before the public the importance of chemistry to the country ; and generally to forward the interests of chemists in every way possible. (Students, Regis- tration Fee, 55. a year ; Examination Fee, 5 55. ; Fellows, Annual Subscription, 2 2s. ; Associates, i us. 6d. ; Entrance Fee to Fellowship, 5 55. ; Life Composition, 26 55, or according to age.) The Society of Chemical Industry numbers about 5000 members, including other than British subjects. Its principal objects are to advance applied chemistry and chemical engineering in all branches ; to afford its members opportunities for the interchange of ideas with respect to improvements in the various chemical industries, and for the discussion of all matters bearing upon the application of chemical science ; and to PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 103 publish information thereupon. The following Local Sections of the Society have been formed : Birmingham, Canada, Liverpool, London, Manchester, Newcastle-on- Tyne, New England, New York, Nottingham, Scotland (Glasgow and Edinburgh), Sydney (New South Wales), and Yorkshire. The Journal is issued fortnightly, and contains a review of matters of interest to chemists, papers read before the Sectional Meetings, abstracts of current chemical publications and of patents, and other classified information. (Entrance Fee, i is. ; Subscription, i los.) The Society of Public Analysts and other Analytical Chemists numbers about 450 members. The objects of the Society are to cultivate the study of analytical chemistry, by holding periodical meetings and by the publication of a journal devoted mainly to analytical chemistry ; to study questions relating to the adultera- tion of articles of food, drugs, and commercial pro- ducts generally, and means for its detection ; and to promote the efficiency and proper administration of the laws relating to the repression of adulteration. Every candidate for membership must be twenty-one years of age, be, or have been, engaged in analytical consulting or professorial chemistry, and be recom- mended by at least four members, three of whom must testify from personal knowledge to his scientific and social fitness. The recommendation is read at two Ordinary Meetings and is printed in the notice convening the Ordinary Meeting at which election is decided by ballot. The Analyst, the official organ of the Society, is issued monthly, and contains reports of the proceedings of the Society, the papers read at its meetings, abstracts, and information as to analytical methods. (Entrance Fee, i is. ; Subscription, i is.) Thus, for practical purposes, chemists have been 104 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY organised to some extent by these Societies, each having its particular work. The suggestion has often been made that the chemical interests of the nation should be further concentrated. A Federal Council of Chemical Societies has recently been constituted for the promotion of the interests of pure and applied chemistry. This Council will take action to ensure the adequate appreciation of the claims of chemical science ; consider matters involving the common in- terests of its constituent bodies, and take appropriate action in connection therewith after consultation with any bodies concerned or identified with the matters under consideration ; and consider such references as it may from time to t^me receive from its constituent bodies or otherwise, and, if desirable, act thereon. When the chemist has passed his examinations and secured his qualification for practice, he must keep abreast of the times for chemistry is of all things a progressive science. He must endeavour to keep pace with the progress of his science and with its applica- tions to-day, and to regard its possible applications in the future ; and since he cannot afford to neglect opportunities of extending his knowledge and gaining experience, he finds it advisable to keep in touch with his professional brethren, by joining one or more of the chemical societies. Yet, if he would maintain broad views he should associate frequently with those who follow other lines of thought and exert himself occasionally out of his immediate circle. There are, in addition, bodies such as the Iron and Steel Institute, the Institute of Brewing, the Institu- tion of Mining and Metallurgy, the Society of Dyers and Colourists, the Institute of Metals, the Concrete PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 105 Institute, the Institution of Petroleum Technologists, and the like, the members of which include professional chemists interested in the industries with which these institutions are concerned. All such bodies encourage research and discovery and, by their meetings and publications, assist chemists to keep in touch with modern developments and progress. If a chemist wishes to be successful, he must not cease to be a student of his science throughout his career. Such bodies afford their members who have made practical discoveries facilities for bringing these under the scrutiny of their brethren and others likely to be interested. Some seek to establish facts, others to apply them to practical purposes. New views and ideas are evolved from collective reasoning and debate, and the subject may be still further advanced by open criticism and friendly rivalry. The publication of research and invention affords a chemist legitimate means of acquiring status and reputation. He need not be content to remain always a spectator ; if he is able to advance his science, he deserves well of his fellows and becomes known by his work. Thus, the publications of the chemical societies contribute to the vast storehouse of knowledge and, in the main, record the progress of chemical science. In addition to the Journals and publications of the Societies and Institutions, we may mention The Chemical News, founded by Sir William Crookes in- 1859, The Chemical Trade Journal and Chemical Engineer, founded by George E. Davis in 1887 ; both published in this country. Two American publications are also to be noted : Industrial and Chemical Engineer- ing, published by the American Chemical Society, and Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, published by the McGraw Hill Co. lo6 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY For matters of general scientific interest, Nature finds many readers among chemists, and we suggest that our leading engineering and electrical engineer- ing journals can hardly be neglected by those who are concerned with the progress of chemical technology. Libraries, too, are essential to the man who would endeavour to keep pace with his subject. Besides those of the Chemical Society and the Institute of Chemistry, special mention should be made of the Patent Office Library, which contains one of the most comprehensive collections of modern scientific works of reference. Although there is a need for more complete organisa- tion of the profession, which the Institute of Chemistry is actively endeavouring to effect, recent events have brought into prominence the public utility of the various chemical Institutions and Societies, professional and social, as organisations available for the needs of the country in times of stress. Their services in the war have been acknowledged by the Government and the services rendered by chemists individually have proved invaluable ; they have contributed their share beyond all expectation and in spite of all difficulties ; so that the general community, in normal times apathetic to the doings of chemists, has been forcibly reminded of their indispensability. Other bodies interested in chemistry have been formed from time to time, some for local purposes, social and professional, others with wider aims. In recent times, there have been movements towards the organisation of some form of union for industrial chemists. The difficulty of dealing with the rate of remuneration of chemists is apparent, for the limits of capability and the tasks to be allotted in scientific work cannot be determined as in the mechanical PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 107 crafts. A " minimum wage " or " flat rate " would tend to affect adversely those who are more capable and more energetic : there will always be some, even among those engaged on routine testing, more capable than others, more trustworthy, quicker in their work and keener to make progress in their science. It is difficult to imagine chemical practice being subject to control, as to time and output, on the lines of the usual trades union system, and it may be questioned whether men who hope eventually to attain positions of responsibility in their profession would for long be content to submit to any system tending to restrict initiative and am- bition. The chemist who really cares about his science is not likely to leave an experiment for the reason that he has completed so many hours to the day ; though, of course, there should be mutual under- standing some idea of " give and take " between him and his principals. An educated and properly trained man should be able to establish his claim to the proper recognition of his services : reasonable employers are not likely to overlook men of decided promise, and the latter are usually able to secure positions elsewhere if they find that their services are not fully appreciated. We have indicated that there is a demand in certain quarters for some form of organisation to represent the " economic interests " of industrial chemists, but in any case, the need will remain for an organisation to promote the highest standard of competence and in- tegrity among qualified men of science who pursue chemistry as a career. It is the individual, the leader, the man of character and initiative in thought and action, who makes for progress, not only for himself but for everybody, and it is all the more essential, therefore, that high aims should be encouraged in order io8 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY that as many as possible may approach the attain- ment of strong individuality. We incline to the view, foreshadowed in the previous chapter, that the varied nature of chemical practice and the different degrees of competency which can find employment in it make the idea of a " trade union "" in the ordinary sense practically unworkable. We regard chemistry as a profession in which the practitioners must rely for success mainly on their individual capacity, skill, and force of character. Those who occupy whole-tune positions will be successful only by proving their worth and by showing themselves able and willing to co-operate- to the full in the progress of the concerns to which they are attached. A general strike among chemists would be a calamity a greater calamity than many imagine ; but it is hardly feasible while the majority of well- qualified chemists are not dissatisfied. Yet it is quite possible for chemists to learn how their brethren are treated in various concerns. A company may be known by the chemists it keeps. The founders of the Institute of Chemistry had no trade union idea in view. They hoped by promoting thorough education and training to provide a body of men competent in their respective branches of chemical work to whom the public could look with confidence for help in all matters on which chemical science has a bearing. An organisation composed of such varied members including chemical consultants and analysts in general or specialised practice, chemists in governmental or other official appointments, chemists in industries, as directors, owners, or as analysts, re- search chemists or control chemists, professors and teachers can hardly adopt the functions of a " trades union " in the generally accepted meaning of the term. It PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION 109 does, however, endeavour to safeguard their general welfare, by aiming at high ideals, encouraging the highest training, organising the competent for the good of the community, and supporting the pro- fession in all public affairs affecting its interests. These objects have been consistently pursued. The Institute, moreover, has maintained among its Fellows and Associates a high standard of professional integrity. Its Regulations are wide and interpreted so that any chemist who has been properly trained for his profes- sion can become associated with its work. They supply a definition of " a chemist " formed by repre- sentatives of all branches, men of experience and acknowledged repute. The Institute provides, there- fore, a register of chemists conforming to that definition. The qualifications of Fellowship (F.I.C.) and Asso- ciateship (A.I.C.) are officially recognised by Govern- ment Departments and other authorities in connection with chemical appointments at home and in overseas dominions. The aid of the Institute is always avail- able to chemists : many who have not taken steps to join it, have benefited directly or indirectly by its existence ; especially during the war, assistance was rendered without stint to all comers, and such help was sought far more frequently by those who were not previously associated with the Institute than by the Fellows and Associates. By the formation of local sections it is hoped that the senior members of the profession will become better acquainted with the aspirations of their younger brethren, and will thus be better able to further them, while the activities of the sections will tend to make the work of the profession generally better known and appreciated. PUBLIC ANALYSTS AND OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL ANALYSTS AMONG the officials in the courts of princes in mediaeval times, not the least important were the tasters, whose duty it was to ensure that no poison or other injurious matter was introduced into the food of their lords. In like manner, ale-tasters or ale- conners were appointed by municipal bodies, to look to the goodness of ale and to inspect the measures used in public-houses. The liverymen of the City of London, in Common Hall, on Midsummer's Day each year, appointed such an officer ; and history relates that Shakespeare's father held the post at Stratford- on-Avon. It is said that one of the methods of tasting or rather testing employed was to pour some ale on a Windsor chair in which the officer, garbed in buckskin breeches, seated himself : when the breeches adhered firmly, it was supposed that sugar had been added. We have already alluded to the authority given to physicians in the sixteenth century to examine the preparations of apothecaries and druggists, and we may refer those who are interested in the early history of adulteration to an essay on the subject in Dr. Wynter Blyth's book on Foods : Their Composition and Analysis. With the progress of time, the testing of foods and drugs has become an important branch of chemical no PUBLIC ANALYSTS in science and practice, affecting intimately the welfare of the public both in health and pocket. The first volume of the Proceedings of the Society of Public Analysts, published in 1876, contains an account of the origin of that Society and indicates how the investigations of Dr. Hassall and other chemists were instrumental in directing the attention of Parliament, in 1860, to the question of checking adulteration of food. Legislation was demanded for the protection of the consumer without placing unfair restrictions on the producer. The first Adulteration Act, passed in that year, was practically inoperative ; and the second, passed in 1872, though an improve- ment on the first, was not satisfactory in administra- tion. That it was only partially enforced was largely due to the scarcity of analysts available for carrying out its provisions, but also to the fact that it had been drawn in such a manner as to perplex magistrates, whose decisions on the prosecutions coming before them were frequently at variance. The introduction of these Acts appeared to the traders at the time as a vexatious interference with their liberties ; but it was in reality contributory to their well-being, in that such legislation protected honest vendors from nefarious competition, apart from the more important consideration of the public benefit. This form of legislation, however, was greatly resented by tradesmen, and the general public appeared to be then much in sympathy with their grievances. The defects in the Act of 1872 soon came into prominence and, two years later, a Select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed to enquire into the work- ing of the measure, with a view to its amendment. Numerous witnesses were examined and a Report with the detailed evidence was published as a Blue H2 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY Book, which in addition to suggesting the probability of further legislation, impressed the Public Analysts then in office with the desirability of forming an Association. The foundation of the Society of Public Analysts was decided upon at a Meeting held on the 7th of August, 1874, and at the first general meeting, held four months later, the Society arrived at a definition of "an adulterated article " and, at the same time, elected a Council. Membership of the Society was at first open to " all analytical chemists, but no others/' Meetings were arranged at which papers were read and discussed, the early proceedings being published in the Chemical News, by arrange- ment with Mr. now Sir William Crookes, and later in the form of the volume referred to, which also contains notes on adulteration cases. From that time the Society has carefully watched the introduction of fresh legislation, and has encouraged amongst its members the mutual interchange of opinions on methods of analysis and the interpretation of results, particu- larly in connection with the examination of articles of food and drink. After the new Bill had been printed and circulated, the Society devoted itself to securing the modification or removal of objectionable clauses, its suggestions being considered while the Bill was in Committee. The Society received support from the public and the Press, put itself in communication with the Local Government Board and forwarded a sehedule of sug- gested amendments, which, with few exceptions, the President of the Board readily approved ; so that the Bill was much improved before proceeding to the House of Lords. Considerable support was also obtained in the House of Commons, notably due to a speech de- livered on the second reading of the Bill, by Dr. Lyon PUBLIC ANALYSTS 113 later Lord Playfair ; but opposing influences were also exercised and the Society was then confronted with criticism, both in the House of Commons and in the Press, especially with regard to the competence and integrity of public analysts. The reference of disputed analyses to " Somerset House " Laboratory, at that time a department of the Board of Inland Revenue, was regarded as an injustice to analysts of standing, and, when it was suggested that " Somerset House " decisions should be considered final, the Society entered a strong protest, recommending that, in cases of prosecution, whoever made an examination of a reference sample should be required to testify to his analysis on oath, since the reputation of a public analyst might otherwise be at the mercy of a Govern- ment subordinate who might be of no greater com- petence. It was ascertained subsequently that the intention of the Government was to make both equally liable to give the figures of analysis on oath and to be subject to cross-examination. The Press commented on differences in analytical results, almost invariably casting discredit on the public analysts concerned, though in some cases samples taken under the Act were known to have been deliberately tam- pered with. The Society, therefore, gave careful con- sideration to the methods of taking, dividing and sealing samples, and its recommendations on this part of the Bill were subsequently incorporated in the Act. Indeed, it may be said that through the intervention of the Society, the Bill in its later stages was so entirely different from the original as to render it practically a new Bill ; and although when the Act was eventually passed it contained provisions of which the Society did not approve entirely, it could not on the whole be regarded as a bad compromise, and was a much more I H4 "THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY satisfactory and comprehensive measure than either of those it repealed. The subsequent working of the Act showed that some of the objections raised by the Society were not altogether well founded. For instance, in the matter of taking samples, there appears to have been a sug- gestion that collusion was likely to occur between un- scrupulous vendors and inspectors, which has only rarely been found to exist in practice and, again, the system of referring samples to " Somerset House " (now the Government Laboratories) in cases of dispute has not proved an unsatisfactory arrangement or re- vealed a great amount of discrepancy in results. In practice the public analyst sees only one-third of the official sample, and it is, therefore, not unlikely in the case of certain substances, such as lard, butter, etc., that the sample may not have been uniformly mixed. This condition of affairs has naturally led to cases in which the results of analysis differed. The relations between Public Analysts and the Government Laboratory, in the early days somewhat strained, are now reciprocally cordial ; the Society and the Laboratory co-operate in the interests of the public, the differences which arise being more commonly differences in interpretation than in actual results ; in the latter instances, some satisfactory explanation is usually forthcoming. Such relations are ensured so long as a high standard of training and qualification is insisted upon on the part both of the chemists of the Government Laboratory and the Public Analysts, and provided there continues to be a mutual interchange of opinion on methods of analysis and like matters, PUBLIC ANALYSTS 115 Prior to the passing of the 1875 Act, the appoint- ment of public analysts by local authorities was per- missive and not compulsory, except at the request of the Local Government Board. The local authorities in many cases had ignored the earlier Acts : twenty- seven counties neglected to appoint public analysts, and these .only gradually fell into line under the encouragement of the Local Government Board. Where the Acts were not enforced, adulteration was far more prevalent : of the samples taken in various parts of the country the percentage of adulterated varied from seven to forty-eight ; yet wholesale traders indignantly denied the prevalence of adultera- tion, though they protested strongly against giving warranties of purity or guaranteeing retailers against loss incurred by prosecutions under the Acts. When the Adulteration Acts were first enforced, the number of competent analysts available was very limited, and in the absence of any standard of qualifica- tion a number of appointments were made which had subsequently to be revoked. Some who might reason- ably have claimed to be -analysts had no special experience of the new work they were called upon to do. In a few instances, medical men, with practically no knowledge of analytical chemistry, were appointed and some of them endeavoured to sub-let their analy- tical work ; where incompetent men were entrusted with the duties, the reputation of the profession was considerably damaged, owing to their mistakes. How- ever, in the course of time they were removed and, thus, the few who were recognised as competent received further appointments. Under the stress of competition in trade and with the gradually increasing restrictions on adulteration, the artifices adopted to evade the law became more n6 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY subtle. To combat such sophistication the necessity arose for more definite evidence of competency on the part of candidates for appointment as public analysts. Up to that time, no definite endeavour had been made to organise the profession of chemistry. The need for some authority to test the .competency of those who wished to practise the profession in this branch was one of the main considerations leading to the founda- tion of the Institute of Chemistry. By the appointment of public analysts, chemistry as distinct from pharmacy became an organised branch of public service, and by its practical applica- tions became more and more essential to the well- being of the community. Candidates for appointment were required to possess " competent knowledge, skill, and experience," and the Local Government Boards, to whom such appointments were referred for approval and confirmation, were empowered, before giving such approval, to require the production of satisfactory proof of competency. The Select Committee of the House of Commons on Food Products Adulteration (1894) reported that the method of testing the qualifications of candidates was not wholly successful and suggested that the production of a recognised diploma or certificate should be re- quired. The Council of the Institute, therefore, established a special examination in the Chemistry of Food and Drugs, which was duly approved by the LocaJ Government Boards as qualifying candidates for these appointments, with the result that the public analysts to-day form a body of highly skilled and competent chemists who have rendered excellent service to the community and have in no small degree advanced the science and practice of analytical chemistry. PUBLIC ANALYSTS 117 It was anticipated that Public Analysts would receive many samples for analysis (under the Act) from private persons, but this has not proved to be the case. The mention in the Act of a fee of ten shillings and sixpence for the examination of such samples is greatly to be deplored, since that sum cannot be regarded as a standard. Many investigations cannot be conducted at such a fee by any professional chemist making a reasonable charge on his time, leaving out of the question the cost of his training, the upkeep of his laboratory and the value of his experience and opinion. The public analyst is in most cases obliged to regard his appoint- ment as a whole, accepting an average fee for samples of all kinds ; otherwise, if the samples submitted in- cluded a preponderance of those requiring difficult and . complex analysis, he could not hold appointment at the fees now commonly paid. For this reason, it is well that water was not included in the Act, though Public Analysts are usually entrusted with its analysis. It is the general opinion certainly of many public analysts who maintain laboratories in the city of London that an average fee of ten shillings and six- pence leaves no margin of profit when all working expenses have been taken into account. The appoint- ments have been held in many cases mainly to form a nucleus for practice and possibly to attract to the holders a proportion of the private consulting work, not necessarily connected with food and drugs, arising from the industry and commerce of the county or borough for which the public analyst is appointed. The adulteration acts have been considerably ex- tended during the past forty years, and many regula- tions have been introduced tending to increase the duties and responsibilities of these important public officers. Moreover, the public analysts themselves n8 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY have so much advanced the science of their branch of work as to render it often necessary for them to con- duct with increased expense of time and money a far more exhaustive examination of the articles sub- mitted to them than was formerly regarded as suffi- cient or even possible until -new methods had been devised. These matters, however, are little understood by the local authorities, who in many cases do not appreciate the nature and value of the service of the analyst, and have too frequently shown a tendency to reduce rather than increase the fees allowed for analyses, in spite of the fact that the expenses of living have advanced and 'the remuneration, of other citizens in practically every walk of life has steadily risen. Apathy and lack of appreciation will tend in the course of time to counter- act the desire of trained chemists to undertake public work of this character, except as whole-time officers working under authorities bearing all the expenses of laboratory maintenance. The Local Government Boards, who are charged with the control of the administration of the Acts, persistently decline to intervene in the question of remuneration, and it is unlikely that anything short of an Act of Parliament stipulating a definite and adequate fee will put the matter on a proper basis. Apparently some members of the profession, fully qualified to do the work, have reasons of their own for accepting less than the usual fees. Probably, in some cases, their establishment expenses are not so great and their laboratories are in localities where rents are low, or it may be that the bulk of the samples taken require only analyses of a simple character. It is reasonable to suppose, however, that in cases where the fees are exceptionally low the public analyst cannot PUBLIC ANALYSTS 119 be expected to carry out his investigations with the same thoroughness : a state of affairs which is hardly in the best interests of the community. When public analytical appointments have been offered at inadequate salaries, the Councils of the Institute of Chemistry and Society of Public Analysts have advised chemists to refrain from becoming candidates for them. Similar action in relation to other professional appointments and Work has been taken by the British Medical Association, the Royal Institute of British Architects and other bodies, but, when such advice is disregarded, it does not appear that its acceptance can be legally enforced. The Institute of Chemistry has endeavoured to fulfil the duty imposed by its Charter of providing the community with a body of highly competent chemists for the public service, and has provided the State with the recognised means of ascertaining those who are qualified for these appointments. It has a right to expect in return that the public should recognise that the services of highly trained and qualified professional men should be rewarded consistently with the nature of their work and the responsibility of the public duties with which they are entrusted. The aim of the administration should be to secure efficient service. The remuneration and conditions of these public appointments should, therefore, be such as will pro- mote efficiency with integrity. The question has been frequently debated as to whether the object of the legislation for the suppression of adulteration is directed to the punishment of fraud or the maintenance of the public health. Whereas it was stated in the preamble to the Act of 1872 that " the practice of adulterating articles of food and drink for sale in fraud of Her Majesty's subjects, and to the 120 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY great hurt of their health and danger of their lives, requires to be repressed/' and the preamble to the 1860 Act was very similar, the Act of 1875 merely stated that it was desirable that those Acts should be repealed and the law requiring the sale of food and drugs in a pure and genuine condition should be amended. Thus the preamble of the Act of 1875 ignored equally the explicit statement of " fraud " and " health " reasons and may, therefore, be held to have included both. In France, a similar statute is regarded as mainly directed against fraud, but it includes provisions in the interests of health ; in Belgium, legislation is directed against adulteration with noxious substances ; in Italy, Switzerland, and Germany, the chief object of legislation in these matters appears to be to prevent the sale of unsound or injurious food, providing penalties for fraud and ignorance, carelessness, or negligence in manufacture. In Germany, however, the restrictions do not apply to substances intended for export. Since profit is commonly the object of adultera- tion, the question of fraud should certainly weigh in the judgment of such matters ; the penalties imposed should be a real check to the fraudulent trader. In the early days of this legislation local authori- ties occasionally appointed their Medical Officers of Health as Public Analysts. While there were insufficient professional chemists for the work there was little enough justification for this procedure, except where the medical officer was competent to undertake the work which was very rarely the case. It is a false notion that medical men generally and as very few possess a competent knowledge of chemistry such are capable of controlling chemical laboratories ; in any of its branches ; the two officers are drawn from PUBLIC ANALYSTS 121 two distinct professions : their duties are distinct in their nature and require an entirely different training. The smattering of chemistry required in the ordinary medical curriculum and for the Diploma in Public Health is totally inadequate for the practice of chemistry. Under the Act of 1875, provision is made for the taking of samples by Medical Officers of Health, sanitary inspectors and police, so that local authori- ties have commonly entrusted this duty to the medical officers ; but since the Act declares that those who take the samples are to submit them to the public analyst if they suspect the same to have been sold con- trary to the Act, it is clearly not the intention that such officers should also act as public analysts. Moreover, there is no indication that it was in- tended to place the public analyst in a position in any way inferior to that of the medical officer of health and the latter is not specifically required by any statute to take any further part in the administration of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts, and though he may be required by other statutes to report on domestic water supplies and on tuberculous milk he will usually refer such matter to a qualified chemist. The most ingenious defences are devised to evade the penalties of the law on purely technical grounds. One of the chief of these is in connection with Section 25 of the Act, under which the defendant retailer may rely on a written warranty received at the time he purchased the substance, to relieve him of the respon- sibilities which he may incur if it should be sold contrary to the Acts. In the Act of 1875, food was defined as every article used for food or drink by man other than drugs or water ; but it is significant that the word adulteration was not defined. 122 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY The Public Analyst must be acquainted with the statutes under which he performs his duties, but is in no sense a Public Prosecutor. He has to examine to the best of his knowledge and ability any sample of food or drug submitted to him and to report whether or not it is of the nature, substance, and quality demanded. He is required to state his opinion on the genuineness of the sample and to specify the per- centages of any foreign ingredient present. In the case of drugs, the courts have construed adulteration as " impurity " if the sample has been sold in such a state " as to affect injuriously the quality or potency of such drug." It was at one time not infrequently advanced by the defence in cases of prosecution that the public pre- ferred certain admixtures in articles which come within the meaning of the Acts. Thus, for instance, the public might show a preference with regard to the colour of a substance such as butter or milk and the dealer would endeavour by the use of colour- ing matters such as annatto to meet this fancy. A number of articles such as cheese, whiskey, and brandy appear to need definition. The employment of brandy and whiskey as alcoholic stimulants in medicine illustrates the importance of the question. The discretion of the analyst must be used to decide how far the purchaser has obtained what he had a right to expect, which in the absence of standard is often difficult to determine. In 1905, the Local Government Board for England and Wales established the Department of Inspector of Foods, the staff including both medical men and chemists, whose duties have embraced scientific investigation, reports on which have been published from time to time. PUBLIC ANALYSTS 123 The Department has been largely instrumental in preventing the importation of diseased meat in various forms, of unwholesome canned foods and of other unsound articles of food and drink for human consumption. The Department has advocated the dating of tinned foods, and the careful examination of any that have been tinned for more than a year ; it has recommended that the presence of two 'grains of tin to the pound should be accepted as an indication that the food is likely to be deleterious to health. Under Section i of the Public Health (Regulations as to Food) Act, 1907, the Local Government Board is empowered, moreover, to make regulations authorising measures to be taken for the prevention of danger arising to the public health from the importation, preparation, storage, and distribution of articles of food intended for sale for human consumption. The Board has framed many such regulations and has issued numerous circulars of instructions to local authorities. The Annual Reports of the Board, with regard to the working of the Acts, have shown that special attention has been paid to dairy products, the prevalence of adulteration indicating that the penalties imposed have been usually too lenient. A supply of pure milk is essential owing to its importance as an article of food, particularly for infants and invalids. On account of the varying quality of milk under different con- ditions, there has been a laxity in adjudicating cases with strict regard to the standards prescribed. The prevention of tuberculosis being one of the main objects, the public analyst has been obliged to give attention to the study and practice of bacteriology. Greater attention is now given to the cleanliness of cows, sheds, utensils, and milkers ; and greater pre- 124 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY cautions are taken against contamination by dust in transit, in shops and in the houses of the consumers, but much remains to be done to ensure a wholesome supply of a substance so liable to contamination. One disadvantage of fixing standards is that the fraudulent trader is enabled to lower the quality of produce to the limit at which prosecution may be avoided. Thus, the resources of science can be applied to promoting adulteration as well as to detecting it. The purity and soundness of food should be protected both in the factory and in the shop. In the production of butter, various substitutes have been employed which defy detection except by the most expert analysts. It has been suggested, therefore, that butter factories should be registered and subject to inspection, and that the introduction of fats or oils which might be used for sophistication should not be allowed into such factories. The Sale, of Food and Drugs Acts permit the use of preservatives, but -there must necessarily be a limit to such use, and the public analyst has often a difficult task in deciding whether foods containing preserva- tives are genuine within the meaning of the Acts. Opinions differ as to the effect of such substances on the health of the consumer ; the law on the subject is by no means clear, and the findings of magistrates are at variance. A great deal of food must be brought to the consumer from a distance, and much comes from abroad. The object of preservatives is to check decom- position in transit and in storage ; it is obvious, therefore, that if the use of preservatives is forbidden, other means must be found to produce the same result and that if preservatives are allowed they should not be used in unnecessary or unwholesome quantities. Unless, however, the articles sold are of PUBLIC ANALYSTS 125 the nature, substance, and quality demanded, the use of preservatives cannot be defended, but the traders keep within the requirements by labelling articles so as to indicate their constitution. The principle of caveat emptor applies in these instances ; but the buyer is not usually capable of discernment in such matters and knows little of what he should beware, and this is especially so in the case, of drugs. The main point is that their efficacy for medicinal purposes should in no way be diminished. The provision of definite standards is, therefore, essential to ensure their safe and successful use. Advancement in knowledge of therapeutics could scarcely be hoped for without the quality of drugs administered being properly guaranteed. The administration of the Acts also calls for the employment of chemists, not necessarily public analysts, for the defence of vendors in cases which come into court, and many manufacturers and traders engage chemists either on their staffs or as con- sultants, to keep a check on their products and mer- chandise, to advise them as to standards and so forth. It should be mentioned, however, that in the event of legal proceedings, whilst such chemists are required to support their findings personally, the certificate of a public analyst is accepted as evidence without his attendance at court, though he may be required to attend for cross-examination by the defence. The public analyst who makes a mistake suffers in prestige. In the law, judges may frequently express the opinion that the litigants have been badly advised : for instance, that a case should not have come into court. This is a matter between solicitor and client. In medicine, eminent physicians may make a faulty diagnosis, and scarcely anyone hear of it. In archi- 126 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY lecture, mistakes can often be rectified before the building is completed. The public analyst, however, whose practice as such consists largely of investigations bringing usually but a small return, is answerable as a public official and his reputation is at stake on any lapse from accuracy, though it may be the result of an accident for instance, through a confusion of samples, or lack of uniformity of a sample unevenly mixed. It has been suggested that the promoters of this legislation " had their tongues in their cheeks " when they entrusted its administration to the Borough and County Councils, seeing that it is directed in the main against the possible dishonesty or carelessness of tradesmen, who are usually well represented on such bodies. The Acts were and still are administered very un- evenly. In many prosecutions offences are regarded lightly by the magistrates who impose, for serious impositions on the public, trivial fines, representing but a small fraction of the ill-gotten gains made by fraudulent traders. The Acts still need a far more rigid enforcement ; far more samples will have to be examined and the penalties of infringement greatly increased before a pure supply of food can be ensured. In the Alkali, etc., Works Regulation Act and the Factory Act, the administration lies with the central authority, and it has often been debated whether the same system should not apply in the administration of the statutes against adulteration. Formerly, the constituent members of local authorities had no knowledge of the training and experience necessary for the proper conduct of professional chemical prac- tice ; they did not understand the nature of the PUBLIC ANALYSTS 127 analysts'- duties ; but there are signs of a better appre- ciation of these matters since the regulations as to competency of public analysts were framed by the Local Government Boards. The standard of com- petence is now well defined, the Boards accepting, as sufficient documentary evidence of the requisite qualification, the Fellowship or Associateship of the Institute of Chemistry, together with the certificate granted by the Institute after an examination con- ducted by them on lines approved by the Board in therapeutics, pharmacology, and microscopy. Public Analysts should be men of the highest character, receiving sufficient remuneration and occupying such a position as to place them beyond the reach of any inducement to relax their duty in any respect, or in any sense misuse the advantage of their positions. If the appointments are made unattractive to the best men, the administration of the Acts will suffer. The responsibility lies with the local authorities and with the Local Government Boards. The latter are loath to interfere with local authorities in the question of remuneration, but they are fully empowered to en- force proper administration. Such administration can only follow when the local authorities realise the im- portance of selecting competent and reliable officers, and these can only be obtained and retained perma- nently by making their positions and the conditions governing them in every way commensurable with their training, experience, and status. The Board have rightly condemned attempts to offer these public appointments to tender. Good results could scarcely be expected if a local authority placed its confidence in the man who placed the least value on his services. Men must be chosen who command respect and confidence, and they 128 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY should be assured reasonable security of tenure of office protection against the possibility of dismissal at the caprice of the local authorities. Where the appointments are not " whole time," they constitute a useful nucleus to the consulting chemist who is free to undertake, in addition, other professional work The public analyst is frequently engaged as a consultant to manufacturers of all kinds of food, such as flour, bread, biscuits, chocolate, milk preparations, margarine, preserved meats and fruits, pickles, jams, etc. Occasionally, too, he is required to investigate cases of suspected poisoning, in- volving the -examination of viscera, both human and animal. Thus, the work coming to a public analyst covers a very wide sphere and not only requires know- ledge, skill, and experience, but frequently entails heavy responsibility. Chemists who are competent to hold appointments as Public Analysts are often entrusted with the examination of water, and the periodical inspection of the supplies to the districts for which they act. Similarly, they are often qualified for hold- ing appointments as official agricultural analysts, in which capacity they examine samples taken under the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act, analyse and advise upon soils, and conduct other investigations for agriculturists. The first Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act was passed in 1893 and was amended in 1906. The position of the official agricultural analysts as such is less satisfactory than that of the public analysts, the Act being very inadequately administered so far as the utilisation of the services of the analysts is concerned. Less than 4000 samples are submitted annually under the Act to the holders of about 100 appointments in England and Wales. PUBLIC ANALYSTS 129 Notwithstanding the importance of science and particularly of chemistry in the cultivation of the land and the feeding of cattle, agricultural chemistry can scarcely be regarded as providing much scope for practice except as an adjunct to other professional work. The competition of public institutions renders it of small advantage for chemists to engage in this branch, unless they are retained by one or mo're of the well-known agricultural societies, and can establish a connection with large commercial concerns manu- facturing or importing fertilisers and feeding stuffs, the most responsible and the only really remunerative part of this department of work. Yet there is hardly an industry which owes more to the chemist than agriculture. As the source of food and, to a large extent, of textile production and all that is necessary to the maintenance of life, agriculture of all industries demands the closest attention of men of science. The application of chemistry and bacteriology to the treatment of soils has vastly improved the output and quality of all agricultural products. As the crops exhaust the life-maintaining constituents of the soil, means must be found for restoring such constituents, or the soil becomes barren. The introduction of chemical fertilisers is the outcome of scientific dis- covery ; the continued satisfactory supply of such substances depends largely on the supply of com- petent chemists. Before passing to the subject of industrial chemistry, some consideration will be given in the next chapter to questions of professional conduct and procedure as they are mainly of concern to chemists in independent practice, though it is always possible that information on such matters may be of use to chemists engaged in other branches. PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE IT is clearly material for every student preparing for a professional career to know something of his obligations as well as of his privileges. These obliga- tions affect mainly his ideas of loyalty, discipline, and unselfishness. All who are concerned with the advancement of professional interests recognise that it is as essential to maintain a high standard of conduct and to create a fellowship conforming to recognised ethics as it is to maintain a high standard of competency. Any departure by a member of a recognised pro- fessional body from the accepted code renders the offender liable to have his conduct enquired into with the possibility of reprimand, suspension, or .expulsion. The ill-considered action of an individual member may affect adversely the general body in the estimation of the public. It should be a matter of personal concern for every practitioner, whether or not a member of any professional organisation, to assist in maintaining the reputation of his calling by refraining from any doubt- ful course of action, and to do what he can in his own domain of work to advance both his art or science and his profession. These matters are largely a question of taste : good taste is the proper appreciation of what is fitting. However, we must beware how we judge others, since the circumstances may be im- perfectly known and appreciated except by those most intimately concerned. Their intentions may be good, 130 PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE 131 their motives free from self-interest, or they may be more sinned against than sinning. The chemist starting in practice for himself is thrown on his own resources ; he must use his own judgment, acting according to his conviction of what is right, bearing in mind that his conduct in the early days of practice will probably influence his subsequent career. He may be free to place what value he pleases on his time and professional knowledge and skill ; as in other professions, his fees may vary with the cir- cumstances for instance, the financial interests and responsibility involved but he should realise his position as a member of a profession and endeavour to conform to its standards. His education and technical training give him a definite status and warrant him in supporting the profession generally by requiring adequate material reward without having recourse to unfair practices. The fee also may sometimes determine the extent of the investigation and the attention to be given to it, while in all such matters the public take men very much at their own estimation and expect to get what they pay for. Attempts have been made to formulate schedules of fees for analyses, but the conditions of practice are so various that it is impossible to decide definitely the fees or remuneration applicable to all cases, having regard to such considerations as the locality, the value of the work to the client or employer, the nature and scope of the investigation and the professional status of the chemist concerned. Chemists may be equally well qualified, but some will place a higher value on their services than others. At the same time, pro- fessional men are under a common obligation to one another not to create a competitive spirit or to " under- 132 THE PROFESSION OF- CHEMISTRY cut " deliberately the fees commonly charged for any particular kind of work. Each individual is expected, in this as in other matters, to support the position taken by his profession as a whole, and to be prepared on occa- sion to make some sacrifice in the general cause. The main point for every practitioner is to avoid any course of action which is likely to injure the interests of his profession. In any case of doubt, an older practitioner will usually readily give a beginner the benefit of his views on such matters. The maintenance of status of a profession cannot be secured solely by ensuring the competence of those who practise. Those who cannot command proper recog- nition for their services, in the form of adequate remuneration, obviously have no status. The adoption of a low standard is a fundamental error very difficult to rectify, attracts the least desirable forms of practice, and is injurious to the profession generally. " That which is not for the interest of the whole swarm is not for the interest of a single bee." The chemist can only establish his position by good work and integrity. He must keep himself in- formed of the current work in his science, and be ready to cope with any problem reasonably within his sphere of practice. He should devote the best .of his know- ledge and skill to the interest of his client, but it is sometimes questionable whether he should under- take difficult problems outside his usual work ; indeed, he may run the risk of failure and his reputation may suffer, since clients are apt to discredit men who pretend to omniscience. Sooner or later such pretence becomes unbearable, " the mask becomes an instrument of torture." 1 When in doubt the 1 Essays Written in the Internals of Business. Sir Arthur Helps. In the Essays of EHa, also, we find this passage bearing the same PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE 133 chemist can always refer a client to a practitioner having special experience in the subject ; or, if his client prefers to retain him in the matter, suggest a conference with a specialist. Tact comes with ex- perience. In any case, to talk over the heads of clients, to resort to mysticism, or to conceal facts by a vague style, will not secure their confidence. It is equally dangerous to form hasty conclusions without full investigation of facts. Advice should be directed to some practicable and not merely to an ingenious solution ; if it is destructive in character, something constructive will be looked for as a reasonable sub- stitute. One of the principal functions of a recognised pro- fessional body is the promotion of a proper under- standing as to the conduct of its- members in their relation to the public and to one another. In the guidance of members in matters of professional conduct the example of the medical profession has been fre- quently taken into .consideration. The General Medical Council, who are elected by the practitioners and whose decisions are subject to appeal to the Privy Council, are empowered to remove after due enquiry any practitioner deemed guilty of " infamous conduct in a professional respect." Their existence has con- tributed to the strengthening of the organisation of the medical profession, not only in the maintenance of a standard of qualification for practice, but also in the establishment of a code of professional honour. As in medicine, so in chemistry, that kind of competition which takes the form of self-advertising or appealing lesson : "... the fact is, a man may do very well with a very little- knowledge, and scarce be 'found out, in mixed company ; every- body is so much more ready to produce his own, than to call for a display of your acquisitions. But in a tte-d-t$te there is no shuffling. The truth will out." 134 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY in any irregular manner for patronage, is properly dis- countenanced, as is also the giving of " trade puffs." Advertising is seldom resorted to by professional men : barristers, solicitors, and members of the Stock Exchange are forbidden under severe penalties to advertise. It is not only a matter of taste, but amounts to an admission that those who resort to it are unable to secure a clientele by legitimate means. A passage from Boswell's Life of Johnson is interest- ing in this connection: Boswell : "You would not solicit employment, Sir, if you were a lawyer/' John- son : " No, Sir, but not because I should think it wrong, but because I should disdain it." Boswell's comment on this was that the doctor had made a good distinction, which would be felt by men of just pridi. Johnson proceeded : " However, I would not have a lawyer be wanting to himself in using fair means. I would have him inject a little hint now and then to prevent his being overlooked." There should be no difficulty in a man of good sense determining for himself the manner of injecting " the little hint." It should clearly not be by means of advertisement, or personal soliciting, or by deliberately striving to deprive another practitioner of a client. The giving of trade certificates for " puffing " purposes is also rightly regarded as a modified form of self-advertisement. Nothing reflects so much dis- credit upon professional chemistry as the issue of certificates in favour of questionable articles, or such as contain merely laudatory or irrelevant statements. It is quite unjustifiable, for instance, to give publicity to comparisons between the manufactures of a client and those of other firms in the same trade. The chemist is expected to be correct in his statements of fact, and to found his opinions on facts. The best PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE 135 methods of investigation known should be used and all data ascertained by careful experiment, properly con- firmed. Reports should be in definite and intelligible language, and should neither be liable to be misunder- stood nor capable of being misinterpreted. A chemist should decline to undertake work the report on which he is aware will be used for an im- proper purpose. Cases have occurred in which it has been clearly proved that false reports have been pub- lished under the names of well-known practitioners, and others in which reports have been used without any authorisation, or garbled, or abbreviated with omission of essential statements. Obviously it is equally detrimental to the interests of his profession for a chemist to be associated with any organisation which adopts the methods of conducting practice to which we have alluded, and such association may bring him into disrepute among his professional brethren. The chemist engaged in matters of legal and quasi- legal enquiry may be brought prominently to the public notice and his position is often one of great difficulty. He has to do his best for his client even if the latter is in the wrong, but he should adhere strictly to the facts. He is not a witness by profession, but a pro- fessional witness, and his duty is to assist in the proper determination of the subject of dispute, by giving his evidence clearly and fairly. Facts must not be dis- torted so as to convey a wrong impression to the un- initiated ; when the other side is heard such artifice will usually recoil severely on those who attempt it. The chemist when consulted on a matter likely to be the subject of litigation should explain the position clearly and impartially to his client, and should point out that his evidence must be in accordance with the 136 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY facts determined. He cannot commit himself to giving a favourable opinion beforehand as he may sometimes be expected to do, and he must risk the displeasure of his client in this, if he values his good name and professional position. He cannot allow him- self to acquire a reputation for bolstering up unsatis- factory cases. In the past, the evidence given by scientific witnesses in legal cases was not infrequently so con- flicting that considerable discredit was thrown on those appearing on both sides, to their common injury and to the detriment of the profession generally. It is, however, long since a Master of the Rolls, losing his patience with the scientific witnesses in a case, said that he did not pay the slightest attention to their evidence, remarking that they attacked one another in a most reprehensible manner. The conflicting testimony of equally qualified experts must in most cases be attributable to the circum- stance that neither has had the full facts brought under his notice. The chemist may not be in possession of all the essential facts ; he may unwittingly be asked to undertake an investigation with only part of the material facts before him, and may be led into com- mitting himself to an opinion which would be modified if he were more fully informed. In some cases the employment of chemical referees as a kind of court of arbitration, or the provision of means whereby the advisers of both sides can meet in consultation, may prove a great saving of expense to those who would otherwise be litigants. This system may result in the reduction of the work and fees of chemists engaged, but that should be more than counterbalanced by the desire to assist in the proper settlement of such matters, and the recognition that fewer reputations are injured and PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE 137 much expense saved to those from whom the profession derives practice. The main ethical point is the observance of respect for the other side : a professional man should not dis- parage another member of his profession, 1 and should avoid forming an unfair estimate of an opponent -merely because the latter happens to hold opinions contrary to his own. The facts have probably been presented to each in a different light, and one or the other may be possessed of additional information. Adverse criticism of the opinion of another is not the function of the pro- fessional witness. Both are engaged in a common duty for the service of the public, and should appreciate the idea that their profession constitutes a bond of fellow- ship even though they cannot always agree. The chemist may be compelled to contradict the opinion of another, but this can be done with courtesy. His business is to substantiate his own views, which must be founded on his knowledge deduced from scientific experiment and established fact. The accuracy of instruments and vessels, purity of reagents, etc., may be questioned, but he should be careful how he exposes 1 This is a matter for wider application than to proceedings in the courts of law. Caution in criticism of the work of others is always advisable, since the experience of the past has so often shown what seemed most unlikely to be established fact. We recall the rancour existing among the alchemists, which may be illustrated by a reference to the foreword to The Art of Distillation (1651), wherein Dr. John French though many of his own remarkable experiments may be questioned stigmatises some of his con- temporaries as " sophisticating and cheating mountebanks, who deserve to be bound to the peace " and anticipates their re- prisals. Occasionally, a discovery is made of somewhat novel or astonishing character, drawing from the unwary comments which they are bound later to retract to their discomfort. Davy opposed Dalton's atomic hypothesis ; later, Newlands' Law of Octaves was regarded at first as rather frivolous and, still later, the discovery of Argon by Ramsay and Rayleigh was seriously open to doubt, which seemed reasonable enough to many, for who could suppose that we did not at that time (1894) know the constitution of the air ! 138 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY what he considers mistakes on the part of his opponents. He will be wise also to guard against talking of the case while it is yet undecided. [^Scientific evidence, if it is to carry conviction, should be precise and definite, and given with caution and moderation. It should be given clearly and in language reasonably free from scientific terms not easily under- stood by judges or ordinary jurymen. The results of actual work in the experience of the chemist are of more value than any opinion derived from books. Even if his answer is adverse to the side for which he is acting he must give it frankly, although he may be able to add qualifying expressions by way of explanation. Fencing with cross-examination or shirking questions will not command confidence ; the volunteering of information is frequently unjustifiable, being regarded as an attempt to change the course of the evidence. The scientific witness may decline to answer ques- tions outside his knowledge ; he can ask for time to consider or opportunity to experiment. If a chemist expresses an apparently different opinion on a point in a subsequent case, he should be ready with reasons justifying his change of mind. To each question put by counsel he is expected to give a direct answer, and his manner, whether prompt or halting, may not be interpreted correctly. He may be sensitive, sometimes, about answering questions relating to his professional work ; but it is his duty to testify to facts or to give his opinion, as the case may be, on matters which are special to his knowledge, in order that the court may give due weight to his evidence ; the questions put to him, therefore, should deal mainly with his science and skill. No one is entitled to consider himself infallible ; so that if on being confronted with an opposite view a chemist who PROFESSIONAL PROCEDURE 139 is to be called as a witness feels disposed to vary his own, the client should be informed as soon as possible, in order that he may be spared further litigation. The reputation of the chemist himself will suffer less than if he were to allow his client to proceed with an action the result of which cannot be satisfactory. Public analysts and the official analysts to the Home Office are called in for investigations arising in con- nection with cases of suspected poisoning, or it may be for the identification of blood-stains in cases of sus- pected murder or foul play, or in other criminal in- vestigations. In such matters, possibly involving evidence on which the life of a human being may depend, the necessity for skilled experts is apparent, and it is equally obvious that what they state as fact should be absolutely established and that their opinions should bear the most stringent examination. Probably there have been few better examples than that of the late Sir Thomas Stevenson for the straight- forwardness and certainty of his evidence ; the importance of the cases in which he appeared made him subject to the most formidable kind of cross- examination, but he could not be led into giving any opinion not definitely founded on facts. Lord Bramp- ton Mr. Justice Hawkins before whom Sir Thomas frequently gave evidence said of him that he was con- vinced that he was always right in his evidence, adding that he had always respected him for his courage and candour and truth, and after sixty years' experience in the law if he were asked to name the man on whose evidence he could most implicitly rely he would turn to Dr. Stevenson. In recent years there has been an increase in the number of counsel and judges who have sufficient technical knowledge to enable them to grasp the 140 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY details of scientific cases. Suggestions have been ad- vanced for the formation of juries composed of scientific experts, but such an arrangement would scarcely be satisfactory ; probably their own opinions would be at variance, and not of greater value than those of the opposing experts. Among the Romans the office of Censor was much revered ; it conferred great powers, especially in examining men's lives. Professional bodies of our time also appoint Censors to investigate complaints regarding the professional conduct of their members. By the influence of the Censors of the Institute of Chemistry and by conferences on matters of this kind much has been done to bring about a high standard of professional procedure in this country, so that there exists among our chemists a sense of mutual respon- sibility in their relations to one another and to the public. INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY A LTHOUGH the alchemists sought riches and the jfjL elixir, their successors of the eighteenth century for the most part regarded the study of chemistry as a pastime ; its connection with industry was scarcely con- ceived, and few workers in science pursued their experi- ments with any idea of making their fortunes. The pro- prietors of works were mainly commercial men relying on foremen more or less acquainted with the operations involved, but possessing themselves little knowledge of the principles on which they were based. In many concerns it was seldom that deliberate thought was given to the question of seeking improvements in working methods. The processes adopted were commonly founded on empiricism, or accumulated experience, handed down from generation to genera- tion. If the owners were beaten by competitors in one direction, they might be doing well in another, and were then inclined to be content to "make on the swings what they lost on the roundabouts." Much importance was attached to processes being kept secret : sometimes it happened that the secret was lost through the death of a partner or trusted foreman ; more often the " secret " was the common property of the industry. There are secrets, however, and many are kept for long years ; so that the most recent techno- logical literature published may contain all but what we are most anxious to know. In the course of time, 142 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY the introduction of trained men of science sometimes revealed the secrets and led to the discovery of better ones, speedily effecting changes in the direction of methodical improvement ; but even then, the chemist was not infrequently denied the run of the works lest he should learn too much. Later, as the advance of his science elucidated manufacturing problems, and he became more closely connected with the large scale operations, he was not infrequently at a disadvantage through lack of engineering knowledge. The invention of a process is not complete until the plant for it has proved efficient on the manufacturing scale. The designer must possess both scientific and engineering knowledge and skill, and thus even where the chemical character of the processes predominates, the chemist who is not equipped for such work often finds himself occupying a comparatively subordinate position. We propose now to give, some indication of the nature of the work and the prospects of the chemist in industry ; to show how the old order changes giving place to the new. The realisation of the advantages to be gained by the employment of trained men of science and the keen competition resulting from improved processes were among the main causes of the widespread promotion of technical education in this and other countries. In the increasing applications of science to indus- trial development, the co-operation of the profession of chemistry is of primary importance, though there has been in the past a tendency to belittle the signifi- cance of this domain of scientific endeavour. So little has been heard of successes and so much of failures that it might be supposed that few industries had done well ; but it is obvious that our manufacturers in INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 143 various branches of industry could not have main- tained their position so well as they have done if they had not constantly consulted chemists in practice or employed them in the works. Chemists are attached to almost every productive industry of any importance throughout the country. The follow- ing list, selected from the schedule adopted in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, affords some idea of the range of industries with which they are connected : l Gas. Electro-metallurgy. Oils : fats, waxes. Paints, pigments, varnishes, Distillation : fermentation resins. industries. Indiarubber, gutta-percha. Dyes : colouring matters, Leather, bone, horn, glue. bleaching, calico printing, Sugar, starches, gums. finishing. Textiles : fibres, cellulose, Fertilisers. paper. Foods : feeding stuffs. Acids : alkalies, salts, chem- Pharmaceutical substances : ical reagents. drugs, essential oils. Glass : ceramics, cement, Photographic materials. building materials. Explosives, matches. Metals : iron and steel, cop- per, alloys, etc. The list indicates a wide scope for the application of scientific knowledge, but it by no means covers the whole field open to chemists. Staffs of chemists are required by railways, shipbuilding yards, dockyards, arsenals, mines, agricultural experiment stations, and, apart from industries, in mints, in sewage disposal works, by rivers boards and so forth. Thus, not only in the manufacture of chemical pro- ducts, but in practically all productive industries as in many other spheres of activity, chemists are now recognised as a part of the essential organisation, and 1 See also " What Industry owes to Chemical Science." 144 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY our leaders of industry are becoming increasingly alive to the advantages to be gained by their help, whether from frequent conferences with consultants or through the more extensive employment of chemists on the controlling staffs of their concerns. It is fully recognised that however well the work may be carried out by those engaged in the actual manufacture, the commercial man the man who buys and sells is also of such consequence that the success of an industrial undertaking must always depend to a large extent on his ability, but rule of thumb methods of manufacture have been steadily replaced by scientific, and thus a demand has arisen for competent chemists in the following capacities : (a) Analytical chemists, for the examination of raw materials, intermediate products, products and by- products. (b) Research chemists, to investigate problems arising in connection with the operations of manufac- ture, and to assist in devising new methods or intro- ducing new products. (c) Control chemists, to devise, direct, and supervise processes on the large scale. (d) Consulting chemists and chemical engineers with experience in technology, to advise periodically on the general progress of the work, on the development of new projects and the design and erection of plant. Without an army of such men no country can hope to maintain its position in industry and commerce. Largely because of the nature of the industries which have been developed for war purposes, the chemical staffs of many concerns have lately been INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 145 greatly augmented, so that in quite a number of cases thirty or forty chemists, and in a few instances over 200 chemists, have been engaged for analytical, research, and control work. In spite of the fact that our Universities and Colleges were almost denuded of chemical students, it was repeatedly urged that we should make every pro- vision for the future supply of chemists for industries ; but it is by no means established that the demand for them will be greatly in excess of the supply which is likely to be available. The success of German industries in the past and the lesson of the war, which have clearly shown the value of science, should convince leaders of industries of all kinds that chemists in con- siderable numbers will be required for any serious endeavour to develop their undertakings when the opportunity offers. How can good business in buying and selling be done except with the help of analysts ; or new products be devised, waste products utilised, or works problems be solved, without research chemists ; or new processes be suggested and put to the proof of experiment with- out chemists on the works ? How can a board of direc- tors know what is feasible when a scientific proposition is made if they have no scientific directors or advisers ? Manufacturers should encourage research by main- taining research laboratories in their own works and by encouraging the training of research chemists in the problems of their industries. Consultants should be employed ; the help of reliable specialists is often imperative ; but there should be many more specialists having a more intimate interest in industry than that afforded by occasional consultations. There should be a liberal attitude towards science, and initiative should be encouraged by ensuring that results will be as sub- 146 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY stantially recognised as they are abroad. There will be little or no result if the treatment of chemists is not materially changed from what it has too often been in the past. Adequate prospects must be assured to attract a continued supply of men of the right stamp. We have never been deficient in our supply of chemists ; and this should be apparent from the fact that good chemists well-trained graduates were willing to accept very moderate salaries right up to the out- break of war ; they could always be obtained when satisfactory conditions were offered ; but comparatively few suitable openings were then available to them. This would apply also, though at times in a less degree, to those experienced in research ; yet there were young chemists in plenty who would have welcomed an opportunity of working with experienced investigators. Works Analysts. The chemist starting in industrial work is not in- frequently engaged at first in the laboratory. Ex- perience with a practising analyst, where knowledge can be gained of rapid methods of analysis of com- mercial samples, often affords a good preparation for the works laboratory. In most manufacturing concerns of importance a staff of analysts under the control of a highly com- petent chemist will be engaged on routine tests. Many such analysts have been trained in works to carry out a limited variety of operations of more or less simple character according to their ability. .Such analysts may have made their first acquaintance with science as laboratory attendants, and of these a considerable number make little endeavour, or lack the capability, to rise above ordinary routine ; others, by attending INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 147 evening classes and making the most of their oppor- tunities, may improve in knowledge and skill and eventually attain positions of responsibility. Others again are trained men with good qualifications taking, at first, minor positions to obtain experience. These also may find opportunities for showing initiative in the improvement of methods of analysis or possibly in suggesting research bearing on the manufacture con- cerned. For certain purposes, analysis in the works laboratory must be in the highest degree accurate, while for other purposes rough tests only are required. Results on which the price of raw material or of products in large quantities may be fixed are compared with those of external analysts representing the interests of sellers of the former and buyers of the latter. Deter- minations of important constituents of intermediate products are also made, rapidly and sufficiently accurately, for the information of chemists controlling the manufacturing processes. The laboratory, there- fore, should be suitably fitted for the routine work in order that results may be available with as little delay as possible. Works Research Chemists. Bacon would have defined pure research as " light bearing " experiments, tending towards the discovery of causes and axioms ; and industrial research as " fruit bearing," tending towards the practical utilisa- tion of the former. . ; . Chemists engaged in the research laboratory should be qualified to tackle new problems or to devise means for overcoming difficulties. The main lines of in- vestigation lie in the following directions ; 148 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY (i.) improvement of quality ; (ii.) increase of yield ; (iii.) reduction of working costs ; (iv.) utilisation of waste ; (v.) introduction of new manufactures. We do not suggest, however, that there should be any limit to this domain, for the true research chemist is an artist who should be allowed scope for following his inspirations, wherever they may lead him. Every manufacturing concern of any magnitude should retain a staff of chemists for experimental research and a number of probationers to be trained for investigation in industrial problems. Conferences with control chemists and engineers should be held from time to time as the work proceeds. Profitable results are constantly obtained and they are occasion- ally of such revolutionary character as to abundantly repay the whole cost involved. Technological research is usually more likely to be useful and successful when conducted in the works and as nearly as possible under works conditions with due regard to financial considerations. If the problem is one for urgent attention, or if it necessitates full knowledge of the processes involved, it is, generally speaking, of little use to refer it to anyone who has not the necessary experience and all the starting knowledge of chemistry and physics with which those in the works are already equipped, and the efforts to attain much of which would otherwise be duplicated to little purpose Results depend mainly on whether the problems are entrusted to men of the right type. As in other branches of chemistry, so in chemica technology, those who hold responsible positions cannol Afford to neglect the current scientific literature INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 149 'technical books and journals, patent abstracts, etc. ire vie wing the industries with which they are con- cerned in the light of modern theory and practice, i "rom studying processes and watching the develop- ment or failure of industries generally, the chemist acquires ideas which may be applicable to the (particular industry in which he is himself engaged, Iwhilst from the study of the interdependence of industries, he frequently finds means of securing more advantageously the material he requires or of disposing of products or by-products of his concern, i Problems may also be suggested by the special re- quirements of various trades. With these possibilities in view, questions affecting the utilisation of by- products and waste products are kept constantly in | mind and duly investigated. A suggestion is referred to the laboratory and be- comes the subject for research. Records of work bearing on the subject are looked up and the results already achieved carefully noted ; for, in this pursuit, if a chemist would acquire knowledge, he must take knowledge with him. The extent of investigation may thus be shortened considerably ; indeed it may be found that the identical problem has already been solved. On the other hand, the findings of previous workers may have to be checked and aug- mented in the light of modern progress ; a new view of the subject may be obtained and a new road found to the object sought. Often the work is tedious, calling for the exercise of thought, skill, and patience over a single problem for a considerable period. This is the discipline of the research chemist ; but the goal may come in sight at any moment if he but persevere and maintain the will to get there. The investigation should be directed to a definite 150 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY aim. The mind of the investigator should have full freedom and not easily be satisfied by sudden notions. The solution of the problem should be pursued to its fullest development, the work being based on clear perception, sound reasoning, and keen discrimination. A new discovery may at first be regarded merely as an interesting curiosity. Men of affairs are apt to measure its value according to its usefulness. Though the chemist is convinced of the utility of his projects, he finds not infrequently that opposition is raised to giving them a practical trial, even on a moderate experimental scale, until he has secured the full con- fidence of his directorate. The conservative notion of letting well alone has often been the cause of a well- founded concern falling behind in the face of com- petition. Yet, he should not be disconcerted, but rather attempt the further improvement of his scheme in the hope of securing the reconsideration of it at a favourable opportunity. Examples of the influence of research on industrial progress would fill many volumes. Among those most frequently quoted may be mentioned the synthetic preparation of dyestuffs from coal tar. The discovery of artificial indigo resulted in the reduction of an acreage cultivation of the natural indigo from 755,900 to 329,800, i.e. 426,100 acres in two years. Soon the industry was practically transferred from India to Ger- many, the price of the artificial product being eventually about one-third that of the natural. Similarly, alizarin, which was prepared from madder a plant largely grown in the Levant, in France and in various parts of Southern Europe has been replaced by the manu- facture of the artificial Turkey Red from anthracene, which is obtained by the fractional distillation of coal- INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 151 tar. The output of this synthetic dyestuff is about 2000 tons a year or about three times the quantity previously obtained from the natural source. Many other colours, as well as drugs, disinfectants, fertilisers, and numerous useful chemicals have been derived from the same source coal-tar. The Report of Mr. A. P. M. Fleming on Industrial Research in the United States of America, published in 1917 by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, affords much instructive information on the subject. From this Report we learn that the General Electric Company spends 80,000 to 100,000 a year on a research staff of 150, mostly mathematical physicists ; that Du Pont de Nemours & Co. employ about 250 chemists ; that the American Rolling Mill Company spend 10,000 a year on the maintenance of a Research Laboratory, though the staff numbers only fifteen ; that the Pennsylvania Railroad Company spend about 60,000 on their main laboratory, the cost of maintenance being about 100,000 a year, repre- senting, however, only about 0-6 per cent, of the value of the material examined and tested ; and that the Eastman Kodak Company spends, on research, 30,000 a year, which sum represents less than I per cent, of the profits of the Company. We may also remark that developments on such a scale have largely tended to attract some of our most promising chemists to positions overseas no less than 15 per cent, of the Fellows and Associates of the Institute of Chemistry, though not all of them engaged in industry, being abroad before the war. Few British firms have utilised or taken advantage of science to the same extent as the German or American. Thus, the early discoveries in dyes tuffs made in this country, when owing to the shortsighted- 152 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY ness of the owners of works due precautions had not been taken to protect their patent rights, were de- veloped at Crefeld, with the result that our products were soon ousted through competition with those from Germany. There is hope for the future, how- ever, and we may mention, as examples, on the other hand, that the Colonial Sugar Refining Company (Sydney) spend about 20,000 a year on their scientific staff, thereby reaping advantage estimated in normal times at 75,000 to 100,000 a year ; and Messrs. Tootal Broadhurst, Lee & Co., Ltd., Cotton Spinners, manufacturers and merchants (Manchester), have decided to set aside 10,000 a year for five years for the encouragement of research and education, in addition to supporting the British Cotton Research Association. We may here note a quotation from our seventeenth- century philosopher, Sir Thomas Browne : " When industry builds upon Nature we may expect pyramids ; when that foundation is wanting, the structure must be low." Works Control Chemists. Chemists should be selected for control of all opera- tions dependent on chemical science. Their training is distinctly a training in the " law and order " of things, and fits them for control where law and order are essential to successful working. Just as in a com- mercial concern certain duties are deputed to a manager and a staff of clerks, so highly competent chemists, in direct association with the principals, are given authority to delegate routine chemical work to trained lieutenants in various departments. Thus, there is intimate co-operation between the business principals, INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 153 the chemists on the works and the chemists in the laboratories, in order that the technical and commercial aspects may be simultaneously built up and stimulate one another. Chemists engaged on the works are required to be well and systematically trained in the theory and practice of their science generally, but they are often confronted with problems lying outside the ordinary academic curriculum. The following schedule which is the syllabus of the examination in Chemical Technology prescribed in the Regulations of the Institute of Chemistry indicates the many directions in which the work of such chemists extends : (a) The application of well-known chemical and physical laws to industrial operations. (b) The development, control, and transmission of power and heat. (c) A working knowledge of operations and plant, of which general use is made in chemical industry for the treatment and handling of materials, finished pro- ducts, waste products and effluents, including a practical acquaintance with fittings and stores. (d) The properties of materials which affect their applica- tion to the construction of plant and apparatus in chemical works. (e) Some ability in interpreting drawings of plant and in making rough sketches. (/) The calculation of working costs and a general know- ledge of works accounts. This syllabus was formulated after careful con- sideration by a Special Committee who secured in the first place the views of a large number of technologists of wide experience in chemical industry. A brief con- sideration of each section should, therefore, prove useful. 154 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY (a) The application of well-known chemical and physical laws to industrial operations. In many works, the application of the laws of physics are no less important than those of chemistry. Often the success of a process depends on the provision of plant the construction and use of which demands a knowledge of electricity and magnetism. Students who intend to practise in industrial chemistry are, there- fore, well advised if they take courses in advanced Physics as well as in Physical Chemistry. Preference is given, in many cases, to those who have taken, in addition, courses in technology bearing on the industry concerned, and have thereby advanced a step to- wards bridging over the gap between academic train- ing and practical experience. The influences arising from the scale of the operations, and the factors of time, temperature, pressure, and concentration in large-scale operations should all be regarded as matters for constant study in the works. The main point of this section is that principles must be understood before it is possible to understand processes ; hence the neces- sity for a broad technical training. (b) The development, control, and transmission of power and heat. Though this is primarily the concern of the engineer, the control chemist should have a useful knowledge of the principles of engineering. The extent and character of such knowledge will vary according to the extent and character of the works. The chemist should study the practical applications of the laws of heat to chemical operations, the generation of heat by combustion, the transference of heat by radiation, conduction, and convection, the transformation of INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 155 heat into other forms of energy. He will invariably find it a great advantage to be acquainted with the construction of boilers and engines, though in many works, when once the plant is in working order, he will probably have little to do with such things as the staff will include mechanics well able to attend to ordinary repairs and to effect minor alterations. Many industries depend in a large measure on an efficient supply of suitable fuel. The quantity must be sufficient to allow for emergencies, and the quality must be suitable for the purpose. The chemist should be competent to appreciate the results of calorific tests made in the laboratory, and to advise on the value of coal and coke. He should understand the methods of sampling and analysis of fuels and of flue gases and the significance of the results obtained. Again, the treatment of water supplies for boiler purposes is a matter of great importance, involving a knowledge of the chemicals employed for softening and how they are respectively applied on the large scale. Due regard should also be paid to the pos- sibility of utilising waste steam : for instance, for drying purposes. Economy in the utilisation of water is often as important as economy in the use of fuel. Condensed steam from boilers is frequently employed in manufacturing operations. (c) A working knowledge of operations and plant, of which general use is made in chemical industry for the treatment and handling of materials, finished products, waste products and effluents, including a practical acquaintance with fittings and stores. The majority of productive works are engaged in transforming raw materials into finished products. The chemist must, of course, be acquainted with the 156 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY value of the raw materials to be used, and should know something of the natural distribution, of such materials where found or grown and how produced. In the selection of a site for the establishment of a new works due regard must be paid to the accessibility of material, and to the means for distributing the material on the works and for sending out the finished products proximity of railways, canals, and rivers. As machinery in an increasing degree takes the place of labour, so the chemist * should become acquainted with engines and the plant employed in manufacturing operations, including not only boilers but such appara- tus as pumps, presses, refrigerators, cranes, conveyors, and so forth, and he should be able to supervise in a general' way the proper disposition of such apparatus and ensure its maintenance in working order. The plant, of course, varies very greatly in different industries, and may include such as is necessary for the preparation of materials by breaking, grinding, pulp- ing, levigating, washing, steaming, bleaching, filtering, crystallising ; or for evaporation or desiccation ; or it may be' for processes involving electrolysis, fusion, or distillation, or refrigeration ; or possibly for the hand- ling of large volumes of gases under various conditions of temperature and pressure. The chemist should lose no opportunity of gaining an acquaintance with the accessories of the work generally. The value of his services will increase in proportion to his understanding of the whole scheme. In the course of tune, as he becomes better acquainted with the processes involved, he learns to appreciate the influence of scientific method on large scale opera- tions and the difference between the employment of glass beakers and tanks, porcelain basins and evapor- ating pans, distilling flasks and metal stills, funnels INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 157 and filter presses respectively. He learns his business, much as an engineer does, by practical experience. He should not be too fastidious about taking off his coat and making his hands dirty. He may, hi emergencies, have to handle implements or materials personally, or to go into plant to inspect its inner machinery ; in fact to do anything that the workmen under him are required to do. He should aim at becoming as familiar with any part of the plant as the workers who are regularly engaged on it ; otherwise . he will find it difficult to control those under him and to instruct new-comers. If he is not prepared, at any time, will- ingly to take a part in the hard work of a factory, he will be well advised to turn his attention to some other branch of the profession. The chemist, moreover, may be required to advise on questions of ventilation, to provide safeguards against fire and explosions, or against poisoning or other dangers, such as injury from dust arising from grinding processes ; and to devise means for the prevention of pollution of the air with noxious gases from chimneys, or of rivers and streams with objectionable waste liquors from effluents. He may have to take an important part in modifying existing plant, or in advising on the construction of new plant for the translation of a laboratory operation into a large-scale operation. Ability to advise in such matters implies the faculties of initiative, ingenuity and resource, combined with knowledge of technology to be attained only by experience. tlis ingenuity may need to be exercised in the utilisation of products hitherto regarded as waste, for it may be possible to turn to profitable account what is coming from the chimneys or going into the drains as worthless. The waste products of certain industries are the bases of other industries, so that the problem 158 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY is often pursued with most advantageous results, in some cases of such far-reaching importance that a subsidiary branch may, in time, even supersede in importance the initial manufacture. (d) The properties of materials which affect their application to the construction of plant and apparatus in chemical works. The bearing of this part of the syllabus should be obvious, since the chemist is expected to be acquainted with the possible reactions between materials of con- struction of vessels or piping and the substances they are intended to contain or convey. The choice of material may be limited on this account, due con- sideration being given to the relative cost of various materials resistant to such reactions, as well as to the size of the vessels and their general adapta- bility to requirements. This involves some knowledge of the current prices of metals iron, copper, lead, zinc, aluminium and of wood of different kinds, glass, rubber, and other materials. The physical properties of materials of construction timber, iron, steel, masonry, etc. their resistance to stress and strain, and possibly their conductivity of heat or of elec- tricity may also have a bearing on their suitability for the purposes for which they are to be used. The methods of preserving materials against weather- ing may also come within the purview of the chemist, who should know, for instance, why brick is often to be preferred to stone in factory construction, and the objections to the use of lime from magnesian limestone in the mortar employed. Science often destroys or renders obsolete the things of its own creation. New inventions rapidly effect great changes in industry, and large sums may be INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 159 involved in any new step. Thus, the introduction of new methods may render obsolete costly plant which must be scrapped, unless it can be adapted to new conditions. The responsibility of the chemist in such matters may be very great. (e) Some ability in interpreting drawings of plant and in making rough sketches. To be able to make a sketch of a proposed structure or piece of apparatus large or small giving dimen- sions or at any rate a fair idea of the relative pro- portions of the 'various parts, is of great assistance in explaining requirements to engineers, architects, apparatus makers, carpenters, plumbers, etc. Simi- larly, to be able to interpret plans and sectional draw- ings prepared to scale, and to visualise the finished structure or apparatus is of importance in order to avoid making subsequent alterations. In improvising experimental apparatus and half- scale plant, such ability is invaluable. It necessi- tates sometimes an acquaintance with the common engineering terms, many of which with other useful information can be obtained by taking a friendly interest in the fitter's shop as occasion arises. (/) The calculation of working costs and a general knowledge of works accounts. When a new project is suggested, the chemist should be able to prepare a business-like cost sheet, showing clearly the cost of the materials and plant required, the cost of handling and manufacture, and the value of the probable output. Without it, he is unlikely to be allowed to proceed with the proposition. It must be submitted to the test of profit and loss. The economic side of the business cannot be placed in the hands of 160 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY men who have no knowledge of matters of this kind. The chemist, in his training, has not been con- cerned with values, cost of material, cost of labour, and working expenses. He is given, perhaps, a sample of a substance containing a valuable constituent which can be extracted profitably on a small scale. He must not be content with first impressions on the subject. The process proposed may be quite good, but the business of transporting and handling material and products in bulk, the disposal of by-products, the utilisation of " waste " and a host of other questions must be solved before the business man is satisfied. Unless the works are run at a profit, they are not likely to run for long. Besides looking constantly for means to improve the processes employed, saving waste, or otherwise perfecting the general control of his part of the work, the chemist should keep careful records of the progress made. If the process is such that it may be regarded in the light of a laboratory operation conducted on a large scale, he should be able to determine whether and in what respect the result falls short of what should be expected the theoretical yield and may find in this problem the prospect of referring to the research laboratory investigations of far-reaching consequence. The checking of material and the tracing of losses through the various operations of a process will involve careful analytical tests, for which, being of a routine character, special provision should, as we have already mentioned, be made by setting up the necessary apparatus as a permanent part of the equipment of the laboratory. It is some- times found advantageous to use vessels and apparatus simulating in their general arrangement, structure and material the plant used on the large scale, and. INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 161 in such cases, ingenuity is needed to reproduce the operations of the works on a small scale. The reports of the laboratory afford all-important guidance in the general control of operations, pointing to increased efficiency in output and economical working. When the demand for a product is constant, the value varies according to competition, competition according to the cost of production, the cost of pro- duction according to the cost of labour. As, however, the demand cannot be constant for an indefinite period, the other factors must vary accordingly. The cost of labour, usually the ultimate factor, may be influenced by the introduction of new means whereby labour is superseded. Unless, therefore, those in control are constantly on the alert to revise their system of work- ing, the position of an industrial concern in relation to its competitors may speedily be affected. It may lead, or just hold its position, or, under lax management, it will be overtaken. Everybody and everything coming into the works has a value and there must be a maxi- mum theoretical return to be aimed at, based on scientific as well as business data, having regard to all costs raw material, fuel, water, labour, general running and trading expenses in their relation to the value of the products. Obviously, then, the control chemist must know a good deal of what is called business ; we do not suggest that he is expected to be a bookkeeper, but he should have a general knowledge of commercial arithmetic and bookkeeping, In fine, so varied and divergent are the matters which come within the sphere of a chemist occupying a managing position, that he cannot afford to lose any opportunity of gaining experience and knowledge of almost anything ! He may with advantage learn some- 162 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY thing of insurance of various kinds, political economy and taxation, mercantile law (covering such matters as contracts, specifications, partnerships), company law, and patent law, with any of which he may in the course of time be concerned. Even forty years ago, a writer in the Chemical News 1 expressed the view that a " works " chemist should after a thorough technical training, including " volunteer " experience of two or three years in works, make himself master of the differential and integral calculus, of descriptive geometry, mechanical technology, machine-making, architectural planning, and designing and land sur- veying ! It is hardly possible, of course, for any man to meet all these requirements ; but under proper encourage- ment chemists in the course of a few years have fully shown their ability to deal with emergencies as they arise, and have thereby become firmly incorporated in the concerns to which they are attached. Such men are essentially practical, possessing the faculty of doing things, not necessarily in the best way, or the most expedient, or the quickest, but the most reasonable in the circumstances, while they are conscious of their limits and know when to call in more expert advice and assistance. Chemists newly introduced into works should not always be expected to produce immediate results, though it is true that, in numerous instances, well- trained men have by their work and advice more than saved their first year's or several years' salary within a short time of their appointment. With careful selection, the manufacturer can make no sounder in- vestment, but the result is largely dependent on what 1 See Chemical News, Oct. nth, 1878. INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 163 he is prepared to invest. The chemist has also made an investment : his education and training have been expensive, and he should be afforded a definite prospect of obtaining remuneration commensurate with his outlay and the value of his work. Chemists in works are often appointed under con- tract for a term of years at a remuneration increasing by increments at stated periods, the appointments being renewable at the end of a term, and subsequent advancement being dependent on results .achieved. Sometimes it is stipulated that all the results of their work for the time being become the property of the principals, but the chemists on their part may stipu- late for a share in the profits accruing, both during and after the termination of the period of appointment, from inventions or improvements introduced by them. The latter course is obviously a more en- couraging arrangement for the chemists. Where a concern is in the hands of employers who do not properly appreciate the value of scientific con- trol, it may happen that they will look for a paragon at very low salary and expect too much for what they offer. Often they have no definite views as to the nature or the value of the service they expect to get, and regard a chemist, in spite of his technical training, very much as a junior clerk required for the office. The remuneration offered in such case will attract only men of mediocre ability ; failure is inevitable, and the distrust of scientific men is engendered ; but as the control of productive industries passes more and more to scientific men, greater discrimination is exer- cised in the selection of well-trained men and more substantial inducements are offered to secure and retain their services. Frequently the success or failure of important 164 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY operations depends entirely on the knowledge and skill of the chemist in charge, but although he may be responsible for operations upon which large financial interests depend, he is not always rewarded on a com- mensurate scale. In all these matters, however, the personal character and capacity of the individual are dominant factors. Some manufacturers are apt to regard chemists solely as analysts, whilst others expect them to solve with ease problems of great technical difficulty. It is commonly said that scientific and business ability are not often combined in the same individual ; but if a careful inspection is made of the registers of members of the representative chemical bodies, there will be found a high proportion of them who have made themselves not only fully cognisant of the science underlying the concerns to which they are attached, but have been thoroughly successful as men of affairs. Needless to say, such men are seldom heard complain- ing of the failures of our industry : they are otherwise occupied. General Considerations. When an industry based on scientific principles fails, the science side of it will surely be blamed ; if it succeeds, the business side of it will as surely be praised. Yet such industries have passed from one country to another entirely on the failure of business capacity in their directorate. The proximity of the supply of suitable raw material may be a dominating factor ; the ill-considered selection of a site may render profitable working impossible ; but the want of appreciation of suggested improved methods or apathy to schemes for the utilisation of waste products, not INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 165 infrequently contributes to failure. The main demand is for competent men of science who are men of business to whom our great manufacturing concerns can look to enable us to maintain our position in scientific industries. There is always a demand for men of the right stamp, men of practical ability, initiative, and energy, and capable of grasping the full significance of large-scale operations. When once they have estab- lished themselves they can usually find success in an industrial career. Many have proved themselves to be so invaluable that they have become managers and directors, and thus the number of scientific men in control of industries has been steadily increasing during the past quarter of a century, while, as a con- sequence, there is a feeling of greater confidence between manufacturers and their chemists. It has sometimes been suggested that the com- petency of British chemists employed in industry is inferior to that of foreign chemists ; but we maintain that although they have been deplorably fewer in number, they do not suffer by comparison in the standard of their work, or in their initiative in dis- covery and invention. In Continental works where many chemists are engaged, the majority receive lower remuneration than that usually paid to beginners in our factories, and are dismissed or remain in the rank and file unless they show decided promise. Where our manufacturers employ foremen, the German manufacturers more often employ chemists, whose technical knowledge is brought to bear directly on practical operations. This system is justified by results and the increased cost is but small in comparison with the results obtained. The education and training of the chemists should give them authority, and as they may be transferred from 166 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY one department to another they not infrequently devise new methods or improvements in the processes under their control. From large numbers, there is a greater chance of discovering a few of outstanding ability who are promoted and rewarded accordingly. If the ability is there, it will find opportunities for development. German manufacturers have been as successful in this country and elsewhere as in their own ; so we must conclude that their success is not entirely due to the natural resources of Germany or to the lower cost of labour, but also to their system of organisation. Even in the strictly commercial departments of manufacturing concerns considerable advantage may be obtained from the employment of men who can speak with some authority on the scientific aspects of the business. In connection with chemical products especially, a representative possessing technical know- ledge can better understand the requirements of customers, and may be instrumental in suggesting new products to meet such requirements, or it may be new uses for existing products. Foreign competitors have frequently reaped the benefit of employing chemists in the capacity of representatives, so that they may be able to advise users of dyestuffs, for instance how to manipulate products to the best advantage. The power to control men is not the least quality required of a leader in industry. He should have a keen sense of duty, enthusiasm, strength of will, self- control and tact, combined with organising ability. The real leader speedily becomes a centre of opinion and of action. Success is dependent on abilities of different stan- dards, those of capable managers and capable workers. INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 167 In the matter of organisation the business heads of large concerns have the appointment of men to control the main and subsidiary departments. The distribution of labour can only be entrusted to men who are thoroughly capable of controlling and directing the work. The power of estimating the capacity of men and women, and the judgment involved in making the selection of workers, are among the rarest of gifts. However, natural adaptiveness and intelligent applica- tion to certain forms of manual labour appear to be indigenous to certain industrial centres ; the supply of men and women for particular industries, there- fore, is usually to be relied on. Workers who are constantly handling a material acquire an instinctive knowledge of its quality within certain limits, so that, for instance, men who are accustomed to work in certain metals are often able to judge their general nature from mere inspection, just as an experienced carpenter becomes a connoisseur of different kinds of wood. Similarly, with chemical products : the appear- ance, the touch and, within limits, the taste and smell of a substance afford, in many instances, valuable indications of quality. In operations based on scientific principles, it is not expected that all who are engaged on them will under- stand such principles, but something can be done to arouse their interest and encourage them to understand the causes and effects involved. Young workers who are capable of improvement should be induced to attend classes and to improve their minds. Dissatisfaction not infrequently arises among the least competent, who are often the least inclined to admit their short- comings ; but those who are incapable of improvement 168 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY are usually the first to be dismissed when a reduction of staff becomes necessary. The prosperity of an industry is often very largely dependent on the existence of a proper understanding between employer and employed. Men are not machines of equal calibre, performing just so much work at a certain rate ; but all should be encouraged to take an interest in their work and to do their best. This is only possible where those in control have gained the esteem of the employees. We are not concerned here with the disastrous influence of trade disputes on industry, but from whichever side we look at the question, whether from that of the employer or the employed, it is certain that the settlement of differences often depends to a greater extent on tact than on argument. Our view is that there should be a fair wage as distinct from a com- petitive wage ; but we hold that a fair wage can only be really fair when the worker is unrestricted in his endeavours to do his best and is paid accordingly. In many cases employers have promoted the im- provement of the conditions of living by providing housing accommodation and catering arrangements, and have encouraged thrift by establishing savings banks, sick clubs, and pension schemes. All endeavours in these directions conduce to the happier relations of employers and employees, and should make for mutual help and the furtherance of a loyal interest in the general advancement of the common cause. The exigencies of war have brought into the ranks of labour many especially women who were formerly dependent on others for their maintenance. The INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 169 altered condition of affairs should make for industrial progress in the future, inasmuch as the prosperity of a nation is proportionate to the number of hands and minds usefully employed ; or, in other words, it varies as the number of the producers approaches that of the consumers, being, dependent on the earning capacity of the people of all classes. Their well-being, therefore, depends mainly on the demands for labour which must depend in turn on capital, and the initiative and efficiency of the management. Without capital, labour cannot find employment at all ; and it must be remembered that while shareholders look for the regular payment of dividends, those in control have to supply their products at a reasonable price, in the face of competition, having due regard to the importance of allotting a proportion of profits to experiment and development. No organisation can be completely successful with- out leaders of initiative and enterprise. Wherever there are such leaders there will be followers and work in plenty. The success of large concerns depends on the judgment, knowledge, and experience of men who are prepared to take risks in the establishment and develop- ment of their industries. They have constantly to watch the variation in the cost of material, its effect en the cost of manufacture and on the value of products matters lying outside the knowledge of the ordinary run of the workers, but which may exercise a far- reaching influence on their welfare. In a properly controlled business the workers feel confidence in being assured of continuous work, and they should recognise, therefore, the responsibilities of their employers in order that the interests of both should be mutual. Recent indications of a desire for co-operation in 170 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY industrial enterprise, such as the foundation of the Association of British Chemical Manufacturers, point to better organisation of effort and also to a general desire to render the country capable of producing necessaries for which we should be independent of possible enemy sources. Individualism and competi- tion are being replaced by organisation, as are also the pooling of knowledge and business, and co-operation both in buying materials and distributing products. The provision of useful directories of manufacturers, of adequate bureaux of information, and the develop- ment of the Joint Trade Intelligence Department of the Foreign Office and the Board of Trade, should improve official knowledge of industries and tend to increase industrial efficiency generally. If the spirit of determination which has pervaded all classes during the war finds a corresponding outlet in the preparation of our youth for the business of life there can be no doubt that we shall be able to face competition and maintain our national prestige in the future. Consulting Technologists and Chemical Engineers. Consulting chemists available for advice on techno- logical matters have usually had considerable ex- perience in industry before establishing an independent practice, but some have acquired, as an adjunct to an analytical practice, special experience in certain branches of manufacture. Thus, there are metallur- gists, assayers, and mining chemists ; fuel and gas technologists ; specialists in refractory materials, pottery, porcelain, glass, cement and building materials; technologists concerned with petroleum and other oils ; chemists devoting special attention to the brewing, fermentation, and sugar industries ; and chemical INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY 171 advisers on textiles, paper, rubber, leather, dyes, explosives, and so forth. We have in this country a considerable body of such men who occupy a position analogous to specialists in other professions, and may be called into consultation in cases of difficulty, to advise on new projects, or to revise methods of work- ing, to assist in matters of litigation affecting patents and so forth. A periodical overhauling of manufacturing opera- tions by men of the highest ability and experience leads to improvements and at a time like the present should form part of the preparation for the commercial activity and competition which are anticipated with the return of peace. It should be noted here that the Society of Chemical Industry is forming a special section " for the promo- tion and study of chemical engineering." Attention is to be given to chemical engineering research and the proper training of chemical engineers. Steps are also being taken to institute Chemical Engineering courses in several Universities and Colleges. CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE PUBLIC opinion has lately been roused to the necessity for including among our legislators and administrative officials a greater number possessing a knowledge of physical science of the principles of chemistry, physics, mechanics, and allied subjects. In an early chapter we have indicated that this desider- atum is likely to be met to some extent by the intro- duction of science subjects, hitherto only optional, as compulsory in the system of examinations for Class I of the Home Civil Service, the marks for each being allotted on an equal basis with the classics. This step should result in the hit reduction of more science in the education of the classes from whom Civil Service officials are drawn, and tend to promote a higher appreciation of the importance of science to the state. It is remarkable that, although a few great states- men notably the late Lord Salisbury have taken some practical interest in science, with the exception of Lord Play fair, no trained professional chemist has attained the position of a Cabinet Minister in the British Government, and very few have been elected to Parliament. Lack of knowledge or even of appreciation of the importance of science in affairs of State, in peace and war, has been held responsible for many shortcomings. In times of war, measures of offence and defence 170 CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE 173 dependent on science can be met only with science ; due provision should be made for men of science in the administration, as well as in the field and in the munitions factory. We will relate in our concluding chapter how chemists have been employed with the forces, as well as for the examination of food and water supplies, to deal with hygienic matters, and to control the production of explosives and other material of war. It should be unnecessary to say that we need administrators who know that substances such as cotton and fats should, if possible, be prevented from entering an enemy country, seeing that both are urgently required in the production of explosives cotton to be nitrated into guncotton, and fats as a source of glycerine, to be nitrated into nitroglycerine, which is used in the manufacture of cordite, dynamite and other blasting explosives. There should be such co- ordination among the Departments that administrators responsible for controlling such matters should have ready access to the necessary scientific advice and be able to apply it promptly. In times of peace, it is equally necessary that legis- lators and administrators should realise the vast range of questions on which science has a direct bearing, and the extent of its influence on the productive industries and the commerce of the country. In the economic struggle with which all the world will soon be faced, the possession of able men of science will be a domi- nating factor, only a due appreciation of which will enable the country to maintain its position or have any chance of improving it. If science were better represented in Parliament possibly through the Universities as well as in the Civil Service, and a fuller use made of the existing scientific departments and institutions, the country 174 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY would undoubtedly benefit by the greater recognition accorded to scientific thought and method. We need both statesmen with a knowledge of fundamental scientific principles and men of science with an ac- quaintance with economics : at present both are rare. It is not intended to suggest that the importance of the subject has been altogether ignored. Enquiry will show that this is not the case, and that definite provision has been made for the utilisation of highly trained chemists and other men of science in many departments. The Government Laboratory was originally estab- lished in 1842 to assist the Inland Revenue Authori- ties. At that time the prevalence of adulteration of tobacco, often to the extent of 50 per cent., seriously affected the Revenue, and the Com- missioners with the aid of the Laboratory speedily checked and indeed in the course of a few years almost entirely suppressed the practice. The importance of this work will be readily understood when we mention that in normal times nearly 110,000,000 Ibs. of tobacco are cleared from bond annually, representing a revenue of over 17,500,000 ; to-day the amount is very much greater. Gradually the investigations of the Laboratory have been extended to all kinds of excis- able commodities and to other questions affecting the interests of the Revenue, special attention being given to brewing materials. In 1858, accommodation was found for the Labora- tory in the western portion of Somerset House, and its operations then included investigations and analyses for all other Government Departments requiring chemical advice and assistance. CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE 175 " Proof Rooms " for testing the alcoholic strength of spirits were attached to the Customs establishments towards the close of the eighteenth century ; the work of these was increased from 1856 by the operation of the sugar duties, and, in 1862, by the application of alcoholic standards to wines. The duty on imported spirits was assessed solely by means of the hydrometer until 1881, but as rums and brandies frequently con- tained colouring and sweetening matter, the true percentage of spirit was not determined by that means. Testing by distillation was therefore introduced with considerable benefit to the Customs Revenue. In 1894, the Treasury decided to place the two revenue laboratories under one chief, and erected for the purpose the building in Clement's Inn Passage, with suitable accommodation for the largely increased work devolving upon the Principal Chemist and his staff. In 1911, the Department of the Government Chemist was duly constituted as a distinct department having a separate Parliamentary Vote. It is available, as we have already mentioned, to all other departments re- quiring chemical services, and controls laboratories at Clement's Inn Passage, at the Customs House, and in Chemical Testing Stations situated in various ports and inland centres. The duties of the staff include the analysis of samples in connection with the Assessment of Revenue and Drawbacks ; the analysis of samples of stores supplied to Government Departments on tender and on contract ; of milk, butter, cheese, and other agricul- tural produce for the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries ; and of samples referred by magistrates under the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts. Beverages of a non-alcoholic character, such as cider and perry, are 176 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY also examined in the interests of industry to detect infringement of the Merchandise Marks Act, and samples of " patent medicines " are examined under the Medicine Stamp Acts. During the war, many thousands of samples of foodstuffs and other supplies have been analysed for the War Department, afford- ing a useful check on the supplies of contractors, both in the interests of the health of the forces and of the Exchequer. The total number of samples examined by the Department approaches 400,000 annually. The permanent staff of the Laboratory consists of the Government Chemist, the Deputy Government Chemist, four Superintending Analysts, and twenty- one analysts divided into two classes all pensionable officers. There is also a large staff of tempo- rary assistants, composed partly of revenue assistants lent by the Customs and Excise, engaged on chemical work connected with the Revenue service, and others appointed by the Government Chemist. For these appointments the possession of the Fellowship or Associate ship of the Institute of Chemistry is regarded as a qualification of the first importance. Promotions to the position of Second-Class Analyst on the per- manent staff are made on the results of a competitive examination by the Civil Service Commissioners of candidates nominated by the Government Chemist. Other Departments have laboratories for special purposes. The Admiralty Chemist's Department at Ports- mouth Dockyard is mainly concerned with chemical matters arising in connection with naval construction. etc. The Admiralty has also its duly appointed advisers on technical subjects, for instance, petroleum ; and there are Professors of Chemistry in the Naval CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE 177 Colleges, as well as chemists engaged as Inspectors of Victualling Stores. The War Office has its scientific advisers, and Pro- fessors of Chemistry are attached to the Ordnance College, Royal Army Medical College, Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, Wellington, etc. Chemists are engaged in large numbers under the Ministry of Munitions, for research and inspection work, as well as for the supervision of the manufacture of war material at arsenals, factories, and controlled establishments. Chemists are also attached to the Royal Air Force, to the Aircraft Factories, Aeronautical Inspection Department, etc. The Board of Agriculture is concerned with the administration of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act, and also the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts in their relation to agricultural produce. The Government Chemist is ex officio Chief Agricultural Analyst, whilst all County Councils and many boroughs have their official agricultural analysts in connection with the above Acts (see pp. no et seq.). The Home Office has its duly appointed official analysts, whose services are called upon in connection with the investigation of crime, and chemical advisers on explosives, petroleum, and matters arising in con- nection with the administration of the Factory Acts, etc. The Local Government Boards are responsible for the administration of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts, involving the confirmation or vetoing of appointments of the Public Analysts to the counties and boroughs (see pp. no et seq.). The Board for England and Wales possesses a laboratory attached to the Department of the Inspector of Foods. The Local Government Boards are also concerned in the administration of the Alkali, 178 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY etc., Works Regulation Acts, 1881-1906, under which chemists are engaged as inspectors for the administra- tion of the Acts. The Board of Trade appoints the Gas Referees under the Metropolitan Gas Acts, and has the advice and assistance of chemists both at the Patent Office and in the Commercial Intelligence Department. Chemists are also appointed as assayers to the Royal Mint, the Bank of England, and the Assay Offices. The London County Council has a chemical staff for investigations on behalf of its many departments and for gas testing. We would protest, however, that the importance to this country of the technical work of chemists in the Civil and Public Services is not sufficiently realised, and that the remuneration and conditions attaching to the appointments have not in the past afforded a satis- factory prospect. There may, perhaps, be compensations in the way of reasonable working hours and holidays though even these have not been possible in recent times and a pension if the Fates are kind ; but the pay has not been adequate and promotion cannot always be reckoned upon, for the ways of Government are un- certain, and a chemist on the point of succeeding to a higher office, which he has long had in view as the reasonable height of his ambition, may find his hopes frustrated by some rearrangement under which he finds himself answerable to a new official, possibly not even a member of his profession. A change of attitude, on the part of the Government, with regard to these matters is seriously called for, and the Council of the Institute of Chemistry have recently formulated and forwarded to all Government Depart- ments concerned a carefully prepared statement CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE 179 suggesting a definite scheme of organisation for the Government Chemical Service, which it is hoped may be adopted in due course. 1 In this statement the Council have expressed the opinion that the time is opportune for taking steps to secure for the profession of chemistry a position corre- sponding to that occupied by other learned professions, and their view that much would be accomplished towards the attainment of that aim if, in the first place, adequate and uniform conditions of appointment were accorded to chemists directly engaged in the service of the State. The necessity for a definitely organised Chemical Service (both in peace and war) for all purposes of the State on which the science of chemistry has a bearing has long been recognised in the chemical profession, and representations have been made from time to time to ministers of State, Government Commissions and other public authorities. As an example, it may be mentioned that, as the result of representations made by the Institute, the qualifications for appoint- ment of public analysts under the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts have been determined by Regulations framed by the Local Government Boards for England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, under which the country has undoubtedly secured, as we have already indicated, the services of a body of chemists highly qualified in that branch of work. We have pointed out also that the Department of the Government Chemist has been organised under a separate Treasury vote. Other departmental chemical establishments, however, have not been brought into line, and it does not appear that the position of chemists in the Government service generally is sufficiently understood and appreciated to obtain for them that 1 Proceedings of the Institute, Part IV, 1918. i8o THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY measure of recognition which should be accorded to professional men of this type in the interests of the safety and well-being of the State. " A List of Official Chemical Appointments " issued periodically by the Institute of Chemistry contains information with regard to the majority of these and other positions held by chemists in the Government and Municipal Services, both at home and in the over- seas dominions of the Empire. The publication has been temporarily discontinued, but new editions will be forthcoming when normal conditions are restored. Soon after the outbreak of war, the interest of the Government in science was evinced by the assistance given from the public funds to the dye and other industries ; and, later, by the vote of a grant in Parlia- ment in aid of scientific and industrial research, and by the appointment of a Committee of the Privy Council and an Advisory Council for the organisation and de- velopment of a scheme for the administration of the grant. The Department has now been formally incorpor- ated under Royal Charter for this purpose. Such action should prove a direct stimulus to British industry and should induce manufacturers to encourage the further prosecution of research by chemists employed in their own works. The Government has learned lately, and the lesson must not be forgotten, that in a number of industries which we were previously content to leave to others, we must render ourselves self-contained and independent. Often in the past there has been a lack of information about our own natural resources, and too little considera- tion given to the fact that the importation of a slightly cheaper foreign article means loss of employment to our own workers. To remedy these shortcomings, chemists CHEMISTRY AND THE STATE 181 had to a large extent to prepare the way, while manu- facturers had to be sought who were willing to establish new industries. For example, it was found that the shortage of suitable laboratory apparatus and other requirements was a cause of anxiety, particularly in industries concerned with the supply of armaments and munitions. Glass and porcelain apparatus, filter paper and even fairly common analytical reagents all essential to industry had hitherto been imported from abroad, and mainly from Germany and Austria. With regard to reagents, the Councils of the Institute of Chemistry and the Society of Public Analysts prepared and published a list of standards and tests forming a guide to the requirements of chemists in this direction, and there was no lack of enterprise on the part of the manufacturers, who were soon able to supply satisfactory products. Filter paper, too, manufactured under scientific control, was forth- coming at an early stage, fully equal if not superior to any previously imported. Porcelain for laboratory purposes, a much more difficult problem, was investi- gated by several leading firms who have steadily im- proved their products, which we may hope will take the place of those hitherto obtained from Berlin. Different varieties of glass, for laboratory purposes, for pharmaceutical and medical use, for X-ray apparatus, for miners' lamps and other purposes, and also of optical glass, were urgently needed. In this matter the Institute of Chemistry, supported in the course of time by grants from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, largely assisted in overcoming the difficulty. A series of formulas was devised by Sir Herbert Jackson, working in conjunc- tion with a Special Committee appointed by the Institute ; and under the ultimate organisation of the i8z THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY Department of Optical Munitions and Glassware Supply, these formulas were entrusted tc reliable manufacturers with whose co-operation the country has been reasonably able to supply its own needs in all ordinary forms of laboratory glass apparatus and in many other respects. Other " key " industries could be cited, but we have noted these as examples and as indicating some matters in which the Government has recently shown interest. The Report of the Government Committee on Com- mercial and Industrial Policy (1918) states that " war requirements have enormously increased our pro- ductive capacity in certain great branches of industry, notably in the steel and chemical trades, and in numerous directions British manufacturers have shown much adaptability and resourcefulness." TEACHING TOWARDS the middle of the nineteenth century, the teaching of chemistry in Universities and Colleges was mainly of an elementary' character. There were few students taking a systematic training in chemistry and consequently few chemists. It was usual, alike for professors and practitioners, to under- take both teaching and practice : professors more commonly than now held appointments as consultants and some acted as public analysts ; private practitioners, in most cases, took articled pupils. When the facilities for obtaining instruction became greater and the profession increased in numbers and activity, this overlapping of work led to controversy ; but, in the course of time, the educational work of the teachers increased and the tendency of practitioners to take pupils, except for special training, decreased ; so that a better understanding arose with regard to the two spheres of work. We will not attempt to deal more than briefly with the art of teaching. As the chemist who wishes to follow this branch has himself been through the pro- cess of being taught, he may be assumed to know a good deal about it when he starts on his career ; but, to be consistent in our scheme of considering the various branches of work open to the chemist, we will venture a few remarks on what is certainly one of the most difficult. The methods of teaching science or indeed any 183 184 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY subject are not fixed. Every student appears to require individual treatment and every teacher is met with the difficulty of finding the best way of bringing out the best that is in his students. On the personal characteristics necessary to a teacher enthusiasm, patience, and tact we do not feel called upon to dilate. Those who do not possess them in the necessary degree will probably be the first to recognise the advisability of turning to another branch of work. Chemistry as a subject affords endless possibilities of arousing interest both by practical demonstration and by illustrating the application of its principles to the affairs of everyday life healih, industry, commerce, and the State. Students have to be trained, not only in the methods of conducting experi- ments, but in observation and the interpretation of results, and in the wider meaning of the work how it may be applied to practical purposes. The spirit of enquiry must be maintained from the beginning if the student is to be an investigator or something more than a routine worker. It is a lamentable fact that not a few chemists show evidence of having suffered in their youth and in- experience from accidents in the laboratory, and we feel, therefore, it should not be out of place to suggest that students should be warned of the risks of handling dangerous substances before they are left to their own devices. The careless handling of a bottle of sulphuric acid has caused the stopper to jump and the liquid to spurt so as to deprive a boy permanently of the sight of an eye ; a retarded action in a test tube held above the level of the head has produced the same unfortunate re- sult. Burns, arising from thoughtless handling of highly volatile and combustible substances, and cuts, from injudicious performances with cork borers and glass TEACHING 185 tubing, are far too common incidents of the laboratory, and such disasters are apt to have far-reaching after- effects, apart from the accompanying damage to in- struments and property. Students should also be taught something of the value of materials and to have a respect for scientific instruments with which they are entrusted. The teacher, quite as much as the practitioner, finds that he must keep in touch as far as possible with current theory and practice, and constantly revise his courses accordingly. One of his functions is to advise students on the use of books both for theory and practical work, so that they may seek for themselves the information bearing on the problems before them and determine and apply the methods to be adopted. He should be on the watch for new literature ; indeed, students and chemists generally would find progress very difficult without access to standard works of reference. The teacher, moreover, if he is a student of human nature, is afforded exceptional opportunities of pur- suing that alluring subject ; for not only is chemistry to be taught to those who intend to be chemists, but in a lesser degree to engineering and medical students, and many others ; so that he must acquire in the course of years a wide interest in human intellectual progress. The practical nature of his subject neces- sarily brings him into close relation individually with those who are specially drawn to it. He will mark their different temperaments, finding some students casual and disinclined to bestir themselves while others are industrious and cover the ground quickly. Yet the latter are not always the more successful : in some students the knowledge attained is but superficial ; in others, perhaps slower, it is more i86 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY thoroughly assimilated. He will endeavour to under- stand these dispositions and to make allowances for initiative and spontaneity, especially in the later stages of training. By maintaining a personal interest in his students, he can better advise them as to their future and often place them to advantage. The junior teacher who hopes to give advanced instruction in his subject is fortunate if he secures a demonstratorship in a University or College, from which, if he is capable, he may proceed to a higher appointment. His chances of success are improved if he shows aptitude for research and obtains a doctorate degree. He may eventually reach a Professorship, but the number of senior appointments has hitherto been too limited to afford a satisfactory prospect, except to men of outstanding ability. Few Professors of Chemistry receive a stipend of more than 1000 a year, and though their salaries may be supplemented by examiner- ships and literary work, such work is arduous and hardly to be relied on as a regular source of income. A great deal of gratuitous work in the public interest is expected of and rendered by chemists occupying such positions : much of their tune is given to matters of educational organisation and the administrative affairs of their institutions. Where technological instruction is required, particu- larly in Universities and Colleges in industrial centres, there is an increasing tendency to require evidence of practical experience in industry. It is not to be expected that chemists with such experience will be attracted to teaching, however, unless the prospects are comparable with those in industry. The appointments of masters for giving instruction in general science, in public, secondary and private schools, are, of course, very numerous, and many TEACHING 187 chemists have followed this branch of work through lack of opportunities in other directions. From a chemist's point of view teaching has been probably the least remunerative branch of the profession ; yet, in the past, a very large proportion of graduates in science have become teachers in schools, seldom having the opportunity of taking pupils beyond the standard required for the University Intermediate Examinations, and in most cases not beyond that required for Matriculation. The criticism levelled at our science masters in schools is that they are inclined to impart knowledge without indicating its usefulness, so that its con- nection with the realities of life is not fully appre- ciated. This criticism is probably well founded in the case of many who teach general science, but not in that of the teacher who is enthusiastically devoted to his own particular subject. , It is remarkable, however, that the teaching in Secondary Schools is so good, seeing that the salaries of the teachers are generally inadequate and their duties so burdensome that they have no time for research or other work. The prospects of the average science master were in pre-war times commonly limited to an income of about 300 per annum, which hardly warranted his University training ; the teacher in a technical school might become head of a department at 400 to 500 a year ; in a secondary school, even if he were able to take classes in several subjects, he would not usually receive so much. Municipal bodies have spent large sums on imposing buildings for their technical institutions, but in many cases have been disinclined to disburse with the same free hand on their equipment or on the salaries of the staffs engaged for them. i88 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY The great defect of a teaching career, regarded generally, therefore, has been the poverty of the out- look ; but there is good reason to hope that recent agitation for further and improved teaching in science will tend to improve the conditions, and that this important branch of work will thereby become more attractive* WOMEN IN PROFESSIONAL CHEMISTRY THE Institute of Chemistry was one of the first of the Chartered professional bodies to admit women to the qualifying examinations, the first woman successful in passing the examination for the Associate ship having been elected in 1892. Since then about thirty have qualified for A.I.C. and F.I.C. Many women, however, have taken science degrees, including chemistry, at the Universities and several have attained considerable recognition as teachers and as research chemists, while others have been successful in scientific journalism. Some, indeed, have shown marked manipulative skill, but, under normal conditions, there has not been hitherto a wide scope for women in professional practice. During the war, however, a considerable number of women chemists, in most cases teachers, have successfully taken the places of men serving with the forces or have been engaged on special work not usually required in times of peace. For those who are distinctly capable, there will probably be more appointments in the future, as assistants to consultants, or in industrial laboratories, in the latter especially, as it appears likely that their brethren will find increasing scope for their knowledge and ability in the control of operations in the works. The remuneration of women chemists will depend to a great extent on their general ability to adapt them- selves to the requirements of the positions to which they attain. 189 CHEMISTS IN WAR 1 OWING to the conditions of modern warfare chemists have been more than ever in request. To give a full account of their work, if it were possible, would be imprudent, but it is well to place on record a statement confined to what it is permissible to relate, giving some indication of the importance of the pro- fession of chemistry to the nation in recent times. It may be doubted if the general community realises that the chemist plays a part in the production of all iron, steel, copper, and other metal, of every explosive, of cloth, leather, rubber, glass, and material of war generally, and that his help is no less necessary in connection with the supplies of food, pure water and medicine. During the war the Government secured the guidance of chemists and other men of science to assist in the in- vestigation of suggestions and inventions and to bring their knowledge and experience to bear on measures and devices of offence and defence, while apart from those acting in an advisory capacity, chemists were called for service in the field as well as in the factory. In such times there is a demand for the solution of problems of an unusual character which can only be entrusted to men of the highest scientific training, with initiative and foresight. So much had we come to rely on foreign sources of 1 Reprinted and modified, with slight additions, from the Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry, Part I, 1917- 190 CHEMISTS IN WAR 191 supply for many of our needs, that means had to be found for dealing promptly and efficiently with diffi- culties some of which, unless overcome, threatened serious disaster. The chemists of the country were not found wanting. The laboratories of our universities and colleges became small factories for the preparation of drugs and medicaments, and many institutions were en- trusted with the examination of materials used in the manufacture of explosives. The measures taken in this emergency secured uniformity in method and the standardisation of processes which would otherwise have been difficult to attain. Under the supervision of their professors, students unfit for service with the colours were thus helping the country and at the same time gaining useful experience. More than a thousand chemists were engaged to assist in the laboratories and in the works of Government and controlled establishments supplying armaments, munitions, and other materials of war. Many of these found an opportunity of helping the country, through the registers maintained by the Institute of Chemistry and other societies for this purpose. In cases where the number of men having technical experience in some branches was limited, the authorities made arrangements for probationary training, so that their services should be available when required in new factories. The staffs of the chemical departments of Woolwich Arsenal and other Government factories were consider- ably augmented, as also that of the Government Laboratory, which, as recently published reports show, was largely responsible for the examination of food- stuffs and many other requirements of the Expe- ditionary Forces, 192 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY In previous wars the authorities had considered officers of the R.A.M.C. sufficiently trained for all necessary military duties involving chemical know- ledge, but in the recent conflict, with an unpre- cedented demand for medical men, qualified chemists volunteered in such numbers as to give practical force to the suggestion that they should be engaged for the purification and examination of water supplies and for dealing with matters of hygiene requiring chemical knowledge. As a result many received com- missions and were engaged for scientific work, not only with the R.A.M.C., but also with the R.A.F., A.S.C., A.O.D., and other units, as well as with the Secret Service. Attached to various forces at home, with the armies on the Continent, in Asia, and in Africa, chemists thus rendered valuable service. In consequence of methods of offence initiated by the enemy, such as the employment of poisonous gases, there arose a further demand for men with training in chemistry for service in the field. Rumours that the enemy intended to employ such means reached the Allied lines in April, 1915, but were not believed ; so that when the first attack with chlorine gas was made, our troops were quite unprepared. Steps had to be taken in the direction of retaliation. For the duties involved the authorities deemed it expedient to enlist men with chemical training, rather than entrust them to men without any scientific knowledge, and the unit formed was a fighting force. With the assistance of the universities and technical colleges and the various bodies interested in chemistry, an entirely new force was brought into existence. At that time there was no question of compulsion, yet it was raised with little difficulty, being subsequently augmented by the addition of other troops. The men went voluntarily, CHEMISTS IN WAR 193 and were sent abroad at very short notice, and after short training went into action. The officers were mainly selected from chemists who already held com- missions, while sergeants and corporals with know- ledge of chemistry were transferred from other units. That they did their work well is shown by the following abstracts from dispatches of Lord French and Sir Douglas Haig : LORD FRENCH, October I5th, 1915 : Owing to the repeated use by the enemy of asphyxiating gases in their attacks on our positions, I have been com- pelled to resort to similar methods ; and a detachment was organised for this purpose, which took part in the opera- tions commencing on the 25th September for the first time. Although the enemy was known to have been prepared for such reprisals, our gas attack met with marked success, and produced a demoralising effect in some of the opposing units, of which ample evidence was forthcoming in the captured trenches. The men who undertook this work carried out their unfamiliar duties during a heavy bombardment with con- spicuous gallantry and coolness; and I feel confident in their ability to more than hold their own should the enemy again resort to this method of warfare. SIR DOUGLAS HAIG, May igth, 1916 : The valuable nature of the work performed by the officers of the Central Laboratory and the chemical advisers with the Armies in investigations into the nature of the gases and other new substances used in hostile attacks, and in devising and perfecting means of protecting our troops against them, is deserving of recognition. The efforts of these officers materially contributed to the failure of the Germans in their attack of I9th December, 1915, as well as in the various gas attacks since made. SIR DOUGLAS HAIG, December 23rd, 1916 : The employment by the enemy of gas and of liquid flame as weapons of offence compelled us not only to dis- cover ways to protect our troops from their effects, but also o 194 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY to devise means to make use of the same instruments of destruction. Great fertility of invention has been shown, and very great credit is due to the special personnel em- ployed for the rapidity and success with which these new arms have been developed and perfected, and for the very great devotion to duty they have displayed in a difficult and dangerous service. The Army owes its thanks to the chemists, physiologists, and physicists of the highest rank who devoted their energies to enabling us to surpass the enemy in the use of a means of warfare which took the civilised world by surprise. Our own experience of the numerous experiments and trials necessary before gas and flame could be used, of the great preparations which had to be made for their manufacture, and of the special training required for the personnel employed, shows that the em- ployment of such methods by the Germans was not the result of a desperate decision, but had been prepared for deliberately. Since we have been compelled, in self-defence, to use similar methods, it is satisfactory to be able to record on the evidence of prisoners, of documents captured, and of our own observation, that the enemy has suffered heavy casualties from our gas attacks, while the means of pro- tection adopted by us have proved thoroughly effective. Sir Douglas Haig, referring to the work of the Royal Engineers, in his despatch on the March (1918) Retreat, published on October 22nd, 1918 : On different occasions, and particularly on the Third Army Front at the commencement of the Geiman offen- sive, personnel of the Special Brigade (Gas Services) became involved in the infantry battle, and behaved with a like gallantry to that which they always displayed in the performance of their special duties. Finally, in the " Victory "dispatch, yth January, 1919, after detailing the operations of the Gas Services : In all these different operations, all ranks of the Gas Services have shown their accustomed courage and devotion to duty. High qualifications were 'unnecessary for the work CHEMISTS IN WAR 195 of the rank and file, but many very competent men joined, and it may be mentioned incidentally that it was remarked on an early occasion that generally speaking the best qualified chemists proved the best soldiers. The majority of the university graduates and men possessing recognised diplomas, who originally enlisted as corporals, subsequently received com- missions, and when the force was more completely organised a considerable number were withdrawn and transferred to the Ministry of Munitions in 'order that their services might be available in work of a more scientific character. In December, 1915, the enemy employed phosgene ; but by that time means of protection had been supplied and when the danger was increased by greater gas concentration, more efficient respirators were pro- vided. In the course of time, the gas cloud was largely superseded by the use of shells containing noxious liquids or solids which became vaporised by the explosion. Lachrymatory shells were the first of this order, but were soon followed by others more poisonous and deadly in effect, each in turn demanding counteracting measures. Thus the researches of the laboratory were utilised for providing methods of offence and defence. Mention should also be made of the fact that during the campaign against the rebels in South Africa and the Germans in South-West Africa chemists were attached, on the personal order of General Botha, to the different brigades and rendered valuable service. From the experience gained in the campaign it is clearly advisable that the State should have control of such an organisation of professional chemists as to ensure at any time their efficient service in the many 196 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY requirements of the naval, military, and air forces. In addition to competent chemical advisers of undoubted standing, the following appear to be essential : Chemists to control the manufacture of munitions, ex- plosives, metals, leather, rubber, oils, gases, food, drugs. Chemists for the analysis of all such materials, for research, and for Secret Service purposes. Chemists, on active service, to assist in the control of water supplies, in the detection of poison in streams, in the analysis of water and food, in the disposal of sewage, and in other hygienic matters. Chemists, both at home and on active service, to assist in devising safeguards against enemy contri- vances of a scientific nature, and methods of offence to meet the same, as well as for the instruction of troops in such matters. It has been called a " chemists' war " and an " en- gineers' war." Many regarded it largely as a conflict between the men of science of the countries engaged. Our chemists were not dismayed at that, but it was impossible to foresee to what length the enemy was prepared to go in the application of science to warfare, and we cannot reproach ourselves with having set any example of frightfulness. To sum the matter up, chemists met the situa- tion with a spirit of true patriotism and were promptly organised for the service required of them. It is not too much to hope that, as the discoveries of science .have been applied to the destruction of humanity, they may now be devoted more and more to the furtherance of the arts of peace. British chemistry, which has played so important a part in the war, will undoubtedly contribute to making good the ravages of war and the building up of our industries and commerce. INDEX Admiralty Chemist, 176 Adulteration Acts, 1 1 1 et seq. , against fraud and injury, 119 Advertising, 134 Agricultural Analysts, Official, 128 Agriculture, Board of, 177 A. I.C. Examination, 65 Alchemists, 18 Alkali Inspectors, 177 Analyst, The, 103 Analysts, Works, 147 Apothecaries, 19 et seq. Applied Chemistry, 141 Appointments Register, 95 Association of British Chemical Manufacturers, 1 70 Attfield, J., 27 Bacon, Francis, 41 , Roger, 21 Bank of England, 178 Becher, 78 Bell, Jacob History of Phar- macy, 21 Berkenhout, G., 27 Blyth, A. Wynter, no Board of Agriculture, 178 Trade, 178 Boerhaave, 26 Brampton, Lord, 139. British Association of Chemists, 49, 53 Certificates, Trade, 134 Charlatanism, 132 Chemical Engineers, 144, 170 Industry, 141 et seq. Manufacturers, Association of British, 170 Chemical News, 105 Chemical Society, The, 29, 100 I Chemical Technologists, 170 Technology, Syllabus, 153 Chemical Trade Journal, 105 Chemist and Druggist, 16 et seq. Chemist and Pharmacist (Foreign equivalents), 38 , Definition of, 28, 33 , Standard of qualification, 50 , The designation of, 16 et seq. Chemistry and the State, 172 , Early records of, 17 Chemists, Dispensing, 16 et seq. , Remuneration of Industrial, 90 Official, 178 Classics, 4 Conditions of Practice, 78 Conduct, Professional, 130 Consulting Chemical Engineers, 144, 170 Technologists, 170 Control Chemists, Works, 152 Crookes, Sir William, 105, 112 Degrees, in Science, 44 etseq., 59, 71 Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 61, 152, 180, 181 Druggists, 1 6 et seq. Education, Preliminary, i Egyptian industries, 17 Employment, 95 Engineering, Chemical, i$<\etseq. Engineers, Chemical, 144, 170 English Language, 2 Ethics, 130 Etiquette, 130 Evening classes, 46, 47 Evidence, Legal, 135 Examinations, 65 et seq. F.I.C., 76 Federal Council, 104 197 198 THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY Fees, Professional, 131 Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act, 128 Fleming, A. P. M., 151 Food and Drugs Acts, in et seq. , Chemistry of, 66, 1 10 Forensic Chemistry, 135 Foster, Carey, 80 French, Lord, 193 German Chemists, 94 German Chemical trade, 94 Government Chemist, 174 Chemistry, 172 Laboratory, 113114, 174, 191 Greek philosophy, 78 Haig, Sir Douglas, 193 Hassall, A., in Home Office, 177 Industrial and Chemical Engi- neering, 105 Industrial Chemistry, 141 et seq. Research, 147 Institute of Chemistry, 3, 39, 43 et seq., 101, 108, 116, 119, 153, 181, 191 Institutions, Chemical, 99 et seq. Jackson, Sir Herbert, 181 Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 5, 28, 134 Journals, Chemical, 105 Kelvin, 80 Latin, 2 Lectures (Institute of Chemistry) , 76 Legal evidence, 135 Libraries, Chemical, 106 Lichnowsky, 94 Local Government Boards, 112, 116, 177 London County Council, 178 Medical Officers of Health, 120 Metallurgical and Chemical En- gineering, 105 " Minimum Wage," 107 Ministry of Munitions, 177, 182 Mint, Royal, 178 Nature, 106 Notebooks (practical chemistry), 57 Official Agricultural Analysts, 128 " Official Chemical Appoint- ments," 1 80 Optical Munitions and Glass- ware, 182 Optional subjects (training), 45, 54. 58 Organisation, Professional, 96 Paracelsus, 16, 18 Patent Office, 178 Pharmaceutical Society, 29 Pharmacist and Chemist (foreign equivalents), 38 Definition of, 28, 33 Pharmacists, 16 et seq. Pharmacopoeia, 32, 33 Pharmacy Acts (1852), (1868) and (1908), 32, 33, 37 Definition of, 28 Qualifications for, 34 Physicians, College of, 20 Physics, 57 Playfair, Lord, 113, 172 Poisoning cases, 128, 139 Practice, Branches of, 81 Conditions of private, 82 Prospects and conditions of, 7 8 . Preliminary Education, i Examination, 14 Professional Conduct and Pro- cedure, 130 Organisation, 96 Training, 40 et seq. Prospects of practice, 78 Public Analyst and Medical Officer of Health, Relations of, I2O Analysts, no Society of, 103, in Qualifications of, 116 Remuneration of, n jet seq. Redwood, Theophilus, 30 Remuneration, 88 et seq., 106, 163 Reports, Professional, 84, 134 INDEX 199 Research Association (Cam- bridge), 63 Research Chemists, 144, 147 , Works, 147 Research (College), 58 , Department of Scientific and Industrial, 61, 152, 180, 181, , Industrial, 147 Restriction of practice, sug- gested, 99 Royal Air Force, 177, 192 Society, 23, 100 Ruskin, 91 Salaries, 88 et seq., 106, 163 Salisbury, Lord, 172 Sampling, 83 Science in Civil Service Examina- tions, 9, 172 Schools, 6 et seq., 187 Scientific Witnesses, 135 Societies, 99 et seq. Society of Chemical Industry, 102, 143 Journal of, 144 Public Analysts, 103, in, 119, 181 Soliciting practice, 135 " Somerset House," 113-114, 174 Specialisation, 8, 58, 72 Spirit, Recovery of, 85 Stevenson, Sir Thomas,^ 139 Stills, Licences for, 84 Students, Registration of, 43 Subjects of training, additional, 45. 54. 58 Teaching, 183 Technical Education, 40 Institutions, 40 Technology, Training in, 72 Trade Intelligence Department, 170 Trade " Puffs," 134 Trade Union, 106 Training, Cost of, 64 specialised, 58, 72 War, Chemists in, 174, 190 War Industries, 180 War Office, 177 Women Chemists, 189 Woolwich Arsenal, 177, 191 Works Analysts, 146 Chemists, 144 Control Chemists, 152 PRINTED BY WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, PLYMOUTH, ENGLAND X33HXS pitD suifsiflnj ANVdKOD QMVHXSOM MVA 'd xsanban NO aaaa iNas sisn ivioajs sv Ti3A\ sv sooiViLvo aiaadHOO QNV aasaMSNv Aiinaaavo QNV A^^n l i -aaano anv sn ao aavw sammbNi TIV a[os aq; aaB aM aaquinu SuiSBaaoui J9Aa UB joj pu-B qsi[qnd SAV aseq^ jo aequinu a3at y s^ooq^xa; SB asn ^^uapn^s aoj pa^g asoqi SB \\di& SB aouaaajaa joj injasn s^ooq eq^ q^oq 'saouaps snoiJBA aq; o;3ui^Biaaaan^Baa^i[ aq^os^B si SB ^a^uasajdaj ^aM si apsa^ XjaAa jo aan^B -ja^H iBOiuqoa; aqx *sa;B;s P^!fl ^ f s^ooq ogt^uaps PUB SuuaauiSua ^Bt^snpui '{Bomqoa^ jo 5^00^8 a^aiduioo ^soui aq^ si saAjaqs ano UQ 3Hi THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. 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