ESSAYS, LITERARY, MORAL AXD PHILOSOPHICAL BY BENJAMIN RUSH, M. D. AND PROFESSOR OF THE INSTITUTES OF MEDICINE AND CLINICAL PRACTICE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. SECOND EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS. PHILADELPHIA : PRINTED BY THOMAS AND WILLIAM BRADFORD, NO. 8, SOUTH FRONT STREET. 1806. AS A RECORD OF FRATERNAL AFFECTION, THE FOLLOWING ESSAYS ARE INSCRIBED TO JACOB RUSH, Judge of the Third District of Pennsylvania. BY HIS FRIEND AND BROTHER, cir- THE AUTHOR O f first January 9, 1798. Uthor Mets PREFACE. MOST of the following Essays were published in the Museum, and Columbian Magazine, in this City, soon after the end of the revolutionary war in the United States. A few of them made their first appearance in pamphlets. They are now published in a single volume, at the request of several- friends, and with a view of promoting the ends at first contemplated by them. Two of the Essays, viz: that upon the use of To bacco, and the account of remarkable cir cumstances in the constitution and life of Ann Woods, are now submitted for the first time to the eye of the public. The author has omitted in this collection two pamphlets which he published in the year 1772, upon PREFACE. the slavery of the Negroes, because he con ceived the object of them had been in part accomplished, and because the Citizens of the United States have since that time been furnished from Great-Britain and other tenantries, with numerous tracts upon that -jeer, more calculated to complete the ef- : fect intended by the author.* than his early publications, * BENJAMIN RUSH. Philadelphia, Jm. 9, 1798. TABLE OF CONTENTS. A PLAN for establishing Public Schools 4n Pennsylvania, and for conducting education agreeably to a Republi can form of Government. Addressed to the Legisla ture- and citizens of Pennsylvania, in the year 1786., - . Of the mode of Education proper ii^ a Republic, . V-.-r Observations upon the study of the Latin and Greek languages, as a branch of liberal education, with hint, of a plan of liberal instruction, without them, accommo dated to. the present state of society, .manners and go vernment in the United States, ,..,,..... :23 Thoughts upon the amusements and punishments, which are proper for Schools, r>~ " Thoughts upon Female Education, accommodated to the present state of society, manners and government, in the United States of America, ............... 5.1 * A defence of the Bible as a School Book, ...-,-.... 05 * An address to the ministers of the Gospel of every deno mination in the United States upon subjects into re to morals, . . . . .................... 11 4 An inquiry into the consistency of Oaths with Christi anity, ...:. 12 J An inquiry into the Effects of Public Punishments upon Criminals, and upon Society, I An enquiry into the consistency of the punishment of Murder by Death, with Reason and FeveUlion, ... 15 TABLE OF CONTENTS. A plan of a Peace Office for the United States, 185 Information to Europeans who are disposed to migrate to the United States of America, 189 An Account of the Progress of Population, Agriculture, Munners, and Government, in Pennsylvania, 213 An Account of the manners of the German Inhabitants of Pennsylvania, 226 Thoughts on Common Sense, 249 An Account of the Vices peculiar to the Indians of North America, 256 Observations upon the influence of the Habitual use of Tobacco upon Health, Morals, and Property, .... 261 An Account of the Sugar Maple Tree of the United States, 270 An account of the life and death of Edward Drinker, who died on the 17th. of November, 1782, in the 103rd. year of his age, 288 Remarkable circumstances in the constitution and life of Ann Woods, an old woman of 96 years of age, . . . 293 Biographical Anecdotes of Benjamin Lay, 296 Biographical Anecdotes of Anthony Benezet, 302 Paradise of Negro Slavesa dream, 305 An Inquiry into the causes of Premature Deaths, .... 310 Eulogiura upon Dr. William Cullen, . . 316 Eulogium upon David Rittenhouse, 335 IJTERARY, MORAL, AND PHILOSOPHICAL^ ULAN TOR. ESTABLISHING PUBLIC SCHOOLS itf PENNSYLVANIA, AND FOR CONDUCTING EDUCA TION AGREEABLY TO A REPUBLICAN FORM OF GO VERNMENT. ADDRESSED TO THE LEGISLATURE AND CITIZENS OF PENNSYLVAN I A, IN THE. Y.EAR 1786. B EFORE I proceed to the fubjeft of this ef- fay, I fhall point out, in a few words, the influence and advantages of learning upon mankind. I. It is friendly to religion, inafmuch as it affifts in removing prejudice, fuperflition and enthufiafm, in promoting juft notions of the Deity, and in enlarging cur knowledge of his works. II. It is favourable to liberty. Freedom can exift only in the fociety of knowledge. Without learning, men are incapable of knowing their rights, and where learning is confined to a few people^ liberty can be neither equal nor univerfal. 1 A PLAN FOR ESTABLISHING PUBLIC III. It promotes juft ideas of laws and govcrn r ment. When the clouds of ignorance are dif- pelled (fays the Marquis of Beccaria) by the radiance of knowledge, power trembles, but the authority of Jaws remains immoveable." IV. It is friendly to manners. Learning in all countries, promotes civilization, and the pleafures of fociety and converfation. V. It promotes agriculture, the great bafis of na tional wealth and happinefs. Agriculture is as much a fcience as hydraulics, or optics, and has been equally indebted to the experiments and refearches of learned men. The highly cultivated (late, and the immenfc profits of the farms in England, are derived wholly from the patronage which agriculture has received in that country, from learned men and learned focieties. VI. Manufactures of all kinds owe their perfection chiefly to learning hence the nations of Europe advance in manufactures, knowledge, and com merce, only in proportion as they cultivate the arts a:ul fcience?. For the purpofe of difFufing knowledge through every part of the (late, I beg leave to propofe the following fnnple plan. I. Let there be one univerfity in the flare, and let this be efhbliihed in the capital. Let law, phyfic, divinity, the law of nature a:ul nations, ceconomy, &c. be taught in it by public lectures in the winter feufon. SCHOOLS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 7 after the manner of the European univerfities, and let the profeflbrs receive fuch falaries from the (late as wiH enable them to deli ver their kctures at a moderate price.." II. Let there be four colleges. One in Philadelphia; one at Carlifle ; a tnird, for the benefit of our German fellow citizens, at Lancafter ; and a fourth, fome years hence at Pittfburg. In thefe colleges, let young men be inftructed in mathematics and in the higher branches of faience, in the fame manner that they arc now taught in our American colleges. After they have received a teftimonial from one of thefe colleges, let them, if they can afford it, complete their fludies. by fpending a feafon or two in attending the lectures in ths univerfity. I prefer four colleges in the ftate fo one or two, for there is a certain fizs of colleges as there is of towns and armies, that is moil favourable to morals and good government. Oxford and Cam bridge in England are the feats of difTipation, v/hiie the more numerous, and lefs crouded univerfities and colleges in Scotland, are remarkable for the order, diligence, and decent behaviour of their (Indents. III. Let there be free fchools eftablifhed in every townfnip, or in diftri&s confiding of one hundred families. In thefe fchools let children be taught to o read and write the Englifli and German languages, and the ufe of figures. Such of them as have parents that can afford to fend them from home, and are difpofed to extend their educations, may remove their children from the free fchool to one of the colleges. 4 A PLAN FOR ESTABLISHING PUBLIC By this plan the whole flate will be tied together by one fyftem of education. The univerfity will in time furriifh mafters for the colleges, and the colleges will furnifh mafters for the free fchools, while the free fchools, in their turns, will fupply the colleges and the univerfity with fcholars, (Indents and pupils. The fame fyftems of grammar, oratory and philofophy, will be taught in every part of the flate, and the literary features of Pennfylvania will thus defig- tiate one great, and equally enlightened family. But, how (hall we bear the expenfe of thefe literary inflitutions ? 1 anfwer Thefe inftitutions will Icffen our taxes. They will enlighten us in the great bufmefs of finance they will teach us to en- reafe the ability of the (late to fupport government, by encreafing the profits of agriculture, and by pro moting manufactures. They will teach us all the modern improvements and advantages of inland navi gation. They will defend us from hafly and cxpenfive experiment in government, by unfolding to us the experience and folly of pad ages, and thus, inftead of adding to our taxes and debts, they will furnifh us with the true fecret of lefTening and difcharging both of them. But, fhall the eflates of orphans, bntclielors and perfons who have no children, be taxed to pay for the fupport of fchools from which they can derirc no benefit ? I anfwer in the affirmative, to the firfl SCHOOLS IN PENNSYLVANIA; part of the objection, and I deny the truth of the latter part of it. Every member of the community is interefled in the propagation of virtue and knowledge in the flate. But I will go further^ and add, it will be true ceconomy in individuals to fupport public fchools. The batchelor will in time fave his tax for this pwpofe, by being able to fleep with fewer bolts and locks to his doors the eftates of orphans will in time be benefited, by being protected from the ravages of unprincipled and idle boys, and the children of wealthy parents will be lefs tempted, by bad company, to extravagance. Fewer pillories and whipping pofts, and fmaller goals, \vith their ufual expenfes and taxes, will be ne- ceflary when our youth are properly educated, than, at prefent ; I believe it could be proved, that the cxpenes of confining, trying and executing criminals, amount every year, in mod of the counties, to more money than would be fufficient to maintain all the fchools that would be neceflary in each county. The confeflions of thefe criminals generally fhow us, that their vices and punifhments are the fatal confe- quences of the want of a proper education in early life. I fubmit thefe detached hints to the confideratiori of the legiilature and of the citizens of Penfylvania. The plan for the free fchools is taken chiefly from the plans which have long been ufed with fuccef* ia 6 OF THE MODE OF EDUCATION Scotland, and in the enflern Hates * of America, \vhere the influence of learning, in promoting religion, morals, manners, and good government, has never been exceeded in any country. The manner in which thefe fchools mould be fup- ported and governed the modes of determining the characters and qualifications of fchool mailers, and the arrangement of families in each diftril, fo that children of the fame religious feel and nation, may be educa- as much as pollible together, will form a proper part of a law for the eftabliihment of fchools, and there fore does not come within the limits of this plan. Or THE MODE OF EDUCATION PROPER IN A REPUBLIC. THE bufmefs of education has acquired a new complexion by the independence of our country. The form of government we h?.ve afTumed, has created a new clafs of duties to every American. It becomes us, therefore, to examine our former habits upon this fubjedl, and in laying the * There are 600 of thefe fchools in the fmall flate of Conne&icut, wli;ch at this time have in tlum zc, coo fcholars. ITXPER IN A REPUBLIC ^ foundations for nyrferies of wife and good men, to adapt our modes of teaching to the .peculiar form of our government. The firft remark that I mall make upon this fubjeft is, that an education in our own, is to be preferred to an education in a foreign country. The principle of patriotifm {lands in need of the reinforcement of prejudice, and it is well known that our ftrongeft prejudices in favour of our country are formed in the firit one and twenty years of our lives. The policy of the Lacedemonians is well worthy of our imitation. "When Antipater demanded fifty of their children as hoftages for the fulfillment of a diflant engagement; thofe wife republicans refufed to comply with his de mand, but readily offered him double the number of their adult citizens, whofe habits and prejudices could not be fhaken by refiding in a foreign country. Faffing by, in this place, the advantages to the community from the early attachment of youth to the laws and conftitution of their country, I mall only remark j that young men who have trodden the paths of fciencc together, or have joined in the fame fports, whether of fwimming, fcating, fifliing, or hunting, generally feel, thro* life, fuch ties to each other, as add greatly to the obligations of mutual benevolence. I conceive the education of our youth in this country to be peculiarly neceffary in Pennfylvariia, while our citizens are compofed of the natives of fo many diffe rent kingdoms in Europe. Our fchools of learning, O* THE MODE OF EDUCATION by producing one general, and uniform fyftem of education, will render the mafs of the people more homogeneous, and thereby fit them more eafily for uniform and peaceable government. I proceed in the next place, to enquire, what mode of education we fhall adopt fo as to fecure to the ftats, all the advantages that are to be derived from the proper inflruttion of youth 5 and here I beg leave to remark, that the only foundation for a ufeful education in a icpublic is to be laid in Religion. Without this there ciin be no virtue, and without virtue there can be no liberty, and liberty is the objet and life of all 1 republican governments. Such is my veneration for every religion that reveals the attributes of the Deity, or a future ftate of rewards and punimments, that I had rather fee the opinions of Confucius or Mahomed inculcated upon our youth, than fee them grow up wholly devoid of a fyftem of religious principles. But the religion I mean to recommend in this place, is that of the New Tefta- mcnt. It is foreign to my purpofe to hint at the arguments which efiablim the truth of the Chriftian revelation. My only bufmefs is to declare, that all its doctrines and precepts are calculated to promote the happinefs of fociety, and the fafety and well being of civil govern- Lr:ur, A Chriftian cannot fail of being a republican. The hiftory of the creation of man, an.d of the PROPER IN A REPUBLIC */ 6f our fpecics to each other by birth, which is recorded hi the Old Teftament, is the beft refutation that can be given to the divine right of kings, and the ftrongeft argument that can be ufed in favor of the original and natural equality of all mankind. A Chriftian, I fay again, cannot fail of being a republican, for every precept of the Gofpel inculcates thofe degrees of hu mility, felf-denial, and brotherly kindnefs, which aie directly oppofed to the pride of monarchy and the- pageantry of a court. A Chriftian cannot fail of being ufeful to the republic, for his religion teacheth him, that no man " liveth to himfelf." And lailly, a Chriftian cannot fail of being wholly inoftenfive, for his religion teacheth him, in" all things to do to others what he would wifh, in like circumftances, they fhould do to him. I am aware that I diflent from one of thofe paradox ical opinions with which modern times abound; and that it is improper to fill the minds of youth with religious prejudices of any kind, and that they mould be left to choofe their own principles, after they have arrived at an age in which they are capable of judging for themfelves. Could we prefcrve the mind in childhood and youth a perfect blank, this plan of education would have more to recommend it; but this we know to be impoffible. The human mind runs as naturally into principles as it docs after facls. It fubmits with difficulty to thofe reftraints or partial 1 e 10 OF THE MODE OP EDUCATION difcoverics which are impofed upon it in the infancy of reafon. Hence the impatience of children to be in formed upon all fubjets that relate to the invifiblc world. But I beg leave to afk, why mould we purfuc a different plan of education with refpecl: to religion, from that which we purfue in teaching the arts and fciences ? Do we leave our youth to acquire fyftems of geography, philofophy, or politics, till they have arrived at an age in which they are capable of judging for themfelves ? We do not. I claim no more then for religion, than for the other fciences, and I add fur ther, that if our youth are difpofed after they are of age to think for themfelves, a knowledge of one fyftem, will be the beft means of conducting them in a free enquiry into other fyftems of religion, juft as an acquaintance with one fyftem of philofophy is the beft introduction to the ftudy of all the other fyftems in the world. Next to the duty which young men owe to their Creator, I wiih to fee a regard to their country, incul cated upon them. When the Duke of Sully became prime niinifter to Henry the IVth of France, the firft thing he did, he tells us, " Was to fubdue and forget " his own heart." The fame duty is incumbent upon every citizen of a republic. Our country includes family, friends r.nd property, and flioukl be preferred to them all. Let our pupil be taught that he does not belong to himfelf, but that he is public property. Let him be taught to love his family, but let him be PROPER IN A REPUBLIC. taught,at the fame time, that he mud forfake, and even forget them, when the welfare of his country requires it. He muft watch for the ftate, as if its liberties depended upon his vigilance alone, but he mud do this in fuch a manner as not to defraud his creditors, or neglect his family. He mud love private life, but he mull decline no ftation, however public or refponfiblc it may be, when called to it by the fuffrages of his fellow citizens. He muft love popularity, but he muft defpife it when fet in competition with the dictates of his judgement, or the real intereft of his country. He muft love character, and have a due fenfe of injuries, but he muft be taught to appeal only to the laws of the ftate, to defend the one, and punifh the other. He muft love family honour, but he muft be taught that neither the rank nor antiquity of his anceftors, can command refpect, without perfonal merit. He muft avoid neutrality in all queftions that divide the ftate, but he muft fhun the rage, and acrimony of party fpir- it. He muft be taught to love his fellow creatures in every part of the world, but he muft cherifh with a more intenfe and peculiar affection, the citizens of Pennfylvania and of the United States. 1 do not wifh to fee our youth educated with a fmgle prejudice againft any nation or country ; but we impofe a talk upon human nature, repugnant alike to reafon, revelation and the ordinary dimerifions of the human heart, when we require him to embrace, with equal afFe&ion, the whole family of mankind. He muft be taught to amafs J2 OP THE MODE OF EDUCATION wealth, but it muft be only to encreafe his power of contributing to the wants and demands of the {late* IHe muft be indulged occafionally in amufements, but he muft be taught thaXftudy and bufmefs mould be his principal purfuits in life. Above all he muft love life, and endeavour to acquire as many of its convenien ces as poflible by induftry and economy, but he muft be taught that this life " is not his own," when the fcifety of his country requires it. Thefe are practica ble lefTons, and the hiftory of the commonwealths of Greece and Rome {how, that human nature, without the aids of Chriftianity, has attained thefe degrees of perfection. While we inculcate thefe republican duties upon our pupil, we muft not neglect, at the fame time, to infpire him with republican principles. He muft be taught that there can be no durable liberty but in a republic, and that government, like all other fciences, is of a progreffive nature. The chains which have bound this fcience in Europe arc happily unloofed in America. Here it is open to inveftigation and improvement. While philofophy has protected us by its difcoveries from a thoufand natural evils, government has unhap pily followed with an unequal pace. It would be to dimonour human genius,only to name the many defeats which (till exift in the belt fyftems of legiflation. We daily fee matter of a perifhable. nature rendered durable by certain chemical operations. In like man ner,! conceive, that it is poflible to combine power in PROPER IN A REPUBLIC. 13 fiich a way as not only to encreafe the happinefs, but to promote the duration of republican forms of government far beyond the terms limited for them by hiftory, or the common opinions of mankind. To afliit in rendering religious, moral and political inftrudtion more effectual upon the minds of our youth, it will be neceflary to fubject their bodies to phyfical dif- cipline. To obviate the inconveniences of their ftudious and fedentary mode of life, they fhould live upon a temperate diet, confiding chiefly of broths, milk and vegetables. The black broth of Sparta, and the barley broth of Scotland, have been alike celebrated for their beneficial effects upon the minds of young people. They mould avoid tailing Spirituous liquors. They fhould alfo be accuftomed occafionally to work with their hands, in the intervals of Study, and in the bufy feafons of the year in the country. Moderate ileep, filence, occafiorial folitude and cleanlinefs, fhould be inculcated upon them, and the utmoft advantage fhould be taken of a proper direction of thofe great principles in human conduct, fenfibility, habit, imitations and aflbciation. The influence of thefe phyfical caufes will be power ful upon the intellects, as well as upon the principles and morals of young people. To thofe who have ftudied human nature, it will not appear paradoxical to recommend, in this eflay, a particular attention to vocal mufic. Its mechanical 14 OF THE MODE OF EDUCATION effects in civilizing the mind, and thereby preparing it for the influence of religion and government, have been fo often felt and recorded, that it will be unneceiTary to mention facts in favour of its ufefulnefs, in order to excite a proper attention to it. I cannot help bearing a teftimony, in this place, rigainft the cuftom, which prevails in fome parts of America, (but which is daily falling into difufe in , Europe) of crouding boys together under one roof for the purpofe of education. The practice is the gloomy remains of monkifh ignorance, and is as unfavorable to the improvements of the mind in ufeful learning, as monafterics are to the fpirit of religion. I grant this mode of fecludingboys from the intercourfe of private families, has a tendency to make them fcholars, but our bufmefs is to make them men, citizens and chriftiaris. The vices of young people are generally learned from each other. The vices of adults feldom in f eft them. By feparating them from each other, therefore, in their hours of relaxation from ftudy, we fecure their morals from a principal fource of corruption, while we improve their manners, by fubjecling them to thofe re{lrnints which the difference of age and fex, naturally produce in private families. From the obfervations that have been made it is plain, that I confider it is pofiiblc to convert men into repub lican machines. This muft be done, if we expect them to perform their parts properly, in the great machine PROPER IN A REPUBLIC. 15 of the government of the ftate. That republic is fophif- ticated with monarchy or androcracy that does not revolve upon the wills of the people, and thefe mull be fitted to each other by means of education before they can be made to produce regularity and. unifon in .go vernment. Having pointed out thofe general principles, which mould be inculcated alike in all the fchools of the (late, I proceed now to make a few remarks upon the method of conducting, , what is commonly called, a liberal or learned education in a republic. I (hall begin this part of my fubjeft, by bearing a teftimony againfl the common practice of attempting to teach boys the learned languages, and the arts and. fciences too early in life. The firft twelve years of life are barely fufficient to inflrucl: a boy in reading, writing and arithmetic. With thefe, he may be taught thofe modern languages which are neceffary for him to fpeak. The ftate of the memory, in early life, is favorable to the acquifition of languages, efpecialiy when they are conveyed to the mind, through the ear. It is, moreover, in early life only, that the organs of fpeech yield in fuch a manner as to favour the juft pronounciation of foreign languages. Too much pains cannot be taken to teach cur youth to read and write our American language with propriety and elegance. The ftudy of the Greek language conftituted a material part of the literature 1 6 OF THE MODE OF EDUCATION of the Athenians, hence the fublimity, purity arid immortality offo many of their writings. The ad vantages of a perfect knowledge of our language to young men intended for the profeflions of law, phyfic, or divinity are too obvious to be mentioned, but in a ftate which boafls of the firft commercial city in America, I wifh to fee it cultivated by young men, who are intended for the compting houfe, for many fuch, 1 hope, will be educated in our colleges. The time is pad when an academical education was thought to be unneceflary to qualify a young man for merchan dize. I conceive no profeflion is capable of receiv ing more embellimments from it. The French and German languages mould likewiie be carefully taught in all our Colleges. They abound with ufeful books upon all fubjecls. So important and neceflary are thofe languages, that a degree fliould never be con ferred upon a young man who cannot fpeak or tranflate them. Connected with the itudy of languages is the fludy of Eloquence. It is well known how great a p;.rt it conflituted of the Roman education. It is the fir (I accompiilhment in a republic, and often fets the whole machine of government in motion. Let our youth, therefore, be inftrufted in this art. We do not extol it too highly when we attribute as much to ti.o power of eloquence as to the fword, in bring- in-; about the American revolution. - PROPER IN A REPUBLIC I? With the ufual arts and fciences that are taught in our American colleges, I wifh to fee a regular courfe 6f lectures given upon Hiftory and Chronology. The fcience of government, whether it related to conftitutions or laws, can only be advanced by a care ful felection of facts, and thefe are to be found chiefly in hiftory. Above all, let our youth be inftructed in the hiftory of the ancient republics, and the pro- grefs of liberty and tyranny in the different ftares of Europe. I wifh likewife to fee the numerous facts that relate to the origin and prefent ftate .of commerce, together with the nature and principles of Moncyj reduced to fuch a fyftem, as to be intelligible and a- greeable to a young man. If we confider the com merce of our metropolis only as the avenue of the wealth of the ftate, the ftudy of it merits a place in a. young man s education ; but, I confider commerce in a much higher light when I recommend the ftudy of it in republican feminaries. I view it as the beft fccurity againft the influence of hereditary monopolies of land, and, therefore, the fureft protection againft ariftocracy. I confider its effects as next to thofe <ff religion in humanizing mankind, and lailly, I view it as the means of uniting the different nations of the world together by the ties of mutual wants and obligations. Chemiftry by unfolding to us the effects of heat and mixture, enlarges our acquaintance with the wonders of nature and the myfteries of art; hence I) 1 8 Or THI MODE OF EDUCATION it has become, in moft of the univerfitics of Europe, a jieceflary branch of a gentleman s education. In a young country, where improvements in -agriculture and manufactures are fo much to be defired, the cultiva tion of tills fcience, which explains the principles of both of them, mould be confidered as an object of the utmoft importance. Again, let your youth be inftructed in all the means of promoting national profperity and inde pendence, whether they relate to improvements in agriculture, manufactures, or inland navigation. Let him be inftruCted further in the general principles of legiflation, whether they relate to revenue, or to the prefervation of life, liberty or property. Let him be directed frequently to attend the courts of juftice, where he will have the beft opportunities of acquairing habits of comparing, and arranging his ideas by obferving the difcovery of truth, in the examination of witnefles, and where he will hear the laws of the dale explained, with all the advan tages of that fpecies of eloquence which belongs to the bar. Of fo much importance do I conceive it to be, to a young man, to attend occafionally to the decifions of our courts of law, that I wifh to fee our colleges eflablimed, onjy in county towns. But further, confidemig the nature of our con nection with the Unified States, it will be necefiary to make our pupil acqujptcd with all the prerogatives 4 -PROPER IN A REPUBLIC. 19 of the national government. He mud be inftruiled in the nature and variety of treaties. He muft know the difference in the powers and duties of the feveral fpecies of ambaffadors. He mufl be taught wherein the obligations of individuals and of ftatcs are the fame, and wherein they differ. In fhort, he rnuft accquire a general knowledge of all thofe laws and forms, which unite the fovereigns of the earth, or. feparate them from each other. I beg pardon for having delayed fo long to fay any thing of the feparate and peculiar mode of education proper for women in a republic. I am fen fable that they mufl concur in all our plans of of education for young men, or no laws will ever render them effectual. To qualify our women for this purpofe, they fhould not only be inftru&ed in the ufual branches of female education, but they fhould be taught -the principles of liberty and go vernment ; and the obligations of patriotifm fliould be inculcated upon them. The opinions and condudt of men are often regulated by the women in the moft arduous enterprizes of life ; and their approbation is frequently the principal reward of the hero s dangers, and the patriot s toils. Befides, the firft impreffions upon the minds of children are gene- raly derived from the women. Of how much con- fequence, therefore, is it in a republic, that they ihould think juftly upon the great fubjecb of liberty and government ! 2 OF THE MODE OF EDUCATION, &C. The complaints that have been made againft religion, liberty and learning, have been, againft each of them in a feparate flate. Perhaps like certain liquors, they fhould only be ufed in a ftate of mixture. -They mutually affift in correcting the abufes, and in improving the good effects of each other. From the combined and reciprocal influence of religion, liberty and learning upon the morals, manners and knowledge of individuals, of thefe, upon govern ment, and of government, upon individuals, it is impoffible to meafure the degrees of happinefs and perfection to which mankind may be raifed. For my part, I can form, no ideas of the golden age, fo much celebrated by the poets, more delightful, thai* the contemplation of that happinefs which it is now in the power of the legiflature of Permfylvania to confer upon her citizens, by eftablifhing proper modes smd places of education in every part of the flate. OBSERVATIONS UPON THE STUDY OF THE LATIN AND CREEK LANGUAGES, AS A BRANCH OF LIBERAL EDUCATION, WITH HINTS OF A PLAN OF LIBERAL INSTRUCTION, WITHOUT THEM, ACCOMMODATED TO THE PRESENT STATE OF SOCIETY, MANNERS, AND GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. I requires the recollection of efcapes from a lion and a bear, to encounter the flrong and univerfal prejudice, in favor of the Latin and Greek languages, as a neceflary branch of liberal education. If, in combating this formidable enemy of human reafon, I mould be lefs fuccesful than the Hebrew {tripling was in contending with the giant of the Philiftines, I hope it will be afcribed wholly to the want of fkill to direct arguments, which, in other hands, would lay this tyrant in the duft. I fhall attempt to difcufs this queftion, by firft deliv ering a few general propofitions. I fhall afterwards apply thefe propofitions, and anfwer fuch arguments as are ufually urged in favor of the Latin and Greek languages as neceflary parts of an academic education. I. The great defign of a liberal education is, to prepare youth for ufefulnefs here, and for happinefs ereafter. 22 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE IL The proper time for acquiring the neceffary branches of knowledge for thefe important purpofes, is in the firft eighteen years of life. III. From four to five years are ufually fpent in acquiring a competent knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages. IV. The knowledge of things always preceeds the knowledge of words. Children difcover the truth of this obfervation every day. They know all the objects around them, long before they are able to call them by their proper names, or even to arti culate founds of any kind. It is fuppofed that children acquire more ideas of things in the firft three years of their lives, than they acquire in any thirty years afterwards. V. The acquifition of words leflens the ability of the mind to acquire ideas. That underilanding mud have uncommon ftrength, which does not contract an oblique direction by being employed four or five years in learning the Latin or Greek languages. VI. The difficulty of acquiring thofe dead languages, and the little pleafure which accompanies the knowledge of them in early life, occafion the principal obftacles to teaching, in mailers, and learning, in fcholars. LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGE!. 23 The famous Bufby is faid to have died of " bad Latin j" that is, the vmgrammatical verfions of his fcholars broke his heart. How few boys relifh Latin and Greek lefTons ! The pleafure they fometimes difcover in learning them, is derived either from the tales they read, or from a competition, which awak ens a love of honour, and which might be dif- played upon a hundred more ufeful fubjects ; or it may .arife from a defirc cf gaining the good will of their mailers or parents. Where thefe incentives are wanting, how bitter does the ftudv of languages render that innocent period of life, which fcerns ex- clufively intended for happinefs ! " I wifh I had never been born," faid a boy of eleven years old, to his mother : {e why, my fon ?" faid his mother. <s Be- caufe I am born into a world of trouble." " What f{ trouble," faid his mother fmiling, " have you known, my fon ?" <e Trouble enough, mamma," faid he, <l two Latin IcfFons to get, every day." This boy was not deficient in genius nor in application to books. He often amufed himfelf in reading natural and ancient hiftory, was inquifitive after knov/ledge of every kind, and was never heard to afk a foolifh or impertinent queflion. VII. Many fprightly boys of excellent capacities for ufef ul knowledge, have been fe> difgufted with the dead languages, as to retreat from the drudgery of fchools, to low company, whereby they have become bad mem- 14 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF bers of fociety, and entailed rnifery upon all who* have been connected with them. VIII. The Latin and Greek languages are the firft tefts of genius in fchools. "Where boys difcover a want of capacity for them, they are generally taken from fchool, or remain there the butts of their com- panions. Dr. Swift early difcovered a want of tafte for the dead languages. It would be unjuft to men tion this fa<St, without afcribing it to the voice of reafon and nature fpeaking in this great man. He hud no relifh for the hulks of literature. Truth and knowledge were alone commenfurate to the dignity and extent of his mind. IX. The ftucly of forrie of the Latin and Greek clafiics is unfavourable to morals and religion. In delicate amours, and (hocking vices both of gods and men, fill many parts of them. Hence an early and dangerous acquaintance with vice ; and hence, from an afTocialion of ideas, a diminished refpetfe for the unity and perfections of the true God. Thofe daffies which are free from this cenfure, contain little elfe but the hiftories of murders, per petrated by kings, and related in fuch a manner as to excite pleafure and admiration. Hence the univerfal preference of the military character to all others. To the fame caufe we may afcribe the early paffioh for a cockade in fchool boys ; and the vhe frequent adoption of the principles and vices of LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 3 armies, by young men who are deilined for other profeffions, X. The ftudy of the Latin and Greek languages is improper in the prefent flate of fociety and government in United States. While Greek and Latin are the only avenues to fcience, education will always be confined to a few people. It is only by rendering knowledge univerfal, that a re- our country. publican form of government can be preferved in I mall hereafter mention other reafons why the fludy of thefe languages is improper in a peculiar manner in the United States. XI. The cultivation of the Latin and Greek lan guages is a great obilacle to the cultivation and perfection of the Englifli language. XII. It is likewife one of the greatefl obftruttions that has -ever been thrown in the way of propagating ufeful knowledge. On each cf thefe two laft proportions I (hall treat more fully in another place. I proceed now to confider the principle arguments- that have been urged in favour of the Latin and Greek languages, as neceffary parts of a liberal I education. 26 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE I. A kno vledge of the Latin or Greek grammar, it has been filici , is neceflary for our becoming acquainted with Englifh grammar. There was a time when the authority of a great name impofed this opinion upon me, and even led me publicly to adopt it, but I am now fatisfled that it is wholly deilitute of truth. I have known many bachelors and matters of arts, who were incorrecl Englifh fcholars, and many per- fons of both fexes, ignorant of the dead languages, who both wrote and fpoke Englifh, agreeably to the flri cleft rules of modern grammar. Indeed I cannot help afcribing the late improvements in the Englifh language chiefly to the neglect of the Latin and Greek lan^uap-es. The Greek is fuppofed to be the mod perfect language both in its conflruclion and harmony, that has ever been fpoken by mortals. Now this language was net learned through the medium of any other. Hence it was acquired and fpoken with equal propriety by all ranks of people, and not lefs by an apple woman, than by the celebrated orators of Greece. In that highly favoured nurfery of human genius, the avenues to knowledge were not obftrucl:- ecl by t\vo or three dead, or even foreign languages ; nor was the precious fcafon of youth, when memory is moft- faithful, and curiofity molt active, mis fpent in learning words. Hence the fame of ancient Greece in arts and fuences, and hence the fublimity of the orations of Demofthenes, and of the poems of Homer. There was nothing in the competition LATIN AND GREEK LANGHAGES. 27 of the blood, or in the ftru&ure of the nerves of the ancient Greeks, which gave them a pre-eminence over the reft of mankind. It arofe entirely from their being too wife to wafte the important years of edu cation in learning to call fubftances, by two or three different names, inftead of ftudying their qualities and ufes. The conftrudion of the Englifh, differs mate rially from that of the Latin and Greek languages ; and the attempt to accommodate it to the Greek and Roman grammars has checked its improvement in many in {lances. I hope to prove hereafter, that a knowledge of grammar, like a knowledge of pro nunciation, fhould be learned only by the ear in early life. The practice of teaching boys Englifh grammar, through the medium of a dead language, is as abfurd, as it would be for a parent to force his child to chew peb bles or mahogany, in order to prepare its gums or teeth to mafticate bread and meat. 2. We are told that the Roman and Greek authors are the only perfect models of tafte and eloquence, and that it is neceflary to ftudy them, in order to acquire their tafte and fpirit. Strange language indeed ! what ! did nature exhauft herfelf in Greece and Rome ? Are the ancients the only repofitories of the great principles of tafte and genius? I reject the fuppofitionj and will venture to affert, in oppofition to it, that we (hall never equal the fublime and original authors of antiquity until we ceafe to ftudy them. 28 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE Nature is always the fame. Let us yield to her infpi- ration alone, and avail ourfelves of allufions to the many difcoveries which have lately been made in her works. Shake fpeare owes his fame, as a fublime and original poet, to liis having never read (as is generally believed) a Latin or Greek author. Hence he fpoke from nature, or rather, nature fpoke thro him. But it.fhould be remembered that art, as well as nature, feeds the flame of genius. By neglecting the ancients, we may bor row imagery from the many.ufeful and well known arts which have been the inventions of modern ages, and thereby furpafs the antients in the variety and efFecl: of our compofitions. It is to this paflion for ancient writers that we are to afcribe the great want of originality, that marks too many of the poems of mod ern times. .A judicious critic has obferved, that the descriptions of Spring, which are publifhed every year in England, apply chiefly to the climates of Greece and the . neighbourhood of Rome. This is the natural effecl: of a fervile attachment to the ancient poets. It inlenfibly checks invention and leads to imitation. The pleafur? with which the poems of the fhoemaker, the milk-mead, and the Ayrefhire ploughman, have been read by all cl.i/Tes of people, proves that an acquaintance with the Greek or Roman poets, is not neceiTary to infpire jufl ideas, or to produce harmony in poetry. Dr. Swift, as an author, owes nothing to the ancients* He has attained to what Pope calls the S( majefty" and yrliat Lord Shaftefbury calls the " divinenefs" of fim- LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 2 plicity in writing. All his competitions, exemplify his own perfect definition of ftyle. They confift of " proper words in their proper places." I have heard of a learned gentlemen in Scotland, who, when any of his friends propofed to introduce a ftranger to him, afk- ed only, as a proof of his tafte for compofition, whether he admired Dr. Young s Night Thoughts ? Were I to receive a vifitor upon fimilar terms, my only queftion mould be, "does he admire the ftyle of Dr. Swift r jTJnder this head I fhall only add, that the mofl intimate acquaintance with the Roman and Greek writers will not produce perfection of ftyle in men who are devoid of tafte and genius. Hence we fometimes find the moft celebrated teachers of the Latin and Greek languages extremely deficient in Engliih compo fition. I acknowledge that Milton, Addifon, Hume, Middleton and Bolingbroke, whofe ftylcs have been fo much admired, were all Latin and Greek fcholars. But in thefe authors, a native ftrength of genius, and tafte preferved their writings from the affectation and obfcurity which are imparted to Englifh compofitions, by an adherence to the grammars and arrangement of the Latin and Greek languages. 3. It has been faid that we cannot know the ufe or meaning of thofe numerous Englifh words which are derived from the Latin and Greek, without a know ledge of thofe languages. To this I may anfwer, that O OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE what proves too much, proves nothing at all. The argument that has been mentioned, proves that a knowledge of the Celtic, the Saxon, the German, the French, the Italian and the Dutch, is neceflary to ena ble us to underftand the ufe of many Englifh words; for far the greatefl part of them are derived from thofe languages. But I object further to this argument, that if a knowledge of the derivation of Errglifh words from the Greek and Latin languages, mould be follow ed by a drift regard to their original meaning, it would lead us into many miftakes. The derivation of the word " angel" would lead us to contemplate a meflen- ger, inliead of a perfect finite intelligence. The derivation of the word rebellion" would lead us to contemplate a v/ar commenced by a conquered people : inftead of a refiftance to the juft authority of govern ment. Many other inftances of fimilar incongruity might be mentioned between the meaning of certain Englifh words, and their Roman and Greek originals. I conclude therefore that a knowledge of the derivation of words is not riecefTary to teach us their proper ufe and meaning. Cuftom, which is the law and rule of fpeech, and what//, inftead of what JJjouldbe common, will always govern the ufe of- words. Where cuftom is unknown, modern Englifh dictionaries will fupply its place. Here I beg leave to repeat that the fludy of the Greek and Latin languages by the Englifn nation has been one of the greateft obftrmSUons, that ever LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 3! has been thrown in the way of the propagation, of ufeful knowledge. By rendering our language unintel ligible to the greateft part of the people who hear or read it, it has made it an improper vehicle of inftruction. The orations of Demofthenes, we arc told, were, like earthquakes in ancient Greece. They moved whole nations. The reafon of this is plain. He never ufed a (ingle word in any of them, but what was alike intelligible to all clafles of his hearers. The effect of Indian eloquence upon the councils and wars of the favages in America, depends wholly upon its being perfectly underflood and felt by every member of their communities. It has often been remarked that in England no play will fucceed without action, while fentiment alone infures the loudcfl claps of applaufe, in the theatres of France* The reafon of this is obvious. The Englifh lan guage requires action to tranflate it, to half the common audience of a theatre, whereas the French language, which is uniform and ftationary, is im- derftood, and, of courfe, the fentiment which is conveyed by it, is felt arid enjoyed by all who hear if .-. The writings of Voltaire are quoted by the hairdreflers and milliners of Paris, becaufe they are written in the fimple language of the country, while many of the moft celebrated Britifn authors cannot be underftood by common readers, without the help of a dictionary or interpreter. Richardfon and Fielding are an exception to this remark. They are alike intelligible and acceptable to the learned and 32 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE unlearned,, mafmuch as they have conveyed all their ideas in plain, but decent Englifh words. The po pularity of the methodift preachers may be afcribed in part to their fpeaking in a language that is intel ligible to the common people. It is true, many of them are deficient in education, but this deficiency appears more in an ignorance of the conftrudlion of the Englifh language, than in the proper ufe of Englifh words, and perhaps this may be afcribed chiefly to their extempore mode of preaching. It is happy for fome of thofe churches where the Latin and Greek languages are confidered as neceflary parts for education in their clergy, that part of the public worfliip of God is confined to reading the fcriptures, and to forms of prayer, both of which are written in Englifh, and are intelligible to every clafs of hearers. Such congregations are not left to the mercy of their preach ers in every part of divine fervice. A pious woman in London who heard her minifter fpeak of the Deity, by the name of the great Philanthropift, afked when ihe came home, what heathen god Philanthropifl was ? There are few fermons compofed by Latin and Greek fcholars in which there are not many hundred words, that are equally unintelligible to a majority of their hearers. Hence I cannot help thinking that were John the Baptifl to appear again w our world, and to fend to fome of our doctors of divinity, or to many of our young preachers to enquire after the ilgns of their divine miiljor, few of th^ni could adopt the anfrvcr LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. %$ of our Saviour and fay that to the poor the gofpel was " preached." It will require a total ignorance of the Latin and Greek languages, or an uncommon mixture of good fenfe and piety in a preacher who is acquaint ed with them, to addrefs an audience in fuch a manner as to be perfectly underftood by the illiterate part of them. I wifh to prefs the con federations that have been mentioned under this head, home to the feelings of the friends of virtue and religion. It has been demon- flrated, that the ftudy of the ancient clafiics is hurtful to niorals. It is equally plain that the corruption of our language by the conflant fubftitution of words of Greek and Latin origin, to thofe which had become familiar and univerfal, from long ufuge, has greatly re^- tarded the progrefs of knowledge of all kinds, but in a more efpecial manner, a great proportion of that fpecies of it which is delivered from the pulpit. I appeal to the confciences of minifters of the gofpel of all denominations, whether, inftead of expofmg their their candidates for the miniftry, to temptation from that kind of learning which pufreth up, without edifying," it would not be better to direft them to employ the time which is ufually mif-pent in acquiring it, in (tudying the fcriptures, and in making themfelves mafters of the Englifh language ? It is im- pofllble to tell what great improvements would be made by thefe means in moral happinefs in the United States. F 34 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF 4. We are told that a knowledge of the Greek and Roman languages, is neceflary to enable us to under- ftand the frequent allufions that are made by Englim writers to the mythology of thofe ancient nations. To this I anfwer, that the lefs we know of this fubjec~t, the better , for what is the hiftory of the ancient fables, but an agreeable defcription of frauds -Crapes and murders, which, while they pleafe the imagination, {hock the moral faculty ? Ic is high time to ceafe from idolizing the idolatry of Greece and Rome. Truth alone is knowledge, and fpending time in fludying Greek and Roman fictions, is only labouring to be more ignorant. If there is any moral contained in thefe fictions, it is fo much involved in obfcurity, as not to be intelligible to a young man at that time of life in which he ufually becomes acquainted with them. Happy will it be for the prefent and future generations, if an ignorance of the Latin and Greek languages, fhould bamfh from modern poetry, thofe difgraceful invocations of heathen gods, which indicate no lefs a want of genius, than a want of reverence for the true God. I (hall only add in this place, that the beft writers in the Englifh language feldom borrow allu fions from the mythology of the Greek or Roman nations. Richardfon and Fielding have pafled them by, and hence arifes another reafon why the works of thofe authors are fo uriiverfally intelligible and acceptable to ! to all claiTes of readers. LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 35 5. It has been faid, that the Latin language has become a neceflary part of liberal knowledge, inas much as the European nations have by common con- fent made it the vehicle of their difcoveries. This argument had fome weight while fcience confiiled on ly learning what was known ; but fince the enquiries of philofophers have been directed to new objects of obfervation and experiment, the Latin language has not been able to keep pace with the number and ra pidity of their difcoveries. Where mall we find Latin words to convey juft ideas of the many terms which electricity chemiftry navigation and many other fcience s have introduced into our modern languages ? It is from experience of the infufficiency of the Latin language for this purpofe, that mod of the modern na tions of Europe have been obliged to adopt their own languages, as the vehicles of their difcoveries, in fcience. If this argument had been acknowledged to have weight in Europe, it mould, from local circum- flances, have no weight in America. Here we have no intercourfe with any part of Europe, except her com-i mercial feaports, and in thefe, all bufmefs is tranf- acted in modern languages. America, with refpect to the nations of Europe, is like the new planet, with refpe6l to thofe, whofe revolutions have long been defcribed in the folar fyflem. She is placed at too great a diftance from moft of them, to be within the influence of a reciprocal exchange of the rays of knowledge. Like a certain animal, defcribed by the 36 OBSERVATIONS ON* THE STUDY OF -THE nr.turalifts, me muft impregnate herfelf. But while fhe retains a friendly intercourfe with Great Britain, al] the valuable difcoveries which are publifhed in Latin, in any part of Europe, will be tranfrnitted to her through the medium of Englifh tranflarions. fe 6. It has been faid that a knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages is necefTary to the learned pro- fcffions of la\v phyfic and divinity. To this I an- fwer, that the molt ufeful books in each of thefe pro- feffions are now tranflated, or. written in Englifh, in confcquence of which, knowledge in law phyfic and divinity has been greatly multiplied arid extended. I fee no life at prefent for a knowledge of the Latin ai:u Greek languages, fora lawyer, a phyfician, or a jHvine, in the United States, except it be to facilitate the remembrance of a few technical terms which may be retained without it. Two of the moft celebrated and fuccefsful la wyers in the United States, are flrangers to the Latin language. An eminent phyfician, wjio /pent feveral of the years of his youth in learning this language, has affured me, that he had not more than three times in his life found any advantage from it. Very few phyficians, I believe, (profeflbrs of medecinc .only executed, who are obliged to review Latin thefes . previoufly to their publication) retain their knowledge of this language, after they become eftablifhcd in bufi- n;-fs 7 and if they do, it is preferred lefs from neceffity, than from vanity, or a defirv of reviving, by reading LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 37 the daffies, the agreeable ideas of the early and inno cent part of their lives. I know that it is commonly believed, that a know ledge of the Greek language, is neceflary to enable a divine fully to underiland the New Teftament. But I object to this opinion, that the mod ufeful and ne- ccfiary parts of this divine book are intelligible to the lowed capacities in its prefent Englifh drefs : and I believe further, that there have been as many difputes among the critics, about the meaning of words, and about editions and transitions of the New Teftament, as there have been among unlearned chriftians about the meaning of its obfcure and difficult paffages. If a knowledge of the Greek language be neceflary to enable a divine to underfland the New Teftament, it follows, that a critical knowledge of all the dialects in which the different parts of it were origi nally eompofed, is equally neceiTary for the fame pur- pofe j and, if neceflary to a divine, why not to the common people, for they are equally interested in all the truths of revelation ? The difficulties and ab- " furdities into which we are led by this proportion, are too obvious to be mentioned. We are very apt to forget the age in which we live. In the fifteenth century, all the knowledge of Europe was locked up in a few Greek and Latin manufcripts. In this confined Mate of knowledge, an acquaintance with the Latin language was thought to be neccflary 38 OBSERVATIONS ON TFIE STUDY OF THE to civilize the human mind hence the teachers of it acquired the title of " profefibrs of humanity " in the European univerfities. But we live in an age in which knowledge has been drawn from its dead repo- fjtories, and diffufed by the art of printing, in living languages, through every part of the world. Huma nity has therefore changed fides. Her gentlenefs is now altogether in favour of modern literature. We forget not only the age, but the country like-r wife in which we live. In Europe many ancient con- ftitutions -laws treaties official letters and even private deeds, are written in Latin hence the know ledge of it has fometimes been found ufeful for flates- men and lawyers but all the conftitutions, laws, treaties, public letters, and private deeds of tHe United States, are written in Engiifh ; and of courfe a know ledge of the Latin language is riot neceffary to un- derftand them. It is therefore as ufelefs in America, as the Spanift great-coat is in the ifland of Cuba, or the Dutch foot-dove, at the Cape of Good Hope. We forget further the difference of occupation be tween the inhabitants of the prefent, and of the fifteenth century. Formerly public prayers and war were the only bufinefs of man : but fmce agriculture, manufac tures and commerce, have afforded fuch different and profitable employments to mankind, there cannot be greater folly than to learn two languages which are no ways connected with the advancement of any of thenv LAT^N AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 39 r * I once thought health, the greateft bleffing in the u world," faid Mr. Rittenhoufe to the author of this eflay, but I do not think fo now. There is one thing, " of much greater value, and that is time." This opinion of our excellent American philofopher, is true every where, but in a more efpecial manner in tht United States. Here the opportunities of acquiring knowledge and of advancing private and public intereic are fo numerous, and the rewards of genius and in- duftry fo certain , that not a particle of time mould be mis-fpent or loft. We occupy a new country. Our principal bufinefs mould be to explore and apply its refources, all of which prefs us to enterprize and hafte. Under thefe circumftances, to fpend four or five years in learning two dead languages, is to turn our backs upon a gold mine, in order to amufe ourfelves in catching butterflies. It is agreeable to hear of the progrefs of human reafon in the gradual declenfion of the ufual methods of teaching the Latin and Greek language s within the laft forty years in Europe. Formerly boys were obliged to commit whole volumes of Latin and Greek poetry to memory, as the only means of learning thofe languages. Nor was this all ; they were obliged to compofe Latin verfes, without the lead regard being paid to genius, or tafte for poetry. The lafi acl: of fchool tyranny, was to compel boys to read the ancient clafiics without the help of tranflations. All thefe methods of teaching the dead languages are now laid 40 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE afide. The next ray of truth that irradiates human reafon upon this fubjet, I hope will teach us to reject the Latin and Greek languages altogether, as branches of a liberal education. The progrefs of human reafon mould likewife be acknowledged in having banifhcd Latin and Greek quotations from fermons, and other religious tracts, which are intended for the common people. Such quotations are to be found only in books of fcience, addrefied to the members of the learned profeffions, or to perfons who are fuppofed to be acquainted with the Latin and Greek languages. There are certain follies, like the objects of fight, which cannot be feen . when the eye is placed too near them. We are flruck with pity and horror in con templating the folly difcovered by our anceflors in their military expeditions to the holy land of Paleftine. The generations which are to follow us, will probably view our partiality to the clafiic ground of Greece and Rome, with fimilar emotions. We laugh at the credulity of thofe nations who worfhipped apes and crocodiles, without recollecting, that future ages will treat our fuperftitious veneration for the ancient poets and ora tors, with the fame ridicule. Pofterity, in reading the hiitory of the American revolution, will wonder that in a country where fo many exploits of wifdom and virtue were performed, the human understanding was fettered by prejudices in favour of the Latin and Greek LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 4! languages. But I hope with the hiftory of this folly, fome hidorian will convey to future generations, that many of the mod active and ufeful characters in accomplifhing this revolution, were ftrangers to the formalities of a Latin and Greek education. It is high time to diftinguifli between a philofopher, and a fcholar, between things and words. " He ^" was educated at the college of" faid a gentle man to his friend, fpeaking of a youn g man who was known to them both. " You mean Sir," replied his- friend, "he got his learning at the college of ; but " as to education, he appears to have received none " any where." This young man was an excellent Latin and Greek fcholar, but knew nothing of men, or things. Let it not be fuppofed from any thing that has been here advanced, that I wifh the knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages to be extinct in the world. Far from it. My wifh is to fee it preferved, like the know ledge of law, or medicine, as a diftinct profeffion. Let the perfons, who devote themfelves to the ftudy of thefe languages, be called linguilts, or interpreters, and let them be paid for their tranflations and explanations of Latin and Greek books, and other compofitions in thofe languages. No more confidence will be placed by the public, in the members of this new profeflion, than is daily placed in lawyers and phyficians, in matters of much greater importance ; nor will more G 42 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE credit be given to tl; jm, than we are accuftomed to give to travellers and hidorians. There can be no more rcafon why every man fliould be capable of translating or judging of a Latin or Greek book, than there can be why every man fhould be a lawyer or a phyfician, or why he fhould be obliged to vifit Conftantinople or Grand Cairo, in order to become acquainted with the iituation of thefe two great cities. If this method of preferving and applying the dead languages fliould be adopted, young men will learn them as they do law and phyfic, by ferving an apprenticefhip, inftead of going to fchool. The following advantages would immediately attend the rejection of the Latin and Greek languages as branches of a liberal education. i. It would improve, and finally perfect the Englifh language, by checking the increafe of thofe fuperfluous words which are derived from the Latin and Greek languages. What ufe have we for feftivity celebrity hilarity amenity and a hundred other duplicate words, with which Johnfon and Harris have corrupted and weakened our language, and which are unintelli gible to three fourths of common Englifh readers ? The rejection of the ancient languages, would further banifh Latin and Greek words, fuch as, exit t fecit> jW, excudit, pinxit,acme 9 finis, lona fde> ipfo fafto, ad vale- rem> and a hundred others, equally difguiling, from Englifh compofitions. It would moreover prefervc ; v LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 43 our language from encroachments of French and Ita lian words, fuch as eclat amateur douceur en paffant corps dilettanti con cuore piano and many others, all of which impair the uniformity and dignity of the Englim language. 2. The rejection of the Latin and Greek langauges from our fchools, would produce a revolution in fcience, and in human affairs. That nation which (hall firfl {hake off the fetters of thofe ancient languages, will advance further in knowledge, and in happinefs, in twenty years, than any nation in Europe has done, in a hundred. 3. It will have a tendency to deftroy the prejudices of the common people againft fchools and colleges. The common people do not defpife fch Jars, becaufe they know more, but becaufe they know lefs than them- iclves. A mere fcholar can call a horfe, or a cow, by two or three different names, but he frequently knows nothing of the qualities, or ufes of thofe valuable animals. 4. It would be the means of banifhing pride from our feminaries of public education. Men are generally molt proud of thofe things that do not contribute to the happinefs of themfelves, or others. Ufeful know ledge generally humbles the mind, but learning, like fine clothes, feeds pride, and thereby hardens the hu man heart. 44 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE 5. It would greatly encreafe the number of ftudents in our colleges, and thereby extend the benefits of education through every part of our country. The excellency of knowledge wogild then be obvious to every body, becaufe it would be conilantly applicable to fame of the neceffary and ufeful purpofes of life, and particularly to the fecurity and order of wife and juft government. 6. It would remove the prefent imrnenfe difparity which fubfifts between the fexes, v in the degrees of their education and knowledge. Perhaps one caufe of the mifery of many families, as well as communities, may be fought for in the mediocrity of knowledge of the \vornen. They mould know more or lefs y in order to be happy themfelves, and to communicate happinefs to others. By ceafing to make Latin and Greek a necellary part of a liberal education, we open the doors for every Ipecies of improvement to the female part of fociety : hence will arife new pleafures in their com pany, and hence, too, we may expect a general reformation and refinement, in the generations which arc to follow us -, for principles and manners in all focieties are formed chiefly by the women. It may be afked here, how fhall we employ thofe years of a boy, that are now ufually fpcnt in learning the Latin and Greek languages ? I ihall endeavour to anfwer this queftion by laying down a fhort plan of a liberal Englifh education. In this undertaking, I fhall LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 4$ ftrive to forget for a while all the fyftems of education I have ever feen, and fuggefc fuch a one as is founded in the original principles of action in the human mind. i. Let the firft eight years of a boy s time be em ployed in learning to fpeak, fpell, read and write the Englifh language. For this purpofe, let him be com mitted to the care of a mailer, who fpeaks corre&ly at all times, and let the books he reads, be written in a fimple and correct fiyle. During thele years, let not an Englifh grammar by any means be put into his hands. It is to moil boys, under even twelve years of age, an unintelligible book. As well might we contend, that a boy fliould be taught the names and number of the humours of the eye, or the mufcles of the tongue, in order to learn to fee, or to fpeak, as be taught the Englifh language, by means of grammar. Sancho, in attempting to learn to read, by chewing the four and twenty letters of the alphabet, did not exhib it a greater abfurdity, than a boy of feven or eight years old does, in committing grammar rules to memory, in order to underftand the Englifh language. Did we wifh to defcribe a fhip, fo as to have all its parts perfectly and fpee<lily known, would we begin by defcribing its detached parts in a {hip-yard, or a rope-walk ? Or would we not firft fix every part in its proper place, and then explain the names and ufes of thefe parts, by mewing their fubferviency to each other? In like manner, I af firm, that the conftrution of our language fhould be learned by a careful atteation to the places and ufes of the 46 OBSERVATIONS CN THE STUDY OF THE different parts of fpcech in agreeable compofitions, and not by contemplating them in a disjointed ftate in an Englifh grammar. But I will add further, that grammar fhould be taught only by the ear. Pro nunciation, which is far more extenfive, and dif ficult, is learned only in this way. To teach con cord in the arrangement of words, let the mafter converfe with his pupils as well as hear them read, and let him diftindHy mark and correct every devi ation from grammatical propriety which they utter. This method of teaching grammar has been tried with fuccefs in the families of fcvcral gentlemen of my acquaintance. It is both rational, and practicable. It has, moreover, the authority of the wife Greeks to re commend it. Komer, Xenophon, Demofthenes and Longinus, I believe, were all taught to fpeak, read, and write their native b.rj^u^ge, without the incum- brance of a Greek grammar. I do not mean by any thing that has been advanced, ro in/innate that our pupil fhould not be inftrucled in the principles and laws of our language. I have refer ^rt of know ledge to a much later period of Ins youth, at which time he will acquire it a, inc.: as foon as Mcliere s " Citizen turned Gentleman," learned to diftinguifh between profe nd poetry. He will find that he is in poffefTion of this knowledge, and that the bufinefs of his mafier will be only to give names to tilings with which he is already acquainted. LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 47 Under this head, I {hall only add, that the perfec tion of the ear, as an avenue of knowledge is not fuihciently known. Ideas acquired through that or gan, are much more durable, than thofe acquired by the eyes. We remember much longer what we hear, than what we fee , hence, old men recollect voices, long after they forget faces. Thefe facts are capable of great application to the bufmefs of educa tion. Having provided our pupil with a vehicle of know ledge, by teaching him to read and write, our next bufmcfs fhould be to furnifh him with ideas. Here it will be neceiTary to remark, that the human mind in early life firft comprehends fubitances. From thefe it proceeds to actions, from actions to qualities, and from qualities to degrees. Let us therefore in edu cation, follow this order of nature, and begin by in- {trucking our pupil in the knowledge of fubftances, or things. For this purpofe, let us initiate him into the knowledge of the globe on which he exilts, by teach ing him 2. Natural hiflory. This fludy is fimple and truly delightful. Animals of all kinds are often the fubje&s of converfation and difputes among boys in their walks and diverfions. But this is nor all 5 this fludy is the foundation of all ufeful and practical knowledge in agriculture, manufactures and commerce, as well as in philofophy, chemiftry, and medecine. By making 48 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF TH natural hiftory the firft ftuciy of a boy, we imitate the conduct of the fir ft teac ier of man. The firft IcfTon that Adam received from his Maker in Para- difc, was upon natural hiftory. It is probable that the dominion of cur great progenitor over the brute creation, and every other living creature, was founded upon a perfect knowledge of their names and qualities, for God appears in this, as well as in other inflances, to have aled by the inftrumentality of human rea- ion. Where a mufeum is wanting, all that is ne- ceffary for a boy to know of animals and fifties infects trees and herbs, may be taught by means of prints. 3. Geography, is a fimplc fcience, and accom modated to the capacity of a boy under twelve years of age. It may be perfectly underftood by means of cards globes and maps ; for each of thcfc modes of conveying inftrucHon, fcizcs upon the fenfes and imagination. The frequent application which a boy is obliged to make of his knowledge in geography, in reading, and converfation, will foon fix it upon his memory, and from. the time and manner in which he will acquire it, he will never forget it. I allow four years to be employed in acquiring thefe two fundamental branches of knowledge. After our pupil has become tolerably well acquainted with them, he (houJd be inftrucled in the LATIN AND GREEfc LANGUAGES 4^ French and German languages. Thefe will be equally neceffary, whether commerce phyfic law or divinity is the purfuit of a young man. They fhould be acquired only by the ear. Great care fhould be taken not to permit him to learn thefe languages be fore he is twelve years old, otherwife he will contract fo much of the French and German accent as will impair the prononciation of his native tongue* 5. Arithmetic, and fome of the more fimple branches of the mathematics fhould be acquired be tween the._jtwelfth and fourteenth years of his life. 6. Between his fourteenth and eighteenth years, he (hould be inftru&ed in grammar oratory critl- cifm the higher branches of mathematics philofophy chemiftry logic metaphyficschronology hifto- ry government the principles of agriculture,- and manufactures and in every thing elfe that is neceffary to qualify him for public ufefulnefs, or private hap- pinefs. 7. I know it is common to introduce what is called Moral Philofophy into a fyftem of liberal education. The name of this fcience is derived from the Pagan fchools. The ftudy of it conftituted a material part of their learning. Inftead of continuing this anti-chriftiari mode of teaching morals, I would propofe a courfe of lectures to be given upon the evidences, doctrines and precepts of the Chriftian religion. The laft part of this H 50 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE courfe might be made to include the whole circle of moral duties, and from the connection it would have with the evidences and doctrines of Chriftanity it would produce an impreflion upon the underflanding which no time or circumftances would ever wear away. It is by neglecting to teach young men the Chrif- tian religion as a fcience, or by the reparation of its morals from its principles, that colleges have become in fo many inftances the nurferies of infidelity. fcxtracl of a letter from the reverend Mr. James Muir, principal of the academy of Alexandria in Virginia, to the Author j dated July 29, 1791. T HAVE read with fatisfaclidn, in the Mufeum, JL your obfervations on ftudying the learned lan- " guages. There is little tafte for them in this place. " In our academy, where there are near ninety " Undents, not above nineteen are poring over Latin " and Greek. One of thefe nineteen was lately addrefTed by a fludent of Arithmetic in the follow- " ing language Pray, Sir, can you rcfolve me, by ft your Latin, this queftion, If one bulhel of corn cod four fhillings, what coil fifty bufhels ? A demand * of this kind from a youth, is to me a proof of the " tafte of Americans in the prefent clay, who prefer ** the nfeful to the ornamental" r LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 51 ANSW r ER to tie foregoing letter, containing further obfervations upon thejludy of the Latin and Greek lan guages. DEAR SIR, T gave me great pleafure to find, by your polite letter of July 29th, that my opinions, upon the fubjecT: of the Latin and Greek languages, have met with your approbation ; and that the young gentlemen who compofe your academy had difcovered fo much good fenfe in preferring itfeful to ufelefs, or, at beft, ornamental literature. I have read all the replies that have been publiflied to my opinions : and am more confirmed in the truth of them, than ever, by the weaknefs and fallacy of the objections that have been made to them. The ftylc of fome of thofe replies has eftabliihed one of my pro- pofitions in the moft forcible manner. It has demon- ftrated that a knowledge of the dead languages does riot confer tafte or elegance in ths Engliili language, any more than it does good breeding, or good temper. I except from this remark the candid and ingenious letters publiflied in the Federal Gazette, faid to be \vritten by Dr. Sruber, of this city. i * To perfuade men, that white is black, or black, white, it is neceflary fometimes to make them believe that they are grey. The mind requires a reding point, in pafling from error to truth, upon many fubje&s. I lhall avail myfclf of this weaknefs in human nature, and take the 5* OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE liberty of fuggefting a method of teaching the Latiu and Greek languages, which I conceive, will be ac-* commodated to the prefent (late of the prejudices of our countrymen in their favour. The Jate Dr. Franklin ufed to fay, that the learning of a dead or foreign language might be divided into ten parts. That it required Jive only to learn to read itJeven to ipeak it and the whole ten to write it. Now, when we confider how feldom we are called upon to /peak or write the Latin or Greek languages, fuppofe we teach our boys only to read them. This will cut off one half die difficulty of learning them, and and enable a boy to acquire as much of both> in two years, as will be neceflary for him. He will, moreover, by this plan, be able to read more of the claflics than are read at prefent in our fchools. The dailies are now read only for the fake of acquiring a knowledge of the conftruction of the languages in which they are written; but by the plan I have propofed, they would be read for the fake of the matter they contained, and there would be time enough to read each book from its beginning to its end. At prefent, what boy ever reads all :hc j^Enead of Virgil, or the Liad of Homer ? In fhort, few boys ever carry with them from fchool, any thing but a fmattcring of the daffies. They peep into a dozen of them; but are taught to attend to every thing they contain, more than to thcjidyeflj which arc treated of by them. LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 53 in the way I have propofed, a boy would be able to tranflate all the Latin and Greek books he would meet with, and from the perfect knowledge he would acquire of them at fchool, he would probably retain that knowledge as long as he lived. To carry this mode of teaching the Latin and Greek languages into effect, it is absolutely neceflary that a boy fhould firft be inftructed in bijhry and geography. Let him read an account of the rife, progrefs, and fall of the Greek and Roman nations; and examine, upon maps, the countries they inhabited and conquered, and their languages will foon become interefting to him. The neglect of this natural and eafy mode of inftruc- tion, is an inverfion of all order. The abfurdity of it was once happily expofed by a boy of eight years old, who, with a Latin Grammar in his hand, gravely aiked his father, " who made the Latin language, and what (t was it made for ?" Had this boy been previoufly inftructed in the Roman hiftory, he would not have alked fuch a queilion. Confidering his age, it was as natural, as it was foolifh. There is no play common among children, that ftrikes me with an idea pf half the folly that I am (truck with, every time I look into a Latin fchool, and fee thirty or forty little boys pinioned down to benches, and declining nouns, conjugating verbs, or writing Latin verfions. I confider the higheil attainment in this Hind of learning, as nothing more than fuccefsful dof- 54 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE tards, but far lefs ufeful than thofe which are exhibited in the ufual athletic^excercifes of fchool boys. By adopting the plan I have propofed, a boy will not open a Latin or Greek book, till he is fourteen or fifteen years old; fo that the dead languages, initead of being the firft, will be the laft things he will learn at fchool. At this age, he will learn them with half the trouble, and underftand them much better than he would have done at nine or ten years of age. For though languages are acquired with moft eafe by the ear under puberty, yet they ars acquired moft cafily by the eyg t after that period of life. But there is another advantage in making the Latin and Greek languages the laft things that are taught at fchool. The bent of a young man s inclinations is generally known at fourteen or fifteen, and feldom fooner. Now if he incline to commerce to a military or a naval life or to -a mechanical employment, in all of which it is agreed, Latin and Greek are unneceflary, it will be improper to detain him any longer at fchool, by which means much money will be faved by the parents, and much time faved by the boy, both of which arc wafted by the prefent indifcriminate and prepofterous mode of teaching the dead languages. The idea of the neceflity of a knowledge of thofe languages, as an introduction to die knowledge of the Englilh language, begins to lofe ground. It is certainly a very abfurd one. We have feveral Englifh LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES. 55 fchools in our city, in which boys and girls of twelve and fourteen years old have been tsught to fpeak and write our native language with great grammatical pro priety. Some of thefe children would difgrace cur bachelors and mailers of arts, who have fpent four or five years in the fludy of the Latin and Greek lan guages in cur American colleges. It is true, thefe Latin and Greek fcholars, after a while, acquire a knowledge of our language : but it is in the fame flow way, in which fome men acquire a knowledge of the forms of good breeding. Three months mftrudHon will often impart more of both, than a whole life fpent in acquiring them {imply by imitation. "Where there is one Latin fcholar, who is obliged, in the courfe of his life, to fpeak or write a Latin fentence, there are hundreds who are not under that necefiity. Why then mould we fpend years in teach ing that which is fo rarely required in future life ? For fome years to come, the reading of the language, may be neceilary ; but a young man of fourteen or fifteen, may be taught to do this perfectly in one year, without committing a fingle grammar rule to memory, or without fpoiling his band by writing a fin gle verfion. Much more, in my opinion, might be faid in favour of teaching our young men to fpeak the Indian lan guages of our country, than to fpeak or write Latin* By their means, they might qualify themfelves to be come ambafladors to our Indian nations, or introduce $6 OBSERVATIONS ON THE SflJDY, &C. among them a knowledge of the blcfiings of civilizatidrf and religion. "We have lately feeh a large portion of power wrefted from the lianas of kings and priefls, and ex- ercifed by its lawful owners. 1$ it not high time to wreft the power over the education of our youth, out of the hands of ignorant or prejudiced fchool mailers, and place it in the hands of men of more knowledge and experience in the affairs of the world ? We talk much of oar being an enlightened people ; but I know not with whatreafon, while we tolerate a fyflem of educa tion in our fchools, which is as difgraceful to the human underftandbg as the moft corrupt tenets or practices of the pagan religion, or of the Turkifh go-* vernment. "With great refpecl: for your charaler, as well as for your prcfent honourable and ufeful employment, I am, dear fir, Your friend and moft obedient fervant. BENJAMIN RUSH. Philadelphia, ^-itgnjl 24, 1791.- THOUGHTS UPON THE AMUSEMENTS AND PUNISH- ML-NTS WHICH ARE PROPER. FOR SCHOOLS. AD DRESSED TO GEORGE CLYMER, DEAR SIR, THE laft time I had the pleafure of being in your company, you did me the honour to re- queil my opinion upon the AMUSEMENTS and PUNISH MENTS which are proper for fchools The fubje&s are of a very oppofite nature, but I {hall endeavour to comply with your wiftiss, by fending you a few thoughts upon each of them. I am fure you will not reject my opinions becaufe they are contrary to received practices, for I know that you are accuf- tomed to think for yourfelf, and that every propo- fition that has for its objects the interefts of humanity and your country, will be treated by you with atten tion and candor. I fhall begin with the fubjech of AMUSEMENTS. Montefquieu informs us that the exercifes of the laft day of the life of Epaminoridas, were the fame as his amufements in his youth. Herein we have an epi tome of the perfection of education. The amufe ments of Epaminondas were of a military nature; but as the profeffion of arms is the bufmefs of only a fmall part of mankind, and happily much lefs I 58 ON THE AMUSEMENTS AND PUNISHMENTS neceffary in the United States than in ancient Greece, I would propofe that the amufcments cf our youth, at fchool, fhould confift of fuch exercifes ab will be moft fubfervient to their future employments in life. Thefe are; i. agriculture; 2. mechanical occupations; and 3. the bufmcfs of the learned pro - fefiions. I. There is a variety in the employments of agri culture which may readily be fuited to the genius, tafte, and ftrength of young people. An experiment has been made of the efficacy of thefe employments, as amufements, in the Methodift College at Abing- ton, in Maryland ; and, I have been informed, with the happieft effects. A large lot is divided between the fcholars, and premiums are adjudged to thofe of them who produce the moft vegetables from their grounds, or who keep them in the beft order". II. As the employments of agriculture cannot af ford amufement at all feafons of the year, or in cities I would propofe, that children (liould be allured to to feek amufements in fuch of the mechanical arts as are fuited to their ftrength and capacities. Where is the boy who does not delight in the ufe of a ham mer a duffel or a faw ? and who has not enjoy ed a high degree of pleafure in his youth, in con- ftru&ing a miniature houfe ? How amufmg are the machines which are employed in the manufactory of doathing of all kinds ! and how full of various en- PROPER FOR SCHOOLS. 59 tettainment are the mixtures which take place in the chemical aits ! each of thcfe might be contrived upon fuch a fcale, as not only to amufe young people, but to afford a profit to their parents or mailers. The Moravians, at Bethlehem in our flate, have proved that this propofition is not a chimerical one. All the amufements of their children are derived from their performing the fubordinate parts of feyeral of the mechanical arts ; and a confiderable portion of the wealth of that worthy and happy fociety is the pro duct of the labour of their little hands. If, in thefe amufements, an appeal (hould be made to that fpirit of competition which is fo com mon among young people, it would be the means of producing more pleafure to the children, and more profit to all who are connected with them The wealth of thofe manufacturing towns in England, which employ the children of poor people, is a proof of what might be expected from connecting amufe- ment and labour together, in all our fchools. The product from the labour obtained in this way, from all the fchools in the United States, would amount to a fum which would almoft exceed calculation. III. To train the youth who are intended for the learned profefiions or for merchandize, to the duties of their future employments, by means of ufeful amufements, which are related to thofe employments, will be impracticable ; but their amufements may be 60 ON THE AMUSEMENTS AND PUNISHMENTS derived from cultivating a fpot of ground ; for where is the lawyer, the phyfician, the divine, or the mer chant, who has not indulged or felt a paflion, in fome part of his life, for rural improvements ? In deed I conceive the feeds of knowledge in agri-> culture will be moft productive, when they are planted in the minds of this clafs of fcholars. I have only to add under this head , that the com mon amufements of children have no connection with their future occupations. Many of them injure their cloaths, fome of them wafte their flrength, and impair their health, and all of them prove more or lefs, the means of producing noife, or of exciting angry paffions, both of which are calculated to beget vulgar manners. The Mcthodifts have wifely banimed every fpecies of play from their college. Even the healthy and pleafurable exercife of fwimming, is not permitted to their fcholars, except in the prefence of one of their mailers. Do not think me too ftricl: if I here exclude gunning from among the amufements of young men. My objections to it are as follow. i It hardens the heart, by inflicting unneceflary pain and death upon animals. 2- It is unneceflary in civilized fociety, where animal food may be obtained from domeftic animals, with greater facility. PROPER FOR SCHOOLS. 6l 3. It confumes a great deal of time, and thus creates habits of idlenefs. 4. It frequently leads young men into low, and bad company. 5. By impofing long abftinence from food, it leads to intemperance in eating, which naturally leads to in temperance in drinking. 6. It expofes to fevers, and accidents. The news papers are occafionally rilled with melancholy accounts of the latter, and every phyfician mud have met with frequent and dangerous inftances of the former, in the courfe of his pradice. I know the early ufe of a gun is recommended in our country, to teach our young men the ufe of fire arms, and thereby to prepare them for war and battle. But why mould we infpire our youth,, by fuch exer- cifes, with hoflile ideas towards their fellow crea tures ? Let us rather inftill into their minds fenti- ments of univerfal benevolence to men of all nations and colours. Wars originate in error and vice. Let us eradicate thefe, by proper modes of education, and wars will ceafe to be neceflary in our country. The divine author and lover of peace will then " fufFer no man to do us wrong ; yea, he will re- " prove kings for our fake, faying, touch not my " anointed and do my people no harm." Should the nations with whom war is a trade, approach our 2 ON THE AMUSEMENTS AND PUNISHMENTS coafls, they will retire from us, as Satan did from our Saviour, when he came to aflault him ; and for the fame reafon, becaufe they will " find nothing in " us" congenial to their malign; nit difpofitions ; for the flames of war can be fpread from one nation to ano ther, only by the conducting mediums of vice and error. I have hinted at the injury which is done to the health 01 young people by ibmc of their amufements; but there is a practice common in all our fchools, which does more harm to their bodies than all the aniuLm.nts that can be named, and that is, obliging them to fit too long in one place, or crowding too many of them together in one room. By means of the former, the growth and fhape of the body have been impaired ; and by means of the latter, the feeds of fevers have often been engendered in fchools. In the courfe of my bufmefs, I have been called to many hundred children who have been feized with indifpo- fitions in fchool, which evidently arofe from the ac tion of morbid effluvia, produced by the coniined breath and perfpiration of too great a number of children in one room. To obviate thefe evils, chil dren fhould be permitted, after they have faid their leflbns, to amufe themfelves in the open air, in fome of the ufeful and agreeable exercifes which have been mentioned. Their minds will be ftrengthened, as well as their bodies relieved by them. To oblige a fprightly boy to fit feven hours in a day, with his PROPER FOR SCHOOLS. j little arms pinioned to his fides, and his neck unna turally bent towards his book } and for no crime what cruelty arid folly are manifested, by fuch an ab- furd mode of inftru&ing or governing young peo ple ! I come next to fay a few words upon the mb- jedl: of PUNISHMENTS which are proper in fchools. In barbarous ages every thing partook of the com plexion of the times. Civil, ecclefiaftical, military, and domeftic punifhments were all of a cruel nature. With the progrefs of reafon and chriftianity, punim- ments of all kinds have become lefs fevere. Soli tude and labour are now fubftituted in many countries, with fuccefs, in the room of the whipping-pofi and the gallows. The innocent infirmities of human nature are no longer profcribed, and punifhed by the church. Difcipline, confiding in the vigilance cf officers, has leffened the fuppofed necefiity of military executions , and hufbands fathers and matters now blufh at the hiftory of the times, when wives, chil dren, and fervants, were governed only by force. But unfortunately this fpirit of humanity and civilization has not reached our fchools. The rod is yet the principal inftrurnent of governing them, and a fchqol- mafter remains the only defpot now known in free countries. Perhaps it is becaufe the little fubjecls of their arbitrary and capricious power have not been in a condition to complain. I {hall endeavour there- 64 ON THE AMUSEMENTS AND PTjNISHMfcNTS fore to plead their caufe, and to prove that corpo ral punifhments (except to children under four or five years of age) are never neceffary, and always hurtful, in fchools. The following arguments I hope will be fuilicient to eftablifh this propofition. 1. Children are feldom fent to fchool before they are capable of feeling the force of rational or moral obligation. They may therefore be deterred from committing offences, by motives lefs difgraceful than the fear of corporal punimments. 2. By correcting children ior ignorance and negli gence in fchool, their ideas of improper and immoral actions are confounded, and hence the moral faculty becomes weakened in after life. It would not be more cruel or abfurd to inflict the punifhment of the whipping-pod upon a man, for not drefling fafhionably or neatly, than it is to ferule a boy for blotting his copy book, or mif-fpelling a word. 3. If the natural affection of a parent is fometimes inefficient, to reftrain the violent effects of a fudden guft of anger upon a child, how dangerous muft the power of correcting children be when lodged in the hands of a fchool-mafler, in whofe anger there is no mixture of parental rffection ! Perhaps thofe parents act mod wifely, who never truft themfelves to inflict corporal punimments upon their children, after they are four or five years old, but endeavour to punim, and PROPER FOR SCHOOLS. 6$ reclaim them, by confinement, or by abridging them of fome of theft ufual gratifications, in drefs, food or amufements. 4. Injuries are fornetimes done to the bodies, and fometimes to the intellects of children, by cor poral punifhments. I recollect, when a boy, to have loft a fchool-mate, who was faid to have died in confequence of a fevere whipping he received in fchool. At that time I did not believe it pofnble, but from What I now know of the difproportion between the vio lent emotions of the mind, and the ftrength of the body in children, I am difpofed to believe, that not only ficknefs, but that even death may be induced, by the convullions of a youthful mind, worked up to a high fenfe of fhame and refentment. The effects of thumping the head, boxing the ears, and pulling the hair, in impairing the intellects, by means of injuries done to the brain, are too obvious to be mentioned* 5. Where there \sjhame, fays Dr. Johnfon, there may be virtue. But corporal punifhments, inflicted at fchool, have a tendency to deftroy the fenfe of fliame, and thereby to deftroy all moral fenfibility. The boy that has been often publicly whipped at fchool, is under great obligations to his maker, and his parents, if he afterwards efcape the whipping-pod or the gal lows* K A 66 ON THF, AMUSEMENTS AND PUNISHMENTS 6. Corporal punifhments, infli&ed at fchool, tend to beget a fpirit ofviolenee in boys towards each other, which often follows them through life ; but they more certainly beget a fpirit of hatred, or revenge, towards their matters, which too often becomes a ferment of the fame baneful pailions towards other people. The celebrated Dr. afterwards Baron Haller declared, that he never faw, without horror, during the remain ing part of his life, a fchool-mafter, who had treat ed him with unmerited feverity, when he was only ten years old. A fimilar anecdote is related of the famous M. de Condarnine. I think I have known feveral infhnces of this vindictive, or indignant fpirit, to continue towards a cruel and tyrannical fchool-rnafter, in perfons who were advanced in life, and who were otherwife of gentle and forgiving difpofitions. 7 , Corporal punifliments, inflicted at fchools, beget a hatred to inftruclion in young people. I have fome- timcs fufpe&ed that the Devil, who knows how great an enemy knowledge is to his kingdom, has had the addrefs to make the world believe thatftrru/ing, pulling and boxing cars, cudgelling^ barfing, &c. and, in boarding- fchools, a little ftarving> are all abfolutely necefTary for the government of young people, on purpofe that he might make both fchools, and fchool-mafters odious, and thereby keep our world in ignorance; for ignorance is the beft means the Devil ever contrived^ to keep up the number of his fubjecls in our world. PROPER FOR SCHOOLS. 67 8. Corporal punifhments are not only hurtful, but altogether unneceflary, in fchools. Some of the moil celebrated and fuccesful fchool-mafters, that I have known, never made ufe of them. 9. The fear of corporal punifliments, by debilitating the body, produces a correfponding debility in the mind, which contracts its capacity of acquiring know ledge. This capacity is enlarged by the tone which the mind acquires from the action of hope, love, and confidence upon it; and all thefe paffions might eafi- ly be cherifhed, by a prudent and enlightened fchool- mafter. 10. As there mould always be a certain ratio be tween the ftrength of a remedy, and the excitability of the body in difeafes, fo there mould be a fimilar ratio between the force employed in the government of a fcliool, and the capacites and tempers of children. A kind rebuke, like frefli air in a fainting fit, is calcu lated to acl: upon a young mind with more effer, than ftimulants of the greater! power; but corporal punifli ments level all capacities and tempers, as quack-me dicines do, all conftitutions and difcafes. They difhonour and degrade our fpecies ; for they fuppofe a total abfence of all moral and intellectual feeling from the mind. Have we not often feen dull children fuel- denly improve, by changing their ichools ? The reafon is obvious. The fuccesful teacher only accommodated his manner and difcipiine to the capacities of his fcholars. 68 ON THE AMUSEMENTS AND PUNISHMENTS ii. I conceive corporal punimments, inflicted in an arbitrary manner, to be contrary to the fpirit of liberty, and that they fhould not be tolerated in a free government. Why fhould not children be proteaed from violence and injuries, as well as white and black fervants ? Had I influence enough in our legiflature to obtain only a fingle law, it fhould be to make the punifhment for ftriking a fchocl boy, the fame as for afiaultmg and beating an adult member of fociety. To all thefe arguments I know fome well difpofed people will reply, that the rod has received a divine comrnifiion from the facred Scriptures, as the inftru- ment of correcting children. To this I anfwer that the rod> in the Old Teftament, by a very common figure in Rhetoric, ftands for punimments of ^ kind, juft as the fiuordy in the New Teflament, ftands for the faithful and general adminiflration of juflice, in fuch a way as is mod calculated to reform criminals, and to prevent crimes The following method of governing a fchool, I apprehend, would be attended with much better ef fects, than that which I have endeavoured to fhew to be contrary to reafon, humanity, religion, liberty, and the experience of the wifeft and beft teachers in the world. Let a fchcol-m after endeavour, in the firft place, to acquire the confidence of his fcholars, by a prudent deportment. Let him learn to command his pafllons PROPER FOR SCHOOLS. 69 and temper, at all times, in his fchool, Let him treat the name of the Supreme Being with reverence, as often as it occurs in books, or in ccnverfation with his fcholars.- Let him exact a rcfpedHul behaviour towards himfelf, in his fchool ; but in the intervals of fchool hours, let him treat his fcholars with gentlenefs and familiarity. If he fhould even join in their amufe- ments, he would not loofe, by his condefcenfion, any part of his authority over them. But to fecure their affe&ion and refpecl: more perfectly, let him, once or twice a year, lay out a frnall fum of money in pen knives, and books, and difhribute them among his fcho lars, as rewards for proficiency in learning, and for good behaviour. If thefe prudent and popular meafures fhould fail of preventing offences at fchool, then let the following modes of punifhment be adopted. 1. Private admonition. By this mode of rebuking, we imitate the conduct of the divine Being towards his offending creatures, for his firjl punifhment is always inflicted privately, by means of the Jlill voice of con- fcience. 2. Confinement after fchool-hours are ended; but with the knowledge of the parents of the children. 3. Holding a fmall fign of difgrace, of any kind, in the middle of the floor, in the prefence of a whole fchool. yO ON THE AMUSEMENTS AND PUNISHMENTS If thefe puniihments fail of reclaiming a bad boy, he fhouid be difmiiTed from fchool, to prevent his cor rupting his fchool-mates. It is the bufmefs of parents, and not of fchool-m afters, to ufc the kit means for eradicating idlenefs and vice from their children. The world was created in love. It is fuftained by Jove. Nations and families that are happy, are made fo only by love. Let us extend this divine principle, to thofe little communities which we call fchools. Children are capable of loving in a high degree. Tiiey may therefore be governed by love. The occupation of a fchool-mafter is truly dignified. He is, next to mothers, the moft important member of civil fociety. Why then is there fo little rank con nected with that occupation ? Why do we treat it with fo much neglect or contempt ? It is becaufe the voice of reafon, in the human heart, afibciates with it the idea of defpotifm and violence. Let fchool- mafters ceafe to be tyrants, and they will foon enjoy the refpect and rank, which are naturally connected with their" profeflion. We are groily miftaken in looking up wholly to cur governments, and even to minifters of the gofpel, to pro mote public and private order in fociety. Mothers and fchool-maftcrs plant the feeds of nearly all the good and evil which exiil in our world. Its reformation muft therefore be begun in nurferies and in fchools. If the habits we acquire there, were to have no influence PROFEll FOR SCHOOLS. 7 i upon our future happinefs, yet the influence they have upon our governments, is a fufiicient reafon why we ought to introduce new modes, as well as new objects of education into our country. You have lately been employed in an attempt to perpetuate our exiftence as a free people, by eftablifh- ing the means of national credit and defence ; * but thefe are feeble bulwarks againft flavery, compared with habits of labour and virtue, diifeminated among our young people. Let us eftablifh fchools for this purpofe, in every townmip in the United States, and conform them to reafon, humanity, and the prefent (late of fociety in America. Then, Sir, will the generations who are to follow us, realize the precious ideas of the dignity and excellence of republican forms of government, which I well recollect you cherifhed with fo much ardor, in the beginning of the American revolution, and which you have manifefled ever fmce, both by your public and private condudt. We fuiFer fb much from traditional error of various kinds, in education, morals, and government, that I have been led to wi(h, that it were pofiiblc for us to have fchools eftablimed, in the United States, for teaching the art of forgetting. I think three-fourths of all our fchool- mailers, divines, and legiflators woulJ * Mr. Clymer was one of the Representatives of Pennfylvania, in the. firft Congrefs of the United States which ir.et in New Yoik, in the yar 1789. 72 ON THE AMUSEMENTS AND PUNISHMENTS profit very much, by fpending two or three years in fuch life ful inftitutions. An apology may fecm necefT.iry, not only for the length of this letter, but for fome of the opinions contained in it. I know how apt mankind are to brand every propofition for innovation, as vifionary and Utopian. But good men mould not be difcouraged, by fuch epithets, from their attempts to combat vice and error. There never was an improvement, in any art or fcience, nor even a propofal for meliorating the condition of man, in any age or country, that has not been confidered in the light of what has been called, fince Sir. Thomas More s time, an Utopian fcheme* The application of the magnet to navigation, and of fleam to mechanical purpofes, have both been branded as Utopian projects. The great idea in the mind of Columbus, of exploring a new world, was long viewed, in mod of the courts of Europe, as the dream of a Vifionary failor. But why do we go to an cient times, for proofs of important innovations in human affairs having been treated as Utopian fchemes. You and I recollect the time, when the abolition of negro flavery in our {late, as alfo when the independence of the United States, and the prefent wife and happy confed eracy of our republics, were all confidered by many of our fober prudent men, as fubjecls of an Utopian nature* PROPER FOR SCHOOLS. >]$ If tliofe benefa&ors of mankind, who have levelled mountains in the great road of human life, by the difcoveries or labours which have been mentioned, have beeen ftigmatized with obloquy, as vifionary projectors, why mould an individual be afraid of firnilar treatment, who has only attempted to give to that road, from its beginning, a ftraight direction. If but a dozen men like yourfelf, approve of my opinions, it will overbalance the mod illiberal oppofi- tion they may meet with, from all the learned vulgar of the United States. For the benefit of thofe perfons who coiifider opinions as improved, like certain liquors, by time -, and who are oppofed to innovations, only becaufe they did not occur to their anceftors, I {hall conclude my letter with an anecdote of a minifter in London, who, after em ploying a long fermon, in controverting what he fuppofed to be an heretical opinion, concluded it with the following words, " I tell you, I tell you my bre- " thren, I tell you again, that an old error is better " than a new truth." With great regard I am, Dear Sir, Your s fmcerely, BENJAMIN RUSH, Philadelphia^ Augujl ioth, 1790. 74 ON THE AMUSEMENTS, &C. P. S. Since writing the above letter, an ingenious German friend of mine has informed me, that a curious work has lately appeared in Germany, entitled, < A " treatife on human mifery," written by a Mr. Salz- man, an enlightened fchool-mafler, in which a finking view is given of the mifery infli&ed upon part of the human race, by the prefent abfurd, and cruel modes of conducting education in public fchools. The author Concludes this part of his work, my friend informs me, with a dream, in which he beholds with ineffable joy, the avenging angel defcending from heaven, and after- wardsvConfuming in an immenfe bonfire, certain abfurd fchool-books, and all the fcrrulrt in th* world. THOUGHTS UPON FEMALE EDUCATION, ACCOMMODAT ED TO THE PRESENT STATE OF SOCIETY, MANNERS, AND GOVERNMENT, IN THE UNITED STATES OiT AMERICA. ADDRESSED TO THE VISITORS OF THE YOUNG LADIES ACADEMY IN PHILADELPHIA, 28th JULY, 1787, AT THE CLOSE OF THE QUARTERLY EXAMINATION, AND AFTERWARDS PUBLISHED AT THE REQUEST OF THE VISITORS. I GENTLEMEN, HAVE yielded with diffidence to the felicita tions of the Principal of the Academy, in undertaking to exprefs my regard for the profperity of this feminary of learning, by fubmitting to your candor, a few Thoughts upon Female Education. The firft remark that I mall make upon this fubject, is, that female education mould be accommodated to the (late of fociety, manners, and government of the coun try, in which it is conducted. This remark leads me at once to ad4,,that the educati on of young ladies, in this country, mould be conducted upon principles very different from what it is in Great Britain, and in fome refpecls, different from what it was when we were part of a monarchical empire. There are feveral circumftances in the fituation, em ployments, and duties of women in America, which require a peculiar mode of education. 7<5 THOUGHTS UPON I. The early marriages of our women, by contracting the time allowed for education, renders it neceflary to contract its plan, and to confine it chiefly to the more ufeful branches of literature. II. The ftate of property m America, renders it neceflary for the greateft part of our citizens to employ themfelves, in different occupations, for the advance ment of their fortunes. This cannot be done without the affiftance of the female members of the community. They muft be the itewards, and guardians of their hufbands property. That education, therefore, will be mod proper for our women, which teaches them to difcharge the duties of thofe offices with the moft fuccefs and reputation, III. From the numerous avocations from their families, to which profeffional life expofes gentlemen in America, a principal {hare of the inftruction of children naturally devolves upon the women. It be comes us therefore to prepare them by a fuitable education, for the difcharge of this moil important duty of mothers. IV. The equal {hare that every citizen has in the liberty, and the poffible {hare he may have in the government of our country, make it neceflary that our ladies {hould be qualified to a certain degree by a pecu- FEMALE EDUCATION. 77 liar and fuitable edueation, to concur in mftru&ing their fons in the principles of liberty and government. V. In Great Britain the bufmefs of fervants is a regular occupation ; but in America this humble ftation is the ufual retreat of unexpected indigence; hence the fervants in this country pofifefs lefs knowledge and fubordination than are required from them; and hence, our ladies are obliged to attend more to the private af-, fairs of their families, than ladies generally do, of the fame rank in Great Britain. " They are good fervants," faid an American lady of diftinguiflied merit, * in a letter to a favorite daughter, f. " who will do well with " good looking after." This circumftance fliould have great influence upon the nature and extent of female education in America. The branches of literature mod eficntial for a young lady in this countrv, appear to be, I. A knowledge of the Engliih language. She mould not only read, but fpeak and fpell it correctly. And to enable her to do this, ihe mould be taught the Englim grammar, and be frequently examined in applying its rules in common converfation. II. Pleafure and interefl confpire to make the writing of a fair and legible hand, a necefTary branch of a lady s education. For this purpofe (he fhould be * Mrs. Graeme. ^ Mrs. Elizabeth Fergufon. 78 THOUGHTS UPON taught not only to fhape every letter properly, but to pay the ftri&eft regard to points and capitals.* I once heard of a man who profefled to difcover the temper and difpofition of perfons by looking at their hand writing. Without enquiring into the pro bability of this ftory; I mall only remark, that there is one thing in which all mankind agree upon this fubjeft, and that is, in confidering writing that is blot ted, crooked, or illegible, as a mark of vulgar educa tion. I know of few things more rude or illiberal, than to obtrude a letter upon a perfon of rank or bufi- nefs, which cannot be eafily read. Peculiar care fhould be taken to avoid every kind of ambiguity and affectation in writing names. I have now a letter in my poflefiion upon bufmefs, from a gentleman of a liberal profeflion in a neighbouring ftate, which I am unable to anfwer, becaufe I cannot difcover the name which is fubfcribed to it. f For obvious reafons I would recom- * The vrefent mode of writing among perfons of tafte is to ufe a ca pital letter only for the firft word of a fsntence, and for names of perfons, places and months, and for the fir ft word of every line in poetry. The words /hould be fo fhaped that a ftraight line may be drawn between two lines, without touching the extremities of the words in either of them. j- Dr. Franklin received many letters while he was in France during the American war, from perfons who wifhed to migrate to America, and who appeared to pofiefs knowledge and talents that would have been ufe- fvl to his country, but their names were fubfcribed to their letters in fa artificial and affected a manner, that he was unable todecypher them, an$ f courle, did not anfwer t! em. FEMALE EDUCATION. 79 mend the writing of the firft or chriftian name at full length, where it ^does not confift of more than two fyllables. Abbreviations of all kind in letter writing, which always denote either hafte or carleflhefs, mould likewife be avoided. I have only to add under this head that the Italian and inverted hands which are read with difficulty, are by no means accommodated to the aclive ftate of bufmefs in America, or to the fimplici- ty of the citizens of a republic. III. Some knowledge of figures and book-keeping is abfolutely neceflary to qualify a young lady for the duties which await her in this country. There are certain occupations in which fhe may aflift her hufband with this knowledge ; and fliould fhe furvive him, and agreeably to the cuftom of our country be the execu trix of his will, fhe cannot fail of deriving irnmenfe advantages from it. IV. An acquaintance with geography and fome in- ftruc~tion in chronology will enable a young lady to read hiftory, biography, and travels, with advantage ; and thereby qualify her not only for a general inter- courfe with the world, but to be an agreeable com panion for a fenfible man. To thefe branches of knowledge may be added, in fome irtilailces, a general acquaintance with the firft principles of aftronomy natural philofophy and chemiftry, particularly, with fuch parts of them as are calculated to prevent fuperflttion, by explaining the caufes, or obviating the effects of $0 THOUGHTS UPON of natural evil, and fuch, as .re capable of being ap plied to domeftic, and culinary purpofes. V. Vocal mufic fhould never be neglecled, in the education of a young lady, in this country. Befldes preparing her to join in that part- of public worfhip which coniifts in pfalmody, it will enable her to foothe the cares of domeftic life. The diftrefs and vexation of a hulband the noife of a nurfey, and, even,, the the forrows that will foretimes intrude into her own bofom, may all be relieved by a fong, where found and fenti ment unite to aft upon the mind. I hope it will not be thought foreign to this part of our fubject to introduce a facl: here which has been fuggefted to me by my profefiion, and that is, that the excrcife of the organs of the bread, by fmging, contributes very much to defend them from thofe difeafes to which our climate; and other caufes, have of late expofed them. Our German fellow citizens are feldom afflicted with confumptions, nor have I ever known but one inftance offpitting of blood among them. This, I believe, is in part occafioned by the llrength which their lungs acquire, by exercifing them frequently in vocal mufic, for this conftitutes an elfential branch of their educati on. The mufic-mafter of our academy:}; has furnifhed me with an cbfcrvation flill more in favour of this opinion. He i lformed me that he had known fjvcr- 1 X fiances of pcrfons who were flrongly dif- poled to the confurcptior , who were reflorefl to health, by the moderate exercile of their lungs in fmging. t Mi-. Ad S ate. FEMALE EDUCATION. 8 1 VI. DANCING is by no means an improper branch of education for an American lady. It promotes health, and renders the figure and motions of the body eafy and agreeable. I anticipate the time when the refources of converfation (hall be fo far multiplied, that the amufement of dancing {hall be wholly con fined to children. But in our prefent ftate of fociety and knowledge, I conceive it to be an agreeable fub- ftitute for the ignoble pleafurea of drinking, and gaming, in our aflemblies of grown people. VII. The attention of our young ladies fhould be dire&ed, as foon as they are prepared for it, to the reading of hiftory travels poetry and moral effays. Thefe fludies are accommodated, in a peculiar manner, to the prefent ftate of fociety in America, and when a relifh is excited for them, in early life, they fubdue that paffion for reading novels, which fo generally prevails among the fair fex. I cannot difmifs this fpe- cies of writing and reading without obferving, that the fubje&s of novels are by no means accommodated to our prefent manners. They hold up life, it is true, but it is not as yet life in America. Our paffions have not as yet overftepped the modefty of nature." nor are they " torn to tatters," to ufe the expreflions of the poet, by extravagant love, jealoufy, ambition, or revenge. As yet the intrigues of a Britim novel, are as foreign to our manners, as the refinements o Afiatic vice. Let it not be faid, that tlje tales of dif- M .2 THOUGHTS UPOS trefs, which fill modern novels, have a tendency to foften the female heart into ats of humanity. The faft is the reverfe of this. The abortive fympathy which is excited by the recital of imaginary diflrefs, blunts the heart to that which is real j and, hence, \vj fometimes fee inftances of young ladies, who weep away a whole forenoon over the criminal forrows of a fictitious Charlotte or Werter, turning with difdain at three o clock from the fight of a beggar, who fo- licits in feeble accents or figns, a fmall portion only of the crumbs which fall from their fathers* tables. VIII. It will be ncceflary to connect all thefe branches of education with regular inftruclion in the chriflian religion. For this purpofe the principles of the different fects of chriflian s mould be taught and explained, and our pupils mould early be furniihed with fome of the moft fimple arguments in favour of the truth of chriftianity*. A portion of the bible (of late improperly baniftied from our fchools)fhould bs read by them every day, and fuch queftions mould be alked, after reading it as are calculated to imprint upon their minds the interefling {lories contained in it. Roufleau has- averted that the great fecret of edu cation confifts in " wailing the time of children pro- * Baron ILillev s letters to his daughter on the truths of the chriftian religion,, and Dr. Beatie s " evidences of the chriftian rdi^ion briefly * and plainly fta ed " are excellent little trails, and well adapt? J fur ;hi- pwrpofc. FEMALE EDUCATION. Sj Stably." There is fome truth in this obfervation. I .believe that we often impair their health, and weaken their capcities, by impofing fludies upon them a which are not proportioned ro their years. But this objec tion does not apply to religious inftrution. There are certain fimple proportions in the chriftian religion, which are fuited in a peculiar manner, to the infant flate of reafon and moral fenfibility. A clergyman .of long experience in the inflru&ion of youth f in formed me, that he always found children acquired religious knowledge more eafily than knowledge upon other fubjets ; and that young girls acquired this kind of knowledge more readily than boys. The female bread is the natural foil of chriftianity ; and while our women are taught to believe its doctrines, and obey its precepts, the wit of Voltaire, and the ftile of Bolirig- broke, will never be able to deftroy its influence upon our citizens. I cannot help remarking in this place, that chrif tianity exerts the moft friendly influence upon icience, as well as upon the morals and manners of mankind. Whether this be occafioned by the unity of truth, and the mutual afuftance which truths upon different fubjeds afford each other, or whether the faculties of the mind be marpened and corrected by embracing the truths of revelation, -and thereby prepared to in- veftigate and perceive truths upon other fubjets, I f The Rev.. Mr. NICHOLS Coi.r.iv, minidcr of the Swcdilh church in WICOCQC. 84 THOUGHTS UPON will not determine, but I believe that the greateft difcoveries in fcience have been made by chriftian philofophers, and that there is the mod knowledge in thofe countries where there is the mod chriftianity.* If this remark be well founded, then thofe philofophers who reject chriftianity, and thofe chriftians, whether parents or fchool-mafters, who neglect the religious inftrudion of their children and pupils, rejeft and nc- glect the moil effe&ual means of promoting know ledge in our country. IX. If the meafures that have been recommended for infpiring our pupils with a fenfe of religious and moral obligation be adopted, the government of them will be eafy and agreeable. I mall only remark under this head, that Jlriftnefs of difcipline will always render feverity unneceflary, and that there will be the moft inftruclion in that fchool, where there is the moft order. I have faid nothing in favour of inftrumental mufic as a branch of female education, becaufe I conceive * This is true in a peculiar manner in the fcience of medecine. A youvg Scotch phyfician of enterprizing talents, who conceived a high idea of the ft;^e of medecine in the caftern countries, fpent two years in enqui ries after medical knowledge in Condan .inople, and Grand Cairo. On his return to Pritain he confefled to an American phyfician whom he met at Naples, that after all his refearches and travels, he " had difcovered " nothing except a fingle facl relative to the plague, that he thought " v:orth remembering or communicating." The fcience of medecine in China according to the accounts of De Halde is in as imperfjsft a ftate at among the Indians of North America. FEMALE EDUCATION. 85 it is by no means accommodated to the prefent ftate of fociety and manners in America. The price of mufical mflruTierits, and the extravagant fees de manded by the teachers of inftrumental mufic, form but a fmall part of rny objections to it. To perform well, upon a mufical inftrument, re quires much time and long practice. From two to four hours in a day, for three or four years appropriated to mafic, are an immenfe deduction from that fhort period of time which is allowed by the peculiar circum- ftances of our country for the acquifition of the ufeful branches of literature that have been mentioned. How many ufeful ideas might be picked up in thefe hours from hiftory, philofophy, poetry, and the numerous moral efiays with which our language abounds, , and how much more would the knowledge acquired upon thefe fubjects add to the confequence of a lady, with her hufband and with fociety, than the bed performed pieces of mufic upon a harpficord or a guittar ! Of the many ladies whom we have known, who have fpent the moft important years of their lives, in learning to play upon mfcruments of mufic, how few of them do we fee amufe themfelves or their friends with them, after they become miftrefies of families ! Their harp- fichords ferve only as fide-boards for their parlours, and prove by their filence, that necefiity and circum- Aances, will always prevail ever faihion, and falfc maxims of education. 8<5 YftoUGHTS UPON Let it not be fuppofcd from thefe obfervations that I am infenfiblc of the charms of inftrumental mufic, or that I wifh to exclude it from the education of JL lady where a mufical ear irrefiftably difpofes to it, and affluence at the fame time affords a profpel of fuch an exemption from the ufual cares and duties of the miftrefs of a family, as will enable her to praftife it. Thefc circumftances form an exception to the general conduct that mould arife upon this fubjeft, from the prcfent ftate of fociety and manners in America. It is agreeable to obferve how differently modern writers, and the infpircd author of the Proverbs, defcribe a fine woman. The former confine their praifes chiefly to perfonal charms, and ornamental ac- complifhmerits, while the latter celebrates only the vir tues of a valuable miflrefs of a family, and a ufeful member of fociety. The one is perfectly acquainted with ail the fafhionable languages of Europe j the other, " opens her mouth with wifdom" and is per- fecYiy acquainted with all the ufes of the needle, the diftaff, and the loom. The bufinefs of the one, is pleafure-, the pleafurc of the other, is bufinefs. The one is admired abroad; the other is honoured and beloved at home. " Her children arife up and " call her blefled, her hufDand alfo, and he praifeth her." There is no fame in the world equal to this j nor is Llicre a note in mufic half fo delightful, as the refpec~t- ful language with which a grateful fon or daughter FEMALE EDUCATION. Sj perpetuates the memory of a fenfible and affl dYiomte mother. It mould not furprize us that Britiih cuftoms, with refpel to female education, have been tranfplantcd into our American fchools and families. We fee marks of the lame incongruity, of time and place, in many other things. We behold our houfes accomodated to the climate of Great Britain, by eaitern and wefrern directions. We behold our ladies panting in a heat of ninety degrees, under a hat and cumion, which were calculated for the temperature of a Britim fumrner, We behold our citizens condemned and punifhed by a criminal law, which was copied from a country, where maturity in corruption renders public executions a part of the amufements of the nation. It is high time to awake from this fervility to fludy our own character to examine the age of our country and to adopt manners in every thing, that fhall be accomo dated to our ftate of fociety, and to the forms of our government. In particular it is incumbent upon us to make ornamental accomplifhments yield to principles and knowledge, in the education of our women. A philofopher cncc faid " let me make all the bal- " lads of a country and I care not who makes its laws. * He might with more propriety have faid, let the ladies of a country be educated properly, and they will not only mike and adminifler its laws, but form its manners and character. It would rvquire a lively imaginaiton to defcribe, or even to comprehend, the g<3 THOUGHTS UPON happinefs of a country, where knowledge and virtue, were generally diffufed among the female fex. Our young men would then be retrained from vice by the terror of being banimed from their company. The loud laugh, and the malignant fmile, at the expence of innocence, or of perfonnl infirmities the feats of fuccefsful mimickry and the low priced wit, which is borrowed irom a mifapplication of fcripture phrafes, would no more be confidered as recommendations to the fociety of the ladies. A double entendre in their prefence, would then exclude a gentleman forever from the company of both fexes, and probably oblige him to feek an afylum from contempt, in a foreign country. The influence of female education would be ftill more extenfive and ufeful in domeflic life. The obligations of gentlemen to qualify themfelves by knowledge and induftry to difcharge the duties of benevolence, would be encreafed by marriage , and the patriot the hero- and the Jegiflator, would find the fweetcft reward of their toils, in the approba tion and applaufc of their wives. Children would dif- ccver the marks of maternal prudence and wifdom in every ftation of Hie ; for it has been remarked that there have been few great or good men who have not been blefi xl with wile and prudent mothers. Cyrus was taught to revere the gods, by his mother Mandane Samuel was devoted to his prophetic office before he \vas born, by his mother Hannah Conftantine was refcued from paganifm by his mother Conftantia and Edward the fixth inherited thofe great and excellent FEMALE EDUCATION. 89 qualities which made him the delight of the age in wliich he lived, from his mother, lady Jane Seymour. Many other inftances might be mentioned, if necefiary, from ancient and modern hiftory, to eftablifh the truth of this propofition. I am not enthufiaftical upon the fubjeft of educati on. In the ordinary courfe of human affairs, we mall probably too foon follow the footfteps of the nations of Europe in manners and vices. The firft marks we fhall perceive of our ddclenfion, will appear among our women. Their idlenefs, ignorance, and profli gacy will be the harbingers of our ruin. Then will the character and performance of a buffoon on the theatre, be the fubjecl: of more converfation and praife, than the patriot or the minifter of the gofpel ; then will our language and pronunciation be enfeebled and corrupted by a flood of French and Italian words ; then will the hiftory of romantic amours, be preferred to the pure and immortal writings of Addifon, Hawkefworth and Johnfon ; then will our churches be neglected, and the name of the fupreme being never be called upon, but in profane exclamations ; then will bur Sundays be appropriated, only to feafts and concerts ? and then will begin all that train of domeflic and political calamities- But, I forbear. The profpecT: is fo painful, that I cannot help, fi= lently, imploring the great arbiter of human, af fairs, to interpofe his almighty goodnefs, and to de.f N t?O THOUGHTS UPON liver us from thefe evils, that, at lead one fpot of the earth may be referved as a monument of the effects of good education, in order to (hew in fome degree, what our fpecies was, before the fall, and what it fhall be, after its refioration. Thus, gentlemen, have I brieftly finiflied what I propofed. If I am wrong in thofe opinions in which I have taken the liberty of departing from general and famonable habits of thinking, I am fure you will dif- cover, and pardon my miltakes. But if I am right, I am equally fure you will adopt my opinions ; for to enlightened minds truth is alike acceptable, whether it comes from the lips of age, or the hand of antiquity, or whether it be obtruded by a perfon, who has no other claim to attention, than a defire of adding to the ftock of human happinefs I cannot difmlfs the fubjecl: of female education without remarking, that the city of Philadelphia firft faw a number of gentlemen aflbciated for the purpofe of directing the education of young ladies. By means of this plan, the power of teachers is regulated and reftrained, and the objects of education are extended. By the feparation of the fexes in the unformed flate of their manners, female delicacy is cherifhed and preferved. Here the young ladies may enjoy all the literary advantages of a boarcling-fchool, and at the fame time live under the protection of their pa- FEMALE LD JCATION. 9! rents*. Here emulation may be excited without jealoufy, ambition without envy, and competition without ftrife. The attempt to eftabliili this new mode of education for young ladies, was an experi ment, and the fuccefs of it hath anfwered our ex pectations. Too much praife cannot be given to our principal J and his afnftants, for the abilities and fidelity with which they have carried the plan into execution. The proficiency which the young ladies have difcovered in reading writing fpelling arith metic grammar geography mufic and their dif ferent catechifms, fince the laft examination, is a lefs equivocal mark of the merit of our teachers, than any thing I am able to exprefs in their favour. But the reputation of the academy mud be fufpendcd, till the public are convinced, by the future conduct and character of our pupils, of the advantages of the inftitution. To you, therefore, YOUNG LADIES, an important problem is committed for folution ; and that is, whether our prefent plan of education be a wife one, and whether it be calculated to prepare you for the duties of focial and dorneiiic life. 1 know that the ele vation of the female mind, by means of moral, * {t Unnatural confinement makes a young worr.an embrace with avi- " dity every plealure when flie is let free. To reiifli domeftic life, one " mud be acqua ared whh it ; fur it is in the houfe of her parents a young *< woman acquires the relifh." Lord K.ums s thougnts upon education, and the culture of the heart. J Andrew Brown. 93 THOUGHTS UPON, &C. phyfical and religious truth, is confidered by fome men as unfriendly to the domeftic character of a woman. But this is the prejudice of little minds, and fprings from the fame fpirit which oppofes the ge neral diffufion of knowledge among the citizens of our republics. If men believe that ignorance is favourable to the government of the female fex, they are certainly deceived; for a weak and ignorant woman will always be governed with the greateft difficulty. I have fometimes been led to afcribe the invention of ridiculous and expenfive fafhions in fe male drefs, entirely to the gentlemen*, in order to divert the ladies from improving their minds, and thereby to fecure a more arbitrary and unlimited authority over them. It will be in your power, LADIES, to correct the miflakes and practice of our fex up on thefe fubje&s, by demoriftrating, that the female temper can only be governed by reafon, and that the cultivation of reafon in women, is alike friend ly to the order of nature, and to private as well as public happinfs. * The very expend ve prints of female drefles which are publi.he4 annually in France, are invented and executed wholly by GINTLIMIN. A DEFENCE OF THE USE OF THE BIBLE AS A SCHOOL BOOK. ADDRESSED TO THE Rev. JEREMY BELKNAP, OF BOSTON. I DEAR SIR, "T is now feveral months, fince I promifed to give you my reafons for preferring the bible as a fchool book, to all other compofitions. I mail not trouble you with an apology for my delaying fo long to comply with my promife, but fhall proceed im mediately to the fubjeft of my letter. Before I {late my arguments in favour of teach ing children to read by means of the bible, I fhall the five following proportions.; I. That chridianity is the only true and perfect religion, and that in proportion as mankind adopt its principles, and obey its precepts, they will be wife, and happy. II. That a better knowledge of this religion is to be acquired by reading the bible, than in any other way. Ill That the bible contains more knowledge necef- fary to man in his prefent ftate, than any other book in the world. 94 DEFENCE OF THE USE OF THE IV. That knowledge is^oft durable, and religious inflrudHon mofl ufeful, when imparted in early life, V. That the. bible, when not read in fchools, is feldom read in any fubiequent period of life. My arguments in favor of the ufe of the bible as a fchool book are founded, I. In the conflitution of the human mind. 1. The memory is the firft faculty which opens in lihids of children. Of how much confequence, then, r.-juit it be, to imprefs it with the great truths of ,,anky, before it is pre-occupied with lefs intereft- ing fubjeb ! As rili the liquors, which are poured into a cup, generally tafte of that which nrft filled it, fa all the knowledge, which is added to that which is treufured up in the memory from the bible, generally receives an agreeable and ufeful tincture from it. 2. There is a peculiar aptitude in the minds of chil dren for religious knowledge. I have conftantly found them in the firft fix or feven years of their lives, more inquifitivc upon religious fubje&s, than upon any others : and an ingenious inftru&or of youth has informed me, that he has found young children more capable of receiving jull ideas upon the mod difficult tenets of religion, than upon the mod fimple branches of human knowledge. It would be flrange if it were otlienvifc; for God creates all his means to fait all his ends. There niuft of courfe be a fitncfs between tne BIBLE IN SCHOOLS. 95 human mind, and the truths which are efiential to its happinefs. 3. The influence of prejudice is derived from the im- preflions, which are made upon the mind in early life , prejudices are of two kinds, true and falfe. In a world where falfe prejudices do fo much mifchief, it would difcover great weaknefs not to oppofe them, by fucli as are true. I grant that many men have rejected the prejudices derived from the bible : but I believe no man ever di<l fo, without having been made wi.fer or better, by the early operation of thefe prejudices upon his mind. Every juft principle that is to be found in the writings of Voltaire^ is borrowed from the Bible : and the mo rality of the Deifts, which has been fo much admired and praifed, is, I believe, in moft cafes, the efiecT: of habits, produced by early inftru&ion in the principles of chriftianity. 4. We are fubjecl:, by a general law in our natures, to what is called habit. Now if the ftudy of the fcrip- tures be neccfiary to our happinefs at any time of our lives, the fooner we begin to read them, the more we fliall be attached to them ; for it is peculiar to all the acts of habit, to become eafy, ftrong and agreeable by repetition. 5. It is a law in our natures, that we remember longcjl the knowledge we acquire by the greateil number 6 DEFENC& OF THE USE OF THE of our fenfes. Now a knowledge of the contents of the bible, is acquired in fchool by the aid of the eyes and the ears-, for children after getting their leflbns, always fay them to their mafters in an audible voice ; of courfe there is a prefumption, that this knowledge v/ill be retained much longer than if it had been acquir ed in any other way. 6. The interefting events and characters, recorded and defcribed in the Old and New Teftaments, are accomodated above all others to feize upon all the faculties of the minds of children. The underfland ing, the memory, the imagination, the paflions, and the mofal powers, are all occafiorially addreffed by the various incidents which are contained in thofe divine books, infomuch that not to be delighted with them, is to be devoid of every principle of pleafure that exifts in a found mind. 7. There is a native We of truth in the hurhari mind. Lord Shaftefbury fays, that " truth is fo con- genial to our minds, that we love even ihejbadfatt " of it :* and Horace, in his rules for compofing an epick poem, eftabliffies the fame law in our natures, by advifing the * fictions in poetry to refemble truth." Now the bible contains more truths than any other book in the world : fo true is the teflimony that it bears of God in his works of creation, providence, and redemption, that it is called truth itfolf, by way of pre eminence above things that are only fimply true* How BIBLE IN SCHOOLS. 97 forcibly are we ftruck with the evidences of truth , in the hi (lory of the Jews, above what we difcover in the hiftory of other nations ? Where do we find a hero, or an hiftorian record his own faults or vices except in the Old Teftament? Indeed, my friend, from fome accounts which I have read of the American revolution, I begin to grow fceptical to all hiftory except to that which is contained in the bible. New if this book be known to contain nothing but what is materially true, the mind will naturally acquire a love for it from this circumftarice : and from this affection for the truths of of the bible, it will acquire a difcernment of truth in" other books, and a preference of it in all the tranfacYions of life. VIII. There is a wonderful property in the memory which enables it in old age, to recover the knowledge it had acquired in early life, after it had been appa rently forgotten for forty or fifty years. Of how much confequence, then, mufl it be, to fill the mind with that fpecies of knowledge, in childhood and youth, which, when recalled in the decline o life, will fupport the foul under the infirmities of age, and fmooth the avenues of approaching death ? The bible is the only book which is capable of affording this fupport to old age ; and it is for this reafon that we find it refcrted 1 to with fo much diligence and pleafure by fuch old people as have read it in early life. I can recolledl many inftances of this kind in perfons who difcovcred O 9# DEI-EN CK OF THE USE OF THE no attachment to the bible, in the meridian of their lives, who have notwithftanding, fpent the evening of them, in reading no other book. The late Sir John Pringle, Phyfician to the Q^ueen of Great Britain, after palling a long life in camps and at court, clofed it by ftudying the fcriptures. So anxious was he to increafe his knowledge in them, that he wrote to Dr. Michaelis, a learned profefler of divinity in Germany, for an explanation of a difficult text of fcripture, a fhort time before his death. IX. My fecond argument in favour of the ufo of the bible in fchools, is founded upon an implied command of God, and upon the practice of feveral of the wifeft nations of the world. In the 6th chapter of Deu teronomy, we find the following words, which are directly to my purpofe, " And thou fbak love the; " Lord thy God, with all thy heart and with all thy " foul, and with all thy might. And thefe words 41 which I command thee this day mall be in thine " heart. And thou fialt teach them diligently unto tky <c children, and {halt talk of them when thou fitteft in " thine houfe, and when thou walked by the way, " and when then Heft down, and when thou rife& up," It appears, moreover, from the hiftory of the Jews, that they flouriihed as a nation, in proportion as they honoured and read the books of Mofes, which contain ed, a written revelation of the will of God, to the chil- BIBLE IN SCHOOLS. 99 tlren of men. The law was not only neglected, but loft during the general profligacy of manners which accom panied the long and wicked reign of Manafiah. But the difcovery of it, in the r-ubbifh of the temple, by Jofiah, and its fubfequent general ufe, were followed by a re turn of national virtue and profperity. We read further, of the wonderful effects which the reading of the law by Ezra, after his return from his captiviy in Babylon, had upon the Jews. They hung upon his lips with tears, and mowed the fmcerity of their re pentance, by their general reformation. The learning of the Jews, for many years confided in nothing but a knowledge of the fcriptures. Thefe were the text books of all the inftru6Hon that was given in the fchools of their prophets. It was by means of this general knowledge of their law, that thofe Jews that wandered from Judea into our coun- tries, carried with them and propagated certain ideas of the true God among all the civilized nations upon the face of the earth. And it was from the attachment they retained to the old Tefhment, that they procured a tranflation of it into the Greek language, after they loft the Hebrew tongue, by their long abfence from their native country. The utility of this tranflation, commonly called the feptuagint, in facilitating the pro- grefs of the gofpd, is well known to all who are ac quainted with the hiftory of the fir ft age of die chriftun church. IOO / DEFENCE OF THE USE OF THE I But the benefits of an early and general acquaintance with the bible, were not confined only to the Jewiih nations. They have appeared in many .countries in Europe, fince the reformation. The induftry, and habits of order, which diftinguifh many of the German nations, are derived from their early inilruclion in the principles of chriflianity, by means of the bible. The moral and enlightened character of the inhabitants of Scotland, and of the New England States, appears to be derived from the fame caufe. If we defcend from nations to fels, we ihall find them wife and profpcrous in proportion as they become early acquainted with the fcriptures. The bible is ftill ufed as a fchool book among the quakers. The morality of this feel: of chriflians is univerfally acknowledged. Nor is this all, their prudence in the management of their private affairs, is as much a mark of their fociety, as their fober manners*. I wim to be excufed for repeating here, that if the bible did not convey a fmgle direction for the attain ment of future happinefs, it fhould be read in our fchools in preference to all other books, from its containing the greateft portion of that kind of knowledge which is cal culated to produce private and publick temporal hap pinefs. We err not only in human affairs, but in religion likewife, only becaufe (t we do not know the fcriptures." The oppofite fy (lems of the numerous fects of chriflians BIBLE IN SCHOOLS. IOt arife chiefly from their being more inftru&ed in cate- chifms, creeds, and confeffions of faith, than in the fcriptures. Immcnfs truths, I believe, are concealed in them. The time, I have no doubt, will come, when pofterity will view and pity our ignorance of thefe truths, as much as we do the ignorance of the difcipies of our Saviour, who knew nothing of the meaning of thole plain paiTages in the old teftament which were daily fulfilling before their eyes. Whenever that time {hall arrive, thofe truths which have efcaped our notice, or, if difcovered,nave been thought to be oppofedto each other, or to be inconfiftent with themfelves, will then like the ftones of Solomon s temple, be found fo exactly to accord with each other, that they (hall be cement ed without noife or force, into one fimple and fublime fyftem of religion. But further, we err, not only in religion but in phi- lofophy likewife, becaufe we l< do not know or believe " the fcriptures." The fciences have been compared to a circle of which religion compofes a part. To under- ftarid any one of them perfectly it is nsceflary to have fome knowledge of them all. Bacon, Boyle, and Newton included the fcriptures in the inquiries to which their univerfal.geniufes difpofed them, and their philofophy was aided by their knowledge in them. A finking agree ment has been lately difcovered between the hiftory of certain events recorded in the bible and feme of the operations and productions of nature, particularly thofe which are related in "Whitehurft s obfervation* on the 102 DEFENCE OF THE USE OF THE deluge in Smith s account of the origin of the variety of colour in the human fpecies, and in Bruce s travels. It remains yet to be mown how many other events, related in the bible, accord with fome late important difcoveries in the principles of medecine. The events, and the principles alluded to, mutually eftabliih the truth of each other. From the difcoveries of the chriilian philofophers, whofe names have been lail mentioned, I have been led to queflion whether moil harm has been done to revelation, by thofe divines who have unduly multiplied the obje6ts of faith, or by thofe deifts who have unduly multiplied the objects of rcafoii, in explaining the fcriptures. I mail now proceed to anfwer fome of the objec tions which have been made to the ufe of the bible as a fchool book. I. We are told, that the familiar ufe of the bible in our fchools, has a tendency to leficn a due reverence for it. This objection, by proving too much, proves nothing at all. If familiarity leiTerts refpecl: for divine things, then all thofe precepts of our religion, which enjoin the daily or weekly worfhip of the Deity, arc improper. The bible was not intended to reprefent a Jewifn ark ; and it is an antichriftian idea, to fuppofe that it can be profaned, by being carried into a fchool hoXifc, or by being handled by children. But where will the bible be read by young people with more reverence than in a fchool ? Not in moil private families j for I believe there are few parents, whopre- BIBLE IN SCHOOLS. 103 serve fo much order in their houfea, as is kept up in our common Englifii fchools. II. We are told, that there are many paflages in the old teftament, that are improper to be read by- children, and that the greatelt part of it is no \vay in- terefting to mankind under the prefent difpenfation of the gofpel. There are I grant, feveral chapters, and many verfes in the old teftament, which in their prefent unfortunate tranflation, mould be patted over by children. But I deny that any of the books of the- old teftament are not interefting to mankind, under the gofpel difpenfation. Moft of the characters, events, and ceremonies, mentioned in them, are perfo- nal, providential, or inftituted types of the Mefliah : All of which have been, qr remain yet to be, fulfilled by him. It is from an ignorance or neglect of thefe types, that we have fo many deifts in chriftendom ; for fa irrefragably do they prove the truth of chriftianity,, that I am fure a young man who had been regularly inftru&ed in their meaning, could never doubt after wards of the truth of any of its principles. If any ob- fcurity appears in thefe principles, it is only (to ufe the words of the poet) becaufe they are dark, with ex~ ceffive bright. I know there is an objection among many Peo ple to teach children doctrines of any kind, becaufc they are liable to be controverted. But where will this objection lead us ? The being of a God> and the obligations of morality, have both bee* DEFENCE OF THE USE OF THE 104 controverted ; and yet who has objected to our teach ing thefe doctrines to our chilldrea ? The curiofity and capacities of young people for the myfteries of religion, awaken much fooner than is generally fuppofed. Of this we have* twa remarkable proofs in the old teflamsnt. The firft is mentioned in the twelfth chapter of Exodus. " And it (hall come when your children (hall fay unto you, What mean you by this fervice ?" tliat ye (hall fay, " It is the facra* " fice of the Lord s pnffover, who paiTed over the houfes < ; of the children of Ifrael in -Egypt, when he fmote the " Egyptians, and delivered our houfes. And the chil- " dren of Ifrael went away, and did as the Lord had " commanded Mofes and Aaron." A fecond proof of the defire of children to be inflrufted in the myfteries of religion, is to be found in the fixth chapter of Deuter onomy. (t And when thy fon n/keth thee in the time to come faying, " What mean the teftimonies and the <c flatutes and the judgments which the Lord our God hath commanded you ?" Then thou malt fay unto thy fen, We were Pharoah s bondmen in Egypt, and " the Lord our God brought us out of Egypt with a < : mighty hand." Thefe enquiries from the mouths of children are perfectly natural ; for where is the parent who has not had fimilar .queftions propofed to him byhis children upon their being being firft conduct ed to a place of worfhip, or upon their beholding, for the firft time, either of the facraments of our religion ? BIBLE IN SCHOOLS. 105 Let us not not be \vifer than our Maker. If moral precepts alone could have reformed mankind, the mif- fion of the Son of God into our world, .would have been unneceiTary. He came to promulgate a fyftem of doElrinsS) as well as a fyftem of morals. The perfedt morality of the gofpel refts upon a dsftrint, which, though often controverted, has never been refuted, I mean the vicarious life and death of the Son of God. This fublime and ineffable dodtrine delivers us from the abfurd hypothefes of modern philofophers, con cerning the foundation of moral obligation, and fixes it upon the eternal and felf moving principle of LOVE. It concentrates a whole fyftem of ethics in a {ingle, text of fcripture. " A new commandment I give unto you, that ye love one another, even as I have loved you" By witholding the knowledge of this doclrine from children, we deprive ourfelves of the beft means of awakening moral fenlibility in their minds. We do more, we furnifii an argument, for witholding from them a knowledge of the morality of the gofpel like- wifej for this, in many inftances, is as fupernatural, and therefore as liable to be controverted, as any of the doctrines or miracles which are mentioned in the new teftament. The miraculous conception of the faviour of the world by a virgin, is not more oppofed to the ord^ary courfe of natural events, nor is the dotrine of the atonement more above human reafon, than thofe moral precepts, which command us to love our enemies, or to die for our friends. P 106 DEFENCE OF THE USE OF THE III. It has been faid, that the divifion of the bible into chapters and verfes, renders it more difficult to be read, by children than many other books. By a little care in a mafter, this difficulty may be ob viated, and even an advantage derived from it. It may ferve to transfer the attention of the fcholar to the fenfc of a fubjecl: ; and no perfon will ever read well, who is guided by any thing elfe, in his flops, em- phafis, or accents. The divifion of the bible into chapters and verfes, is not a greater obftacle to its be ing read with eafe, than the bad punctuation of moft other books. I deliver this ftrifturc upon other books, from the authority of Mr. Rice, the celebrated author of the art of fpeaking, whom I heard declare in a large company in London, that he had never feen a book properly pointed in the Englifh Language. He exem plified, riotwithftanding, by reading to the fame com pany a paflage from Milton, his perfedt knowledge of the art of reading. Some people, I know, have propofed to introduce extracts from the bible, into our fchools, inftead of the bible itfelf. Many excellent works of this kind, are in print, but if we admit any one of them, we fhall have the fame inundation of them that we have had of grammars, fpelling books, and Jeflbns for children, many of which are publifhed for the benefit of the authors only, and all of them have tended greatly to in- creafe the expence of education. Befides, thcfe extracts BIBLE IN SCHOOLS. 107 or abridgements of the bible, often contain the tenets of particular feb or perfonsj and therefore, may be im proper for fchools cornpofed of the children of differ ent fefts of chriftians. The bible is a cheap book, and is to be had in every bookftore. It is, moreover, efteemed and prefered by all feels ; becaufe each finds its peeuliar doctrines in it. It (liould therefore be ufed in preference to any abridgements of it, or hiflo- ries extracted from it. I have heard it propofed that a portion of the bible fhould be read every day by the matter, as a means of inftru&ing children in it : But this is a poor fubftitute for obliging children to read it as a fchool book ; for by this means we infenfibly engrave, as it were, its con tents upon their minds : and it has been remarked that children, inftrucled in this way in the fcriptures, fel- tlom forget any part of them. They have the fame advantage over thofe perfons,who have only heard the fcriptures read by a mailer, that a man who has work ed with the tools of a mechanical employment for feve- ral years, has over the man who has only flood a few hours in a work fhop, and feen the fame bufmefs carri ed on by other people. In this defence of the uic of the bible as a fchool book, I beg you would not think that I fuppofe the Bi ble to contain the only revelation which God has made ro man. I believe in an inicTiul revelation, or a moral IC DEFENCE OF THE USE OF THE principle, which God has implanted in the heart of every man, a? the precurior of his final dominion over the whole human race. How much this internal reve lation accords with the external, remains yet to be ex plored by philofophers. I am difpofed to believe, that moft of the doclrines of chriftianity revealed in the bi ble might be difcovered by a clofe examination of all the principles of action in man : But who is equal to fuch an enquiry ? It certainly does not fuit the natural in dolence, or laborious employments of a great majority of mankind. The internal revelation of the gofpcl may be compared to the ftraight line which is made through a wilder nefs bv the afiiilance of a compafs, to a diftant coumiry, which few are able to dii rover, while the bib!: re.ernbles a public road to the fame country, which is wide, plain, and eafily found. " And a highway fliall be there, and it {hall be called the way of hojinefs. The way faring men, though fools, fhali not err therein." Neither let m.* in this pLicc exclude the Revelation which God hiss n-ade of himfelf to man in the works of creation. I am far from wifhing to lelTen the in fluence of th:;, fpecies of Revelation upon mankind. But the knowledge of God obtained from this fource, is cbfcure and feeble in its operation, compared with that wh;^h is derived from the bible. The vifible creation >of the Deity in liyeroglyphics, while the bible def- cribes ail his attributes and perfections in fuch plain, BIBLE IN SCHOOLS. 109 and familiar language that " he who runs may read/ How kindly has our maker dealt with his creature*, in providing three different cords to draw them to himfelf ! But how weakly do fome men act, who fufpsnd their faith, and hopes upon only one of them [ By laying hold of them all, they would approach more fpeedily and certainly to the centre of all hap- pinefs* To the arguments I have mentioned in favour of the ufe of the bible as a fchool book, I mall add a few reflections. The prefent fafhionable practice of rejecting the bible from our fchools, I fufpect has originated with the deifts. They difcover great ingenuity in this new mode of attacking chriftianity. If they proceed in it, they will do more in half a century, in extirpating our religion, than Bolingbroke or Voltaire could have ef fected in a thoufand years. I am not writing to this clafs of people. I defpair of changing the opinions of any, of them. I wifh only to alter the opinions and con duct of thofe lukewarm, or fuperftitiotis chriilians, who have been mifled by the deifts upon this fubject. On the ground of the good old cuftom, of ufing the bible as a fchool book, it becomes us to entrench our religion. It is the hft bulwark the deifts have left it ; for they have rendered inftruction in the principles 110 DEFENCE OF THE USE OF THE of chriftianity by the pulpit and the prefs,fo unfafhiona- ble, that little good for many years feems to have been done by either of them. The effe&s of the difufe of the bible, as a fchool book have appeared of late in the negledl and even contempt with which fcripture names are treated by many peo ple. It is becaufe parents have not been early taught to know or refpecT: the characters and exploits of the old and new tcftament worthies, that their names are exchanged for thofe of the modern kings of Europe, or of the principal characters in novels and romances. I conceive there may be fome advantage in bearing fcrip ture names. It may lead the perfons who bear them, to fludy that part of the fcriptures,in which their names, are mentioned, with uncommon attention, and perhaps it may excite a defire in them to poflefs the talents or vir tues of their ancient nainefakes.This remark firft occur red to me, upon hearing a pious woman whofe name was Mary, fay, that the firft paffages of the bible, which made a ferious impreffion on her mind, were thofe in- terciting chapters and veries in which the name of Mary is mentioned in the New Teftament, It is a fingular faft, that while the names of the kings and emperors of Rome, are now given chiefly to hrfes and dogs , fcripture names have hitherto been con fined only to the human fpecics. Let the enemies and contcmners of thofe names take care, left the names of BIBLE IN SCHOOLS. I I I more modern kings be given hereafter only to the fame animals, and left the names of the modern heroines of romances be given to animals of an inferior fpecies. It is with great pleafure, that I have obferved the bi ble to be the only book rend in the Sunday fchools in England. We have adopted the fame practice in the Sunday fchools, lately eftablifhed in this city. This will give our religion (humanly fpeaking) the chance of a longer life in our country. We hear much of the perfons educated in free fchools in England, turning out well in the various walks of life. I have enquired into the caufe of it, and have fatisfied myfelf, that it is wholly to be afcribed to the general ufe of the bible in thofe fchools, for it feenis the children of poor people are of too little confequence to be gu arded from the fuppofed evils of reading the fcriptures in early life, or in an unccnfecrated fchool houfe. However great the benefits of reading the fcriptures in fchools have been, I cannot help remarking, that thefe benefits might be much greater, did fchcolmafters take more pains to explain them to their fcholars. Did they demonflrate the divine original of the bible from the purity, confiftency, and benevolence of its doctrines and precepts did they explain the meaning of the levitical inflitutions, and mow their application to the numerous and fuceffive gofpel difpenfations did they inform their pupils that the grofs and abominable vices 112 DEFENCE OF THE USE OF THE of the Jews were recorded c,v/y as proofs of the depravi ty of human nature, and of the infuflkiency of the law, to produce moral virtue and thereby to eftabliih the neceiiity and perfection of the gofpel fyftem and above all, did they often enforce the difcourfes of our Savicur, as the bed rule of life, and the furcfl guide tu hap- pinefs, how great would be the influence of our fchools upon the order and profperity of our country ! Such a mode of inflru6ting children in thechriftian religion, would convey knowledge into their underflandtngSy and would therefore be preferable to teaching them creeds, and catechifms, which too often convey, not know ledge, but words only, into their memories. I think I am not too fangifme in believing, that education, con- dueled in this manner, would, in the courfe of two generations, eradicate infidelity from among us, and render civil government fcarcely necefiary in our coun- try. In contemplating the political inftitutions of the United States, I lament, that we wafle fo much time and money in punifhing crimes, and take fo little pains to prevent them. We profefs to be republicans, and yet we neglect: the only means of eflablifhing and per petuating our republican forms of government, that is, the univerfal education of our youth in the principles of chriftianity, by means of the bible , for this divine book, above all others, favours that equality among mankind, that refpecl for juil laws, and all thofe ibber BIBLE IN SCHOOLS. 11^ and frugal virtues, which conftitute the foul of repub- licanifm. I have now only to apologize for havging addrefled this letter to you, after having been aflured by you, that your opinion, refpeHng the ufe of the bible as a fchooi book, coincided with mine. My excufe for what I have done is, that I knew you were qualified by your knowledge, and difpofed by your zeal in the caufe of truth, to correct all the errors you would dif- cover in my letter. Perhaps a further apology may be necefTary for my having prefumed to write upon a fubjecT: fo much above my ordinary ftudies. My excufe for it is, that I thought a fmgle mite from a member of a profeflion, which has been frequently charged with fcepticifm in religion, might attract the notice of perfons who had often overlooked the more ample contributions upon this fubjecT:, of gentlemen of other profeffions. With great refpect, I am, dear fir, your fmcere friend. BENJAMIN RUSH* Philadelphia, March io ; 1791. AN ADDRFSS TO THE MINISTERS OF THE GOSPEL OF EVERY DENOMINATION IN THE UNITED STAT1.S-, UPON SUBJECTS INTERESTING TO MORALS. FROM the nature of your purfuits, and from your influence in fociety, I am encouraged to addrefs you upon fubje&s of the utmofl impor tance to the prefeiit and future hnppinefs of your fel low-citizens, as well as to the profperity of the United States. Under the great diverfity of opinions, you entertain in religion, you are all united in inculcating the ne- ceflity of morals. In this bufmefs you are neither catholics nor proteftants churchmen nor diflenters. One fpirit actuates you all. From the fuccefs, or failure, of your exertions in the caufe of virtue, we raiticipate the freedom or flavery of our country. Even the new government of the united dates, from which fo m;<ny advantages arc expected, will neither reftore order, --nor eftablifh jufdce among us, unlefs it be ac companied and lupportul by morality, jamong ail claffes of people.) , Impreffed with a fenfe of the truth cf thcfe obfcrvations, I mall biiefiy point cut a few of thofc practices, which prevail in America, which ex- ADDRESS TO THE MINISTERS, &C. 115 crt a pernicious influence upon morals,, and thereby ; prepare our country for mifery and flavery. I mall begin by pointing out, in the firft place, the mifchevious effects of fnirituos liquors upon the morals of our citizens. I. They render the temper peevifh and paffionate. / They beget quarrels, and lead to profane and indecent language. They arc the parents of idlenefs and ex travagance, and the certain foreiuarier; of poverty, and frequently of jails, wheelbarrows, and the gallows. They are likewife injurious to health and life, and kill more than the peftilencc, or the fword. Our legif- latures, by pre mitt ing the ufe of them, for the fake of the paltry duty collected from them, act as abfurdly as a prince would do, who mould permit the cul tivation of a poifonous nut, which every year car ried off ten thoufand of his fubjedls, becaufe it yielded a revenue of thirty thoufand pounds a year. Thefe ten thoufand men would produce annually by their labour, - or by paying a trifling impoft upon any one of the neceflaries of life, twenty times that fum. In order to put an end to the defolating effects of fpirituous liquors, it will be proper for our minifters to preach againft, not the abufe of them only, but their ufe al together. They are never neceiTary but in ficknefs : and then they are better applied to the outfide, than to the irifide of the bodv. lid ADDRESS TO THE MINISTERS II Militia laws have an unfriendly influence upon morals, more efpecially where they authorife the elec tion of the officers by the privates. The meetings of citizens for militia exercifes are generally attended with intemperance in drinking, quarrelling, profane fwearing, and adl:s of violence to the property of the perfons who live near the places where thofe meetings are held. It is a miftake to fuppofe that the defence of liberty requires a well organized militia in the time of peace. The United States proved in the beginning of the late war, and France has proved fmce, that armies of difeiplined irrefiilable troops may be formed in a mort time out of the peafants of a country. War has lately be come a fimple art. All that is practical in it, may be acquired in a few weeks. The moft gallant exploits were performed during the late war, by men who had been but a few days in the practice of handling fire arms. III. Fairs are a Pandora s box opened twice a year, in many of the dates. They are wholly unneceilary, fmce {hops are fo common in all the civilized parts of the country. They tempt to extravagance gaming drunkennefs and undeannefs. They are proper only in defpotic ftates, where the more a people are corrupted, the more readily they fubmit to arbitrary government. IV. Law-fuits mould be difcouraged as much as poilible. They are highly difreputable between perfons. OF EVERY DENOMINATION. 117 who profefs chriftianity. The attendance upon courts expofes to idlenefs drinking and gaming ; and the iifual delays of juftice feldom fail of entailing hereditary difcord among neighbours. It is with inexpreffible plea- fure that I have lately feen an account of a recom mendation from the prefbyterian.fynod of New- York and Philadelphia, to all the churches under their care, to fettle their difputes after the manner of the pri mitive chriftians and friends, by arbitration. Blefled event in the hiftory of mankind ! may their practice fpread among all fets of chriilians, and may it prove a prelude of that happy time foretold in the icrip- tures, when war and murder mall be no more. V. The licentioufnefs of the prefs is a fruitful fouree of the corruption of morals. Men are deterred from in juring each other, chiefly by the fear of detection or punifhment. Now both of thefe are removed by the ufual fecrecy of a licentious prefs. Hence revenge, fcandal, and falfehood are cherifhed and propagated in a community. By means of this engine of malice, we fometimes fee not only reputation but even life, kfelf, taken away. The patriotic Mr. Cummins, and the amiable Dr. Hawkefworch 3 it is faid, both died of a broken heart, in confequence of being attacked by perfons, who concealed thcmfelves behind a licentious prefs in London. Perfonul difputes and attacks in a newfpupcr, may be compared to duels^ or to the Indian mode of fighting, according as they are carried on with. Il8 ADDRESS TO THE MINISTERS or without the names of their authors. They mew in bath cafes, a degree of the fame fpirit, which leads to open murder or private afiaiiinution. But further : the caufe of liberty is greatly injured by perfonal pub lications, which are not true, or which have no connec tion with the public ; for who will believe a truth that is told of a bad man, who has been accuftomed to read falfehoods publiihcd every day, of a good man ? Printers who vend fcurrility, would do well in con- fulering, that the publisher of .(caudal, is as bad as the author of it, in the fame manner that the receiver of ftolen goods, is as bad as the thief. VI. Hcrfe-rdcing and cock-fighting are unfriendly am.ufements to morals, and of courfe to the liberties of our country. ihcy cccafion iulenefs, fraud, gaming, and profane fwea-ring, and harden thejheart againfFihe feelings of Immunity. Thefe vulgar fports ihould be forbidden by law in all chriilian and republican coun ties. VII. Clubs of all kinds, where the only bufmefs of the company, is f.-i .:r..^ ^for that is true name of a i kation that is fimply animal ; are hurtful to morals. The fociety in fr.v^nis where clubs are ufually held, is feldom fubjecl; to much order. It expofes men to idlcncfs, prodigality, and debt. It is in private families, only that fociety is innocent, or improving. Here manners are ufuiilly kept within the bounds of decen cy by the company of females, who generally compofe OF EVERT DENOMINATION. 119 a part of all private families ; and manners, it is well known, have an influence upon morals. VIII. Amufements of every kind, on Sundays, beget habits of idlenefs and a love of pleafurc, which extend their influence to every day of the week. In thofe manufacturing towns in England, where the Sundays are fpent in Idlenefs or frolicking, little cr no work is ever done on theenfuing day; hence it is called St. Mon day. If there were no hereafter individuals and fo- cieties would be great gainers, by attending public worfhip every Sunday. Heft from labour in the houfe of God, winds up the machine of both foul and body, better than any thing elfe, and thereby invigorates it for the labours and duties of the enfuing week. Should I ever travel into a chriftian country, and wifli to know whether the laws of that country were wife and juft, and whether they were duly obeyed, the only qaeftioii I would aik, ihould be " do the people fpend Sunday at church, or in pleamrable entertainments at home and abroad ?" the Sunday fchools in England have been found extremely ufeful in reforming the children of poor people. Who can witnefs the practices of fwimming, Hiding and fcating, which prevail fo univcr- fally on Sundays, in mo ft of the cities of the United States, and not wifli for fimilar inftitutions to refcues our poor children from deftruclion ? I fnall conclude my remarks upon this f abject, by declaring, that I do not wifli to fee any new laws made to enforce the keeping 120 ADDRESS TO THE MINISTERS of the Sabbath. I call upon minifters of the gofpel only, to increafe and extend, by their influence, the pure and ufeful fpiiit of their religion In riding through our country, we may always tell, by the ap pearance of the people we meet with on the road, or fee at taverns, whether they enjoy the benefit of public worfhip, and of a vigilant and faithful miniftry. Where a fettlement enjoys thefe ineftimahle bettings, we generally find taverns deferted on a Sunday, and a fiillnefs pervading the whole neighbourhood, as if nature herfelf had ccafed from her labours, to (hare with man in paying her weekly homage to God for his creating goodncfs Thus I have briefly pointed out the principal four- ces of vice in our country. They are all of a public nature, and affect, in a direct manner, the general in- terefts of fociety. I fhall now fuggeft a few fources of vice, which are of a domeftic nature, and which in directly affect the happinefs of our country. I. The frequent or long abfence of the mafter and miflrefs from home,bydiflblving the bounds of dcmeftic government, proves a fruitful fource cf vice among children and fervants. To prevent in fome degree, the inconveniencies which arife from the neceffary ab fence of the heads of a family, from home, it would be a good practice to inveft the eldeft fori or daughter, when of a fuitable age, with the government of the family and to make them refponfible for their conduct, upon OF EVERY DENOMINATION. 12* tfic return of their parents. Government in a family is like an elearic rod to a houfe. Where it is wanting a family is expofed to the attacks of eveiy folly and vice, that come within the fphere of its attraction. II. Frequent and large entertainments weaken do- meftic government, by removing children and fervants too long from! the eye of authority. They moreover, expofe children and fervants to the temptation of eat- ting and drinking to excefs. III. -Boys and girls fhould never be admitted as fer vants into a genteel family. They are feldom in- ftructed properly, by their matters or miftrefies. Their leifure hours are moreover fpent in bad compa ny : and all the vices which they pick up, are fpread among the children ef the family, who are generally more prone to aiTociate with them, than with any other. Where poverty or death makes it necefFary to bind out children, they fhould be bound to thofe perfons only, who will work with them. By thefe means, they will be trained to induftry, and kept from idlenefs and vice. IV. Servants, both male and female mould always be hired by the year, otherwife no proper government can be eftablifhed over them. The impertinence and irregular conduct of fervants, arife from their holding their places by too (hort a tenure. It would be a good law to fine every perfon, who hired a fervant, without a written good character, figned by his laft matter, R 122 ADDRESS TO THE MINISTERS and counterfigned by a magiftrate. This praftice would foon drive bad fervants out of the civilized parts of ur country and thereby prevent much evil both in families and fociety. How many young men and wo men have carried through life the forrowful marks in their confciences or characters, of their being early ini tiated into the myfteries of vice, by unprincipled fer vants of both fexes 1 Servants that are married, mould be preferred to fuch as are fingle. Matrimony in all ranks of people leflens the temptation to vice, and fur- nifhes freih motives to juft conduct. V. Apprentices mould always board and lodge, if pof- fible, with their mailers and miflreiles, when they are feparated from their parents. Young people feldom fall into bad company in the day time. It is in .the .evening, when theyceafeto be fubject to government, that they are in the moft danger of corruption : and this danger can be obviated only by fubj^&ing all their hours to the direction of their matters or miftrefles. I {hall conclude this addrefs, by fuggcfting to mini- it ers of the gofpel, a plan of a new fpecies of federal, government for the advancement of morals in the Uni ted States. Let each feel: appoint a repreferitative in a general convention of chriftians, whofe bufmefs mall be, to unite in promoting the general objects of chrif- tianity. Let no matters of faith or opinion ever be in troduced into this convention, but let them be confider- OF EVERY DENOMINATION. 123 d as badges of the fovereignly of each particular fet To prevent all difputes, let the objects of the delibera tions of this general convention be afcetiained with the fame accuracy, that the powers of the national govern ment are denned in the new conftitution of the United States. By this previous compact, no encroachments will ever be made by the general government, upon the principles difcipiine or habits of any one fedl for in the prefent (late of human nature^ the divifion of chriftians into feels, is as necefiary to the exiftence and prefervation of chriftianity, as the divifion of man kind into nations, and of nations into feparate families are neceflary to promote general and private happinefs. By means of fuch an inftitution, chriilian charity will be promoted, and the difcipiine of each church will be flrengthened for I would propofe, that a difmiflion for immorality, from any one church, mould exclude a man from every church in the ecclefiaftical union. But the advantages of this chriftian convention will not end here. It will poflefs an influence over the laws of the United States. This influence will differ from that of moft of the ecclefiaftical aflbciations that have exifted in the world. It will be the influence of reafon over the paflions of men. Its objects will be morals, not principles, and the defign of it will be, not to make men zealous members of any one church, but to make them good neighbours good hufbands good fathers good mailers good fervants and of courfe good 124 ADDRESS TO THE MINISTERS, &C. rulers and good citizens. The plan is certainly a pracr ticable one. America has taught the nations of Eu rope by her example to be free, and it is to be hoped (he will foon teach them to govern themfelves. Let her advance one ftep further and teach mankind, that it is poffible for chriftians of different denominations to love each other, and to unite in the advancement of their common interefls. By the gradual operation of fuch natural means, the kingdoms of this world are pro bably to become the kingdoms of the prince of righte r pufnefs and peace. Philadelphia, June 21, 1788. AN ENQUIRY INTO THE CONSISTENCY OF OATHS WITH REASON AND CHRISTIANITY. I :N difcufling this queftion, I fhall firft mention the objections to oaths, which are founded in reafon ; and, fecondly, the objections to them which are derived from the precepts arid fpirit of the chrif-* tian religion. I. Oaths produce an idea in the minds of men, that there are tiuo kinds or degrees of truth , the one intend ed for common, and the other for folemn occafions. Now, this idea is directly calculated to beget a want of reverence for the inferior kind of truth \ hence men are led to trifle with it in the common affairs of hu man life. I grant that fome men will tell the truth, when urged to it by the folemn formalities of an oath, who would not otherwife do it : But this proves the great mifchief of oaths in fociety \ for as men are called upon to fpeak the truth 999 tunes in com mon life, to once they are called upon to fivear to it, we have exactly 999 falfehoods to one truth told by them. How extenfive, then, muft be the mifchief of this great difproportion between truth and falfehood, in all the affairs of human life ! It is wrong to do *i6 ON OATHS. any thing that (hall create an idea of two kinds of truth. There is a fcale of falfehoods ; but truth has no degrees or fubdivifions. Like its divine author, it is an eternal unchangeable UNIT. II. The prafHce of fwearing according to human laws, appears to be the caufe of all profane fwear ing, which is fo univerfal among all ranks of people in common converfation ; for if there are two modes of fpeaking the truth, it is natural for men to pre fer that mode which the laws of our country hare entitled to the firft degree of credibility : hence men fwear, when they w. ili to be believed, in common con verfation. III. Oaths have been multiplied upon fo many trifling occanons, that they have ceafed, in a great degree, to operate with any force upon the mofl .folemn occafions : hence the univerfal prevalence of perjury in courts, armies and cuftom-houfes, all over the world. This fact is fo notorious in Jamaica, that a law has lately been parTed in that ifland, which re quires a bond of .200, inflead of an oath, from every captain that enters his vefTel in the cuftom-houfe, as a fecurity for his veracity in the manifeiT: of his cargo, and for the amount of his duties to the govern ment. Realbn and fcripture (when perfectly underilood) are never contrary to each other , and revelation from God can never give a function to that which is fo ON OATHS. 127 evidently abfurd, and unfriendly to the interefts of hu man fociety. Let us proceed then to examine the bible, and here we fhall find, that oaths are as contrary to the precepts and fpirit of chriftianity as they are to found reafon. Before I mention either the precepts or the fpirit of the gofpelj which militate againil oaths, I fhall men tion a few of the cafes of fwearing which I find upon record in the New Teltament. I fhall firft mention the precedents in favour of this practice, and then the precepts and precedents againft it. The firft precedent I fliall produce, is taken from the example of the devil, who addreiles our Saviour in an oath, in Mark v. 7. " "What have I to do with thee, Jefus, thou fon of the mod high God ? 1 adjure thee by God that thou torment me not." A fecorid precedent is taken from the example of the high prieft, who addrefles cur Saviour in an oath in Matthew, xxvi. 63. " I adjure thee," fays he, juft before he confents to his death, " by the living GW, that thou tell us whether thou be the Chrifl the fon of God." It has been faid that there was no impro priety in this mode of expreflion, othcrwife our Sa viour would have rebuked it : but let it be remem bered, that he flood before the tribunal of a high- prieft, as a prifoner, and not as a teacher ; and hence we find he fubmits mjilence to all the prophane in- fults that were ofFered him. In this filent fubmifli- f28 ON OATHS-. on to infult, he moreover fulfilled an ancient prophefy " he is brought as a lamb to the (laughter and as a fheep before his Ihearers is dumb, fo he openeth not his mouth" Ifaiah LIII. 7. Peter furriifhes a third inftance of fwearing. " And again he denied" (fays Matthew, chap. xxvi. 72.) " with an oath, I know not the man." It would feeni from this account, that a bare affirma tion was fo characteriftic of a disciple of Jefus Chrift, that Peter could not ufe a more direct method to convince the maid, who charged him with being a follower of Jefus of Nazareth-, that he was not a ehriftian) than by having recourfe to the Jexvifh and pagan practice of taking an oath. Herod furnifhes a fourth inftance of fwearing, in Matthew xiv. 7, when he promifed to give the daugh ter of Herodias whatever fhe mould afk of him : me alked for John the baptift s head in a charger : the king repented of his hafty promife ; " neverthelefs, for the oath s fake, and them which fat with him at meat, he commanded it to be given her." Here it is evident he would have violated a common pro- mife. But if common promifes are not held facred, and binding, there is an end of a great portion of truth in fociety, and of all the order and huppinefs which arife from it. To fecure con flan t and uni- verful truth, men mould fwear always or not at alL ON OATHS. 129 A fifth precedent for fwearing we find in the xix of Ads and I3th verfe. "Then certain of the vaga bond Jews, exorcitts, took upon them to call over them which had evil fpirits, the name of the Lord Jofus, faying, <we adjure thee, by Jefus whom Paul preacheth. And the man in whom the evil fpirit was, leaped on them, and overcame them j fo that they fled out of the houfe naked and wounded." The loft precedent for fwearing that I {hall men tion, is the one related in Ats xxiii. 21 ft. It con tains an account of forty men who had bound them- felves, by an ocith, not to eat or drink, until they had killed St. Paul. It would feem that this banditti knew each other perfectly, and that they would not acl: together under the form of a common obligation. The occafion indeed, feems to require an oath. It was an aflbciation to commit murder. I am difpof- ed to fufpecl that oaths were introduced originally to compel men to do things that were contrary to juftice, or to their conferences. In mentioning the precepts and precedents that are to be found in the new teftament againft fwear ing, the following ftriking paffage, taken from Matthew v. verfes 34, 35, 36, 37, mould alone determine the queftion. Swear not at all, neither by heaven, for it is God s throne ; nor by the earth, for it is his footftool , npr by Jerufalem, for it is the city of the S 130 ON OATHS. great king. Neither {halt thou fwear by thy head, becaufe thtfu carift not make one hair white or black But let your communication be yea, yea; nay, nay, for whatfoever is more than thefe, cometh of evil." The words of the apoftle James, are equally pointed againft fwearing, chap. v. 12. " But above all things my brethren, fwear not, neither by heaven, neither by the earth, neither by any other oath ; but let your yea, be yea, and your nay, nay ; left ye fall into condemna- I know, thefe paflages are faid to be levelled only againft profane fwearing in common converfation, but this will appear improbable when we reflect, that our Saviour s words were addrefTed exclufively to his dif- ciples, and that the epiftle of St. James, from whence the prohibition of fwearing is taken, is directed to a number of pious converts to chriftianicy, none of whom, any more than the c}ifciples of our Lord, could be fufpecled of profane fwearing in common conver fation. Both pafTages equally condemn oaths of every kind, and demonstrate their contrariety to the gofpel difpenfatioiu There is a peculiar meaning in the reafon which is given for the prohibition of fwearing in the pre cept, of cur Saviour, viz. that any thing more than a bare affirmation, csineth of evil. Yes, it came origi nally from the univerfal prevalance of falfehood in fociety ; but the chriftian religion, by opening new fources of ON OATHS. igi moral and religious obligation; and by difcoyering more fully the beauty and rewards of truth and deformity, and future punifhment of falfdhood, has rendered the obligation of oaths wholly unneceffary. They conv port d with the feeble difcoveries of the Jewifii, and the numerous corruptions of the pagan religions ; but they are urinece/Fary under that full and clear manifes tation of the divine will which is contained in the gofpel. Csefar s wife mould not be fufpe&ed. -With how miijh more propriety mould this be faid of the veracity of a chriftiari, than of the chaftity of the wife of a heathen emperor, Every time a chriflian f \vears, he expofes the purity and truth of his religion to fufpicion. " As for you, Petrarch, your word is fufficient," faid the cardinal Colorma, in an enquiry into the caufe of a riot that had happened in his fami ly, while that celebrated poet was a member of it ; and in which he exa&ed an oath from every ether member of his family, not excepting his own brother, the bifhop of Luna. The fame addrefs mould be made to every chriftisn, when he is called upon to declare the truth. You believe in a future (late of rewards and punifhment you prof els to be the follower of that Being who has inculcated a regard for truth, under the awful confid-jration of his omnifcience, and who has emphatically ftyled himfolf the TRUTH." Your word, therefore^ is fufficient. A nobleman is permitted, by the laws of England, to declare the truth upon his honour. The profeilion l$2 ON OATHS. of chriftianity is declared in Icripture to be an high calling, and chriftians are faid to be prlefts and kings. Strange ! that perfons of fuch high rank, fhould be treated with lefs refpecl than Englifh noblemen ; and flill more ftrange ! that perfons pofleffing thefe augufl titles, fhould betray their illuftrious birth and dignity, by conforming to a practice which tends fo much to invalidate the truth and excellency of their re ligion. It is very remarkable, that in all the accounts we have of the intercourfe of our Saviour with his dif ciples, and of their fubfequent intercourfe with each other, there is no mention made of a {ingle oath being taken by either of them. Perhaps there never was an event in which the higheft degrees of evidence were more neceiTary, than they were to eflablifh the truth of the refurrccUon of our Saviour, as on the truth of this miracle depen ded the credibility of the chriftian religion. But in the eflablifhment of the truth of this great event, no oath is taken, or required. The witncflcs of it fimply relate what they fa\v, and are believed by all the difciples except one, who ftill remembered. too well the prohibition of his mafler, " fwear not at all," to alk for an oath to remove his unbelief. It is worthy of notice likewife, that no prcpofterous oath of office is required of the difciples when they the apoflolic character, and arc fent forth to ON OATHS. 133 preach the gofpel to all nations. How unlike the fpirit of the gofpel are thofe human conftitutions and laws, which require oaths of fidelity, every year ! and v/hich appear to be founded in the abfurd idea that men are at all times the guardians of their own virtue. There can be no doubt of chriftians having uniform ly refuftd to take an oath in the firft ages of the church : nor did they conform to this pagan cuftom, till after chriftianity was corrupted by a mixture with many other parts of the pagan and Jewifh religions. There are two arguments in favour of oaths which are derived from the new teftament, and which remain to be refuted. ift. St. Paul ufes feveral ex- preffions in his epiftles which amount to oaths, and even declares " an oath to be the end of ftrife." It was the character of St. Paul, that he became all things to all men. He circumcifed as well as baptized Jews, and he proves the truth of revelation by a quota tion from a heathen poet. Oaths were a part of the Jewifh and pagan inftitutions and, like feveral other ceremonies, for fome time, continued to retain a flrong hold of the prejudices of the new converts to chriftianity. But the above words of the Apoftle, which have been urged in favor of fwearing, are by no means intended to apply to common life. They have a retrofpeft to the promife made to Abraham of the coming of the Median, and were defigned to (hew the I3 4 ON OATHS. certainty of that event in a language which was accom modated to the idea of the Jewifli nation. 2d. It has beeen faid, that the great Jehovah frequently fwears, both in the old and new teftament, ar.d that the angel who is to found the lafl trumpet will ft fwearthat time fhallbe no more." Every expreffi- on of this kind fhould be confidered as an accomodation to Jewifl; and pagan cuftoms, in order to render the truths of revelation more intelligible and acceptable. The Supreme Being, for the fame reafons, often afiumes to h.imfelf the violent paffions, and even the features and fenfes of men j and yet who can fuppofe it proper to afcribe either of them to a Being, one of whofe perfections confifts in his exifting as a pure unchangeable fpirit. If oaths are contrary to rcafon, and have a pernicious influence upon morals and the order of fociety ; and above all, if they are contrary to the precepts and fpirit of the gofpd ; it becomes legiflatovs and minis ters of the gofpel to confider how far they are refponfi- ble for all the falfehood, profane fvvearing and perjury that exift in fociety. It is in the power of legiflatcrs to aboliih oaths, by expunging them from our laws ; .and it is in the power of miniflers of the gofpel, by their influence and example, to render truth fo fimpie and obligatory, that human governments fhall be afhamed to afk any other mode of declaring it, from G&FJftijffij) than by a bare affirmation. ON OATHS. The friends of virtue and freedom have beheld, with great pleafure, a new conftitution eftabliihed in the United States, whofe objects are peace, union and. jujticz. It will be in the power of the firft congrefs that fhall aft under this conftitution, to fet the world an example of enlightened policy, by framing laws that fhall command obedience without the abfurd and improper obligation of oaths. By this means they will add the reftoration and eftablifhment of TRUTH, to the great and valuable objects of the conftitution that have been mentioned. Jan. 20 1789. AN INQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF PUBLIC PU NISHMENTS UPON CR1M INALS, AND UPON SOCIETY. READ IN THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING POLITI CAL ENQUIRIES, CONVENED AT THE HOUSE OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, ESQ^, IN PHILADELPHIA, MARCH pth, 1787. " Accuftomed to look up to thofe nations from whom we have derived our origin, for our laws, oar opinions, and our manners j we have re tained, with undiftinguifliing reverence, their errors, with their im provements; have blended, with our public inititutions, the policy of diffimilar coun f rics ; and have grafted, on an infant commonwealth, the manners of ancient and corrupted monarchies." PREFACE TO THE LAWS OF THE SOCIETY FOR POLITICAL EM QJL IR IES. TJ \ I HE defign of punifliment is faid to be, ift, to reform the pcrfon who fuffers it ; 2dly, to prevent the perpetration of crimes, by exciting ter ror in the minds of fpeftators ; and, 3dly, to remove thofe perfons from fociety, who have manifefted, by their tempers and crimes, that they are unfit to live in it. From the firft inftitution of governments, in every age and country (with but a few exceptions) legifla- tors have thought that punimments fhould be public, in order to anfwer the two firft of thefe intentions. It will require fome fortitude to combat opinions that Lave been fanlified by fuch long and general preju- AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS, &C. 137 and fupported by univerfal practice. But truth in government, as well as in philofophy, is of pro- gre/Tive growth. As in philofophy, we often arrive at truth by rejecting the evidence of our fenfes ; fo in government, we often arrive at it, after divorcing our firrt thoughts. Reafon, though depofed and op- prefTedj is the only juft fovereign of the human mind. Difcoveries, it is true, have been made by accident ; but they have derived their credit and ufefulnefs only from their according with the decifions of reafon. In medicine, above every other branch of philofophy, we perceive many inftances of the want of relation between the apparent caufe and effect. Who, by reafoning a priori, would fuppofe, that the hot regimen was not preferable to the cold, in the treatment of the fmall-pox ? But experience teaches us, that this is not the cafe. Caufe and effect appear to be rela ted in philofophy, like the objects of chemiftry. Simi lar bodies often repel each other, while bodies that are diffimilar in figure, weight and quality, often unite together with impetuofity. With our prefent imperfect degrees of knowledge of the properties of bodies, we can difcover thefe chemical relations only by experiment. The fame may be faid of the connec tion between caufe and effeft, in many parts of govern ment. This connection often accords with reafon, while it is repugnant to our fenfes aud when this is not the cafe, from our inability to perceive it, it forces T 338 AX EK-QUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF our confent from the teftimony of experience and ob- fervatien. It has Been remarked, that the profefiion of arms 1 ewes its prefent rank, as a fcience, to its having been refcued, fince the revival of letters, from the hands of mere foldiers, and cultivated by men acquainted with other branches of literature. The reafon of this is plain. Truth is an unit. It is the fame thing in war philo- fophy medicine morals religion and government ; and in proportion as we arrive at it in one fcience, we fhall difcover it in ethers. After this apology, for difienting from the eftablifh- *e;l opinions and practice, upon the fubjecr, of public punifhments, I (hall take the liberty of declaring, that the great ends propofed, are not to be obtained by them ; and that, on the contrary, v\\ public punifhments tend to make bad men worfe, and to increafe crimes, by their influence upon fociety. I. The reformation of a criminal can never be ef fected by a public puniilmient, for the following rea- fons. i ft. As it is always connected with infamy, it de- ftroys iir him the fenfe of fhame, which is one of the ftrongeft out-pofts of virtue. idly. It is generally of fuch fhort duration, as to prouuee none of thofe changes in body or mind, which urc abfolutely neceflary to reform obftinate habits o^ vice. PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. 13^ 3dly. Experience proves, that public punimments have ihcreafed propenfities to crimes. A man who has loft his character at a whipping- port, has nothing va luable left to lofe in fociety. Pain has begotten infen- fibility to the whip *, and infamy to fhame. Added to his old habits of vice, he probably feels a fpirit of re venge againfl the whole community, whofe laws have inflicted his punimment upon him j and hence he is fli- mulated to add to the number and enormity of his out rages upon fociety. The long duration of the punim- ment, when public ; by increafing its infamy, ferves on ly to increafe the evils that have been mentioned. The criminals, who were fentenced to work in the prefence of the City of London, upon the Thames, during the late war, were prepared by it, for the perpetration of every crime, as foon as they were fet at liberty from their confinement. I proceed, II. To (hew, that public punimments, fo far from preventing crimes by the terror they excite in the minds of fpectators, are directly calculated to produce them. All men, when they fuffer, difcover either fortitude, infenfibility, or difirefs. Let us inquire into the effects of each of thefe upon the minds of fpectators. i ft. Fortitude is a virtue, that feizes fo forcible upon our efteem, that wherever we fee it, it never fails to weaken, or to obliterate, our deteftation of the crimes \yith which it is connected in criminals. " I call upon 140 AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF * you/ faid major Andre, at the place of execution to his attendants " to bear witncfs, gentlemen, that I die like a brave man." The effect of this fpeech upon the American army is well known. The fpy was loft in the hero : and indignation, every where, gave way to admiration and praife. But this is not all : the admiration, which fortitude, under fuffbring, excites, has in fome inftances excited envy. In Den mark uncommon pains are taken to prepare criminals for death, by the converfation and inftructions of the clergy. After this, they are conducted to the place of execution with uncommon pomp and folerrmity. The criminals, under thefe circumflances, fuffer death with meeknefs piety and fometimes with dignity. Thefe effects of this, I have been well informed have been, in feveral inflances, to induce deluded people to feign or confefs crimes, which they had never com mitted, on purpofe to fecure to themfelves a confpi- cuous death, and a certain entrance into happinefs. There is fomething in the prefence of a number of fpectators, which is calculated to excite and flrength- cn fortitude in a fufFerer. " It is not fo] difficult a thing," faid Lewis XIV. to his courtiers, who flood round his death-bed, " to die, as I expected." " No * wonder," fays Voltaire, who relates this anecdote, < for all men die with fortitude, who die in company." The bravery of fbldiers is derived in a great degree, from the operation of this principle in the human mind. PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. 14! adly. If criminals difcover infenfibility under their punifhments, the effect of it mud be flill more fatal upon fociety. It removes, inftead of exciting terror. In fome inftances, I conceive it may excite a defire in the minds of perfons whom debt or fecret guilt has made miferable, to feek an end of their diftreffes in the fame enviable apathy to evil. Should this infen fibility be connected with chearfulnefs, which is fome- times the cafe, it muft produce ftill more unfriendly effects upon fociety. But terrible muft be the con- fequence of this infenfibility and chearfulnefs, if they fhould lead criminals to retaliate upon the inhuman curiofity of fpedtators, by profane or indecent infults or converfation. 3dly. The effects of diftrefs in criminals, though lefs obvious are not lefs injurious to fociety, than forti tude or infenfibility. By an immutable law of our nature, diftrefs of all kinds, whenjeen, produces fympa- thy, and a difpofition to relieve it. This fympathy, in generous minds, is not leffened by the diftrefs being the offspring of crimes : on the contrary, even the crimes themfelves are often palliated by the reflection that they were the unfortunate confequences of extreme poverty of feducing company or of the want of a virtuous education, from the lofs or negligence of parents in early life. Now, as the diftrefs which the criminals fufFcr, is the effed of a law of the ftate, which cannot be refifted, the fympathy of the fpec- tator is rendered abortive, and returns empty to the V4-2 AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS Oi bofom in which it was awakened. Let U3 briefly examine the confequences of this abortive fympathy in fociety. It will not be neccfiary here to dwell upon all the advantages of this principle in human nature. It will be fufficient to obferve, that it is the vicegerent of the divine benevolence in our world. It is intended to bind up all the wounds which fin and death have made among mankind. It has foun ded hofpitals erected charity-fchools and connected the extremes of happinefs and mifery together in every part of the globeC Above all, fenfibility is the centi- nelof the moral faculty. It decides upon the quality of the actions before they reach that divine principle of the foul. It is of itfelf, to ufe the words of an elegant female poet*, A haily moral a fudden fenfe of right." If fuch are the advantages of fenfibility, now what jinuil be the conferences to fociety, of extirpating or weakening it in the human breaft ? But public punifh- ments are calculated to produce this effect. To prove this, I mud borrow an analogy from the animal oeconomy. The fenfibility of the human body is faid to be active and pnffive. The firii is connected with motion and fenfation ; the fccond only with fenfation, The firft is increafed, the itcond is diminifhed, by the repetition of imprdlions. The fame phenomena take place in the human mind. Senfibility here is both acl m s/i t . Pafiive fenfibilit islelTcned, while that which PUNISHMENT?. 143 Is active is increafed by habit. The paffive fenfibility of a phyficiun, to the diftrefs of his patients, is al ways, dlrninifhed, but his active fenfibility is always increafed by time ; hence we find young phyficians feel mod but old phyficians, with lefs feeling, dif* fcvfr rnoft fympathy with their patients. If fuch be the conftitution of our minds, then the effects, of diftrefs upon them will, be, not only to def- troy pailive, but to eradicate active fenfibility from them. The principle of fympathy, after being often oppofed by the law of the ftate, which forbids it to relieve the diftrefs it commiferates, will ceafe to act altogether , and, from this defect of action, and the habit arifing from it, will foon lofe its place in the human bredl. Mifery of every kind will then be contemplated without emotion or fympathy. The widow and the orphan the naked the fick, and the prifoner, v/ill have no avenue to our fervices or our charity and what is worfe than all, when the cen, tinel of our moral faculty is removed, there is no thing to guard the mind from the inroads of every pofitive vice. I pafs over the influen ce of this fympathy in its firft operation upon the government of the (late. While we pity, v/e fecretly condemn the law which inflicts the punimmcnf : hence, arifes a want of refpect for was in general, and a more feeble union of the great ties of government. 144 AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS I have only to add, upon this part of my that the pernicious effects of fympathy, where it does not terminate in aclion, are happily provided againft by the Jewifh law. Hence we read of a prohibition againft it where perfons fuffer for certain crimes. To fpectators, the voice of heaven ; under fuch circumftan- ces, is, " thine eye fhall not pity him." 4thly. But it is poffible the characters or conduct of criminals may be fuch, as to excite indignation or contempt inftead of pity, in the minds of fpeo tators. Let us there enquire, briefly, into the effects of thefe paffions upon the human mind. Every body acknowledges our obligations to univerfal benevo lence \ but thefe cannot be fulfilled, unlefs we love the whole human race, however diverfified they may be by weaknefs or crimes. The indignation or con tempt which is felt for this unhappy part of the great family of mankind, muft necefTarily extinguifli a large; portion of this univerfal love. Nor is this all the men, or perhaps the women whofe perfons we deteft, poffefs fouls and bodies compofed of the fame materials as thofe of our friends and relations. They are bone of their bone ; and were originally fafhioned with the fame fpirits. What, then, muft be the confcqucnce of a familiarity with fuch objects of horror, upon our attachments and duties to our friend* and connections, or to the reft of mankind ? If a fpcclator mould give himfelf time to reflect upon fuch a fight of human depravity, he would naturally PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. 14$ recoil from the embraces of friendship, and the endear ments of domeftic life, and perhaps fay with an unfor tunate great man, after having experienced an iuftancc of treachery in a friend, " Oh ! that I were a dog, " that I might not call man my brother." The Jewilh law forbade more than nine and thirty lames, left the fufFerer mould afterwards become vile" in the fight of fpe&ators. It is the prerogative of God alone, to .contemplate the vices of bad men . without withdrawing from them the fupport of his benevolence. Hence we find, when he appeared in the world, in the perfon of his Son, he did not exclude criminals from the benefits of his goodnefs. He difrniffed a women caught in the perpetration of a crime, which was capital by the Jewifh law, with a friendly admoni tion : and he opened the gates of paradife to a dying thief. 5thly. But let us fup.pofe, that criminals are viewed without fympathy indignation or contempt. This will be the cafe,, either when the fpeclatcrs are them- felves hardened with vice, or when they are too young, or too ignorant, to connect the ideas of crimes and punifhments together. Here, then, a new fource of injury arifes from the public nature of punifhments. Every portion of them will appear, to fpe&ators of this description, to be mere arbitrary acts of cruelty: hence will arife a difpofition to exercife the fame arbitrary cruelty over the feelings arid lives of their fellow creatures. To fee blows, or a halter, impoJGed U AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF in cold blood upon a criminal, \vhofe pa {live behaviour, operating with the ignorance of the fpetta- tors, indicates innocence more than vice, cannot fail of removing the natural obftacles to violence and mur der in the human mind. 6thly. Public punifhments make many crimes known to perfons who would otherwife have patted through life in a total ignorance of them. They moreover produce fuch a familiarity, in the minds of fpeclators, with the crimes for which they are inflicted, that, in fome inftances, they .have, been known to excite a propenfity for them. Jt has been remarked, that a certain immorality has always kept pace with pub lic admonitions in the churches in the eaftern flates. In proportion as this branch of ecclefiaftical difcipline has declined, fewer children have been born out of wedlock. 7thly. Ignominy is univcrfally acknowledged to be a worfe punifhment than death. Let it not be fup- ppfed, from this circiimftance, that it operates more than the fear of death in preventing crimes. On the contrary, like the indifcriminate punifhmcnt of death, it not only confounds and levels all crimes, but by _ increafmg the difproportion between crimes and puriifti- ments, it creates a hatred of all law and govern ment , and. thus difpofes to the perpetration of every crime. Lav/s can only be refpe&cd and obeyed, while they bear an exact proportion to crimes. The law PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. 147 which punifhes the fhooting of a fwan with death a in England, has produced a thoufand murders. Nor is this all the mifchievous influence, which the punifh- ment of ignominy has upon fociety. While murder is punifhed with death, the man who robs on the high-way, or breaks open a houfe, muft want the common feelings and principles which belong to human nature, if he does not add murder to theft, in order to fcreen himfelf, if he mould be detected, from that puniihment which is acknowledged to be more terrible than death. It would feem ftrange, that ignominy fhould ever have been adopted, as a milder punimment than death, did we not know that the human mind feldom arrives at truth upon any fubjecl:, till it has firfl reached the extremity of error. Sthly. But may not the benefit derived to fociety, by employing criminals to repair public roads, or to clean ftreets, overbalance the evils that have been mentioned ? I anfwer, by no means. On the contra ry, befides operating in one 9 or in #//the ways that have been defcribed, the practice of employing criminals in public labour, will render labour of every kind difre- putable, more efpecially that fpecies of it, which has for its objects the convenience or improvement of the ftate. It is a well-known faft, that white men foon decline labour in the Weft Indies, and in the fouthern ftates, only becaufe the agriculture, and mechanical 148 AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF employments of thofe countries, are carried on chiefly by negro (laves. But I object further to the employ, ment of criminals on the high-ways and flreets, from the idienefs it will create, by alluring fpelators from their bufmefs, and thereby depriving the (late of great er benefits from the induftry of its citizens, than it can ever derive from the labour of criminals. The hiftory of public punifhments, in every age and country, is full of facts, which fupport every principle that has been advanced. What has been the operation of the feventy thoufand executions, that have taken place in Great Britain front the year 1688, to the pre- fent day, upon the morals and manners of the inhabi tants of that ifland ? Has not every prifon-door that has been opened, to conduct criminals to public mame and punifhment, unlocked, at the fame time, the bars of moral obligation upon the minds often times the num ber of people 5 How often do we find pockets picked under a gallows, and highway robberies committed in fight of a gibbet ? From whence arofe the confpira^ cic3, with afTafiinations and poifonings, which prevailed in the decline of the Roman empire ? Were they not favoured by the public executions of the amphitheatre ? It is therefore to the combined operation of indolence, prejudice, ignorance and the defect of culture of the human heart, alone, that we are to afcribe the conti nuance of public punifliments, after fuch long and mul tiplied experience of their inefficacy to reform bad men, or to prevent the commifiion of crin-ies. PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. III. Let it not be fuppofed, from any thing that has been faid, that I wifh to abolifh punifliments. Far from it : I wifh only to change the place and manner of inflicting them, fo as to render them effectual for the reformation of criminals, and beneficial to fociety. Before I propofe a plan for this purpofe, I beg leave to deliver the following general axioms : ift. The human mind is difpofed to exaggerate every thing that is removed from it, by time or place. 2dly. It is equally difpofed to enquire after, and to magnify fuch things as are facred. 3cily. It always afcribes the extremes in qualities, to things that are unknown ; and an excefs in duration, to indefinite time. 4thly. Certain arid definite evil, by being long con templated, ceafes to be dreaded or avoided. A fol- dier foon lofes, from habit the fear of death in battle ; but retains, in common with other people, the terror of death from ficknefs or drowning. 5thly. An attachment to kindred and fociety is one of the ftrongeft feelings of the human heart. A fepe- paration from them, therefore has ever, been confider- ed as one of the fevereil punifliments that can be in- flidlecl upon man. I5P AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF 6thly. Perfonal liberty is fo dear to all men, that the lofs of it, for an indefinite time, is a punifh- juent lb fevere, that death has often been preferred to it. Thefe axioms being admitted (for they cannot be controverted) I fhall proceed next to apply them, by fuggefting a plan for the punifhment of crimes, which, I flatter myfelf, will anfwer all the ends that have been propofad by them. i. Let a large houfe be erected in a convenient part of the flate. Let it be divided into a number of apart ments, referving one large room for public worfhip. Let cells be provided for the folitary confinement of fuch perfons as are of a refractory temper. Let the houfe be fupplied with the materials, and inftrumcnts for carrying on fuch manufactures as can be con ducted with the lead inftruction, or previous know ledge. Let a garden adjoin this houfe, in which the culprits may occafionally work, and walk. This fpot will have a beneficial effect not only upon health, but morab, for it will lead them to a familiarity with thofe pure and natural objects which arc calculated to renew the connection of fallen man with his creator. Let the name of this houfe convey an idea of its bene volent and falutary defign, but let it by no means be cal led a prifon, or by ony other name that is aflbciated with what is infamous in the opinion of mankind. Let the direction of this inftitution be committed to PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. 15 I perfons of eftablifried characters for probity, difcretkm and humanity, who (hall be amenable at all times to the legiflature, or courts of the ftate. 1 2dly. Let the various kinds of punimment, that are to be inflicted on crimes, be defined and fixed By law. But let no notice be taken, in the law, of the punifh- ment that awaits any particular crime. By thefe means ? we fhall prevent the mind from accuftoming itfelf to the view of thefe punifhmeats, fo as to deflrcy their terror by habit* The indifference and levity with which fome men fuffer the punifhment of hanging, is often occafioncd by an infenfibility which is contrac- ted by the frequent anticipation of it, or by the .appear ance of the gallows fuggefling the remeVnbrance of fcei-ies of criminal feflivity, in which it was the fubje<3: of humour or ridicule. Befides,-.punifnments {hoiikl always be varied in degree, according to the temper of criminals, or- the -progrefs of their reformation. -\ . 3dly. Let the duration of punimments, for all crimes, be limitted : fcut*let this limitation be unknown. I conceive this fecr^t to be of the utmolt importance in reforming criminals, and preventing crimes. The imagination, when agitated with uncertainty, will fel- dom fail of connecting the lorigeft duration of pu- nifhment, with the fmalleft crime. I cannot conceive any think more calculated to dif- ; . - terror through a community, and thereby to 152 AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EFJECTS OF prevent crimes, than the combination of the three cir_ cumftances that have been mentioned in punilhmcnts* Children will prefs upon the evening fire in liileiiing to the tales that will be fpread from this abode of mifery. Superilition will add to its horrors : and ro mance will find in it ample materials" for fiction, which cannot fail of increafing the terror of its punifhments, . Let it not be objected, f*ia the terror produced by the hiftory of thefe fecret punifhments, will ope rate like the abortive fympathy I have defer ibed. Active fympathy can be fully excited only through the avenues of the eyes and the ears. IV. fides, the recollection that the only defign of puniinmcrit is the reformation of the criminal will fufpend the aclion of fympathy altogether. We.liften with pale nefs to the hiftory of a tedious and painful operatic" in fur. gevy, -without a wifh to arrcft the hand of tiic ope rator. Our fympathy, which in this cafe is of the pajjive kind, is mixed with pleafure, when we are afTured, that there is a certainty of the operation being the means of faving the life of the fufferer. Nor let the cxpence of erecting and fupporting a houfe of repentance, for the purpofes that have been mentioned, deter us from the undertaking. It would be eafy to demonflrate, that it will not c&ft one fourth as much as the maintenance of the numerous jails that are now nectary in every well regulated PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. IJJ ftate. But why fhould receptacles be provided and fupported at an immenfe expenfe, in every country, for the relief of perfons afflicted with bodily difor- ders, and an objection be made to providing a place for the cure of the difeafes of the mind ? The nature cLsgrees and duration of the punifh- ments, fhould all be determined beyond a certain de gree, by a court properly conflituted for that purpofe, arid whofe bufmefs it mould be to vifit the receptacle for criminals once or twice a year. I am aware of the prejudices of freemen, againfl en- truiling power to a difcretionary court. But let it be remembered, that no power is committed to this court, but what is pofieffed by the different courts of juftice in all free countries , nor fo much as is now wifely and neceflarily poflefled by the fupreme and inferior courts, in the execution of the penal laws of Pennfylvania. I fhall fpend no time in defending the confiftency of pri vate punifliments, with a fafe and free government. Truth, upon this fubje&, cannot be divided. If pub lic punifhments are injurious to criminals and to foci- .ety, it follows that crimes fhould be punimed in private, or not punimed at all. There is no alternative. The oppofition to private punifhments, therefore is founded altogether in prejudice, or in ignorance of the tr*e principles of liberty. ,. 154 AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF The fafety and advantages of private punifhments^ will appear, further, when I add, that the beft governed families and fchools are thofe, in which the faults of fervants and children are rebuked privately, and where confinement and folitude are preferred for correction, to the ufc of the rod. In order to render thcfe punifhments effectual, they {hould be accommodated to the conftitutions and tempers of the criminals, and the peculiar nature of their crimes. Peculiar attention fhould be paid, like- wife, in the nature, degrees, and duration of punifh ments, to crimes, as they arife from paffion, habit or temptation. The punifhments, fhould confift of bodily pain, la bour, watchfulnefs, folitude, and fdence. They mould all be joined with cleanlinefs and a fimple diet. To afcertain the nature, degrees, and duration pf the bodily pain, will require fome knowledge of the principles of fenfation, and of the fympathies which occur in the nervous fyflem. The labour mould be fo regula ted and directed, as to be profitable to the flate. Befides employing criminals in laborious and ufcful manufac tures, they may be compelled to derive all their fub- fiftance from a farm and a garden, cultivated by their own hands, adjoining the place of their confine ment. Thefe punifhments may be ufed feparately, or more or lefs combined, according to the nature of the crimes, PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. 155 or according to the variations of the conftitution and temper of the criminals. In the application of them, the utmoft poffible advantages fhould be taken of the laws of the aflbciation of ideas, of habit, and of imi tation. To render thefe phyfical remedies more effe&ual they mould be accompanied by regular inftruclion in the principles and obligations of religion, by pcrfons appointed for that purpofe. Thus far I am fupported, in the application of the remedies I have mentioned, for the cure of crimes, by the fa6h contained in Mr. Howard s hiftory of prifons, and by other obfervations. It remains yet to prefcribe the fpfcific punifhment that is proper for eaclifpeci/ic crime. Here my fubjecT: begins to opprefs me. I have no more doubt of every crime having its cure in moral and phyfical influence, than I have of the efficacy of the Peruvian bark in curing the in termitting fever. The only difficulty is, to find out the proper remedy or remedies for particular vices. Mr Dufriche de Valaye, in his elaborate treatife upon penal laws, has performed the office of a pioneer upon this difficult fubjet. He has divided crimes into claf- fes ; and has affixed punifhments to each of them, in a number of ingenious tables. Some of the connec tions he has eftablifhed, between crimes and punifli- ments, appear to be juft. But many of his punifliments are contrary to the firft principles of adion in man ; 156 AN ZNOJJIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF and all of them are, in my opinion, improper, as far as he orders them to be inflicted in the eye of die public. His attempt, however, is laudable, and deierves the praife of every friend to mankind. If the invention of a machine for facilitating labour, has been repaid with the gratitude of a country, how much more will that man deferve, who fhall invent the mod fpeedy arid effectual methods of reftoring the vi cious part of mankind to virtue and happinefs, and of extirpating a portion of vice from the world ? Happy condition of human affairs ! when humanity, philo- fophy and chriftianity, fhall unite their influence to teach men, that they are brethren , and to prevent their preying any longer upon each other ! Happy citizens of the United States, whofe governments permit them to adopt every difcovery in the moral or intellectual world, that leads to thefe benevolent purpofes ! Let it net be objected, that it will be impoffible for men, who have expiated their offences by the mode of punifliment that has been propofed, to recover their former connections with fociety. This objection arifes from an unfortunate afibciation of ideas. The infamy of criminals is derived, not fo much from the remem brance of their crimes, as from the recollection of the ignominy of their pun imments. Crimes produce a (lain, which may be waihed out by reformation, and which frequently wears away by time 5 but public PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. 157 punifhmcnts leave fears which disfigure the whole chara&er ; and hence perfons, who have fuffered tliem, are ever afterwards viewed with horror or aver- fion. If crimes were expiated by private difcipline, and fucceeded by reformation, criminals would probably fufFer no more in character from them, than men fufFer in their reputation or ufefulnefs from the punifh- ments they have undergone when boys at fchool. I am fo perfe&ly fatisfied of the truth of this opinion, that methinks I already hear the inhabitants of our vil lages and townfliips counting the years that mail com plete the reformation of one of their citizens. I behold them running to meet him on the day of his deliverance. His friends and family bathe his cheeks with tears of joy ; and the univerfal fhout of the neigbourhood is, " This our brother was loft, and is found was dead and- is alive." It has long been a defideratum in government, that there fliould exift in it no pardoning power, fince the certainty of punifliment operates fo much more than its feverity, or infamy, in preventing crimes. But where punifhments are exceflive in degree, or infamous from being public, a pardoning power is abfolutely necef- fary. Remove their feverity and public infamy, and a pardoning power ceafes to be necefiary in a code of criminal jurifprudence. Nay, further it is fuch a defect in penal laws, as in ftfme meafure defeats every invention to prevent crimes, or to cure habits of vice. 15 AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF If punifhments were moderate, juft, and private, they would exalt the feelings of public juflice and benevo lence fo far above the emotions of humanity in wit- neilos, juries and judges, that they would forget to conceal, or to palliate crimes ; and the certainty of pu- nifhment, by extinguifhing all hope of pardon in the criminal, would lead him to connect the beginning of his repentance with the laft words of his fentence of condemnation. To obtain this great and falutary end, there mould exiil certain portions of punimment, both in duration and degree, which mould be placed by law beyond the power of the difcretionary court before mentioned, to fuorten or mitigate. I have faid nothing upon the manner of in- fiiding death as a punimment for crimes, becaufe I confidcr it as an improper punimment for any crime. Evnn murder itfelf is propagated by the punimment of death for murder. Of this we have a remarkable proof in Italy. The duke of Tufcany foon after the publication of the marquis of Beccaria s excellent treatife upon this fubjeet, abolifhed death as a punifh- ment for murder. A gentleman, who redded five years at Piu-i, informed me, that only five murders had been perpetrated in his dominions in twenty years. The fame gentleman added, that after his rcfidence in Tufcany, he fpent three months in Rome, where death is frill the punifnment of murder, and -where executions, according to Dr.Moore,are condudT> eil with peculiar circumftanccs of public parade. Du- PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. 159 ring this fliort period, there were ilxty murders com mitted in the precincts of that city. It is remarkable, the manners, principles, and religion, of the inhabitants of Tufcany and Rome, are exactly the fame. The abolition of death alone, as a punifhment for murder, produced this difference in the moral character of the two nations. I fufpecl: the attachment to death, as a punifh ment for murder, in minds otherwife enlightened, upon the fubject of capital punifhments , arifes from a falfe interpretation of a paflage contained in the old teftament, and that is, " he that fheds the blood of man, by man (hall his blood be fhed." This has been fuppofed to imply that blood could only be ex piated by blood. But I am difpofed to believe, with a late commentator* upon this text of fcripture, that it is rather a prediction than a law. The language of it is fimply, that fuch will be the depravity and folly of man, that murder, in every age, {hall beget murder. Laws, therefore, which inflict death for murder, are, in my opinion, as unchriftian as thofe which juftify or tolerate revenge ; for the obligation? of chriftianity upon individuals, to promote repentance, to forgive injuries, and to difcharge the duties of univerfal benevolence, are equally binding upon Hates. The power over human life, is the fole prero gative of him who gave it. Human laws, therefore, * The reverer.d Mr. William Turner, in the feccnd v>.!. ci" flhe Literary and Phil ofophical Society of Manchester. l6o AN ENQUIRY INTO THE EFFECTS OF rife in rebellion againft this prerogative, wlicri they transfer it to human hands. If fociety can be fecured from violence, by confining the murderer, fo as to prevent a repetition of his crime, the end of extirpation will be anfwered. In confinement, he may be reformed : and if this fhould prove impracticable, he may be retrained for a term of years, that will probably, be coeval with his life. There was a time, when the punifhment of cap tives with death or fervitude, and the indifcriminate deftruciion of peaceable hufbandmen, women, and children, were thought to be cficntial, to the fuccefs. of war, and the fafety of flates. But experience has taught us, that this is not the cafe. And in propor tion as humanity has triumphed over thefe maxims of faife policy, wars have been lefs frequent and terri ble, and nations have enjoyed longer intervals of in ternal tranquility. The virtues are all parts of a circle. Whatever is humane, is wife whatever is wife, is juft and whatever is wife, juft, and humane, will be found to be the true intereft of flates, whether criminals or foreign enemies are the objects of their legifiation. I have taken no notice of perpetual banimment, as n kgal punimment, as I confider it the next in de gree, in folly and cruelty, to the punifhmerjt of death. If the receptacle for criminals, which has been pro- PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. l6l pofed, is erected in a remote part of the ftate, it will act with the fame force upon the feelings ofth e human heart, as perpetual banifliment. Exile, when perpetual, by deftroying one of the mofl powerful prin ciples of action in man, viz. the love of kindred and country, deprives us of all the advantages, which might be derived from it, in the bufinefs of reformation. While certain paffions are weakened, this noble paflion is ftrengthened by age : hence, by preferring this paflion alive, we furnifh a principle, which, in time may become an overmatch for thofe vicious habits, which feparated criminals from their friends and from fociety. Notwithftanding this teftimony againft the punifh- ment of death and perpetual banimment, I cannot help adding, that there is more mercy to the criminal, and lefs injury done to fociety, by both of them, than by public infamy and pain, without them. The great art of furgery has been faid to confift in faving, not in deftroying, or amputating the difeafed parts of the human body. Let governments learn to imitate, in this refpect, the Ikill and humanity of the healing art. Nature knows no wafte in any of her operations. Even putrefaction itfelf is the parent of ufeful productions to man. Human ingenuity imitates nature in a variety of arts. Offal maters, of all kinds, are daily converted into the means of increafmg the profits of induftry, and the pleafures of human life. Y 1 62 AN ENQUIRY INTO TH EFFECTS oy The foul of man alone, with all its moral and intel lectual powers, when mifled by pafllon, is abandoned, by the ignorance or cruelty of man, to unprofitable corruption, or extirpation. A worthy prelate of the church of England once faid upon feeing a criminal led to execution, There goes my wicked felf." Confidering the vices to which the frailty of human nature expofes whole families of every rank and clafs in life, it becomes us, whenever we fee a fellow creature led to public infamy and pain, to add further. " There goes my unhappy father, my unhappy brother, or my unhappy fon," and afterwards to a(k ourfelves, wlitther private punifh- ments are not to be preferred to public: For the honour of humanity it can be faid, that in every age and country, there have been found perfons in whom uncorruptcd nature has triumphed over cuftom and law. Elfe, why do we hear of houfes being abandoned near to places of public execution ? Why do we fee doors and windows (hut on the days or hours of criminal exhibitions ? Why do we hear of aid being fecretly afforded to criminals, to mitigate or elude the feverity of their punimments ? Why is the public executioner of the law an object of fuch general deteftation ? Thefe things are latent druggies of reafon, or rather the fecret voice of God himfelf, fpeaking in the human heart, againft the folly ami- cruelty of public punifhment. PUBLIC PUNISHMENTS. 1 63 I {hall conclude this enquiry by obferving, that the fame falfe religion and philofophy, which once kindled the fire on the alter of perfecution, now doom die criminal to public ignominy and death. In pro portion as the principles of philofophy and chriflianity are underftood, they will agree in extinguifhing the one, and deflroying the other. If thefe principles continue to extend their influence upon government, as hey have done for fome years paft, I canriqt help en tertaining, a hope, that the time is not very diflant, when the gallows, the pillory, the flocks, the whipp- jng-poil and the wheel-barrow, (the ufual engines of public punifhments) will be connected with the hiftory of the rack and the flake, as marks of the barbarity of ages and countries, and as melancholy proofs of the feeble operation of reafon and religion upon the human mind. AN ENQUIRY INTO THE CONS I STENCY OF THEPUKISK* MENT OF MURDER BY DEATH, WITH REASON AND REVELATION. I- r THHE Punifhment of Murder by Death, is -- contrary to reafon, and to the order and happinefs of fociety. 1. It leffens the horror of taking away human life, and thereby tends to multiply murders. 2. It produces murder by its influence upon peo ple who are tired of life, and who, from a fuppofition that murder is a lefs crime than fuicide, deflroy a life (and often that of a near connection) and afterwards deliver themfclves up to the laws of their country, that they may efcape from their mifcry by means of a halter. 3. The punifhment of murder by death multiplies murders, from the difficulty it creates of convicting perfons who are guilty of it. Humanity, revolting at the idea of the feverity and certainty of a capital punifhment, often fleps in, and collects fuch evidence in favour of a murderer, as fcreens him from death altogether, or palliates his crime into manflaughter. Even the law itfelf favours the acquital of a murderer 165 ON THE PUNISHMENT OF MURDER &C. by making the circumftance of premeditation and malice, ncceflary to render the offence, a capital crime. Mr. Townfend tells us in his travels into Spain* that feven ty murders were perpetrated in Malaga in the 1 6 months which preceeded his vifit to that city, all of which efcaped with impunity, and pro* bably from the caufes which have been mentioned. If the puniihment of murder confifted in long con finement, and hard labour, it would be proportioned to the meafure of our feelings of juitice, and every member of ibcicty would be a watchman, or a ma- giltrate, to apprehend a deftroyer of human life, and to bring him to punimment. 4. The punimment of murder by death checks the operations of univerfal juftice, by preventing the punifhment of every fpecies of murder. 5. The punimment of murder by death has been proved to be contrary to the order and happinefs of fociety, by the experiments of fome of the wifeft legiflators in Europe. The Emprefs of Rufia, the King of Sweden, and the Duke of Tufcany, have nearly extirpated murder from their dominions, by converting its punifhments into the means of bene fiting fociety, and reforming the criminals who per petrate it. II. The punimment of murder by death is con trary to divine revelation. A religion which command* * Vol. 3. l66 ON THE PUNISHMENT OF MURDER us to forgive, and even to do good to, our enemies, can never authorife the punifhment of murder by death. Vengence is mine," faid the Lord ; " I will repay." It is to no purpofe to fay here, that this vengeance it taken out of the hands of an indi vidual, and directed againft the criminal by the hand of government. It is equally an ufurpation of the prerogative of heaven, whether it be inflicted by a Ungle perfon, or by a whole community. Here I expect to meet with an appeal from the letter and fpirit of the gofpcl, to the law of Mofes, which declares, " he that killeth a man (hall be put to death." Forgive, indulgent heaven ! the ig norance and cruelty of man, which, by the mifap- plication of this text of fcripture, has fo long and fo often flairied the religion of Jefus Chrift with folly and revenge. The following confederations, I hope, will prove that no argument can be deduced fcom this law, to juftify the punifhment of murder by death ; on the contrary, that feveral arguments againil it, may be derived from a juft and rational explanation *of that part of the Levitical inftitutions. i. There are many things in fcripture above, nothing contrary to, reafon. Now, the punifhment of murder by death, is contrary to reafon. It cannot, therefore, be agreeable to the will of God. BT DEATH. 167 2. The order and happinefs of fociety cannot fail of being agreeable to the will of God. But the pu- nifliment of murder by death, deflroys the order and happinefs of fociety. It muft therefore be contrary to the will of God. 3. Many of the laws given by Mofes, were accon?- modated to the ignorance, wickednefs, and hardnefs " of heart," of the Jews. Hence their divine legi- flator exprefsly fays, " I gave them ftatutes that were <( not good, and judgments whereby they fhould not live." Of this, the law which refpeclrs divorces, amJ the law of retaliation, which required, " an eye for an eye* and a tooth for a tooth," are remarkable inftances. But we are told, that the punimment of murder by death, is founded not only on the law of Mofes, but upon a politive precept given to Noah and his pofte- rity, that " whofo fheddeth man s blood, by man (hall his blood be {heel?" If the interpretation of this text given in a former effky* 1 be not admitted, I fhall attempt to explain it by remarking, that loon after the flood, the infancy and wealcnefs of fociety rendered it impoflible to punifh murder by confinement* There was therefore no medium between inflicling death upon a murderer, and fuffering him to efcape witji impunity,, and thereby to perpetrate more acts of vio lence againR his fellow creatures. It pleafecf God. in this condition of the world, to permit a lefs, m iry into the ftcft& of publ-ic puniflune^ts. p. 159, l63 ON THE PUNISHMENT 4 OF MURDSR order to prevent a greater evil. Ke therefore commits for a while his exclufive power over human life, to his creatures for the fafety and prefervation of an infant fociety, which might otherwife have perrfhed, and with it, the only flock of the human race. The command indirectly implies that the crime of murder \vas not punifhed by death in the mature ftate of fo ciety which ex.ifted before the flood. Nor is this the J only inflance upon record in the fcriptures in which God has delegated his power over human life to his creatures. Abraham exprefles no furprife at the com mand which God gave him to facrifice his fon. He fubmits to it ns a precept founded in reafon and natural juftice, for nothing could be more obvious, than that the giver of life had a right to claim it, when and in fuch manner as he pleafed. Till men are able to give. life, it becomes them to tremble at the thought of raking it away. Will a man rob God ? Yes he robs him of what is infinitely dear to him of his darling i.ttribute- of mercy, every time he deprives a fellow creature of life. 4. If the Mofaic Jaw, with refpect to murder, Se obligatory upon Chriftians, it follows that it is equally obligatory upon them to piiniih adultery, blafphemy and other capital crimes that are mentioned in the Levitical law, by death. Nor is this all : it juftifies the extirpation of the Indians, and the enflaving of tic Africans -, for the command to the Jews to DEATH. deftroy the Cartaanites, and to make Ilaves of their heathen neighbours, is as pofitive as the command which declares, t( that he that kilteth a man, mall furely he put to death." - 5. Zvery part of the Levitical law, is full of types of the Median. May not the puniihment of death, inflicted by it, be intended to reprefent the demerit and confeqyences of (in, as the cities of refuge were the offices of the Mcfiiah ? And may not the enlarge ment of murderers who had fled to thofe cities of refuge, upon the death of a high prieft, reprefent the eternal abrogation of the law which inflicted death for murder, by the meritorious death of the Saviour of the wrld ? 6. The imperfection and feverity of thefe laws were probably intended farther to illuftrate the per fection and mildnefs of the gofpel difpenfation. It is in this manner that God has manifefted himfelf in many of his acts. He created darknefs firft, to illuf trate by comparifon the beauty of light, and he per mits fin, mifc ry, and death in the moral world, that he may hereafter difplay more illuftrioufly the bleflings of nghteoufnefs, happinefs, and immortal life. This opinion is favoured by St. Paul, who fays, the " law made nothing perfect, and that it was a " ih idow of good things to come." How delightful to difcover fuch an exact harmony between the dictates of reafon, the order and hap- Z 170 ON THE PUNISHMENT OF MURDER pii\efs of fociety, and the precepts of the gofpel ? There is a perfect unity in truth. Upon all fubjecls in all ages and in all countries truths of every kind agree with each other. I (hall now take notice of forne of the common arguments, which are made ufe of, to defend the punimments of murder by death. i. It has been faid, that the common fenfe of all nations, and particularly of favages, is in favour of punifhing murder by death. The common fenfe of all natipns is in favour of the commerce and flavery of their fellow creatures. Cut this docs net take away from their immorality. Could it be proved that the Indians punim murder by death, it would not eflabliili the right of man over the life of a fellow creature ; for revenge we know in its utmoft extent is the univerfal and darling paflion of all favage nations. The practice morever, ^ (if it exift ) muft have originated in neceffity : for a people who have no fettled place of refidence, and who are averfe from all labour, could reftrain murder in no other way. But I am difpofed to doubt whether the Indians punim murder by death among their own tribes. In all thofe cafes where a life is taken away by an Indian of a foreign tribe, they always demand the fatisfaclion of life for life. But this practice is founded on a defire of preferving a balance in their numbers and power j for among nations which confifh of only a few warriors, the lofs of an individual BY DEATH. often deftroys this balance, arid thereby expofes them to war or extermination. It is for the fame purpofe of keeping up an equality in numbers and power, that they often adopt captive children into their nations and families. What makes this explanation of the practice of punifhing murder by death among the Indians more probable, is, that we find the fame bloody and vindictive fatisfaction is required of a foreign nation, whether the perfon loft, be killed by an accident, or premeditated violence. Many fails might be mentioned from travelers to prove that the Indians do not punifh murder by death within the jurifdition of their own tribes. I mall mention only one, which is taken from the Rev. Mr. John Mega- polenfis s account of the Mohawk Indians, lately pub- limed in Mr Hazard s hiftorical collection of ftate pa pers. " There is no punifhment, (fays our author) " here for murder, but every one is his own avenger. The friends of the deceafed revenge themfelves " upon the murderer until peace is made with the next a kin. But although they are fo cruel, yet there are not half fo many murders committed ft among them as among Chriftians, notwithftanding < their fevere laws, and heavy penalties." 2. It has been faid, that the horrors of a guilty sonfciesce proclaim the juftice and neceflity of death, as a punifhment for murder. I draw an argument of another nature from this fah Are the horrors of confcience the punifhment that God infli&s upon J72 ON THE PUNISHMENT OF MURDER murder? Why, then mould we fhorten or deflroy th e m by death, efpeci.iJly as we are taught to dirit the :noft atrocious murderers to expet pardon in the future world ? No, let us not counter^ the govern ment of God in the hum in breaft : let the murderer live but let it be to fuffer the reproaches of a guilty confcience j let him live, to make compenfation to fociety for the injury he has done it, by robbing it of a citizen ; let him live to maintain the family of the man whom he has murdered ; let him live, that the puniihment of his crime may become univerfal ; and, laftly, let him live, that murder may be extirpated from the lift of human crimes ! Let us exarrine the conduct of the moral Ruler of the world towards the firfl murderer. See Cain, returning from his field, with his hands reeking with the blood of his brother ! Do the Leavens gather blacki. efs, and dees a flafh of lightning bluft him to the earth ? No. To"s his father Adam, the natural itor and judge of the world, inflict upon him the ; " .--^r.-t of death? No. The infinitely wife God beco, : > judge and executioner. He expels him from the foe. ^ which he was a member. He fixc s in his conference a never dying worm. He fub- jel5 him to the nceefilty of labour j and to fecure a duration of his punifhment, prc portioned to his crime, he puts a mark of prohibition upon him, to prevent his being put to dtath, by weak and angry men ; declaring, at the fame time, that whofoever. Ifoyeth BY DEATH. 173 Cain, vengeance (hall be taken on him feven- fold. But further, if a neceflary connexion exifted be tween the crime of murder and death in the mind and laws of the Deity, how comes it that Mofes and David efcaped it ? They both imbrued their hands in innocent blood, and yet the horrors of a guilty con- fcience were their only punifhment. The fubfequent conduct of thofe two great and good men, proves that the heart may retain a found part after committing murder, and that even murderers, after repentance, may be the vehicles of great temporal and fpiritual bleffings to mankind. 3. The declaration of St. Paul before Feftus, refper,- ing the punimment of death,* and the fpeech of the dying thief on the crofs,f are faid to prove the lawful- nefs of purnming murder by death : but they prove only that the punimment of death was agreeable to the Roman law. Human life was extremely cheap under the Roman government. Of this we need no further proof than the head of John the Baptift forming a part of a royal entertainment. From the frequency of pub lic executions, among thofe people, the fword was confidered as an emblem of public juftice. But to * " For if I be an offender, and have committed any thing worthy of death, I refufe not to die." Afts xxv.and n. f < We indeed" f after " jw/f/y, for we receive the due reward of our "deeds." Luke xxiii. and 41. 174 ON THE PUNISHMENT OF MURDER fuppofe, from the appeals which are Lmetiincs made to it as a fign of juftice, that capital punifhments are approved of in the New Teftamcnt, is as abfurd as it would be to fuppofe that horfe-racing war. a chriftiun exercife, from St. Paul s frequent allufions to the Olympic games. The declaration of the barbarians upon feeing the fnake fatten upon St. Paul s hand, proves nothing but the ignorance of thofe uncivilized people , " and " when the barbarians faw the venomous beaft hang on " his hand, they faid among themfclves, no doubt this " man is a murderer, whom, though he hath efcaped " the fea, yet vengeance fuffereth not to live." Ads xvii. and 4th. Here it will be proper to tliflinguifh between the fenfe of juftice fo univcrfal among all nations, and an approbation of death as a punifhxncnt for murder. The former is written by the finger of God upon every human heart, but like his own attribute of juftice, it has the happinefs of individuals and of fociety for its objects. It is always irnfied, when it fecks for fatisfaelion in puriifhments that are injurious to fociety, or that are diiproporticned to crimes. The ~,aion of this imiverfiil fenfe of juftice by the punifhmirnts of irnprifonment and labour, would far exceed that which is derived from the puniihment of death; for it would be of longer duration, and it would, more frequently occur ; for, upon a principle BY DEATH. 175 formerly mentioned, fcarcely any fpeciec of murder would efcape with impunity-! ] The conduct and Jifcourfes of our Saviour fhouKl outweigh every argument that has been or can be offered in favour of capital punimmerit for any crime When the woman caught in adultery was brought to him, he evaded inflicting the bloody fentence of the Jewifh law upon her Even the maiming of the body appears to be ofrenfive in his fight ; for when Peter drew his fword, and fmote off the ear of the fervant of the high prieft, he replaced it by miracle, and at the fame time declared, that tf all they who take the * fword, fhall perifti with the fword." He forgave the crime of murder, on his crofs ; and after his re* furreHon, he commanded his difciples to preach the gofpel of forgivenefs, firft at Jerufalem, where he well, knew his murderers ftill refided. Thefe (Inking facts are recorded for our imitation, and feem intended to fhew that the Son of God died, not only to re concile God to man, but to reconcile men to each other. There is one paflage more, in the hiftory of our Saviour s life which would of itfdi overfet the J A fcale of punishments, by means of imprlfonment: nnd labour, eafily be contrived, fc as to be accomodated to the different dejrees of" atrocity in murder. For example fjr tha fir ft or higheil decree of guilt, let the puni/hment be folitude and darknefs, and a to :al ivant of employ ment. For the fecond, iblitude and labour, with the benefit of light, For the third, confinement and labour. The d:ira: .or. of thefe punifhmerita {houldlike.vife be governed by the atrocity of the murder, and by thr contrition and amcndme.i: ia the < 17 ON THE PUNISHMENT OF MURDER juftice of the punifhment of death for murder, if every other part of the Bible had been filtmt upon the fubjecl. When two of his difciples, actuated by the fpirit of vindictive legiflators, requeiled permiflion of him to call down fire from Heaven to confume the inhofpitable Samaritans, he anfwered them " The " Son of Man is not come to deftroy men s lives but " to fave them." I wifli thefe words compofed the motto of the arms of every nation upon the face of the earth. They inculcate every duty that is calcula ted to preferve, reflore, or prolong human life. They militate alike againft war and capital punifh- ments the objects of which, are the unprofitable de- ftruclion of the lives of men. How precious does a human life appear from thefe words, in the fight of heaven ! Paufe, Legiflators, when you give your votes for infli&ing the punifhment of death for any crime You fruftrate in one inftance, the defign of the miflion of the Son of God into the world, and thereby either deny his appearance in the flefh, or reject the truth of his gofpel. You, moreover, ftrengthen by your conduct the arguments of the Deifts againft the particular doctrines of the Chrifti- an revelation. You do more, you preferve a bloody fragment of the Jewiih inftitutions. " The Son of Man came not to deflroy men s lives, but to fave " them" Excellent words! I require no others to fatisfy me of the truth and divine original of the Chrif- tian religion j and while I am able to place a finger, upon this text of fcripture, I will not believe an angel < BY DEATH. 177 From heaven, fhould he declare that th$ punifhment of death, for any crime, was inculcated, or permitted by the fpirit of the gofpel. *\ The precious nature of human life in the eyes of the Saviour of mankind, appears further in the compa rative value which he has placed upon it in the fol lowing words.* ** For what is a man profited, if he fhall gain the whole world/ & lofe his life, or what fhaJl a man give in exchange for his life" I havere- jefted the word yc^ rf which is ufed in the common tranflati.on of this, - x verfe. The original word in the Greek, fignifies life, and it is thus happily and juftly tranflated in the verfe which precedes it. 4. It has been faid, that a man who has committed a murder, has difcovered a malignity of heart, that renders him ever afterwards unfit to live in human fociety. This is by no means true in many, and perhaps in moft of the -cafes of murder. It is moft frequently the erTecl: of a fudden gufl of paffion, and has fometimes been the only ftain of a well-fpent, or inoffenfive life. There are many crimes which unfit a man much more for human fociety, than a finglc murder ; and there have been inftances of murderers, who have efcaped, or bribed the laws of their coun try, who have afterwards become peaceable and ufeful members of fociety. Let it not be fuppofed that I * Matthew, x. v, 26. A a I7# ON THE PUNISHMENT OF MURDER wifh to palliate, by this remark, the enormity of murder. Far from it. It is only bccaufe I view murder with fuch fuperlative horror, that I wifh t deprive our laws of the power of perpetuating and encouraging it. It has been faid, that the confeffions of murderers have, in many inftances, fanctioned the juftice of their punifhment. I do not wifh to leffen the influence of fuch vulgar errors as tend to prevent crimes, but I will venture to declare, that many more murderers efcape difcovery, than are detected, or puniflied. Were I not afraid of trefpafling upon the patience of my readers, I might mention a number of facts, in which circumftanccs of the mod trifling nature have become the means of detecting theft and forgery j ftom which I could draw as ftrong proofs of the watchfulnefs of Providence over the property of individuals, and the order of fociety, as have been drawn from the detection of murder. I might mention inltances, likewife, of perfons in whom confcience has produced reftitution for ftolen goods, or confefTion of the juftice of the punimment which was inflicted for theft. Confcience and knowledge always keep pace with each other, both with refpect to divine and human laws. The acquiefcence of murderers in the juftice of their execution, is the effect of prejudice and educa tion. It cannot flow from a confcience acting in BY DEATH. 179 concert with reafon or religion for they both fpeak a very different language. The world has certainly undergone a material change for the better within the laft two hundred years. This change has been produced chiefly, by the fecret and unacknowledged influence of Chriftianity upon the hearts of men. It is agreeable to trace the effects of the Chriftian religion in the extirpation of flavery in the diminution of the number of capital punifhments, and in the mitigation of the horrors of war. There was a time when matters poflefled a power over the lives of their flaves. But Chriftianity has depofed this power, and mankind begin to fee every where that flavery is alike contrary to the interefts of fociety, and the fpirit of the gofpel. There was a time when torture was part of the punifhment of death, and when the number of capital crimes in Great Britain, amounted to one hundred and fixty-one. Chriftianity has aboliflied the former, and reduced the latter to not more than fix or feven. It has done more. It has confined, in fome inftances, capital punifhments to the crime of murder and in fome countries it has abolifhed it altogether. The influence of Chriftianity upon the modes of war, has ftill been more remarkable. It is agreeable to trace its progrefs. I ft. In refcuing women and children from being the objects of the defolations of war, in common with men. 180 ON THE PUNISHMENT OF MURDER sdly.In preventing the deftrudion of captives taken in battle, in cold blood. 3dly. In protecting the peaceable hufbandman from fharing in the carriage of war. 4thly. In producing an exchange of prifoners, inftead of dooming them to perpetual flavery. 5thly. In avoiding the invafion or deftrution, in certain cafes, of private property. 6thly. In declaring all wars to be unlawful but {uch as are purely defenfive. This is the only tenure by which war now holds its place among Chriflians. It requires but litle in genuity to prove that a defenfive war cannot be car ried on fuccefsfully without offenfive operations. Already the princes and nations of the world difcover the druggies of opinion or confcience in their pre parations for war. Witnefs the many national dif- putes which have been lately terminated in Europe by negociation, or mediation. Witnefs too, the eftablimment of the conftitution of the United States without force or bloodfhed. Thefe events indicate an improving ftate of human affairs. They lead us to look forward with expectation to the time, when the weapons of war {hail be changed into implements of hufbandry, and when rapine and violence (hall be no more. Thefe events are the promifed fruits of the gofpel. If they do not come to pals, the prophets BY DEATH. l8l have deceived us. But if they do war muft be as contrary to the fpirit of the gofpel, as fraud, or mur der, or any other of the vices which are reproved or extirpated by it. P. S. Since the publication of this eflay and the preceeding one, the Author has had the pleafure ot feeing his principles reduced to practice in the State of Pennfylvania, in the abolition of the punifti- ment of death for all crimes, (the higheft degree of minder excepted) and in private punifhments being fubftituted to thofe which were public. The effe&s of this reformation in the penal laws of our ftare have been, a remarkable diminution of crimes of all kinds, and a great encreafe of convictions in a given num ber of offenders. The expenfes of the houfe appro priated to the punimment of criminals have been more than defrayed by the profits of their labor. Many of them have been reformed, and become ufeful members of fociety, and very few have relapfed into former habits of vice. The Author is happy in adding, that a reformation in the penal laws of the ftates of New York and New Jcrfey has taken place, nearly fimilar to that which has been mentioned, in Pennfylvania. It would be an aft of injuftice in this place not to acknowledge that the principles contained in the foregoing eflays, would probably have never been realiz ed, had they not been fupported and enforced by the elo- 182 ON THE PUNISHMENT OF MURDER, &c. quence cf the kte William Bradford Efq. and the zeal of Caleb Lownes. To both thefe gentlemen, humanity and reafon owe great obligations. Mr. Lownes has demonftrated by fads, the fuccefs O fchemes of philamhrophy, once deemed vifionary and impracticable. His plans for employing, and reform ing his unfortunate fellow creatures in the Philadelphia prifon, difcover great knowledge of the ceconomy of the body, and of the principles of a&ion in the mind. To comprehend fully the ingenuity and bene volence of thefe plans, it will be necelTary to vifit the prifon. There fcience and religion exhibit a triumph over vice and mifery, infinitely more fublime and affecling, than all the monuments of ancient conquefls. It is thus the father of the human race has decreed the ultimate extermination of all evil, viz. by mani- feftations of love to his fallen creatures. For the details of the difcipline, order, produces of labor, &c. of this prifon, the reader is referred to two elegant pamphlets, the one by Mr. De Liancourt, of France, the other by Mr. Turnbuil of South Carolina* July, 4 1797. A PLAN OF A PEACE-OFFICE FOR THE UNITED STATES. AMONG the defe&s which have been point ed out in the federal conftitution by its afttifederal enemies, it is much to be lamented that no perfon has taken notice of its total filence upon the fubjefc of an office of the utmofl importance to the welfare of the United States, that is, an office for pro moting and preferving perpetual peace in our country. It is to be hoped that no objection will be made to the eftablifliment of fuch an office, while we arc engaged in a war with the Indians, for as the War- Office of the United States was eftablifhed in the time sf peace, it is equally reafonable that a Peace-Office mould be eftablifhed in the time of war. f\ The plan of this office is as follows : I. Let a Secretary of the Peace be appointed to prefide in this office, who mall be perfedly free from all the prefent abfurd and vulgar European preju dices upon the fubjet of government j let him be a genuine republican and a fmcere Chriftian, for the prin ciples of republicanifm and Chriflianity are no lefs friendly to univerfal and perpetual peace, than they are to univerfal and equal liberty. 184 A PLAN OF A PEACE OFFICE II. Let a power be given to this Secretary to efta* blifh and maintain free-fchools in every city, village and townfhip of the United States ; and let him be made refponfible for the talents, principles, and morals* of all his fchoolm afters. Let the youth of our country be carefully inftrucled in reading, writing, arithmetic, and in the doctrines of a religion of fome kind : the Chriftian religion fhould be preferred to alk others ; for it belongs to this religion exclufively to teach us not only to cultivate peace with men, but to forgive, nay more to love our very enemies. It belongs to it further to tedch us that the Supreme Being alone pof- fefles a power to take away human life, and that we rebel againft his laws, whenever we undertake to execute death in any way whatever upon any of his creatures. III. Let every family in the United States be fur- nLned at the public expenfe, by the Secretary of this office, with a copy of an American edition of the BIBLE. This meafure has become the more neceffary in our country, fmce the banifhment of the bible, as a i chool-book, from moft of the fchools in the United States. Unlcfs the price of this book be paid for by the public, there is reafon to fear that in a few years it will be met with only in courts of juflice or in magistrates offices ; and fhould the abfurd mode of eftabliihing truth by killing this facred book fall into t lifufe, it may probably, in the courfe of the next FOR THE UNITED STATES. generation, be feen only as a curiofity on a fhelf in a public mufeum. IV. Let the following fentencc be inscribed in letters of gold over the doors of every State and Court houfe in the United States. THE SON OF MAN CAME INTO THE WORLD, NOT TO DESTROY MEN S LIVES, BUT TO SAVE THEM, V. To infpire a veneration for human life, and an horror at the fhedding of human blood, let all thofe laws be repealed which authorife juries, judges, meriifs, or hangmen to arTume the refentrnents of individuals and to commit murder in cold blood in any cafe whatever. Until t :i j reformation in our code of penal jurifprudence takes place, it will be in vain to attempt to introduce univerftland perpetual peace in our country. VI. To fubdue that paffion for war, which educa tion, added to human depravity, have made univerfal, a familiarity with the instruments of death, as well as all military {hows, mould be carefully avoided. For which reafon, militia laws fhould every where be repealed, and military drefles and military titles fhould be laid afide : reviews tend to leflen the horrors of a battle by connecting them with the charms of order ; militia laws generate idlenefs and vice, and thereby produce the wars they are faid to prevent , military drefles fafcinate the minds B b 186 A TLAN 01 A PLACE OFFICE of young men, and lead them from ferious and ufeful profefTions ; were there no uniforms, there would pro bably be no armies , laftly, military titles feed vanity, and keep up ideas in the mind which lefien a fenfe of the folly and miferies of war. VII. In the lad place, let a large room, adjoining the federal hall, be appropriated for tranfafting the bufmefs and preferving all the records of this office. Over the door of this room let there be a fign, on which the figures of a LAMB, a DOVE and an OLIVE BRANCH mould be painted, together with the follow ing infcriptions in letters of gold : PEACE ON EARTH GOOD-WILL TO MAN. AH! WHY WILL MEN FORGET THAT THEY ARr BRETHREN ? Within this apartment let there be a colledtion of ploughfhares and pruriing-hooks made out of fwcrds and fpears 5 and on each of the walls of the apartment, the following pictures as large as the life: 1. A lion eating draw with an ox, and an adder playing upon the lips of a child. 2. An Indian boiling his venifon in the fame pot with a citizen of Kentucky. 3. Lord Cornwallis and Tippoo Saib, under the fhadc of a fycamore-trce in the Eaft Indies, drinking Madeira wine together out of the fame decanter. FOR THE UNITED STATES 187 4. A group of French and Auftrian foldiers danc ing arm and arm^ under a bower erected in the neigh bourhood of Moris. 5. A St. Domingo planter, a man of color, and a native of Africa, legiflating together in the fame colonial affembly.f To complete the entertainment of this delightful apartment, let a group of young ladies ; clad in white robes, affemble every day at a certain hour, in a gallery to bs ereted for the purpofe, and fing odes, and hymns, and anthems in praife of the bleflings of peace. One of thefe fongs mould confift of the following lines. Peace o er the world her olive wanj extends^ And whke-rob d innocence fVorn heaven defccncls : Ail crimes fiiali ceafe, and ancient frauds /hall fail, Returning juftice lifts aloft her fcaie. In order more deeply to affect the minds of the citL zens of the United States with the bleffings of peace, by conirafdng them with the evils of war, let the follow ing infcriptions be painted upon the fign, which is placed over the door of the War Office. I. An office for butchering the human fpecies. r 2 . A Widow and Orphan making office. -j- At the time of writing this, there exifled wars between the United States and the American Indians, between the British nation and Tippoo laib, between the planters of St Domingo and tiieir African Haves, an^ between the French nation and the emperor of Germany. 188 A PLAN OF A PEACE OFFICE, &C. 3. A broken bone making office. 4. A Wooden leg making office. 5. An office for creating public and private vices. 6. An office for creating a public debt. 7. An office for creating fpeculators, flock Jobbers, and Bankrupts. 8. An office for creating famine. 9 An office for creating peflilential difeafes. 10. An office for creating poverty, and the deflruc- tion of liberty, and national happinefs. In the lobby of this office let there be painted re- prefentations of all the common military inftruments of death, alfo human Ikulls, broker, bones, imburied and putrifying dead bodies, hfcfpitals crouded with fick and wounded Soldiers, villages on fife, mothers in befieged towns eating the flefh of their children, mips finking in the ocean, rivers dyed with blood, and extenfive plains without a tree or fence, or any other object, but the ruins of deferted farm houfes. Above this group of woeful figures, let the following words be inferted, in red characters to re- prcfent human blood, " NATIONAL GLORY." INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS WHO ARE DISPOSED TO MIGRATE TO THE UNITES STATES OF AMERICA. IN A LETTER. TO A FRIEND IN GREAT BRITAIN. A GREEABLY to your requeft contained in your letter of the 2pth of Auguft, 1789, Ihave at lad tat down to communicate fuch facts to you, upon the fuhjel of migration to this country, as have been the refult of numerous enquiries and obfervation. I am aware that this fubject has been handled in a maf- terly manner by Doctor Franklin, in his excellent little pamplet, entitled Advice to thofe who would wiih to remove to America," but as that valuable little work is very general, and as many important changes have occurred in the affairs of the United States fince its publication, I mall endeavour to comply with your wifhes, by adding fuch things as have been omitted by the Doctor, and fnall accommodate them to the prefent ftate of our country. I mail begin this letter by mentioning the defcrip- tions of people, who ought not to come to America. I. Men of independent fortunes who can exift only in company, and who can converfe only upon public amufements, fhould not think of fettling in the United States. I have known feveral men of that character in this country, who have rambled from State INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS to State, complaining of the dulnefs of each of tlicra, and who have finally returned and renewed their for mer connexions and pleafures in Europe. II. Literary men, who have no prcfefncnal purfuits,, will often^languifh in America, from the want of fociety.^/Our authors and fcholars are generally men of bufmefs, and make their literary purfuits fubfervient to their interefts. A lounger in bock (lores, breakfafling parties for the purpoie of literary converfation, and long attic evenings, are as yet but little known in this country. Our companies are generally mixed, and converfation in them is a medley of ideas tipon all fubjeclis. They begin as in England with the weather focn run into politics now and then diverge into li terature and commonly conclude with fa6ts relative to commerce, manufactures and agriculture, and the beft means of acquiring and improving an eftate. Men, who are philofophers or poets, without other purfuits, Irad better end their days in an old country. III. The United States as yet a libra hut little en couragement to the profciTers of mod of the fine art?. Painting and fculpture flourifn chiefly in wealthy and luxurious countries. Our native American portrait, painters who have not fought protection end encou ragement in Great Britain, have been obliged to travel occafionaiiy from one State to another in order to fupport themiVives. The teachers of mufic have been more fortunate in America. A tadc for this accom- MIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES. 19! plimment prevails very generally in our large cities : and eminent mailers in that art, who have arrived here fmce the peace, have received conliderable fums of money by exercifmg their profeffion among us. I mall now mention thofe descriptions of people, who may better their condition by coming to America. I. To the cultivators of the earth the United States open the firft afylum in the world. To infure the fuccefs and happinefs of an European Farmer in our country, it is neceffary to advife him either to purchafe or to rent a farm which has undergone fome improve ment. The bufmefs of fettling a new trace of land, and that of improving a farm, are of a very different nature. The former muft be effected by the native American* who is accuftomed to the ufe of the axe and the grub bing hoe, and who poffefies alniofc exclufively a know ledge of all the peculiar and namelefs arts of felf-preCer- vation in the woods. I have known many inftances of Europeans who have fpent all their cam in uniuccefs- ful attempts to force a fettlement in the wiUlernefs, and who have afterwards been expofed to poverty and diftrefs at a great diilance from friends and ven neighbours. I would therefore advife all farmers with moderate capitals, to purchafe or rent improved farms in the old fettlements of our States. The price and rent of thefe farms are different in the different parts of the union. In Pcrmfylvania, the price of farms lp2 INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS is regulated by the quality of the land by the value or the improvements which are erected upon it by their v icinity to fea ports and navigable water; and by the good or bad ftate of the roads which lead to them. There is a great variety, of courfe, in the price of farms : while feme of them have been fold for five guineas others have been fold at lower prices, down to one gui nea, and even half a guinea per acre, according as they were varied by the above circum {lances. It is not expected that the whole price of a farm ihould be paid at the time of purchafmg it. An half, a third, or a fourth, is all that is generally re quired. Bonds and mortgages are given for the re mainder, (and fometitnes without intereft) payable in two, three, five, or even ten years. The value of thefe farms has often been doubled and even trebled, in a few years, where the new mode of agriculture has been employed in cultivating them : fo that a man with a moderate capital, may, in the courfe of fifteen years, become an opulent and independent freeholder. If, notwithftanding what has been faid of the difficulties of effecting an eftablifhment in the woods, the low price of the new lands mould tempt the European Farmer to fettle in them, then let me add, that it can only be done by aflbciating himfelf in a large company, under the direction of an active and intelligent American farmer. To fecure even a MIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES. 193 company of European fettlers from difappointment and want in the woods, it will be neceflary to clear a few acres of land the year before, and to fow them with grain, in order to provide fubfiftance for the company, till thjey can provide for themfelves, by clearing their own farms. The difficulties of eftablifh- ing this new fettlement, will be further leflened, if a few cabins, a grift and a faw mill be erected, at the fame time the preparations are made for the temporary fubfiftance of the company. In this manner, moft of the firft fettlements of the New England men have been made in this country. One great advantage, attend ing this mode of fettling, is, a company may always carry with them a clergyman and a fchoolmafter, of the fame religion and language with themfelves. If a fettler in the woods mould poiTefs a tafte for rural elegance, he may gratify it without any expenfe, by the manner of laying out his farm. He may (hade his houfe by means of ancient and venerable forreft- trees. He may leave rows of them {landing, to adorn his lanes and walks or clufters of them on the high grounds of his fields, to made his cattle, If he mould fix upon any of thofe parts of our weft- ern country, which are covered with the fugar-trees, he may inclofe a fufficient number of them to fupply his family with fugar ; and may confer upon them at the fame time the order and beauty of a fine or chard. In this manner, a highly improved feat may C c 194 INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS be cut out of the woods in a few years, which will fur- pafs both in elegance and value a farm in an old fettle ment, which has been for twenty years the fub- jecl: of improvements in tafte and agriculture. To contemplate a dwelling-houfe a barn ftables fields meadows an orchard a garden, Sec. which have been produced from original creation* by the labour of a Tingle life, is, I am told, to the proprietor of them, pne of the highefl pleafures the mind of man is capa ble of enjoying. But how much muft this pleafure be increafed, when the regularity of art is blended in the profpeft, with the wildnefs and antiquity of nature ? It has been remarked in this country, that clearing the land of its woods, fometimes makes a new fettle- ment unhealthy, by expofing its damp grounds to the action of the fun. To obviate this evil, it will be neceiTary for the fettler either to drain and cultivate his low grounds, as foon as they are cleared, or to leave a body of trees between his dwelling houfe, and the fpots from whence the morbid effluvia are derived. The laft of thefe methods has, in no inftance that I have heard of, failed of preferring whole families from fuch difeafes as arifefrorn damp or putrid exha lations. To country gentlemen, who have been accuftom- ed to live upon the income of a landed eftate in Europe y it will be iicceffary to communicate the following in formation, viz. that farms, in confequence of the MIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES. 195 unproductive woodland, which is generally connected with them, feldom yield more than three or four per cent, a year in cam, except in the neighbour hood of -large cities. Befides, from the facility with which money enough may be laved in a few years, to purchafe land in this country, tenants will not accept of long leafes : and hence they are not fufficiently interefted in the farms they rent, to keep them in repair. If country gentlemen wifli to derive the greateft advantage from laying out their money in lands, they muft refide in taeir vicinity. A capital of five thoufand guineas, invefted in a number of contiguous farms, in an improved part of our country, and cultivated by tenants under the eye and direction of a landlord, would foon yield a greater income than double that fum would in mod parts of Europe. The landlord in this cafe muft frequently vifit and infpecl: the ftate of each of his farms : and now and then he muft ftop to repair a bridge or a fence in his excurfions through them. He muft receive all his rents in the produce of the farms. If the tenant find his own ftock, he will pay half of all the grain he raifes, and fometiines a certain proportion of ve-^ getables and live ftock, to his landlord. The divifion of the grain is generally made in the field, in fheaves or (lacks, which are carried home to be thrafhed in the barn of the landlord. An eftated gentleman, who can reconcile himfelf to this kind of life, may be both happy and ufeful. He may mftru6t his Ipd INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS tenants by his example, as well as precepts in the new modes of hufbandry : he may teach them the art and advantages of gardening : he may infpire them with habits of fobriety, induftry, and ceconomy , and thereby become the father and protector of a depen dant and affectionate neighbourhood. After a bufy fummer and autumn, he may pafs his winters in polifh- cd fociety in any of our cities, and in many of our country villages. But mould he be difinclined to fuch extcnfive fcenes of bufinefs, he may confine his purchafes and labours to a fingle farm, and fecure his fuperfluous cafh in bonds and mortgages, which will yield him, fix per cent. Under this head, it is proper to mention, that the agricultural life begins to maintain in the United States, the fame rank that it has long maintained in Great Britain. Many gentlemen of education among us have quitted liberal profeflions, and have proved, by their fuccefs in farming, that philofophy is in no hufinefs more ufeful or profitable, than in agriculture. . j II. MECHANICS and MANUFACTURERS, of every def- cription, will find certain encouragement in the Uni ted States. During the connection of this country with Great Britain, we were taught to believe that agriculture and commerce fhould be the only purfuits of the Americans : but experiments and reflexion have taught us, that our country abounds with re- MIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES. I ()J fources for manuf actures of all kinds : and that moft of them may be conduced with great advantage in all the ftates. We are already nearly independent of the whole world for iron-work, paper, and malt liquors : and great progrefs has been made in the manufac- turies of glafs, pot-am, and cloths of all kinds. The commercial habits of our citizens have as yet prevented their employing large capitals in thofe manufactories : but I am perfuaded that if a few Euro pean adventurers would embark in them with capitals equal to the demand for thofe manufactures, they would foon find an immenfe profit in their fpeculations. A fingle farmer in the flate of New York, with a capital of five thoufand pounds, has cleared one thoufand a year by the manufacture of pot-am alone. Thofe mechanical arts, which are accomodated to the infant and fimple ftate of a country, will bid faireft to fucceed among us. Every art, connected with cul tivating the earth building houfes and fhips, and feed ing and clothing the body, will meet with encourage ment in this country. The prices of provifions are fo different in the different flates, arid even in the different parts of the fame ftate, and vary fo much with the plenty and fcarcity of money, that it would be difficult to give you fuch an account of them as would be ufeful. I need only remark, that the difpro- portion between the price of labour and of provifions, is much greater in every part of the United States, than in any part of Europe : and hence our tradefmeii 19$ INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS every where cat meat and butter every day : and moft of them realize the wim of Henry IV. of France, for the peafants of his kingdom, by dining not only once, but two or three times, upon poultry, in every week of the year. / It is a fingular facl: in the hiftory of the mechanical arts in this country, that the fame arts feldom defcend from father to fon. Such are the profits of even the humbleft of them, that the fons of mechanics generally rife from the lower to the more refpedtable occupa tions: and thus their families gradually afcend to the firfl ranks in fcciety among us. The influence, which the profpecls of wealth and confequence have in invigo rating induftry in every line of mechanical bufinefs, is very great. Many of the firft men in America, are the fons of reputable mechanics or farmers. But I may go farther, and add, that many men, who diftinguifhed themfelves both in the cabinet and field, in the late war, had been mechanics. I know the Britifh officers treated the American caufe with contempt, from this circumftance : but the event of the war mewed, that the confidence of America was not mifplaccd in that body of citizens. III. LABOURERS may depend upon conftant em ployment in the United States, both in our towns and in the country. When they work by the day, they receive high wages : but thefc are feldom continued MIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES. 199 through the whole year. A labourer receives annually, with his boarding, warning, and lodging, from fif teen to eighteen guineas, in the middle dates. It is agreeable to obferve this clafs of men frequently raifed by their induftry from their humble ftations, into the upper ranks of life, in the courfe of twenty or thirty years. IV. PERSONS who are wilting to indent themfelvcs as fervants for a few years, will find that humble {ration no obftacle to a future eftablifhment in our country. Many men, who came to America in that capacity, are now in affluent circumflances. Their former fituation, where they have behaved well, does not preclude them from forming refpectable connec tions in marriage, nor from fharing, if otherwifc qualified, in the offices of our country. V. The United States continue to afford encourage ment to gentlemen of the learned profeffions^ provided they be prudent in their deportment, and of fufficient knowledge : for fince the eflablifhment of colleges and fchools of learning in all our dates, the fame degrees of learning will not fucceed among us, which fucceedcd fifty years ago. Several lawyers and phyficians, who have arrived here fince the peace, are now in good bufinefs : and many clergymen, natives of England, Scotland, and Ireland, are comfortably fettled in good parilhes. A INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS minifter of the gofpcl in a country place muft not e*- peer, to have all his falary paid in cam : but he will notwithitanding feldom fail of obtaining a good fubfif- tance from his congregation. They will furnifh his table with a portion of all the live flock they raife for their own ufe : they will fhoe his horfes repair his implements of hufbandry, and aflift him in gathering in his harvefts, and in many other parts of the bufmefs of his farm. From thefe aids, with now and then a little cafh, a clergyman may not only live well, but, in the courfe of his life, may accumulate an handfome eftate for his children. This will more certainly happen, if he can redeem time enough from his paro chial duties, and the care of his farm, to teach a fchool. The people of America are of all feels : but the greatefl part of them arc of the independent, prefbyterian, epif- copal, baptift, and methodifl denominations. The principles held by each of thefe focieties in America are the fame as thofe which are held by the proteftant churches in Europe, from which they derive their origin. VI. SCHOOLMASTERS of good capacities and fair characters may exepft to meet with encouragement in the middle and fouthern ftates. They will fucceed better, if they confine their inftru&ions to reading, writing, Englifh grammar, and the fciences of number and quantity. Thefe branches of literature are of general neceffity and utility : ami of courfe every MIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES. 2OI townfliip will furnifli fcholars enough for the main tenance of a fchoolmafter. Many young men have rifen by means of the connexions they have formed in this ufeful employment, to rank and confequence in the learned profeflions in every part of this country. From this account of the United States, you will cafily perceive, that they are" a hot-bed for induftry and genius in almoft every human purfuit. It is in conceivable how many ufeful difcoveries neceflity has produced within thefe few years, in agriculture and manufactures, in our country. The fame neceffity has produced a verfatility of genius among our citizens : hence we frequently mset with men who have exercif- ed two or three diiTerent occupations or profeffions in the courfc of their lives, according to the influence which intereft, accident, or local eircumftances have had upon them. I know that the peculiarities, which have been mentioned in the American character, ftrike an European, who has been accuftomed to confider man as a creature of habit, formed by long eftablimed governments, and hereditary cufhoms, as fo many deviations from propriety and order. But a wife man, who knows that national characters arife from circum- itances, will view thefe peculiarities without furprife, and attribute them wholly to the prefent (late of man ners, fociety, and government in America. From the numerous competitions in every branch of bufmefs in Europe, fuccsfs in any purfuit, may be D d 202 INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS looked upon in the fame light as a prize in a lottery. But the cafe is widely different in America. Hers there is room enough for every human talent and virtue to expand and fkmrifh. This is fo invariably true, that I believe there is not an inftance to be found, of an induftrious, frugal prudent European, with fober manners, who has not been fuccefsful in bufmefs, in this country. As a further inducement to Europeans to tranfport themfelves acrofs the Ocean, I am obliged to mention a fact that c oes little honour to the native American ; and that is, in all competitions for bufinefs, where fuc- cefs depends upon induftry, the European is generally preferred. Indeed, fuch is the facility with which pro perty is acquired, that where it does not operate as aftimulus to promote ambition, it is fometimes accom panied by a relaxation of induftry in proportion to the number of years or generations which interpofe be tween the founder of an American family and his pof- tcrity. This preference of European mechanics arifes, likewife, from the improvements in the different arts, which arc from time to time imported by them into our country. To thefe fah I am happy in being able to add, that the years of anarchy, which proved fo difguiling to the Europeans who arrived among us immediately after the peace, are now at an end, and that the United States have at lad adopted a national government which unites with the vigour of monarchy and the {lability of uriftocracy, all the freedom of MIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES. 203 a fimple republic* Its influence already in invigorat ing indu dry, and reviving credit, is univerfal. There are feveral peculiarities in this government, which can not fail of being agreeable to Europeans, who are difpofed to fettle in America. 1. The equal (hare of power it holds forth to men of every religious feet. As the firft fruits of this per fection in our government, we already fee three gen tlemen of the Roman Catholic church, members of the Jegiflature of the United States. 2. Birth in America is not required for holdingeither power or office in the federal government, except that of Prefident of the United States. In confequence of this principle of juflice, not only in the national government, but in all our ftate conflitutions, we dai ly fee the natives of Britain, Ireland, Germany, ad vanced to the moft refpeclable employments in our country. 3. By a late acT: of congrcfs, only two years refidence in the United States are necefTary to entitle foreign ers of good character to all the priviliges of citizen- fliip. Even thai fhort period of time has been found fuScient to give flrangers a vifible intereft in the (lability and freedom of our governments. * It is agreeable to obferve the influence which our republican governments have already had upon the * By alawpafledfmce the above, five years refidcncc are neceflary tP entitle a fjvcigner to citizenihip. 204 INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS tempers and manners of our citizens. Amufement is every where giving way to bufmefs : and local politenefs is yielding to univerfal civittty^/ftTe differ about forms and modes in politics : but this difference begins to fubmit to the reilraints of moral and focial obligation. Order and tranquility appear to b*.: the natural confequence of a well-balanced republic : for where men can remove the evils of their govern ments by frequent elections, they will feldom appeal to the kfs certain remedies of mobs or arms. It is * \ with fmgular pleafure that I can add further, that iiotwithflanding the virulence of our diiTenfions about independence and the federal government, there is now fcarcely a citizen of the United States, who is not fatisfied with both, and who does not believe this country to be in a happier and fafer fituation, than it was, in the moft flourifhing years of its dependence upon Great Britain. The ericouragment held out to European emigrants is not the fame in all the Mates. New England, New York, and New Jerfey, being nearly filled with culti vators of the earth, afford encouragement chiefly to mechanicks and labourers. The inhabitants of New England have far furpaffed the inhabitants of the other ftates, in the eflablifhment of numerous and profitable manufactories. Thefe wonderful people difcover the fame degrees of induftry in cultivating the arts of peace, that they did of enterprize and perfevcrancc, in the late war. They already export large quantities MIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES. 205 of wrought iron, hats, women s {hoes, cheefc, and linen and woolen cloth. The ft ate of New- York lias likewife difcovered a laudable fpirit for manu facturers and domeflie improvements. European artiils, therefore, -cannot fail of meeting with encou ragement in each of the above flates. Pennfylvania affords an equal afylum to all the de- fcriptions of people -that have been mentioned, under the fecond head of this letter. Agriculture, manufac tures, and many of the liberal arts feem to vie with each other for pre-eminence in this flare. Each of them is under the patronage of numerous andrefpeclable focieties. No flate in the union affords greater re- fources for {hip building, malt liquors, maple fugar, fail cloth, iron work, woolen and linen cloths, pot- am, and glafs. Coal, likewifej abounds on the fliores of the Sufqueharma, a large river which runs through half the Mate. The variety of feclis and nations, which com- pofe the inhabitants of this flate, has hitherto prevented our having any Ready traits in our character. We poflefs the virtues and weakneffes of mofl of the fects and nations of Europe. But this variety has produced fuch a collifion in opinions and interefls, as has greatly favoured the progrcfs of genius in every art and fcience. We have been accufed of being factious by our fitter flates. This mutt be afcribed chief ly to our late flate conftitution, which was eflablifhcd by violence in the beginning of the late war, and which was never affented to by a majority of the people. 206 INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS But that majority have at length afierted their power, A convention, compofed of an equal representation of the people, has met and formed a new con(litution > which comprehends in it every principle of liberty and juft government. From the excellency of this conilitu- tion from the harmony it has reflored to our citizens from the central fituation of our ftate from the number and courfes of our rivers from the facility with which we are able to draw the refources of the lakes to the Delaware from the wealth of our capital and above all, from the induflry r.nd fober habits of our citrzcns there can be no doubt that Pennfylvania will always maintain the firft rank, for national profperity and happinefs, in the United States. There is one circumftance, peculiar in a great de gree to Penfylvania, which cannot fail of directing the eyes of the inhabitants of feveral of the European nations to this ftatc and that is, the natives of Britain, Ireland, Germany, France, Switzerland, and Holland, m.iy here meet with their former fellow fubjects, and receive from them that welcome and aifiltarice, which are the natural confequcnces of the tie of country. So ftrongly does this principle* operate in America, that the natives of Germany and Ireland have formed themfelves into focictics ill the city of Philadelphia, for the cxprcis purpose of protecting, advifing, and aflifting their country- MIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES. men, as foon as they fet their feet upon the fhores of Pfennfylvania, It has been faid,that the lands in Pennfylvania arc dearer than in fome of our fitter flares. They fell, it is true, for a greater nominal fum, than the lands of the neighbouring ftates : but in the end, they are much cheaper. The foil is deep, rich, and durable, and from the fuperior induftry and (kill of our farmers, cur lands are more productive than thofc of our neighbours j hence their higher price ; for the price of lands is always in a ratio to their quality, produce and fituation : hence likewife, we are able to tell the value of a farm in any part of the (late, by firft finding out the quantity of grain an acre will produce, and the price of this grain at the ncareft rnili or ftore, making fome little allowance for the improvements which are connected with the farm. This remark is fo imivcrfally true, that a farmer never mjftakes the application of it in pur- chafing land. There is a certain inflincl, which governs in all purchafcs and fales of firms, and which arifes out of the principle I have mentioned: it is in general as accurate, as if it arofe out of the niceft calculation. It is from an ignorance or neglect of this principle, that fo many of our citizens have migrated to Kentucky, under a delufive expectation of purchafmg lands cheaper than in the old Mates. They are in fact often much dearer when you eflimate their price by the profit of the grain which is cultivated upon them. For inftance, an acre 2O8 INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS of land in Kentucky, which fells for a quarter of a guinea, and yields 30 buihels of corn, at four pence fteriing per bumel, is dearer than land of the fame quality in Pennfylvania, at a guinea per acre, that yields the fame quantity of corn, which can be fold at the nearefl mill or Itore for two ihillings fieri, per bufliel. To cure this paffion for migrating to the waters of the Ohio, there is but one remedy, and that is, to open the navigation of the MiiTnTippi. This, by raifing the price of produce, will raife the value of land fo high, as to deltroy the balance of attraction to that country. This truth is at prefect a fpecula- lative one, but I hope it will be reduced to practice before the waters of the Ohio and Mifliflippi have been dyed with the blood of two or three hundred thoufand men. The ftar.es to the fouthward of Pennfylvania pcfTefs immenfe refources for political happinefs : but while they tolerate negro flavery, they can never be an agreeable retreat for an European. This objection applies chiefly to the fea coails of thofe fbtes ; for in the weftern parts of them, the land is cultivated chiefly by freemen. The foil and climate of the exrenfive weflern country of thofe dates is kind and mild to a very great degree. There Europeans may profpcr and be happy. Thus, Sir, have I complied in a few words with your requeft. In communicating many of the facts contained in this letter, I have not confidered you MIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES. 20$ {imply as a citizen of London, or a fubjecT; of the crown of Britain. The whole family of mankind., I know are your brethren 5 and if men be happy I am fure it is a matter of indifference to you, whether they enjoy their happinefs on this fide, or on the other fide of the Atlantic ocean. From a review of the facts that have been men tioned, you will perceive that the prefent is the age of reafon and action in America. To our pofterity we muft bequeath the cultivation of the fine arts and the pleafures of tafte and fentiment. The foreigners who have vifited and defcribed our country without making allowances for thofe peculiarities which arife from our prefent (late of fociety, have done as little honour to their understandings, as they have done to human nature. Noj: have thofe Europeans- clifcovered more wifdom, who have blended with the American character, the accidental diforders, which were the offspring of our late public commo tions. They refembled the fwelling of the fea, which fucceeds a ftorm. At prefent, they have as perfectly fubfided as the diforders produced by the civil wars in England, in the lad century. It is fomewhat remarkable that in every age, great inventions and great revolutions in human affairs have taken place in a quick fucceffion to each other. The many curious machines for leffening labour, which UIO INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS have lately been difcovered in Europe, will neccflarily" throw many thoufand artificers out of employment- Perhaps the late fuccefsful application of the powers of fire and water to mechanical purpofes in your country, was delayed until the prefent time, only that the fanCtuary of our national government might be perfectly prepared to receive and protect thofc induftrious bodies of people, who formerly lived by the labour of their hands, and who might otherwife become a burden to the countries in Munich they had been deprived of the means of fupporting themfelves. Perhaps, too, the revolutions, which are now going forward in ieveral of the governments on the conti nent of Europe, have occurred at the prefent juncture for a purpofe equally wife and benevolent. The firft effect of the eftablimment of freedom in thofe countries, will be to promote population, by reducing taxes, difbanding Handing armies, and abolifhing the vows and practices of celibacy : for I take it for granted that military iriflitutions in the time of peace, and monafteries of all kinds, muft yield to the pre fent force and cultivated ftate of human reafon, in thofe countries, which are now the theatres of revolu tions in favour of liberty. This increafe of population will require an increafe of territory, which mult be fought for in the United States : for it is not probable that men who have once tufted of the fweets of liberty will ever think of tranfporting themfelves to any other country. This outlet for fupernumerary inhabitants MIGRATING TO THE UNITED STATES. 21 fi from the nations of Europe, will eventually promote their interefh and profperity : for when a country is fo much crouded with people, that the price of the means of fubfiftence is beyond the ratio of their induftry, marriages are re drained : but when emi gration to a certain degree takes place, the balance between the means of fubfiftence and induftry is reftored, and population thereby revived. Of the truth of this principle there are many proofs in the old counties of all the American ftates. Population has conftantly been advanced in them by the migration of their inhabitants to new or diftant fettlements. In ipite of all the little fyftems of narrow politicians, it is an eternal truth, that univerfal happinefs is uni- verfal intereft. The divine government of our world would admit of a controverfy, if men, by acquiring moral or political happinefs, in one part, added to the mifery of the inhabitants of another part, of our globe. I fliall conclude this long letter by the two fol lowing remarks : I. If freedom, joined with the facility of acquiring the m-nns of fubfiftence, have fuch an influence upon population and if exiftence be a title to happinefs then think, fir, what an ocean of additional happinefs will be created, by the influence which migration to the free and extenfive territories of the United States will have, upon the numbers of mankind. 212 INFORMATION TO EUROPEANS, &C II. If wars have been promoted in all ages and countries, by an over proportion of inhabitants to the means of eafy fubfiftence, then think, fir, what sn influence upon the means of fupporting human life, migration to America, and the immenfe increafe of the productions of the earth, by the late improve ments in agriculture, will probably have, in leflening the temptations and refources of nations to carry on war. The promifes of heaven are often accom- plifhed by means in which there is no departure from the common operations of nature. If the events, which have been alluded to, fhould con tribute in any degree to put an end to wars, it will furnim a noble triumph to your fociety f, by {hewing how much enlightened policy, and national happinefs, are connected with the dictates of chrif- tianity. I am, Dear fir, With great refper., And fincere regard, Yours very aftecYionately, > Phllatklfiia, April 16. 1790. f The gentleman to whom this letter is addrefled, is of the fociery f the .people called quakers. AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS OF POPULATION, AGRICULTURE, MANNERS, AND GOVERNMENT IN PENNSYLVANIA, IN A LETTER TO A FRIEND itf ENGLAND. DEAR SIR, WHATEVER tends to unfold facts in the hiftory of the human fpecies, muft be interefting to a curious enquirer. The manner ot fettling a new country, exhibits a view of the human mind fo foreign to the views of it which have been taken for many centuries in Europe, that I flatter myfelf the following account of the progrefs of po pulation, agriculture, manners, and government in Pennfylvania will be acceptable to you. I have chofen to confine myfelf in the prefent letter to Pennfylvania only, that ?.il the information I {hall give you may be derived from my own knowledge and obfervations. Thejr/? fettler in the woods is generally a man who has outlived his credit or foitune in the cultivated parts of the State. His time for migrating is in the month of April. His fir ft cbjecl: is to build a fmali cabbin of rough logs for himfelf and family. The floor of this cabbin is of earth, the roof is of fplit logs the li^ht is received through the door, and, in 214 AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS OF fome inftances, through a fmall window made of greafed paper. A coarfer building adjoining this cabbin affords a flicker to a cow and a puir of poor horics. The labor of creeling thefe buildings- is fucceeded by killing the trees on a few acres of ground near his cabbin ; this is done by cutting a circle round the trees, two or three feet from the ground. The ground around thefe trees is then ploughed and Indian-corn planted in it. The fcafon for planting this grain is about the 2oth of May It grows generally on new ground with but little cultivation, and yields in the month of October fol lowing, from forty to fifty bufhels by the acre. After the firft of September it affords a good deal of nou- rifnment to his family, in its green or unripe ftate, in the form of what is called roafling ears. His family is fed during the fummer by a fmall quantity of grain which he carries with him, and by fim and game. His cows and horfes feed upon wild grafs. or the fucculent twigs of the woods. For the firft year he endures a great deal of diilrefs from hunger cold and a variety of accidental caufes, but he feldom complains or fmks under them. As he lives in the neighbourhood of Indians, he foon acquires a flrong tin6hire of their manners. His exertions, while they continue, are violent ; but they are fucceeded by long intervals of reft. His pleafures confift chiefly in fifhing and hunting. He loves fpirituous liquors> and he eats, drinks and deeps in dirt and rags in his little cabbin. In his intercourfe with the world POPULATION, &C. IN PENNSYLVANIA. 215 he manifefts all the arts which chara&erize the Indians of our country. In ,this fituation he paffes two or three years. In proportion as population increafes around him, he becomes uneafy and diffatisfi- ed. Formerly his cattle ranged at large, but now his neighbours call upon him to confine them with in fences, to prevent their trefpafiing upon their fields of grain. Formerly he fed his family with wild animals, but thefe, which fly from the face of man, now ceafe to afford him an eafy fubfiftence, and he is compelled to raife domeftic animals for the fupport of his family. Above all, he revolts againft the operation of laws. He cannot bear to furrender up a (ingle natural right for all the benefits of go vernment, and therefore he abandons his little fettlement, and feeks a retreat in the woods, where he again fubmits to all the toils which have been mentioned. There are inftances of many men who have broken ground on bare creation, not lefs than four different times in this way, in different and more advanced parts of the State. It has been remarked, that the flight of this clafs of people is always in- creafed by the preaching of the gofpel. This will not furprife us when we confider how oppofite its precepts are to their licentious manner of living. If our firft fettler was the owner of the fpot of land which he began to cultivate, he fells it at a confidera- ble profit to his fucceflbr ; but if (as is oftner the cafe) he was a tenant to fome rich landholder, 2\6 AN ACCOUNT OE THE PROGRESS OF he abandons it in debt ; however, the fmall improve ments he leaves behind him, generally make it an objecl: of immediate demand to a fccond fpecies of fettler. This fpecies of fettler is generally a man of fome property, he pays one third or one fourth part in cafh for his plantation, which confifts of three or four hundred acres, and the reft in gales or inftal- ments, as it is called here -, that is, a certain fum yearly, without interefl, till the whole is paid. The firft object of this fettler is to build an addition to his cabbin ; this is done with hewed logs : and as faw-mills generally follow fettlements, his floors arc made of boards ; his roof is made of what are call ed clapboards, which are a kind of coarfe mingles, fplit out of Ihort oak logs. This houfe is divided by two floors, on each of which are two rooms : under the whole is a cellar walled with flone. The cabbin ferves as kitchen to this houfe. His next objecl: is to clear a little meadow ground, and plant an orchard of two or three hundred apple trees. His (table is likev/ife enlarged ; and, in the courfe of a year or two, he builds a large log barn, the roof of which is commonly thatched with rye draw : he moreover encreafes the quantity of his arable land , and, inftead of cultivating Indian corn alone, he raifes a quantity of wheat and rye : the latter is cultivated chiefly for the punpofc of b jing diiiillcd into whilkey. This POPULATION, &C. IN PENNSYLVANIA. 2*1*1 cits of fettler by no means extra&s all from the earth, wliich it is capable of giving. Kis fields yield but a fcanty ihcrcale, owing to the ground not being fuffici- ently ploughed. The hopes of the year are often blafted by his cattle breaking through his half made fences, and. destroying his grain. His horfes perform but half the labor that might be expe&ed from them, if they were better fed ; and his cattle often die in the fpring from the want of provifion, and the delay of grafs. His houfe, as well as his farm, bear many marks of a weak tone of mind. His windows are unglazed,or, if they have had glafs in them, the ruins of it are fupplied with old hats or pillows. This fpecies of fettler is feldom a good mem ber of civil or religious fociety : with a large portion of a hereditary mechanical kind of religion, he neglects to contribute fufficiently towards building a church, or maintaining a regular adminiftration of the ordinances of the gofpel : he is equally indifpofed to fupport civil government : with high ideas of liberty, he refufes to bear his proportion of the debt contracted by its ef- tablimment in our country : he delights chiefly in com pany fometimes drinks fpirituous liquors to excefs will fpend a day or two in every week, in attending political meetings ; and, thus, he contracts debts which, (if he cannot difcharge in a depreciated paper curren cy) compel him to fell his plantation, generally in the courfe of a few years, to the third and lafl fpecies of fettler. F f 218 AN ACCOUNT 0F THE PROGRESS OF This fpecies of fettler is commonly a man of proper ty and good character fometimes he is the fon of a wealthy farmer in one of the interior and ancient counties of the ftate. His firft object is to convert every fpot of ground, over which he is able to draw water, into meadow : where this cannot be done, he felefts the moft fertile fpots on the farm, and devotes it by manure to that purpofe. His next object: is to build a barn, which he prefers of (lone. This build ing is, in fome inftances, 100 feet in front, and 40 in depth : it is made very compact, fo as to fhut out the cold in winter j for our farmers find that their horfes and cattle, when kept warm, do not require near as much food, as when they are expofed to the cold. He ufes ceeonomy > likewife, in the confump- tion of his wood. Hence he keeps himfelf warm in winter, by means of ftoves, which fave an imrnenfe deal of labour to himfelf and his horfes, in cutting and hawling wood in cold and wet weather. His fences are every where repaired, fo as to fecure his grain from his own and his neighbour s cattle. But further, he increafes the number of the articles of his cultivation, and, inftead of raifing corn, wheat and rye alone, he raifes oats, buckwheat, (the fagopyrum of Linnxus) and fpelts. Near his houfe, he allots an acre or two of ground for a garden, in which he raifes a large quantity of cabbage and potatoes. His newly cleared fields, afford him every year a large increafe of turnips. Over the fpring which fupplies POPULATION, &C. IN PENNSYLVANIA. him with water, he builds a milk-houfe and over this, in fome inftances, he builds a fmoke houfe ; he likewife adds to the number, and improves the quality of his fruit trees : His fons work by his fide all the year and his wife and daughters forfake the dairy and the fjfmning wheel, to (hare with him in the toils of harveft- The laft objea of his induftry is to build a dwelling houfe. This bufmefs is fometimes e ffedted in the courfe of his life, but is oftener bequeathed to his fon, or the inheritor of his plantation : and hence we have a common faying among our bed farmers, " that " a fon fhould always begin where his father left off;" that is, he ftiould begin his improvements, by bujlding a commodious dwelling. houfe, fuited to the improvements and value of the plantation. Thia dwelling-houfe is generally built of ftone it is large, convenient, and filled with ufeful -and fubftantial furniture It fometimes Adjoins the houfe of the fecond fettler, but 1$ frequently placed at a little diftance from it. The horfes and cattle of this fpecie$ of fettler, bear "marks in their ftrength, fat and fruitfulnefs-rtof their being plentifully fed and carefully Hept, His table abounds with a variety of the beft provisions his very kitchen flows with milk and honey beer, cyder, and home made wine are the ufual drinks of his family : the greateft part of the cloathing of his family is manufactured by his wife and daughters : in proportion as he encreafes in wealth, he values the protection of laws : hence v 220 AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS OF he punctually pays his taxes toward^ the fupport of government. Schools and churche* likewife, as the means of promoting order and happinefs in fociety, derive a due fupport from him : for benevolence ard public fpirit, as to tncTe objects, are the natural qfi- fpring of affluence and independence. Of this clafTOF fetrkrs are t\vu-:hirds o f the farmers of Pennfylvania. Thefe are the men to whom Pennfylvania owes her an cient fame and eonfequence. If they pofTefs lefs re finement than their fouthern neighbours, who cultivate their land with. Haves, they po fiefs more republican vir tue. It was from the farms cultivated by thefe men, that the Ame rican and French armies were chiefly fed with bread during the late revolution ; and it was from the produce of thefe farms, that thofe millrbns of dollars were obtained from the ILivanna after the year 178^ which laid the foundation of the bank of North Ame rica, ana which fed and -cloathed the American army, till the peace of Paris. : This is n fhort account of the happinefs of a Pennfylvania former To this happi nefs our (late invites men of every religion and country. We do not pretend to offer emigrants the pleafurcs of Arcadia It is enough if affluence, independence, and- happinefs are enfured to patience, induiiry, and labour. The moderate price of land,* the credit which * The unoccupied lands art fold by the ft ere for ahout fix guineas inclufive of all charges, per hundred acres. But as rncih of the lands that are ft..tied, arc procure J from per io:is who had pur chafed them from the flate, they are fold to the firft fettlcr for a much higher price. Tiic POPULATION, &C. IN PENNSYLVANIA- 221 arifes from prudence, and the fafety from our courts of law, of every fpecies of property, render the bleffings which I have defcribed, objects within the reach of every man. From a review ef the three different fpecies of fet- tlers, it appears, that there are certain regular ftages which mark the progrefs from the fayage to civilized life. The firft fettier is nearly related to an Indian in his manners In the fecond, the Indian, manners are more diluted : It is in the third fpecies of fettlers only, that we behold civilization completed It is to the third fpecies of fettlers only, that it is proper to apply the term of farmers. While we record the vices of the firft and fecond fettlers, it is but juft to men tion their virtues likewife. Their mutual wants pro duce mutual dependance : hence they are kind and 4 quality of the foil its vicinity to mills, court-houfes, places of wonliip, and ntivigable water : the diftance of land-carriage to the fea-ports of Philadelphia or Baltimore, and the nature of the roads, all influence the price of land to the ftrft fe tler. The quantity of cleared land, and the nature of the improvements, added to all the above circumftarxes, in fluence the price of farms to the fecond and third fettlers. Hence the price of land to the firft fettlers is from a quarter of a guinea to two guineas per acre : and the price of farms is from one guinea fo ten guineas per acre, to the fecond and third fettlers, according as the land i-a varied by the before-mentioned circumftances. When the firft -fettlcr h unable to purchafe, he often takes a trad of land for feven years on a leafe, and contracts inftead of paying a rent in caih, to clear 50 acres of land, to build a log cabbin, and a barn, and to plant an orchard on it. This trail, after the expiration of this leafe, fells or rents for a confdcra- bl c pro-fit. 222 IN ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS OP friendly to each other their folitary fituation make* vffitors agreeable to them ; hence they are hofpitable to ftrangers : their want of money, (for they raife but little more than is necefTary to fupport their families) has made it neceflary for them to aflbciate for the pur- pofes of building houfes, cutting their grain, and the like : This they do in turns for each other, without any other pay than the pleafures which ufually attend a country frolic Perhaps what I have called virtues are rather qualities, arifing from necefllty, and the peculiar ftate of fociety in which thefe people live. Virtue fhould, in all cafes, be the offspring of principle. * I do not pretend to fay, that this mode of fettling farms in Pennfylvania is uaiverfal I have known fome inftances where the firft fettler has performed the improvements of the fecond, and yielded to the third. I have known a few inftances likewife, of men of enterprizing fpirits, who have fettled in the wil- dernefs, and who, in the courfe of a tingle life, have advanced through all the intermediate ftages of inv provement that I have mentioned and produced all thofe conveniences which have been afcribed to the third fpecies of fettlers ; thereby refemblmg, in their exploits, not only the pioneers and light-infantry, but the main body of an army. There are inftances likewife, where the firft fettlement has been improved by the fame family, in hereditary fucceflion, *till it has reached the third ftage of cultivation. There are many fpacious ftone houfes and highly cultivated POPULATION, &C. IN PENNSYLVANIA. farms in the neighbouring counties of the city of Philadelphia, which are pofleiTed by the grandfons and great- gran dfons of men who accompanied William Penn acrofs the ocean, and who laid the foun dation of the prefent improvements of their pofterity, in fuch cabbins as have been defcribed. This paffion for migration which I have defcribed, will appeir ftrange to an European. To fee men turn their backs upon the houfes in which they drew their firft breath upon the church in which they were dedicated to God upon the graves of their anceftors upon the friends and companions of their youth and upon all the pleafures of cultivated fociety, and expofmg themfelves to all the hard- mips and accidents of fubduing the earth, and thereby eftablifhing fettlements in a wildernefs, mud ftrike a philofopher on your fide the water, as a picture of human nature that runs counter to the ufual habits and principles of action in man. But this paffion, ftrange and new as it appears, is wifely calculated for the extention of population in America : and this it does, not only by promoting the increafe of the human fpecies in new fettlements, but in the old fettlements likewife. While the degrees of in- duftry and knowledge in agriculture, in our country, are proportioned to farms of from 75 to 300 acres, there will be a languor in population, as foon at farmers multiply beyond the number of forms of tkc AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS OF above dimcnfions. To remove this languor, which is kept up alike by the increafe of the price, and the divifion of farms, a migration of part of the com munity becomes absolutely neceiTary. And as this part of the community often confiils of the idle and extravagant, who eat without working, their removal, by increafing the facility of fubfiftence to the frugal and induftrious who remain behind, naturally increafes the number of people, juft as the cutting off the fuckers of an apple-tree increafes the fize of the tree, and the quantity of fruit. I have only to add upon this fubjeft, that the migrants from Pcnnfylvania always travel to the fouth- ward. The foil and climate of the weftern parts of Virginia, North and South-Carolina, and Georgia, afford a more eafy fupport to lazy farmers, than the fhubborn but durable foil of Pennfylvania. Here, our ground requires deep and repeated plowing to render it fruitful there, Scratching the ground once or twice affords tolerable crops. In Pennfylvania, the length and coldnefs of the winter make it neceflary for the farmers to beftow a large mare of their labour in pro viding for and feeding their cattle ; bt in the fouthern dates, cattle find pafture during the greateit part of the winter, in the fields or woods. For thefe reafons, the greeted part of the weftern counties of the States, that have been mentioned, are fettled by original in habitants of Pennfylvania. During the late war, the POPULATION, SCC. IN PENNSYLVANIA. 225 militia of Orange county, in North Carolina, were enrolled, and their number amounted to 3,500, *wry man of whom had migrated from Pennfylvania. From this you will fee, that our State is the great outport of the United States for Europeans ; and that, after performing the office of a fieve by detaining all thofe people who poflefs the (lamina of induflry and virtue, it allows a paflage to the reft, to thofe States which are accommodated to their habits of indolence. I fhall conclude this letter by remarking, that in the mode of extending population and agriculture, which I have defcribed, we behold a new fpecies of war. The third fettler may be viewed as a conqueror* The weapons with which he atchieves his conquefls, are the implements of husbandry : and the virtues which direct them, are induftry and ceconomy. Idlenefs extravagance and ignorance fly before him. Happy would it be for mankind, if the kings of Europe would adopt this mode of extending their territories : it would foon put an end to the dreadful connection, which has exifted in every age, between war and poverty, and between conqueft and defolation. With great refpecT:, I have the honor to be, SIR, Your moil obedient humble fervant. AN ACCOUNT OF THE MANNERS OF THE GERMAN INHABITANTS OF PENNSYLVANIA. THE ftate of Pennfylvania is fo much in debted for her profperity and reputation, to the German part of her citizens, that a fliort account of their manners may, perhaps, be ufeful and agreeable to their fellow citizens in every part of the United States. The aged Germans, and the anceftors of thofe who are young, migrated chiefly from the Palatinate ; from Alcace, Swabis, Saxony, and Switzerland : but natives of every principality and dukedom, in Germany, are to be , found in different parts of the ftate. They brought but little property with them. A few pieces of gold or filver coin, a cheft filled with clothes, a bible, and a prayer or an hymn book conftituted the whole Hock of moft of them. Many of them bound themfelves, or one or more of their children, to maf- ters after their arrival, for four, five, or feven years, in order to pay for their paflages acrofs the ocean. A clergyman always accompanied them when they came in large bodies. The principal part of them were farmers ; but there were many mechanics, who brought with them a knowledge of thofe arts which are necef- AN ACCOUNT OF THE GERMAN INHABITANTS &CC- fary and ufeful in all countries. Thefe mechanics were chiefly weavers, taylors, tanners, fhoemakers, comb-makers, fmiths of all kinds, butchers, paper- makers, watch makers, and fugar bakers. I fhall begin this account of the German inhabitants of Pennfylvania, by defcribing the manners of the German farmers. This body of citizens are not only induftriouf and frugal, but fldlful cultivators of the earth. I {hall enumerate a few particulars, in which they differ from moft of the other farmers of Pennfyl vania. i ft. In fettling a trar. of land, they always pro-* vide large and fuitable accomodations for their horfes and cattle, before they lay out much money in building a houfe for themfelves. The barn and the ftables are generally under one roof, and contrived it* fuch a manner as to enable them to feed their horfes and cattle, and to remove their dung, with as little trouble as poflible. The firft dwelling houfe upon this farm is fmall, and built of logs. It gen erally lafts the life time of the firft fettler of a tradl of land j and hence they have a faying, that " a " fon mould always begin his improvements where " his father left off/ that is, by building a large and convenient ftone houfe. 2d. They always prefer good land or that land on which there is a large quantity of meadow ground. 228 AN ACCOUNT OF THE GERMAN From an attention to the cultivation of grafs, they often double the value of an old farm in a few years, and grow rich on farms, on which their predecerTors of whom they purchafed them, have nearly ftarved. They prefer purchafmg farms with fome improvements to fettling on a new trael: of land. 3d. In clearing new land, they do not girdle the trees fimply, and leave them to perifh in the ground, as is the cuflom of their Englifh or Irifh neighbours ; but they generally cut them down and burn them. In deflroying under-wood and bufhes, they generally grub them out of the ground ; by which means a field is as fit for cultivation the fecond )ear after it is cleared, as it is in twenty years afterwards. The advantages of this mode of clearing, confift in tbe im mediate product of the field, and in the greater faci lity with which it is ploughed, harrowed and reaped. The expenfe of repairing a plough, which is often broken two or three times in a year by fmall flumps concealed in the ground, is often greater than the ex traordinary expenfe of grubbing th fame field com pletely, in clearing it. 4th. They feed their horfes and ccw? : . of which they keep only a fmall number, in fuch a manner, that the former perform twice the labour of thofe horfes, and the latter yield twice the quantity of milk of thofe cows, that are Icfs plentifully fed. There is great ceconomy in this practice, efpeciajly INHABITANTS OF PENNSYLVANIA. 229 in a country where fo much of the labour of a farmer is necefiary to fupport his domeftic ani mals. A German horfe is known in every part of the ftate : indeed he feems to " feel with his " lord, the pleafure arid the pride" of his ex traordinary fize or fat. 5th. The fences of a German farm are generally high, and well built; fo that his fields feldom fuf- fer from the inroads of his own or his neighbours, horfes, cattle, hogs, or fheep. 6th. The German farmers are great ceconomiils ot their wood. Hence they burn it only in iloves, in which they corifume but a 4th. or 5th. part of what is com monly burnt in ordinary open fire places : befides, their horfes are faved by means of this ceconomy, from that immenfe labour, in hauling wood in the middle pf winter, which frequently unfits the horfes of their neighbours for the toils pf the enfuing fpring. Their houfes are, moreover, rendered fo comfortable, at all times, by large clofe floves, that twice the bufmefs is done by every branch of the family,in knh> ing, fpinning, and mending farming utenfils, that is done in houfes where every member of the family- crouds near to a common fire-place, or fhivers at a diftance from it, with hands and fingers that move, by reafon of the cold, with only half their ufual quick- ncfs. 230 AX ACCOUNT OF THE GERTvlAN Tiicy difcover ccconomy in the pvdu-vation and in- creafe of their \\jod in feverai other ways. They fomctimes defend it, b ; .ccs, from their cattle ; by which means the young foreft trees are fuftercd to grow, to replace thofj tV.nt are cut down for the necefiary ufe of the farm. But where this car not be conveniently done, they furround the flump of that tree which is mod ufeful for fences, viz. the chefnut, with a frnall triangular fence. From this flump a number of fuckers moot out in a few years, two or three of which in the courfe of five and twenty years, grow into trees of the fame fize as the tree from whofc roots they derived their origin. 7th. They keep their horfes and cattle as warm as pofiible in winter, by which means they fave a great deal of their hay and grain ; for thofe animals when cold, eat much more than when they are in a more comfortable fit nation. 8th. The German farmers live frugally in their families, with rcfpecl: to diet, furniture and apparel. They fell their mofl profitable grain, which is wheat ; and eat that which is lefs profitable, but more ncurim- ing, that is rye or Indian corn. The profit to a farmer? from this fingle article of ceconcrny, is- equal, in the .courfe of a life time, to the price of a farm for one of his children. They eat fparingly of boiled animal food, with large quantities of vegetables, particularly fallad, turnips, onions, and oubbage, INHAFITANTS OF PENNSYLVANIA. 23! the laft of which they mike into four crout. They likewife ufe a large quantity of milk and cheefe in their diet. Perhaps the Germans do not propor tion the quantity of their animal food, to the degrees of their labour; hence it has been thought, by fome people, that they decline in ftrength fooner than their Engliih or Irifh neighbours. Very few of them ever ufe diftilled fpirits- in their families: their com mon drinks are cyder, beer, wine, and fimple water. The furniture of their houfe is plain and ufciul. They cover themfeves in winter with light feather beds inftead of blankets : in this contrivance there is both convenience, and ceconomy, for the beds are warmer than blankets, and they are made by thern- felves. The apparel of the German farmers is u- fually home f pun. When they ufe European articles of drefs, they prefer thofe which are of the bell qua lity, and of the higheft price. They are afraid of debt, and feldom purchafe any thing without paying cafli for it. pth. The German farmers have large or profitable gardens near their houfes. Tlitfe contain little elfe but ufeful vegetables. Penrifylvania is indebted to the Ger mans for the principal part of her knowledge in hor ticulture. There was a time when turnips and cabbage were the principal vegetables that were ufed in diet by the citizens of Philadelphia. This will not furprife thofe perfons, who know that the firft Englifli fettlers in Pc-nnfylvania left England while horticulture was ia "532 AN ACCOUNT OF THE GERMAN its infancy in that country. It was not till the reigrt of William III. that this ufcful and agreeable art was o cultivated by the Englifh nation. Since the fettlement of a number of German gardeners in the neighbour hood of Philadelphia, the tables of all clafles of citizens have been covered with a variety of vegetables, in every feafon 6f the year ; and to the ufe of thefe vegetables, in diet, may be afcribed the general exemp tion of the citizens of Philadelphia from difeafes of the fkin. icth. The Germans fddom foremen to work upon their farms. The feeblenefs of that authority which matters poflefses over hired fervants, is fuch that their wages are feldom procured from their labour, except in harvefl, when they work in the prefence of their mailers. The wives and daughters of the German farmers frequently forfake, for a while, their dairy and fpinning- wheel, and join their hulbands and brothers in the labour of cutting down, collecting and bringing home the fruits of their fields and orchards The work of the gardens is generally done by the women of the family. nth, A large and ftrong waggon covered with linen cloth, is an efTential part of the furniture of a German farm. In this waggon, drawn by four or five large horfes of a peculiar breed: they convey to market over the roughed roads, between 2 or 3 thou- fand pounds weight of the produce of their farms. In INHABITANTS OF PENNSYLVANIA, 233 the months of September and October, it is no uncom mon thing, on the Lancafter and Reading roads, to meet in one day from fifty to an hundred of thefe w.ig- gons, on their way to Philadelphia, mod of which be long to German farmers, 1 2th. The favourable influence of agriculture, as conducted by the Germans in extending human hap- pincfs* is manifefted by the joy they exprefs upon the birth of a child. No dread of poverty, nor diftruft of Providence from an encreafmg family, deprefs the fpirits of thefe induftrious and frugal people. Upoa the birth of a fon, they exult in the gift of a ploughman or a waggoner ; and upon the birth of a daughter, they rejoice in the addition of another fpinfter, or milkmaid to their family, Happy ftate of human fociety ! what bleflings can civilization confer, that can atone for the extinction of the ancient and patriarchal pleafure of raifing up a numerous and healthy family of children, to labour for their parents, for themfelves, and for their country ; and finally to partake of the knowledge andhap- pincfs which are annexed to exiftence ! The joy of pa rents upon the birth of a child is the grateful echo of creating goodnefs. May the mountains of Pennfylvania be for ever vocal, with fongs of joy upon thefe cecafions ! They will be the infallible figns of inno cence, induftry, wealth and happinefs in the ftate. 1 3th. The Germans take great pains to produce, in their children, not only habits of labour, but a love Hh 234 AN ACCOUNT OF THE GERMAN of it. In this they fubmit to the irreverfible fcntcnce infli&ed upon man, in fuch a manner, as to convert the wrath of heaven into private and public happinefs. " To fear God, and to love work," are the firft leflons they teach their children. They prefer induftrious ha^ bits to money itfelf ; hence, when a young man alks the confent of his father to marry the girl of his choice, he does not enquire fo much whether me be rich or poor ? or whether (he porTefses any perfonal or mental accomplishments as whether me be indufhious, and acquainted with the duties of a good houfe-wife ? 1 4th. The Germans fetagreat value upon patrimo nial property. This ufeful principle in human nature prevents much folly and vice in young people. It moreover leads to lading and extenfive advantages, in the improvement of a farm ; for what inducement can be ftronger in a parent to plant an orchard, to preferve forefl-trees or to build a commodious and durable houfe, than the idea, that they will all be poflefsed by a fuccefiion of generations, who (hall inherit his blood and name. 1 5th. The German farmers are very much influenc ed in planting and pruning trees, alfo in fowing and reaping, by the age and appearances of the moon. This attention to the ftate of the moon has been afcribed to fuperflltion j but if the facts related by Mr. Wilfon in his obfervations upon climates are true, part of their fuccefs in agriculture rnuft be afcribed to their being fo much influenced by it. INHABITANTS OF PENNSYLVANIA. 235 1 6th. From the hiftory that has been given of the German agriculture, it will hardly be neceffary to add that a German farm may be diilinguimedfrom the farms of the other citizens of the ftate, by the fuperior fize of their barns ; the plain, but compact form of their houfes-, the height of their enclofures; the extent of their orchards; the fertility of their fields; the luxuri ance of their meadows, and a general appearance of plenty and neatnefs in everything that belongs to them. The German mechanic poflefles fome of the traits of the character that has been drawn of the German farmer. His firft object is to beqome a freeholder ; and hence we find few of them live in rented houfes. The higheit compliment that can be paid to them on entering their houfes is to afk them, " is this houfe your own." They are induftrious, frugal, punctual and juft. Since their fettlement in Pennfylvania, many of them have acquired a knowledge of thofe mechanical arts, which are more immediately necefla- ry and ufeful in a new country -, while they continue at the fame time, to carry on the arts they impor ted from Germany, with vigour and fuccefs. But the genius of the Germans of Pennfylvania, is not confined to agriculture and the mechanical arts. Many of them have acquired great wealth by foreign and domeftic commerce. As merchants they arc can did and punctual. The bank of North America has witnefled, from its firft inflitution, their fidelity to all their pecuniary engagements. 236 AN ACCOUNT OF THE GERMAN Thus far have I defcribc-d the iiwlvidiial character of fcvcral orders of the German citizens of Pennfylvania. I fhail now take notice of fomc of their manners in a collective capacity. All the different fe&s among them are particularly attentive to the religious educa- cation of their children, and to the eftablimment and fupport of the chriilian religion. For this purpofc they fettle as much as poffible together and make the eredtion of a fchool noufe and a place of worfhip the firft object of their care. They commit the educa tion and mftru&ion of their children in a peculiar manner to the miniitcrs and officers of their churches ; hence they grow up with prejudices in favour of pub lic worfhip, and of the obligations of chriftianity. Such has been the influence of a pious education among the German Lutherans in Pennfylvania, that in the courfe of nineteen years, only one of them has ever been brought to a place of public fhamc on puiiifhment. As members of civil government, the Germans are }- . ,-able and exacl: in the payment of their tax es. iSiuce trny have participated iii the power of the ftatc, many of them have become fenfible and enlightened in the fciencc cf legiflation. Pennfylvania has h?.d the fpeaktr s chair of her aflenlbly, and the vice-prcucknt s oiEce of her council, filled with dignity by gcntleirien of German families. The fame gentlemen have fince been advanced to feats in tho houfe of rcprefentatives, under the new conflitution INHABITANTS O? PENNSYLVANIA. 237 of the United States. In the great contro-verfy about the national government, a large majority of the Germans in Permfylvania decided in favour of its adoption, notwithflanding the mo-fc popular arts were ufed to prejudice them againll it. The Germans are but little addicted to convivial pleafufes. They feldom meet for the fimple purpofe of eating and drinking in what are juilly called " feeding " parties" ; but they are not Grangers to the virtue of hofpitality. The hungry or benighted traveller, is always fure to find a hearty welcome under their roofs. A gentleman of Irifli extraction, who loft his way in travelling through Lancaiter county, called late at night at the door of a German farmer. He was kindly received and entertained "with the befl cf every thing the houfe afforded. The next morning, he offered to pay his hofl for his lodging, and other accommodations: "No" fi;id the frit ndly German, in broken Engliih c< I -will take nothing t< from you. I was once loft, and entertained, as < you have been, -at the houfe of a ftranger who < ; would take no pay from me for his trouble. I " am therefore now only difcharging that debt : " do you pay your debt to me in the fame way << to fornebody clfe/ They are extremely kind and friendly as neighbours. They often aflift each other by loans of money for 23S AN ACCOUNT OF THE GERMAN a fhort time, without intereft, when the purchafe of a plantation makes a larger fum neceflary than is commonly polTefsed by a finale farmer. To fccure their confidence, it is neceffary to be punctual. They never lend money a fecond time, to a man who has once difappointed them in paying what he had bor rowed agreeably to his promife or obligation. It was remarked, during the late war, that there were very few inftances of any of them difch?rging a bond, or a debt, with depreciated paper money. It has been laid, that the Germans are deficient in learning ; and that in confequence of their want of more general and extenfive education, they are much addicted to fuperftition, and are frequently impofed upon in the management of their affairs. Many of them have loft valuable eflates by being unacquainted with the common forms of law, in the moll iimple transactions; and many more of them have loft their lives, by applying to quacks in fick- ncfs : but this objection to the Germans will foon ceafe to have any foundation in Pennfylvania. Seve ral young men, bom of German parents, have been educated in law, phyfic and divinity, who have de- monftrated by their abilities and knowledge, that the German genius for literature has not depreciated in America. A college has lately been founded by the (late in Lancafter,f and committed chiefly to the care f This college is called after Dr. FRANKM*, v; ho was prcfidcnt f the Rate at the time it was founded, a:id who contributed very liberally to ks funds. INHABITANTS OT PENNSYLVANIA of the Germans of all feels, for the purpofe of diffu* fmg learning among their children. In this college they are to be taught the German and Englifh lan guages, and all thofe branches of literature which are ufually taught in the colleges of Europe and America. The principal of this college is a native of Pennfylvania, of German parentage.* His extenfive knowledge and tafte in the arts and fciences, joined with his induftry in the difcharge of the duties of his ftation, have afforded to the friends of learning in Pennfylvania, the mod flattering profpedls of the future Importance and ufefulnefs of this inftitution, Both fexes of the Germans difcover a flrong propen- fity to vocal and inftrumental mufic. They excel, in pfalmody, all the other religious focieties in the flare. The freedom and toleration of the government has produced a variety of feels, among the Germans in Pennfylvania. The Lutherans compofe a great propor tion of the German citizens of the (late. Many of their churches are large and fplendid. The German Prefbyte- rians are the next to them in numbers. Their churches are likewife large and furnifhed, in many places, with organs. The clergy, belonging to thefe churches, have moderate falaries, but they are punctually and juftly paid. In the country they have glebes which are ftocke-j and occafionaUy worked by their congregations. Thtf * The Reverend Dr. Kenry Muhlenberj, AN ACCOUNT 01- THE GERMAN e\ira expences of their minifters, in all their excurfioni to their cccleftaftical meetings, arc borne by their ref- \u congregations. By this means the discipline and general mterefts of their churches are preferred snd p^omotsd. The German Lutherans and Prefby- terians live in mony with each other, infornuch that they often preach in each ether s churches, and in fome inilances unite in building a church, in which l -icy both woiihip at different times. This harmony en two feels, one fo much oppofcd to each , \6 owing to the relaxation of the Prcfbyterians in ibrr-e of the peculiar doctrines of Calvamfm. I have ; them Prefbvterians, becaufe tnoft oftliem obje6t : :ig defignated by the name of CilvanifU. The TJenonilts, the Moravians, tjie Swingfielders, and the Catholics, compofc the other feels of the German inha- ts of Pennfyivania. The Menonifts hold war tnd oAtlis to be unlawful-. They admit the facraments ofbaptifm, by fprinUixg, and the fupper. From them a as arifen, who hold, with the above principles and ceremonies, the neceifity of imtoerfion baptifm ; hence .re called Dutikers 9 or Baptifts. Previoufly to tlieir partaking of the facrament of die fupper, they ( c tli.v s feet, and fit down to a love-fealt. -.cmonies of their religion with humility and Solemnity. They, morc-oyer, hold <:>;;::; of u . " . : . l ; n-m this Iccl .!:rs, one of w /otcd -..:tuui celibacy. :>ve ex!::bited INHABITANTS OF PENNSYLVANIA. 241 for many yjars, a curious fpectacle of pious mortifica tion, at a village called Ephrata, in Lancaster county ^ They are at prefent reduced to fourteen or fifteen members. The Separatlfts who likewife diflented from the Dunkers, reject the ordinances of baptifm and the facrament; and hold the doctrine of the Friends, con cerning the internal revelation of the gofpel. They hold, with the Dunkers, the doctrine of univerfal fal- vation. The fingular piety, and exemplary morality c thefe fects, have been urged, by the advocates for the falvation of all mankind, as a proof that the belief of that doctrine is not fo unfriendly to morals, and the order of fociety, as has been fuppofed. The Dunkers and Separatifts agree in taking no intereft upon money, and in not applying to law to recover their debts. The German Moravians are a numerous and refpec* table body of chriftians in Pennfylvania. In thei r village of Bethlehem, there are two large ftone buildings, in which the different fexes are educated in habits of induflry in ufeful manufactures. The lifters (for by that epifhet the women are called) all ileep in two large and neat apartments. Two of them watch over the reft, in turns, every night, to afford relief from thofe fudden indifpofitions which fometimes occur, in the moft healthy perfons, in the hours of ileep. It is impoflible to record this fact, without paufing a moment to do homage to that religion, which pro- II 242 AN ACCOUNT OF &E duces fo much union and kindriefs in human fouls* The number of women, who belong to this fequeft- ered female fociety, amounts fometimes to 120, and feldom to lefs than 100. It is remarkable that not- withftanding they lead a fedentary life, and fet con- ftantly in clofe ftove-rooms in winter, that not more than one of them, upon an average, dies in a year. The difeafe which generally produces this annual death, is the confumptioH. The conditions and ages of the women of the village, as well as of the fociety that has been mentioned, are.diftinguifhed by ribbons of a peculiar kind which they wear on their caps : the widows, by white j the married women, by blue; the fmgle women, above 1 8 years of age, by pink ; and thofe under that age, by a ribbon of a cinnamon colour. Formerly this body of Moravians held all their property in common in imitation of the primi tive chriftians; but, in the year 1760, a divifion. of the whole of it took place, except a tavern, a tan-yard, 2000 acres of land near Bethlehem, and 5000 acres near Nazareth, a village in the neigbourhood of Bethlehem. The profits of thefe eftates are appropri ated to the fupport and propagation of the gofpel. There are many valuable manufactures carried on at Bethlehem. The inhabitants poflefs a gentlenefs in their manners, which is peculiarly agreeable to flrangers. They inure their children, of five and fix years old, to habits of early induftry. By this means they are not only taught thofe kinds of labor which ,are fuited to INHABITANTS OF PENNSYLVANIA. 243 their fire ngth and capacities, but are preferved from many of the hurtful vices .and accidents to .which children are qxpofed. The Swing-fielders are a fmall fociety. They hole! the fame principles as tile Friends, buf they differ from them in ufing pfalmbdy in their wbrlhtp. The German Catholics are numerous in Philadelphia, and have fever alfmali chapels in other parts of the ftate.. There is an mcorpbrate d. charitable "" fociety -of Germans in Philadelphia^ whofc objects are - their poor and diftreffed countrymen. There is likewife a German fociety of labourers and journeymen mechanics, who contribute 2s. 6d. eight times a year, towards a fund, out of which they allow 302. a week to each other s families, when the head of it is unable to work; and 7!. ios to his- widow, as foon as he is taken from his family by death. The Germans of Pennfylvania, including all the fe6ls that have been mentioned, compofe nearly one third part of the whole inhabitants of the ftate. The intercourfe of the Germans with each other, is kept up chiefly in their own .language ; but moft of their men, who vifit the capital, and the trading or country towns of the ftate, fpeak the Englifh Ian- 244 AN ACCOUNT OF THE GERMAN guage. A certain number of the laws of the flate are now printed in German, for the benefit of thofc of them who cannot read Englifh. A large numbcF of German news-papers are likewife circulated through the flute, through which knowledge and intelligence have been conveyed, much to the advantage of the go vernment. There is fcarcely an inftance of a German, of either fex, in Pennfylvr.nia, that cannot read\ but many of the wives and daughters of the German far mers cannot write. The prefent {late of fociety among them renders this accomplifhment of little confequence to their improvement or happinefs. If it were pofiible to determine the amount of all the property brought into Pennfylvania by the prefent German inhabitants of the flate,. and their anceflors, and then compare it with the prefent amount of their property, the contrail would form fuch a monument of human induftry and (economy as has feldom been contemplated in any age or country. I have been informed that there was. -an ancient prophecy which foretold, that " God would blels < the Germans in foreign countries." This predic tion has been faithfully verified in Pennfylvania. They enjoy here every blefling that liberty, toleration, independence, affluence, virtue and reputation, can confer upon them. How different is their fituation here ; from what it was in Germany ! Cculd the fubjecls of the princct INHABITANTS OF PENNSYLVANIA. 245 of Germany, who now groan away their lives in flavery and unprofitable labour, view fr@m an emi nence, in the month of June, the German fettlements of Stratfburg, or Manheim in Lancafter county, or of Lebanon or Bethlehem in the counties of Dauphin and Northampton ; could they be accompanied on this eminence, by a venerable German farmer, and be told by him that many of thofe extenfive fields of grain, full-fed herds, luxuriant meadows, orchards, promifmg loads of fruit, together with the fpacious barns and commodious {lone-dwelling houfes, which compofe the profpe&s that have been mentioned, were all the product of the labour of a fingle fa mily, and of one generation ; and that they were all fecured to the owners of them by certain laws j I am per funded, that no chains would be able to detain them from fliaring in the freedom of their Pennfyl- vania friends and former fellow-fubje&s. " We will affert our dignity (would be their language) we will be men we will be free we will enjoy the fruits of our own labours we will no longer be bought and fold to fight battles in which we have neither intereft nor refentment we will inherit a portion of that blefiing which God has promifed to the Germans in foreign countries we will be Pennfylvanians." I mail conclude this account of the manners of the German inhabitants of Peimfylvania by remark- 4 AN ACCOUNT OF .THE GERMAN ing that if- 1 have failed in doing them juftice, it has not been the fault of my fubject. The.- German character once employed the pen of one of t;he firft Eiitoiians of antiquity. I mean the elegant and enlightened Tacitus. It is : very remarkable that the Germans in Pennfylyania retain in a great degree all the virtues, which this author afcribes to their anceftors in his treatiie " de msribus Germanontm" They inherit their integrity fidelity and chaftity but chriftianity has banimed from them,, their drun- hcnnefs, idlenefs, and love of military glory. There is a fingular trait in the features of the German character in Pennfyivania, which {hews how long the moft trifling cultoms may exifl among a people who have not been mixed with other nations. Tacitus defcribes the manner in which the ancient Germans build their villages in the following words. " Sifam quifqitc domum fpaliis circumdat foe adverfus eafus ignis remedtum\ five infc tiia adijicandi"\ IMany of the German villages in Pennfyivania are conflruc- ted in the fame manner. The fmall houfes are com- j>ofed of a mixture, of wood, brick and clay, neatly united together. The large houfes are built of ftone, and many of them after the Englifh f^ifliion. Very few of the houfes in Germantown are connected together. Where the Germans connect their houfes in their -f- Each man leaves a fpacs between his houfe, a.id thofa of his neigh bours, ei : hcr to uvjid the danger f/om fire, or from unikilfulnifii in INHABITANTS OF PENNSYLVANIA. villages, they appear to have deviated from one of the cuftoms they imported from Germany. CITIZENS of the United States learn from the account that has been given of the German inhabitants of Pennfylvania, to prize knowledge and in duftry in agriculture and manufactures, as the bafis of domeftic happinefs and national profperity. LEGISLATORS of the United States, learn from the wealth, and independence of the German inhabitants of Pennfylvania, to encourage by your example, and laws, the republican virtues of induftry and economy. They are the only pillars which can fupport the prefent conftitution of the United States. LEGISLATORS of Pennfylvania, learn from the hiftory of your German fellow citizens that you pof- fefs an inexhauftible treafure in the bofom of the ftate, in their manners and arts. Continue to patro nize their newly eflablifhed feminary of learning and fpare no expenfe in fupporting their public free-fchools. The vices which follow the want of religious inftruftion, among the children of poor people, lay the foundation of mod of the jails, and places of public punifhment in the ftate. Do not contend with their prejudices in favour of their language. It will be the channel through which the knowledge and difcoveries of one of the wifeft nations in Europe, may be conveyed into our conn- AN ACCOUNT O THE GERMAN try. In proportion as they arc inflru&ed and en lightened in their own language, they will become acquainted with the language of the United States. Invite them to mare in the power and offices of go vernment : it will be the means of producing an Union in principle and conduct between them, "and thofe of their enlightened fellow-citizens who arc defcended from other nations. Above all, cherifh with peculiar tendernefs, thofe fefts among them who hold war to be unlawful. Relieve them from the oppreflion of abfurd and unneceflary militia laws. Protect them as the repofitories of a truth of the gofpel, which has exifted in every age of the church, and which muft fpread hereafter over every part of the world. The opinions refpefting the commerce and flavery of the Africans, which have nearly produced a revo lution in their favour, in fome of the European go vernments, were tranfplanted from a feel of chriftians in Pennfylvania. Perhaps thofe German fecis of chriftians among us, who refufe to bear arms for the purpofe of fhedding hum?n blood, may be preferred by divine providence, as the centre of a circle, which mall gradually embrace all the nations of the earth in a per petual treaty of friend fhip and peace. THOUGHTS ON COMMON SENSE. THE human mind in common with other branches of philosophy, has become the subject of attention in the present age of free and general enquiry. While new facul ties are discovering in it, it will conduce equal to our acquir ing a perfect knowledge of its powers, to detect and remove such supposed faculties as do not belong to it. I have long suspected the term common sense to be applied improperly to designate a faculty of the mind. I shall not re peat the accounts which have been given of it by Cicero . Burner-- JBerkely - -Shaftesbury .BentelyFenelon .-Locke HumeHobsPriestly and others, all of whom agree in de scribing it as a faculty or part of a faculty, possesing a quick and universal perception of right and wrong, truth and error, and of propriety and impropriety in human affairs-. I shall copy, as the substance of all that those authors have said upon this subject, Dr. Reid s account of common sense, published in the 2d. chapter of the sixth number of his Essays on the intellectual powers of man.." It is absurd to co ncieve " (says the Doctor) that there can be any opposition between " reason and common sense. It is the firstborn of reason, " and, as they are commonly joined together in speech and " writing, they are inseperable in their nature." " We ascribe to reason two offices or two degrees. The first f is to judge of things self-evident ; the second is to draw con- K k 350 THOUGHTS ON COMMON SENS*. elusions that are not self-evident from things that are. The " first of these is the province, and the sole province, of com- ft mon sense, and there fore it coincides with reason in its whole " extent, and is only another name for one branch or one dc * grec of reason." " There is an obvious reason why this degree of reason " should have a name appropriated to it, and that is, that in ci the greatest part of mankind no other degree of reason is to " be found. It is this degree of reason that entitles them to c< tho denomination of reasonable creatures." " These two degrees of reason differ in other respects, " which would be sufficient to entitle them to distinct names. " The first is the gift of heaven the second is learned by u practice and rules, when the first is not wanting." Thus far Dr. Reid. It is with great diffidence that I object to any thing that comes from a gentleman from whose writings I have derived so much entertainment and instruction, and who has done so much towards removing the rubbish that has for many ages obscured the science of metaphy sicks. This diffidence to offer a single objection to Dr. Reid s opinion upon the subject under consideration, is encreased by the groupe of popular and respectable names under which he has supported it. The idea which I have adopted of common sense is plain and simple. I consider it as the perception of things as they appear to the greatest part of mankind. It has no relation to their being true or falas, right or wrong) firofier Qvim/irofier. For the sake of perspicuity, I shall define it to be, Opinions THOUGHTS OST COMMON SENSE. 251 *nd Feelings in unison with the Opinions and Feelings of the bulk of mankind. From this definition it is evident that common sense must necessarily differ in different ages and countries and, in both, must vary with the progress of taste, science, and religion. In the uncultivated state of reason, the opinions and feelings fam.ijority of mankind win 1 be wrong, and, of course, their common or universal sense will partake of their errors. In the cultivated st_ite of reason, just opinions and feelings will become general, and the common sense of the majority will be in unison with truth. I beg leave to illustrate what I mean by a few examples. 1. There are many things which were contrary to common sense in former ages, both in philosophy and religion, which are now universally believed, insomuch that to call them in question is to discover a want of judgment, or a defective edu- cution. 2. It is contrary to common sense to speak or write in favour of republicanism, in several European countries ; and it is equally contrary to it to speak or write in favour of monarchy, in the United States of America. 3. The common sense of the planters in Jamaica, is in fa- vour of the commerce and slavery of the Africans. In Penn sylvania, reason, humanity, and common sense, have univer sally declared against them, 4. In Turkey, it is contrary to the common sense of de licacy which prevails in that country for a gentleman to dance with a lady. No such common sense prevails in any of the western countries of Europe, or in the States of America. 252 THOUGHTS ON COMMON SENSE. 5. It is contrary to the common sense of many numerous sects to believe that it is possible for men to go to heaven, who do not embrace their principles, , or mode of worship. Among rational men, this common sense is contrary to truth and Christian religion. 6. The common sense of mankind has generally been in favour of established modes and habits of practice, in medi cine. Opium, bark, mercury and the lancet have all forced their way into general use, contrary to this common sense. Their utility is a proof how little common sense accords with the decisions of reason, and how improperly it is suppqsed to be a part of that noble power of the mind. 7. It is agreable to the common sense of a great part of of mankind, to revenge public and private injuries by wars and and duels, and yet no wise or just reason has ever been given to justify the practice of either of them. 8. The common sense of the bulk of the inhabitants of the British Dominions, and of the United States, is in favour of boys spending four or five years in learning the Latin and Greek languages, in order to qualify them to understand the English language. Those persons who recollect that the most perfect language in the world, viz. the Greek, was learned with out the medium or aid of a dead or foreign language, consider the above practice (founded in common sense) as contra ry to right reason and productive of many evils in education. But further, under this head. The common sense of the same immense proportion of people, is in favour of teach ing boys words, before they are taught ideas. Now na ture and |%ht reason both revolt at tins absurd practice. THOUGHTS ON COMMON SE.VSF. 253 9. The common sense of nearly all nations, is in favour of preventing crimes by the punishment of death, but right rea son, policy, and the experience of a wise and enlightened prince,! all concur in proving that the best means of preven ting crimes, is by living and not by dead examples. In the perfection of knowledge, common sense and truth will be in unison with each other. It is new more related to error than to truth, and in the sense in which I have described it ? it implies more praise than censure to want it. To say that a man has common sense, is to say that he thinks with his age or country, in their false, as well as their true opinions ; and the greater the proportion of people, he acts and thinks with, the greater share he possesses of this com mon sense. After all that has been said in its favour, I can not help thinking that it is the characteristic only of common minds. To think and act with the majority of mankind, when they are right, and differently from them, when they are wrong, constitutes in my opinion, the perfection of human wisdom and conduct. The feelings and of unions of mankind are often confounded ; but they are widely different from each other. There may bejusf feelings connected with erroneous opinions and conduct. This is often the case in religion and government But, in general, opinions and feelings are just and unjust in equal de grees, according to the circumstance of age, country, and the progress of knowledge before mentioned. t Leopold, Emperor of Germany. 254 -THOUGHTS ON COMMON SENSE. Had this common sense depended upon the information of any one of tkejtvc external senses, I should have had no difficulty in admitting Dr. Reid s account of it, inasmuch as the per* ceptions they afford are the same, in their nature, in all heal thy men, and in all ages and countries. But to suppose it to be an inferior degree, or the^?rr act of reason, and afterwards to suppose it to be universal, is to contradict every thing that history and observation teach us of human nature.* In matters addressed to our reason, the principal business of reason is to correct the evidence of our senses. Indeed, the perception of truth, in philosophy, seems to consist in little else than in the refutation of the ideas acquired from the testi mony of our senses. In the progress of knowledge, when the exact connection between the senses and reason is perfect ly understood, it is probable that the senses and reason will be in unison with each other, and that mankind will as sud denly connect the evidence of all the senses with the decisions of reason, as they now connect, with certainty, the distance of objects with the evidence of the eyes. This general uni son between the senses and reason, as in the case of vision, must be the result only of experience and habit. I cannot dismiss this subject without adding the following remark. Mankind are governed, says Mr. Bayle> by their prejudices, and not by their principles. To do them good, we must, in some measure, conform to those prejudices ; hence we find * The King of Prussia, in his posthumous works, says, n Reason never did any thing great," by which he must have ment the common degrees of it, or what is called, by Dr. Ktid, THOUGHTS ON COMMON SENSE. the most acceptable men in practical society, have been those who have never shocked their cotemporaries, by opposing popular or common opinions. Men of opposite characters, like objects placed too near the eye, are seldom seen distinct ly by the age in which they live. They must content them selves with the prospect of being- useful to the distant and more enlightened generations which are to follow them. Gali leo, who asked pardon of the Pope, on his knees, for contra dicting the common sense of the church, respecting the revo lution of the earth, and Dr. Harvey, who lost all his business by refuting the common sense of former ages, respecting the circulation of the blood, now enjoy a reputation for their opin ions and discoveries, which has in no instance ever been given to the cold blood of common sense. April Id. 1791. ACCOUNT OF THE VICES PECULIAR TO THE INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA. IT has become fashionable of late years for the philosophers of Europe to celebrate the virtues of the savages of America. Whether the design of their encomiums was to expose Chris tianity, and depreciate the advantages of civilization, I know not ; but they have evidently had those effects upon the minds of weak people. Without contradicting the accounts that have been published by those gentlemen, of the virtues of the In dians in North America, I shall briefly add an account of some of their vices, in order to complete their natural history. My information shall be taken from the travels of Charlevoix Hennepen .Carver Romans and Bartram, and from conver sations with persons of veracity who have resided among them. The first vice I shall name, that is universal among our sav ages, is UNCLEANNESS. They are, in general, stran gers to the obligations both of morality and decency, as far as they relate to the marriage bed. .The exceptions to this re mark, have been produced among those nations chiefly, who have had an occasional intercourse with civilized nations. 2. NASTINESS is another Indian vice. This is exempli fied in their food -drinks dress .persons >and above all, in their total disregard to decency in the time /z/acf *uid manner of their natural evacuations. PECULIAR TO THE INDIANS. 257 3. DRUNKENNESS is a more general vice among sav ages than among civilized nations. Whole Indian tribes have been destroyed by it. Indeed they glory in their fondness for strong liquors, and consider it as a part of their character. A countryman who had dropt from his cart a keg of rum, rode back a few miles in hopes of finding it. On his way he met an Indian who lived in his neighbourhood, whom he ask ed if he had seen his keg of rum on the road ? The Indian laughed in his face, and addressed him in the following words. u What a fool you are to ask an Indian such a question. Don t " you see I am sober ? Had I met with your keg, you would * have found it empty on one side of the road, and Indian 4C T6m drunk and asleep on the other." 4. GLUTTONY is very common among Indians. To this their long abstinence, produced by their idleness, naturally tempts them. -It is very common to see them stretch them selves on the ground after a full meal, and grunt there for sev eral hours till they recover from the effects of their intemper ance. Mr. Bartram tells us, that they sometimes rise in the middle of the night, in order to gratify their appetites for eating, 5. TREACHERY is another Indian vice. Who ever trust ed to an Indian treaty ? .They generally begin their wars, with professions of peace and perpetual friendship. 6 The CRUELTY of Indians is well known. They consi der compassion as a mark of effeminacy. Their treatment of their prisoners, shews them to possess a spirit of revenge, which places them upon a footing with infernal spirits. 7 IDLENESS is the universal vice of savages. They are tiot only too lazy to work, but even to think. Nothing but the L I 258 AN ACCOUNT OF THE VICES powerful stimulus of hunger, or revenge, is sufficient to rouse them into action. 8. THEFT is an Indian vice. The Indians not only steal from their civilized neighbours, but from each other. A horse a gun -or spirits, have charms in the eyes of an Indian that no restraints can prevent his stealing, whenever they come in his way. 9. GAMING belongs in an eminent degree to the Cata logue of indian vices. 10. But the infamy of the Indian character is completed by the low rank to which they degrade their women. It is well known that their women perform all their work. They not only prepare their victuals, but plant, hoe and gather their corn and roots. They are seldom admitted to their feasts, or share in their conversation. The men oblige them to lie at their feet, when they sleep ivithout fire ; and at their backs when they sleep before a fire. They afford them no assistance in the toil of tending, feeding, and carrying their children. They are even insensible of the dangers to which their women are often exposed in travelling with them. A gentleman from Northumberland county, informed me, that he once saw a bo dy of Indian men and women wading across the river Susque- hannah. The men arrived first on the opposite shore, and pursued their journey along the river. The women, some of whom had children on their backs, upon coming to a deep and rapid current, suddenly cried out for help, and made signs to their husbands and fathers to come to their assistance. The men stood for a few minutesand after attentively surveying their distress, bursted out a laughing, and then with a merry indifference, walked from them along the shore. PECULIAR TO THE INDIANS. This is a short nomenclature of the vices of the Indians of North America. If it were necessary, I would quote the chap ters and pages of the authors who have established, by their observations, the truth of the character I have given of them. I am not disposed to enter into an examination of their virtues, but I cannot help supposing them to be rather the qualities of necessity ) than the offspring of feeling, or principle. Their hospitalitiy .their friendships- their patience -and "their fi delity to engagements, are the effects of necessity, and are as essential to their existence, as honesty is to a band of associated robbers. Their politeness in never contradicting any person, I believe is the effect of indolence, for I know of nothing that lazy people dislike more than to dispute, even where truth is on their side, or where victory is certain. Where is the man that in a lazy fit (to which all men at times are subject) has not heard false and absurd opinions advanced in company, without contradicting them ? The taciturnity of the Indians which has been so much cele- brated, as a mark of their wisdom, is the effect of their want of ideas. Except in cases of extraordinary pride, I believe taciturnity, in nine cases out often, in civilized company, is the effect of stupidity. I will make one more exception to this rule, and that is in favour of those people who are in the habits of communicating their thoughts, by writing for the public, or by corresponding with their friends. Ideas, whe ther acquired from books, or by reflection, produce a plethora in the mind, which can only be relieved by depletion from the pen, or tongue. But what shall we say to the encomiums that have been lavished upon the love of liberty which characterizes our sav age neighbours ?*- Why that they arise from an ignorance 260 AN ACCOUNT OF THE VlCk* of the influence of property, upon the human mind. Proper ty, and a regard for law, are born together in all societies. The passion for liberty in an Indian, is as different from the passion for it in a civilized republican, as the impurity of lust, is, from the delicacy of love. There is a certain medium to be observed between an affection for law, and for liberty. An excess of the former has sometimes led to tyranny, while an excess of the latter, leads to idleness and vice. The Athe nians appear to have been intoxicated with an excess of liberty when they spent their whole time in hearing and telling news. There is always an excess of law or liberty in a community where poor men are idle, or where vices of any kind are suf fered with impunity. The only reflections that I shall add upon this subject, shall be, how are the blessings of civil government which exter pates, restrains, or punishes the vices that have been men* tioned ! and how t great is the efficacy of Christianity, which, by purifying the heart, renders the practice of the contra- ry virtues natural and agreeable ? OBSERVATIONS UPON THE INFLUENCE OF THE HABITUAL USE OF TOBACCO UPON HEALTH, MORALS, AND PROPERTY, WERE it possible for a being who had resided upon our globe, to visit the inhabitants of a planet, where reason governed) and to tell them that a vile weed was in gene ral use among the inhabitants of the globe it had left, which afforded no nourishment that this weed was cultivated with immense carethat it was an important article of com merce -that the want of it produced real misery- that its taste was extremely nauseous, that it was unfriendly to health and morals, and that its use was attended with a considerable loss of time and property, the account would be thought incredible, and the author of it would proba bly be excluded from society, for relating a story of so im probable a nature. In no one view, is it possible to con template the creature man in a more absurd and ridicu lous light, than in his attachment to TOBACCO. This weed is of a stimulating nature whether it be used in smoaking, chewing or in snuff. Like opium and spiritous liquors, it is sought for in all those cases where the body is debilitated indirectly by intemperance in eating, or by excessive application to study, or business, or directly by sedative pas sions of the mind, particularly by grief and fear. Persons after losing relations or friends by death, often resort to it. One of the greatest snuffers I ever knew, used it for the first time, in order to console her under a presentiment she enter tained, that she should die in childbed. Fear creates a desire for Tobacco. Hence it is used in a greater quantity by sol- 203 GlibLUYATIONS OX THE diers and sailors than by other classes of people. It is used most profusely by soldiers when they act as picket guards, or centinels, and by sailors in stormy weather. Persons la bouring under that state of madness which is accompanied with a sense of misery, are much devoted to it, hence the tenants of mad-houses often accost their attendants and visit ors, with petitions for TOR AC co. The progress of habit in the use of Tobacco is exactly the same as m the use o s-piritous liquors. The slaves of it begin, by using it only after dinner .then during the whole after noon an evening, afteiv. ards before dinner, then before breakfast, a d nr.all d ring the whole night. I knew a lady who had passeJ through all these stages, who used to wake regularly two or three times every night to compose her sys tem w th fresh do?esr of snuff. Again the progress in the decay of the sensib.iity of the nose to the stimulus of snuff is analogous to the Ui cay of the sensibility of the stomach, to the stimulus of spiritous liquors. It feels for a while the action of Rappee ; next it requires Scotch snuff, afterwards Irish* black-guard ami finally it is affected only by a composition of Tobacco and ground gla is. This mixture is to the nose, what Cayenne pepper and Jamaica spirits are to the stomachs of habitual dram drinkers. The appetite for Tobacco is wholly artificial. No person was ever born with a relish for it. Even in those persons who are much attached to it, nature frequently recovers her disrel ish to it. It ceases to be agreeable in every febile indispo sition. This is so invariably true, that a disrelish to it is of ten a sign of an approaching, and a return of the appetite fen- it, a sign of a departing fever. USE OF TOBACCO. In considering the pernicious effects of Tobacco, I shall begin Cgreeably to the order 1 have laid down, by taking no* tice of its influence upon health ; and here I shall mention its effects not only upon the body, but upon the mind. 1. It impairs the appetite. Where it does not produce this effect, 2. It prevents the early and complete digestion of the food, and thereby induces distressing, and incurable diseases not only of the stomach, but of the whole body. This effect of Tobacco is the result of the waste of the saliva in chewing, and smoking, or of the Tobacco insinuating itself into the stomach, when used in chewing, or snuffing.* 1 once lost a young man of 17 years of age, of a pulmonary con sumption, whose disorder was brought on by the intemperate use of segars. 3. It produces many of those diseases which are supposed to be seated in the nerves. The late Sir John Rringle was subject in the evening of his life to tremors in his hands. In his last visit to France, a few years before he died, in compa ny with Dr. Franklin, he was requested by the Doctor to ob serve, that the same disorder was very common among those people of fashion who were great snuffers. Sir John was led by this remark to suspect that his tremors were occasioned by snuff which he took in large quantises. He immediately left off taking it, and soon afterwards recovered the perfect use of his hands. I have seen head-ache, vertigo, and epilepsy produced by the use of Tobacco. A Physician in Connecti cut has remarked that it has in several instances produced pal- sy and apoplexy ; and Dr. Tissot ascribes sudden death in one instance, to the excessive use of it in smoaking. ci OBSERVATION S ON THE 4. A citizen of Philadelphia lost all his teeth by drawing the hot smoke of Tobacco into his mouth by means of a short pipe, and I have been informed of a cancer on the lip, which terminated fatally from the same cause, in a farmer in Nor thumberland county in this state. The acrid nature of the matter which is mixed with the smoke of the Tobacco may easily be discovered by the taste or smell of a pipe Stem that has been in use for two or three weeks. 5. Tobacco when used in the form of snuff seldom fails of impairing the voice by obstructing the nose. It moreover imparts to the complexion a disagreeable dusky colour. I have thus briefly enumerated the morbid effects of Tobac co upon the human body. It remains under this head to mention, that the want of it is a source of uneasiness more distressing than many bodily disorders. This uneasiness in persons who have long been accustomed to the use of Tobac co has in some instances produced an agitation of mind that has bordered upon distraction. Colonel Burr informed me tnat the greatest complaints, dissatisfaction and suffering that he heard the soldiers who accompanied General Arnold in his inarch from- Boston to Quebec through the wilderness, in the year 1775, were from the want of Tobacco. This was the more remarkable, as they were so destitute of provisions as to be obliged to kill, and eat their dogs. The Persians, we are told by travellers, expatriate themselves, when they are forbidden the use of Tobacco, in order to enjoy it in a foreign country. These facts will not surprise those persons who have been accustomed to view our appetites when perverted to such things as artificial and disagreeable, to be much more ungovernable than the appetite for things that are originally natural and agreeable. USE OF TOBACCO. 265 But the use of Tobacco has been known to produce a more serious effect upon the mind than the distress that has been mentioned. Sir John Pringle s memory was impaired by snuff. This was proved by his recovering the perfect exer cise of it after he left off taking snuff agreeably to the advice of his friend Dr. Franklin. Dr. Masillac informed me that his father lost his memory at forty years of age by the exces sive use of snuff. He took for several years two ounces of it every day. In answer to these observations upon the morbid effects of Tobacco it has been said* 1. That it possesses many medical virtues. I grant it, and the facts which establish its utility in medicine furnish us with additional arguments against the habitual use of it. How feeble would be the effects of opium and bark upon the the body, if they constituted a part of the condiments of our daily food ; While I admit the efficacy of tobacco as a medi cine, I cannot help adding, that some of the diseases, or symptoms of diseases which it relieves, are evidently induced by the habit of using it. Thus a dram of ardent spirits sus pends, for a while, a vomiting and tremors of the hands, but who does not know that those complaints, are the effects of the intemperate and habitual use of spiritous liquors ? 2. The advocates for Tobacco, tell us that smoking and snuff relieve that uneasiness which succeeds a plentiful meal. I admit that the stimulars of the Tobacco restores the system from the indirect weakness which is induced by intemper ance in eating, but the relief which is thus obtained, illy com pensates for the waste of the saliva in smoking, at a time M m 266 OBSERVATIONS ON THE when it is most wanted, or for the mixtre of a portion of the tobacco with the aliment in the stomach by means of snuffing. But why should we cure one evil by producing another ? Would it not be much better to obviate the necessity of using Tobacco by always eating a moderate meal ? The recollec tion of the remedy probably disposes to that intemperance in eating which produces the uneasiness that has been men tioned. 3. We are sometimes told that Tobacco is a preservative from contagious diseases. But many facts contradict this assertion. Mr. Howard informs us that it had no efficacy in checking the contagion of the plague, and repeated ex perience in Philadelphia has proved, that it is equally in effectual in preserving those who use it, from the Influenza and Yellow Fever. 4. It has been further said that chewing and smoking To bacco assist the intellectual operations. So do wine, and dis tilled spirits, but shall we upon that account, have recourse to those liquors when we wish to stimulate our thinking facul ties ? Tea and Coffee are to be preferred, when we wish to stimulate the mind. Mr. Pope recommends a trotting horse for the same purpose. Rousseau excited his invention by walking backwards and forwards in his room. I suspect that Tobacco is often used, rather to supply the want of ideas than to collect, or excite them. The absence of sensation, whether of external impressions upon the body, or of the re action of the mind in thought, is always accompanied with misery. The Indians afford a striking proof of this remark hence they spend whole days and even weeks in smoking, in order to Relieve themselves from the anguish which attends the inactivity and vacuum of their minds. USE OF TOBACCO. 267 We proceed next to mention the influence of the habitual use of Tobacco upon morals. 1. One of the usual effects of smoaking and chewing is thirst. This thirst cannot be allayed by water, for no seda tive or even insipid liquor will be relished after the mouth and throat have been exposed to the stimulus of the smoke, or juice of Tobacco. A desire of course is excited for strong drinks, and these when taken between meals soon lead to in temperance and drunkenness. One of the greatest sots I ever knew, acquired a love for ardent spirits by swallowing cuds of Tobacco, which he did, to escape detection in the use of it, for he had contracted the habit of chewing, con trary to the advice and commands of his father. He died of a Dropsy under my care in the year 1780. 2. The use of Tobacco, more especially in smoking, dis poses to idleness, and idleness has been considered as the root of all evil. " An idle man s brain, (says the celebrated and original Mr. Bunyan) is the Devil s work shop." 3. The use of Tobacco is necessarily connected with the neglect of cleanliness. The influence of this neglect upon morals has been happily pointed out in an extract from cap tain Cook s journal, which is published by Sir John Pringle in one of his Orations before the Royal Society of London. 4. Tobacco, more especially when used in smoking, is generally offensive to those people who do not use it. To smoke in company under such circumstances, is a breach of good manners ; now, manners have an influence upon morals. They may be considered as the out post of virtue . A habit of offending the senses of friends or strangers, by the use of 268 OBSERVATIONS ON THE Tobacco, cannot therefore be indulged with innocence. It produces a want of respect for our fellow creatures, and this always disposes to unkind and unjust behaviour towards them. Who ever knew a rude man compleatly, or uniformly moral ? The methodists forbad the use of Tobacco in the infancy of their society. The prohibition discovered a high and just sense of the self-denial, decency, and universal civility which are required by the gospel. What reception may we sup pose would the apostles have met with, had they carried into the cities and houses to which they were sent, snuff-boxes, pipes, segars, and bundles of cut, or rolls of hog, or pigtail Tpbacco ? Such a costly and offensive apparatus for gratify ing their appetites, would have furnished solid objections to their persons and doctrines, and would have been a just cause for the clamours and contempt which were excited against them. It is agreeable to observe that a regard to good man ners, upon this subject, has at last awakened in some parts of the world. In England smoking is not permitted in ta verns and coffee-houses until after 10 o clock at night, and in France snuffing is becoming unfashionable and vulgar. How much is it to be lamented that while the use of Tobacco is de clining in two of the most enlightned countries in Europe, it is becoming more general in America. Who can see groups of boys of six or eight years old in our streets smoking segars, without anticipating such a depreciation of our pos terity in health and character, as can scarcely be contemplat ed at this distance of time without pain and horror ! It remains now that I briefly point out the influence of tho use of tobacco upon time and property. Snuffing makes a great inroad upon time. A man who takes a pinch of snuff every twenty minutes, (which most habitual snuffers do) and snuffs USE OF TOBACCO. 269 fifteen hours in four and twenty, (allowing him to consume not quite half a minute every time he uses his box,) will waste a- bout five whole days of every year of his life in this useless, and unwholesome practice. But when we add to the profitable use to which this time might have been applied, the expences of Tobacco, pipes, snuff and spitting boxes- and of the injuries which are done to the cloathing, during a whole life, the ag gregate sum would probably amount to several hundred dol lars. To a labouring man this would be a decent portion for a son or daughter, while the same sum, saved by a man in affluent circumstances, would have enabled him by a contribu tion to a public charity to have lessened a large portion of the ignorance, or misery of mankind. In reviewing the account that has been given of the disa greeable and mischievous effects of Tobacco, we are led to enquire, what are its uses upon our globe, .for we are as sured that nothing, exists in vain. Poison is a relative term, and the most noxious plants have been discovered to afford sustenance to certain animals. But what animal besides man, will take Tobacco into its mouth ? Horses, Cows, Sheep, Cats, Dogs, and even Hogs refuse to taste it. Flies, Musque- toes, and the Moth are chased from our cloaths by the smell of it. But let us not arraign the wisdom and economy of na ture in the production of this plant. Modern Travellers have at last discovered that it constitutes the food of a solitary and filthy wild beast, well known in the deserts of Africa, by the name of the ROCK GOAT. I shall conclude these observations by relating an Anecdote of the late Dr. Franklin. A few months before his death, he declared to one of his friends that he had never used Tobacco in any way in the course of his long life, and that he was dis- 270 OBSERVATIONS OX THE USE OF TOBACCO. posed to believe there was not much advantage to be derived from it, for that he had never met with a man who used it, who advised him to follow his example. AN ACCOUNT OF THE SUGAR MAPLE-TREE OF THE UNITED STATES: IN A LETTER TO THOMAS JEFFERSON, ESQ. THEN- SECRETARY OF STATE OF THE UNITED STATES, AND ONE OF THE- VICE PRESIDENTS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSO PHICAL SOCIETY. DEAR SIR, IN obedience to your request, I have sat down to commu nicate to our society, through the medium of a letter to you, a short account of the Sugar Mafile-Tree of the United States, together with such facts and remarks as I have been able to collect, upon the methods of obtaining sugar from it, and up on the advantages both public and private, of this Sugar. The Jtcer Sacharinum of Linnaeus, or the Sugar Maple-tree, grows in great quantities in the western counties of all the Middle States of the American Union. Those which grow in New-York and Pennsylvania yield the sugar in a greater than those which grow on the waters of the Ohio.* AN ACCOUNT OF THE SUGAR MAPLE TREE. 271 These trees are generally found mixed with the Beech, (a) Hemlock, (b) White and water Ash, (c) the Cucumber tree, (d) Linden, (e) Aspen, (f) Butter Nut, (g) and Wild Cher ry trees (h). They sometimes appear in groves covering five or six acres in a body, but they are more commonly in terspersed with some, or all of the forest trees which have been mentioned. From 30 to 50 trees are generally found upon an acre of ground. They grow only in the richest soils and frequently in stony ground. Springs of the purest water abound in their neighbourhood. They are, when fully grown, as tall as the white and black oaks, and from two to three feet in diameter.* They put forth a beautiful white blossom in the Spring before they show a single leaf. The colour of the blossotn distinguishes them from the acer rubrum, or the common maple, which affords a blossom of a red colour. The wood of the Sugar Maple-tree is extremely inflammable, and is prefered upon that account by hunters and surveyors for fire wood. Its small branches are so much impregnated with sugar as to afford support to the cattle, horses, and and sheep of the first settlers during the winter, before they are able to cultivate forage for that purpose. Its ashes afford (a) Fagus Ferruginea. (b) Pinus abies. (c) Fraxinus Americana, (d) Magnolia acuminata. (e) Tilia Ameri cana, (f) Populus tremula.. (g) Juglans alba (oblonga.) (h) Primus Virginiana, of Linnaeus. * Baron La Hontan, in his voyage to North America, gives the following account of the Maple-tree in Canada, After describing the black Cherry-tree, some of which he says are as tall as the loftiest oaks, and as big as a hogs head, he adds, " The Maple-tree is much of the same height " and bulk. It bears no resemblance to that sort we have in "Europe. * 72 AN ACCOUNT OF a great quantity of pot ash, exceeded by few, or perhaps by none of the trees that grow in the woods of the United States. The tree is supposed to arrive at its full growth in the woods in twenty years. It is not injured by tapping ; on the contrary, the oftner it is tapped, the more syrup is obtained from it. In this re spect it follows a law of animal secretion. A single tree has not only survived, but flourished after forty-two tappings in the same number of years. The effects of a yearly discharge of sap from the tree in improving- and increasing the sap, is de monstrated from the superior excellence of those trees which have been perforated in an hundred places, by a small wood pecker which feeds upon the sap. These trees after having been wounded in this way, distil the remains of their juice on the ground, and afterwards acquire a black colour. The sap of these trees is much sweeter to the taste than that which is obtained from trees which have not been previously wounded, and it affords more sugar. From twenty-three gallons and one quart of sap procured in twenty hours from only two of these dark coloured trees, Ar thur Noble, Esq. of the state of New-York, obtained four Dounds and thirteen ounces of good grained sugar. A tree of an ordinary size yields in a good season from twenty to thirty gallons of sap, from which are made from live to six pounds of sugar. To this there are sometimes re markable exceptions. Samuel Low, Esq. a Justice of Peace in Montgomery county, in the state of New-York, informed Arthur Noble, Esq. that he had made twenty pounds and one ounce of sugar between the 14th and 23d of April, in the* THE SUGAR MAPLE-TREE. 373 year 1789, from a single tree that had been tapped for seve ral successive years before. From the influence which culture has upon forest and other trees, it has been supposed, that by transplanting the Sugar Maple-Tree into a garden, or by destroying such other trees as shelter it from the rays of the Sun, the quantity of the sap might be increased ; and its quality much improved. I have heard of one fact which favours this opinion. A farmer in Northampton county, in the state of Pennsylvania, planted a number of these trees above twenty years ago in his meadow from three gallons of the sap of which he obtains every year a pound of sugar. It was remarked formerly that it required Jive or six gallons of the sap of the trees which grow in the woods, to produce the same quantity of sugar. The sap distils from the wood of the tree. Trees which have been cut down in the winter for the support of the do mestic animals of the new settlers, yield a considerable quan tity of sap as soon as their trunks and limbs feel the rays of the Sun in the spring of the year. It is in consequence of the sap of these trees being equal ly diffused through every part of them, that they live three years after they are girdled, that is, after a circular incision is made through the bark into the substance of the tree for the purpose of destroying it. It is remarkable that grass thrives better under this tree in a meadow, than in situations exposed to the constant action of the Sun. Nn 274 AN ACCOUNT OF The season for tapping the trees is in February, March, and April, according to the weather which occurs in these months ! Warm clays and frosty nights are most favourable to a plen tiful discharge of sap.* The quantity obtained in a day from a tree, is from five gallons to a pint, according to the greater or less heat of the air. Mr. Low, informed Arthur Noble, Esq. that he obtained near three and twenty gallons of sap in one day (April 14, 1789.) from the single tree which was be fore mentioned. Such instances of a profusion of sap in single trees are however not very common. There is always a suspension of the discharge of sap in the night if a frost succeed a warm day. The perforation in the tree is made with an axe or an auger. The latter is prefer- cd from experience of its advantages. The auger is introdu ced about three-quarters of an inch) and in an ascending di rection (that the sap may not be frozen in a slow current in the mornings or evenings) and is afterwards depened gra dually to the extent of two inches. A spout is introduced about half an inch into the hole, made by this auger, and pro jects from three to twelve inches from the tree. The spout * The influence of the weather in increasing and lessen ing the discharge of the sap from trees is very remarkable. Dr. Tongue supposed, long ago, (Philosophical Transac tions, No. 68) that changes in the weather of every kind might be better ascertained by the discharges of sap from trees than by weather glasses. I have seen a journal of the ef fects of heat, cold, moisture, drought and thunder upon the discharges from the sugar trees, which disposes me to be lieve there is some foundation for Dr. Tongue s opinion. THE SUGAR MAPLE-TREE. 275 is general made of the Sumach (a) or Elder, (b) which com monly grow in the neighbourhood of the sugar trees. The tree is first tapped on the South side ; when the discharge of its sap begins to lesson, an opening is made on its North side, from which an increased discharge takes place. The sap flows from four to six weeks, according to the temperature of the weather. Troughs large enough to contain three or four gallons made of white pine, or white ash, or of dried water ash, aspen, linden, poplar, (c) or common maple, are placed under the spout, to receive the sap, which is carried every day to a large receiver, made of either of the trees before men tioned. From this receiver it is conveyed, after being strain ed, to the boiler. To preserve the sap from rain and impurities of all kinds, it is a good practice to cover the troughs with a concave board, with a hole in the middle of it. It remains yet to be determined whether some artificial heat may be applied so as to increase the quantity and im prove the quality of the sap. Mr. Noble informed me, that he saw a tree, under which a farmer had accidently burnt some brush, which dropped a thick heavy syrup resembling molasses. This fact may probably lead to something useful hereafter. During the remaining pait of the spring months, as also in the Summer, and in the beginning of Autumn, the Maple Tree yields a thin sap, but not fit for the manufactory of su gar. It affords a pleasant drink in harvest, and has been used (a) Rims, (b) Sambucus canadensis. (c) Liriodendron Tuli- pifera. 276 AN ACCOUNT OF instead of mm, in some instances by those farmers in Connecti cut, whose ancestors have left to them here, and there, a sugar maple tree, (probably to shade their cattle,) in all their fields, Mr. Bruce describes a drink, of the same kind prepared by the inhabitants of Egypt, by infusing the sugar cane in water, which he declares to be "the most refreshing drink in^the world."* There are three methods of reduceing the sap to sugar. 1 By freezing it ; this method has been tried for many- years, by Mr- Obediah Scott, a farmer in Luzerne county in this state, with great success. He says that one half of a given quantity of sap reduced in this way, is better than one-third of the same quantity reduced by boiling. If the frost should not be intense enough, to reduce the sap to the graining point, it may afterwards be exposed to the action of the fir^ for that purpose. 2. By spontaneous evaporation. The hollow stump of a maple-sugar tree, which had been cut down in the spring., and which was found sometime afterwards filled with sugar, first suggested this method of obtaining sugar to our farmers. So many circumstances of cold and dry weather, large and * Baron La Hontan, gives the following account of the sap of the sugar maple-tree, when used as a drink, and of the manner of obtaining it , " The tree yields a sap which has a much pleasanter taste than the best lemonade or cherry wa ter, and makes the wholesomest drink in the world. Thip liquor is drawn by cutting the tree two inches deep in the wood, the cut being made sloping to the length of ten or twelve inches ; at the lower end of this gash, a knife is thrust into- the tree slopingly, so that the water runs along the cut or gash, as through a gutter and falls upon the knife, which has some vessels placed underneath to receive it. Some trees THE SUGAR MAPLE TREK. 277 Eat vessels, and above all so much time are necessary to ob- fcdn sugar, by either of the above methods, that the most gene ral method among our farmers is to obtain it, 3. By boiling. For this purpose the following facts which have been ascertained by many experiments, deserve atten tion. 1. The sooner the sap is boiled, after it is collected from the tree, the better. It should never be kept longer than twenty four hours, before it is put over the fire. 2. The larger the vessel in which the sap is boiled, the more sugar is obtained from it. 3. A copper vessel affords a sugar of a fairer colour tha an iron vessel. The sap flows into wooden troughs from which it is carried and poured into stone troughs or large cisterns in the shape of a canoe or large manger made of white ash, linden, bass wood, or white pinp, from which it is conveyed to the kettle in which it is to be boiled. These cisterns, as well as the kettle, are generally covered by a shed to defend the sap will yield five or six bottles of this water in a day, and some inhabitants of Canada might draw 1 twenty hogsheads of it in one day, if they would thus cut and notch all the maple trees of their respective plantations. The gash does no harm to the tree. Of this sap they make sugar and syrup which is so valuable that there can ]be no better remedy for fortifying the stomach. Tis but few of the inhabitants that have the patience to make them, for as common things are slighted, so there are scarce any body, but children that give themselves the trouble of gashing these trees." A!C ACCOUNT OF from the rain. The sugar is improved by straining the sap through a blanket or cloth, either before or after it is half boiled. Butter, hogs-lard, or tallow are added to the sap in the kettle to prevent its boiling over, and lime, eggs or new milk are mixed with it in order to clarify it. IJiave seen clear sugar made without the addition of either of them. A spoonful of slack lime, the white of one egg, and a pint of new -milk are the usual proportions of these articles which are mixed with fifteen gallons of sap. In some samples which I have lately seen of maple-sugar clarified with each of the above articles, that, in which milk alone was used, had an evident superiority over the others, in point of colour. The sugar after being sufficiently boiled, is grained and clayed, and afterwards refined, or converted into loaf sugar. The methods of conducting each of these processes is so nearly the same with those which are used in the manufactory of West-India sugar, and are so generally known, that I need not spend any time in describing them. It has been a subject of enquiry whether the maple sugar might not be improved in its quality and increased in its quantity by the establishment of boiling houses in the sugar maple country to be conducted by associated labor. From the scattered situation of the trees, the difficulty of carrying the sap to a great distance, and from the many expenses which must accrue from supporting labourers and horses in the M oods in a season of the year in which nature affords no sus- r<:iiance to man or beast, I am disposed to believe, that the most productive method, both in quantity and profit, of ob- ?:iiiimg this sugar will be by the labour of private families. Tor a. great number of years many hundred private families in New-York and Pennsylvania have supplied themselves THE SUGAR MAPLE-TREE. plentifully with this sugar during the whole year. I have heard of many families who have made from two to four hundred pounds in a year ; and of one man who sold six hun dred pounds, all made with his own hands in one season.* Not more knowledge is necessary for making this sugar than is required to make soap, cyder, beer, sour-crout, Sec. and yet one or all of these are made in most of the farm houses of the United States. The kettles and other utensils of a farmer s kitchen, will serve most of the purposes of making sugar, and the time required for the labor, (if it deserves that name) is at a season when it is impossible for the farmer to employ himself in any species of agriculture. His wife and all his children above ten years of age, moreover may assist him in this business, for the profit of the weakest of them is nearly equal to that of a man, when hired for that purpose. A comparative view of this sugar has been frequently made with the .sugar which is obtained from the West-India sugar cane, with respect to its quality, price, and the possible or probable quantity that can be made of it in the United States, each of which I shall consider in order. * The following receipts published by William Cooper, Esq. in the Albany Gazette, fully establishes this fact. u Received, Cooper s Town, April 30th, 1790, of William Cooper, sixteen pounds, for six hundred and forty pounds of sugar made with my own hands, without any assistance in less than four weeks, besides attending to the other business of my farm, as providing fire wood, taking care of the cattle. &c. John NichoUs. Witness II. Smith. A single family, consisting of a man and his two sons, on the maple sugar lands between the Delaware and Susque- hannah made ISQOlb, of maple sugar in one season. 280 AN ACCOUNT OF 1. The quality of this sugar is necessarily better than that which is made in the West Indies. It is prepared in a sea son when not a single insect exists to feed upon it, or to mix its excretions with it, and before a particle of dust or of the pollen of plants can float in the air. The same observation cannot be applied to the West India sugar. The insects and worms which prey upon it, and of course mix with it, com pose a page in a nomenclature of natural history. I shall say nothing of the hands which are employed in making sugar in the West Indies, but, that men who work for the exclusive benefit of others, are not under the same obligations to keep their persons clean while they are employed in this work, that men women and children are, who work exclusively for the benefit of themselves, and who have been educated in the hab its of cleanliness. The superior purity of the maple sugar is farther proved by its leaving a less sediment, when dis solved in water, than the West India sugar. It has been supposed that the maple sugar is inferior to to the West India sugar in strength. The experiments which led to this opinion, I suspect have been inaccurate, or have been made with maple sugar, prepared in a slovenly manner. I have examined equal quantities, by weight, of both the grained and the loaf sugar, in hyson tea, and in coffee, made in every respect equal by the minutest circumstances that could effect the quality or taste of each of them, and could percieve no inferiority in the strength of the maple sugar. The liquors which decided this question were examined at the same time, by Alexander Hamilton, Esq. Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, Mr. Henry Drinker, and several Ladies, who all concurred in the above opinion. 2. Whoever considers that the gift of the sugar maple trees is from a benevolent Providence, that we have many millions THE SUGAR MAPLE-TREE. 281 of acres in our country covered with them, that the tree is improved by repeated tappings, and that the sugar is obtain ed by the frugal labour of a farmer s family, and at the same time considers the labour of cultivating the sugar cane, the capitals sunk in sugar works, the first cost of slaves and cattle, the expenses of provisions for both of them, and in some instances the additional expence of conveying the sugar to a market, in all the West India islands, will not hesitate in believing that the maple sugar may be manufactured much cheaper, and sold at a less price than that which is made in the West Indies. 3. The resources for making a sufficient quantity of this sugar not only for the consumption of the United States, but for exportation, will appear from the following facts. There are in the states of New- York and Pennsylvania alone at least ten millions of acres of land which produce the sugar maple -tree, in the proportion of thirty trees to one acre. Now, supposing all the persons capable of labour in a family to consist of three, and each person to attend 150 trees and each tree to yield 5lbs. of sugar in a season, the product of the labour of 60,000 families would be 135,OjOO,000 pounds of sugar, and allowing the inhabitants of the United States to compose 600,000 families, each of which consumed 200 pounds of sugar in a year, the whole consumption would be 120,000,000 pounds in a year, which would leave a balance of 15,000,000 pounds for exportation. Valuing the sugar at 6-90 of a dollar per pound, the sum saved to the United States would be 8,000,000 dollars by home consumption, and the sum gained by exportation would be, 1,000,000 dollars. The only part of this calculation that will appear improbable is, the number of families supposed to be employed in the O o 8- AN .ACCOUNT OF the manufactory of the sugar, but the difficulty of admitting this supposition will vanish when we consider, that double that number of families are employed every year, in making cyder, the trouble, risks and expences of which are all much greater than those of making maple-sugar. But the profit of the maple tree is not confined to its sugar. It affords a. most agreeable molasses, and an excellent vinegar. The sap which is suitable for these purposes is obtained after the sap which affords the sugar has ceased to ilow, so that the manufactories of these different products of the maple tree, by succeeding, do not interfere with each other. The molasses may be made to compose the basis of a pleasant summer beer. The sap of the maple is moreover capable of affording a spirit, but we hope this precious juice will never be prostituted by our citizens to this ignoble pur pose. Should the use of sugar in diet become more general in our country, it may tend to lessen the inclination or sup posed necessity for spirits, for I have observed a relish for sugar in diet to be seldom accompanied by a love for strong drink. It is the sugar which is mixed with tea which makes it so generally disagreeable to drunkards. But a diet, con sisting of a plentiful mixture of sugar has other advantages to recommend it, which I shall briefly enumerate : 1 . Sugar affords the greatest quantity of nourishment in a given quantity of matter of any substance in nature j of course it may be preserved in less room in our houses, and and may be consumed in less time, than more bulky and and less nourishing aliment. It has this peculiar advantage over most kinds of aliment, that it is not liable to have its nutritious qualities affected by time or the weather; hence it is preferred by the Indians in their excursions from home THE SUGAR MAPLE-TREE. 283 They mix a certain quantity cf maple sugar, with an equal quantity of Indian corn, dried and powdered, in its milky state. This mixture is packed in little baskets, which are frequently wetted in travelling, without injuring the sugar. A few spoons full of it mixed with half a pint of spring water, afford them a pleasant and strengthening meal. From the degrees of strength and nourishment, which are conveyed into animal bodies by a small bulk of sugar, I concieve it might be given to horses with great advantage, when they are used in circumstances which make it difficult or expen sive to support them, with more bulky or weighty aliment. A pound of sugar with grass or hay, I have been told, has supported the strength and spirits of an horse, during a whole day s labour in one of the West-India Islands. A larger quantity given alone, has fattened horses and cattle, during the war before last in Hispaniola, for a period of several months, in which the exportation of sugar, and the importa tion of grain, were prevented by the want of ships. 2. The plentiful use of sugar in diet, is one of the best preventives that has ever been discovered of the diseases which are produced by worms. The Author of Nature seems to have implanted a love for this aliment in all children, as if it were on purpose to defend them from those diseases. I know a gentleman in Philadelphia, who early adopted this opinion, and who by indulging a large family of children, in the use of sugar, has preserved them all from the diseases usually occasioned by worms. 3. Sir John Pringle has remarked, that the plague has never been known in any country where sugar composes a material part of the diet of the inhabitants. I think it pro bable, that the frequency of malignant fevers of all kinds has -84 AN ACCOUNT OF been lessened by this diet, and that its more general use would defend that class of people, who are most subject to malignant fevers, from being so often affected by them. 4. In the numerous and frequent disorders of the breast, which occur in all countries, where the body is exposed to a variable temperature of weather, sugar affords the basis of many agreeable remedies. It is useful in weaknesses, and acrid 4 en<ux i ons u P on other parts of the body. Many facts might be adduced in favour of this assertion. I shall mention only one, which from the venerable name of the person, whose case furnished it, cannot fail of command ing attention and credit- Upon my enquiring of Dr. Frank lin, at the request of a friend, about a year before he died, whether he had found any relief from the pain of the stone, from the Blackberry-Jam, of which he took large quantities, he told me that he had, but that he believed the medicinal part of the jam, resided wholly in the sugar, and as a reason for thinking so, he added, that he often found the same relief, by taking about half a pint of a syrup, prepared by boiling a little brown sugar in water, just before he went to bed, that he did from a dose of opium. It has been supposed by some of the early physicians of our country, that the sugar obtained from the maple tree, is more medicinal, than that obtained from the West-India sugar cane, but this opinion I believe is without foundation. It is preferrable in its qualities to the West-India sugar only from its superior cleanliness. Cases may occur in which sugar may be required in medicine, or in diet, by persons who refuse to be benefited^ THE SUGAR MAPLE-TREE. 285 even indirectly by the labour of slaves,. In such cases, the innocent maple sugar will always be preferred*. It has been said, that sugar injures the teeth, but this opinion now has so few advocates, that it does not deserve a serious refutation. To transmit to future generations, all the advantages which have been enumerated from the maple tree, it will be necessary to protect it by law, or by a bounty upon the maple sugar, from being destroyed by the settlers in the maple country, or to transplant it from the woods, and cul tivate it in the old and improved parts of the United States,. An orchard consisting of 200 trees, planted upon a common farm would yield more than the same number of apple trees, at a distance from a market town. A full grown tree in the woods yields five pounds of sugar a year. If a greater ex posure of a tree to the action of the sun, has the same effect* upon the maple, that it has upon other trees, a larger quan tity of sugar might reasonably be expected from each tree planted in an orchard. Allowing it to be only seven pounds, then 200 trees will yield 1400 pounds of sugar, and deduct ing 200 from the quantity, for the consumption of the family, there will remain for sale 1200 pounds which at 6-90 of a dollar per pound will yield an annual profit to the farmer * Dr. Knowles, a physician of worthy character in London, had occasion to recommend a diet to a patient, of which sugar composed a material part. His patient refused to submit to his prescription, and gave as a reason for it, that he had witnessed so much of the oppression and cruelty which were exercised upon the slaves, who made the sugar, that he had made a vow never to taste the product of their misery as long; as he lived. 86 AN ACCOUNT OF of 80 dollars. But it it should be found that the shade of the maple does not check the growth of grain any more than it does of grass, double or treble that number of maple trees may be planted on every farm, and a profit proportioned to the above calculation be derived from them. Should this mode of transplanting the means of obtaining sugar be successful, it will not be a new one. The sugar cane of the West-Indies, was brought originally from the East-Indies, by the Portuguese, and cultivated at Madeira, from whence it was transplanted directly or indirectly, to all the sugar Islands of the West-Indies. It wrre to be wished, that the settlers upon the sugar maple lands, wonld spare the sugar tree in clearing their tends. On a farm of 200 acres of land, according to our former calculation, there are usually 6,000 maple trees. If only 2,000 of those original and ancient inhabitants of the -woods, were suffered to remain, and each tree were to afford only five pounds of sugar, the annual profit of such a farm in sugar alone, at the price formerly mentioned, would amount to 666 dollars, 15O dollars of which would probably more than defray all the expences of making it, and allow a plen tiful deduction for family use. According to the usual annual profit of a sugar maple tree, each tree is worth to a farmer, two dollars and 2-3 of a dol lar; exclusive therefore of the value of his farm, the 2,000 sugar maple trees alone confer a value upon it of 5,330 dol lars and 33-90 of a dollar. It is said, that the sugar trees when deprived of the shelter and support they derive from other forest trees, arc liable to be blown down, occasioned by their growing in a rich, and THE SUGAR MAPLE-TREE. 28F of course, a loose soil. To obviate this, it will only be neces sary to cut off some of their branches, so as to alter its center of gravity, and to allow the high winds to have an easy pas sage through them. Orchards of sugar maple trees, which grow with an original exposure of all their parts to the action of the sun, will not be liable to this inconvenience. In contemplating the present opening prospects in human affairs, I am led to expect that a material share of the hap piness, which Heaven seems to have prepared for a part of mankind, will be derived from the manufactory and general use of maple sugar, for the benefits which I flatter myself are to result from it, will not be confined to our own country. They will, I hope, extend themselves to the interests of humanity in the West-Indies. With this view of the sub ject of this letter, I cannot help contemplating a sugar maple tree with a species of affection and even veneration, ipr I have persuaded myself, to behold in it the happy means of rendering the commerce and slavery of our African brethren, in the sugar Islands as unnecessary, as it has, always been inhuman and unjust. From, dear Sir, your sincere friend, BENJAMIN RUSH. July iOth, 1791, AN ACCOUNT OF THE LIFE AND DEATH OF EDWARD DRINKER, WHO DIED ON THE 17TH OF NOVEMBER, 1782, IN THE 103RD. YEAR OF HIS AGE. EDWARD DRINKER was born on the 24th. of December, 1680, in a small cabbin, near the present corner of Walnut and Second-streets, in the city of Philadel phia. His parents came from a place called Beverly, in the state of Massachusetts. The banks of the Delaware, on which the city of Philadelphia now stands, were inhabited, at the time of his birth, by Indians, and a few Swedes and Hol landers. He often talked to his companions of picking whortle berries and catching rabbits, on spots now the most improved and populous in the city. He recollected the second time William Penn came to Pennsylvania, and used to point to the place where the cabbin stood, in which he, and his friends, that accompanied him, were accommodated upon their arival. At twelve years of age, he went to Boston, where he served his apprenticeship to a cabinet maker. In the year 1745, he returned to Philadelphia, with his family, where he lived until the time of his death. He was four times married, and had eighteen children, all of whom were by his first wife. At one time of his life, he sat down, at his own table, with fourteen children. Not long before his death he heard of the birth of a grand-child, to one of his grand-chil dren, the fifth in succession to himself. He retained all his faculties till the last year of his life. Even his memory, so early and so generally diminished by AN ACCOUNT OF THE LIFE OF E. DRINKER. 289 age was but little impaired. He not only remembered the incidents of his childhood and youth*, but the events of latter years ; and so faithful was his memory to him, that his son has informed me he never heard him tell the same story twice, but to different persons, and in different companies. His eye-sight failed him, many years before his death, but his hearing was uniformly perfect and unimpaired. His ap petite was good till within a few days before his death. He generally ate a hearty breakfast of a pint of tea or coffee, as soon as he got out of his bed, with bread and butter in pro- * It is remarkable that the incidents of childhood ancf youth are seldom remembered or called forth until old age. I have sometimes been led, from this and other circumstan ces, to suspect that nothing is ever lost that is lodged in the memory, however it may be buried for a time by a variety of causes. How often do we find the transactions of early life, which we had reason to suppose were lost from the mind foT ever, revived in our memories by certain accidental sights or sounds, particularly by certain notes or airs in music. I have known a young man speak French fluently when drunk, that could not put two sentences of that language together, when sober. He had been taught it perfectly, when a boy, but had; forgotten it from disuse. A French countess was nursed by a Welsh woman, from whom she learned to speak her language, which she soon forgot, after she had acquired the French, which was her mother tongue. In the delirium of a fever, many years afterwards, she Was heard to mutter words which none of her family or attendants understood, An old Welsh woman came to see her, who soon perceived that the sounds which were so unintelligible to the family, were the Welsh language. When she recovered, she could not recollect a single word of the language, she had spoken in her sickness. I can conceive great advantages may be derived from this retentive power in our memories, in the advancement of the mind towards perfection in knowledge (so essential to its happiness) in a future world. 290 AN ACCOUNT OF THE LIFE AND DEATH portion. He ate likewise at eleven o clock, and never failed to eat plentifully at dinner of the grossest solid food. He drank tea, in the evening, but never ate any supper : he had lost all his teeth thirty years before his death, which was oc casioned, his son says, by drawing excessive hot smoke of tobacco into his mouth : but the want of suitable mastication of his food, did not prevent its speedy digestion, nor impair his health. Whether the gums, hardened by age, supplied the place of his teeth in a certain degree, or whether the juices of the mouth and stomach became so much more acrid by time, as to perform the office of dissolving the food more speedily and more perfectly, I know not, but I have often observed, that old people are most disposed to excessive eat ing, and that they suffer fewest inconveniences from it. He was inquisitive after news in the last years of his life. His education did not lead him to increase the stock of his ideas any other way. But it is a fact well worth attending to, that old age, instead of diminishing, always increases the desire of knowledge. It must afford some consolation to those who expect to be old, to discover, that the infirmities to which the decays of nature expose the human body, are rendered more tolerable by the enjoyments that are to be derived from the appetite for sensual and intellectual food. He was remarkably sober and temperate. Neither hard labour, nor company, nor the usual afflictions of human life, nor the wastes of nature, ever led him to an improper or ex cessive use of strong drink. For the last twenty-five years of his life, he drank twice every day of toddy, made with two table spoonfuls of spirit, in half a pint of water. His son, a man of fifty-nine years of age, told me that he had never seen him intoxicated. The time and manner in which he used spiritous liquors, I believe, contributed to lighten the OF EDWARD I>R1NKER. 291 weight of his years, and probably to prolong- his life. u Give wine to him that is of a heavy heart, and strong drink to him that is ready to perish with age, as well as with sickness. Let him drink and forget his sorrow, and remember his misery no more." He enjoyed an uncommon share of health, insomuch that in the course of his long life he never was confined more than three days to his bed. He often declared that he had no idea of that most distressing pain called the head ache. His sleep was interrupted a little in the last years of his life with a defluxion on his breast, which produced what is commonly called the old man s cough. The character of this aged citizen was not summed up in his negative quality of temperance : he was a man of the mast amiable temper : old age had not curdled his blood ; he was uniformly cheerful and kind to every body ; his religious principles were as steady as his morals were pure. He attended public worship about thirty years in the Rev. Dr. Sproat s church, and died in a full assurance of a happy immor tality. The life of this man is marked with several circum stances, which perhaps have seldom occurred in the life of an individual events. He saw and heard more of those events which are measured by time, than have ever been seen or heard by any name since the age of the patriarchs ; he saw the same spot of earth, which at one period of his life, was covered with wood and bushes, and the receptacle of beasts and birds of prey, afterwards become the seat of a city not only the first in wealth and arts in the new, but rivalling in both, many of the first cities in the old world. He saw regu lar streets where he once pursued a hare : he saw churches rising upon morasses, where he had often heard the croak- 292 AN ACCOUNT OF THE LIFE OF E. DRINKER. ing of frogs ; he saw wharfs and ware-houses, where he had often seen Indian savages draw fish from the river for their daily subsistence ; and he saw ships of every size and use in in those streams, where he had often seen nothing but Indian canoes ; Jie saw a stately edifice filled with legislators, asto nishing the world with their wisdom and virtue, on the same spot, probably, where he had seen an Indian council fire ; he saw the first treaty ratified between the newly confederated powers of America and the ancient monarchy of France, with all the formalties of parchment and seals, on the same spot, probably, where he once saw William Penn ratify his first and last treaty with the Indians, without the formality of pen, ink or paper ; he saw all the intermediate stages through which a people pass, from the most simple to the highest degrees of civilization. He saw the beginning and end of the empire of Great-Britain, in Pennsylvania. He had been the subject of seven successive crowned heads, and afterwards be came a willing citizen of a republic ; for he embraced the liberties and independence of America in his withered arms, and triumphed in the last years of his life in the salvation of his country. REMARKABLE CIRCUMSTANCES IN THE CONSTITUTION AND LIFE OF ANN WOODS, AN OLD WOMAN OF 96 YEARS OF AGE. IN the summer of the year 1788, while I was engaged in collecting the facts upon the subject of old age, which I have since published,* a poor woman came to my house to beg for cold victuals. Perceiving by her countenance, and the stoop in her walk, that she was very old, I requested her to sit down by me, while I recorded the following information, which I received from her, and which was confirmed to me a few days afterwards, by one of her daughters with whom ahe lived. Her name was Ann Woods. Her age at that time was 96. She was born in Herefordshire, in England, and came to this city when she was but ten years old, where she had lived ever since. She had been twice married. By her first husband, William Dickson, she had nine children, four of whom were then living. By her second husband, Joseph Woods, whom she married after she was sixty years old, she had one child, born within ten months after her marriage. There were intervals of two and nearly three years between each of her children. Three died soon after weaning them at the usual age in which children are taken from the breast. This led her to suckle her other children during the whole time of her pregnancy, and in several instances, she suckled two of them, born in succession to each other, at the same * Medical Enquiries and Observations, vol. 2. 2\)4 AN, ACCOUNT OF THE LIFE AND time. One of her children by her first husband, sucked until it was five years old. Her menses appeared between her nineteenth and twentieth years and continued without any in* termission, except during her pregnancy and eleven months after the birth of each of her children, until she was eighty years of age. At the time I saw her, she heard tolerably well, but her sight was lost in one eye, and was weak in the other. She lost all her teeth when she was between fifty and sixty years of age. Her hair became grey when she was between forty and fifty. Her sleep was not sound, owing to her having been afflicted with the Rheumatism, a disease which was brought on her by the alternate heat and cold to which she had exposed herself, by following the business of a washer woman for many years. She had had several attacks of the Intermitting Fever and of the Pleurisy, in the course of her life, and was much afflicted with the Head-Ache, Barter her menses ceased. She had been frequently bled while afflicted with the above diseases. Her diet was simple, consisting chiefly of weak tea, milk, cheese, butter and vegetables. Meat of all kinds, except veal, disagreed with her stomach. She found great benefit from frequently changing her aliment. Her drinks were water, cyder and water, molasses and vine^ gar in water. She had never used spirits. Her memory was hut little impaired. She was cheerful and thankful that her condition in life was happier than hundreds of other old people, , From the history of this old woman s constitution and man ner of life, the following observations will naturally occur to the reader. 1 . That there is a great latitude in the time in which the menses tease. It is more common for them in their excen- CONSTITUTION OF ANN WOODS. 295 tricities, to disappear at the usual time, and to return in ex treme old age. In the year 1795, I saw a case of this kind in a woman of seventy years of age in the Pennsylvania Hos pital. 2. There is a great latitude in the time in which women bear children. Many children are born between fifty and sixty, but very few I believe beyond sixty. 3. It appears from the history that has been given, that acute and chronic diseases if opposed by temperance and suit able remedies, do not necessarily shorten the duration of human life. 4. That child-bearing, and suckling children, do not ma terially affect health, or longevity, where their effects are opposed by temperance and moderate labour. 5. That the evils of life are seldom so numerous, as not to leave room for thankfulness for an exemption from a great deal of misery. This poor woman did not complain of her weakness, pains or poverty. On the contrary, she appeared thanful under all the afflictions of her life. While the indo lent are commanded by the wise man to go to the ant to learn industry, those persons who abound with all the external means of happiness, and at the same time complain of the moral government of our world, may be invited to sit down by the side of Ann Woods, and learn from the example of her gratitude to heaven, for a single drop of divine goodness, to render unceasing thanks for the ocean of blessings they derive from the same source. BIOGRAPHICAL ANECDOTES OF BENJAMIN LAY THERE was a time when the name of this celebrated Christian Philosopher, was familiar to every man, woman and to nearly every child, in Pennsylvania. His size, which was not much above four feet, his dress, which was always the same, consisting of light coloured plain clothes, a white hat, and half-boots ; .his milk-white beard, which hung upon his breast ; and, above all, his peculiar principles and conduct, rendered him to many, an object of admirati6n, and to all, the subject of conversation. . He was born in England, and spent the early part of his life at sea. His first settlement was in Barbadoes, as a mer chant, where he was soon convinced of the iniquity of the slave trade. He bore an open testimony against it, in all companies, by which means he rendered himself so unpo pular, that he left the island in disgust, and settled in the then province of Pennsylvania. He fixed his home at Abing- ton, ten miles from Philadelphia, from whence he made fre quent excursions to the city, and to different parts of the country. I At the time of his arrival in Pennsylvania, he foutid many of his brethren, the people called Quakers, had fallen so far from their original principles, as to keep negro slaves. He remonstrated with them, both publickly and privately, against t! e practice; but frequently with so much indiscreet zeal, a$ BIOGRAPHICAL ANECDOTES OF BENJAMIN LAY. 297 to give great offence. He often disturbed their public meet ings, by interrupting or opposing their preachers, for which he was once carried out of a meeting-house, by two or three friends. ^Upon this occasion he submitted with patience to what he considered a species of persecution. -He lay down at the door of the meeting-house, in a shower of rain, till divine worship was ended ; nor could he be prevailed upon to rise, till the whole congregation had stepped over him in their way to their respective homes.- To shew his indignation against the practice of slave - keeping, he once carried a bladder filled with blood into a meeting ; and, in the presence of the whole congregation, thrust a sword, which he had concealed under his coat, into the bladder, exclaiming, at the same time, " Thus shall God shed the blood of those persons who enslave their fellow creatures." The terror of this extravagant and unexpected act, produced swoonings in several of the women of the con gregation.* He once went into the house of a friend in Philadelphia, and found him seated at breakfast, with his family around him. Being asked by him to sit down and breakfast with them, he said, " Dost thou keep slaves in thy house ?" Upon being answered in the affirmative, he said, " Then I will not partake with thee, of the fruits of thy unrighteousness." He took great pains to convince a farmer and his wife, in Chester county, of the iniquity of keeping negro slaves, but to no purpose. They not only kept their slaves, but defended the practice. One day he went into their house, and after a short discourse with them upon the wickedness, and particu larly the inhumanity of seperating children from their parents, which was involved in the slave trade, he seized the only Qq 298 lilOGRAPHICAL ANECDOTES OF child of the family, (a little girl about three years old) and pretended to run away with her, /The child cried bitterly, " I will be good, I will be good, * and the parents shewed signs of being alarmed. Upon observing this scene, Mr. Lay said, very emphatically," You sec, and feel now, a little of the distress you occasion every day, by the inhuman prac tice of slave-keeping." This singular philosopher did not limit his pious testimony against vice, to slave-keeping alone. lie was opposed to every species of extravagance. Upon the introduction of tea, as an article of diet, into Pennsylvania, his wife bought a small quantity of it, with a sett of cups and saucers, and brought them home with her. Mr. Lay took them from her, brought them back again to the city, and from the bal cony of the court-house scattered the tea, and broke the cups and saucers, in the presence of many hundred spectators, delivering, at the same time, a striking lecture upon the folly of preferring that foreign herb, with its expensive appur tenances, to the simple and wholesome diet of our country. He possessed a good deal of wit, and was quick at repartee. A citizen of Philadelphia, v/ho knew his peculiarities, once met him in a croud, at a funeral, in Germantown. Being desirous of entering into a conversation with him that should divert the company, the citizen accosted him, with the most respectful ceremony, and declared himself to be his most humble servant." wt Art them my servant." said Mr. Lay, " Yes I am" said the citizen. " Then, said Mr. Lay, (holding up his foot towards him,) clean this shoe." This unexpected reply turned the laugh upon the citizen. Being desirous of recovering himself in the opinion of the company, he asked him to instruct him in the way to heaven. " Dost BENJAMIN LAY. 299 thou indeed wish to be taught," said Mr. Lay. " I do, * said the citizen. " Then," said Mr. Lay, " Do justice* love mercy, and walk humbly with thy God." He wrote a small treatise upon negro-slavery, which he brought to Dr. Franklin to be printed. Upon looking over it, the Doctor told him that it was not paged, and that there appeared to be no order or arrangement in it. " It is no matter said Mr. Lay .print any part thou pleasest first." This book contained many pious sentiments, and strong ex pressions against negro slavery ; but even the address and skill of Dr. Franklin were not sufficient to connect its dif ferent parts together, so as to render it an agreeable or use ful work. This book is in the library of the city of Phila delphia. Mr. Lay was extremely attentive to young people. He took great pleasure in visiting schools, where he often preached to the youth, He frequently carried a basket of religious books with him, and distributed them as prizes, among the scholars. He was fond of reading. In the print of him, which is to be seen in many houses in Philadelphia, he is represented with " Tryon on Happiness" in his hand, a book which he valued very much, and which he frequently carried with him in his excursions from home. He was kind and charitable to the poor, but had no com passion for beggars. He used to say, there was no man or woman, who was able to go abroad to beg, that was not able to earn four pence a day, and this sum, he said, was enough to keep any person above want, or dependence, in this country." 300 BIOGRAPHICAL ANECDOTES OF His humanity was as ingenious as it was extensive, and embraced the sufferings which arise from even the common inconveniences of life. One, among many instances that might be mentioned of this species of humanity, was his ad vising the farmers who lived near to public roads to plant fruit trees along them, in order " to protect the weary travel ler by their shade, and to refresh him with their fruits." He was a severe enemy to idleness, insomuch that when he could not employ himself out of doors, or when he was tired of reading, he used to spend his time in spinning. His common sitting room was hung with skains of thread, spun entirely by himself. All his clothes were of his own manu factory. He was extremely temperate in his diet, living chiefly upon vegetables. Turnips boiled, and afterwards roasted, were his favourite dinner. JJis drink was pure water. From a desire of imitating our Saviour, in every thing, he once attempted to fast for forty (Jays. This experiment, it is said had nearly cost him his life. He was obliged to desist from it, long before the forty days were expired ; but the fasting, it was said, so much debilitated his "body, as to accelerate his death. He lived above eighty years, and died in his own house in Abington, about thirty years ago. In reviewing the history of this extraordinary man, we cannot help absolving him of his weaknesses, when we con template his many active virtues. He was the pioneer of that war, which has since been carried on, so successfully, against the commerce and slavery of the negroes. Perhaps the turbulence and severity of his temper were necessary to rouse the torpor of the human mind, at the period in which he lived, to this interesting subject. The meekness and BENJAMIN LAY. SOI gentleness of Anthony Benezet, who compleated what Mr. Lay began would probably have been as insufficient for the work performed by Mr. Lay, as the humble piety of De Renty, or of Thomas A. Kempis, would have been to accom plish the works of the zealous Luther, or the intrepid Knox in the sixteenth century. The success of Mr. Lay, in sowing the seeds of a principle which bids fair to produce a revolution in morals commerce and government, in the new and in the old world, should teach the benefactors of mankind not to despair, if they do not see the fruits of their benevolent propositions, or under takings, during their lives. .No one seed of truth or virtue ever perished.- Wherever it may be sowed, or even scat tered, it will preserve and carry with it the principle of life.. Some of these seeds produce their fruits in a short time, but the most valuable of them, like the venerable oak -are cen turies in growing ; but they are unlike the pride of the forests, as well as all other vegetable productions, in being incapable of a decay ; They exist ancj bloom for ever. February 10th. 1790. BlOGKAPKICAL ANECDOTES OF ANTHONY BENEZET. THIS excellent man was placed by his friends in early life in a counting-house, but finding commerce open ed temptations to a worldly spirit, he left his master, and bound himself as an apprentice to a cooper. Finding this business too laborious for his constitution, he declined it, and devoted himself to school-keeping ; in which useful em ployment, he continued during the greatest part of his life. He possessed uncommon activity and industry in every thing he undertook. He did every thing as if the words of his Saviour were perpetually sounding in his ears, " wist ye not, that I must be about my Father s business ?" He used to say, " the highest act of charity in the world was to bear v/ith the unreasonableness of mankind." lie generally wore plush clothes, and gave as a reason for it, that after he had worn them for two or three years, they made comfortable and decent garments for the poor. He once informed a young friend, that his memory began to fail him ; " but this," said he, " gives me one great ad- vantage over thee for thou canst find entertainment in ** reading a good book only once- but I enjoy that pleasure u as often as I read it ; for it is always new to me." He published several valuable tracts in favor of the emanci pation of the blacks, and of the civilizing and christianizing SIOGRAPHiCAf. ANECDOTES OF ANTHONY BE.NEZET. 3CK the Indians. He also published a pamphlet against the use of ardent spirits. All these publications were circulated with great industry, and at his own expense, throughout every part of the United States. He wrote letters to the queen of Great- Britain, and to the queen of Portugal to use their influence with their respective courts to abolish the African trade. He accompanied his let ter to the queen of Great-Britain with a present of his works. The queen received them with great politeness, and said afier reading them, " that the author appeared to be a very good man." He also wrote a letter to the king of Prussia, in which he endeavoured to convince him of the unlawfulness of war. During the time the British army was in possession of thft city of Philadelphia, he was indefatigable in his endeavours to render the situation of the persons who suffered from capti vity as easy as possible. He knew no fear in the presence of his fellow men, however dignified they were by titles or sta tion, and such were the propriety and gentleness of his man ners in his intercourse with the gentlemen who commanded the British and German troops, that when he could not ob tain the objects of his requests, he never failed to secure their civilities, and frequently their esteem. So great was his sympathy with every thing that was capa ble of feeling pain, that he resolved towards, the clo.se of his life, to eat no animal food. Upon coming into his brother s house one day, when his family was dining upon poultry, he was asked by his brother s wife, to sit down and dine wkk them. " What 1" (said he,) would you have eat my neigh- " bours?" 304 BIOGRAPHICAL ANECDOTES OF ANTHONY BENEZET. This misapplication of a moral feeling, was supposed to have brought on such a debility in his stomach and bowels, as produced a disease in those parts of which he finally died. Few men, since days of the apostles, ever lived a more disinterested life. And yet, upon his death bed, he said, he wished to live a little longer, that u he might bring down " SELF." The -last time he ever walked across his room, was to take from his desk six dollars, which he gave to a poor widow whom he had long assisted to maintain. He bequeathed after the death of his widow, a house and lot in which consisted his whole estate, to the support of a school for the education of negro children, which he had founded and taught for several years before his death. He died in May 1784, in the 71st. year of his age. His funeral was attended by persons of all religious denomi nations, and by many hundred black people. Colonel J n, who had served in the American army, during the late war, in returning from the funeral, pro nounced an eulogium upon him. It consisted, only of the following words : " I would rather," said he, " be Anthony " Benezet in that coffin, than George Washington with all his fame." July 15, 1788. PARADISE OF NEGRO-SLAVES.- A DREAM. SOON after reading Mr. Clarkson s ingenious and pathetic essay on the slavery and commerce of the human species, the subject made so deep an impression upon my mind, that it followed me in my sleep, and produced a dream of so extraordinary a nature, that I have yielded to the importunities of some of my friends, by communicating it to the public, I thought I was conducted to a country, which in point of cultivation and scenery, far surpassed any thing I had ever heard, or read of in my life. This country, I found, was inhabited only by negroes. They appeared cheerful and happy. Upon my approaching a beautiful grove, where a number of them were assembled for reli gious purposes, I perceived at once a pause in their exer cises, and an appearance of general perturbation. They fixed their eyes upon me while one of them, a venerable looking man, came forward, and in the name of the whole assembly, addressed me in thfe following language : " Excuse the panic which you have spread through this " peaceful and happy company : we perceive that you are a " white man. That colour which is the emblem of innocence " in every other creature cf God, is to us a sign of guilt in " man. The persons whom you see here, were once drag- " ged by the men of your colour from their native country, :< arjd consigned by them to labour pun ishmnt and death. R r J06 PARADISE OF NEGRO SLAVES, " We are here collected together, and enjoy an ample " compensation in our present employments for all the mise- " ries we endured on earth. We know that we are secured " by the Being whom we worship, from injury and oppres- " sion. Our appearance of terror, therefore, was entirely " the sudden effect of habits which have not yet been eradi- u cated from our minds." " Your apprehensions of danger from the sight of a white " man," said I, w are natural. But in me -you behold a " friend. I have been your advocate --and." Here, he interrupted me, and said, " Is not your name ?" I an swered in the affirmative. Upon this he ran up and embraced me in his arms, and afterwards conducted me into the midst of the assembly, where, after being introduced to the prin cipal characters, I was seated upon a bank of moss ; and the following account was delivered to me by the venerable per son who first accosted me. u The place we now occupy, is called the paradise of negro " staves. It is destined to be our place of residence till the u general judgement ; after ^vhich time, we expect to be " admitted into higher and more perfect degrees of happiness. " Here we derive great pleasure from contemplating the infi- u nite goodness of God, in allotting to us our full proportion " of misery on earth ; by which means we have escaped the punishments, to which the free and happy part of mankind :c too often expose themselves after death. Here we have " learned to thank God, for all the afflictions our task-mas- IC ters heaped on us ; inasmuch) as they were the means of * our present happiness. Pain and distress are the unavoid- ** able portions of all mankind. They are the only possible ave- nues that can conduct them to peace and felicity. Happy are A DREAM. 307 " they, who partake of their proportion of both upon the u earth." Here he ended. After a silence of a few .minutes, a young man, who bore on his head the mark of a woundj came up to rne and asked " If I knew any thing of Mr. , of the Island of " I told him " I did not."" Mr. ," said he, " was my " master. One day, I mistook his orders, and saddled his " mare instead of his horse, which provoked him so much, < that he took up an axe which laid in his yard., and with a " stroke on my head dismissed me from life. " I long to hear, whether he has repented of this unkind " action. Do, sir, write to him, and tell him, his sin is not " |po great to be forgiven, tell him, his once miserable slave, " Scipio, is not angry at him he longs to bear his prayers " to the offended majesty of heaven -and .when he dies " Scipio will apply to be one of the convoy, that shall conduct " his spirit to the regions of bliss appointed for those who " repent of their iniquities." Before I could reply to this speech, an old man came and sat down by my side. His wool was white as snow. With a low, but gentle voice, he thus addressed me. " Sir, I was the slave of Mr. , in the Island of " I served him faithfully upwards of sixty years. No rising " sun ever caught me in my cabin no setting sun ever saw " me out of the sugar field, except on Sundays and holydays. " My whole subsistence never cost my master more than " forty shillings a year. Herrings and roots were my only " food. One day, in the eightieth year of my age, the over- " seer saw^me stop to rest myself against the side of a tree, " where I was at work. He came up to me, and beat me. 308 PARADISE OF NEGRO SLAVES, " till he could endure the fatigue and heat occasioned by the " blows he gave me, no longer. Nor was this all he com- " plained of me to my master, who instantly set me up at " public venclue, and sold me for two guineas to a tavern- " keeper, in a distant parish . The distress I felt, in leaving " my children, and grand-children(28 of whom I left on my old master s plantation) soon put an end to my existence, <c and landed me upon these happy shores. I have now no " wish to gratify but one and that is to be permitted to visit " my old master s family. I long to tell my master, that " his wealth cannot make him happy. .That the sufferings " of a single hour in the world of misery, for which .he is " preparing himself, will overbalance all the pleasures he " ever enjoyed in his life and that for every act of unneces- " sary severity he inflicts upon his slaves, he shall suffer ten- ; :< fold in the world to come." He had hardly finished his tale, when a decent looking; woman came forward, and addressed me in the following language. Sir, " I was once the slave of Mr. , in the state of .. " From the healthiness of my constitution, I was called upon " to suckle my Master s eldest son. To enable me to per- " form this office more effectually, my own child was taken " from my breast, and soon afterwards died. My affections *< in the first emotions of my grief, fastened themselves upon " my infant master. He thrived under my care and grew " up a handsome } r oung man. Upon the death of his father, " I became his property. Soon alter this event, he lost^. 100 <* at cards. To raise this money I was sold to a planter in a t: neighbouring state. I can never forget the anguish, with - { which my aged father and mother followed me to the ena A DREAM. " of the lane, when I left my master s house, and hung upon V me, when they bid me farewell." " My new master obliged me to work in the field ; the " consequence of which was, I caught a fever which in a few weeks ended my life. Say, my friend, is my first young " master still alive ? <If he is go to him, and tell him, his " unkind behaviour to me is upon record against him. The " gentle spirits in heaven, whose happiness consists in ex- ec pressions of gratitude and love, will have no fellowship " with him. His soul must be melted with pity, or he can " never escape the punishment which awaits the hard-hearted, " equally with the impenitent, jm the regions of misery." As soon as she had finished her story, a middle aged wo- finan approached me, and after a low and respectful curtsey, thus addressed me. " Sir I was born and educated in a Christian family in one of the southern states of America. In the thirty-third " year of my age, I applied to my master to purchase my " freedom. Instead of granting my request, he conveyed " me by force on board of a vessel and sold me to a planter " in the island of Hispaniola. Here it pleased God."- Upon pronouncing these words, she paused, and a general silence ensued. -All at once, the eyes of the whole assembly were turned from me, and directed towards a little white man who advanced towards them, on the opposite side of the grove, in which we were seated. His face was grave, placid, and full of benignity. In one hand he carried a subscription paper and a petition an the other, he carried a small pam phlet, on the unlawfulness of the African "slave -trade, and a letter directed to the King of Prussia, upon the unlawfulness TARAUI.iE OF XLGRO SLAVES, A DREAM. of war. While J was employed in contemplating this vene rable figure suddenly I beheld the whole assembly running to meet him .the air resounded with the clapping of hands and I awoke frojn my dream, by the noise of a general accla mation of - ANTHONY BENEZET! A.V IjrqUIRY INTO THE CAUSES OF PREMATURE DEATHS, THE frequency of death in infancy, childhood, and middle life, and the immense disproportion between the number who die in those periods, and of those who die in old age, have often been urged as arguments against the wis dom and goodness of the divine government. The design of this inquiry is to shew that, in the present state of the world those supposed evils, or defects, are blessings in disguise, and a part of a wise and extensive system of goodness to the children of men , The reasons for this opinion are : i . Did all the people who are bom, live to be seventy or eighty years of age, the population of the globe would soon so far surpass its present cultivation, that millions would perish yearly from the want of food- INQUIRY INTO THE CAUSES OF PREMATURE DEATHS. 21 1 2. Did all the men and women who come into the world, live to be old, how miserable would be the condition of most of them, from weakness, sickness, and pain ! Unable to as sist each other, and neglected or deserted by their children, or friends, they would perish from want, or perhaps putrify above ground. This view of the consequences of universal longevity is not an exaggerated one. A tribe of northern Indians, Mr. Hearnes says, always leave their parents, when they become old and helpless, to die alone with hunger. They meet death, he adds, with resignation, from an idea of its necessity, and from the recollection of their having treat ed their parents in the same manner. In support of the re mark, under this head, let us recollect how many old people in humble life, are maintained by the public, and how few parents in genteel life, after they have exhausted their libe rality upon their children, receive from them a due propor tion of gratitude or respect. 3. In the present depraved state of human nature, how great would be the mass of vice in the world, if old age were universal ? If avarice in an individual strikes a whole city with surprise and horror, how great would be the mass of this vice in a city that contained 30 or 40,000 old people, all equal ly absorbed in the love of money ? Again, what would be the extent and degrees of ambition, malice and cruelty, nurtured and cherished for 70 or 80 years in the same number of hu man beings ? But, to do justice to this part of our subject* let us view the effects of universal longevity upon another and greater scale. Suppose Alexander, Cssar, Nero, Caligula, and many others of the conquerors and tyrants of the ancient Y7orld, had lived to be old men with the ambition and love of power that have been ascribed to them, growing with their years, how much more accumulated -.y heea th*r INQUIRY INTO THE CAUSES Of crimes, and how much more distressing would have been the history of the nations which were conquered and enslaved by them ! The same Alexander, who at thirty years of age, only demanded divine homage from his captives, would probably at seventy have exacted human sacrifices to satisfy his assum ed divinity ; and the same Nero, who, when a young man, only fiddled at the sight of the houses of Rome in a blaze, had he lived to be old, would probably have danced at the sight of all the inhabitants of that city perishing in its general conflagration. But I will not rely upon mere supposition, to evince the pernicious influence which universal longevity has upon morals. The inhabitants of the antediluvian world ex hibited a memorable instance of it. Their wickedness is cha racterized by the sacred historian in the following words. fc; And God savr that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil, continually. The earth aho was corrupt be fore God : and the earth was filled with violence." Gen. vi. 6 Sc 1 1 . The extent of the wickedness among the antedilu vians may easily be conceived from the two following circum stances. 1. The small number of those persons who escaped the general depravity of morals which had .overspread the world, being eight only ; and that at a time when the world was probably more populous than it has ever been since. 2. The abortive issue of the means that God employed to reform them. Noah preached to them several hundred years, and probably during that long period, travelled over a great portion of the world, and yet not a single person was converted, or saved from destruction by his ministry, except the mem - bers of his own family. PREMATURE DEATHS. 313 It was from a review of this wickedness, by the Supreme Being, that life was shortened, as if in mercy to present a a similar accumulation of it in any future age of the world. " And the Lord said, my breath shall not always remain in these men because they are flesh, yet shall their days be one hundred and twenty years."* For the same reason they were afterwards reduced to seventy, or a few more years, as is obvious from the 10th verse of the 90th Psalm. 4. The mass of vice is not only lessened by the small pro portion of the human race who live to be old, but the mass of virtue is thereby greatly increased. The death of persons who have filled up the measure of their days, and who descend to the grave in a good old age, seldom excites a serious re flection ; but every death that occurs in early or middle life* has a tendency to damp the ardor of worldly pursuits, to weaken the influence of some sinful passion, and to produce some degrees of reverence for that religion which opens pros pects of life and happiness beyond the grave. * This translation of the verse is copied from the LXX. whose version is justified by all the circumstances of the case. The Creator had breathed into man s nostrils the breath of life, (Gen. ii. 7.) and a continuance in life was promised him dur ing his continuance in innocence ; but upon his transgression he became mortal ; and upon an increase of wickedness, hu man life was proportionably shortened. It was for this reason (Gen. vi. 13.) that God determined to destroy the old world ; and this occasioned the above declaration : the punctuality with which it was verified deserves particular notice ; for Noah was employed 120 years in building the ark; and at. the expiration of that time the flood came, and destroyed " all m whose nostrils was the breath of life, of all that was in the dry land." Gen. vii. 22. S s 314 INQUIRY INTO THE CAUSES OF 5. If vice, as we are taught to believe, will be punished, ac cording to its degrees, in a future state of existence, how much greater would be the mass of misery hereafter, if the whole human race lived to be old, and with increasing habits of wickedness, than it will be in the present contracted duration of human life ? It is therefore no less an act of mercy, than justice, that the " wicked live not out half their days." 6. If 6\d age were universal, how difficult and severe would be the conflicts of virtue ! To be exposed to the malignant passions of bad men, or, what is often worse, to contend with our own evil propensities for seventy or eighty years, would render the warfare of good men much more perilous, and their future happiness much more precarious, than, it is at present. How few persons who live to be old, escape the idolatrous passion of covetousness ? Were old age universal, this passion would probably exclude one half of them from the kingdom of heaven. 7. Did all men live to be old, it would render knowledge stationary. Few men alter their opinions, or admit new truths, after they are forty years of age. None of the con temporary physicians of Dr. Harvey, who had passed that age, admitted his discovery of the circulation of the blood. Now considering that nearly all discoveries in science are made by men under forty, and considering the predominating influence and authority which accompany the hostility of old men to new truths, discoveries made by young men could never acquire belief, or an establishment in the world. They owe both, to the small number of philosophers who live to be seventy or eighty years of age. 8. Were longevity universal, with all the deformity from wrinkles, baldness, and the loss f teeth and complexion. PREMATURE DEATHS. 315 that are usually connected with it, what a gloomy and offen sive picture would the assemblies of our fellow-creatures ex hibit ? In the present small proportion of old people to the young and middle aged, they seem like shades in painting, or like a few decayed trees near a highly cultivated garden, filled with blooming and fragrant flowers, to exhibit the charms of youth and beauty to greater advantage. From an assembly composed exclusively of old men and women, we should turn our eyes with pain and disgust. If the causes of premature deaths which have been assigned, be correct, instead of complaining of them, it becomes us, in the present state of the cultivation, population, govern ment, religion, morals, and knowledge in the world, to con sider them as subjects for praise and thanksgiving to the wise arid benevolent Governor of the Universe. While we thus do homage to the divine wisdom and good ness, let us look forward to the time when the improvements in the physical, moral, and political condition of the world, predicted in the Old Testament, shall render the early and distressing separation of parents and children, and of hus bands and wives, wholly unnecessary ; when the physical and moral sources of those apparent evils shall be removed by the combined influence of philosophy and religion, and when old age shall be the only outlet of human life. The following verses, taken from the 65th chapter of the prophecy of Isaaih, justify a belief in an order of things, such as has been mentioned : " There shall be no more thence an infant of days," [or an infant that has lived but a few days] " nor an old man that hath not filled his days, for the child shall die an hundred years old. And they shall build houses, and 316 INQUIRY INTO THE CAUSES OF PREMATURE DEATHS. inhabit them, and they shall plant vineyards, and eat the fruit of them. They shall not build, and another inhabit, they shall not plant, and another eat, for as the days of a tree, are the days of my people, and mine elect shall long enjoy the work of their hands." AN KULOGIUM UPON DR. WILLIAM CULLEN, PROFESSOR OF THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDIN BURGH J DELIVERED BEFORE THE COLLEGE OF PHYSI CIANS OF PHILADELPHIA, ON THE 9TH OF JULY, AGREEA BLY TO THEIR VOTE OF THE 4TH OF MAY, 1790, AND AFTERWARDS PUBLISHED AT THEIR REQUEST. Mr. President and Gentlemen, BY your unanimous vote, to honor with an Eulogium, the character of the late DR. WILLIAM CULLEN, Professor of medecine in the University of Edinburgh, you have done equal homage to science and humanity. This illustrious Physician was the Preceptor of many of us : He was moreover a distinguished citizen of the republic of me dicine, and a benefactor to mankind ; and although, like the sun, he shone in a distant hemisphere, yet many of the rays of his knowledge have fallen upon this quarter of the globe. I rise, therefore, to mingle your grateful praises of him, with the numerous offerings of public and private respect which have been paid to his memory in his native country. Happy AN EULOGIUM UPON DR. WILLIAM CULLEN. 3 IT will be the effects of such acts of distant sympathy, if they should serve to unite the influence of science with that of commerce, to lessen the prejudices of nations against each other, and thereby to prepare the way for the operation of that divine system of morals, whose prerogative alone it is, to teach mankind that they are brethren, and to make the name of a fellow-creature, in every region of the world, a signal for brotherly affection. In executing the task you have imposed upon me, I shall confine myself to such parts of Dr Cullen s character as came within the compass of my own knowledge, during two years residence in Edinburgh. To his fellow citizens in Great Britain, who were more intimately acquainted with him, we must resign the history of his domestic character, as well as the detail of all those steps which, in early life, led him to his unparalleled height of usefulness and fame. DR. CULLEN possessed a great and original genius. By genius, in the present instance, I mean a power in tire human mind of discovering the relation of distant truths, by the shortest train of intermediate propositions. This precious gift of Heaven, is composed of a vigorous imagination, quick sensibility, a talent for extensive and accurate observation, a faithful memory, and a sound judgment. These faculties were all united in an eminent degree in tfye mind of Dr. Cul- len. His imagination surveyed all nature at a glance, and, like a camera obscura, seemed to produce in his mind a pic ture of the whole visible creation. His sensibility was so exqui site that the smallest portions of truth acted upon it. By means of his talent for observation he collected knowledge from every thing he heard, saw, or read, and from every person with whom he conversed. His memory was the faithful re- AN EULOGIUM UPON f pository of all his ideas, and appeared to be alike accurate upon all subjects. Over each of these faculties of his mind a sound judgment presided, by means of which he discovered the relation of ideas to each other, and thereby produced those new combinations which constitute principles in science. This process of the mind has been called invention, and is totally different from a mere capacity of acquiring learning, or collecting knowledge from the discoveries of others. It elevates man to a distant resemblace of his Maker; for the discovery of truth, is the perception of things as they appear lo the Divine Mind. In contemplating the human faculties, thus exquisitely formed, and exactly balanced, we feel the same kind of plea sure which arises from a view of a, magnificent palace, or an extensive and variegated prospect; but with this difference, that "the pleasure, in the first instance, is as much superior to that which arises from contemplating the latter objects, as the mind of man is superior, in its importance, to the most finished productions of nature or of art. DH. CULLEN possessed not only the genius that has been described, but an uncommon share cf learning, reading, and knowledge. His learning was of a peculiar and useful kind He ap peared to have overstepped the slow and tedious forms of the schools, und, by the force of his understanding, to have seized upon the great ends of learning, without the assistance of many of those means which were contrived for the use of less active minds. He read the ancient Greek and Roman wri ters only for the sake of the knowledge which they contained; -without wasting any of the efforts of his genius in attempting DR. WILLIAM CULLEN. 319 to imitate their style. He was intimately acquainted -with modern languages, and through their means, with the im provements of medicine in every country in Europe. Such was the facility with which he acquired a language, and so great was his enterprise in his researches in medicine, that I once heard him speak of learning the Arabic for the sake of reading Avicenna in the original, as if it were a matter of as little difficulty to him, as it was to compose a lecture, or r to visit a patient. DR. CULLEN S reading was extensive, but it was not con fined wholly to medicine. He read books upon all subjects ; and he had a peculiar art of extracting something from all of them which he made subservient to his profession. He was well acquainted with ancient and modern history, and de lighted in the poets, among whom Shakespeare was his favourite. The history of our globe, as unfolded by books of geography and travels, was so familiar to him that strangers could not converse with him, without supposing that he had not only travelled, but that he had lived every where. His memory had no rubbish in it. Like a secretory organ, in the animal body, it rejected every thing in reading that could not be applied to some useful purpose. In this he has given the world a most valuable lesson, for the difference between error and useless truth is very small ; and a man is no \\iscr for knowledge which he cannot apply, than he is rich from possessing wealth, which he cannot spend. DR. CULLEN S knowledge was minute in every branch of medicine. He was an accurate anatomist, and an ingenious physiologist. He enlarged the boundaries, and established the utility of Chemistry, and thereby prepared the way for the discoveries and fame of his illustrious pupil Dr. Black 320 AX EULOG1UM UPQ1C He stripped Materia Medica, of most of the errors that had been accumulating in it for two thousand years, and reduced it to a simple and practical science. He was intimately ac quainted with all the branches of natural history and philoso phy. He had studied every ancient and modern system of physic. He found the system of Dr. Bocrhave universally adopted when he accepted a chair in the University of Edin burgh. This system was founded chiefly on the supposed presence of certain acrid particles in the fluids, and in the departure of these, in point of consistency, from a natural state. Dr. Cullen s first object was to expose the errors of this pathology ; and to teach his pupils to seek for the causes of diseases in the solids. Nature is always coy. Ever since she was driven from the heart, by the discovery of the circula tion of the blood, she has concealed herself in the brain and nerves. Here she has been pursued by Dr. Cullen; and if he has not dragged her to public view, he has left us a clue which must in time conduct us to her last recess in the hu man body. Many, however, of the operations of nature in the nervous system have been explained by him ; and no candid man will ever explain the whole of them, without acknowledging that the foundation of his successful inquiries was laid by the discoveries of Dr. Culicn. He was intimately acquainted with the histories and dis tinctions of t le diseases of all countries, ages, stations, occu pations, and states of society. While his great object was to explode useless remedies, he took pains to increase the influence of diet, dress, air, exercise, and the action of the mind, in medicine. In a word he was a great practical phy sician ; and he has left behind him as many monuments of his sviccess in curing diseases, as he has of accuracy and ingenuity in describing their symptoms and explaining their causes. DR. WILLIAM CULLEN. 321 But his knowledge was not confined wholly to those sciences which are intimately connected with medicine. His genius was universal, as to natural and artificial subjects. He was minutely acquainted with the principles and practices of all the liberal, mechanical, and chemical arts ; and trades men were often directed by him to new objects of observation and improvement in their respective occupations. He de^ lighted in the study of agriculture, and contributed much to excite that taste for agricultural science, which has of late years so much distinguished the men of genius and leisure in North -Britain. I have been informed, that he yielded at last to that passion for rural improvements, which is com mon to all men, and amused himself in the evening of his life by. cultivating a farm in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. Happy would it be for the interests of agriculture, if physi cians in all countries, would imitate Dr. Cullen by an attach ment to this noble science ; for their previous studies are of such a nature as frequently to enable them to arrive at im provements in it without experiments, and to apply the ex periments of others, in the most extensive and profitable manner. DR. CULLEN S publications were few in number compared with his discoveries. They consist of his Elements of Phy siology, his Nosologia Methodica, his First Lines of the Practice of Physic, an Essay upon the Cold produced by Eva poration, published in the second volume of the Physical and Literary Essays of Edinburgh, a Letter to Lord Cathcart up- on the method of recovering persons supposed to be dead from drowning, and a system of the Materia Medica. These are all the works which bear his name ; but the fruits of his inquiries are to be found in most of the medical publications T t 322 AN EULOGIUM UPON that have appeared in Great-Britain within the last thirty years. Many of the Theses, published in Edinburgh during his life, were the vehicles of his opinions or practice in me dicine : and few of them contained an important or useful discovery, which was not derived from hints thrown out in his lectures. As a TEACHER of medicine, Dr. Cullen possessed many peculiar talents. He mingled the most agreeable eloquence with the most profound disquisitions. He appeared to lighten upon every subject upon which he spoke. His language was simple, and his arrangement methodical, by which means he was always intelligible. From the moment he ascended his chair, he commanded the most respectful attention from his pupils, insomuch that I never saw one of them discover a sign of impatience during the time of any of his lectures. In the investigation of truth, he sometimes ventured into the regions of conjecture. His imagination was an hot-bed of hypotheses, which led him to constant observation and ex periment. These often proved the seeds of subsequent dis coveries. It was thus Sir Isaac Newton founded an empire in science ; for most of his discoveries were the result of pre conceived hypotheses. In delivering new opinions, Dr. Cul- ten preserved the strictest integrity. I have known him more than once, refute the opinions which he had taught the preceding year, even before the fallacy of them had been suspected by any of his pupils. Such instances of candor often pass with the vulgar for instability ; but they are the truest characteristics of a great mind. To be unchangeable, supposes perpetual error, or a perception of truth without the use of reason ; but this sublime act of intuition belongs only to the Deity. DR. WILLIAM CULLEN. 323 There was no tincture of credulity in the mind of Dr. Cul- len. He" taught his pupils the necessity of acquiring " the slow consenting academic doubt." I mention these words of the poet with peculiar pleasure, as I find them in my notes of one of his lectures, in which he has delivered rules for judging of the truth of things related as facts ; for he fre quently remarked that there were ten false facts (if the ex pression can be allowed) to one false opinion in medicine. His Materia Medica abounds with proofs of the truth of this part of his character. With how much caution does he ad mit the efficacy of medicines, as related in books, or as sug gested by his own experience. Who could have expected to have found so much modesty in the writings of a physician in the 77th year of his age ? But let it be remembered, that that this physician was Dr. Cullen : and that he always pre ferred utility to novelty, and loved truth, more than fame. He took great pains to deliver his pupils from the undue influence which antiquity and great names are apt to have upon the human mind. He destroyed the superstitious vene ration which had been paid for many ages to the names of Hippocrates, Galen, and other ancient authors, and inspired his pupils with a just estimate of the writings of modern phy sicians. His constant aim was. to produce in their minds a change from a passive to an active state ; and to force upon them such habits of thinking and observation, as should en able them to instruct themselves. As he admitted no truth without examination, so he sub mitted to no custom in propagating it that was not reasonable. He had a principal share in the merit of delivering medicine from the fetters of the Latin, and introducing the English language, as the vehicle of public instruction in the univer- .*i24 AN EULOOIUM UPOX sity of Edinburgh. Much of the success of the/ revolution he effected in medicine, I believe, may be ascribed to this cir cumstance. Perhaps the many improvements which have lately been made in medicine, in the British dominions, may likewise be ascribed to the present fashionable custom of communicating medical knowledge in the English language. By this means, our science has excited the notice and in quiries of ingenious and observing men in all professions, and thereby a kind of galaxy has been created in the hemis phere of medicine. By 1 assuming an English dress, it has moreover been prepared more easily to associate with other sciences ,- from each of which it has received assistance arid support. In his intercourse with his pupils Dr. Culkn was truly kind and affectionate. Never have I known a man who pos sessed in a higher degree those qualities which seize upon every affection of the heart. He knew the rare and happy arts, as circumstances required, of being affable without being sociable ; sociable without being familiar ; and familiar, without losing a particle of respect. , Such was the interest he took in the health, studied, and future establishment of all his pupils, that each of thejn believed that he possessed a pre-eminence in his friendship; while the equal diffusion cf his kind offices proved that he was the common friend and father of them all. Sometimes he would lay aside the dis tance, without lessening the dignity of the professor, and mix with his pupils at his table upon terms of the most endearing equality. Upon these occasions his social affections seemed to have an influence upon his mind. Science, sentiment, and convivial humor, appeared for hours together to strive which should predominate in his conversation. I appeal to you, gentlemen, who have shared in the pleasure which 1 DR. WILLIAM CULLEN. 325 have described, for the justice of the picture which I have drawn of him at his hospitable table. You will recollect, with me, how agreeably he accommodated himself to our different capacities and tempers; how kindly he dissipated our youthful blushes, by inviting us to ask him questions ; and how much he taught us, by his inquiries, of the nature of the soil, climate, products, and diseases of even our own country. From the history that has been given of Dr. Cullen, we shall not be surprised at the reputation which he gave to the university of Edinburg, for upwards of thirty years. The city of Edinburg during his life became the very atmosphere of medicine. But let me not here be unjust to the merits of his illustrious colleagues. The names of Whytt, Rutherford, the Monroes, Black, the Gregories, Hope, and Home, will always be dear to the lovers of medical science. May e very- healing plant bloom upon the graves of those of them who are departed! and may those who have survived him together \vith their new associate, the learned and excellent Dr. Dun can, long continue to maintain the honor of that justly cele brated school of medicine ! It remains now that I add a short -account of Dr. Cullen s conduct as a physician and a man. In his attendance upon his patients, he made their health his first object, and thereby confirmed a line between the mechanical and liberal professions ; for while wealth is pur sued by the former, as the end of labour, it should be left by the latter, to follow the more noble exertions of the mind. So gentle and sympathizing was Dr. Cullen s manner in a sick room, that pain and distress seemed to be suspended in -I AN EULOGIUM UPON his presence. Hope followed his footsteps, and death Ap peared frequently to drop his commission in a combat witli ms skill. He was compassionate and charitable to the poor; and from his pupils, who consulted him in sickness, he con stantly refused to receive any pecuniary satisfaction for his services. In his intercourse with the world he exhibited the man ners of a well-bred gentleman. He exercised upon all occa sions the agreeable art, in which true politeness is said to consist, of speaking with civility, and listening with attention to every body. His conversation was at all times animated, agreeable and instructing. Few persons went into his com pany without learning something ; and even a common thought, by passing through his mind, received an impres sion, which ma/le it ever afterwards worthy of being pre served- He was a strict economist of time. He seldom went out *f his house in his carriage, or a sedan chair, without a book in his hand ; and he once told me , that he frequently em ployed one of his sons to read to him after he went to bed, that he might not lose that portion of time which passes be tween lying down, and falling asleep. He was remarkably punctual to all his professional engage ments. He appeared to consider time as a species of property which no man had a right to take from another without his tonsenl. It was by means of his economy and punctuality in the use of time, that he accomplished so much in his profession. I Jiavc read of some men who have spent more time in their rlosets, and of others who have done more business ; but I DR. WILLIAM CULLllN. 327 have never read, nor heard of a man, who mingled more study and business together. He lived by rule, without sub jecting himself to the slavery of forms. He was always em ployed, but never in a hurry ; and amidst the numerous and complicated avocations of study and business, he appeared to enjoy the pleasure of society, as if company-keeping and conversation were the only business of his, life. I shall mention but one more trait in the character of Dr. Cullen, and that is, that he was distinguished by no one sin gularity of behaviour from pther men. It is true he stood alone ; but this singularity was occasioned, not by his quit ting the society of his fellow-men by walking on their left, or right side, but by his walking before them. Eccentricities in behaviour are the offspring of a lively fancy only, but or der is inseparably connected with real genius. The actions of the former may be compared to the crooked flash of dis tant lightning, while the latter resembles in its movement* the steady revolutions of the heavenly bodies. In reviewing the character which has been given of Di\ Cullen, I am forced to make a short digression, while I do homage to the profession of physic by a single remark. So great are the blessings which mankind derive from it, that if every other argument failed to prove the administration of a providence in human affairs, the profession of medicine alone would be sufficient for that purpose. Who can think of the talents, virtues, and services of Dr. Cullen, without believing that the Creator of the world delights in the happiness of his creatures, and that his tender mercies are over all his works ! For the information of such of the members of our college as have not seen Dr. Cullen, it may not be improper to add 323 AN EULOGJUM UPON the following 1 description of his person. He was tall, slender, and had a stoop in his shoulders ; his face was long ; his under lip protruded a little beyond the upper ; his nose was large, and inclined to a point downwards j his eye, which was of a blue colour, was penetrating, but soft ; and over his whole face was diffused an air of mildness and thought, which was strongly characteristic of the constant temper and operations of his mind. It pleased God to prolong his life to a good old age. He lived near 78 years. He lived to demonstrate how much the duration of all the faculties of the mind depends upon their constant exercise. He lived to teaeh his brethren by his ex ample, that the obligations to acquire and communicate know ledge, should cease only with health and life ; and lastly, he Hved to reap the fruits of his labours in the most extensive fame ; for not only his pupils, and his works, had conveyed his reputation ; but canvass, paper, and clay, had born.e even the image of his person to every quarter of the globe. The public papers, as well as private letters, inform us, that he survived his usefulness but a. few months. He resigned his professorship in the autumn of 1789, on account of bodily weakness, and died in the month of January of the present year ; a year fatal to the pride of man ; for this year Franklin and Howard, as well as Cullen, have mingled with the dust. During the interval between his resignation and his death he received the most affectionate marks oi public and private respect. The city of Edinburgh voted him their thanks, and presented him with a piece of plate. This instance of public gratitude deserves our particular attention, as it is more com mon for cities to treat their eminent literary characters with neglect during their lives, and centuries afterwards to con* DR. WILLIAM CULLEX. 329 tend for the honor of having given them birth. The different medical societies of Edinburgh followed him to his chamber with addresses full of gratitude and aifection. In mentioning these facts, I am led to contemplate the venerable subject of our praises in a situation truly solemn and interesting. How pregnant with instruction is the death-bed of a physician, who has spent a long life in extensive and successful practice ! If the sorrows we have relieved are the surest support in our own, how great must have been the consolation which Dr. Cullen derived, in his last hours, from a review of his active and useful life ! How many fathers and mothers, husbands and wives, brothers and sisters, whose tears he had wiped away by averting the stroke of death from the objects of their affections, must have presented themselves to his imagina tion, and soothed his soul with grateful prayers for his eternal welfare ! But the retrospect of the services he had rendered to his fellow-creatures, was not confined to the limits of his extensive busines in the city of Edinburgh. While the illus trious actions of most men may be viewed with a naked eye, the achievements of Dr. Cullen in the distant regions of humanity and science, can only be perceived by the help of a telescope. Let us apply this instrument to discover his ex ploits of beneficence in every quarter of the world. He had filled the capitals, and most of the towns of Great -Britain and Ireland with eminent physicians. Many of his pupils had arrived at the first honors in their profession in the prin cipal cities on the continent of Europe. Many of them had extended the blessings of his improvements in the principles and practice of medicine, to every British settlement in die East and West Indies, and to every free state in America. But the sum of his usefulness did not end here. He had taught the different Professors in the University of Pennsyl- Uu AN EULOGIUM UPON vania, the art of teaching others the most successful methods of curing diseases, and thereby he had conveyed the benefits of his discoveries into every part of-the United States. How great was the mass of such accumulated beneficence ! and how sublime must have been the pleasure which the review of it created in his mind 1 Had it been possible for the merit of such extensive and complicated services to mankind to have rescued one mortal from the grave, Dr. Cullen had never died. But the decree of death is universal, and even the healing art, is finally of no effect in saving the lives of those who have exercise.! it with the most success in saving the lives of others. DR. CULLEN is now no more. What a blank has been -produced by his death in the great volume of science I Be hold 1 The Genius of Humanity weeping at his feet, while the Genius of Medicine lifts up the key, which fell from his hand with his last breath, and with inexpressible concern, tries out, " to whom shall I give this instrument ? Who now - will unlock for me the treasures of universal nature I" Venerable Shade, adieu I What though thy American pupils were denied the melancholy pleasure of following thee from thy Professor s-chair to thy sick bed, with their effu sions of gratitude, and praise ! What though we did not share in the grief of thy funeral obsequies, and though we shall never bedew with our tears the splendid monument which thy affectionate and grateful British pupils have decreed for thce in the metropolis of thy native country ; yet the re membrance of thy talents and virtues, shall be preserved in each of our bosoms, and never shall we return in triumph from beholding the efficacy of medicine in curing a disease, without feeling our obligations for the instructions we have derived from thce ! DR. WILLIAM CULLEN. 331 I repeat it again, Dr. Cullen is now no more No more, I mean, a pillar and ornament of an ancient seat of science, no more, the delight and admiration of his pupils- -no more the luminary of medicine to half the globe -no more the friend and benefactor of mankind. >But I would as soon be lieve that our solar system was created only to amuse and perish like a rocket, as believe that a mind endowed with such immense powers of action and contemplation had ceased to exist. Reason bids us hope that he will yet /iw .And Revelation enables us to say, with certainty and confidence, that he shall again live -Fain would I lift the curtain which separates eternity from time, and inquire But it is not for mortals to pry into the secrets of the invisible world. Such was the man whose memory we have endeavoured to celebrate. He lived for our benefit. It remains only that we improve the event of his death in such a manner, that he may die for our benefit likewise. For this purpose I shall finish our Eulogium with the following observations. I. Let us learn from the character of Dr. Cullen duly to estimate our profession. While Astronomy claims a Newton ? and Electricity a Franklin, Medicine has been equally ho* noured by having employed the genius of a Cullen. When ever therefore we feel ourselves disposed to relax in our stu dies, to use our profession for selfish purposes, or to neglect | the poor, let us recollect how much we lessen the dignity which Dr. Cullen has conferred upon our profession. II. By the death of Dr. Cullen the republic of medicine has lost one of its most distinguished and useful members. It is incumbent upon us therefore to double our diligence in order to supply the loss of our indefatigable felknv-citizcTi. AN EULOGIUM UPON That physician has lived to little purpose, who docs not leave his profession hi a more improved state than he found it. Let us remember, that our obligations to add something to the capital of medical knowledge, are equally binding with our obligations to practise the virtues of integrity and humanity in our intercourse with our patients. Let no useful fact there fore, however inconsiderable it may appear, be kept back from the public eye ; for there are mites in science as well as in charity, and the remote consequences of both are often alike important and beneficial. Facts are the morality of medicine. They are the same in all ugcs and in all countries, They have preserved the works of the immortal Sydenham from being destroyed by their mixture with his absurd theo ries ; and under all the revolutions in systems that will proba bly take place hereafter, the facts which are contained in Dr. Cullen s works, will constitute the best security for their safe and grateful reception by future ages. III. Human nature is ever prone to extremes. While we celebrate the praises of Dr. Cullen, let us take care lest we check a spirit of free inquiry, by too great a regard for his authority in medicine. I well remember an observation suited to our present purpose which he delivered in his intro duction to a course of lectures on the Institutes of Medicine in the year 1766. After speaking of the long continued and extensive empire of Galen in the schools of physic, he said, " It is a great disadvantage to any science to have been im- proved by a great man. His authority imposes indolence, " timidity, or idolatry upon all who come after him." .Let us avoid these evils in our veneration for Dr. Cullen. To believe in great men, is often as great an obstacle to the pro gress of knowledge, as to believe in witches and conjurers. It is the image worship of science ; for error is as much aji DR. WILLIAM CULLEN. 33o attribute of mail, as the desire of happiness ; and I think I have observed, that the errors of great men partake of the dimensions of their minds, and are often of a greater magni tude than the errors of men of inferior understanding. Dr. Brown has proved the imperfection of human genius, by ex tending some parts of Dr. Cullen s system of physic, and by correcting some of its defects. But he has left much to be done by his successors , He has even bequeathed to them the labor of removing the errors he has introduced into medi cine by his neglect of an important principle in the animal economy, and by his ignorance of the histories and symp toms of diseases. Perhaps no system of medicine can be perfect, while there exists a single disease which we do not know, or cannot cure. If this be true, then a complete sys tem of medicine cannot be formed, till America has furnished descriptions and cures of all her peculiar diseases. The United States have improved the science of civil government. The freedom of our constitutions, by imparting vigor and independence to the mind, is favourable to bold and original thinking upon all subjects. Let us avail ourselves therefore of this political aid to our researches, and endeavour to obtain histories and cures of all our diseases, that we may thereby contribute our part towards the formation of a complete sys tem of medicine. As a religion of some kind is absolutely necessary to promote morals; so systems of medicine of some kind, are equally necessary to produce a regular mode of practice. They are not only necessary, but unavoidable in medicine ; for no physician, nay more, no empire, prac tices without them. The present is an age of great improvement. While the application of reason to the sciences of government and reli gion, is daily meliorating the condition of mankind, it is 33-1 AN EULOGIl M UPON DR. WILLIAM CULLEN. agreeable to observe the influence of medicine, in lessening human misery, by abating the mortality or violence of many diseases. The decrees of heaven appear to be fulfilling by natural means ; and if no ancient prophecies had declared it, the late numerous discoveries in medicine would authorize us to say, that the time is approaching, when not only tyranny, discord and superstition shall cease from our world, but when diseases shall be unknown, or cease to be incurable ; and when old age shall be the only outlet of human life, " Thus heaven-ward all things tend." In that glorious sera, every discovery in medicine shall meet with its full reward ; and the more abundant gratitude of posterity to the name of Dr. Cullen ; shall then bury in oblivion the feeble attempt of this day to comply with your vote to perpetuate his fame. AN EULOGIUM UPON DAVID RITTENHOUSE,, LATE PRESI DENT OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY J DE LIVERED BEFORE THE SOCIETY IN THE FIRST PRESBY TERIAN CHURCH IN HIGH-STREET, PHILADELPHIA, ON THE 17TH DECEMBER, 1796, AGREEABLY TO APPOINT MENT, AND PUBLISHED AT THE REQUEST OF THE SOCI ETY. Gentlemen of the Philosophical Society* Friends and Colleagues, WE are assembled this day upon a mournful occasion. Death has made an inroad upon our Society. Our illusirious and beloved PRESIDENT, is no more. KITTEN- HOUSE, the ingenious, the modest and the wise RITTEX- HOUSE, the friend of God and man, is now no more ! For this, the temple of science is hung in mourningfor this our eyes now drop a tributary tear. Nor do we weep alone- The United States of America sympathize in our grief, for his name gave a splendor to the American character, and the friends of humanity in distant parts of the world, unite with us in lamenting our common loss for he belonged to the whole human race. By your vote to perpetuate the memory of this great and good man, you have made a laudable attempt to rescue phi losophers from their humble rank in the history of mankind. * It is to them we owe our knowledge and possession of most of the necessaries and conveniences of life. To procure these o AN EULOGIUM UPON blessings for us, " they trim their midnight lamp, and hang o er the sickly taper." For us, they traverse distant regions, expose themselves to the inclemencies of the weather, mingle with savages and beasts of prey, and in some instances, evince their love of science and humanity by the sacrifice of their lives. The amiable philosopher whose talents and virtues are to be the subject of the following eulogium, is entitled to an un common portion of our gratitude and praise. He acquired his knowledge at the expense of uncommon exertions, he performed services of uncommon difficulty, and finally he im paired his health, and probably shortened his life, by the ar dor of his studies and labors for the benefit of mankind. In attempting to discharge the difficult and painful duty you have assigned to me, it will be necessary to give a short account of the life of Mr. Rittenhouse, inasmuch as several of the most interesting parts of his character are intimately connected with it. The village of Germantown in the neighbourhood of this city, had the honor of giving birth to this distinguished philosopher on the 8th day of April, in the year 1732. His ancestors migrated from Holland about the beginning of the present century. They were distinguished, together with his parents, for probity, industry, and simple manners. It is from sourses thus pure and retired, that those talents and virtues have been chiefly derived, which have in all ages enlightened the world. They prove by their humble origin, that the Supreme Being has not surrendered up the direction of human affairs to the advantages acquired by accident or vice, and they bear a constant and faithful testimony of hi* DAVID RITTENHOUSE. 337 impartial goodness, by their necessary and regular influence in equalizing the condition of mankind. This is the divine order of things, and every attempt to invert it, is a weak and unavailing effort to wrest the government of the world from the hands of God. The early part of the life of Mr. Rittenhouse Was spent in agricultural employments under the eye of his father, in the county of Montgomery, twenty miles from Philadelphia, to which place he removed during the childhood of his son. It was at this place his peculiar genius first discovered itself. Kis plough, the fences, and even the stones of the field in which he worked, were frequently marked with figures which denoted a talent for ma:: -matic.J studies. Upon finding that the native delicacy of his constitution unfitted him for the labors of husba^ Iry, his parents consented to his learning the trade of clock and mathematical instru ment maker. In acqi:i.i:;g tl.e knowledge of these useful arts, he was his own instructor. They afforded him great delight inasmuch as they favoured his disposition to inquire into the principles of natural philosophy. Constant employ ment of any kind, even in the practice of the mechanical arts has been found, in many instances, to administer vigor to human genius. Franklin studied the laws of nature, while he handled his printing types. The father of Rousseau, a jeweller at Geneva, became acquainted with the principles of national jurisprudence, by listening to his son while he read to him in his shop, the works of Grotius and Puffendorf ; and Herschel conceived the great idea of a new planet, while he exercised the humble office of a musician to a marching re giment. Xx 338 AN EULOC1UM UPON It was during the residence of our ingenious philosopher with his father in the country, that he made himself master of Sir Isaac Newton s principia, which he read in the English translation of Mr. Mott. It was here likewise he became ac quainted with the science of fluxions, of which sublime in vention he believed himself for a while to be the author, nor did he know for some years afterwards, that a contest had been carried on between Sir Isaac Newton and Leibnitz, for the honor of that great and useful discovery. What a mind was here ! Without literary friends or society, and with but two or three books, he became, before he had reached his four and twentieth year, the rival of the two greatest mathematicians in Europe ! It was in this retired situation, and while employed in work ing at his trade, that he planned and executed an orrery, in which he represented the revolutions of the heavenly" bodies in a manner more extensive and complete, than had been done by any former astronomers. A correct description of this orrery drawn up by the Rev. Dr. Smith, is published in the first volume of our Transactions. This master-piece of ingenious mechanism was purchased by the college of New- Jersey. A second was made by him, after the same model, for the use of the college of Philadelphia. It now forms part of the philosophical apparatus of the University of Pennsyl vania, where it has for many years commanded the admira tion of the ingenious and the learned, from every part of the world. The reputation, he derived from the construction of thi.6 orrery, as well as his general character for mathematical knowledge, attracted the notice of his fellow-citizens in Penn sylvania, and in several of the neighbouring states, but the DAVID RITTENHOUSE. 339 discovery of his uncommon merit belonged chiefly to his brother-in-law, the Rev Mr. Barton, Dr. Smith, and the late Mr. John Lukens, an ingenious mathematician of this city. These gentlemen fully appreciated his talents, and united in urging him to remove to Philadelphia, in order to enlarge his opportunities of improvement and usefulness. He yielded with reluctance to their advice, and exchanged his beloved retirement in the country for this city, in the year, 1770. Here he continued for several years, to follow his occupation of a clock and mathematical instrument maker. He excelled in both branches of that business. His mathematical instru ments have been esteemed by good judges to be superior in accuracy and workmanship to any of the same kind that have been imported from Europe. About the time he settled in Philadelphia, he became a member of our Society. His first communication to the So ciety was a calculation of the transit of Venus as it was to hap pen on the 3d of June, 1769, in 40 north latitude, and 5 hours west longitude from Greenwich. He was one of a com mittee appointed by the Society to observe, in the township of Norrington, this rare occurrence in the revolution, of that pla net, and bore an active part in the preparations which were made for that purpose. Of this Dr. Smith who was likewise of the committee, has left an honourable record in the history of that event which is published in the first volume of the tran sactions of our Society. " As Mr. Rittenhouse s dwelling (says the Doctor) is about twenty miles north west from Phi ladelphia ; our other engagements did not permit Mr. Lukens or myself to pay much attention to the necessary preparations; but we knew that we had intrusted them to a gentleman on the spot [meaning Mr. Rittenhouse] who had, joined to a complete skill in mechanics, so extensive and astronomical, 340 AN* EULOGIUM UPOW and mathematical knowledge, that the use, management and even construction of the apparatus, were perfectly familiar to "him. The laudable pains he had taken in these material ar ticles will best appear from the work itself, which he hath committed into my hands, with a modest introduction, giving me a liberty with them, which his own accuracy, taste and abilities leave no room to exercise. * We are naturally led here to take a view of our philoso pher with his associates in their preparations to observe a phenomenon which had never been seen but twice before by any inhabitant of our earth, which would never be seen again by any person then living, and on which depended very im portant astronomical consequences. The night before the long expected day, was probably passed in a degree of solici tude which precluded sleep. How great must have been their joy when he beheld the morning sun, " and the whole horizon without a cloud ;" for such is the description of the day given by Mr. Rittenhouse in the report referred to by Dr. Smith. In pensive silence, and trembling anxiety they waited for the predicted moment of observation ; it came, and brought with it all that had been wished for and expected by those who saw it. In our philosopher, it excited in the instant of one of the contacts of the planet with the sun, an emotion of delight so exquisite and powerful, as to induce fainting. This will readily be believed by those who have known the extent of that pleasure which attends the discovery, or first perception of truth. Soon after this event, we find him acting as one of a committee appointed to observe the transit of Mercury on the 9th of November in the same year. This was likewise done at Norrington. An account of it was drawn up, and published at the request of the committee by Dr. Smith. A minute history of the whole of these events. DAVID RITTENHOUSE. 4 in which Mr. Rittcnhouse continued to act a distinguished part, is given in our transactions. It was received with great- satisfaction by the astronomers of Europe, and contributed, much to raise the character of our then infant country for astronomical knowledge. In the year 1775, he was appointed to compose and deliver the annual oration before our society. The subject of it, was the history of astronomy. The language of this oration is simple, but the sentiments contained in it are ingenious, ori ginal, and in some instances sublime. It was delivered in a feeble voice, and without any of the advantages of oratory, but it commanded, notwithstanding, the most profound atten tion, and was followed by universal admiration and applause from a crowded and respectable audience. From the contents of this oration, it appears that Astro nomy was the favourite object of his studies. Attempts have been made to depreciate this branch of natural philosophy, by denying its utility, and application to human affairs. .The opinion is an unjust one, and as it tends to convey a limited idea of the talents of Mr. Rittenhouse, I hope I shall be excused in saying a few words in favour of this science. It is to astronomy we are indebted for our knowledge of navigation, by which means the different parts of our g ? obe have been discovered, and afterwards cemented together by the mutual wunts and obligations of commerce. It was astronomy that taught mankind the art of predicting and explaining eclipses of the Sun and Moon, and thereby 542 AN EULOGIUM UPON delivered them from the superstition which in the early ages of the world, was connected with those phenomena of nature. We are taught by astronomy to correct our ideas of the visible heavens, and thus by discovering the fallacy of the simple evidence of our senses, to call to their aid, the use of our reason, in deciding upon all material objects of human knowledge. . Astronomy delivers the mind from a groveling attachment to the pursuits and pleasure of this world. " Take the miser (says our philosopher in his oration) from the earth, if it be possible to disengage him -he whose nightly rest has been long broken by the loss of a single foot of it, useless perhaps to him ; and remove him to the planet Mars, one of the least distant from us Persuade the ambitious monarch to accompany him, who has sacrificed the lives of thousands of his subjects to an imaginary property in certain small por tions of the earth, and point out this earth to them, with all its kingdoms and wealth, a glittering star, close by the moon, the latter scarce visible, and the former, less bright than our evening star -They would turn away their disgusted sight from it, not thinking it worth their smallest attention, and iwjek for consolation, in the gloomy regions of Mars." Once more the study of astronomy has the most friendly influence upon morals, and religion. " Yes," (says our phi losopher in another part of his oration) " the direct tendency of this science is to dilate the heart with universal benevo lence, and to enlarge its views. It flatters no princely vice, nor national depravity. It encourages not the libertine by relaxing any of the precepts of morality, nor does it attempt to undermine the foundations of religion. It denies none of DAVID RITTENHOUSE. 34-3 those attributes, which the wisest and best of mankind have in all ages ascribed to the Deity. Nor does it degrade the human mind from that dignity which is ever necessary to make it contemplate itself with complacency. None of thes* things does astronomy pretend to, and if these things merit the name of philosophy, and the encouragement of a people, then let scepticism flourish, and astronomy lie neglected.* Let the names of Barkley and Hume become immortal, and that of Newton be lost in oblivion." The following is a list of such of Mr. Rittenhouse s other publications as are contained in the three volumes of ouf transactions. Observations of the comet which appeared in June and July 1770, with the elements of its motion and the trajectory of its path, in a letter to Dr. William Smith. An easy method of deducing the true time of the sun s, passing the meridian, by means of a clock, from a compari son of four equal attitudes, observed on two succeeding days, without the help of the equation tables, communicated by Dr. William Smith. An explanation of an opticle deception, namely, that the surfaces of bodies viewed through the double microscope, sometimes appear to be reversed, that is, those parts which are elevated seem depressed, and the contrary. An account of a remarkable meteor observed at Philadel phia on the 31st of October, 1775, with some conjectures relative to the theory of meteors, in answer to a letter from John Page Esq. giving an account of the same meteor seen in many distant places in Virginia. 344 AN EULOGIUM UPON Conjectures, corroborated by experiments, relative to a new theory of magnetism ; in a letter to John Page, Esq. of Virginia. * A new method of placing a meridian mark for a transit in strument within a few feet of the observatory, so as to have all the advantages of one placed at a great distance ; in a letter to the Rev. Dr. John E \ving. Observations on a comet discovered in the month of Janu ary 1784. An explanation of a curious optical phenomenon, namely, if a candle or other luminous body be viewed through a silk umbrella, handkerchief or the like, the luminous body will appear to be doubled ; in a letter to Francis Hopkinson, Esq. A series of observations made at sundry times in the years 1784, 85, and 86 on the new planet, or Georgium Sidus, also an observation of the transit of Mercury over the Sun s disk on the 12th of November 1782. An account of three houses in Philadelphia struct with lightning on the 7th of June 1789. An account of the effects of a stroke of lightning upon a house furnished with two metallic conductors on the 17th of August, 1789 ; in a letter to Mr. Robert Patterson. Astronomical observations made at Philadelphia, contain ing an account of the eclipse of the Moon on the 2d of No vember 1789. An account of the transit of Mercury over the Sun s disk, on the 5th of November 1789. DAVID RlTTENHOUSE. 345 An account of the eclipse of the Sun, on the 6th. of No vember 1790, with an account of corresponding observations, made at the University of \\ illiam and Mary, in Virginia, by Dr. J. Madison, and at Washington College, in Maryland, by the Rev. Dr. Smith. Short and elegant theorems for finding the sum of the several powers of the lines, either to a radius of unity, or any other ; in a letter to Mr. Robert Patterson. An account of a comet discovered in the month of January 1793 ; in a letter to Mr. Robert Patterson. Besides these publications, our society is in possession of the following communications from Mr. Rittenhouse, which are now in the press and will be speedily published in the fourth volume of our transactions. A method of determining the true plane of a planet in an eliptical form by converging series, directly from the mean anomaly. A new and easy method of calculating logarithms ; in a letter to Mr. Rober Patterson. A description of an improvement on pendulum clocks, by which the error arising from the different density, or resistance of the medium in which the pendulum vibrates, is effectually obviated. Lastly, experiments on the expansion of wood by heat. Talents so splendid, and knowledge so practical in mathe- matieks, are like mines of precious metaJs. They Y y 0-16 AX EULOGIUM UPON public property by universal consent. The State of Pennsyl vania was not insensible of the wealth she possessed in the mind of Mr. Rittenhouse. She claimed him as her own, and employed him in business of the most important nature. In the year 1779 he was appointed by the legislature of Pennsylvania, one of the commissioners for adjusting a terri torial dispute between Pennsylvania and Virginia, and to his talents, moderation and firmness, were ascribed in a great degree, the satisfactory termination, of that once alarming controversy in the year 17,85. In the year 1784 he assisted in determining the length of five degrees of longitude from a point on the Delaware, in order to fix the western limits of Pennsylvaoia. In 1786, he was employed in fixing the northern line which divides Pennsylvania from New-York. But the application of his talents and knowledge to the set tlement of territorial disputes, was not confined to his native state. In the year 1769, he was employed in settling the limits between New-Jersey and New- York, and in 1787 he was called upon to assist in fixing the boundary line between the States of Massachusetts and New-York. This last busi ness, which was executed with his usual precision and inte grity, was his farewell peace offering to the union and happi ness of his country. In his excursions through the wilderness, he carried with him his habits of inquiry and observation. Nothing in our moun tains, soils, rivers, and springs escaped his notice. It is to be lamented that his private letters, and the memories of his friends., are the only records of what he collected upon these DAVID RITTENHOUSE. 34T occasions. Philosophers, or naturalist, whosoever thou art! that shalt hereafter traverse the unfrequented woods of our state, forget not to respect the paths, first marked by the feet of this ingenious and faithful servant of the public. Honour the fountains consecrated to science by his skilful hand, and inhale with double pleasure the piye atmosphere of the mountains, on which he renewed his acquaintance with the canopy of heaven, after passing whole weeks in forests so shady, as to conceal from him the rays of the sun. And citizens of Penn sylvania, friends and patrons of literature, be grateful for his services. Let the remembrance of them be dear to the pre sent generation, and let a part of the state distinguished in a more especial manner for its resources in natural knowledge, bear his name with honor to the latest posterity. In the year 1791, he was chosen successor to Dr. Franklin in the chair of our society. In this elevated station, the highest that philosophy can confer in our country, his con duct was marked by its usual line of propriety and dignity. Never did the artificial pomp of station command half the respect, which followed his unassuming manners in the dis charge of the public duties of this office. You will often re collect, gentlemen, with a mixture of pleasure and pain, the delightful evenings you passed in the society, every time he presided in> your meeting. They were uniformly charac terized by ardor in the pursuits of science, urbanity and bro-t thcrly kindness. His attachment to the interests of the so ciety was evinced soon after he accepted of the President s chair, by a donation of three hundred pounds. But his talents and knowledge were not limited to mathe matical or material subjects ; his mind was a repository of the knowledge of all ages and countries. He had early and deeply AN EULOGlLTVf UPON studied most of the different systems of theology. He was ^roll acquainted with practical metaphysicks. In reading tra vels he took great delight. From them, he drew a large fund of his knowledge of the natural history of our globe He possessed talents for music and poetry, but the more serious and necessary pursuits of his life, prevented his devoting much time to the cultivation of them. He read the English poets with great pleasure The muse of Thomson charmed hm most. He admired his elegant combination of philoso phy and poetry. However opposed these studies may appear, they alike derive their perfections from extensive and accurate observations of the works of nature. He was intimately ac quainted with the French, German and Dutch languages, the t\vo former of which he acquired without the assistance of a master. They served the valuable purpose of conveying to him the discoveries of foreign nations, and thereby enabled him to prosecute his studies with more advantage, in his na tive language. In speaking of Mr. Rittenhouse, it lias been common to lament his want of what is called a liberal education. -Were education what it should be, in our public seminaries, this would have been a misfortune, but conducted as it is at pre sent, agreeably to the systems adopted in Europe in the six teenth century, I am disposed to believe that his extensive knowledge, and splendid character are to be ascribed chiefly to his having escaped the pernicious influence of monkish learning upon his mind in early life. Had the usual forms of a public education in the United States been imposed upon him ; instead of revolving through life in a planetary orbit, he would probably have consumed the force of his geniiis by fluttering around the blaze of an evening taper. Rittenhouse the philosopher, and one of the luminaries of the eighteenth DAVID RITTENHOUSE. 349 century, might have spent his hours of study in composing , syllogism, or in measuring the feet of Greek and Latin |v poetry. It will be honourable to the citizens of the United States, to add, that they were not insensible of the merit of our phi losopher. Inventions and improvements in every art and science, were frequently submitted to his examination, and were afterwards patronised by the public, according as they were approved by him. Wherever he went, he met with public respect, and private attentions. But his reputation was not confined to his native country. His name was known and abmired in every region of the earth, where science and ge nius are cultivated and respected.* S.uch were the talents and knowledge, and such the fame, of our departed President! His virtues now demand our tri- jbute of praise. And here, I am less at a loss to know what to say, than what to leave unsaid. We have hitherto beheld him as a philosopher, soaring like the eagle, until our eyes have been dazzled by his near approaches to the sun. We shall now contemplate him at a less distance, and behold him. jn the familiar character of a man, fulfilling his various duties 5n their utmost extent. If any thing has been said of his talents and knowledge that has excited attention, or kindled * The degree of master of Arts was conferred upon him by the College of Philadelphia, in 1768. The same degree was conferred upon him by the College of William and Mary, In Virginia, in 1784. In the year 1789, he received the de gree of Doctor of Laws from the College of New-Jersey. He was elected a Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston in 17S2, and of the Royal Society in London in 1795. .A.V BU lUM UPON desires in the , - rs of our society, to pursue him in his path of honor, 1< t me request them not to forsake me here. .Come, and learn by his example, to be good, as well as great. llh \irtues furnish the most shining models for your imitation, for they were never obscured in any situation or stage of his life, by a single cloud of weak ness or vice. As the source of these virtues, whether of a public or private nature, I shall first mention his exalted sense of moral obligation, founded upon the revelation of the perfections of the Supreme Being. This appears from many- passages in his oration, and from his private letters to his friends. In his oration we find the following pious senti ment. " Should it please that Almighty Power who hath placed us in a world in which we are only permitted < to look ttbout us and to die, to indulge us with existence throughout that half of eternity which still remains unspent, and to con duct us through the several stages of his works, here (mean ing in the study of astronomy) is ample provision made for employing every faculty of the mind, even allowing its pow ers to be enlarged through an endless repetition of ages. Let us not complain of the vanity of this world, and that there is nothing in it capable of satisfying us. Happy in those wants -happy iu those desires, forever in succession to be gratified happy in a continual approach to the Deity." I must coniess that I am not one of those sanguine spirits vho seem to think that when the withered hand of death has drawn up the curtain of eternity, all distance between the creature and the Creator, and between finite and infinite, trill be annihilated. Every enlargement of our faculties f:very new happiness conferred upon u> every step we ad vance towards the Divinity, will very probably render us ;7;ore and more sensible of his inexhaustible stores of coin- bliss, and of his inaccessible perfections^" DAVID RITTEXHOUSE. 351 There appeal s to be a natural connection between a know ledge of the works of nature and just ideas of the divine per fections ; and if philosophers have not in all ages been equally devout with our President, it becomes us to acquire how far the beneficial influence of philosophy upon religion, may have been prevented by their minds being pre-occupied in early life with the fictions of ancient poets, and the vices of the heathen gods. It remains yet to be determined, whether all the moral as well as natural attributes of the Deity may not be discovered in the form, and economy of the material world, and whether that righteousness which descended from heaven near eighteen hundred years ago, may not wait for philosophical truth to spring up from the earth, in or- / der by uniting with it, to command universal belief and \ obedience. This opinion, as far as it relates to one ol" the moral attributes of the Deity, seems to have been ad mitted by our philosopher in the following elegant and pious extract from a letter to one of his friends " give me leave (says he) to mention two or three proofs of infinite goodness in the works of creation. The first is, possessing goodness in ourselves. Now it is inconsistent with all just reasoning to suppose, that there is any thing good, lovely, or praise-wor thy in us, which is not possessed in an infinitely higher degree by that Being who first called us into existence. In- the next place I reckon, the exquisite and innocent delighT* that many things around us are calculated to afford us. In this light the beauty and fragrance of a single rose is a better argument for divine goodness than a luxuriant field of wheat. For if we can suppose that we were created by a malevolent Being with a design to torment us for his amusement, he must have furnished us with the means of subsistence, and either have made our condition tolerable, or not have left the means of quitting it at pleasure, in our own power. Such AN EULOGIUM UPON being my opinions, you will not wonder at my fondness for what Mr. Adclison calls the pleasures of the imagination.* They are all to me, so many demonstrations of infinite good- If such be the pious fruits of an attentive examination of the wor^s of the Creator, cease ye ministers of the gospel to defeat the design of your benevolent labors, by interposing the common studies of the schools between our globe, and and the minds of young people. Let their first ideas be hose which are obtruded upon their senses, by the hand of nature. Permit the firmament of heaven, and the animal, vegetable and mineral productions of the earth, to instruct them in the wisdom and goodness of the Creator, and let the > effects of physical evil upon general happiness, vindicate the 1 divine government, in permitting the existence of moral evil I in our world. Thus the perverse passions of man, may be ,made to unite with storms and tempests, in furnishing proofs of the goodness of the Creator of the Universe. Bi-t the religion of Mr. Rittcnhouse, was not derived wholly from his knowledge and admiration of the material world. He believed in the Christian revelation. Of this, he gave many proofs, net only in the conformity of his life, to the precepts of the gospel, but in his letters and conversation. I well recollect in speaking to me of the truth and excellency of the Christian religion, he mentioned as an evidence of its divine origin, that the miracles of our Saviour differed from all other miracles, in being entirely of a kind and benevolent nature. It is no small triumph to the friends of Reyelation to observe; m this age of infidelity, that our religion has been admitted and even di.iendcd by men of the most exalted un- , r.ud of the strongest reasoning powers. The DAVID RITTENHOU3E. 353 single testimony of David Rittenhouse in its favor, outweighs the declamations of whole nations against it.* As the natural effect of his belief in the relation of the whole human race to each other in a common Father and Redeemer, he embraced the whole family of mankind in the arms of his benevolence. The force and extent of this virtue in his heart, will appear from my reading one more extract from his oration. I am aware how much I suffer by intro ducing quotations from that eloquent performance, for they will cast a shade upon all I have said, or shall say upon this occasion. c How far, (says our philosopher) the inhabitants of the other planets may resemble men, we cannot pretend to say. If like them they were created liable to fall, yet some, if not all of them may still retain their original rectitude. We will liope they do ; the thought is comfortable. Cease then Gai- lileo to improve thy optic tube, and thou great Newton, for- ~ bear thy ardent search, into the mysteries of nature, lest ye make unwelcome discoveries. Deprive us not of the pleasure \ of believing that yonder orbs, traversing in silent majesty the etherial regions, are the peaceful seats of innocence and bliss, Where neither natural or moral evil has ever intruded, and \ where to enjoy with gratitude and adoration the Creator s bounty, is the business of existence. If their inhabitants re* i : semble man in their faculties and affections, let us suppose : * Since the publication of the EulOgium in a pamphlet, I have received the following account of Mr. Rittenhouse s reli gious principles, in a letter from his widow, dated August 20th 1797. " 1 hat you were sufficiently authorized to assert what you did respecting Mr. Rittenhouse s religious principles, I 354 AX F.ULOG1UM UPON that they are wise enough to govern themselves according to the dictates of that reason^ Cod has given in such a man ner, as to i. other s happiness up on nil occasions. But if on the contrary, they have found it necessary to erect artificial fabrics of government, let us not suppose they have done it with so little skill, and at such an enormous expense, as to render them a misfortune, instead of a blessing. We will hope that their statesmen are patriots, and that their kings (if that order cf beings has found admit tance there) have the feelings of humanity. Happy people 1 and perhaps more happy still, that all communication with us is denied. We have neither corrupted you with our vices, nor injured you by violence. None of your sons and daugh ters have been degraded from their native dignity, and doom ed to endless slavery in America, merely because their bodies may be disposed to reflect, or absorb the rays of light, dif ferent from ours. Even you, inhabitants of the Moon, situ ated in our very neighbourhood, are effectually secured from the rapacious hands of the oppressors of our globe. And the utmost efforts of the mighty Frederick, the tyrant of the North, and scourge of mankind, if aimed to disturb your peace, becomes inconceivably ridiculous and impotent." now add my testimony to what you have said, for well I know the great truths of religion engaged much of his attention, and indeed were interwoven with almost every important con cern of his life. I do not recollect, if in any of the conversa tions I have had with you, I informed you,, what I now do, Uiat Dr. IVic^s opinions rcspcc:JM Chris.tu;nity were gujre in unison -w it h his own, thai -ers cf the divines ; that T;r. Price s scrmr.:>s v us the lu:-;t book ] .vd me to lo i-i:M, and that the last 1,101 ;tiii:-- of his life, he reminded rue that I hud not finished one of the Doctor s discourses \ vrhich I had began the proceeding evening." DAVID R1TTENHOUSE. 355 " Pardon these reflections. They arise not from the g-loomy spirit of misanthropy. That Being, before whose piercing eye all the intricate foldings of the human heart, be come expanded, and illuminated, is my witness with what sincerity, with what ardor.! wish for the happiness of the whole race of mankind. -How much I admire that disposition of lands and seas which affords a communication between dis tant regions, and a mutual exchange of benefits -How sin cerely I approve of those social refinements, which add to our happiness, and induce us with gratitude to acknowledge our Creator s goodness, and how much I delight in a parti cipation of the discoveries made from time to time in nature s works, by our philosophical brethren in Europe. But (adds our philosopher) when I consider that luxury, and her con stant follower tyranny, which have long since laid the glories of Asia in the dust, are now advancing like a torrent, irresis tible, and have nearly completed their conquest over Europe I am ready to wish vain wish ! that nature would raise her everlasting bars between the new and the old world, and make a voyage to Europe as impracticable as one to the As when a traveller in passing through a wilderness, slack ens his pace to prolong the pleasure of a sudden and unex pected prospect of a majestic river pouring its waters down the declivity of a cloud-clap t mountain, and spreading ferti lity and verdure throughout the adjacent vallies, so we feel disposed to pause, and feast upon the sublime sentiments con tained in the passage which I have read. Citizens of the. United States, receive and cherish them as a legacy from a friend, or a brother. Be just, and loose the bands of the African slave. Be wise, and render war odius in our country. Be free, by assmming a national character and name, and b 356 AN EULOGIUM UPON greatly happy, by erecting a barrier against the corruptions in morals, government, and religion, which now pervade all the nations of Europe.* But the philanthropy of Mr. Rittenhouse did not consist simply in wishes for the happiness of mankind. He re duced this divine principle to practice by a series of faith ful and disinterested services to that part of his fellow crea tures, to which the usefulness of good men is chiefly confined. His country, his beloved country, was the object of the strongest affections of his heart. For her, he thought, -! for her, he laboured, ^ and for her, in the hours of her difficulties and danger, he v/ept, in every stage of the American revolution. Patriots of 1776, you will acquit me of exaggeration here, for you feel in the recollection of what passed in your own bosoms, a witness of the truth of each of these assertions. The year of the declaration of Independence, which changed our royal governments *Mr. William Barton, nephew to Mr. Rittenhouse, has favoured me with the following extract of a letter in Septem ber, 1755, to his brother-in-law, the Rev. Mr. Barton, who was the friend and correspondent of his youth, which shews how early and deeply the principles of universal benevolence were fixed in his mind. " I would sooner give up my interests in a future state, than be divested of humanity ; -I mean that good will I have to the species, although one half of them are said to be fools, and almost the other half knaves. Indeed I am firmly per suaded, that we are not at the disposal of a Being who has the least tincture of ill-nature, or requires any in us. -You will luug-h at this grave philosophy, or my writing to you on a subject which you have thought of a thousand times : but, can any thing that is serious, be ridiculous ? Shall we sup pose Gubriel smiling at Newton, for labouring to demonstrate whether the earth be at rest or not, because the former plainly sees it move !" BAVID RITTEN80UBS. 357 into Republics, produced no change in his political principles for he had been educated a Republican by his father. I can never forget the pleasure with which he avowed his early but secret attachment to an elective and representative form of government. Often have I heard him above twenty years7~~l ago, predict the immense encrease of talents and knowledge | which has been produced by the strength and activity that have been infused into the American mind, by our repubii* can constitutions, Often, likewise, at the same remote period of time, have I heard him anticipate with delight, thf effects of our revolution in sowing the seeds of a new order of things in other parts of the world. He believed political, at j well as moral evil to be intruders into the society of man. \ that general happiness was the original design, an ultimate nd of the divine government, and that a time would come Vfhen every part of our globe, would echo back the heavenly proclamation of universal peace on earth, and good will to man. Let it not be said, that he departed from the duties of k Philosopher, by devoting a part of his time and talents to tho safety and happiness of his country. It belongs to monarchies, to limit the business of government to a privileged order of men, and it is from the remains of a monarchical spirit in our country, that we complain when clergymen, physicians, phi losophers and "mechanics, take an active part in civil affairs. The obligations of patriotism are as universal and binding, as those of justice and benevolence, and the virtuous propen sities of the human heart are as much resisted by every individual who neglects the business of his country, as they are by the extinction of the domestic affections in a cell. Man was made for a republic, and a republic was made for\ ^ 3 man 9 otherwise Divine power and goodness have been wasted, AN EULOGIUM UPON in the creation and gift of his public affections.-^bur philoso pher adopted this truth from the evidence of his feelings, in common with the rest of mankind, but it was strongly rein forced in his mind by numerous analogies of nature. How was it possible for him to contemplate light and air as the common and equal portions of every man, and not acknow- ; ledge that heaven intended liberty to be distributed in the sume manner among the whole human race ! Or how could he behold the beauty and harmony of the universe, as the result of universal and mutual dependence, and not admit that heaven intended rulers to be dependent upon those, for whose benefit alone, all government should exist. To sup pose the contrary, would be to deny unity and system in the plans of the great creator of all things. I shall make no apology for these sentiments. They are not foreign to the solemnity of this discourse. Had I said less of the political principles and conduct of our enlightened President, hundreds and thousands of my fellow-citizens would have accused me, of an act of treachery to his memory. May the time never come, in which the praises of our republican governments, shall not be acceptable to the ears f an American audience ! . In the more limited circles of private life, Mr. Rittenhouse commanded esteem and affection. As a neighbour he was kind and charitable. His sympathy extended in a certain iegree to distress of every kind, but it was excited with the most force, and the kindest effects, to the weakness, pain and poverty of old age. -As a friend he was sincere, ardent, disinterested. As a companion, he instructed upon all subjects. To his happy communicative disposition, I beg kave to express my obligations in this public manner. I can, DAVID RITTEtfHOUSK. 35 truly say, after an acquaintance with him for six-and-twenty years, that I never went into his company, without learning something. With pleasure have I looked beyond my pre sent labours to a time, when his society should constitute one of the principal enjoyments of the evening of my life. But alas ! that time, so often anticipated, and so delightful in prospect- -will never comc. I hope it VT i\\ not be thought that I tread too closely upon his footsteps, when I presume to lift the latch of his door, and to exhibit him in the domestic relations of a husband r.nd father. It was the practice of the philosophers of former ages, to pass their lives in their closets, and to maintain a formal and distant intercourse with their families ! but our philosopher was a stranger to pride and imposture in every thing. His family constituted his chief society, and the most intimate circle of his friends. When the declining state of his health, rendered the solitude of his study, less agreeable than in former years, he passed whole evenings in reading or conversing, with his wife and daughters. Happy family i so much and so long blessed with such a head ! and happier still, to have possessed dispositions and knowledge to discern and love his exalted character, and to enjoy his instructing conversation !- -Thus Sir Thomas Moore lived with his accomplished wife and daughters ; .Thus Cicero educated his beloved Tullia ; and in this way only, can the female sex be elevated to that dignity, and usefulness in society, for which they were formed, and by which from their influ ence upon manners, a new era would be created in the his tory of mankind. The house and manner of living of cur president, exhibi ted the taste of a philosopher, the simplicity of a republican. 360 AN EULOOIUM UPOK and the temper of ft. Christian. lie was independent, and contented with an estate, small in the estimation of ambition and avarice, but amply suited to all his wants and desires. He held the office of treasurer of Pennsylvania, by an annual and vu::rnimous vote of the legislature, between the years 1777, and 1789. During this period, he declined purchasing the smallest portion of the public debt of the state, thereby manifesting a delicacy of integrity, which is known and felt only by pure and elevated minds. In the year 1792, he was persuaded to accept of the office of Director of the mint of the United States. His want of health, obliged him to resign it in 1795. Here his conduct was likewise above suspicion, for I have been informed by his colleague in office,* that in several instances, he paid for work done at the mint out of his salary, -where he thought the charges for it would be deemed extravagant by the Uni ted States. His economy extended to a wise and profitable use of his time. No man ever found him unemployed. As an apology for detaining a friend a few minutes, while he arranged some papers he had been examining, he said, " that he had once thought health, the greatest blessing in the world, but that he now thought there was one thing of much greater value, and that was time." The propriety of this remark will ap pear when we consider, that Providence, so liberal in other gifts, bestows this, in a sparing manner. He never gives a second moment, until he has withdrawn the first, and still reserves the third in his own hand. The countenance of Mr. Rittenhouse, was too remarkable to be unnoticed upon this occassion. It displayed such a * Dr. Way. DAVID RITTENHOUSE. 361 mixture of contemplation, benignity, and innocence, that it was easy to distinguish his person in the largest company, by a previous knowledge of his character. His manners were civil, and engaging to such a degree, that he seldom passed an hour, even in a public house, in travelling through our country without being followed by the good wishes of ail who attended upon him. There was no affectation of singularity, in any thing he said or did : even his hand writing, in which this weakness so frequently discovers itself, was simple and intelligible at first sight to all who saw it. Here I expected to have finished the detail of his virtues, but in the neighbourhood of that galaxy created by their con nected lustre, I behold a virtue of inestimable value, twink ling like a rare, and solitary star. It is his superlative mo desty. This heaven born virtue was so conspicuous in every part of his conduct, that he appeared not 1 so much to conceal as to be ignorant of his superiority as a philosopher and a man, over the greatest part of his fellow creatures. In reviewing the intellectual endowments and moral excel lency of Mr. Rittenhouse, and our late intimate connection With him, we are led to rejoice in being men. We proceed now to the closing scenes of his life. His constitution was naturally feeble, but it was rendered still more so, by sedentary labor, and midnight studies. He was afflicted for many years with a weak breast, which, upon unusual exertions of body or mind, or sudden changes in the weather, became the seat of a painful and harrassing disor der. This constitutional infirmity was not without its uses. It contributed much to the perfection of his virtue, by pro- A a a 362 AN EULOGIUM UPON ducing habitual patience and resignation to the will of heaven and a constant eye to the hour of his dissolution. It was a window through which he often looked with pleasure towards a place of existence, where from the encrease and perfection of his intuitive faculties, he would probably acquire more knowledge in an hour, than he had acquired in his whole life, by the slow operations of reason j and where, from the greater magnitude and extent of the objects of his contem plation, his native globe, would appear like his cradle, and til the events of time, like the amusements of his infant years. On the 26th of June, of the present year, the long expect ed messenger of death, disclosed his commission. In his last illness, which was acute, and short, he retained the usu al patience and benevolence of his temper. Upon being told that some of his friends had called at his door to enquire how he was ; he asked why they were not invited into his cham ber to see him. " Because (said his wife) you are too weak to speak to them." " Yes (said he) that is true, but I could still have squeezed their hands. * -Thus with a heart over flowing with love to his family, friends, country, and to the whole world, he peacefully resigned his spirit into the hands of his God. Let the day of his death be recorded in the an nals of our society, and let its annual return be marked by some public act, which shall characterise his services and our grief, and thereby animate us and our successors, to imitate his illustrious example ! Ft has been the fashion of late years, to say of persons who had been distinguished in life, when they left the world in a state of indifference to every thing, and believing, and hoping in nothing, that they died like philosophers. Very DAVID RITTENHOUSE. 363 different was the latter end of our excellent president. He died like a Christian, interested in the welfare of all around him believing in the resurrection, and the life to come, and Jioping for happiness from every attribute of the Deity. Agreeably to his request, his body was interred in his ob servatory near his dwelling house, in the presence of a numerous concourse of his fellow-citizens. It was natural for him in the near prospect of appearing in the presence of his Maker, to feel an attachment to that spot in which he had cultivated a knowledge of his perfections, and held com munion with him through the medium of his works. Here after it shall become one of the objects of curiosity in our city. Thither shall the philosophers of future ages resort to do homage to his tomb, and children yet unborn, shall point to the dome which covers it, and exultingiy say, there lies our Rittenhouse." Let us my respected colleagues, repair for a few minutes to that awful spot. In entering it we behold the telescope, dear instrument of his discoveries, turned upon its axis, and pointed to the earth, which has closed its master s eyes. How artless the inscription upon his tombstone ! It con tains nothing but his name, and the simple record of the days and years of his birth and death. Very different would have been the monument of his worth and fame, had not the grati tude and affection of his friends been controuled by his dying request. His head would have reclined in marble, upon the lap of religion. At his feet, science would have sat bathed in tears ; while the genius of republican liberty, in the figure of a venerable hermit, bending over his grave, would have deplored the loss of his favourite son, -Alas 1 -too too soon has our beloved president been torn from the chair of our 364 AN EULOGIUM UPON DAVID RITTENHOUSE. society !- .Too soon has he laid aside his robes of office, and ceased to minister for us day and night at the alter of science ! Ah ! who now will elevate his telescope, and again direct it towards yonder heavens ? Who now will observe the transit of the planets ? Who now will awaken our nation to view the trackless and stupenduous comet ? Who now will measure the courses of our rivers, in order to convey their streams into our city, for the purposes of health and commerce ? Nature is dumb ; for the voice of her chief interpreter is hushed in death. In this hour of our bereavement, to whom shall we look ? but to THEE, FATHER of life and light : thou author of great and good gifts to man. O 1 let not thy Sun, thy Moon, and thy Stars now shine unobserved among us ! may the genius of our departed president, like the man tle of thy prophet of old, descend upon some member of our society, who shall, as he did, explain to us the misteries of thy works, and lead us step by step, to THYSELF, the great overflowing fountain of wisdom, goodness and mercy, to the children of men ! HOME USE CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT > RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT 32 , V,a;n Library feOKs PL^iOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS RENEWALS AND RECHARGES MAY BE MADE 4 DAYS PRIOR TO DUE OATtL LOAN PERIODS ARE 1-MONTH. 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