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MEMOIR,

DESCRIPTIVE AND EXPLANATORY,

OF THE

NORT II E R N

ATLANTIC OCEAN,

AND COMPKISING

INSTRUCTIONS, GENERAL AND PARTICULAR,

THE NAVIGATION OF THAT SEA.

FOURTEENTH EDITION.

BY ALEXANDER GEORGE FINDLAY, F.R.G.S.,

Honorary Member of the Societa Geografica Itultana.

LONDON :

PUBLISHED BY RICHARD HOLMES LAURIE,

53, FLEET STREET, E.G.

1879.

" O'er the glad waters of the dark blue Sea,
Our thoughts as boundless, and our 60uls as free,
Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam,
Survey our Empire, and behold our home."

— Lord Byron.

ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL.

PREFACE

TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION.

The present work has been before the Public for more than half a century — a period
that has witnessed, a total change in the aspect and requirements of Hydrography,
as in most other departments of knowledge.

Professing to deal with the subject in its present condition, this Edition bears no
resemblance to the Work in its original form, except in the title it bears; every
topic and every page have been changed by the gradual or sudden accession of facts
which modern history and refinement bring to bear upon every branch of inquiry.

There has been no greater advance made during any portion of the long time that
has elapsed since its first appearance, than has taken place during the last twenty
years ; arid to represent that advance this Edition has been entirely remodelled, and
may be considered rather as a new Work upon the- former arrangement, than as a
revised production.

The great distinction between modern progress and that which the various Editions
in former years had to record, is, that each branch of Science is now elaborately in-
vestigated by Government, and to these labours the painstaking individual can scarcely
hope to add anything.

The examination of the bottom of the ocean, almost a new subject, and yet in its
infancy, has already dispelled many of those dangers which were formerly believed
to exist. The beautiful Lighthouse systems ; the various features which have been
eliminated in the Wind and Current systems, and their bearings upon the best routes
for traversing the Ocean ; the more exact acquaintance with the magnetical con-
dition of the Earth, and the most important connection this has with the increasing
number of iron ships, with many other subjects, will be duly discussed in the ensuing
pages.

To enumerate the authorities to which we are indebted would be to offer a long
list: we have duly acknowledged them throughout the work ; and we trust that this
Thirteenth Edition may do good service to the mariner in its quiet utility, as has been
done by those which have preceded it.

A. G. Findlav.
LONDON, February, 1873.

The Fourteenth Edition contains a Diagram of the Winds, thr Anti-Trade Regions
of which recent publications of the Meteorologal Office hav:; enabled us to illustrate
for the first time. The Depth of the North Atlantic is also shown by a Chart ;
this subject having been so fully made known for the first time by the voyage of
H.M.S. Challenger ; on this Chart the positions of the various telegraphic cables are
shown. Captain Toynbee's proposed Best Monthly Routes across the Equator have
been materially altered, and deserve especial attention. In the body of the book,
each section has been carefully gone over, and every available authority utilized for
its improvement.

London, December, 1878.

ADDENDA

Winds.— In the illustrative diagram at the commencement of this Volume is
shown the routes of areas of low barometrical pressure, around and towards the
southern side of which the winds of Atlantic gales have been observed to blow.
These are given from Captain Toynbee's works on the Meteoroloy of the North
Atlantic for the month of August, 1873, and for the eleven days ending February
8th, 1870.

The gales do not appear to be true revolving storms, such as the tropical hurri-
canes, for the reason that very few observations for easterly winds are recorded. It
may be that these easterly winds would be found to the northward of the ordinary
tracks of ships ; but, as shown in the diagram, the winds have been observed to blow
around the southern side of the centre of low pressure, from the N.W., West, and S.W.

From the area of low pressure (barometer 29-3 to 29 6 inches) to the southern side
of these gales (barometer 30 to 30*2 in.) the average observed distance is about 500
miles, speaking very roughly. (See Rotary Gales, in Index, at end of this volume).

The Cyclone, August 14th to August 26th, appeared to be broken up on reaching
Newfoundland.

The area of high pressure near the Azores is liable to but little variation throughout
the year, and the winds blow around, and out of, it with watch-hands, thus following
the principles of Buys Ballot's Law. In each of the great oceans there appears to be
a similar spot, which may be considered an axis around which, not only the winds,
but the waters also, revolve.

Best Monthly Routes across the Equator.— By Captain Toynbee's wish we
add the following to his remarks: —

"The navigator must remember that it is impossible to lay down fixed tracks for
him to follow, because the winds are not always the same at the same time of year.
The tracks given on the chart (p. 467) are those which it is probable the wind will
permit him to follow. Sometimes he will be able to do better than to strictly follow
these tracks; at others he may be driven to do worse. He should not go out of his
way to follow them, neither should he be guided by them alone, but by reading the
remarks (pp. 467 — 475), form an independent opinion.

" To the Outward bounder the tracks indicate the best routes for wind, and a safe
longitude for crossing the Equator into the region of the S.E. Trades, keeping clear
ot the coast of South America. To the Homeward bounder they indicate the
best routes for wind across the Equator aud up to the southern limit of the N.E.
Trades."

CONTENTS.

SECTION I.

GENERAL REMARKS, WITH TABLES OF DETERMINED POSI-
TIONS AND THE AUTHORITIES, ETC., INCLUDING THE
VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

tage

General Remarks 1

Limits of the Atlantic, 1 ; Remarks on the Charts, 2, 3 ; Length of Coast
Line, 5, 6.

1. England and Wales — Positions of Places, 7 ; notes 10

2. Islands and Coasts of Scotland — Positions, 10 ; notes 12

3. Coasts of Ireland, <&c. — Positions of Places, 13 ; notes 15

4. Norway and Sweden — Positions of Places, 16 ; notes 19

5. Denmark, Germany, Holland, Belgium — Positions of Plae* s, 20 ; notes .... 23

6. Coasts of Prance, &c. — Positions of Places, 24 : notes 26

7. Spain and Portugal — Positions of Places, 27 ; notes 30

8. Coasts of Africa — Positions of Places, 31 ; notes 36

9. The Azores or Western Islands — Positions 38

10. The Madeira and Canary Islands — Positions . 40

11. The Cape Verde Islands — Positions 42

12. The Frcroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, Labrador, and Newfoundland —

Positions, 43 ; notes 48

13. Gulf and River of St. Lawrence, with C"pe Breton Island — Positions .... 50

14. No va Scotia, &c, Southern Coasts — Positions, 57 ; New Brunswick 58

15. The United States — Positions, 59 ; notes 65

16. The Bermuda Islands — Positions (><)

17. The Bahama and Passage Islands — Positions, 70 ; notes ; . 72

18. Cuba, Jamaica, &c. — Positions, 74 ; notes 76

19. St. Domingo or Hayti, Porto Rico, and the Virgin Islands — Positions, 79;

notes , 81

iiO. The Caribbee and Leeward Islands — Positions, 83 ; notes 85

21. The Coasts of Guyana, Colombia, &c, to the Mexican Sea, inclusive —

Positions, 87 ; notes 90

vi CONTENTS.

SECTION II.

DESCRIPTION AND LIST OF LIGHTHOUSES.

PAGB

Lighthouses and their Illumination ........ 91

Lighthouses and Lightvessels, 91 ; Lamps, 91 ; Oil and Gas, 92 ; Electric
Light, 92 ; Catoptric or Reflector System, 93 ; Dioptric or Lens System,
94 ; Revolving Light, 94 ; Fixed Light, 95 ; Holophotal System, 96 ;
Orders of Lens Lights, 96; Range and Character of Lights, 96-7;
Peciiption of Tables, 98.

List or Lighthouses.

England, River Thames, 99; South-east and South Coasts, 100 — 102;
South-west Coasts, 103; West Coast, 104—107; Isle of Man, 107, 108.

Scotland, Shetland and Hebrides Islands, 109, 110; West Coast, 111.

Ireland, South Coast, 113; East Coast, 114; North and West Coasts,
115, 116.

White Sea, 117; Norway, West Coast, 117—119; South-west Coast, 120;
South Coast, 121.

France, North Coast, 122—127; North-west Coast, 128; West Coast,
129, 133.

Spain, North Coast, 134, 135 ; West Coast, 136. Portugal, West Coast,
137 ; South Coast, 138.

Atlantic Islands, Madeira, Canary Isles, Azores, 139 ; Africa, West
Coast, 140.

British America, Newfoundland, 141, 142; Gulf of St. Lawrence, 142;
Cape Breton Island, 143 ; Nova Scotia, 144 ; Bay of Fundy, 145-6.

United States, Maine, 147 — 149; New Hampshire, 149; Massachusetts,
149 — 152; Rhode Island, 153; Connecticut, 154, 155; New York,
156 ; New Jersey, 157 ; Virginia, 158, 159 ; Maryland, 159, 160 ; North
Carolina, 161; South Carolina, 162; Georgia, 163; Florida, 164;
Alabama, 165; Mississippi, 166; Texas, 167.

West Indies, Bahama Islands, 168; Cuba, 169; Jamaica, 170; Caribbee
171,172.

CONTENTS.

SECTION III.

GENERAL OBSEEVATIONS ON THE WINDS, TIDES, AND CUE-
RENTS, AND ON THE DIFFERENT PASSAGES OVER THE
NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

PAGE

I.— Of the WINDS , 173

1. General Remarks, 173; Halley's and Hadley's Theories, 174, 175;
Wind System, 175 — 177 ; Aqueous Vapours, 177 ; Force of Winds,
178, 179; Table of Force and Velocity, 180; Land and Sea Breezes,
&c, 181.

2. Tee Motions and Pressure of the Atmosphere, 183; Use of the
Barometer, 183 ; Buys Ballot's Law, 184 ; Description of the Law,
184; Remarks by Captain Henry Toynbee, 184 — 186; Barometric
Waves, 186; Birt's Researches, 187; Barometric Gradients and Dia-
grams, 188; Methods of foretelling Storms, 189 ; Remarks by Mr. Birt
on the Weather Charts of the Meteorological Office, 193 — 195.

3. The Trade Wind, 195; N.E. Trades, 195; Force of the Trade Wind,
196, 197 ; Mean Kates of Vessels, 196, 197 ; North Limit, 202 ; Equa-
torial Limit, Table, 199 ; Direction, 199 ; Prevalence, 200, 201 ; Sum-
mary, 202 ; Captain Toynbee's remarks on the wind during each
month, in the region between 0^ N. and 10° S., from 10° W. to 40°
W., 203—207.

Winds on the Altantic Isles, 207 ; West Indies in general, 208 ; at Ja-
maica, 209; Bahama Islands, 210; the Bayamos, near Cuba, 210;
Guyana, Cumana, &c, 211, 212; Gulf of Mexico, 212; the Norths
212 ; Gulf of Mexico, North Coast, 214.

4. Equatorial Winds and Calms, 217; Limits Defined, 217; Table
of Extent, 219; the Cloud- ring and Rains, 220.

5. The African Monsoons, 221 ; Extent of the Monsoons, 222 ; Winds
and Seasons, by Capt. Midgley, 223 ; Coast from Cape Blanco to Cape
Palmas, 224,225; Windward Coast, 225; the Harmattan, &c, 225—
229.

6. Winds and Calms on the Tropic, 229 ; at the Bermudas, 230.

7. The Anti-Trades, or Passage Winds, 231 ; Definitions, 231 ; The
Winds between 55" and 40° N., 233 ; Tables of the prevalence of Wind
for each of the Eight Points of the Compass, &c, 234 — 238 ; Captain
H. Toynbee's Remarks on Eight Logs, kept by Captain J. A. Martyn,
in Passages over the Atlantic, 238 ; Notes by Captain R. Inglis, 239 ;
Effect of Sea Temperature on the Passage Winds, 241 ; Professor Buys
Ballot on the Passage Winds, 241 ; Winds of the British Isles, 249;
Cyclones and Anti-cylones, 249 ; Winds at Liverpool, 250 ; English
Channel, 252 ; Diagrams explained, 253 ; Bay of Biscay, 254 ; North
Coast of Spain, 256 ; America, Gulf and River St. Lawrence, 256 ;
Nova Scotia, &c, 258 ; South Carolina, 258.

viii CONTENTS.

PAGE

8. Hurricanes, 259; Defined, 260; Law of Storms, 2G0; Dr. Milne
Home on the Spiral Theory, 261 ; Rules for Avoiding, 263 ; Seasons,
264; Barometer Indications, 264; Prognostics, 266; Storm Card, by-
Lieut. Evans, 266 ; Rules to be Obseiwed, 267 ; Explanation of Card,
267 — 274 ; Remarks by Captain Leighton, 274 ; Examples, 275— 283 ;
On Making Use of Hurricanes, 284.

9. Waterspouts, 285 ; Definition, 285 ; Description by Malte Brun,
285 ; by Mr. M. Downie, 286 ; by Mr. G. Maxwell, 287 ; by the Hon.
Capt: Napier, 289.

II.— Of the TIDES 290

Explanation of Tidal Phenomena : — The Action of the Moon, 291 ; Of
the Sun. 292 ; The Tidal Wave, and its Velocity, 293 ; The Establish-
ment, and the Corrected Establishment of the Port, 294 ; The Semi-
monthly Inequality, 294; The Age of the Tide and Difference of Two
Diurnal Tides, 295 : Height of Mean Water, 295 ; Various Phenomena,
295.

Tide Table, River Thames, and England South and West Coast, 298 ;
Scotland, &c, 298, 299 ; England, East Coast, 299 ; Ireland, 299, 300 ;
Norway, France, Spain, and Portugal, 300, 301 ; Atlantic Isles and
Africa, 301 ; Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence, 301 ; New Bruns-
wick and Nova Scotia, 302 ; United States, 302, 303 ; Gulf of Mexico
and West Indies, 3U3; Remarks on the Tide Table, 304 — 312.

III.— Of the CTTERENTS 312

General Remarks, 312; Drift of Bottles, 313; Depths of Current, 315;
Definitions, 316.

1. Of Rennell's Current; or the Current Athwart the entrance of the

English Channel 318

2. The North African Current, an Easterly and S.E. Drift to the Coasts

of Europe and Africa 327

3. The Guinea Current, being an Easterly Stream Across the Atlantic,

and along the Coast of Africa, into the Bights of Benin and Biafra. . . . 339

4. The Sargasso Sea 347

5. The Equatorial Currents 355

6. Currents of the Caribbean Sea and the Mexican Gulf 364

7. The Gulf Stream 381

8. North- Fasterly Set to the Coasts of Europe, &c 416

9. The Arctic or Labrador Current 424

Icebergs, Ice Islands, and Drift Ice in the Arctic L urreut 434

IV.— MAGNETIC VARIATION, with a Chart 442

V.— Of PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC 445

1. General Remarks 445

2. To and from the English Channel 448

3. To and from the St. Geoige's Channel 452

CONTENTS.

PAGE

4. Of Ships bound Across the Equator — To and from the East Indies, &c. . 460

Leaving the Channel, 462 ; Passage to Madeira, 463 ; Approaching
and Crossing the Equator, 465 ; The Return toward England,
484.

5. Routes to and from the Senegal and Gambia 484

6. Sailing Directions for the Navigation to and of Western Africa 486

7. Of Ships bound to and from the West Indies, with Instructions for

Navigating therein 493

Directions for Sailing to and from the West Indies and North America,

from the Derrotero de las Antillas 497

Particular Instructions for the Navigation of the Windward Islands, &c. 503
General Remarks on the Navigation of the Caribbean Sea, from Lee-
ward to Windward, by Lieutenant Greevelink 507

Steam Navigation between Tobago and Demerara 508

Navigation to Jamaica via St. Juan, Porto Rico, Cape Haytien and St.

Jago de Cuba 509

Between Grenada and Jamaica 511

Jamaica to the bar of Maracaybo, by Edw. Dunsterville, Esq 512

The Channels of Providence 514

Directions for Proceeding to Demerara, &c, from the N.E 514

8. Of ships bound to and from the Northern Ports of America 516

The Great Cirele Track, 516 ; Remarks by Captain Charles Hare, 517;
Gulf of St. Lawrence 520

9. Between Europe and New York, &c 522

Tables of Crossings from Maury, 524, 525.

10. Steam Tracks to and from America 526

11. Routes between Northern Europe and the United States 534

12. From the United States to the Equator 537

SECTION IV.

PARTICULAR DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS
OF THE ATLANTIC ; WITH DIRECTIONS FOR SAILING, ETC.

1. England, Ireland, France, Spain, and Portugal 540

The English Channel, 540 ; Description of the Coasts, &c, 540—556 ;
St. George's Channel, 556 ; Ireland, South Coast, 557 — 564 ; Coast
of France, 564—572.

Bay of Biscay, 567 ; Coast of Spain, 572 ; Portugal, 575.
N. a. o. b

x CONTENTS.

PAGE

2. The Coasts of Africa, from Tangier to Cape Mesurado 577

Cautionary Notice, 577 ; Tangier, &c,, 577 ; Cape Spartel, 578 ; Coast
of Maroceo, 578 — 590 ; Wedinoon, or Noon, 591 ; Currents along
Shore, between Cape Spartel and Cape Boiador, 591.

Cape Boiador to Cape Blanco, 592 ; Cape Boiador, 593 ; Cape Blanco,
598.

Bank of Arguin, &c, 600 ; Portandic, 602 ; Senegal, 603 ; Cape Verde,
606 ; Goree, 608 ; Dakar, 609.

River Gambia, 612; Bissagos and Bljooga Islands, 617; Bulama or
Boolam, 623 ; Rio Nunez, 626 ; River Compoonee, 630.

Cape Verga, 630 ; Rio Pongo, 631 ; Isles de Los, 632 ; Isles de Los to
Sierra Leone, 636.

Sierra Leone, &c, 640 ; Freetown, 642 ; Sherboro' Inlet, 646 ; Shoals
of St. Anne, 647; Cape Mount, 648 ; Cape Mesurado, 649.

3. The Azores, or Western Islands 650

St. Michael's, 653 ; Isle of St. Mary, 662 ; Formigas Bank and Rocks,
664 ; Dollabarats Shoal, &c., 665 ; Terceira, 668 ; Pico, 673 ; Fayal,
674 ; St. George, 677 ; Graciosa, 678 ; Flores, 679 ; Corvo, 683. .

4. The Islands of Madeira and Porto Santo 685

Porto Santo, 685—687 ; Desertas, 687 ; Madeira, 688—699 ; Funchal,
692.

5. The Canaries, or Canary Islands 699

The Salvages, 701 ; Lanzarote, 702 ; Fuertaventura, 704 ; Canaria, or
Grand Canary, 706; Tenerife, 708 ; Palma, 712; Gomera, 713;
Ferro, or Hierro, 714 ; Directions for Sailing among the Islands,
715 ; Of the Calms of the Canary Islands, 715.

7. The Cape Verde Islands 716

Ilha de Sal, or Salt Island, 717 ; Bonavista, 718 ; Bonetta Rock, 719;
Lctok Rock, 721 ; Isle of Mayo, 721 ; St. Iago, 722 ; Fuego, or Fogo,
725 ; Brava, 726 ; St. Nicolas, 726 ; Raza, Branco, and Sta. Lucia,
727 ; San Vicente, 728 ; St. Antonio, 731.

8. Bermudas, or Somers' Islands 732

Bermuda Squalls, 735 ; Gibbs' Hill Lighthouse, 735 ; The Reef, 736 ;
Ireland Island, 739 ; Great Bermuda Island, 740 ; St. George's Island,
743 ; Remarks and Directions, 745 — 751.

9. Rockall 751

1 0. Sable Island, off Nova Scotia 753

11. Penedo de S. Pedro, or St, Paul's Islets 754

12. The Rocas, &c 756

13. The Coasts and Islands of America in general 758

The Newfoundland Banks, 758 ; St. John's, Newfoundtand, 759 ; Cape
Race, 761 ; Halifax. 763 ; Cape Sable, 765 ; Boston, 766 ; Nantucket,
771 ; New York, 772 ; Delaware, 775 ; The Chesapeake, 778 ; Cape
Lookout, Cape Fear, 781 ; Cape Roman, 782 ; Charleston, 782.

CONTENTS. x i

SECTION V,

ACCOUNT OF THE ROCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS IN THE
NORTH ATLANTIC.

PAGE

General Remarks 785

Shoals, &c, to the Northward of Latitude 40° 788

between the Equator and Latitude 40° 795

Tables of Rocks in the North Atlantic 800

Table A, Rocks whose existence is very doubtful, 800 ; Table B, Rocks,
&c, reported, but do not exist, 801—804.

Volcanic Region 804

Discoloured Water 807

Depth, Temperature, &c, of the North Atlantic 812

Sounding, 812 ; Deep Sea Exploring Expeditions, 813; Soundings in
connection with laying the Atlantic Cables, 815 — 816; Cruise of
H.M.S. Challenger, 817—818.

Depth of the Atlantic and Chart, 818; Table of Soundings between 40°
and 50° N., 819 ; Between 30° and 40" N.,.820 ; Between 20° and 30"
N., 821 ; Between the Equator and 20° N., 821 ; Temperature, 822 ;
Of the Surface Water, 822—823 ; Of the Deep Sea, 824—825 ;
Saltness and Density of the Ocean, 825 — 828; Circulation of Ocean
Water, 828—830 ; Animal Life, 830—831.

Account of the Fine Dust which often falls on Vessels in the Atlantic Ocean. . 831

On Magnetism and the Compass 835

History and Principles, 835 ; Terrestrial Magnetism, 836 ; Variation,
838 ; Dip, 838 ; Intensity, 839 ; Local Deviation, 840 ; Dr. Scoresby
on the Changes which take place in the Magnetism of Iron Ships,
841 — 843; Extracts from the Reports of Captain F. J. Evans on the
Compass, its best Position in an Iron Ship, &c, 843 — 847.

Classification of the Clouds, chiefly by Luke Howard 847

Squalls 851

Marine Thermometers 853

Remarks on the Barometer, by Admiral FitzRoy and others 855

Alphabetical Index 861

xii CONTENTS.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

1. Chart of the Winds to face Title page.

2. Chart of the British Isles, showing the Barometric Readings, &c 188

3. Diagrams of the Trade Wind .201

4. Anti-Trade or Passage Winds 231

5. Winds at Liverpool 250

6. Chart of the Courses of Various Hurricanes 259

7. The Currents of the North Atlantic 312

'8. Chart of the Magnetic Variation in 1879 445

9. Routes over the Atlantic Ocean 445

10. Chart Illustrating the Best Monthly Routes across the Equator, by Captain

Toynbee 466

11. St. Michael's Island, Azores 659

1 2. The Island of Madeira 689

13. Grassy Bay, Bermudas 720

14. Bottom Chart Illustrating the Depths of the Atlantic 818

THE

NOETH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

SECTION I.

TABLES OF DETERMINED POSITIONS, AND THE AUTHORITIES,
THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS, ETC.

The North Atlantic Ocean is the smallest of all the great divisions of the Ocean,
but it has ever been of far greater importance to man than all others collectively. It
owes this great maritime superiority to the great proportionate length of its varied
coast line, which perhaps nearly equals all other navigable seas, and to the vast area
drained by the rivers falling into it, which give ready access and intercommunication
to seats of dense and inland population. It is from these causes that the inhabitants
of its maritime countries have, in all ages, applied themselves to navigation ; and it is
more than probable that the facilities thus afforded by it for commerce and travel has
caused the nations who inhabit the vicinities of those vast inland seas and bays which
distinguish the Atlantic to make greater progress in civilization than those in any
other part of the globe.

The area of the North Atlantic does not comprise more than about one-eleventh
part of the entire ocean. From its having been the great highway for so many ages,
its history, features, and phenomena are better known than any other, and we are
now enabled to give a far more perfect view of it — in every aspect — than of the rest
of the world of waters.

It may be important in some mercantile questions to define the boundaries of the
various divisions of the Ocean, but this has not.been authoritively done for the whole
of the world.

In 1845, the Royal Geographical Society of London appointed a committee to
define the limits of the various oceans ; and their report defines : —

" The limits of Arctic and Antarctic Oceans, respectively to be the Arctic and
Antarctic Circles ; that the limits of the Atlantic on the North and South, be the
Arctic and Antarctic Circles ; that its western limit be the coast of America, as far
South as Cape Horn, and thence prolonged on the meridian of that Cape, until it
meets the Antarctic Circle ; that its eastern limit be the shores of Europe and Africa,
as far South as the Cape of Good Hope, and thence prolonged on the meridian of
Cape Agulhas, till that meridian cuts the Antarctic Circle."

N. A. O. B

2 INTRODUCTION.

Our present work deals exclusively with the northern portion of the area thus
defined, or that part which is separated from the southern by the Equator.

The length of the coast lines which bound the North Atlantic and its chief bays,
(except the Mediterranean), measured around their principal sinuosities, is not less
than 02,000 miles; if more minutely estimated it would amount to much more. A
table is given presently, which will show the numbers which make up this sum, and
which are relatively equal. Of these coasts about 7,000 miles, or one-ninth, remain
unsurveyed; but they are the Arctic regions, unfrequented by commerce. Of the
remainder, two-fifths have been surveyed by the British Government, and three-fifths
by foreign powers.

The coasts of the Atlantic are now represented with the most minute accuracy in
nearly all places of interest to the sailor. The elaborate surveys which have
nearly approached completion have been in progress during a greater portion of the
present century ; and in some cases, as the coasts of Spain, and some parts of our
own shores, at the latter part of the last century.

The first portion of this volume consists of a selection of the principal geographical
points established in these operations, and appended to them are some notes, which
will sufficiently explain their nature. In former editions we were led to discuss the
merits of various authorities and the discrepancies between them, which were often
considerable in amount ; but now these differences have been so removed, and such
minute exactness attained, that whatever notes there may be on this topic, must be
rather taken as subjects of cariosity than of practical utility.

It is therefore manifestly impossible that the seaman in the ordinary pursuit of his
calling can hope to improve what has cost so much labour, and such refined appliances.
Almost every point in the geographic tables which follow may be taken as a point of
departure by which he may correct his reckoning or rate his chronometer ; and the
explanatory notes appended will serve to give him confidence, and afford information
upon this important section of hydrography.

The first chart of the Atlantic, upon a large scale, was published in Amsterdam by
the predecessors in the still existing house of Van Keulen, in the middle of the last
century. It was issued under the title of the Spanish or West Indian Sea ; it con-
tained some useful details, amidst a thousand errors. The second, entitled a Chart
of the Atlantic Ocean, was engraved at London, on the circular projection, invented
by Mr. Murdoch, but was found to be extremely inaccurate, and the constructor added
to the Archipelago of Cape Veide, two islands, under the names of St. Philip and St.
John, neither of which existed ; these games being sometimes given by the Portuguese
to the Islands Fogo and Brava.

The next, which was the first of the kind published in this country, was con-
structed by M. de la llochette, a painstaking and talented hydrographer, in 1777;
and was published by the house whence the present work issues, in that year. It was
drawn upon the basis of the observations of M. Fleurieu, and for many years was in
large demand ; of which some degiee of proof may arise from its having been during
the period repeatedly copied, and illegally published. In the course of time many
improvements were obtained, and it was superseded, in 1S12, by another of the same
scale and size, constructed by Mr. John Purdy, a name well known to mariners for
many years. This chart, in its various editions, did good service to seamen for a long

INTRODUCTION. 3

period, and still is deserving of confidence, as representing most of the features
requisite, with sufficient accuracy, to ensure the safety of navigation.

These charts in their turn, having required many improvements, from the "Teat
acquisition of exact knowledge which characterizes the present day, it was deemed
necessary to supersede them by the new charts which have been published by the
proprietor of this work, as compiled from the now nearly perfect geographical data.
They moreover exhibit, at one view, a summary, in a graphic form, of all that
range of phenomena with which hydrography has of late been enriched.

But there is one drawback to the great increase of observation. Each department
of hydrography is overloaded for practical every-day use,and the seaman would waste
much time in endeavouring to elicit some system from the multifarious authorities he
has now before him. A system of mean results has therefore been adopted, as will
be hereafter explained, under the various sections which follow.

Hydrography, as at present understood, commenced with Captain Cook, in his
celebrated first voyage to the South Seas, in 1768. Previous to this, our coasts were
represented and corrected by the rude draughts and imperfect reckonings of pains-
taking mariners, in the pursuit of their profession ; but the extended practice of
lunars, and the use of chronometers, soon made great improvements in geographic
representation. Captain Cook, prior to his appointment to the great Exploring Ex-
pedition, was employed in surveying portions of the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; and the
first work which he published was a series of charts of the South and West Coasts
of Newfoundland. It is very interesting to know that the great circumnavigator's
earliest works have outlived all their contemporaries. His charts, published by the
predecessor of the proprietor of this work, are still in demand, and have been till
recently the onty faithful representations extant.

Our present object is not to give a history of the progress of charts, or we might
here present a long catalogue of those worthy observers, who, by patient investigation,
and multiplied observation, made the geography of the ocean nearly as good, for the
mariner's use, as the far more elaborate public surveys which have superseded them.
These last have the exclusive merit of being connected, and each portion placed in
exact relation to every other portion — a feature which is owing to the magnificent
systems of triangulation, which are now extended over the most important portions
of the civilized world. The degree of accuracy, and the extent of these, may be
understood, when it is asserted that the whole of the positions hereafter given on the
coasts of Europe, between Norway and Spain, do not vary from the absolute truth
more than a few feet, *

It is the defect of detached observations that they do not exactly accord with those
by different individuals. It was the discrepancies arising from this source, which
necessitated the discussions formerly given on Atlantic geography. But still there
is much that was useful in the older works, which is too often forgotten in the mul-
tiplicity of detail collected by modern surveyors, which overload as it were the sub-
jects they embrace with too great a mass of knowledge for general use. Toward the
end of last century, there were several names which deserve especial mention here,
as their works will bear every comparison with those of their more favoured suc-
cessors. Among these was Murdoch Mackenzie, who surveyed a large portion of
the western shores of Scotland, and all the coasts in the North of Ireland. Grccrae

4 INTRODUCTION.

Spence, an admirable surveyor, surveyed the southern coasts of England, between
1772 and 1812.

The coasts of Spain and Portugal laid down in accordance with the valuable sur-
veys of Tofifio, Franzini, &c, and in the delineation of the African Coasts, with the
islands off the same, the positions afforded by Messrs. Fleurieu, Verdun de la Crenne,
Borda, Pingre, and Roussin of France, were the authorities for our charts.

The American Coasts were originally exhibited according to the observations and
surveys of our illustrious countryman, Captain Cook, as before mentioned; those of
Lieutenant Michael Lane, of Mr. Dcs Barres, of Captain Holland, of Messrs. "Wright,
Mason, Dixon, and de Mayne, rectified with the observations of Dr. Rittenhouse,
Mr. Ellicott, Mr. Hassler, and other astronomers. &c, of the United States.

For the correct delineation of the West India Islands, much of our earlier in-
formation was derived from the labours of Messrs. Puysegur, Verdun, Borda, Pingre
and other foreign officers, whose names will be for ever entitled to respect. They
w r ere the pioneers who were followed by the skilful observers acting under the orders
of the Hydrographic Directors of Madrid ; particularly the Capts. Joaquin Fr. Fidalgo,
Cosme de Churruca, and Jose del Rio ; to whom, and to the Baron von Humboldt,
Messrs. Oltmanns ,&c, we were indebted for the proximate situations of many puints
of Spanish America. These have again been adjusted by British Officers.

Tho numerous surveyors who have seconded these scientific leaders in the com-
pletion of our hydrographic representations, will be alluded to in connection with
their respective labours hereafter.

While we can refer with confidence to the charts of the various coast lines, as
beiii"- so perfect, that no possible alteration will be made in the fixed features of the
land, that could be rendered applicable upon a general chart, there is one branch
that is not so satisfactory. This is the list of detached dangers, as rocks or shoals,
which have been from time to time reported, and which, unless disproved, are a con-
stant and daily source of great anxiety to those who have to pass their vicinity. To
deal with the conflicting and ambiguous statements recorded, is most perplexing.
Still it is most essential that no danger should remain unmarked, although its exis-
tence or situation may be involved in great doubt. It is of the utmost importance to
the facility and safety of navigation, that these dangers should be correctly placed
and characterized, and in the case of a fresh discovery, some test, as by the sounding
lead, ought to be applied, to determine its absolute existence. This is now most im-
perative ; without such guarantee, any such announcement is next to worthless, as
being authentic, and most mischievous, as leading to distrust and anxiety. All that
we know of this subject is recorded in a later part of this work, and in the chart,
but it may be stated that of late the extended practice of deep-sea soundings, has
actually disproved the existence of many apparently well-authenticated dangers, and
thrown very great doubt upon others.

It has been above stated that the length of the coast line of the North Atlantic
Ocean, between the Arctic Circle, and the Equator (excluding the Mediterranean), is
about 62,000 miles, more or less. This estimate is higher than has been usually
attributed, but it is the result of a measurement around the present surveyed coasts,
omitting the minor sinuosities and smaller islets. If these were taken into the ac-
count the sum would be much greater, as may be supposed, upon an examination, for

INTRODUCTION. 5

example, of the vast range of islets which front the coasts of Norway and Finland,
hut it is the length of line over which the patient marine surveyor has had to toil in
the execution of his arduous but most important duties. These numbers, however,
but faintly express, as indeed anything we could say here would fall short of telling,
how much has been done to bring the hydrography of this ocean to its present con-
dition. It is enough here to draw the seaman's attention to a few of the results of
those costly and laborious surveys which he benefits by.

Of the 62,834 miles of sea coast, the English Government have surveyed about
2-3,600 miles; foreign governments about 31,600 miles, the remaining being un-
surveyed.

Of the coasts of Europe, the English Admiralty and Ordnance have only sur-
veyed about 4,000 miles out of 19,000 miles.

The following Table of the details of the length, &c, of each country, is therefore
given rather as a matter of curiosity than material utility, and will form a fitting
introduction to the Geographic Tables which follow.

England ; South Coast and

Channel Islands

„ East Coast

„ West Coast

Scotland ; East and North

Coasts, and Islands

„ West Coast and Ids.

Ireland

Total British Isles

Norway ; West & South Coasts
Denmark ; East Coast and Ids.

Prussia

Russia and Finland ...... ....

Sweden

Total Baltic, §c

Denmark ; West Coast and

Fasroe Islands

Hanover

Holland

Belgium

France

Spain (to Gibraltar)

Portugal

Total Coasts of Europe

Marocco, &c.

Agadir to Equator

Total Africa

Total Atlantic Islands

Iceland

Greenland

Hudson's Bay, &c.

Labrador ; East Coast

Total Arctic Lands, §e. . .

SURVEYED BY

British Ordnance
and Admiralty.

Dan. & Norw. Gts.
Danish Govmnt.
Prus. & Dan. Govt.
Buss. & Swed. Gt.
Swedish Govmnt.

Danish Govmnt.
Dutch Govment.

French Govment.

Spanish Govment.
Various

Fr. and Brit. Gts.
British Govment.

British Govment.

Danish Govment.
Not Surveyed

DATE OF SURVEY.

1792-1852
1830—1859
1772—1860

1815-1850
1750 — 1863

1828-1858

1806—1811

1816—1839

1S35 — 1858
1826

1783-1816

1845

Extent
of Coast
Ge. miles

438
470
748

810

400

1320

2900
1585
625
2720
2360

460
4430

1500
2000
4000
1140

TOTAL
GEO.

MILES.

4236

10,190

730

180

640

1687

915

540

19,082

4890
2990

8340

INTRODUCTION.

Extent

TOTAL

COUNTRY.

SURVEYED BY

DATE OF SURVEY.

of Coast
Ge. miles

GEO.

MILES.

Newfoundland ; East and South

British Govment.

1765—1867

2765

1766, 1819, 1849

2820

Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and

1824— 18G0

1765

Total British America ....

7350

United States ; East Coast ....

U.S. Government

1817

3735

„ „ South Coast . .

2070

••

6505

Mexico, and Central America. .

Span. & Brit. Gts.

1S08

3295

Colombia and Guayana

Span. Fr. & Brit.

4100

West India Islands (British) . .

Various

2947

Not properly Sur.

2350

685

Total West Indies, §c

13,377

The following shows the general amount, the details of which are given above : —

COUNTRY.

EUROPE

AFRICA

ISLANDS

AMERICA

Total Length of the Coasts of the North Atlantic Occnn . .

TOTAL GEO. MILES.

19,082

4,890

2,990
35,872

62,834

( 7 )

POSITIONS OF PLACES, ETC.

I. ENGLAND AND WALES.

* # * The FIGURES in Brackets refer to the Notes subjoined to each Section.

lat. x.

LONG. AV.

VAR.
"WEST,

187S-9.

AUTHORITIES.

GREENWICH, Royal
Observatory [1]

London, Cupola of St.
Paul's Cathedral

Gravcsend, Church

Shecrness Flagstaff

Harwich, old Lighthouse . .
CM'ordness N. Lighthouse ,
Lowestoft Lighthouse

Cromer Lighthouse

Spurn High Lighthouse . .
Flamborough Lighthouse. .
Hartlepool Heugh Light . .
Sunderland North Pier

Lighthouse

Souter Point Lighthouse . .
Tynemouth Lighthouse . .
Farn Island, S.W. Lightho.
Berwick Lighthouse

North Foreland, Lightho . .
South Foreland, High

Lighthouse

Dover Castle, the Keep . .

Folkestone Church

New Romney Church

Lydd Church

Dungeness Lighthouse. . . .

Bexhill Church

Beachey Head Lighthouse .

Brighton Church

Shoreham Church

Selsey Church ,

Chichester Spire

Owers Lightvessel

Portsmouth College

Bembridge Lightvessel . .

Southsea Castle

Calshot Castle

Southampton Pier

Hurst Castle, East Light. .
Dunnose, Station in the

Survey

St. Catherine's Lighthouse,

Isle of Wi-ht

51 2S -10

51 30 49

51 26 39
51 26 47

51 56 3S

52 5 36
52 29 12

52 55 27

53 34 41

54 6 5S
54 41 47

54 55

54 58 10

55 1 5
55 36 55
55 45 53

51 22 30

8 2i

7 46
4 45

50 59 7

50 57 5

50 54 40

50 50 45

50 44 15

50 49 32
50 50
50 45 19
50 50 11
50 39 41
50 48 2
50 41 40
50 46 39
50 49 7
50 53 42
50 42 26

50 37 8

50 31 30

5 47

Long. E.

22 10

44 50

17 25

1 35 12
1 45 28
1 19

5
7 11
4 51

10 27

1 20
1 21 30
1 24 52
1 39
1 5S 57

1 26 4S

1 22 22
1 19 23
1 11 6
50 22
54 29
58 IS
28 48
12 5S
Long. W.
7 40
16 19
45 55
46 43
39 52
6 15
1 40
5 14
18 6
24 23
32 5

1 11 50
1 17 47

20 10

19 20

IS 15
18 20

19 10

The Astronomers Royal.

The Grand Trigonometri-
cal or Ordnance Survey,
one of the great works of
which our country oujiht to
feel proud. It was commenced
with a view to ascertain the
differenceof longitude between
the Observatories of Paris
and Greenwich, under General
Roy. The principal triangu-
lationwas gradually extended
under the successive direc-
tions of Colonel Williai s
General Mudge, Gen. Colbv,
Colonel Hall, and Colonel Su-
llen ry James. It was com-
pleted and the account of it
published in 1S58. The bases
upon which it is constructed
were measured on the shore of
Salisbury Plain, and upon
Lough Foylc, Inland, and the
refinement attained may be
judged of when it is stated,
that the difference between
the calculated and measured
lengths of these bases was less
than 2± inches. The mean
length of the sides of the
great triangles is 35-4 miles,
of which 11 exceed 100 miles
in length ; the longest is 111
miles, i.e. from Slieve Donard
in Ireland, county Down, to
Sea Fell, Cumberland.

[1] GiiEENwrcH. — From 720
observations of the Pole Star,
mndo during IS months of 1825
and 1826, the latitude of the
Eoyal Observatory was deduced
as 51° 28' 38". By a later correc-
tion it is placed 61" 2S'40' , .16;
but by the Grand Trigonometri-
cal Survey it is taken as 51° 28'
38',o0.

rOSITIONS OF PLACES.
ENGLAND AND WALES— Continued.

YAR.

1872-3.

authorities.

Noodles Lighthouse

Christchurch Head

Poole Church

Portland Upper Lightho. . .

Lyme Cohh

Hob's or Bob's Nose

Berry Head, Flagstaff ....
Start Point, Lighthouse . .
Bolt Head, Signal Station
Eddystone Lighthouse ....
Mewstone, near Plymouth

Sound

Plymouth New Church . .
Plymouth Old Church ....
St. Nicholas' or Drake's Is-
land, Plymouth Sound . .
Lighthouse, on the W. end

of Breakwater

Meridian Tablet, on the

Breakwater [2]

Penlee Beacon

Rame Head, Flagstaff ....
Dodman or Dcadman Point

Flagstaff

St. Anthony's Head, Light

house

Pendennis Castle, Flagstaff
St. Kevern Steeple ....
Blackhead, Flagstaff. . . .
Lizard East Lighthouse

St. Michael's Mount

St. Paul's Steeple, Mount's

Bay

St. Leven's, or Guethens-

bras Point, Flagstaff
Wolf Rock, Lighthouse

Land's End Stone

Longship's Lighthouse . .
Scilly Islands, St. A

nes' Lighthouse

, St. Mary's Windmill

, St. Mary's Flagstaff,

at the Fort ,

, St. Martin's Day

mark

Bishop Rock Lighthouse.
St. Agnes' Beacon, Corn

wall

Godrevy Island Lighthouse
Trevose Head, Lighthouse
Hartland Point Lighthouse
Lundy Island, Lighthouse

Minchcad Steeple

Braunton Sands, Lower

Lighthouse

Burnham (or Bridgewater)

Lighthouse

50 39 40
50 42 38
50 42 51
50 31 18
50 43 11
50 27 50
50 24 2
50 13 IS
50 13 15
50 10 49

50 18 31
50 22 22
50 22 15

50 22 4

50 20 22

50 19 59
50 12 25
50 18 53

50 13 20

50 8 35
50 8 49
50 3 7
50 27

49 57 34

50 7 3

50 5 2G

50 2 10

49 56 45

50 4 8
50 4 4

49 oo 30
49 54 32

49 oo

49 58 2

49 52 29

50 18 28
50 14 32

50 32 55

51 1 24
51 10
51 12 42

51 4 17

51 14 ol

1 34 32
1 44 31

1 58 55

2 27 18

2 oo 29

3 26 43
3 28 14
3 38 28

3 48

4 15 53

5 33

7 16
7 32

4 18 18

4 9 27

4 8 52
4 10 40
4 12 29

4 4S 1

59 31
2 45

5 8

6 35
12 4
28 37

5 32 43

5 40 46
5 48 14
5 41 31

5 44 43

6 20 40

16 59

6 18 13

6 15 53
6 26 39

19 10

19 35

20
20 35

12 57
23 50
2 3
31 30
40 20
28 4

4 12 19

2 59 52

21 40

20 50

21 25

21 30

21 10

The Grand Trigonome-
trical or Ordnance Survey
of England, &c.

Remarks.

As a matter of curiosity it may
bo mentioned that, by tbeso ela-
borate computations, the equato-
rial radius of the earth is found
to be 20,926,500 feet; and the
Polar radius is 20,855,400 feet,
and a mean degree of the meri-
dian contains 304,016 feet. The
ellipticity of the earth is as 293
is to 294, and the mean density
is 5-31G.

These geodetic operations
have been now carried to such
a degree of refinement, that the
varied density of the strata in
different regions has a marked
effect on their results. It has
been argued by Archdeacon
Pratt (of Calcutta) that this is
sufficient to cause a deflection of
from 20" to 30" in the perpen-
dicularity of the plumb-line ;
and this of course affects, in a
corresponding degree, the de-
terminations of the exact lati-
tude, and with that the true
figure of the earth ; but it is
taken now, that the depression
of the poles is about as 294 to
295'0.

In the public journals of 1834,
it was stated that Dr. Tiarks
had ascertained, in the summer
of 1822, by the comparison of
sixteen excellent chronometers,
carried backward and forward
between Greenwich and Fal-
mouth, that the western longi-
tude of the latter had been given
at 4 - 4 seconds of time, or 1
minute and 6 seconds too little,
by the first Trigonometric Sur-
vey. In consequence, 29 of the
best chronometers belonging to
the Admiralty were subsequent-
ly committed to the cave of the
doctor, and a vessel was ap-
pointed wherein be was to sail,
backward and forward, between
Dover and Falmouth, until tho
lonpitude in time, between these
stations, and between them and
Portsmouth, as an intermediate
station, was settled beyond any

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
ENGLAND AND WALES— Continued.

LAT. N.

AUTHORITIES.

Usk Lighthouse

Bridgewater Spire . . .

Avon Lights

Bristol Cathedral

Flatholm Light

Swansea Castle

Mumble's Lighthouse .

Worm's Head

Nash Point, E. Lighthouse

Rosilly B arrow

Pembrea Steeple

Tenby Spire

Caldy Island, Lighthouse

Milford Steeple

Hulberton Church ....

St. Anne's High Lighthouse

The Islet Grassholm. . .

Smalls Lighthouse . . .

St. David's Cathedral .

Ramsay Island, highest
point

Bishop and Clerks, north-
ernmost

Cardigan Isle, highest point

Cardigan Steeple

Aberystwith, Lighthouse . .

Abeiystwith, Station ....

Cardigan Bay Lightvessel .

Bardsey Lighthouse

St. Tudwall Lighthouse . .

Caernarvon Bay Lightvesl.

South Stack Lighthouse . .

Holyhead Lighthouse ....

Skerries Light j

The West Mouse

Amlwch Station

Great Orme's Head, signal

Abergele or Abergali
Steeple

Air Point Lighthouse . .

Leasowe Lighthouse ....

Bidstone Lighthouse . .

Black Rock Lighthouse

Liverpool, St. Paul's
Church

North-West Lightship . .

Formby Lighthouse ....

Formby N.W. Mark....

Uossal Point Landmark

Fleetwood New Lighthouse

Wyre Lighthouse

Lancaster Steeple

Walney I. Light

St. Bees Head, Lighthouse

"Whitehaven, Pier -head
Lighthouse

Lee Scar Lighthouse ....

N. A O.

51 32 24
51 7 41
51 30 2
51 27 6
51 22 30
51 37 13
51 33 59
51 33 56
51 24 13
51 34 35
51 41 18
51 40 20
51 37 52
51 42 43
51 -12 56
51 40 55
51 43 oo
51 43 14
51 52 56

51 51 43

2 59 33

2 59 39
2 42 15

2 35 29

3 7 28
3 55 32
3 58 12

18 56
33 3
15 51
15 28
41 51
40 59
39
3 11
5 10 28
5 2S 40
5 40 86
5 14 53

2 20 44

51 54 10

23 6

52 7 54

41 26

52 4 59

39 17

52 24 48

4 24

52 25 49

3 19

52 24

52 44 58

47 55

52 47 50

28 10

53 5 45

44 15

53 18 23

4 41 54

53 18 50

37 76

53 25 15

3(3 25

53 25 4

33 11

53 23

19 17

53 20 6

51 7

53 17 8

34 57

53 21 24

19 15

53 24 46

7 28

53 24 2

4 23

53 26 38

2 2

53 24 39

59 30

53 30 20

31 30

53 32 19

3 55

53 32 32

5 2S

53 oo 15

2 56

oo oo 35

53 51 12

1 46

54 3 4

48 14

54 2 54

10 33

54 30 48

38 8

54 33 10

35 50

54 51 46

3 24 43

20 25

20 5

20 15

21 30

The Grand Trigonome-
trical or Ordnance Sit.vky
of England, &c.

doubt. The result was, as to all
places on the South Coast of
England, between the meridians
of Greenwich and Falmouth, if
1 second be added to every 4
minutes of longitude, as given
by the original Survey, the ex-
act longitude, according to the
chronometers, will bo obtained.
These differences have since
been entirely settled by the re-
examination of the triangles,
now completed.

21 -.0

20 45

21 15

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
ENGLAND AND WALES— Continued.

VAR.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Skinburncss Lighthouse . .

54 52 46

3 22 46

O 4

The Grand Trigonome-

54 38 28

3 34 11

trical or Ordnance Survey

Soul hern ess, Lighthouse . .

54 52 22

3 35 37

of England.

Criffell, Station in the Sur-

vey, 1,831 feet above the

54 56 44

3 36 55

Isle of Man.

•

Point of Ayre Light

54 24 56

4 22 1

21 40

North Berule, Station.

1,804 feet high

54 17 27

4 23 32

Snea Fell, Stat. 2,400 ft.

54 15 50

4 27 35

Chicken Rock Lightho. .

54 2

4 50 45

54 12 45

4 42 33

NOTES.

1. The Maritime Surveys of our coasts are now so complete (with some partial excep-
tions), that little can be desired for the use of the navigator. These works, based chiefly
upon the Ordnance Survey, -would occupy too much space here to enumerate ; but it would
seem to be somewhat unjust if no allusion was made to the predecessors of our present
government surveyors, who, with very limited means and great personal labour, produced
such excellent charts, that even in the present day they would be most trustworthy guides.
The names of the two Murdoch Mackenzies, Graeme Spence, and Joseph Huddart, deserve
especial mention.

VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

In the latter part of this volume, some observations on the general subject will be found,
among which, as to the secular change, which has now increased to a considerable amount
since many of the surveys were made, and which therefore requires attention, the more
especially since the introduction of an improved class of instruments, and the care de-
manded in the navigation of iron ships. We have given the present variation, reserving
such remarks upon former results for the section specially devoted to the subject.

The variation is now decreasing on the Coast of England at the rate of about 9' or 10
per annum.

2.— ISLANDS AND COASTS OP SCOTLAND.

LAT. N.

YAH.

LONG. W.

WEST,

1878-9.

o « //

3 10 40

21 30

3 8 5

2 33 21

3 13 10

2 34 40

2 23 7

2 58 26

21 20

2 44 53

authorities.

EDINBURGH; the Ob-
servatory [lj

Inehkeith Lighthouse ....
Isle of May Lighthouse . .

East Lomond, 1,471 ft

Fifcness

Pell Rock Lighthouse ....

Dundee Law

Buddon-ness, High Light .

OJ 0/ z-j
56 2 1
56 11 8
OC, 14 31
56 17
56 26 4
56 28 41
56 28 7

The Grand Trigonome-
trical or Ordnance Survey
of Great Britain, at present
under the direction of Colonel
Sir Henry James.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
ISLANDS AND COASTS OF SCOTLAND— Continued.

LAT. N.

I VAR.
LONG. W. WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Arbroath, the Abbey

Red Head

Montrose, Round Tower

„ Spire

Girdleness Lighthouse
Aberdeen, Marischal Coll.
Aberdeen N. bkwtr. Ltho
Old Aberdeen ; Northern

blunt Spire

Belhelvie or Orrock, Dove

cote

Buchanness Lighthouse . .

Peterhead, Old Mill

Rattray Head, Pile

Fraserburgh Lighthouse . .
Kinnaird Head Lighthouse
Troup Head, Staff. . . .

Macduff, Spire

Covesea Skerries, Lightho.
Tarbetness, Lighthouse.
Noss Head, Lighthouse .
Duncansby Head, Station.
Dunnet Head, Lighthouse
ORKNEY— Pentland Sker
ries, Upper Light. . [2]

Stromness, Church ....

Hoy, Wart Hili

Cantick Head, Light . .

Start Point of Sanda.
Lighthouse

N, Ronaldshay, Lt.-ho. . .

Stronsay,Statn.in Survey

Fair Island, summit

Foul Island, sum. (1,369 ft.)

North Ron a Island

SHETLAND — Sumburgh
Head Lighthouse .

Brassa Island, summit

Lerwick ; the Fort Flag-
staff

Gardie House on Brassa

"Whalsey Island, summit

Brury Isle, Out Skerries

Yell Isle, Reafrith Kirk

Strandburg Ness, Fetlar

Fetlar Isle, summit ....

Haaf Gruna, summit. . . .

Balta Island, summit ....

Saxavord, Stat, in Survey

Lambness, on Unst

Burraford Holmes

Ramna Stacks

Ve Skerries, off St, Mag-
nus Bay

Fugloe Skerry, neai
Papa

Sea loway Castle

56 33 45

56 36 55
56 42 5

56 42 31
51 8 15

57 8
57 8

ot
33

57 10 11

57 15 52
57 28 14
57 30 44
57 36 52
57 41 51

57 42
57 41 38
57 40 5
51 43 15

57 51 55

58 28 38
58 40 22
58 40 19

58 41 26
58 57 49
58 42 2

58 47

59 16 42
59 23 5
59 5 38
59 32 54
59 8 28
59 7 16

59 51 7

0U 7 51

60 9 22
60 9 24
60 20 1
60 2 41
00 35 55
60 33 51
60 37 12
60 39 44
60 45 3
60 49 39
60 49
60 51
60 3.9 36

60 22 30

60 20 15
60 8 31

2 34 53
2 29 24
2 26 6
2 27 51
2 3 2
2 5 42
2 4 6

2 6 3

2 3 57

1 46 22

47 32

50 39

1
17 38
30
20 20
46 31

2 5
1 7

22 29

2 55 23

3 23 11
3 20 19

3 31 50

2 22
2 22
2 32
1
2
5

1 8
1 7
1

1 3
33
51
50
47
50
45

1 18

in
34
50
40
47

23
49

41
40
22
2
46
36
56
24
17
20
40
30
40

1 49 10

1 45
1 16 25

21 15

The Grand Trigonome-
trical or Ordnance Sur-
vey, as before stated.

22 40

22 20

21 30

21 10

21 '35

The Observations of Mr.
Geo. Thomas, R.N., on his
Survev of Shetland, <fec, 1S25
to 1833.

21 30

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
ISLANDS AND COASTS OF SCOTLAND— Continued.

VAK.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Western Coasts.

o , ,

, „

The Admiralty Survey,
based on the Ordnance Tri-

58 37 30
58 37 33

3 31 50

4 9 52

22 40

angulation.

Cape Wrath Lightho. [3]

Laxford, N.W. Point ....

5S 24 40

5 8 20

Bu Stoer, Lighthouse ...

58 15 52

5 22 12

Butt of the Lewis

58 31

6 15 35

24 40

llu Boa, Statn. in Survey

57 50 8

5 45 53

Stornoway Lighthouse, in

58 11 30
57 57 49

6 22 10
6 48 38

Glash or Scalpa, Lightho.

57 51 26

6 38 3

24 45

Storr Hill, in Mull

57 30 25

6 10 52

St. Kilda; Peak atN.E.end

57 49 2

8 35 30

Ben More, S. Uist; Statn.

57 15 31

7 17 35

Barra Head, Lighthouse . .

50 47 8

7 39 9

Skevryvore Lighthouse . .

56 19 24

7 6 45

24 15

Dubh Artach Lighthouse . .

56 8

6 38

Ardnamurchan Pt. Lt.-ho.

56 43 45

13 30

Tobermorcy Mull ; Lt. on

56 38

6 3 40

Lismore Lightho., Sound of

Mull

56 27 20

5 36 23

Ben Tartevil, or Tart-a-

bhaile, Islay Island

55 43 32

6 26 32

Pvhynns of Islay Lightho.

55 40 23

6 30 44

Jura Island, N. Pap. 2659

55 54 8

55 18 38

6 8

5 48 8

Mull of Cantyre, Lightho.

Sanda Island, Ship Bock

Light

55 16 30

5 34 55

Campbelltown, Devaar Lt.

55 25 45

5 32 16

Goat Fell, Arran Island . .

55 37 52

5 11 24

Ben Lomond, Station in

56 11 24
55 34 37

4 37 52
4 41 39

Pladda Lightho., Arran Id.

55 25 30

5 7 2

Little Cumbrae, New Light-

house

55 43 16
55 51 44

4 57 57
4 58 43

Toward Point, Lighthouse

Ayr Lighthouse

7,5 28 9

4 38 11

Turnberry Poii>t Lighthouse

55 19 30

4 50 20

Corsewell Point, Lightho.

55 25

5 9 30

Mull of Galloway, Lightho.

54 38 5

4 51 22

22 15

Southerness Lighthouse . .

55 52 22

3 35 37

. NOTES.
1. Edinburgh. — The geographic position of the Astronomical Observatory on the
Calton Hill, was given by the Ordnance Survey, in 1816, as longitude 3° 10' 54" W. But
this result appears to have been affected by a singular^ cause, which demonstrates the
refinement to which these operations have been carried. It has since been found that the
attraction of the mass of Arthur's Seat (a hill to the southward of it) has drawn the
plumb-line (or zenith sector) towards it, and thus produced an error of several seconds in
the calculation. This error was established in 1839, by Professor Henderson, who made

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

the longitude 3° 10' 45". Some interesting experiments were made on this curious point,
during the late Ordnance Survey, by which, not only the effect of mountainous masses on
surveying operations was ascertained, but also the density of the earth was established.

Since the completion of the triangulation of the Ordnance Survey, a new principle for
ascertaining the difference of longitude has come into operation. The extension of the
electric telegraph has placed Greenwich Observatory in direct connection with most other
important Observatories; and in April, 1857, a series of instantaneous signals was trans-
mitted between it and Edinburgh, under the direction, at the latter place, of Professor
Piazzi Smyth, the worthy son of the excellent Admiral Smyth, well known to all sailors.
These experiments definitely settled its longitude at 12 m 43 048 s in time, or 3° 10' 45.72" in
arc, concerning Mr. Henderson's previous result.

2. Orkneys, &c. — The Orkney Islands were originally surveyed by the elder Mackenzie.
Murdoch Mackenzie, F.R.S., was the first surveyor of our coasts, who conducted his opera-
tions on right principles. His first work, Orcadia, or the Orkney Inlands, xvith part of
Lewis, was done at his own expense. Its accuracy is great, and its utility is still unequalled.
It was published in 1750. He was afterwards employed by the king in surveying the
coasts of Ireland, &c. Later in life his works were attacked, most unjustly, by Dr. Anderson,
which called forth suitable replies and justification from John Clark, of Eldin, in 1785.
This work may be said to have commenced the Admiralty Surveys.

3. West of Scotland, and the Hebrides. — Up to quite a recent date the charts of
the whole of this portion of our shores remained nearly in the same state that they were left
by Murdoch Mackenzie. Notwithstanding their imperfections, however, statistics have shown
that no great detriment to navigation arose from their " disgraceful " condition, an epithet
which took 25 years of organized surveying parties, and £250,000 to remove.

We may here add that they were examined, and partially surveyed, by Captain Joseph
Iluddart, whose charts were long of good service. Captain Huddart also surveyed a great
portion of the St. George's Channel at the expense of the predecessors of the publisher of
this work.

3.— COASTS OF IRELAND, ETC.

YAH.

LAT. N.

LONG. w.

WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

The Northern Coast.

The Surveys of Capt. Win.

o / u

o ' '/

Mudge, R.N., F.R.A.S., made

Tory Island, Lighthouse . .

55 16 27

S 15

24 20

in co-operation with the Grand

Fannet Point, Lighthouse

55 16 34

7 37 52

Trigonometrical Survey of

Innistrahul, Lighthouse . .

55 25 56

7 13 37

Ireland, 1828-52.

Inishowen Head, Lightho.

55 13 38

6 55 38

Majnllisan Tower, L. Foyle

[1]

55 11 32

6 57 58

Port Rush

55 12 30
55 15
55 17 35

6 50 15
6 28 35
6 12 2

23 15

Rathlin Isle, Church

„ Lighthouse . .

55 18 10

6 10 40

Knocklaid Mountain (1,690

feet)

55 9 43
55 13 30

6 14 57
6 9 30

23 5

Fair Head

The Eastern Coast.

Tor Point

55 11 50

55 3

6 4 10
5 58 30

23 5

The Maidens, South Hock

54 55 54

5 43 5

Hunter Rock (9 feet) ....

54 52 45

5 45 30 1

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF IRELAND, ETC.— Continued.

Black Head

Carrickfeigus Castle

Belfast, Mouth of t lit

Lagan

„ DivisMt. (1,800ft.)

Bangor Castle

Copeland Lighthouse ....

Donaghadee, Pier Head . .

Balljhalbert, Fort

South Rock

St. John's Point, Light-
house

Slieve Donard ('2,707 ft.)..

^arlingford Lighthouse . .
Hill (1,580 ft.)

Cloglier Head

Drogheda, centre

Balbriggan, Light

St. Patrick's Island

Rockabill Lighthouse ....

Lambav Island, summit ..

Howth Hill, peak (5(55 ft.)

Howth Bailey, Lighthouse

Poolbesj Lighthouse

DUBLIN, Nelson's Pil. [2]

Kingstown, Lighthouse ..

Wicklow Head Upper Lt.

TaraHill

Fourth Mountain

Roslare Sand Hill

Tuskar Lighthouse

Tue Southern Coast.

Saltees Lightvessel

Coningmore Rock

Hook Lighthouse, near

Waterford

Helwiek Head

Mount Knockmeldown ....
Roche Point, Lighthouse . .
Daunt's Rock Lightvessel

Robert Head

Kinsale, Southern Light . .
Galley Head Lighthouse . .
Stags of Castiehaven . . .
Cape Clear, Old Lightho.
Fastnet Rock, Lighthouse . .
Crookhaven, Lighthouse . .

Mizen Head

Mount Gabriel

Sheep Head

Hungry Hill, Station in

Survey

Roancarrig Island Ltho. in

Bantry Bay

Signal Tower, Bear Island

LAT. N.

AUTHORITIES.

34 45

5 42
5 49 15

40 40

31 80

32 25
28 10

5 25 4

5 39

5 55

6 4
6 13

6 14
6 22
6 10 53
6 5 20
30

2
4 3

3 5
9 1

6 16 45
6 9
6 5
6 12 58
6 33 39
6 22 21
6 12 22

6 38 15
6 37 49

55 43
32 40
u3

8 15 14

8 17

8 20

8 31 58

8 57 10

9 13 46
9 29 30
9 36 25
9 42 31
9 50
9 32
9 51 40

9 47 27

9 44 49
9 o'.i 40

22 35

22 45

22 20

22 30

22 5

22 25

23 5

23 40

The Grand Trigonome-
trical Survey of Ireland,
and the Surveys of the late
Captain Mudge and other
Officers, 1828-52.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF IRELAND, ETC.— Continued.

VAR.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

The Western Coast.

Dursey Island, South Pt. . .

51 35 5

10 14 10

The Grand Trigonome-

Bull Hock

51 35 50

10 18 30

trical Survey, &c.

Skelligs, Lighthouse

51 46 6

10 32 20

Valentia Isle, Fort Crom-

51 56 50

10 19 15

24 35

Valentia Isle, Feaghmaan

Station at West end [3]

51 55 22

10 20 41

51 57 C

52 6 3

10 19
10 29

Dunraore Head, Dingle Bay

Tearaght Island Lighthouse

52 4 30

10 40

Foze Rock

52 1
52 7 20

10 39 40
10 34 30

Inishtuiskero Island

Mount Brandon, Station . .

52 14 6

10 15 10

Kilcradan Head, Lightho.

52 34 4

9 42 34

Scattery Id., Round Tower

52 36 42

9 31 15

Loop Head, Lighthouse . .

52 13 38

9 55 56

24 30

Mutton Island, Lighthouse

53 15 14

9 3 10

Arran Island, Lighthouse. .

53 7 38

9 42 6

Slyne Head, N. Lighthouse

53 23 59

10 14 1

Inishgort Lighthouse ....

53 49 35

9 40 12

Clare Island Lighthouse . .

53 49 38

9 58 58

Achil Head

53 58 20
53 35

10 16
10 3 26

25 20

Slieve More, Achil Island. .

Eagle Island, Lighthouse. .

54 16 59

10 5 32

Tawnaghmore, Station ....

54 17 39

9 35 47

Telling or Teelin Head. . . .

54 40 30

8 46 10

Rathlin O'Birne Lightho. . .

54 39 47

8 49 52

24 25

St. John's Point, Lightho.

54 34 8

8 27 33

Ballyshannon Church ....

54 30 11

8 11 47

Slieve League [summitl ,911

feet)

54 39 5

8 42 38

Bloody Farland (summit

1,000 feet)

55 8 14

8 15 41

24 15

Muckish Hill, eastern part

66 6 21

7 59 49

NOTES.

1. The positions of places on the Irish coasts depend upon the observations made in the
Trigonometrical or Ordnance Survey. The principal triangles, commencing with the
measurement of the base on the East side of Lough Foyle, in 1826-8, have been extended
over the whole area, between that period and 1832, and give results which may be prac-
tically taken as absolutely correct.

Since that period, the minute surveys of the land, on a very large scale, have also been
completed; and upon this basis our Admiralty surveyors have constructed our present
charts, by adding the soundings and maritime features outside the low water-line. This
s.'ries has only recently been completed for the use of the sailor, as shown on our charts,
The names of Mudge, Bedford, Wolfe, Beechey, Frazer, Church, and other officers, should
be mentioned in connection with those operations.

2. Dublin.— The Astronomical Observatory, 3 miles N.W. of Dublin, in lat. 52° 23' 13',
and longitude 6" 20' 30', is a point verified by triangulation as well as by observation.

3. Valentia.— One of the most important geodetical operations in connection with the
Ordnance Survey, was the chronometric determination of the difference of longitude

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

between Valentia and Greenwich, in December, 1845. This arc, one of the largest that
could be measured in the British Isles, has been of very great importance, as well in veri-
fying the accuracy of the Trigonometrical Survey, as in determining the true figure of tho
earth. It was carried on by Professor Airy, the Astronomer Royal, assisted by Mr. Sheep-
shanks, Mr. Hartnup, Mr. Hind, and several other observers, by means of thirty pocket
chronometers. The stations were Greenwich, Liverpool Observatory, a temporary Obser-
vatory at Kingstown, and Feaghmaan at Valentia. The final determination of the longi-
tudes, chronometrically, were— Liverpool, 12 m 0.05 s ; Kingstown, 24 m 31.20 s ; and Valentia,
41 m 23.23 s . By the Ordnance Survey, these longitudes were made — Liverpool, 12™ 0.35 s ;
Kingstown, 24 ra 31.48 s j and Valentia, 41 m 23.07".

4.— NOEWAY AND SWEDEN.

Moudiuga Island, Berezov
Bar, Lighthouse

Swiatoi Nos, Lighthouse . .

Lofoten Islands, Svolvaer
Light

VaagoorN. Hellig VaerLt.

Nyholmen, Lighthouse. . . .

Trae Island, Sue Id., Lt.-ho.

Andersbak Id., Lighthouse

Mangvardkua, conical ben.

Donntcs 6e, Church at N. end
„ Bjoin Market-place
,, Donnces Fjeld ....

ALten 6e, Syv Sostre Mts.
South one

Skjtervcor I., Klep Harbour

Sola Island, summit

Vegen L, Gulsvaagfjeld Mt.
„ Vegtinden Mt.. .

Sjelva Beacon, off Minland

Hoiholmtinderne Mt. S. pk.

Andalshatten Mountain . .

Kvaloe, summit

Helgeland Oflissen beacon,
off Kvaloe

Heilhornet, remarkable Mt.

Lekoe, summit

Vigten Islands; outer Id.,

N.E. point

„ Sulafjeld Mount

„ Indreorlnnerld.

Rorvig, on E. side ....

Folden Fjord, Grinna bea-
con on North side

Prsestoe Light, near Na?roe

Gjoen, Brakstad

Otter oen, Findanger Fjeld

Halmoe, Villa Lighthouse

Oxbaasheia, Village at N.
end

Buholmene, cone beacon . .

Vigs Sjelen, summit

Osen, Church

Alminding oe, Hvalhovden
or S. point

LAT.

64 45

17 45

LONG. E.

40 17

39 48 50

14 37
14 1 40
14 24

11 59 50

12 19
12 41 20
12 36 30

12 35
12 24

12 32
11 35 40
11 45
51
54
19 50
26

11
11
12
12
12 26
12 1

11 54 30

12 9 12
11 37 30

11 11

10 49

11 15

10 59 20

11 7 45
11 13
11 7
10 41 55

10 25 50

10 26 20

10 24

10 31 30

10 1 30

WEST.

14 30

14 20

AUTHORITIES.

Russian Surveys.

The Trigonometrical
Survet, may by order of the
Norwegian Government, by
Capt. Vibe, &c, as explained
in the Notes.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
NORWAY AND SWEDEN— Continued.

LAT. N.

LONG. E.

I VAR.

j WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Halten Island, Light

Leikua Beacon, offLyso . .
Suuls Fjord, Sulen Tower
Froien Island, Titterodden,

or West point

Ulv 6, centre

Great Kopperen Hill, on

Mainland

Hitteren Id., Boro, E. end
„ Omdasfjeld, on N.

side

Trondhjem Channel, Ter-

ningen Lighthouse . .
Trondhjem Channel, Agd-

dentes Lighthouse

Trondhjem, Munkholmen

Light

„ Cathedral [2]

Smoelen Island, Maaberg

Tuva, on North side ....
Eddo ; Trondhjem S. chan-
nel, Light on Ringholm

Grib Island, centre

Olan Kalv

Staventes Lighthouse ....
Aver 6, Quaernaes

„ Meeknokken Mt. . .
Christian sand, S.W. end oi

town

Frey oen, Frey Kollen Mt.

Qvitholm, Lighthouse

Stevshest, summit

Boesund, Boevceret Church

Sando, Church

Romsdals Oerne, Harr 6

Church

„ Harams 6, Light ai

N.W.end

,, Lepso, Lightvessel

on reef

Waldero, Light on S.E. pt.

God-6, Lt. on Hogstein Pt.

,, Lt. on Alnaes Tang

flesso, Sugar Loaf

Rondo, Lighthouse

Svino, centre

Stadtland, Quitenses at N.

end

„ Fureness

Bremanger Land, Older-

veggen Point

Froe Soen, Smor Haven Lt.

Battalen, summit

Kind 6, Lighthouse

Bue Land, Yststeen

Udvter, Anchorage

Feve Oosen, Lt. on Helliso'
N. A. 0.

G4 10

63 55 40

63 50 45

63 40 5

63 40

63 48 4

63 34 20

63 :33 35

63 30 35

63 38

63 27 30

63 25 49

63 26 38

63 19 20

63 14

63 7 40

63 1 40

62 59

63 7 10

63 2 30

63 2 15

62 59

62 55

62 49 31

62 47

62 41 2

62 35 15

62 29 50

62 27 45

62 29 20

62 27 30

62 25

62 19 45

62 12 35

62 6

61 51 30

61 45 45

61 39

61 33 40

61 17 30

61 2 30

GO 45 l

9 27

9 57

S 33

8 19

9 9

9 43

9 18

8 43

9 7

9 49

10 27

8 3

8 14

7 35

7 11

7 40

7 43

7 32

7 42

7 44

7 14

7 12

6 54

6 36

6 28

6 10

6 15

6 8

6 2

5 58

6 6

5 36

5 16

5 14

5 7

4 49

4 55

4 47

4 45

4 36

4 28
4 40

40
5

The Trigonometrical Sur-
vey, made by order of the
Norwegian Government, by
Capt. Vibe, &c, as explained
in the notes.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
NORWAY AND SWEDEN— Continued.

LAT. N.

LONG. E.

VAR.
WEST,

1878-9,

AUTHORITIES.

Bergen, North Channel,

Holmengraa . . ..

Bergen Holzeno, Light on

Sktellanger

Bergen, Cathedral

Bergen, Light on Nordnoes
Leero, Light on W. side . .
Kora Fjord, Marsteen, Lt-

house

Piir Holm, Light

Sclbo, Ox'hammer, Light on

East end

Selbo Fiord, Furren beacon

„ Slottero, Light

Stoksund, Light on Folger

Bommel Fiord, Ryvarden

Light

Roevaer Island, Light on

Gittero

Sarhougsund, N. entrance

Light

Udsire Island, W. Light-
house

Karrao, Skudesnses Light

houso

Bukkcsund, Light on Buk

ken

Hviddings 6, Lighthouse.,

Stavanger, Church

Tungenscs, Lighthouse....
Fladholmen Lighthouse . .
Little Feisteen Lighthouse
Jocderens Point beacon
Obrestadbraekka, Light

Warhoug, Church

Ekersund, Vibberodden Lt.-

housc [3]

Varnses Lighthouse

Lister Lighthouse on Gun-

narshoug

Lindesuass or Naze, Light-
house

Ry vingen beacon

Helleo, beacons

Christiansand, Church . .
Oddero, Lighthou.e ....

Oxo, Lighthouse

Ulvo, Outer hereon

Justo, Beacon on Reiers-

kja>r

Hoinborgo, Bc*toc at East

end

Hesntes, Be&co*

Torungen, Inner Lightho
Sandvigodden Lighthouse. .

60 50 30

60 36 30
60 23 30
60 23 50
60 14

60 7 45
60 6

59 59 15
59 58
59 54 30

59 48

59 31 40

59 26 5

59 25 25

59 18 20

59 8 20

59 13 25
59 3 30

58 58

59 2
58 55
58 49 30
58 45 5
58 39 30
58 36 38

58 25 5
58 10 35

58 6 30

57 59

4 37 40

4 55 30

5 17 50
5 15 50
5 9

5 1

5 8

12 30

3 10

5 18 20
5 13 40
5 7 40
5 14 45

4 53

5 18

27 35

24 20

45 15

33 20

30 55

5 29 30

5 33 30

5 37 15

5 59 35

6 37 45

6 34 10

7 3
7 29 20
7 51 5

7 59 50

8 30
8 3 35
8 13 5

8 23 45

8 31 30
8 41

8 48
8 47 25

The Trigonometrical Sur-
vey, &c.| as before stated.

17 40

17 30

17 40

17 5

16 45

16
15

POSITIONS OF PLACES,
NORWAY AND SWEDEN— Continued.

LAT. N.

LONG. E.

VAR.
WEST,
1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Torungen, Hiser 6, Outer
Lighthouse

Tromo, Church

Tromo Sund, Bonden bea-
con at entrance

Sando, cone beacon at N.E.
point

Osterrisor, Stangholmen
Lighthouse

Sondelov, Church

Kragero, S. end of town . .

Jornfruland Lighthouse. . . .

Langotangen, Lighthouse. .

Frederiksvcern, Stava:rns6
Lighthouse

Svenoer Lighthouse

Little Fterder Lighthouse. .

Fulehuk Lighthouse

Christiania, New Observa-
tory

Torbiornskiaer, Light ....

North Koster Lighthouse . .

Segelskiaer

Stromstad, Church

Waderobod, Light

Hallo Lighthouse

Maseskar Lighthouse ....

Marstrand, Carlsten Light

Winga Lighthouse

Gotheborg Town

54 42

8 47 45
8 52 15

8 59 40

9 5 5

9 15

9 5 28
9 23 45
9 36 15
9 45 50

10 3 30
10 9 10
10 32 5
10 36 15

10 43 28

10 47 20

11 30
59 50
11

2 15
13 40
20 20

36 20
50 40

14 50

14 10

The Trigonometrical Sui
vey, &c, as before stated.

The Trigonometrical Sur-
vey, by Lieutenant Seine, and
Messrs. Diriks and "VVille.

NOTES.

1. Coast of Norway.— The Trigonometrical Survey of the Western Coasts of Norway
to the northward of Trondhjem, was commenced by Lieut. Vibe, assisted by Lieuts. Paludan
and Hagerup, in June, 1828, by order of the Norwegian Government. It was continued by
those officers, under the direction of Captain Vibe, to the frontiers of Russian Lapland, till
1849. Their elaborate charts, published at intervals, between 1835 and 1S49, show the
extraordinary features of this coast — a complete labyrinth of islets and rocks — which all
written descriptions must utterly fail in giving any notion of. We have given the positions
of the more prominent land-marks, but there are few points which can be made available
for the mariner's use, except the information afforded by their valuable charts.

2. Trondhjem, &c. — The ancient cathedral of Trondhjem or Drontheim, once one of the
finest in Europe, was the northern limit of the survey carried on by the Danish Government,
prior to the transfer of the courts to Sweden.

The coasts to the South were trigonometrically and astronometrically surveyed by Com-
missioner N. A. Vibe, before mentioned, assisted by Lieut. D'Aubert and Capt. C. F. Grove,
as far as Stavanger and Egefield. The charts issued under Admiral Klint (a well-known
name), leave little to be desired, and the nature of the country, the geological formation
being of primary gneiss, granite, and other very hard rocks, will prove that but little change
can arise from the wear of the sea.

3. Ekersund or Eggersund, &c— The charts of the South Coast of Norway, between

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

Eglefield and Jedderen and Christiansand, were published in 1800. The triangulation was
carried on by the same officers as before mentioned, Captains Grove and Vibe, and Lieut.
D'Aubert.

This section of the coast is dependant on the positions of Stavanger and Christiansand
Churches. Lindersntes, or the Naze of Norway, as it is generally called, was made by the
triangulation to be in latitude 57' 58' 0" X. By the astronomical observations of Messrs.
Rich and Vibe, in 1781, 57" 58' 48" N.

Between Ekersund and Christiansand, the triangulation was re-examined in 1855-6, by
Lieutenant Schie, assisted by Herr C. Dinks and Lieutenant H. Wille ; between Aret dal
and Jomfruland, these operations were carried on by the same officers in 1853-5. The
portion of coast between Arendal and Christiansansand was examined in 1854-5, by Herr
Diriks and Lieut. Wille, under Major Vibe.

The variation of the compass is now decreasing at the rate of 6' to 6' 30" per annum.

5.— DENMARK, GERMANY, HOLLAND, AND BELGIUM.

LAT. N.

LOXG. K.

AUTHORITIES.

"West Coast of Denmark.

Skagen or Skaw Point, New
Lighthouse

Hirtshals, Lighthouse ....

Venneberg, Church

LSkken, Lifeboat-house . .

Borglum Ivloster, mansion

Bolbierg Bluff (360 ft.) ....

Hantsholm, Lighthouse . .

Klitmolle

Blokkenbierg

Hon Channel, entrance. . . .

Bovbierg Head Light ....

Husby, Church

llolmsland, New Sogm
Church

Ringkiobing, Church, 5
miles inland

Nymind Gab, entrance

Biaavands Huk, extreme . .

Horn Reef, Outer patch, 16
feet

Hjerting, landing-place . .

Fano, Nordby North beacon

Mano, Church

Romo, St. Clemens Church

Sylt Island, Lighthouse on
List, or North end. . . .

■ Rode Klif, or Red

Cliff Light

■ Hornum Odde, Sta-
tion in Survey

Amrum, St. Clemen's Church
at Nebel

Amrum, Lighthouse at S.
end

Fartrapdyb, entrance ....

Smalldypt, outer buoy ....

44 9

34 45

27 28

22 5

9 7

6 50

2 15

49 45

42 40

30 40

16 30

56 16 55

56 5 30
55 47
55 33 30

55 30
55 31 33
55 27 30
55 16 25
55 6 55

55 3 10

54 57 42

54 45 5S

54 39 22

54 38 28
54 36
54 30

o .

10 37

9 56

9 49

9 42

9 47

8 59

8 36

8 30

8 14

8 13

8 7

8 10

8 15

8 11

S 4

7 41

8 21

S 23

8 31

8 32

S 23

S 20

8 10

8 21

8 22

8 13

8 17

The Chart published by the
Danish Government, 1841.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
DENMARK, GERMANY, HOLLAND, ETC.— Continued.

TAR.

LAT. N.

LONG. E.

WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Fohr Island, Wyk Church .
Dagebiill Harbour Light. .
Husum, Church

54 41 25
54 43 40
54 28 15
54 20 15

54 17 10
54 IS oo
54 7 40
54 10 49
54 5 30

54 10
53 57 10
53 58 30
53 oo 3
53 53 20
53 52 28
53 47 25
53 32 45
53 31 59

53 54
53 44 15

8 34 12

8 41 20

9 3 10
8 36 25

8 39
S 56 30
8 51 50

7 53

8 37 50

8 18 30
S 21 35
8 31 50
8 29 50
8 41 18

8 42 20

9 25 50
9 56 39
9 58 31

7 49

8 21 30

8 14 40
8 18 32
8 31 15
8 42 48

8 35
8 1 22

8 9 20
8 7 43
7 53 59
7 51 5
7 42

7 35 55
7 29
7 22 50
7 9 50
7 8 35
7

14
14

14
15

45
15

Ording, Church

Eiderstedt, Hitz Bank bea-
con

Tonning, South Church . .

Helgoland, Lighthouse. . . .

Bosch Sand beacon [1]

Elbe River, Outer Light

The Survey made by the
Prussian Admiralty, 1858,
1859-1868.

Scharhorn Beacon . .

Lightvessel, No. 3 . .

Neuwerk High Lighthouse
Kiigel or Ball Beacon ....
Cuxhaven Lighthouse ....
Gluckstadt, Pier Light. . . .

Altona, Observatory

Hamburg, Observatory . .
Weser River, Outer Light-

■ Ever Sand Beacons

Bremen Beacon Light-

Longwarden, Cnurch ....
Bremcrhaven, Church ....
Bremen, Observatory ....
Jade River, Minsener Oldc
Oog Beacon

53 30 20
53 32 48
53 4 36

53 46 45

53 38

53 31
53 31 3
53 47 28
53 47 32
53 45 30

53 45 25
53 45
53 44 5
53 4 3 20
53 42 23
53 40 40

Hooksicl, Windmill

AVilhelmshafcn, Navy Har-

Wangeroog Lighthouse . .
Church

Langcroog, beacon on Os-
tcrende

Baltrum, village at W. end

■ , Conversation House .

Juist, Eastern Village ....

Coast of Holland. [2]

Borkum, Light-tower ....
Dclfzyl, Church

53 35 10
53 32 20
53 19 58
53 22 2

53 29 19

53 20 12

53 21 40

6 40 16
6 31 46

6 55 38

7 12 15

6 9 42
6 38 31

5 12 54

30
i

The Great TRTANGULATION
by Baron KrayenhofF, and the
Surveys of Admiral Kyk, Cap-
tains Keuchenius, and Van

Emden, Church

Schiermonuik-oog, High
Lighthouse

lihyn.

Ameland, Hollum Church
Terschelling, Brandaris

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
DENMARK, GERMANY, HOLLAND, ETC.— Continued.

Ha lingen, W. Ch. Tower .
Viieland, Lighthouse neai

East end

Viieland, Posthitis near W.

end

Franeker, Steeple

Makkum, Church Tower . .
Bolsward, Church Tower. .

Hindeloopen, Tower

Stavoren, Church Tower . .
Urk Island, Church Tower
Vollenhoven, Station. . . .

Muiden Church

Amsterdam, WestTow r erof

Cathedral [3]

Monnikendam

Enkhui^en, Church Tower
Wieringen Oosterland

Tower

Eyerland, beacon at N.E.

point

Tevel, Oostereind Tower

„ Hoorn, Church Tower
"Willemsoord, Time-ball on

Palace [5"

Kykduin Lighthouse ....

Calandsoog, Steeple

Egmond aan-Zee, Lightho
Noord Zee Haven, entrance
Zandvoort, Lighthouse . . .
Nordwyk, Lighthouse . . .
Katwyk, Lighthouse . . .
Leiden, Observatory [4] .
Scheveningen Lighthouse
Hook of Holland Canal, N.

mole-head Light

Voorne Island, Brielle

Lighthouse

„ Hellevoetsluis,

Time-ball on the Hospital
Goedereede, Church Tower

Light

,, Stone Beacon

Light, on North side ....
Schouwen Island, Brou-

wershaven Mill

„ Renesse, East

Light

,, Lighthouse at

West end

,, Zierikzee, Gt.

Tower

Walcheren Island, Veere

Great Tower

,, West Kapelle,

Light on Church Tower .
i. Middelburcr Tower

VAH.

LAT. N.

LONG.

Wl-

*T,

187

8-9

<• .

53 10 29

53 17 48

53 14 44

53 11 14

o3 3 <j /

53 3 55

52 56 37

52 52 57

52 39 46

52 40 53

52 19 54

52 22 32

52 27 29

52 42 15

52 55 oo

53 9 50

53 5 5

52 38 30

52 57 50

4 46

52 57 5

52 50 10

52 37 10

52 27 40

52 22 28

52 14 35

52 12 2

•s.;

52 9 28

'2'.)

52 6 20

51 59 10

51 54 11

51 49 25

7 44

51 49 8

51 48 54

51 43 :J2

51 44 32

51 42 33

O
O

51 39 2

52
i

51 32 52

2 1

51 31 46

26 49 !

51 30

31 1

AUTHORITIES.

TheGPEATTRIANGUL\TION

by Baron Kraye.nhoff, and
the Surveys of Admiral Ryk,
Capts. Kcuchenius and Van
Rhyn.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
DENMARK, GERMANY, HOLLAND, ETC.— Continued.

VAR.

LAT. N.

LONG. E.

WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Walcheren Island, Flushing
or Vlissingen, Time-ball

51 26 20

3 35 16

16 55

The Great Triangulation
by Baron Krayenhoff, &c.

Belgium.

Brussels, Royal Observa-
tory ; [6]

Blankenberg, Light on Fort
Ostende, Lt.-ho. E. of har.
Nieuport, Light at Entrance

50 51 11

51 20 25
51 18 55
51 14 25
51 8 25

4 17 13

3 14
3 8
2 55 50
2 43 50

16 15
16 10

NOTES.

1. Elbe AND Weseb Rivers.— The details given in the table, are taken from the Sur-
veys of these entrances, made by the Prussian Admiralty, and published in 1868. They
are based on the triangulation of Professors Gauss and Schumacher, and the details of the
river re-examined by Captain F. Andreas Meyer in 1866. The entrances were re-surveyed
Dy Captain Grapou in 1867-8. The longitudes are dependent on that of the well-known
Observatory at Altona.

2. Holland.— The charts of the Coasts of Holland are based upon the great triangula-
tion of that country, by the Lieut.-General C.R.T. Krayenhoff, the account of which was
published in 1813. Upon the points thus established, the coasts and channels about
Vlieland, Ameland, &c, were surveyed by the late Capt.-Lieut. S. J. Keuchenius, published
in 1831-34; the Texel Channels by Lieut. A. Van Rhyn, 1840; the Zuider Zee, by the
same in 1841 ; the Schelde Channels, by the late Vice- Admiral J. E. Ryk, 1841 ; Goeree
and the Maas, by the same, in 1827 ; and Brouwershaven Gat, by Capt. Keuchenius, 1826.
These fine surveys are deserving of all confidence. They have been re-examined in 1860-9
by Capt.-Lieut. A.. R. B. Cominendal.

3. Amsterdam. — The triangulation of the Baron Krayenhoff was dependant on the
position of the western tower of the Cathedral of Amsterdam, which was considered to be
in longitude 4° 53' 16 .86 E. Its true longitude, by electric signal, appears to be as shown
4° 53' 2 ".55 E. By a Government notice, dated August 1st, 1826, Greenwich is named as
the first meridian for Netherlands hydrography.

4. Leiden. — The National Observatory of Leiden was established in 1854, under Pro-
fessor Kaiser. Its longitude was obtained by electric telegraph time-signals, between
Paris and Leiden, and is fixed at 17 m 56\60 in time, or 4" 1 29' 9".0 E. in arc. From this
longitude, that of Amsterdam, and all others have been regulated.

5. Time Signals have been established at Willemsoord for the Nieuwe Diep, at Helle-
voetsluis, and at Flushing. They were placed in electric connection with the Observatory
at Leiden, in September, 1859.

6. Brussels. — The Observatory at Brussels was considered by the observations con-
ducted therein, to be in latitude SO" 1 51' 10'.7, longitude O' 1 17 m 29 s .O in time, East of
Greenwich. Although this position may not affect those of the coast, which were ob-
tained by an independent process of triangulation, yet the change in the assumed longitude
of the Observatory of Paris, with corresponding alterations in the relative connexions be-
tween that and other observatories, will affect the longitudes of places on the coasts, in
such a minute degree, it is true, that it is perfectly inappreciable by means at the ordinary

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

sailor's command ; yet it is noticed here to show to what refinement these operations are
carried on. It will also demonstrate the almost insuperable difficulty there is in arriving
at an exact conclusion. This subject has been alluded to in connexion with the Edinburgh
Observatary, and will be hereafter with that of Paris.

In 1859, a series of instantaneous electric signals was made to connect the observatories
of Brussels, Berlin, Altona, &c, and the longitude of Brussels, as given by M. Quetelet,
comes out as 17 ra 2S S .9, or 4° 17' 30". 50 East of Greenwich — a very close approximation to
the independent assumption.

The variations of the compass are now decreasing at the rate of 10' per annum.

6. -COASTS OF FRANCE.

Northern Coast.

PARIS, Imperial Observa-
tory [1]

Belgian Frontier, Corps de
Garde [2]

Bergues, great spire

Dunkirk, great tower ^

,Leuguenaard Tower

Cassel, Western Mount . .

Gravelines, Church Spire. .

Oye, Station in Survey

Calais, Spire

. , New Lighthouse . .

Coquelles. West Mill

Blanc-Nez, Guardhouse

Mont Couple, summit

Gris-Ncz Lighthouse

Ambleteuse, Windmill . .

Boulogne, Colonne de
Grand Armee

, Cathedral

Cape d'Alprec'h Lightho.

Lornel Pt. Light

Etaples

Touquet, South Light . .

Berck, Lt. on Haut-Banc

Cayeux Lighthouse ....

Treport, Steeple

Dieppe, St. Jacques Church

Aiily Lighthouse

St. Valery en Caux, Chapel

Fecamp Abbey

C. d'Antifer

C. La Hevc, N. Lighthouse

Le Havre, Steeple of Notre
Dame

Honflcur, Western Light

. Oycstrcham Church

Vicrville

.St. Marcouf Is., Lightho..
La Houguc Lighthouse . .
Cape Barfleur Lighthouse .

lat. n.

48 50

20 9

51 4

31 13

50 58

20 20

51 2

22 33

51 2

22 41

50 48

15 48

50 59

7 44

50 58

2 32

50 57

51 9

50 57

51 7

50 55

48 53

50 55

43 34

50 52

33 11

50 52

34 53

50 48

37 34

59 44

50 43

36 53

50 41

33 41

50 33

34 36

50 30

38 30

50 31

35 11

50 23

33 24

50 11

30 41

50 3

31 21

49 55

4 3S

49 55

57 30

49 53

42 47

49 55

21 50

49 44

9 46

49 30

4 4

49 29

6 24

49 25

13 38

Lon. \V.

49 16

15 33

49 22

44 21

49 29

8 52

49 31

16 36

4G 41

10- 2

17 10

17 40

17 45

17 50

IS 15

authorities.

Originally from the trian-
gles intended merely for the
admeasurement of the degrees
of the meridian in France, but
ultimately carried on through-
out the kingdom. These were
commenced by M. Picard, who
effected an admeasurement be-
tween Paris and Amiens in
1669, and finally completed by
Messrs. Mechain and Delam-
bre, in 1798 ; after having ex-
ercised the abilities and in-
dustry of M. Cassini the elder,
his son, and grandson ; and of
MM. Miraldi and de la Caillc,
with other of the most emi-
nent French astronomers, &c,
to the present time.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF FRANCE— Continued.

Cherbourg, Fort Central on
the Digue

Querquevilie, Spire ....

Cape La Hague, Lightho

Alderney, East Mill ....

Casquets, Lighthouse . .

Guernsey, St. Pierre Pier-
head

Jersey ; St. Helier, Victoria
Pier

Corbiere Rocks Lighthouse

Chausey Island, Lighthouse

C. Carteret, Lighthouse

Granville, Lighthouse . .

Cape Frehel, Lighthouse

Le Rohinet, Islet

Cape d'Erqui

Les Comtesses, Western
Rock

Grand Lejon (Rock) ....

Harbour Isle, off St. Quay .

Isle Brehat, N.E. Point

Heaux de Brehat, Light-
house

Treguier River, La Corne
Rock Lighthouse

Les Sept lies, Lighthouse .

lie de Bas, Lighthouse near
the West end

Chenal du Four, Lightho . .

OUESSANT, 01* UsiIANT, N.
Lighthouse

The Bay of Biscay.

Les Pierres Noires Light
house

Lampaul

Kermorvan, Lighthouse . .

St. Mathieu, Lighthouse . .

Portzic, Lighthouse

Brest, St. Louis

Crozon, Church

Bee du Raz, Lighthouse . .

lie de Sein, Lighthouse . .

Ar-men Rock, Lighthouse .

Penmarc'h Lighthouse

Penfret, Lighthouse

lie de Groix, Western Lt.-
house

Port Louis, St. Pierre

Belle He, Lighthouse on
S.W. Point

, Bordcrun Signal

lie Hocdic, Lighthouse

Le Four, Lighthouse

Aiguillon, Lighthouse

n.a.o.

LAT.

111

10 40

■IS

-is

■IS

■31

44 45

•33

-is

-17

1 37 14

1 42

1 57 21

2 22 7
2 22 42

2 33

2 7 18

2 14 50

1 49 40

1 48 31

1 36 52

2 19 15
2 28 53
2 29 24

2 34 36
2 39 58

2 48 35

2 59 21

3 5 17

3 10 40

3 29 33

4 1 42

1 -is 20

5 3 31

4 oo

4 38 5
4 47 31
4 47 57

3 32 10

4 28 14
4 2S 38
4 44 3
4 52 9
2
4 22 36
3 57 21

3 30 41
3 20 34

3 13 43
3 13 55
2 52 11
2 38 9
2 15

19 10

19 40

19 20

19 15

20 2^

20 10

AUTHORITIES.

19 20

The Survey by Captain
Martin White, R.N., and Mr.
Richards.

The excellent Surveys of
the Coast by the French En-
gineers, under the direction of
M. Beautemps Beaupre, 1830,
1831. The account of the
operations has been drawn up
by M. Begat.

The HYonoGRAraic Sur-
veys of the Western Coasts
of France, made under the
direction of M. Beautemps
Beaupre; an exposition of
which, by M. Daussy, -was
published at Paris, by autho-
rity, in the years 1829 and
1839.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF FRANCE— Continued.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

VAR.

WEST,
1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Pilier, Lighthouse

He d'Yeu, Lighthouse . . .

St. Gilles sur Vie

La Chaume, Lighthouse .

Sables d'Olonne, Jetty Lt.
house

He de Re, Baleine Light-
house

„ Port of St. Martin

Rochelle, Harbour Light .

Olcron, Chassiron Light-
house

Isle of Aix, Harbour Light

Point de la Coubre, Light

Port of Royan, Light . . .

Cordouan Lighthouse . . .

Pauillac, Harbour Light .

Bordeaux, "West Point of
St. Andre

Point de Grave, Lighthouse

Beacons Fast of Capbreton

La Tete de Buch

Signal Tower of the River
Adour

Bayonne

Biaritz, Lighthouse

Socoa, Harbour Light ....

St. Jean de Luz, Jetty Lt.-
house

47 2 36
46 43 5
46 41 46
46 29 42

46 29 28

46 14 44
46 12 26
46 9 21

46 2 52
46 36
45 41 30
45 37 8
45 35 14
45 11 55

44 50 16

45 34 29

43 39 26

44 37 57

43 31 36
43 20 26
43 29 38
43 23 44

43 23 16

2 21 55
2 23
1 55 14

1 47 50

1 47 35

1 33 48
1 33 48
1 9 30

24 47
10 48
15 25
1 54
10 30

44 46

39 55

1 3 39
1 25 44
1 8 13

1 30 6

1 27 57

1 33 40

1 41 19

1 39 57

18 20

17 40

18 5

The Hydrographic Sur-
veys.

Remarks.

It is to be remarked, that the
longitudes, as given in the Con~
naissance des Temps, compared
with those in the Charts of the
Pilote Franeais, constructed be-
tween 1S1C and 1827, under the
direction of M. BeautempsBeau-
pre, showed a difference amount-
ing to, at the least, 51*.5, Ihe
former survey being so much
less, which is occasioned by the
later determination of the geo-
graphical position of Crozon,
near Brest, as explained in the
note. The corrected longitudes
are given in the table.

NOTES.

ParIS. — The grand operations, in point of accuracy, for the determination of the length
of the degrees of the meridian, have taken place since 1783. In that year a memorial was
transmitted by M. Cassini de Thury to the Right Hon. Charles James Fox, then Secretary
of State. This application caused the operations by General Roy, already explained
which afterwards extended into a General Survey. This gentleman, in England, acted in
conjunction with Messrs. Cassini, Mechain, and Legendre, in France; but it unfortunately
happened that the results of the two parties did not exactly agree — that of the British
being, for the difference of longitude, 2° 19' 51", while that of the French was 1° 23' 15".

In order to determine this question, the subject was resumed in 1821, on the suggestion
of the French authorities. The operations were consequently repeated under the direction
of commissioners, nominated respectively by the Academy of Sciences and the Royal
Society. An account of the operations and results have been given in the " Transactions',
of the latter, and the determination was that 2° 20' 22" is the difference between the
meridians of Paris and Greenwich. It was also attempted in 1825, by the respective
governments on a plan suggested, we believe, by the late Sir John Hcrschel, and Captain
(now General Sir Edward) Sabine, and Colonel Bonne, of Simultaneous observations of
rocket signals at a chain of stations ; but they failed on the French side, and the result
2° 20' 22', was not considered satisfactory.

Notwithstanding the immense labour and consummate skill employed in these measure-
ments, the results obtained were doubtful, and it was reserved for the private meaDs of a

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

commercial association to settle the question by means of the electric telegraph. The
death of M. Arago, delayed the French preparations which were organized when M. le
Vcrrier became Superintendent of the Paris Observatory, and several thousand signals
were transmitted in 185* so many, in fact, that a large portion were rejected, leaving
1,700, or nearly 2,000, which vcre thought unexceptionable. Each observation is probably
as accurate as the mean of all former observations, and the means of all show previous
results to be in error nearly a second of time (a large quantity in astronomy), and which,
corrected, is nearly certain to its hundredth part.

The mean result of these final electric observations, is that the D.L. between Greenwich
and Paris Observatories, is 9™ 20 s .63 of time, or 2° 20' 9 ".15 in arc.

We have been more diffuse, perhaps, than necessary on this point, but it is perhaps the
most important geodetical operation ever undertaken.

2. The re-examination of the northern coasts of France and the triangulated Survey of
the western shores was originated in 1814, by a memorial addressed to Louis XVIII. by
Admiral Rosily, and Admiral llossel, but from political events it was not commenced till
1816, and then Beautemps Beaupre started the survey from Brest. The triangnlation was
based upon the carefully observed position of the Tour de Crozon, and carried out by
M. F/aussy down to the frontiers of Spain. The noble Atlas, afterwards completed, is the
best eulogy that can be pi'esented for these important works.

The variation OF THE compass is decreasing at the rate of about 7' 30" per annum.
7.— COASTS OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

North Coast of Spain [1]

Cape La Higuera, Lightho.

Fuenterrabia

Port Pasagcs, Cape La Plata

Lighthouse .

San Sebastian, Mt. Igualdo

Lighthouse

Guntaria, Atalaya or Tower

Motrico, Atalaya

Cape Machichaco, Light-
house

Punta Galea, Lighthouse . .

Portugalete

Bilbao, Bridge

Castro Urdiales, Santa Ana

Castle Light

Santona, Light building on

Mount

Cape Ajo, extreme

Santander, Mouro Island

Lighthouse

Cape Mayor, Lighthouse . .
San Martin de la Arena,

Suances Church

Cape Oyambrc, extreme . .
San Vicente de la Barquera,

Lighthouse

Llanes, San Pedro Point . .
Cape Prietro, extremity . .

VAR.

LAT. ]

LONG.

WEST,

1878-9

G /

43 22

18 5

43 21

43 20

43 19

18 15

43 18

43 20

43 28

43 22

43 20

43 15

18 25

43 24

43 27

43 32

43 28 37

43 30

18 45

43 26

43 25

43 23

43 27

43 2S

AUTHORITIES.

The valuable surveys of Don
Vicente Torino, and Don Josef
Varela, of the Spanish Marine,
and of Major Franzini, of the
Portuguese Royal Engineers,
corrected by later observations
of M. Saulnicr de Vauhcllo,
Captain Florcz, Captain W. H.
Smyth, R.N., and others.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

COASTS OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.— Continued.

LAT. N.

Sella Pi., East point near

Pvivadcsella

Cape Lastres '

Gijon, Sta. Catalina Point

Lighthouse

,, Cape Torres

Cape Peiias. Lighthouse . .
Aviles, R. Forcada Point. .
Cudillero, Revallera Point

Light

Cape Bidio, extreme

Cape Busto, Lighthouse . .
Ria de Navia, Campel Pt. .
Orrio de Tapia Island,

Lighthouse

Rivadeo, Pancha Island

Lighthouse

Foz, Point de los Cairos . .
Port Vivero, Socastro Pt.. .
Estaca Point, Lighthouse .

Cape Ortegal, extreme

Candelaria Point, Tower . .
Cedeira, Point Pantin ....
Cape Prior, Lighthouse . .
Cape Priorino, Lighthouse

on the Little Cape . . .
Ferrol, West Mole .... [2]
Coruna, Tower of Hercules

Light

„ St. Antonio Castle
Sisargas Island, Lighthouse

on I. Mayor

Cape Villano Lighthouse. .
Camarinas, Mole

West Coast of Spain.

Cape Torihana, extreme
Cape Fiuisterre, Lighthouse

on South extreme

Corcubion, Lt. on Cape Ce
Remedios Point, extreme . .
Muros Bay, Lourp Mount

on North side

Cape Corrobcdo, Light ....
Falcoeiro Point, extreme . .
Arosa Bay, Sta. Eugenia

Church

,, Salbora Island.

Light on South point . .

,, Carril Church.

,, Arosa Island,

Light on North point . .

Onza Island, Galera Point .

Pontevedra Bay, Cape Udra

,- Pontevedra, centre

43 31
43 33 20

43 35 13

43 37

43 42 20

43 38 30

43 30 10
43 38
43 3(3 10
43 34 30

43 35 3G

43 34 40
43 35 25
43 43 28
43 47 30
43 46 10
43 41 50
43 40 48
43 33 40

43 27 50
43 28 35

43 23
43 22

43 21 50
43 9 50
43 8

43 4 30

LONG. W.

4 17 45

5 38 2

5 39
5 50 20

5 56

9 3

6 15

6 28 48

6 44 20

6 58 26

7 4 15
7 16
7 37 40
7 43 24

7 56 50

8 3
8 6 5
8 19 9

8 20 33
8 14 25

8 24 8
8 22 5

8 50 13

9 12 58
9 10 40

9 17

VAR.
WEST,

1878-9.

42 52

15 24

42 54

10 8

42 47

7 35

42 44

3 30

4 2 34

4 4S

42 31

1 3

42 33

57 57

42 27

42 36

42 34

51 58

42 20

54 30

■12 20

48 50

42 25

8 37 20

18 50

19 25

20 10

21 15

20 50

AUTHORITIES.

The Charts publishen by the
Spanish Government, &c.

21 13

20 5c

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COASTS OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.— Continued.

LAT. N.

Bayona or Cies Islands, Ca-

ballo, or North Point . .
„ Middle Island,

Light on Mount Faro . .
Bayona Is., Boeiro Island,

off South end

Vigo Bay, Cape Hombre,

rock off

„ Vigo, Castro Castle . .

„ N.S. de la Guia Castle

Light

Vigo Bay, Cape Sentoulo,

Mount Ferro

Bayona Church

Cape Silleiro, extreme

Orullada Point, extreme . .
Minho River, Mount St.

Tecla Chapel

Coast of Portugal.

River Minho, Castillo Pt.
Viana, Castello de Santiago
River Neiva, entrance ....

Esposende

Villa do Conde

River Douro, Light at N.S

De Luz [3]

Oporto, San Joao de Foz . .

Aveiro, Town

Cape Mondego Lighthouse
Peniche, Lighthouse on

Cape Carvoiero

Berlengas, Light on Great

Island

Farilhoens, centre

Cape Roca, Lighthouse
Tagus River, Bugio Fort

Light

LISBON, Observatory [4]
Cape Espichel, Lighthouse
Setuval or St. Ubes, Light

on Fort d'Outao

Cape Sines, Fort

Cape Sardao

Cape St. Vincent, Convent

Light

Gorringe or Gettysburg

Bank, shoalest spot . .
Lagos, principal Church

Piedade Point

Villa de Nueva de Pontinao

Baliera Point

Cape Santa Maria, Light

long. e.

VAE.

WEST,

1878-9.

/ //

42 14 50

42 12 2

42 10 12

42 14 45

42 13 35

42 15 6

42 8 50

42 6 45

42 6

42 1

41 5 50

41 50 6

41 41 25

41 37 30

41 37

41 21 30

41 9 9

41 8 48

40 38

40 12

39 21 8

39 25

39 29

38 46 G

38 39

38 42 25

38 24 9

38 31 9

37 31 30

37 2 54

30 31 30

37 8 40

37 6 54

36 7 30

37 3

36 56

8 53 25

8 54 6

8 52 56

8 50 40
8 41 30

8 41 2

8 49

8 52 7

8 53

S 49 25

48 30
43 45
42
39 30
35

37 10
37
39 30
oo 12

9 24 10

9 30 17
9 31 56
9 30

9 IS 9
9 7 32
9 13

S 53
8 51
8 49

9 51

11 35 30

8 37 45

8 37 30

8 31 10

8 14

7 46

20 ob

20 50

AUTHORITIES.

The Charts published by th
Stanisii Government &e.

20 30

20 10

19 30

Capt. Sir Edward Belcher,
R.N., 1833.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

COASTS OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.— Continued.

LAT. N. LONG.

VAR.

WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

South Coast of Spain.

Guadiana lliver, Ayamonte
Mouth

Odiel River, Lights for
Huelva

Guadalquiver River, Pta. de
Malandar Liglit

San Lucar de Barrameda,
great Church

Chij)iona, Church Tower
Light

CADIZ, San Fernando Ob-
servatory [5]

San Sebastian Castle

Cape Trafalgar, Tower on
West side

Pta. Gracia, Tower

Mt. Sella del Papa, summit
(1567 feet)

Pt. Paloma

Tarifa, Lighthouse on South
point

Pta. Acebuche

Carnero Tower

Algesiras, Vete I. Light . .

Gibraltar, New Mole Light

Europa Point, Victoria
Lighthouse

37 11

37 13 22

36 47 20

36 45 5

36 44 15

36 27 45
36 31 10

36 10 45
36 5 5

36 6 16
36 36 20

35 59 47

36 2 48
36 4 30
36 7 15

36 7 20

36 6 22

7 18

6 51

6 21

6 22

6 25

6 12
6 18

6 2
5 49

5 46
5 42

5 36
5 28
5 25
5 26

5 21

18 40

18 30
18 30

18 5

The Charts published by the
Spanish Government, &c.

NOTES.

1. The North Coast of Spain.— The whole of the North coasts of Spain were excel-
lently surveyed and delineated by Don Vincente Tofiiio de San Miguel in the years 1787-91 ;
at the same period that our hydrography was being enriched by the talent and labours of
Mackenzie, Spence, and others. The Spanish charts, still most useful, exhibit the minute
details of this ironbound coast with such fidelity, that but little change has been found
necessary upon a re-examination. This, doubtless, is in some degree owing to the geolo-
gical structure of the country, which, devoid of sloping beaches, presents a much more
effective barrier to the degrading action of the sea, while the South-west Coast of France
at the bottom of the Bay of Biscay, is embarrassed by these immense collections of sand,
&c, the debris of the coasts to the West of it, which is carried thither by the prevalent
wind-waves and currents.

But while the details of this survey are so excellent, later, and more correct observations
show that there are some great errors in the relative position of the principal points.
This was detected, among other operations, by the early observations of M. Bory, and
perhaps by the Spanish Surveys, which were taken possession of by the French, at the
investment of Madrid. Later, the survey made by M. Saulnier de Vauiiello, of the
French Marine, showed that Cape Machichaco was placed nearly 10' too far eastward, and
other points from 4' upwards, also too far to the East. These great errors are now, if not
entirely removed, so nearly adjusted, that the discrepancies are too small to affect naviga-

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

tion. The positions, especially the longitudes, given in the table, are in accordance with
the charts published by the Deposito Hidrografico at Madrid in 1846.

2. Coast ov Galicia. — The North-west coast of Spain was re-examined by Captain
Don J. F. Florez, of the Spanish Navy, in 1835-6. His survey seems to show the accu-
racy of his predecessor Tofiiio. The positions of Captain Florez have been followed.

3. River Douro. — This river was surveyed by Commander (afterwards Sir Edward)
Belcher, R.N., in 1833. His determinations, which coincide with those made by Admiral
Smyth, when a lieutenant, in 1811-12, serve to correct the positions previously given by
Tofiiio. In former editions of this work, we had to acknowledge our obligations in this
as in many other instances, to Admiral Smyth, for his improvements in hydrography. It
is sufficient here to repeat them.

4. — Lisbon. — The longitude of Lisbon had been previously assumed as 9° 8' 40", being
a mean result of observations made by the astronomers De la Caille, Pingre, and Messier,
according to a great number of eclipses of the first satellite of Jupiter. The occultation of
a star by the moon, October 5, 1753, with a corresponding one at Paris, gave one minute
more. Captain Fitzwilliam Owen, in the memoir of his important expeditions to Portugal
and Africa, assigns to the Arsenal of Lisbon 38° 42' 18' N., and 9° 8' 54" W., from observa-
tions made in H.M.S. Leven, in 1819 and 1822. It is now considered to be 9° 7' 31".8 W.

5. — Cadiz. — The position of the Observatory in the city of Cadiz is established as 36°
32' 0" N., and 6' 17' 30" W. The New Observatory (Real Observatorio) of San Fernando,
in the Isle of Leon, is in 36' 37' 43" N., and 6° 12' 16" W.

6. Gibraltar, &c. — Mr. Charles llumker gives the position of Europa Point, Gibraltar,
as 36° 5' 15" W. — (Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. i. p. 322.) Captain Bauza, of the
Hydrographic Establishment at Madrid, gave Tarifa in 36° 0'. This accords with Mr.
Rumker ; but Captain Livingston made the latitude of Europa Point, by sextant and arti-
ficial horizon, in 1820, 36° 6' 10", and exactly the same on another day, by the sea horizon.
Captain Smyth has given Gibraltar in 36° 6' 30", and 5° 21° 12'.

It is to be observed that Lieutenant Raper adopts 5° 21' 17" as the longitude of the
Mole (or Europa Point in 5° 22' 0"), and this is from the observations of Captain Smyth ;
Captain Shirreff, 5° 20' 16"; and Captain Vidal, 5* 21' 42". This position is important, as
it affects longitudes of the West Coast of Africa.

The variation of the compass is decreasing at the rate of from 5' in the S.W. portions
of the coast, to 6' or T per annum in the Eastern parts.

8.— COAST OP AFEICA.

LAT. N.

VAR.

long.

WEST,

1878-9.

5 17

5 25

5 45

5 48

5 56

6 9

18 25

6 25

6 36

4 58

7 30

6 45

6 46

7 20

AUTHORITIES.

Ceuta, Almina Point Light
Sierra Bullones or Apes

Hill (summit)

Tangier Bay, Cape Mala-

bata, tower

Tangier, N.E. part of town
Cape Spartel, Pitch. . . .[1]

Arzilla

El Araiche

Old Mamora

Mehedia

Faz or Fez

Mekinez

Slaa or Salce

Rabat

El Mansoria [2]

35 53 38

35 53 35

35 48 50
35 47 5
35 47
35 29 30
35 12 50
34 52 30
34 18
34 6 3

33 58 30

34 2 45
34 2 30
33 46 10

Capt. C. P. de Kerhallet and
M. C. A. Vincendon-Du-
moulin.

Capt. (aft. A dm.) Washington
and Lieut. Smith, R.N., 1830.

Capt. T. Botcler, R.N., 1828.

Capt. Washington, R.N., 1830.

Don Juan Badia y Leblich,
otherwise called Ali Bey,
1804.

Captains Boteler and Wash-
ington, 1828 and 1830.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COAST OF AFRICA— Continued.

VAR.

LAT. N.

LONG.

WEST,

AUTHORITIES.

1878-9.

Point Fidallah . .

Capt. Washington and Lieut.

33
33
33
33

3G
17
1.5

7
8
8
8

35
15
29
38

18 35

Smith, R.N., on the Mission

to Motocco, 1829, 1830, and

the Survey of Lieutenants

Capo Blanco, North

William Arlett & H. Kellett

El Waladia

33
32

48
32

8
9

48
14

in 1835.

Asfee or Saffi.

Capt. T. Boteler, R.N., 1828.

Marocco, centre [3]

17 50

Don Juan Badia and Captain

SUERRAII or MOGODOR. . . .

18 40

Washington.

31
30

4
38

9 47
9 53

Lieut. Arlett.

Capt. T. Boteler, 182S.

30
30

37
26

20
35

9
9

52
35

The Chevalier de Borda, 1776.

Agadir or Santa Cruz ....

Observations of Lieuts. Arlett

29
2S

49
45

9
11

48
4

and Kellett, R.N., 1835.

Capo Nun or lnoon

Porto Cansado, entrance . .

Cape Juby

Lieut, Arlett, &c, 1835.

Cape Boiador or Bojador

2(3

Penha Grande, summit ....

Seven Capes, Central Cape

Angra dos Cavallos

°4

The Observations of Capt. W

Rio do Ouro,or Gold Paver.

Fitzwilliam Owen, and

entrance, North point . .

those of M. le Baron

Cintra Bay, North point .

Roussin.

„ South point . .

5C>

1 1

Cape Barbas

22
2u

19
12

30
30

16
16

39
48

*** In 1830, Captain (aft.

Pcdra da Gall, centre

Adm. Sir Edw.) Belcher, by re-

Cape Corvoeiro

Cape Blanco

Cape Mirik, the Down . . .

Tanit Bay, the Down

peated observations, found Cape

20
I'.'

17
16
16

4
32
12

Blanco in lat. 20° 46' 26", long.
17° 4' 10'.

H.M.S. Eslc, Captain Purchas,
1826.

Angel's Hillocks, Southei j 18

The Two Palm Trees ' \

Portandik [5] I 18

19 10

Latitudes, Capt. Roussin, Lon-

Down of Red Sand

gitude inferred by Chart,

and uncertain.

Huts of J.nguiagher

St. Louis, Senegal, Light-

house on Government

19 25

Captain (afterwards Admiral

Bar of the Senegal, North

and Baron) Roussin, in the

Point

years 1817 and 1818.

Little Paps, near Cape

Verde, northern one ....

5C>

Cvrii Veude, extremity . .

19 35

Capt. Roussin and M, Givry.

Ahnadie Rocks, off Cape

Verde, highest and west-

14 44
14 39

29
50

17
17

30
30

Capt. Fitzwilliam Owen.

Goree, the Fort Lighthouse

14
14

30
18

7
3

20
12

Capts. Owen and Boteler.

Capt. W. F. Owen, R.N., 1824.

Point Serine

14
14

18
10

16
16

56
49

30
45

Capt. T. Boteler, 1829.

Capts. Owen and Boteler.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COAST OF AFRICA— Continued.

LAT. N.

River Gambia —

Bathurst Town, Flag
staff

Bird Island, Flagstaff . .

Cape St. Mary

James Fort

Thankrowell

Elephant Isle, West Pt

Yamamaroo Town

McCarthy's Isle, Fort
George

Pisania or Pisaneea . .

Bald Cape

Point St. Pedro

River Souta, Bird Islet . .
River Casamanza, N. Point

of the entrance

Cape Roxo

Breakers of Falulo, West

Point

Isle of Cayo, South Point
Bissao, Portuguese Fort

Bijooga Islands, &c.

Papakawa Islet

Areas Isle, centre ....

Bolola Town, Rio Grande

Bularaa Island, East end

Bossessame, or Tombelly,
North Point

S.W. point

Gallinha Isle, West Point

N.E. Hog Island, East
Point

Kanyabac, N.E. Point . .
S.W. Point . .

Orango, S.E. Point ....
„ West Point

South Breaker

Pullam Island, South Point
Alcatras Island, centre ....

Conflict Reef, centre

Rio Nunez; Entrance, Sand

Isle

Rio Nunez ; Rebucko Town

Cape Verga, summit

Pongas River, entrance . .
Mount Kakulimah

Isle de Los : —

Crawford Isle Establish-
ment

Tamara, Arethusa, or N.
Point

, West Point

Matacong Island, centre . .
"Yelleboa Island, centre. . . .

N. A. 0.

13 28
13 39 12
13 30 12
13 9 40
13 25
13 20 20
13 42

13 33

13 31 54

13 22 30

13 7 15

12 43 30

12 35 20
12 21

12 5
11 49 50
11 51

11 36 30

11 41 51

11 35

11 34 42

11 29

11 19 24

11 27 42

11 20
11 18

11
11

I 10 12
3 12
6
10 56 18
10 51 12
10 37 12
10 30

10 36 37
10 57
10 11 40
10 2
9 45

9 27 24

9 31
9 26 30
9 14

8 55 42

LONG. W,

AUTHORITIES.

o , *

■ ,

16 35 18

19 34

16 40 30

16 41 24

16 22 12

16 3 48

15 20 36

14 58 30

14 45 30

14 34 18

16 49 20

16 48

16 49

16 4S

16 44 40

16 38 30

16 20

15 37 6

19 42

15 54 12

15 39

15 2 18

15 30 24

15 30

15 32 12

15 46 30

15 40 42

15 43 3

19 40

15 48 12

15 55 12

16 15 30

15 57 40

15 45 6

15 26 30

15 11

14 42

14 21 48

14 28 5

14 6

19 35

13 28

13 48 30

13 40 30

13 51 30

13 25 30

14 17 45

Survey of the River Gambia,
from its entrance to Pisania,
by Captain Richard Owen,
R.N., assisted by Messrs.
E. O. Tudor and S. M.
Mercer, 1826.

Survey of the River Gambia,
&c.

Capt. Thos. Botelcr, in H.M.
sloop Hecla, 1829.

Capts. Roussin & W. F. Owen,
1818, 1821, 1826.

Survey of the Bijooga Islands,
and the adjacent Coast of
Africa, by the officers of
H.M.S. Leven, Capt. W. F
Owen, 1826.

*** In 1830, Capt. (SirEdw.)
Belcher, in H.M.S. £tna, from
his observations, made Pullam
Island, S. end, in 10° 51' 53' N.,
and 15° 43' 5" W. ; the North
end of Alcatraz, in 10' 3S' V N.,
and 15° 20' 30" W. Sandy Isle
in lat. 10° 36' 3/'' N., and 14° 42'
19" W. — Geo. Journal, vol ii., pp.
284, 291, 295.

Capt. (now Sir E.) Belcher.
Lieut, Austin, in the African,
1827.

Captain (Sir Edw.) Belcher.

Captain W. F. Owen, in the
Leven, 1826 ; confirmed by

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COAST OF AFRICA— Continued.

Parrot Island, centre. . . .

Cape Sierra Leone ; ex-
tremity, Lighthouse. .[6

Sierra Leone, King Tom's
Point

, Freetown, Citadel

False Cape, extremity . .

Cape Chilling, or Shilling

Banana Isles, highest peak

, West Point

Plaintain Islands, Gillmorris

, Bengal

Rocks

Tassa, extreme point. . . .

Turtle Isles ; North Island,
centre

Cape St. Anne, extremity. .

Shoals of St. Anne : —
Northern extremity ....
Southern extremity ....
Western limit

York Isle, in Sherbro' River,
Huts

Shebar, Sherbro' River. . . .

Boom Kittam River, Forks

Paver Galinhas, entrance..

Cape Mount (1,046 feet).
Western Beach

St. Paul's River, entrance. .

Cape Mesurado, extremity
(Lighthouse)

Monrovia, Govt. House. . . .

Junk River ; Marshall, an
American Settlement
Agent's House

Bassa, Director's House . .

River Sestros, or Grand Ces-
tos, South entrance . .

Baffou Point

Bloc Bara,oi B".rbarra Fac-
tory, Sinou

Middle Ncefoo, or Niffou

Cape Palmas, Lighthouse

Tahou

Grand Hereby

St. Andrew's River, King
George's lowii, within
Swortou Corner

Jcllafotfee

Pivtt Fresco, or Rio de La-
gos, off the Mouth

Giund Lahou

Jack Jaques

Assinee River, Anchorage
S.E. of the Mouth

Apolionia

Fort St. Anthony

LAT. N.

8 53

8 30

8 30 6
8 29 42
8 25 48
8 9 30
8 5 48
8 5
7 55 12

7 54 36
7 55 30

7 40 48
7 34

7 56
7 31 30
7 38

LONG. W.

AUTHORITIES.

O /

13 15

19 35

13 17 35

13 14 30

13 14 18

13 17 48

13 10 12

13 16 12

13 15 12

13 3 12

13 2 48

13 2 12

himself in the Eden, and by
Captain Purchas in the Esk,
1827.

13 4

12 57

(Not os-
certaiued)
13 29

32 12 26 42

22 48 12 31 30

14 24 12 8 36

1 11 3$ 5

6 43
6 22

6 19 15
6 19 5

6 8 6
5 54 50

5 26 25
5 9 10

59 15
45 3
22 9

24 47
39 3

4 57 8

5 51

5 1 8
5 8 3
5 11 8

5 3 5
4 58 45
4 52 18

19 37

Caprain W. F. Owen, in tb

Levtn 1S26.

11 21 9

19 35 '

10 37

10 49 O

10 48 55

19 35 1

10 22 45

10 4 5

9 34 45

9 17 30

Cupt. A.T. E. Vidal, in H.M.
ships Etna and Raven, 1835
to 1839.

9 2 o

8 32 2
7 M 16
7 21 30
6 54 30

3 47
5 52 20

5 32 5
4 57 40
4 26 8

3 12 7
2 35 5
2 14 45

19 31

19 10

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

COAST OF AFRICA— Continued.

Cape Three Points

Acquidah

Dixcove

Elmina, or St. George del
MiDa

Cape Coast Castle :—
Southern Turret, Time-
ball

Mauree, or Moree, Flagstaff

Annamboe, Flagstaff

Cormantine, Flagstaff ....

Tantumquerry, Flagstaff . .

Tantumquerry, Extreme
Point

Devil's Hill, summit

Barracoe, Point

Accra, British flagstaff

the

Ningo, Fort

Volta River, entrance

Cape St. Paul

Quitta, flagstaff

Padiana, Town

Little Popoe, Road . .
Grand Popoe, Road . .
Whydah, or Ajudah . .

Appee

Porto Novo ; Hill

„ ,, Road . .

Badagry, Mount

„ Road

Lagos River, entrance
Lagos River, End of

Sandy Beach

Benin River, N.W. Point. .

Rio dos Esclavos

Terra Formosa, West point
Terra Formosa, Eastern pt.
River Nan or Quorra, the

Bar (2 fathoms) [7]

Rio Bento or Second River
Rio St. Nicolas, or Third

River

New Calabar River, Fochc

Point

Bonny River, Rough Coi-
ner

Old Calabar River, Tom
Shot's Point, West o!
the Entrance

Backasey Gap, East of

the Entrance ,

Bimbia Isle

Cape Camaroens

Camaroens Mountain, peal

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

4 44 30
4 45 27

4 47 45

5 5

5 5 25
5 7 30
5 10 12
5 10 30
5 13 30

5 12 30
5 18 36
5 29
5 32

5 45
5 47 18
5 44 30
5 54 36

5 57 42

6 10
6 19
6 19 30
6 22
6 20
6 19
6 24
6 20
6 24

6 20
5 43
5 34
4 28
4 19 24

4 15

4 17

4 18
4 22 40
4 23 40

4 36

29
57
53
13

AUTHORITIES.

o //

2 5 45

2 2 8

1 56 40

1 22 30

1 12 5

1 12

1 7 12

1 5 36

46 48

11 30

East.

1 48

42 18

52 18

54 IS

57 18

1 36

1 46

2 5

2 25

2 34

2 43 30

3 47 48

3 22

4 27

5 4

5 5 48

5 41 30

5 54 33

5 oo

6 15

6 24

7 7

8 19

8 32

9 13 48

9 12

George Maclean, Esq.

Capt. W. F. Owen, in the Eden,
1827; and Captain Puvchas,
in the Esk, same year.

Long, of Accra, by 4 good chro-
nometers of H.M.S. Dryad. Capt.
Hayes, in Feb. 1832, 6° 16' 20"
W., lat. 5° 32' 27" N.

Captain Vidal.

Captains Owen and Purchas.
Capt. Kelly, in the Pheasant.
Captains Owen and Purchas.
Captain B. M. Kelly.
Captain Purchas.
Captain B. M. Kelly.

Captain Vidal.

Captain Purchas.

Capt. A. T. E. Vidal, in II. M.

sloop Barracoul/i, 1S26.

[Longitude of the Bar of the

Quorra, Captain William

Allen, 1S33.)

Captain Vidal, in the Etna,
arSpCt^otain Purchas, in the
Esk,\S27 ; and Capts. Vidal
and Boteler, 1826.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
COAST OF AFRICA— Continued.

LAT. N.

Rumby Mountains, highest
peak

Qua Mountain .

Corisco Island, N.W. point

Cape Esterias

Point Clara

Cape St. John

Gaboon River, Round Cor-
ner

Cape Lopez

AFRICAN ISLANDS.

Fernando Po: —

Clarence Peak .......

Cape Bullen, Northern

Extremity

Adelaide Islet

Point William, Flagstaff
Cape Horatio, N.E. Ex-
tremity

Cape Vidal, E. Extremity
Cape Barrow, S. Rock . .
Cape Eden, S.W. Extr.
Cape Badgley, W. Extr.
Charles' Folly, N.W. Ex.
Goat Isle, Centre

Princes' Island, the Bro-
thers near

St. Thomas's Island : —
Cabrita Isle

Anna de Chaves, Road . .
Rolas' Isle [on the Lin*)

Anxobon ; East Point

4 57
o lj
55 54
37 48

30 30

1 9 40

18 5
South.
36 12

North.

3 47

Dutr

LONG. E.

VAR.
WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

9 18

8 51

9 19 45
9 21
9 20 30
9 21 35

9 20

8 45 17

8 46 30

8 39 24
8 47 17
8 47

8 54 24
8 5(3 18
8 40
8 25 6
24 42
27 42

8
8
8 32 48

7 19 48

6 45
6 46

6 36 30

5 42 48

18 50

18 40

19 10

Captain Vidal.

Captain W. F. Owen, in the

Eden, 1827.

Captains Purchas and Kelly.

H.M.S. North Slur.
Captain Purchas.

NOTES.

1. Cape Spartel.— The remarks of Mr. William Chapman, master of H.M.S. Illustrious,
appear to confirm the longitude of Torino, from whom he differs only 40 seconds in latitude,
which he represents as so much more to the southward. The observations of Capt. Smyth
give the lat. 35" 47' 15', and the long. 5° 55' 45', by chronometer and lunars, as shown in
the table. The coast, from Cape Spartel to Cape Bojador, was surveyed in the Etna and
Raven, under Lieuts. Arlett and Kellet, 1835, as afterwards noticed.

2. EMPIRE of Marocco. — The points determined by Captain Washington we owe to an
excellent paper, entitled "Geographical Notice of the Empire of Marocco; by the late
Lieutenant (afterwards Rear-Admiral) Jno. Washington, R.N.," given in the first volume
of the " Journal of the Royal Geographical Society," 1831; a communication replete with
interesting and useful information. Captain Washington became Hydrographer to the
Navy.

POSITIONS OF PLACES. 37

3. City of Mauocco.— The scientific traveller, Don Juan Badia y Lehlich, commonly
called AH Bey, from his observations in 1803-4, gave the centre of Marocco as in 31° 37',
and 7° 35' 30". On reference to the Astronomical Journal of Captain Washington, there
appear upwards of 100 sights for determining the longitude of the city. Distances between
moon and sun ; moon and stars East and West of her ; and altitudes of the moon when ".n the
prime vertical— the mean results of which give the longitude of a garden at the S.W. angle
of the city: long. 7° 36' W., lat. 31° 37' 20"; mean of about 20 meridian altitudes of
the sun.

4. Cape Geer, &c— M. le Chevalier Jean Chas de Bovda was charged, in 1T76, by
Louis XVI., with a commission to the Canary Islands and the coast of Africa, for the
express purpose of making observations, and determining the chief points of the Canary
Islands, &c. He was furnished with time-keepers, by which he ascertained the positions,
as they have appeared in different Charts and Tables. On this expedition, M. de Borda, ir.
the ship La Boussole, was accompanied by the Espiegle, M. le Chastcnet Puysegur. who
afterwards composed the Pilot for St. Domingo ; also by Captain Don Josef Varela, and
another intelligent officer of the Spanish marine ; all of whom assisted in the operations.

But in the years 1817-18, Captain (afterwards Baron) Roussin was employed by ths
French Government in surveying the coast between Cape Bojador, in 26° 7' N., and the
Isles de Los, in 9-|° ; and this officer has given, most satisfactorily, many points not before
ascertained.

Again, in 1820 and 1821, Captain William Fitzwilliam Owen, in H.M.S. Lcvcn, waa
commissioned by the British Admiralty to examine and settle the coast from Cape Noon
southward; and his observations have still further, and in a much more important degree,
tended to perfect the hydrography of Western Africa. To Captain Owen's work, there-
fore, we refer most particularly in the Tables ; and have only to add that there is a re-
markable coincidence, in general, in the results of the two commanders ; and that even in
comparing either with those of M. de Borda, the differences, practically considered, are of
little moment.

A survey of the Canary Islands, and the continental coast thence northward to Cape
Spartel, was made by Lieutenants William Arlett and H. Kellett, commanders of the Etna
and Raven, in 1835 ; the particulars of which are given in the " Jourual of the Royal
Geographical Society," vol. vi., 1836, and from these we derive the positions given in the
Table, as more fully shown hereafter.

5. Portandik. — The two palm trees are the first seen in sailing hither from Cape Bojador-
Portandik is supposed to have been situated about a mile to the southward of this spot, but
not a vestige of it remained in 1818, when it was visited by Captain Roussin. It has been
ceded to France, in exchange for Albreda, on the Gambia.

6. Sierra Leone, &c. — In preparing former editions of this work, we collected a large
number of observations, which had been made, from time to time, on the coast of Guinea,
&c, between Sierra Leone and Cape Lopez ; they included those previously given by the
officers of H.M. ships Argo, Amelia, Inconstant, Tartar, and others, and we finally appended
to such as we selected for the tabular statement the following remarks : — " Although we
have paid the utmost attention in the comparison of different results, charts, and descrip-
tions, as shown in the tables and notes, we are by no means satisfied with the conclusions
as to many points eastward of Cape Palmas and St. Andrew's Bay. Indeed, all that has
yet been done by the naval officers, and others, prove only the necessity of a new series, in
order to establish so much as may be correct, and to rectify so much as may not be so."
Happily, such rectification has taken place, and many doubts, even on the most important
points, have recently vanished.

We give a specimen, on the longitude of Cape Sierra Leone. Many years ago, the late
Sir George Young gave the longitude of this Cape as 12° 33' 47" ; the French tables after-
ward, as 12° 34'; the requisite tables, 13' 9' 17' ; H.M.S. Argo, 1802, as 13° 12'; the Incon-
stant, 1816, the same; the Amelia, in 1812, 13° 17' 30" ; the Lcvcn (Captain Owen), in 1826.
13° 18' 0" ; the Eden (Captain Owen), in 1827, 13 d 0' 10" ; Captain Sabine, Royal Artillery.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

in 1822, 13° 19' 0" ; and Captain Purchas, in 1827, 13' 19' 12'. Hence we adopt Captain
Owen's longitude, as given in the table. It may be added, that Lieutenant Raper assumes
the North Battery to be in 13° 14' 30', or nearly as in the table.

By 318 lunar distances (23 sets), taken in the West Bastion of Fort Thornton, at Free-
town, Captain Sabine, in 1822, made the longitude of that spot 13° 15' 11" W.; and in 1827,
Captain Owen, in the Eden, made that of the Victualling Office 13' 14' 30'. Latitude of
the latter, 8° 30' 6" ; of Fort Thornton, by Captain Sabine, 8' 29' 21".

"Fort Thornton stands on the highest ground in its own immediate neighbourhood,
excepting a small hill, on which a martello tower is built, at a distance rather exceeding a
quarter of a mile. The situation of Freetown, however, may be more generally stated to
be at the foot, on the northern side of the range of mountains, which, coming from the
interior, finds here its termination in the sea, and gives the name to the cape, harbour, and
colony of Sierra Leone ; the general height of the range, so far as it has yet been explored,
is from 2,000 to 3,000 feet. The principal geological feature in the neighbourhood of Sierra
Leone is a red granite, of easy and rapid decomposition." — Captain [noio General) Sir Edw.
Sabine's Notes.

COAST of GUINEA, between Cape Three Points and CArE Lopez, including the
Islands. Although we described this portion of coast in the " Directory for the Ethiopic
or Southern Atlantic Ocean," we have considered it proper to continue the series of points
in the table ; and for a description of the coast, and remarks upon the positions, we refer
the reader to the above work.

7. River QuorR/S. — This important river is described in the Directory mentioned in
the preceding note. In tiie beautiful chart of it, by Captain William Allen, published in
1857, the East point of the entrance, formerly given by mistake in 6° 4' E., is laid down in
lat. 4° 20' N., and long. 5° 55 E. The bar, with 2 to 4 fathoms over it, extends 2 leagues
southward from the mouth of the river, which demonstrates the strength of the ebb tide.
Within the bar is an extent of 4 miles, the depths are 6 and 7 fathoms, but diminishing
thence upward.

9.— THE AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLANDS.

LAT. N. LONG. W.

Formigas or Ants — *
Formigao or Hormigon,

highest Rock 37 1G 44

Dollabarats Shoal, 11 ft. 37 14 30

Santa Mariaoi-St.Mary—
Ponto do Castello, or S.E.

Point

Villa do Pcrto

Maldebarca Rock, eff the

N.W. Point [1]

3G 55 30
36 oG 30

3G 59 31

Pta. dos Matos 37 50

San Miguel or St. Mi-
chael's —
Ferraria or West Point. .
City of Ponta Delgada,

Castle

Villa Franca, Island
Pta. Retorta. S.W. Point
Punta de la Marquesa,

or East Point

Pta. da Ajuda

57 51 40

44
27

37 48 15
37 51 50

authorities.

, ,

•

. ,

24 47

24 35

24 43

25 1

25 9

25 12

24 4

25 52

24 55

25 41

25 42

25 10 45

25 8

25 19

The Survey made bv Captain
A. T. E. Vidal, 18*42.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLANDS— Continued.

Morro da Ribeira Grande
Porto Cape lias, Morro . .
Pta. de Bretanha

Terceira —

Monte del Brasil, near

Angra

Praya, Pta. de Malma-

renda

Pta. de Serrata or "VV. Pt.

St. George —
Pta. del Topo, or Island

off S.E. Point

Pta. de Rosales, or N.W

Point

LAT. N.

Graciosa—

Fort at Praya

Pta. de Fozo do Porto, or
W. point

Pico—

The summit of the peak

Pta. da Ilha, or E. point

Magdalena Rocks, off W.

point

Fatal —

The S.E. point, or Morro

de N.S. de la Guia

Caldeira, summit, 3,351 ft.
Pta. da Negra, \V. point

Flores —
Sta. Cruz, Fort.

•[2]

CORVO—

The Southern point, or
Pta. del Pesqueiro-alto

37 50 32
37 50 30
37 54 40

38 38 33

38 44 10
38 46

LONG. W.

38 33

38 45

38 3

39 4

38 25

38 32

38 31

38 34
38 36

39 27

39 40

25 29 40
25 41 45
25 47 35

27 14 10

27 3

27 23 50

27 46 27

28 20 15

27 58 46

28 4 43

28 28 12
28 2 45

28 34

28 38 5
28 44
28 50 40

31 8 37

31 8

VAR.
"WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

25 35

25 45

25 50

25 55

26 40

The Survey by Capt. A. T. E.
Vidal, in 1842-44.

NOTES.

1. Azores. — M. Fleurieu ascertained the position of the Mount of Brasil, near Angra, in
Terceira, to be 38° 38' 37" N., and 27° 12' 27" W. Torino's result was 38° 38' 10" and 27° 14' 40"
a remarkable coincidence, considering the distance of time at which the observations were
made. The longitude of this spot was, therefore, assumed by the Spanish commander, as
the meridian referred to from the points subsequently determined. The summit of the
Mount, as given by Captain FitzRoy, R.N., is in 38° 38' 35", and 27° 12' 54".

Captain Alexander T. E. Vidal, R.N., who re-surveyed these islands, makes the Fort at
Villa do Porto, in St. Mary's in lat. 36° 56' 30", long. 25° 9' 45" W.

2. Flores and Corvo. — The longitudes of these islands were given according to the
results of Tofino ; they differ from those of Captain Vidal as now stated.

The variation of the compass is decreasing at the rate of about 4' per annum.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
10.— THE MADEIRA AND CANARY ISLANDS.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

VAR.
WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

MADEIRA.

Town of Funchal, British

Consul's Garden ....[1]

Camera de Lobos

Punta del Parga, the West

Point

Tristao, or N.W. Point.. .

S. Jorge Point

Cape Garajao, or Brazen

Head, S.E. extremity . .
Pta. de S. Lourenzo, the

Lighthouse

Pico Ruivo, summit, 6,056

feet

Porto Santo—

Villa Baleira on the South

side

Baixo Island, South point

Dezertas —

Chao Island, Sail Rock. .
Bujio Island, Agulha Pt.

The Salvages—

Middle of the Great Sal-
vage

CANARY ISLANDS.

Lanzarote, or Lancerote
Allegranza Isle, off the

North end

Port de Naos, Lighthouse

FUERTAVENTURA —

Isle of Lobos, Point Mar-
tino, Lighthouse ....

Point Jandia, the S.W
Point

Canaria, or Grand Ca

NARY —

The Isleta, or N.E. Point
Point Arguineguin, or S.

Point

Point Aldea, the W. Pt.

Tenerife, or Teneriffe —

Santa Cruz, Mole Lt. [3] 28 28 33

32 38 22
32 38 35

32 48 7
32 51 25
32 49 40

32 37 18

32 43 10

32 45

33 3 30
52 59 10

32 35 45
32 24

30 8 30

29 25 30
28 57 20

28 45 25
28 3

28 11

27 44 55

28 1

Pico de Teide, summit
Orotava, N.W. side
Pta. de Anaga, E. Point
Pta. de la Rasca, S. Pt.

28 16 35
28 25
28 33 50
2S 30

16 54 45

16 59

17 16 20
17 12 7
16 54 40

16 51 42

16 39 30

16 57

16 20 3
16 18 50

16 33
16 28 20

15 55 36

13 30 30
13 33

13 48

14 31 30

15 25 10

15 40 10

16 30

16 14
16 38
16 33
16 6
16 41

20 40

19 20

19 35

19 50

Capt. Matt. Flinders, H.M.S.
Investigator, 1801 ; Gen. Sir
Thomas Brisbane, 1821.

Capt. W. Fitzwilliam Owen,
1820, 1827.

Capt. A. T. E. Vidal, 1844.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
MADEIRA AND THE CANARY ISLANDS— Continued.

LONG. W,

VAR.
WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

GOMERA —
The Port
Pta. de Calera, W. Point

Palma —

Sta. Cruz, on the E. side
Taxacorte, on the W. side

Ferro —

Port de Hierro

Point Orchilla, S.W. Pt.
Pta. de la Restinga, S. Pt.

28 8
2cS 6 45

28 40 30
28 38 12

27 46 30
27 42 20
27 37 3

a ' o

17 5 55

17 22

17 44 28

17 55 55

17 54 22

20 20

18 9 45

17 59 50

NOTE.

1. Funchal.— The latitude of Funchal is well ascertained. The longitude was esti-
mated by M. Bory, in 1772, as 16° 56'. It is unnecessary to repeat the varying results of
other observers, the differences having been decided by our respected countryman, Captain
Flinders, from whose observations, in H.M.S. Investigator, 1801, the latitude of the road
appeared to be 32° 37' 44', and the greatest longitude, by any of six chronometers,
16° 54' 26".

Sir Thomas Brisbane, on his voyage to New South Wales (1821), obtained his time at
the house of Mr. J. W. Gordon, at Funchal, by four excellent chronometers, by which the
mean longitude was concluded as 16' 54' 36". At the same time the latitude of the
tower, on Mr. Gordon's house, was found to be 32° 38' 19.7", and that of the Loo Rock,
32° 37' 53.8". The longitude given by Sir Thomas Brisbane was confirmed by ten Ad-
miralty chronometers, under the care of Dr. Tiarks, in 1823, which gave for the longitude
of the British Consul's Garden, 16 D 54' 45" (in time, l h 7 m 39 s ), the position given in the
Table.

Captain Fitzwilliam Owen, from observations in H.M.S. Leven, in 1820, gives the landing-
place, near the Loo Castle, in 32> 37' 42" N., and 16° 55' 30' W.

Captain Win. Mudge, R.N., who, with Captain Vidal, surveyed the Great Salvage in
1820, places its South side in 30' 7' 39" N., and 15° 56' 18' W. ; and he says of it— "This
island is obviously of volcanic origin, and consists principally of a dark-coloured black
rock, the detached parts of which, as well as the whole, exhibit strong marks of fixed
magnetic polarity. Even the dust of the roads, and of the floors of the cottages, has the
same character as the rock itself, and may be gathered up, like steel filings, by means of a
bar magnet."

2. Tenerife. — The position of Sta. Cruz in the Table is that given by Captain Vidal
in his completion of the survey of these islands (1844). The previous observations have
placed the longitude generally one or two minutes more, or to the westward of those in the
Table.

Capt. Fitzwilliam Owen, from his observations in the Leven, 1820, gives the Mole Head
in 28° 27' 54" N., and 16° 15' 0" W. The peak he gives in 28° 16' 24" N., and 16 3 39' W.

The variation of the compass is decreasing at the rate of 4' or o per annum.

N.A.O.

POSITIONS OF PLACES,
11. —CAPE VERDE ISLANDS.

LAT. N.

Sal or Salt Island
The North Point .
The South Point .

BONAYISTA : —

The N.W. Point
The N.E. Point .
The New Town .
The South Point
Leton Rock . . .

Mayo, or Isle of May
The North Point . . .

English Road

South Point

Island of St. Iago: —
Bighude, or North Point

East Point

Porto Praya, Quail I. [1]
S.W. Point

Island of Fogo: —

North Point

Town of N.S. da Luz . . .

Brava : —
Road on the West side .

St. Nicholas: —

East Point

North Point

West Point

South Point

16 51
16 34

Raza, East Point 16 38

St. Lucia: —
East Point .
North Point

16 13 20
16 11
16 7
15 57
15 48

15 12 30
15 7 30
15 6 40

15 19 30
15 30
14 53 40
14 58 30

15 1 15
14 53

14 48

16 34 30
16 42
16 38
16 28 30

16 46
16 49

St. Vincent:—
Porto Grande

St. Antonio : —
North Point .,

West Point

South Point .,
East Point . . .

[2]

16 54 42

17
17
16

LONG, w,

var.

"WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

o /

22 54

22 56

22 55

22 42

29 25

22 55

23 44

23 9

23 12

13 13

23 10

23 45

23 25

23 30

23 44

24 22

24 31

24 43

20 5

24 21

24 27

24 19

24 38

24 42

24 47

25 1

25 6 45

25 23

25 19

The Survey of the Cape
Verde Islands, by Lieutenants
(afterwards Captains) Vidal
and Mudge, R.N. ; taken by
order of the Lords Commis-
sioners of the Admiralty, in
the years 1819, 1820, and
1821, compared with the ob-
servations of Captains King,
Foster, Owen, &c.

NOTES.

1. PoRTO Praya. — The longitude of this place appears to be well determined ; particular
attention having been directed to it by many of our most skilful navigators. Captain
FitzRoy places the West point or landing-place on Quail Island (called also Gun Point),
at Porto Praya, in longitude 23° 30' 0' W. Captain P. P. King had made it 23° 30' 17" j

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

Captain Vidal, 23" 31' 28" ; and Captain Owen, 23° 31' 3' ; therefore, 23° 30' 34", the longi-
tude formerly assigned to it by Mr. Purdy, in previous editions of this work, cannot be far
from the truth.

2. Capt. King made Terrafal Bay, at the S.W. end, by eleven chronometers, in longitude
25° 20' 1" ; Caplain Owen made it 25° 21' 42' ; and Captain Foster, 25' 22' 56" ; therefore,
from these it will be about 25 3 21' 30" ; and the West point, 25° 23' 10'.

The variations of the compass are now increasing at the rate of 5' per annum.

12.— THE FiEEOE ISLES, ICELAND, GREENLAND, LABEADOE, AND

NEWFOUNDLAND.

The F^EROE ISLANDS.!

Munkn Islet

Sudti 6, Porkei ji

Lando, Village

Waago, Sorwaag

Myggenses, West Point . .

Stromo, T horshavn

Ostero, Ristang N. Point
Fuglo, East Point

ICELAND.

Snefells Jokel, 4700 feet . .

Breidavik, Stapi

Akra Nes

Thormod's Skar, S. point. .

Reikiavik

C. Uukalar Beacon

Reykjanes Point

Grindavik Church

Herdisarvik, anchorage . .

Keflavik, anchorage

Olfusa, entrance

Piorsa, entrance

Affall, entrance

Markarflint, entrance ....

Hohla, 5364 feet

Portland Head, S. point of

Iceland

Ingolfs Hofde

Home Fiord, entrance ....

Hvalsbak Islet

Rode Fiord, Krosnces ....
Hornnpes, East point of

Iceland

Langanses, N.E. point

Tiornses

Grimsey Church

Holar Church

Skagen, Skagataa

North Cape

Staalbierg Huk, W. Point

LONG. W.

VAR.
WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

61 23 40

61 31 32

6 42

61 52 30

6 46

62 5

62 6

62 2 40

6 43

62 22

62 18 40

64 4S

04 46 15

64 39 40

64 25 30

64 8 20

64 4 50

63 48

63 49

63 51 30

61 50 30

63 52

4-3

63 46 40

63 37 45

63 31 30

63 59

19 45

63 23 45

63 4S 50

64 15

64 37

65 1 30

65 10 50

66 23

66 13 40

66 33 30

65 45 30

66 8

3 30

66 29

63 30 25

26 25

26 50

45 45

36 30

The Survey by Capt. Born,
of the Danish Navy, 1790-5,
published in 1806, subse-
quently corrected.

Mr. BjOUN GUNNLAUGS-
son's Survey, 1849, and
French Survey, 1859.

These longitudes are G' or 8'
further West than those of the
Danish Survey, 1845.

The Danish Survey, 1845,

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
GREENLAND, LABRADOR, &c— Continued.

LAT. N.

AUTHORITIES.

GREENLAND.

[1]

Land reported, 1G70
Cape Bismarck ....
Pendulum Island, 3,000 feet
Cape Hold-with-hope, 3,000

feet

K. Francis Joseph Fiord,

entrance

Davy Sound, Smith Island

Cape Gladstone

Scoresby Sound, Cape

Brewster

Knighton Inlet, C. Barclay

Horror Bay

Cape Dan [2]

Dannebrogs Oe or Isle ....

Cape Lowenorn

Colberger Heide

Cape Mosting

Cape Juel

Kinarbic

Cape Bille

Cape Tordenskiold

Cape Discord

Cape Valloe

Cape Farewell or Staten-

huk

Fiederiksdalor Ikigeit ....

Arsuk Fiord, Ivugtut

Frederiksbaab

Godtbaab Fiord, entrance . .

Holsteinborg

Disko Bay, Egedesminde.
„ Christianshaab

„ Jakobshawn . .

„ Godhavn

Disko Island, E.'side, coal

cliffs

Hare Island (coal) N. point

Upernivik

Carey Islands, southern . .
Hall's Rest, Tablet erected

by British, 1876

Alert, Winter Q., 1875-6 . .
Markham & Pan's farthest
Cape Colombia (Aldrich)..

Aldrich's farthest

Beaumont's farthest

LABRADOR [3].

Resolution Island, C. Best

Cape Chidley

Eclipse Har., Mt. Bache,
2,150 ft .. ..

Raman. Mission Station . .

78 33

76 47 30

74 39

73 26

73 12

71 49

71 30

69 10

66 49

65 37

6.3 18

64 30

64 8

63 40

63 15

62 47

61 58

61 24

60 53

60 38

59 49 12

61 12

62
64 .5
66 56
68 42

68 48

69 12 30
69 14

19
18 30
18 31 30

20 28

22 25
22 20
21 38

24
33
36
38
39
40
40
40
41
12
42
42
42

50 O

43 53 40

45 6

48 21

49 42

52 20

53 40
53 5
51 16
51 14
53 40

70 28

72 48

76 40

81 38

82 27

83 20

83 7

82 21

82 20

61 21

60 30

59 51

51 49

North German Polar Ex-
pedition, 1870.

52 30
55

The Chart of Greenland,
published by authority at Co-
penhagen in 1832. to illustrate
the voyage of Capt. Graah.

Danish Chart, with addi-
tions from U.S. Exp. under
Kane and Hayes, 1854 — 1861,
and Hall, 1871-2.

100

Alert and Discovery, 1875-6.

Various authors up to 1876.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
LABRADOR— Continued.

VAR.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Hebron Mission Station,

, *

o . .

o -

58 5 SO
57 38

62 51 30
62 18

Akkak Mission Station. . . .

Port Manvers, entrance . .

62 7

56 32 45
56 26 59

61 40 30
61 13 11

Staff Commanders Max-

well, 1873 5, and Chimmo,

55 49 30

58 52

1867.

Hopedale Mission Station

55 27 4

60 11 49

Gull Island, North end

55 30 20

59 43

55 13 50

59 S 20

Aillik Bay, H. B. Co. Sta.

55 9

59 5

Webeck Har., (Cannatock-

tuit), Harbour Rocks. . . .

54 54 27

58 1 51

54 55 50
54 45 10
54 11 20

57 55 40
56 50

58 25 10

Bulldof Island

Hamilton Inlet, Rigoulettt

„ Herring Isles, S.E.

54 19 24

57 5

Outer Gannet Island

54 O

56 32

Independent Island, S. pt.

53 50 40

56 51 30

The Wolves, S.E. one ....

53 48 16

56 19

Curlew Har., Curlew Id. . .

53 46

56 33 18

Cart wright Harbour

53 42 37

56 59 50

S. Wolf Island, S. Wolf

53 38 55

55 53

Domino Run, Spotted Id.,

53 29 30

55 43 10

,, Grog Island, summit

53 30 36

55 52 30

Roandhill Island, S.E. end

53 25 45

55 36

Shoal Bay, E. entrance pt.

53 17

55 46

American Tickle, Long Id.

53 12 50

55 41 29

Partridge Island, E. end .

53 10 30

56 12 25

53 6 15
52 58 9

54 45 38

55 45 55

Venison Tickle Flagstaff . .

Cape Bluff

52 50 15
52 42

55 48
55 48 18

St. Michael Bay, First pt.

Occasional Har., Twin Ids.

52 40

55 44 18

39 10

Fishing Ship Harbour, En-

52 36 10
52 33 30

55 45 20
55 41 30

Cape St. Francis

St. Lewis Sound, Goose Id.

52 19 17

55 42 50

52 13

55 42

The Surveys by .Admiral Bay-

Peterel Island, S.E. end . .

52 4

55 41

field, 1827—1860.

Chateau Bay, York Point

51 58

55 52 40

51 48
51 27 10

56 11
56 51 30

Amour Point Lighthouse. .

NEWFOUNDLAND [4].

Belle Isle, N.E. point

52 1 8

55 15 30

The Survey by Captain F.

„ Lighthouse or:

Bullock, R.N.

51 53
.51 38

55 22 15
55 53 40

Cape Norman Lighthousi

The Admiralty Surveys by

51 39
51 32 33

55 25
55 26 20

Lieut, (since Adm.) Frederick

Griguet Bay, East point . .

Bullock, R.N., and his assist-

POSITIONS OP PLACES.

NEWFOUNDLAND— Continued.

White Cape, near St. Lu-

naire Bay

Brehat or Braha Shoal ....
Cape St. Anthony
Cremailliere Cove, entrance
Goose Cape, S.E. point . . .
How Harbour, entrance,

W. point

Fishot Isles, Northern Isk
Croc Harbour, entrance . .

Groais Isle, N.E. point

Bell Island, N.E. Rock....

Rouge Isle, N. point

Canada Bay, entrance ....
Hooping Harbour, entrance
Fourchette Har., entrance

Orange Bay, entrance

Little Harbour, Deep Head

Cat Head, extremity

•Coney Head Arm

Partridge Point

Fleur de Lys Harbour,

Bear Hill

St. Barbe, or Horse Isles,

S.E. point

Paquet Harbour, entrance
La Scie Harbour, entrance

Cape St. John.

North Bill

South Bill

St. John's Gull Isle

Bishop's Rock

Nippers' Isles, S.E. Point. .

Cut well Harbour, E. Point

Triton Harbour, entrance

Fortune Harbour, N.W.
Point

Toulinguet Island Light-ho.

Change Isles, N.E. Islet . .

Fogo Isles, Change Island,
Tickles, Tobacco Island. .
„ Foffo Har., Slade's staff
„ Hare Bay, N. entr.

point

„ Seldom-come-by Har-
bour, Ship Hill

Ireland Rocks, East end . .

Snap Rock

Funk Island, West end. . . .

Offer Wadham Id. Light ..

Gander Island, N. point . .

Deadman Point

Cape Freels, Brandies Id.. .

Puffin Island Light

Offer Gooseberry Island, N.
end

LAT. N.

51 30 25

51 25 40

51 21 44

51 20

51 18 20

51 20 45
51 12 30
51 3
50 58 30
50 48 30
50 54 30
50 42 30
50 36 30
50 31 45
50 22
50 14
50 12 10

49 57 50

50 9 20

50 6 35

LONG. W.

AUTHORITIES.

55 26 20
55 26 20
55 31
55 35
55 35

55 56
55 39 20
55 44
55 30 30
55 25 50

55 43 45

56 6 20
56 12 40
56 16 20
56 25 45
56 31 45
56 38 50

55 46

56 9 20

56 7 42

50 11

41 50

49 58

51 3S

45 5S

36 50

49 59

30 10

49 56

28 30

49 59

21 30

49 55

26 40

49 47

49 37

49 33

49 32

49 41

54 49

49 41

23 35

49 43

16 19

49 40

17 13

49 36

11 57

49 51

1 30

49 53

42 30

49 45

11 10

49 35

45 30

49 28

22 25

49 21

40 10

49 16

27 40

49 3

32 38

4S 56

31 10

35 25

34 15

33 20

ants, Messrs. T. Smith, &c,
1823, 1824, 1825, and 1826.
The longitudes adjusted by the
onset rations of Capt. H. W.
Bav field, &c.

Remarks.

By these excellent Surveys, a
very important desideratum was
obtained ; for before they were
executed, the coasts which they
display were comparatively un-
explored, although frequented
more or less by the fishers.

The Admiralty Surveyors,
Messrs. George Holbrook and
William Bullock, 1819 to
1826.

The Admiralty Survey un-
der Staff Commander J. H.
Kerr, R.N., 1866—1871,
and Captain Orlebar, R.N.,
1862—4.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

NEWFOUNDLAND— Continued.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

VAR.
WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Salvage Bay, Cow Head . . 48 42

Barrow Har., Gerrard Hill 48 40 4S

Cape Bonavista Light .. 4S 41 58

Kelp Rock, breaks 48 47 50

Catalina Harbour, Greer.

Island Lighthouse 48 30 15

Horse Chops 48 20 4G

Trinity Har., Fort Point

Lighthouse 4S 22

Bonaventure Head 48 16 50

Trinity Bay, E. Random

Head 48 5 45

„ Deer Har. Green I. 47 53 43

„ Tickle Point 47 42 10

„ Heart's Content,

Church 47 52 35

„ New Perlican Ch. 47 54 45

„ Salvage Point .... 48 3 55

„ Grates Point .... 48 10 15

Baccalieu Island Light. ... 48 8 45

Conception Bay Harbour,

Grace Id. Lighthouse . . 47 42 45

„ Bay Roberts, East en-
trance point 47 36 45

„ Cape St. Francis

Light 47 48 30

Black Head 47 45 40

Torbay Point 47 39 40

St. John's Harbour,

Chain Rock Battery [7] 47 M 2

„ Fort Amherst Light,

S. side of entrance .... 47 33 50

Cape Spear Light 47 31 20

Bull Head 47 18 25

Cape Broyle, North Point 47 4 20

Cape Ballard 46 47 10

Cape Race, Lighthouse . . 46 39 25
Virgin Rocks, on the Gt.j

Bank of Newfoundland) 46 26 30
Trepassey Harbour, Shingle

Neck 46 43 32

Cape Pine, Lighthouse. .. . 46 37 4

St. Mary's Cape, Li^htho. 46 49 30
Placeutia Harbour, Prive-

cceur Point 47 15 24

Cooper Cove, Obs. spot. .. . 47 17 55

Fox Island, S.W. Point .. 47 21 10

Burin Island Light 47 26

Corbin Head 46 56 20

Great St. Lawrence Har-
bour, Episcopal Church 46 55 26
St. Pierre Island, Galantry

Head Lighthouse 46 45 30

„ Pigeon Island, N. pt. 46 47 25

Green Island, "West point.. 46 52 10
Miquelon Ids., Cape Coupe,

South point [ 46 46 39

53 38 40
53 39 14
53 4 35
53 3 30

53 2 40
53 12 25

53 20 50
53 23 25

53 33
53 42 25
53 40 20

53 22 14
53 21 40
53 9
52 56 40

52 47 50

53 8 14

53 10

52 47 10
52 42 40
52 39 40

52 40 50

52
52
52
52
52

40 20
37 12
44 45
50 50
56 45
4 20

50 57 30

53
53
54

22 13
31 45
11 30

53 59 30

53 58 35

53 59 5

55 8 43

55 14

55 22 58

50
56

9 32

7 ol

5 oS
5G 21

32 20

The Admiialty Survey
under Staff Commander J.
H. Kerr, R.N., 1S66— 1871,
and Captain Odebar, R.N.,

1862—4.

31 40

Captain James Cook, Cap-
tain (Rear-Admiral) H. W.
29 20 I Bayfield, 1827 to I860), Cap-
| tain Orlcbar, 1862, and Staff
| Commander Maxwell, 1873 —
1876.

29 45

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

NEWFOUNDLAND— Continued.

" ■ ™" " - ■ ■ ■

VAR.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

O 1

Miquclon ltoad anchor-

age

47 6

47 8 12

50 33
56 20 35

Captain James Cook, Cap-

„ Cape Miquelon, N. pt.

rain (Rear-Admiral H. W.

Brunet Island Lighthouse

47 15 30

55 51 50

Bayfield, 1827 to 1860), Cap-

Devil Bay, E. entrance pt.

47 30 40

56 37 10

tain Orlebar, 1862, and Staff

New Harbour, entrance ..

47 35 30

50 39 10

28 45

Commander Maxwell, 1873 —

Fransway or Francois Bay,

1876.

47 33 30

56 44

Cape La Hune

47 31 30
47 34 5

56 51 50

57 7 15

Little River Point

Old Man's Bay, E. point . .

47 35 35

57 10 50

Ramea Ids., Ramea Har.,

N. entrance point

47 30 30

57 24 30

Bear Island, W. point ....

47 36 35

57 23 35

Burgeo Ids., Boar Island

Lighthouse

47 36 10

57 35 10

La Poile Bay, Great Har.,

Episcopal Church

47 39 48

58 24 18

Rose Blanche Point Lt.-ho.

47 35 50

58 41 30

Port Ba-que, Channel Ch.

47 33 50

59 7 33

Cafe Kay Lighthouse [8]

47 37

59 IS

Codroy Roads, Beach Point

47 52 38

59 23 47

St. George Har., Sandy Pt.

48 27 27

58 30 31

48 28 25

59 15 50

Bay of Islands, South Head

49 5 25

58 20 20

Cape Gregory

49 22 20

58 13

Bonne Bay, South entr. pt.

49 32 30

57 58 30

Cow Head

49 55

50 41 55

57 50 20
57 24

Pich Point Lighthouse. . . .

St. John Har., S. entr. pt.

50 48 10

57 14 30

Ferolle Point, S.W. extr.

51 1

57 5

Green Island

51 24
51 38

56 34
55 53 40

Cape Norman Lighthouse

NOTES.

1. The North German Polar Expedition of 1870, consisted of the steam-ships Germania,
143 tons, and the Ilansa, a sailing vessel of 242 tons. Its object was geographical discovery
towards the North Pole by the eastern coast of Greenland. On reaching the coast, the
vessels became separated, the sailing ship, proceeding to the southward, was ultimately
lost in a storm, and the crew taking refuge on an ice-floe were drifted several hundred
miles to the southward, to within reach of a Danish settlement near the southern extremity
of Greenland. The Germania wintered near the southern end of Pendulum Island, near
the locality of Sir Edward Sabine's magnetic observatory, when he visited the locality with
Captain Clavering in 1823. From thks point sledging expeditions in the spring of 1870
were undertaken, which reached as far as 77 D north latitude. In returning down the coast
a fiord, penetrating far into the interior of East Greenland, was discovered and partly
explored. It is situated between Capes Franklin and Humboldt, and was found to be
surrounded by a highly picturesque mountainous country, with sheltered and verdant
pastures near the water, inhabited by herds of musk-oxen and reindeer.

2. An interesting account was published of the Discoveries of the Eastern Coast of
Greenland, by Cant. Graah, of the Danish Royal Navy, in 1829, who proceeded along the

POSITIONS OF PLACES. 49

coast from Staten Hook, to the parallel of 65£°, and who has disproved the existence of any
ancient European colony upon it. In a single boat, amid difficulties almost insuperable,
with only two Greenland men and four women, M. Graah reached an island, in latitude
65° 18' ; longitude, computed, 38° 27' ; he proceeded onward until stopped by an insurmount-
able barrier of ice, and was forced to return to the S.W.

All the coast appeared to be colder, more barren, and miserable, than the western coast.
"It may be said to consist of one uninterrupted glacier, exhibiting only a few patches of
vegetation, generally on the banks of the rivers, and elsewhere, often advancing into the
sea, and forming promontories of ice, which are passed with so much the more danger that
they frequently fall in avalanches." During the whole summer of 1829 there was not one
day which could be called warm; and, before the 14th of June, the thermometer had never
risen above 53°.

During his last stay, in 1831, Capt. Graah determined the longitudes of the two southern
Danish settlements, Jutianeshaab and Nemiortalic, with great precision, by means of occul-
tations of fixed stars, &c. ; and we also gain, by his observations, the positions of Cape
Farewell, never before ascertained, and Cape Christian, another promontory of the same
island; Cape Farewell, lat. 59' 49' 12", long. 43° 53' 40" ; Cape Christian, lat. 59° 42' 30',
long. 44° 45' 0".

The eastern coast is distinguished by the name of the late excellent King Frederick VI.

3. Labrador. — The eastern coast of Labrador has been surveyed by the Newfoundland
survey party under Commanders Chimmo and Maxwell. It has been an arduous under-
taking, on account of the shortness of the navigable season. The survey had in 1876 been
fairly completed to Halton Harbour, the northernmost fixed settlement of the Newfound-
land fishermen. From that port northward to Nain, a Moravian Missionary settlement, a
distance of nearly 200 miles, the coast had been explored, and the principal headlands
fixed by astronomical observation.

4. Newfoundland. — The work of the surveyors in recent years has placed the coast of the
island in a much more satisfactory light to the navigator. Previously great errors existed.
The assigned positions of Cape Bonavista is an evidence of the uncertainty which existed
in the longitudes of the old surveys. The first sheet of the survey by Messrs. Holbrook
and Bullock, in 1817, made the long. 52° 59' 15". In the re-issue, shortly afterwards,
of the same sheet, it was shifted to long. 53° 8' 20", or 8° 35' further West. In the modern
survey it is placed in 53° 4' 35".

The coasts to the northward appear to have been given much more to the westward. It
is necessary to notice these discrepancies here, although the amounts of differences, as now
settled, are not important to the general navigator.

The exact longitude was determined by the Electric Telegraph connecting Ireland
with Hearts Content in Trinity Bay in 1867, and from this the principal meridian has
been deduced. The Admiralty Survey takes the Chain Rock Battery, on the North side
of the entrance of St. John's Harbour as the meridian.

The West coast of Newfoundland is still represented according to the surveys of the
circumnavigator, Captain James Cook and Michael Lane at the latter part of the last
century. The original charts of the West and South coasts were published by Mr. Laurie's
predecessors, and it will be seen, upon comparison, that the positions given in Cook's first
work are still found to be near the truth.

The variations OF the COMPASS are nearly stationary in Newfoundland and Labrador.

». A. o. IX

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

13.— GULF AND RIVER OE ST. LAWRENCE, WITH CAPE
BRETON ISLAND.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

VAR.
WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

THE GULF. [1]

Island of St. Paul. [2]

Noi'thern Extreme Light-
house

Eastern side of Neck ....
South Point Lighthouse . .

Magdalen Islands. [3]

Entry Isle, Lighthouse on

S.E. side

South Cape Lighthouse . .
Deadman Islet, W. Point. .
Grindstone Island Light . .
Coffin's Island, N.E. Point

Bird Islet Lighthouse

Bvron or Cross Isle, E. Pt.

ANTICOSTI. [4]

Eas.t End, Heath Point
Lighthouse

S*»ul. Point Lighthouse . .

{•>. W. Point Lighthouse . .

Cape Henry, S.E. extreme

West Point, Lighthouse . .

North Point, extremity . .

Observation Cape, W. side

Bear Bay, entrance of the
River

LABRADOR, &c. [5]

Bradore Harbour, Flagstaff

on Jones House

Belles Amours Point, S.E.

extreme

Lion Island, Isthmus ....
Mistanoque I , E. Point of

Cove in N. side Island . .
Mecattina Harbour, South

Point of Dead Cove ....
Grand Mecattina Point, ex.
Antrobus Point, North

Point of Island

Hare Harbour, East side . .
"Wapitagun Harbour, East

Point of Islet

Cape Whittle, S.W. extreme

of Lake

47 13 50
47 13 9
47 11 20

47 16 30

47 13
47 16 3
47 23 10
47 37 30
47 50 40
47 47 53

49 5 20
49 4
49 23 45
49 47 42
49 52 30
49 57 32
49 38 51

49 30 22

51 27 30

51 26 34
51 24 1

51 15 43

50 46 44
50 44 2

50 33 12
50 36 24

50 11 40

50 10 30

o * tf

60 8 20

60 8 30

60 9 40

61 41

61 58

62 12 28

61 56 30

61 23

61 8 20

61 23 40

61 42 30

62 16

63 35 49

64 23 44

64 31 40

64 9

62 41 27

62 24 32

57 14 15

57 25 53

57 38 33

51 12 8

58 59 23

59 5 13

The observations of Captain
(afterwards Admiral) Henry
Wolsey Bayfield, F.R.A.S.,
of H.M. surveying vessel,
Gulnare, 1827 to 1834.

36 30

(if.

The Survevs bv Admiral H.
W. Bayfield, 1827—1860.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
GULF AND RIVER OF ST. LAWRENCE— Continued.

LAT. N. LONG. W,

VAR.
WEST,

1878-9.

Coacoacho Bay, S. Point of
Outer Islet

Kegashka Bay, Islet at S
end of Beach

Natashquan River, S. Point
of entrance

Little Natashquan Harbour,
North Point Islet at head
of Bay

Nabesippi River, S.E. of
entrance

Appetetat Bay, East Point

Betchewvn Harbour, S.E
Point of Low Isle

Clearwater Point, South ex-
treme

Mingan Harbour, Sandy
Point

Mingan Island, summit

St. John River, East Point
of entrance

Manitou Point, extreme

St. Charles Point, South
extreme

Moisic River, S.W. point of
entrance

Carousel Island, Lighthouse

Seven Islands Bay, Store-
house, East side

St. Margaret's Bay, extreme

Cawee Islands, West Point
of Little Island

Egg Island, Lighthouse .

Trinity Bay, S.W. Point .

Point de Monts, Lighthouse
,, South extreme

River St. Lawrence, N.
Shore.

Goodbout R., Trading Post
St. Nicholas Point, South

extreme

Manicougan Point, S.E. ex

treme

Bersimis River, South Point

of entrance

„ Point, S. extreme
Jeremie, Trading Post . . .

Port Neuf, Church

Saguenay R., Lark Islet,

Lighthouse

Chicoutimi (Saguenay R.),

Trading Post

Isle aux Coudres, W. point

of Laprairie Bay ....

50 9 4
50 11 19
50 6 57

50 11 41

50 13 52
50 16 35

50 14 13

50 12 27

50 17 24
50 12 48

50 17 3
50 17 34

50 15 17

50 11 16
50 5 40

50 13
50 2 25

49 29 21
49 38 13
49 23 39
49 19 35
49 18 41

49 18 25

49 15 47

49 6 5

48 55 23
48 53 57

48 52 45
48 37 17

48 5 30

48 26 5

47 24 40

60 18 13

61 15 38
61 47 58

61 50 33

62 13

62 58 13

63 10 32

63 27 6

64 1 56
64 7 31

64 23 16

65 14 8

65 48 48

66 4 38
66 22 40

66 24 4

66 44 43

67 1 53
67 10 6
67 18 8
67 21 58
67 23 18

67 37 4

67 50 4

68 11 55

68 36 54
68 38 29

68 46 46

69 5 53

69 39
71 4 51

70 24 52

28 50

26 35

24 40

20 40

AUTHORITIES.

The Survevs by Admiral H.
W. Bayfield, 1827-60.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
GULF AND RIVER OF ST. LAWRENCE— Continued.

QUEBEC, N. Bastion [6]
„ Wolf Monument
„ Flagstaff, King's
Bastion, Citadel

LAT. N.

River St. Lawrence;
above Quebec.

St. Jean des Chaillons, R

C. Steeple

C. Madeline, R. C. Steeple
Three Rivers, E. Steeple . .
Point du Lac, R. C. Steeple
Sorel, Episcopal Church .
Repentigny, R. C. Steeple
Montreal, Gate Island,
N. end Lighthouse . .

R. C. Cathedral

[7]
River St. Lawrence ;
S. Shore.

Dauphin River, Orleans

Isle, S.W. point of entr. j
Stone Pillar Id. Lighthouse
Kamouiaska, N.E. point of

Crow Island

Brandy Pots, South point

of South Rock

Loup River, North point of

entrance

Red Island, Lighthouse . .
Green Island, Lighthouse . .
Razade Rocks, N.E. one . .
Bicquette Island, Lightho.
Bic Island, N.E. extreme of

S.E. Reef

Barnahy Island, N.E. pt.. .
Father Point Lighthouse . .
Camille Mt., summit 2,036

feet

Little Metis Lighthouse' . .
Matane River, Lighthouse
Cape Chatte, Lighthouse . .
Cape Magdalen Lightho.
Martin River lighthouse
Great Fox Bay, centre of.
Cape Rozier, Lighthouse .
Cape Gaspe, Lighthouse .

NEW BRUNSWICK, &c.

Cape Despair, Lighthouse
Macquereau Pt., Lighthouse
Port Daniel, North side
West point

„

46 48

4.3

1.3

17
i-

AUTHORITIES.

47 52 28

47 50 57

48 4 20
48 3 17
48 12 27
48 25 18

48 25 9
48 29 35
48 31 25

48 28 36
48 41 10

48 52 35

49 5 52
49 15 40
49 13 20
48 59 57
48 51 37
48 45 15

48 25 40
48 12 30

48 9 10

69 52 39

69 40 39

69 33 41
69 32 59
69 25 6
69 8 3
68 53 20

68 58 23
68 31 56
68 27 40

68 12 50
68 2 15
67 33
66 45 30

65 19 30

66 9
64 22 55
64 12 3
64 9 15

64 18 20
64 46 10

64 56 55

17 25

11 50

18 50

The Surveys by Admiral H.
W. Bayfield, 1827-60.

22 30

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
GULF AND RIVER OF ST. LAWRENCE— Continued.

LAT. N.

LONG.

VAR.

WEST,

1878-9.

65 15

O /

65 26

66 7
66 21
65 45

10
26
30

65 36
64 58
64 53
64 42
64 29
64 39

40
43

12
28
36

24 35

64 51

64 56
64 47
64 42

50
30
30

23 10

64 37 45
64 31 41
64 33 32

63 42

64 1
63 30
63 9
62 39

18
40
10

22 25

62 29

61 54

61 52
61 44

56
5

61 28

23 45

63 59

64 23

20
10

64 9 39

63 47

63 38 51

63 11

63 7 7
63 1 50
62 27 24

AUTHORITIES.

Paspebiac, Episcopal Ch.

Bonaventure Point, South
extreme

Carlton, or Tracadigash Pt.,

• N. W . extreme

Dalhousie I., East point . .

Black Rock, Station on . .

Bathurst Harbour, Alston
Point, North Lighthouse

Mizzenette Point, Station .

Caraquette Island, Lightho.

Shippigan Har., Fall's wh.

Miscou Island, Lighthouse

Shippigan Gully, N. entr. .

Tracadie, N. Gully, Light-
house

Tabisintac Gully, Lightho.

Escuminac Pt. Lighthouse .

Richibucto Head, Lightho

Buctouche River, Station at
entrance

Cocagne Head, ext. of Cliff

Shediac, Episcopal Church

Cape Tormentine, N. W. ex-
treme of Jouremain Id. . .

Tignish Head, Bay Verte
Station

Pugwash, Episcopal Ch. . .

Amet Island, East extreme

Pictou Harbour, Lightho. -

Pictou Island, Lighthouse
East End

Cape George, Station ir
Ballantine Cove

Antigonish Harbour, North
Beacon

Pomquet Island, S.E. extr

Gut of Canso, Light, North
entrance

PRINCE EDWARD
ISLAND.

North Point extr. of Cliff.
West Point, Lighthouse .
Cape Egmont, Station on

extreme

Bedeque Harbour, Green's

Wharf

Cape Traverse, extreme of

Cliff

St. Peter's Island, Station

S.W. extreme

Charlottetown, Flagstaff on

Fort [8]

Prim Point Lighthouse .
Panmure Id., Lighthouse .

48 1 47

48 17

48 5 9
48 4 16
47 51 54

47 39 20
47 50 2
47 49 40
47 44 52
47 1
47 43 24

47 33 20
47 17 35
47 4 32
46 39 40

46 26 55
46 21 31
46 14 15

46 10 6

46 28
45 51 14
45 50 15
45 41 25

45 49 50

45 51 49

45 41 49
45 39 17

45 41 42

47 3 45
46 37 30

46 24 11

46 23 32

46 13 17

46 6 59

46 13 55
46 3 10

46 8 47

The Surveys by Admiral H.
W. Bayfield, 1827-60.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
GULF AND RIVER OF ST. LAWRENCE— Continued.

VAR.

~~ p

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

WEST,

AUTHORITIES.

1878-9.

o , „

o * //

East Point, Station on ex-

46 27 15

61 57 42

24 50

The Surveys by Admiral H.
W. Bayfield, 1827-60, and

St. Peter's Harbour, Sand-

hill, E. side of entrance .

46 26 44

62 43 56

Comm. Orlebar, R.N.

Tracadie Harbour, Lightho.

46 25 20

63 2 30

Grenville Harbour,Lightho.

46 31

63 29

Richmond Bay, Station on

Royalty Point

46 34 45

63 1 50

Cascumpeque Harb., Light

46 48 22

64 2

Cape Kildare, extreme ....

46 52 57

63 57 44

23 45

CAPE BRETON IS-

LAND.

45 33 5

61 17 5

24 5

Plaster Cove, North end of

Bridge

45 38 56
45 38 51

61 23 36
61 23 54

M'Keen Point, extreme . .

Port Hood, Harbour Light

at South entrance

61 31 40

Sea Wolf Island,Lighthouse

46 21 30

46 36 22

61 15 33

61 2 58

Chetican Point, S. extreme

Cape St. Lawrence, N. ext.

47 2 54

60 35 36

Cape North, N. extreme . .

47 2 35

60 24 56

26 50

Cape Egmont, E. extreme .

46 51 1

60 18 3

Inganish, Archibald Point .

46 41 31

60 21 18

St. Anne Harb., Beach Pt.

46 17 41

60 32 25

Ciboux Is., Lighthouse. . . .

46 23 12

60 22 30

Carey Point, W. side of en-

trance of Gt. Bras d'or . .

46 11 41

60 24 50

Cunet Point, extreme

46 20 32

60 17 16

Sydney Harbour, Lightho.

46 16 12

60 7 22

Table Head, extreme ....

46 13 14

59 57 4

Flint Island, Lighthouse on

N.E. end

46 11 5
46 2 13

59 45 50
59 40 18

25 45

Scatari Island, Lighthouse

Menadou Harbour

46 29

59 49 58

Cape Breton, extreme

45 57 14

59 47 3

Gabarus Bay, Ch. on Cape

45 42 7

60 5 3

Louisbourg, Lighthouse . .

45 54 34

59 57 15

Michaux Point, Station on

extreme

45 34 11

60 41

L'Ardoise, R. C. Church

45 36 45
45 34 54

60 45 59
60 48 39

St. Peter Island, S.W. ext.

St. Peter Bay, Old Fort on

West side of Haulover . .

45 39 21

60 52 4

24 40

Madame Island—

Grande-digue Lennox

Passage, Station ....

45 35 49

61 1 11

Arichat Harb., Jersey-

man Id., N. extreme

45 30 25

61 3 7

24 15

■ ; Lighthouse Ma-

45 29 2

61 1 52

POSITIONS OF PLACES. 55

NOTES.

1. GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE.— Among the difficulties of the navigation in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence are the fogs and ices. In spring, the entrance and eastern parts of the
gulf are frequently covered with ice, and vessels are sometimes beset for many days.
Being unfitted for contending with this danger, they often suffer from it, and are occa-
sionally lost; but all danger from ice is far less than that which arises from the prevalence
of fogs : these may occur at any time during the open or navigable season, but are most
frequent in the early part of summer. They are rare, and never of long continuance,
during westerly winds, but seldom fail to accompany an easterly wind of any strength or
duration. This observation is, however, subject to restriction, according to locality or
season. Thus winds between the South and West, which are usually clear weather winds
above Anticosti, are frequently accompanied with fog in the eastern parts of the gulf.
"Winds between the South and* East are almost always accompanied with rain and fog in
every part. E.N.E. winds above Cape de Monts, at the mouth of the river, are often E.S. B.
or S.E. winds in the gulf, being changed in direction by the high lands of the South coast,
and have, therefore, in general the same foggy character. This is said of winds of consi-
derable strength and duration, and which may extend over great distances. Moderate and
partial fine weather winds may occur without fog at any season, and in any locality. In
the early part of the navigable season, especially in the months of April and May, with
clear weather, N.E. winds are of frequent occurrence, and they sometimes occur at other
seasons, and in every part of the gulf and river.

The fogs sometimes last several days in succession, and to a vessel either running up or
beating down, during their continuance, there is no safe guide but the constant use of the
deep-sea lead, with a chart containing correct soundings.

The fogs which accompany easterly gales extend high up into the atmosphere, and cannot
be looked over from any part of the rigging of a ship. They, however, are not so thick as
those which occur in calms after a strong wind, and which are often so dense as to conceal
a vessel within hail ; whilst the former frequently admit the land or other objects to be
distinguished at the distance of half a mile or more, in the daytime.

The dense fogs which occur in calms, and even in very light winds, often extend only to
small elevations above the sea ; so that it sometimes happens, when objects are hidden at
the distance of 50 yards from the deck, they can be plainly seen by a person 50 or 60 ft. up
the rigging. In the months of October and November, the fogs and rain that accompany
easterly gales, are replaced by thick snow, which causes equal embarrassment to the navi-
gator. — Admiral Bayfield.

2. The Island of St. Paul lies N. 52 c E., true, 10 miles from Cape North ; it is about
\\ mile in length from North to South, and inclining to the southward at the North end.
Its average breadth is about a quarter of a mile. The margin is rocky and precipitous
almost all round, indented on the N.E. and N.W. sides by two coves, both of which afford
shelter during the prevalence of certain winds.

3. The Magdalen Islands. — These islands have been surveyed by Lieut. P. E. Collins,
in 1833, and a beautiful chart of them has been published by the Admiralty. They form
an irregular group, and are named respectively Entry Island, Amherst, Grindstone, Alright,
Wolfe, Grosse. and Coffin Islands ; exclusive of Byron or Cross Island, and the Bird
Islets, which lie more to the North. Of these, Amherst is the most southern and principal
island, but Entry Island is the highest, and is 580 feet above the sea, visible from 8 to 9
leagues off.

4. Anticosti. — This island, with one exception, has no bay or harbour capable of
affording shelter to shipping in general. It is uncultivated ; yet, rude and unhospitable as
its aspect may be, it is not absolutely unprovided with the means of succouring the distress
of such as suffer shipwreck on its coasts, there being government agents, who reside upon
it (and, with the lighthouse keepers, are the sole inhabitants), at different stations, all the
year, furnished with provisions for the use of those who have the misfortune to need them.

56 POSITIONS OF FLACES.

Boards are placed in different parts, describing the distance and direction to these friendly
spots ; these establishments were first made in the year 1809.

" One of these provision posts is at 2 leagues to the S.E. from the West end of the
island, in Ellis's Cove or Grand Bay ; the second at the lighthouse at the S.W. point ; the
third at Shallop Creek, otherwise called Jupiter River; and the fourth at the eastern
lighthouse on Heath Point."

The South shore of the island is dangerous ; but, to modify its character, four beacons
have been erected— 1. With a small triangular head, 40 feet high, on the South point.
2. At Pavilion River, large triangle, with cross over it. 3. Six miles East of Salt Lake
Bay, large triangular head. 4. On Cape St. Mary, with a cross (1851).

5. LABRADOR. — The Descriptions and Directions by Capt. Bayfield, of this hitherto
but little-known region, are given in the British American Navigator. A part of the
coast was re-examined by Capt. Chimmo, R.N., in 1867.

6. QUEBEC. — In the early editions of this work the longitude of Quebec was stated to
be 71° 10', " according to the observations of M. le Marquis de Lotbiniere, M. Bedard,
Director of the Seminary of St. Louis, and Captain Holland. M. Mechain computed the
longitude to be 71° 10', by several eclipses of Jupiter's first satellite, observed by Messrs.
Lotbiniere and Holland, and the passage of Venus, that Captain Holland observed in 1769.
All the observations, made at different times, have given very coherent results." — Vide
American Trans., vol. i., &c.

The above passage, from " Analysis of a General Chart, &c, Paris, 1786, shows the
position in which Quebec was laid down in the charts, and it agreed with that given in
the " Connaissance des Temps." But Quebec was afterwards exhibited considerably more
to the eastward. Mr. Wright, in his chart of 1807. made it 70° 27'. The Requisite Tables,
of 1802, gave latitude 46° 48' 38", longitude 71° 5' 22'. Colonel Bouchette, in his work on
Canada, 1815, gives 46° 48' 49" N., and 71" 11' W. In the years 1819, 1820, and 1821, th e
officers of H. M.S. Nev;cnstle. provided with four chronometers, made many observations in
*he river, and these observations may be judged of by the longitude they placed Quebec
in for three successive years, assuming Halifax as in 63° 33' 40" ; July 16th, 1819, 71° 12'
48"; June 19th, 1820. 71° 13' 14"; July 5th, 1821, 71° 12' 25". The greatest difference is
49', and the mean of the whole is 1" farther West than longitude given in 1819.

From these and other observations combined, the late Mr. Purdy placed Quebec in lon-
gitude 71° 13', in the charts. &c, which he constructed, as they still remain.

When the charts of Captain H. W. Bayfield were published in 1837, they were based
upon a longitude of 71 °16' W. for Quebec. This was shown to be in error nearly 3J
minutes of arc, by electric telegraphic signals transmitted between Quebec and Cambridge
Observatory, in Massachusetts, by Lieutenant E. D. Ashe, R.N , in September and Octo-
ber, 1857.

The position of Cambridge, as will be seen in the Note on that longitude on a subsequent
page, is definitely settled as 71° 7' 58".55, and the mean difference between that Observa-
tory and the Observatory in Mann's Bastion in the Citadel of Quebec, as determined by
Lieut. Ashe, is 0" 4' 34". 17, which places Quebec in 71 J 12' 32". 72.

7. Montreal. — The longitude of Gate Island, opposite the Cathedral and the Hotel
Dieu, is given by Captain Bayfield in 73° 34' 38" (erroneously on Admiralty Charts, as
68° 54' 48").

Lieutenant Ashe, R.N., as stated above, in continuation of his work on electric time-
fignals, obtained the difference of longitude between Quebec and Viger Square, 630 feet
West of Gate Island, on March 12th, 1857, as 2° 20' 45". 5, which makes it in longitude
73° 33' 18".12, as shown in the Table.

8. Charlottetown and Prince Edavard's Island. — The position of the flagstaff in
the Fort of Charlottetown, has been given by Rear- Admiral Bayfield as 46° 15' 55", long.
63° 7 23' W. It had been before placed 3' more to the West, but the exact difference of
longitude between this point and Quebec, has lately been determined by the electric tele-
graph as 8° 5' 26'.

Th* variations of THE COMPASS are decreasing at the rate of 5' or 6' per annum.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

14.— NOVA SCOTIA, ETC.— (Southern Coasts.)

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

SABLE ISLAND [1]
Lighthouse 1| mile from

East end

Lighthouse on West end . .

The MAINLAND [2] ....
Cranberry Is., Lightho.
Canso Harbour, Cutler Id.,

S.E. extreme

„ Steeple of Church
"White Head Id., Lt.-ho.
White Haven, Observa-
tion Station in Marshall

Cove

Berry Head, Lighthouse . .
Mew Harb. Head, Nob
Green Id., Lightho. on

South pt

Harbour Id., N.E. Point
Isaac Harb., Red Head,

summit

Country Harbour, station

opposite Window Pt. . .
Hollins Head, summit . .
Wedge Island, beacon . .
St. Mary River, above

Episcopal Church ...
Liscomb Island, Lightho.
Mary Joseph Harbour,

Lobster Pt., extreme . .
Beaver Island, Light-
house

Salmon River, West of

wharf

Sheet Harb., \ mile N.W.

from Watering Cove. .
Taylor Head, summit . .
Pope Harbour, Harbour

Island, Lighthouse. . . .
Ship Harbour, Islet near

Salmon Point

Egg Island, centre

Jedore Harb., Marsh Pt
Jedore Rock, centre ....
Jedore Head, point ....
Graham Head, summit..
Devil Island, Lighthouse
Halifax Harbour, Light

house, Maugher Beach
Grahams Head, summit. ,
Laurenceton Head, sum

mit

HALIFAX, Dockyard

Observatory ...... [3]

N.A.O.

43 58 30
43 57

45 19 45

45 20 42
45 20 10
45 11 58

45 14 37
45 11 40
45 9 7

45 6 15
45 8 25

45 9 39

45 14 41

45 4 19
45 36

45 6 12
44 9 20

44 57 52

44 49 33

44 54 32

44 54 11

44 47 24

44 47 40

44 46 59
44 39 55
44 43 19
44 39 49
44 40 22
44 37 44
44 34 48

44 36 6
44 37 44

44 38 34

44 39 38

VAR.

WEST,

1878-9

AUTHORITIES.

•

♦

o ,

22 50

23 45

52 47

.37

21 45

,y>

27 51

21 5

17 23

:>„->

The Surveys by Admiral H.
W. Bayfield, and Commanders
Shortland and Orlebar, R.N.,
1827-60.

The Surveys by Admiral
Bayfield, 1853.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

NOVA SCOTIA, ETC. Continued.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

VAIi.

WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Sambro Island, Lightho

Betty Island, Lighthouse

S.W. Island, on the W
side of St. Margaret':
Bay

Green Island, off Mahone
Bay, centre

Cross Island, off Lunen-
burg Harbour, Light-
house

Cape Le Have, W. Iron-
bound Id., Lighthouse

Medway Head, Admiral-
ty Head, Lighthouse. .

Coffin's Island, Light-
house, near Liverpool
Harbour

Mouton Island, S. Rock

Shelburne or Cape Rose-
way, Lighthouse on
Macnutt Island

Negro Island, Lighthouse

Baccaro Point, Light on
W. side of Port Latoui

Brasil Rock

Cape Sable, Lighthouse

Seal Island, Lighthouse,
half mile from South
Point [4]

Cape Fourchu, near Yar-
mouth, Lighthouse . .

Bryer's Island, Lightho.

Point Prim, Lighthouse
(entrance of Annapolis-
Basin)

Black Rock Pt., Lightho.

Horton Bluff, Lighthouse

Partridge Island, in the
Mines Channel

Cape Chignecto

NEW BRUNSWICK.

Hillsborough Light

Cape Enrage, Lighthouse . .
Quaco Head, Lighthouse..
Cape Spencer, Lighthouse. .
Partridge Id., Lighthouse. .

City of St. John

Point Lepreau, Lighthouse
Beaven Harboui", Lightho.

44 26 11
44 26 20

44 30 10
44 22 55

44 18 43
44 13 43
44 6 10

44 1 58
43 52 55

43 37 17
43 30 55

43 26 54
43 21 25
43 23 20

43 23 34

43 47 30

44 14 57

44 41 30

45 10 10
45 6 30

45 21 50
45 19 35

45 55 15
45 35 35
45 19 20
45 12 30
45 14 3
45 15 30
45 3 30
45 3 45

19 55

26 48

18 10

65 47

20 55

(il

19 50

r,r,

The Surveys by Commander
Shortland, R.N., Admiral
Bayfield, and Commander
Orlebar, R.N., to 1867.

The Survey by Captain P. F.
Shortland, R.N., 1860-2.

Lieutenants Harding
Kortright, R.N.

and

NOTES.

I. Sable Island. — On this island is an establishment for the relief of shipwrecked
mariners. It was founded, in 1803, by the Provincial Legislature at Nova Scotia, at tho

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

recommendation of the late Sir John Wentworth, then Lieutenant-Governor ; and has since
proved the means of saving many lives.

2. NOVA SCOTIA. — The coasts of Nova Scotia have been heretofore laid down from
the surveys of Mr. Des Banes, with emendations by Mr. A. Lockwood, R.N., and various
corrections in position by Admiral Owen and others. Since the completion of the survey
of the Canadian coasts, our Admiralty Surveyors, Admirals Bayfield and W. F. Owen,
with Captains Shortland and Orlebar, have re-examined the S.E. shores of Nova Scotia
and the Bay of Fundy, the results of which are shown in the Table.

3. Halifax. — In former editions of this work the following appears : — " The latitude
of the Naval Yard of Halifax, from observations very carefully made by the officers of
H.M.S. Niemeriy in 1842, was 44° 39' 37'. This was gained by eleven meridian altitudes
with the artificial horizon, and several observations made on each side of noon at small
intervals ; the mean true altitudes being computed from the hour angles. The longitude,
63° 33' 43", was obtained as the mean result of more than 30 sets of lunar distances. We
formerly gave the longitude of M. Des Barres, &c, as 63° 32' 40'', and therefore presume
that a statement of 63° 37' 48", which has lately appeared, is 4' too far West."

Captain Bayfield, as above stated, assumed the longitude of the Dockyard, in his survey,
to be 63° 37' 48". The late Admiral W. F. Owen, in H.M.S. Columbia, in 1844, made 'it
63° 35' 28" W. The late respected Lieutenant Raper makes it, as a secondary meridian,
63° 37' 36", or as Captain Bayfield.

Recent observations show that M. des Barres' longitude is as near the truth, accidentallv
perhaps, as that resulting from the refined operations of Admiral Bayfield, a mean between
the two positions being that which must now be adopted.

In the determination of this, and of other longitudes, the Electric Telegraph has decided
the question beyond controversy. %

The difference of longitude between Cambridge Observatory, Massachusetts, and that of
Halifax Dockyard, has been determined, electrically, by Professor Bond, and Captain
Shortland, R.N., to be h 30 m 9 s in time, or 7° 32' 23.45" in arc. This meridional difference
applied to the determined longitude of Cambridge, as shown in the note, or 71° 7' 58.55",
makes Halifax Dockyard Observatory to be in 63 d 35' 35' W. of Greenwich.

4. Seal Island. — " M. Des Barres places the southernmost point of the southern Seal
Isle in lat. 43° 25' 25", and long. 66 D 0' 35". Later charts have it in lat. 43° 26' 35" ; but
our correspondent, Lieut Hare, gave the latitude of the South point 43° 22' 23', or four
miles more to the southward. This result, since confirmed, will account for so many ships
having been yearly cast away, on coming out of the Bay of Fundy. A very strong in-
draught, both on the ebb and flood, sets toward the isles, and in the vicinity, equal to 4
knots an hour, and they should not be approached without a commanding breeze? The light-
house will obviate this.

The variations of the compass are increasing at an annual rate of about 4.5'.
15.— THE UNITED STATES.

LAT. N.

Maine.

Passamaquoddy Bay, Light
on Quoddy Head

Little River, Light at en-
trance

Machias Seal Ids., Light-
house on E. one (Brit.) . .

44 49

44 39 22

I 44 30

66 57

67 10 35
67 5 30

VAR.

WF.ST,

1878 9

AUTHORITIES.

18 40

The Surveys by S. Holland,
Esq., with subsequent cor-
rections.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE UNITED STATES— Continued

LAT. N.

Machias Bay, Lt. on Libby
Island

Moose a-bec or Moose Peak,
Mistake Island Light . .

Petit Man an, Lighthouse
on S. end

Mount Desert Island, S.E.
end

Moi,nt Desert Rock, Light

slle au Haut, Light on Sad-
dle Back Islet

Matinicus Rock, Lightho.

Penobscot Bay, Ragged
Mountain on West side. .

, Owls' Head Light-
house

Manheigan Island, Light-
house

Cape Small, Station 5
miles North of Cape. .

Portland Head, Lighthouse

Cape Elizabeth, E. Light. .

Fletcher's Neck, Light
on Wood Island

Cape Porpoise Harbour,
Light on Goat Island . .

Cape Neddick, Station

York Harbour, Light on
Boon Island

New Hampshire.

Agamenticus Hill, Station
on summit

Portsmouth Harb., Whaler
Back Light

Isles of Shoals, Station
near Hog Island Harb.. .

, White Is. Lighthouse

Massachusetts.

Newbury Port, East Light

on Plum Island

Cape Ann, North Light on

Thatcher Island

, Light on E. point

Baker's Island, Lighthouse
Marblehead, Light at en-
trance

Nahant, Hotel

BOSTON, State House [1]

, Cunard Wharf;

Flagstaff

CAMBRIDGE Observa
tory, Dome [2]

44 30 4
44 28 52
44 22

44 18 20

43 59 30

44 1 47

43 51 15

44 12 44

44 6 10

43 46 15

43 46 42
43 27 22
43 36 56

43 27 23

43 20
43 10 1

43 7 15

43 13 23

43 3 30

42 59 13
42 59

42 48 25

42 38 19
42 34 47
42 32 10

42 30 18
42 25 7
42 21 28

42 21 48

42 22 51

LONG. W.

VAR.

WEST,

18789.

43 49

68 47

16 5

69 50 54

70 12 38
70 12 10

14 40

AUTHORITIES.

The Triangulation made for
the United States' Coast
Survey, under the superin-
tendence of Professor A. D.
Bache.

*** The Stations of the pri-
mary triangulation are distin-
guished by small capitals.

70 19

13 20

70 28
70 36

70 28 44

70 41

12 40

70 42

70 37
70 37

4
39

12 4n

70 49

70 34
70 40

70 47

39
28
25

70 51

70 54

71 4

11 40

71 2 40

71 7

%* For the purposes of the
Survey, the coast of the United

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE UNITED STATES— Costing ed.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

VAll.

WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Boston Bay, Lt. on Little

Brewster Island

, Minot's Ledge, Light

Scituate, Unitarian Church
Plymouth Harbour, Piei

Head

Sandwich, Church Spire . .
Barnstaple, Beach Point

Light

Billingsgate Pt. Lighthouse
Cape Cod, Provincetown.

Orthodox Church Spirt

, Race Point, Lightho

, Highlands Lightho

, Nausett Centre Light

Monomoy Island, Light at

S. end

Nantucket Island, Cliff

West of Harbour ....

, S. towered Church

, Light on Great

N.E. Point

, Sankaty Head Light

, Tuckanuck, Telegraph

at W. end

Davis South Shoal, Light-
vessel, about

Muskeget Island, N.E. pt.
Martha's Vineyard, Cape

Poge Lighthouse ....

, Edgartown, Spire

, Holmes' Hole, Spire

, West Chop, or Noith

Point Light

, Indian Hill on

N.W. side

, Gay Head, Lightho.

No Man's Land, Station on

centre

Cuttyhunk, Light on S.W.

Point

Nashon Island, Station. . . .

Nobska Lighthouse

Mattapoiset, Lt. on Ned's

Point

New Bedford, Fort

Seconnet Point, East Rock

Rhode Island,

Newport, Spire

, Beaver Tail Light

Quaker Hill, near North

End

Bristol, Court House

Providence, Unitarian Ch.
Point Judith, Lighthouse. .

•

19 39

■J 2

16 9

-12

11 59

-11

58 44

-11

45 26

-11

43 19

51 37

3 2

3 42

2 21

51 36

33 33

17 33

16 54

23 22

16 15

18 12

56 10

20 12

25 14

23 16

27 13

28 55

25 44

20 52

15 9

24 50

29 23

30 55

39 1

37 25

27 2

29 12

26 54

34 55

40 10

29 26

21 28 I

o ,

O ,

70 53
70 45
70 45

40
48
36

70 39
70 30

27
14

70 17
70 4

7
34

70 11
70 14
70 3
69 57

51
53
48

11 50

69 59

70 7
70 6

7
11

70 2
69 58

59
10

70 15

69 51

70 18

30
13

11 10

70 27
70 31
70 36

20
20
34

70 36

70 40
70 50

55
23

70 49

70 57
70 44
70 39

48
36

70 48

70 54

71 11

1
25
53

71 19

71 24

5
15

10 15

71 15 31
71 16 46
71 24 35
71 29 10

The Great Triangulation
made for the United
States' Coast Survey,
under the superintendence
of Professor A. D. Bache.

States is divided into eleven sec-
tions (nine of which are on the
Atlantic Coast), in all of which
the work was carried on simul-
taneously, the Survey being in
different stages of progress in
the several sections. These
several sections are defined as
follows: — Section I., from Pas-
samaquoddy Bay to Point Ju-
dith. Section II., from Point
Judith to Cape Helopen. Sec-
tion HI., from Cape Henlopen to
Cape Henry. Section IV., from
Cape Henry to Cape Fear. Sec-
tion V., from Cape Fear to the
St. Mary's River. Section VI.,
from the St. Mary's River to
St. Joseph's Bay. Section VII.,
from St. Joseph's Bay to Mobile
Bay. Section VIIL, from Mo-
bile Bay to Vermilion Bay. Sec-
tion IX., from Vermilion Bay to
the Rio Grande. Section X.,
Coast of California, San Diego
Bay," to 42nd parallel. Section
XL, Coast of Oregon, 42nd to
49th parallel. The Tables give
the latitudes and longitudes of
the trigonometrical points in
each section. The manner in
which these data have been ob-
tained may be briefly explained
here.

In each section a base line of
from five to ten miles in length
is measured with all possible
accuracy. A series of triangles,
deriving the length of their sides
from this base, is then established
along the coast, by the measure-
ment of the angles between the
intervisible stations. In this
primary series the triangles are
made as large as the nature of
the country will permit, because
the liability to error increases
with the number of triangles.

On the bases furnished by the
sides of the primary triangles, a
secondary triangulation is next
established extending along the
coast, and over the smaller bays
and sounds, and determining a

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE UNITED STATES— Continued.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

VAR.
WEST,
1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Block Id., Light on N. Pt.

■ , Beacon Hill at S.

End

"Watch Hill, Lighthouse . .

Connecticut and New
York.

Long Island Sound : —

Montauk Point, Lightho.

Plum Island, Lightho. . .

New London, Presbyte-
rian Church Spire

Connecticut River, Light
on Saybrook Point

Faulkner's Id., Lightho.

Newhaven, Episcopal Ch.

, Light on Five

Mile Point

Stratford Point, Lightho.

Middle Ground Lightho.

Throg's Neck, Lightho. . .

Lands Point Lighthouse

Eaton's Point, Lightho.

Old Field Point, Lightho.

Horton's Point Lightho.
Long Island, South side,

Shinnecock Bay, N. Pt.
Fire Island, Lighthouse . .
NEW YORK, City Hall..
, Naw Yard Flag-
staff ....* [3]

New Jersey.

Sandy Hook, Lighthouse.

Highlands of Navesink, Lt.

Barnegat Inlet, Lightho. . .

Little Egg Harb., Board
ing House at North end
of Tucker Island

Absecum Inlet, Light on S
side ... .

Hereford Inlet, Lighthouse

Delaware Bay.

Cape May Lighthouse

Egg Island Lighthouse

Cohansey Lighthouse ....
Ship John Shoal Lightho.
Philadelphia, Girard Col.
„ Navy Yard

Wilmington, Lt. at Chris-

tiania River

Bombay Hook, Lighthouse

lfi

40 48

40 57

40 42

39 45

38 55 50

39 10 31
39 20 18
39 18 15
39 58 23
39 55 47

39 43 15
39 21 46

71 34 38

71 36 27
71 51 48

71 51 42

72 12 58

72 6 5

70 20 52
72 39 30
72 55 49

72 54 51

73 6 29
73 5 45
73 47 36
73 44 4
73 23 51
73 7 24
72 26 51

72 30 36

73 12 51

74 39

73 59 6

74 24

73 59 25

74 6 41

74 18 12

74 25 36
74 47

74 57 51

75 8 37
75 21 45
75 22 40
75 10 30
75 8 50

75 31 32
75 30 55

9 25

8 35

5 35

6 15

The Great Triangulation
made for the United
States' Coast Survey,
under the superintendence
of Professor A. D. Bache.

large number of points at dis-
tances of a few miles apart.

The distances between the
points thus determined, as given
in the Tables, are liable to an
average error of about one foot
in six miles, until a final adjust-
ment between the base lines
sball have been made.

As, on the completion of the
primary triangulation in each
section, the several series form
one connected chain, the dif-
ferent bases afford verifications
of each other, and of the trian-
gulation connecting them. The
first three sections are thus con-
nected at present.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE UNITED STATES— Continue!

LONG. \V,

AUTHORITIES.

€ape Henlopen, High Light

Virginia, &c.

Indian River, Salt Works
Assateague Id., Lighthouse
Hog Id., Lightho. atS. end
Cape Charles, Lighthouse

Chesapeake Bay.

-ho,

Old Point Comfort Lt
York Spit Lighthouse ....
Wolf Trap Shoal, Lightho.
Smith's Point Lighthouse. .
Cove Point Lighthouse. . . .
Thomas Point Lightho. . .

Baltimore, Lazaretto

WASHINGTON, Capitol

Dome

„ National Obser-
vatory . . [4]

North Carolina.

Cape Henry, Lighthouse . .
Currituck Beach, Lightho.
Entrance to Pamplico

Sound, Body Island Lt.

(building)

Stevenson's Point, N. side

of Albemarle Sound. . [5]

Cape Hatteras, High Light

„ extremity. .

Ocracoke Inlet, Light on W.

end of Island

Cape Lookout, Lighthouse

„ extremity

Beaufort Inlet, S. Light

near Fort Macon

Bogue Inlet, entr., about
Cape Fear River, Light on

Federal Point
Cape Fear, Lightho. Bald

Head

„ S. extreme . .

Little River, entrance ....

South Carolina.

George Town, Light at en-
trance of Pedte River . .

Cape Romain, Light on
Raccoon Kay

Bull's Bay (Refuge Harb.).
Light at N. end of Bull's
Island

48 46 38

38 35 35
37 54 37
37 23 18

37 7 48

37 3
37 12 31
37 23 13

37 53 38

38 23 7

38 54 6

39 15 39

38 53 20
38 53 39

36 55 29
36 22 32

35 47 21

36 6 18
35 15 11
35 14 50

35 6 31
34 37 20
34 31 50

34 41 43
34 38

33 57 34

33 52 18
33 49 55
33 49

33 13 21
33 1 8

32 55 20

75 '5

•

75 3
75 21
75 42
75 52

50
40
12

76 18
76 15
76 11
76 11
76 22
76 25
76 35

26
18
35
44
56
37
14

3 20

77 3

75 49

4S
53

75 31

76 11
75 30
75 31

75 58

76 31
76 31

7
36

76 40

77 6

77 55

20
20

Var. E.j
30

78 15

77 57 50

78 30 30

79 10

79 22

79 33 44

The Great Triangulation
made for the United
States' Coast Survey,
under the superintendents
of Professor A. D. Bache.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

THE UNITED STATES— Continued.

LAT. N.

AUTHORITIES.

CHARLESTON, Main Lt.
ho. on Morris Id., at W

entrance

„ St. Michael's Ch. [6]

North Edisto River, E. end
of Base line, If mile W
of entrance

Port Royal, Martin's Indus
try, Lightvessel

Georgia.

Savannah River, Tybee Lt.-

house

„ Exchange Spire

Sapelo Bar, Blackbeard Id.,
East Point

St. Simon's Sound, Light-
house on N. side

St. Andrew's Sound, Light
on Little Cumberland
Island

Florida.

St. Mary's River, Light on
N. end of Amelia Island

Fernandina, railroad wharf

St. John's River, Lightho.

St. Augustine Inlet, Light
on Anastasia Island ....

Cape Canaveral, Light ....

Jupiter Inlet, Lt.-ho. S. of

Cape Florida, Biscayne Kay

[7]

Florida Reefs, Lighthouse

on Fowey Rocks

,, Alligator Reef Lt.-ho.
„ Sombrero Shoal Lt.-li.
„ Sand Kay Lighthouse

Key West, Light on S.W.

Point

,, Tifts Observatory . .

Marquesas, S.E. Point ....

Dry Tortugas, Lighthouse
on Bush Kay, Fort Jef-
ferson

Cape Sable, Fort Poinsett

Cape Romano

Sanibel Island, East

Tampay Bay, Egmont Kay
Lighthouse

Anclote Kays, Inlet

Cedar Kays, Lightho. on
Seahorse Kay

St. Mark's Harbour, Light-
house

32 41 44
32 46 33

32 33 17
32 5 31

32 1 21
32 4 53

31 30 10

31 3 46

30 53 32

30 39 26
30 40 17
30 23 40

29 50 48
28 27
26 55 26

25 41

25 35 20
24 51 2
24 37 36

24 26 30

25 32 32
24 33 31
24 32 54

24 37 47

25 6

25 51

26 27 30

27 36

28 17

29 5 45

30 4 24

o .

•

o ,

79 52
79 55

58
38

1 25

80 13

80 35

80 50

81 5

33
14

2 30

81 16

81 32

81 30 54
81 27 42
81 24 40

81 19
80 33
80 5

3 20

80 9

80 5

80 37

81 6
81 52

50
10
43
42

81 48

81 47

82 5

4 20

82 52
81 9

81 57

82 10

82 45
82 54

83 4

4 10

84 10 37

The Great Triangulation
made for the United
States' Coast Survey,
under the superintendence
of Professor A. D. Bache.

TOSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE UNITED STATES— Continued.

VAR.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

EAST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Dog Id.. Lt. near W. end . .
Cape St. George, Lightho. .
Cape St. Bias, Lighthouse
Peusacola Bay, Lighthouse

Alabama.

29 46
29 36 10

29 41 41

30 19

84 34 42

84 58 38

85 24 34
87 17 24

5 50

The Great Triangulation
made for the United States'
Coast Survey, under the
superintendence of Professor
A. D. Bache.

Mobile Point, Fort Morgan

[8]

Dauphin Island, West end

Mobile, Episcopal Spire . .
Horn Island, East Point . .

30 13 48

30 14 27
30 41 26
30 13 21

88 25

88 13 53

88 1 29
88 30 58

6 10

Mississippi & Louisiana

Ship Island, Lighthouse on
W. Point

30 12 55
30 3 22

29 8 36

28 58 28

29 57 30

29 4
29 19 30
29 43 55

88 57 1

88 51 49

89 1 30

89 21

90 2 18

90 16 30

91 33
93 50 19

7 5

Chandeleur Island, Light-
Entrance of the Mississippi,

Pass a Loutre Lighthouse

„ S. W. Pass Lighthouse
New Orleans, City of [9]
Timballier Bay, Lighthouse

on W. side of entrance .
Atchafalaya Bay, Point au

Fer

Sabine River, Lighthouse

Texas.

Galveston Bay, Lighthouse
on Bolivar Point

Galveston, Court House . .

Matagorda Island, Light-
house on E. Point

Aransas Pass, Lighthouse
on N. side

29 22 35

29 18 14

28 20 58
27 23 53
26 4 52

94 45 40
94 46 33

96 23 57

96 56 30

97 11 4

8 55

8 40

Brazos Santiago, Lightho.

NOTES.

GENERAL NOTE.— In the year 1807. the United States' Legislature determined upon
the survey of the coast. This was not properly commenced until 1817, when some base
lines were measured, and triangles taken. In 1832 the operations were resumed, under its
original superintendent, Mr. F. R. Hassler.

In 1842 a plan was drawn up by Congress for its further organization, under which it
has since continued under the able superintendence of Professor A. D. Bache. In the
conducting of this extensive survey, every refinement and appliance to ensure accuracy is
employed, and many new and important discoveries in geodetic science have been made.
N. A. O. -K

66 POSITIONS OF PLACES.

The latitudes and longitudes of the points between Mount Desert Island, in Maine, and
the Chesapeake, are connected togetliei in the triangulation. South of this, the survey
has only been carried on in detached portions, as stated in the respective notes, and their
points given are dependent on the accuracy of the position of the primary station in each
section.

As shown in the Note on pp. 6^-2, the whol* of the coasts of the United States is divided
into eleven sections, of which two are composed of the Pacific Coasts, and the geographic
connexion between America and the rest of the world, is mainly dependent on the position
of the Observatory of Cambridge near Boston.

The positions given are taken from a list of nearly 4.000 points, established in the
course of the survey, as published in 1851-3, with a slight subsequent correction. But
each place may now be taken by the mariner as absolutely accurate, as the amount of pro-
bable error is so small, as to bo totally beyond, his means of detecting. Therefore each
lighthouse, cape, &c., will equally well serve to correct 'us reckoning, or rate his chrono-
meter, as the primary observatory.

1. Boston. — Dr. Bowditch, from six astronomic ohservations, viz., two transits and four
solar eclipses, made the longitude of Boston as 4 h 44 1 ' 1 16 s, 6; and it was the opinion of
Dr. Bowditch that this longitude was more acetira.tely ascertained than that of any other
place in the United States. The State of Massachusetts was surveyed trigonometrically,
by Simeon Borden, and Robert Treat Payne, Esqrs., and the survey was based on the
position of Boston State House. " From observations in 1S29 and 1830," says Mr. Borden,
" I made the longitude of the State House as 4 h 44 m 14 B, 6, and by the great solar eclipse,
May 15th, 1836, 4 h 44" 19Hi ; mean of the whole, 71° 4' 13".5, or only 8" more than in the
Table. The latitude deduced as 42' 21' 22". 7, was from 630 observations.

2. CAMBRIDGE OBSERVATORY.— The longitude of the Observatory of Camhridge
near Boston, is the primary meridian of the greater portion of N.W. America, inasmuch as
the longitudes of most other places have been referred to it by triangulation, or by electric
signal. Its relation to Greenwich has also employed years of assiduous labour and con-
summate skill, and may now be considered as entirely established, within probably an
insignificant amount of error.

Prior to the year 1849, the astronomic observations systematically carried on there had
resulted in a longitude assumed as 71° 8' O'.O West of Greenwich. When the positions of
the United States' Coast Survey Stations were published in 1851, it was assumed as
71° 7' 22". 5, from the following data: — Moon culminations at various observatories referred
to Cambridge, 4 h 44 m 28 s .4; by eclipses and occultations in the same manner, 4 h 44 m 29 s .6;
and by chronometric differences to that date 4 h 44 m 30 s . I. This latter determination was
afterwards assumed by Professor Bond to be very nearly the true longitude.

But in 1855 the chronometric operations were again resumed early in January, and the
first meridional distance was carried by the steamer America, June 5th. and the last by
the return of the Africa to Boston, October 26th, 1855. There were six voyages across
the Atlantic, between Boston and Liverpool, and the total number of chronometers used
was fifty-two, and the final longitude determined is as follows : —

h m 9

Voyages from Liverpool to Cambridge 4 32 31-92

Voyages from Cambridge to Liverpool 4 32 31-75

Mean 4 32 31-84

Liverpool West of Greenwich 12 005

Resulting longitude 4 44 31-89 or

Cambridge 71° 7' 58'. 55 West of Greenwich, which is here assumed. This longitude, which
is l s *79 in excess of the longitude of 1851, is a very close approximation to that established
by Dr. Bowditch and Mr. Borden for Boston as in the previous note, and is also nearly

POSITIONS OF PLACES. r,7

identical with that of New York, as obtained by Mr. Dent's chronometers in 1839. For
these reasons the result of 1855 has been preferred, and 36" has been added to the longi-
tudes given in the extensive tables published by the United States' Coast Survey depart-
ment in 1851, above alluded to.

The longitudes in Sections I, II, III, and V, of the United States' Survey are dependent
on this.

3. New York. — In the Ladies' and Gentleman's Diary, or United States' Almanac, for
1820, Mr. Nash, the Editor, having the reputation of an excellent observer, gives parti-
culars of a great many meridian and circum-meridional observations taken at his school,
Broadway, New York, from which lie infers the latitude of No. 331, Broadway, as
40° 42' 58*. The difference of latitude, trigonometrically found, between Mr. Nash's
and the City Hall, was somewhat less than 1,300 feet, which, assumed as 13', gives the
latitude of the City Hall 40° 42' 45", i.e., allowing 40 c 42' 58", as the latitude of No. 331,
Broadway. By observations of a solar eclipse, which Dr. Bowden observed at New York,
he found the difference of longitude between Greenwich and Colombia College, equal to
74° 0' 45" W. On the 29th of May, 1818, at a few minutes past noon, the longitude of
No. 331, Broadway, by the mean of three distances of the sun and moon, appeared to be
74° 0' 42", and Mr. Nash adds, " 1 am inclined for the present, to place the City Hall in
74° W."

By seventy lunar distances, forty of Pollux East, and thirty of Aldebaran West of the
moon, in December, 1822, and January, 1823, Captain (afterwards Genl. Sir Edw.) Sabine
gave the loDgitude of the cupola of Colombia College, New York, as 74° 3' 27", and the
latitude which he assigns to it is 40° 42' 43'. Mr. De Witt, on his survey of the province,
gave the longitude as 74° 3'.

The chronometers of Messrs. Arnold and Dent, however, appear to have decided the
longitude of New York. Four of them were embarked in the British Queen steam-vessel,
under the care of Captain Roberts, on her first voyage from England to America in July
and August, 1839, and gained the longitude of the City Hall in New York, as 4 h 56 m 3 S *35
)=74° 0' 49"). A second experiment was made on the next voyage of the same vessel, in
October and November of the same year, by another set of four chronometers, and by this
the difference of longitude between the Observatory at Greenwich and the City Hall, New-
York, appeared to be 4 h 56 m S, 24, Say 74° 0' 10'. M. Daussy, the French Hydrographer,
had previously given it in the Connaissance des Temjys as 4 1 ' 56 m O s *72, or 74° 0' 11'.

By the determination of the United States' Coast Survey, from data up to 1851, it was
lin longitude 74° 0' 3-09; but, by the subsequent correction of the Cambridge longitude as
shown above, it is in 74° 0' 39 ", as in the table, very nearly identical with the determina-
tion of M. Daussy and Mr. Dent.

4. Washington. — In our former editions, the Dome of the Capitol is placed in longi-
tude 77° 0' 20"; from the State Survey of 1816, this is shown to be nearly correct.

Seaton Station in the City of Washington, is the point to which all telegraphic
differences of longitude are referred, and which have now placed it in connection with
most of the important places on the coasts of North-west America, and established beyond
controversy, their true relative longitudes.

5. North Carolina. — The longitudes of the coasts South of Cape Henry, at the
Chesapeake, as far as Cape Fear, or Section IV. of the United States' Coast Survey, are
dependent on that of Stevenson's Point, the West Point of Little River, on the North side
of Albemarle Sound. The Base line upon which the triangulation was established, was
measured upon Body's Island, on the coast of Pamplico Sound, and the South end of it is
near the Lighthouse.

6. Charleston. — The longitude of Charleston was obtained from Seaton Station, in
Washington, by Electric Telegraph, in 1850, by Professor Walker and Lieutenant Gibbes.
Section V. of the United States' Coast Survey system is thus connected with the rest of the
series.

63 POSITIONS OF PLACES.

7. Cape Florida, &c— In 1845, Captain Edward Barnett, R.N., made a running-
survey of the Coast of Florida and the adjacent banks. His longitudes found by eight
chronometers by meridian distance from Havana, and in other portions of this region
have been found very consistent. He placed Cape Florida in longitude 80° 3' 0" W.

But the United States' Surveyors make this position a primary point for the longitudes
in Section VI. of the Coast Survey, and they made it, according to their estimate of 1851,
80' 5' 0', and in 1859, 80° 9' 29', or 6J' further West than Captain Barnett. Yet Sand Kay
is placed by the United States' authorities, in November, 1852, as 81° 52' 43', while Captain
Barnett's longitude is 81° 51' 12", a difference of only 1£'.

8. Mobile. — Fort Morgan, on Mobile Point, is made the primaiy station of Sections
VIII. and IX. of the United States' Survey, or between it and the Mexican frontier.

9. New Orleans. — The position of New Orleans is given approximately from the
sketch published by the United States' Coast Survey. The triangulation was not entirely
completed from Mobile.

The longitude of New Orleans is of some interest. The United States' Coast Survey has
assumed a considerable degree of importance from its extent, and these results being
extended to the other portions of the territory, render the consideration of a primaiy
meridian for the western world one necessary to be determined in the early state of the
operations.

The capitol of Washington would naturally appear to be the fittest starting point ; but
as the introduction of greater diversity in astronomic and other Tables than at present
exists is certainly not desirable, the United States' Survey Department commissioned
Professor Baehe to report on the subject. Impressed with the inconvenience attached to
the introduction of a fresh mode of reckoning meridional distances, and at the same time
to give due importance to the geodetical operations carried on in America quite independent
of any in the eastern hemisphere, he recommended, if any transatlantic meridian were to be
assumed as a primaiy, that of Nmo Orleans would be the fittest.

The progress of the survey having shown that New Orleans was in long. 90° 0' 0", or
nearly so, it became manifest that one objection to a new fractional element being intro-
duced was in some degree removed if this were taken. With this view, if any meridian
were to be assumed for the United States, that of 90° West of Greenwich, wherever it may
fall, is the fittest. in the course of the operations any correction be found necessary to
this meridian, as marked in some part of New Orleans, let it be removed accordingly
Thus the first meridian of the United States, would be one fourth of the circumference, or
six hours in time Wwt of that of Greenwich.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.

The question of Magnetic Variation of Declination, has received much attention from
the Survey department under the superintendence of Professor Bache, w T ho, with Mr. J. E.
Hilgard, have repoiicd on the subject.

The exact observations at present collected, have not been sufficient to establish the
exact amount of secular change which is necessary to bring the observed result of former
years in accordance with the existing Variation. As the amounts given in Professor
Bache's and Mr. Hilgard's Tables are for various epochs between 1844 and 1856, we have
taken the secular change at the amounts estimated by Staff-Captain F. J. Evans, R.N.,
and added them to those quoted in the American list, to bring them down to the epoch
1878-9.

The line of No Variation intersects the coast to the westward of Cape Lookout, in about
longitude 77° 40' W.

To the north-westward of this line, the Westerly variation is increasing about 3.0 per
annum in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras; about 3'.5 per annum near New York, and 4'.0
per annum on the Coast of Maine.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

The lines of equal variation run about N.W. and S.E. true on the coast of Maine ; N.W.
by W„ and S.E. by E. about New York, and N.N.W. and S.S.E. on the coast of Carolina
and Georgia.

The variations to the south-westward are decreasing at the rate of 1' to 1'.5 per annum.

16— .THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.

LONG. W.

VAR.
WEST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Ireland Id., entr. of hai'bour

Somerset Island Beacon . .

Gibb's Hill Lighthouse,
light revolving every
minute (362 feet)

Castle Island, entrance of
Castle Harbour

St. David's Head (Lightho.
building)

Fort Cunningham, at the
entrance of St. George's
Harbour

Mill's Breaker, eastern ex-
tremity of the reef . .

North Rock, northern side
of Reef

Challenger Bank N.E. extr
47 fathoms

32 19 15

32 17 4

32 15 4
32 20 18
32 22

32 22 18
32 24 30
32 28 20

32 7 20

64 51 40
64 54

64 51 36
64 41 50
64 40 30

64 41
64 39 20

64 47 45

65 4

7 20

The Trigonometrical Survey,
by Capt. Thos. Hurd, R.N.,
under the orders of the
British Admiralty, between
the years 1783 and 1797,
adjusted by the observa-
tions of Captain Edward
Barnett, R.N., 1846, &c.

NOTES.

1. Between the years 1783 and 1797, Captain T. Hurd, R.N., was employed in the
survey of these beautiful islands, the outline of which survey is published by the British
Admiralty. Captain Hurd deduced his longitudes from Wreck Hill, which, frcm its
position as recently ascertained, may be taken as having been within 4' or 5' E. of the
correct longitude. In the chart of the Bermuda Islands, as published by Mr. Laurie, we
have placed the islands in the longitudes, which, from the accuracy of recent observations,
we may suppose to be finally settled.

Ireland Island. — The position of Bastion C, which serves as a groundwork for the rest,
was determined by meridian altitudes ; and the longitude, we presume, is by chronometer,
from the West Indies. The detail of these operations is given by Capt. Edw. Barnett, R.N.,
in the " Bermuda Royal Gazette," August 25th, 1826.

2. Wreck Hill. — As we have mentioned, Capt. Hurd considered this to be in latitude
32° 15' 20", and long. 64° 50'; but, according to the corrected position of Ireland Island
flagstaff, this is 1' 25" South, and 4' 40" E. of its right place.

3. Gibb's Hill Lighthouse. — The position of this was obtained by triangulation from
Ireland Island; but, on applying these calculations to Captain Hurd's survey, we find some
small discrepancies ; but as they are not of sufficient magnitude to affect navigation, we
have not attempted to adjust them.

The variation of the compass is increasing about 2' per annum.

TOSITIONS OF PLACES.

17.— THE BAHAMA AND PASSAGE ISLANDS.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

VAR.

EAST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

LITTLE BAHAMA
BANK.

Matamlla, or Maternillo
Bank.N.W. end of [1]..

Matanillo Shoal, 12 feet ..

Outer part of the Western
Reef

Memory Rock

Settlement Point, W. end
of Grand Bahama Island

S.E. pt. of Grand Bahama .

Hole in the Wall, Light-
house [2]

N.E. Point of Ahaco (so
called)

Elbow Reef, Outer Point.

GREAT BAHAMA
BANK.

The Southern Kays—

The Brothers, East Rock

Isle,

The Jumentos—
Little Ragged

Beacon

Ragged Island, Flagstaff
Racoon Kay, Beacon . .

Channel Kay

Jamaica South Kay ....
Man of War Kay, N.

End

Flamingo Kay

Water Kay, S.W. Point.

Yuma or Long Island : —
South Point of the Isle. .
Great Harb., Entrance . .
Michael Bk., 12 fathoms
Whale, or North Point . .

ExDMA, the Beacon

Galliot Cut, on the Bank. .

Eleuthera, S.E. Point

„ Governor's Harb.
„ James' Cistern . .
„ Harbour Island .
„ Egg Island Reef,
Extremity . . .

The Isles, &c. on N.W.:—

Fleeming Chann., Beacon

Douglas Chann., Entr. . .

Nassau, New Providence

Lighthouse [3]

27 23

27 22

27 5
26 57

26 41 30
26 29

79 8
79 4

79 12
79 6 40

79 35
78 41 30

25 51 30 ! 77 10 43

26 30
26 33

22 3 30

22 9 30
22 11 40
22 21 50
22 32 15
22 42 56

22 47 20
22 52
22 58

22 50

23 7
23 9 15
23 41 37
23 31 53

23 55

24 37

25 11 15
25 21
25 30

25 34

25 16 45

25 7 30

25 5 10

76 57
76 50

75 44

75 44 30
75 47 17
75 49 39
75 52 50
75 54 46

75 54
75 53 6
75 45 3

74 52
74 52 30

74 45 30

75 20

75 49 21

76 15
76 9 23
76 14 b'i
76 23
76 39

76 55 30

76 55 3

7" 2 45

2 10

Captain Edward
R.N., 1846.

Burnett,

The Observations of Captain
Richard Owen, R.N., 1831
—32.

2 15

1 55

2 10

The Surveys of Capt. Richard
Owen, Captain E. Barnett,
Lieutenant T. Smith, R.N.,
&c, 1836-1842.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE BAHAMA AND PASSAGE ISLANDS— Continued.

i LAT. N.

Joulter Kays ; N. extrera. .

Andros Isles : Morgan's

Bluff, or N.E. Point . .

High Kay, on the E.

Coast

Golding Kay

Green Kay, in the Gulf .
Berry Isles: —

S. Stirrup Kay, N.W.

Point

Great Stirrup Kay.

Lighthouse

Holmes' Kay, centre . . .
Great Isaac, Lightho. [4]

Western side of the Great

Bunk : —
Moselle Bk., Bernini Is. .
Gun Kay, Lightho. . . [5]

Brown's Kay

S. Hiding Kk.. Beacon .
Orange Kays, Middle .
Southern part of the Bunk:
Guincho, or Ginger Kay
Lobos, or Wolf Kay ...
Mucaras, or Diamond

Point [G]

Cayo Verde, or Green

Kay

Kay of St. Domingo [7]

THE PASSAGE
ISLANDS.

Little St. Salvador, W.Pt. . .
St. Salvador, Columbus or

S.E. Point

■ , Hawk's Nest, or

S.W. Point

, N.W. Point

Conception Island, S. end. .
Southampton Reef, exty . .
Bum Kay, S.E. White

Cliffs

■ , West End ....[8]

Watling's Island ; Large
White Rock at N. End

The S.W. Point

Hinchinbroke Rock

Samana or Attwood Kays :

East Low Kay

Westernmost Reef, exty.

Southern Reef

Planas or Flat Kays, centre

Crooked Islands, &c. :—
The N.E. Breaker

25 19 30

25 10 24

24 39 30
24 13 40

24 2 12

25 25 5

25 49 40
25 37 40
20 2

25 49 10
25 34 35
25 23 40

21 14
24 56 30

22 45
22 22 50

22 10

22 1 40
21 42 20

24 36 22

24 8 30

24 8 50
24 41 10
23 48 46
23 55 15

23 38 40

23 39

24 10 15
23 56 27
23 56 40

23 5
23 5 50
23 4 45
22 35 10

22 43 30

LONG, W.

VAR.

EAST,

1878-9.

78 8 30

78 1 30

77 42 50
77 37 20
77 10

77 55 30

77 53 45

77 44

79 6 30

79 17 30
79 18 50
79 13
79 10
79 9 24

78
77

77 19

75 10
75 44 45

75 58

75 16 48

75 32 30
75 45 30
75 6
75 7 3

74 47 20
74 56 35

74 28 30
74 34
74 28 33

73 36 43
73 52
73 45
73 33

73 47

AUTHORITIES.

The Surveys of Capt. Richard
Owen, Captain E. Barnett,
Lieutenant T. Smith, R.N.,
&C, 1836—1842.

2 25

2 20

1 45

1 35

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE BAHAMA AND PASSAGE ISLANDS— Continued.

VAR.

LAT. >

LONG. W.

EAST,

AUTHORITIKS.

1878-9.

N.E. Reef, Extremity . .

22 47

73 49 45

The Surveys of Capt. Richard

22 44

7 33

Owen, Capt. E. Barnett,

Bird Rock Lighthouse . .

22 51

22 15

Lieutenant T. Smith, R.N.,

Fortune Tsle, or Long-

&c, 1836—1842.

Kay, S. Point

22 32

Castle Isle [9]

22 7

18 45

1 55

Miraporvos : — *

* The Miraporvos Bank and

22 7
22 5

21 58

22 31

74
74

32 40
32 15

27 30

47 30

Kays were surveyed by Mr. De

South Kay, Sand-hills . .

Hobart's Breakers, S.E.

End

Mayne, in 1827. The Bank is
eleven and a half miles in ex-
tent from S S.E. to N.N.W., and
the shoals upon it are very dan-
gerous, particularly to those
advancing from the S.E. With
the wind blowing strong from

Diana, or Monkey Bank,

Marihuana, or Mayaguana,

S.W. Point

22 21

9 30

the northward they break
heavily, and at all times there

Eastern End of E. Reef .

22 18

38 16

is a heavy swell upon them. The

current generally sets from the

The Catcos :

N.E. over the shoals at the rate

Cape Comet, N.E. Point

of 1 mile an hour.

[10]
Large House near the

21 42

27 38

1 20

The Surveys of Capt. Richard

21 49

Owen, 1831-32.

The Three Maries

21 57

2 30

"West Cay cos, South End

21 37

44 33

Providenciales, N.W. Pt.

21 52

20 3

West, or Little Cayco,

21 37

28 33

21 2J

South Shoal

21 2
21 5

71
71

44 33
29

Swimmer Shoal

The Hogaties, N.W. Kay

21 41

Great Inagua-. —

ihe N.AV. Point.... [IT

21 7

39 30

Middle Point

21 1
20 55
20 58

73
73
73

41
39 3
39 30

S.W Point

Lantern Head (82 feet

hi»-h}

20 56

20 57

21 20
21 29

45
30
15

73
73
72
72

19 24

9 48

59 30

55 33

1 45

S E. Point

N.E. Point

Remarks.

Little Inagua ; East Point .

„ „ N.W. Point .

21 30

4 33

Turks' Island Passage. —

Near the S.E. end or elbow of
the Caycos Bank, is a shoal in

Turk's Islands : —

lat. 21° 4', long. 71° 31' 32", hav-

Salt Kay, centre

21 7
21 11
21 20

71
71
71

18 18
14 33
"12

1 20

ing over it, in some parts, only
5 feet of water, and lying with
a bushy kay on :he bank bearing
N. by W. (by compass) 6 or 7

Grand Kay, Roadstead

miles. Lat. by merid. alt. :

[12]

21 28

7 30

long, by two good chronometers,

Square Handkerchief,

made by Barraud : one giving

N.E. detached Breaker

21 6

27 20

71° 31' 5"; the other, 71° 32' 6".

S.E. extremity

20 47

— Edwd. DunsterviUe H.M.S.

Western extremity ....

20 56

70 57

Carnation.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE BAHAMA AND PASSAGE ISLANDS— Continued.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

VAR.
EAST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Silver Kay, or Plati
Bank : —

East End (10 fathoms) . .

S.E. Point

N.W. Point

S.W. Point [12]

Bajo de Navidad, or binr
Bank: —

Northern Extremity [13]

Eastern

South- West

20 35 20
20 13
20 55
20 17 20

20 14

« 4

69 21 53

69 35 48

69 56 13

70 53

1 15

The Surveys of Mr. Anthonj
Dt May tie, &c.

(\S 51 18 10

20 2 68 47 33
19 51 50 68 58 16

NOTES.

1. Mantanilla Bank.— The Mantanilla Bank, to the north-ward of the reef, was not
represented in Mr. De Mayne's Chart, although given in that of the Spanish surveyors.
It was examined by Captain Edward Barnett, R.N., in 1846, and the positions corrected
accordingly.

2. Hole in the Wall Lighthoi t se is a conical (-.tone tower 160 feet high, the upper
part painted red and the lower part "white, the lantern is also painted -white.

3. Nassau. — The position appears to he finally f-ettled as in the Table. The Spanish
Surveyors gave the town as in 25° 4' 33' N., and 77° 19' 30 W. Mr. De Mayne as 25° 5'
18" N., and 77° 19' W.

4. Great Isaac. — This islet is moderately high, has several wells of fresh water, and
abundance of large shell-fish. The Providence droggers water here.

5. Gun Cay Lighthouse, 70 feet high, is coloured similarly to Hole in the Wall
Lighthouse, as above described.

6. Diamond Point of the Mucaras. — The Mucaras, Lavanderas, and Lobos, with
the dangers on the bank in the vicinity, have been surveyed, with great care, by Captain
Edward Barnett, whose positions are those given in the Table. This portion of the bank
was formerly represented, as in the Spanish Charts, rather more to the South, and 6' more
to the East.

7.— Kay of St. Dcmtngo. — The southern part of the Great Bank, on which this kay is
situate, is very dangerous by night. The kay had formerly the appearance of a sail, but,
in 1835, the crew of the Thunder erected a beacon of stones, about 15 feet high, upon the
centre of it ; 1he other part of the kay is about 5 feet only above the water. It is a rocky,
and spot, producing nothing but a little samphire and wild grass.

8 P»'JM Kay — This island was formerly very erroneously represented on the charts,
both as to magnitude and position. The white cliffs at the S.E. end are remarkable, and
may be seen 6 leagues off.

9. Castle Isle. — The point appears to be finally settled. Former observations gave
22 c 7' 45" N., and 74 c 17' 30" W.

10. Caycos. — Captain Livingstone says: — "I am perfectly satisfied that any vessel
shaping a course from off the rocks to weather the N.W. point of the Caycos by any
chart hitherto published, will infallibly get entangled among the reefs on the West side of
the Watering Bay. When a vessel once gets embayed among them, it mu>t be next to
impossible to beat, out ; as the reefs extending from the land to the eastward hook sud-
denly round, at their outer extremity, to the southward. Thus a vessel may be in blue

K .A. G. L

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

and deep water while the hook of the reef is outside her. I have three times examined
tin; appearance of these reefs from the mast-heads of different vessels, and each time they
appeared to me more dangerous than they had previously done." — (This was written in
1848.)

11. Great TnagUa. — This island has heen surveyed by Lieutenant Lawrence, R.N. —
Matthew Town, a new settlement, lies 3 miles northward of the S.W. point. On the
South-east coast of Inagua are several detached coral reefs about, and at some distance
from, the S.E. point. On one of these H.M.S. Statira was lost; and on another, if not
the same, the bark Emerald, Captain Nockells, struck, at 5 p.m., 11th June, 1834, on her
passage from Jamaica to London. The bark was on it for two hours, while the small islet
off the S.E. point bore West, distant 4 miles, and the nearest shore was 5 miles off. The
depth of water was about 18 feet. The captain observes that, as broken reefs may extend
a long way out, vessels in passing should not advance within 10 miles of the shore. The
Emerald was so much damaged that it became necessary to abandon her ; and on the next
day, at 7 p.m., her crew were saved in a Spanish schooner, bound for Philadelphia, being
then, with 9 ft. of water in her hold, in lat. 20° 36', long. 73° 10', 24 miles to the southward
of Inagua. It is now marked by a lighthouse near the S.W. point, which shows a re-
volving light every minute at 120 ft., visible 17 miles.

12. Silver Kay Bank. — It seems that the Fletcher Reef, said to have been discovered
near the S.W. extremity of the Silver Kay Bank, in 1833, really exists on the S.W. part
of that bank, the true form of which was, for the first time, ascertained by Captain
Owen and assisting officers, as now exhibited on the charts. Its N.E. side is extremely
dangerous, having a cluster of rocky heads, extending 18 miles, and even with the water.
There are also detached patches on the N .rth and north-western parts.

13. The Bajo de Navidad has been described as a fine clear bank of an oval form.

Its greatest length 22 miles North and South, aud 11 in breadth; the least water on it
11 fathoms, which is on the S.E. edge. The general depths 16 and 17 fathoms, very
even bottom, coral and sand ; the water being of a darkish hue, the bank is not easily
distinguished.

There is but little secular chango in the variations of the compass hereabouts.

18— CUBA, JAMAICA, ETC.

South Side of Cuba. , „

Cape Maysi, Lighthouse [1] 20 15 10

Port Guantanamo, E. head 19 55

Santiago de Cuba, Blanca

Battery [2] 20 19

„ Morro

Lighthouse 19 57 42

Cape Cruz, Lighthouse .... 19 50

Caballones Channel, Pilot

Point 20 46 30

Boca Grande Cay, West pt. 21

River Guaurabo, Ciriales

Point 21 46

Port Xagua or Jagua, Light-
house 22 1

P agua Bank, shoal part . . 20 37

Xiedras Cay, Lighthouse . . 21 58

Jardines Bank, East point 21 39

Rosario. Channel, South en- 1

trance 21 37

. ,

„

o .

74 10

75 16

2 20

75 50

2 50

75 54
77 44

20
30

3 30

78 58

79 19

80 2

80 30

80 35

81 3
81 2

81 55

Chiefly from the Surveys by
the Spanish Navy, with
partial surveys by Captain
Richard Owen, R N., and
recent English Surveyors.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
CUBA, JAMAICA, ETC.— Continued.

LAT. N.

VAR.

EAST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Isle of Pines, Frances Point

[3]

Isle of Pines, extreme South

point

San Felipe Cays, S.W. part
Laguna de Cortes, small

Cay at entrance

North Coast of Cuba.

Cape Antonio, extreme . .

Colorados Reef, West end

Jutias Cay, Lighthouse(pro
posed)

Bahia Honda, Point Cerro
del Morrillo

Havana, Morro Light-
house [4]

„ Engineer's post
under No. 4 fort

Peak of Matanzas, summit .

Cay Piedras, Lighthouse . .

Bahia de Cadiz Cay, Light-
house

Paredon Grande Cay, Light-
house

Cay Confites, South point .

Cay Verde, N.W. end ....

Maternillos Point, Lightho.

Port Nuevitas, Lighthouse,
Barlovento Point ....

Port Padre, Point Guinchos

Port Naranjo, East side of
entrance

Peak of Sama, summit (885
feet)

Port Nipe, Roma Point

Port Sama, East side of
entrance

■Lucrecia Point, Lighthouse

Port Cayo Moa, Carenero
Point

Port Baracoa, Lighthouse

The Grand Cayman : —
S.W. Bay, Fort George

JAMAICA, and Isles
Adjacent. [5]

Navassa Island, North ex-
treme

Morant Cays, N.E. Cay . .

Formigas Bank, shoal spot
Morant Point, Lightho . .

21 37 15

21 21 24

21 55

22 4

21 51 30

22 9

22 43 20

22 58 49

23 9 20

23 8 53
23 1 54
23 14 42

23 13

22 29 3
22 11 14
22 8 45
21 40 6

21 37 30
21 18 30

21 7 30

21 7

20 47 14

21 9

21 4 38

20 41 41
20 21

19 17 45

83 12 34

82 56

83 32

83 51

84 58 4

84 48

84 6 30
83 12
82 22 12

2 20 43

81 45

81 8 17

80 30

78 9 53
77 40 5
77 38 15
77 8 57

77 5 16
76 36 16

75 53

75 48 22

75 34

75 48
75 37 55

74 53
74 28 30

81 24 3

18 25 10 75 2 3

17 26 30 75 58 20

18 33 75 44 24
17 55 5 76 11 50

5 35

4 40

2 30

3 10

Chiefly from the Surveys by
the Spanish Na^y, with
partial Surveys by Captain
Richard Owen, R.N., and
recent English Surveyors.

Remarks.

The greater part of the har-
bours are singularly formed,
having a narrow entrance mostly
bordered with a reef or shoal,
but opening into a fine basin in-
ward, which affords shelter from
every wind. Of such are St.
Iago, Guantanamo, Escondido,
Baitiqueri, Mata, and Baracoa;
but the entrance of the latter is
bold-to ; again, Iaco, Yaguan-
eque, Cebollas, Tanamo, Cabo-
nico and Livisa, Nipe, Banes,
Naranjo, Vita, Jururu, Del Pa-
dre, Malagueta, Manati, Nuevi-
tas, Havana, Mariel, Bahia-
Honda, and Jagua.

From the Surveys of Captain
R. Owen R.N.. 1835, and
more modern suiweys of
particular localities.

7«

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
CUBA, JAMAICA, ETC.— Continued.

LONG. W.

VAR.

EAST,
1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Port Moiant, Bowden Pier
Morant Town Church ....
Lamottes Bank (4 fathoms)

Cow Bay Point

Plum Point Light

PORT ROYAL,Ft.Charles,

Flagstaff [6]

Kingston, Fort Augusta

Light

„ St. Michael Ch.
Portland Bight, Pigeon Id.,

centre

Portland Point

Carlisle Bay, Pier

Round Hill

Alligator Reef, N.E. end..
Pedro Bluff, S.W. extreme
Black R. Anrh., Church . .
Savanna la Mer fort, ruin .
Negril Bay, Wharf in South

part

St. Lucia, Fort

Montego Bay, Fort

Falmouth, Fort

St. Anne Bay, Long Wharf
Port Maria, N.W. Wharf
Port Antonio, Fort flagstaff
Machioneal H arbour, South

entrance point

Red Cliffs

Pedro Bank, East end,

Portland Rock [7]

„ S.W. Breakers

„ N.W. edge . .

Baxo Nuevo, Sandy Cay

[8]

Grand Cayman, Fort

George, West end . . [9]

Little Cayman, West point

Cayman Brae, S.W. point

„ N.E. point

Pickle Bank, Centre

Serranilla, S.W. Cay[10]

C i

17 53

17 52

17 50

17 52

17 55

17 56

17 58

17 47

17 42

17 46

17 51

17 49

17 51

18 1

18 12

18 16

50 |

18 27 45

18 29 25

18 30 34

18 26 24

18 23

18 11 15

18 2 50

17 59 30

17 8

16 48

17 36

15 53

19 17 45
19 39 10
19 40 35

19 44 30

20 23 20
15 47 45

78 22 24
78 11 24
77 56 48
77 40 24
77 13 24
76 54 54
76 27 24

76 17 35

76 15 20

77 27

78 13
78 52

78 39 4

81 23 54
80 7 54

79 54 59

79 43 53

80 29 50
79 50 43

„

76 19

76 25

76 30

76 37

76 47

76 51

76 47

77 5

77 10

77 17

77 23

77 32

77 45

77 52

78 8

From the Surveys of Captain
11. Owen, R.N., 1835, and
more modern Surveys of
particular localities.

4 30

NOTES.

1. Cape Maysi. — Captain Foster places Cape Maysi in 74° 5' 18', considering Chagres
as 78° 57' 19'. Captain Owen made it 74° 8' 0'.

2. St. Iago de Cuba.— Mr. Nicholls, Master of the Shearwater brig of war, in 1819,
communicated the situation of the Morro Castle of St. Iago, from obsei rations made in
that ship, as follows :— Latitude observed, 19° 57' 50" ; longitude by lunars, 76 u 2' 45" ; by
chronometer, 76° 0'. The Spanish Chart of the harbour represents the Morro as in
76" 55' 33' W.

POSITIONS OF PLACES. 77

Telegraphic determination from Havana, by U.S. Hydrographic Office in 1875, places
the Morro Lighthouse in long. 75° 52' 6" W.

3. Cape Antonio, Isle of Pines, &c. — On the 12th of August, 1817, Capt. Livingstone
came to an anchor off Cape Antonio, in 7 fathoms ; and by an excellent observation, found
his latitude to be 21° 53' 54" ; this confirms that which has been given by the Spanish
officers. The longitude is well established between 84° 57' and 84" 58'. The Baron von
Humboldt gives 84° 57' ; Captain Owen, 84° 58' ; the Spanish officers had previously given
it as 84° 57' 30".

4. Havana and Lighthouse.— The longitudes in the western part of the Caribbean
Sea depend upon the position of the Morro Lighthouse, Havana, given by Don Jose
Joaquin de Ferrer, Astro, Soc. Mem. iv. 586 ; Ion. 82° 22' 12" W. — Note : Telegraphic de-
termination from Washington, U.S., by U.S. Hydrographic Office in 1875, places Morro
Lighthouse in long. 82° 21' 23" W.

The position of the Engineer's post, near the steam wharf under fort No. 4, Havana
Harbour, has been deduced from the Morro Lighthouse, and is here given as being conve-
nient for rating chronometers, lat. 23" 8' 53" N., long. 82° 20' 43" W.

The position formerly given was lat. 23° 8' 18' N., long. 82° 22' 4" W. The longitude
being the mean of twenty results from stars eclipsed by the moon, by Don Josef Joachim
de Ferrer, 1809-10-11-12. This place, which is taken by Lieutenant Raper as a secondary
meridian, is considered by him as in long. 82° 21' 57" W. The difference, 17", between
this and Mr. Purdy's position, as given in our previous editions, is but trifling, and the
difference between Mr. Purdy's position in 1850 and that determined electrically from
Washington in 1875, is but 17", the latter position placing it in 82° 21' 23", or 27" less than
shown in the Tables.

5. JAMAICA in general. — "In his outline of Jamaica, 1821, Mr. De Mayne gives
Morant, or the eastern point/in longitude 76° 12', and South Negril, or the western point,
in 78° 25' W. Mr. Leard, in his survey of 1791, gave Morant Point in 79° 3', and South
Negril in 78° 33' ; consequently he represented the island more than 15' longer than it has
since been exhibited.

6. Port Royal. — Telegraphic determination from Havana, by U.S. Hyd. Office in 1875,
places the flagstaff at Port Royal in long. 76° 50' 31" W. The northern coast, it appears,
was placed too far North from 1 to 2 miles.

7. Portland Rogk. — The Portland Rock is a single kay, 15 to 20 feet above the sea.
and covered with small bushes. It has been variously represented in from lat. 17° 7j' to
17° 13' and from long. 76° 32' to 77° 31'. In Mr. De Mayne's Chart it appears in 17° 7£'
N., and 77° 29' W. The position given in our Table cannot, we think, be far from the
.truth.

The officers of H.M.S. Winchester, in 1834, by numerous altitudes, &c, gained the lati-
tude of the rock as 17° 7' 25", and long. 77° 27' 4".

8. Baxo Nuevo. — According to the Spanish officers, 1804, the extent of this shoal is
about 7 miles from North to South, and 14 miles from East to West. All the eastern part
is a reef, very steep-to, but on the West the depth diminishes gradually. At 1^ mile from
the northern extremity is the Sandy Cay, given in the Table. The Baxo del Comboy,
which is represented on the charts to the E.S.E. of the New Shoal, has been particularly
searched for, but could not be found.

The shoal was examined by H.M. surveying ship Thunder, March, 1835; the small
kay, given in the Table, was found to be 4 feet high, and a cable's length East and West,
at miles N.E. from the southern breakers. It presents no appearance of vegetation, and
is composed of coarse coral, sand, and stones.

9. Grand Cayman. — The latitude of the S.W. kay of the Grand Cayman, as observed
by Captain Livingstone, August 5th 1817, appeared to be 19° 14', not 19° 11', the parallel
formerly assigned ; the longitude was communicated to us by the late Captain Hurd, as

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

a determination to be relied on, and it appears to have been confirmed by Captain J. W.
Monteith.

Don J. M. Herrera, of the Spanish Navy, places the East extreme of the Eastern Little
Cayman (Cayman Brae) in lat. 19° 45' 15" N., long. 79° 46' 24" E., 1863.

The S.E. point, as communicated by Mr. Dunsterville, lies in lat. 19° 16' N., and long.
81° 6' 40" W, The village on the West, formerly the Ilogsties, is called Georgetown, but
the most populous village is Boddentown, on the South.

10. Serranilla. — This bank, with its kays, formerly much misrepresented, lies between
the parallels of 15° 35' and 15° 55' N., and the meridians of 79° 41' and 80° 5'. On its
eastern and southern sides are several kays and reefs. On the N.E. side is a detached
patch of rocks, on which the sea constantly breaks ; it is just awash, but, in fine weather,
a rock will show about 2 feet out of the water. Between it and the main bank is a safe
passage, of not less than 6 fathoms, bordering close to the western side of the reef. In
clear weather, by day, all the rocky patches are easily avoided, but it is very dangerous to
approach by night.

The Variations of the compass are very slowly decreasing.

19.— STO. DOMINGO OE HAYTI, POETO-EICO, AND THE VIEGIN

ISLANDS.

VAR.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

EAST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

STO. DOMINGO.

O 4 h

O '

Isle of Mona, the Middle. .

18 6

67 54

1 10

Hobero, Bight Bank

18 58 50

69 3 37

Sir Robert H. Schomburgk,

Punta Macao, ranchos ....

18 50

68 35

F.R.G.S., 1852.

Isle of Saona, W. point . .

18 14

68 53 30

Qiriabon. It. entrance

18 20 20

68 53 23

18 22

68 56 37

18 25 50

69 10 25

Isles of Santa CaLamtfc, W.

18 19

City of Santo Domingo,

Cathedral, W. portal [1]

18 28 17

69 52 26

1 40

Neiva Bay, River entrance

18 22 10

Captain Richard Owen, R.N.,

Alta-Vela, or the High

and Edward Dunsterville,

Sail [2]

18 29 30

71 38

Esq., R.N., 1826, 27, 32.

Cape Jacquemel, or Jacmei

18 11 20

72 35 15

2 38

Pta. Ajugas, or False Cape

17 47

71 41

Frayle Rocks, S. end ....

17 36

71 41

Aquin Bay, Grosse Kay,

18 13 30
18 14 27

73 27
73 35 30

St. Louis, the Old Fort . .

Aux Cayes, the Town

18 11 10

73 46

Isle a Vache, E. Point

18 4

73 36 30

18 2
18 2 20
18 22

73 50

73 58 30

74 28 32

2 50

Point a Gravois

Cape Tiburon, extremity .

Irois Bay, House on the

18 23 48
18 25 45

74 29 33

75 3

Isle of Navaza, middle

Cape Dame Marie, or Donna

Maria . . . .

18 37 30
18 38

74 27 31

74 5 45

Staff Comm. Kiddle, R.N.,

Jeremie Bay, Wharf. . . . . .

1873.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

STO. DOMINGO, PORTO RICO, &c— Continued.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

VAR.
EAST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Miragoane Harbour, Town
"Pirogues, on the Rochelois

Keef

Hummock of Petit Gonave
Isle o f Gonave, West Point
Tort au Prince, Fort

Bigithon

,Arcadins. north ernmost
St. Marc, or St. Mark's Pt.

Port Piment

St. Nicholas Mole, Fort

George

Port a l'Ecu

Port Paix, Carenge Point
l'ortue ji Tortuga Isle, W

Point

„ Fast Point

City of Cape Haytien,

Watering Place

Manzanillo Bay, Manzanillo

Point

The Grange Point

Point Isabeliea

Isabella Bay, Islet

Port Plata, E. Point....
Old Cape Francais ....
Cape Cabron . . .......

Cape Samana

Cape Raphael

Cape Engaiio, extreme. . . .
Point Espada

ISLAND OF PORTO-
RICO.

Cape St. Juan, or N.E. Pt.
Morro Castle of St.

Juan [3]

Point Brugucn, or N.W.

Point

Isle Desecho or Zacheo

Aguadilla Town [4]

Mayaguez Bay, Light . .
Aguila Point, S.W. pt. . .
Port Ponce Custom House
Puerto Guanica, E. Point
Caxa de Muertos, or Coffin,

S.W. Point

The VIRGIN ISLANDS.

Anegada, W. Point ,

East Point [5]

Soldier, or North Point . .

„ Horse-shoe Reef, S.E.

end

18 28

18 38 20

18 26 51

18 55 26

Ifr 32 12

18 48

19 2 10
19 37

73 4 30

73 14

72 45 39

73 18 30

72 22 25
72 38

72 51

73 1

19 49 30 73 27 33
19 55 10 73 5 30

19 58 72 48 45 •

20
20

3 20
1

19 4(> 40

19 45 34
19 54 45
19 58 4<i
19 53 50
19 49
19 40 30
19 21 30
19 15 40
19 2
18 35 51
18 19 43

18 24 30

18 29

18 27 18
IS 23 48
18 25 40
18 13
17 58
17 58 51
17 57 44

17 £2 30

72 5 7 30
72 30

72 10 42

71 47 20
71 40
71 6 30
71 4 7
70 42
69 55
60 14
69 6
68 53 30
68 20 40
68 28 16

66 7

67 11
67 3,
67 1U
K7 8
G7 15
6»i 39
60 58

60 35

1* 50
18 43 48
18 45 15

64 25 12
64 16 20
64 20 20

Captain R. Owen, R.N., and
Commander E. Dunster*
yille, R.N,

2 10

1 50

1 10

65 87 , 35

U.S.S. Congress, 1871.

The observations of the Span-
ish Officers, particularly
those of Capts. Don Cosme
de Churruca, Francisco Fi-
dulgo. Juan Romero, &c.

18 36 30 : 04 11

Lieut. G. H. Stoate, R.N.,
1875.

The Survey by Lieut. G. B.
Lawrence, R.N., 1848.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

THE VIRGIN ISLANDS, &c— Continued.

VAR.

LAT N.

LONG. W.

EAST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

Herman Reef, 16 ft., South

- . . |

The Survey by Lieut. G. B.

Point

18 3'5 30

64 14

Lawrence, R.N., 1848.

Virgin Gorda, Pajaros, or

East Point

18 30 42
18 23 45

64 19 9
64 28 41

Tortola, Road Town, Fort

Burt

18 25 3

64 37

St. John's, S.E. Point ....

1R .19 O

64 44 20

Sta. Monica Rock (9 feet) .

18 19 O

64 39 30

St. Thomas Harbour, Ft.

18 20 27

64 55 40

2 '

The Bergantin or Carvel . .

18 IS

65 7

St. Croix or Santa Cruz :

A communication made to

Eastern extremity of the

Mr. Dunsterville by Sir A.

17 45 30

64 34

Lang, of St. Croix, Jan. 21,

The Lang Observatory [8 '

17 44 32

64 41 6

LSd'J,.

Harbour of Christian -

stsed, Flagstaff of the

Outer Point Battery.

called Fort Louisa

Fort Christians w t erD, in
the town of Chri^tiac-

17 45 28

64 41 42

The general height of the
:ops of the hills in St. Croix is
from 800 to 850 English feet
ibove the level of the sea, ex-

staed, Flagstaff . . .

17 44 59

64 41 58

cepting toward the northern side

Salt River Point ..[10]

17 47 12

64 44 45

of the north-western district of

HamsorN.W. Bluff f 11 ]

17 46 24

64 52 3

the island, where they ascend

Fort at Frederick sited or

higher, and the highest of which

W. end, Flagstaff [12]

17 43 10

64 52 48

called Mount Eagle, is 1,156 feet

Sandy Point, the south

above the level ot the sea. Its

west extremity of t he-

summit is in lat. 17° 45' 52", and

island ....[13]

17 40 30

64 53 48

long. 64° 48' 31".

Buck Isle, East extremity

[14.]

„ North-West

17 47 18

64 36 40

Along the greater part of the
South side of the island a ledge
of reefs lines the coast, at a dis-
tance from shore, in someplace3,

17 47 30

64 37 37

of nearly 2 miles. There are

Its summit, about

few channels through these

350 feet above the

reefs, practicable for small

level of the sea . .

17 47 15

64 37 3

vessels only.

NOTES.

1. Santo Domingo. — We previously gave the longitude of the City as 69° 58', on the
authority of the Spanish officers, Capts. Don L. Argedas and J. A. Sartorio, who observed
an eclipse here in 1780, with a subsequent correction of 1^'. This result was considered by
the talented and energetic Sir Robert H. Schomburgk, F.R.G.S., on his appointment to
the Dominican consulate in 1849, to be too far West, and he accordingly made many
observations, and collected others of authenticity, and placed it as stated in the Table.

2. Alta Vela, or the High Sail. — This is a high rocky islet, which serves as a general
point of departure to all ships bound from the eastward to Jamaica, &c. It is peaked, and
appears to the northward, at a distance, like a dome, emerging above a mist or fog.

On the authority of the respected and scientific Admiral Espifiosa, of the Spanish
Navy, we formerly gave Alta Vela in long. 71° 22' W., instead of a more westerly
position, which had previously been assigned; but it is now fully proved that this is

POSITIONS OF PLACES. 81

wrong, and that the true longitude is about 71° 38'. Mr. Dunsterville, from the mean of
observations in 1826 and 1829, made it 71° 39' 25" W. Captain R. Owen made the summit
in 71° 39' 44" W.

3. Morro of St. Juan. — The Harbour of St. Juan was surveyed by Don Cosme de
Churruca, in 1794. The position given in the Table is from the statement of Don Josef
Cerquero, director of the Royal Observatory in the Isle of Leon, near Cadiz. The longi-
tude was considered as one of the best established in America.

4. Aguadilla. — The situation of Aguadilla, as given by the Spanish Officers, is
18° 25' 53" N., and 67° 6' 20' W. Admiral Mackellar gave it as 18° 24' 57' N., and
76° 8' 25 " W.

5. Anegada, with its reef, were surveyed by Mr. (afterwards Sir) Robert Herman
Schomburgk, the distinguished traveller, in 1832. We formerly enumerated, in the de-
scription of the Caribbean Isles, the number of wrecks that lay upon the reefs in 1811 ;
and Sir R. Schomburgk has noticed that, between 1811 and 1832, twenty-one American,
seventeen West-Indian, fifteen Spanish, nine British, two French, two Swedish, and one
Portuguese, were wrecked here ; and this is attributed chiefly to the insensible operation
of the currents.

6. St. Thomas's. — With the position of Fort Christian, as given in the Table, from
a Danish Survey, compare the communication of Captain J. W. Monteath, " Colombian
Navigator," vol. iii., note 3, p. xx. But upon this point we received the following com-
munication from Major Sir Andrew Lang : — " The bearings of the flagstaff of Cowel's
Battery, from my observatory (see note 8, hereafter), N. 21° 54' 27" W., from the true
meridian, were determined by myself with a Troughton's altitude, azimuth, and transit
circle. Notwithstanding the distance (37J miles), the flagstaff was distinctly seen with
the telescope of the circle, and intersected with the vertical wire. Considering the latitude
of the flagstaff, 18° 19' 32' N., which must be near it, then its longitude is as stated
64° 55' 45" W., as deduced from my position ; but I now strongly suspect that it is a little
more to the North, say in 18" 19' 45" ; if so, its longitude, as deduced from my station, will
be 64° 55' 50" W., and the latitude and longitude of Fort Christian would, on the same
data, be lat. 18° 20' 39" N., long. 64" 55' 39" W. (This is now confirmed.) Fort Cowell
is on the very top of an eminence (275 ft. above the level of the sea) which rises at the
southern extremity of a tongue of land, which forms the western side of the entrance, and
also the western shore of St. Thomas's Harbour." — Signed Andrew Lang.

7. St. CROIX.— Fully 9 nautic miles from the eastern extremity, N.E. by E. a E. (true),
and about 11 miles E. by N. from the East point of Buck Island, commences the eastern
extremity of an extensive bank or shoal, the northern limit of which rounds off from thence
to the N.W., and soon after stretches westerly, inclining to the South of a westerly direc-
tion toward Buck Island shoals and reefs, with which it may be considered as connected.
The northern edge of the shoal is a coral ledge, several miles in extent, on which 3^
fathoms of water is the least depth yet found ; the more common depths being 6, 6£, and
7 fathoms. The sea has been observed to break on the whole line of the northern edge,
and to the very extremity of the bank, in an alarming manner, during a northerly ground
swell in the winter months.

8. Observatory of Sir Andrew Lang. — " The height of the observatory above the
sea is 440 English feet. The latitude is true to within one second. The longitude is the
result, I may say, of the labour of years, and the present assumption of 64° 41' 0" in arc,
or 4 h 18' 44" in time, West from Greenwich, I consider to be determined with almost such
absolute certainty, that I do not think the error in the determination can exceed four
seconds in time, or one minute in arc, and I trust less. On that datum the longitudes of
the other stations are accurately determined. All the latitudes are certain to one or two
seconds." — Andrew Lang.

\From the observatory communication by signal will be attended to. The observatory is
N. A. o. M

TOSITIONS OF PLACES.

situated about 1 mile to the E.S.E. of the toivn of Christiansteed. In clear weather the shoals
arc distinctly seen. — E. Dunsterville.']

9. Christiansteed.— Nearly 1 mile due North of the entrance of the harbour of
Christiansteed is the western extremity of a reef called the Scotch Reef, which stretches
from thence, with its shoals, fully H mile to the E.N.E., rendering the approach to the
harbour very dangerous to strangers.

10. Salt River.— Salt River Point is comparatively a low point, and one of the most
northerly in the island. About one-fourth of a mile to the North of it is a dangerous
sunken rock, called the White Horse, on which the sea generally breaks.

11. Hams Bluff, along its northern part, is bold to.

12. Frederickst^ed, or West-end Bay, is an extensive and beautiful bay, affording
excellent and smooth anchorage, except where the wind has westing ; but like all anchor-
ages of that open kind, it then becomes dangerous.

13. Sandy Point. — To the South of this low and deceiving point, at nearly a mile, there
extends a dangerous reef, to which a good berth should always be given.

14. Buck Island. — This island, except on its southern side, is surrounded with dan-
gerous reefs and shoals, extending fully 1 mile to the W.N.W. of the N.W. point of the
island ; fully two miles to the eastward of its eastern extremity ; and about 1 mile to the
North of the island; forming, in the intervening bearings, a circuitous connection of the
greatest dangers, which all prudent persons will avoid approaching.

The variations OF the compass are subject to very little alteration in the East part of
the section. They are decreasing at an annual rate of about 2' in the "West portion,

20.— THE CARIBBEE AND LEEWAKD ISLANDS.

Carribbee Islands. [1]

Sombrero Lighthouse . . [2]
Dog Isle, landing on S. side
Ansjuilla, Custom House on

North side

St. Martin's ; Philips-
burgh, Fort William ....
„ West Point .

Saba, the middle

St. Bai-tholomew, Fort

Gustavia

St. Eustatius, Orange

Town

St. Christopher's, Basse

Terre [3]

Nevis, Charlestown ....
Redonda, the Pinnacle, 600

feet

Montserrat ; Plymouth, on

South side wharf

Antigua; St. John's Road.

Fort James . [4]

Fort Byham, on N.E.
side

Dockyard Flagstaff, Eng-
lish Harbour

Desirac^e or Deseada, N.F.

Point [5]

VAR.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

WEST,

1878-9.

18 35 45

63° 27 45

O I

No Var.

18 16 15

63 16 10

18 13

63 4 40

18 1 25

63 4 24

18 3 25

63 10

17 38

63 14

17 53 50

62 51 30

17 29

62 59

17 18

62 42 50

17 8 50

62 34 50

16 56

63 19

16 42 12

62 13

17 6 40

61 51 21

17 7 20

61 46 17

61 45 42

16 22

60 58

AUTHORITIES.

Captain E. Barnett, R.N.,
Lieut. E. Lawrence, R.N.,
Mr. Parsons, R.N., &c.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE CARIBBEE AND LEEWARD ISLANDS— Continued.

LAT. N.

VAK.

| EAST,

1878-9.

Guadaloupe, Basse-Terrc

Mole Head Light [6

St. Anne anch. approxi

mate

Port du Moule

Poiute a Pitre, Jarry
Mill

Marie-Galante Grand Bourg
Light

The Saintes; St. Paul, Bolt
Head, S.W. Point....

Aves Islet [7

Dominica, Rd. of Roseau

Fort Young [8

Cape Melville, N.W. Pt
Prince Rupert Bay, Ca
tholic Church."

'Martinique, Ft. Royal [9]

St. Lucia, Pt. Moulacique

or South Point

Port Castries Wharf. . . .

St. Vincent, Kingston Ch.

Grenadines Bequia, Ad-
miralty Bay, Church

Barbados; Bridgetown.
Fort Beckwith [10~

Grenada, Fort St. Georg<

[11]

Tobago, N.E. Point ..[12]

Scai-borough Landing

Wharf

-, Crown Pt., S.W.

end

Trinidad :— [13]

Point Galera, N.E. Pt...

Point Galeota, S.E. Pt. .

Saparia Hill, 400 feet
centre

Icacos, or S.W. point . .
San Fernando Pier Head. .
Cipero River, entr

Port Spain, Battery flag-
staff

Entrada, or N.W. point .
Goose Island, E. end ....
Testigos, Centre

Margarita : —

Pampatar Castle

Margarita, North Point .

Pta. de Arenas, or Sandy

Point

Blanquilla, North Point . .

Tortuga, East Point

Orchilla, N.E. Breakers ..
Shoal of Two Fathoms ....

16 15

16 14 40
16 21

16 13 56

15 54

15 51 20
15 42

15 17 27
15 38 20

15 34 37
14 36 7

13 43

14 1 12
13 9

13 25

13 4 53

12 3 2
11 20 59

11 10 55

11 8 35

10 50 2
10 8 10

10 5 30
10 3 20
10 16 59
10 15 50

10 38 40
10 42 22

10 38 20

11 23 15

10 59 15

11 10 30

10 59

11 54 30

10 54 45

11 52 45

12 9 15

authorities.

• -

6 J

37 45

60 57

1 5

60 43

60 49

55 45

1 25

63 48

1 50

24 30

64 36

Captain E. Barnett, R.N.,
Lieut. E. Lawrence, R.X.,
Mr. Parsons, R.N., &c.

Harris and Stanley, 1869.

Mr. J. Parsons, R.N., 18G4-5.

Commr. W. Chimmo, R.N.
1866-8.

The Survey of the Coasts of
Venezuela, &c, by Don
Joaquin Francisco Fidalgo,
and other Spanish Officers.
Published by the Direction
Hidrogrqfico, at Madrid, in
1816 and 1817. The lon-
gitudes adjusted.

6 4

POSITIONS OF TLACES.
THE CARIUIJEE AND LEEWARD ISLANDS— Continued.

El Koquc Lighthouse ....
Has de Aves (Birds 1 Is.): —

Windward Isle

Leeward Isle

Buen-Ayre, N.E. point. . . .
„ S. Point Light

CURACAO, North Point

Bay of St. Anna, entrance

Kit Fort

Little Curagao, N. end ....
Oruba, S.E. Point

(16 38

07 24

07 40

68 15

68 17

69 10

68 55

68 40

69 55

VAR.
WEST,

1878 9

2 30

2 50

AUTHORITIES.

Spanibh Surveys, &c.

NOTES.

1. Windward and Leeward Islands. — Under the denomination of Windward Inlands,
the navigators of Fiance and Spain include the whole range from the Virgins to Trinidad;
and, under that of Leeward Islands, the range which exists between Trinidad and the
(^ulfof Maracaybo. This distinction is natural and proper, and we have adopted it, in
preference to the former distinction in the English charts, which includes, under the name
cl Leeward Islands, those from Porto llico to Dominica ; and, under that of Windward
Island, those from Martinique to Tobago.

The observations of the Spanish officers for determining the respective situations of the
Caribbee Islands were very numerous and important, and our late charts have been regu-
lated chiefly thereby. Some later corrections have, however, been made, particularly in
the northern part of the range, and in the Virgin Isles.

2. Sombrero. — This solitary islet is a flat and rocky eminence, 2\ miles in length,
N.N.E. and S.S.W., without any hummock, having neither quadruped nor vegetable upon
it, excepting grass, and that generally dry, with a few weeds, &c. It is even destitute of
water. It has been surveyed by our Admiralty.

3. St. Christopher's — In January, 1782, the Marquis de Chabert took nine meridian
altiudes, whence he concluded the latitude to be nearly as in the Table. The longitude
by his marine clocks, previously examined at Martinique, appeared as 62° 52' 30". Mr.
Zahrtmann made the difference of longitude between it and St. Thomas's 2° 13' 27", or in
62° 42' 13", nearly as in the Table.

4. Antigua. — Our former position was a close approximation to that of Captain E.
Barnett, R.N., whose fine survey of 1848 gives a perfect picture of the island.

5. Desirade. — From observations made by the Chev. de Borda, he computed the lati-
tude of the N.E. point as 16° 20' 30'.

Captain Monteith, in lat. 16° 58', by three observations. Longitude of a ship by chro-
nometer, 61° 9' 45'; by lunars, 61° 14' 38"; mean, 61° 12' 12". Bearing of Desirade
S. 5° E., distance 36 miles, which gives 3' of departure — long. 3' 5". Hence longitude of
the centre of Desirade, 61° 9' 7" about 8' too far West.

6. Guadaloupe. — The latitude of Basse-Terre has been confirmed from observations of
A. de Verdun, &c. The longitude (assuming Fort Royal, Martinique, as in 61° 9') ap-
peared to be 61° 48' 15" ; but if Martinique is 4' 50 East of this, it will place Guadaloupe
in 61° 43' 25 ". The difference of longitude between Guadaloupe and St. Thomas (64° 55' 40)

TOSITIONS OF PLACES. 85

was found by Mr. Zahrtmann to be 3° 10' 2", and another measurement makes it 40° 35'
West of Guadaloupe; these combined will place it in 61° 44' 16" , nearly as in the Table.

A lighthouse on Terre de Bas Inlet (or Petite Terre) at the eastern extremity of the
Island of Guadaloupe, shows a fixed light at 108 feet above high water, and is visible in
all directions for 5 leagues. A rock, called the Baleine du Sitd, bears S. 19° W., 2,920 feet
from the lighthouse. Ships coming from the eastward will find from 13 to 20 fathoms
water, at the distance of 2 miles North or South of the light, and should not approach it
nearer. M. Tondu, in 1784, concluded the longitude, by three immersions and two emer-
sions of the first satellite of Jupiter, to be 61° 48'. The latitude of Pointe des Chateaux,
the eastern point, was observed by Mr. de Borda as 16° 12' 30'

St. Anne anchorage was surveyed in 1872 by Messrs. Ploix and Caspari. The observa-
tion for the jarry mill at Pointe a Pitre is by Lieutenant Boucarut, F.I.N.

7. Aves Islet. — The position of this small kay was ascertained by Lieutenant Lawrance
in 1850. It has been lately much visited for a stratum of guano which covered it, and
which was the subject of some dispute. This is probably now removed, and leaves the
place but a bare reef.

8. Roseau. — The latitude of this place, according to the result of observations by
Messrs. Verdun, &c, is 15° 18' 23'' French officers have given the longitude to the west-
ward of that shown in the Table, but the latter is probably correct.

9. Martinique. — The latitude accords with that resulting from the observations of
Messrs. Verdun, Borda, &c, who concluded the longitude as 61° 0'. Capt. Dunsterville
gives the longitude of the Diamond Rock as 61° 6'.

In the Survey of Martinique, executed by order of the French Government in 1824 and
1825, the longitude of the flagstaff of Fort St. Louis, on which all the other longitudes
depend, was assumed by M. Monnier as 61° 1' 25' This was arrived at by measurements
from Rio Janeiro, &c, and is 3' less than that now given.

The longitude in the Table is assumed from a mean of chronometric measurements by
M. Zahrtmann and M. Lartique, between this and the observatories of St. Croix and St.
Thomas, positions which may be considered as finally determined. These differences of
longitude are taken as 3° 36' 58' East of St. Cruix, and 3° 51 V from St. Thomas.

10. Barbados. — The late Dr. Nevil Maskelyne communicated the latitude of St.
Michael's Church, in Bridgetown, as 13° 5' 30". The longitude has since been given as
59° 53' 40' and 59° 41' 15". From four separate measurements of the meridional difference
between Port Royal and Barbados, it may be taken as 17° 30' 10", which will give
59° 37' 35' as the longitude of Barbados.

In 1850, Lieutenant G. B. Lawrence, by a careful measurement from St. Thomas with
17 chronometers, made Fort Beckwith, as in the Table, in longitude 59° 36' 45-6" W.

11. Grenada. — In 1779, M. de Chabert concluded the latitude of Fort St. George as
12° 2' 54", and its longitude 42^ West of Fort Royal, Martinique. This varies only 8'
from the statement in the Table. Captain G. Daniell, of H. M.S. Victor, in 1833, made the
longitude 61° 48' 90". It was surveyed by Mr. James Young.

12. Tobago. — This island was very doubtfully placed on the charts previous to the
survey by Mr. J. Parsons, R.N., assisted by Messrs. J. P. Dillon and W. B. Calver, in
1864-5. The positions given by these officers are those stated in the Table.

From the lighthouse on Bacolet Point, at the Port of Scarborough, the Minster Rock
bears E.S.E., distant 1J mile.

13. Port Siain in Teinidad. — Capt. Foster (vol. ii. page 249) made Fort St. Davids at
Port Spain, h 52' s -8 West of Para, which we have placed in 48° 30' 12" (S. Atlantic
Mem., page 10), therefore it will make it in 61° 30' 24". M. Zahrtmann stated it to be
3° 10' 12" East of St. Croix— 61° 30' 48" ; Captain Owen makes it 15° 19' 0" East of Port
Royal, or 61° 31' 45", which is adopted by Lieutenant Raper; this is 2' 30' West of the
position quoted in the former edition. The longitude, according to Lieutenant Lawrence, is

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

61° 31' 0' and these accord very closely with the position assigned to it by Capt. Chimmo
as given in the Table.

Captain (now General Sir Edward) Sabine, It. A., has, from a great number of observa-
tions, given the position of Protestant Church in Port Spain, as 10° 38' 56" N., and 61° 35' 0"
W. This beautiful church is said by Captain S. to be one of the many improvements and
decorations for which Port Spain is indebted to its late governor, Sir Kalph Woodford, and
which have rendered it one of the handsomest towns in the British colonies.

These Easterly variations of the compass are slowly decreasing in the West part of
this section, but increasing at an annual rate of about 3' in the East portion.

21.— THE COASTS OF GUIANA, ETC., TO THE MEXICAN
SEA, INCLUSIVE.

Cape north, extreme. . .

Mount Maye, summit . . .

Cape Cachipour, extreme.

Mount d'Argent, summit.

Grand Connetable, centre

Cayenne, fort [1]

Salut Isles, North extreme

Mont Diable, summit ....

River Maroni, Francaist

Point [2]

„ West point of
entrance

Post Orange, village

Surinam, beacon on Bram
Point

Paramaribo, Church

Saramacca River, E. point
of entrance

Corentyn River, Nickerit
battery

Berbice River, lightvessel

Demerara, lighthouse * . .

Mocomoco Point, extreme

Barima Point, extreme. . . .

Ciudad Bolivar, market-
place point

LAT. N.

Trinidad. See page 83.

Chute d'Eau Island, centre
Chacachacare Island, rocks

off S.W. point

Pato Island, East, point . .

Venezuela. [3}

Pena Point, extreme

Tcstigos Island, N.W. extr.

long. w.

1 42

2 49 30

3 46

4 22 15
4 49 50

4 56 10

5 16 50
5 10 30

5 42 10

5 44
5 53 50

5 56

5 44 20

5 53

5 57 30

6 19 18
6 49 20
8 39 25
8 37

8 8 52

10 46

10 40 3
10 38 15

10 43 48

11 23 45

49 48

50 52 21

51 2
51 37 51

51 53 6

52 18 40
52 32 51

52 51 55

53 56 30

53 57

54 33 30

55 4

55 13 15

95 57

56 52 54

57 22 30

58 11 30
60 10 15
60 23

63 32 58

61 30 45

61 45 54
61 51 18

61 50 50
63 9

VAR.
WEST,
1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

EAST.

1 10

1 40

M. Montravel, Sir R. Schom-
burgk, and others.

The Spanish Surveys of the
Coasts of Venezuela, &c,
by Don Joaquin Francisco
Fidalgo, and other Spanish
Officers. Published by the
Direcion Hidroyraphico, at
Madrid, in 1816 and 1817.

* These positions may be considered as standard points.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE COASTS OF VENEZUELA, &c— Continued.

VAR.

lat. n.

LONG. W.

EAS I',
1878-9

AUTHORITIES.

Crtpe Tres Puntas, extreme

10 45 d

62 41 55

O *

Spanish Surveys, &c

Puerto Santo Islet, centre

10 43

63 10 55

Carupano Lighthouse

10 39 30

63 15

Esmeralda Islet, centre. . . .

10 40

63 31 55

Mono de Chacopata, extr.

10 42

63 50 25

Escarseo Point, extreme . .

10 40

64 17 55

Margarita Island, Ballena

Note. — Vessels should pro-

Point (see page 83) . . . .
„ Arenas Point, W.

10 59
10 58 30

64 47 55
64 25 O

1 50

ceed with great caution between
Margarita Island and the main.
At night, anchorage will bo
found under Coche Island.

11 19

63 36

10 28

64 12 55

Barcelona Morro, hill . .

10 13 30

64 44

10 35

66 6 15

Tortdga Island, Oriental

Point

10 55
10 49 30

65 12 35

66 9 25

Centinella Islet, centre

La Guayra, La Trinchera

Bastion

10 37

6.6 56 55

La Si 11a de Caracas, summit

(8,500 feet)

10 32 30

66 50 55

Puerto Cabello, St. Philip's

Castle

10 29 30
10 47

68 25
68 19 55

Turcacas Island, Ore House

11 10

68 27 55

Cap? San Roman, extreme

12 11

70 4 oo

Maracaybo Bar, Zapara

Castle

11 1

12 4

71 40
71 7 55

3 50

Espada Point, extreme. . . .

Los Monges, North isiet . .

12 29 15

70 57

Orchila Island, W. point,

. rock

11 49

66 15 do

Los Roques, Port el Roque,

11 57 O

66 38 55

Aves Islands, AVest group,

West extreme

67 42 25

2 20

Buen Ayre Island, light-

house

12 2 12
11 58

68 17 25

68 38 40

Little Curacao, lighthouse

Curacao Island, North point

12 21

69 11 10

2 50

., Rif Fort, lighthouse

12 C 10

68 oo 10

Oruba Island, N. point. .

12 36

70 7 55

New Granada.

Gallinas Point, extreme . .

12 25

71 44 25

3 20

Bahia Honda, East point. .

12 20 ;

71 45 55

Cape Vela, islet

12 10 15
11 33

72 12 55
72 54 35

Hoiap.ks.

10 58 25

75 1

* The Mouuo Hermosa is a
lill which constitutes a useful

Santa Marta, cathedral . .

11 15

74 12 5

4 20

Tribune Shoal

12 11

74 26 1

andfall westward of the Mag-
lulena.

Cartagena, Fort Pastelillo*

10 24 57

75 33 18 1

These positions may be considered as standard poinfs,

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE COASTS OF NEW GRANADA, &c— Continued.

Cartagena, Baruld ; Fort
San Jose

Port Cispata, Zapote Point

Fuerte Island, North extr.

Caribana Point, extreme . .

Cape Tiburon, extreme. . . .

Port Carreto, peak

Caledonia Harbour, Scor-
pion Cay

Manzanillo Point, extreme

PorTo Bello, Fort St.
Jeronymo

Toro Point, extreme

CllAGRES, flas-staff' *

Eseudo de Veragua, West
point of island

Valiente Peak, summit (722
feet)

Cobbler Rock, centre

Shepherd Harbour, hut on
summit

Columbus Island, Lime pt.

Tirby Point, extreme

Costa Rica and Mos-
quito.

Carreta Point, extreme
Bianco Peak, sum. (11,740

feet)

Blanca Point, Grape Cay. .
Mount Cartago, pk. (11,'JOOI

feet)

San Juan de Nicaragua

or Greytown, Arenas Pt.

Port Limon, landing-place

Blewfield, Schooner Point

Cookia Hill, summit

Pearl Kay Lagoon, Mos-
quito Point

Pearl Kays.ColumbillaKay
Great Corn Island, Wells

North of Quin Bluff*
Little Corn Island, Gun Pt.
Brangman's Bluff, extreme
Mosquito Kays, South end
Cape Gracias a Dios, ext.
Half-moon Kay, centre
Gorda Bank. Gorda Kay . .

Fairall Rock, centre

Caxones or Hubbies, Great

Hobby

„ West end

LAT. n.

10 18 58
9 24
9 24
8 37 30

8 41 30
8 47

8 54 52

9 39

9 32 30
9 23
9 19 39

9 6 30

9 10 30
9 14 30

9 14 22
9 24 47
9 25 45

9 38 30

LONG. W.

VAR.
EAST,

1878-9.

AUTHORITIES.

75 35 19

75 48

76 10 45

76 52 55

77 21 30
77 38

77 42 25
79 31 30

79 38 30
79 56
79 59 33

81 34 30

81
82

55 35

8 24

82 21
82 21

7
4
82 22 20

<S2 39 40

9 16 30 83 4

39-

1 1

i.:

5 30

6 10

6 40

6 30

Spanish Surveys, &c.

Remarks.

The whole of the coasts of the
Bay of Honduras, from Cape
Gracias a Dios to Cape Catoche,
including the Isles and Shoals
between the Pedro Bank and
Costa Rica, have been surveyed
under the able direction of Capt.
Owen, Lieut, (after Capt.) Bird
Allen, Lieut, (after Adm.) Edw.
Barnett, Lieut. J. Cannon, and
other skilful officers of the
British Navy. These important
surveys w-re the means of cor-
recting enormous erors in the
representation of the Gulf of
Honduras, and they have also
given a true representation of
the Rio and Golfo Dulce, the
coasts of which were never be-
fore explored.

U.S.S. Kansas, 1R72.
Owen.

Barnett.

Owen.

• Th;:se positions may be considered as standard points.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.
THE COASTS OF COSTA RICA, HONDURAS, ETC.— Continued.

1 VAR.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

EAST,

AUTHORITIES.

1878-9.

Carataska Lagoon, E. sidi

c . .

o , .

. .

Owen.

of entrance

15 23 40

83 43 9

Bajo Nuevo, N.E. part of

lee reef, sand-bank ....

15 53

78 38 3'5

Boncador Kay, S. pt. .

13 34 30

80 o 51

Albuquerque Bank, S

Kay

12 10

81 50 42

Courtown Kays, Middle

Kay

12 24

81 29 9

St. Andrew's Id., S.W.

cove, Entrance Island . .

12 31 40

81 44 14

Old Providence, Isabel

House*

13 22 54

81 22 39

6 10

Quito Sueno Bank, Spit

atN.W. end

14 30

81 7 54

„ S. ext. of reef

14 8

81 8 54

Serrana Bank, S. channel,

Little Kay

14 21 30

80 15 30

Barnett.

Serranilla Bank, Beacon

Kay

15 47 45

79 51 27

O jvea.

Rosalind Bank, N. W. ext.

16 54

80 52

Swan Islands, West one.

N. W. point

17 24 30

83 57 1

5 50

Honduras and Off-lying

Islands.

River Patook, E. side of ent.

15 48 50

84 17 44

6 10

Bonacca Id., S. side, Kaj

next eastward of Half-

moon Kay

16 26 45

85 52 45

Rattan, Port Royal, N.W.

point of George Kay . .

16 23 45

86 19 14

„ Coxen Kay, centre

16 18

86 35

Hog Isles, W., highest hill

15 58

86 32 43

Utilla Island, South Kay..

16 3 40

86 59 49

6 40

Cape Triunfo, Bluff Point

15 48 45

87 28 20

Congrehoy Peak, summit

(8,040 ft.)

15 38

86 55 33

Cape Three Points, N.W.

extreme

15 57 45

88 39 24

Gulf of Dulce, Isabel* ....

15 24 20

89 10 17

7 10

Glovers Reef, S.W. Kay..

16 42 20

87 51 24

6 50

„ N.E. extr. . .

16 55

87 44 13

Half-moon Kay, lighthouse

17 12 12

87 32 48

Kay Bokel, centre

17 8 50

87 56 24

Mauger Kay, N.W. end . .

17 36 15

87 47 3

English Kay, flagstaff* . .

17 19 30

88 3 54

Belize, Fort George

17 29 20

88 11 53

North Standing Creek, ent

16 57 40

88 14 21

Cockscomb Mountain, sum-

mit (4,000 ft.)

16 43 10

88 38 13

* These positions may be considere

d as stan

dard points.

sr. a. o.

POSITIONS OF PLACES.

THE COASTS OF HONDURAS, ETC.— Continued.

LAT. N.

Sittee Point, Kay

Placentia Point, Huts on pt
St. George's Kay, centre . .

Yucatan and Gulf of
Mexico.

Chinchorro Bank, N. Kay,

N. end

Ascension Bay, Allen Pt.*
Cape Catoche, N.E. extr.

Lagartos, village

Silan, village

Sisal, Fort*

Madagascar Reef, centre . .
Alacran Reef, Perez Kay. .
Kay Arenas, N.W. Kay . .
Bajo Nuevo Reef, centre . .
Triangles, W. reef, Kay at

S.W. end

„ East reef, beacon
Obispo Shoals, Northern

shoal, spot of 16 ft

Areas Kays, Western Kay
Placer Nuevo or New Bank,

centre

Campeche, Fort San Jose

Lerma, church*

Alvarado, bar

Vera Cruz, San Juan de

Ulda, light-tower I

Lobos Kay, centre

Rio Grande, entrance ..I

16 47 45

16 30 54

17 33 15

18 45

19 45 15
21 36

21
21 23
21 10

21 26 30

22 23 36
22 7 10
21 50

20 58
20 54 54

20 29
20 12 35

20 32
19 51 36
19 48 24

18 45

19 11 54

21 26
25 57 22

LONG. \V.

VAR.
EAST,

1878 9.

AUTHORITIES.

88 15 48
88 22 40
88 5 18

87 19 31
87 28 34
4 -M

83 11
88 55

90
90 19

3 11

89 42 19

91 24 54

92 5

92 19 30
92 13 21

92 14
91 59 38

91 53

90 31 24
90 36 45
95 43

D7
97

Owen.

6 35

6 15

6 50

7 20

8 10
8 40

Lawranee.

United States' Coast Survey.

* These positions may be considered as standard points.

NOTES.

General. — In this section the following may be considered as well-ascertained positions
and standard points, viz. : — Demerara Lighthouse; Great Corn Island; Old Providence;
Isabel, in the Gulf of Dulce ; English Kay; Allen Point, Ascension Bay; Sisal Fort;
Lerma Church. In the Tables they are each marked with a star, thus (*).

1. Cayenne. — The longitude in the Table is inferred from Maranham ; the difference of
longitude between them having been ascertained by MM. Boutin and Lartigue.

2. Coast between the Marowyne and Bram's" Point. — To Lieut. B. Greevelink, late
of the Netherland's Navy, the public is indebted for a valuable description of the coasts of
Guayana and its several ports.

3. From the Bocas de Dragos as far westward as Porto Bello. the longitudes are cor-
rected from the Spanish charts by Don Joaquin Francisco Fidalgo, and must be considered
as an approximation only; with the exception of Pena Point, Cartagena, and Caledonia
Harbour, which are by Lieut. Lawrence and Mr. Parsons.

Tribune Shoal. — 4. Broken water was also reported by Captain "VVilloughby, in 1823,
N.N. \V. 55 miles from Cape Aguja, in lat. 12° 12' N., long. 74° 32' W., and reported again
by the Tribune, in 1827. in lat. 12" 11' N., long. 74 5 26' W. Nothing could be seen of it
by H.M.S. Blanche, in 1878.

SECTION II.

LIGHTHOUSES,

AND THEIR ILLUMINATION.

The Lighthouse Systems at present in operation on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean are well
worthy of far greater attention than they generally receive, hoth for the regularity and perfection
of their arrangements, and for the beautiful adaptations of science which they exhibit. A few
remarks on their nature will, therefore, be an appropriate introduction to the lists and descrip.
tions of the lights which follow.

It is ot the utmost importance to the sailor, that one light should be readily and clearly dis-
tinguished from another ; the melancholy effects of mistakes on this point are too familiar.
Every means, therefore, of so distinguishing a light, should be made use of; and one point in
furtherance of this, is the system employed in the illumination of the Lighthouses, between the
various methods of which it will be seen that there are some well-marked or minor features,
which serve to give a distinctive character to lights which may have, otherwise, the same general
appearance. .

Lighthouses consist of two classes ; those built on the land, which do not differ, in the principles
of their construction, from ordinary buildings ; and those erected on isolated rocks, such as the
Eddystone, and those on the Wolf Rock and Heaux de Brehat, which have demanded the mosfc
refined judgment and skill to combat with the enormous force of the waves. Another description
of erection consists of iron piles, either secured to the rocks or on large screws forced into the
sand, which support the Lighthouse. An example will be found in the Maplin Lighthouse, in
the mouth of the Thames.

Lightvessels, employed where buildings have been hitherto impracticable, are of peculiar con-
struction, and generally painted red, with their name, in conspicuous white letters, on their
sides, and carry at their mast-heads one or more skeleton balls, as described, which, in case of
the vessels driving, are lowered, in indication of such an occurrence. During fogs or snow
storms, from most of these vessels is sounded, at regular intervals, a Chinese gong, the very
peculiar and powerful sound emitted by which is not to be mistaken for anything else. Light-
ships are very strongly moored, either with a s-'ngle mushroom anchor, or with a span and
bridle.

The lamps used for the illumination of Lighthouses are upon the principle invented by Argand,
about 1780. The smallest of them consists of a single cylindrical wick, of nearly an inch in
diameter, and the air is made to ascend through the tube to the centre of the flame, by means of
a glass chimney placed around it, and does not differ from that in universal use. This single

92 LIGHTHOUSES AND THEIR ILLUMINATION.

wic k lamp is used for the parobolic reflectors ; and there are usually several of them in a Light-
house Where a single and more powerful light is required, a lamp of more complicated con-
struction, though of the same principle, is employed. Both with gas burners, and also with the
burners used for mineral or colza oil, the power of the flame can be increased when the weather is
not clear. In Mr. Douglass's " single and double-power burner" six wicks are used: they are
concentric, the outer one bn'ng 5 inches in diameter, or about 15 inches in circumference.
The three inner wicks are only for use when increased power in necessary. In the gas burners
the increase of power is gained by using additional jets of gas. The colza oil is ex-pressed from
the seed of a species of rape or wild cabbage. Formerly the best sperm oil was used in the
English lights till 1852.

It seems probable that gas may, at some early day, be more generally used in Lighthouses.
This que.stion is, in some degree, dependant on another— the substitution of mineral oil for colza
oil. It may be generally stated as the result of the lengthened experiments which have been
made at the Trinity House with paraffin as an illuminant for lighthouses. 1. The cost of light is
72.7 per cent, less when produced by the Argand or single- wick lamp, and 60.5 per cent, less when
produced in the fiist-order or four- wick lamp, than colza oil. 2. The lamps burning paraffin will
give a light of more uniform illuminating power throughout the night, without trimming, than
the lamps burning the colza oil. 3. The lamps burning paraffin are more readily ignited ; they
burn with greater certainty, and require less attention than lamps burning colza oil. 4. The
lamps burning paraffin may be arranged for increasing the power of the light when the state of
the weather requires it, as is now done with the electric light and coal-gas. 5. Paraffin can be
stored ani used at lighthouses with safety, provided that ordinary care is used. 6. That light for
light with a first-order lamp, the cost of the paraffin was about one-half that of the colza light.
7. Light for light with the fourth-order lamp, the cost of paraffin was about one-fourth that of
colza.

Gas possesses several advantages over the oil flame in its manageability, and the ready way in
which its power can be increasi d or diminished. It may also be so economised, that the appear-
ance of a revolving light can be obtained by merely turning on and shutting off the gas at stated
intervals, thus greatly economising the expenditure of the flame. The power of the flame from
ordinary gas will not compare favourably with that from the oil lamp ; but improvements are
being made in the burners.

The Electric Light is the most wonderful of all the means now employed in Lighthouses,
whether it is viewed as the result of the most exalted science, or of the consummate skill which
has utilised this mysterious agent. Naturally, this very complicated question resolves itself
into two distinct portions — the means employed to produce the power, and the apparatus for
utilizing it.

It is to the talent and assiduity of Mr. T. H. Holmes that the solution of the difficult problem
of maintaining the light steady is owing, and he makes use of Twa^w^o-electricity as the agent for
producing the light.

It would be exceedingly difficult to explain verbally the admirable machine which is now used.
Briefly it is this, a series of three or more concentric rings of very powerful magnets are arranged
on a frame, 9 or 10 feet in diameter. Between tbe3e rings of magnets a corresponding series of
electro-magnets, which are formed of soft iron cores, around which the copper wire helices are
wound, are made to revolve, being set in motion by a steam-engine. The brass wheels, carrying
these bobbins or helices, make 110 revolutions per minute, and at every revolution about 85 lbs.
of soft iron are magnetised, by each of the electro-magnets taking up a portion of the power from
each of the permanent magnets as it passes close-to, but, of course, without touching them. The
magnetic state of the soft iron is changed 4,840 times in each minute. The immense amount of
magneto- electricity thus evolved is collected at the axis of the apparatus, and thence passes to
the regulator or lamp in the focus of the Lighthouse apparatus.

The magnetic current passes from the machine, thus obscurely described, to the lamp, which
holds two carbon electrodes, or pencils, placed perpendicularly one over the other, and between
the points of which the light appears. These carbon points are formed of graphite, the substance
which is found lining -worn-out gas retorts, and consist of nearly pure carbon; they are
about -A-th of an inch in diameter.

To produce a constant electric light, it is requisite that the carbon points should be maintained
separated to a distance proportional to the strength of the current. The intense heat gencratod

LIGHTHOUSES AND THEIK ILLUMINATION. 93

by the electric current liquefies a portion of the carbon, and the current passes from one carbon to
another, not through empty space, but through the carbon thus liquefied.

It is in the space between the two carbon points that the light appears, and although they are
only vfe-th of an inch apart, yet in this minute space this splendid effulgence (for it cannot be
called a flame) is of sufficient power to entirely eclipse all other artificial lights.

The effect of a lamp in issuing rays, is to fill a sphere whose diameter is double that of the
distance to which such a light can be seen. But as only these rays are serviceable which are
visible in a horizontal, or nearly horizontal direction, those which pass beyond these limits must
be turned into it. To do this we have two alternatives — one to reflect the light by polished
mirrors, the other to refract it by glass lenses placed before the light.

"When polished silver reflectors are used behind the light, it is called the Catroptric system, and
is that most generally in use in England.

Where glass lenses are used before or around the light, it is called the Dioptric system, and is
that generally in use in France. Hence these two systems are frequently known by the names
of the respective countries.

The Catoptric or reflecting system is dependent upon the peculiar properties of the parabolic
curve, to which the reflectors are formed. The parabola is a conic section which has within it a
point called the focus (which is the situation of the flame in the reflector), and if a line be drawn
from the focus to any point on the parabolic curve, another line drawn from that point parallel to
the axis of the parabola will form an equal angle on eithir side of it. Now the reflector, com-
posed of copper lined with silver, is formed by the section of the revolution of a parabola ; and
if a part of light from the focus be reflected from its polished surface, it is thrown off, or reflected
in a direction perfectly parallel to its axis. The point of light in the focus thus sends forth a
cylinder of light, whose diameter is equal to the double ordinate or opening, or mouth of the
reflector. Supposing, then, that we wished to produce a complete circle of light all around the
horizon, it is evident that it could not be done with any number of such instruments ; there
would be dark intervals between the direction of their axes, if they were placed in a circle. But
here another circumstance occurs. The flame used is not a point of light, but is nearly an inch
in diameter, and this subtends an angle at the vortex (or bottom of the reflector) of 14° 22', in
the reflectors ordinarily used in the Trinity House lights, which are 21 inches in diameter and
4 inches in focal length. Therefore, combined with other circumstances, about 15° or 17° of
divergence may be considered effective, and it would take from 25 to 33 of such reflectors of
make a complete circle of light.

The brilliancy of the ray from this reflector is considerably stronger in the direction of the
axis, that is, when viewed directly in front, than it is for some distance on either side of that
direction ; and at great distances, infixed lights, when you are in the direction between the axes
of the adjoining reflectors, the light is frequently glimmering and feeble, but a small change in
the position of the ship brings you again into the brighter beam of the reflector, one of which,
it will be understood, is only in sight at a time. This is an important observation to the sailor,
in distinguishing one fixed light from another, of different descriptions of apparatus.

When a revolving light is required, a number of these reflectors is fixed to the sides of a
triangular or quadrangular iron frame, and the whole caused to revolve in regular periods, by
means of clockwork. The reflectors on each side of the revolving frame, from four to eight in
number, are thus successively directed to every point of the horizon ; and the combined result
of their rays forms a flash of greater or less duration, according to the rapidity of their revo-
lution.

From the amount of divergence the period during which such a light will remain visible is
from 12 to 15 seconds, the light gradually increasing, and as gradually diminishing. And as the
action of the reflector is only in the direction to which it is placed, the intervals between the
flashes will be quite dark, for a shorter or longer period, according to the distance from which it
is viewed, whether it is beyond that to which the unassisted flame will reach.

The light from a revolving catoptric or reflecting system is much brighter than from a fixed
light on either principle, as you have the combined effect of several reflectors, each of which
gives an equal amount of light, it is calculated, to 350 to 450 such lights, without aDy re-
flectors.

In floating lightvessels the light is always shown from parabolic reflectors. These are smaller
than those used in Lighthouses, being 12 inches in diameter. For fixed lights, eight lamps and
reflectors, each suspended on gimbals, or on ball and socket-joints, so that they always maintain

94 LIGHTHOUSES AND THEIR ILLUMINATION.

their perpendicularity. Revolving lights for floating lightvessels have four lamps, and similar
reflectors, and the lantern revolves around the mast.

An apparatus for producing an intermitting light, of the only appearance to which such a term
is applicable, is in use in three of the Scottish Lighthouses, the invention of Mr. Robert
Stevenson. It is an arrangement by means of which the light is suddenly obscured by an
eclipser, and as suddenly appears again at its full brilliancy.

There is yet another sort of reflector in use in France for harbour lights, called the Bordier
Marcet apparatus, from its inventor, or the sideral lamp. It is used with a single lamp, and
consists of a circular reflector, about 13J inches in diameter, formed by the revolution of a
parabola around its focus in a horizontal plane ; the centre of this is taken out to admit the lamp,
which thus has all around it, above and below, a reflecting surface, which sends its upward and
downward rays in a horizontal direction.

The lights in the ensuing list, which are upon the catoptric or reflecting system, are distin-
guished by this mark • . Their magnitude, or order, is not indicated, as only one reflector is
usually visible at a time ; the class of the light is to be inferred from its importance.

The first notice we have of the use of parabolic reflectors is given by Mr. William Hutchinson,
in his "Practical Seamanship," published in 1777, as having been used in the Liverpool Light-
houses, erected in the year 1763. The formula for the parabolic curve now used was given by
Captain Joseph Huddart.

The Dioptric or lenticular system is next to be considered, and depends for its action on the
refracting properties of glass. In this the apparatus is placed before the flame, and derives its
name, dioptric, from a Greek word, signifying anything looked through ; or lenticular, from its
being composed of lenses. Its principle may be thus explained : —

When a ray of light passes out of a rarer into a denser medium, as from air into gla? s or water,
or vice versa, it is refracted, or bent, out of its original direction. Of course, this new direction is
dependent upon the direction in which it enters into, or emerges from, this second medium. This
is familiarly explained in the burning glass, in which it will be seen that a cylinder of parallel
rays of the sun entering one side of the lens, are so deflected, that upon their issuing from it on
the other, they form a cone of rays whose apex is at a certain distance dependent on the curved
side or sides of the lens, called the focal distance.

In the application of plano-convex lenses of 3 feet focus, to the controlling of two-fifths of the
entire sphere of light, they must be 2 feet 6 inches in diameter ; and, if constructed of the usual
form of smaller lenses, would be several inches in thickness in the middle. This would occasion
serious inconveniences ; a large portion of the light would be absorbed in its passage.

To obviate these difficulties (for a burning glass), it occurred to Sir David Brewster, in 1811,
and to M. Augustin Fresnel, in 1819, that the same optical effects might be preserved if a large
portion of the solid part of the lens were removed ; because the refractive properties of the lens
depend upon the relative direction of its surfaces. They therefore proposed the lens now in use
for Lighthouse purposes. It is called the polyzonal or annular lens, because it consists of a series
of zones or rings, instead of being of one uniform curve or surface. It is a plano-convex lens,
having the curved surface cut into rings, which are brought into one plane, and the relative
direction of the outer curved surface to the inner flat one is preserved in the separate rings ot
which the lens is built. There is one great advantage in this method, that the lens may be built
to any size, and yet not be thicker, and may be made square, so as to economise every portion oi
light which may be thrown on the zones of the breadth of their diameter. The dioptric system
was perfected by the late M. Augustin Fresnel, the Director of the French lights, and is some-
times called by his name.

From a revolving light of the first order, or largest size, ekht of these lenses are formed into an
octangular belt of 6 feet 0.5 inch in diameter, having the flame of the lamp in their common
focus. Therefore, as the acl ion of these lenses is the reverse of that of the burning glass, by
sending forth parallel rays of light, which enter the lens in the form of a cone from the focus
within ; this part of the apparatus will send forth eight beams of light in the direction of their
axes or the lines between the lamp and their centres ; between these directions the light will not
be seen. The apparatus being made to revolve— say, in eight minutes— by means of machinery
it follows that a bright beam, gradually increasing in intensity, and then diminishing, will be
presented to the eye each time that one of these lenses passes before it, that is, once every
minute.

LIGHTHOUSES AND THEIR ILLUMINATION, 95

The duration of these flashes is dependent on the power of divergence in the lens. If the
light were a mathematical point, as supposed in the case of the rtflector, the flash would last hut
a single instant; hut the breadth of the flame heing 3 - 39 inches, this, at the focal distance of 3
feet, subtends an angle of L° 9', and consequently the duration of the flash is while this angle is
passing, or about seven seconds. These separate lenses form the principal or most powerful
portion of a revolving dioptric light.

For a fixed light on the dioptric principle, another adaptation of it is used, As the object is
now only to bend those rays, which would pass upwards or downwards into a horizontal direction,
and not to interfere with the direction of those which pass laterally, the central portion of the
apparatus is formed into a continuous belt, or rather series of belts, whose section is identical
with that of the polyzonol lens. It will be evident that such an arrangement distributes the
light evenly all round the direction in which it is placed, and thus affords a means of distinction
for the sailor, to discriminate such a fixed light from one on the catoptric or reflecting principle,
when the light is not quite even all round, but is strongest when immediately in front of the
reflector.

The central portions of the apparatus which we have been describing economise about two-
fifths of the whole rays issuing from the central lamp, but does not affect those which pass above
or below their action, and which would therefore be lost for useful effect without some additional
controlling apparatus. This is of two kinds ; either reflecting, heing formed of numerous silvered
glass mirrors, or else of totally reflecting and refracting glass prisms.

In the early period of the introduction of the dioptric system, the more beautiful adaptation of
science was alone used for the smaller apparatus, in the form of cata-dioplric or totally reflecting
prismatic glass zones, above and below the principal lenses. It has been introduced into the
largest apparatus, upon the suggestion of Mr. Alan Stevenson, the engineer of the Scottish
•Lighthouses, and has most materially increased the efficiency of the whole system.

When a ray of light is thrown on a glass surface at a more acute angle than 41° 49', iustead of
passing out again, it is totally reflected from that point, and it is of no importance whether it is
within the body of the glass or on its external surface. The prismatic zones are so arranged in
the form of a cupola over the flame, that the upper and curved surfaces of each of them shall be
at such an angle to the focal flame, that the rays issuing from it shall, after being refracted from
the under side, be received upon the inner surface of the upper side, be again r'fracted, and issue
from the outer side in a perfectly horizontal direction.

In a revolving lenticular light, therefore, the upper and lower portions the apparatus,
affording a constant and steady light, are visible in the intervals between the flashes from the
central lenses, and this subordinate light will serve to fix the position of a light during such in-
terval, if it is seen within the distance of 8 or 10 miles. This distinguishes a lenticular revolving
light most clearly from one on the catoptric principle, or from parabolic reflectors, the intervals
between the flashes of which are generally total beyond the distance of 2, 3, or 4 miles.

There is a more complicated system in use for dioptric revolving lights, which, although there
is no example of them in the English Channel, as they are in use in the two finest Lighthouses
in the world, the Cordouan, at the mouth of the Gironde, and the new Skerryvore, off the "West
Coast of Scotland, we will here describe. Instead of the bands of parabolic mirrors, or cata-
dioptric zones, above the central and principal lenses, the apparatus is dia-catoptric, heing com-
posed of eight smaller lenses of 19| inches of focal distance, inclining inwards towards the flame,
and forming an octagonal frustrum of a cone of 50° inclination. These are, or were, surmounted
by plane mirrors, placed so as to reflect horizontally the beams transferred by these lenses. The
whole of the apparatus is caused to revolve in eight minutes. Within 8 miles a constant steady
light is seen, and in each minute a small and a large flash are visible.

Among the French system of lights is an apparatus which shows a fixed light, varied by a
bright flash at regular internals. The apparatus consists of the ordinary fixed dioptric light
with the refracting belt, which is composed of horizontal cylindrical elements. Eound this central
belt one or more panels of vertically cylindrical elements is made to revolve. This revolving
panel causes the horizontally divergent beams to be parallelized in azimuth, and thus the appear-
ance of the light from the entire apparatus will be a fixed light, then a short eclipse caused by
the deflection of the section of light by the revolving panel, then the bright flash from the panel,
then another short eclipse, and then the steady light again. The same appearance is also more
effectually produced by constructing the apparatus of alternate segments of horizontal cylindrical

96 LTGIITIIOUSES AND THEIR ILLUMINATION.

elements and polyzonal lenses. Sometimes the flash is of a red colour, the revolving panel being
st:iined for that purpose, as in the case of the light on Chausey, and several others.

The only means of distinguishing one light from another is that of causing it to revolve or
flash at different intervsls, as is almost exclusively used in the French lights, or hy means of
colour, as is more in use in our own harbour and tide lights. The colour which alone seems
adapted for this purpose is red, and this is applied to dioptric lamps by a cylinder of ruby-coloured
glass, stained with a preparation of gold, placed around the lamp ; or if to the ordinary reflector,
a pane of this coloured glass is placed before the reflector. The use of colour is objectionable on
the score of the greatly diminished power of such a light. In a revolving light, and showing
alternate bright and red flashes, these last will not be visible so far off as the bright flashes, if
the powers of the flame are equal. In the Wolf Rock and Flamborough Head lights, the red
and bright flashes are equalised by making the quantity of light for the red beam in proportion
to the bright ray, as 5,275 is to 2,250, or as 21 to 9 nearly.

There was some waste of light in both the systems. In the year 1849, Mr. Thomas Stevenson,
son of Robert, brother of Alan Stevenson, proposed some arrangements which obviate this loss,
upon what is termed the holophotal system*

Proceeding upon the assumption that the whole of the emitted rays from the central lamp may
be made to assume the horizontal direction, Mr. Thomas Stevenson has made several most ex-
cellent arrangements, which, however, we cannot fully describe here. The simplest form is that
of an hemispherical metallic reflector, in the focus of which is placed the lamp ; before the lamp
is a refracting polyzonal lens, of such a section that the whole of the direct rays from the lamp,
and the reflected rays from the posterior reflector, are parallelized on their emergence.

Fresnel's revolving light system, as at work in the Skerryvore and the Cordouan, with its
beautiful but complicated upper system, is rendered holophotal by a very simple means. The
zones above and below the main lenses act in the same way as the central lens ; that is, these
zones, being made horizontal, are made of segments of circles concentric with the centre of the
great lens beneath and above them ; and by the whole apparatus revolving, nearly the whole of
the light is projected horizontally in the eight directions of the octagonal prism ; and, therefore,
when each face is presented to any point, the whole of it is luminous.

The lantern or light-room was greatly improved by Mr. Alan Stevenson, at the Skerryvore,
by the introduction of the diagonal framework of the lantern. The glass was made in triangular
panes, fixed in gun-metal framework, which, although necessarily massive, by crossing the light
diagonally, did not obscure the whole of the perpendiculor beam, as was the case with the older
light-rooms. This drawback has been reduced to a minimum by Mr. James N. Douglass, in hia
system, which consists of a series of lozenge-shaped panes, supported by steel frames, bent to
the curvature of the lantern, and thus pres> nting only the thinnest possible edge towards any
point of the horizon. These spiral bands hold the pane of glass, which is also bent to the curve
of the light-room, and accurately ground to the size of the frame; and the lantern is thus built
up of separate elements, which unite to form a cylinder of the strongest character, and the frame-
work of which, from a short distance, will be entirely invisible when seen in front.

Dioptric lights are divided into four, or rather six orders, according to their magnitude : —

1. The Jlrst order apparatus is 6 feet 0.5 inch in diameter, and is illuminated by a lamp with
four wicks, of 3-39 inches, 2*52 inches, 1*69 inches, and - 83 inch in diameter, respectively. It is
indicated in the following list by the figure 1.

2. The second order apparatus is 4 feet 7" 13 inches in diameter, and is illuminated by a lamp
with three wicks, of 2 - 6 inches, 1*8 inches, and "9 inch in diameter, respectively, and is indicated
by the figure 2.

3. The third order is sub-divided into two sizes, larger and smaller. The first apparatus
(grand modele) is 3 feet 3-38 inches in diameter; and the second (petit modele) 1 foot 7 69 inches
in diameter. They are each illuminated by a lamp with two wicks, the larger of 1*61 and -807
inches in diameter, respectively, and the smaller of T20 and - 589 inches in diameter. They are
shown in the list by the figure 3. All the lights of this order in the English Channel are of the
larger size.

* "Holophotal" from two Greek words, signifying " whole light.'

LIGHTHOUSES AND THEIR ILLUMINATION. 9",

4. The fourth order, or harbour light, is also subdivided into two sizes, the larger (grand
moiele) 1 foot 277 inches in diameter, the smaller (petit modele) 11-81 inches in diameter. They
are illuminated by a single cylindrical wicked lamp of -94 inch or -85 inch in diameter. As
the sub-division of this order is unnecessary to the sailer, it is distinguished in the list by the
figure 4.

In addition to the magnitude of the apparatus, the description of it will also serve usefully to
distinguish one light from another. Therefore, the different systems employed, as described in
the foregoing paragraphs, are designated by the letters a, b, c, attached to the figures indicating
their sizes, as follows: —

a. & fixed dioptric light apparatus, having a dioptric belt and cata-dioptric prismatic zones.
This is the most perfect system for fixed light apparatus.

b. A revolving light apparatus, consisting of polyzonal lenses, surmounted by the cata-dioptric
prisms. The appearance of this light, beyond the distance of 8 or 10 miles, according to the size
of the apparatus, is that of a brilliant flash of 7 to 9 seconds' duration. Within that distance the
fainter light between the flashes is visible.

c. A fixed light, varied by flashes. Its appearance, which distinguishes it from any oth«r, upon
close attention, is, 1st, the intensity and duration of the fixed light ; and, 2nd, by the short
duration of the eclipse which precedes and follows each brighter flash.

The range (portee) of the different lights, as given in the table, represents this element very
incompletely, inasmuch as the distance there given is dependent on the elevation of the light, and
consequent distance of the horizon. The flashes of the principal revolving dioptric lights may
be, and have been, seen 50 or 50 miles off, when they are above the horizon, and it may be taken
for granted that, should the atmosphere be favourable, any of the larger lights may be seen from
whatever distance they may be sought for from the greatest attainable elevation.

The height of the lights above the sea-level is given in the tables from the level of high water
at spring tides, and consequently in their minimum height. This will cause the distance to which
they are visible to be increased (with the exception of floating lights) when it is low water, by an
amount equivalent to the depression of the sea surface at that period.

Atmospheric changes, of course, have the most important effect on the range, visibility, and
appearance of lights. In a very clear transparent atmosphere they will have nearly a white
appearance ; during foggy weather, particularly the dry haze sometimes predominant on sound-
ings, they will have more or less of a yellow or reddish tinge.

Lights may be divided into three classes according to their mutual importance: — 1. Coast
lights, those which serve for the mariner to recognise the land on approaching it, and are thus of
the greatest power ; they are marked in the following lists in capital letters, thus — USHANT,
LIZARD, &c.

• 2. Harbour and leading Lights. — These of less importance than the former in the general
system, are used to indicate a port or narrower channel. Some of these, though more limited in
their immediate object, may be as important as the first class. Thus the Gull Stream light- vessel,
though of limited approaches, is most useful in marking the centre of the Goodwin ; it is therefore
placed among the first class. The second class is shown in smaller letters, as— Shoreham,
Cherbourg, &c.

3. Tide lights show when the harbour has a certain depth of water, and is accessible. They are
frequently red, and, consequently, are of less power. They are marked in italics, as Ramsgate,
Boulogne, &c.

Further details are given in the New Edition of our Work, " A Description and List ol the
Lighthouses of the World," to which the reader is referred.

N. A. o. — Lights.

EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES.

NAME AND CHARACTER OF LIGHT-First Column.
The principal coast lights are given in capitals, as N. FORELAND. Secondary lights in smaller
characters, as Shoreham Harbour. Tide lights in italics, as Ramsgate. The character of the
light follows its name.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION— Second Column.

The latitudes and longitudes here given are presumed to he accurate, within less than 1', for all
the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and its Seas. In other parts of the world it may vary
somewhat more ; hut there is no great discrepancy, such as would lead to serious consequences,
by taking any one of them as a point of departure.

DESCRIPTION OF THE LIGHT, &c— Third Column.

In this, any peculiarity of the light, or period of a Tide light, is noticed ; and also the direction
of double lights. In many cases the bearing of two lights when in one will lead clear of a
danger, as the South Foreland in one, W. by N., clears South end of the Goodwin, &c.
Special directions will explain this. The limits of visibility of the lights are given by com-
pass bearings from the light, and not those from seaward.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS -Fourth Column.
In this, the signs used to indicate the sort of light apparatus in use in each case : —
• signifies a catoptric, or reflector light. — (See page 14, &c.)

la, 2, 3 b, &c, indicate dioptric, or lens lights, the figure showing the order or size, 1st,
2nd, 3rd, to 6th order.— (See page 19.)

a, a fixed lenticular light. — (See page 21.)

b, a revolving lenticular light. — (See page 25.)

c, a fixed and flashing light. — (See page 23).

These figures and letters will serve to explain the peculiarities of the Lenticular System, as in
operation therein.

HEIGHT ABOVE HIGH WATER.— Fifth Column.

This gives the height of the flame in feet above the highest tide level, consequently it is its
minimum height, and is increased by the tidal range of the place. The height of the
Lighthouse itself, from base to summit, is given sometimes in the third column.

VISIBLE IN MILES— Sixth Column.

This gives the minimum distance to which the light can be seen, in clear weather, from a height
of 10 feet above the sea level. But in the case of the principal lights this but imperfectly
represents their range, as they could be seen at any distance attainable by increased elevation.
In the use of coloured lights this range is given according to their presumed power.

YEAR ESTABLISHED— Seventh Column.
The date of the first exhibition of the light is usually given; but its character, &c, may have
been frequently changed in the interval.

LIGHTHOUSES.

1881.

ENGLAND.

Thames Month

i Lat. N.
1 Long. E.
Name and Character of Light.

■ o '

Description, &c.
(Bearings hy compass from the light.)

O X3

3 £

brX

.a .

.3 S

3.3

EIVER THAMES

Northfleet

Hope Point Fort

Mucking Flat

One occulting light,
\ min.

Chapman Head

One occulting light,
\ min.

Southend Pier-head
Sheerness

Bright light in fairway of Northfleet Hope
and Gravesend Reach ; red over anchorage
in Gravesend Keach and Broadness

Queenborough

Whitstable

NORE LIGHTVESSEL
One br. rev. It. | min.

Girdler Lightvessel

One br. rev. It. \ min.
Princes Channel Lt.-Ves.

One red rev. It. 20 sees.
Tongue Lightvessel

Upper bright, lower red,
fixed b'ghts
Margate Pier

One red fixed light
Mouse Lightvessel

One green rev. It. 20 s.

Maplin Pile Lighthouse
One red fixed li^ht

Swin Middle Lightvessel
One br. rev. It. \ min.

Gunfleet Pile Lighthouse
One red rev. It. \ min.

A single lamp for colliers.

5i 45-

On piles; bright East of N.E. by E.,red toW. ;
also red ray toward Blyth buoy to S. k E ,
and red North of E.S.E. to clear Scars and
Chapman Head. Lt. eclipsed 3 sees, in J min.

On piles. Bright in fairway channel, red over
Leigh Middle to N. of S.E. by E. J E. Lt.
eclipsed for 3 sees, twice in every ^ minute

Bed fixed light

Bed s::is lt. on N.W. face of fort on Garrison
Point. Not vis. S. of N.N.W. bearing.

1. Two red leading lights on pier

2. A bright It., vis. through 45°, is shown from
beacon on Queenborough Spit, in 6 ft. water,
HO yds S.W. from Spit buoy

Bright fixed light on tall chimney

In 3| fathoms at East end of the Nore Sand.

In 3} fathoms W. Girdler Sand at W. entrance
of Princes Channel.

In 3.1 fms. N. side of channel, betw. Girdler &
Tongue lightvessels.

In 10 fms. at East Tongue Sand ; one red ball.
Lts. at unequal heights.

Column at W. end of Pier; also a small green
light on Jarvis Jetty

In 4 fms., at W. end of Sand.

Painted red ; lt. not vis. over the sand; a br.
ray to S. § W. betw. Girdler Lt. & Shivering
Sand buoy. Br. lt. shown 13 ft. below main
lt. to S.E. by E. | E. over Spit buoy.

In o£ fathoms at West end of Sand.

On S.E. side of Sand ; keep J mile off, and do
not pass to North.

40 | 11

40 I 11

50 | 5

56 j 9
38 | 10

38 | 10

38 I 10
14 I 4

85 | 10

38 | 10

36 | 10

38 | 10
41 | 10

1359

1S52
1849

1849

1840
1859

1876
1876

1850
1732

1848
1S56
1848

1829
1838

183S

1837

1850

cto J ? V g ^^ be longin{rto the , Tnmty House ' and those of Ireland, show a bright riding lt. on the fore,
stay, at a height of 6 ft. above the rail, to show the direction in which they are riding. Should the vessel drive
from her proper position, she will only show a fix. red lt. at each end of tne vessel, and a red flai e ev. J of an hour.
thpiwp V nn S ™ h • P w. to , sh< ?T k Wrecks ' and painted green, will show 3 bright Its. or 3 balls, two vertically on
the side on which they should be passed, and one on the other.

ENGLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

South-East Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. X.
Long. E.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light J

C 3

.2 8

S £■

ft;

33 ^
« o

■6

Sunk Lightvessel

One rev. light, 45 sees.

Kentish Knock Lt.-Vessel
One br. rev. It. 1 min.

GALLOPER LIGHT-VES.
Two bright fixed lights

NORTH FORELAND
One occulting br. or
red It., ^ min.

Ramsgate, Tide Lights

1. Red or »-reen light on
West pier

2. Green It. on W. cliff

3. Green It. on E. cliff

4. Sparkling It. 10 sees.,
on East pier

5' 49 6
1 31.1

41.

5'
1

45-

56.

22.5
26.8

la I li

19.7
2 5-4

GOODWIN LT.-VESSEL | 51 19 4

One br. rev. It. 1 min.

EAST GOOWIN LT.-V.

One green rev. It. 15 s.

GULL STREAM LT.-VES.
One br. rev. It., 20 sees.

S. SAND HEAD LT.-VES.

One bright fixed light

Deal Iron Pier
SOUTH FORELAND

Two ELECT L:IC .FIX. LTS.

DOVER
Admiralty Pier

Fix. & 11. br. It. 7| s.

Dover Harbour
One green light
Red Tide Lights

Folkestone Tide Lights

1. Red and bright Its.

2. Green light

VARNE LIGHTVESSEL
One red rev. It. 20 sees.

DUNGENESS

1. One fixed light

2. One br. flash. It. ev.
5 seca.

Eye Tide Linhts

1. Two bright fixed Its.

2. Two red fixed lights.

3. One green fixed light

1 35-5

36.4

16.5

3°-

9.2
28.2

5»

R.4

22.4

5 J

6.5

19.

4-
11.6

5<» 56- 3
1 16.7

5° 54-8
° 5«-3

.5° 57-
o 44.

In 9J fathoms ; red and bright flash alter-
nately ; half ball above ball.

Has two red balls vertically. In 11 fms., on E.
side of Sand.

In 20 fathoms, on S.W. side of Shoal ; lights
horizontal.

White tower. 85 ft. high. A strip of red It. to
E. end of Margate Sand, betw. N. | E. and
N. by W. J- W. Lt. eclipsed for 5 sees, in
every ^ minute

1. Red lt. while more than 10 ft. in entrance,
or from 2fli. before, and 3|h. after high
water ; changed to green lt. when less than
10 ft

2. Green lt. in one with W. pier lt. leads
through Old Cudd Channel

3. Green lt. in one with ditto leads through
Ramsgate Channel

4. Visible 5 sees., invisible 5 sees

Off N. end of the Goodwin Sands, in 10 fms.
Lt. shows 3 flashes in quick succession, and
is obscuied for 36 sees, in ev. min. Three
masts & balls by day.

About 1J mile to the eastward of the Goodwin
Sands, in 30 fathoms. Half diamond over
diamond at mast-head.

On the West side of the Goodwin Sands, in 8
fathoms.

Off the South end of the Good .in Sands, in 14

fathoms. 1

Red light on pier head I

In one W. by N.. 1,347 ft. apart ; in one. clear | 3 a I
S. of Goodwin. High lt. cut off on a S.W. •>
by S. bearing. Magneto-electric apparatus '

Red tower, 30 ft. high, on end of Admiralty
Pier.

• I 37 I 10 I 1S02

O I 37 I 10 I 1840

O I 36 I 10 I 1803

19 I 1636

4a I 38 I 7

1793
1S76

I 1874
36 I 10 I 1809
34 I 10 I 1832

One red lt. on N. pier while 7 ft. ; one red lt.
on S. pier while 7 to 10 ft. ; two red Its.
while above 10 ft. The green lt. at the W.
side of entr. to Granville Dock

1. On S. pier head a red light while 10 ft. ; a
white light below it when above 1G ft. ; when
red lt. is blinked occasionally use caution ...

2. On new pier a green light seaward, but
white inshore of danger

In 16 fathoms at West end of the shoal.

372
275

2^
23

1 ©

6c 1

44 |

•

37
33

6 I

1865

1793

1812

1842
1852

187fl

1810

1S60

O I 38 I 10 1 1SG0

1. Tower with red and white belts, 240 yds. I Ja
f.om extr. of point. Redlt. over W. anchor-

age northward of W., and red lt. over E.
anchorage W. of N.E. by E. g E |

2. New tower on extr. of pt. S.S.E. 2 E. 675 ft. j
from main lt.

1. Camber, on N. side of the entrance while 10
feet ; in one X. A W

2. Near old pier head from half flood to half ebb

3. West entrance to harbour half flood to kalf
ebb

1791
1861
1867

1875

26 ] 41 ....

16 | 3 I

• •

ENGLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

South Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

c «j

« ?

.9 .

.=r =

■SB

o £

3 g

■S-~

O-

Eastings

Otie bri«h.f, one re<f It.

R. SOVEREIGN SHOALS
One revol. br. It. 1 rnin.

Eastbourne

BEACHY HEAD

One br. rev. It., 2 rnin.

Newhaven

One br. fix. It. and Tide

Light
Green ligbt on E. pier

Brighton Chain Pier
„ Pile Pier

Shoreham Harbour

One bright fixed light,
and Tide Light
Two green lights

Long. E.

5°

52-

36.

5°
o

42.8

26.7

44.2

12.9

5°

47-

On West Hill, in one, N.N.E.. 508 ft. apart, to
direct the fishermen (Sept. 29 to Mar. 25)...

A green light on the pier

In 12 fms., S. Ely, 2 miles from R. Sovereign
buoy. Shows 3 flashes in 23 sees., at inter-
vals of 37 sees. Small ball over usual mast-
he <d ball.

A green light is shown on the pier, and two
red lights on the beach

A white lighthouse, 47 ft. high, on summit of
Belletout Cliff. From the eastward the It.
will open when bearing N.W. j W., and by
keeping it so will lead 1^ mile outside Royal
Sovereign Shoals

On West pier-head. Tide It. below main It.
red betw. 10 and 13 ft., bright betw. 13 and
15 ft., and green above 15 ft

Long. W.

50 49. I One green fixed light
O 8. J One red fixed light

5° 50.
o 15.

Worthing Pier

1 1

Littlehampton

1 50 48. I

ifl^lt. onE. pier.N. end

1 ° 3 2< 1

OWERS LIGHTVESSEL

| 5° 38,7

One revolving It, \ miu.

1 39.9 1

Nab Lightvessel

1 50 4 2 - 2 1

Two bright fixed lights

1 59-3 1

ST. CATHERINE'S PT.

1 5° 34-5 1

One brilliant fixed light

1 . 17.8 1

Warner Lightvf-sel

1 5° 43-8 1

One br. rev. It. 1 min.

1 1 4- 1

Eyde Pier

1 1

SPITHEAD

Stokes Bay Pier

Southsea Castle

50 46.6 1

One red fixed light

* 5-2

South sea

Portsmouth Dockyard

One fixed redox green

light

SOUTHAMPTON WATER

Calshot Lightvessel

5° 48. I

One br. rev. It., 1 m. |

1 16. |

Ketlev Pier

Southampton

50 53-7

1. Two fixed red Its. 1

1 24.4

2. Two fix. green Its. |

3. One fixed red It.

4. Two fix. bright Its. |

Tide It. on central pier, green while 8 to 11 ft.,
bright while 11 ft. and over, and red at high
water ; bears S. by W. % W. from upper It.
Two green Its., one on E., one on W. pier-
head. Approaching, keep high br. It. open
E. of W. pier green It., and when clear of W.
pier-head, keep near the pier until high It.
and tide light come in line

I Fixed light on the pier

Also tide Its. on S. end of pier; white 10 feet,
green 11 ft., red 12 ft., red & white 13 ft., two
white 14 ft., white & green 15 feet, till H. W.

On the S.E. end of the Owers Shoal, in 19 fms.
Flashes twice bright, once red.

Near New Grounds ; must be passed to east-
ward.

7| ....

..| 36 I 10 I 1S75

O I 285 I 22 I 1S28

9 I 28
.. 17

.. I 35

4a I 42
..23

10 I 1824
5 I ....

10 I 1825

• I 30 J 9 J 1848

O I 38 J 10 I 17S8

38 I 10 I 1812
28 8 I860

Stone tower. Lt. vis. betw. E. | S. and N.W. I l a | 134 I 17 I 1840
In 13 fms., on the eastern part of the shoal. I O I 38 I 8 1 1854
A bright fixed light | 5 a | 21 | 12 | 1852

Green It. on fort at Brading Haven ; br. lt. on
No JIan's Land Fort, with red sector of 149
over Kyde Sand Head & Sturbridge Shoal;
red lt. on Horse Sand Fat; red lt. on Spit
Sand Fort

Red lights on East and West ends

Shows red in channel between Spit Reiuge
Buoy and Horse Fort, or to betw. S. by W.
and S.W. by S. It is green to West of the
Spit Buoy betw. S.W. by S. and W. £ S. ...

Two red lights on Clarence Esplanade Pier ...

On S. end of S. railway jetty. Shows red betw.
the eastern side of the harbour and S.E. tan-
gent of Block House fort, and green west-
ward of that line. Harbour railwav works
will be cleared by keeping in greenlight ...

Off Calshot Castle, in 3£ fathoms.

J One fixed green light to be shown

1. On either side of entrance to Docks. In one
N.N.E. I E. lead up River Itchen in 15 ft....

2. On Extension Quay, N.W. side of R. Itchen

3. From Harpy lt.-ves., at entr. of Riv. Itchen

4. From iron posts on Royal Pier, 15 yards
apart. In one lead up channel

••I -I

••I •• I ..|
• I 51 I 9 I

1865
1822

..| .. |..

1S69
1878

32 I 9 J 1842
1878

1876
1877
1841

ENGLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

South Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lut. X.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

C'-S

Yarmouth

Two tixed lights

Needles Outer Rock | 50 39.7

One fixed bright, or red 1 1 35.5
light

Hurst Beach

Two bright fixed lights
(Low It. in New Fort)

Poole

Two red lights
DURLSTON HEAD

One flash, br. It., 10 sees.
(Building)

Weymouth

Two red, two green Its.

PORTLAND

High It,, br. and fixed
Low It., br. and fixed

Portland Breakwater
One fixed red light

Shambles Shoal Lt.-Ves.

One fixed light
Lyme Regis
Two red lights

Teignmouth

Two red fixed lights
Brixham

Med fixed lights
Torquay

One red, one br. fix. It.

Dartmouth

1. One fixed bright red

or green light

2. One bright fix. It.

3. One small bright, red,

or green light

START POINT

One brilliant revol. It.,
visible every minute

Plymouth Breakwater

One occulting bright or

red light, | min,
Lower bright light
V Plymouth Harbour

Two bright, two red Its.

EDDYSTONE

One brilliant fixed light

Falmouth

One rev. It. 2D sees.
Lower fixed light
One green fixed light

50 42.4
1 32.9

50 41.

1 58.

5° 3 6 -

1 57-5

5° 37-

3 2 6 -

5° 3'-3

2 27.3

Green outer It. near castle wall ; inner br. It. | ,. | 12 | ,. | 1857
In one S. 8. W. lead into the barb. Tempo-
rary It. on end of wooden pier constructing

Shows red to S. from S.E. h 8. to W. ; then I l a I 80 | 9 1 1859
bright over entrance of Needles Channel to
W.N.W. ; thence red up the channel to
N.E. by E., and then bright to N.E. by E.
I E., to clear Warden Ledge.

In one N.E. by E. £ E., 670 feet apart. Another
light in the lighthouse shows only up the
Solent

In one, N. \ W., 78fi ft. apart on North side of
entrance; also four lights inside

Lt.-ho. on Anvil Point, W. part of Head. A
flash every 10 sees. betw. about W. £ N. and
E. by N. (To be exhibited in 1881)

Two red Its. near beach, E. of railway station
Two green lights on North pier

White towers, 50 & 85 ft. high, L509 ft. apart,
near the Bill. In one, N. W. by N., lead betw.
Race and Shambhs. Low it. only shown
between N. W. by N. \ N. and E.S.E

Shown from centre of fort at end of Break-
water. Lt. obscured bv peninsula between
S.S.W. &W.byS. iS., &betw.W. byS.£ S.
& W.N.W. lt. is obscured to an observer 15
feet above the sea when within 2 miles of
Chesil Bank.

On E. end of shoal, in 15 fms.

12
11

1812
18b6

l e .

37
16

1848

149

1881

.. I

la
la

210
136

In one, N.W. \ N., 825 ft. apart. A bright
leading light in centre of channel, N. \ W....

5° 43-5
2 55-9

50 32.6 I One on a limestone tower on S.W. end of Denn;

2 20 6 the other on a house

50 24. I On the pier-head and on inner pier

3 3°- !

<o 27,5 I Bright light on inner pier, showing red to
_ _j westward ; red light on outer pier

1. On Kingswear or N. side ; br. It. towards
fairway, between S. J E. and S. by E. \ E. ;
thence red lt. to the land, and green It. to
S.W., between S. \ W. and the land, or over
Checkstone, Pin Rock, &c

2. S. % E. 110 ft. from former; in one leads up
fair-way

3. Near Coast-guard Station ; br. in fairway,
red over shoals on N. side of harbour, and
green lt. over shoal of One Gun Point to S.

A white tower, 92 ft. high. A fix. It. at 181 ft.
is also vis. from tower over Skerries Rocks
betw. N.E. I E. and E. £ N.

On W. end ; bright to seaward, betw. E. by
S. i S. and N.E. £ E., through S., and red
over the anchorage ; lt. eclipsed 3 sees, every
2 min. A lower br. lt. is seen when channel
is open

On W. Barbican pier-head is shown a br. It., a
red lt. on Millbay pier-head, & also one at Mt.
Wise landing. Fixed br. lt. on extr. of Mt.
Batten Breakwater works

An admirable stone tower, with red and white
bands, 80 ft. above foundation on the rock,
which covers 14 ft. at high water. Light
is obscured, by new lt.-ho. in course of erec-
tion, for an arc of 10° between S. by E. \ E.
and S.E. by S. § S

On St. Anthony Pt. The lower lt. to S.S.W.
ovvr Manacles Hocks, between S.S.W. I W.
and S. by W. J W.

20.3

33-2

5°
3

13-3

3«-5

5°

20.4

9-5

5°

22.

/>°

10.8

*5-9

On Frince of Wales breakwater.

1716
17S9

18G7

1851

is; 6

38 I 10 I 1859

11 I 4 1 1853
21 J .. I ....

34 I 4 I 1845

20 I 6 I 1839

15 I 5 I 1852
I 1870

I 85 I 11 j 1864
I 70 |.. I ....

la I 204 I 20 I 1S36

63 I 9 I 1844
48 .. ....

29 I 6 1 1822

2a I 72 I 13 I 1759

1835
1865

I860

ENGLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

South-West Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

LIZARD

Two electric fixed Its.

WOLF EOCK

One rev. It. 30 sees.

49 57-6
5 "-I

Two white towers, each 61 ft. high, W. bv N.
ic E. by S., 223 ft. apart, on the Lizard Cliff.
In one lead clear of the Manacles. A signal
and telegraph station on Beast Point, about
| of a mile to E.

229

232

•20
20

1751

49 5^-7 I A nome f? ran ite tower. Flashes red and white I lb I 110 I 16 I 1870
5 48.2 ] alternately.

Penzance Tide Light

A fixed red or br. lisrht,
while IS ft. inside;
green -while less

L0NGSHIPS

One fixed light

SEVEN STONES LT.-VES.

One group-flashing br.
light
SCILLY

One br. rev. It. 2 tdxcl.

BISHOP EOCK

One fixed bright light

St. Ives Tide Liqht
lbr.fix.lt. while 10 ft.

Hayle Tide Lights

1. Two fixed bright Its.

2. One fixed red light

GODEEVY

Onebr. flash. It., lOsecs.
Lower red light

Padstow

50 7-
5 3i.

On the S. pier-head. Shows red to E. by S. J
S. to 8. by W. \ W. The remainder a bright
light. By day, a ball while 15 feet

5° 4-
5 44-7

3-2
5-3

New tower, 1873. White It. seaward, from
N.N.E. k E., or \ mile W. of Bnsons Rocks,
to S. by~E., or J mile W. of Runnelstone;
red in-shore of these bearings.

On E. side of rncks, in 40 fms. ; two red balls.
Shows 3 quick flashes, followed by 36 sees,
darkness ev. min.

A white tower, 74 ft. Irish, on summit of St.
Agnes' Id. ; obscured by Ids. from X. by E.
toE.

40 52.5 I On the S.W. rock. A noble stone tower, 147

h ->f\ A f° et high- Invisible to eastward between
o 20.0 1 N £ b - E> and £ by g ^ s _

On the pier head. Lighted from Sept. 1 to
April 30. Also a red light on end of outer
wooden pier

1. On W. side of entr. ; in one S.S.W. \ W.,
297 ft. apart, while 12 It. water

2. On jetty of Lelant Quays

49 Sl-5
6 20.7

S°

12.

28.

"•/>

26.

14-

24.

On the island. Lower red It.
to N.W. over the Stones Kocks, between
N.W. and N. by W

I A red or green light on quay head

TEEVOSE HEAD I 50 32.9 | The lower light is 50 feet to seaward of the
Two bright fixed lights J 5 2.1 j u PP er

BRISTOL CHANNEL.

HAETLAND POINT

One rev. It., \ min.

LDNDY ISLAND

Upper It , rev. ev. 2 m.
Lower fixed light

Bideford
Two bright fixed lights

BULL POINT

1. One group-flashing
bright light

2. Lower red 11 . fixed

Ilfracombe

H'atchet Breakwater

Burnham, or Bridgewater
Up. It. intermit. 4 min.
Lower light fixed

5i i-4
4 3i-5

New tower, showing at intervals of 30 sees,
two bright and one red flash.

51 10.0 In one tower, 96 ft. high. Low light visible to
4 40.3 W - ljetwee n N.N.W. and W.S.W.

On Braunton Sands, N. side of entr. In one,
S.E. \ S., lead over bar. High It. vis. betw.
W.S.W. &N.N.W. ; obscured betw. N.N.W.
& E. i N., over Baggy Le.ip & Asp Rks. ; a
It. of less power vis. in harb. from E. j N.,
through S.. to W.S. W. Low It. shown only
from half flood to half ebb .'.

12,

.5'

11.9

12. 1

1. Light shows three quick flashes, followed
by 18 sees, darkness, ev. h min

2. Lt., 18 ft. lower, shows betw. W. by S. and
N.W. by W. £ W., to mark Morte Stone.

5a I 33 I 9 I 1S17

la J 110 I 16 I 1795

I 36

1841
1879

133

1680

110

lS5i'

•

1831

81 1
59 1

•?l

1840

120
93

1859

I .. I .. I .. I 1868

la I 204
la 129

20 I 1847
17 ....

lb I 120 I 16 I 1874

1820

Ol 86 I 14 I 1S20
.. 40 11 1879

lb I 154 I 20 I 1879

J One red light on Lantern Hill 1 q i 107 1 7 1

J Tide light fixed, 8 ft. flood to 10 ft. ebb ..

5« 149

2 59-9

In one, E. by S. £ S., 1,500 ft. apart. Low lt.
bright, visible westward from W. by N. to
N.W. by W. 1 W. ; a red lt. from low tower
shows over the bar from W. J N. to W. { N. ;
and a red lt. up the river from S. by W. to
S. by W. k W

I .. I 30
91
23

I 1862
1832

ENGLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

Lat. N.

o £

«a^ .S

Long. W.

Description, &c.

— rt

7M .2 £

Name and Character of Light.

o »

(Bearings by compass from the light.)

» f

o« ^2

1*3

C'o

Clevedon
Portishead

Breaksea Lightvessel

One br. rev. It. 15 sees.
One red fixed light

Avon

One occulting br., red,
or green light, \ min.

English & "Welsh Grounds
Lightvessel
One br. rev. It. 1 min.

New Passage

Eiver Severn

1. Sharpness Docks

2. Severn iilwy. Bridge

FLATHOLM

One occulting bright or
ra£ light, | rnin.

Briton Ferry

| | Red light on pier-head | .. | 27 | 5 | 1869

I Bright light on pier | •• | .. | .. | ....

Cardiff

Two red fixed lights

NASH POINT

Two bright fixed lights
One red light

Porthcawl

One br., two mf tide Its.

Swansea Harbour

1. One red fixed tide It.

2. One fixed bright It.

3. Two green or red ha.

4. Two green or red Its.

Scarweather Sand Lt.-V.
Onered rev. It., 20 sees.

Mumbles

One bright fixed light

In 8 fms. 2 miles W. by N. .$ N. from One-
fathom Bank buoy; one ball; red it. shown
from after part.

White tower, 6.5 ft., on E. side of channel. A
red sector to N.W., and a green ray from W.
to W. by S. at turn of channel. Lt. eclipsed
3 sees, in every £ minute

On S. side of Bristol Channel, in 14 fathoms
red ball,

Lights on pier and Charstone Rock for railway
steamers

1. One fix. tidelt. onN. pier-hd. of tidal basin.
1 red lt. N.E. of pier when specially required

2. Ked lt. on centre pier, nd br. lt. at land-
ward extreme of e ich wide arch

On South point. Light is red from S. £ E. to
N. by W. £ W. Lt. eclipsed 3 sees, twice in
every J minute

38 I 10 I 1S66
14 7 ....

2a | 70 | 13 | 1840

• | 38 | 10 | 1838

.. | .. | .. | 1863

.. I ..I .. 11879

la I 156

18 I 1737
.. 1839

TTsk, Newport I 51 32.

One bright or red light | 3 3.

North side of dock entrance ; red light when
passage is clear ; green light when not open

West side. Light bright in channel, red over I
Welsh Grounds anil Welsh Hook; bright
North to land; bright up river I

51 27.8 I About 23 yards apart. One on pier-head
3 9-7 I

5i =4-
3 33-

5i 37-
3 5 6 -

51 26 9
3 55-i

White towers 1,000 ft. apart, S.E. by E. 4 E.,
and N.W. by W. } W

Bed light from high lighthouse from N.W. by
W. J W. to N.W. A W

167
122

On ends of breakwater I 5a I 34

1. White tower on W. pier-head ; shown while
8 ft. water. black ball by day

2. Additional bright It. sho'.ui 430 yds. from
extreme of W. pier, visible only to' eastward

3. At South dock, vertically

4. At North dock, horizontally, red when
closed, green when open

Off W. end of Sand, in 14 fms.
above usual globe.

A half globe

. I 24

J 51 34. I A white tower. 56 ft. high, adjoining the fort I a I 114 I
I 3 5S.2 I I

10 I 1821
.. I 18G8

.. I 18G6

18 I 1831
16

11 I 18W

9 :

10 I 1862
15 I 1798

Helwick Lightvessel I 51 31. I In 16A. fathoms, off W. end of Sand.

One br. rev. lt. 1 min. | 4 24.

38 I 10 I 1846

• I 36 f 7 1 1850
.. J 55 J 9 I 1854

Llnnelly I 5 1 40. I One on Whiteford Point (on piles) from \ flood
1 wo faxed Tide lights 4104 to £ ebb ; from & Hood to i ebb on 8. end of
■ t t 1 breakwater

Burry Port I 51 41. I Near head of W. pier while 10 feet water 1 s I 351 91

One fixed tide light | 4 15. | * ' ' ' •••■

Saundersfoot, South Pier | | One red light or yellow ball while 8 feet | . . | 15 | . . | . . . .

I .. I 14 I 3 1 1S56

Tenby Tier Bead

< One red tide light for BtcflMM**, Sit.

ENGLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

Lat. X.

Hjj*

lied.

Long. W.

Description, &c.

.£•3 stS

JS o

3.3

Name and Character of Light.

o /

(Bearings by compass from the light.)

3 3*1 M ""■

.2 «

a ol -S

CALDY ISLAND

One br. or red fixed It.

MILFORD HAVEN
ST. ANN'S POINT
Two bright fixed Its.

Great Castle Head

Two bright fixed Its.
Pembroke Dockyard

Neyland Pier

SMALLS

One bright (or red) fix.
light

SOUTH BISHOP ROCK
One br. rev. It. 20 sees.

New Quay-
One bright fixed lit>ht

5* 37-9
4 4°-9

5 1 4°-9
J 10.5

5i 43-3
5 4°-i

5* i 2 -9

4 21.8

The It. is bright seaward, but is red toward Old
Castle Head, from X. 70° W. to X. 56° W.,
and is red over Woolhouse Shoal from
N. 55° E. to N. 15° E

White towers, 75 and 42 ft., 610 ft. apart, on
W. side. In one X. by W. £ \V., lead in clear
of Crow and Toes Rocks. A red ray from
high lighthouse shows over Chapel and Har-
bour Rocks to between S.E. \ S. and E. £ S.

In one, N.E. by E. § E., lead in mid-channel

Two red Its. in one lead up. High It. shown
betw. W. by X. j X. & N.W. £ X. Low It.
betw. W. by X. h X. &N.N.E. A green sector
betw. X. ! W. and X. by W. £ W. is shown
over Carr Spit

Bright light near end of landing pier ; red It.
occasionally on railway pier

Granite tower, 141 ft., red & white bands. Lt.
bright seaward, from E. k S. to S.E. £ E. The
lt. is red over Hats and Barrels Rocks.

A white tower, 36 feet high.

To southward of E. i S. the

la | 210 | 19 | 1829

192 I 19
159 17

112 I ..
76 | ..
48 | 5

la I 125 I 16

1714
18il

1870

1862
1878

1868

1778
lbol

lb | V4 | 18 | 1839

On pier-head

light is red

CARDIGAN BAY LT.-V.

One rev. red lt. 30 sees.

In 35 fathoms, at 20 miles northward from I q
Port Cardigan

9 I 1860
1870

Aberystwith

One fixed lisht

Two bright fixed lights
St. Tudwall Roads

1. One br. and red It.

2. One lower red lt.

BARDSEY ISLAND

One bright fixed light

Llanddwyn Point
Caernarvon

Harbour entrance, lt. red to S. and W., bright
to N.W. and X.E. Two Its. in a held, over
inner end of harbour, while sufficient water

1. Vis. S sees., obscured 2 sees. White to west-
ward betw. X. by E. and S. by W. Red from
S. by W. to S.E. White from S.E. to N.E.
by E. .J E., and thence red to N. by E. Ob-
scured by East Island, betw. N.E. £ E. and
E. by N. £ X

2. A ray with an arc of 15° is shown over
Carrcg-y-trai, from E. by S. to E. g N., from
window 16 ft. below main light

A square white tower, 99 ft. high.

I A red light all night

I One bright light on pier-head

I 151 | 8 | 1877

129
50

17 | 1821

5 | 1845
.. I 1858

CAERNARVON BAY LT.-
VESSEL
One rev. light 20 sees.

SOUTH STACK ROCK
One br. rev. It., 1 min.

Holyhead

1. One red flash. It. 7* s.

2. One bright fixed It.

3. One small red light

4. Red and green lights

SKERRIES

One bright fixed light
Lower red li<rht

53 25-2
4 3 6 4

In 30 fathoms, at 12? miles S.S.W. f W. rf
South Stack light-ho. Flashes bright, bright
and red. A small ball over large one.

White tower, 84 ft. During foes, a smaller br.
revol. It., 1 min., at 90 ft., is shown at 65 yds.
W. by S. of lt.-ho., between S. A W. and
X.E. |E

1. Lighthouse on new breakwater.

2. On end of wooden jetty ; old harbour

3. On old tower, to N.E.,* shown from X.E. to
X.X.E. k E. to clear Platters.

4. Bed lt. on starboard ; green lt. on port side
of inner harbour

Upper It. not visible over East Platters Rock,
from S.S.E. to S.E. .J S. Red lt. over Ethel
and Coal Rocks, from E. \ S. to E. by X. \ X.

| 3S | 10 | 1869

• I 201 I 19 | 1809

66
20

la | 117
07

13 I 1S73
.. 1864

15 ! 1803
10 1865

N. a. o. — Lights.

ENGLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

Amlwch Port I 53 25.

One bright fixed light | 4 20.

LYNUS or ELIAN POINT I 53 25.
One intermitting light | 4 17.3

Beaumaris

Menai, Trwyn-Du Point
One red fixed light

GREAT ORMES HEAD

One fixed light

Llandudno

Rhyl I

ATE POINT I 53 21.4

One br. or red fixed It. | 3 19.2

LIVERPOOL BAY.

N.Y7. LIGHTSHIP 53 30.3

Ocehr.rev.lt. ^ min. 3 31.3

On North pier ; shown only when the harbour
is practicable

[8.8

2.4

20.5

5 2 -

A white building, 36 ft. high. Light visible 8
sees. ; eclipsed 2 sees. Masked to mark Mid-
dle Mouse and Dulas Rocks

Bright light on pier

Circular building, 96 ft.

Light bright from N.W. by W. | W. to E.,red
from E. to E. | S

Green light on pier-head. Lower red It. when I
it is dangerous to come alougside

Bright light on pier-head |

On old lighthouse, with red and white bands.
It is red only within Hoyle Sand, from N.W.
to E. by S. i S.

In 13 fathoms N.W. { W. Q miles from Horse
Channel Fairway Buoy ;~a blue It. every 2
hours ; a black ball.

9 I 1817

• | 12S | 16 | 1835

I .. I .. | .. | 1865
I la | 61 | 10 | 1837

la | 213 | 24 | 1862

• | 42

..|....

.. | ....

9 | 1844

36 I 10

1814
1873

BAR LIGHTVESSEL I 53 32.2
One fixed bright It. | 3 17.2

North 9J miles from Upper Hoylakelt.-ho., & I I
N.W. by W. I W. 8j miles from Crosby It.- ' '

1873

Hoylake

Two br. fixed lights

Leasowe

One bright fixed It,
BIDSTON

One bright fixed It.
ROCK

One rev. br. It. 5 min.

North Docks Wall
One fix. red & br. It.

Birkenhead New Pier

Formby Lightvessel
One revolving red It.

Crosby Lightvessel
Three bright fix. Its.

Crosby Lighthouse
One bright fixed It.

Ribble River

One intermittent light
One bright Tide Light

lytham Harbour

Blackpool Pier

Fleetwood

Two bright fixed lights

Wyre River

One bright fixed light

2 3-7

10.7

24.8

7-5

24.

4.4

26.6

2.4

White towers, 55 and 31 ft. In one, S.W. | S., I 4 a
1,200 ft. apart, near the church I

53 31-7

3 10.8

I 53 3°-7

I 3 6 -9

I 53 3 2 -3

I 3 39

I 53 44-6

3 i-3

On the shore, between the Mersey and Dee ... I 9 I 94 I 15

A stone tower, 68 ft. high, on the hill ; masked I n I 228 I 23
toN. byE. £E ' '

A white tower, 94 ft. high. Also a fixed It., I 9 I 77 I 14
while 1 1 ft. down Rock Channel ; and another
up the Mersey, from same tower. '

Bright betw. S. by W. & N. by W. f W., red I 70 I 9

over Formby Bank E. of N. by W. J W. In
line with Rock It., bearing E. } S., indicates
turning point betw. Horse & Rock Channels

One bright fixed light | 6a |

At the elbow of Crosby and Queen's Channels, I © [ 30 f 8
in 50 ft. Hull black.

29
9

In 48 ft., off the N.E. elbow of the Burbo Bank; I «
a red ball.

1763

1763
1771
1830

1877

1834
1863

1840

1S09

Square tower, 74 ft., near the point I O I 95 I 12 | 1856

S.E. of Stanner Point; visible 3| min.; dark I 4b
5 min. Tide It. on new pier, from 2h. before
to ljh. after high water ""

81 I 12

1848

1865

53 44.2 I One fixed light, while the approach is prac- I a I

, .0 . ticable ' • l • 1

2 5 8 -5 I I

I Green light seaward ; bright to land I .. I . . I .. I

53 55-^ 1 ^ ort h an d South, 850 ft. apart; shown while j a | 90
3 0.4 I 9 "• . . j 30

13
9

53 57- 2
3 18

Pile It. -ho. on N.E. end of North Wharf bank.

1841
I 30 I 10 I 1840

ENGLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

o 5

■W^

-?M

.S 1 3

tl.S

"S <L>

■S" 3

i— o

Lime River

Two bright fixed lights
Clark Wharf Spit Lt.-Ves.

One fixed red light
Morecambe Harbour

1. One fixed bright It.

2. Red and green lights

3. Two red lights

4. One blue and red It.

Morecambe Bay Lt.-Ves.
One red revolving light

WALNEY ISLAND

One br. rev. It., 1 min.
One red fixed light
Piel Harbour

1. One fixed bright It.

2. One red and br. It.
Barrow

1 . One fixed light

2. One red light
S. One flashing It.

ST. BEES HEAD

One bright fixed light

Whitehaven

1. One rev. It. 2 min.

2. Two fixed lights

Harrington Tide Light
One fixed light

Workington Tide Lights

1. Two bright fix. Its.

2. Two green lights

Maryport

One br., one tide light
One green, one red light

Solway Lightvessel
One red fixed light

Lee Scar

One bright fixed light

Skinburness

One red fixed light

Carlisle Port Tide Light

54
3

59-

53,

53
1 3

54- 1
3i. 1

2.9

10.6

54 30-8
3 38.

54 33-2
3 35-8

54 37-
3 34-

54 39-
3 35-

54 43-
3 30-7

54 4 8 -
3 3*-

54 5i-8
3 24-7

54 52-5
3 23.

On Coekeiham Point and Plover Scar Rock,
while 8 ft. water

Also shows a bright light, while 8 ft.

1. At extremity of W. or stone pier

2. At pier heads, green to westward, red to
northward

3. One 130 yds. from end of stone pier, in line
with another 1 cable from end of wooden
jetty, lead over ba.

4. Fr m end of promenade pier, blue seaward,
red to harbour

In 12 fms. ; flash ev. £ min.

On the S. point. In one, N.W. by W. f W.,
440 yds. apart. A red light also on Railway
Viaduct; and a bright light on Piel Pier ...

1. On Michel Scar

2. Bright to S.S.E. and N.W. in direction of
channel

1. On E. side of chnnnel to Barrow, 1 mile
N.W. of Piel pier light

2. At dock entrance, 2 hours before to 2 hours
after high water

3. From chimney of Hindpool Ironworks, N.
of Barrow

A white tower, 55 ft. high

1. A white tower, 37 ft. high, on W. pier-head.

2. Blue It. on N. pier ; red It. on Old Quay,
while 9 ft., in entrance; red flag by day

On the pier-head, while 8 ft. water. Red drum
while 8 feet

1. On the ends of St. John's & Wooden piers,
E. and W., while 8 ft. water

2. Two green Its. in one E.S.E. lead in

Fixed light on outer pier-head. Tide light,
while 8 ft., on inner pier. Red light on star-
board side, and green light on North Tongue

In 4J fathoms in Robin Rigg Channel. Black
ball.

On piles on the rocks.

A white building, 32 ft. high, on Cott or Sil-
loth Point

I A lamp on the pier-head

54 I 9 I 1847
20 I .. I ....
30 I 5 I 1854

336

■10

10 I 1863
13 I 1790

1821
1866

11 I 1823

11 I 1848

11 I 1825
.. J 1866

12 I 1796
10 1856

6 I 1841
6 J 1841
9 I 1841
.. I 1841

ENGLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

.2 5

S,J

'u b.

Ip'n

n-3

ISLE OF MAN.

POINT OF AYRE

A rev. It., br. and red,
alternately

Peel Harbour

One fixed red ligbt
One fixed light

Port Erin

One green fixed light

CHICKEN ROCK

Revolving br. It. \ min.

St. Mary Port

Castletown Harbour

LANGNESS

One br. flash. It., 5 sees.

Derby Haven

Two bright fixed lights

DOUGLAS

One bright fixed light

Douglas Harbour
Douglas Bay

Ramsey Harbour

BAHAMA BANK LT.-V.
One group-flashing br.
light

54
4

24.9 1
22. 1

54 i3-
4 4 2 -<?

4 5°-7

3-2

4 37-7

36.

28.

54
4

A stone tower, 99 ft. high, i mile S.W. of the
point; flash every minute

Bed light on East side of entrance. Bright It.
on end of breakwater

On end of new breakwater

103

2.5

Granite tower 143 ft. high, J mile W. from S.
extremity of Calf of Man.

lb J 122

One bright light on pier-head

One red It. on new pier-head. Visible seaward
between the entrance points of the bay

Lt.-ho., 63 ft. high. Lt. shows a flash every
5 sees

On Fort Island (Aug. 12 to Oct. 10) ; and S.W.
end of breakwater

A brown stone tower, 6.5 ft., on Douglas Head ;
not visible from Lang Ness

I 25
I 32

I 76

I 50
I 14

I 104

20.
13,

I One fixed light on the North pier-head | •• I 34

1A blue light on end of Promenade pier ; red I , , | 20
light on S. pier-head ; green light on new
landing pier '

I One fixed red light on S. pier-head. One fixed I • 1 28
bright light on N. pier-head 34

In 11 fms., on S.W. part of bank. Lt. shows I 4 I 33 I
2 quick flashes, followed by 20 sees, darkness, I
ev. £ min.

15 J 1818

8 I 1811
6 1865

3 I 1869

16 I 1874

9 I 1812
8 I 1849

14 I 1880

6 I 1850
2 I ....

15 I 1832

6 I 1796
2 I 1869

I 4 I 1845
I 9 I 1863

10 I 1848
11879

SCOTLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES. North & West Coasts.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

=3 3

•2 %

o S 1

O) £

■S^

£<

*-> o

p>.

START POINT I 59 16.6

One fixed red light | 2 22.4

NORTH RONALDSHA I 59 23.2
One br. flash. It. 10 sees. | 2 23.6

SHETLAND ISLANDS.

SUMBURGH HEAD

One bright fixed light

BRESSAY

One rev. It., 1 min. ; red

and white alternately

WHALSEY SKERRIES
One br. rev. It., 1 min.

NORTH UNST

One bright or red light

59 5i-
1 16.

60 6.2
' 7-5

60 25.4
o 44.

60 51.3
o 53-

A new stone tower, on East point of Sanda I 4a

Island, Ronaldsha Firth |

A brick tower, 139 ft. high, on N. point of | a
Orkney Islands

A stone tower, 55 ft. high, on the S. point of I 9
Zetland

White tower, 53 ft. high, on E. side of entrance 2b
to Lerwick

A white tower, 98 ft. high, on Bound Skerry... I lb

A white tower, 64 ft. high, on Muckle Flugga,
N. part of island. The It. is red towards the
Skaw of Unst. Red between S.S.E. g E.,
and S.E. by E. | E

CAPE WRATH

One revol. It., 1 min.

RU STOER

One br. intermitting It,

SOUTH RONA

One bright flash. It. 12 s.

Kyle Akin, Loch Alsh
One br. or red fixed It.

Oronsay Island

One br. or red fixed It.

HEBRIDES ISLANDS.

BUTT OF LEWIS

One bright fixed light

Stomoway

1. One br. rev. It. £ min.

2. A reflected light

East Loch Tarbert
MONACH ISLES

Upper It., flashing 10. s.
Lower It., fixed red

GLASS ISLAND

One fixed bright light

USHENISH

One fixed red light

BARRA HEAD

One intermitting light

iKERRYVORE

One rev. light, 1 min.

58 37.5

4 59-7

58
5

14.2
23.

57 34-5
5 57'4

57 i 6 -6
5 44-5

57
5

47-

)S.

58
6

3°-7
16.

White tower, 65 ft. high. Flashes white and | 9
red alternately I

White tower, 47 ft. high, on S. Ear. Visible I a
1 min. Eclipsed £ min

White tower, 42 ft. high, on N.E. point of I 2e
island

On S.W. point of Gillean Island. Lt. bright in
fairways of Applecross Sound and Loch Alsh.
Red elsewhere

White tower, 63 ft. high, on island, N.W. part | 4a
of Sleat Sound

58 II.5
6 22.2

57 3'- 6
7 4i-6

57 51

A white tower, 20 ft. high. Visible seaward
from S. by E. £ E. to W. by S. £ S

1. White tower, 45 ft. high, onAmish Point...

2. A prism on beacon, on S.E. end of reef, re-
flects light from a lower window ; visible
in entering

Red light on breakwater

In one tower, 133 ft. high, on Shillay Island.
Redlt. shown to northward, froniN.W. byN.
to N.E. by E

80
140

300
105

145

235

400

195

222

la I 170

2b I 56

150
62

6 38

57 17

7 "

56 48
7 38

S^ 19
7 6

White tower, 100 ft. high, on E. pt. of Scalpay,
Harris Isles

East side of S. Uist. Shown between N.E. | N.
and S.S.W

Visible 2J min., and dark \ min. On top of
Bernera Island

Granite tower, 158 ft. high, on the rock .

la I 130
la J 176
• I 680
lc I 150

14 I 1806
1870

18 I 1854

1812
1858

1854
1854

1828
1871

1870
1857
1857

1857

1862
1852

1876
1864

17S9
1857
1833
1844

SCOTLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

Lat.
Long

N.
W.

Description, &c.

s 3

la*

Name

and Character of Light.

(Bearings by compass from

the

light.)

M o

DUBH ARTACH ROCKS

One fix. bright or red It.

ARDNAMURCHAN

One fixed bright light

Sound of Mull
One fixed light

LISMORE

One fixed bright light

Loch Eil

One fix. br. or red It.

Oban

Phladda Island

One fix. br. or red It.

Crinan Canal

Sgeir Maoileor Iron Rock
One br. rev. It. 5 niin.

Rudha Mhail
One fixed br. or red It.

M'Arthur's Head

One fixed br. or red It.

56 8.

6 38.

Tower, 98 ft. high, on rock off Iona Sound.
Light is rid towards S. coast of Iona and
Torranan Rocks, or to between E. £ S. and
N. by E. £ E. ; the rest bright all round.

c6 4,-j 6 I Stone tower, 118 ft. high, on the point. Shown
g j . ,. between N.E. by E. f E., and S.S.W. £ W.

56 38.
6 4.

i6 27.3
5 36.3

5 6 43 3
5 J 4S

On Runa Gal Rock. Red It. N. to seaward ;
green towards rocks ; white towards Mull
Sound

White tower, 86 ft. high, on Musdile Island ...

56 19.
5 39-5

I On Corran Point. Light is red to E., between

S.W. by W., and N.E. by E. § E., and is br.

I to westward

I A lantern on the pier for steamers

North end of Scarba Sound. The It. is red
northward, over Bogha Nuadh Rock, betw.
N. by E. \ E. & N.N.E. | E. ; thence bright
landward to S.S.W. £ W.

I One red light on East side

55 S*-5
5 49-5

Tower, 83 ft. high, on Sgeir Maoile or Sker- I 2b
vuile, at S. entrance to Sound of Jura I

55 5^-1 I White tower, 113 ft. high, on N. pt. of Islay

fi 7 - I Island. Light is red to westward between

'•5 N.N.E. £ E. and W. by N. Bright in all

1 other directions

55 45-8
6 2.8

White tower, 42 ft. high, on S. end of Islay
Island. Light bright up Sound to N. J E. ;
thence red towards Jura to East. The rest
bright

RHYNNS OF ISLAY I 55 40.3
One flashing It., 5 sees. | 6 30.8

Lochandail f 55 44.7

One bright, or red fix. It. | 6 22.2

Port Ellen

One fixed red light

MULL OF CANTYRE

One fixed bright light

SANDA ISLAND
One fixed red light

DAVAR ISLAND

One br. rev. It., \ min.

Campbellton

Ardrishaig

PLADDA ISLAND
Two fixed bright lights

55 36.

6 12.

55 186

5 48.

55 16.5

5 34-9

55 25-7
5 322

White tower, 96 ft. high, on Oversay Island, I £
off S.W. point of Islay

On Dun Point, N. of Port Charlotte. Light is I 4a
bright to S., from S.W. by W. to S. by W. ;
thence red to E. h S. ; then br. to N.E. by
E. |E I

Square tower, 60 ft. high, on Carraig Fadda
Point, West entrance

S.W. headland of Cantyre

On the Ship Rock. Not seen to N. of S.E. by I la
E. \ E. ; kept in sight, clears Patterson Rk. I

Stone tower, 65 ft. high, on East part I 2b

Red It. on old pier-head, shows from S.S.E. to
E.N.E. ; green It. on new pier-head, shows
from S.S.E. to N.E. by E. \ E ^

| 145

13 |

| 180

1 18 1

| 55

1 12 |

| 103

15 j

| 3G

10 |

1 42

U 1

| 25

4 |

| 73

14 |

1 •• 1

.. 1

1 128 |

17 |

1 150

17 |

| 50

12 |

| 45

11 1

| 297

22 |

| 165

15 |

| 120

17 |

1 is j

2 |

I A fixed white light on pier-head

I .. I 25 I 4 I 1850

55 26.
5 7-»

One 52 ft. above the other. On island, off S.E. I
pt. of Arran Island. Shown seaward, from —
N.W. by W. to N.E. by E. ' •

130

17 I 1790
14 ....

SCOTLAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c,
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

FIRTH OF CLYDE.
Lamlash Harbour

One fix. green It., nnd
one fixed red light

CTJMBRAE

One fixed bright It.
Toward

One br. rev. It. 1 m.
Cloch

One fixed bright It.

Greenock, Garvel Point
One occulting br. It.
Two red, & one bright
lighJ

Helensborough

Port Glasgow

Carbross

Auchenleeh

Bowling Bay

Garmoyle Light vessel

Dumbuck

Dickie's Light

Donald's Quay

Park Quay

Near Newshot Island

Glasgow, Brooniielaw

Ardrossan

One bright flashing It.
Saltcoats
Troon Harbour

Bev. br. It. & fix. red It.

Ayr Harbour

Upper br., lower red It.
Red Tide Light

Turnberry Point

One br. flash. It. 12 sees.

Loch Ryan

One fixed bright light

Stranraer

White, red & green Its.

CORSEWALL

One red and white rev.
light, 1 min.

Port Patrick

One fixed bright light

MULL OF GALLOWAY

One intermitting br. It.

LITTLE ROSS

One flash, light, 6 sees.

Annan Hirer
One fixed white light

33-3

4.0

43 3

5»-

5i-7

4 59-3

56.6

4 5 2 - 6

57-

45-

Lt.-ho. on S.W. end of Holy Id., E. side of S.
entr. to harbour. Lts. shown seaward from
S.E. j E. to S.W. by S., and in harbour.
High It. green. FuUerton Rock W. f S. 530
yards from lighthouse

White tower, 36 ft. high, W. side of Little Cum-
brae Id.

White tower, 63 ft. high, on the point
White tower, 76 ft. high, on pt.

Shown from a lt.-ves., in 2fms., 3| cables N.E.
by E.from Garvel house; br. 4 sees., eclipsed
twice in next 4 sees

The red Its., 1 mile N.N.W. of custom-ho., 140
yds. apart. In one, W. by S.J S., lead to an-
chorage. The bright It. in front of custom-ho.

Red It. on pier-head, green It. on inner end of
pier, between are two bright lights

One fixed bright It. off entrance, and another
on steam-boat quay

j Red light on the Pillar Bank

I Bright light f mile above Port Glasgow

I Small light in Forth and Clyde Canal

I Bright light 3 miles above Port Glasgow

I South side of channel

I Bright light 1 mile above Dumbarton

I Red and bright light

I At bend of channel

I Red light on North bank

Gaslight

55 3^-4

4 49-5

55 37-9

55 33-

4 4i-

55 28.2
4 38.2

On breakwater ; bright 2 sees. ; eclipsed 1 sec.
Shown betw. W. and W.S.W.

Bright bull's-eye in red glass plate, on pier ...

Revolves, 40 sees, bright, 20 sees hidden. In
one, S.W. £ S., 350 yards apart

At N. side of harbour. Red tide light N.W.
by W. i W., 283 yds. distant ; while 8 ft. on
bar

55 o-5
5 9-5

A white tower, 110 ft. high, on West side of
entrance to Loch Ryan

f-2

12 I 1877
.. 1 1880

115

15 | 1793

•

11 | 1812

.. | 1707

.. I 40

.. I 26

.. I ..

4a 1 18 I

.. I 1879

.. I 1834
4 I 1829

..| ....

3 I 1861

5a I 22 I 4 I 1849

.. I .. |..|....

.. I 12 I 2 I 1849

.. j 24 I .. j 1868

.. I .. j .. j 1868

..| .-I-

..| 26 I .

••I 24 I .

.. I 24 I .

.. j 22 j 4 I 1844

a I 25 I 5 1 1840

I 1870

.. I 26 I 6 j 1840

.. [ 35 9 1 1827

.. 35 6 1843

1790
1826

1849
1869
1869

. ,

5? 19.5 I White brick tower, 64 feet high, at ruined | b

4 50.3 I castle I

54 57-7 I Wa ^ te tower, 50 ft. high, on Caim Ryan Point I 4a

5 2 - I I
54 54.7 I On East pier; West pier, and inner end I ,,

5 1-7 I I

C4. co ■; I White stone tower, 30 feet high, at S.E. angle I 6a
°J • 3 7 ^ J of harbour j

54 38.1 I On S.E. point. Visible J min. ; invisible i min. I 9
4 51-3 I I

54 46.
4 5

54 57-7
3 16.

White tower, 65 ft. high, on the island | 1c

On Barnkirk or Annan Foot, from half flood to
half ebb

96 I 15 I 1873

46 I 10 I 1847

9|..|....

112 I 15 j 1817

37 I 10 I 1856
I 1870

325 j 23 j 1830

175 I 18 I 1843

.. I .. I 1841

IRELAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

South Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

O f

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

Description
ofApparatus

Height
above II. W.

Visible in
Miles.

S
5

FASTNET

One rev. light, 1 min.

GALLEY HEAD

One revol. It. ev. min.

KINSALE OLD HEAD

One bright or red light

Kinsale Harbour

One bright fixed light

Daunt's Rock Lt.-Ves.
One red fixed light

CORK HARBOUR

Roche Point

Upper It. intermit, br.
Lower light, fix. br.
Queenstown
Spit Bank

One fixed red light

Meelough Spit
One fixed red light

23-3
36.4

5'
8

31.8
57- 2

.5'
8

36.2
31-9

5i 43-
8 17.

5i 47-5
8 15.2

50-7
16.4

Circular white tower, 92 ft. high, with red belt,
on the summit of the rock

White lt,-ho. on extr. of head. Lt. shows 6 or
7 flashes during 16 sees., and is obscured 44
sees. Visible between W. and E. by S

A white tower, 100 ft. high, with two red belts.
A red ray is sent over the outer part of Court-
macsherry Bay, between N.W. by W. \ W. to
W. f N., or from the Seven Heads to the
Horse Rocks

lb I 148 I 18 J 1854

c I 174 I 19 I 1877

la I 236 I 21 I 1853

From window on Fort Charles, on East side. I • | 28 ] 10 | 1804

Vessel black, in 14 fms., at J mile S. by E.
from Daunt's Bock, and 4| miles S.W. from
entrance to Cork Harbour.

White tower, 49 ft. high. Upper lt. shows br.
for 15 sees., and is eclipsed 5 sees. Lower br.
lt. shows only from S.W. by W. to S.W. £ S.,
over Daunt's Bk.

On piles, in 9 ft. water, on E. elbow of bank. Lt.
red, with a sector of br. lt. over Bar Rock,
between N.E. by E. £ E. and N.E. £ N

On piles, 100 ft. from the channel.

• I 39 I 8 I 1874

O I 98
2a 60

10 I 1817
8 1864

8 I 1848
1853

4a I 32 I

4a I 25 I 3 I 1859

Bright, red, & green Its.

A green lt. is shown on the N. side of the
channel ;it Donkettle ; a bright lt. at Black
Rock Castle ; and a red lt. at Dundain, and
also at Tivoli

BALLYC0TTIN

Flashing light, 10 sees.

Youghal

1. One bright fixed lt.

2. Lower red tide light

3. Additional red tide It.

MINEHEAD

Interm. light, 1 min.

Dungarvan

Red, green, and br. lt.

WATERF0RD

Hook Tower

One bright fixed lt,

Dunmore, Pier Head

One red light
Duncannon Fort

Two fixed lights
Duncannon N.

One fixed lii<ht
Spit of Passage
Rosslare

5i 495
7 59-

5i 5 6 -5
7 50.5

5* 59-5
7 351

lc I 195 I 18 I 1850

4.4
33- 1

7-4
55.9

9-
595
•3-2
56.

3a I 78 I 6

Circular stone tower, 50 ft. high, on the outer
island ; shown from E. £ N. to W. J N.

1. & 2. In one tower, on W. side of entrance

2. Shown from S.W. by S. to S. by W. £ \V.
From 2h. before to 2h. after high water. A
tide-ball by day

3. Shown from small building E. of lightho.,
betw. S.S.E. £ E. & S.E., from 2h. before to
Ijh. after high water

On S. side of head. Bright, 50 sees. ; suddenly I la I 285 | 21
dark, 10 sees. Shown from W. by S. J S. to
E. JN '

On Ballinacourty Pt. Red over Carrickapane
Bock ; green, over rocks from Ballinacourty
Pt., from E. to S.E. by E. ; and bright in
other directions

Tower, 115 ft. high, striped red and white
horizontally, on E. side of entrance.

West side of entrance. It is bright N. of pier

In one tower. The lower is only seen seaward

Half a mile X.X.E. } E. of the fort. In one,
with fort lights, lead in

I 152 I 16
I 44

43
128

I One fixed red light, on piles

IBallygerry Bay, Wexford,
breakwater in progress ..

Bright light on | I .. |

1852
1870

1850

3a J 52 J 10 J 1858

1859

1826
1774
1838
1867

If a vessel is seen standing into danger, from any of the Irish lightvessels, a gun will b»
fired as a warning, and the two signal flags JD, of the Commercial Code, hoisted.

IRELAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

East Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings hy compass from the light.)

„9

.5" a

~5.X

CJ £

■- p.

,0 53

trj (►

.ss

a '~c

SALTEES LIGHT-VE3.
One group-flash, br, It. 3
flashes once ev. min.
BARRELS ROCK LIGHT-
VESSEL
One gr. nip-flashing red
light, 30 sees.
TUSKAR ROCK

Red and br. rev. light

LUCIFER SHOALS LT.-V.

One fixed red li-iht

5*
6

2.4 ,
40.

52
6

7- 2

22.

12. 1 1

"•3 1

By day shows one mast with ball, and jigger
"mast.

Moored 2 miles S. of Barrels Rk., situated S.W.
of Carnsore Point. Shows two red flashes in
quick succession ; a black barrel on the
mainmast head. Passing N. of the lt.-ves.
is attended with danger

.. I 38 I 10

52 21-5

6 93

Circular white tower, 110 ft. high. A flash of I %
10 sees. ev. min. ; bright, bright, and red
alternately.

In 21 fathoms, 2J miles E. of shoals ; has 3 I ©
masts ; globe, and light, at main.

BLACKWATER BK. LT.-
VESSEL
One bright fixed light

ARKLOW BANK S, LT.-
VESSEL
One br. rev. It., £ min.

ARKLOW BANK N. LT.-

VESSEL
One group-flashing br.
light

WICKLOW HEAD

One bright intermit. It.

CODLING BANK LT.-V.
One red rev. It. 20 sees.

DUBLIN BAV

KISH LIGHTVESSEL I
One rev. br. It., 1 min. j

Kingstown, East Pier
One rev. It., 5 min. |

Kingstown, W. Pier
North Wall, East end I

52 30.2 I In 19 fathoms, 3 miles E. £ P. from black buoy;
g - has 3 masts ; 2 globes at main.

52
I

I 53

I 5

40.8
57-2

53-
503

57-8
0.1

3.6
45-4

18.8
56.8

18.

In 25 fathoms. 2 miles from S. end of bank ; has
3 masts ; light, and half globe, over globe at
main.

In 18 fms., 3', miles S.E. by E. from N. end of
bank. Lt. shows 2 quick flashes, followed
by 45 sees, darkness, ev. min. One mast
■with ball, and jigger mast.

Ten sees, bright ; 3 sees, dark I Id

In 9 fathoms, at i\ miles S.S.E. \ E. from S. I
end of bank ; has 3 masts ; globe over half
globe at main. '

In 10 fms., I mile ofiN. endofKish Bank. ' I «

Tower, 41 ft. high; white and red flashes al-
ternately. Masked N. of S.E. i S., to clear
Muglin Rocks.

One fixed red light

Poolbeg

O110 bright light

North Bull Wall

One < ccnlting bright
light, 14 sees.

HOWTH-BAILEY

One bright iixed light

Howth, East Pier
One red light

Balbriggan
One bright fixed light

ROCKABILL

One br. and red flash, lt.

Dro?heda

Two fixed It., 1 red lt.
One green, rive br. Its.

53 20.5
6 9.3

53 21.7
6 3-3

53 24.

6 4-

53 368

6 11.

53 35-7
6 0.5

53 43-
6 «5-

One bright It. A red ray to S., across river I 6a
channel

At mouth of River Liffey. Small lower lt. from
half flood to half ebb

Lt.-ho. on extremity, about 330 yds. northwd.
of Poolbeg lt.-ho. Lt. shows br. for 10 sees.,
and is then eclipsed 4 sees

White to er, 42 ft. high, on S.E. pt. of Howth | la
Peninsula.

On pier-head

White tower, 53 ft. high, on pier, South side of
entrance

Tower, 105 ft. high; flash every 12 sees. ; br. ! lb
seaward, from S. £ E. to >*.E. by N. ; red to
westward

On snnd'iir.s, S of River Bovne. ChnnTeahle
assandbinksliifts. E. & W.'lts.inone.leadin

On perches in inner channel

1824
1878

38 j 8 j 1880

101 I 15 I 1815

33 j 9 j 1S6S

33 I 9 I 1857
I 1867

39 I 10 I 1824
I 1867

38 J 10 I 1867
1879

121 j 16 ! 1S18
I 1867

39 I 10 I 1867

38 I 10 I 1811
I 1865

41 I 9 I 1822
36 j 2 j 1845

1820

68 I 12 I 1708
50 I 10 I 1880

134 I 15 I 1671
1 1813

43 j 11 j 1813

42 I 10 I 17G9

148 I 18 j 1860

.. I 6 j 1843

a. a. o. — Liyhts.

IRELAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

East & North Coasts.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

C 2

tia

'£ o.

■3

>•

Dundalk

One Hash, light, 15 sees.

Eight beacon lights

LOUGH CARLINGFORD

1. Two bright fixed Its.

2. Two br. fixed leading
lights

3. One br. rev. It. J m.

4. Red Pier light

DUNDRUM BAY

One intermit, red light

Ardglass Harbour

SOUTH ROCK LT.-VES.
One re vol. bright It.

Donaghadee

One red or br. fixed It.

COPELAND

One fixed bright light

Belfast Bay

One Int. It., and others

Lame Lough

One fix. bright or red It.

MAIDENS

Two fixed bright lights

RATHLIN

One intenn., 1 fixed It.

LOUGH FOYLE

Inishowen
Two fixed bright Its.

"Warren Point

Med and bright light

Red Castle

One fixed bright It.

White Castle

One fixed bright It.

Ture

One fixed bright It.

Cunnyberry

One fixed bright It.

Culmore Point

53 58-7
6 18.

54 131

5 4°-

Keel screw piles in entrance. Bright It. seaward I 4b I 33 I 9 | 1855

from E. to S. f E. ; thence masked over |

Dunany Reefs to S.S.W. 4 W. ; thence red

over S.W. banks to N.N.W. 4 W. Bright It.

to channel, but masked from N. J W. to E.,

over N.W. sandbanks.
Between the bar and quay | •• | ••!•••«

1. In one tower, 111 ft. high, on Haulbowline |
Rock. Lower It. from half flood to half
ebb A small red light shown to N.E.

2. Two iron pile lighthouses, J mile N. by W.
from No. 1, 500 yards apart. In one N.N.W.
% W. lead through new cut in 15 ft

3. On Greenore Point

4. On Greenore Pier .*

On St. John's Point. Red 45 sees., dark 15 sees.
Shaded across the bay to N. of W. by N. \ N.

1 •

101

•

One fixed red light at its head

54 24.7 I Supersedes S. Rock It. -ho., and shows revol. I
- It. every 1? min. In 30 fins., 1 mile E. of

5 zz -3 I Ridge Shoal. I

C4. 18 6 I On pier-head. Red to seaward, fromS.S.E. to I
. ,, N.E. ; br. It. obscured betw. S. £ E. & shore

5 3 2, I I

54 417 I A white tower, 52 ft. high, on Small Copeland
5 32! I Island -

Pile ltho., with \v It., on Hollywood Bank ;
green It., al^o on the Bank ; 9 more green Its.
towards Belfast; and a red It. S.W. of Stone
Beacon

White It. -ho. on Farres Point. A red sector is
shown over reef off Barr Point, and over
Hunter Rock, betw. N.E. by E. and N.E. by
E. J E. Obscured E. of latter bearing by land

54 39-

5 53-

54
5

47-3

54 55 8
5 45^3

lS.2

10.7

53 i3- 6
6 55-6

Tower, 88 ft. high, with red belt, on Altacarry
or N.E. point. Upper It. intermit., br. 50
sees. ; dark, 10 sees. Shown northward,
from N.W. £ N. to S.E. by S, and to S. on
Rathlin Island, from S.W. by W. £ W. to
\V. £ S. Red It. over Carrickvanan Rock.
Lower fixed It. does not show in Rathlin
Sound.

E. tower, 49 ft. ; W. tower, 74 ft. On Duna-
gree Point. In one, West, 153 yds. apart.
A. red sector fiom W. tower, 25 ft. below br.
It. over Tuns Bank, from E.S.E. to S.E. \ E.

Red to S betw. W. by S. \ S. & E. \ N. ; white
seaward trom E. J N. towardi land, and up
Lougu Foyle from W. by S. i S. to W. £ S.

On red piles, on outer edge of Ridge Shoal ,
On black piles, East side of ehannel ,

I On black piles, S.E. side of channel

I On red piles, N.W. side of channel .».„.

I A lantern on a mast

lb I 62 I 12

1823
1873

1830
1873

1844
1860

I 18
.. I 38

6 I 1851
10 I 1877

I 56 I 12 I
I 131 J 16

1826
1796

27 I 6 I 1848

• I 42 I 11

Towers, 76 and 68 ft. hisrh, white, with red I 9
belt. In one, N.W. by W., 800 yds. apart... 9

14
13

lb ! 243 I 21
182 ..

1839

1828
1856

• 1

13 1 1837

•

15 1 ....

..1

-I

.. |....

1 "'

25 |

.. | 1852

1 " '

.. | 1848

1" '

25 |

.. | 1850

1 '* '

2-5

.. | 1848

1 ..

.. |1848

IRELAND.

LIGHTHOUSES. North & West Coasts.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &o.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

S 3

.2* a

biS

.9 .

*> "n

a &

.o r^.

Q 'o

-D

LOUGH FOYLE— (continued).
Culkeeragh |

Boom Hall | ...

Rosse Bay | ...

Rock Mill I ...

INNISTRAHULL
One br. rev. It., ^ min.

LOUGH SWILLEY
Dunree Head

One fixed bright It.

Buncrana Pier
One small red light

Fannet Point

One red or bright It.

TORY ISLAND

One fixed bright light

ARANMORE ISLAND
One rev. red and br. It.
Lower red light

RATHLIN-O-BIRNE
Ono fixed br. or red It.

Killybegs

St. John's Point
Rotten Island

8LIG0

25-9
13.6

11. 8

33-2

16.6

37-9

55
8

16.4
15-

0.9
33-6

39-8

49-9

54
8

34-i
27.6

Black Rock
Oyster Island

54 18.

8 37-

Killala Bay
One fixed red

light

54 13-9
9 11.8

Broadhaven

One br. or red fixed It.

54 16.
9 53-

EAGLE ISLAND I 54 17.

Two bright fixed lights | 10 5.5

BLACK ROCK

One flashing It., | min.

Black Sod Quay

One fixed br. or red It.

54 4-2
10 19.3

5-9
3-6

CLEW BAY.
CLARE ISLAND I 53 49.5

One fixed bright light I 959.5

INISHQORT I8LAND |

Bright light East side of entrance | #>

One fixed bright light [ ,,

One fixed bright light | .,

One fixed red light, near the mill | ,,

A white tower, 41 ft. high; on N.E. part of I lb
island I

Shown from a dwelling-house, visible betw. j 9
N.N.E. £ E. and S. £ E.

From pillar on pier extremity, betw. N. by W.
k W. and W. by S. { S.

Tower, 2G ft. high ; light red seaward ; bright I 9
towards the Lough I

White tower, 87 ft. high, on theN.W. point of I Ja
island. Ooscured by island to S.S.E

Tower, 76 ft. high, on Rinawros Pt. Lt. shows lb
altera, red & br. flashes (of equal intensity)
ev. 20 sees. Lower lt. red to eastward over
Stag Rocks, betw. N.E. by E. J E. & E. by N.

Tower, 65 ft. high, on W. side. Lt. is bright I 9
seaward from N.E. £ N. to S.S.E. £ E. Red
towards mainland and sound '

White tower, 47 ft. high. One bright fixed lt. I *

One br. fix. It., with red sector, over Bullock- i *
moreRk., betw.S.W.jS. &S.W.byW.f W.

One fixed bright light in the bay %

Two fixed bright lights ; in one, S.S.E. f E. ... «

Shown from a window in the tower of Ross I , ,
Coastguard Station, betw. E. by N. 5 N. and
E. by S. i S., through E I

On Gubacashel Point. White to seaward ; red I 3a
towards West side of harbour I

White towers, 87 and 64 ft. high. In one, I «
E. by N. and W. by S., 132 yds. apart, clears
all rocks off Black Sod Bay and Broadhaven '

Tower, SO ft. high, on W. extremity of Black
Rock; red toward land, from N.E. by E. i E.
to S.E. by E. £ E

On North Point

On Blacksod Point. Light bright, but red I 3a
between S.W. by W. and S.W. | S

One fixed bright light

50 I ..
12 I ..
20 I ..
15 |..
181 I 18

150 I 13

90
125

233
200

I 14
I 16
I 25

116 j 16

[14
I 12

79 I 13
40 I 11

87 I 12
220 I 20

283 I 22
37 I 10

341 I 27
36 J 10

1851
1859
1859
1859
1812

1876

1816

1832

1865
187/'

1864

1831
1838

1835
1837
1880

1855

1864
1866

1806
1827

SLYNE HEAD

One rev. light, 2 min.
One fixed bright lt.

53 23.9
10 14.

On Illaunimmul Island. N. light-tower, 79 ft.
high. Lt. rev. ; once red, and twice bright.
S. light-tower, 79 ft. high ; fixed light. In
one, N. J E., 142 yds. apart, lead outside of
rocks

• I 126 I 15 I 1836
.. 115 14 ....

IRELAND.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

§1

5 2

t* —

2. S 34

GALWAY BAY.

EERAGH ISLAND
One rev. br. It., 1 m.

1 53 8-9
1 9 5'-5

Straw Island

One fixed red light

1 53 6.9
1 9 37-8

Inisheer

One bright or red It.

1 53 2.7
1 9 31-5

Mutton Island

One fixed bright It.

1 53 152
1 9 3'

SHANNON RIVER.

LOOP HEAD

One intermit, br. It.

1 5* 33-6
1 9 55-9

Tower, 101 ft. high, white, with red belts, on I lb | 115 | 16 | 1857
West point I

Shown betw. W. by N. \ N. & S.E. Vis. from
inside Arran Isles. Buildings white

Tower, 112 ft. high, with broad red belt, on S. | la
pt. Lt. is red in direction of Finnis Rock ...

On centre of island, oflf Galway.

Kilcradan I 52 34.8

One bright or red lt. | 9 42.6

Scattery Island
One fix. br. or red lt.

Tarhert I 52 35.5

One bright fixed lt. | 9 21.8

Beeves Rocks I 52 39.

One bright or red lt. | 9 1.3

White tower, 75 ft. high, 500 yds. from extr. | la
of head. Lt. bright 20 sees., eclipsed 4 sees.
Shown from N.E. by E. £ E. to S.E. by E.... '

On the point. Red to seaward; bright to 9
river

Tower on S. end of island, River Shannon.
Lt. is red over Rinana Shoal, between N. N.E.
and N.E. by E. £ E. Bright light eclipsed
landward between N.E. i E. and N.W. by
W. 4 W

On the rock I 3a

Red to N. of rock. Sixteen small lights below I 3a
Limerick

Tralee

One bright or red light

52 16.2
9 52-9

TEARAGHT ISLAND
Light revolving I5 min.

52 4-5
10 40.

Valentia

One fixed bright light

5i 56.

10 19.3

6KELLIGS
One fixed bright light

51 46.2
10 32.7

CALF ROCK

One br. flash, lt. 15 sees.

5 1 34-2
10 14.8

Bantry Bay

One fixed bright light

5i 39-2
9 44-8

Crookhaven

One bright or red light

51 28 .6
9 42.6

FASTNET ROCK

One rev. light, 1 min.

5i 2 3.3
9 36.4

On Little Samphire Island. Br. lt. seaward,
from N. i W. to W. by N. \ N., and red over
anchorage from W. by N. \ N. to E. by
S. § S

Lighthouse, 57 ft. high. Lt. shown between f lb
S. £ E. to E. by N. j N

White tower, 48 ft. high, on Cromwell's Fort

On highest rock, 7? miles from shore. Lt. shown
from lower tower, only visible to the south-
ward between N.W. £ N. and E. by S. £ S.
Upper tower not lighted

Tower red, with white belt, 102 ft. high I lb

White tower, 62 ft., with red belt, at East I 9
entrance to Bearhaven. Light shown from
E. I S. to N.W. by W. \ W «

On Rock Island Point. Tower, 112 ft. high,
with broad red belt, on S. point. Lt. red
across rocks to Streek Head, from S. \ W.
to S.E.byE. Bright to southward

Circular white tower, 92 ft. high, with red belt, I lb I 148 I 18 | 1854
on the summit of the rock

| 30

6 |

| 110

15 |

| 33

1 10 1

| 277

22 |

| 133

16 |

| 50

10 |

| 58

13 |

| 40

10 |

| 56

9 |

| 275

22 |

| 54

12 |

1 175 |

18]

1 141 1

17 |

1 55 |

12 |

1 67 |

13 |

1 " 8 1

18 |

1878
1857

1817

1853

1824

1834
1854
1850

1841

1826

1866

1847

1860

WHITE SEA

LIGHTHOUSES.

AND NORWAY.

Lat. N.

-s

Long. E.

Description, &c.

6sW

* £

s- a

Name and Character of Light.

o /

(Bearings by compass from the light.)

o £•

*5 a/

*■§

SWIATOI NOSS

One fixed bright light

Sosnovets Island

One fixed bright light
ARK 3 ANGEL GULF

On; fixed & flashing It.
every 30 sees.
JIJGINSK

One fixed bright light

MOUDIUGA

1. One fixed bright It.

2. Two fix. leading Its.

68 8.8 I Light yellow tower ; a beacon tower near.
39 47-7 I

66 29.3
40 43.4

65 28.2
39 44-3

Light yellow tower, 82 ft. high ,

Octagonal yellow lt.-ho., of wood, on Zimnia
Hills, right bank of Kamrueni River. Visible
horn N. 27° E. to S. 2l£° E

298 J 20 I 1863

139 I 13 I 1863

• I 349 I 20 I 1878

65 12.3 I Tower, 58 ft. high, on the N. height of island I « | 140 | 17 | 1842
36 51 5 I I

54-8

'7-

5 1 -

19.7

Sol Shoujmuia Island
One bright fixed light

Solovetski

One fixed bright light

Morjovets

One fixed bright light

OELOV

One fixed bright light

1 64 40.2
1 35 35-5
1 6 5 7-
1 35 37-5
1 66 45.9
1 42 3°-

1 67 11. 2
1 4i 20.5

ICELAND

Reykjanes Point
One fixed bright It.

1 63 48.2

1 2 2 4'-3

1. On a sandy hillock on W. side of island ...

2. AtS. endof Moudiuga Id. Southern It. from
black tower, 57 ft. high, shown from S. by E.
I E., by the W., to N.W. 4 N. Northern It. is
red, shownbetw. N.W. I W. & N.W. £ N. from
white tower, 13 ft. high, 470 yds. N.W. of
former. Lts. in line S.E. lead over Beresov Bar

Yellow tower, 76 ft. high, on island in Gulf of
Onega

From upper part of church on Sekirnoi Hill... 9 1410

•

140

• I 146

540 yds. in-shore of N.W. point of island

Stone tower, 64 ft. high, on N.E. point of Cape I
Orlov, 1,200 yds. from the beach.
Arkhangel pilots

On S.W. extr. of Iceland. Shown from Aug.
1st. to May 15th

150

222

180

NORWAY (West

PRUHOLM

One bright fixed light
Hammerfest

One tixed bright light

Hekkingen

One bright fixed light

ANDEN.ES

One fix. and flashing It.
Lodingens Harbour

One fixed bright light
Stangholm

One bright fixed light

LOFOTEN ISLANDS.-
KjeoeD, South Point
Orsvaag Harbour
Sjaaholmen

Stamsund

HENNINGSV.ER
One fixed & flash. It.

Svino

Eeine Harbour

Elopen, or Gloppen
One fixed bright It.

Vcero

One fixed bright It.

Vaago, or N. Hellig Vasr.
Gryto, or S. Hellig Vaur.
Nyholm Island
One fix. white & red It.

Coast).

5-8

59-4

40.2

40.

69 36.

5°-5

19-5

24-5

10.6

38.

Red iron tower, 38 feet high, with white belt,
near Ingo .. Aug. 25 to March 31

On extreme point of Fuglenses.
April 19th

Aug. 25th to

Yellow wooden lt.-ho., 24 ft. high, N. side of
Hekking Id., Malang Fiord. Lt. shown from
N. by W. § W., through E.,to S.S.E. (Aug.
15th to May 1st)

Iron tower, red, 114 ft. high. Flash every 3
minutes. August 15th to May 1st

On East side of Hjertholm

Near Trano-Vest Fiord.

(Lights not shown in summer, May 1st to August

2 I One fixed red light on Svolvaer

7 J One fixed bright lt. on N.E. side of Sagoen Id.
5 J One fixed red light at Skraaven's Harbour ...

2 I Tornholm, South point. Keep the lt. in sight,
to avoid the Stabben Rock

Quitverden, in Salvorings Sound. Flash every
3 minutes

One fixed red light near Balstad

g J One fix. bright lt. on S. pt. of Olenilsoens Id.

Lt.-ho., 23 ft. high, at Sorvaagen, S. of entr.
Lt. shown from W.S.W. (through S.) to
N.E. } N., except where obscured by land
betw. W.S.W. and S.W. \ W

White concrete lt.-ho., 36 ft. high, on E. fide

of Rostnoesvaagen. Lt. shown fromN.E. }E.

to W. j S. (Shown from Sept. 1 to April 14)

J One fixed red light on N.E. point of island ...

3 j One fixed bright light on S.E. point

I Stone tower on E. pt. of Id. Lt. shown from

I Aug. 15 to April 30. In W. channel, white
betw. S.W. by W. J W. & W. by S. ; red from
W. by 8. to W. In n. channel, white from
N. bv E. J E. to N F.. j N.

1 wo

j 68

11.

| 68

168

I14

14.

55-i

53-.

39-

45-.

26.

2 3-:

17-

14 24.

la I 148
6a I 30
4a I 66

I 2d I 143
I 6a I 67

4a I 42

15th.)

• I 54

• I 92
.. I 31

• I 56

• I 113

I 6a I 196

I .. I 41

3a j 134

I 6a I 31

I 5a I 45

j 3a j 106

6a j 62

1875
1875

12 I 1871
20 I 1863
14 j 1842

17 I 1S42

19 I 1879

20 I 1866
11 I 1859
11 I 1859

20 J 1859

10 I 1862

11 j 1S64

4 I 1856

6 j 1862
4 I 1856

7 I 1859

16 I 1857

8 I 1857
6 I 1862

IS j 1857

8 I 1880

12 I 1859
17 j 1865
8 I 1676

NORWAY.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

J J

C a.
a<

Height
above H. \V.

Visible in

Miles.

■o
•

cs.2

6T0T

One fixed & flashing It.
TBAE ISLANDS

Revol. br. It. ev, min.

ANDEBSBAK ISLAND
One fixed red and br. It.

Bronosund

One fixed bright light

Praesto

One fixed bright light

GJOESLINGERNES
One fixed red and br. It.

VILLA

One fixed and flash. It.

Bb'do

One fixed bright light

HALTEN ISLAND

One flash. It. ev. 4 sees.
Kjeungen Bock

One fix. red or br. It.

Trondhjem

One fixed bright light

Agdenas

One fixed bright light

Bora

One fix. white or red It.

Terningen

One fixed bright light
Eingholm Rock

One fixed bright light

CHBISTIANSTJND
Stavnaes

One fixed bright It
Leervig

One fixed bright It.
EVITNCES

One fix. br. or red It.

Eest Islet

One fix. red or br. It., or
flashing br. It., 2 sees.

QVITEOLM

One fixed and flash. It.

Biorno Sound

One bright fixed light

OENA

One br. It., red flash
Ulla
One fixed bright light

66 56.6
13 28.9
66 258
11 59- 8

63 27-5
10 27.5

63 38.

9 49-5

63 44.2

9 18.

63 3°-
9 9-

63 19-3

8 14.5

63 6.8

7 40- »

63 6.3

7 43-5

63 7-9

7 48-8

63 5-

7 30-

i-3

'4-5

53-9

49-3

51.8

33-

41.2

10.2

15.8

19.

65
12

28.5
13-5

\\\

47-4
7.8

On centre Seskiner; guide to the harbour from I 4 c
the North. Flash every 2 minutes

Iron It. -ho., painted red, on Sue Id. Lt. vis. I 2b
12 sees, in ev. min. Shown irom Aug. 15 to I
April 30 following '

White concrete lt.-ho. on N.E. Id. of Aas Vser 4a
Group. Lt. shows br. betw. W. by N. \ N.,
through North, to E. by S. i S. ; thence red
to S.E. bv E. ^ E. ; and thence bright to S.
byW.JW. (Aug. 15 to April 30)

On North side of Buholmen, at N. entrance... I 6a

On the islet, in Folden Fiord. August 1st to I 6a
May 16th

White stone tower on Haroldso Kraaka Rock. 4a
Lt. shows br. seaward betw. W. bv S. and
S. by W. J W. ; red thence to 8.S.B. f E. ;
bright thence to E. \ N. ; and red thence to
E. by N. i N. (Aug. 15 to April 30)

On the island. A flash every 4 min. Aug. 1 I 2d
to May 16. Pilot station near

On highest point of island. Aug. 1 to May 15 I 4a

White stone tower. Lt. shown from Aug. 1 to 2c
May 15

Approach to Biugn Fiord. Octagonal red lt.-
ho., 57 ft. hiirti. Lt. is bright betw. S. 41°
W. and S. 36° W. ; red thence to S. 30° W. ;
bright betw. S. 13° W. and N. 86° E. ; red
thence to N. 30° E.; bright thence to N. 77°
W. (Aug. 1 to May 15)

On the .ortress, onMunk Holm, opposite the 6a
town. Aug. 1 to May 16

On the pt. Visible int and out of Trondhjem
Fiord. Aug. 1 to May 16

At East end of Hitteren Island, entrance of
Skioren Fiord ; red sector between N.E. and
N.N.E. over Sles Skar

On the island. Aug. 1 to May 16 I 5 a

Yellow wood tower, 30 ft. high, half a mile
from E. point of Eddo. Aug. 1 to May 16...

On N.E. point of Avero. Aug. 1 to May 16 ....
On North side of island. Aug. 1 to May 16 ...

Wooden tower, painted white, on extr. of pt.,
at entr of N. channel to Christiansund. Lt.
shows red betw. W.S.W. and N.W. by N.
leading N. of Haask Rock ; w hite from N.W.
by N. to N. by E. | E., leading 3 cables W.
of Golmodden; and red from N. by E. f E.
to E.S.E. (Aug. 1 to May 15)

White square tower. Lt. shown betw. W. by
S. and E. by N. | N., fix. br. over the Ravn-
gab and otber navigable channels, and flash-
ing br. (short eclipses ev. altern. sec), orfix.
red, over dangerous ground

Stone tower, 96 ft. high, on N.W. pt. of island.
A flash of 12 sees, every minute

.5a

On the eastern part of Mooen 1 g a

Red iron tower, 40 feet high, on Ohna Calf. I 2c
Red flash every J min I

Fishing lt. on Kvaernholm, S.W. of Ullaholm; I 6a
from Jan. 25th to April 8th

1 49 |

12 |

| 119

17 |

| 50

11 |

1 42

10 |

| 36

12 |

| 72

11 [

| 127

20 |

| 27S

16 |

| 127

17 |

| 46

11 |

1 44

1 18 1

| 116

1 9 1

1 | 48

1 9 1

1 | 100

1 12 1

1 | 51

1 14 1

| 65

12 |

| 60

9 |

1 75 |

15 |

1 134 |

19 |

1 94 |

11 |

1 " 3 1

18 |

1 6 ' } 1

S |

NORWAY.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. E.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.

S43

'Q a

c a

6fW

Lepsorev

One fixed bright or red
light

Erkna Island

Synses, Wiggeren Island

Walderhong

One fixed red light

Aalesunds

Alnass, Godo Island

Hogsten

One fixed and flash. It.

RUNDO

One fixed bright light

Flaeevar
One fix. or changing It.

Freko* Island

One fix. br. and red It.

Wagso

One fixed red light

Hjertnesstrand

One bright fixed light

Smb'rhavn

One red or bright light

Stabben

One fixed light

Kind Island

One bright fixed light

6* 35-4
6 15-5

White it.-ho. on head of Gamlemshaug Mole.
Lt. br. from W.S.W., through W. & N., to
N.E. £ N., red betw. N.E. g N. & N.E. by E.
i E., & br. betw. N.E. by E. J E. & E.N.E.
From Aug. i to May 31.

I *>2 33.3 I Red light, spring fishery light

I 62 32.5 I Bright fixed light, spring fishery light | 6a

I 62 30 1 I On South point of Walderci. Aug. 1 to May 16 | %
I 6 74 I I

4a I 28

6 a

I 62 28.7 I One red fixed light on Moloen Point

I 62 30. I Bright fixed light, spring fishery light

62 28. I Flash every 3 min. On S.E. of Godo Island, | 4d
g , , I Bred Sound

62 25.
5 35-i

5 36-5

62 10.5

5 22.7

62 2.

S 7-8

61 59.
5 »°-

61 45.
4 55-

Iron tower, 93 ft. high, white, with red be'.t,
on W. point of island, Bred Sound. Aug. 1
to May 16

Bright It., except towards Skiiiggen, when it
changes to red every 3 sees.

Bright It. from white tower, vis. betw. N. by
W. f W. and E. by N. £ N., but red from
N.W. J N. to N.VV. by \\ ., and from E. | S. .
to E. J N. From Aug. 1 to May 15 I

On Skog Niis, N.E. point of island. Over I
Krseka and Melflua Shoals; or from N. bv
\V. £ W. to N.N. W. .J W.,itis eclipsed every
2 or 3 sees. From Aug. 1 to May 15 I

Yellow wooden lt.-ho., 33 ft. high, on E. side
of Ulve Sound. Lt. shown betw. N. |E. &
E.N.E., also betw. N. by W. and W. by N. £
N.over Skare Bay anchorage

(la

On Froesoen. Lt. red from N.N.W. f W. to I 3a
N.W. I N. ; thence bright to E. f S

Ronglevar

One fixed br. or red lt.

60 48.
448.

HELLISO

One br. rev. It., 1 min.

60 45.1
4 43-i

8KIJELLANGER

One fixed bright light

1 60 36.6
1 4 57-2

Bergen

One fixed red light

| 60 24.
1 5 18.3

Leerb'en

One fixed bright light

60 14.3
5 io-3

MARSTENEN ROCK

One revolving red light

1 60 7.8

1 5 i-

Piir Holm

One fixed bright light

60 5.2
1 5 n-5

61 36. I Bright It.; red towards Floro from E. \ S. ... | 5a
4 57-6 I I

6 J 3 1. 6 I On S.E. part. Shown eastward between I 6a

4 46.7 1 tf-tyE- to s - b y w I

60 48. I On Bratholm. Bright seaward, but red to S. I 6a
channel, or from S. f W. to S.S.W

Iron tower, 100 ft. high, red, with white belt. | 2b
Beyond 8 miles it is dark between flashes

N.W. side of Holzeno Island. Guide to N.
channel to Bergen. July 15 to May 16

On mole. Guide to Vaagen and chief anchor-
ages. Aug. 15 to April 30

West side of island. Shown westward, from
S. by W. to N.E. £ N. Obscured over Roug-
nene. July 15 to May 16 „

Stone tower on highest part of Id., at Kors
Fiord entr. Flash of 8 sees, every 20 sees....

Bagholm Sound. July 15 to May 16

5 a
O

e
b

Oxhammer
One fixed bright light

59 59-3 I East sic * e of Se 'bo\ Eclipsed in direction of I 9
Nvleden over an arc of 17°. July 15 to I
May 16 I

f-S

1 160 1

11 |

1 so 1

9 |

1 41 1

4 I

1 12 |

5 |

1 30 |

9 1

1 41 |

12 |

| 161

21 |

1 5G |

12 |

1 68 |

11 |

1 57

12 |

| 58

10 |

•• 1

| 50

12 |

| 33

10 1

| 53

10 |

| 154

19 1

| 58

13 |

1 41

1 4 |

1 5 7

1 4 1

) | 120

1 17 1

| 32

| 4 |

| 130

1 4 |

9 I 1879

1870
1870
I860

1863
1870

1858

1870
1876

1870

1871
1867

1867
1870
1855

1853

1839
1855

1877
1849

1860

5 «3-7

NORWAY.

LIGHTHOUSES.

South-West Coast

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. E.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

3.9

SLOTTERO

One fixed bright light

KLngholmen Island
One fixed bright light

Folgerb'en

One fixed bright light
leervig

One fixed bright light

Midtholmen

One fixed red light

Langevaad

One fixed bright light

Espevar

One fixed bright light

Ryvarden

One bright fixed light

Roesar

One fixed bright light

Sarhoug

One fixed bright light

Hdievarde

One fixed bright light

Faeo

One fixed light

TJDSIRE

Two fixed bright lights

Kobbervig

One fixed red light

Bukke Sand

One fixed bright light

Skudes Ness Havn

Skude Ness

One fixed bright light

Vigholmen

One bright red light

Fieldo

One bright fixed light

HVIDINGSO

One fixed and flash. It.

Dusevig

One bright fixed light

Stavanger

One bright fixed light

1 59 54-5 1

15 45 1

1 59 53-2 1

1 5 »3-3 1

59 48-
5 18.7

59 46.8

5 3 2 -9

[ 59 4 2 - 1

1 5 2 4- 2 1

1 59 36-7 1

1 5 i5- 2 1

1 59 35-i 1

15 9-3 1

1 59 3 r -7 1
1 5 13-6 1

| 59 26x 1

1 5 7- 6 1

1 59 2 5- 2 1

1 5 H 7 1

1 59 '9-5 1

1 5 19-5 1

1 59 22 -7 1

1 5 i°-7 1

| 59 l8 -3 1

1 4 5 2 -7 1

1 59 *7- 2 1

1 5 19-7 1

1 59 '3-4 1
1 J 2 7- 6 1

f 59 8.4 1

1 5 18. 1

1 59 8.4 1
1 5 16.8 |

1 59 5-3 1

1 5 34-4 I

I 59 3-7 I

1 5 2 4-4 1

1 58 59-8

J 5 4'-3

1 55 5 8 - 2 1

1 5 44-3 1

Iron tower, 72 ft. high, red, with white belt, I 2a

on N.W. pt. of islet. S. entrance to Selbo I

Fiord '

Lt.-ho. on W. end of id. Lt. vis. from N. ^ W., | 4a
Clearing Tranu' Id. toS. f E. From July 13

to May 15 '

On island at Stoksund. July 15 to May 16

S.E. coast of Stordilen Id. From gable of 5a
white dwelling on S. pt. of Midto Islet. Lt.
shown betw. 8.W. by W. and N.N.E. July
15 to May 15 following

Mosterhavn. Shown eastward, from N.N.E. I
to S.W. by W. July 15 to May 16

Lille Blegen. East side of Bommelo Island. I 9
July 15 to May 16

S. entrance of harbour. Oct. 1 to April 1 I ©

On point leading into Bommel Fiord. July 15 I 9
to May 16

OnGittero Rock, East side of entrance. Shown] 9
eastward, from N. f E. to W. by S. f S

On rock at N. entrance of Karroo Sound I 5a

East side of Karmo

Bright It., but is red over Gangvar Rock

Two red stone towers. 40 ft. high, on W. side I 2a
of island. N.W. and S.E., 220 yards apart,
throughout the year '

On E. side of Karmo ; on N. side of entrance... | 9
E. side of Bukkcn Island. Oct. 1 to April 1... [ q

One fixed bright light. Oct. 1 to April 1

S.E. point of Karmi>. Kept in sight, clears | 9
the Ostboen. Oct. 1 to April 1

On islet, off Skudes Ness Harbour ; must be I 9
kept in sight, on the port hand, when ap-
proaching '

On Vindhoug, Klubben Islet, North side of I 9
channel to Stavanger. July 15 to May 15 ...

White stone tower, 85 ft. high. Bright flash, | 2d
every 4 min., throughout the year

On Varnses, S. point of bay. For pilots' use...

On Valberg tower. Sept. 15 to March 15

1.52
30

39
16
7.3
63
02
72
66
45
25a

149

NORWAY.

LIGHTHOUSES

South Coast

- 3

•d

Lat. N.

2 *r.

<-■%

Long. E.

Description, &c.

boW

.2 o)

S-J3

Name and Character of Light.

3 '

(Bearings by compass from the light.)

1 5

££

J3 >•

Tunge Ness

One bright fixed light

Fladholmen

Out; fixed bright light

Lille Feistecn

One fixed red light

Obrestadbraekka
One fix. & flash. It. \ rn.

EGERO

One fixed bright light

Grundsund Holm
One fixed br. light

Vibberodden

One fixed br. light

Varnas

One fixed bright light

LISTER

Oat- br. flash. It. 4 sees.

South Katland Islet
One fixed red or br. It.

2.i J On S. part of Bukke Fiord; on West side of I 6a
channel to Stavanger. July 15 to May 15...
5 34 2 I I

c% rr.3 I OnN.W. point; eastward of Rot I 6a

5 33 7 I I

c8 4Q ? I On S.E. pt. of islet, at 4J miles N.E. from I 4a

- —, q Joederens Point. All the year |

«8 7q c I Od gable of stone-house ; It. obscured to S. to I 3c

. -.'- h mile from land ofi pt. near Haa. Lite-boat

5 33 5 I 2

58 26
5 522

Iron tower, 105 ft. high, red. with white belt, | la
on W. point of island. Throughout the year

<;8 27 8 I On N.W. point of island, on S. side* of channel I 5a
J S. of Egeru. Throughout the year

S.E. point of Egero, West side of Egersund... I 5a

South point of entrance to Lister Fiord I 5a

,-s

25-3
59 6

10.6

37-3

5*
6

6-5
34-2

58
6

35
50.6

NAZE OF NORWAY, or

57 59*

LINDESN2ES

7 3-

One fixed and flash. It.

Mandals Ryvingen

57 58.1

One bright It., red flash

7 29-7

Hatholm

! 58 0.2

One briirht fixed light

7 27-2

CHRISTTANSAHD FIORI

Oddero

58 8.2

One fixed bright It.

1 8 05

0X0

58 44

One fixed bright It.

8 3-6

Gronningen Isiet

158 5-i

One fixed red light

1 8 5 8

Store-Grb'nningen Island

58 i5-3

One fix. & flash, br. It.

8 Z*.2

Arendal

58 26.3

e rix.^d bright light

8 47-4

TORUNGEN ISLANDS

58 24 1

Two fixed bright lights

8 47-7

Ejeholmen

1 58 38.3

One fix. & flush, red It.

1 9 9-5

Stangholmen Island

1 58 42.7

One fixed red light

9 ! 5-

Kills Fiord

Two red fixed lights

a. a. 0. — Liy!d

One flashing It. every 4 sees., instead of three 2a
fixed lights on Gunnarsi.oug, West point of
Lister Land. Throughout the year.

Farsvind Channel. Shown from wh. bldng. at 4a
S. > . pt. of islet, br. seaward b tw. s.W . and
S., red betw. S. and S.xE. ^ E., & br. Irom
S.S.E. { E. to E Alsobr. tonorthwd. betw.
N.W. by W. 4 W. and N. A E., and towards
FaeroUalven betw. W. and W. £ N At N.
extr. of FaeiOhalven a reflector is placed to
reflect a sectorot 12° of lighttowards E.N.E.

White and red tower, 33 ft. high. Flash every Id
minute. Throughout the year

On S.W. part of Ryvingen; red flash every | 3d
half minute

On S. point of island, in Manne Fiord

On S.W. point of island

Round white tower, 92 ft. high, on S. pt. of 1 2a
island, tntrance of Christiausand Fiord

Chvistiansand Fiord, E. side of entr. White I 4a
building on summit of islet. 1 iirht shown
west aid bern.-en S.E and N.N.W '

White It. -ho., on S.W. extr. of Id., E. of Horn- | 3c
borg'i. Lt. fix. for 30 sees., followed by 4
flasues occupying 30 sees '

Yellow building on Sandvig Point, W. side of | 6a
cnani.el. The lt. is red to W. of S. £ E. ...

On Outer Torungen and Inner Torungcn, 1 2a
N.N.E., 1,200 yards apart ,,

White It. -ho. on S.W. extr., N.E. of Lyngo. I 3 C
Red flash every alternate minute I

Y'ilow building on East point. Light shown I .ja
from X. $ E. by N. and E. to S. JW

On on Sta'seng; onernStroiutantren, nr. Rab- I 5a
bet Pt. In one, lead tkrouga btangbo Ch.iu. g„

1828

1862

1859

109

1873

154

1854

43 J 11

73 J 12

90 I 12

130 J 19

61 I 10

164 I 24

135 I 18
64 I 10

27 I 10

139 I 19
50 I 9

71 I 15

43 I 11

134 I 20
134 I 20
68 I 10

34 I 10

1855

1836

1853

1878

1853

1867

1832

1853
1878

1879

1844
1344
1879
1855

80 j 7 ! 1874
Z5 6 1874

FRANCE.

LIGHTHOUSES.

North Coast

Lat. N.

§1

B .

•

Long. E.

Description, &c.

P. 3

■-i~

.•23

3 3

Name and Character of Light.

O t

(Bearings by compass from the light.)

hi o

a =3

DUNKERQTJF

1. One rev. br. It., 1 m.

2. One bright fixed It.

3. One tidal light

4. One fixed green It.

DUWKERQTJE ROAD.

Out Ruytingen Lt.-Ves.
One rev. red It., § m.

Dyck Lightvessel
Two bright fixed Its.

Snouw Lightvessel
One fixed red light

GEAVELINES

1 . One fixed bright It.

2. Two bright fixed Its.

Walde Point

Flash. It., red & br. fl.
alternately ev. 20 s.

3-
21.8

1. Brick tower, 177 ft. high, between W. jetty
and Kisbon old fort. Lifeboat station

2. On Heuguenar tower, at 2,400 yds. S. by
E. i E irom entrance; shows only in the
channel to N. by \V. £ W

3. Lt.-ho. wh., 27 ft. high, 49 ft. within extr. of
W. mole. Tide at less than 6£ ft. above low
water, & falling, It. shows green, rising red.
Tide over 6j ft. above low water, & rising It.
shows white, varied by flashes.

4. On East jetty head

I 194
I 85
I 33
I 26

I 24

I 9

I 3

o-3
6-5

5° 59-7
1 55-i

1. Tower, 89 ft. high, on Little Fort Philippe.

2. Tide Its., 65 yds. apart, on S.W. mole, from
2h. before to 2h. after high water. Life-
boat station

Iron beacon, 59 ft. high, on edge of sands

1845
1878
i863

ci 12 o I Painted red. In 8 to 11 fathoms. Bears I • I 33 | 11 f 1863

•> 1, , N - b V W. I W. 11} miles from Dunkeique

2 12Z I lighthouse '

(• 1 1 1 I In 11 fathoms, at 3.1 miles N. by W. J W. from I » I 34 I 10 I 1869

2 *'\ Gravelines lighthouse | •• I 23 | .. | ....

a 3 r I In 11 fathoms, at 5 miles E.N.E. from Grave- [ 9 | 33 | 7 "

2 12 6 lines lighthouse

3a I 9-5 I 15 I 1843
9 I 20 I 6 I 1854

3b I 34 I 10 I 18C*

CALAIS

One fixed and flash. It.

50 57-7
1 51.*

Flash every 4 minutes. Octagonal brick tower,
167 ft. high, at N.E. end of old fortifications

Id I 190 J 20

Calais Tide Lights

1. One br. fix. It., &
two red lights

2. One red light

1. On end of E. jetty ; br. It. 10 ft. ; red below
br. It., 13 ft. ; red above br. It., 16 ft. ; three
Its., 20 ft.

2. On end of W. jetty ; all night. Lifeboat
station

4a J 39 I 10 I ..,

CAPE GRISNEZ i 50 52.2

One rev. br. It., 5 min. | 1 34.9

Boulogne Tide Lights 50 43.9

1. Two fixed bright Its. 1 35.

2. One red, one green It.

ALPRECK POINT

One fixed and flash. It.

CANCHE or Etaples River
Carniers Sandhills
Two fixed lights

Point Tonquet

Two fixed bright Its. '

Point Haut Banc of Berck
One br. intermitting It.

41.9
33-7

r
1

33-i
36.8

5°
1

31-4
35-5

5°
1

24.
335

Tower, 79 ft. high, \ mile S. of cape. A I lb I 226 I 25
powerful MAGNETO-ELECTRIC light

1. In one tower, on S.W. jetty head; higher It.
while 9i it. ; lower It., from high water to 9
feet ebb. Lifeboat.

2. On N.E jetty. Green It. while 9| (t. water.
In line with red It. indicates direction of stone
foundation of the jetty. Life-boat station...

4a I 43 I 9
.. 33 I .
4a I 46 J 7

Abrightlt., with red flash every 2 min. Tower, I 4d I 161 I 12 I 1842
33 ft. high, 2£ miles S.W. of Boulogne ...

Shown from white towers on N. side of river;
when in line, bear E. northerly ; formerly
served as leading Its. Lower It. is red. In
line, lead over Tonquet Bank

Two fine brick towers, 171 ft. high, at S. side
of mouth of river, N. by E. | K. and S. by
W. I W. ,273 yds. apart

121
54

10
9

1874
1874

la I 174 I 20 I

Tower. 92 ft. high, on N. pt. of River Authie; I 4o | 115 | 14 | 1868
It. visible and 1 clipsed every 6 sees. ; obscured
toward S. j E., and over danger* Life boat '

FRANCE.

LIGHTHOUSES.

North Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. h.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

« >

SOMME RIVER.

Crotoy tide light
One fixed bright light

Hourdel Point tide light I
One fixed bright It. |

CAYEUX

One fixed & flash. It.

Cayeux tide light
One fixed bright It.

St. Valery-sur-Somme

1. One red fixed It.

2. One fixed green It.

Treport

1. One red fixed light

2. Onejix. br. tide light \

Dieppe

"West Mole

One fixed bright It.

East Mole Tide Lights
Three fixed bright Its.

50 12.0 I On N. side of entrance. Tide light, while 3 ft. I • I 25 I 4 1 1851
j «_ _ water in entrance

50 12.9 [ On mast, 33 ft. high, on S. side of entrance. I • | 36 | 6 | 1852

1 33 9

Tide light, while 2 ft

50 1 1.7 I Tower, 89 ft. high, on S. side of entrance. I 3d I 92 I 15 I 1835
x , _ Fixed It., with flash every 4 minutes

5° "-5

1 37-5

50 3-9
1 22.1

49 5 6 -
1 4.9

On a mast, at 812 yds. S.W. of Cayeux light, I • I 36 I 6 1 1856
from 3i hrs. flood to l£ hrs. ebb ' ' '

1. On iron stand, in front of Harold's Tower.,

2. Frum pillar, on mole-head ,

1. On iron stand, on end of East jetty

2. Brick tower, 27 ft. high, on W. mole.

Bright tide light, while 6 £ ft., in the
channel

Stone tower, 32 ft. high. Flag by day.

On a mast. Lowest It. all night ; highest It.
from 2^ hrs. before to 2 hrs. after high water ;
middle It. from 2 hrs. before until high
water. The two latter not shown when
harbour is inaccessible

2o
25

5 I 1868
5 1877

22 I 5 I 1861
36 J 10 J 1806

4a I 39 I 10 I 1834

4 1843

AILLY POINT

One rev. br. It., 1 min.

St. Valery-en-Canx

1. One red fixed li<rht

2. One bright tide light

49 55-i

° 57-5

49 52- 1

o 42.7

Square tower, 66 feet high, on the point.
Eclipses not total within 12 miles

1. Red It. on end of E. jetty. Flag by day ...

2. Tide It. on brick tower, 31 ft. high, near
end of W. jetty, while 8£ ft. water

lb I 305 I 27 I 1852

24
33

5 I 1857

6 1857

FECAMP I 49 46.

One fixed bright light | 022.

Fecamp Harbour

Fixed It., withjlash, 3 m.

EIVER SEINE.

LA HEVE I 49 30.7

Two fixed bright Its. | o 4.1

Square tower, 56 ft. high, on Fagnet Point,
above the chalk cliff. Sometimes obscured
by fog

On N. jetty, while 10 ft.
jetty ,

Fixed red It. on S.

Two towers, 66 ft. high, on the summit of the
cape, S.W. £ S., 69 yds. apart. MAGNETO-
ELECTRIC lights

la I 426 I 25 | 1836

4c
4a

183S
1S59

la I 397 I 25 | 1845

HAVRE

1. One fixed br. It.

2, Two fixed red Its.

49 2 9-
o 6.1

1. On N.W. jetty.

2. One on S. pier in line with another on great
quay lead into harbour

A lantern, with coloured glasses, on the quay.
Lifeboat station.

4a J 36 I 10 I 1843

HOC I 49 28.8 J On the point, N. bank of River Seine | 4 a | 39 | 10 | 1841

One fixed bright It. | o 11.2

Mesnil

J I One fixed It., 1J mile from Tancarville | 4a | 23 J 7 { 1861

FRANCE.

LIGHTHOUSES.

North Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat.

Long

Long.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

- a

RIVER SEINE-(co»^^).

Quillebceuf

One fixed bright It.

La Roque
La Roque Bank
Rille River
Seine Canal
Berville

TATOUVILLE

One fixed & flash. It.
Hcnfleur

1. One fixed br. It.

2. One fixe.i red light

3. Tidal lights

4. One fixed green It.

TROUVILLE

1. Deauville

One red lixed light

2. Enst Pier

One yreen fixed It.
I. West Pier
One tide light

Dives

Two red tide lights

L'Orne River

Two fixed bright lights
One red tide light
One green light

Courseulles

One fixed bright light

POINTE DE VER

One fixed & flash. It.

Port-en-Bessin
Two fixed lights

Grandcamp

One fixed bright light

Port D'Isigny

Two fixed bright lights

Carentan
One red, one bright It.

40 28. C S. shore of River Seine. On N. end of quay...
Between Quil eboeuf and Caudebec several fix.
3 I- 5 lis. are shown 10 either bank of the river.
Between Caudebec and Rouen, 15 br. Its. on
the right bank, and 12 red Its. on the left
hank of the river, are shown

...... I Bright fixed light on South point

I I One 1 ed light on extreme of spit |

I J One red fixed light to South |

I I One bright fixed light on North embankment |

I j One bright fixed light £ mile West of church |

Octagonal tower, 105 ft. high, on the heights.
Bright It., with red flash, every 3 minutes...

1. On hospital jetty, N.W. end of town.

2. White iron lower, 39 ft. high. i>n W. pier...

3. From brick tower on end of K. pier. Shown
while 64 ft. or more water in channel. Addi-
tional depth shown by flashes ; each nd flash
indicates 3 tt. 3} in. (1 metie) additional, and
each green flash 10 in. d metre)

4. At extreme of breakwater constructing

5a j 33 I 10 j 1862

24.9 1

19.4 I

25 5

13.6

4 a

180

1867

••

.. | 1863

4a
••

7 | 1867
5 | 1850

420

20 | 1850

420

20 | 1850

1857

1876

, .

1876

49 21. 5

o 4.7

1. On W. side of entrance to Touques River.
Visible between N. by E. and SV. by N. £ N

2. Near end of East Pier

Long. W.

'7-7

5-3

16.6
15.6

3. Near end of W. Pier; lighted when 6^ ft. in
in channel. Br. seaward, red to E. of N.E.
by N. up Villerville Chan., and inside entr.

On BeuzevalMount and Fort, while 6 ft. water.
In one, lead in

Bright Its. on church and redoubt of Oyestre-
h 'in, W. side of entrance. In one, S.W. \ S.,
1.203 yds. apart. Red t ; de It. on \V. jetty,
from 3 hrs. be ore to 3 hrs. after h : gh water

On E. side of channel, at Oyestreham; shown
from 3 hrs. before to 3 hrs. after high water

4 a

62
33

10 I 1853

| 18"5

7 1 1860

8 | 1875

••

j 148

1 10

1 9 1 1866
1 7|

•

49 19.3 I In one, S. by \V. J W., 306 yds. apart, lead in

I 6.7 I

4Q ao.6 I Bright It. at Brevand ; red It. on sea bank.

1 1 1.3 I ^ one ' SW# i W, » lead "*

1843

1855

1678

49 20.3 I On a mast, on W. jetty head 1*1 30 | 6 | 1857

o 27-5 I I

49 20.5 I Square tower, 43 ft. high, on a hillock, 800 I 3d I 138 I 15 I ....
, . 2 yards from the shore. Fixed It., with flash
■» • ' every 4 minutes I

49 21. 1 I In one, S.W. by W., 79 yds. apart. High tide I £ I 131 I 8 I 1854

4C 6 1*" * s red ' wn ^ e 12 ft. on the bar I 90 I 6

49 23.4 I On a mast, 875 yds. West of church 1*1 26 [ 3 | 1856

1 2.6

46 I 10 I 1852
23 I 8 I

49 I 7 I 1861
16?

FRANCE, &c.

LIGHTHOUSES.

North Coast

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

6t. Marcouf

One fixed bright light

Morsaline

One fixed bright light

St. Vaast La Hougue
One red lixed light

La Hougue

One fixed bright light

Saire Point

One fixed bright light

Barfleur
Two fixed bright lights

CAPE BARFLEUR
One br. rev. It., 5 min.

Levi Cape

One fixed and flash. It.

Bequet Port

One bright, one red It.

CHERBOURG.
Port de Commerce

Pelee Island

One fixed bright It,

49 29 9 I On the fort, East of Sand-fly Island

1 8.9 I

49 ■34. 3 I On the mound ; much higher than La Hougue

, ._ . light. In one with it. shows N. limit of roads

1 19.4 I

49 34.2 I A small tower, 29 ft. high, on jetty.

1 15.6 I

49 34.3 I Square turret, 29 ft. high, at S. end of fort ...

1 16.4 I

49 36.4 I On Reville Redoubt. In one with Cape Bar-
It II Q ^ eur lt; '' snows K - kmrt of dangers off Ta-
•*'" ' tihou Island

49 40.1 I On South side of entrance, S.W. by W. £ W.,

1 1 ? 8 ^ 09 y* s ' a P art - I 11 oue > l ea0 - " 1 - Lifehoat ...

49 41.8 I Circular tower, 233 ft. high, on the cape.

. ,£ Eclipses not total within 12 miles

49 41.8 I Tower, 103 ft. high. Light bright, with red

1 2S.5

flash every 3 minutes

49 39.2 I In one, S.W. J S., 76 yds. apart, lead into the

.",,,, harbour

1 S z -y I

Red It. on E. jetty, green It. on head of W.
jetty

4a |

56 | 10 |

1840

5a |

282 |

10 |

1836

.. 1

1865

4a |

10 |

1836

4a |

1836

6a 1
6a |

23
43

8
9

1844

lb|

236

1836

4d|

lid

1858

.'I

1862

„,

33
15

3
2

1838
1876

49 40. 3 I On Fort Imperial
1 35- l

5a I 85 I 10 I

La Digue

1. Oue fix. & flash. It.

2. One fixed green It.

3. One red light

Querqueville Fort
One fixed bright It.

CAPE DE LA HAGUE

One fixed bright light

49 40.1
1 37.2

49 40-3
1 41. 1

1. A white stone tower, 54 ft. high. Lt. br.
fixed, with flash every 3 min., on central fort

2. Green light on eastern head

3. Red light on W. head of breakwater

Turret, 52 ft. high, on the guard-house. Life-
boat station

•

40 4.3 4. ! Circular tower, 154 ft. high, on the top of Gros

j „ T ! du Raz Rock, half a mile W. £ S. from the

•57 -J I cape

59 I 10
157 I 18

1839
18.3
1853

1837

CHANNEL ISLANDS (British).
Alderney

Bray Harbour

Two red lights

49 43-3
2 12. 1

One on old pier ; screened over all dangers.
The other to S. W. by W. In one, they lead in

55 1 5
25 3

1859

CASKETS or Casquets
One flashing bright It.

HANOIS ROCKS

One red rev. It., 45 sees.

Guernsey

St. Peter Port

1. One red fixed lt.

2. One br. fixed lt.

49 43-3
2 22.7

49 26.
2 42.2

49 27.2
2 31*

Tower on the highest rock. Light shows
3 flashes of 2 seconds, in quick succession,
once in ev. | min.

A grey granite tower, 117 ft. high, on S.W.
rock ; obscured by Guernsey, from W. by S.
to N.W.

1. At entrance of inner harbour ; bearing
W. by N. J N., it leads in

2. On E. extremity of Castle Cornet break-
water. A temporary green lt. on N. jetty...

113 I 15

1723

1877

lb I 100 I 14 I 1862

40 I 6
59 12

1832
1867

FRANCE, &c.

LIGHTHOUSES.

North Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

|1 1= |l
If s| gS

s pa

CHANNEL ISLANDS (British)— continued.
Jersey

Verclut Breakwater
One fixed bright It

St. Heller

1. One fixed br. It.

2. One fixed red It.

3. One fixed red It.

4. Two grten lights

Goeray Pier Head

LA CORBIERE ROCK

One br. or red fix. It.

Dielette

1. One fix. red or "br. It.

2. One fixed red light

3. One fixed green It.

CAPE CAETERET
One rev. br. It., \ min.

Portbail

One bright, one red It.

Senequet
One fixed red light

Eegneville

One fixed bright light

CHAUSEY ISLANDS
One fixed and flash. It.

MINQUIERS LT.-VES.
Two bright fixed lights

GRANVILLE

1. One fixed bright It.

2. One fixed red light

Conesnon River
One fixed red light

La Pierre de Herpin
Proposed light

La Houle

One fixed red light

<T. MALO

Ballue

One green fixed light

Anse des Sablons
One flashing green It.

St. Malo

One bright fixed It.

Le Grand Jardin
One fixed & flash. It.

Roche Bonne

One rtd fixed light

49 '3-3
2 0.5

49 I0 -5
2 7.3

White iron tower, on the outer end, in St.
Catherine's Bay

1. Br. It. on Victoria or new S. pier

2. Red It. on Albert or N. pier

3. Red It. on upper pier road

4. On Albert pier and esplanade ....

I I One fixed bright light | .,

49 I0 -7
2 14.8

33-3
5 2 -

22.4
48.5

20.
43-

49
1

5-5
39.8

Tower 62 ft. high. Lt. is bright seaward from
N. by W. to S. by E., and red eastward of
these bearings, to N.E. over Rigdon Bank,
and to S.E. over Les Vracheres.

1. On end of ne^ pier; shows br. seaward and
red from N.N. W. towards land over Huquets
de Jerbourg and Basses St. Gilles. In line
with inner red lt. S.S.E. J E., leads in

At head of harbour. Lifeboat

On old jetty head

2 a

2
3

Square tower, 49 ft. high, 100 yds. E. of cape.
Life-boat station

On church tower and Point Dune. In one,
S.W. £ S., 953 yds. apart, they lead in

Tower, 77 ft. high, on the Senequet Rock, in
Deroute Passage

1 49
| 1

0.5 1
34 9 1

I48
| 1

52.2 1
49-4 1

J 48
1 3

53-6 1
17-5 1

| 4 8
I 1

50.1
36.9

1 48 3»-2 1
1 1 3°- 8 1

I48
| 1

44- 1
49-3 1

I48
| 1

40.2 1
51-2 1

I48
1 2

37-6
0.3 ]

I48

1 -

39-
1-7

I48
1 2

40.2 1
5-i 1

| 4 8
] 1

4°- 3
58.S

Square tower, 24 ft. high, on Agon Point | 4a

Square tower, 56 ft. high, on S.E. point. A I 3d
br. It., with red flash every 4 minutes I

Near S.W. eitreme of plateau; two black I 4a
balls.

1. Tower, 42 ft. high, on Granville Rock, or 3a
Cape Lihou 43,

2. Red lt. on S.E. end of mole head, W. side
of entrance. Lifeboat

On W. side of Mont St. Michel, from 2 hours I 4a
before to 1£ hour after higa water

Proposed on rock, West of St. Michel Bay

Tower, 37 ft. high, on La Fenetre Island, at | 4a
Cancalle

Square tower, upper part black, on the hills,
at 1,804 yds. S.S.E. J E. from Sablons lt. ...

Shown in place of fixed green lt. Kept in line
with fix. green lt. at Ballue, bearing S.S.E.
f E., will lead to road of St. Malo

Tower, 31 ft. high, on the mole des Noirs ,

Tower, 92 ft. high, on S. end of islet. Lisht
bright ; flashes red and green alternately
every 20 sees

Tower, -W ft. nigh. N. of St. Hvduce. Light I 9
•hown from W . by N . i N. to N. W. by W . i W .

60 I 10 I 1857

6 1858
3 I 1859
3 1858
3 18b7

55 I .. I 1857
119 I 17 I 1874

23 I 9 I 1876

75 I 9 1....

23 I 6 I 1856

262 J 18 J 1839

64 I 8 I 1859

33 I 6 I

55 J 10 I 1861

33 I 10 I 1856

121 J 15 I 1847

39 I 10 I 1865
26 I 8 I

154 I 15 I 1825

40 4 1839

56 1 6 I 1S71

.. |. .!....

33 I 6 I 1867

221 I 9 I 1868
60 I 8 I 187?

33 I 10 I 1842

65 I 12 I 1868

128 I 6 ! 1868

FRANCE.

LIGHTHOUSES.

North Coast

Name and Character of Light.

CAPE FREHEL

One rev. br. It,, \ min.
Legue Port

One fixed bright light
lies Saint Quay

One fixed bright light
Binic Port

One fixed bright light
Portrieux

One fixed red light
Paimpol

One flashing red or br.
light

Trieux River

1. Twobr. flash. Its., 8 8.

2. Two red fixed Its.

Brehat Isle

Two fixed red lights

ROCHES DOUVRES

One flashing light
HEAUX DE BREHAT

Red fixed light, and red
flashing light

SEPT ILES

One fixed and flash. It.

TRIAGOZ

One fixed and flash. It.

Treguier River

1. Outer fixed br. It.

2. Inner red light

3. One fixed light

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

"■a
>"2

41.1 |

19.2 |

4 S

322 1

43-2 |

40.

48.6

48 36-1

49.

48 38.8

49 5

47-5

1-7

4 S

50.2

3-2

5»-9

59-3

6-5

489

54-5

5-3

Octagonal tower, 72 ft. high, on the cape, S.W. lb | 259
from old tower

Round tower, 40 ft. high, on the jetty at Point 4 a | 45
Aigle, St. Brieuc.

Tower, 33 ft. high, on Harbour Island 4 a | 49

Round tower, 33 ft. high, on Penthievre mole 4 a | 36

White tower, 33 ft. high, on end of new pier., o J 29

On Portzdon Point, N. side of entr. to harbour. . . I 35
Red betw. S.E. by E. £ E. and E. by S. \ S.,
bright thence to E. by S. \ S. ; obscured in
all other directions. Approaching Paimpol,
keep within sector of bright light

1. On Bodic heights, on W. side of channel;
and on La Croix Hock, on E. side ; 2 miles
apart. Shown only m channel

2. On end of Coat-Mer Peninsula. In one,
S. 39 E., lead up from La Croix It. to the
anchorage

On Paon Point and Rosedo Hill. In one, W. J
S., 5 mile apart. Paon Pt. It. shows a sector
of br. It., vis. 12 miles, betw. S.E. by S. \ S.
and S.E. by S. Keep within br. It. till Portz-
don bright It. is seen. Lifeboat station

A fine iron tower, painted white, 118 ft. high.
Eclipsed every 4 sees.

A circular tower, 157 ft. high, on N.E. side of
rocks. A red flashing It. is shown to N.E.
overBarnouic Ledge, betw. E.N.E. & E. 4 N.
A red fax. It. is shown to S.E. over the dan-
gers betw. S E. \ S. & E. by S. f S. Between
these two sections of red It. is a space of 23°
clear of danger, except the Roch-ar-Bel

, #

176

151

22 I 1847
10 I 1857
10 I 1850
10 I 1854
7 I 1853
7 I 1880

1867
1869

4a I 67 I 6 1 1860
•| 90 I 8 I ....

lb I ISO I 25 I 1869
la I 148 I .. I 1835

\% 52.7 Tower, 52 ft. high, on E. end of lie aux I 3d
X 20 z \ aioines - Plash every 3 min. Hidden to
y-J ' E. i :N. by Rouzic Island, &c '

l8 52.3 I Tower, 92 ft. high, on Guen Bras Rock; red | 3d
3 38.9 and bl 'i# nt fla shes alternately every .£ min.

51-5

Perros Road

1. One fixed bright It.

2. One fixed bright It.

48 48.1
3 23.9

3. One bright fixed It.

4. One bright fixed It.

48 46.7
3 28.4

Ploumanac'h Port
One fixed red light

48 50.3
3 29.1

Morlaix

1. He Noire
One fixed & flash. It.

48 40.4
3 52-6

2. Tour la Lande
One fixed bright It.

48 38.2
3 53-2

3. One red fixed light

4. One bright fixed It.

RoscofF

One tixad bright light

48 43-5
3 58.8

1, 2. Bright light on Harbour Mill ; red It. on
St. Antoine Mill. In one, S.S.E., lead into
the Grand Passe

3. Shown from La Come Rock. Sector of 7^°
gieen It. in channel to E.N.E., red S. of that
bearing. A sector of 7£° br. It. over inner
anchorage to W.S.W.

1. Near Nantouar Bridge

2. Near Kerjean Farm, 750 yds. S.E. of No. 1.
In one, they lead up the western channel ...

3 Behind Pigeon-house, on S. shore of bay...

4. Near Kerprigent Mill, 3,133 yds. S.W. of
Pigeon-house It. In one, they show the
direction of the eastern channel, and into
the road

184 I 15 I 1835
98 I 12 I 1862

1864
1876

105

4 a

46
38

33
253

89
259

10
12

12
14

1860
1860

1R60

I860

Square tower, 36 ft. high, on the point I 4 a I 69 I 5 1 1S60

Light, with
Tidal signals

1. Square tower, 43 ft. high
flash every 2 min.
for Treguier Channel

2. Square tower, 56 ft. high. Nos. 1 and 2 in I
one, show the direction of the eastern
channel '

3. On the Chateau du Taureau for the anchor- I
age in N. part of Morlaix Road

4. On Jardin or Louet Island. Nos. 4 and 2
in one, show the entrance of the western or
Grand channel. Pilots necessary

Shown from an iron standard on the extreme
end of the mole

4d I 46 I 10 I ....
•I .. |.. I ....

4a J

34
52

10 I 1860

1880

FRANCE.

LIGHTHOUSES.

North-West Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. \V.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light/

:>'

. s

c. '~

V gj

ILE DE BAS

One rev. br. It., 1 min.

Pte. de Pontusval
One bright fixed light

ILE VIERGE

One fixed and flash. It.

Abervrac'h

1. One red fixed light

2. One bright fixed It.

3. One green fixed It.

4. One bright fixed It.

48 44.7 I Circular tower, 131 ft. high, on W. part. I lb [ 233 | 24 | 1836
4 1-7 I I

48 40.7 I Square building, 43 ft. high, on the point I a | 59 J 10 | 1869

4 21.2 I I

48 38.4 I Square tower, 101ft. Irish, on E. point. Bright 1 3d. I 108 | 15 | 1845

fixed light, with red flash every 4 minutes... I

48 36.9
4 34-7

1. White tower, 36 ft. high, on "Vrac'h Island.
Life-boat station

2. On W. side of Plouguerneau Steeple, at
70 ft. ; both Its. shown down the channel. In
one, S.E. by E. A, E., \\ mile apart, lead
into the channel

48 35.8 I 3. On E. point of Palue Beach

. . - , 4. At head of St. Antoine Creek. In one, lead
4 33*5 1 t anchorage

1 S9|

1845

1 170 |

12 |

1863

131

1845

OUESSANT, orUSHANT

1. One bright fixed It.

2. One rev. It., 20 sees.

48 28.5
5 3-5

1. Two towers united, 85 ft. high, ontheN.E.
point

2. Circular tower, 152 ft. high, black and white
bands, on Creac'h, or N.W. point. Light
twice bright, once red.

la I 272 I 24 I ....

lb I 223 I 22 I 1864

LE FOUR ROCK

One nlteraiating fixed or
fl ishing light
Corsen Point

One fixed bright light

Conquet Port

One fixed bright litrht
LES PIERRE3 NOIRES

One red flashing light
ST. MATHIEU

One rev. br. It., A min.
BREST

Minou Point

One fixed bright It.

Portzic Point

One fixed & flash. It.,
3 min.

Brest

1. One green, 1 red It.

2. One bright, 1 redlt.

Brest, Bay of

One bright fixed It.

Toulinguet Point
One fixed red light

Douarnenez Bay

One fixed bright light

Port Douarnenez
One fixed red light

ILE DE SEIN

One fixed and flash. It.

Ar-men Rock

(Flashing bright light
proposed, 1881)

4S 31-3

4 47-5

48 24.9

4 47- 8

48 21.7

4 47-5

4 S 18.7

4 55-

48 19.8

4 46.7

48 20.2

4 37-

48 21.5

4 32.2

48 22.7
4 29.2

48 ] 9 .2

4 34 6

48 16.8
4 37-9

48 6.2
4 2i-4

Stone tower, 22 ft. high. Lt. bright and fixed 3b
for 30 sees., then S flashes for 30 sees

Chenal du Four. On S. wall of Semaphore build-
ing. Shown over an arc of 8 3 , indicating
channel betw. Grand Vinotiere to W., and
Petite Vinotiere and Basse des Renarda to E.

Square tower, 59 feet high, on Kermorvan ] 3a
Point. Lifeboat station

Square tower, 82 ft. high, on Le Diamant Rock. I 3h
Flash ev. 10 sees. Rocks stretch ^ mile to S.W.

Tower, 82 ft. high, on the point I 2b

Tower, 79 ft. high, on Petit Minou Point

Tower, 108 ft. high, 4 miles E. 4 S. of Minou
light. In one with Minou light, N. 69° E.
true, leads clear to the entrance of Brest
Channel

1. White iron towers on the jetty heads of Port
Napoleon.

2. At Commercial Port. Br. lt. at end of E.
pier, red lt. on W. end of S. pier

On Capucins Pt., W, Mde of Kelern Peninsula.
Lt. shown eastward betw. E. 1 N. & E. by S.
To the northward a ray of lt. is shown over
Les Fillettes Rocks

Square tower. 39 feet high, on S.W. side of
entrance. Lifeboat

Round tower, 31 ft. high, on summit of He
Tristan. Lifeboat station

J.8 5.8 I Iron pillar on Rosraeur mole.
4 19-5 I

48 2.7
4 52-

48 3-
4 59- s

Round tower, 142 ft. high, on North point of
island. Bright flash every 4 min. Lifeboat
station. (Proposed to be shifted to West
extreme of Cmtussee)

Lt.-ho. buildin.g on western part of Chaussee
de Sem, 4 } s miles West of Isle de Seiu lt.-ho.

4 a

92 I 15

105 I 14

177

105 I 15

184 I 18

33 I 7

207 I 13

161 I 10

114 I 10

23 I 5

7.48 I 20

1874
1881

1849
1872
1835

1848

1868
1864

1849
1857
1872

1843

FRANCE.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

<mme ani Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &e.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

§1

■gl

"UK
■gi o

.2 «

PS
.2 ^

2.2

>"3

£ *f

Q'B

-Q

RAZ DE SEIN
TEVENNEC ISLAND
One flashing It. every
4 sees.

POINTE DTJ RAZ

Two fixed bright Its.

Audierne Port

1. One fixed raHight

2. One tixed bright It.

PENMARC'H POINT
One rev. br. It., ^ min,

Guilfinec

Two red fixed lights

Loc-Tudy

One liright fixed light
Odet Eiver

One fixed red light

One l.ri.ht light
GLENAN ISLANDS

One fix. red, blight and
green light

FENFRET

One fixed and flash. It.

Concarneau
Two fixed bright lights

Lanriec
Aven River

White, red, or green It.

Douelan Port

Two bright fixed lights
ILE DE GROIX

1. One fixed bright It.

2. One fixed & flash. It.

L'Orient

1. Two fixed bright Its.

2. Two fixed bright Its.

3. Two fix. leading Its.

4. Two fix. leading Its.

Etel River

One fixed red light
BELLE ILE
Sauzon Port

One fixed red light
Palais Port

One fixed bright It.

18 4.3

4 47-8

4.5 2.4

4 44- «

4 S
4

0.6
32-5

47
4

47-9
22.6

47
4

49-9
9.6

47
4

5^-3
6.8

47
4

4 6 3
1.8

47 43-3
3 57-3

52.2
55-2

44-5

463
35-7

38.9
30.8

47 44 9
3 20.8

On Croix Battery, and betw. Concarneau and I
Beuzec. In one, N.E. 4 E., 2,052 yds. apart,
show Concarneau Road '

Red light on E. shore of Coicarneau Port I

On the Bec-ar-Veehen. Bright It. in fairway, I
from W. by S. \ S. to S. by E. ; red to S. ; I
green to N '

Turrets, 33 ft. high each, on E. & W. of entr.
In one, S. J \V., 356 yds. apart, they lead in...

1. Square tower, 75 ft. high, on Penmen Pt.,
at N.W. end -f Wand, £ of a mile in-shore...

2. Square tower, 39 feet" high, on Fort de la
Croix, on E. part of island. Keel flash every
3 minutes. Lifeboat station

1. One on church tower, one at Laperriere. In
one, N.N.E. \ E., kad into Little Pass

2. E. side of Grand Passe. In one, E. £ N.,
lead into Grand or Western Passage

3. At Keroman Creek. High red It. ; lower
green It., S. 12° W. from high It. In one,
lead between Turc Bank and opposite shoals

4. At Kemevel Bay. High It. red; low It. green,
N.E.f E., 328 yds. from highlt. Inline astern
indicate channel, from their intei section with
the line of Keroman Its. to Penmand anchorage

Lt.-ho. of brick, 52 ft. high ; It. shows white
in channel to S., betw. S. £ W\ and S. by E. ;
red from S. by E. to S.E. \ E. ; and white to
N., from S.E. i E. to W. by N. J N.; ob-
scured over the Chaussee de Sein.

In one with He de Sein It., shows direction of
Chaussee. High It. from square tower, 49
ft. high. Lower It., 220 yds. distant, shows
only 2 sectors, one over La Vieille rocks,
betw. W". and N.W. } W. ; the other betw.
N. by W. J W. and N. by E. in channel to
E. of Tevennec. These two Its. in line lead
on to the Plate Buck W. of Tevennec.

1. On Raoulic Point

2. Near Capuchin Garden. In one, N.E. £ N.,
1,203 yds. apart, lead clear of Gamelie Rocks

Circular tower, 131 ft. high, on the point, near
the church of St. Pierre

At3' miles eastward of Penmarc'h. Shown only
through the channel. In one, E. by N. £ N.,
620 yds. apart, lead in

Bound tower, 31 ft. high, on S. side of Pont
l'Aube River entrance

Round towers, 36 and 30 ft. high, on Coq Point.
In onj, S. J W., 291 yds. apart, lead in

Lt.-ho., a brick tower, 49 ft. high, on Isle aux
Montons. Lt. red betw. N. by W. ? W. and
W. by N.. green betw. W. by N. & W. by S.
J S.. bi . over fairway betw. W. bv S. 'j S. &
S.W. } W., red betw. S.W. } W. & S.E. { E.,
& br. betw. S.E. { E. and N. by W. f W. ...

Square tower, 72 ft. high, on North point of | 3d
island ; one of the Glenan Islands. Fixed It.,
with flash every 4 minutes '

.. I 92 I 13 I 187o

la I 259 I 18 I 1S43
.. 207 10 1875

lb I 135

4a I 35

118

177

13-3
125

82
118
194

5 I 1856
12 ....

22 I 1835

9 I 1871
41
10 I 1863

7 I 1848
9 I

12 I 1878
8

15 I 1838

9 I 1S49
12 I

9 I 1857

8 J 1868

8 I 1861
18 J 1839

4d I 171 I 10 , 1845

148
75
20
62
44 I
10
30
6

12 1852

1850
1857

1877
1877

47 38.7 I On a house, at entrance of river. Lifeboat I 4a I 20 I 3 1 iSoK

3 12.9 I station J

47 22.4 I Circular turret, 27 ft. high, on end of mole. I 4a I 30 I 7 1 1859

, .- , Lifeboat station I

47 20.9 I Circular turret, 27 ft. high, on mole head, S. I 4a I 30 I 10 I 1836

. Qi side of entranoe

x. a. o. — Light*.

FEANCE.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

Height
above H. W.

Visible in
Miles.

■0

BELLE ILE — {continued).

KERDONIS POINT

18.7

One fixed br. and red

3-7

flashing liuht

GOULFAE BAY

18.7

One rev. br. It., 1 m.

13-7

PTE. DES POULAINS

2 3-3

One br. flash. It., 5 s.

'5-2

Les Grands Cardinaux

iq-3

One fixed bright It.

50.2

QT7IBER0N BAY

La Teignouse

I 47

27.4

One fix. & flashing It.,

2.8

3 min.

Port Haliguen

1 47

29.2

One fixed bright It.

1 3

La Crac'h

1 47

34-1

One red, one br. It.

1 3

0.4

East extreme of island. Square stone lt.-ho.,
36 ft. high, showing fixed bright light for 25
sees., followed by 5 red flashes in 25 sees. ...

Circular tower, 151 ft. high, on S.W. part of
island

Square -white tower, 54 ft. high, on N. pt. In
one with Goulfar Bay It. clears Birvideaux

Cylindrical stone lt.-ho., 80 ft. high, on Gron-
gue-Gues Kock, S.E. of Haedik Island

Circular tower, 51 ft. high, on the rock, S.E.
of Quiberon Peninsula. In one with Navalo
light, leads to W. entrance of Pass

c I 116 I 12 I 1879

lb I 276

3d I 112

a J 89

I 27 I 1836
I 14 I 1868
I 12 I 1880

4d I 59 I 12 I 1845

Navalo Port

One fixed bright It.

Penlan Point

One fixed bright light

LE FOUR

One rev. br. It., \ min.

Croisic Port

Two fixed bright lights

Trehic Jetty

One br. or red fix. It.

La Banche

One fixed red light

Port Pouliguen

One fixed bright light

LOIRE RIVER

Point l'Eve

One fixed red light

Aiguillon Tower
One fixed bright It.

Commerce Tower

One fixed & flash. It.,
2 min.

Tower, 37 ft. high, on
station

N. jetty. Lifeboat I 4 a | 40 J 10 | 1856

On left bank of river, N. by E. and S. by W., I 4 a
574 yds. apart ; red It. to S. In one, lead in ^

29 I 9 I 1856
69 10 ....

Tower, 33 ft. high, on the S. point of entrance
to Morbihan. In one with Teignouse light,
54 - I leads to W. entrance

47 3 3 9

3i-

30.2

47
2

17.9
38.1

17.9

3<-i

18.5

3i-5

10.6

27.2

16.5

25.8

14-5
16.1

72 1 15 I 1864

Tower, 31 ft. high, on the point I 4a | 62 | 10 J 1844

A round stone tower, 92 ft. high, on the rock I 2b | 79 | 18 | 1822

On a mast near the church, N T . and S., 50 yds.
apart. In one, they lead in

Stone tower, 33 ft high, at entrance to Port
Croisic. Lt. bright to between N.N.W. and
W.N.VV. ; the rest red

Stone tower, 87 ft. high, on the Turc Bock ...
On jetty head ; only visible from S. to S.E....

13 I 6 I 1838
39 I 10 I 1874

70 I 9 I 1865
23 J 5 I 1871

15-4
i5-i

Marks the channel to the town of St. Martin I 6a | 102 | 6 | 1856

118 I 12 I 1857
198 I 14 I 1857

47 14.6 I Circular tower, 67 ft. high
2 15-9 I

Circular tower, 108 ft. high. In one with j 3d |
Aiguillon light, cuts E. part of Charpentier
Bank ; therefore keep it open a little to
East. Flash every 2 minutes I

Stone tower, 41 ft. high I 3b |

Ville-es-Martin Point I 47 15.4

Bed revol. It., 5 min. | 2 13.4

St. Nazaire I 47 16.3

One fixed bright lt. | 2 1 1 9

Paimboetif Port | 47 '7-4

One fixed bright lt. | 2 2.
Pierre a l'CEil

One fixed red light

Lights are proposed at St. Nicholas Island and Mindin Tower.

On new mole head. Tide Signals I 4a |

End of mole ! 4a

From stone tower, 4? cables W. of Piimboeuf
It., in line with which, bearing S. 75° E.,
leads in main channel of Loire River

33 I 10 I 1865
26 I 8 I 1836
26 I 8 I 185.1

15 I 8 j 18

FRANCE.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast

Lat. N.

5 2

•z

Long. W.

Description. &c

a.-

~ J

Z '

Name and Character of Light.

O 1

(Bearings by compass from the light.)

m 5"

— >

-_ a >

Pornic Port I 47 6.6 I Square tower, 36 ft. high, on Noveillard Point I 4a I 59 I 9 1 1846

One fixed bright light | 2 7. |

PILIER ISLAND

One fixed and flash. It.

Noirmoutiers Island
One bright or red light

ILE D'YETJ

One fixed bright light

Breton Port

1. Ono flushing red or
bright light

2. Two fix. bright Its.

Pte. des Corbeaux
One red fixed light
St. Grilles-sur-Vie

1. One fixed bright It.

2. Two red leading Its.

Sables d'Olonne

1. One fix. brisht It.

2. One fix. bright It.

3. Two fixed red Its.

47 2.6
2 21.7

47 o-7
2 12.9

Round tower, 97 ft. high, on N.W. point.
Flash every 4 min. Red sector covering La
Couronnes Reef; and another over the
Plateau des Bceufs

Square tower, 52 ft. high, on Pte. des Dames;
white to seaward ; red It. to westward ; from
E. by S. to N. by E. £ E. Red sector over
Plateau des Bceufs

2d I 105 I 18 I 1829

111 I 10
.. 7

46 43.1 I Circular tower, 108 ft. high, on mound of I la I 177 I 18
2 2X Petit Foule, 1,860 yds. from N. point ' '

*3-

43-8

21.

41.4

17.2

41.8

5 6 -9

46 29.7

1 47-4

1. Octagonal red lt.-ho., 20 ft. high, on extr.
of N.W. pier. Shows bright betw. S.E. by E.
and N. f W. ; red thence to N.W. \ N

2. One on outer jetty, N. side of entr., and one
at head of harbour, 284 yds. apart. In one,
lead in. A red It. on S. 'side of entrance

Stone tower, 38 ft. high, on S.E. point. Life-
boat station

1. Tower, 27 ft. high, on extr. of Grand Mole

2. For entering the harb. Shown from square
stone towers. Inner high It. 284 yds. N.E. by
E. £ E. from low It., near Croix de Vie Quay

1. Tower, 85 ft. high, at La Chaume, on W.
side of entrance to Olonne

2. On jetty, E. side of entrance, in one with
La Chaume It., shows direction of Great
Channel. Lifeboat station

3. S.E. of town. In line, E. by N. f N.i lead
up S.W. pass. Two red Its. are also shown
on Chaume quay, as leading lights between
the jetties

105
23

1867

1S62

1880

1837
1845

4a I 64 I 7 I 1862

1852
18S0

1826
1855

•

BARGES D'OLONNE

One br. It., with red flash

ROCHE BONNE LT.-VES.
Two bright fixed lights

PERTUIS BRETON

Grouin du Con Point
One fixed bright It.

Aiguillon Point
One fixed bright It.

ILE DE RE

BALEINES

One rev. br. It., § m.

HATJT-BANC DTT NORD

One fixed bright It.

Her du Fief

One green, one br. It.

St. Martin Port
One fixed red light

Port de la Flotte
One fixed bright It.

Chanveau Point
One fixed briarht It.

29.7

5°-7

12.
20.8

20.7
28.1

16.2
12.4

14.7
33-8

15-8
35-3

46
I

14.
29.

46
I

12.4
21.9

"•3

19.4

46
I

8.
16.5

Circular tower, 90 ft. high, on the Grand Bank ;
red flash every 3 min.

Painted red, in 26 fms., on E. part of plateau.
Three masts of equal height, and balls on
two of them.

3o I 75 I 15 I 1866

46 I 10 I 1864
33 .. ....

Square tower, 46 feet high I 4 a

Wooden beacon. 38 ft. high, bearing S. by E., I 4a
leads on to middle channel

Octagonal tower, 164 ft. high, on N.W. point. | lb
Flashes of unequal brilliancy

Circular tower, 96 ft. high, on the shoal, 1J I 3a
mile north-westward of Baleines Point

At W. side of entr. Upper It. green ; lower It.
br., E. I S., 370 yds. from upper It. Inline,
lead into Mer auFief. ,

On angle of demi-bastion. East of entrance. I 4 a
Shown seaward from S. by E. to N.W. by W.
true I

Circular turret, 28 ft. high, on the new mole. I 4a
Lifeboat station

Circular tower, 75 ft. high, on S.E. point of I 3a
island. R<d sector over all rocks on South
side of island '

92 I 10 [ 1859
I 1867

33 I 10 I 1859

164 I 22 I 1854

72 I 15 I 1854

36 I 5 1....
28 I 5 I

62 I 6 I IS67
30 I 9 I 1849
59 I 14 I 1842

FRANCE.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

£ 5>

Rochelle Harbour I 46

One br., one red fix. It. | 1

9.4
9-3

Upper br. lt. on tower, 72 ft. hiq-h, on E. quay; I 5a I 59
lower It. red, on circular turret, 44 ft high, I . 46
257 yds. to \V. J S. In one, they lead in ... ' '

He d'Aix

One fixed bright light

Fouras

One fixed brigbt light
Charente River

1. One red, one green
fixed light

2. Two red fixed lights
Seudre River

Une fixed bright light
ILE D'OLERON

One fixed blight light

La Perotine | 45 5 8 - 2

Chateau Port 45 53.1

Two fixed bright Its. | 1 11.7

46 0.6 I Tower, 45 ft. high, on fort at S. point of island
I 10.8

4a I 66

45 59- 8 1

6. |

5«-

4.4

47.8

8.7

2.8 1

24.7 1

•

, ,

•

RIVER GIRONDE

C0RD0UAN I 45

One rev. br. It., 1 m. | 1

COTJBRE POINT

One fixed bright It.

Gironde River Lt.-Ves. I 45

T .". bright fixed Its.

Pte. de la Palmyre
One alternating red &
green It., 20 sees.

Terre Negre
One green light

Royan

Two fixed red lights
Bright jetty light

St. George

Two fixed red lights

St. Nicolas

One fixed green light

Pte. De Grave

One Hash. It., 5 sees.

45
1

35-2
10.5

4i.5
15-4

399
15-8

40.9
8.6

388
6-5

37-3
2.8

Tallais Bank Lt.-Ves. I 45

One fixed bright It. \ o

Richard I 45

One fixed red light | o

Tour de By Lightvessel I 45

One fixed bright It. | o

Mapon Lightvessel I 45

One fixed bright It. | o

Calonge Canal I 45

One fixed red light | o

Lazaret | ,.

Basque Road. Iron pillar on end of pier, N.
harbour

1. Red & green Its. in one, S.E., 756 yds. apart,
shown only toward the Rade l'ile D'Aix ...

2. White towers, 536 yds. apart; Its. vis. toward
the Port des Barques, from S. by K. j E. to
S.E. by S. In one, lead to anchorage

From lantern on Pointe de Musde Loun, entr.
of river. Vis. betw. S.E. 1 S. & N.N.W. 4 W.

Chassiron Tower, 141 ft. hish, on N.W. point I l a I 164
of island. A refuge beacon on Antioch Rock, I
at 1} mile to N.E '

One fixed bright light at end of jetty | # | 38

One on citadel wall; the other 262 yards to j 4a I 33
N.E. & N. When in one, lead in I I *,*

I 22

36.
0.6

33-7
5-

34.2
4-i

3°-7
59- 2

26.4
56.

27-7
45-3 1

17.6
459

17.2
42.1

A handsome structure, 207 ft. high, on rock.
Lt. red between N. by E. J E. to E. by S. ...

White tower, 100 ft. high, on N. point of river,
N. point of entrance

Inside Grand Banc, in 8 fathoms, S.E. of La
Mauvaise Shoal

On a tripod, 99 ft. high, on the dunes, 4J miles
S.E. by E. & E. from Pte. de la Coubre It....

Circular tower, 76 ft. high ; not visible sea-
ward, or to S. of W.S.W. and E.S.E

One on black tower, at Chay, W. of Royan ;
the other, painted in red and white bands,
at St. Pierre, to the N. of Royan. In one,
bearing N.E. by E. J E., lead into the river.
Lts. only shown in that bearing

One on Vailiere Point ; one on Suzac sand-
hills, at 2,734 yards E.S.E. \ E., true, from
former; on E. bank of river

On the Dunes, W. \ S. from Pte. de Grave lt.
Shown only to W. » s. In one with Pte. de
Grave lt. leads through S. channel

Square tower, 82 ft. high, on S. point of
entrance

In 2j fathoms, on N.W. side of bank.

Circular turret, 53 ft. high, on S.W. side of
river

In 1\ fathoms, on W. bank of river, opposite
the tower

In 3J fathoms, on W. bank of river .

From iron support near entrance of canal, right
bank of river

One bright fixed light

3 a

194

121

34
23

167

3a I 121

177

46
121

3a J 105

• I 33

• I 33
.. I 22

FRANCE.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

q 3
o 3

■a a

»a

45. ~

0) •<*

.2 2

■^

EIVER GIRONDE— (continued).

Gaet I 45 12.2

Fixed bright & red It. J o 44.9

He de Fatiras I 45 12.4

One bright flashing It. | o 42.

White iron beacon, 20 ft. high,
red to eastward

The light is | 4 a

Square tcwer, on North end of island. Light
flashes every 4 seconds

Trompeloup

Pauillac

1. One br. fixed It.

2. One br. or red fix. It.

8t. Lambert

One red fixed light

Blaye

One red, one br. It.

HOTTRTINS

Two fixed bright lights

ARCACHON BASIN

One fixed bright light

CONTIS

One br. rev. It., | min.

Port Cap Breton
One fixed red light

Adour River

One fixed bright light
Two green leading Its.

BIARRITZ

One alternating It., 20 s.

Socoa Port

One fixed bright light

St. Jean de Luz

Two fixed green lights

Two fixed red lights

I I Fixed light, on old chapel, on W. bank .

45 "-9

o 44.8

45 "-3

o 44.2

45 7-4

40.1

45 8.3

1 9.9

44 38-7
1 15-1

44 5-7
1 19.4

43 39-3
1 27.

43 3i-8
1 3i-4

43 2 9- 6
1 33-3

43 23-7
1 41. 1

1. On landing-place

2. E. of Mousset, and N. of Gaet ; red toward
Gaet

Tower, 39 ft. high ,

Red It. at entrance of harbour. Bright It. at
landing-place. Yellow It. at end of dis-
charging-place

Square towers, each 77 ft. high, S. J W.,
656 ft. apart, parallel with the coast

Round tower, 125 ft. high, on sand hills, mid-
way between Arcachon and Adour River ...

On a wall on left bank of entrance

23.6

40.3

1
24.

40.

Cireular brick tower, 156 ft. high, on Ferret | la
Cape, N. side of entrance. Lifeboat station

On signal tower, 45 ft. high, on S. jetty. Lt.
is bright when entrance is practicable, but
red when caution is necessary. Two green
leading Its. when vessels can enter

Brick tower, 144 ft. high, on Point St. Martin.
Lt. white and red alternately. Flag when
practicable. Lifeboat station

Square tower, 33 ft. high, on W. point of St.
Jean de Luz Bay. A red ray of 17g° shown
to turning point of the two green leading Its.
Lifeboat station

One green It. on stone tower, 46 ft. high, 491
yds. behind E. jetty ; lt. shown 10° on each
side of leading mark ; a second green lt. on
E. jetty. In one, lead up till Socoa red lt.
appears |

Brick towers on Pointe St. Barbe, E. side of
bay. In line. S.E. by E. i K., 411 yds. apart,
lead into the bay, until the green Its. come
in line _

20 I 6

72 I 18

52 J 8

177 I 20
177 I ..

167 } 18

164 I 20

26 J 5

38 I 6

240 J 22

115 I 10

52 I 7

166
95

1858
1860
1860

1863
1840
1863
1872
1860

1861

1845

1872
1874

SPAIN.

LIGHTHOUSES.

North Coast.

Lat. N.
Long. W.
Name and Character of Light. !

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

o £

'Is.

■
0)

Cape Hignera

One fixed bright light
(Temporary)

Paiages Port

One fixed bright light

BAN SEBASTIAN
One iixcd and flash It.
One fixed bright light

Guetaria

One fixed bright It.

8umaya

One bright fixed It. (?)

Lequeitio

One bright fixed light

MACHICHACO CAPE
One fixed and flash. It.

Bilbao

One fixed bright light

Castro Urdiales

One fixed and flash. It.

Santona

1. One fixed & flash. It.

2. One fixed red light

Santander

1. One bright fixed It.

2. One red fixed light
S. One fixed green It.

CAPE MAYOR

One rev. br. It., ev. m.

Saances

One fixed bright light

San Vincente de la
Barqnera
One fixed red light

Comillas

TINA MAYOR

One bright fixed light

Llanes River

One fixed bright light

Rivadesella

One fixed & flashing It.

Villaviciosa

One fixed bright light

4.1
l

23.8
47-9

20.2
565

4.1

19-5
0.4

19.x
13. 1

18.7
15-5

23-4
33-5

27.3
49 4

43
3

22.6
4-

43
3

24-3

16.1

43
3

28.2
27.2

43
3

28.2

454

On ruin of old lt.-ho., W. side of Bidasoa Riv.
For use of fishermen. (New lt.-ho. building,
to be ready in spiing of 1881)

On Cape La Plata, near W. entrance I 4a

259

";Vhite tower, 46 ft. hi<rh. on v ■ nt Itrueldo,
W. side. Flash every 2 nnni. 1 _s

On summit of Santa Clara Ibhuid

Li?ht blue tower, on N. hill of San Antonio
Islet. Visible seaward Irom N'.W. * W. to
S.E. f E.

Triangular yellow tower, 60 ft. high, on Mount
Atalaya. (Doubtiul light)

Tower, 43 ft. high, on Point Sta. Catalina

Circular tower, 28 ft. high, on extremity of
cape. Flash every 4 minutes

I Tower, 41 ft. high, on fort, on Point Galea,

IW. side of entrance. Also a It. when vessels
enter, on S.W. mole head

I On Sta. Ana Castle. Bright It., with red flash
every 3 minutes

1. Tower, 44 ft. high, on Pescador Point. Flash
every 3 minutes

2. Tower on Caballo Point, E. part of mount.
Shown from N. by E. to S. by W. J W

1. White tower, 61 ft. hi;rh, on Monro Island.
Shown seaward from X. by E. to E. by S....

2. Bed It. on Capitania .*

3. Brick tower, 45 ft. high, on Point Puerto,
W. of entrance. Lt. is bright over Horadada
Islet

I 3d

I 6a

! 5a

I 5a
I 5a

I ld
I 4a

5d
4c

43 29.5 I Tower, 101 ft. high, on the cape, 1? mile from I 2b

Al 6 entrance of Sanander. A blue flag shown

-> 47 • I when tug cannot put off '

43 26 8 I At W. side of entrance to River San Martin de I 6a

4 o^| l aArena J

43 23.5
4 2J.8

White stone tower on Point de la Silla, at 6a
entrance of harbour ,

I I Two towers for fixed Its. building on the cliffs I , ,

143 25.2 I White tower, 33 ft. high, on Point San Emete- I 3a

. „,'/; I rio, li mile W. of entrance

4 33° I I

I 43 26.7 j Tower, 26 ft. high, on Point San Antonio, S. I 6a

I . at f I side of entrance

I 4 45-5 I I

43 31. I Tower, 25 ft. high, on Mount Somos. Lt. | 3c

5 7.1

fixed, with flash every 4 minutes

43 35-2 I Yellow tower, 36 ft. high, on Tazones Point,
< 22 q| W. side of entrance

| 486

14 |

| 4 31

15 |

| 171

9 |

295

10 |

| 135

•• 1

| 148

10 1

| 260

18 J

| 380

16 |

| 131

| 126

12 |

| 85

10 |

1 141

12 I

1 33

3 I

1 79

4 I

| 298

20 |

| 118

10 |

| 142

9 |

1 ••

• • 1

| 223

15 |

| 64

9 |

| 370

17 |

| 220

7 1

10 I 1855
1879

1855

1855
1864
1863

1870
1862

1852
1852

1853

1S63
1863

1860
1863

1870

1839

1863
1871

1864
1861
1861
1864

SPAIN.

LIGHTHOUSES.

North Coast

Name and Character of Light.

L.it. N.
Lou;:. W.

Description. &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

c 2
o 3

£:

1-f

— o

.OS
.gS

Gijon

1. One fixed light

2. One fi.>ed mtf light

PENAS CAPE

One rev. br. It., | min.

Aviles

One fixed bright light

Cudillero

One fixed bright light

CAPE BTJSTO

One fixed & flashing It.

Luarca

One fixed light

ORRIO DE TAPIA ID.

One fixed & flashing It.

Pancha Island

One fixed bright light

San Ciprian Peninsula

One bright fixed light

Barquero Harbour
One bright fixed light

CAPE ESTACA

One rev. br. It., 1 min.

Port Cedeira

One fixed bright light

CAPE PRIOR

One fixed bright light

Cape Priorino
One fixed and flash. It.

Ferrol

(Jne red, one bright It.

CORUNA

One fixed and flash. It.

Coruna

BISARGAS ISLANDS
One fixed and flash. It.

Cape Villanos

One fixed bright light

CAPE FINISTERRE
One rev. br. It., £ min,

43 35-2
5 38.

1. Tower, 30 ft. high, near Sta. Catalina Her-
mitage

2. At end of new mole ; also a red It at N.
mole of basin

4a I 167
4a 29

1 43
1 5

42.1 I
49.8 1

I 43
1 5

38-1 1

J 6 -4 1

|43
1 6

36.2 1
9.1 |

1 43

1 6

36.2 1
28.8 |

1 43

1 6

34-5 1
32-9 1

1 43
1 6

35-7 1
584 1

1 43
1 7

34-7 1
4-4 1

I 43
1 7

13- 1
28.5 |

1 43
1 7

45-6 1
40.3 1

1 43

1 7

47-3 1
44-3 1

1 43
1 s

39- 1
5 4 1

1 43
1 8

33-7 1
19.1 |

1 43
1 s

27.8 1
20.6 1

1 43
1 8

28.7 1
'5-5 1

1 43
1 8

23-3 1
24.1 |

1 43
1 8

21.8 1
5°- 2 1

1 43
1 9

9 .8 1
12.9 1

1 42
1 9

52-7 1
15-4 1

Tower, 33 ft. high, on the cape.

Yellow tower, 49 ft. high, on Castillo Point,
N. side of entrance '.

Tower, 25 ft. high, on Revallera Point

Tower, 34 ft. high, on the extremity of the
cape. Lt. bright, with red flash every 2 min.

Square tower, 30 ft. high, on Point La Blanca,
or Atalaya, on E. side

Octagonal tower, 32 ft. high, on the summit
of the islet. Flash every 2 minutes

On house, on W. point of entrance of Ribadeo
and Figueiras

On house, on Punta de Atalaya, N. extreme
of peninsula

Tower, 24 ft. high, on Conejera Island, on E.
side of entrance

Granite tower, 35 ft. high, on the cape

On point of Robaleira Peninsula, S.W. of
town

On N. point of Cape Palma

On Chico Priorino, entrance to Ferrol. Light
bright fixed, with red flash every 2 min. ...

Fixed red lt. near La Palma Castle. Bright
light on Mercantile Wharf

On tower of Hercules; quadrangular, 159 feet
high. Light fixed, with flash every 3 min.

Fixed lt. on St. Antonio Castle. A fixed red
lt. on emhurkiition mole

Tower on Isla Mayor, N. peak. Fixed bright
light with red flash every 4 minutes

At Camarillas, 2 mil^s northward of Cama-
rinas Bav. Ouscured liv cliff from S. .J W.
toS. 4 E.

Tower, 56 it. high, on S. point of the cape.
Obscured by land N. of N. i W

lb |

338

21 |

130

10 |

5a |

10 |

307

12 |

177

15 |

9 |

121

9 |

273

12 |

307

20 |

9 |

448

15 |

11 |

8 1

4 1

331

16 |

358

1 n 1

243

10 |

468

20 |

1865
1866

1853
1863
1858
1858
1862
1859
1859
1864
1864
1850
1862
1854
1864

1862

1805

1847

1853

1854

1853

SPAIN.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

| Lrvt. N.
iLong. \V.
Nome and Character of Light.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

— "3

_6pS

'o o

•3

Cape Ce

One red fixed light

Monte Lonro

One bright fixed light

CAPE C0RR0BEDO

One fixed bright light

Salvora Island
One fixed and flash. It.

Sua Island

One bright fixed light

Arosa Island

One fixed bright light

Ons Island
One fixed and flash. It.

BAYONA or CIES IDS.
One rev. br. It., \ min.

Vigo

One fixed & flash. It

Guardia Port

Boeiro Island

CAPE SILLEIRO
One fixed bright light

42 54.8
9 10. 1

42 44.3
9 3-8

42 34.6
9 48

42 27.8
9 °-4

42 32.8

8 55-4

4 2 34-i
8 52.

42 22.5
8 55-i

42 12.4
8 54-i

42 15-3
8 41.

Grey tower on cape, W. of Corcubion Bay ... | 5a
On Point Quiejal, N. entrance of Muros Bay I 5a
Tower, 41 ft. high, on the cape I 3a

South point. Lt. bright, with red flash every f 4d
2 minutes .".

Grey tower, 52 ft. high, on island I 5a

OntheN.W., or Caballo Point I 4a

Tower, 35 ft. high, on the summit of the island | 5a
in Pontevedra Bay. Flash every 2 min. .„

Tower, 35 ft. high, on Mount Faro, Middle Id. | 2b
(Apparatus injured, light consequently irre-
gular)

On castle of La Guia, \\ mile N.E. of Vigo. | 4J
Flash every 3 minutes

• ••••• I Light proposed | ,.

■ ••••• I Light proposed I .,

42 6.1 I Granite tower, 34 ft. high, on extremity of S. I 4a
8 Ca 6 I P " 11 of Vigo Bay

| 82

8 1

| 37

10 |

| 103

12 |

| 82

10 |

| 78

11 |

| 36

10 |

| 421

12 |

| 604

20 |

| 102

10 |

1 * *

•• I

1 • •

•• 1

| 72

17 |

1860
1852
1853
1853
1869
1851
1865
1853
1844

1862

PORTUGAL.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings hy rompass from the light.)

= -

1
.9 .'

'o o

.= .—

CD <

.2*

Q o

-O

a. a

•"■2
3

PORTUGAL.

lima Eiver

One faxed raJ light

Espozende River
One red fixed light

Povoa de Varzim

OPORTO

One rev. hr. It., 1 min.

Aveiro
Proposed light

CAPE MONDEGO

One fixed bright light

BERLENGAS

One rev. br. It., 3 min.

CAPE CARVOEIRO

One fixed bright light

CAPE ROCA

One rev. br. It., If min.

RIVER TAGUS

Guia

One fixed bright It.

Cascaes

One red fixed light
San Julian

One fixed bright It.
BUGIO

One rev. br. It., If m.
Caxias

Two fixed red leading
lights
Belem

One fixed red light
CAPE ESPICHEL

One fixed bright light
Setuval, or St. TTbes

One fixed bright light
CAPE SINES

One fixed bright light

CAPE ST. VINCENT
One rev. br. It., 2 min.

CAPE SANTA MARIA
One fixed bright light

41 41.3 I From Fort Vianna, N. bastion, N. side of river I a I 48 I 7 1 1878
8 44. J entrance |

41 31.4 I Iron column on platform of old fort I a I I 71 ig(;g

8 40.5

Fishing Its., 15 miles X. of Oporto I t. I .. I .. I 18-57

Square tower, white with red band, it Nossa I 4b I 170 I 15 I 1S34
Senhora da Luz. Tide signals

24.

37-

9.1

37.2

39-

43-

4°

12.

55-*

25.

3i-3

21.1

24 3

38 46.1

30.

3^
9

41.7
24.6

3S
9

41.
26.

40.3

20.5

38
9

39-

18.6

38
9

41.9

13-8

40.8

17.9

24.1

i3-

38
8

31.1

53-

57-4

5°-l

56.2

SS-

Proposed ; on the pier, S. side

A circular tower on the S. extremity of the
cape; shown westward from N. to S

Square tower, 100 ft. high, on Great Berlenga
Island .'.

Square tower, di ft. high, on highest part.

Round tower, 52 ft. high, £ mile N.E. of the
cape

Hexagonal tower, 96 ft. high, at Nossa Sen-
hora da Guia. Visible from N. bv W. f W.,
through W. and S., to N.E. f h. Signals...

Square tower, with blue band, on S.E. angle
ot Sta. Marta Fort

I •• I- I

I 330 I 20 J 1837

365 I 25 j 1848

1S2 I 15 I 1790

• j 598 I 21 I 1722

Hexagonal tower, 120 ft. high, in the fort.,

Tower of Lorenzo, 70 ft. high. Reported to
revolve every 3£ minutes (1876)

At 2£ miles W. of Belem Castle. In line, N.E.
by E. I E., lead over bar until Bugi> It. bears
S., when steer in mid-channel E. by S. to a
position 4 cables S. of Belem Castle

In fort, near Belem Castle

Square tower, 100 ft. high, on the cape

Circular tower, 36 ft. bi?h, on Fort d'Outao,
at \V. entrance of harbour

Three-storied It. -ho., 75 ft. high, upper part
cylindrical. Light shown from N.E. | N.,
through N. and W„ to S.E. § E

Circular tower, 52 ft. high, on the Convent,
Cape San Vicente. Rep. ev. 1£ min. Lt.
obscured by high land to the eastward

Circular tower on the cape

3a | 167 |

a | 52 |

4a | 128 |

• | 110 |

• I 310

• | 60

• I 30 |
la | 627 |

• | 490 |
2a | 130 1

• | 109 |

15 | 1771
6 | 1868

13 J 1775
| 1848

16 | 1775

18 I 1878
10 | ....

6 | 1847

25 I 1790

| 1848

16 | 1775

19 | 1880

20 | 1846
15 | 1850

N. A. O. — Ziff/its.

SPAIN.

LIGHTHOUSES.

South Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &e.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

'o a>

,a —

GUADIANA RIVER
Two red fixed lights

37 "-4

7 24.3

On W. end of Canela Id., on E. side of Aya-
monte River. In one, they lead over the bar.
1 Medo Alto light, on \V. side of the river, is
no longer a leading light over the bar)

22| I 8 1 1861

Cristina Island
Two green lights

Las Piedras River
One fixed & flash. It.

Cartaya Bar
Two hright fixed Its.

Odiel River

Two fixed bright lights

GUADALQUIVIR RIVER
CHIPIONA

One br. rev. It., 1 m.

Espiritn Santo
One fixed red light

Malandar Point
One fixed bright It.

Bonanza

CADIZ

One fixed It., with flash.

CAPE TRAFALGAR
One rev. It., 5 min.

TARIFA

One fixed red It.

Carnero Point

One fixed green light

Algeeiras

One fixed bright light

GIBRALTAR

EUROPA POINT

One fixed bright It.

New Mole

Ragged Staff Landing-
pi ace

MAROCCO.

CAPE SPARTEL

One fixed bright bight

CEUTA

One rev. bright light

37 1 1.1 I On the point S. of the town. In one, they
_ 2Q - lead over the bar

37 "-8
7 1.1

37 13-4
6 51.6

3 6 44-
6 26.8

White tower, 36 ft. high, at Rompido de
Cartaya, at entrance of river. Fixed light,
with flash every 4 minutes

On white beacons, 328 yds. apart,
they lead across the bar

In one,

On Punta del Padre Santo, on E. shore, 1£
mile within the bar of river leading to
Huelva. In line, they lead in best channel

Yellowish-white tower, 205 ft. high, on the
Cerro del Perro. The Salmedina Shoal lies
1£ mile W. by N. of it

S. of the fort.
N.N.E. of it.

26 I 7 I 1861
16 I .. I

3c I 79 I 14 I 1861

66 1.. ....

56 1 .. I ....

27 I 8 I 1861

La Riza Spit extends 1 mile
Not shown seaward

36 47.6 I Tower, 30 ft. high, on the low point, opposite
6 21 q San Lucar de Barrameda

I Fixed bright light, near the quay.

36 31.5 f White tower of San Sebastian, 127 ft. high,
6 1 o a on W. end of Cadiz. Bright It., with red
flash every 2 minutes

19.4

36 10. Q I Tower, 116 ft. high, on extreme of the cape,

g . Z\ at 1^ mile S.W. by W. true from the tower

'3 1 on Altos de Mega

35 59-9
5 3 6 - 6

3 6 A

5 25

36 7
5 26

Circular tower, 112 ft. high, on S. end of
peninsula. Shaded ^ a mile S. of Pearl Rock.

r I Round yellow tower, 163 ft. high. Lt. shows
o toS.andE.betw.N. 5 E. &S.W. by W.£ W.

2 I White tower, 29 ft. high, on mole end of Verde
Island, on fort. Shown over entrance of

bay, from S.E. by E. i E. to S. by W.

36 6.5 I On Victoria Tower, 61 feet high. A sector
- , . of red light over the Pearl Rock, from
5 • ' S.W. by W. I W. to W. i S

36 7-3 I Stone column, 32 ft. high, near end. Red lt.
temporary

One green gas light

35 47-2

5 55-7

35 53-7

5 17-5

Stone tower, 79 ft. high, i a mile E. of the I la I 312 I 20 I 1864
cape, at S.W. of entrance to Gibraltar
Straits '

Tower, 88 ft. high. on Mosqueros Hill, Almina I lb I 5S7 I 23 I 1856
Point. Flash every minute or 1£ min

225 I 23 I 1855

.. I .. I 1854

36 J 6 I 1854

52 I 7 I 1854
146 I 20 I 1855

168 I 19 I 1862

132 I 20 I 1813
I 1870

135 I 11 I 1874

62 J 9 1 18-50
1864

156 I 15 I 1840
j 1866

28 J 8 I 1867

ATLANTIC

LIGHTHOUSES.

ISLANDS.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

t*3

ATLANTIC ISLANDS.

MADEIRA

"?2

43- 2

One brieht fixed light,

39-5

with flushes

Funchal

1»

n-i 1

One fixed red light

5S-3 1

CANARY ISLES

TENERIFE

Santa Cruz

1. One fixed red It.

28. ,

2. One fixed br. It.

14.9

ROQUE BERMEJO PT.

35- 2

One fixed & flash. It.

8.1

Tower, 41 ft. high, on Fora Island, Sao Lou-
renzo, or E. point. Flashes every £ minute

On the fort, on Ilheo or Loo Kock

1. Red light on mole-head

2. Blight light near extremity of m 'le

Grey tower, 39 feet high, on AnagaCape, East

extr. of Tenerife ; bright flash ev. 3 minutes

2c I 343
5a J 112

• I 26
6a I 38
lc I 810

25 I 1870
8 I 1866

5 I 1857

9 I 1863

35 I 1864

OBAN CAN ARIA | 28 11.

1. One fix. & flash.lt. I 15 25.3

2. One fixed red It.

1. Tower, 30 ft. high, on N.E. part of Isleta
Peninsula. Red flash every 2 minutes

2. Red It. on mole, Palma Town

3c I 817 I 20 I 1866
.. I .. J 6 I 1859

Lobos Islet

One fixed red light

28 45.4
«3 49- 1

On Martino Point, on N. side of islet f 6a f 95 | 9 | 1861

ALEGRANZA ISLAND

One bright revol. It.

29 23.8
13 29.6

Grey tower, 49 ft. high, on Delgado Point, E.
side of island. Flashes every .-■, min. Shown
seaward, from N'.X.W. 4 W. to S.W. by W.
f W. The Greigo Bank extends 1 mile to
S.W

4b I 67 I 13 I 1866

LANZAROTE

One bright fixed It.

28 30.9
13 52.2

Grey tower, 31 ft. high, on Pechiguera Point,
S.W. extreme of island

4a I 51 I 12 I 1866

Port Naos | 28 57.4

One fix. red and one 12 32.9
fixed bright It. |

On E. side of Lanzarote, 125 yds. apart. In
one, N.W. by N. §N., lead in through narrow
channel. S. or low light bright

47
35

7 I 1866
6

FUERTEVENTURA
One rev. br. It., 1 m.

28 3.
'4 31-4

Grey tower, 62 ft. high, on Jandia Point,
S.W. extreme of island. Shown seawaid,
from N.N.E. J E. to S.E. by E. f E

3b J 108 J 15 J 1866

PALMA

One rev. br. It., 1 m.

AZORES

Ponta Delgada

1. One fixed red It.

2. Two bright fix. Its.

Arnel Point

One fix. & flash, br.
It. every 2 min.
CAPE VERDE ISLANDS
Porto Praya

1. One fixed br. It.

2. One fixed red It.

3. One fixed red It.

BERMUDA ISLANDS
One rev. br. It., 1 min.

St. David Head
One fixed bright It.

28 50.1 I Tower, 112 ft. high, on Cumplida, or N.E. | 2b
17 0.6 q 1 point of Palma Island

207 I 25 J 1806

37 44-
24 41.2

37 49-3
25 8.5

3* 15- 1
64 51.6

32 21.7
64 40,6

9 I 1878
5 ! W4

St. Michael's Id. 1. Shown from tower, 26 ft. | 4a
high, situated 200 yds. within extr. of break-
water in progress. (Lighthouse destroyed,
Dec. 1879. Temporary fix light)

2. One on Custom-house ; one on breakwater
now constructing

Tower and keeper's dwelling on N.E. coast of I 9o I 222 I 18 I 1S7C
St. Michael Island. Flashes vis. 25 miles ' ' '

off through arc of 240°

St. Jago. 1. A fix. br. It. on Qunil Id., S. pt.

2. A fixed red It. on Quail Island, N. pt

3. At new landing place, Porto Praya

(These lights are private property, and "

not to be depended on.)

A white iron tower, 106 ft. high, on Gibbs
Hill, on S. side. Seen all round, except
where hidden by the hills to the eastward,
from N.E. 4 E. to N.E. f E., and from
N.E. by E. to N.E. by E. f E

White octagonal lt.-ho., 55 ft. high, on Mount I 2a I 208 I 18
Hill, J, mile S.W. of St. David Head. Vis.
from S.W. £ W., through South and East, to
N.W. J N. On the bearing N.W. by N., over
Noith Rock, the It. is obscured by the hia-li
land of Fort Virtor:a, on St. George Isl;in<i

85
65

562 J 24 I 1846

1879

AFRICA.

LIGHTHOUSES.

West Coast.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

~uX

AFRICA (West Coast).

Senegal

One fixed bright light

1 16 0.8
1 l(j 3 1 -

Almadie Point

One fixed red light

1 14 45-i
1 H 3 2 -'

CAPE VERDE

One br. rev. It., | min.

1 14 43-5
1 17 3 2 -4

Cape Manuel

One fixed red light

1 *4 3 8 -9
1 17 28 -5

Dakar Harbour

One fixed bright light

Goree Island
One fixed bright light

1 14 39-9
1 17 2 45

Goree Bay

One fixed red light
Casamanze River

One fixed red light

SIERRA LEONE

One fixed light
One green light

MONROVIA

One fixed bright light

CAPE PALMAS

One fixed bright light

CAPE THREE POINTS
CAPE COAST CASTLE
One fixed bright light

ACCRA

One bright fixed light

Lagos
One fixed red light

Fernando Po

One bright fixed light

St. Thomas Island
One bright fixed light

Ascension

ST. PAUL DE LOANDO

1. One fix. and flashing
bright light

2. One fixed bright It.

3. Two fixed red lights

French.] On the Government house, He de
St. Louis

I .. I 6 J 1843

French.] Square white tower, 39 ft. high, | 4a | 85
on western rise of point, 2 miles N.W. ^ W.
from Cape Verde light

French.] Square white tower, 65 ft. high, I , , I 370
on the western mound of Cape Verde

French.] Square white tower, 39 ft. high, on I 4a I 170
\V. part of Goree Bay, 6 miles S.S.E. from
Cape Verde light '

French.] From iron pillar at extr. of E. pier. I ., I 15
Small red light for mail steamer

8 30.
13 18.5

6 19.

10 50.0

I 4

I 6

French.] Near Rufisque, East shore of bay... I ., | ,, | 3

French.] In the fort, on the summit of the |
island

8 I 1866

27 I 1866

8 I 1866
1875
1843

French.] At Carabane, left bank of river, ele-
vated 52 ft. above quay. (Gambia)

British.] White tower, 47 ft. high, on the
cape. Is red over middle ground

Small It. on Government landing-plaee

.. I 69 I 15
..| .. |..

1879
1879

1849
1863

Liberian.] Bed tower, 40 feet high, on Cape
Mesurado. Said to be out of repair, and
uncertain It. shown from flagstaff

I 1855

7 22.1 I Liberian.] Tower, 50 feet high, on the cape. I .. ] . . I ., I 1847
1 a± •J Bac ' ' v i s 'bl e 2 to 3 miles, and uncertain.
7 44-i I Great caution required '

I A lt.-ho. to show 3rd order fix. It. proposed... | . . |

5 6.3
1 13 9

5 3i-8
o 11.5

Long. E.

6 26.
3 27.

British.] White tower, 46 ft. high, in Fort
William

I 192 I 12 I 1835

Red tower on western bastion of Fort James ! 3a I 50 I 12 I 1871

Temporary. On beach, East of lagoon. Light-
house to be erected

3 45.6 I On Fernanda (or William) Point, N.E. ex-
8 47.0 I tremity of Isabel Bay

o 20.5 I Bight of Biafra. On Fort S. Sebastian, Anna
6 4.2.7 de Chaves Bay

a J 47 I 7 I 1877

.. I .. I 6 I 1866
.. I 35 I 4 J 1866

Lat. 8.
Long. W.

7 55-3
'4 25-5
Long. E.

Benguela

46.

17-

44-9

16.2

Red It. on end of pier in Clarence Bay

1. Lt.-ho., 32 ffc high, on Cape Lagosta. Light
shows a flash every 2 minutes

2. Lt.-ves. painted red, one mast with red baii,
in 19 fms., about 3£ cables N.E. of Loando
Reef. Pass to northward

3. From beacons. Outer ben., stone, on N. end
of rocks, N. J W. of Isabella Point. Inner
beacon marks wreck. Channel lies eastward
of Its. and a buoy. Time ball at Observatory

A fixed light is reported to be shown from fort

t • 1 ••

••I

57
20

••

1880
1863
1878
1879

PART II.

LIST OF LIGHTS

ON THE

COASTS OF BRITISH AMERICA

AND THE

UNITED STATES.

BRITISH AMERICA. LIGHTHOUSES.

NEWFOUNDLAND.

Kune and Character of Light.

Lat. N\
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

h —
3. a

5- -2

BRITISH AMERICA.

NEWFOUNDLAND.
BELLE ISLE 51 53.

1. One fixed bright It. 55 22.3

2. One fixed bright It.

CAPE NORMAN

One br. rev. It., 2 min.

Greenly Island

One alteinat. red & br.
It. every 3 min.
AMOUR POINT

One fixed bright light

POINT RICH

One br. flash. It., 15 s.
Toulinguet Island

One revol. bright It. \ m
Cann Island

One fixed bright light
OFFER WADHAM ID.

One fixed bright light
Stinking Islands

One intermt. br. It., 20 s.
Greenspond Harbour

One fixed red light

CAPE BON AVISTA

One rev. br. and red It.

Catalina Harbour
One fixed bright light

Trinity Harbour

One bright fixed light
BACALHAO ISLAND

One rev. br. It., 20 s.

Carbonear Island

One fixed bright light

HARBOUR GRACE

1. One revol It , \ m.

2. Two fix. Its., vertical

CAPE ST. FRANCIS

One fixed red light

ST. JOHN'S

1. One fixed bright It

2. Two fixed red lights

CAPE SPEAR

One rev. br. It., 1 min.
FERRYLAND HEAD

One bright fixed light

CAPE RACE

One revol. It., \ min.

CAPE PINE

One bright fixed light
CAPE ST. MARY

One revol. It., 1 min.

Flaeentia Harbour
One fixed bright light

GREAT BURIN ISLAND
One rev. br. It., ev. min.

Lamelin Harbour
One fixfd bright li<jht

5i 38.

55 53 7

51 22.6

57 *°-8

5' 27.6

5 6 50.9
50 41.8

57 2 5-5
49 4i-5
54 47-
49 35-
54 10.5

49 35-7
53 43-5
49 I0 -4
53 2i-3
49 3-6
53 4M

48 41.9
53 5-2
48 30.2
53 2 -7
48 22.
53 20.8
48 8.6

52 47-8

47 44-3

53 9-4

47 42.7
53 8-2

47 48.5
52 47-2

47 33-8
S* 4°-3

47 3i-2
52 36.9
47 o.

5 2 5*«
46 39.2 j

53 3- 6 I

I
46 37-i I

53 3'-7 I
46 49-5

54 u-9

470
128

1858
1880

1. White tower, 62ft., onS.pt. of Id. Lt. shown
from S.E. by S., southward, to West. (April
1 to Dec. 15). Depot for shipwrecks

2. Square white lt.-ho., 31 ft., on S. point, 300 ft. below the old lt. Lt.
vis. in all directions except where obscured by the land to North

White tower, 40 ft. high, on N. coast of New- I # | 138 | 20 | 1871
foundland, Strait of Belle Isle

Lighthouse, 78 feet high, fawn colour, on S.W.
pt. of Id. Lt. br. £ min., red J min., br. £
min. ; then eclip. 1£ min.

White tower, 109 feet high, on S.E. side of
ForteauxBay, Coast of Labrador. From Apr.
1 to Dec. 15.

White tower, 40 ft. high, on North point of
Ingornachoix Bay

• I 100 I 15 j 1878

2 a

I 18 I

I 18 I
I 27 I
I 12 I
Circular brick tower, on the island I a | 96 | 12 j

Notre Dame Bay. Red brick tower; dwelling
white on Long Point, North of island

S. side of Fogo Id., entrance of Sekiom-come-
by Bay. Wooden tower

I 155

I 130

I 335

1858

1871
1876
1874
1858

Iron lt.-ho., red and white bands, on Stinking I 4c I 74 I 10 I 1880

or Cabot Id. Lt. is br. for about 11 sees.,

and eclipsed for 9 sees '

Granite tower on Puffin Island, near entrance. I 4a | 65 f 10 | 1873

Obscured towards the land, from S. by W.

to E. by S '

Tower, 36 ft. high, striped red & white, verti- | lb I 150 | 16 | 1843

tically, on the cape. Lt. br. 15 sees., eclipsed I

30 sees., red 15 sees., eclipsed 30 sees •

White tower, on S. side of Green Island, Ca- I • | 92 | 15 | 1857

talina Harbour, in Trinity Bay. Shown I

from E.N.E., seaward, to S.W '

White tower on Fort Point, W. side of entrance I 8a | 75 | 11 | 1874

Circular brick tower, 34 ft. hish, half a mile
from N. end of island. Hidden by land
with'n 8 ™iles, when beT-ing N.N.E. £ E..„

In Conception Bay. White buildings with red

• I 3S0 I 28 I 1S58

a I 195 I 16 I 1878

150 I 20

50 I 10

1. Square house, red and white stripes, on N.
end of island, at entrance; two blight, one
red flash. Shown from S.S.W. to N.N.E....

2. On beach, N. side, 11 yds. apart. Bearing
W. JS. clear spit

White^-oodenbuilding,S.pt.ofentr.toConcep- I 5a I 123 I 12
tion Bay.

1. Square stone tower, S9 ft. high, on Fort
Amherst, S. entr. of harb. Shown seaward,
from E.N.E. to S.S.W.

2. In one, N.W. | W., lead through Narrows

Square tower, 38 ft. high, red & white bands, | 9 I 264 I 22
on the cape. I ' '

Red brick tower. Dwelling white

•

110

225

I 200 I 16

1836
1869

1858
1877

1852
1S63

1835
1871

14.2
°-3
0.4
8.1

S»-

Tower, 40 ft. high, on the cape, with S.E. side

striped red and white, vertically. Shown

seaward, from W.S.W. to E.N.E. A conical

beacon, 50 yds. from lightho.
Round iron tower, 56 ft. high, with red and

white bands, on the cape. Shown from

E. by N . seaward, to N.W

Circular brick tower, 40 ft. high, flashes red

and bright alternately

W ofeXnce n . lt ::!!!!l °. Ve ' d !. P . 0int ' S ' Side I 5a I 98 I 11 I 1879

^^£^£j^j!!!5: 1 2b 1 43 ° 1 2 7 1 1858

°SKftfe Ifi l P 8 Und d ^ * Whi,P ' ! S * I ^ I .. I 1R7-

• j 180 I 17 I 1856

I 314 I 24 I 1851
lb I 390 I 26 I 1860

BRITISH AMERICA. LIGHTHOUSES. GULF of ST. LAWRENCE.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

§2

C P<

•as

.sss r".2

55
47

ST. PIERRE ISLAND
Galantry Head 46 46.1

One rev br. and red 56 9.1
light, 10 sees.

Canon Point 46 47-

One bright, one red It. 56 9.6

8t. Pierre Harbour

One br. or red fix. It.

BRTJNET ISLAND 47 15

One br. flash. It., 10 8. 55 51

Garnish j 47 14

One fixed red light I 55 24

Bande de L'Arier

One, bright fixed light

Harbour Briton

One lixed bright light | 55 47

HERMITAGE BAY
One fix. br., one red It.

Burgeo Islands

One fixed red light
Rose Blanche Point

One fixed bright light
Port Basque

One fixed red light
CAPE RAY

One br. flash. It., 10 sec.

GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE
ST. PAUL ISLAND
North-East Point

One fixed bright It.
South- West Point
One br. rev. It., 1 m.
MAGDALEN ISLANDS
GREAT BIRD ROCK 1 47 50.7
One bright fixed It. | 61 8.3

47
56

29.2
12.

47
57

36.2
35-2

47
58

35-8
4'-5

47
59

33-8
7-2
37-
18.

47 '3-8
60 8.3

11.3
9.6

47
60

GRINDSTONE ID.
One br. rev. It, l^m.

AMHERST ISLAND
One alternating It.

Entry Island

One fixed red light
ANTICOSTI ISLAND

HEATH POINT
One fixed bright It.

SOUTH POINT

One br. flash. It., 20 s.

S.W. POINT

One rev. br. It., 1 m.
WEST POINT

One fixed bright It.

CAPE ROZIER

One fixed bright light
FAME POINT

One fix br. It., red flash
CAPE MAGDALEN

One rev. red and br. It.
MARTIN RIVER

One fixed bright light
CAPE CHATTE

One rev, br. It., I min.

47 23 3

61 57.2

47 13.

61 58.

47 16.5

61 41.

49 5-3

61 41.8

49 4-

62 15.

49 2 3-7

63 35-8

49 52-5

64 32.

48 51-6
64 12.

49 6.8

64 36.3

49 15-7

6 5 19.5

49 *3 3

66 9.

49 5-9
66 45..S

(French.) Square -white tower, 36 feet high.
Light revolves, with two bright flashes fol-
lowed by one red flash every 10 seconds

Outer It. br., on rocks off Canon Point. In one,
N.W., they lead through S. entrance

On Lcconte Pt., N. side of S. entr. Shows br.
in S. channel, and red thence to N.W. £ W.

Tower, 30 ft. high, on house on Mercer Head,
S.E. extreme of island in Fortune Bay.
Shown seaward, from "W.N.W. to N

White and red tower, S. side of Fortune Bay

White tower on point of the beach at Bande de
L'Arier or Belloram Harbour, Fortune Bay

White tower, 14 ft. high, on Rocky Point, W.
side of entr. Red ray shown over Harbour
Rock

White wooden lt.-ho., on Pass Id., S. side of
entr. Lts. vertical, high It. br. Lts. appear
as one when 44, miles distant. Low It. red,
visible from W. by N. i N., through S., to
SE. by s. J S

Wooden tower, with keeper's dwelling at-
tached, on Boar Id., E. end of Burgeo Isles

Granite tower on eastern head of the point ...

On Channel Head

White wooden building, 41 ft. high. Eclipses
faint at long distances.

White tower, 40 ft. high, on a rock ; obscured
fromS. by W. 4, W.toW.S.W. Apr. 1 to Dec. 20

White tower, 40 feet high. Shown seaward,
from N.N.W. to E., all the year round.

White tower, 50 ft. high, on N.E. islet. April
1 to Dec. 31.

Tower near Etang du Nord, on W. side of Id.,
Magdalen Ids.

White wooden building on South cape ; bright
and red Its., each tor 30 sees

White tower, 28 ft. high, on S.E. side of Id.

I Grey conical tower, 90 feet high, on point at
S.E. end of island ; must be kept open
southward of Cormorant Poiut. Provision
depot for shipwrecked people

White tower, 50 ft. high, on Bagot's Bluff, J
mile from S. pt. Provision depot for ship-
wrecked people

Conical gray tower, 75 ft. high. Shown from
S.S.E., seaward, to N.W. by W

Round white tower, 109 ft. high, on extreme I
W. point. Provision depot at Ellis Bay, 8
miles to the S.E

2c | 210 I 18 I 1862
1879

White tower, 112 ft. high, on the cape.

Square white wooden lt.-ho., 50 ft. high. Red
flash every 20 sees., visible about 12 miles...

| White wooden tower, 54 ft. high ; bright and
red flashes alternately every 2 minutes

White wooden tower, 54 ft. high

Square white tower, 26 ft. high, on N.W. part
of the cape

••

62 |

•

408 |

1 20 1

35 |

1 6* 1

1 281 !

| 267 j

160 |

95 |

•

1 •• 1

144 |

140 |

•

| 200 |

•

1 •• 1

•'

90 |

•

110 |

•

75 |

•

100 |

2a j

112 |

la |

136 |

•• 1

200 |

•

147 1

• |

125 |

• |

120 |

36 1 6 1 1862
64 I 3 I ....

14
15

| 1871
1831

1858

1880

1871

17 | 1876

18 1

1871
1875

BRITISH AMERICA. LIGHTHOUSES RIVER ST. LAWRENCE.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. X.

Long. \V.

Description, &c.
(Bearings hy compass from the light.)

- — >

CAROUSAL ISLAND

1 5° 5-7

One bright fixed light

1 66 22.7

EGG ISLAND

1 49 3 8 -

One br. rcv.lt., H min.

| 67 10.

POINT DE MDNTS

1 49 '9- 6

One fixed bright light

| 67 21.9

RIVER ST. LAWRENCE.

Matane

I 48 5*-

One fixed hr. light

1 67 33-

Metis Point

| 4* 4'-

Br. & red rev. It. 1 min.

1 68 2.3

MANICOTJGAN STRAIT
LIGHTVE3SEL

Two fixed bright lights
Father Point

One fixed bright light

Port Neuf

BICQTJETTE ISLAND

One rev. br. It , 2 min.
RED ISLET BANK Lt.-V.

Two brunt fixed lights
RED ISLET

One fixed red light
GREEN ISLAND

One fixed bright light
BRANDY POTS

One bright fixed light

Baguenay River

One fixe. 1 bright light
LO^q PILGRIMS

One brigni fixed light
KAMOURASKA

One briiiht revol. light
Origneaux Point

One fixtd bright light
GOOSE CAPE

Oiie nxed bright light
8t Paul Bay

One fixed bright light
ST. ROQUE SHOALS

Lower Lightvessel
Two bright fixed Its.

Upper Lightvessel
Two bright fixed Its.
STONE PILLAR

One br. rev. It., I5 min.

Algernon Rock

One fixed bright It.
Crane Island

One bright fixed light

Cape Rouge

1. Two bright, fix. Its.

2. One fixed bright It.
St. Francis, I. of Orleans

Two fixed bright Its,
St. John, I. of Orleans
One br. rev. It., ^ min.

49 2 -7
68 14.3

3i-4
27.3

I 48 38-
I 69 6.

I 48 25-3
I 68 53.3

148 6.5
I 69 31.
I 48 4 3
I 6 9 J 2 -9
I 48 3-3
I 69 25 1

I 47 5 2 -5
I 69 0.6

I 48 8.
I 69 39-
I 47 43-2
I 69 43-
I 47 38.
I 6 9 5 2 -

I 47 29 7
I 70 1.8

I 47 2 9-5

I 70 13 8
I 47 24 8
I 7° 2 9-

I 47 22.2
1 7° '49

I 47 20.
I 70 16.

I 47 12.4
I 70 21.6

I 47 '2.4
I 70 21.4

47 3-
7° 33-

47 7-7
70 40.5

47 0-2
70 45-3
46 55- 2

7° ', : ;

"White tower on one of the Seven Wands I # | 200 | 20 | 1871

Tower, 30 ft. high, 1 cable from S. end of the I « | 70 | 15 | 1871
island

Round white tower, 75 ft. hi 2 h, 1} mile N.E. I .. | 100 | 15 | 1830
of point. Provision depot tor ship wruCiU

Square white wooden building, 28 ft. high ... I * | 65 | 10 | 1873

White tower, 40 feet high, on Metis Point I • | 50 | 13 | 1874

In 25 fathoms, at 1? m i' e off southern edge of I a I 27 I 8 1 1872

shoal. Lts. at unequal heignts. c,a

Rimousky. White tower on the point. j •• I 43 | 10 I 1859

Bright fixed light from square wooden build- I • | 40 | 11 | 1873

ing on pier I

Grey atone tower, 65 ft. high, on W. point. I .. | 112 | 15 | 1844

Painted red; lies in 10 fathoms N.E. from Red 1 * j 40 I 11 I 1871

Islet. . 1 ' '

Round stone tower, 51 ft. high, on centre of I I 75 I 12 I 1848

islet, on S.W. point of the bank

White tower, 40 ft. high, on N. point. I ■• I 60 I 13 I 1809

Brick tower, 39 ft. high, at S.E. end of islet, I 4a I 78 I 10 I 1862
off S.E. side of Hare Island. Pass to S. ... J

On the centre of Lark Islet... I •• I 35 | 10 | 1872

Brisk tower, 39 ft. high, near centre of island I 4a | 180 | 12 | 1862

Wooden tower, 39 ft. high, near N.E. end of , » ] 166 | 12 | 1862
Grande He. Light revolves every minute...

Square white wooden tower, 20 ft. high, un I j | 34 | 10 | 1875

end uf St. Denis Pier

White tower, 42 ft. high 1 * | 48 1 12 ( 1876

White tower, 30 ft. high, on pier. N. shore of 1 * | 36 | 10 | 1876

River St. Lawrence 1

Red ; two masts and balls. In3J fathoms, on
the N.E. part of the St. lloque Shoals, in the
South Traverse.

Two masts; Its. at unequal heights. In3{ 1ms.,
on the N. W. edge of the shoal.

9 I 1836

I 16 I 6 1 1871

I 24 I

White stone tower, 38 ft. high, 100 yds. from I .. | 68 | 12 J 1843

S. point of islet

Square white lt.-ho., 32 ft., on framework on I 6a | 36 j 6 | 1880
Algernon or South Rock, near Stone Pillar...

Wood tower, 37 feet high, 1J mile from West I • | 44 11011862
point of the island I

1. At Cape Rouge, to leadbetw. Traverse Spit
and Brule Bank

2. Square .hite tower on Monte du Lac

At E. end ot island, to lead betw. W. Sands &
Traverse Spit

White tower on wharf, at St. John

•

230

•

170

. .

•

175

110

•

. .

•

1875
1875
1870
1875
1875
1874

Note. xhe Lights in the Gulf and River St. Lawrence are shown only during the navigable season,

generally from April 1st to December 20th.
The Lights on the upper part of the River St. Lawrence, and those on the great Aua>u «.n
lAkcs, are omitted, as not being of service to oversea TCKeU.

BRITISH AMERICA. LIGHTHOUSES. NEW BRUNSWICK

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

o Z,
'Z. oa

.5- =

5 Be
J, C

a **

— s

St. Lawrence Point
One fixed bright light

Belle Chasse

One fixed bright light

Quebec Harbour

One fixed bright light

NEW BRUNSWICK.
CAPE GASPE

One fixed red light
GASPE BAY

Sandy Beach Pt. Lt.-V. I

One br., 1 red fix. It. |
O'Hara Point
Perce' Bay

One fixed bright light
CAPE DESPAIR

One br.. rev. It., \ min. |
CHALETTR BAY

MACQTJEREAU POINT I

Rev. red & br. It., 2 m. |
Paspebiac Point

One bright fixed It.
Elm Tree Point

One fixed bright It.
Bathurst Harbour

One br., 1 red fix. It. |
Caraquette Island j

One bright fixed It.
Carleton Point
Heron Island

One fixed bright It.
BISTIGOUCHE RIVER

Dalhousie Harbour

1. One fix. br. It.

2. Two fix. br. Its
Oak Point

Two fixed br. Its.

Campbelltown

Two fix. bright Its.
MISCOU ISLAND

1. One fixed red light

2. Rev. br. It., 1 min.

Shippigan

1. One fixed bright It.

2. One fixed bright It.

Pocmouche Gully
One fixed ffreen light

Tracadie North Gully
Two bright fixed lights

51.8

46 56.

7 1

45- 2
9.1

4^
64

5°-7
24-5

48
64

3°-5
J3-

48
64

2 5-7
'8.3

48 12.5
64 46.2

48
65

0.8
H-3

47
65

48.7
43- 2

47 39-3
65 36.6

49-7
53-

15.2

66 8.

47 43-
6 4 39-5

47 40.
64 46.

47 33-3
64 51.4

White tower

Wood tower, 30 ft. high, on E. end of island

A wooden tower on Agate Island ; guide to
the harbour

Square white wooden building, 30 ft. high

Painted red; off the end of Sandy Beach Point, I ,.

S. side of entrance channel

Red It., only when mail steamers are expected I , ,

Square white wooden tower, 20 feet high, on | 9

White Head

White tower, on the Cape, Chaleur Bay I 9

4-7

22.5

2-7

h 6

36.5

0.8

39-7

29.4

White tower, on the South point of entrance,
Chaleur Bay. Lt. red and bright alternately

White tower, 54 ft. high, near extremity of
point, on X. side of bay

Square white wooden lt.-ho., W. side Xipisighit
Bay. Visible betw. S.S.W. and X. by W. ...

On Carron Point, 356 ft. apart ; outer bright
It. and inner red lt. kept in line, lead in

Tower, 48 ft. high, on W. end of island, S. side
of bay

White tower, 28 ft. high. One fixed bright lt.

White wooden tower, 20 ft. high, on E. side of
Heron Island, Chaleur Bay

1. Square white tower, 33 ft. high, on Bonami
Point, South side of entrance

2. Outer lt. from public wharf ; inner lt. from
Montgomery Island

Two square white wooden lighthouses, 22 ft.
high, X. bank of river ; one It. shown E. &
the other W. A br. fix. lt. shown from inner
lt.-ho. in one with the outer lt. guides vessels
crossing the Traverse

On South bank of river, from wharves

1. White tower, 74 ft. high, on Birch Point,
X. pt.of Id

2. Tower, 28 ft. high, at Goose Lake, W. side
of island

1. White wooden building, 20 ft. high . on Alex-
ander Point, E. entrance point of Gully

2. Shown from a lantern on a pole, 4b4 ft. S. W.
by W. from the main lt. These Its. kept in
line lead up to a buoy placed outside the bar

Square white wooden tower, 37 ft. high

On X. side of Gully. In line, lead in

38 I 8
76 I 10
32 I 10

350 j 12

34 I ..

30 I ..

30 I 7

138 I 13

90 I 15

56 I 12
55 j 13

36 I 12

.. I 9
43 I 9
52 I 13

32 I 11
66 { 12

•

. ,

•

. .

24 I ..

79 I 12
40 I 10

32 I 10
22 9

35 I 8

39 I 12
17 ..

1869
186?
1872

1872

1871
1872

1874
1874

1874

1870

1879

1871

1870

1872
1875

1871
1879

1879

1856
1875

1873

1880

1876

1872

187o

Note.— The lighthouses of Xova Scotia and Xew Brunswick, where necessary, are painted with black or
red stripes, &c, to distinguish the towers from the land ; as, after the snow is gone off the land, the
accumulations against the fences, which generally run at right angles to the coast, and which con-
tinue for some time after it has disappeared from the fields themselves, have exactly the. appearance
of a white tower, and frequently mislead even those acquainted with the ooant*.

K. a. 0. — Lights. u

BRITISH AMERICA. LIGHTHOUSES.

NEW BRUNSWICK.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

c 3

& 3

6cW

«5

■SS

Q*<

1-1 o

Tracadie South Gully
Bright and red fixed Its.

MIRAMICHI BAY
Tabisiutac Gully

Negowac Gully

ESCUMENAC POINT
One fixed bright It.

Preston's Beach

Two bright fixed Its,

FOX ISLAND

1. '1 wo fix. br. Its.

2. Two fix. br. Its.

Portage Island
One bright fixed It.

Inner Horse-shoe Bar
Lightvessel
One fixed red light

Oak Point

Two bright fixed Its.

Bartiboque

Two bright fixed Its.

Middle Island

Sheldrake Island
Two bright fixed Its.

Huckleberry

Two bright fixed Its.

Malcolm River

RICHIBUCTO RIVER

1. One fixed red light

2. One fixed bright It.

RICHIBUCTO HEAD

Shediac Bay
Shediac Harbour

Jourimain Island

One br. flash. It., 10 s.
Pugwash Harbour

One fixed br. or red It.

Wallace Harbour

Bright iind red fixed lte
Amet Island

One brisjht fixed light
Caribou Island

One rev. br. It., 1 min.
Pictou Harbour

1. One br., one red It.

2. One fixed bright It.

PICTOU ISLAND

One fixed blight light
CAPE GEORGE

One rev. br. It., \ min.

47 :o 2 I Upper It. -ho. red, lower white. On N. side of
Tracadie S. Gully. N. and S., 170 yds. apart.
In line, mark channel into harbour

64 52.

47 4
64 47

47 4

64 55

47 8

65 2

47 9

65 2

47 8

6 5 3

47 8

65 x 5

47 5

65 23

47 3

46 42.7
64 46.2

4 6 39-7
46 19
46 14
64 3 1
46 10
63 50

45 5 2
63 40

45
63

2 4

8
3

45
63

45
62

44
46

39-5

49.2

3°-5

52.6

Red and bright Its. on Crab Island in line lead
into Gully

Two br. fix. Its. in line show entrance

White tower, 58 ft. high, on point at S.E. side
of bay

White towers, 30 and 28 feet high, at Ship
Channel entrance

1. On N.W. point of island ; in one, show di-
rection of Horse-shoe Channel

2. Leading Its. for Swashway Channel, E. and
W., £ mile apart, on E. end of island

White tower, 42 ft. high, on 3. end of island...

Schooner rigged ; lies between Fox and Port-
age Islands

White towers, 36 feet high. In one, lead
through the Narrows

At Lower Newcastle. Bear N.E. and S.W.
from each other

Bright fixed light on N. side of island

On white beacons, 500 yds. apart, on S. side of
island

N.W. beacon, a conspicuous white structure ;

S.E. beacon, on the E. side of a white barn.

In line, lead across the outer bar

Fix . Its. on each of the beacons W. of Malcolm P.

1. White square frame It. -ho., 43 ft. high, near
beacons on South beach

2. Square white wooden It. -ho., 33 ft. high, 102
yds. E. by N. £ N. from high It. These Its.
kept in line W. by S. \ S. lead through chan-
nel over the bar, and replace day beacons ...

Fixed br. It. from white tower, 50 ft. high

Bright rev. It., £ min., on Cassies Point .

Approaching, keep two leading Its. on Shediac
Id. in line. Small br. It. on Duchene Wharf

White tower, 40 ft. high, on island in Northum-
berland Strait

Square white tower, 44 ft. high, on Seaman's
or Fishery Point, E. side of entrance; red
seaward, bright toward the harbour

White building, 25 ft. high, on Mullin Point,
N. side of entrance. Leading Its. over bar. . .

White square tower on island in Tatmagouche
Bay entrance

On N.E. end of island in Northumberland
Strait

1. Tower, 55 ft. high, striped red and white,
vertically, on S. point of entrance. Lights
vertical. Lower It. red

2. From Custom-house tower, 2 miles W. \ N.
from It. -ho. on S. entr. pt. of river, & in line
with it leads through channel seaward of bar

White tower, on E. point

Square white tower, 39 ft. high, on N.E. extr.
of Nova Sootia. Obscured W. of N.W

26
19

1877

30 I 7 I 1873

35 I 10 I 1873
70 I 14 I 1841

66 I 10 j 1870

55 I 10 I

50 I 10 I ....
32 I 10 I 1872

46 I 12 I 1870

35 I 8 I 1873

60 1 10 I 1870
40 I

140 I 10 I 1870
120 I 10 I

45 I 7 ] 1874

48 I 9 j 1873

1871

.. I .. I 1871

44 I 12 I 1879
40 12 ....

70 I 14 I 1864
40 I 14 j 1872
50 j 10 I 1869

72 I 14 I 1870
48 I 8 I 1871
39 I 11 I 1873
44 I 12 I 1857
35 I 10 J 1868

1834

1878

52 I 12 I 1853
350 I 25 I 1861

BRITISH AMERICA. LIGHTHOUSES. PRINCE EDWARD ID.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearing* by compass from the light.)

o £

.g-ts

J 3

IS'*

46 19.

63 48-5

11. 6

7-5

46
63

3- 2
2.1

44-5

39-

8.8

27.7

4 6
62

9.9
3'-4

46
61

27.1
58.2

Pomquet Island I 45 39.7 I

One fixed red light | 61 44.5 |

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.

WEST POINT I 46 37.5 I

One rev. It., 1^ min. j 64 23.2 |

Bedeque Harbour
Sea Cow Head

One fixed bright light.
Crapaud
Charlottetown

One or., one red fix. It.

HILLSBORO' BAY

One fixed bright light
SOUTH POINT
Little Sands
Murray Harbour
CARDIGAN BAY

One fixed bright light

Georgetown

One br. or red fixed It.
EAST POINT

One br. rev. It. ev. 3 m.
St. Peter's Harbour
Tracadie Harbour
Little Rustico
Grand Rustico

Two fixed lights
Grenville Harbour
Richmond Bay

Two fixed bright lights
Conway Inlet
Cascumpeque

Two fixed lights

Tignish River

Two fixed bright lights

NORTH POINT

One br. rev. It. ev. min.

CANSO GUT
Havre Bouche

One fixed red It., and
one fixed bright It.
North Entrance

One fixed bright It.
Ship Harbour

One red fixed light
South Entrance

Two fixed bright Its.

CAPE BRETON ISLA
Port Hood

One fixed br. or red It.
Sea Wolf or Margaree Id.

One fixed bright lii^ht
CHETICAN ISLAND

One br. rev. It., $ min.

46
63

34-7
4 2 -5

46 48.4

64 2.3

46
63

57-5
59-3

47
63

3-8
59-3

41.
31.2

41.7
28.9

4S
61

36.7
22.

3i-5

14.6

46
61

0.
31.6

2I -5

15-5

46 36.5
6, 3.

On N.E. point of island, near Antigonish, in
St George's Bay. Obscured to West

Red and white banded tower, 67 ft. high ; It.
shows 3 white and 1 red flash, each flash at-
taining its greatest brilliancy ev. 22 J sees. ...

A bright light on Railway Wharf

Tower, on Salutation or Sea Cow Head, S.E.
side of entrance to Bedeque Bay

A br. It. at W. end of bridge, head of harbour

On W. side of entr., vertical, 21 ft. apart ; upper
br., lower red It. Lower It. only visible in
direction of bell-buoy

White brick tower, 50 ft. high, on Prini Point,
S.E. of bay

Br. It. from tower, 40 ft. high, on Wood Id....

Red It., from window of house, 20 ft. high

Two fix. Its., 1 mile apart, W. by S. & E. by N.

White tower, 49 ft. high, on Panmure Head,
S. entrance of Georgetown Harbour. Kept
open of Terrace Pt., clears reef off Bear Cape

Square white tower, on St. Andrew Point,
S.W. side of entrance. Red seaward

Octagonal white tower, 60 ft. high, on S. side
of E. point

Two fixed lights

Two fixed red lights in line S.W. by S

Two bright leading Its. on W. side of entrance

Upper It. br., lower red, vertical, 5 yds. apart;
seen only in channel

Upper red, lower br. It. ; seen only in channel

On Bill Hook, or Fishery Id., N. side of entr.,
E. by S. and W. by N., 400 yards apart

Two fixed bright leading lights

WTiite towers on S.W. pt. of Sandy Id., N. side
of entr. Main It. br., range It. red, E. by S.
and W. by N., 217 yds. apart

High It. from mast on S. side of harbour entr.,
low It. on end of breakwater, 1,035 ft. East
of high It. In line, lead up to harbour

On the low N. extreme of island. A reef ex-
tends nearly 2 miles to northward

Square white wooden It. -houses on S.W r . shore
of harbour. Upper It. shows red. Lowlt.-ho.
473 yds. N.E. j N. from high lt.-ho. These
Its. kept in line indicate dredged channel ...

White tower, 35 ft. high, on W. side, 120 yds.
in-shore

White tower, 24 ft. high, on Stapleton Point,
S. side of the harbour

Tower white, with black diamond, on Eddy
Point. Lights horizontal, 8 yds. apart

White tower, S. entrance. Light red to N.,
and bright to S

White tower on summit, or middle of Id. On
near approach, light is obscured by cliffs ...

White buildinsr, 24 ft. high, with black ball,
on fc>. Vs' . end of inland

10 j 1868

| 66

1876

| 33

1858

j 88

1865

1 41

1879

1 56

1851

1 35

1870

| 68

1846

| 80

1876

| 50

1877

1 57

1870

| 89

1853

| 36

1868

| 130

1807

I ••

1868

| 40

1 .-
1 -

1 -

• •

1876
1876
1876

1876

1 50

1856

1 18

1876

| 26

1877

1 45

1856

1 18

1876

I 26

1877

1 17

| 80

1866
1875

1 107

1879

| 37

1 no

1842

| 44

1870

1 26 |

1851

1 ^^ |

10 |

1854

| 298 |

21 |

1854

|149|

20 |

1872

BRITISH AMERICA. LIGHTHOUSES. CAPE BRETON ISLAND.

Name and Character of Light.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.

. ■

c ^

£•«

f,,a

-i QJ

S a

.s s

MONEY POINT

One rev. red or br. It.

INGANISH ISLAND

Une bright fixed light

St. Anne's Harbour
One bright fixed light

CIBOUX ISLAND

One rev. red It., 1 niin.

Black Rock Point

One bright fixed light

Anconi Point

One fixed red light

SYDNEY

1. One fixed bright It.

2. One fixed red light

Bridgeport Harbour
On-i fixed red light

FLINT ISLAND

One bright rev. light

SCATARI ISLAND

One occulting bright It.

Menadou

One fixed red light
LOUISBURG

One fixed bright light
GUYON ISLAND

One rev. red It. ev. ^ m.
ST. ESPRIT ISLAND

One br. rev. It., | min.

Ouetique Island

One fixed red light
CAPE ROUND

One fixed bright light

Green Island

One revolving light

Petitdegrat Inlet
One fixed red light

Arichat Harbour

One fixed bright light

West Arichat Harbour
One fixed red light

Creighton Island

One rev. br. It., 40 sees.

Canso Harbour

One fixed red light

NOVA SCOTIA.
SABLE ID., East End
One fixed bright light
West End

One bright rev. light

Guysboro Harbour
One bright fixed light

CAPE CANSO
Two fixed bright lights

1 47 2 - 2 1
1 6 ° 2 3-5 1

1 46 4'-3 1
| 60 20. |

1 46 17-5 |
I 60 32.2 1

I 46 23.2 1
1 60 22.5 1

1 46 19.
| 60 24. 1

1 4 6 '9-5 1
| 60 17.2 |

46 16.2 1

60 7-3 1

| 46 14.2 I
1 6o 2 -3 1

I 46 1 1 . 1
1 59 45- 8 1
1 46 2.2 1
1 59 4°-3 1

1 4 6 °-5 1
1 59 47-5 1

45 54-6 1

1 59 57- 2 1
| 45 46. 2
1 60 6.3 |

1 45 37-5 1
| 60 29.3 1

1 45 3 6 -7 1
1 6 ° 57-3 1

I 45 34-7 1
1 6o 53- 1

1 45 28-8 1
1 6o 53-7 1

1 45 29.4 1
1 60 57.8 I

45 2 9- 1
[61 1.9 1

1 45 3°-3 1
1 6 J 3.1 1

1 45 3°-7 1
1 61 6. 1

1 45 «• 1
1 60 58.5 1

1 43 5 8 -5 1
1 59 4 6 - 1

43 57- 1
60 8. |

4,- 22.8 1
61 29.2 |

45 '9- 8 1
60 55-5 1

White wooden tower, 36 ft. high. Lt. shows I
alternately red and bright every 45 sees. ...

White wooden tower, 40 ft. high, on island ... I 5a

White tower, 30 feet high, on the N. side of
Beach Point, at entrance

On Bird Island, 1 mile from N. end

Square white tower, 23 ft. high, on S. side of
entrance to Big Bras d'Or

Square white wooden tower, 20 ft. high, on N.
side of entrance to Little Bras d'Or Lake ...

1. Tower, 51 ft. high, red and white, vertical,
on Flat Point, E. side of Spanish Bay

2. White building, 20 ft. high, on W. end of
S.E. bar of the harbour

On Lingan Head, N. side of entr. to Bridgeport
Harbour. Square white tower, 20 ft. high

White tower, 43 ft. high. Flash every 15 sees.

White tower, 70 ft. high, on Trap Rock, at
N.E. point. Bright, 1 niin. ; dark, \ min.
Should not be approached within 2 miles . . .

White tower, 40 ft. high, at W. end of Scatari
Island

Tower, 35 ft. high, white with black vertical
stripes, on N. side of entrance

Tower, black stripe on white, 54 ft. high, 230
yards within West extreme of island

Square wooden tower, 55 ft. high, white, with
two red bands. Bad Neighbour Shoal, with 12
ft. on it at low water, lies \\ mile S.W. | W.

In Lennox Passage, from square white wooden
tower on S. point of island

Square white wooden tower, 28 ft. high, at E.
end of Madame Island

White tower, 31 ft. high, on island near S.E.
end of Madame Island. Lt. red and br. for
I min. alternately

Wooden lighthouse, white, 31 ft. high, on Big
Arrow Islet, E. point of entrance to inlet .

White tower, S. entrance; on Marache Point.
Madame Island

White building, 28 ft. high, on N. end of Jer-
seyman Island. Guide through Crid Passage

At S.W. side of Madame Island; square white
wooden tower, 20 ft. high

White building, 28 ft. high, on N.E. part of
Hart Island

Octagonal tower, 86 ft. high, painted altern. I 2a
white and brown, \\ mile from E. end of Id.

Octagonal white tower, 98 ft. high, 17 miles I £
from that on E. end. Shows 3 br. flashes at
\ niin. intervals, then eclipsed for \\ nun. ... I

White tower, 20 If. high, on " . side of entr., I %
near Peart Point

In one tower, 60 ft. high, striped red and white I 9 I 75
horizontally, on the N. part of Cranberry ^q

Inland. Lt's. vertical, 12 yds. apart I '

1 "4

1 14 1

1 2.37

1 1S 1

| 24

1 8 1

| 77

I 14 1

| 45

10 |

1 91

11 |

1 70

1 U 1

1 30

9 1

| 50

: 10 1

| 65

12 |

| 90

15 |

| 90

9 |

| 85

16 |

1 74

12 |

| 78

14 |

1 "8

9 |

| 92

14 |

1 70

14 |

| 38

10 |

1 34

8 |

| 39

9 |

| 29

10 |

| 42

9 |

| 128

17 |

| 123

17 |

1 30 1

8 |

15
9

1815

BRITISH AMERICA.

LIGHTHOUSES.

NOVA SCOTIA.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

■OS

(X.O

WHITE HEAD ISLAND

One br. rev. It., 20 sees.
Whitehaven

One fixed bright light

Berry Head

One fix. red or br. It.

Green Island

One bright fixed light
Isaac Harbour

Two fixed bright lights
WEDGE ISLAND

One occulting redlt.,3 m.

Liscomb Harbour

On« revolving It., 2 m.
BEAVER ISLANDS

One rev. br. It., 2 min.
Sheet Harbour

One red rev. It., 40 sees.

Pope Harbour

One fixed red light

EGG ISLAND

One revolving It., 1 m.

HALIFAX
Devil Island

Two fix. br. leading Its.

Sherbrook Tower
One fixed bright It.

George Island

Two fixed bright Its.

CHEBUCTO HEAD
One br. rev. It., 1 m.

SAMBRO ISLAND

One fixed bright light

BETTY ISLAND

One rev. red It., 2 min.

St. Margaret's Bay
One fixed red light
MAHONE BAY
Green Island

One revolving light
EAST IRONBOUND I.

One fixed bright It.
Hobson's Nose

One fixed red light
MALAGTJASH or LUNEN-
BURG BAY
One occulting It., 1 m.
One fixed bright light
Battery Point

One britjht fixed It.
WEST IRONBOUND ID.
One revol. br. It., \ m.
Le Have River
One fixed rod light

45 I2
6i 8

45 I2
6i g

7
7

45 "
6i 18

7
7

45 6
6i 32

45 IO
61 39

45 °
61 52

6
6

44 59
61 57

3
8

44 49
62 20

6
2

44 49
62 29

44 47
62 38

7
8

44 39
62 51

8
5

44 35
63 27

44 3 6
63 3 1
44 3 8
63 33

1
9

44 3°
63 30

3
8

44 26
63 33

44 26
63 45

3
8

44 2 9
63 57

44 23
64 2

44 26
64 4

.2
■5

44 2 4
64 *3

44 20
64 7

44 2i-7
64 17.6

44 13-7
64 16.3

44 '7
64 21

•3

White tower, 35 ft. high, on S.W. extremity I

Square white wooden It. -ho., 32 ft. high, on j
S.E. point of Three-top Id. Light obscured
W. of S.W. by W I

Red and white striped tower, 36 ft. high, on
W. side of entrance to Tor Bay ; It. red sea-
ward, bright to northward

Square white building, 28 ft, high, on S. point.
Guide to Country and Fisherman Harbours

Shown on Holly Point, 20 ft. apart, vertical,
W. side of entrance to harbour

Approach to St. Mary River and Jegogan Har-
bour. Square white wooden tower, 44 ft.
Light visible 1 min. in every 3 min

On W. side of Liscomb Island, E. side of entr.
Flashes alternately red and bright

Tower, 35 ft. high, white, with 2 black balls,
on S.E. pt. of E. Beaver, or William Island

Square white wooden It. -ho., 41 ft. high, on
Sheet Rock. Lt. shown betw. S.E. f E. and
S.W. by W. fW

White wooden tower, 37 ft. high, on W. point
of Harbour Island

Tower, 45 ft., bl. & wh. str. Flashes red & br.
alternately. Dangerous reefs around it

E. and high lt.-ho., 53 ft. high, E. f N., 175 yds.
from low lt.-ho. High lt. E. by N., open S.
of low It., leads S. of Thrum Cap Shoal. Pilots

On Maugher Beach, E. side of entr. Circular
tower, 48 ft. high, white, with red roof

Tower, drab, 21 ft. high, on W. side of Id. ; Its.
20 ft. apart, vertically; open W. of Maugher
Beach It., N. 4 W., lead W. of Thrum Cap
Shoal. Two Its. are also shown on Citadel
Hill flagstaff, elevated 240 ft

White building on the head, W. side of entr.
to harbour

White tower, 60 ft. high, on middle of island

White tower, with two red bands

White tower, 26 ft. high, on Peggy's Point, E.
side of entrance

Square white wooden tower, 28 ft. high. Lt.
shows br. & red flashes alternately ev. 1£ m.

White tower, 46 feet high, on S.E. part of
island, at entrance of Mahone Bay

White tower, 29 ft. high

Lts. in one red tower, 52 ft. high, on E. pt. of
Cross Island. Upper lt. bright, 45 sees., dark,
15 sees

On the top of a white dwelling house

White tower, 29 ft. high, on S. side of West
Ironbound Island

White wooden tower, 35 ft. high.onKnvt Point,
Went side of entrance to river

80
60

132

115

a I 150

90
56

50
70
48

11 I 1853

11 I 1879
10 I 1876

12 I 1873
9 I 1877

12 I 1879

12 I 1872
12 I 1846
10 I 1879

9 I 1877
15 I 1865

13 I 18.32
13 1877

10 I 1815

12 I 1876

1872

1758

1875

10 j

1868

1873

1867

1871

1872

1832

1864

1855

1877

BRITISH AMERICA. LIGHTHOUSES.

NOVA SCOTIA.

Name and Character of Light.

Yosher Island

One fixed red light

Metway Head

One fixed bright light

LIVERPOOL BAY
Coffin Island

One rev. br. It., 2 m.

Brooklyn

One fix. br. or red It.

Port Point

One fixed red light

LITTLE HOPE ISLET
One rev. red It., 1 min.

Port Mouton

One fixed red light

Port L'Hebert

One fixed red light

BUGGED ISLAND HABB.

1. One fixed bright It.

2. One fixed red light

CAPE BOSEWAY

Two fixed bright lights

Negro Island

One revolving It., 1 m.

Shelburne Harbour
One fixed red light

Port Latour

One fixed red light

Barrington Bay Lt.-Ves.
One fixed bright light

CAPE SABLE

One br. rev. It., 40 sees.

Shag Harbour

Bon Portage Island
One rev. red It., 1 min.

Pubnico Harbour

White. Head Island

One fixed red light

Tusket Biver

Two bright fixed lights

BAY OF FUNDY.

SEAL ISLAND

One fixed bright light

TUSKET ISLANDS

1. One occulting red or
bright liaht, 1 min.

2. One fixed red light

CAPE FOURCHU

One occ. br. It., If m.

Yarmouth Harbour
One fixed red light

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.

c 3

.2 *■

m 0>

N§

£■3

44 14-

64 18.7

44 5-7

64 32.2

44
64

2. 1
37- 6 1

44
64

2-7
4i-5

44
64

3-7
39-

41
64

48.5
47.2

43 55-
64 48.

43
64

48.7
55-4

43
65

39- 2

5- 1

43
6,"

37- 2 1
15-7 1

43 3°-9

65 21.

43 4 1 - 2

65 19.

43 26 -9

65 28.2

43 3 1 - 1

65 34-4

43 2 3-3

65 37- 2

White tower, 26 ft. high, on S.E. end of island,
on W. side of entrance to Le Have River ...

Tower, 23 ft. high, white, with black square,
on W. side of entrance

Tower, 50 ft. high, red and white bands, on S.
point of the island

Square white wooden It. -ho., 33 ft. high, on
pier ; br. to seaward, red towards harbour. . .

Square white building, to be left on the port
hand in entering

Square white tower, 26 ft. high, on middle of
island, to S.E. of the entrance of Port Jolie

White building, 20 ft. high, on N. point of
Spectacle Island

White tower, 29 ft. high, at Shingle Beach, E.
side of Port L'Hebert

1. Wbite tower, 39 feet high, on Gull Rock,
2\ miles S. of harbour entrance

2. White tower, 29 ft. high, on Carter Island

Vertical, in one tower, 77 feet high, striped
black and white vertically, on S.E. point of
Mc Nutt's Island, S. of Shelburne

White tower, 29 feet high, on N.E. side of
island. Alternate red and bright flashes ...

White building, 20 ft. high, on Sand Point, E.
side of harbour

Tower, 35 ft. high, white, with black ball, on I
Baccaro Point, W. side of entrance

Moored in 6 fms., 64. miles N.N.W. J W. from I
Baccaro Pt. It. -ho. Vessel painted red

White tower, 50 ft. high, on S. pt. of islet, S. I
of Cape Sable Id. Lt. vis. 15 sees., eclipsed |
25 sees '

43 28.4 I One fixed red It., on N.W. pt. of Stoddart Id.

43 2 7- 2
65 44-7

Square white wooden tower, 28 ft. high, on S.
point of island

43 35-7 I 0ne fixed lt# on Beacn Point > S - E - side of entr - I

43 39-7
65 5 2 -

43 4 2 -i
65 57- 2

White tower, 28 ft. high, on S. point of island,
to guide vessels into Argyle Harbour

Horizontally, 24 feet apart, on each end of a
house, on S.W. pt. of Big Fish Id., at entr.

43 2 3-6

66 0.9

43 37 - 6

66 1.7

43 47-5
66

43 48.5
66 8.7

White tower, 60 ft. high, \ mile inland of South
point. Blonde Rock lies 3£ miles to S. by W.

1. Square white wooden lt.-ho., 42 ft. high, S.
pt. of Pease Id., near W. end of extensive
shoal off Frenchman Pt. Lt. shows altern.
red & br. for 15 sees., at intervals of 45 sees.

2. 16 ft. below main lt. Visible betw. S.E. by
S. and E. by S. £ S

Tower, 59 ft. high, striped red and white ver-
tically, on S. point of E. cape. Visible \\
"' I min., eclipsed \ min

On a beacon, on reef extending from S.W. pt.
of Bunker Id., E. side of entrance. Shown
to S. from S.W. bv S. to S. f W., and to
N.W. from N. 4 W.'to N.W. J W

1868
1851

1812
1878
1855
1865
1873
1872

51 I 10 I 1853
66 I 9 I 1872

120 I 18 I 1788
65 10 1858

| 55

10 |

| 44

10 |

| 70

16 |

| 32

10 |

| 30

5 |

| 40

10 |

1 47

10 |

| 33

9 |

48
67
49
30
53

22
46

28
115

12 I 1872

11 I 1873

12 I 1850
I 1870

7 I 1875

12 I 1861
I 1870

9 I 1877
12 I 1874

8 I 1874
10 I 1874

• I 50 I 12 I 1864

2a I 98 I 18 I 1830

• I 56 I 12 I 1879

• 40 4 I ... .

117 I 18 I 1839
27 I 8 I 1874

BRITISH AMERICA.

LIGHTHOUSES.

BAY OF FUNDY.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

a 2
o 3

& 5

f,a

.2 8

a£

.s!S

CI <►-<

CAPE ST. MARY

Altern. rerf & br. It., 30 3.

Meteghan River

One fixed green light

Church Point

One fixed red light

Sissibou River

One bright fixed light

BRYER ISLAND

One fixed bright light

Peter Island

Two fixed bright lights

Petit Passage

One revolving It., 1 m.

DIGBY, or ANNAPOLIS

One fixed bright light

Marshall Cove
Two fixed bright lights

Margaretville

Two fixed nd lights

BLACK ROCK POINT

One fixed bright light

Kingsport

One fixed bright light

Horton

One fixed bright light

Walton Harbour
One fixed red light

Burnt Coat Head

One bright fixed light

Spencer Point

One bright fixed light

Parrsborough

One fixed bright light

ISLE HAUTE

One inter, br. It., 1 m.

Apple River

One fixed bright light

Grindstone Island
One fixed bright light

Hillsborough

CAPE ENRAGE

One fixed bright light

44 5-

66 10.5

44 *3- 2

66 8.7

44
66

20. 1

7-5 1

44
66

26.5
i-3

44
66

14.9
2 3-5

44
66

'5-5
20.9

44 24-3
66 13.

44 41.8
6 5 47-3

44 5 6 -9
65 16.

45
65

2.9 1

4- 1

45 IO - 2
64 46.

45
64

9-5
21.7

1 4 -5

|6 4

6.3 I
*3- 2 1

|6 4

i4- 1
0.8 |

1 45 l8 -3 1
1 63 48-5 1

45 2 3-5 1
63 36.

1 4 -5
1 64

23. 1
J 9- 1

1 45
1 65

J 4-9 1
0.7 |

1 45
1 64

2 »-3 1

1 45
1 64

43- 2 1
37-4 I

1 45
1 64

55-3 1

37-8 |

1 45 35-6
J 64 46.9 |

QUACO

One rev. br. It., 20 sees.

45
65

19-3
3*-9

CAPE SPENCER

One revolving It., 1| m.

45
65

12. 1

55-

ST. JOHN HARBOUR
Partridge Island
One fixed bright It.

45
66

14.1
3- 1

White building, 46 ft. high, on East side of
entrance to St. Mary's Bay

On end of breakwater. Lt.-ho. painted in red
stripes on seaward side; to be left close to
starboard in entering

White toner on point, on E. side of St. Mary's

White tower, 33 ft. high, on S. side of entrance
to river, E. side of St. Mary's Bay

White tower, 55 ft. high, on W. pnint. S.W.
Ledge lies 4 miles to S.S.W. from the light

On white house, at S. entr. to Grand Passage.
Lts. horizontal, 8 yds. apart. Shown through
the passage to N.N.E., and southward from
S.W. by W. to S.S.E. $ E

Light white and red alternately ; on house on I
Boar's Head. S. side of N. entrance. Shown
from E. by S. to S.W. by W I

Tower, 22 ft. high, striped vertically, on Point I
Prim, S. pt. of entrance to Annapolis Basin

Vertically, on end of pier at Fort Williams. 21 I
ft. apart. Shown northwards, from W.S.W. I
toE.N.E I

Square building, black and white bands. Lts.
vertical

White tower, 35 ft. high

Lt.-ho., 26 ft. high, lowerpart open framework,
biown, upper part enclosed, white, on pier,
W. side Coinwallis R., Basin of Mines. Lt.
vis. betw. N.E. £ E. and S.E. by E. £ E. ...

White tower, 20 ft. high, on the bluff; on W.
side of entrance of River Avon

White building, 20 feet high, on N. side of
entrance

Square white tower, 50 ft. high, on S. side of
entrance to Cobequid Bay, Basin of Mines...

On the N. side of Cobequid Bay. Shown from
a window in a building

White tower, 32 ft. high, on Partridge Island,
W. side of river

Square white wooden lt.-ho., 53 ft. high, almost
hidden by trees. Lt. vis. 40 sees, in ev. min.

White house, on Cape Capstan, or Hetty Point

White tower, on W. part of Id., in Chignecto
Channel

Beacon lt. from tower, 22 ft. high, on wharf,
Petit Coudiac River

Octagonal white tower, 23 ft. high, on pitch
of the cape. Shown from N.W. to N.E

Tower, 46 ft. high, red and white horizontal
bands, on rock off the head

Square white building, 35 ft. high. Flashes
alternately red and white

Tower, 40 ft. high, striped vertically red and
white

100
21

36
36
92
40

30
27
45

92
60
75
35
37

365
64
60
14

121
58

12 I 1868

6 I 1875

8 I 1874

8 I 1871

15 I 1809
I 1832

10 I 1850

10 I 1864

13 I 1817
10 I 1859

8 I 1859

12 I 1848
8 I 1879

15
10
13

9
20
10
12

5
15
15

207 I 20
I 10

119 I 16

BRITISH AMERICA. LIGHTHOUSES.

BAY OF FUNDY.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

t&S

45
66

H-3

3-3

45
66

i5-i
3- 1

45
66

8.6
'4-5

45 3-5
66 27.6

45 3-7
66 44.0

44 5 6 -5
66 44.2

45 2 -3
66 48.7

ST. JOHN HARBOUR —(continued).
Negro Point

One fixed red light

Beacon Tower

One fixed bright It.
Musquash Harbour
One fix. green or br. It.

POINT LEPREAU

Two fixed bright lights

Beaver Harbour

One fixed bright light

SOUTH WOLF ISLAND

One br. rev. It., 1^ m.
L'Etang Harbour

1. One fixed green light

2. One fixed red light

CAMPOBELLO ISLAND

One fixed bright light
Passamaquoddy Bay
One fixed bright light

Port St. Andrew

1. One fix. d br. It.

2. One fixed br. It.

St. Croix River

Two fixed bright Its.
GREAT MANAN ISLAND
One fixed bright light
Grand Harbour
One fixed bright It.

SOUTH-WEST HEAD

One flash, red & br. It.

MACHIAS ISLANDS

Two fixed bright lights
GANNET ROCK

One fix. & fl. br. It., 1 m.

MAINE.

St. Croix River

One fix. & fl. br. It., £ m.
WEST QUODDY HEAD

One fixed bright light

Little River

Une fixed & flashing It.
Machias Bay

One fixed red light
Libby Island

One fixed bright light
MOOSE PEAK

One rev. br. It., 30 sees.
Nash's Island

Une fixed red light

44 57-7
66 54.2

7-
54-5

4.2
4-

10.
10.

44 45-9
66 44.1

40.
45-5

44 3 6 -

66 54-3

44 3 or

67 6.2

44 30.6

66 47.

45 7
67 8

44 48

66 57

44 39

67 12

44 39
67 21

44 34
67 22

44 28.5

67 3*-9

44 27 ~
67 44

White It. -ho., 35 ft. high, 50 ft. within extr. of
breakwater running out 720 yds. S.S.E. from
Negro Point. (Lt. -house destroyed. When
practicable, a red It. will be shown from bea-
con pole at extremity of breakwater works j

Striped vertically, white and black, on South I 4a
extreme of Spit, West side of harbour

Square white wooden It. -ho., 40 ft. high, E.
side of entr. Lt. shows green to seaward,
and bright towards the harbour

Tower, 31 ft., red & white bands ; Its. vertical,
28 It. apart. Shown from W.N.W., south-
ward, to E. by N

White tower, 36 ft. high, on Drew Point, W.
side of harb. ; lt. vis. to southwd. betw. heads
of harb. Good anchorage E. by N. from it

White lighthouse, 35 ft. high, on S.E. point of
island

1. White lt.-ho., 31 ft. high, on W. extr. of
Pea Island, E. side of entrance to harbour...

2. White tower, 30 ft. high, on W. pt. of Bliss
Island, in the entrance of the harbour

Tower, 34 ft. high, white, with red cross, on
N. point of Head Harbour

White wooden tower, 29 ft. high, on Mijic
Bluff, at entrance of Magaguadavic River.
Shoal extends 250 yds. E.N.E. of lt.-house...

1. White tower, 22 ft. high, on N. pt. of entr.

2. White frame tower on Tongue Shoal, 1| m.
S.E. by E. from Port St. Andrew light

On Spruce Point and St. Mark Point, N. side
of river. Square white towers, 28 ft. high...

White tower, 50 ft. high, on N.E. point of Id.
Shown eastward, from S.W. to N.W

Square white wooden lt.-ho., 32 ft. high, on
Fish Fluke Point, E. side of harbour. Vis.
from South, through West, to N.E

Square white wooden tower, 43 ft. high, on
Gull Cliff. Lt. makes a complete revolution
in 2 min., showing 3 br. and 3 red flashes,
with intervals of 20 sees, eclipse

White towers, on East Id. Lts. in one, N.W., I 3a
clears Murr Ledges 4 miles to southward ... n

Tower, 41 ft. high, striped black and white, I 4c
vertically ; fix. 45 sec., eel. 5 sec, flash 5 sec,
eel. 5 sees. Reefs extend 4 miles to eastward '

UNITED STATES.

I White house on Dochet Island, opposite red I 5c
beach

I Tower, 55 ft., red & white bands, near Eastport, I 3 a
S. side of entr. Shown from N. 63° W. to

I S. 57° W I

I Red tower, 28 ft. high, on Id., at entr. Flash J 5c
every 1£ min. Shown from N. 63° E. to S....

I White tower, 36 ft. high, on S. end of Avery I 5a
Rock

I Gray tower, 35 ft. high, on island, entrance to I 4 a
Machias Bay

I White tower, 40 ft. high, on Mistake Island, I 2b
S. of Moose Peak, or Moose-a-bec Island ...

I White tower, 28 ft. high, on E. side of Pleasant 4a
River

36 j 8 j 187S

112

45 I 10

111 I 18

130

148

40 I 11

200 I 20
I 10

66 I 14
58 I
66 I 12

71 I 12
133 I 17
40 I 12
68 I 14
52 I 13
65 I 14
47 i 12

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

MAINE.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

■aa

Narraguagus Bay

One fixed bright light

PETIT MANAN

One fixed and flash. It.

Prospect Harbour

Onered&br. rev. lt.,£m.
Winter Harbour

One fixed bright light

Frenchman Bay
One fixed red light

MOUNT DESERT

One fixed bright light

BAKER'S ISLAND

One fix. and flash, hr. It.

Bear Island

One fixed bright light

Bass Harbour Head

One fixed red light

Burnt Coat Harbour

Two fixed bright lights

Fly, or Green Island

One fixed bright light
SADDLEBACK LEDGE

One fixed bright light

PENOBSCOT BAY
Heron Neck

One fixed red light
Deer Island Pass

One fixed bright It.
Eagle Island

One fixed bright It.
Pumpkin Island

One fixed bright It,
MATINICUS ROCK

Two fixed bright Its.
Whitehead Island

One fixed bright It.
OWL'S HEAD

On.e fixed bright It.
Brown's Head

One fix. br. or red It.

Rockport Harbour

One fixed red light
Negro Island

One fixed bright It.
Grindels Point

One fixed bright It.
Dice's Head

One fixed bright It.
Fort Point

One fixed bright It.
Tennant's Harbour
One rev. red It., 1 min.

44
67

28.
49.8

22.
5i-8

43
68

24.2
0.8

44
68

21.7
4-9

44
68

2I -3
8.

43
68

58.

7-7

44
68

14.4
11.9

44
68

'7-
16.2

44
68

'3-3
20.2

44
68

2 7-

44
68

14.9
29.9

41
68

0.8
43-6

44 i-5
68 51.4

44 8.1
68 41.9

44 I3- 1
68 45-7

44 19-

68 45-

43 47-
68 51.

43 58.7
69 7.1

44 5-5
69 2.3

44 6.7
68 54.2

44 10.
6 9 3-

44 12. 1
69 2.6

44 16.9
68 56.2

44 22.9
68 48.8

44 28.
68 48.4

43 57-6
69 10. $

White tower, 29 ft., on S.E. point of Pond Id. I
Shown eastward, from N. £ E. to S.W. by S.

Gray tower, 109 ft. high, on S. end of island.
Flash every 2 minutes. Dangerous rocks lie
from 2 to 5 miles off

From old light-tower on East entrance point.
Flashes red and white alternately

On S. point of Mark Island, Frenchman Bay.
Shown from N. by E. 4 E. to N. by W. 4 W.

White tower, 56 feet high, on highest part of
Egg Rock

Gray tower, CO ft. high, on the rock

White tower, 37 ft., on islet S. of Little Cran-
berry Id., off Mount Desert Id. Flash ev. l£m.

Red tower, 22 ft. high, on Cranberry Island,
entrance of Soames Sound

White tower, 26 ft. high, E. side of entrance,
S. end of Mount Desert Island

White towers, 32 and 17 ft. high, at entrance of
Refuge Harbour, Swan Island. Beacon Its.
in one, N.E. f N., 100 ft. apart, lead in

White tower on S.E. point of island, in S.E.
entrance to Edgemoggin Reach

Tower, 36 ft. high, lower part white, on S.W.
end of island, in entr. of Isle au Haut Bay. . .

White tower, 24 ft. high, on S. pt. of Green's
Id., at S.E. side of entr. to Penobscot Bay...

White tower on Mark Island, Isle au Haut Bay

White tower, 30 ft. high, N. point of Id., N.E.
entr. to Penobscot Bay, from Isle au Haut Bay

On Id. off N.W. end of Little Deer Id., N.W.end
of Edgemoggin Reach. Guide to BuckHarb.

Gray towers, 40 and 50 ft. high, N.N.W. and
S.S.E., 60 yards apart

Grav tower, 34 ft. high. Shown from North to
W.JS

West side of entr. to Penobscot Bay. Shown
fromN. 76° W. to S.S.W

White tower on South Fox Id. A sector of red
It. is shown through an arc of 12° 35', betw.
S.W. by W. f W. and W. by S. 4 8., nearly,
denning channel betw. Fiddler's Ledge on
the N., and Bay Ledges on the S., both to be
cleared by keeping within the red sector . .

Square brick building, painted white, on In-
dian Island

White tower, 23 ft. high, S. side of entrance to
Camden Harbour

White tower, 28 ft. high, on N. side of Gilkey
Harbour, Long Island

White tower, 42 ft. high, near Castine, North
side of entrance to harbour

On W. side of entrance to Penobscot River . . .

N.E. side of S. Island. Shown from E. by N.
I N. to S.W. J S

45 |

125 |

40 |

37 |

76 |

75 |

105 |

97 |

56 |

75 1

42 1

26 |

51 |

92 |

52 |

106 |

oil

27 |

90 |

85 |

79 |

100 |

39 |

42 |

■la

52 |

39 |

4 a

130 |

103 |

66 |

1856

1855

1870

1856

1875

1857

1855

1839
1856

1858

14
10

1872

1856

1839
1856

1853

1857

1837

1854

1857

1856

16
12

1825
1856
1856
1880

1875

1835
1856
1850

1858

1857

1867

UNITED STATES. LIGHTHOUSES.

MAINE, &c.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, Sec.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

"SW

(hS

Marshall's Point

One fixed liright light
MANHEIGAN ISLAND

One rev. br. It., 1 min.
Franklin Island

One fix. and flash, br. It.
FENMAQI7ID POINT

One fixed bright light

Burnt Island

One fixed bright light
Hendrick's Head

One rev. br. It., | min.

Pond Island

One fixed bright light

SEGTJIN ISLAND
One fixed bright light

PORTLAND, or CASCO B,
HALFWAY ROCK

One fixed & flash. It.

CAPE ELIZABETH

One rev. br. It., 1 m.
One fixed bright It.

PORTLAND HARBOUR

One fixed bright It.
Portland Breakwater
One red fl. It., 15 sees.
Wood Island

One rev. red It., 1 min.
Goat Island

One fixed bright light

CAPE NEDDICK
On« fixed red light

BOON ISLAND

One fixed bright light

NEW HAMPSHIRE
Whale's Back

One fix. and flash, br. It.

Portsmouth

One fixed bright light
ISLES OF SHOALS

One revolving It., \ min.

1 43 S5-
1 6 9 J 5-3

1 43 45-9
| 69 18.6

1 43 53-5 1
| 69 22.2 1

1 43 50-2 1
1 6 9 3°- 1

1 43 49-5 1
1 69 38.1 |

1 43 49-3 I
1 69 41. 1 |

1 43 44-4 I
1 6 9 45-9 1

1 43 42.4 1
1 6 9 45-2 |

1 43 39-3 1
1 7° 2.2 |

43 33-9
70 11. 7

1 43 37-4 1
| 70 12. 1 |

1 43 39-3 1
1 7° »3-8 1

1 43 27.4 1
1 7° *9-4 1

1 43 2I -4
1 7° 25.2 |

43 9-7 1
7° 35-5 1

43 7-3
70 28.2 |

43 3-5 1
70 41-5 I

43 4-2 1

70 42.2 1

42 5 8 - 1
70 38.2 1

MASSACHUSETTS.

Newbury Port

1. Two fixed bright Its.

2. Two fixed lights, red
and green

42 48.5
70 48.7

Ipswich Harbour

One fix. & flash, br. It.
One fixed bright light

42 41. 1
70 45- 6

Annisquam Harbour
One fixed bright light

42 39-7

70 40.6

Straitsmouth Harbour
One fixud bright light

42 39-7
70 34-9

At entrance to Herring-gut Harbour. Shown
from E. I N. to N. by the East and South ...

Gray tower, 36 ft. high, on S. side of island ...

North end of island, West side of entrance to
St. George's River. Flash every 1£ minute

White tower, 32 ft, high, at S.W. entrance to
Bristol Bay. Shown from N.E. i N. to N.,
by the East and South

West side of entrance to Townsend Harbour.
Shown from N. by E. to S.S.W

White tower, 30 ft. high, on E. side of Sheep-
scott River. Guide to Wiscassett. Shown
from S. by E. i E. to N. by E. f E

On W. entr. of Kennebec River. Shown from
N.W. £ W. to S.W. by W. \ W

Gray tower, 35 ft. high, on island off entrance
to Kennebec River

Gray tower, 66 ft. high, on rock off N.E. entr.
to Casco Bay. Bright fixed It., with red
flash every minute

Eastern tower, 53 ft. high (fix. It.), W. tower,
53 ft. high (revolving light), both painted
brown, 300 yds. apart. Shown from N. to
S.W. by W. I W

White tower, 69 ft. high, on the head, S. side,
near entrance

On N.E. end.
S.S.E. £E....

Shown from S.W. } W. to

White tower, 47 ft. high, near Saco Harbour.
Guide to Winter Harbour

White tower, 25 ft. high, on N. side of mouth
of Cape Porpoise Harbour. Shown from
N.E. I E. to N., by the South and East

Conical iron lt.-ho., 40 ft. high, painted red,
lantern black, on York Nubble

Gray tower, 123 ft. high, on W. part, off York
Harbour

White tower, 40 ft. high, on N.E. side of outer
entrance to Portsmouth Harbour. Flash ev.
\\ min

White tower, 60 ft. high, on S.W. side of inner
entr. of harb. Shown from W.N.W. to S.W.

White tower, 40 ft. high, on White Id.. S.W. Id.
of Is. ol'Shoals. Flashes red& br. alternately

1. Upper It., a white tower, 38 ft. high, S. side
of entr. to port. Shown from S. by E. to W.
by S. Lower shifting ben. It., 350 ft. in front

2. Leading Its. after entering; in one, W. \ S.,
116 yds. apart

White tower, 30 feet high, on South side of
entrance. Fix. It., with flash every 1^ min.
Beacon It., fixed, 500 ft. in front, frequently
shifted. In one, lead in

White tower, 34 ft. high, on Wigwam Pt. , E.side
of entrance. Shown from S.W. by S. \ S. to
S.E. by E. £E

On island, N. of Cape Ann. A local light for
Rockport and channel inside the Salvages.
Shown eastward, from W, J N. to S. J W. ...

1 10 1

| 175

1 19 1

1 12 1

1 14 |

13 1

12 1

13 |

180

20 1

3c |

15 |

143

18 |

la |

143

•• 1

2a |

101

14 |

5« |

8 |

4b |

13 |

6a |

11 1

4a |

92 |

15 |

2a |

133 |

17 1

4c |

58 |

12 1

4a |

70 |

14 1

2b |

87 |

15 |

•

47
25

•

1857
1851
1855
1857

1821

1858
1829
1875

1855

1795
1857

1871

1828
1874

1790
1864
1855

1858

1833
1857

1879

1812
1854

1829
1855

1804
1854
1821
1858

1809
1869
1873

1837
1859

6a I 33 I 10 I 1860

50 I 12 I 1801
1857

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

e 5

o 2

'*3 OS

■go.
" o.

Q 4-i

CAPE ANN

Two fixed bright lights

Gloucester Harbour
One fixed red light
Ten Pound Island
One fixed bright It.
SALEM
Baker's Island

Two fixed bright Its.

Hospital Point

One bright fixed It.

Winter Island

One bright fixed It.
Derby Wharf
Marblehead Harbour
One fixed bright light

Egg Bock

One fixed red light
BOSTON BAY

OUTEBMINOTS LEDGE

One fixed bright It.

BOSTON

One rev. br. It., ^ m.

Narrows

One fixed red light

Long Island Head

One fixed bright It.

CAPE COD BAY

Plymouth

Two fixed bright Its.

Duxbury

One bright fixed It.

Bace Point

One fix. & flash, br. It.

Long Point

One fixed bright It.

Provincetown Harbour
One flash, red It., 15 s.

Mayo's Beach

One fixed bright It.

Billingsgate Island
One fixed bright It.

Sandy Neck

One fixed bright It.

CAPE COD HIGHLANDS

One fixed bright light

Nauset Beach

Three fixed bright Its.

Chatham Harbour

Two fixed bright lights

Monomoy Point

One fixed bright light

42 38-3
7° 34-2

1 42 34-6 1
1 7° 39-5 1

42 36.1
1 7° 39- 6 1

1 42 32-2 1
| 70 46.8 1

1 42 3°-3
1 7° 49-7 1

1 42 26. 1
1 70 53-5 1

1 42 16. 1 1
1 70 45-5 1

1 42 19-6 1
7° 53-4 1

42 19-3 1
7° 55-2 1

42 19.8 1
70 57-4 1

| 42 0.2 1
7° 35-7 1

1 42 2 - 1
1 70 40. 1

42 3-7 1
7° 14-3 1

42 1.9 1

7° 9- 8 1

42 1. I
70 11. 1

4i 55-8 1
70 1.7 |

4i 52-3 1
1 7° 3-8 1

4i 43-3 1
1 7° I7- 1 1

42 2.3 1
1 7° 3-6 |

1 4i 5 1 - 6 1
1 6 9 5 6 -7 1

1 4i 40.3 |
1 6 9 5 6 - 6 1

4i 33-5 1
1 6 9 59-3 1

Two stone towers, each 112 ft. high, on That-
cher's Id., N. by E. | E. and S. by W. J W.,
298 yds. apart

I White tower, 33 ft. high, on the Eastern Head.
Shown from E. £ N. to N. & W

I White tower, 33 ft. high, on Id. in Gloucester,
or Cape Ann Harbour

I Two white towers, 52 & 29 ft. high, S. side of

N.E. entr. to Salem Harbour, 13 yds. apart.

I In one, N.W., clears S.E. breaker

I N. side of Salem Harb. Dangers lie to S. & W.

of this, in line with the high It. on Baker's Id.

' The It. is brightest in the fairway channel...

I Red iron tower near Fort Pickering. In range
with Derby Wharf It., clears Haste Shoal ...

Red light on the end of the wharf

I White tower, 23 ft. high, S. side of entr. Shown
from N. by W. } W., by the E., to W. by

I S. iS

I On a house to E.N.E. of Nahant

I Gray granite tower, 100 ft. high, on one of the
Cohasset Rocks

I White tower, 80 ft. high, on Little Brewster
Island, North entranoe of harbour

I Pile It. -ho., on W. end of Spit from Brewster

Island. In one with Long Island Head It.,

I clears Harding's Ledge

I White tower, 27 ft. high, on N.E. end of island

I Two white towers, 34 ft. high, on Gurnet Pt.,

N. side of harb. In one, N.W., 10 vds. apart.

I Shown from N.N. W. to W.N.W.

I Red tower, 31 ft. high, near Pier

I Red iron tower, on N.W. point of Cape Cod.
Plash every 1& minute

I On ahoal, S.W. entr. to Provincetown Harbour.

I Dark-brown brick tower, 41 ft. high, at Wood
End, near entrance

I Head of Wellfleet Bay. Shown from S. * W.
to S.W. i W

I Red tower, 34 ft. high, on W. side of entrance
to Wellfleet

I White tower, 44 feet high, on West side of
entrance to Barnstaple. Shown from W. by
S. J S. to S.W. by S. i S

I White tower, 55 ft. high, on Cape Truro, East
side of Cape Cod. Shown from S.W. to S...

I Three white buildings at Eastham, E. side of

Cape Cod. N. and S., 50yds. apart. Shown

1 from N.W. to S. by E

I White towers, each 46 ft. high, on W. side.

N. and S., 33 yards apart. Shown from

I N. by E. to W. by N

I Red iron tower, 30 ft. high, on Cape Malabar,
S. end of Cape Cod

la I 165 I 20 I 1790
la 165 20 1861

1837
1857
1821
1850

1 4a

13 I

12 1

1 4a

15 1

1 ••

13 |

1 3a

13 |

1 5a

8 1

| 5a

5 |

1 6a

12 1

1 5a

12 |

1 2a

14 |

1 2b

111

17 |

1 5a

12 |

1 4a

121

15 I

1 4a

102

11 1

6 |

1 5a

10 1

1 4c 1

1 5a

11 1

1 5c 1

11 |

| •

10 I

I 4a

12 1

1 *a

11 1

1 la

195

20 1

1 4a

10 1

I 4a 1

14 1

| *» 1

10 1

1797

1857
1871

1871

1835
1856

1856

1860

1784
1859

1856

1819
1855

1769
1856

1816
1871
1816
1875

1826
1874

1872

183S
1856

1822
185S

1836
1857

1797

1857

1837
1856

1808
1877

1823
1867

UNITED STATES. LIGHTHOUSES.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

-"=.-«

Pollock Rip Lightvessel
Two fixed red lights

Shovelful Lightvessel
One fixed red light

Handkerchief Lt. -Vessel
One fixed bright liy:ht

Stage Harbour

One fixed bright light

Bishop and Clerks
One rev. br. It., 5 min.

Succonnesset Shoal Lt.-V.
One fixed bright light

NANTUCKET

One fixed bright light

SANKATY HEAD

One fix. and fl ish. br. It.

South Shoal Lightvessel
Two fixed bright lights

VINEYARD SOUND
Hyannis Harbour
One fixed red light

Cross Rip Lt.-Vessel
One fixed bright lt.

Nantucket Cliff

Two fixed bright Its.

Brant Point

One bright fixed lt.

Cape Poge

One fixed bright lt.

Edgartown

One fixed bright It.

Holmes Hole

1. One fix. bright lt.

2. One fixed red lt.

Nobsque Point

One fixed bright lt.

Tarpaulin Cove

One fix. & flash, br. lt.

Vineyard Sound Lt.-V.
Two fixed bright Its.

Hen & Chickens Lt.-V.

One bright fixed lt.
GAY HEAD

One flashing rtd and
bright light
BUZZARD'S BAY
Cuttyhunk

One fixed bright lt.
Dumpling Rock

One fixed bright lt.

NEW BEDFORD

One bright fixed lt.

4'
69

3 2 -
55-

1
1

41
69

34-
59- 2

4i
7°

39- 6
3-3

4'
69

39-3
59-

34-4
14-7

3 2 -
26.7

2 3-4
2.4

4i
69

i7-
57-6

40
69

56.

5i-5

4 1

38-
*7-

26.7

17. 1

r 7 .6

6.4

J7-3
5- 2

25.2
26.7

4i
70

23-4
29.8

28.9
36.

4'
70

3°
39

4'
70

28
45

1
1

22
58

4i
71

20
49

9
8

24.8
56.6

3 2 -3
54-9

4'
70

35
53

•7
.8

Painted red; off Chatham, 4 miles E. i | S. from I 9
Monomoy lt

Painted green, If mile S. by W. from Mono- I 9

moy Point |

Schooner-rigged, straw colour. In 5| fathoms, I 9
1£ mile from S. part of shoal

Lt.-ho., 35 ft. high, painted red, with black I 4a
lantern, on Harding's Beach. Lt. is visible
through an arc of 270° JT. '

Gray tower, 47 ft. high, on X. part of shoal ... I 4b

Schooner-rigged, with red and white squares. I q
In 6 fathoms. Between Succonnesset and
Eldridge Shoals I

White tower, 60 ft. high, on N.E. point of Id. I 3a
Shown from S. by W. \ W. to S.E. by E. ...

Tower, 65 ft. high, white, red, white, on S.E. I 2c
part of Nantucket Island. Flash of 10 sees,
every minute I

Schooner-rigged, red.
miles S. of shoal

In 14 fathoms. Two

White building, inside the breakwater. Shown I m
from S. by E. £ E. to W.S.W. 4, W

Black, with white streak. In 8 fathoms, N.W. I 9
of Nantucket

On the beach, N.W. of harbour, N.W. and S.E.
100 yards apart

Red tower, 42 ft. high, on W. point of entr. to
Nantucket Harbour

White tower, 36 ft. high, on N.E. pt. of Mar-
tha's Vineyard Island

On N.W. side of entrance to harbour,
from S.W. by W. to S. by W

Shown I 4a

1. White tower, 33 ft. high, on W. Chop of har-
bour. Shown from W. by N. J N. to S. f E.

2. White iron lt.-ho. on E. Chop, E. entr. pt.
of harbour. Lt. shown between E.S.E. and
W. by S

Red tower, E.S.E. of entrance to Wood's

Hole Harbour. Shown from N.E. by N. to

|(N.W. by W

White tower, 32 ft. high, on West side, on
Naushon Island. Flashes every £ minute.
Shown from N. to W

Painted red, with yellow sti-eak. In 13J fms.,
near Sow and Pigs Rocks. Two red balls...

Gooseberry Point. Painted lead-colour ; in 10
fms., 1 mile S.E. of reef

Red tower, 41 ft. high, on W. pt. of Martha's
Vineyard Island. Flash ev. 10 sees., every
fourth flash being red. A rockv shoal to
N.W., l.^mile

White tower, 32 ft. high, on S.W. point of Id.
Shown from S.E. by S. £ S. to N.E. by E. £ E.

White tower, 32 ft. high, off Round Hill. Shown
from N.W. by N. to S.W. by W

On N.W. angle of Fort, Clark's Point, W. side
of entrance. Shown from N. bv E. I E. to

W. by N. J N

| 45

12 1

| 40

11 |

| 40

10 |

1 41

| 59

13 |

| 40

10 |

| 70

14 1

| 150

20 |

| 44

12 |

| 42

10 |

| 39

10 I

1 8

1 10

| 46

12 1

1 57

13 1

| 37

12 1

1 69

13 1

1 ""

14 |

| 89

13 (

| 80

13 1

1 34

9 1

1 23

.. 1

| 25

10 |

| 170

20 1

1 42

12 I

1 42

12 1

| 68

13 1

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES. RHODE ISLAND, &o.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. S.
Long. E.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

BUZZABD'S BAY— (continued).

Palmer's Island
One fixed bright It.

Ned's Point

One fixed bright It.

Bird Island

One fix. & flash, br. It.

Wing's Neck

One fixed bright It.

EHODE ISLAND.
Brenton's Eeef Lt.-Ves.

Two fixed bright lights

BEAVER TAIL

One fixed Lright light

Lime Eock

One fixHti red light

NAEEAGANSETT BAY
Newport Harbour
One fixed bright It.

Eose Island

One fixed red light

Dutch Island

One fixed bright It.

Wickford

One fixed bright It.

Prudence Island
One fixed bright It.

Bristol Ferry

1. One fixed br. It.

2. One fixed red It.

"Warwick

One fixed bright It.

Providence Eiver
One fixed bright It.

POINT JUDITH

One rev. br. It., 15 sees.

BLOCK ISLAND

1. One fixed bright It.

2. One fixed bright It.

3. Two fixed red lights

WATCH HILL

Due fixed bright light

4i 37-6
7° 54-2

4' 39-

70 47.4

41 40.1

70 42.7

41 40
7o 39

OnN.E. end, in New Bedford Harbour.

:=:

White tower, 32 ft. high, on E. side of Matta-
poisett Harbour. Shown from S.E. J E. to
S. by W. i W

East side of entrance to Sippican Harbour.
Flash every 1£ minute

Head of Buzzard's Bav, in Sandwich. Shown
from S.E. £ E.. to N.E. £ N

4'
7'

4i
7 1

41
71

41
7i

2 5-
2I -5
26.9
23.6

28.6
19.2

29.6
*9-3

Painted straw colour. In 15 fathoms, E.
of entrance to Newport

side

Square granite tower, 74 ft. high, on S. point
of Conanicut Id,, entr. to Newport Harbour.
Shown from N.E. f E. to N.W. £ W

On the rock, S. side of Newport Harbour

On North end of Goat Island

On S.W. point of the island.

71
41
7 1

41
7 1

4'
7i

29.8 I White tower, 35 ft. high, on S. end of island

34.2
26.

36.3
17.9

38-5

White tower, 33 ft. high, on Poplar Point.
Shown from N.E. by E. £ E. to S. £ E

White tower on East side, on Sandy Point.
Shown from N. by W. to S.S.W

1. On N. side of entrance to Mount Hope Bay.
Shown from N.E. to S.W

2. On beacon on Mussel Shoal, S.E. side of
channel

41
71

40.
22.4

7 r

42-5
21.

41
7 1

21.6 1
28.6 J

On S. end of neck,
to W.N.W

Shown from N.E. bv N.

13.6

34-6

18.2

5i-8

Granite tower, 50 ft. high, on end of spit of
Conimicut Point, West side of entrance of
river. Shown from N.N.W. to S.W. Above
this, five fixed lights are shown in Provi-
dence River

White tower, 45 ft. high, on S. extremity of
Narragansett shore. Shown from W. by S.
to N.N.E

1. Gray granite tower, 50 ft. high, on N. pt. of
Id. Shown northwards, from S.S.W. to
S.S.E

2. On S.E. end of Id. Brick tower, 67 ft. high

3. Leading lights for anchorage near the
breakwater on the East side of the island . . .

Granite tower, 40 ft. high, on Watch Point, 3
miles S.E. of Stonington. Shown southwards,
from \Y. i N. to E. > N

5a
6a

I 5b

I
I 5a

•
3a

4a
6a
4a
5a

la
4a

CONNECTICUT AND NEW YORK
BLOCK AND LONG ISLAND SOUNDS.
41 19.6

Stonington

One fixed bright It. 171 54

Eel Grass Lightvessel I 41 18

One fixed bright It. | 71 56

Morgan's Point | 41 18

One fixed bright It. | 71 59

White tower. 30 ft. high, on E. side of entr.
Shown from S.S.E. to W

On the shoal, painted lead colour .

Granite tower, 34 ft. high, on North side of
Fisher's Island Sound. Shown from S.S.W.
to N. bv E

6a
6a

4a I 67 I 14

60 I 12
32 I 10

61 I 11

1849
1856

1819

1857
1849
1856

1850

1793

1856

9 I 1854

200

14 1

1823
1857
1869

1826
1875

1831
1855

1852

1855
1873

1826
1876

1868

1S10
1857

1829
1869
1875
1880

1808
1857

1823
1875

1835
1857
1831
1867

UNITED STATES. LIGHTHOUSES. CONNECTICUT, &c.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.'

■=>TZ

BLOCK AND LONG ISLAND SOUNDS— (continued) ,

North Dumpling Id.

One fixeu red light

NEW LONDON

One fixed bright It.

Bartlett's Reef Lt.-Ves.

Two fixed bright lis.

LITTLE GULL ISLAND

One bright fixed It.

BACE BOCK

Revol. red and br. It.
every 30 sees.

Gardiner's Island
One fixed bright It.

Plum Island

One rev. br. It., ~ in.

Long Beach Bar
One fixed red light

Cedar Island

One fixed bright It.
Saybrook Point

One fixed bright It.

Calves' Island

One fixed bright It.

Brockways Reach

Devil's Wharf

Cornfield Point Lt.-Ves.

One fixed red light

HORTON'S POINT

One fixed bright It.

FAULKNER'S ISLAND

One fix, & flash, br. It.

NEW HAVEN HARB.

One fixed bright It,

Newhaven

One fixed red light

STRATFORD SHOALS
Rev. br. It., 10 sees.

Stratford Biver

One rev. br. It., 1^ m.

Bridgeport

One fixed red light

Penfield Beef

One red flash. It., 5 s.

Old Field Point
One fixed bright It.

Black Bock Harbour
One fixed bright It.

EATON'S NECK
One fixed bright It.

16.

3-
19.1

5-
16.

7-5
12.3

6.7

14.6
2.8

7 2

4 1
I 1

4i
72

4i 8-3

72 8.2

41 10.4
72 13.6

41 6.3

72 17.8

41 2.4

72 15-3

41 16.3

72 20.3

4' 19-5

72 21.

41 13

72 22

41 5
72 26

41 12

72 38

41 14

I 2 54
41 17
72 55

4i 3

73 5

41 9
73 6
41 9
73 1°

4' 7
73 '2

40 58

73 6

41 8

73 12

40 57
73 23

In Fisher's Island Sound .

White tower, 83 ft. high, on West side of
entrance to River Thames. Shown eastward,
from N. i W. to W. £ S

On reef, off New London. Painted black with
white streak; two masts

Granite tower, 74 ft. high, on S. side of main
entr. betw. Block and Long Island Sounds.
Shown from W.S.W., by North, to S.W. ...

Lt.-bo., surmounted by black lantern, off W.
extr. of Fisher Id., N. side of entr. to Long
Island Sound

On N. point. Shown northward from S. £ W.
to S.E. i S

White tower, 34 ft. high, on W. end, N.E. extr.
of Long Island. Guide through Plum Gut...

Pile lighthouse, in 5 ft. water, at entrance to
Orient & Greenport Harbours, Long Island

White tower, 31 ft. high, at entrance to Shag
Harbour, Long Island

White tower, 70 ft. high, on Lynde Point, W.
side of mouth of Connecticut Kiver. Shown
southward from W. by S. to N. by W

Two miles below Essex Town, E. side of river

Fixed bright It., 2 miles above Essex Town ...

Fixed bright It., 4 miles above Essex Town ...

Red ; sloop-rigged. In 7£ fathoms, on middle
of S. side of Long Sand Shoal

White tower, 30 ft. high, on the point. Shown
northward from S.W. by W. to N.E. by E....

White tower, 44 ft. high, on island off Guilford
Harbour. Flash every 1£ min. Shown all
round

From one-storied dwelling on S.W. Ledge, at
entrance of harbour

On end of Long Wharf

Granite It. -ho. on Middle Ground.

Tower, striped black and white, on W. entr.
point of river

White on red piles on the shoal, W. side of
entrance to river. Shown all round

A white tower on the reef, near S.W. entr. pt.
of Black Rock and Bridgeport Harbours ...

White tower, 34 ft. high, on South side of
Long Island Sound. Shown northward from
W. by S. I S. to E

White tower, 35 ft. high, on Fairweather Id.
Shown from E.N.E., by the South, to N. ...

White tower, 60 ft. high, on E. side of entr. to
Huntington Bay. Shown northward from
W, to t.b.li.

12 1

14 1

•

28
35

10 1

14 |

8 |

12 1

13 |

10 1

13 |

• •

3 |

1 1

3 |

•

10 |

110

18 |

15 1

13 |

8 |

13 1

12 |

10 |

13 |

13 1

12 1

142

17 1

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

NEW YORK, &o.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

o 3

o. g

fnW

£ <£

0> O
HH

LONG ISLAND SOUND— (continued).
Lloyd's Harbour

One fixed bright It.
Norwalk Island

One fixed & flash. It.

Great Captain Island
Oue fixed bright It.

Execution Bocks
One fix.d bright It.

SANDS POINT

Oue rev. br. It., \ m.

54-9

25-7

2.9

24.9

58.9

37-i

52.6

73 43-9

51-9

43-5

White tower, 34 ft. high, on S.E. point of
Lloyd's Neck, N. side of entrance

White granite tower, 34 ft. high. Bright It.,
with red flash every minute. At W. entr. of
Norwalk River. Guide to N. shore of Long
Islan 1 Sound, and to river. Shown southward
from W. by S. \ S. to E. by N. £ N. A rocky
ledge half a mile to S.S.W

White granite tower, 34 ft. high, near Green-
wich Point. Shown from K. by N. to N.W.

White tower, 42 ft. high, on rock off Sands Pt.

Stepping Stones

One fixed red lif

■ht

Throgg's Neck

One fixed bright It.

North Brother

One fixed bright It.
Blackwell Island
One fixed red light

NEW YORK AND
MONTAUK POINT

On.- fix. and flash, br. It.

GBEAT WEST, or SHIN-
NECOCK BAY

One fixed bright light
FIEE ISLAND

One rev. br It., 1 min.

NEW YOKE BAY
SANDY HOOK LT.-V.

Two fixed red lights
"Scotland" Wreck Lt.-

vessel
HIGHLANDS OF
NAVESINK

Two fixed bright Its.
SANDY HOOK

Three fixed bright Its.

Main Channel

Two fixed bright Its.

Gedney's Channel
Two fixed bright Its.

Swash Channel

Two fixed bright Its.

Great Beds

One fixed red light

Prince's Bay

One fix. & flash, br. It.

Fort Tompkins
One fixed bright It.

White tower, 41 ft. high, on East side of entr.
to Cow Bay, Long Island. Shown north-
ward from S.W. £ S. to E.N.E

From dwelling on W. Stepping Stone Bock, E.
River, entrance to Long Island Sound

White tower, 61 feet high, on S.E. point of
Neck, at N.W. entrance to E. River. Shown
southward from W. to N.N.E. | E

On S. part of island, in the East River, between
Long Island Sound and New York

Gray tower, 40 ft. high I 4a

NEW JERSEY.
I 41 4.2 I White tower, 97 ft. high, at E. end of Long Id.

40 49.4

73 46.2

48-3

47-i

48.

5*«

46.2
56.1

7i 5 1 - 1

50-9
29.9

37-9
12.8

40
73

26.9

5*-

40
73

23-7
58.8

40
73

27.6
59-3

25.2
4-

40
74

26.9

7-9

40
74

33-7
6.9

29.2

!J-3

40
74

3°-4
I2 -5

36.
2.9

A brighter flash every 2 minutes. Shown
eastward from N.W. by W. \ W. to S.W. ...

Red brick tower, 150 ft. high, on Pondquogue
Point, N. side of Shinnecock Bay, lj mile
inland from S. coast of Long Island. Shown
southward from N.b. by E. to S.W. by W.

Yellow tower, 150 feet high, on East side of
inlet, S. side of Long Island. Shown south-
ward from W. by S. to E.N.E

Painted red, in 14 fms., 6£ miles from Sandy
Hook and Navesink lights

Moored in 7 fms. at entr. to New York Bay,
N.E. \ N. from Highlands of Navesink Its....

Brown stone towers, each 58 ft. high, South
side of Sandy Hook, 76 yds. auart. Shown
eastward, from N.W. to S. by E

S. entrance to New York Harbour. East It.
is on N. point of Sandy Hook, N. by W.,
I of a mile, and West light N. W., \ of a mile,
from main light

Lower It. on Conover Beacon, South shore of
Sandy Hook Bay. Upper light on Chapel
Hill, 1£ mile to S. by W

Leading lights near Point Comfort, J of a mile
apart, in one bearing W. by S

Range Its. on Staten Island, near Elm Tree
Station and New Dorp, 1& mile apart; in
line, bearing N.W

Raritan Bay. Red iron tower, 42 ft high, of
five sections, standing on an iron pier filled
with concrete. Lantern painted black

Brown tower, 33 ft. high, near S.E. end of
Staten Island. Flash every 2 minutes. Guide
to Amboy and Raritan River. Shown from
E. by N. to S.W. f W

Drab tower, 46 ft. high, on Staten Island,
W. side of Narrows. Shown eastward from
N. JW. to S.W. by 8

la
la

3a
4a
6a

3a
2a

2a
3a

4 a

10 I 1857

11 I 1826

1875

12 I 1829
I 1868

12 1848
I 1856

15 I 1809
I 1864

10 I 1877

10 I 1826
I 1875

10 I 1869

13 I 1872

20 I 1795
I 1860

20 I 1857

20 I 1826
I 1858

10 I 1823

I 1862

10 I 1874

248 I 22 I 1828
248 22 1862

1 40 1

4 b

1 50 |

1 72 |

1 54 |

i 68 |

47 |

66 |

50 |

54 |

170 |

160 |

166 |

•

45 |

•

45 |

1762
1868

60 I 12 I 1856
224 I I

40 I 12 I 1856
76 I 14 I
189 20 1856
59 I 12 I

52 I 10 I 1880

106 I 16 I 1828
I 1857

89 I 15 I 1839
1873

UNITED STATES. LIGHTHOUSES.

NEW JERSEY, &c.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

c 2

■6

T2 rt

■s»

S-9

«5t

40 39-4
74 3- 6

1 40 3 8

174 8
1 40 3 8
1 74 9

•5 1

6 |

7 1

8 |

| 40 41

1 74 7

7
3 1

1 4° 4 2

1 74 7

1 J
1 j

3°-3
16.8

22.
25.6

NEW YORK BAY— (continued)
Bobbins Beef

One fixed bright It.
Hudson Biver

Fixed liar^ts

NEWABK BAY

Bergen Point

One fixed bright It.
Corner Stake

One fixed red light
Passaic River

One fixed bright It.
Elbow Beacon

One fixed bright It.

NEW JERSEY.

BABNEGAT I 39 45.8

One flash, br. It., 10 s. | 74 6.1

TTJCKEE'S BEACH

One fixed bright, & red
flashing light, 2 min.

ABSECOM

One fixed bright light

Hereford Inlet I 39 o.

One fixed red light | 74 48.

CAPE MAY, or FIVE- 38 48.3
FATHOM BANK LT.-V. 74 36.2

Two fixed bright Its.

CAPE MAY I 38 55.8

One br. rev. It., \ min. | 74 57.3

CAPE HENLOPEN I 38 46.6
One fixed bright light | 75 4.7
Beacon Light I

One fixed bright light |

DELAWABE BAY AND EIVEB
Breakwater I 38 47.9

One fix. & flash, br. It. | 75 6.1

Brandywine Shoal I 38 59.1

One fixed bright It. | 75 6.5

Fourteen-foot Bank 39 3.

Lightvessel 75 11.

Two fixed bright Its.

Maurice Biver I 39 11.6

One fixed bright It. | 75 1.8

Mispillion Biver I 38 56.7

One bright fixed It. | 75 18.5

Egg Island I 39 10.5

Une fixed bright It. | 75 8.1

Mahon Biver I 39 10.5

One fixed bright It. | 75 24.3

Cross Ledge Shoal 39 9.5

One flashing bright It. 75 14.5

every £ minute

White stone tower, 51 ft. high, off Tompkins- I 4a I 56

ville, N.W. part of New York Harbour

Twenty or thirty Its. are shown from beacons, I . . I
piers, &c, between New York and Albany...

On a reef, at entrance to Newark Bay I 6a I 48

Opposite Elizabeth Port I 6a I ..

At mouth of river I 6a I 40

On shoal point, £ a mile N. of Passaic light ... I 6a I 27

Red and white tower, 150 ft. high, on N. end
of Long Beach, S. side of inlet. Shown from
N. by E. to S.S.W

Gray tower, 44 ft. high, £ mile northward of
entr. to Little Egg Harb. Shown from N.E.
by N. to S.W. by S. Fixed br. for 1 min.,
followed by 6 consecutive red flashes, at in-
tervals of 10 sees

Tower, 159 ft. high, painted white with a red
band, 50 ft. wide, round its middle portion ;
on S. side of inlet. Shown from N.E. by N.
to S.W

Straw-coloured building surrounded by trees

Painted straw colour. In 9 fms., E. 23 miles
from Cape Henlopen It., and S.E. of Five-
Fathom Bank. Pass S. andE. of lt.-vessel...

Gray tower, 155 ft. high, on N. side of entrance
to Delaware Bay. Shown from N.E., by the
S., to N '.

White tower, 82 ft. high, on S. side of entr. to
DelawareBay. Shown from N.W. to S. by E.

A whitescrew pile It. -ho., 1 mile N.W. of main
light. Shown from W. by S. to S. by E. ...

White tower, 45 ft. high. Flash every 45 sees.

Red iron screw pile tower

Lt.-ves., painted yellow, in 6 fms., 3 cables
E. of bank, 5 miles N.W. f W. trom Bran-
dywine It., and 6| miles S.S.E. £ E. from
Cross Ledge It. Pass eastward of her

White tower, 39 feet high, on S.W. side of
Havstack Island. Shown from E.S.E. to
N.W. I N

Buff tower near the entrance

la
4a

4c
3a

•

6a
6a

White lighthouse on N. side of bay. Shown
from N.W. |N. to N.E

New tower, painted buff, 660 yds. N. by E. f E.
from position of old It

Iron It. -ho., £ mile within S. extr. of shoal,
W. by S. ii unlets from Kg:,' Id. It,, and
K by S. 7J miles from Mahou It

4 c

165
50

la I 167

lb I 167

128
45

43
29

48
45
53
38

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

VIRGINIA, &c.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

a< 1 «-" o

3^ -=

2-3

DELAWARE BAY AND

Cohanzey

One fixed bright It.
Ship John Shoal

One fixed red light
Bombay Hook
Port Penn

Two fixed bright Its.

Beedy Island

One rev. br. It., \ m.
Finn Point

Two nxed bright Its.

Newcastle

Deep "Water Point

Christiana River
Cherry Island Flats

Two fixed bright Its.
Fort Mifflin
Schuylkill River

FENWICK ISLAND

One fixed and flash. It.
VIRGINIA.
Winter Quarter Shi. Lt.-V.
One fixed bright light

ASSATEAGUE ISLAND

One bright fixed light

Hog Island

One fixed bright light

CHESAPEAKE BAY

CAPE CHARLES
One fixed & flash. It.

CAPE HENRY
One fixed bright It.
The Thimbles

One br. flx. It., red fl.

Old Point Comfort
One fixed bright It.

Craney Island Shoal
One fixed bright It.

Lambert Point
One fixed red light

Portsmouth

One fixed red light

Nausemond River
One fixed red light

James River

One fixed bright It.

Point of Shoals
One fixed bright It.

Deep "Water Shoals
One fixed bright It,

Jordan's Point

One fixed bright It.

RIVER-
I 39 2 °-3
I 75 2i-3
I 39 l8 3
I 75 22.7
I 39 2i-8
39 2 95
75 35-7

39 3°-

75 34-

39 35- 6

75 32.7

1 39 38.

1 39 4'-

1 39 43-3

1 39 45-
I 75 29.8

1 39 5 2 -i

1 39 53-3

1 38 27.
1 75 4-i

{continued).

I Lt.-ho., 40 ft., on W. side of creek, E. side of
bay. Shown to S. from N. W. i W. to S.E. i S.

I Black lt.-house and brown dwelling.

I Bright It. from tower, on N.W. end cf island
I From black tower, in trees, and white frame-
work, U m. apart. In line lead up channel

I fr m S.E.-ward

Drab-coloured lt.-ho., lantern black, on S. pt.
Thirty feet of the old tower remains standing

From black tower, in trees, and white frame-
work, li m. apart. In line lead up channel
from southward

Two fix. br. leading Its., i^ mileapart. To mark
channel passing Pea Patch Island

Twofix.br. leading Its., 1\ mileapart. To mark
channel at upper part of Bulkhead Shoal ...

Bright flx. It. at Wilmington, N. side of river

Lights 3 mile apart ; in line, lead through
dredged channel across the flats

6 a

I *
I 4a

I::

Bright light on pier, opposite the fort

Two fix. br. Its. In line, lead through dredged
channel into Schuylkill River

37 57-
75 5-5

54- 6
21 1

37
75

23-3
41.6

White brick tower. 82 ft. ; fixed It., with flash
ev. 2 min. Shown eastward from N. to S....

Painted red, in 11 fathoms, S.E. by E. | E., 2
miles from centre of shoal

Red brick tower, 129 ft. high, 2 miles from S.W.
pt. of Id. Shown eastward from N.N.E. } E.
to W.S.W. Very dangerous shoals lie from
5 to lli miles to N.E., E., and S.E

White tower. 45 ft. high, W. pt. of Id. Guide
to Great Matchipongs Inlet. Shown eastward
from N. by W. £ W. to W. by S. i S

137 7.1 New circular white tower, 150 ft. high, near | 1c
-- -- 2 N.E. end of Smith Island, North side of
/i ii- entrance to Chesapeake Bay. Flash every
45 sees. Shown all round I

I 3*> 55-5 I Wni,e tower, 82 ft. high, near sand-hills on I 2a
76 0.2 S. side of entrance I

37 o.

76 14.

37
76

0.
18.4

36
76

53-5 1
20.3 |

53-5
20.3

36
76

52.2
20.

36
7 6

50.8
18.1

54-8
26.5

1.4

31-5

37
76

3-8
39-2

37 8.2
76 38.

18.7

1 3.1

Screw pile lt.-ho. on the Horseshoe Bank, in | 4c
lift. Pass to southward. Redflashev. losecs.
(Lt.-ho. burnt, 1880; temporary It. shown) '

White tower, 40 ft. high, on N. side of entr. to I 4 a
Hampton Roads and James River. Shown
from N. £ W., eastward, to W. £ S.

Piles on W. side of entr. to Elizabeth River. I 5a
Fog-bell ev. 12 sees. Shown eastward from
W. by N. J N. to S. by W. £ W I

Screw pile lt.-ho. off Lambert Point, in 6 ft. I g a
water, E. side of channel to Elizabeth River

On wharf of Naval Hospital, from mast 45 ft. I 6a
high, 60 ft. N. of former light-station I

Pile lt.-ho. white with red roof, in 5£ ft. water, I 6a
at river entr.

(White Shoal.) Screw pile lt.-ho. below Sandy | « a
Point. - ud,

White screw pile lighthouse on the shoal. | 6a

White screw pile lighthouse on the shoal. I 6a

White tower, 35 ft. high, on the port side j 6a
gwing up Jiuuee Biver.

| 46

11 1

| 53

1 13 1

| 46

1 n 1

I 133

1 33

1 •• 1

| 30

1 •• 1

1 98

| 23

1 • • 1

| 48

1 n 1

1 28

| 113

1 • " 1

| 23

1 7 |

| 86

1 15 1

1 15

1 n 1

| 150

1 ld 1

| 60

1 13 |

| 150

21 |

| 129

1 17 1

| 44

12 |

1 48

11 |

| 40

11 1

| 36

10 |

1 ••

6 I

| 33

11 1

1 27 |

9 |

1 27

9 |

1 27 |

9 |

1 35 |

10 |

1838
1855
1877

1831
1877

1S39
1879
1877

1876
1876

1835

1880

1849
1876

1858

1874

1833
1867

1852

1855

1864

1791
1857
1872

1802

1820
1854

1872

1S57
1S78
1878

1854
1854

1854
1864

K. a. o. — Lu.hts.

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

VIRGINIA, &c.

Name and Character of Light.

I Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

'■3 9 s

£**£

'£ a.

•— 1 o

.5 <5

CHESAPEAKE BAT— {continued).

Cherrystone Inlet I 37 15.6

One fixed bright It. | 76 1.8

Back Eiver I 37 5.2

Fix.&fl. br.lt, 1± m. | 76 15.9

York River 37 12.3

1. One fixed red It. 76 14.7

2. One fix. bright It.

New Point Comfort I 37 18.
One fixed bright It. | 76 16.4

White pile lighthouse on W. side of entrance 1 4a | 36 | 10 ] 1 859
of inlet, E. side of Chesapeake Bay.

White tower, 30 ft. high, on South side of I 4b | 35 | 10 I 1829

1. Screw pile lt.-ho., painted yellow, in 12 ft. £ I 37
water, at E. end of York ^pit. I aq

2. Brown, white, and red pile lt.-ho. at Toos * * '
Point

Stone tower, 56 ft. high, on N. side of entrance I 4a | 60 |

to Mobjack Bay I

. 1854

11 I 1870
11 1875

13 I 1804
1855

Wolf Trap Shoals 37 23.3

One bright light, with 76 10.
flash every £ min.

Stingray Point I 37 33,6

One fixed red light | 76 15.9

Screw pile lighthouse on East side of shoal, 4a | 36 | 11 | 1870
between York and Rappahannock Rivers.

White pile lt.-ho., in 6 ft. water, on S. side of I &a | 36
Rappahannock River.

7 I 1859

Windmill Point I 37 34.8

One fixed bright It. | 76 14.5

Pile lighthouse, straw colour, in 12 ft. water, I • | 34 | 10 I 1834
on S.E. part of shoal, N. side of Rappa- I I 1354

hannock River.

Watts Island | 37 46.9

One fixed & flash. It. | 75 53.8

White tower, 40 ft. high, on South end, East I 5 C I 46 I 12 I 1833
entrance to Tangier Sound. Flash every I ift<;7

2 minutes .. I I 1857

MARYLAND.

Janes Island I 37 57.8 I White lt.-ho., brown roof and piles, off mouth I 4a I 38 I 11 J 1867

One fixed bright light | 75 55. | ^^S^SSS.' Tm ^ aaada ^ mtt - | | 1879

Somers Cove

One fixed bright It.

37 58.

75 5 2 - 2

In Tangier Sound.

6a I 35 J 20 I 1867

Smith Point

One fixed &

Solomon Lump
One fixed light

137 53-6 I WnJ te pile lighthouse, on S. side of entrance I 3c I 38 I 11 I 1869
76 1 1.4 I ?£ Potomac. Bright It., with red flash every I

Clay Island

One fixed bright It.

°-5

25 sees.

White lt.ho. on piles in 6 ft., opposite entr. of
Potomac River. Lt vis. from N.N.W. by the
W. to E.N.E.

38 13.9 J N. side of entrance to Nanticoke River ,
75 58.1 I

5a I 42 J 11 I 1875

6a I 36 I 10 I 1832
1S55

Lookout Point

One fixed bright lt.

38 2.3 I N. side of entrance to Potomac River.
76 19. I

4a I 37 I 10 I 1831
I 1857

Hooper's Strait
One fixed bright lt.

38 13.5 I Screw pile lt.-ho., upper part white, lower ! 5a I 40 ! 11 I 1867

JO Ij.^ I w"«*w pile it.-u\j., uppci pail. niiiLt-, lower

tfi a -> brown, N. side of strait, bttw. mainland and
' 4 " ' Bloodsworth Id.

1879

Cove Point

One fixed & flash, lt.

Sharp Island

One bright fixed It.

Choptank River
One bright fixed lt.

38 23.1 I White tower, 39 ft. high, 4 miles North of
76 2-? 6 Patuxent River, on W. side of Chesapeake.
' J" 1 Flash every l.J minute.

4d I 46 I 11

1828
1S57

38 37-9 I ° n a srrew " ile lighthouse, in 1h ft. water, off I 5 a 1 »c I in I 1RRA
76 22 j N - W - Point of id ,nd. Lt. shown westward ' * ° ' 10 ' 1866

' -> ' beiween S. by W. and E. by S I

38 39-3 I s crew pile white lt.-ho., in 9 ft. water, lj mile I 6a I %R I 1n I 1871
J 6 ,*/ S.E. of Benoni Point. ' 4

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

MARYLAND.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

— >

— o

CHESAPEAKE "BAY— (continued).

Tnomas Point Shoal
One rev. red It. 30 s.

Greenbury Point
One fixed bright It.

Sandy Point

One fixed & flash. It.

Love Point

One fixed bright It.
PATAPSCO BIVEB
Leading Lights for
Craighill Channel
Two bright fax. Its.

Seven-Foot Knoll
One fix. red It.

Fort Carroll

One fix. bright It.

Hawkins Point
One bright fixed It.

Leading Point
One bright fixed It.

Lazaretto Point

One fixed red light

Fool Island

One fixed bright It.

Snsquehanna Biver

Turkey Point

One fixed bright It.

Fishing Battery
One fixed bright It.

Havre de Grace
One fixed red It.

POTOMAC BIVEB

Piney Point

One fixed bright It.

Blakistone Island
One fixed bright It,

Lower Cedar Point
One fixed bright It.

Mathias Point
One fix. bright It.

38 54.2 I White & brown pile lt.-ho. 1 mile E. by S. | S.
76 2C.7 I from position of old It.

38 58.3 I N. side of Annapolis Harbour, at entrance to
76 26.9 J Severn River

39 «•»

76 23.5

39 4-

76 16.5

39 "- 2
76 23.3

39 9-3

76 24.2

39 12.8
76 30.8

39 I2 -3
76 Ji-5

39 "-7
76 32.9

39 15-7

7 6 34-

39 J 7-4

76 15-7

Wh. tower, 35 ft. high, on W. side of Chesa-
peake. Flash every 1£ min.

A screw pile lighthouse, in 10 ft. water, at \\
mile N.E. trom Love Point, entrance of
Chester River.

Inner It. at S. end of Hart Id. ; shown only
down channel. Outer It., iron lt.-ho., black,
in 14 ft. water, near mouth of Patapsco Riv.,
2 j miles irom inner It. It also shows a lower
fixed It. at 17 ft., down the channel. The
Its. in line N. j E. lead In.

Black screw piles, S. side of entr. to Patapsco
Biver.

On the fort.

On iron piles. On shoal, on S. side of Patapsco
River

Brown tower, 40 ft. high, on N. side of Balti-
more Harbour. In line with Hawkins
Point lights, 1^ mile to W. by N. J N., lead
up the channel

N. side of Baltimore Harbour.

"White tower, 30 ft. high, off mouth of Gun-
powder River.

39 26.9 I White tower, 30 ft. high, on bluff point, N.

76 02 s ' de of entrance to Elk and Susquehanna

' ' ' Rivers

39 29.6 I On Fishing or Donoho's Battery

76 4-7 I

"?Q 72.4 I Concord Point, entrance of Susquehanna

76 4.8 I B*«

38 8.1 I E. side, about 14 miles N.W. of mouth

76 3'-5 I

38 12.4 I White tower, 41 ft. high, near entrance of

76 44.4 I Clement Bay

38 20.3 I Screw pile lighthouse, in 3 ft. water, between

_g ._ . J Cedar and Yates Points.

38 24.1 I Screw piles red, lantern white, on shoal off pt.

77 2.3 I

•

| 1871

1 1848
| 1855

| 1858

4b |

| 1872

2a 1
da j

106 1
30 |

16
11

! 1874
1874

4a |

43 |

| 185*

5a |

37 |

1854

2a |

70 |

1868
1879

2a |

70 |

186S

4a |

35 |

1831

1855

4a |

35 |

1825
1855

4a |

65 |

1833
1855

6a |

36 |

1853

6a |

40 |

1825
1879

5a |

35 |

1836
1856

4a |

46 |

1851
1856

• |

35 |

1825

5 \

43|

| 1876

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

NORTH CAROLINA.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

C 3

.-'

^ o

■g

CHESAPEAKE BAY— {continued).
POTOMAC RIVER— (continued).

Fort Washington
One fixed bright It.

1 38 42-7
1 77 i-9

Jones Point

One fixed bright It.

1 3 8 47-4
1 77 2.1

Bowler Rock

One fixed bright light

1 37 49-2
1 76 43-5

NORTH CAROLINA.

CURRITUCK BEACH

One fix. & flashing It.

1 36 21.8

1 75 49-3

BODIES ISLAND

One fixed bright light

1 35 49-3
1 75 33-4

CAPE HATTERAS
One flash, br. It., 10 s.

1 35 151

1 75 3'-

PAMPLICO SOUND

Oliver Reef

One red flash. It. 30 s.

Ocracoke Island
One fixed bright It.

1 35 6-5
1 75 58-9

Royal Shoal, S.W. Pt.
One fixed bright It.

1 35 7-
1 76 7-

Royal Shoal, N.W. Pt.

One fixed & flash. It.

1 35 9' 2
1 7 6 9-2

Harbour Island

One bright fixed It.

35 °-5
76 13.

Brant Island Shoal
One fixed bright It.

1 35 8.1
1 76 17-3

Neuse River

One bright fixed It.

1 35 5-3
I 7 6 32-6

Pamplico Point
One fixed bright It.

1 35 '9-4
I76 31.3

Long Shoal

One bright fixed It.

1 35 34-
1 75 4 2 -

Roanoke Marshes
Onj fixed red light

I 35 48.5
1 75 4i-8

Croatan

One fixed bright It.

1 35 57-6
1 75 47-4

Laurel Point

One br. rev. It., \ m.

35 59-8
76 23.9

Wade's Point

One fixed bright It.

1 3 6 91
1 75 58.3

North River

One fixed red light

I 36 9-3
1 75 53-5

Boanoke River
One fixed bright It

1 35 568
1 7 6 4*-4

I On the wharf

I Near Alexandria I oa

I Pile lighthouse, on S. side of Rappahannock I oa
River, 26 miles above entrance.

I Fixed bright It., and red flash every 1£ min. I 1c
Red brick tower, 150 it. high I

I Brick tower, rebuilt, black and white bands, I la
lg mile N. of Oregon Inlet |

I Tower, 180 ft. high, black & white spiral bands, I lb

about 2 miles N. of cape. Dangerous shoals I
' 9 or 10 miles to S.E '

I Pile It. -ho., in 7 ft. water, on reef, Hatteras I 4b
Inlet, Pamplico Sound.

I White tower, 65 ft. high, on W. end of island, I 4a
N. side of entrance to the inlet I

I White screw piles, in 7 ft. water, on S.W. point. I 4a
(Discontinued, 1880)

I White screw piles, in 6 ft. water, on N.W. I 4d
point. Flash every 1£ min.

I White screw piles on bar, betw. Pamplico and I 5a
Core Sounds. (Discontinued, 1880)

I Pile'.t.-ho. in 7 ft., on S.E. pt. of shoal, inS. pt. I 5a
of Pamplico Sound.

I Pile lighthouse, in 5 ft. water, off Marsh Point, I fia
W. side of entrance to Neuse River.

I White tower, 34 ft. high, on S. side of entrance I 5a
to Pamplico River

I White pile lighthouse, on E. point of shoal, I 4a
in 9 ft. water.

I White pile lighthouse, in 9 ft. water, on E. I 4a

side of channel, between Pamplico and I
' Croatan Sounds. I

[ White screw piles, between Croatan and I 4 a
Albemarle Sounds.

I S. shore of Albemarle Sound. Hexagonal pile I 4b
I It. -ho., in 9 ft. water, due N. from the point;

' piles brown, lt.-ho. white, lantern red I

I White pile lighthouse, on end of shoal, West I 5a
side of Pasquotank River, Albemarle Sound.

I On screw piles, in Z\ ft. water, on bar of I 5 a
Albemarle Sound.

[ White screw piles, in 7\ foet water, near I 40
entrance.

1 •• 1

6 1

i 35 |

10 |

1 35 |

10 1

| 157

18 |

| 156

18 |

| 185

1 22 1

1 36

1 n 1

1 75

15 1

| 38

I 10 1

| 33

10 |

1 34

10 |

| 88

H 1

| 37

11 1

| 35

10 1

| 33

11 j

| 35

10 1

| 40

12 |

1 31

10 1

| 35

10 1

1 35 |

10 1

UUITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES. SOUTH CAROLINA.

Name and Character of Light.

tApji ^outturn:

One iixed bright light

Lat. N.
Long. W.

34 37-3
76 31. 1

Description, &c.
(Bearings hy compass from the light.)

Tower, 150 ft. high, chequered black and white,
near end of cape. The old tower is painted in
red and wnite horizontal hands. Ll.shown to
eastwardfromN.N.E. to W.N. AY. Dangerous
shoals extend 11 milus to s.a.E. from the It.

la J 156 J 22

1812
1859

Fryingpau Shoals Lt.-V.
Two fixed bright Its.

CAPE FEAR EIVER
CAPE FEAR

One fixed bright It.
One beacon light

Oak Island

Two fixed red

Its.

33 35-
77 5°-

33 5 2 -3
77 59- 8

33 53-4
78 1.6

Painted yellow ; schooner-rigged. In 10 fins., I • | 40 | 12 | 1854
1 mile from outer shoal.

Re-exhibited from old white pyramidal tower
on Bald Head, E. side of entr. to Cape Fear
.River. Sm<dl beacon It. S.W. by W. j W.
£ mile from main It. In line, indicate dredged
Channel

On E. end of island, 3 miles below Wilmington.
In one, N. J E., 267 yds. apart, lead over the
bar

4a i 100

4 a

33
45

16 I 1880
4 I ....

9 I 1849
.. 1866

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Georgetown I 33 13.4

One fixed bright light | 79 10.9

CAPE ROMAIN 33 1.1

One rev. br. It., 1 min. 79 22.2

Bull's Bay I 32 55.3

One fixed bright light | 79 33.7

Rattlesnake Shoals Lt.-V. 32 44.1

Two fixed bright lights 79 43.6

White tower, 82 ft. high, at East side of I 4 a I 85 I
entrance to Pedee River

On Raccoon Kay. New red brick tower, 150 ft.
high. Old tower, 65 ft. high, and white-
washed, stands near. Shoals extend 6 miles
beyond the cape

15 I 1801
I 1867

lb I 154 J 20

White hull ; two masts ; in 5J fathoms, with
Fort Sumter W. J N., and red beacon on
Morris Island W. by S. h S. Foe-horn and
bell .?

1827
186*

Red brick house on N. end of island 1 4a 1 35 I 11 I 1852

44 I 12 J 1854

CHARLESTON HARBOUR

Morris Island

.1. One fixed br. It.
2. Two red fixed Its.

Bullivans Island
Two fixed red lights

Fort Sumter

One fixed bright light

Fort Ripley Shoal
One fixed red light

32 4i-9
79 5*-5

32 47-
79 Si-

32 45-i
79 52.3

32 45-8

79 54-

1. Tower, 150 ft. high, painted in black and
white bands ; near South end of Morris Id.
Cata-dioptric light

2. Two beacons on S. end of island ; E. tower,
red ; West, black. Two Its. in one, 360 yds.
apart, bearing W. by N. £ N'., lead over the
bar into the main ship channel, which is
shifting to the southward

One on N.E. bastion of Fort Moultrie; the | 5a
other by the cove, 300 yds. to northward.
In one, lead through main ship channel ' a

152

Pile lt.-ho., painted yellow, in 8 ft. water ,

!••

On the fort, on West side of entrance I 5a I 57 I 10

1878
1870

1848
1 72

1855
1866

43 I 12 I 1878

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

GEORGIA.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

§1

■5 *

S 5.

8T. HELENA SOUND I 32 23.
One rev. br. It., £ min. | 80 25.

Martin's Industry Lt.-V. I 32 5.5
Two fixed bright lights. | 80 35.2

Painted red, schooner-rigged, at 15 miles east-
ward of Tybee light.

44 I 12

Lt.-ho. white to top of foliage, black above, I 2b | 132 | 17 | 1875
on Hunting Id., S. side of entr. to Sound ... I

1839
1855

GEORGIA.

SAVANNAH RIVER

Daufuskie Island
Two fixed bright Its.

TYBEE ISLAND
Two fixed bright Its.

Cockspur Island
One fixed bright It.

Tybee Knoll Beacons
Two bright fix. lead-
ing lights

Oyster Beds

One fixed red light

Fig Island

One fixed red light

Savannah

One fixed red light

8APEL0 ISLAND

1. One fixed & flash. It.

2. One fixed bright It.

Wolf Island

Two fixed bright Its.

ST. SIMON'S ISLAND
One fix, and flashing It.

LITTLE CUMBERLAND
ISLAND

One fixed bright light

3* 1.3

80 50.5

V-

1.4

52.6

54-3

2-3

535

4.8

3-9

3 2

4.8

5-4

»3-5

16.9

High It. N. \ W., 750 yds. from low It. Lead-
ing Its. for channel, from Tybee Roads into
Calibogue Sound

Main light, a white tower, 134 ft. high, on
N.E. end of the island, S. side of entrance
to Savannah River ; beacon light on a white
tower, 50 ft. high, on N.E. extreme of
island, | of a mile E. of main light

On a knoll, off E. end of the island

At E. end of Long Island. Beacons painted
white. In line, W. { S. 717 yds. apart, lead
through dredged channel from Tybee Road
into Savannah River

Opposite Cockspnr Island, to mark South
channel. Fog-bell

Pile lt.-ho. in 5 ft. water, S. side of island ;
leading It. for Wrecks Channel

Shown from tower of the Exchange Building
in the city. In line with Fig Island light,
leads through Wrecks Channel

1. Tower, 70 ft. high, red and white horizontal
bands, S. end of island, N. side of Doboy
Sound. Flash every 45 seconds

2. Fixed light in front or seaward of former...

31 It. 1 I White towers, 38 and 30 ft. high, near N. end
81 16. c of island, S. side of Doboy Sound

31 8.
81 23.4

30 58.6
81 24.6

White tower, 100 ft. high, on N. side of Sound.
Bright fixed light, with alternate red and
bright flashes every minute

White tower, 61 ft. high, on S. side of entrance
to St. Andrew Sound and Santilla River ...

5a
5a

1873

la 1
4a

150
65

20
12

1793

1822

6a |

25 |

1849
1856

6a 1
6a 1

44 1
21 |

::l

1878
1878

6a |

1849
1856

6a |

••

1848
1880

123

1880

4c |
6a |

79 | 14 ! 1820

50 j 11 1 1854

1 1858

1 6a 1

38 1 10 ! 1822
30 | 10 1 1856

•• 1

.. | .. 11811

1 1872

3a |

78 | 14 1 1838
| 1856

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

FLORIDA.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

•73

-3 k-i

'S £

•2 s3

►*a

FLORIDA.
AMELIA ISLAND
Fix. & fl. br. It., 1| m.

N. Range Beacons

Two fixed red lights

8T. JOHN'S RIVER

1. One fixed briuht It.

2. One tixed bright It.

ST. AUGUSTINE

One fixed It., with flash
every 3 minutes

CAPE CANAVERAL
One br. rev. It., 1 min.

JUPITER INLET

One fix. & flash, br. It.

CAPE FLORIDA (Fowey
Rocks)
One fixed bright light

CARYSFORT REEF
One rev. br. It., \ min.

30 40.4
81 26.3

30 42.
81 26.3

3° 23-7
81 247

29 53-
81 17.

28 27.
80 33-

White tower, 58 ft. high, 2 miles from N. end I 3c
of island I

Two pyramidal frame towers, on N. end of I %
Amelia Id. Lts. in line, lead over the bar at
entrance of Fernandina Harbour '

SOMBRERO SHOAL

One fixed bright light

AMERICAN SHOAL

One br. flash. It. 5 sees.

SAND KEY

One fixed and flash. It.

KEY WEST

S.W. Point of Island
One fixed bright It.

N.W. Passage

One fixed bright It.

DRY TORTUGAS
LOGGERHEAD KEY

One fixed bright It.

Garden or Bush Key
One fixed bright it.

1. Rod tower, 74 feet high, on South side of
entrance to Jacksonville

2. Screw pile lightho., in 6 ft. water, off Dames
Point; pass on either side

A new lighthouse near old one, painted in
black and white spiral bands, 150 ft. high,
on N. end of Anastasia Id., S. side of entr.

New iron tower, 55 ft. high, black and white
belts, on N.E. pitch of c;ipe. Dangerous
shoals lie from 6 to llg miles to north-east-
ward Irom the cape

26 C q 4 I Ked kri ck tower, 94 ft. high, between the inlet I lc

e~ r . and Gilbert Bar. Fixed It., with flash every

*° 5-* I i^ min •

2 r 3c. 3 I Iron lt.-ho., painted brown, in 5 ft. waier, 50

xn r8 yds. S. of beacon P. Keeper's dwelling white.

50 5- Catadioptric (reflector and lens) of the first

order

X r \\\\ Iron piles, 112 ft. high, dark brown colour, on I lb

c„ .i'i the reef

SO 12.7 I

ALLIGATOR REEF I 24 51.

One flashing It., 5 sees. | 80 37.

White iron framework and dwelling, in 5 ft. I lb
water, near N.E. point of reef. Two bright
flashes, then one red

24 37.6 I Edge of the shoal, pile lt.ho., dark colour, 149 [ la
g x g _ I feet high, near Coffin Patches and Sombrero

24 3 2 -4
8 * 3*-3

Key.

Browniron frame-work lt.-ho., stairway cy-
linder white, in form of a truncated pyramid,
on piles, in 6 ft. water, 200 ft. N.W. of Beacon
B, Florida Beefs

11)

24 27.2 I Dark tower, 121 ft. high, on a small islet, 71. I lc
miles S.W. of Key West light. Fixed It.,
with flash every 2 minutes '

5 2 -7

24 33- I White tower, 55 ft. high, | a mile inland I 3a

81 48.1 I I

24 37. i I On iron screw piles, in 6 ft., on N.E. point of I 4a
81 <J4.l reef, 6.^ miles N.W. by W. from Key West

24 38.2 I Round tower, 150 ft. high, upper part black, I la

52 55-7 I

lower white, on centre of W. Key

24 37.8 j Brown tower, 65 ft. high, on Fort Jefferson ... I 4a
82 52.9 j

112

160

139

146

110

106
143

144
109

110

70
40

152
70

16 I 1839

14
10

1829
1859
1872

19 | 1874

18 I 1847
1 1868

I 1860

16 j 1878

1 1S52
| 1857

1873

| 1857

| 1880

1826

1853

1825

1858

1838

1854

20 j 1858

14 I 1825
1868

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

ALABAMA, &c.

N»me and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

•si

a *3

EGMONT KEY

One fixed bright light

CEDAR KEYS

One fixed and flash. It.

ST. MARK'S HARBOUR
One fixed bright light

DOG ISLAND

CAPE ST. GEORGE

One fixed bright light

CAPE ST. BLAS

One rev. hr. It., 1| min.

PENSACOLA

1. One rev. hr. It., 1 m.

2. One bright fixed It.

ALABAMA.

MOBILE BAY

SAND ISLAND
One hright fixed It.

Mobile Point

One fixed red light

Choctaw Point

One fixed bright It.

2 7 3*>. f White tower, 81 ft. high, on the Key, at
82 Aft 2 entrance of Tampa Bay

29 5.8 I White tower, 43 ft. high, on S.E. point of
Seahorse Key. Flash evr —
extends 12 miles to S.W.

Seahorse Key. Flash every minute. A reef

30 4.4 I White lower on East side of entrance

84 10.6 I

29 46 8 I White tower, 44 ft. high, on East side of

o . ,or middle entrance of St. George's Sound

* 3 • I Destroyed by hurricane in 1873

29 35. 2 I White tower, 70 ft. high, on the cape.
85 2-7 I

29 39.8 I White tower, 96 ft. high, 2 miles from South
8r ,,(; point of cape. Dangerous shoals extend
°5 Z1 '°l 6 miles to S. S.W

30 20.8
87 18.4

1. Black and white tower, 160 ft. high, near
Barrancas, S. side of Pensacola Bar

2. Bar beacon, white, 150 yds. to S.S.E. $ E.
from main It. In one, N.N.W. £ W., lead
over the bar

4a I 86 I 15

4d I 75 I 15

4a I 73 I 14

4b I 48 I 13

3a I 77 I 15

3b I 96 I 16

lb I 210 I 21
..I ..I 4

30 11.3 I New brick tower, painted black, 140 ft. high,
«s . „ I on a low island, 3 miles S.S.W. of Mobile
8S l -9 I point

2a J 132 I 17

30 13.7 I New tower, 37 feet high, painted black, on I 4a I 50 I 10
88 Ze I S.W. bastion of Fort Morgan, E. side of bay ' '

I 4a I 46 J 12

i-5

30 40.2 I Screw pile lighthouse, in 7 ft. water, § of a
eg . , mile E. of the point.

MISSISSIPPI AND LOUISIANA.

MISSISSIPPI SOUND

Horn Island

Bright fixed It., red
flush every min.

Round Island

One fixed bright It.

30 i3-5
88 30.0

Pile lighthouse on E. end of island, Mississippi
Sound.

30 17.5 I White tower, 45 ft. high, on island off Pasca-
88 ia. 2 I goula Bay. Hidden ny woods jo northward

between N.W. by N. j N. & X.E. by E. a E.

East Pascagoula River
One fixed bright It.

Ship Island

One fixed red It.

Biloxi
One fixed hright It.

30 21. 1 I At East Pascagoula „.

88 33.1 I

30 1 2.9 I White tower, 48 ft. high, on W. end of island
88 57- I

30 23.7 I White iron tower, 48 ft. high, at W. entrance
88 53.2 I tobar

4c |

1874

4a |

1838
1856

5a |

1854

4a |

1853

4a |

1S48
1856

1848
1857

1854

1829
IS06

1838
1856

1847
1857

1847
1858

1824
1869

1859

1864
1873

1872

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES. MISSISSIPPI, &c.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

6I)W

MISSISSIPPI SOUND—
Cat Island
One fixed & flash. It.

Pass Christian
One fixed bright It.

Merrill Shell Bank
One fixed bright It.

St. Joseph's Island
One bright fixed It.

Proctorsville

One fixed bright light

LAKE PONTCHARTRAIN

West Rigolets
One fixed bright It.

Herbes Point

One fixed red light

Port Pontchartrain
One fixed & flash. It.

Bayou St. John
One bright fixed It

New Canal

One bright fixed It.

Tchefuncti River
One bright fixed It.

Manchac Pass

One bright fixed It.

CHANDELEUR ISLAND
One fixed bright light

MOUTHS OF MISSISSIPPI
PASS A L'OUTRE

One fixed & flashing
bright light

SOUTH PASS
One rev. br. It., 1 J m.

Deer Island

One fixed red It.

SOUTH-WEST PASS

One fixed bright It.

1 30

1 89

14.0 1
8.7 J

1 30

1 89

18.7I
14. |

1 30

1 89

14-3 |
14-5 1

1 30

1*9

11. 1 1
24.6 |

1 »9 52-4 1
1 89 395 1

1 3°
|g 9

10.6 1
43- 6 1

1 30
1 89

9-5 j
51-5 1

1 3 °

1.8 1

1 9°

2 -7 1

1 3 °

1.9 1

1 9°

4- I

1 3°

i-7 1

1 90

5-8 1

1 30
1 9°

2 3- 1
6. |

I 30

17.8 1

| 9 o

12.7 |

1 30
1 88

3-r 1
5i.6 1

2 9

"•5
»-5

I Screw pile lighthouse, on W. end of island. I oa
Flash every 1£ minute

I White tower, 30 ft. high, on mainland, GJ I 4a
miles N.W. of Cat Island light

I A pile lighthouse, between Cat Island and I 4 a
Grand Island.

I White, on brick pier, 34 ft. high, at entrance [ 5a
to Lake Borgne I

I Near fort at Proctorsville, Lake Borgne I Ga

I At East entrance of Lake Pontchartrain I 5a

J Near extr. of point, on keepers' dwelling. Lt. | 5«
shown northwd. betw. S.W.JW. &S.E.JE. |

j White house near E. end of railroad. Flash 1 5 C
I every lg minute I

I Screw pile lighthouse, 5 miles North of New I 6a
Orleans

I At the entrance of the canal 1 5 a

I Near Madisonville M | 5 a

I On S. side of Pass, between Lakes Maurepas | 5a
and Pontchartrain

I White tower, 50 ft. high, on N. end. Good I 4a
I anchorage inside the point, with the light
bearing N.E. about 2 miles •

10.

1 29

8.6 1

1 89

iS.il

1 28

58..? 1

1 89

2 3-5 1

Black tower, 69 ft. high, on Middle Ground
Island, N. side of entrance. Flash every
45 seconds.

Wood tower, slate coloured, 54 ft. high, on
Gordon Id., S.W. side of Pass. Whistle-buoy
in 10 fins., S.E. of lt.-ho. Bed Its. on E. side
of Jetties

At junction of S.W. & N.E. Passes.

New black tower, £ mile S. by W. £ W. from 1 la I 128 I 17
former lt. -tower, on W. side of cntr. of river.

| 45

u 1

| 42

12 1

| 45

11 1

| 35

9 1

| 39

10 1

| 30

10 |

[ 40

11 |

| 35

10 1

| 39

10 1

| 33

10 j

| 38

10 |

1 *5

12 1

| 50

13 1

| 77

15 1

| 60

13 1

1 ••

5 f

| 128

17 J

1871

1831
1857

1860
1865

1850
1858

1855
1875

1838
1855

1811
1855

1838

1837

1838
1857

1848
1855

1855
1858

1831
1858

1852

1831
1S7J*

N. A. 0. — Lights,

UNITED STATES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

TEXAS.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings hy compass from the light.)

§5
3 a

-EM

Lightvessel

One bright fixed It.

BOLIVAR POINT

One fixed bright It.

Half-moon Shoal
One fixed bright It.

Bed Fish Bar

One fixed bright It.

Cloppers Bar

One bright fixed It.

MATAGORDA BAY

Matagorda Island
One rev. br. It., l|m.

West Shoal

One fixed bright It.

East Shoal

One fixed red light

Half Moon Reef
One fixed red light

Swash

ARANSAS PASS

One fixed bright light

BRAZOS SANTIAGO
Padre Island

One fixed bright It.

ISABEL POINT

One fixed & flash. It.

16.2
55-

9°

18.

Barrataria Bay

One fixed bright light

TIMBALLIER ISLAND
Bright fix. It., with red
Hash every minute

SHIP ISLAND SHOAL I 28 55.
One fixed and flash. It. | 91 4.

SOUTH-WEST REEF

One fixed light
Calcasieu River
One fixed bright light

SABINE PASS

One fixed and flash. It.

TEXAS.
GALVESTON BAY

1 2 9
1 9'

1 2 9
1 93

2 5- 1
30. 1
46. 1
17-5 1

1 2 9 43 9 1
1 93 5°-3 1

1 29 22. 1
1 94 45-5 1

1 2 9 2 4- 1
1 94 5°- 6 1

1 2 9 3 - 8 1
1 94 5- r -7 1

1 29 41.2 1
1 94 5 6 -5 1

| 28 at. 1
1 9 6 25.9 1

1 28
| 9 6

2 5- 1

22. 1

1 28
| 9 6

2 5-5 1
22. |

1 28
J96

33- 1
'5-5 1

1 28
| 9 6

26 -5 1
2 M 1

1 2?
1 97

5 2 -4|
3- I

1 26
1 97

4-7 1
8. 7 1

1 26

1 97

4-9 1
11. 1 |

White tower, 55 ft. high, on West end of | 4a | 60
Grande Terre Island

Screw pile lighthouse, in 7 ft. water, painted 2c 1 110

black

Black iron pile lighthouse, 125 ft. high, off I 2d
Kaccoon Point. Fixed It., with flash every |
2 min.

Iron piles, black, on reef, at entr. of Atchafa- I 4a
laya Bay.

White pile lt.-ho. on E. pt. of entr. to river... I 4

White tower, 75 ft. high, on Brant Point, E. | 3d
side of river. Flash every 1£ minute

Painted straw colour. In 4 J fathoms inside 1 ,,
the bar.

New iron tower, black and white horizontal I 3a
bands, g a mile W.S.W. from former light- I
house. North side of entrance to Galveston '

Iron piles, white and red corners ; between | 6a
Pelican Island and Dollar Point.

Building white and bl. lanthorn To mark I 6a
channel across Red Fish Bar.

White building, to mark the channel. (Dis- I 6a
continued, 1880)

White wooden tower, on E. point of island, I 5b
at entrance to Matagorda Bay

White screw pile lighthouse, inside Decrows I 4a
Point. On port side going in through the I
Swash Channel. '

White screw pile lighthouse. On starboard I 4a
side going in through the Swash Channel...

Pile lighthouse, on S. extremity of reef. | 6 a

Screw pile lighthouse opposite Alligator Head. I 5a

Brown tower, 55 ft. high, on Low Island, I 4a
inside the Pass. Seen outside when bearing
N.W.J W I

Hexagonal lt.-ho., on screw piles ; dwelling I 4a
slate colour, the rest black

White tower, 57 ft. high, on the point. Flash I 3d
every minute

13 |

110

16 |

110

17|

12 |

1 !3|

16 |

11 1

117

17|

G |

10 |

I 10 1

10 |

11 1

35 |

11 1

6 |

13 |

13 1

16 |

WEST INDIES.

LIGHTHOUSES. BAHAMA IDS., &c.

Name and Character of Light.

tat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings hy compass from the light.)

sa.13

V 0.

WEST INDIES.

BAHAMA ISLANDS (BRITISH).

ABACO I 25 51.3

One rev. br. It., 1 min. | 77 11.2

Little Guana, or Elbow 26 30.5

Cay 7 6 58-2
One fixed bright It.

GEEAT STIRETJP CAY I 25 49.7

One fixed bright light | 77 53.9

NASSAU HAEBOUR 25 5.6

1. One fixed bright It. 77 22.4

2. One fixed bright It.

GEEAT ISAAC

26 2.

One rev. br. It., | min.

79 6 -5

GUN CAY

One rev. red It., l^min.

25 34-6
79 18.8

CAY SAL BANK

One fixed bright light

23 56.
80 28.5

Anguila

Proposed

1 23 29.

1 79 32-

CAY LOBOS I 22 22.5

One fixed bright light | 77 35.1

CEOOEED ISLAND PASSAGE
Bird Eock I 22 50.7

One rev. br. It., ljm. | 74 22.5

Castle Island I 22 6.7

One bright fixed It. | 74 20.7

GEEAT INAGUA ID. I 20 5 6.
One br. rev. It., 1 min. | 73 40.8

TURKS ISLAND I 21 31.

One br. revol. It., |m. | 71 7.7

White and red tower, 85 ft. high, on S.E. | %
point, or Hole-in-the-Wall

Circular stone tower, 77 ft. high, f of a mile
inland

Iron tower, 130 ft. high, with black and white
bands, on cay, N. side of Old Bahama Chan.

Stone tower, 46 ft. high, white, with two red | 3a
bands. Shown northward from S.E. by E. I
to S.W '

1. Stone tower, 58 ft. high, on W. pt. of Hog
Id. Lt. vis. from S.S.W., through N., to
S.E. by S.J S. A red It. is shown from a
flagstaff near the lighthouse when Nassau
Bar is impassable

2. On Athol Id., E. of Hog Id., from cupola of
Quarantine Office. Lt. vis. betw. E. by S.
£ S. and S.S.E. £ E

Tower, 145 ft. high, with red and white bands, | 9
on island, at N.W. end of Great Bahama I
Bank •

Tower, 70 ft. high, upper part red, lower
white, near S. point. Hidden by Bemini
Islands, 8 miles to N.,or fromN. by E. \ £.
to N. i W

Tower, 58 feet high, lower part red, upper
white, on North eibow, or Planquata Cay.
Hidden by Water Cay, 9 miles to N.E. i E.

Fixed and flashing light proposed on S.E. cay I 4d

Stone tower, 112 ft. high, off N.W. part of I 2b
Crooked Id. Kocks extend N. by W. £ W.
1 mile from lighthouse '

Tower, 114 ft. high, white, with 3 red bands, I 2:
i of a mile within S.W. part of Castle Id. ...

Tower, 114 ft. high, white and red bands, 2 1 2b
miles N.W. from S.W. puint

White iron tower, 60 ft. high, at 400 yards I 9
within N. end of the island

160

100

158

120

108

16 I 1848
18 I 1863

14 I 1863

10 I 1816
1847

16 I 1859

12 I 18.36
I 1873

15 I 1839

••

..1

....

146

16 |

i860

120

17 1

1876

123

17|

1868

17 I 1870

15 I 1853

WEST INDIES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

CUBA.

Kerne and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings hy compass from the light.)

Piedras Cay

One fixed bright light

Batabano

One fixed bright light

Isle of Fines

Proposed,

CAPE SAN ANTONIO
One rev. br. It., | min.

Jutias
Proposed

Gobernadora
Proposed

HAVANA

One rev. br. It. | min.

Guanos

Proposed

CARDENAS BAY

Piedras Cay
One fixed & flash. It.

Cayo Diana

One fixed bright It.

Cruz del Padre

One bright fixed light

BAHIA DE CADIZ
Oue rev. br. It., 1 min.

Port Sagua la Grande
One fixed bright light

CAY PAREDONE
GRANDE

One br. fix. & flash. It

NUEVITAS HARBOUR
MATERNILLOSPOINT

One fix. & flash, br.lt.

Barlovento, or E. Point
One bright fixed It.

LUCRETIA POINT
One rev. red It., 1 min.

Baracoa

One bright fixed light

CAPE MAYSI

One fixed bright light

21 C7.8 I Brown tower, 26 ft. high, on N. part of cay. | 4a | 30 | 7
o. L' m Guide to Cochinos Bay j

51 3-3 1 ■

122 41.4 I Lantern, on a mast I .. | 31 | 3
82 18.3 j 1

I 21 26 I Proposed revolving light on Cape Pepe j 2b | 111 | 16

I 83 6*. I I

I 21 ;iSI Roncali Tower, 107 ft. high, on the cape, W. I 2b | 107 | 20
I 84 58.1 j P ointof Cuba I

22 43.3 I Proposed fixed and flashing light 1 2c | .. | ..

84 6.5 I I

23 o. I Proposed revolving hright light on the point I 2b | . . | . .
83 13-2 I I

23 9.3 I O'Donnell tower, 79 ft. high, on Moro Castle, J lc | 170 | 21
82 22 * E. side of entrance

23 9. I Proposed revolving hright light
81 42.

I 3b I .. |..

23 14.4 I White tower, 67 ft. high. A red flash every I 4d | 74 | 10

Si 7.31 -— —

13 o 9 I On an iron column «. | . , | 43] 7

5i 7. I

23 17.1

80 54.2

White tower, 46 ft. high, on reef, § mile N.E.
from the cay. Reported to show a red flash
for 10 sees., br. flash 30 sees., and dark 20
sees, in ev. min

4a I 49 I 10

23 12.6 I White iron tower, 159 ft. high, on N.E. part I l c I 17& | 24

80 29.3 1 of the ca y I

2! 4, I From a mast above a house, on N.W. point of I a | ss 1

S( J T_ Hicacal Cay, E. side of entrance ..... | a ' 00 I S

White iron tower, 128 ft. high, on N. part. I lc I 159 I 20
Flash every minute

22 29.4
78 9.7

21 40.2 I Colon tower, 170 ft. high. Flash everv minute J It) I 174 I 23

77 8.9 I I

21 37.5 I On a mast above a yellow house „ I 6a I 49 I 9

77 5-3

21 4.6 I Stone tower, on N.E. coast of Cuba.,
75 37-9 I

2b I 112 j 10

20 21.7 I On an iron column above keeper's houte I a I 4S I 12

74 30.3 I J

20 15.1 I Round tower on the cape, East extreme of I 2a I 128 I 17
74 10.3 I Cuba I

1863

1847

1850

1847

1857
1862
1862

1862

1872

1859

1S43

1864!

1868

1870,

1862

WEST INDIES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

JAMAICA.

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.

Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

•2 ■§

■aw

° c

.a.^

S-5"

—> o

%."<•

C *c

.£3

JAMAICA (English).

MORANT POINT I 17 5 6 -

One rev. br. It., 1 min. | 76 11.7

KINGSTON

Plum Point 17 55. 7

One fixed red or br. It. 76 47.

Fort Augusta I 17 57.

One fixed red or br. It. | 76 53.

White iron tower, 96 ft. high, on E. extreme
of Jamaica. Visible only betw. S.S.W. £ W.
and N.W. by N

"White tower to N. of the point. Shows red
from S.E. by E. f E. southward, to S. £ W. ;
thence bright over the shoals in the West
part of Port Royal Bay up to N.W

A lamp on the beacon. Light is red to East ;
bright to S. and W. Bearing N. by E. it
leads through South Channel

. I 115 I 15 I 1842

28.1

525

12.

34-

HAITI, OR SANTO DOMINGO
SANTO DOMINGO

One red and br. rev.
light, 1 min.
Jacmel Bay

One red fixed light
Lamentin Point
One red rev. It., | m.

Arcadins Islets
One fixed bright It.

Port Plata

One rev. br. It. 20 s.

PUERTO RICO

Fix. & flashing br. It.
Port Ponce

One fixed red light

Mayaguez Bay
SANTA CRUZ, or ST. CROIX ISLAND

Tower, 100 ft, high, on San Josg Fort. Lt. red
and bright alternately. No Its. in Haiti to
be depended on

On summit of white cliff. (Uncertain)

18 33-3
72 24.8

18 47-5
72 3 8 -3
f 19 49.2
I 7° 4i- 2
18 28.7
66 6.6
17 58.8
66 39-5

Circular white iron lt.-ho., 93 ft. high, 130 yds.
W. of old lt.-ho., now demolished, S. shore

of Port-au-Prince

Circular white iron lt.-ho., 31 ft. high, on N.W.
extr. of centre Arcadins Island. N. side of

Port-au-Prince Bay

I N. Coast. Octagonal iron lt.-ho., 60 ft. high,
I 350 yds. S.S.E. from E. point of entrance ...

White iron tower on upper battery of Morro
Castle. Fix. lt. with flash of 5 sees. ev. min.

Shown from a small square tower on Harbour-
master's Office

I Two red leading lights on mole head ....

Frederichstaed

One fixed bright lt.

17 42.7
64 52.7

Danish.] On Fort Frederichstaed

Christianstaed I 17 45.4 I On Louisa Augusta Fort .

One bright fixed light | 64 41.5 )

ST. THOMAS

One fixed bright light

SOMBRERO ISLAND

One br. rev. It., 1 min.

St. Martin Island

One fixed bright light

St. Christopher
One fixed red light

Montserrat
One fixed light

Antigua

English Harbour

Two br., one red lt.
St. John Harbour

One fixed bright lt.

Mariegalante

One brurht fixed light

19.4
55- 1

35-7
27.8

17
62

18.
42.8

42.2
13-

45-3

6.8

54-5

54-
17-

I Danish.] On E. side of entrance, on Myhlenfelts
Point. Visible from N. by E. by the West to
E. by S

I British.] Iron framework lighthouse, red, 132

feet high, on S.E. side of the island, £ of its

' length from S. end

I (Dutch.) Small lt. on old Fort Amsterdam,
W. side of Grande Bay

f British.] On the beach at Basse Terre

British.] Fixed lantern lt. for mail steamers,
on the beach at Plymouth

British.] Fixed triangularly; upper It. red,
for mail steamers

Black wooden lt.-ho., 53 ft. high, on Sandy
Id., off St. John Harbour

(French)

68
40

113

137

171

95
150

150

12 I 1854

1 1853
| 1879

| 1867

1 1880

9 I 1880
14 I 1879

18 I 1846

I 1876

10 I 1880

4 I 1857

12 I 1844
I 1872

20 I 1868

8 I 187*

6 I 1846

.. |....

8 I 1843

13 I 1875

9 I 1867

WEST INDIES.

LIGHTHOUSES. CARIBBEE IDS., &c

Name and Character of Light.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

GUADALOUPE (French)

Basse Terre Mole
One red fixed light

Moule de Fort
One fixed bright It

Fointe & Pitre
One fixed light

Manroux Islet
One fixed light

Gozier Islet
One fixed bright It.

PETITE TERRE

One fixed bright It.

Dominica
One red light

MARTINIQUE (French).

Caravelle Peninsula
One fixed bright It.

Pointe des Negres
One bright fixed It.

Port St. Louis

One red fixed light

Fort de France

Ste. Marthe Point
One red, one coloured
light

St. Pierre Bay

8T. LUCIA

Castries

One fixed red light
One red, one green It.

St. Vincent

One fixed bright light

Grenada
One fixed bright light

TRINIDAD

One fixed bright light

Icacos Point

One bright fixed It.

TOEAGO

One fixed bright light

1 6 0.2 I On the mole. Also red It. on end of wharf ...
61 44.8 J

16 20. J Lamp light-
61 21.

16 13.5 I Lantern, South of town. Lights on buoys when
61 2Q c mail steamer is expected

16 13.3 I Lantern light

6 * 31-5 I

16 I I.I I

61 29. J

16 10.5 I Tower, 75 ft. high, near eastern part
61 5.1 J

15 17.4 I British.] On mole, on Roseau Point, for mail
61 23.I J steamers

14 36. I On a red mast, on the fort

6 » 5-5 I

14 36.1 I In S.W. part of fort. Lights on buoys when
r A n J mail steamer is expected.

4.2

14 44.1
61 10.7

'4
61

i-5
0.1

Fort Koyal Bay. An electric It. is shown from
dockyard when mail steamers are expected.
Be careful not to mistake this It for Fort St.
Louis It. in thick weather

Red It. to clear Milan. West It. orange to N.,
green to S., blue to W. The white and blue
Its. in line lead to the anchorage

Light on the edge of the bank, for mail
steamers

British.] Red It. on Tapion Battery, South
entrance of Castries Harbour ; It. for mail
steamers. Red It. on Vieille Ville Shoal;
green It. on Cocoa-nut Shoal

13 10.
61 15.

10 38.7
61 31.9

British.] On Fort Charlotte.

From Fort George flagstaff, St. George Har-
bour, when mail steamer is expected

British.] In Port Espana. Hexagonal tower,
43 ft. high, on the jetty. Shown seaward
from S.W. to N.W

II 10.

60 44.

From a mast on S.W. point of Trinidad.

British.] At Scarborough. Pentagonal tower,
57 ft. high, red and white, on Bacolet. or
Rod Point. I/eading Its. on two white boa-
•ods when mail steawer if axptoted „.

14 46.2 I A white tower on Caracoli Mount, J of a mile 1 la
60 a o inland of N.E. extreme of island

108

410

131

640

2 I 1865
I 1870

7 I 1858

1867

12 I 1862
11 I 1855

6|....

.. I 1880

5 I 1860
.. I 1860

1843
1868

6 I 1858

3 J 1876

15 I 1841

5 I 1870

128 J 12 J 1842

WEST INDIES.

LIGHTHOUSES.

GTJAYANA.

Name and Character of Light.

BARBADOS (British)
Carlisle Bay

1. One fix. br. or redlt.

2. One fixed red It.

Lat. N.
Long. W.

Description, &c.
(Bearings by compass from the light.)

" 3

a
« 3

*3 cy

.22

Q-

"■a

13 5-

59 3 6 -3

1. On Needham Point. Bright to S. of E.,red
to N. of E. Reported bright all round

2. Bridgetown. At the mole-head o.' the Ca-
renage

| 34 | 5 | 1855

SOUTH POINT 13 2.7

One rev. red It. 1 m. 59 31.2

BAGGED POINT ] 13 9.9

One rev. br. It., 2 m. | 59 25.6

Tower 90 ft. high, with red and white bands.
Does not show until it bears to westward of
S.W. by W. Kept well open, it clears the
Cobbler Reef

,. I 145 I •• I 1852

White tower, 97 ft. high, 300 yds. within cliff I 2b I 213 I 21 I 1875
edge. Keep well to N.E. of light, to avoid '
Cobbler Rocks

ORINOCO RIVER LT.-V. 1 I Is withdrawn. A new one proposed

GUAYANA.
CAYENNE (French) 4 56.2

1. One fixed bright It. 52 14.8

2. One fixed green It.

3. One red light
SALUT ISLETS

One fixed bright light
Enfant Perdu Rock

One fixed bright light

MARONI RIVER

1. One bright fixed It.

2. One bright fixed It.

Surinam Lightvessel
One fixed red light

Berbice Lightvessel
One brigat fixed light

Demerara Lightvessel
One bright fixed light

DEMERARA RIVER

1. One br. rev. It., 1 m.

2. One fixed red light

5 i6-7

5 2 35-

5 2-7

52 2i.3

5 4M

53 563

1. Bright It. on wood framework, N. of Fort
Ceperou

2. Green It. on Infantry Barracks. Inone-.ith
br. It., leads over Aimable Rock ; keep to
westward. Lt. obscured E. of N.E. \ N. ...

3. On jetty

On the summit of the hospital, Royale Islet ...

Wooden framework, on rock, 6 miles N. | W.
of Cayenne. Shown betw. S.W. by S. and
E. by S. £ S., also betw. N.E. by N. and
W. by N. £ N

1. (Dutch.) White pyramid-shaped structure,
on Kaimar Head, W. side of entr. Lt. vis.
between N. J W. and E. J N

2. (French.) White pyramid-shaped structure,
on Francais I'oint, E. side of entr. Lt. vis.
betw. W. by S., through N., to E. by N. ...

6 1. I (Dutch.) N.W. byN.

_- j6 2 from Bram's Point. Yellow ball at masthead

(British.) Painted red ; in 22 ft. water, 9 miles
N.E. by N. from St. Andrew's Point. White
flag, with red ball in centre, by day. Pilot
sloop near

(British.) Painted red, one mast, N.E. by N.
£ N. 12 miles from lt.-ho. (Wnen under re-
pair, is replaced by a schooner)

1. Octagonal tower, 100 ft. high, red & white
vertical stripes, on East side of entrance ...

2. Shown from lt.-ho. in the direction ot break-
water, between N. by W. and N.W

29.2

23.8

595
5-5

6
58

49-3
"•5

• I 130 I 10

• I 69 I 8

•I 39 I ..

• I 197 I 13

4a I 75 I 10
4a I 75 J 10

1863

1850

1862
1864

• I 61 I 9 J 1864

1871
1871

1 •

| 25

1 8

1 1858
1 1862

•

| 30

1 10

I 1850
1S68

•

1844
1875

103

16
4

1829
1864
1879

SECTION III.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, TIDES, AND
CURRENTS; AND ON THE DIFFERENT PASSAGES OVER
THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

l.-GENERAL REMARKS ON THE WINDS.

(1.) This book is intended a9 an introduction to the series which describes
the six great oceans, of which it forms the first volume, and it therefore in-
cludes some topics which are common to them all, although there is no
special reference to them in the other volumes. In the preliminary chapters,
therefore, some general remarks on Ocean Meteorology are given at greater
length than might be considered necessary in a special work like this ; but
as the greater number of sailors commence their work in the North Atlantic,
they are offered to those who take interest in subjects more general than
simple descriptions.

This science of Ocean Meteorology, whether as regards the phenomena of
the atmosphere or of the sea, has been greatly elevated in importance of
late years, especially since the time when the Conference at Brussels led to
the establishment of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade,
and to the co-operation of numerous allied institutions. But, once for all, it
must be to Captain Maury that wo should attribute the merit of initiating
the topic in its new phase.

Since the development of the telegraphic system, which has enabled ob-
servers to collect and co-ordinate the various meteorological data from distant
but connected stations, some remarkable results have been arrived at, which
will be more fully entered into in the next section.

As the sailor deals not with speculation, but applies the facts of nature to
his use, the mode in which the whole mass of the atmosphere is interchanged
and mingled is important to him only as a field of observation which he en-
joys with the rest of mankind. The present object being practical utility,
the theories of the winds will be only briefly alluded to in this chapter,
leaving the reader to those numerous and voluminous works now extant on
those subjects for a more full elucidation of them.

(2.) As a broad and primary principle, it may be affirmed, the complete
circulation of the atmosphere, by which any particle of the air has in its
course passed over every portion of the earth's surface, is demonstrated by
the fact that the air is composed of precisely the same elementary consti-
tuents in every part of the world. This fact was experimentally clemon-

W. A. O. 2 A

174 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, ETC.

strated by the French Academy of Sciences many years since, who had bot-
tles of air most carefully collected in all regions, and submitted to the most
rigid analysis, which failed to discover any difference whatever. It is mani-
fest in a natural sense, also, by its supporting animal and vegetable life
universally in the same manner. If it were not so, the air over a special
region would, in the course of ages, have become subject to the emanations
and influences of the earth it covered. The same remark holds good, also,
with the water of the ocean, equally universal in its definite characteristics,
and from the same cause, as will be shown hereafter. The manner in which
this is carried on is still involved in some mystery, although, as will be seen
hereafter, these difficulties are disappearing before the rigid investigations
which are now pursued and applied to each new fact as it arises.

(3.) In the year 1686, Edmund Halley* proposed the theory of the Trade
Winds and Monsoons, which is now generally received as an approximation
to the true solution. He afterwards altered his views, which were revised
and extended by George Hadley, in 1735. f The following is a brief sum-
mary of them : —

(4.) The sun is constantly vertical over some part of the earth between
the tropics, and this zone is consequently maintained at a much higher tem-
perature than the regions nearer the Poles. This heat on the earth's sur-
face is imparted to the air, which is, therefore displaced and buoyed up
from the surface, and the colder, and therefore heavier air from without
glides in on both sides along the surface ; while the displaced air, thus raised
above its due level, and unsustained by any lateral pressure, flows over, as
it were, and forms an upper current in the contrary direction, or towards
the Poles; which, being cooled in its course, and also sucked down to supply
the deficiency in the extra-tropical regions, keeps up thus a continual cir-
culation.

Since the Equator revolves much more rapidly than the portions nearer
the Poles, it follows, that a mass of air flowing towards the Equator must
be deficient in rotary velocity, and, thereforo, unable to keep up with the
speed of the new surface over which it is brought. Hence these currents
from the North and South must, as they glide along the surface, at the same
time lag or hang back, and drag upon it in the direction opposite to the earth's
rotation, i.e., from East to West. Thus, from simple northerly and southerly
winds, they become permanent north-easterly and south-easterly winds.

The lengths of the diurnal circles increase very slowly near to the Equator,
and for several degrees on each side of it hardly change at all. It follows
from this, then, that as these winds approach the Equator, their easterly
tendency must diminish, and at the Equator must be expected to lose their
easterly character altogether. And not only this, but the northern and
southern currents, here meeting and opposing, will mutually destroy each
other, leaving only the actions of local causes, which may lie in one region
in one way, and in another a different one.

The result of this, then, is the production of two great tropical belts of
north- easterly and south-easterly winds, while the winds in the equatorial

* Philosophical Transactions, xvi., p. 153. f Ibid, 1735, p. 58.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, ETC. 175

belt -which separate the two former should be free from any steady preva-
lence of an easterly character, and should also be comparatively calm. All
these consequences are agreeable to observed fact, and constitute the system
of the regular trade icinds.

(5.) The constant friction of the earth upon the air near the Equator, it
may be objected, would, by degrees, destroy the rotation of the whole mass;
but it is compensated in this manner: the heated equatorial air, rising and
flowing off toward the Poles, carries with it a rotatory velocity much greater
than that of the surface over which it passes in its northward and southward
progress. Hence it will gain more and more on the surface of the earth,
and assume more and more a westerly relative direction; and when, at
length, it necessarily returns to the surface in its circulation, which it must
do, more or less, in all its course, it will act on it by its friction as a powerful
S.W. wind in the northern hemisphere, and a N.W. wind in the southern,
and thus restore the equilibrium. This is the origin of the S.W. and
westerly gales so prevalent in our latitudes, and of the almost universal
westerly winds in the North Atlantic*

(6.) Now it will be seen that by this theory the trade winds meet near the
Equator, leaving a belt of calms of various breadths between them. Accord-
ing to Commander Maury, the winds here being neutralized rise up, and
cross each other; the wind brought by the S.E. trade passing over the N.E.
trade as a S.W. upper current ; and, having passed the calms or variables
of the Tropic of Cancer, it appears as the ordinary anti-trade or S.W. pre-
valent wind. The chief physical fact upon which this theory is based is the
red dust, found frequently to fall on vessels near the Cape Verdes, and in
the Mediterranean, where it is called scirocco dust (as coming from tho
South). This red dust was found by Ehrenberg to consist of microscopic
infusoria and organisations, whose habitat, as far as was known, is in South
America But this argument may be demurred to from the limited extent
this dust falls upon compared with the vast area from which it is said to be
derived.

(7.) There is another great difficulty in the reception of this theory, in

* Sir John Herschel gives the following note in his work upon the origin of storms,
which, as it is most feasible, we give here; it must be observed that it was written before
the views and observations of Keid, lledfield, and others, had been published. We shall
advert to it hereafter.

" It seems worth enquir}', whether hurricanes in tropical climates may not arise from
portions of the upper currents prematurely diverted downwards before their relative velo-
city has been sufficiently reduced by friction on, and gradually mixing with, the lower
strata; and so dashing upon the earth with that tremendous velocity, which gives them
their destructive character, and of which hardly any rational account has yet been given.
Their course, genorally speaking, is in opposition to the regular trade wind, as it ought to
be, in conformity with this idea.— (Young's Lectures, i, 704.) Eut it by no means follows
that this must always be the case. In general, a rapid transfer, either way, in latitude,
of any mass of air which local or temporary causes might carry above the immediate reach of
the friction of the earth's surface, would give a fearful exaggeration to its velocity.
"Wherever such a mass would strike tl.e earth, a hurricane might arise; and should two
such masses encounter in mid-air, a tornado of any degree of intensity on record might
easily result from their combination."— Astronomy, p. 132. The more recent views of Sir
John Herschel will bo found in their place hereafter.

176 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, ETC.

the great breadth in some parts, of that intervening band of calms that
these supposed currents are to cross each other. In the eastern part of the
Atlantic it is from oOO to 600 miles in breadth. If this great interchange
of directions were continually going on with such a vast amount of atmos-
phere, we may safely conclude that the lower strata would not be charac-
terized by the calms or " doldrums " they are known by. -

(8.) The more reasonable argument, in the present state of our know-
ledge, is, that the trado winds reaching this belt of calm, by far the greater
part of this indraught will rise on its own side, and revert towards the Pole
of its own denomination in a precisely opposite direction to that by which it
arrived. In the parts of the equatorial regions, where this intervening
calm belt is much narrower, as on the East coast of America, this crossing
may take place, and the upper currents pass on towards the Poles of con-
trary names. At all events, this view of the circulation of the atmosphere
will satisfy our present proposition — that evory particle of air has been so
commingled with the rest, that it produces the universality of character
wdiich is demonstrated to exist. These theories are practically unimportant
to the sailor in his profession, but are highly interesting* to him as a subject
of observation and reflection.

It has been held by many that the solar heat, combined with the revolu-
tion of the earth, is sufficient to account for the general phenomena of the
winds ; but there are still some difficulties in the way of accounting for some
of the periodical winds which are found to recur with great regularity. This
has been reasoned for by Mr. Hopkins, who argues that the trade wind at
times blows towards areas of great condensations ; in other words, that a
great rain-fall occasions a corresponding indraught. f

It is also contended by some that as the lowest stratum of the air, having
its velocity kept down by friction, generally moves from the tropical belts of
high barometer to the regions of low barometer at the Poles and Equator.
Thus, the N.W. and S.W. anti-trades constitute under currents toward the
Poles beneath a topmast current, also toward the Pole and a middle return
or compensating current; and that the crossing of the winds at the tropic is
a physical impossibility. |

Another view of the cause of atmospheric circulation is that by Professor
Laughton, of Portsmouth, who contends that it is due to aero-tidal or
mechanical causes.

He supposes that the prevailing westerly wind of high latitudes is caused

* See further on these subjects, Miiury's "Physic.il Geography of the Sea, lSG.y pp.
149, 175. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Ency. Brit., 1859, xviii., 577.

f Mr. Hopkins: "The atmospheric changes that produce Rain and "Wind;" also sea
Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1856, pp. 158, et seq. See also D. Vaughan,
U.S., in British Association Report, 1860, p. 41. This view of Mr. Hopkins is modified by
other observations, which will lend to the inference that currents of air move around areas
of high or low pressure, the latter condition being that which usually attends the greatest
rain-fill. This is adverted to presently.

X See Profes-or J. T. Thomson, in Report ot tho British Association, 1857; and Professor
J. D. Everett, in the same Journal, 1871, p. 54. A vast mass of data is given in Professor
James II. Coffin's ""Winds of the Northern Hemisphere," hereafter quoted.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, ETC. 177

by the influence of the moon, and that the modifications of this wind, caused
by the coasts which bound the sen, are the sources of all other winds. For
instancfl, he says when our westerly wind strikes the coast of Portugal, it
will branch to the North and South a? any fluid would do under similar
circumstances, and that eventually it will recurve to the westward to fill up
the space from which the air forming the original westerly wind, had moved.
Thus eddying, a3 it were, in two great circuits, ; nd carrying tho surface
waters with it, causing the main currents of the ocean.*

There can bo no doubt that land frequently offers an obstruction to a
current of air, and diverts its course, but this theory does not take into
account the changes which come with tho seasons ; they seem to be due to
temperature.

(0.) There is one feature of the atmosphere which has been involved in
some obscurity, or, at least, has been the subject of controversy. It is tho
condition of aqueous vapours, at all times pi*esent in the air. It is a very
important question, as up<m this water-bearing property of the air, evapo-
ration, condensation, and rain depend, and consequently climate and fertility
to the earth. The doubts may be briefly stated. The eminent chemist,
Dalton, demonstrated that one gas (and aqueous vapour is such) could per-
meate or exist in connection with another gas without displacing its bulk,
and that water was thus diffused through the atmosphere without increasing
its volume. Therefore, in estimating the height of the barometer, account
must be taken of the amount (or weight) and elasticity (or tension) of the
vapour, and subtracted from the height of the mercury, to give tho truo
weight of the dry air. With a dew point temperature of 87.35°, the pressure
of moisture is equal to the weight of 1.26 inches of mercury, and must be
subtracted from the height shown by tho barometer, as before stated. This
was the view held by Dalton, Ure, Regnault, Daniell, Sir Henry James,
Alexander Buchan, '&c.

In opposition to this, Professor Patton, of Bombay maintained that moisture
did displace an equal or equivalent volume of air, and that, therefore, it was
only tho difference of their amount which should be applied as a correction,
and he estimated the amount of vapour above stated to be equal to a pressure
of only 0.518 of an inch of mercury. But the first theory is thought to bo
the most feasible, f

(10.) Leaving the field of conjecture, we como to the actual condition of
the atmosphere which covers the North Atlantic Ocean in particular, and
generally the whole earth. Its elevation, or weight, is ascertained by the
barometer, as is well known. According to the decrease in the height of
the mercury on ascending to great elevations, it is calculated that at 15 miles
the air is rarefied to about 25,000 times, and at 80 or 90 miles a perfect
vacuum exists. It presses with a mean force of 14.73 lbs. per square inch,
and forms one 1,125,000th part of the mass of the whole earth. The trade

* "Physical Gt crraphy in is relation to prevailing Winds and Currents."
t See "Abstracts of Meteorological Observations by the Royal Engineers, 1S53-4," by
8>r Henry James, R.E., F.R.S. ; " The Handy Book of Meteorology," by Alexander Buchan,
M.A , 1868, pp. 1G0— 162 ; also, the later works of Professor TyndalL

178 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON TEE WINDS, ETC.

winds do not reach, more than to 3 miles in height, and it is probahle that
all tl.o phenomena of clouds and vapour occur beneath the height of 4 to 5
miles.

(11.) If tho surface of the earth were evenly covered with land or water,
or a combination of both, the phenomena of the trade and anti-trade winds
would form symmetrical zones around the globe; but the relative prop >r-
tions are very different in the two hemispheres, being 100 land to 1^0 water
in the northern, and 100 to 628 in the southern.''-' There is a still greater
contrast, if we take the horizon of London as a great circle dividing the
earth into two hemispheres. It will be then seen that London is in the
centre of that half which includes all the land, except Australia; and the
other half all the water of che globe. From this cause the line of meeting
between the N.E. and S.E. trades is in all seasons northward of the equator
in the Atlantic ; and, from the land influences on the trade winds to the N.E.
of Africa, there is a wide space of calms, or doldrums, whose base lies
against that continent, and its apex stretching toward the Coast of Brasil,
as is readily seen by the illustration of the trade winds diagram, which will
explain far better this peculiarity than a verbal description.

(12.) Ike force with which the wind blows is the chief consideration of
the sailor, in connection with the study of the subject. This force is readily
measured in a fixed observatory, or on board a ship at anchor; but not so
when she is under sail, as it is manifest that she is then apparently feeling
less wind than is actually blowing, from being drifted before it. "We have
had some singular accounts of some of the fine clipper ships scudding at an
immense rate before a gale, which has been marked as of no extraordinary
violence ; while other ships, dull sailers, have been dismasted or disabled by
the fury of the same gale, from their not being able to bear away before its
great velocity. Therefore, the recorded force of the winds met with at sea
should be subject to this qualification — what are the sailing powers of the
ship which has recorded them ? It is manifest that a vessel, and especially
a steam-vessel, will estimate the force of the wind acting on her in exact
proportion to the direction she is meeting it or running before it. Thus, a
vessel of good sailing power going before the wind, which, while stationary,
she would estimate as having the force of 4, and running 5 or 6 knots before
it it will appear only to have a force of a light breeze, or knots ; while if
a steamer went 10 knots against, it would appear to blow with a force of 7,
or as a fresh treble-reef topsail wind. We have no standard of sea-rates for
t.ho wind as yet. Perhaps it would add to the value of such observations if
the sailing powers of all ships engaged in adding to our knowledge were tested
when both close hauled and running free upon a wind of known velocity.

In former times the vague terms of breeze, gale, hurricane, &c, sufficed
to describe the relative character of the wind. The late Sir Francis Beaufort
dovised a system of simple notation which more exactly defined these forces,
and which is now in universal use at sea. The figures prefixed indicate the
estimated character of the wind : —

• The dry land, as far as it is known, is estimated to occupy 49,S0G,0C0 square statute
miles. If this is increased to 51,000,000 for the unknown polar regions, it will allow
1 io,000,000 of square miles to be covered by the ocean. — Sir J. Iierschel.

GENEEAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, ETC. 179

{Beaufort Notation.)

0. Calm.

1. Steerage way.

2. Clean-full from 1 to 2 knots.

3. „ 3 to 4 knots.

4. j) 5 to 6 knots.

5. With royals (" close-hauled ").

6. Topgallant sails over single reefs.

7. Two reefs in topsails.

8. Three reefs in topsails.

9. Close reefed topsails and courses.

10. Close reefed maintopsail and reefed

foresail.

11. Storm staysails.

12. Hurricane.

From 2 to 9 being supposed* close
hauled.

(13.) The wind over the land is found to be generally of much less force
and velocity than at sea, so that the Beaufort notation was found incon-
venient for land purposes ; Mr. Glaisher, therefore, has proposed another
notation for this use, which is now adopted at Greenwich, Liverpool, and
indeed at most of the principal observatories. It divides the force into the
numbers 1 to 6, which have been proportioned to the Beaufort scale as
follows : —

( Gla ishcr Notation.)

1. Moderate (Beaufort scale

2. Fre«h f

3. Strong ( „

1-2)
3-4)
5-6)

4. Heavy (Beaufort scale

5. Violent ( „

6. Tremendous ( „

7—8

9—10)

11—12)

(14.) The actual force and velocity of the wind has been calculated by
Sir W. Snow Harris, by an improvement of land's Anemometer, by which
he found air moving 20 feet in a second presses on 1 sqnai'e foot with a
force of about 13 oz. avoirdupois, or at 50 feet per second it would support
a column of water 1 inch high, the pressure force increasing very, nearly
with the square of the velocity. With these data the table on the following
j)age has been calculated: —

* In addition to the figures, showing the force of the wind, the state of the weather is
to be understood by Utters, as follows : —

Letters indicating the state of (he Weather {Beaufort Notation).

Blue Sky.

Clouds (detached).

Drizzling rain.

Foggy.

£?

Gloom.

Hail.

Lightning.

m Misty.

Overcast.

Passing Showers.

Squally.

Rain.

Snow.

Thunder.

u Ugly (threatening) ap-
pearance of Weather.

v Visibility. Objects at a
distance unusually visi-
ble.

w Wet (Dew).

Note. — A bar ( — ) or dot ( . ) under any letter augments its signification :— thus f very
foggy, r heavy rain, r heavy and continuing rain, &c, &c. —

ICO GENERAL OBSERVATIONS OX THE WINDS, EIO.

TABLE,

Showing the Fvrce and Velocity of the Wind from light Airs to heavy Gales

and Tempests.

Velocity.

Pressure

in lbs. oil

Square
Foot.

Feet per

Miles per

Popular Descriptions,

b'crond.

Hour.

002

0.03

) Gentle airs (unappreeiable by guage).
/ {Beaufort Scale, 1.)

0.001

1.47

0.019

\ Light airs (just appreciable by guage) ;

0.032

3.9

2.66

> would till the lightest sail of a yacht

0.043

4.5

) (2).

0.065

5.28

3.8

0.071

5.87

0.090

6.6

4.5

0.100
0.112
0.130

6.98

4.75

! Light breezes, such as would till the
lightest sails of a large ship (3).

7.34

7.89

5.38

0.162

8.S

0.228

10.4

0.200

7.6

0.291

11.8

0.364

13.2

0.390
0.452
0.521

13.6

14.7
15.8

9.27
10
10.77

' Moderate breezes, in which ships can
( carry all sail (4).

0.551

16.2

0.650

17.66

0.780

19.3

0.S30

13.6

0.884

0.910
1.042

20.6
20.9
22

14.25

(Fresh breezes,— topgallant sails and
j royals (5).

1.170

23.6

1.250

24.2

16.5

1.302
1.470

25*
26.5

| Fresh winds ; reefs (6),

1.563

27.39

18.67

)

1.630

Strong winds ; treble-reefed topsails (7).

1.790

29.35

)

2.084

31.15

21.47

| Gales; close-reefed topsails and reefel
j courses (8).

2.600

35.32

3.126

3S.73

26.40

( Strong gales ; close-reefed topsails and

3.647

41.83

28.52

4.168

44.83

30.56

}' stay sails (9).

4.6S9

47.44

32.34

5.200

7.800

61.18

' Heavy gales and storms (10).

10.400

70.72

48.2

13.000

79.07

53.91

20.800
26.000

100
111.74

08.18
76.18

{ Very heavy gales ; gr jat storms ; tcm

31.200

122.62

83.6

j pests (11).

41.600

141.30

90.34

52.000

157.98

107.7

[Tornadoes; cyclones; hurricanes (12).

G2.400

173.06

120

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, ETC. 181

There is no question that the figures in this table may be open to some
doubt, as the subject is a difficult one, and they are given independent of
the different forces exerted by aqueous vapour and by air. Sir Henry James
has also given a table, more complicated, but which does not very mate-
rially differ from those just given, which will suffice for the sailor's use.

(15.) In estimating the diminishing pressure on the barometer during the
progress of a gale, it is rather difficult to understand how the force which
must, in some degree, compress the air, and therefore make it more dense
and heavy, besides the idea that such a force may tend to heap up the at-
mosphere in some part of the area, can show a less weight of air. There is
one view which has not been made prominent — that the horizontal force
exerted by the progress of the wind may lessen its downward vertical force
or pressure, in the same way that a railway train in quick motion does not
deflect a bridge as the same train would do if going slower ; or as a skater
can pass swiftly over ice that would infallibly break with his weight when
quiescent ; or as the apparently anomalous loss of gravity in the gyroscope
when in motion. However, these considerations have no effect on the phe-
nomena of a falling barometer with a rising wind.

(16.) The alternation of the sea and land breezes in warm latitudes is an im-
portant feature in coast navigation. Its cause is generally well understood.
It is owing to the different powers of radiation and absorption of heat pos-
sessed by land and water. So that, generally, when the day temperature is
highest on the land, the strongest will be the alternating breezes. During
the day the radiation of the sun's heat on the land causes the air to expand
and rise from the surface, and then the sea air rushes in to fill the void. It
frequently occurs that the surface of the soil will show a temperature of
120° under the meridian sun, and sinks to 50° or 60° during the night, while
the sea, rarely having a higher temperature than 80°, and from being a bad
radiator fluctuates but very little, it follows that it is alternately warmer
and colder than the land, and hence the phenomena in question. The
minimum temperature of the twenty-four hours being a little before sunrise,
and the maximum about 2 p.m., the change of these breezes occurs gene-
rally at some little time after those hours.

(17.) The wind decidedly veers round to the compass according to the
sun's motion, i.e., from North through N.E., East, S.E., to South, and so
on, often making a complete circuit in that direction, or more than one in
succession (perhaps occupying many days in so doing), but it rarely backs,
and very rarely, or never, makes a complete circuit in the contrary direction.
This has been shown by Professor Dove to be the direct consequence of the
rotation of the earth ; and, although the observation was recorded by Lord
Bacon, in 16*00, it is now known as Love's Law of Gyration.*

(18.) Professor Coffin, from his elaborate discussions, thinks himself
authorized to lay down, as a general description of the winds of the northern
hemisphere, — 1st. That from high northern latitudes the winds proceed in a
southerly direction, but veer towards the West as they approach a limit

* When speaking of the wind veering with the sun, of course the shifting of the
cyclonic winds in the northern hemisphere is not included.

ST. A. O. 2 B

182 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, ETC

ranging from about lat. 56° on the western continent, to about lat. G8° or
the eastern, where they become irregular and disappear. The area of this
zone is about 11,800,000 square miles. 2nd. That farther South there is a
belt of westerly winds, less than 2,000 miles in breadth, entirely encircling
the earth ; the westerly direction being clearly defined in the middle of the
belt, but gradually disappearing as we approach the limits on either side.
The area of this zone is estimated to be about 25,870,000 square miles.
3rd. That South of the zone last named the mean direction of the wind is
easterly. This area is estimated to contain 00,760,000 square miles.* Pro-
fessor Dove contends that there are but two systems, the 1st and 3rd of the
foregoing, f

(19.) The wind regions of the North Atlantic may be thus defined :— To
the North of the Tropic of Cancer are the Anti- Trades,], or Passage Winds,
which, though variable, have a general N.E. tendency. South of these is
a belt of calms and variable winds, distinguished by a high barometer,
called by Commander Maury the " Calms of Cancer," known to sailors as
the " horse latitudes." This belt varies between 30° and 35° North, accord-
ing to the season. South of this, and extending to about 8° to 5° North,
but varying in its southern as in its northern limits, is the great region of,
the N.E. Trades. In the space between the Equator and this region of
trades are the " Doldrums,' 1 '' or calms, of the Equator ; and upon the African
coast there is a regular alternation of the winds, similar to the monsoons in
other parts. Each of these regions will be treated of separately.

(20.) In the spaces which separate these wind systems those hurricanes,
tornadoes, typhoons, or cyclones occur, which are caused by the action of
currents of air moving in opposite directions ; their phenomena are further
controlled by the influence of the land they approach or pass over. This
important branch of the present subject is fully considered hereafter, but
the occurrence of storms is an exceptional case in the vast system of atmo-
spheric circulation we have been considering.

* " "Winds of the Northern Hemisphere," by Professor Coffin, A.M., Pennsylvania, U.S.,
in "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," vol. vi., 18.54.

t See Pieport of the British Association, 1845. See, also, Professor Mitchell in the
American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xix., p. 254. A great amount of information
will be found on the general subject in the works of Kamtz and Romme, who have also
laboriously studied and generalised the phenomena of the winds, and to whose labours
much that is here said is owing. But by far the largest collection of observations, ar-
ranged in order, is contained in Captain Maury's " Pilot Charts," before alluded to, whi ih
are well known to all sailors.

% This term, "Anti-Trades," is adopted by Sir John Herschel. It is expressive and
appropriate. By others they have been named Counter-Trades, which designation may
more exactly define the upper currents over the trade winds. They have also been vaguely
called "The Variables," a term which is best confined to the characteristic of the baits of
Calm or shifting winds about the Tropics.

( 183 )

2.— THE MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

(21.) The intimate connexion between the fluctuations of the boi'omcter
and changes in wind and weather is familiar to all. As Mr. Piddin^ton
says, " The commander who is watching his barometer is watching his ship,
and that in the most efficient manner." This remark has a greater force
now than when it was first made ; because, since that period, the sailor has
greatly extended the use of the Aneroid barometer, which, by its imme-
diately showing any atmospheric change, gives a longer and more assured
warning. The mercurial barometer used at sea, from having its column
much contracted in one part to overcome the " pumping" action which the
vessel's motion would cause, is much more sluggish, and hence it may not
indicate a chango till a part of its predictions has passed over.

(22.) But the isolated observation of barometer and other indications of
the condition of the atmosphere which can alone be made at sea, are of
infinitely less value in guiding the sailor than are those made within the
range of the stations from which weather reports are sent to each other,
and by a comparison of which many very important conclusions can be
arrived at ; and it is this minute examination and comparison of the varied
state of the meteorological conditions existing at one and the same moment
at stations widely separated and extending over the N.W. of Europe that
some remarkable laws have been arrived at, and great advances made in the
general subject of atmospheric meteorology.

(23.) But, as said before, although this method of comparison is not
applicable to the ship at sea, yet it is thought that the method by which
"weather predictions" are made— the reasons why barometric pressures
indicate certain general facts — why land disturbances from heat and cold —
why differing temperatures in sea water bring about, or point to, great and
broadly-marked differences in wind and weather — are proper subj ects for the
sailor's study, and, as such, are not out of place here.

In laying as briefly as we can the results lately arrived at by the various
observers, or b}' a combination of their deductions, we will use the language
of the authors themselves, referring to the works quoted for more extended
information.

(24.) When the cyclone theory was propounded, which was in the first
place done by Mr. Eedfiehl, then by Sir W. Reid, Mr. Piddington, Dr. Thom,
and other pioneers in this all-important subject, the " law" was established
that these hurricanes in the northern hemisphere, having a low barometer
in their centre of the vortex, will have this centre or vortex on the left hand
of any one standing on its circumference with his back to the wind, the case
being reversed in the southern hemishere.

In the further investigation of the laws which govern the movements of
the air, which, was consequent on the recommendations of the Brussels
Congress, the Dutch nation, which it is well known is foremost in the rank
of enquirers, established an Observatory at Utrecht, the Royal Meteorological
Institute of Holland ; and in this place Dr. Christopher H. D. Buys-Ballot
pursued for several years an enquiry into the data afforded by the daily
weather telegrams which were sent to this Observatory from several parts of

184 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OP TTIE ATMOSPHERE.

the kingdom, and he arrived at tho very important conclusion that the same
law which was established by Redfield and Reid in regard to the local
meteors, known as cyclones, is applicable, on the very much broader scale,
to the whole system of winds over the whole of the globe. But confining
the remarks to the northern hemisphere, and more particularly to Holland,
Professor Buys-Ballot determined the law which is known by his name,
which is briefly stated in these words : —

Buys-Ballot's Law-

If, on any morning, there be a difference between the barometrical
readings at any two stations, in Holland, a wind will blow on that day
in the neighbourhood of the line joining those stations, which will bo
inclined to that line at an angle of 90°, or thereabouts, and will have
the station where the reading is lowest on its left-hand side.

(25.) Dr. Buys-Ballot explained this law, and the reasons for propounding
it, and its application to an apparatus, termed an Aeroclinoscope, for tho
purpose of indicating, each morning, at each port in Holland, the wind
which may be expected to blow there during that day, in a pamphlet, pub-
lished in I860.* A further exposition of it was published, in English, in
1863, by Captain P. H. Klein.f

This law is the same as that which is known to hold in the case of tropical
cyclones, and has also been proved to be true in the case of winds in these
latitudes, by Dr. Lloyd, in his " Notes on the Meteorology of Ireland,"
published in 1854. However, Professor Buys-Ballot has been tho person
who has insisted on its importance as a means of foretelling wind, both as
to direction and force.

(26.) The further investigation of this law, and its application to weather
predictions, have been vigorously carried on by Captain Henry Toynbeo,
F.R.A.S. — a name well known to seamen — since his connexion with the
Meteorological Office ; and in his Report on Isobaric Curves, 1869, he make3
the following remarks on the general subject.

" Whilst considering Buys-Ballot's law, I have been struck by a few facts
which seem to indicate its relation to the general circulation of the air in
moderately high latitudes. Here it may be well to repeat that law, viz.,
• If you turn your back to the wind (however light) in the higher northern
latitudes, there will be a lower pressure to your left than to your right hand.'
This order is reversed in the southern hemisphere ; hence it is probable that
ns the equator is approached the wind will blow more directly from a high
towards a low pressure.

" With regard to the winds of the northern part of the North Atlantic, it
is known that during our winter a high barometer exists over tho cold land
in Europe and America, whilst it is relatively low over the sea, hence the
prevalence of strong south-westerly winds on our side of the Atlantic, and

• Eerigc rcgclcn voor aanstaande Wccrsverandrringcn in Nederland roornjimelijfc in
vt.rband met de dagelijkschc Telcgraphischc scincn. Utrecht, 1860.

t "The Foretelling of the Weather in connexion with Meteorological Observations/'
by F. H, Klein. Translated by A. Adiiani, M.D., 1863.

MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 185

north-westerly winds in Newfoundland, as given in Mr. Buchan's work.*
(See his Chapter on Winds.)

" These winds work round an area of low pressure over the water, which
seems to account for the prevalence of north-easterly winds in Greenland.
" Then, as spring advances, the air over the land becomes heated, causing
the barometer to fall, whilst water, changing its temperature much more
slowly, does not act co quickly on the air above it, and the result is that a
higher barometer sometimes exists over the water than over the land, which
is probably the cause of so much north-easterly wind at that season in
England.

" Again, to the northward of the N.E. trades in the calms of Cancer, there
is a very high borometer which does not extend up to the land of Africa or
America (see the French ' Atlas des Mouvements Generaux de 1' Atmo-
sphere ') ; it is also well known to seamen that this area of high barometer
extends farther North in the summer, which, taken into consideration with
the heated land and consequent lower pressure on the coasts of Spain and
Portugal, seems sufficient to account for the northerly winds on those coasts.
The N.W. wind, which so very generally precedes the N.E. trades with
ships outward bound from England, seems to result from the draught of air,
in accordance with Buys-Ballot's law, between this area of high pressure
and the lower pressure to the East and N.E. of it. For the same reason tho
south-easterly tendency of the N.E. trades on the western side of the
Atlantic, between 20° and 30° N. (see the Admiralty Pilot Charts for the
Atlantic Ocean), is probably due to the air drawing round this area of high
pressure. In fact, it seems most probable that this area of high pressure
is a perpetual ' anti-cyclone,' the name given by Mr. Francis Gal ton, in his
• Meteorographica,'f to patches of high pressure round which the wind re-
volves in a contrary direction to that of a cyclone, which is an area of low
pressure ; and that this area of high pressure is a downward current of air
which has overflowed from the various high temperatures and low pressures
around it, out of which the air seems to issue in various directions, being
governed by the neighbouring low and high pressures ; whilst in it there is
a large extent of equal pressure and consequent calm (the ' horse latitudes')
which should be avoided by sailing ships as a kind of atmospheric shoal.
It will be noticed that the route of West India hurricanes is round this area
of high pressure. The effect of the earth's revolution upon these downward
and upward currents of air is supposed to be tho cause of their revolving
in contrary directions. We are now working ap tho meteorological data for
that part of the Atlantic between 20° North and 10° South, and I notice that
in the winter there is a tendency for the N.E. trades to draw to the S.E., on
the south-western side of the Cape Verde Islands, which probably arises
from the air being cooler and heavier over tho land, thus bringing Buys-
Ballot's law into play to deflect the wind.

* "A Handy Book for Meteorology," by Alexander Buchar,, .Secretary to the Scottish
Meteorological Society, Second Edition, 1868.
f " Meteorographica," by Francis Galton, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.— Macmillan & Co-

186 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

" It is well known to those who navigate the South Atlantic, that an out-
ward bound ship on the western side of that ocean has a N.E. wind towards
the southern verge of the S.E. trades, whilst a homeward bounder in tho
same latitude, but near to Africa, has a S.W. wind. These winds seem to
result from the same cause, which has been alluded to in the North Atlantic,
viz., an area of high pressure over the central part of the ocean, which do-
creases as y<.u approach the land on either side. My paper ' On the Normal
Circulation of the air, & •.,' published in the proceedings of tho Royal So-
ciety, June 15, 18C5, shows that the low pressure does exist just to tho West
of South Africa.

"In the proceedings of the Meteorological Society, February 17th, 1869,
are given ' Results from Meteorological Observations, made at the Royal
Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, for twenty years, by Sir T. Maclear,'
which show that the barometer is from two to three-tenths higher in their
winter than in their summer. Now it seems very probable that there is not
a corresponding change in the pressure over the warm water to the South of
Africa, which would cause an increased barometer difference ; and there-
fore, according to Buys-Ballot's law, an increase in the force of the westerly
winds.

" The same law probably holds good off Cape Horn ; and as we suppose
that a higher pressure sometimes exists over the South Shetlands and
Graham's Land, than over the water to the North of them, Buys-Ballot's
law would require that easterly winds should be more common in the neigh-
bourhood of that land than near Cape Horn, as experienced by Capt. James
Gales. (See an account of his beating round the Horn, in my ' Report to
the Committe on the Meteorology of the North # Atlantic. '—No. 2 of this
series.)

" This intimate relation between barometer differences and the direction
and force of wind increases the value of barometer observations, for it is
clear that when their relation is better established, we shall be able to form a
good estimate of tho one by knowing the other, and the method now adopted
in the office of sifting all our data into one degree squares for each month
will, it is hoped, enable us to draw monthly isobarics for important parts of
the sea, which will be related to the direction and force of the winds pre-
vailing in each month. Such work for a few of the important squares near
the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn will show where the barometer
difference is least in a given distance, and as a consequence where the wind
is generally most moderate, whilst the direction in which the isobarics run
will show the direction of tho prevailing wind, helping the navigator to
decide on the best route. Seamen, who fear a calm more than a gale, will
be glad if we can give them the monthly positions of the different areas of
high and equal pressure where there are calms, in order that they may avoid
them."

Capt. Toynbee's investigations will bo further alluded to presently.

(27.) Barometric "Wave's. — In 1813, the late Sir John Hersehel presented
a report to the British. Association on the result of some investigations he
diad made into the barometric changes registered at the term-days of the
equinoxes and solstices, and arrived at tho following conclusions :—

MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 187

" 1. Wo have succeeded in tracing distinct barometric waves of many
hundreds of miles in breadth over the whole extent of Europe. Not only
the breadth, but the direction of the front and the velocity of the progress
of such waves have been clearly made out.

" 2. Besides these distinctly terminated waves, we have been able, if not
to trace the rate and law of progross, at least to render very evident the
existence of undulating movements of much greater amplitude, so great in-
deed as far to exceed in dimension the area in question, and to require much
more time than the duration of a term-series (36 hours) for their passage
over a given locality. At the same time it must be recollected that the
records of every meteorologist bear ample testimony to this conclusion in
the fact of long-continued rises, falls, and stations (both high and low) of the
barometer continuing for many days or even weeks.

"3. In Europe, Brussels is clearly entitled to be regarded as a point of
comparatively gentle barometrical disturbance. Very deep waves it is true,
and very extensive ones ride over it ; but with regard to smaller ones it may
be regarded as in a certain sense a nodal point where irregularities are
smoothed down, and oscillatory movement in general is more or less checked ;
and such movements increase in amount as we recede from Brussels as a
centre, especially towards the N.W. as far as Markree."

(28.) Mr. W. R. Birt, in the further enquiry into the subject of barometric
waves, as reported to the British Association, between 1843 and 1848,
established in tho year 1846 the fact that each wave is accompanied by two
streams of air, constituting two oppositely directed winds ; and it is not a
little interesting to remark, in passing, that this discussion although un-
accompanied by the actual projection either of barometric gradients or
isobars, anticipated them both, inasmuch as the heights of the barometer
are so arranged as to serve all the purposes of projected isobars and the
determination of gradients, and this was effected as early as 1844, by
barometric heights being treated geographically — an essential element of the
isobar."

It will be needless to follow the progress of this subject through all its
stages, but this will suffice to show that this important topic was inves-
tigated when the means of doing so were much more difficult to obtain,
and that some of the decisions now accepted were clearly pointed out in
former times.

In the course of Mr. Birt's researches on atmospheric waves, he had an
opportunity of testing the correctness of Professor Dove's suggestion, which
he found to be in close accordance with the truth, for he not only ascertained
the existence of the S.W. and N.E. compensating currents, but also that of
another set of oppositely directed and compensating winds at right angles
to them. These were N.W. and S.E., with a lateral motion towards the
N.E. He also carefully discussed the barometric phenomena with relation
to both these sets of currents, and arrived at conclusions which the reader
will find in detail in Mr. Bin's third report, presented' to the British
Association for the Advancement of Science (Report, 1846, pp. 132 to 162),
■Sut which may be biieiiy enunciated as follows :— During the period which

188 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

passed under the examination of the writer, he found the barometer gene-
rally rising with N.E. and N.W. winds, and that as a maximum or highest
reading of the mercury approached, the wind died away mostly to a calm.
On the other hand, with S.W. and S.E. winds, the barometer generally fell,
the force of the wind proportionally increasing until the mercury passed its
minimum or lowest reading.

A most interesting instance of an atmospheric wave traversing Europe
from the West of Ireland to the Black Sea is recorded in the French serial
work, "Cosmos." In the "Mercantile Marine Magazine" for May, 1856,
we find a notice of the occurrence of an atmospheric wave in the Indian
Ocean between 40° and 50° South latitude, and 44° and 56° East longitude.

There is one important feature which the study of the barometer has
brought to light, and which is by no means devoid of significance, viz.,
that its oscillations are much greater in the neighbourhood of water ; thus
it appears that the junction lines of land and water form by far the most
important portions of the globe in which to study atmospheric waves ; for,
in the great systems of European undulations, it is well known that these
oscillations increase, especially towards the N.W., and the late Professor
Daniell has shown from the Mannheim observations that small undulations,
having their origin on the northern borders of the Mediterranean, have
propagated themselves northward ; and in this manner, but in a smaller
degree, the waters of the Mediterranean have contributed to increase the
oscillations of the barometer, as well as the larger surface of the Northern
Atlantic. From such considerations as these it becomes very desirable that
our knowledge of the rise and fall of the barometer, in immediate connexion
with the direction and force of the wind on the surfaces not only of our large
oceans, but also of those of our inland seas, and especially in the neighbour-
hood of extensive archipelagoes, should be increased.

(29.) In a future page, in the section devoted to a description of the winds
encountered in the northern part of the Atlantic, this subject of atmospheric
waves will be again adverted to ; and then it will be more plainly seen how
it is applicable to the daily experience of the navigator.

(30.) Barometric Gradients. — The primary principle, that the atmo-
sphere moves in a series of waves, indicated by the high or low pressure of
the barometer, having been established, the next step was to estimate the
dimensions of these waves, and the relation of this element to the changes
in the wind's direction and force. In this enquiry several observers have
recorded the results of their work. Besides Mr. Birt, before mentioned, Dr.
Lloyd, in his " Notes on the Meteorology of Ireland, 18o4," and several other
gentlemen, wo have the proposition of Mr. Thomas Stevenson, C.E., in 1867, *

* " Mr. Stevenson measures his gradients as an inch of mercury in a variable number of
miles. I measure mine as a variable number of hundredths of an inch of mercury per 100
miles. Mr. Stcveireon's paper contains, as far as I am aware, the first proposal to estimate
the intensity of storms numerically. It was read at the meeting of the society of June,
1807, and printed in the * Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society' for January,
1808."

BAROMETRICAL READINGS

AND THE

WINDS OBSERVED

At eaca Station at 8 a.m. Jan. 16 1868.

With the Lmes & Orxidients.

lluHehlei

L'Ori&f~$^

THE WINDS RECORDEDas EXTREME WINDS"

Ian 17

30 43 r

Pvjchefort^ Calm

MOTIONS AND PEESSUEE OF THE ATMOSPHEEE. 189

to define the dimension or magnitude of these atmospheric waves as
" Barometric gradients," a term since adopted by the Meteorological Office.
Its further development, and the application to weather predictions, havo
been carried out by the superintendents of that office, E. H. Scott, Esq., M.A.,
the Director, and Captain H. Toynbee, the Marine Superintendent of the
Meteorological Office. As is well known, the system of announcing the
probability of a coming storm, which was inaugurated by the late Admiral
FitzEoy, was abandoned, it may be well to briefly allude to the system now
in use, and this will be best done by quoting the words of the report,* by
Eobert H. Scott, Esq.

"In order to test the truth of this law as applied to our own daily weather
reports, and its value as indicating the approach and progress of storms,
I have investigated these reports for a period of nine months, viz., from
October to December, 1864, and from October, 1867, to March, 1868, in-
clusive. Captain Toynbee, the Marine Superintendent of the Office, has
also been engaged in the study of these Eeports.

" The observations which are discussed have been all those which havo
been taken at our own stations within the limits of the British Islands, and,
in addition, those from Brest, L'Orient, Eochefort, and the Holder. In 1864,
the Helder was not a reporting station, and accordingly Heligoland was
taken instead. All these stations, except the last named, are situated within
the area of a circle 700 miles in diameter, whose centre is at Birmingham,
Since the commencement of January, 1868, Eeports have been received from
Paris and Brussels, but these data have not been included in the present
enquiry.

" The mode of investigation has been threefold : — ' '

"I. To ascertain the greatest difference of pressure existing between an\
two stations within the area, at 8 a.m. on each day, with the resulting
direction for the wind according to the law, and compare therewith the
strong winds reported as having occurred at any stations during the twenty-
four hours which succeeded the time of the observed barometrical difference.

"II. To extract the daily barometrical differences, and the resulting
directions for .the wind, along certain lines within the area, and compare
therewith the winds recorded in the vicinity of those stations during the
succeeding twenty-four hours.

" III. To extract each strong wind which was recorded at any station, and
compare therewith the barometrical differences recorded along the lines in
the vicinity of that station.

" By these three enquiries it has been sought to ascertain —

" What is the connexion between general barometrical disturbances and
weather succeeding it.

" 2. What accordance do the strong winds actually observed show with
the directions over each district of the area as given by the law.

* " Eeport of an Enquiry into the Connexion between Strong Winds and Barometrical
Differences," by Eobert H. Scott, M.A.,F.R,S., Director of the Meteorological Office, 1869.
N. A. 0. 2 O

190 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

" 3. What amount of indication was given of each strong wind by baro-
metrical differences in its vicinity."

(31.) "Without following out tho discussion into the details of various
periods within the dates above mentioned, Mr. Scott draws this conclusion
from them : —

" It appears, then, as a final result, that if we notice on any morning a
difference of 0.C0 inches between any two stations, the chance is 7 to 3 that
there will be a storm within the succeeding twenty-four hours. On the
other hand, the chance is 9 to 1 that any storm which sets in will be preceded
by unmistakeablo signs of its approach, although the barometrical difference
of readings may not amount to 0.G0 inches at 8 a.m.

" Before leaving this branch of the enquiry, there is one result which
seems of sufficient importance to deserve a special notice.

"I find that although there is a preponderance of instances in which the
difference of six-tenths is followed by a gale, yet on several occasions the
barometrical inequality exists after the violent motion of the air has come
to an end.

" In ten instances during the whole nine months, I find that at 8 a.m. on
the day after a serious gale there was a difference of, or exceeding, 0.6 inches,
while there was not a gale during the remainder of the day. This seems to
me to be a very remarkable result, and one well deserving of future inves-
tigation.

"It appears, also, -from this table, that as regards direction the law re
ceives strong confirmation.

" Southerly gales are preceded by a relatively low pressure in the West.
" Westerly gales are preceded by a relatively low pressure in the North.
" Northerly gales are preceded by a relatively low pressure in the East.
" Easterly gales are preceded by a relatively low pressure in the South.
" In devising a system for testing the law as applied to the different dis-
tricts of the British Islands, and the North and West Coasts of France, we
are met by various difficulties. The simplest statement of the law is that
according to it the wind at any point will blow in the direction of a tangent,
at that point, to the isobaric curve which represents the atmospherical con-
ditions existing a short time previously.

" Firstly, the whole system of isobaric curves, or the whole distribution of
atmospherical pressure, is known to be subject to a motion of translation
over the earth's surface ; but of this motion the direction and the rate vary,
from day to clay, to a considerable extent, and in a manner independent of
oach other. Neither of these points have been as yet satisfactorily inves-
tigated. Secondly, the wind, especially in storms, seldom blows for many
hours consecutively from the same point, but either veers or backs, the former
motion being much more usual than the latter.

•' These considerations show us that we must not interpret the law too
strictly, but must mako some allowance for translation and for change of
direction.

"The method which has been adopted for testing the winds on each day
will be understood by reference to the adjoining plate, which is reduced from

MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 191

the daily map for January 16, 17, 1868, showing the barometrical readings
and the wind at the various stations at 8 a.m. on the 16th and 17th, with
the gradients and their changes during the preceding twenty-four hours.
i "It will be seen from these that the area has been, so to speak, trian-
gulated, as well as the situations of the reporting stations will allow. By
this means we have got a large number of lines of variable lengths, running
in different directions. Perpendiculars are let fall on each of these lines,
and the directions of the lines are taken according to the approximate com-
pass bearings of these perpendiculars, which are the wind directions indi-
cated, according to the law, by differences of barometrical readings at the
extremities of the respective lines.

"In order to render the results obtained from lines of different lengths
strictly comparable with each other, they have been reduced to one uniform
standard of 100 miles. The actual length of each line, and the factor
requisite to reduce its indications to those of the uniform standard length,
and also the directions for the two winds indicated according as the baro-
metrical reading at one end of the line is higher or lower than at the other,
are here subjoined. These directions, of course, differ by 180°.

Bearing of

Perpendicular.

Line.

Length in

Miles.

I ? actor.

Indicated Wind.

W. 3(P N.

Valencia to Greencastle

236

E.S.E.

or W.N.W.

W. 40° N.

Greencastle— Nairn

180

5
9

S.E.

„ N.W.

N. SO 3 W.

Greencastlo — Leith

144

S.S.E.

„ N.N.W.

E. 10° N.

Leith — Nairn ...

100

„ W.

Liverpool — Leith ...

156

„ w.

E. 40° N.

Liverpool— Greencastlo

189

N.E.

„ s.w.

N. 30" W.

Liverpool — Scarborough

110

S.S.E.

„ N.N.W.

W. 40° S.

Scarborough — Leith

131

3
4

N.E,

„ S.W.

W. 40° S.

Holder— Nairn -

:j'J4

N.E.

„ s.w.

N. 30° E.

Heligoland— Nairn

445

N.N.E.

„ s.s.w.

S. 10° E.

Heligoland — Liverpool -

380

„ s.

N. 10° E.

Helder— Liverpool - - '

284

„ s.

N. 30° W.

Heligoland— London -

330

-H-

S.S.E.

„ N.N.W.

N. 30° W.

Helder — London ...

200

S.S.E.

„ N.N.W.

W. 30° N.

Heligoland — Bochefort

600

E.S.E.

., W.N.W.

W. 30° N.

Helder— Bochefort

480

E.S.E.

„ W.N.W.

W. 10° s.

Weymouth — Liverpool

172

„ w.

W. 10° s.

Bochefort — AVeymoulh

287

„ w.

W. 10" S.

London— Scarborough -

175

„ w.

1ST. 20° W.

Penzance — London

220

S.S.E.

„ N.N.W.

N. 45° E.

Bochefort— Brest -

200

N.E.

„ S.W.

W. 20° s.

Brest — Penzance ...

101

E.N.E.

„ w.s.w.

N. 4.3' E.

Brest— Valencia - - - !

307

N.E.

„ S.W.

N. 45° E.

Penzance— Roche's Point

138

:.'

N.E.

„ S.W.

N. 10° E.

Valencia — Eoche's Point

„ s.

N. 20° W.

Valencia Liverpool - - i

287

•A

1
3

S.S.E.

„ n.n.w:

" These factors are, as will be seen, merely the nearest simple fractions
to the proportions between the length ofeach lino and the standard length.

192 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF TLTE ATMOSPHERE.

Date.

Gradient.

Line.

Winds.

Extreme.

Next Morning.

Jan.lG

S.S.E. 12

S.W. 21

S.W. 12
S.W. 19

S.W. 25
W.S.W. 13

W. 12
W. 16

W. 13

W. 12

+25

+ 14

— 4
+ 3

+10

— 2

—16

— 4

— 6

Leith — Greencastle - j

Liverpool-Greencastlo j

Helder — Nairn - - )
Scarborough — Leith - j

Penzance— Roche's Pt. ]
Brest— Penzance - j

Leith — Nairn - - - \
Liverpool — Leith - -J

Weymouth-Liverpool ]
London — Scarhorough j

S.W. 9, Androssan.
S.W. S, Leith.
S. 9, Holyhead.
S.W. 9, Androssan.
S.W. 8, Leith.
W. 8, Yarmouth.
S. 12, Valencia.
S.W. 9, Cape Clear.
S.S.AV. 8, Penzance.
S.S.W. 9, Plymouth
S.W. 8, Leith.
S.W. 9, Androssan.
S.S.W. 8, Portsmth.
S. 8, Weymouth.
S. 9, Holyhead.
S.W. 9, London.
W. 8, Yarmouth.

S.W. 9, Plymouth.
S.W. 8, Portsmouth

Date.

Wind.

Station.

Preceding
Gradient.

Line.

Jan.lG

Evening
°

8
12

Holyhead
Valencia -"]

S.W. 21

+14

Liverpool— Greencastle.

S.S.W.

Penzance - >

S.W. 25

+10

Penzance— Roche's Point

S.S.W.

Plymouth - J

S.S.W.

8
8

Weymouth - ^
Portsmouth- J

S.S.E. o

+ 11

London — Penzance.

S.W.
S.W.

S
9

Leith - - }
Ardrossan - J

S.S.E. 12

+25

Leith — Greencastle.

S.W.

Cape Clear

S.W. 25

+10

Penzance— Roche's Point.

S.W.

9
8

London - - \
Yarmouth - )

W. 12

- C

London— Scarhorough.

Morning

S.W.
S.W.

Plymouth - ")
Portsmouth- J

W.S.W. 14

— 2

Brest— Penzance.

"This shows lis that the only gradient exceeding 0.12 on the 16th, which
was not followed by a very decided fulfilment, was that of "W. 13 from
Weymouth to Liverpool. The predominating storms on the South coast of
England were southerly, and had very little westing in them. They gave,
however, abundant indications of their approach in the change of gradient
of (+ 11) in the direction S.S.E. from London to Penzance.

" On the whole it will be seen that on the morning of the 16th there was
a gale at only ono station, viz., S. 10 at Valencia, and on the morning of the
17th there were only two, viz., S.W. 9 at Plymouth, and S.W. 8 at Ports
mouth, whilo between these two dates gales were felt at 10 stations, whicli
might reasonably have been foreseen by an examination of the morning
reports of tho 16th, on tho principles laid down in the preceding pages."

(32.) What lias been said previously as to the isobaric lines and baro-
metric gradients, refer exclusively to the observations made and collected
eimaltAneously on land. It is quite clear that this is inapplicable to the

MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OP THE ATMOSPHERE. 193

condition of a ship on a voyage. Still something can bo learned from the
known phenomena of what is probable, and tho reader is referred to a
valuable paper in the "Mercantile Marine Magazine," 1872, by Mr. Birt,
for many important practical hints, which are too long for quoting here, but
a few extracts must suffice. They will relate to an examination of the
Weather Charts, issued by the Meteorological Office, between March 15th
and April 13th, 1872, the results of which are given in a tabular form.*

" In order to see the practical bearing of this table (not repeated here), it
is necessary to recall the main feature of Buys-Ballot's law, viz., that the
areas of high and low pressure are specially related to the direction of the
wind. Taking the direction of the wind from East to West for example,
and sailing or steaming with it, the area of high pressure is on the starboard
or North, and that of low pressure on the port or left. Tho steepest gradient
between Portsmouth and Dover during the thirty days is -f- .142, wind at
Dover N., force 6. This gradient occurred on the 19th, but as no return
for that day was received from Scilly, the barometric section from Scilly to
Dover is not complete. The section for the previous day, the 18th, is com-
plete, and shows a difference of about a quarter of an inch between the ex-
treme stations. At all the stations the barometer was falling between 8 a.m.
of the 18th and 8 a.m. of the 19th. Suppose we take a vessel on the 18th,
having just passed the straits at 8 a.m. During her passage down channel
her-barometer rose, wind off Dover W.N.W., force 3, area of high pressure
towards S.S.W. On consulting the weather charts, we find the isobars so
arranged as to indicate the anterior slope of an atmospheric wave, stretching
from S.S.W. or thereabout, towards Norway N.N.E. ; the vessel was there-
fore sailing, or steaming towards the crest. In the case of a vessel steam-
ing up channel on the 19th, she would have had a falling barometer with
increasing wind force.

" On selecting the steepest gradient, dip towards the West ( — ), we find
it to be — .071, wind S., force 3, at Dover, on March 27th, the wind
increasing in force westward, being at Scilly 7, with a sea disturbance of 6,
marked 'rough' on the map; area of highest pressure to the eastward;
passage up channel, barometer rising, wind force decreasing ; down channel,
barometer falling, with wind force increasing. The weather chart for this
day shows the isobars arranged as the posterior slope of a N.W. atmo-
spheric wave. A vessel coming up channel approached the crest rather
obliquely.

" It must especially be borne in mind that each vessel is entirely isolated,
the commander having only the height of the barometer and direction of the
wind at his ship, with Buys-Ballot's law, from which ho is able to infer in
what directions the high or low pressures exist, but whether he is approach-
ing a crest or trough directly or obliquely, his data are inadequate to deter-
mine. We are not aware that sufficient has been effected at land stations to
enable him to ascertain the general lay of the isobars from the rise or fall
of the barometer at his ship, and here we see the value of discussing a large
number of observations, in order to mark out with approximate precision
the barometric affections of such a line as the South Coast of England. To

See also " Weather Charts and Storm Warnings," by R. II. Scott, M.A., F.H.S. 1676.

194 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

effect this the labour is considerable, and it can only bo accomplished on the
large scalo by an offico charged not only with tho work of collecting data,
but of utilizing such data when obtained.

" In tabulating this, we have the whole lino from Dover to Scilly divided
into three portions, Dover to Portsmouth, Portsmouth to Plymouth, and
Plymouth to Scilly. So far as the most important feature — the barometric
gradients — is concerned, each portion differs, more or less, from its neigh-
bours. Taking the gradients facing the East ( + ), wo have on the line
Portsmouth to Dover these gradients occurring on 20 days. On the line
Plymouth to Portsmouth 12 days, and from Scilly to Plymouth 15 days. Of
the reverse or facing the West ( — ), Dover to Portsmouth 7 days, Ports-
mouth to Plymouth 13 days, and Plymouth to Scilly 12 days. On three
occasions the barometer was equal in height at Dover and Portsmouth, on
five at Portsmouth and Plymouth, and two at Plymouth and Scilly. These
results clearly show that the barometric movements are very complex ;
nevertheless, it is possible that each portion of the channel may havo its
specific type.

"A graphical representation is conclusive as to the connection between
barometric differences or gradients, wind force, and sea disturbance. A
determination of the law of this connection is important. We can, how-
ever, look at this matter in another light ; for instance, we can take the
mean wind force and sea disturbance for each station as under : —

Dover . . 2.7 Wind.
Portsmouth 3.5 ,,

2.0 Sea.

Plymouth

. 2.4 Wind. 1.5 Sea

3.0 „

Scilly

• 4.7 „ 4.4 „

"These numbers show that, with tho exception of Plymouth, both wind
force and sea disturbance increases as we proceed westward. Bearing in
mind that the scale of wind force is — 12, and that of sea disturbance — 9,
the increase of sea disturbance is greater in proportion at Scilly than within
tho channel.

" We have already alluded to the isolated condition of each vessel as she
sails or steams up or down channel ; and from the above example of dis-
cussing the daily readings, it appears that in the passage down channel a
commander, on the average, meets with increasing force of wind, increasing
sea disturbance, and increasing barometric gradients. An important question
here arises ; How is a commander to ascertain his gradient in his isolated
position ? On passing the Straits, his barometer stands at a certain height,
on passing Portsmouth it has risen, but the difference will not give him his
gradient, for ho is ignorant of the height of the mercury at Dover when ho
is off Portsmouth. The rise he records is compounded of two quantities,
that due to tho gradient he has sailed through plus (-J-) the absolute rise of
tho barometer at the two stations during his voyage from one to tho other ;
or it may be that the portion due to the gradient is reduced by a fall of tho
barometer during the interval; for example, tho gradient on March 19th,
between Portsmouth and Dover, was -f- .142. On the 18th the barometer
stood at 30.01 at Portsmouth, on the 19th it was 29.94, fall in the 24 hours
0.07. On the 18th, at Dover, the barometer read 29.87, on the 19th 29.78,
fall in the 24 hours 0.09. The barometric difference between tho stations oa

THE TEADE WIND. 195

the 18th was .14, on the 19th .16. If, then, the barometer at the ship, on
the 18th, off Dover, read 29.87, and off Portsmouth on the 19th, 24 hours
afterwards, 29.94, the captain would record a rise of 0.07, the barometer
having really fallen 0.08 at a point intermediate between the stations : thus,
while a real gradient of + .142 existed between Dover and Portsmouth on
the 19th, the barometer having fallen at both stations during the previous 24 hours,
a captain sailing from Dover to Portsmouth during the same 24 hours would
record an apparent gradient of + .002, the reduction from the real gradient
arising from the fall of the barometer at both stations, while the rise of his
barometer resulted from his sailing toward the region of higher pressure."

3.— THE TRADE WIND.

(33.) The region of the trade wind occupies nearly one-half of the entire
surface of the globe. Prom their constancy and regularity they form by
far the most important part of the circulatory system of the atmosphere,
although generally their strength is inferior to many of those smaller but
compensating currents which are experienced in ex-tropical regions.

(34.) The source from which the ensuing statistics of the various winds
described is the extensive collection of observations recorded in the Pilot
Charts of Lieutenant M. P. Maury, U.S.N. , published in 1849. On our
Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, in four sheets, to which this work
especially refers, these wind records are also arranged in a simple and com-
prehensive graphic form. In the year 1876 there was issued by the Meteo-
rological Office an analysis of the meteorology of the equatorial region of the
Atlantic, between lat. 20° N. and 10° S., and long. 10° to 40° W. This
elaborate work, produced by Capt. Toynbee, F.E.A.S., F.E.Gr.S., is chiefly
derived from data collected by the late Admiral FitzEoy, and may be said to
supersede the above mentioned work of Captain Maury, or that part of it
which relates to the crossing of the equator. We give on page 203, et seq. }
Capt. Toynbee's remarks on the winds observed in this region.

(35.) The North-East Trade Wind blows over the tropical region between
lat. 36° North and the Equator, seldom, however, reaching these extremes.
When uninterrupted by gales or hurricanes, caused by the disturbing in-
fluences of land or rain, it is a fair weather region that procured for it the
term of " The Lady's Gulf," by the old Spaniards. From the difference
0.055 inches in the observed mean barometric pressure by the Dutch in the
N.E. and S.E. trades, between the parallels of 5° and 20°, which is 29.968
inches for the former, and 30.023 inches for the latter, it is inferred by
^Captain Maury that the greater pressure in the S.E. trades indicates a
greater force and velocity* than the N.E. trades. This, as investigated by
Commander Maury, has been indicated by the rate of vessels daily passing
through them. He has compared the sailings of 2,235 vessels, and finds

* It is generally argued, that less barometric pressure indicates increased force of wind,
and not the reverse, as it is here argued ; hut from the following note it will be seen that
these pressures are more nearly alike than is stated above.

196

TIIE TRADE WIND.

that the nomeward bound vessels cross the trades of the North Atlantic
with the wind abeam at an average rate of 5.6 knots per hour, and across
the trades of the South Atlantic at an average rate of 6 knots. As the latter
is with the wind generally dead aft, ho argues that this rate would bo in-
creased 2 or 2J knots with the wind on the beam, and make the difference
still more evident. The comparative duration of each of these winds in the
Atlantic is thus given by Captain Maury : —

Between
Latitudes.

N.E. Tbades.

S.E. Tkadeb.

Mean
Direction.

Annual
Direction.

Mean
Direction.

Annual
Duration.

•

and 5

5 10

10 15

15 20

20 25

N. 48 E.
N. 46 E.
X. 47 E.
N. 46 E.

N. 43 E.

76 days.
118 „
203 „
197 „
167 „

E. 31 S.
E. 41 S.
E. 37 S.
E. 34 S.
E. 34 S.

38 days.
329 „
305 „
253 „

163 „

•
Means.

N. 46 E.

153 days. E. 36 S.

272 days.*

(36.) The force of the wind is an important element in these calcula-
tions, and Captain Maury's system has been enlarged upon by Lieutenant
J. C. de Brito, of the Portuguese Royal Navy, who has investigated the rates
of sailing of 1,548 tracks across the Atlantic, and has arrived at some im-
portant and unexpected results, differing in some degree from the conclusions
of the great American meteorologist.

Lieutenant de Brito reduced the courses of all his ships to the most
favourable point of sailing for all ships, that is, with the wind />•<?£, and has
taken the months of February and March for one season, and those of
August and September for the opposite. His enquiries relate to both trade
winds— the S.E. as well as the N.E.

(37.) For the N.E. trade he has 803 tracks— 424 Dutch, and 379 American.
The region of this trade he divides into four parts, viz. : — 1. The eastern, or
that frequented by ships going South and passing to the eastward of the Cape
Verde Islands. 2. The mean route of vessels going South and passing
westward of those islands. 3. The central part, containing the routes to the
southward of ships from Europe and America. 4. The part containing the
westernmost homeward routes of American vessels.

* As this table is founded on the assumption that the Equitor is the division between
the two wind systems, instead of the parallels of 5"" to 9° N., as is really the case, it cannot
he taken as a fair comparison of their relative duration. If the parallel of 5° N. he taken
as a division, the mean barometric pressure in the N. E. trades is 30.057 inches, and in the
S.E. trades 30.034 inches, making the latter the least. If the winds recorded between
1° and 5° N. be added to the S.E. trades, it will give a mean duration of 239 days, and
make the N.E. trades 172 days.

THE TRADE WIND. 197

For February and March, he finds that —

1. East of the Cape Verdes, the mean rate of 20 vessels, from 30° N, to

.3' N., is 6.1 miles.

2. West of the Cape Verdes, the mean rate of 71 vessels, from 30° N. to

5° N., is 6.3 miles.

3. For the Central part, the mean rate of 262 vessels, from 25° N. to

5° N., is 6.5 miles.

4. For the Westernmost route, 44 American ships sailing from the

Equator to 25° N., between long. 32° and 33° W., give a mean
rate of 6.7 miles.

Hence, for the whole region of the N.E. trade, during February and
March, the mean rate is 6.4 miles.

For August and September, when the N.E. trade is weakest, and is in its
most northern position —

1. East of the Cape Verdes, the mean rate of 18 vessels, from 30 b N. to

15° N , is about 6.3 miles.

2. West of the Cape Verdes, the mean rate of 155 vessels, from 30° N. to

15° N., is 6.5 miles.

3. For the Central part, the mean rate of 198 vessels, from 30° N. to

15° N., is 5.3 miles.

4. On the Westernmost route, 35 American homeward bound vessels,

from 10° N. to 30° N., give a mean rate of 4.8 miles.

And for the whole region of the N.E. trade, during August and September,
the mean rate is 5.7 miles.

For the strength of the S.E. trade, there are 655 tracks — 417 Dutch, and
238 American; and the regions are: — 1. The western, in which the vessels
go southwards. 2. The central, in which the ships are coming from tho Ea&t
Indies.

During August and September, it appears that —

1. For the Western route, 232 vessels gave a mean rate of 7.5 miles.

2. For the Central route, 124 vessels gave a mean rate of 7.4 miles.

During February and March, the results are as follows —

1. For the Western route, 142 vessels rive 7.0 miles.

2. For the Central route, 157 vessels give 7.1 miles.

(38.) The S.W. monsoon region gives, according to 90 Portuguese ships,
an average rate of 4.9 miles for February and March ; and 5.3 miles for
August and September.

From these observations it appears that the N.E. trade undergoes, in the
two epochs, considerable change of strength, viz., equal to 0.7 mile in favour
of the February and March period ; on the other hand, the S.E. trade is
stronger by 0.4 mile in the August and September period than during that
for February and March.

Comparing the twu trades (N.E. and S.E.) together, it would seem that
the S.E. is 1.2. miles (stronger than the N.E.

N. A. O. 2D

198 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

Again, ships bound to the southward may generally expect to find the
N.E. trade stronger on the Central route, during February and March, than
more to the eastward ; while in the August and September epoch, they will
find this wind blowing with its greatest intensity between the meridians of
20° and 25° W.

This last observation deserves consideration, because it is generally believed
that the wind is stronger in proportion as the distance from the African
shore is increased.

(39.) The N.E., like the S.E., trade wind, blows over a wider area in the
eastern part of the Atlantic than on the American side, as at the meridian
of 10' W. they extend from 35° or 38° N. to 25° or 28° S. ; while on the
American side the North limit is 28° or 30 c N. to 23° or 25° S. ; but on the
eastern side the intervening space of calms is much wider. The extent and
limits will be best comprehended by an inspection of the diagrams adjoin-
ing, which are formed from the tabular statements drawn up by Commander
Maury and by the Dutch Meteorological Institute, and for the equatorial
region by Captain Toynbee. They will explain better the various lines and
fluctuations than would be done by a long series of words.

The northern limit of the N.E. trade wind, as will be seen, extends on the
eastern side of the Atlantic, that is off the coast of Africa, to lat. 35" as a
mean, in August and September, being then at its greatest northern extent ;
but it is frequently encountered when in lat. 38°, or sometimes even at 40°.
To the westward of the meridian of 30° the northern edge seldom extends
northward of 33° or 34°, while toward the Bahamas the northern limit is
30° N. This extreme northern declination appears to be attained in August
and September, as has been said before, when following the sun in its south
ward course it reaches its southern limits in March or April. In January its
mean limit on the eastern side is about the Canaries ; over tho eastern half
uf the Atlantic in about 25° N. ; in the centre about 22° N. ; and on the
Bahamas it seldom vibrates to any great extent throughout the year.

The extent of variation between the northern edge of the trade winds
when first encountered, as shown by Maury's Trade Wind Charts, seems to
be as much as 10 degrees of latitude — a wide range of probability — and in
many cases there appears from these charts to be as much chance of meeting
them in one latitude as another. Of course this is taking into account the
belt of calms and variable winds usually (but not always) found on the edge
of the trades, which will be spoken of presently.

(40.) The southern edge of the N.E. trade wind is limited in the eastern part
by that broad region so embarrassing to the sailor, known as the " doldrums,"
or especially during the northern summer months by a set of winds blowing
towards the coast of Africa, known of old as the West African S.W. mon-
soon. This wedge-shaped area, whose apex reaches in July to 40° or 45° W.,
extends on the African coast at that period from 5° N. to 16° or 17° N. To
the West of this there is still a belt of almost constant rain " under the
equatorial cloud ring, which, however, is much narrower, and perhaps at
times may not be encountered, called the Equatorial calms. The trade wind
is at its southerly limit in March and April, reaching in mid-ocean some-

THE TRADE WIND.

190

times to 3° S., but seldom so far as 3° N. on the East side. It remains there
for two or three months, and then advances northward till August and
September, when it is seldom found South of the parallel of 9° N. ; indeed,
this parallel may be taken as the mean limit of the N.E. trades. This
northern division of the trade wind is owing to the unequal distribution of
land in the two hemispheres.

The following useful Table is that drawn up by the late Capt. Horsburgh,
as the limits usually found in the track generally pursued by the East
Indiamen, at the commencement of the present century : —

TABLE, shoiving the Equinoctial Limits of the N.E. and S.E. Trade Winds,
between the Meridians of 18 and 26 degrees West.

N.E. TRADE WIND.

CEASES,

In January at
February ,
March . . .
April

May

June

July

August . . ,
September.
October . . .
November
December .

General
Extremes.

3 to 10 N.
2 to 10 —

2 to 8 —
2±to 9 —
4' to 10 —
6ito 13 —
S| to 14 —

11 to 15 —
9 to 14 —
74 to 14 —
G" to 11 —

3 to 7 —

Probable
Mean.

5 N.

4 —

4f~

5 —
6J —

11 —

13 —
IU —
10" —

8 —

S.E. TRADE

WIND.

General

Probable

Extremes.

Mean.

a o

0| to 4 N.

2| N.

0± to 3 —

1| -

0i to 2h —

H-

o to n —

il —

to 4 —

too -

3 —

1 to 6 —

1 to 5 —

qi _

1 to 5 —

o __

1 to 5 —

3 —

1 to 4| —

n —

INTERVAL
BETWEEN.

Mean
. Breadth.

21 des

•33

°t

(41.) The direction of the N.E. trade wind is an important nautical con-
sideration. Its mean direction in the circuit of the earth is estimated at
N. 47° E., but it varies considerably under the influence of the land, and
especially so in the North Atlantic. As mentioned above, the trade wind
blows much more from the northward to the eastward of long. 25°-—
that is, within 400 or 500 miles of the African, coast than it does in the
open ecoan. Between the Canaries and Capo Verde, during the northern
summer months, it blows from N.N.E. and N.E. for 55 days out of
every 100.

During the winter months, from January to March, the wind in the neigh-
boui-hood of Cape Verde draws very much toward the land, or from N.W.
and W. This point will be more discussed in a later part of this work.

(42.) In order more fully to exemplify the duration and direction of the
trade wind, the adjoining diagrams have been selected from the Chart of
the North Atlantic Ocean. They will show the particulars of the wind
between the parallels of 10° and 20° N. ; that is, in the main strength of the
N.E. trades. They have been adapted from Maury's Pilot Charts, as ap-
peared before (34) and will show the per centage of winds from any quarter
in each of the four calendar seasons; and also the amount per cent, of calms
encountered. The plate will explain the different arrows (indicating tho

200

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

seasons) which are supposed to represent winds blowing toward the centre of
the circle, because the winds take their names from the quarters from whence
they come, the North point being supposed to bo at the top of the page, the
South at the bottom, the East to the right, and the West to the left hand.
The length of the uppermost arrows is proportioned to the duration or fre-
quency of that wind, according to the scale attached ; so that by applying
the compasses to any one of the arrows, it will give, according to the scale,
the amount of wind per cent, for that direction. These arrows are given for
sixteen points of the compass, omitting the " by " points, in each season.
The arrows altogether make up the length of 3 inches, that of the scale
given.* In the centre of each diagram is given the smount per cent, of
calms encountered in the respeetive seasons. As the force of the winds is not
given in the Pilot Charts, this register of the calms is the more important,
as it is the only scale we can apply to the force of this wind ; as, by analogy,
we may argue, that were calms predominate, there also do light and baffling
winds, and the reverse.

(43.) An analysis of the wind-rose3 in Captain Maury's Chart, from which
these diagrams are constructed, will give the following figures as the pre-
valence and direction of the winds along the main strength of the N.E.
trades in the North Atlantic. It must be premised, however, that these
figures, as well as the data from which they are derived, will give only a
general view of the phenomena likely to be encountered, and the chances per
c~nt. that a ship will have of meeting with similar winds or calms. The
figures in these colums give the number of days (or observations) the wind
bloy in each hundred, from the respective directions : —

Fig. 1.-

■In the neighbour

hood of 1

he Cape Verdi

- Islands.

Between

N. &E.

73
7G
70
63

E. & S.

S. & W.

W. & N.

Mean.

Frequent.

Calms.

Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn

12
18
14

10
4
4
6

7
2

N.E.
N.E.

N.N.E.
N.E.

E.N.E.

N.E.. N.N.E.

N.N.E.

E.N.E.

1.1
1.8

8.5

4.7

* There is one remark which it is necessary to make here respecting these wind obser-
vations (220,000 in number). They have been taken from a vast quantity of different
log-books, whose remarks are not made with the definite accuracy necessary for scientific
precision. A slight inspection of the figures given on the diagram, or of the Board of Trade
charts, will show that in these data the direction of tho wind is loosely and indefinitely
given throughout. Thus, a wind between N. and E. is set down as a N.E. wind, &c, &c,
and not so often as as a N.N.E. or E.N.E. as must really occur. Consequently, the arrows
representing these principal or cardinal points arc longer than they ought to be, and the
intermediate ones shorter; in fact, they form a zig-zag or irregular curve around the centre;
whereas it is manifest that this curve should be somewhat symmetrical, and that the wind
blows from the intermediate points in some regular ratio to those on either side of it. Until
we get more exact records added together in great numbers, as has been done in the Pilot
Charts with these imperfect logs, it is plainly futile to draw any precise or refined conclu-
sions from their teaching. This is not said to underrate their value. To the sailor, who
only requires a general exact knowledge of the subject, they teach as much almost aa he
requires to know as to the direction of the wind.

NORTH

Diagrams Wj/Lsbabiny the, direction <of
THE IN. E. TRADE WIND
between Latitudes l<>" &. 20°, \ '.

poyt'VJi

F IC. I.

./.<■/,/ tilt
■V.vh- [?

j? cans

Z Win- l-l ***
; Spr._ie

Sum.- 8 -5
K- Aut-47

„-"v-.

Tv&"

FIG. 2.
Lon,.3ttL 40° W.

FIG. 3.
on..40'L50 o W:

v..

FIG. 4.
£<*,. 50°-60°W.

F I C. 5.

about the
V/miiward If

°- CALMS
- Win _ I ,rfe? U

^ Spr_0 7 .
Sum _ 0-3 .
Aut_4i .

|t«n

FIG. 6.

South o£Jamaicit

CALMS
— -$j ^* Win.-6-7/> r t
>_; Spr._2-9 .

Sum.lO
'J- Aul-9 6 ,

v: u

77r/- arrows tvpratettt winds hfowma fnunni tin cenh-r

i 'V

r 7 (Jum

ii"i?

Oct

I Jlltli/nli.iHnv.

(0«-

77//- lriiutli of tfir tatimw is profwrHomtte //• //<- /■ wumcy of 'ttuit. who,
a/ui.tJu! proportion /vr- rent will beqiven H' t///.< scale .

SOUTH

THE TRADE WIND.

201

Fi"-. 2. — Between Lots. 10° and 2(T N. and Longs* 3C and 40' W.

Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn

Between

N. & E.

48
48
32

E. & S.

48
32
51

S. & W

\V. & N.

Mean.

. by N. § ]

E.N.E.

E.N E.

E. by N.

Frequent.

Fast.

East.

N.E. to E.

East.

Calms.

2.5

C.3

Fig;. 3. — Between Lots. 10' and 20° N. and Longs. 40° and 50° W.

Winter

N.E. h E.

N.E.

1.7

Spring-

N.E. by E.

N.E.

0.0

Summer

N.E. by E. f E.

N.E.

Autumn

N.E. | E.

N.E.

3.1

Fig. 4.— Between Lais. 10' and 20' X. and Longs. 50" and 60° W.

Winter

N.E. by E.

N.E.

1.0

Spring

N.E: by E. | E.

N.E.

Summer

E.N.E.

N.E., E.N.E.

1.1

Autumn

N.E. by E. | E.

N.E.

Fig. 5. — In the East Part of the Caribbean Sea, near the Windward Isles,

Winter

E. by N. | N.

East.

Spring

E.|N.

East.

0.7

Summer

;;

East.

0.3

Autumn

E. by N.

East.

4.1

Fig. 6. — In the West part of the Caribbean Sea, South of Jamaica, §c.

Winter

E. by N.

N.E., E.

6.7

Spring

E. by N.

East.

2.9

Summer

E.N.E.

East.

10.

Autumn

E.N.E.

N.E., E.

9.6

(44.) Iu examining the figures in these tables, and tho illustrative dia-
grams, it will be seen by Fig. 1, that the wind about the Cape Verde Islands,
or that part of the Atlantic most frequently crossed by vessels from Europe,
that the mean direction of the trade wind is to the northward of N.E. ; and
further, that calms and light airs are more prevalent than further to the
westward, especially iu the summer and autumn months, July to December,
in the former season. It has always been held that the wind draws more
to the eastward as you get to the westward of the usual crossing of the
Equator, and this an inspection of Fig. 2 will verify, when it is seen that

202 OBSEEVATIONS ON WINDS.

the mean direction is South of E.N.E., and that the calms, taking the years
round, are loss frequent.

Whether the Cape Vordo Archipelago has an influence in thus causing the
trade wind to assume a more easterly direction to the westward cannot very
well be determined ; but it is certain that this E.N.E. direction is not main-
tained between longitude 40° and the West Indies, as Figs. 3 and 4 show
that winds hold persistently to the N.E., or a little to the South of it,
although winds to tho northward of N.E. are very rare, It is probable,
also, that tho winds recorded from tho other directions are exceptional.

The easterly direction of the trade wind in the Caribbean Sea will be
readily noticed. It will be further remarked on in the observations on the
winds of the West Indies hereafter.

("45.) The calendar seasons of northern latitudes are here taken as the
quarters of tho year. In the American charts these seasons are made to
include the month before the usual reckoning ; thus, winter begins with
December ; spring, with March, &c. Perhaps the latter mode of division
would be rather more applicable to the tropical phenomena than that here
chosen, becauso it appears that the changes in the inter-tropical seasons (to
which, however, the terni3 winter, spring, &c, are not applicable) seem
rather to coincide with the American calculation. But as these changes aro
certainly not simultaneous in the northern latitudes, and, as including such
a difference would involve some confusion, the ordinary terms used to desig-
nate European seasons is here adhered to as being readily comprehended
and sufficiently exact.

(46.) The following summary of trade winds was given by Commander
Maury in connection with his " Wind and Current Chart:"—

11 There is a marked difference in the prevailing direction of the wind, not
only according to the season of the year, but also according to different parts
of the ocean, including even those parts which aro between the same paral-
lels of latitude, but in different longitudes.

" As a general rule it may be remarked : —

" 1st. That in the North Atlantic the nearer to the coast of Africa and tho
Equator, the more the so-called N.E. trade winds haul to the South.

"2nd. That to tho West of long. 45°, between 20° and 30° N., the N.E.
trades blow much more steadily in May, June, July, and September, than
they do the rest of the year ; and that during the other months, particularly
in March, they blow between these parallels nearly alike from all points of
the compass.

" 3rd. That between lat. 15° and 20° N. they aro most variable; West of
long. 35°, in the months of September, October, and November ; while to
the East of 30°, between the parallels, they are most variable in February,
March, April, and October.

" 4th. That between lat. 10° and 15° to the West of 35°, they are steadil}
between E.N.E. and S.E., except in July, August, September, October, and
November, when they are more variable, being most variable in the thrco
months first named. To the East of 35° W., between these parallels, they
may bo said to lose their trade character during the months of July, August,
September, and October particularly in August and September, when they

THE TEADE WIND. 203

blow nearly alike from the four quarters. Calms, too, are more frequent
here in these months.

"5th. That between the Equator and 10° N., to the East of long. 30°, the
winds assume a new feature. It may be said, almost literally, that in this
part of the ocean they uniformly blow, when they blow at all, during the
months of July, August, and September, from some point between S.E. and
W. They blow most between S. and W.S.W., and very rarely from any
point between N. and E.S.E. To the West of this meridian, during the
same months, they blow most between S.E. and N.E., inclining more and
more to the North as you go West. These are the months in which the
winds vary in this part of the ocean."

(47.) The following are Capt. Toynbee's remarks which accompany monthly
charts* of the prevailing winds in the region of the Atlantic, between lat.
20° N. and 10° S., and long. 10° to 40° W. In the chapter of this work
devoted to Passages, some illustrations will be found, together with Captain
Toynbee's remarks on the best route across the equator.

January. — The N.E. trade has advanced about 2° to the southward on the
western side of the district since December, where it now prevails to the
Equator ; but on the eastern side it holds much the same position as in
December. On the eastern side it falls lighter and draws more northerly
than it does further to the westward, while near to the African land it be-
comes very light and north-westerly. It has decidedly increased in force
since December. In square 40 it is very squally and gusty, much more so
than in the squares to the eastward, which is the more remarkable as square
40 is open sea, whilst square 39 contains the Cape Verde Islands. Perhaps
the proximity of square 40 to the area of high pressure may have something
to do with it, as the gusts often come with a clear sky and with very little
wind between them, as though they were the effect of downward rushes of
dry air. Sharp gusts with blue sky, very cool weather, and the atmosphere
very transparent, are often experienced at the polar verge of earn trade.

The S.E. trade prevails to 4° N. in the central part of the district, and there
is a prevailing southerly wind up to 8° N. on its extreme eastern side ; but
it is very light, and the weather very unsettled. Near the Equator the S.E.
trade has very decidedly decreased in force since December.

February. — The N.E. trade has advanced nearly 2° to the southward since
January ; it now extends to about 4° N. on the eastern side, and to the
Equator on the western side of the district. It still falls light and becomes
north-westerly near the African land. Between 10° and 20° N. it has de-
cidedly decreased in force since January, wdrilst between 0° and 10° N. its
force has increased. It is still vtry gusty in square 40, and in some cases
the gusts are strongest when the sky is clear, and are called ' ' hard clear
squalls."

The S.E. trade prevails to 9 J N. in the central part of the district, whilst
on the eastern side a light south-westerly wind prevails between 4 C and 6°N.,
where it is met by the light north-westerly wind of the N.E. trade. The S.E.

* Meteorological data tor the nine 10° squares of the Atlantic, which lie hetween lat
20° N. and 10° S., and extend from long. 10° to 40° W

204 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

trade has decidedly decreased in force since January. In square 302 there
is frequent mention of squalls or sudden shifts of wind from S.E. to N.E.,
as though the upper current of air sometimes forced itself to the surface.

March. — The N.E. trade holds much the same position in the central part
and on the eastern side of the district as in February, but it has advanced
to the southward of the Equator near South America. Its direction has be-
come more north-westerly on the eastern side of the district than it was in
February, where it also continues to be much lighter than on the western
side. It has decreased in force since February. Square 40 is still remark-
able for having strong gusts of wind, and in some cases it is recorded that
they are stronger with a clear than with a cloudy sky.

The S.E. trade still prevails to 2° N. in the central and eastern part of the
district, and a south-westerly wind is found to prevail as far as 8° N. be-
tween 15° and 20° W., where it meets the prevailing north-westerly wind of
the N.E. trade, both blowing towards the area of lowest pressure. It seems
to have slightly increased in force since February.

April. — The direction of the N.E. trade is very similar to that for March,
it being still north-easterly on the western side of the district, northerly be-
tween 20° and 25° W., and drawing into a light north-westerly wind on its
eastern side, where it extends 2° more to the southward than in March.
Between 18° and 20' N. there has been but little change since March, but to
the southward of that latitude it has decidedly decreased. Gusts of wind
are rarely reported in square 40, but puffs (a weaker kind of gust) were still
very common, and much more frequent than in square 39.

The S.E. trade only prevails to 4° S. on the western side of the district,
but it extends to 4° N. on its eastern side.

The prevailing south-easterly wind shown between 8° and 10° N. on the
eastern side of the district is the result of only one observation, whilst the
north-westerly winds which surround it number thirty, so that north-westerly
winds may be supposed to prevail there. The S.E. trade has decreased in
force since March.

May. — The direction of the N.E. trade is very similar to that of April,
though rather more easterly between 20 c and 25° W. ; its force has increased
in the northern part of the district, but decidedly decreased to the southward
of 10° N. It has generally receded fully 2° before the S.E. trade, but on
the eastern side it has given way 4°. The N.E. trade is still much more
gusty in square 40 than in 39, and the gusts are sometimes heavy with
clear weather. Gusts and putfs are also common in the northern part of
square 4.

The S.E. trade prevails to the Equator on the western side, and a southerly
wind to 8° N. on the eastern side of the district ; besides gaining so much on
the N.E., the S.E. trade has decidedly increased in force since April.

June. — The direction of the N.E. trade continues very similar to what it
was in May, drawing into a north-westerly wind near the coast of Africa.
Its force has decidedly increased between 16° and 20° N., but decreased to
the southward of 16° N. It has generally receded 2°, and in some parts of
the district 4° to the North. It is still much more gusty and puffy in square
40 than in square 39.

The S.E. trade prevails to 6' N. except on the extreme western side of the

THE TEADE WIND. 205

district; on it: eastern side south-westerly winds prevail to 8° N., and even
to 10° N., between 15° and 20° W. The S.E. trade has very decidedly in-
creased in strc: gth since May.

July. — The N.E. trade still draws more northerly and eventually north-
westerly as it approaches Africa ; its force has very decidedly decreased since
June, and it has receded nearly 4° before the southerly wind. In square 40
it is very much more gusty than in square 39, so much so that although
square 39 had nearly four times as many wind observations as square 40, the
number of gusts and pulls there is not nearly so great.

The S.E. trade now prevails to 10° N., and there is a prevailing S.S.W.
wind up to 12° N. on the eastern side of the district ; between 12° and 14°N.
on the same side the prevailing wind is West, and to the northward of that
latitude north-westerly. Having frequently passed from the northward
between the Cape Yerde Islands and Africa in July, I can well remember
the wind going from N.W. to W. and S.W. as we sailed to the southward.
The July diagram gives a picture of the winds then sailed through. The
S.E. trade has increased in force since June, especially the southerly winds
to the North of the Equator.

August. — The N.E. trade is still lighter, more northerly, and in some cases
north-westerly near Africa. Its force has decreased since July, and it has
receded about 2° to the northward, its southern limit being now at its
northern verge for tho year.

The prevailing southerly wind now extends to 14° N. on the eastern side
of the district. On the northern side of the Equator its force has very de-
cidedly increased since July, but it has not changed much in the South. The
S.E. trade is more southerly in square 303 (near South America) as well as
beirjg more squally and unsteady than in the squares to the eastward of it.

September.— The N.E. trade has increased in force, but is blowing in the
same part of the district as in August.

The southerly winds North of the Equator continue to blow over the same
part of the sea as in August ; they also continue to draw into south-westerly
winds as they approach the area of lowest pressure near the West Coast of
Africa ; their force has very decidedly decreased since August. To the south-
ward of the Equator the S.E. trade has decidedly increased in force since
August. The gradient for north-easterly winds seems to be steeper than for
south-easterly of the same force; this appears to be common in other months
also, and probably indicates that the N.E. trade gradient gets some of its
supply of air from a downward movement, whilst that part of the S.E. trade
with which we are dealing is probably more entirely a horizontal motion of
air. The dry, transparent, gusty nature of the northern part of the N.E.
trade probably points to the same fact.

October. — The N.E. trade has advanced several degrees to the southward,
especially on the eastern side of the district, and now prevails to 8° N. ; by
this change it has extended over that part of the sea where there is the
highest temperature of both air and sea, so that instead of north-westerly
and south-westerly winds blowing into the area of highest temperature,
there is a N.E. wind blowing from it ! The N.E. trade has increased in
force since September.

N. A. O. 2 £

206 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

Tho S.E. trade prevails to 8° N., and there is no prevailing south-westerly
wind, it having given way to the N.E. trade. Tho S.E. trade has very much
decreased in force since September, especially in tho southern part of the
district.

November. — Tho N.E. trade has advanced about 2° to the southward since
October, and now prevails to 6° N. ; it still extends over the hottest area of
air and sea, and, as in October, has not that tendency to draw into a north-
westerly wind near tho Coast of Africa which it had in previous months. In
the most northern part of the district it does become more northerly near
Africa, but in about 10° N. it becomes more easterly again, and draws away
from the land. The N.E. trade has generally increased in force since Octo-
ber, but tho increase is chiefly near its southern limits, in tho extreme North
of the district its force has decreased, where also tho percentages of south-
easterly and south-westerly winds have much increased since October, which
seems to show that the northern limit of the trade is not very far North of
the district in November.

The S E. trade prevails to 6° N. ; South of the Equator it has increased in
force since October, but decreased to the northward of it.

December. — The N.E. trade has advanced 2° to the southward since No-
vember, and now prevails to 4° N. Near the African land the wind again
becomes light, and more northerly, changing even to north-westerly between
6° and 10° N., but the prevailing wind still blows north-easterly, from the
hottest air and sea. The most remarkable feature in the direction of the
N.E. trade in December is its prevalence at East between 10° and 20° N.
and 25° to 30° W. ; between 18° and 20° 40 per cent, of the wind observa-
tions are from East, or some point to the southward of East. It seems most
probable that this remarkable difference in the direction of the wind is
caused by the Cape Verde Islands, though it is difficult to say why they
should not have a similar effect in some other month. The N.E. trade has
decidedly increased in force since November. Considering the number of
wind observations in each square, the percentage of gusty and puffy winda
is much greater in square 40 than in square 39. Between 10° and 17° N.
and 34° and 36° W. there were heavy squalls without either clouds or rain.
Fine weather winds, and squally winds having a force 7 or upwards, are
more common in square 40 than in 39.

The S.E. trade prevails to 4" N. It has very decidedly decreased in force
since November.

Conclusion. — The N.E. trade sometimes seems to draw round the Coast of
Africa in the same way that water does round a rock, whilst the current
arrows show that the sea has a similar motion. The trade gets weakest in
that part of the sea where the difference of temperature of both air and sea
is greatest, which is -contrary to tho theory of some meteorologists. Some-
times it seems to blow from hot towards cooler air, as shown in the diagrams
of October and November. The remarkable clear-weather gusts experienced
in square 40 have been remarked upon in the course of the paper as probably
downward rushes of air.

The " Remarks on Wind " show that both the N.E. and S.E. trades are
often more easterly and weaker in force during the night than during the
day.

THE TRADE WIND. 207

Attention has been called to the fact that in December the N.E. trade n
diverted into an East wind on the western side of the Cape Verde Islands,
whilst to the eastward of them it blows from N.N.E. It has also been
shown that during the southern winter the wind and weather near Cape St.
Eoque are much more unsettled than they are in parts of the sea in the same
latitude, but further East.

It should be clearly understood that whilst the diagrams only show the
wind from that point of the compass which has the largest number of obser-
vations, a great variety of other winds blow in those parts where the two
trades meet, especially in the atmospherical eddy which curves round the
south-western part of North Africa ; into it the northern verge of the S.E.
trade is drawn as a light south-westerly wind, where it meets the southern
verge of the N.E. trade as a N.W. wind, and the result of their meeting
is the greatest confusion of light airs, calms, squalls, rain, thunder, and
lightning of the most awful kind, together with waterspouts, &c, &c.

To the foregoing general remarks the following, respecting particular
localities within the scope of the trade wind, are added. Further application
of them will occur in the instructions for making passages, &c.

(48.) WINDS ON THE ATLANTIC ISLES.—The winds upon and near
the different islands in the Atlantic Ocean are very variable and uncertain,
especially where the land is high and irregular. In general, regular sea
and land-breezes alternately prevail ; the sea-breeze by day and the land-
breeze by night, as the land is alternately heated and cooled ; but the direc>
tion of these breezes is varied by the quality and figure of the land, and
other local circumstances. If the laud be very high, it generally intercepts
the prevailing wind, and so affects the air as to produce, on the lee-side,
either a calm, a gentle breeze in an opposite direction, or a kind of eddy,
which is sometimes very troublesome to shipping. Such is the case under
the western part of Madeira, and to leeward of the Canary Islands ; the
Grand Canary being so high as to stop the current of the N.E. wind which
prevails there ; and on the eastern side there is a calm, or a gentle breeze
from S.W.

The calms and eddy winds, occasioned by the figure and height of the
Canaries, extend from 10 to 30 leagues bej'ond them to the S.W., according
to the height of the respective islands. The boundary of the calms may be
seen; for, within them, the water is smooth; without them is the regular
undulation of the sea, caused by the general wind ; and at the end of them,
the winds, by setting in opposite directions, produce a breaking of the waves
with a foam, like the billows on a rocky shoal, just beneath the surface of
the ocean.

From a consideration of the particulars now described, the cause of those
copious dews which fall in the night on the islands, &c, situated within the
tropics, will be apparent. For as the great power of the sun by day causes
an extraordinary evaporation of the ocean, so, in the night, the exhalation,

208 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

ceasing to retain the samo degree of levity acquired from the heat of the
Aun, becomes, by the absence of the power which produced it, so dense and
heavy as again to fall back to the earth. The air at the same time cooling,
by the samo cause, is also affected by the descending moisture, and thus ac-
quiros an additional tendency to increase the land-breeze.

(49.) West Indies in general. — The following description of the winds
prevailing over these regions, in the different seasons, has been extracted
chiefly from Captain Livingstone's translation of the "Derrotero de las
Antillas," or Spanish Directory for the West Indies.

On the eastern coasts of America, and among its islands, the course of tho
general easterly or trade wind is uninterrupted, though subject to somo
modifications in direction and force. At a short distance from the land the
sea-breeze calms at night, and is replaced by the land-breeze. This varia-
tion happens every day, unless a strong wind prevails from the northward
or southward ; the first of these being experienced from October to May,
and the second in July, August, and September.

The general easterly wind, of the tropical regions, is felt on the coast of
Guayana, and on the coasts of the Colombian and Mexican Seas, but with
variations which may be denominated diurnal and annual. Tho diurnal
period is that which the sea-breeze causes, and which strikes the coast
usually at an angle of two points, less or more, according -to the locality and
other circumstances ; and then the land-wind, which, coming from the in-
terior, always blows off shore. The sea-breeze comes on at about 9 or 10 in
the forenoon, and continues while the sun is above the horizon, increasing
its force as that luminary augments its altitude, and diminishing in a similar
proportion as the sun's altitude decreases. Thus, when the sun is on the
meridian, the sea-breeze is at the maximum of its strength ; and at the time
that the sun reaches the horizon this breeze has perceptibly ceased. Tho
land-breeze commences before midnight, and continues until the rising of
the sun, sometimes longer. A space of some hours intervenes between the
land-breeze ceasing and the sea-breeze coming on, during which there is a
perfect calm.

The annual period of the trade wind here is produced by the proximity or
distance of the sun, which occasions the only two seasons known in the
tropics, the rainy and dry seasons. The first is when the sun is in tho
tropic of Cancer, and heavy rains with loud thunder are prevalent. In this
season tho wind is generally to the southward of East, but interrupted by
frequent calms, yet it occasionally blows with force, and obscures the at-
mosphere.

When the sun removes to the tropic of Capricorn, the dry season com-
mences, and then the trade wind, which is steady at N.E., is cool and agree-
able. At this season, N. and N.W. winds are sometimes found blowing
with much force ; and, indeed, in some degree, they regularly alternate with
the general wind, as they are more frequent in November and December
than in February and March.

In the change of the seasons there is a remarkable difference ; for in April
and May no change is experienced in the atmosphere, and the weather is, in
general, beautifully fine j but in August, September, and October, there are

THE TRADE WIND. 209

usually calms, or very light winds ; and dreadful hurricanes in these months
sometimes render the navigation perilous. From these perils, however, are
generally exempted the Island Trinidad, the Coasts of Colombia (late Tierra
Firma), the Bays of Darien and Honduras, and the Bight of Vera Cruz,
which the hurricanes seldom reach. In the space of sea between the greater
Antillas* and the Coast of Colombia, the general N.E. or trade wind
regularly prevails ; but near the shore local peculiarities are found.

(50.) Jamaica.— At Jamaica the air is, in most places, hot and unfavour-
able to European constitutions ; but the cool sea-breezes, which set in every
morning, render the air more tolerable ; and that upon the high grounds is
temperate, pure, and cooling. It lightens almost every night, but without
much thunder ; nevertheless, when the latter happens, it is very terrible,
and roars tremendously.

On the northern side of the island the sea-breeze from the south-eastward
comes on in tho morning, and gradually increases until noon, when it is
strongest ; at two or three in the afternoon its force diminishes ; and, in
general, it entirely ceases by five o'clock. About eight in the evening tho
land-breeze begins ; this breeze extends to the distance of 4 leagues to tho
southward from the island. It increases until midnight, and ceases at about
four in the morning.

The sea and land-breezes are more regular than otherwise from the latter
part of January Until May. In the middle of May tho sea-breeze generally
prevails for several days and nights, especially about the time of full and
change of the moon ; and thus they continue throughout June and part of
July ; from that time the sea-breeze diminishes, varies, and veers round to
S. by W., or S.S.W., . with frequent calms. August, September, and Oc-
tober, are the hurricane months, in which there are generally strong galec
of wind, with much rain.

In December, January, and February, when the North winds predominate,
their force checks the sea-breeze. The southern coast is that which, of
course, is least exposed to these winds, being sheltered, in a great measure,
by the mountains. When combined with the land breeze they render the
air very cold and unhealthy.

During the months of July and August, the sea-breeze about the island
generally blows impetuously, and in frequent squalls. At this season vessels
bound hence to Europe would have the most advantageous passage through
the Strait and Stream of Florida ; but in October northerly winds frequently
extend over all the Bahamas, Cuba, and for some time on the North side of
Jamaica ; but the current of air is forced upward by the mountains of tho
latter, and its strength is spent in the heights. In seasons when it is mora
impetuous, it rushes through the windings and defiles of the mountains upon
the northern coast, particularly in the neighbourhood of Kingston, and has
been known to continue for some days.

During the winter the land-breeze is more general off the shores than i.i
summer ; it sometimes continues throughout the day as well as night ; and
westerly winds prevail over all the space between Jamaica and Cuba, and

Cuba, Jamaica, Hayti, and Porto Rico,

210 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

oven to tho Island of Hayti or St. Domingo. They have been experienced
from Port Royal, through tho windward channel ; but this is not generally
tho case.

In November, southerly winds prevail on the South side of the island,
and havo been known to extend to the Mosquito shore, whence vessels have
arrived in five or six days, that might, at other times, have been as many
weeks, when beating against the sea-breeze. The southerly winds are
generally faint ; nor do they come upon the land until it be heated by the
sun, and are often expelled by a fresh land-breeze soon after mid-day, which
abates in a few hours.

The return of tho sea-breeze, falling sooner or later in autumn, is gradual,
first approaching at the East end, then advancing a little ; and in some years
it reaches Morant Point fourteen or twenty days before it is felt above
Kingston. It also blows for a week or two later on tho East end of the
island than at Kingston ; and has been known, in some years, to prevail
there in the day time during the whole time it was unfelt at the former
place.

(51.) The Bahama Islands are all within the influence of the trade winds.
Their lowness, of course, exempts them from the regular land wind ; but in
the summer season a light breeze frequently comes from the Florida shore
in the night, and reaches the western side of the Little Bahama Bank, but
no further. At this period the wind generally prevails to the southward of
East, and the more so as their N.W. extreme is approached ; the weather ia
then very variable, and squalls rush down with great violence, accompanied
with heavy rains and an oppressive atmosphere. They are within the zone
of hurricanes, and a year seldom passes without their being visited by a
heavy gale at least, from the S.E., which inflicts serious damage both on
shore and at sea.

In the winter months, from about November till the middle of March,
the trade wind is frequently interrupted by N.W. and North winds. In
December and January this may be expected almost weekly. Previously to
this change the wind will draw round to the South and S.W. In about
twenty-four hours, or less, dark masses of clouds will be seen rising from
the westward, and in a short time the wind will rush down suddenly from
that quarter with the force of a double or triple-reefed top-sail breeze. It
will soon veer round to the N.W. and North, with clear weather, and re-
main between these points two or three days. It will then haul gradually
to the N.E., perhaps with increased force, accompanied by heavy squalls,
and wear itself out at East in the course of a few days. The barometer is
scarcely any guide.

(52.) Among the local winds are to be ranked tho Bayamos, violent gusts
which blow from the land on the South side of Cuba, and are so termed
from being felt more severely off the Bight of Bayamo or Buena Eqwranza,
than off any other part of the coast.

When heavy and dense clouds gather over the mountains, a Bayamo blast
may be expected ; after this, the surest prognostic is the thunder, which in-
variably precedes the gust ; it is therefore advisable to take in all sail with
the greatest expedition, so soon as the first or more distant clap of thunder
is heard, the wind following it almost immediately. Fortunately, however.

THE TRADE WIND. 211

these dreadful squalls are of short duration ; but, as a repetition of them
frequently occurs at intervals of half an hour or an hour, great attontion is
necessary, especially during the night, to prevent the ship being unprepared ;
as it is almost certain that, if she were overtaken by one of these squalls
whilst under sail, she would either upset or lose her masts.

These sudden tempests are attended with sheet and forked lightning,
vivid in the extreme ; and the flashes following each other in quick succes-
sion, have the momentary effect of illuminating every object, and leave be-
hind them a sort of blue indescribable appearance ; tho sea is whitened with
foam, and the rain falls in torrents, surpassing any, perhaps, witnessed in
other regions ; for it appears as if the clouds had opened their store of waters
to deluge the earth ; in fact, we cannot better describe the extreme heaviness
of the shower, than by giving the sailor's observation on it, namely, that it
"comes down by buckets full." The Bayamo squall, however, although the
most awful of any in the Caribbean Sea, and creating much anxiety to those
exposed to its fury, is grand and sublime.* — Lieut. Evans, "Revision of
Geographic Terms," p. 107.

(53.) On the Coasts of Guayana, the Derrotero again continues ; there aro
no land-breezes, nor more wind than is generally experienced between tho
tropics. In January, Februaiw, and March, the winds here blow from
North to E.N. E.,. and the weather is clear. In April, May, and June, tho
winds are from E. to S.E. In July, August, and September, there are
calms, with tornadoes from South and S.W. ; and in October, November,
and December, there are continued rains, while the sky is, in general, ob-
scured by clouds. In the dry season, which is from January to June, tho
heat is very great ; and in the wet season, from August to November, rains
and thunder are constant and violent.

On the Coasts of Cumana and Caraccas, to Cape la Vela, the breeze follows
the regular course ; but from that cape to Cape San Bias, the general wind
alters its direction ; for it blows from N.E. or N.N.E., excepting in the months
of March, April, May, and June, when it comes to E.N.E., and is thou vo
uncommonly strong as to render it necessary for vessels to lie-to. These
gales, which are well known to mariners, extend from about mid-channel to
within 2 or 3 leagues of the coast, where they become weak, especially at
night. On this coast, about the Bay of Nicaragua, are westerly winds, which
the pilots of that country call Vendavales (rainy winds), in the months from
July to December, but these winds never pass the parallel of 13° N., nor do
they blow constantly, but alternate with the sea-breeze.

Upon the Mosquito Shore, Honduras, and Eastern Coast of Yucatan, tho
general winds or breezes prevail in February, March, April, and May : but,

* The winds on the South Coast of Cuba, when the trade is not blowing steadily, have a
remarkable rotary motion following the course of the sun, according to Dove's Law of
Gyration (17). Thus, in the evening, the wind comes off the land about N. ; by daylight
it will be N.E. ; at 8 a.m., E.N.E. ; at noon, E.S.E. ; at 2 p.m., South; at 4 p.m., S.Yv 7 ". ;
in which quarter it generally dies away into a calm until the land-wind comes oil aga.n.
By a knowledge of this a vessel may creep fast to windward during tho calm in nths of
May, June, and August, and frequently at other seasons. The trad* is f 'UnJ to be un-
steady, especially in the night.

212 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

during the first two of these months, they are occasionally interrupted by
Norths. In June, July, and August, the winds here are from the eastward
and westward of South, with tornadoes and calms. In September, October,
November, December, and January, they are from the northward or south-
ward of West, with frequent gales from W.S.W. and N.

On the Coast of the Mexican Sea, from Vera Cruz to Tampico, the breeze
from E.S.E. and East prevails in April, May, June, and July ; and at night
the land-breeze comes off from South to S. W. ; but if the land-breeze is
from the N.W., with rain, the wind, on the day following, will be from
North, N.N.E., or N.E., particularly in August and September; these winds
are denominated, in the country, Vicntos de Cabezao Vcndavales (head or down-
coast winds) ; they are not strong, nor do they raise the sea ; with them,
therefore, a vessel may take an anchorage as well as with the general breeze ;
but they impede getting out, for which the land-breeze is required. The
Vientos de Caleza, or head winds, reach to about 20 or 30 leagues from the
coast, at which distance are found those at East and E.S.E.

(54.) From the middle of September until the month of March, caution is
necessary in making Vera Cruz, for the Norths are then very heavy. The
narrowness of this harbour, the obstruction formed by the shoals at its
entrance, and the slender shelter it affords from the Norths, render an
attempt to make it, during one of them, extremely dangerous, for it will be
impossible to take the anchorage. The following description of the winds
here has been written by Don Bernardo de'Orta, a captain in the Spanish
Navy, who has been captain of the port, and who surveyed it.

Although in the Mexican Sea it cannot be said that there is any other
constant wind than the general breeze of this region, yet, from September
to March, the North winds interrupt the general course, and in some degree
divide the year into two seasons, ivet and dry, or of the Breezes and Norths ;
the first, in which the breezes are settled, is from March to September; and
the second, in which the Norths blow, is from September to March. For
greater clearness we shall explain each separately.

(55.) The Norths. — The first of the Norths is regularly felt in the month
of September ; but in this month and the following one, October, the Norths
do not blow with much force. Sometimes it happens that they do not -appear :
but, in that case, the breeze is interrupted by heavy rains and tornadoes.
In November the Norths are established, blow with much strength, and
continue a length cf time, during December, January, and February. In
these months, after they begin, they increase fast ; and in four hours, or a
little more, attain their utmost strength, with which they continue blowing
for forty-eight hours ; but afterward, though they do not cease for some days,
they are moderate. In these months the Norths are obscure and north-
westerly, and they come on so frequently that there is, in general, not more
than four or six days between them. In March and April they are neither
so frequent, nor last so long, and are clearer, but yet they are more fierce for
the first twenty-four hours, and have less north-westing. In the interval
before November, in which, as we have said, the Norths are established, the
weather is beautiful, and the general breeze blows with great regularity by
day ; the land-breeze as regularly by night.

There are various signs by which the coming on of a North may be fore-

THE TEADE WIND. 213

seen : such are, the wind steady at South ; the moisture of tho walls, and
of the pavements of the houses and streets; seeing clearly the Peak of
Orizaba, and the mountains of Perote and Villa Pica, with tho cloud on
those of St. Martin, having folds like a white sheet ; tho increase of heat
and of dew ; and a thick fog, or low scud, flying with velocity to tho south-
ward ; but the most certain of all is the barometer ; for this instrument, in
the time of the Norths at Vera Cruz, does not vary more, between its highest
and lowest range, than -80, that is to say, it does not rise higher than
30-6 inches, nor fall lower than 29'8 inches. The descent of tho mercury
predicts the Norths ; but they do not begin to blow the moment it sinks,
which it always does a short time before the North comes on. At theso
times lightnings appear on the horizon, especially from N.W. to N.E. ; tho
sea sparkles ; cobwebs are seen on the rigging, if by day. With such
warnings trust not to the weather, for a North will infallibly come on.

This wind generally moderates at the setting of the sun ; that is, it does
not retain the same strength which it had from nine in the morning to threo
in the afternoon, unless it commences in the evening or at night, for then it
may increase. Sometimes it happens that after dark, or a little before mid-
night, it is found to be the land-wind, from the northward and westward ; in
which case, should it get round to the southward of West, the North will be
at an end, and the general breeze will, to a certainty, come on at its regular
hour ; but, if that does not happen at the rising of the sun, or afterward,
and at the turn of the tide, it will return to blow from the North, with the
same violence as on the day before, and then it is called a Norte de Marea,
or Tide North.

The Norths also sometimes conclude by taking to the northward and east-
ward, which is more certain; for if the wind in the evening gets to N.E.,
although the sky remain covered the day following, but by night the land-
breeze has been from the northward and westward, the regular breeze will
■surely ensue in the evening, good weather succeeding and continuing for
four or six days; the latter period being the longest that it will last to, in
the season of the Norths ; but if the wind retrograde from N.E. to N.N.E.
or North, the weather will be still unsettled.

Examples are not wanting of Norths happening in May, June, July, and
August, at which times they are most furious, and -are called Norte.? del
Uneso Colorado; the more moderate are called Chocolateros, but these are
rather uncommon. *

* From the late Lieutenant John Evans (a), H.N., (a gentleman to whom we were in-
debted for many valuable communications), we received the following description of a
North in the Mexican Sea, wbich occurred in March, 1828 : —

" We had observed, during our run over the Catoche Bank, a very extraordinary whito
hazy-like appearance, very distinct from the common fog, haze, or mist. This was seen
principally in the northern quarter, and attracted much notice ; the air, at the same time,
' breathing gently at South,' and tho sympiesometer falling unusually low, gave us strong
indications of an approaching North. On the loth there appeared on the sky only a few
Bmall cumuli and dark strati ; in the morning the air was very light from tho South, and
was so warm, or rather hot and oppressive, that, like the sirocco, it affected tho breathing
of some of us. At 10 a.m. it changed to the N.E., with fine weather, the wind gradually
N. A. O. H V

214 OBSEEVATIONS ON WINDS.

(56.) The Wei Season, or Season of the Breezes, is from March to September,
the hreozes at tho end of March, and through the whole month of April, as
already explained, are., from time to time, interrupted by Norths, and are
from E.S.B., very fresh ; the sky sometimes clear, at other times obscure.
At times theso touch from S.E., and continue all night, without giving place
to the land-breeze, which prevails in general every night, excepting when
tho North wind is on. The land-breeze is freshest when the rains have
begun.

After tho sun passes the zenith of Vera Cruz, and until he returns to it,
that is, from tho 16th of May to the 27th of July, the breezes are of the
lightest description, almost calms, with much mist or haze, and slight torna-
does. After that time the pleasant breezes from N.W. to N.E. sometimes
remain fixed.

From tho 27th of July to the middle of October, when the Norths become
established, tho tornadoes are fierce, with heavy rains, thunder, and light-
ning ; those which bring the heaviest wind are from the East, but they are
also thoao of tho shortest duration.

• In the season of tho breezes the total variation of .the barometer is 0-4 ;
tho greatest ascent of tho mercury is to 30*36 inches, and its greatest descent
to -9-96 inches. Tho thermometer in July rises to 87°, and does not fall to
S2£°. In December it rises to 80^°, but never falls below G6£°. This, it
must be understood, was ascertained in the shade, the instrument being
placed in ono of the coolest and best ventilated halls in the castle.

la the months of August and September, rarely a year passes without
hurricanes near Florida and the Northern Antillas ; but to Vera Cruz, or
any part of the coast thence to Campeche, they never arrive ; all that is
felt Doing the hoavy sea, which has arisen in the higher latitudes. Hurri-
canes begin to the eastward and northward ; and, although they do not
always go round tho same way, yet, in general, they next go to the south-
vyavd and eastward, with thick squally weather and rain.

Erorn Tampio to the Bay of San Bernardo, breezs from the southward
and eastward arc steady and pleasant from April to August; but, in the
remaking months, this coast is much exposed to gales from the East and
E.S.E.. which blow without intermission for two or three days, before a
North comes on In about latitude 26i°, there are land-breezes in the
summer, which blow from midnight until nine in the forenoon.

(57.) Gulf of EJexico, North Coast. — A series of observations on the winds
and tides wore made by the officers of the U.S. Coast Survey, between June,
1817, and July, iS52. The force and direction of the wind were noted at
threo .t.dions— at Galveston, in Texas, lat. 29° IS' N., long. 94° 4.6' W. ; at

freshening. At sunset the cumuli changed into dark nimbus, of a d^ep purple, edgtd with
a bronze colour; from thfse clouds proceeded squalls' with rain, the wind veering from
N.E to N.N.W., fifter which it cleared up, the clouds all dispersed, -and at 8 p.m. a fresh
North came- on, with a rapidly-rising sea (which a short time before had been perfectly
calm and smooth). The sympiesometer fell to 20-80, which was lower than it had ever done
before. It blew a gale all night, with a heavy sea; no clouds; the stars bright and large.
The same wliito hazy-like appearance took place before the North set in. Early in the
n. Kvng of th : IGth the wind died away suddenly, almost to a calm; and at 8 a.m. became.
a ttauci-i c lieeze,"

GULF OF MEXICO, ETC. 215

Fort Morgan, Mobile Bay, about the middle of the North coast, in lat.
30° 13' N., long. 81° 0' W. ; and at Kay West, one of tho Florida Kays, in
lat. 21° 38', long. 84° 48' W. These observations, however, have the same
imperfection as that noticed in the note (*) on pago 200 — that the winds are
not recorded equally for all points of the compass. However, the following
general remarks are useful and interesting as derived from theso observa-
tions, and are arranged in the form of diagrams, which need not be repeated
here.

(a) "Winds from some northern quarter prevail from September until
February, both inclusive, and southwardly winds from March to August,
inclusive. Winds from the eastward prevail throughout the year, oxcept at
Fori Morgan, in May, June, July, and August, whon the sea-breezo is from
the S.W. In the whole year the winds from the same quarter, North and
South, balance each other nearly, while the castwardly wind greatly pre-
dominates over the westwardly.

(b) As remarked in my former paper, the months may be arranged,
according to the prevailing winds, into the following classes • — Tho winter,
consisting of December and January ; the spring, of March and April ; the
summer, of May, June, and July; of prepaiation for change, August; the
autumn, of September, October, and November.

The winter and summer types are extremely distinct. At Kay West, in
December and January, N.E. and North are the prevailing winds ; at Fort
Morgan, North, E.S.E., and East; at Galveston, North and N.W. ; then
E.N.E. and S.E. I suppose the general course of the N.E. trade wind to
be disturbed by local action at Fort Morgan and Galveston, the local position
of greatest warmth being the gulf.

The summer type, May, June, and July, gives S.E. as the prevailing
wind at Kay West; the S.E., South, and S.W. (sea-breeze), at Fort
Morgan ; the South, S.E., and East, at Galveston, blowing towards tho
land.

August resembles July, with the appearance of winds which prevail in
the autumn.

In September, October, and November, at Kay West, E.N.E. prevail; at
Fort Morgan, North, N.E., and East; and at Galveston, North, N.E., East,
and N.W.

In March and April, the spring period, S.E., S.S.E., and East winds pre-
vail at Kay West ; North, S.S.E., and E.S.E., at Fort Morgan ; and North,
S.E., and South, at Galveston.

February resembles January, with a preparation for the spring period ;
and, like August, it is characterized at Fort Morgan and Galveston by a
general diminution in the quantity of wind.

January presents the full winter type of the winds on the gulf; and Juno
and July the full summer type. The changes are quite gradual, and tolera-
bly regular, from one extreme to the other.

(c) The following deductions are made from these observations in regard
to the least and greatest quantities of wind in the principal directions in
different portions of the year.

The North wind is a minimum at the three places in July, and a maximum
in January. It is a very remarkable feature at nil thre< in .1

216 • OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

The N.W. almost dies out at all three from May to September, first gaining
strength at Galveston, in October, and reaching its maximum in all the
places in December. Its quantity at Kay West and Fort Morgan is small'
when at the maximum.

The northers and north-westers both appear in force in April, at Gal-
veston. There is very little West wind at either place, but more at Fort
Morgan than either of the others, and chiefly during the months of June
and July.

South-west wind is of rare occurrence except at Fort Morgan, where it
constitutes the sea-breeze of summer, and reaches its maximum in June and
July, suddenly diminishing in September.

There is but little South wind at Kay West ; at Fort Morgan it increases
in amount in the spring, and is the greatest in June. It is decidedly a
marked feature as one of the prevailing spring winds at Galveston, reaching
its maximum in May, and becoming quite small in August, re-appearing in
the winter, and rapidly increasing in March.

The N.E. wird is a minimum at the three places in July and August ; is
largest in quantity in September, October, November, and December, at
Kay West ; in September and October, at Fort Morgan ; and in September,
December, and January, at Galveston. The sudden increase of this wind in
September, after its small quantity in August, is remarkable at all three
places.

The winds intermediate between N.E. and S.E. occur during the changes
from N.E. to S.E., and it would be of little value to refer to the greatest
and least quantities.

The S.E. wind is a minimum in December and January at Kay West ; in
January and February at Fort Morgan ; in December and January at
Galveston. It is a maximum at Kay West in July ; but, being replaced
during the summer to a great extent by the sea-breeze (S.W ) at Fort
Morgan, makes its minimum in November, and at Galveston in May, doubt-
less from the disturbing effect of the land ; it is again large in July. This
is the sea-breeze of Kay West, and as well as the South wind, that of
Galveston.

(d) The movement of the prevailing wind at Kay West, where the dis-
turbing causes of the land are the least, is very instructive.

The prevailing wind in April, May, June, and July, is the S.E., hauling
to the eastward in August, and becoming E.S.E. Iu September and October
it passes farther North to E.N.E., and in November and December becomes
N.E. ; in Januai'y it reaches North; returning southward in February, it is
N.N.E., in March East, and reaches the S.E. in April. The local action is
thus seen to prevail for the greater part of the year over the general. For
the whole year the S.E. wind exceeds any other from an eastwardly point.

The eastwardly wind at Fort Morgan reaches no farther South than E.S.E.
in the spring and summer. In September the prevailing wind is N.E.,
passing to E.N.E. in October, and back to E.S.E. in the winter and spring.
The general tendency for the year is then E.S.E.

The changes at Galveston resemble those at Kay West, the general
absence of E.N.E. and E.S.E. winds being due to defects in the observa*
tions.

EQUATORIAL CALMS AND WINDS. 217

In the Strait of Florida the breezes are the prevailing winds, but they are
interrupted by Norths in the winter, and by calms in the summer. Although
the northern limit of this channel is within the boundary of the trade wind,
it is necessary to remember that in winter, or from November till April, tho
variable winds from the southward and eastward, and southward and west-
ward, are met with in lat. 27°, and even before ; and in summer, from May
until September, the winds in the whole channel are variable from the
southward and eastward, and southward and westward.

4.— EaUATORIAL CALMS AND WINDS.

(58.) The N.E. and S.E. trade, blowing towards each other, meet and are
neutralized near the Equator (6). This neutral line of calms and varying
winds is sometimes known by the name of the " Doldrums," an uncouth
term, which, we think, has had unmerited authority given to it. It is,
perhaps, a corruption of the Spanish doloroso, or old Portuguese doloris,
" tormenting."

Com. Maury says, " This region of doldrums has a mean average breadth
(around the globe) of about 6 degrees of latitude. In this region, the air which
is brought to the equator by the N.E. and S.E. trades ascends. This belt of
calms always separates these two trade wind zones, and travels up and down
with them. If we liken this belt of equatorial calms to an immense atmo-
spherical trough, extending as it does entirely around the earth ; and if we
liken the N.E. and S.E. trade winds to two streams discharging themselves
into it, we shall see that we have two currents perpetually running in at the
bottom, and that, therefore, we must have as much air • as the two currents
bring in at the bottom to flow out of the top. What flows out of the top is
carried back North and South by these upper currents (6), which are thus
proved to exist and to flow counter to the trade winds."

This belt of calms follows the sun in his annual course, though the limits
do not range so much in latitude as tho sun does in declination ; and gene-
rally, they pass from one extreme of latitude to another in about three
months. The whole system of wind and calm belts move northward from
the latter part of May till some time in August ; they then remain almost
stationary till the approach of winter, when they commence to go south-
ward, and proceed in that direction from December to February or March.

"The great ' sun swing' of this calm belt," says Capt. Maury, is annual
in its occurrence ; it marks the seasons, aud diyides the year into wet and
dry for all those places that are within the arc of its majestic sweep. But
there are other subordinate and minor influences which are continually
taking place in the atmosphere, and which are also calculated to alter the
place of this calm belt, and to produce changes in the thermal status of the
air which the trade winds move. These are unusually severe winters or hot
summers'; remarkable spells of weather, such as long continuous rains ox

218 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

droughts, over areas of considerable extent. Either within or near the
trade wind belts it is tremblingly alive to all such influences, and they keep
it in continual agitation ; accordingly we find that such is its state, that,
within certain boundaries, it is continually changing place and limits. This
fact is abundantly proved by the speed of ships, whose log-books show that
it is by no means a rare occurrence for one vessel, after she has been dally-
ing in the doldrums for days, in the vain effort to cross that calm belt, to see
another coming up to her ' hand over fist,' with fair winds, and crossing the
belt after a delay in it of only a few hours instead of days." *

(59.) These remarks of Capt. Maury, coupled with the experience of most
sailors who cross the line, will demonstrate that the limits of this calm belt
cannot be very exactly defined, and it is only the doctrine of chances that
can determine when any particular ship will lose the trades, and encounter
these doldrums.

On page 203 (47), is given the table drawn up by Captain Horsburgh, ps
the probable equinoctial limits of the N.E. and S.E. trades, and consequently
of the intervening belt of calms. This applies to that part of them, between
18° and 26° W., which was usually traversed by the East India Company's
ships. The chart facing page 195, and also that illustrating Captain Toyn-
bee's monthly discussion of the winds between 10° S. and 20° N., and from
10° W. to 40° W. (47), pp. 203—207, will serve to assist the seaman in
quickly finding the latitude in which he may expect to fall in with these
troublesome winds. In the chapter on Passages, the routes recommended
for crossing the equator will be found. The following approximate estimate
of the breadth of thi3 calm belt is derived from Maury's Trade Wind
Chart, &c , and given in the Hydrographic Office Pilot Charts, and also by
Dr. Van Galen. f It is of course in a measure superseded by the work of
Captain Toynbee, mentioned above, but is given here as it may be useful
taken in connection with that work, in showing the amount of reliance which
may be placed on these deductions : —

* "Physical Geography of the Sea, 1S60." p. 358.
Zeil, Wind en Stroomkaarten Toegelicht," door Dr. P. van Galen. Rotterdam. 18-59.

EQUATOKIAL CALMS AND WINDS.

219

TABLE

of the A

verage Extent of the Equinoctial Calms.

Month.

Limits.

50° to 45°
W.

4o°to40 a
W.

10° to 35°
W.

35° to 3C°
W.

30° to 25°
W.

3»N.

25' to 20°

20Molo :>
W.

January.

S°N.

3°N.
3

2°N.
2

2' N.

3° N.
1

G°N.
1

February.
March.

\ s.

f N.

I s.

f N.

1 s.

f i

{ s-

f N.
1 B.

( N.

1 s.

I N.

1 s.

( K

{ s.

3
3
3

G
6

2
2

4
4

9
5

12
6

10
6

G
G

4
4

2
2

1 s.

3.N.
1

12
5

10
5

G
5

4
4

1
1

3
1

8
2

10
4

G
3

3
3

1 S.

2N.
2S.

4 N.
1 S.

9 N.

11
2

12
2

G
2

4
1

1 S.

3 N.
1 S.

5 N.

8
1

11
1

8
1

5
2

April.

May.

Jane.

July.

August.

September.

October.

November.

December.

G
1

1
1
1

10
1

7
1

This table -will show that, during the winter months, and in the western
part of the ocean, the limits of the trade winds (which is that given in the
table) approximate, and leave no interval of calm. In the northern summer
months, however, the calm belt is much more distinctly marked, although
its mean breadth is not one-third or one-half what it is on the eastern side.
This fact is also graphically explained by the diagram facing page 195. As
we said before, on page 198 (40), the limits of the trades vary to the extent
of 10° of latitude, and therefore the figures given in the preceding tablo
can only be taken as a possible approximation.

There is one remark which it may be as well to urge here : that, as this
belt of calms runs East and West, the navigator will clear them soonest by
making a direct Southern or Northern course, as far as possible, as he thus
runs directly across them ; by beating too much East or West he is retarding
himself in that direction.

(60.) In modern navigation, a calm is almost more to be dreaded than a
storm; for in the former a sailing ship is helpless, and in the latter ler
great sailing powers, and the many appliances now available, suffice lo

220 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

disarm the fury of many ordinary gales. It is, therefore, of primary im-
portance that the commander should be aware of what spaces are subject to
calms in different seasons, and by this knowledge carefully avoid their de-
taining aud troublesome influences. It is to this knowledge that the im-
provement of the trans-equator passage must be looked for. It has been
strongly advocated, of late years, that a much more westerly crossing should
be taken than was adopted in former years ; but it very frequently happens
that the accounts of the voyages in one month abound with bitter complaints
against this western crossing, while those of another season are equally full
of its praises. This topic will be more fully dilated on hereafter, in the
chapter devoted to general sailing directions. It will suffice here to give a
general insight into the areas of calm and- baffling winds that exist in this
equatorial belt, and especially in that part of it where the S.W. African
monsoon is felt; and in that part of our subject some further remarks will
be found.

(CI.) But little has been said as yet about barometric indications. They
will be more especially alluded to hereafter. In an excellent discourse given
by Captain Toynbee, at tho United Service Institution, May 19th, 1871, the
following passago occurred, which will be in place here : —

" Tho ship from England, bound across the Equator, finds the wind to
draw more northerly as she approaches the southern verge of the N.E.
trades ; whilst, after passing through the equatorial calms, the S.E. trades
commence at South. It is also found that as this zone of doldrums is ap-
proached, the barometer falls ; it is an area of low pressure ; and the zone
of equatorial doldrums travels with it between the Equator and 10° or 12°
N. during the year.

"Into this zone the air seems to blow from North to South, whilst the
pressure still remains lower than on either side ; we have, therefore, reason
to suppose that here, on the border line of two hemispheres, the air is drawn
directly towards the lowest pressure. It will be remembered that, at a
certain distance from the Equator in the northern hemisphere, the air draws
round an area of low pressure, keeping the lowest pressure to its left, whilst
at a certain distance from the Equator in the southern hemisphere, this
order is reversed, and the lowest pressure is to the right of a person standing
with his back to the wind. Hence it is reasonable to expect that the air
will move directly for the area of lowest pressure in a part where the two
hemispheres meet.

" We have now treated of the more permanent areas of high and low
pressure in the North Atlaniic ; and here let me add, that similar areas of
high and low pi-essure are found to exist in the other great oceans. If these
areas were quite fixed, and the only disturbances to which the air of the
North Atlantic was subjected, the direction and force of the wind might be:
expected to be equally fixed. But, besides the above, local and temporary
disturbances are very common.''"

(62.) — The trade winds are essentially evaporating winds. From their hig'i
temperature, in passing over a large extent of ocean, they become loadcl
with aqueous vapour, which becomes evident when they meet and neutralize
each other in this zone of equatorial calms.

The result is the formation of the "cloud ring" of Captain Maury, whicU

EQUATOEIAL CALMS AND WINDS. 221

ho likens to tho rings of Saturn or the belts of Jupiter. Under this
oppressive and constant companion of the equatorial calm the rain falls iu
torrents, and by the progress of the sun in the ecliptic it causes the pheno-
mena of the tropical seasons, divided, as is well known, into the wet and
dry. A consideration of the chart and the shifting of this belt will explain
how it is that some places have two rainy seasons and others only one, by
the passing of the cloud ring over them.

" It is broader than the belt of calms out of which it arises. As the air
with its vapours rises up in this calm belt and ascends, these vapours are
condensed into clouds, and this condensation is followed by a turgid
intumescence, which causes tho clouds to overflow the calm belt as it veers
both to the North and South. The air, flowing off in the same direction,
assumes the character of winds that form the upper currents that are
counter (5) to the trade winds. These currents carry the clouds still
further to the North and South, and thus make the cloud ring broader. At
least, we infer such to be the case, for the rains are found to extend out on
to the trade winds, and often to a considerable distance North and South of
the calm belt."

This oppressive region, most tedious to navigators, is, however, not at all
times subject to this groat amount of deposition, which has procured for it
the appellation of " The Rains;" and especially during tho winter months,
when its extent is more limited, it may be crossed without encountering
either those torrents of rain, or almost unbearable calms. This compen-
sating belt to the evaporation of the trades, of course, is subject to squalls,
and especially to thunder-storms, the natural result of the conflicting ele-
ments. Altogether, its effect on the health and spirits, its enervating in-
fluences, its oppressive and damp heat, make it one of the most unpleasant
parts of the globe.*

5.-THE AFRICAN MONSOONS.

(63.) The influence of the land upon the trade winds, and the intervening
calms, is very powerful on the eastern side of the Atlantic ; and the peculiar
configuration of the coast of Guinea, trending as it does along the very axis
or line of division of the northern and southern wind systems, causes a
different set of phenomena to arise. During that part of the year when the
sun is in the. southern hemisphere, the trades and calms follow the normal
or usual course, as it is then exerting its maximum force on tho sea with its

* Attention to personal cleanliness is very important during the detention caused by
these calms. Dampier gives a quaint description of the ill effects of his men not drying
their clothes and lying down on their L.i mmocks while wet, which caused all to become
offensive and open to attacks of disease. Captain Maury says, " The emigrant ships from
Europe to Australia have to cress it. They are often baffled in it for two or three weeks ;
then the children and passengers who are delicate in health suffer most. It is a frightful
graveyard on the wayside to that golden land."

N. A. 0. 2 G

222 THE AFRICAN MONSOONS.

low absorptive and radiative powers ; but when, during the northern summer,
it is raising tho temperature of the land of the Guinea coast, a new phase
arises from the heated almosphero over the land drawing the wind towards
it ; and instead of a S.E. or N.E. wind, we have a South and S.W. occurring
with great regularity. Major Eennel says, "In the space lengthwise,
between Capo Verde and Cape Mesurado, and in certain places to the extent
of 70 leagues off shore (50 off Sierra Leone), a regular change of winds
and currents takes place, according to the seasons ; that is to say, a N.E. or
North wind and S.E. current, from September to June ; and in the rest of
the year, S.W. wind and N.E. or northerly currents, in effect a monsoon; and
this extends, in respect of the iviud, nearly through the whole space between
the two continents.**

(64.) In Darn pier's Discourse on the trade winds, and his illustrative
Chart (1697), we find a solution of the origin of these S.W. winds, which is
that still held to be most feasible. It is, that they are derived from the S.E.
trades, and not from a diversion of the N.E. trades. This also has been
suggested in the "Mercantile Marine Magazine," of 1856, the data being
derived from Maury's charts. An important element in determining the
reality or otherwise of this suggestion is the position of the calms. Are
they interposed between the N.E. trade and monsoon, or between the mon-
soon and S.E. trade? But this consideration may not have great weight in
this region of calms, and besides the probability of this origin is increased
by the data for the direction of the S.E. trade, which is shown not to blow
with regularity to tho East of a line joining Cape Paltuas and Angola.

(65.) There is another conclusive evidence of the westerly extension of
the monsoons in tho easterly current that is met with almost constantly
during the seasons of their prevalence. These are very persistent as far as
longitude 40° W., and aro at times encountered as far North as latitude 16°,
but more usually between lats. 6° and 11° N. This origin of the anomalous
Guinea Current was indicated in our chart of the Atlantic, published in
1858. A similar current is shown to exist in the Pacific Ocean, West of
Panama Bay. This feature will be further dilated on when we come to tho
Section on Currents.

(66.) These South, S.S.W., and S.W. winds prevail, according to Maury's
Pilot Charts, chiefly during the months of July, August, September, and
October, and are then felt as far to the westward as 35° or 40 D W., between
the parallels of 5° and 8° N. In the western tract of this area they
diminish in frequency as the sun proceeds to the South, and are scarcely
felt in the North Atlantic during the months of December, January, and
February. The chances of encountering this adverse wind must have an
important bearing on the choice of a route for crossing the equator during
theso months, but we leave this subject to be discussed under the heading
of Crossing the Equator, in the chapter on passages given hereafter.
Between Decembor and April, which is the season most visited by calms,

• The txisteuco and character of this S.W. African monsoon was thus early recognized
and named (at tho latter end of last century). The term "newly-discovered" monsoons,
f.ivo t-> there by our American friends, is therefore not quite applicable.

THE AFRICAN MONSOONS. 223

the -wind has still a southern tendency ; but, during the season of the
monsoon, the calms are at a minimum near the coast. It is difficult to ex-
plain in words the relative duration, force, or frequency, of tlio winds in this
changeable locality, without an appeal to the chart. The reader is re-
ferred to that illustrating the winds of the region between 20° N. and 10° S.,
and to the chart of the North Atlantic, in four sheets, before alluded to.

(67.) The following remarks, by the late Captain Midgley, who had great
experience on the African coast, will be found of service in explaining the
character of the winds and seasons : —

I will here offer a few remarks on the general variable winds and weather
which prevail between the parallels of 4° and 10° N., and the meridians of
18° and 25° W., or between the N.E. and S.E. trade winds.

The winds generally incline from the southward, between the trades, and
few vessels pass from one trade wind to the other without meeting with very
unpleasant weather, in the shape of calms, light baffling winds, squalls, and
rain, particularly when the sun is much to the northward.

In June, July, and August, heavy squalls seem to prevail from the S.W.,
with a great deal of rain, and the wind often blows hard from this quarter
for several hours together, and then falls calm, leaving a heavy and confused
short sea, which cause a vessel to labour and strain more than she would do
in a gale of wind.

When the sun is far to the southward, the weather is comparatively fine,
with light southerly and S.E. winds, occasionally, however, interrupted by
squalls and rain ; and the calms are of shorter duration, owing, probably,
to the limited breadth of the space between the trade winds at this season.

In this part of the ocean, when much lightning is seen in a heavy dense
cloud, in any quarter of the compass, the wind may be expected to come out
suddenly from that quarter, especially if there is any rain, even though the
wind may be blowing at the same time with moderate force from an opposite
quarter.

Forked or chain lightning is the almost sure forerunner of a heavy squall ;
it is a monitor whose warning should not be neglected.*

Whenever there is much lightning, and the wind is unsteady and baffling
about, prepare for a change. A heavy dense cloud, having a squally
appearance, may rise and pass slowly over the vessel directly to leeward,
with perhaps little or no increase of wind ; and when the danger may be
supposed over, the vessel is suddenly taken aback with a smart squall. This,
I presume, arises from the cloud which has just gone over the ship, being
opposed in its progress to leeward by a stronger current of air from the
opposite quarter. On this account, when clouds are in motion from opposite
quarters of the compass, a better look-out, if possible, should be kept to
leeward than to windward.

Keeping a good look-out upon the surface of the water is an excellent

* In those parts of the North Atlantic Ocean which are not in the general infltunco
of the trades, I have very frequently remarked that lightning is indicative of a change of

wiud,

224 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

method of judging of the force of the wind in an approaching squall ; but,
on account of the heavy rain which invariably accompanies the squalls
alluded to, very little sound judgment can bo exercised with respect to their
strength ; they are generally, however, tolerably heavy, and require sail to
be considerably reduced.

In June, July, and August, the weather is very wet and squally. Somo-
times dense masses of clouds are seen in rapid motion from the S.E., south-
ward, and S.W. quarters of the horizon : these clouds have a bulky and
confused appearance, as if tumbling or rolling over each other ; are of a
dirty dark drab colour, with ragged edges, and inky-looking small clouds
flying about the edges of them. In their approach towards the zenith they
gradually appear to unite and form the apex of an angle, and, thus united,
blow with incredible violence from the S.W. quarter (veering about two or
three points or more) for upwards of two hours, during which time the rain
descends in torrents, perhaps accompanied by a waterspout or whirlwind.

Ships should be well prepared for these dangerous visitors ; for they come
with a similar violence to the arched white squall of the "West Indies. I
have experienced two squalls of the above description (both in the month of
July), and in one of them lost a good fore-topsail, after the reef tackles,
&c, were hauled out snug, and the ship had been for some time running
directly before the wind. Upon both occasions my barometer fell three-
tenths of an inch very suddenly, which enabled me to take in sail in time ;
for the squalls did not look particularly alarming until about eight or ten
minutes before they reached the ship.

To the inexperienced in this part of the ocean, I would beg to remark,
that much sheet lightning is always suspicious, and forked or chain lightning
universally so ; and tho latter is, in some degree, indicative of a change, as
of an increase of wind.

After tho wind has blown steadily, with fine weather for a few hours, and
it then begins to bo variable, and fly suddenly about, squalls and rain may
be expected.

The moon has great influence on the weather; for it is most squally and
unsettled, with much rain, about the full and change.

I perfectly agree with Captain Cheveley, that the month of July is,
perhaps, the worst in the year for making southing between the trades.

(68.) Between Cape Blanco and the entrance of the River Gambia, during tho
months of November, December, January, February, and March, the winds
from the East and N.E. are prevalent. In this time the nights are cool ;
but scarcely has the sun arisen above the horizon, when the air becomes dry
and parching. Nevertheless, these five months are the winter in this part
of Africa, and this is the most healthy season. Between the Gambia and
Cape Palmas the inland winds, during the same season, are variable.

In June, July, August, September, and October, the country situated be-
tween Cape Verga and Cape Mount is much exposed to hurricanes or torna-
does. These, however, do not occur in any part of the coast northward of
Cape Verga.

Erom the 20th degree of North latitude to the environs of the line, tho
atmosphere emits its waters to the earth ; the only difference is, twenty

THE AFRICAN MONSOONS. 225

days sooner or later in the arrival of these torrents. Dining the other eight
months in the year there does not fall a single drop of water.

Between the Cape Verde Islands, and in their neighbourhood, southerly
and S.W. winds generally blow in July, August, September, and October.
These islands, when the sun is in their zenith, are generally surrounded by
thick fogs.

From Sierra Leone to Cape Pahnas the ordinary course of the winds on the
coast is from W.N.W., and beyond Cape Palmas, from W.S.W. to S.W.
and 8.S.W.

Although, in the Gulf of Guinea, the wind blows generally from tho
southward, and S.S.W. toward the coast, they take, in South latitude, a
more westerly direction near the land, and then prevail from S.W. and
W.S.W. between Cape Lopez and Benguela. But they veer proportionally
more southerly as the distance increases from the coast.

Windward Coast, &c. — The name of Windicard Coast has been given by
our navigators to the whole of that coast which extends from Capo Mount
to the River Assiuee, where the Gold Coast commences; it includes the
three particular coasts called, 1st. Grain, or Pepper Coast; 2nd. Ivory, or
Teeth Coast ; 3rd. the Coast of Adou, or Quaqua.

From January until May, the weather here, along shore, is commonly fair
and clear, with cooling breezes, and gentle southerly winds. But about the
middle of May, South and S.E. winds begin, accompanied not only with
hurricanes and stormy gusts, but also with thunder, lightning, and great
rains, which continue, more or less, until the conclusion of the year.

On tho Gold Coast, from Assinee to the River Volta, the wind in January
begins to blow from tho S.W. quarter, and becomes stronger in February,
bringing with it sometimes raiu, and sometimes a hurricane. About the end
of March, and beginning of April, those heavy tempest", called by the
Portuguese tornadoes, arise, accompanied with a delugo of rain, thunder, and
lightning ; these continue to the end of May, and are announced by tho
darkness of the sky in tho S.E.

During the rainy season, that is, in May and July, little or no land-winds
are felt; but from the sea it blows from the S.W. and W.S.W., making a
very great swell, which continues even in August, although the rains begin
to ceaso in that month.

The weather becomes fair in September, and tho air clear, with gentle
South winds ; and this continues till January, the hottest days being in
December.

(69.) The Harmattan. — On the Gold Coast, as well as tho windward coast
an easterly wind, called the Harmattan, prevails during tho months of De-
cember, January, and February. This wind comes on indiscriminately, at
any hour of the day, at any time of the tide, at any period of the moon, and
continues sometimes only a day or two, sometimes five or six days, and it
has been known to last fifteen or sixteen days. There are generally three
or four returns of it in every season ; it blows with a moderate force, not
quite so strong as the sea-breeze, which every day sets in, during tho fair
season, from tho West, W.S.W., and S.W. ; but somewhat stronger than
the land-wind at night, from the Nurth and N.N.W. In tho " Philosophical
Transactions," vol. lxxi., for tho year 1781, an account of tho Harmattan was

226 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

first given by Matthew Dobson, M.D., F.R.S., from the enquiries and ob-
servations of Mr. Norris, of which the following is the substance : —

On that part of the coast of Africa which lies between Cape Verde and
Capo Lopez, a singular periodical easterly wind, named, by the natives,
Ilarmattan, prevails during the months of December, January, and February.
Cape Lopez lies to the southward of the line. At the Isles de Los, which
lio to the northward of Sierra Leone, this wind blows from the S S.E ; on
the Gold Coast, from the N.E. ; and at Cape Lopez and the River Gaboon,
from the N.N.E.

The Ilarmattan comes on as abovo described. A fog or haze always ac-
companies it, and the gloom is sometimes so great as to render near objects
obscure. The sun is thus concealed the greatest part of the day, and appears
only a few hours about noon, and then of a mild red colour. At 2 or 3 miles
from shoro the fog is not so thick as on the beach ; and at 4 or 5 leagues
distance it is entirely lost, though the Harmattan is felt for 10 or 12 leagues,
and blows fresh enough to alter the course of the current.

Extreme dryness is a property of this wind. No dew falls during its
continuance, nor is there the least appearance of moisture in tho atmosphere.
All vegetables are much injured, and many destroyed. The seams in the
sides and decks of ships become very leaky, though the planks are 2 to 3
inches thick. Iron-bound casks require the hoops to be frequently driven
tighter, and a cask of rum or brandy can scarcely be preserved ; for, unless
kept constantly moistened, the hoops fly off. The Harmattan has, likewise,
very disagreeable effects on the skin, lips, and nose, which become sore.

The effects of the Harmattan in evaporation are great, as will appear by
the following comparative statement: — At Liverpool, the annual evaporation
is about 36 inches ; at Whydah, 64 inches ; but, under the influence of the
Harmattan, at the rate of 133 inches.

Tho wind, though so prejudicial to vegetable life, is highly conducive to
health ; so that fluxes, fevers, small-pox, &c, generally disappear in spite of
the doctor ; and it contributes to the cure of ulcers, and cutaneous eruptions.
The baneful effects which have been said to arise from the prevalence of
this wind proceed from the periodical rains, which fall in March, April, &c ,
and are ushered in by the tornadoes from the N.E. and E.N.E., accompanied
with violent thunder and lightning, and very heavy showers. The earth,
drenched by these showers, and acted upon by an intense solar heat, so soon
as the storm is over, sends forth such noisome vapours as are the occasion of
putrid fevers and other diseases.

On this coast, from the middle of February to the first week in March, a
wind up the coast, from S.S.W. to S.S.E., prevails for about three weeks.
The tornado season is part of March, all April, and the greater part of May,
about twelve weeks. The rainy season is from the latter end of May, all
June, and to about the 20th of July, about eight weeks. Hence, high wind,
and squally, with very heavy rains, to the middle of August, about three
weeks. The rain ceases ; and then, for the first three weeks in September,
the weather is foggy and close, without any breeze. From this time, for
about six weeks, the wind blows fresh down the coast ; the tornadoes and
southerly wind then succeed, with some rain, generally called the latter rains,

THE AFEICAN MONSOONS. 227

about four weeks, to the beginning af December, when the Harmattan season
commences.

(70.) Remarks by Baron Rousstn.— Cape Bajadr to the Isles de Los. — On the
whole extent of the African coast there are but two seasons, namely, tho
rainy and dry seasons. The division of the two is connected with tho periods
when the sun crosses from one hemisphere to the other, and is moclilied as
he advances to, or recedes from, the Equator.

The rainy season commences at each place on tho coast to the northward of
the Equator, at the time when the sun passes tho zenith of that place in his
course to the northward. It is, usually, during the month preceding this
event that the change of weather takes place. It may therefore be calcu-
lated that, at the Isles de Los, the first point exposed to the rainy season,
and which lie in 9£° N., the first violent squalls do not occur before tho 10th
or 15th of May. Their arrival seems to be affected by the moon ; for they
almost always commence, and aro most violent, on the days of the new and
full.

The rainy season ends in very violent squalls, with intervals of calm, of
which there are at least two, and frequently more, during the twenty-four
hours ; and we remarked that they generally happen on the rising or setting
of the sun or moon. In the country, these squalls are generally called
tornadoes; but, according to the best information, the tornado, properly
speaking, is to be met with only to the southward of Cape Vcrga. They
generally begin to form themselves in the N.E. or E.N.E. quarter of the
horizon, which seems completely on fire during an hour or more. Tho storm
then gradually shifts round to East and E.S.E., becoming darker in tho
horizon. Having arrived at S.E., it attains its full vigour, whon thunder
and lightning become incessant. A moment of absolute calm thon takes
place, which is caused by the obstruction which the usual winds from the
N.W. meet with from this immense mass of clouds. Shortly after, a small
arch is formed at the horizon, which increases and rises rapidly. Tho more
defined the edge of this arch appears, the more violent will be the storm, as
it is a proof that the column of air has divided much heavier clouds, and is
more confined. When the summit of this arch has attained an altitude of
about 45°, the hurricane bursts forth, and torrents of rain immediately fol-
low. The crisis of its greatest violence generally lasts from 15' to 20'; it
afterwards gradually becomes weaker; and finally nothing remains but rain,
attended with very little wind. It then shifts round from S.E. to W.S.W.,
then to the quarter from which the usual winds blow, to exhaust itself to
the northward in another squall from the S.E.

The rainy season, at any place, continues from four to six months, accord-
ing to its proximity to the Equator, and the tornadoes continue to decroasa,
both in frequency and violence, during the two latter months of the season.
In ten days or a fortnight after the sun has passed the zenith of any place
on his way to the South, it is considered as free from bad weather. On tho
15th of November a gun is fired at G/oree, which announces the return of
the fine season.

The squalls here spoken of, and the winds which precede or follow them,
generally occupying so very small a portion of the year, may be considered

223 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

as momentary convulsions in a state of climate almost unchangeable ; a sky
nearly always serene, and generally clear-
On the greater part of tho African coast, from Cape Bojador to the Isles
do Los, regular winds blow, and no rain ever falls during eight months.
Tho prevailing winds in this country blow from N.E. to N.W. ; it may,
therefore, be said that they follow the direction of the coast from North to
South, and that thny seldom vary from the limits here assigned.

The dry season commences in the latter part of October at Senegal ; a little
later at Groreo ; and at each intermediate place toward the Equator it be-
comes gradually later. It is not till the beginning of December that its re-
(urn is observed in the parallel of the Isles do Los.

(71.) Remarks on the Harmattan, by Baron Roussin. — Although tho winds
from N.E. to N.W. prevail on the N.W. coast of Africa during the dry
season, that is, from November to May, they are, nevertheless, occasionally
interrupted between the 1st of December and the 1st of February by tho
land-wind, which blows from E.N.E. to E.S.E., and sometimes with
violence.

It is this wind which the inhabitants of the country call the Harmattan
It comes on at different periods in the above interval, and blows during one,
two, and sometimes five or six successive days. This continuance, however,
is raro, as it is generally interrupted by the sea-breezes, which commence
about noon, after a calm of one or two hours. These alternate land and
sea-breezes generally last till the end of February, when the usual winds
entirely prevail. The Harmattan, which passes over the most arid country
of the globe, is of an extremely dry nature, and would probably become
insupportable, were it not frequently allayed by the sea-breezes above men-
tioned. Notwithstanding the salutary effect of these breezes, the drought is
astonishing, so long as the Harmattan lasts. Mankind are inconvenienced ;
vegetables suffer so much as to be nearly killed ; the sun loses its brilliancy,
and is only to be seen when near noon ; the sand, brought with it from the
desert, pervades the atmosphere, and prevents objects from being distin-
guished at the distance of a quarter of a mile. Nevertheless, the effect of
the Harmattan is not really injurious to health ; it is remarked that it even
purifies the atmosphere, by destroying the noxious vapours with which it is
replete on the conclusion of the rainy season. It is usually on the return of
the Harmattan that recovery commences from disorders which are incident
to the climate.

The fog which accompanies the Harmattan loses nothing of its density
when 3 leagues out at sea. On the edge of the Bank of Arguin, which is
10 leagues from the land, it prevented our distinguishing the horizon during
three successive days. This state of the atmosphere is not permanent, but
varies with the winds which produce it ; and, in general, independent of the
Harmattan, the African coast, from Cape Bojador to Cape Verde, is con-
tinually covered, during the whole dry season, with a white mist, which is
seen from the sea much sooner than the land, of which it is a sure indication.
This mist, which is nothing but sand, tho extreme fineness of which allows
of its being supported by the least agitated air, is particularly remarkable
on that part of the desert between the parallel of 22° and Senegal. We
have seen it at the distance of 5 leagues, when the coast could scarcely be

WINDS AND CALMS ON THE TEOPIO. 229

seen at 3 leagues. This dust, alluded to on page 175, is further remarked
on at the end of this volume.

(72.) Remarks hj Capt. T. BoteUr, o/JI.M.S. Hieela.— -The Harmattan Season
sots in with November, or about a month earlier than off the Gambia, and
prevails through December and part of January, but not quite constantly ;
for occasional intervals of clear weather, accompanied by the refreshing sea-
breezes from the N.W., sometimes afford a respite to its oppressive effects.
Nor does the Harmattan blow uniformly, either in the same direction, or
with the same strength ; for it ranges through eight points of the compass,
from N.N.E. to E.S.E. ; and, however fiery at the commencement, declines,
after the first month, to a comparatively light breeze.

The peculiar haze, which moro or less envelopes the coast of Africa at all
times, is at its maximum during the influence of the Harmattan ; and,
though partially dispersed by the tornadoes and the rainy season, returns
with increased density when they cease. Strangers should, therefore, be on
their guard when estimatii.g their distance from the land, as the deceptive
effect of this haze makes it appear much further off than it really is ; for
the contrast which the coast presents to the eye, in different states of the
atmosphere, is very great. In clear weather the view of the fertile shelving
hills in the Isles de Los, the stupendous features of the distant mountains,
the plains covered with trees, and the beautiful little island of Matacong
(described hereafter), are highly interesting ; while, in hazy weather, nothing
is visible but a low mangrove coast, enveloped in mist, with an indistinct
opening of a river here or there, or perhaps a column of smoke rising from
a native village.

The rainy season continues for four months, from May to September ; but
the tornadoes, which invariably accompany its commencement and termina-
tion, generally cease between those periods. They blow from the E.S. E,
and with great fury ; but they seldom last more than three hours. The pre-
valent winds, during the rest of the rainy season, are from the southward
and westward, and are usually so light as to give way in the afternoon to
the N.W. sea-breeze,

6.— WINDS AND CALMS ON THE TROPIC.

(73.) Between the N.E. trades, and the westerly winds which prevail more
or less to the northward of them, there is a belt of variable and light winds,
which have, perhaps somewhat vaguely, been called the Calms of Cancer — a
term which will not express its characteristics.

It is called, also, the Horse Latitudes, from the fact that vessels in former
years, employed in carrying horses to the West Indies, were frequently
obliged to throw them overboard during the embarrassment caused by the
continual changes, sudden gusts and calms, rains, thunder and lightning,
which are general in it (19), page 182.

N. A. 0. 2 H

230 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

(74.) This zone is caused by the uniting, or interchanging-, of those upper
but contrary currents which pass northwards over the N.E. trades in con-
sequence of the heat acquired under the tropical sun having reached the
northern extreme of this superheating influence. They here meet the
currents passing southwards to feed the trades from the polar regions, and
thus pressing against them cause the high barometer peculiar to this belt,
standing as it does at a higher lovel than either to the North or South of it.
Captain Maury infers that the mean height of the mercury in this belt is
30-21 inches, and at the Equator at 2993 inches. Admiral FitzEoy states
the mean height of the barometer in the latitude of England to be 29-95'.
This greater height of the mercury, showing increased pressure, will be an
index to the sailors that he has reached this intervening belt between the
passage and trade winds.

From the lower part of this zone pass out two currents of air, one to feed
the N.E. trades, as before described, and the other to form the anti-trades
or passage winds ; and it is fed by the polar and tropical counter currents
which flow over these different wind systems.

(75.) The mean latitude of this belt is from 30° to 35° N., but varying
with the motion of the sun in the ecliptic, as explained in (38), page 197.
In fact, the northern edge of the trade wind may be taken as the axis over
which this belt moves, sometimes of great breadth, as 10°; at others not
felt at all. The mean position of these tropical calms, &c, will be best
comprehended by an inspection of the diagrams. As is well known, this belt
is the line upon which the dreaded cyclones turn; they pass to the W.N.AV.,
to the South of it ; and to the E.N.E., to the North of it ; showing the origin
of the struggle between the polar and tropical currents, which is evident in
their tremendous phenomena.

(76.) As was said in (38), page 197, the range over which the northern
limits of the N.E. trade is met with, seems to be, from Maury's chart, about
10°; but as this chart is apparently not quite perfect, or, at least is not de-
rived from sufficient data to pronounce absolutely upon, it may be said that
the mean position of the tropical calms in the various seasons of the year
cannot with certainty be predicted ; but as it does not offer the same obsta-
cles to navigation as those of the equatorial regions, it is of less importance
to the sailor, who, by his usual sagacity and prudence, may guard against
the squalls, thunder-storms, and calms, which characterize it.

(77.) To the westward of the meridian 50° W. — that is, the western half
of the N.E. trade in the North Atlantic— the trade is very light during the
months of September and October ; perhaps at other times of the summer
and autumn. They will be most felt between the parallels of 15° and 25° ;
but not with any certainty near the American coast. This region may there-
fore be added to the tropical calms during these months.

As examples of the winds, as observed upon the lands lying in this belt,
we select the remarks upon the Bermudas : —

(78.) Bermudas, — The winter, or cold season, at Bermudas, is the most
agreeable, and lasts from November to March, the mean temperature being
60° ; the predominant winds are then from the westward ; if to the north-
ward of this, fine, hard weather, with a clear sky, accompanies them. ^This
is the favourable time for refitting ship, painting, &c. The close of this is

fingr /M

NORTH

Diagrams MwstratLnct the directions of

ANTI-TRADES OR PASSACE WINDS

/.„/.■/: x

lorv.lO°W.

4 Wilife

CALMS
oi- -j Win. _&'•., *&.«
. ' > ■'-; Spr. _ 3- .
.-.'. Sum- !•? .
;.^ ->;'-, Aut-3-7 . <

LabAl°N. o- u

Lon,.30°W. o' t\\ Tj?T//V

V: •%- %

^$? CALMS •;- f

i - - -"" Win.. 4- ^e* t- —

>■-- - - 31 ' --> Spr. _6- . .£4

Sum.-4 7 , C^

% Aut._2-5 , .•/£--■

•» //// y, . i,
LaJb.WN. -°y
Ion, .45° W. < .„"\ y'.T ,

• j ^ ■ v/ .

'-.a

CALMS
Win _3-9/>.V.' C
Spr _ 4 4 . j3f

Sum._ 5- „ ^L_

Aut.-2-9 , jK?

" /%flii#

£al.52°N.

Low. 15° W.

7%«* arrows represent winds Wowwp mumvl tin- centre

•Ian. . ( Apt-. \-> u| y < ( 0c *"

• H'wit7V'Fob. ) ^l/rc/urjMay o —Sionmer<Aus. I Jut/uii/i .{Nov

(Mar. r ^frfcwte 1 Sr f . (Oec.

7*/w leant] '. i'f the amhtir it /ity/ifrfio/m/e to the fretntentiy /if 'audi nvnix),
i i/i./ thf projxirttf/ti per ixnt m/J be yh'en Isy th/s scale .

SOUTH

■-,Lonrfni-

THE ANTI-TRADES OE PASSAGE WINDS. 231

often a very fine, bright day, with little wind and partial calms, when the
wind is certain of going round to the S.W. ; the weather becoming hazy,
damp, subject to heavy rains and gales. The thermometer immediately at-
tains 60° to 70°. These alternate north-westerly and south-westerly winds
prevail through nine months of the year, the wind remaining at no other
point for any length of time. This change is exhibited by a difference of
14° in the temperature. At this season it seems advisable for ships bound
to the .southward to wait and take the first set-in of the north-westerly winds.
In most cases, it will ensure a quick run to the variables, and often to the
trades. — Mr. IT. Davy.

In the latter part of February spring commences, and the weather usually
continues mild, with refreshing showers of rain and gentle breezes from the
South and West, until the end of May. In June the summer sets in, and
the weather becomes hot. Calms now succeed to the gentle breezes of May;
the air is sultry and oppressive, and long droughts are common, which are
often broken up by heavy thunder-storms. In September the weather
changes its character, and becomes again mild and agreeable.

The dew-point in Bermuda usually ranges high. The climate being
therefore moist, is favourable to vegetation at all seasons, except during the
droughts of summer, and the storms of winter.

Hurricanes and tempests are very frequent, as is to be expected from the
proximity of the isles to the variable limit of the trade and other prevailing
winds. Few autumns pass without hurricanes of more or less violence.

The Benmtda Squalls are sudden and violent tempests, occurring particu-
larly in the winter season.

According to the observations registered at Her Majesty's Dockyard, in
1853-4, the easterly winds, or those to the East of North or South, prevailed
for a mean of 139 days, and westerly winds for 186 days; the remainder
being made up of calms and variable winds.

7.— THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS.

(79.) In a previous page, 182 (19), the reason is given for applying the
term Anti-Trades to the variable, but westerly, winds which prevail to the
northward of the Tropic of Cancer. In the consideration of these winds,
which only extend over an area, compared to that of the trade winds, as 5
is to 12 (thus showing their vastly inferior importance in the atmospheric
economy), it will be found that it is impossible to accurately define their
direction and character at any particular season. The great difference which
exists between the winds and seasons of different years, which, however,
when combined with a series, show a wMI-marked and consistent average,
will demonstrate that it is only the doci- e, of chances which can determine
whether a single ship will encounter a particular wind at a particular time
and place. Thereture this section will be less definite in its teachings than
that on the trade winds.

232 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

(80.) Thoro is one fact which modern meteorological study has established,
and that is the frequent progress of storms in an easterly or north-easterly-
direction across the Atlantic, in tho regions of the antitrades. This will be
alluded to hereafter (90) (91), together with the rotatory nature of such
storms.

(81.) The most accurato and extensive observations — extensive because
■ continuous — which have been made upon the direction and force of the
wind in these latitudes, are those made upon land, and especially by self-
registering, instruments, which have been in operation for a series of years,
and give absolutely the quantity and path of the wind passing over the
observatory during their operation. But, as will be shown presently, these
observations, however excellent, are fallacious ; they do not give the correct
normal direction of the wind, but that of the wind under the powerful
influence of the adjacent land and its configurations. In future years this
may be obviated by the erection of these anemometers on isolated spots, as
has been done at Bermuda, or any other position distant from any great
mass of land.- 1 '

(82.) The westerly predominance of anti-trades will be more manifest from
an examination of the quantity (or force) of the winds, rather than its pre-
valence, from those quarters ; so that mere mimerical preponderance gives an
imperfect notion of the real proportion of westerly or easterly winds. Thus,
as has been before remarked on page 198, the Pilot Charts of Capt. Maury,
though the result of vast labour and of the first importance as one grand
repertory of facts, are deficient in this respect. A perfect Wind Chart is yet
to be constructed.

(83.) But there have been numerous analyses of these wind charts, com-
bined with observations derived from other sources. We need not further
allude to the series of wind charts drawn up from Captain Maury's numeri-
cal data by Admiral FitzRoy, nor of those arranged by the Netherlands
Meteorological Institute at Utrecht. But there is one essay which is of
much importance, which was published by the Hamburg Meteorological
Office (Norddeutsche Seewarte), and has been translated by our own Meteor-
ological Department, in 1872. It was drawn up by H. von W. von Freeden,
Director of that Office,! and is entitled, " On the Winds, &c, of the North
Atlantic, along the tracks (and from the logs) of North German Lloyds
steamers," between the Channel and New York.

* On page 178 (12), the question of force, as encountered by ships in motion, is alluded
to as not giving a correct estimate, as it ought to he the real amount without the effect
of the ship's driving before it. The land observations also are modified by the above-
mentioned influence. A plan has been proposed by Professor Piazzi Smith, in conjunction
with Capt. II. Toynbee, to have the wind recorded from the mast-head, as the only part of
a ship not affected by the eddies from her sails ; the direction and force to be communicated
electrically to the cabin and there recorded. See " Report of the British Association,
18-55," page 45.

t Translated from No. III. of the Miitheilungen aus der Norddeutschen Seewarte,
Ueber die Dampferwege zwi^chen dem Kanal und New York, nach den Journal- Ausziigen
der Dampfer des Norddeutschen Lloyd, in den Jahren 1SG0-G7. Nebat Wind und Wetter
in dcrselben Zcit. Von W. von Freeden, Director.

THE ANTI-TEADES OR PASSAGE WINDS.

233

(84.) We extract the following from the work, premising that the charts
referred to have not been copied here.

The Winds of the North Atlantic between 55° and 40° N. Latitude.

We have made two wind charts, of which the first, constructed according
to the old system of Maury, contains the aggregate number of observations
collected by Maury, Andrau, and the Norddeutsche Seewarte (the Ham-
burg Meteorological Office), amounting to 55,710 observations, including
calms and variables. The second chart exhibits, partly numerically and
partly graphically, 16,653 observations, made specially in the routes of tho
North German Lloyd steamers. From the detailed information given in
these charts it is proposed to condense the masses of figures into closer
groups, and to elucidate the relative frequency of occurrence of any wind by
means of per-centages. In the first place we give—

A. — General Wind Table for the North Atlantic, hetween hit. 55° — 40°, in
the Yearly Period, and referred to Eight Points of the Compass.

Long.

Lat. N.

No. of
Obser-
vations.

Vari-
able.

Calm.

N.E.

S.E.

s. s.w.

N.W.

55—50

4,244

140

250

304

443

558 712

828

562

322

5—35

1 p. c.

3 p.c.

6 p. c.

dp. c.

10 p. c.

13 p.c. 17 p.c.

20 p. c.

13 p.c.

8 p.c.

50—45

25,454

134

1,078

2,328

2,495

2,283

2,906 3,909

.4,220

3,650

2,451

\p. c.

4 p. c.

'dp. C.

10 jo. c.

dp. c.

11 p.c. 15 p. c.

1 7 p. c.

14^. c.

10 p.c.

5,384

187

337

379

302

622 j 917

1,067

864

623

35—55

2 p.c.

3 p.c.

6 p. c.

1p. c.

Qp. c.

11 p. c. 17 p. c.

20 ;;. c.

16 p. c.

12 p.

45—40

8,007

376

611

583

721

1,047 1 1,284

1,399

1,082

850

1 p. c.

bp. c.

8 p. c.

7 p.c.

dp. e.

13^;, c. 16 p. c.

Up. c.

1 3 p. c.

1 1 p. c.

55 — 74

12,641

180

555

1,093

1,124

914

1,550 ' 1,900

2,221

1,744

1,360

\p), c.

4p. c.

9 p. c.

dp. c.

7 p. c.

12 j?. c. 15 p. c.

IS p.c.

14 p. c.

1 1 p. c.

Tota

L - -

55,730

499

2,336

4,619

4,915

4,663

6,683 1 8,722

9,735

7,902

5,606

\p c.

4 p. c.

8p.c.

dp. c.

8 p. c.

12 p. c. 16 p. c.

IS jy. c.

14 p. c.

Id p.c.

By adding one*half the intermediate points to each of tho four adjacent
cardinal points (W. = W. | \ S.W. + \ N.W.), we find that-
Westerly winds are 33 per cent.
Southerly ,, 23 . ,,

Northerly ,, 22 ,,

Easterly ,, 17 ,,

Calms and variables 5 ,,

The westerly to northerly winds are more certain to be found between 35°
and 55° W. in higher latitudes, whilst the S. to S.E. winds will be met with

234

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

more frequently in the lower latitudes, below 45° N. Easterly winds are
always more prevalent in lower latitude?, corresponding to the prepon-
derance of the westerly winds in high latitudes.

The distribution in the separate months of the year, and in seasonal
quarters, will lead to practically useful results. The following table
shows : —

B.— General "Wixd Table of the North Atlantic, leticeen 55° and 40° JV.
latitude, for separate Quarters, and the Eight principal Points, in per-
centages of the Wind's frequency.

Quarter.

Long.

Lat. N.

No. of
Observa-

Vari-
able.

Calm.

NE.

S.E.

s.w.

N.W.

tions.

p. c.

p. 0.

p. c.

p. 0.

p. c.

•

5 — 35

(55-50

946

Winter. (

(50—45

4,8S6

10,067 ob- I

35-55

( 50—45

952

serrations, f

) 45-40

1,241

55 — 74

45—40

2,042

.19

Spring, j
14,922 ob- <
servations. j

- o-

| 55-50
I 50-45

905

—

— oO

7,114

—

35 — 55

(50—45

1,042

—

\ 45—40

2,355

oj~ 74

45— 4(

3,120 3

5—35

("55—50

1,340

—

Summer. (

5.50-45

7,071

—

17,377 ob- j

35 — 55

I 50-45

1,787

servations. /

\ 45—40

2,770

—

55-71

45—40

4,409

- o-

j 55—50
| 50-45

1,033

Autumn, (

6,0S3

—

13,344 ob- I

35 — 55

( 50—45

( 45-40

1,603

servations. f

1,641

5-5 — 74

45-40

2,984

If we compare —

A. The distribution of tho winds across the entire ocean, in the yearly and
quarterly periods, wo see that the per-centages of the wind's frequency vary
very much. If the differences of tho per-centages, as compared with the
mean yearly values, are expressed by numbers five times too great, and if
we indicate by — when the quarterly number is smaller, and by + when it
is larger than the yearly number, we get (reckoning right across the
ocean) : —

Quarter.

Variables.

Calms.

N.E.

S.E

+ 3

+ G .

— 5

S.W.

N.W.

Winter ....

Summer ....
Autumn ....

— 1

—4

-7

— 1

-3
+6
— S
+4

—5
+■5
— 5

+ 1

— 2

+ 7

— 3

— 5

— 9

+ 5
—11

+ s

— <

+ 12

+ 1
— 9
+ 10

+ 3
+ 3
— 12

+ 5

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS.

235

We perceive with remarkable clearness the double period of the decrease
of the N.E. to S.E. winds in winter and summer, in contrast to an increase
of the S. to N.W. winds in the same seasons, and conversely an increase of
N.E. to S.E. winds in spring and autumn, and a less frequent occurrence of
the S. to W. winds at the same time. The reason why the N.W. and N.
winds are proportionally less frequent in summer may be because the region
of average uniform heating of the oceanic atmosphere then extends beyond
55° N., whilst in all other seasons the limit falls down to 50° N., and so
gives the cold polar wind an opportunity of breaking into the warmer equa-
torial current at, or to the South of, 50° N. But if we look at the distribu-
tion of the N.W. and N. winds in separate meridional strips, we find them
decidedly more frequent in the eastern parts of the ocean, as far as 35° W.
in summer (23 p.c* against 21 p.c. ; 27 p.c. against 24 p.c.) ; on the contrary,
in the western parts, as far as 74° W., the occur much less often (16 p.c.
against 24 p.c. ; 15 p.c. against 25 p.c). Here the summer heating of the
European as well as the American continent evidently exerts its influence,
and it attracts the cold N.W. wind of the ocean towards the European coasts
lying from S.W. to N.E. ; whilt for the same reason it diminishes the fre-
quency of this wind on the American coast, and, on the other hand, must in-
crease the S.E. and S. winds (the tables give 24 p.c. against 19 p.c.) These
explanations as to the causes of the prevailing summer winds on our coasts
are here explained by unequivocal numerical values.

B. An enquiry into the distribution of the winds with reference to longitude
only, seems still called for from our special considerations.

Our general wind table gives the following mean values of the wind's fre-
quency ; the per-centages are now doubled :— >

Longitude.

Variables-

Calms.

N.E.

19
14
18

SE.

19
15
14

24
24
24

S.W.

YV.

37
37
36

N.W.

27
29
28

Between 5°-35° W.
„ 35°-55° W.
„ 55°-74* W.

2
3

7
8
8

15
14

33
30

18
23
22

Erom which it at once appears that between 35° and 55° W., that is, in
the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean, the easterly winds throughout are
less frequent than in the districts bordering it to the East and West, that
the South winds are equally numerous in all three districts, the remaining
winds, between S.W. and N., are decidedly more frequent in the central
trip than to the West and East of it.

But if we again compare the per-centages of the same longitudinal sec-
tions in the year with the separate quarters, and keep to the above notation,
we obtain —

* These figures are obtained by comparing the results for the summer, in Table B, page
234, with those for the year, in Table A, page 233.

236

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.
1. Between 5° and 35° \V., in doubled per-centagos.

Quarter.

Variables.

Calms.

N.E.

S.E.

S.W.

N.W.

Winter ....

Summer ....
Autumn ....

— 1

— 2
2

+ 1
— 1

— 1

— 3

+•3

— G

+ 1

+7
— 5

— 1

-7

+ 1
-2

— 4
+■>
+3

-1

In the eastern parts of the Atlantic, therefore, the distribution of the winds
in autumn agrees for the most part with the yearly mean, whilst the abso-
lute differences are greatest in spring and summer. In winter and summer
we find fewer East winds, but more westerly winds, than in the yearly mean ;
but S.W. and N.W. winds are more especially prevalent in summer than in
the year generally, and the preponderance of the N.W. winds still continues
in autumn. On tho other hand, we find in spring a strong set of cold easterly,
i.e., continental winds from the Steppes towards the ocean, and the S.W. to
N.W. winds must give way to them. This is a detailed confirmation of our
above generalizations as to the causes of the N.W. winds in summer. If the
sea gets thoroughly warmed in summer we then have frequent calms near
the channel.

2. Between 35° and 55° W., in doubled per-centages.

Quarter.

Variables.

Calms.

N.E.

- — O

S.E

— 1

—1

s.w.

—4

— 1

— 6

•)

—5

N.W.

—8

Winter ....
Spring

Summer ....
Autumn ....

— 2
—1

— 3

— 1

+ 1
+1

+2
+2
—8
+3

The small numerical differences in winter and spring are very striking,
whilst in summer they are exceedingly high, and in autumn moderate ; on
the whole, however, they are smaller than between 5° and 35° W. The
change of the sign is about the same as before, but it is to be remarked that
in summer the N.W. and N. winds are, relatively, extremely rare, compared
with the S. to W. winds, whilst in autumn exactly the reverse takes place.
Tho prevalence of easterly winds in spring and autumn, which was exhibited
between 5° and 35° W., is no longer traceable; these winds have exhausted
themselves, i.e., generally speaking (foi-, e.g., in February, 1870, our steamers
encountered, in 48° W., the East wind which had come from 60° E., and
brought the most severe winter cold over central Germany, which was, by
the way, a propagation in a straight line of an easterly gale, which the
advocates of the cyclone theory have not yet explained) ; at the best the
N.E. only occurs somewhat frequently in conjunction with N.W. and N.,
evidently in the closest connection with the decreasing northern declination
of the sun.

THE ANTI-TEADES OE PASSAGE WINDS.
3. .Between 65" and 74° W., in doubled per-centages.

237

Quarter.

Winter
.Spring..
Summer
Autumn

Variables.

Calms.

N.E.

S.E

S.W.

N.W.

-4

— 2

—4

— G

— 10

+20

+ 2

— 4

—4

+ 1

- G

+ 12

—2

— 12

— 8

—2

— 4

— G

+ 6

That the characteristics of summer and winter vary greatly from the
yearly mean is seen immediately, and at the same time the almost complete
discontinuance of the symmetry in the variation of the wind numbers in
winter and summer on the one hand, as compared with spring and summer
on the other. Certainly the easterly winds fall short in winter, but with
them also the southerly and south-westerly, and, in their stead, the powerful
winds from N.W. and N. prevail, which are known to sailors as the dreaded
snow storms. In spring, if the sea cannot rise in temperature as soon as the
Hat American continent, owing to the flow of ice over the Banks of New-
foundland, the N.E. to S.E. winds blow on to the land ; in summer, the cool
S.E. to S.W. winds prevail on the American coast, blowing from the cool
sea on to the land, which has been raised to Italian heat, until, at length,
in autumn, the cold N.W. wind accompanies the sudden transition to winter.
As, in summer, with the increasing northern declination of the sun, the
Gulf Stream also advances some degrees to the northward ; calms are not
rare, owing to the greater equality of temperature between land and sea.

The task now remains to us — after having investigated the distribution of
the winds, so important for general climatology, according to longitude— to
prove whether, for the practical purposes of navigation (and we always keep
in view the interest of sailing vessels as well as. steamers): —

C. The distribution of the winds according to latitude and longitude leads to
results which aro worth notice.

The question now presents itself whether a ship, in any certain season of
the year, should keep a decidedly or partially northern or southern course
from and to America, and what she should do in any certain position if over-
taken by contrary wind or gale.

We have only to deal with the general question what answer should be
made for the separate quarters of the year. With this object we shall inves-
tigate for each longitudinal section the simple per-centages of the winds to
the North and South of the latitudes under consideration. If the Southern
zone has a less per-centage than the Northern we shall denote the same by
the sign — , and the converse by the sign +.

1. Between 5° and 35° W., in doubled per-centages.

Quarter.

Variables.

Calms.

N.E.

S.E.

S.W.

N.W.

Winter ....

—4

— 10

— 8

-8

Summer ....

+ 2

— 4

— 8

—4

— 2

Autumn ....

—4

+ i

+ 1

— 8

— 10

+ti

2 i

238

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

The differences increase steadily from winter and spring until autumn,
otherwise they are pretty equal. Therefore, in winter, wo have to expect
more oasterly winds to the South of 50' N., and fewer S. to N.W. winds,
than to the northward of 50° N. ; in spring, the N."W. to N.E. winds pre-
vail to the South of 50° N., while the S.E. and S. winds greatly decrease ;
also in summer, where the S.E. to W. winds are in the minority, and the
same in autumn, where to the South of 50 c N. the N. to N.E. winds and S.
winds are in the minority.

Accordingly, on an average, outward-bound vessels would do better to
keep to the southward of latitude 50 c N., and homeward-bound ships would
mostly stand a better chance to the northward of 5Q e N. 01 course we ex-
clude the special conditions of each month, which may be worked out in tho
game manner as the above results for seasons.

2. Between 35 c and 55 f W.

Quarter.

Variables.

Calms.

N.E.

S.E,

S.W.

N.W.

Winter ....

—2

+ 2

— 2

—0

— 6

+ 4

4-4

— 2

—4

— 2

Autumn ....

—4

-f-2

+10

— G

— 4

— G

— 2

Summer

+ 1

+10

—2

— 6

— 12

~ 2

In this strip the differences increase considerably until autumn ; in all the
seasons we find fewer W. to N.W. winds to the S. of 45° N. than to the N.
of it, so that a ship desirous of avoiding inconvenience from S. to S.W.
winds, has only to hold off to the northward in order to continue her out-
ward course on the starboard tack with success. In summer and. autumn
especially we find more N.E. to S.E. winds to the South of 45 c N. than to
the North of it, but of course it must not be forgotten that the absolute fre-
quency of easterly winds is generally less than the westerly

(85.) Captain II. Toynbee, the Marine Superintendent of the Meteoro-
logical Department of the Board of Trade, has made a rigid examination
of a very important series of logs, kept by Captain J. A. Martyn, of the
Eoyal Mail steamers' tracks between the Channel and New York.* There
are eight of these logs, and for each of them a separate diagram has been
made (which cannot be given here), exhibiting the character of wind, weather,
barometric pressure, air and sea surface, temperature, the specific gravity of
the sea water, and the readings of the dry and wet bulb thermometers.
Being thus uniformly arranged, a series of important deductions is derived
from their teachings by Captain Toynbee, which bear out in a remarkable
degree the observations previously made by Sir John Herschel and Mr. Birt
on barometric waves (see (27) to (28), pp. 186 — 188 ante).

* " Report on the Meteorology of the North Atlantic, between the parallels of 4C° and
CO" N." by Captain Henry Toynbee, 1869.

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 239

(86.) Capt. Toynbeo romarks : — Having considered tlio oight diagrams,
I propcso giving a few more facts before drawing any conclusions.

First, these peculiar undulations in the barometric curves, accompanied by
corresponding changes in the wind, weather, and temperature, are quite in
accordance with the experience of seamen in corresponding southern lati-
tudes; there, from the latitude of the Cape of Good Hope down to 55° S.,
a similar series of changes is experienced, the winds commencing at North
and ending at West or S.W. ; it will be borne in mind that in this case the
South is the polar wind. There, also, ships running to the eastward seem
to keep company with a westerly gale, so that the wind continues from the
same quarter for days.

With the object of discovering the breadth of these belts of southerly
wind accompanied by a decreasing pressure, and of westerly wind accom-
panied by a decreasing pressure, I have calculated the number of geo-
graphical miles which the ship steamed to pass through them, and find from
seven of those on diagram I., that each belt occupied about 20 hours, and
the ship steamed about 150 miles; also, that in diagram I, the westerly
wind belts were about as broad as the southerly ones. Now, by referring to
the .homeward passages, it will be seen that the steamer often kept in the
same wind for days together, and in some cases had a decreasing pressure
with a north-westerly wind, and an increasing pressure with a southerly
wind ; it therefore seems probable that she then kept pace with the general
motion of the gale to the eastward, and in fact sometimes outstripped it,' so
that we can hardly be wrong in estimating that these systems of winds were
travelling to the eastward at least at a rate of about eight miles an hour ;
hence, on the outward passage, whilst the ship steamed 150 miles to the
westward, the gale by a rough estimate may be said to have moved about
150 miles to the eastward, giving a breadth of about 300 miles for each of
the westerly and southerly wind belts.

(87.) The accompanying quotation from a letter I received from Captain
R". Inglis, Marine Superintendent to the Cunard line of steamers, contains
the opinion of one who has had great experience in Atlantic weather. He
thinks that the westerly winds of -the Atlantic are caused by the meeting of
two currents of air ; whether he be right or not, his facts are very interest-
ing. Writing from Liverpool, he says : — Between this country and New
York is the route of which I have had most experience, and the locality in
which we have the most interest here." ; . . "Drawing a line N.E.
from the Caribbean Sea clear of the coast of Florida, it would cut our
track to New York between the meridians of 40° and 50° W. ; thjs will be
found to be the western limit of the great S.W. equatorial current ; this
current of air from the S.W. touching the earth is now brought into con-
tact with the North wind flowing to the southward, and the steady flow of
the two currents, upper and lower, is interrupted ; the northerly current in
the latitude I have named will then have a course from nearly due North,
certainly not past N.N.E., the southerly current of air will be S.W., there-
fore, by coming into collision, an almost continuous westerly wind will blow
between 40° W. and England." ....

" Having accepted this theory, I determined to put it to a practical test,
when commanding the screw steamer Alp, in 1857. It so happened that

240 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

whilst making a passage from Havre to New York wo fell in with a heavy
gale of wiud from the westward, and it occured to mo that the wind being
West 1 was iD the line of contact, so that if my theory were correct, tho
more I steered to the northward the more tho wind would norther. We were
steering West, so I put the ship's head otf to N.W., and set the fore and
aft sails ; tho ship's way increased, and in twelve hours the wind hauled
sufficiently to the northward to enable mo to lay my course on the starboard
tack ; by attending to this we boat tho Africa, ono of our powerful mail
boats, a whole day.

"Again, coming from New York, wo often fall in with a S.W. gale, with
the weather bright and clear ; this will continue for one or two days, how
long, depends upon the northing we are making; if the ship is going duo
East she may carry the S.W. wind right across the Atlantic ; if she is
making northing she will fall in with drizzling rain ; when this occurs
look out, for the wind will fly round to N.W. suddenly. This has become a
saying with sailors navigating the Atlantic, and it is always so, for then tho
ship is approaching the line of contact; the S.W. wind being warm and
laden with moisture is coming into contact with the cold North wind, con-
densation ensues, and rain is tho consequence. After the shift t® N.W. wo
have squalls of hail; finally, as the ship gets to the northward, the wind
hauls to North, and we have fine clear weather.

" This, as a rule, is a true explanation of the steady gales we meet with
in the Atlantic, which, in mid-ocean, last for six or seven days ; but this is
not always the form which these two currents take, very often we meet with
rotary storms of small circumference ; when steaming out to the westward
we often meet with these" circlets, if I may so name them ; in them we havo
the wind from all points of the compass during the twenty- four hours, with
rain and dirty weather, not blowing very hard, but still disagreeable ; this
may last three, four, or five days ; now these rotary storms are all going on
at a rapid rate to the eastward, and finally strike our coast ; they are occa-
sioned by the opposing current of air being of unequal force, and would
naturally resolve themselves into the rotary form.

"It is a singular thing to note that this current of air very rarely touches
the coast of Spain ; the times in which they have a S.W. gale on the coast
of Spain, South of Cape St. Vincent, duiing a year, might be counted on
your fingers.

"On the contrary, I have no hesitation in saying that during eleven
months of the year thore is a strong northerly wind blowing down the coast
of Spain a*nd Portugal, and further the prevailing wind in the Mediterranean
is from tha North, and this is the way I account for the supply of air being
kept up that is necessary to fill up the vacuum caused by tho air ascending
near tho line.

"If this theory be true, it follows that the great object of gathering tho
data you wish our captains and others navigating the Atlantic to collect,
will be to determine where tho line of contact is at the different seasons ; of
courso it will vary North or South according to the declination of the sun.

" It would bo of immense benefit to us to know that, on the passago out,
ky keeping to the North we should ensure northerly winds, and that during

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 241

the homeward passage a more southerly course would keep our ships in a
south-westerly wind."

(88.) It seems quito clear that the steady westerly winds spoken of by
Captain Inglis were experienced during the passage home, whilst the quick
changing circlets to which he alludes were met with on the outward passage,
which facts are borne out by Captain Martin's log ; and the natural conclu-
sisn is that homeward the ship was moving with a wave or system of weather,
whilst outward she met several such waves.

It is a curious coincidence that the spot which Captain Inglis speaks of as
the western limit of the great south-westerly equatorial current of air is tho
position of the eastern edge of the first cold water met with on tho outward
passage, and where northerly disturbances seem to be very common in tho
wind.

The effect of the temperature of the surface water on tho wind and
weather seems to be a phenomena of universal occurrence ; in the warm
water on the eastern edge of the Agulhas Bank the wind is notoriously un-
steady, insomuch that however fresh and fair the wind may have been to a
ship coming from the eastward, she is almost sure to get baffling unsettled
weather in this warm water, and. the clouds have a more tropical doldrum
appearance : whereas, in the patches of cold water in the southern hemi-
sphere, hail squalls from the 8.W. are common (see my paper on the specific
gravity, temperature, snd currents of the seas passed through during fivo
voyages from England to India, read before the Royal Geographical Society,
May 8th, 18G5), just as hail and snow storm from the N.W. are common in
the cold water to the eastward of North America, and ships are said to run
out of it into the warm water of the Gulf Stream to refit after a fight with
a winter gale. In fact, over cold and warm water in close proximity, wo
have the same forces in operation as those which enable land and sea breezes
to reverse the prevailing wind of the season ; and if atmospheric pressure
relatively increases over cold water, then, according to Buys-Ballot's law,
there would be a tendency to northerly winds on the eastern edge of a patch
of cold water in the northern hemisphere, whilst southerly winds would be
more prevalent on its western edge, unless its effect be masked by greater
influences.

The north-easterly direction taken by these waves would most likely be
due to the existence of a lower pressure over the northern part of the
Atlantic than over the land to the eastward of it ; whereas tho changes of
wind from S. by W. to N.W. woul bo due to the internal action of tho
waves as it sweeps along ; a section of the wave would represent a kind of
revolving motion in the air, with its lower edge pressing on the earth's sur-
face, whilst its upper edge is well inclined towards the Pole.

Professor Buys-Ballot says: — It is certain that, if after an unfavourable
condition of pressure a S.W. wind has set in, which has veered with stormy
weather towards N.W., we find that generally a very unfavourable condition,
and usually the greatest difference, will be observed next day, without being
followed by fresh wind." May not this be because part of the north-
westerly wind is a downward motion instead of its being horizontal?

I account for the fact that during Captain Martyn's outward passages ho
had a decreasing pressure with a southerly wind, and an increasing pressure

242 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

with a westerly and north-westerly wind, showing that he was meeting
gales ; whilst during his homeward passages he had the pressure and wind
steady for days together, showing that ho was either moving to the eastward
about as fast as the gale, or steaming faster than the gale was moving, and
had a decreasing pressure with a northerly wind, and an increasing pressure
with a southerly wind, caused by his entering these systems of wind on the
opposite side to what he did on the passage out.

1st. 'When a ship is bound to the westward, and meets the southerly wind
on tho eastern edge of one of these gales, can she bring about a more
favourable wind by running to the North, or otherwise manoeuvring, or
must sho undergo all its changes from S. by W. to W.N.W. or N.W. as it
is sweeping by her to the eastward ?

Wa are not without evidence loading to the supposition that there is a
polar limit to these westerly gales ; for instance, Buchan, in his "Handy
Book of Meteorology," gives a table of the prevailing winds in January,
which shows that Iceland has about an equal amount of wind from all
directions, whilst the prevailing wind in Greenland is easterly, and in New-
foundland north-westerly. The Meteorological Journal of H.M.S. Rattle-
snake, Captain Trollope, E.N., which is in this office, shows that when she
was frozen up In Port Clarence, Behrings Straits, during the winter of 1853
and 1854, she experienced north-easterly winds for two-thirds of the time.

(89.) A few remarks on the other observations shall end this paper.

It will bo noticed that from England to about 40° W. and 47° N. tho
surface temperature is very uniform ; in diagrams 5 and 6 this uniform tem-
perature extends further West; then in about 49° W. a patch of cold water
generally exists, after which streaks of warm and cold water were met with.
On reaching longitude 65° W. a sudden decrease took place in the tem-
perature of the surface water, with water somewhat warmer further to the
westward.

The specific gravity is a difficult observation to make on board ship when
there is much motion. Captain Martin doubts that below his ship, but
both he and Captain Watson are now paying special attention to the obser-
vations of temperature and specific gravity, so that future observations may
modify the results. Still they frequently find the water warmer at 20 feet
deep than at the surface, which, taken together with the fact that the cold
water has the least specific gravity, makes it possible that the Gulf Stream
passes under this cold water on its way to the north-eastward ; so that a few
temperatures at various depths taken in that part of the sea where the Gulf
Stream seems to be cut off by the cold water might lead to interesting re-
sults. Captain Martin hopes to give the currents experienced on some of
his future voyages."'

* In Captain Watson's last log I find the following entry :— March 27th, 18G9, position
at noon, lat. 40° 42' N., lung. 63° 28' W.

Noon, surface temperature 67° ; specific gravity 1.0270.
2 p.m. „ 38°; „ 1.02G0.

4 p.m. n 38°; „

5 p.m. „ 52°; „ 1.0265.
(The ship was steaming to the eastward).

Here there were two sudden changes of temperature and specific gravity in a few hours.

THE ANTI-TEADES OE PASSAGE WINDS. . 243

The dry and damp bulbs show clearly that the W. and N.W. winds were
generally the driest experienced during the eight passages, but there
happoned to have been very little easterly wind. There are some striking
instances of extreme dryness in air which, having passed over cold, was then
over warm water.

(90.) The report of the Director of the New York Meteorological Obser-
vatory for 1872 contains some interesting information respecting storms in
the Atlantic. Charts are now constructed in the Observatory, illustrating
. the progress and direction of barometrical and thermometrical waves cross-
ing tho United States, and the influence exercised by them on the regions
which they pass, and endeavours are made to trace from these data the pro-
gress of American storms across the Atlantic, and to predict the time of their
arrival on the European coasts. For this purpose the registers at the New
York Observatory are compared with those kept at Yalentia and Falmouth,
distant about 3,100 miles, and it has been thus found that there .are many
atmospheric waves which traverse the Atlantic, and that within certain limits
the times of their passage can be pretty accurately predicted. "If, in
the case of an easterly wind, which is travelling about 200 miles in 24" hours,
tho exact time bo found by the lowest reading of the barometer, and the
speed be ascertained for 24 hours before and after that time, the mean of
of these two numbers will give the true rate of the storm in 21 hours. Thus,
if 4,200 bo divided by the number thus found, the result will be the number
of days which the storm will take to cross from New York to Valentia or
Falmouth." An actual example of the application of this rule is given, and
is worth quoting: — "On the 4th of October, 1869, there occurred a low
barometer at the New York Observatory at 1 p.m. In the 24 previous
hours the wind had travelled 313 miles; and, in the 24 succeeding, it made
286 miles. The mean of these numbess is 299, by which, if 4,200 bo di-
vided, the result is 14 days for the passage of the storm across the Atlantic."
• This calculation was exactly right, for the storm arrived at Falmouth on the
18th of October. It is stated that, since the year 1869, the computations
made respecting 86 atmospheric disturbances expected to cross tho Atlantic
failed in only three instances to give accurate results. At present the rules
for calculating the velocity of storms are not definitely established ; but if
the experience of the next two or three years confirms the above theory, or
affords the means of correcting it, there seems to be no doubt that ship-
captains will soon be able to trust implicitly to theso directions.

(91.) In a recent publication of the Meteorological Office,* the fact of
storms travelling eastwards is very lucidly shown in the diagrams by tho
daily positions of the isobars, and in the remarks given hereafter on tho
winds of the British Isles, some further remarks will be found, showing that
the progress of the main body of the air is to the north-eastward across tho
British Isles. That it occasionally travels to the south-westward is also

The correction for temperature has not bccD applied to the ppociflc gravity observations ;
it would have increased the difference between those of the warm and cold water.

* A discussion of tho Meteorology of the part of the North Atlantic lying North of 30°
N! for the eleven days ending 8th February, 1S70, by Captain Henry Toynbee.

244 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

montioned. Tho chart for each one of tho 11 days embraces the observations
of about 30 ships, together with thoso of many land stations. Captain
Tuynbee draws the following conclusions from the study of these charts.

1. As to tho origin of tho numerous gales experienced during the 11 days
with which wo have been dealing.

By referring to the charts it will be seen that almost invariably there was
a northerly wind on the American coast, and a southerly wind at some distunec
to the eastward of that coast. This state of the wind, considered in connec-
tion with Buys Ballot's law (p. 184), requires that there should be a trough
of low pressure between two high pressures. Buchan's^ monthly charts of
isobars, giving the mean pressure over tho globe, show that the above is the
case in the months of January and February. Tho January chart shows tho
isobar of 30-2 over the American land, and again over tho sea just to the
northward of the N.E. trades, and we know that between these high pres-
sures the hot Gulf Stream flows, which may well be supposed to cause an
unusually low pressure, for, other circumstances being tho same, it is found
that tho barometer is lower over warm than over cold water. For instance,
the meteorological data of the 10° square between the Equator and 10° N.,
and from 20° to 30° W., show that the lowest pressure exists over the hottest
water (47). The conclusions derived from a study of the data for this region
for January will be found in the Report of the Meteorological Committee of
the Royal Society for 1871.

Bermuda seems to be peculiarly placed with regard to the winds of which
we are speaking, for the observations given in the first number of the publi-
cations by this office, as well as those given by Buchan, together with others
sent by General Lefroy, which are quoted in this paper, show that the island
is subject to alternations of northerly and southerly winds in winter, whilst
in summer scarcely any northerly wind is recorded.

The fact of this alternation between northerly and southerly winds in
winter seems to show that the position of this area of low pressure may be
variable, and that it may sometimes lie to the eastward, sometimes to the
westward of the island.

When summer sets in, and an area of low pressure takes the place of the
high pressure over the land, the element for a northerly wind is taken
away, so that Bermuda and the American coast are subject to southerly
winds.

It will be readily understood how this alternation of high and low baro-
meter over the land in winter and summer accounts for the extremes of cold
and heat experienced by the East Coast of America, whilst we on the eastern
side of the Atlantic are, in accordance with Buys Ballot's law, subject to
southerly winds in winter, the highest barometer being then to the eastward
of us.

* '• The Mean Pressure of the Atmosphere of the Prevailing Winds over the Glohe for
the Months and lor the Year." By A. Buchan, M A., F.R.S.E. " Transactions of the
Royal Society," Edinburgh, vol. xxv., 1809.

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. - 245

To return to our subject : if the trough of low pressure cannot bo shown
to change its position, we have strong proof that frequent collisions take
place between the northerly and southerly winds which blow in its neigh-
bourhood, causing eddies, and that these eddies pass over Bermuda on a
north-easterly route, producing first a south-easterly and then a north-
westerly wind. We are thus led to the conclusion that these gales are
caused by a collision between opposing currents of air.

The few storms dealt with in this paper support the idea that most of the
winter snow storms of the Coast of America are connected with these gales.
Resides the trough of low pressure over the Gulf Stream to which we have
allued, Buchan's charts show a larger area of depression in tho neighbour-
hood of Iceland at this season of the year, which is related to tho prevailing
winds of winter. It is probable that this low pressure is frequently intensi-
fied) by the areas of low pressure which travel towards it from the East
Coast of America, and that these areas of low pressure, taken in conjunction
with tho very high pressures which generally exist over the land in winter,
ore the causes of our winter gales.

2. We will next consider the tracks of these gales. All the evidence
gained by studdying tho data for these 1 1 days shows that they move to the
north-eastward, and probably at a mean rate of nearly 30 miles an hour.

To give a graphic representation of their progress, the last chart has been
constructed ; it contains reductions of the whole 14, placed under each other
in the order of timo. There it will be seen that the gale of the 30th of
January was South of Halifax at 8 a.m., had advanced towards Newfound-
land by 6 p.m., and was half across the Atlantic by 8 a.m. of the 31st, when
it seemed to be lost in the normal area of low pressure over the centre of the
Atlantic.

A similar gale appeared on the 2nd of February ; it advanced to the
north-eastward and was lost by the 4th. On the 4th a N.E. gale was blow-
ing on the American coast, and a moderate S.E. wind in 32° N. and 51 c W.
Unfortunately there was a large space of sea in the south-western quarter
of the chart without ships, so that we have not such clear evidence of the
progress of this gale ; still on the 5th w.e find a very heavy gale and remark-
ably low pressure in the middle of the Atlantic, with a heavy N.E. gale
blowing in Iceland and on the American coast, and an equally hoavy S.AV.
gale in about 30° W. There are reductions of three charts for the 5th, viz.,
at 8 a.m., 3 p.m., and 8 p.m. These show the north-easterly progress of tho
area of lowest pressure.

On the charts of the 6th and 7th the direction of the wind indicates that
another area of low pressure was advancing from the south-westward, which
showed itself to the south-eastward of Newfoundland on the Sth. On this
last chart three areas of low pressure are shown, the last just appearing on
the south-western corner of tho chart; this the extracts prove to have been
very severe, and to have advanced to the north-eastward. It again was
followed by another before our extracts end.

We have said a few words to illustrate the idea, that the point of lowest
pressure and complete eddy may be formed just where the counter currents
of air are in close contact, and that its apparent motion may bo caused by the
N a. q, ■ 2 k

246 - OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

closing in on each other of these currents of air, by which means the eddy is
being constantly being re-formed at the new point of contact. The chart of
8 a.m., February 5fch, is supposed to illustrate this idea.

If wo consult Uuuhan'a isobars of mean pressure for these months, we find
that they trend to the north-eastward from the Coast of America to England,
and that tho prevailing wind follows them, drawing rather towards the area
of lowest pressure in the neighbourhood of Iceland. Hence, it seems fair
to suppose that the tracks of these occasional eddies may bo influenced by
the main stream of air which seems to be flowing to the north-eastward
round and into the area of lowest pressure, just as an eddy in a river is
carried along by the main stream.

The data we have been dealing with proves that the points of lowest
pressure in these areas of low pressure do not generally cross the British
Islands ; for instance, at 8 p.m., February 5th, the barometer was down to
27-38 in about 51° N. and 25° W., and at 8 a.m. of the 6th it was 28-22 in
about 55° N. and 18° W., with a hurricane blowing from S.S.W. This
direction of the wind indicates that there was a lower pressure to the west-
ward, hence we may conclude that the area of lowest pressure- took a very
northerly course. Still, its influence was felt at all the self-registering ob-
servatories, taking Valencia first, and passing on to Aberdeen.

In the general remarks following tho extracts for February 5th, we have
pointed out how tho gale which Valencia experienced later in the day is
pictured on our 8 a.m. chart. The reader will do well to study tho remarks
published in the Quarterly Weather Report for February 4th to tho 7th, as
well as its' Plate VIII. There it is shown on pago 10 how at 8 a.m. of tho
5th, "neither the daily chart nor the barograms showed any very serious
sign of disturbance." On pago 11 thero is tho following remark: " The
facts appear to show that tho gale which ensued on our coast was to the full
as much to be attributed to the advance of the high pressure westward from
Russia, as to that of tho low pressuro eastward from the Atlantic." The
isobars on our charts for tho 6th, 7th, and 8th, seem to prove the force of
this remark.

Whatever may be the cause of these areas of lowest pressure, tho five
diagrams which follow the charts, as well as a large number of others re-
ceived from the commanders of steamers to and from America, who are ob-
serving for this office, show that very many of them are experienced in the
Atlantic, and tho difference between the barometer curves of outward and
homeward bound steamers, as well as the extracts from logs, show that they
are travelling to the north-eastward. We have, then, two important facts :
viz., 1st, by consulting Buchan's isobars, we find that during the winter
months the normal state of pressure is high over the land on each side, and
low over the sea in the central part of tho Atlantic, also that the pressure
gets lower as you go North from the Azores. Let the line A B be supposed
to represent a section of the normal state of pressuro across the Atlantic,
with a lower pressure to tho North than to the South of it, then the arrows
may be supposed to represent the normal direction of the wind.

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS.

247

Normal state of ionospheric pressure and wind between "England and America

in iv inter.

Undulations of barometric pressure moving 30 to 40 miles an hour to the
north-eastward, with their accompanying wind*.

2ndly. Besides this normal state, we have, as it were, the crests and
hollows of waves of pressure moving to the north-eastward. These (the
diagrams show) sometimes follow each other very closely, arid may be repre-
sented by the the line D I. Keeping Buys Ballot's law (p. 134) in mind, let
us suppose that a ridge of high pressure (E) be experienced travelling to the
north-eastward, we know that it would be accompanied by corresponding
winds, viz., northerly followed by southerly.

If merely a depression (F), then southerly winds would precede northerly.

If a ridge and depression (Gr), then northerly, southerly and northerly,
would be the order of the winds.

•If a ridge and depression be followed by another ridge (H), then northerly and
southerly changes would be twice experienced.

Now it is hardly possible to look at the diagrams which accompany this
paper without perceiving that they give sections of disturbances which could
be explained by some one of the above cases. We may also suppose that
after they have passed over a ship, the winds will be inclined to take up the
normal direction as shown on the line A B 0.

If the reader can suppose such changes of pressure as are represented by
the line D I to be travelling to the north-eastward over a sea which has its
normal pressure represented by the line ABC, he will get the idea we wish
to convey.

In the course of this paper it has been frequently remarked that with a
steamer bound to the eastward, the barometer was falling with a northerly and
rising with a southerly wind. Now it is quite clear that this would always
be the case with a steamer steering to the eastward, if the atmospheric pres-
sure over the Atlantic were always in the normal state represented by the
line ABC, and this order of riso and fall would be revcutd with a steamer
bound to the westward.

248 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

Again, supposo it were possible that a steamer could go to the north-
eastward faster than an atmospheric disturbance represented by the depres-
sion F, and so cut through it, then it is clear that she would have a falling
barometer with a northerly, and a rising barometer with a southerly wind,
but if these disturbances move at a speed of 30 miles an hour, it is clear that
a steamer could not outstrip them, but only keep longer under their influence
when steaming fast to the north-eastward, than when standing still or going
to the westward. Hence we may conclude that when the barometer falls
with a northerly and rises with a southerly wind, as a ship steams to the
eastward, she is experiencing, either the normal state of pressure, or a slowly
moving disturbance.

We give only two instances of the barometer falling in a northerly wind,
with a ship steaming to the westward, and they were both in the great gale
of February 5th. They seem to indicate that the depression was increasing
in intensity faster than the ships could move away from it. Such cases
should be considered as important warnings.

The various extracts which follow the 8th of February, when an
easterly wind set in on the north-eastern part of tho chart, and worked its
way to the south-westward, seem to show that such a state of things does
not check the formation of cyclonic gales off the Coast of America, for they
were still experienced, and judging from the Bermuda data the north-westerly
winds were stronger. The routes which the gales took seemed, however, to
be more northerly, as if the easterly wind interfered with their usual progress
to the north eastward.

Considering the normal state of the wind, it seems clear that in so
far as the direction of the wind is concerned, a sailing ship, bound from England
to America at this season of the year (February), should keep her yards
well in, and gain good way, even though she may get driven to the north-
ward by the south-westerly winds which prevail on the eastern side of tho
Atlantic, for there is good reason to expect that the wind will draw to the
northward of West as she gets over to the westward. The chances of meet-
ing with ice, and other risks, would of course need careful consideration.

The very little progress (360 miles in a direct line N. £ E. from lat.
31° 30' N., long. 72° 30' W., to lat. 38° N., long. 71° 15' W.), made during
the 11 days by No. 38 (the sailing ship Nicotine), bound from Santos to New
York, makes it probable that she would have gained by making her northing
several degrees further to the eastward, where the charts show that a
southerly wind prevailed ; instead of closing with the land, where there was
an almost constant fresh northerly wind.

This paper gives sufficient evidence of the caution needed when a S.E.
wind sets in with a falling barometer. Captains used to the trade know
those gales well.

It is not necessary to repeat here what has already been said in tho Baro-
meter Manual, published by this office, on tho use of the barometer to sea-
men, and its various action depending on a ship's course and speed.

Mr. Meldrum, the meteorologist of tho Mauritius, is pursuing a similar
enquiry with regard to the weather in the Southern Indian Ocean. There
he finds that waves of high and low pressure follow each other on an easterly
com-se at an average speed of about 20 miles per hour.

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 249

It will be remembered that we find these waves to travel at the rate of 30
or 40 miles per hour. When we consider how the northern part of the
North Atlantic is much moro surrounded by land than the southern part of
the Indian Ocean, causing more sudden differences of temperature, we may
well suppose that the differences of pressure will be greater in the North
Atlantic, giving more activity to the changes of weather.

Mr. Meldrum also finds that the hurricanes of the Southern Indian Ocean
take their origin in the district lying between the N.W. monsoon and S.E.
trade, where the barometer is generally lower than to the northward and
southward, just as we have already stated that the winter gales off the coast
of North America take their origin over a lower pressure between two areas
of higher pressure.

(92.) British Isles.— "Weather Charts and Storm Warnings" is the title of
a little book published in 1876, and written by Mr. Robert H. Scott, M.A.,
F.R.S., the well-known Director of the Meteorological Office in London, as
a help and guide to the sailor in using the drum and cone signals, and also
to those studying the weather charts now so generally inserted in the daily
papers. In this book will be found all the latest knowledge which has been
gained relating to the winds. Wo give below a short summary of the most
interesting facts.

It has been found that nearly all our storms are of a rotatory nature, and
travel from S.W. to N.E., or from the westward towards the eastward, as is
evidenced by the fact that out of twenty-three storms felt in Hamburg in the
year 1869, twenty-two had previously passed over some portion of the
British Isles.

These storms are divided into two classes — Cyclonic, in which the wind
revolves against watch-hands around a centre of loiv barometric pressure, and
Anti-cyclonic, in which case the wind revolves with tv at ch- hands, or in tho
same direction as the hands of a watch, around a central area of high baro-
metric pressure. Of these, the latter class are of rare occurrence ; and
whereas the cyclonic storms travel with some rapidity, the anti-cyclonic
travel much more slowly. It is a remarkable fact worth mentioning, that in
some places these storms are noticed to remain as it were stationary ; this
is frequently the case at the entrance of the English Channel, especially in
early autumn, when the storms have been known to remain for days together
in the locality. The centres of the storms generally pass on the northern
side of the British Isles, hence we get more of the S.W., West, and N.W.
winds than of those easterly winds which would be found on the northern
side of the central area of lowest pressure. To this fact we may attribute
the prevalence of westerly winds, shown in the table, drawn up from
observations made at Liverpool. Owing to the smallness of the area
covered by the British Islos, it is seldom that a perfect rotatory gale can bo
traced in its passage, but inferences are drawn from tho observations made
on small portions of such storms.

The best idea which we can gain, for practical purposes, of the winds
which affect us in these islands, is that the air over the Atlantic ocean,
North of latitude 40° N., is constantly flowing from West to East, like a

250

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

gigantic river. If such a river be flowing rapidly, wo often see on its sur-
face small waves, oach with its own eddies and circulations, which are carried
on with tho stream. If we could look at the upper surface of the atmo-
sphere, we should see much the same sort of conditions, except that what
corresponds to tho hollow of the wave would be a patch of defective pressure,
while that which corresponds to the crest of tho wave would be an area of
excessive nressuvo.

(93) Liverpool. — At the former Liverpool Observatory, on the line of the
Docks, an anemometer, the invention of Mr. A. Follett Osier, F.ES., re-
gistered tho force, or rather the motion and direction of the air, for the
5 r ears 1852 — 1855; and the lines thus drawn by the machine itself are re-
duced on the diagram shown. The lines represent tho actual direction and
distance, according to scale, travelled by the wind over the instrument.
Upon looking at these lines, except the general tendency to the eastward,
there is no similarity between the years ; yet, by taking the absolute motion
throughout tho year of the wind from any quarter, and forming a single
diagram, thero is seen to be a remarable identity in them all.

Thus, the main direction of tho wind in 1854 was rather to the southward
of West ; in 1852, it was to N.W. ; and in the other two years, although to
tho West, yet the wind was very devious.

Notwithstanding the wide difference in the line formed in these different
years, yet if the whole amount of wind in each year is arranged graphically
for each point of the compass, they are very similar to each other, showing
that a fixed law prevails ; which is still more evident if the duration of their
prevalence were taken instead of their quantity or velocity. This is shown
on tho wind stars on the diagram.

(9-1.) The total amount of the horizontal motion of the air at the town of
Liverpool, as registered by the anemometer, is also exceedingly alike in
different years, as is shown by these figures : —

Wind in Miles.

Calms.

Rain.

Quantity.

Duration.

1852
1853
1854
1855

114,276
105,9S9
128,283
103,405

19 hours.
27 „
4 „
12 „

31.59 inches.
22.47 „
22.11 „
22.57 „

683 hours.
625 „
537 „
510 „

Sleiu

112,989

15.5 hours.

24.69 inches.

597 hours or
24 days 21 hours.

The seasons have an influence on the velocity of the wind ; thus these ob-
servations show that in Winter (December to February), the mean rate is
15. G miles per hour; Spring ''March to May), 12.1 miles per hour; Summer

THE ANTI-TEADES OE PASSAGE WINDS.

251

Direction.

Miles
per hour.

N.N.E

N.E

E.N.E

-2 |

6.6

11.0

E.S.E

O.t I

S.E

11.6 '

io ;.

S.S.W

S.W

11.5

16.7

1R.9

W.N.W

N.W

19.0

17.4

N.N.W

12.7

7.8

(June to August), 11.8 miles per hour; and Autumn (September to No

vember), 11.5 miles per hour. In the day,

winds are stronger than at night ; thus, at

midnight, it travels 11.2 miles per hour;

6 a.m., 11.8 miles per hour; 9 a.m., 12.9

miles per hour ; noon, 13.2 miles per hour ;

3 p.m., 14.6 miles per hour; 6 p.m., 12.7

miles per hour; and 9 p m, 11.6 miles per

hour.

But the more important general deduc-
tion to be derived from these observations
is the fact, as before alluded to (93), that all
winds having a westerly boaring travel very
much the fastest ; those from South to East
proceed at a much slower rate ; while such
as come from the North and East average
but little more than a third of the rate of
the westerly winds. All this is made clear
by a glance at the column of figures in the preceding table, which gives tho
mean rate in miles per hour of the winds from the various directions ; and
will show further that the wind-roses and figures of Maury's and other charts
do not give an accurate knowledge of this zone of winds, as the westerly
winds, though by them made greatly to predominate, do not show the actual
amount of those winds by, perhaps, one-half or two-thirds of their real
quantity. All the strongest gales recorded in those years come from western
quarters.

(95.) Notwithstanding that the results shown by the Liverpool anemometer
are of the utmost value, and great labour and skill have been exercised in
reducing them to a comprehensive form by Mr. Hartnup, tho able superin-
tendent, yet they contain evidence of the interference of land influences,
as alluded to in (93), page 250. By his last dissertations,* as here shown,
the winds from N.N.W. and S.S.E. were most prevalent, whereas the pre-
valent direction in England is from the West, with the polar current from
the N.E. ; showing that the form of the valley of the Mersey has much to
do with diverting the normal direction of the wind. Still the observations,
as before stated, are most instructive and important.

(96.) There is one remark respecting land observations, which is im-
portant : — " All the synoptic charts hitherto advanced at the Board of Trade
exhibit a marked diminution of force on land compared with that on the sea
coast. Indeed, the coast itself offers similar evidence in its stunted, sloping
trees and comparative barrenness."! The trees in many localities form
excellent wind-vanes, as, by their growth, they show exactly tho direction
from whence the most powerfnl and persistent winds come.

* Report of the British Association, 1856," page 137, &c. ; and also "Report of tho
Direction and Strength of the Wind at the Liverpool Observatory, 1852—1857." It is
from these sources that the above facts and figures are derived.

t Third Number, Meteorological Papers, try Admiral FitzRoy, 1858, page 99

252

OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

It would seem, also, that the land has a tondoncy to draw the wind
towards it, so as in. sorao measure to make it appear that the prevalent
direction is moro across the lino of direction of that coast than is really the
case. Looking at the simultaneous observations now daily collected and
published for a great oxtent of coast, this is very apparent. All these argu-
ments tend to lesson the value, in some degree, of those extended and
accurato records of the wind on land. The mean direction of the wind,
derived from land observations, however, as given by Kamtz and Dovo, is as
follows : —

England S. 65° W.

France and Holland . . S. 88° W.
Germany S. 76° W.

Denmark S. G2° W.

Sweden S. 77° AV.

N. part of United States S. 86° W.

(97.) English Channel. — The following are the results of fifteen con-
secutive year's observations upon the wind, taken by M. Nell de Bieaute,
at the Chapelle, near Dieppe, at an elevation of 410 feet above the sea : —

Direction of
the Wind.

Mean Number
of Days.

Maximum.

Minimum.

South.
SW.
West.
N.W.
North.
N.E.
East.
S.E.

37
93
48
52
36
41
23
31

In 1828— 54 daj-s.
1823—121 „
1830— 72 „

1825— 72 „

1819— 56 „

1826— 54 „

1820— 41 „
1818— 46 „

1820 and 1825-28 days.
1831—67 „
1829—31 „
1832-38 „
1821—21 „
1828-22 „
1821—12 „
1827—19 „

Total, 361 days.

From this table the following conclusions may be drawn : —
In the 365 days of the year there are about 361 of wind, and 4 or 5 of dead calm.
If the horizon is divided into four equal parts, there will be —
135 days with the wind between South and West,*

04 ., „ between West and North,

71 „ „ between North and East,

Gl „ „ between East and South,

The maximum of winds between S. and W. takes place in November and Dee.

The minimum ,, „ May and June.

The maximum of winds between W. and N. takes place in July and August.

The minimum „ „ October and December

The maximum of winds between N. and E. takes place in May and June.

The minimum „ „ October and November.

The maximum of winds between E. and S. takes place in December and June.

The minimum „ „ June and January.

i * Upon comparing this direction of West to Sovrth with the Liverpool observation*, ns
given in the diagrams, &c, on page 230, the disturbing action of the land will be evident.

THE ANTI-TRADES OE PASSAGE WINDS. 253

Moderate winds from North and N.E. live those which bring fine weather. In
summer the N.E. wind blows more particularly in the afternoon ; in the morning the
wind is S.E., a slight breeze, and towards noon it changes quickly to N.E. ; then it
freshens, and towards the evening it sinks ; at night it is calm, and the coolness con-
denses the vapours. When this condensation does not take place, it is a sign of a
change of wind.

Dead calms are of rare occurrence, and do not last long, except during summer.
When they occur in winter, it is regarded as a precursor of bad weather. It is
always, in reality, an indication of a change iu the direction of the wind.

(98.) The foregoing remarks will bo ample for the purpose of giving tho
sailor an idea of the relative duration, force, and direction of the wind in
that part of the Atlantic. Reverting to the observation made on page 250,
it may be re-stated,, that from the variable nature of its changes, and tho
great difference that is found to occur between one period and another, yet
when these are combined in a long series of observations there is great
similarity ; and this will be accounted for in a measure by the researches
of our own and the U. S. Meteorological Offices, which have shown that
there is a systematic progress of air from the westwai-d to the eastward in
our latitudes, see pp. 243 — 240 and pp. 249 — 250. For the service of the
mariner, in foretelling what weather is approaching, he is referred to
Admiral FitzRoy's "Barometer Manual," or its modern representative,
"Instructions in the use of Meteorological Instruments," issued by the
Meteorological Office in 1875, and to "Weather Charts and Storm
Warnings," a little work published in 1876, and edited by Robert H. Scott,
M.A., F.R.S., &c, the present Director of the Meteorological Office.

The diagrams adjoining have been drawn up from the Pilot Charts in the
same manner as those given on p. 201, to illustrate the trade winds. They
are selected from those parts of the ocean most generally traversed by ships
crossing it in the strength of these westerly winds. Their localities are
shown by the latitude and longitude assigned to such diagram, which thus
represents the,, wind in the region for 150 miles around that position. But,
as will be seen at a glance, there is a great similarity in the general features
of them all.

The principal upon which these wind-roses are constructed is explained on
page 200 (43) ; and the six examples there given are analyzed in that page.
The remark in the note (*) should be particularly attended to in connection
with the observations in these anti-trade winds, as it is clearly futile to
endeavour to lay down any refined rule for their practical application. As
there certainly is a doubt as to the accuracy of the recorded direction of the
wind to the extent of two points— to lay down rules for sailing over any
area with a course limited to a few degrees, certainly appears to be a need-
less refinement with the present data to argue upon, but in future years
extended knowledge may make it possible to lay down such rules.

(99.) In comparing these observations, recorded by Mr. Osier's self-
registering wind-guage at Liverpool, as shown in page 251, with the second
diagram adjoining, — that for lat. 52° N., and long 15° W., or off the West

N. A. O. 2 L

25-1 . OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

coast of Ireland, where wo might expect to find some degree of similarity,
there appears to be scarcely any accordance at first sight. But upon infer-
ring to the ovidence of the greater force of the westerly winds over the
easterly, as shown by the figures (94), page 251, we arrive at a reason why
this apparent discrepancy exists. If the arrows on the West (or windward)
side of theso diagrams were enlarged in proportion to the relative force, and
the easterly arrows diminished in like manner, there would be a much
nearer approximation. This comparison will demonstrate how the direction
of the valley of the Mersey, and the line of docks and walls at Liverpool
around the observatory, have diverted the true direction of the winds. For
the purpose of still further exemplifying this, the mean of the observations
recorded at Birmingham for four years, by another anemometer of Mr.
Osier's, is given. Although this is inland, and necessarily subject to land
influences, the westerly preponderance is clearly marked, and serves to
bear out the modern discovery of the progress of cyclonic disturbances
across the British Isles from West to East, their centres generally passing
North of our island.

The diagrams, as we give them, or the figures in Maury's chart, must bo
studied, should any greater exactness in the relative duration of any wind
be required than can be acquired at a cursory glance ; and in the former
case, as was before explained, the length of the award applied to the scale
at the bottom of the plate will give the exact ratio per cent, of the wind
represented by that arrow.

One general remark only need be given ; it is, that about the Azores the
greatest irregularity in the direction of the wind appears to occur in these
latitudes ; during the summer months the wind is frequently from northern
quarters, driving before it the colder water from the polar regions, and thus
abnormally reducing the temperature. Besides this, there appears to be a
conflict between this southern and western tendency, and the Trade which is
established to the West of them.

(100.) Bay of Biscay. — The winds in the northern part of the Bay of Biscay
do not differ greatly from those experienced in the entrance of the English
Channel, and therefore the same remarks are applicable to each. As we
approach the head of the bight, however, it is necessary to use great caution,
and observe all indications of the change of the wind.

In summer, the reigning winds on the coast at the head or S.E. angle of
the bay, are those from N.E. and East, which become North and N.N.W. in
the Gulf of Bilbao. These alternate with N.W. and West winds, which
generally drop at night, during which they are replaced by the land breeze.
In autumn southerly winds prevail, and are usually very violent. They last
for two or three days, and sometimes for eight or nine, the weather being
clear ; but as soon as they shift to S.S.W., the sky becomes covered with
heavy clouds, and almost immediately the " vendavale " or dirty weather
from S.W. and West comes on. These, after some days' duration, pass
N.W., with heavy rains and a stronger sea. This wind, much dreaded by
seamen, from the heavy surf which it sends in, and because it debars en-
trance to the few harbours on the Biscayan coast, is very lasting. It is not
uncommon to find it continue for fifteen days consecutively, with only two or

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. " 255

three days of even moderate weather. But with this N.W. wind there is no
fear of being drifted on to the coast, as it is never entirely hidden, and there
are sufficiently clear intervals to allow you to make out the land.

It is not so with North and N.N.E. winds ; they blow perpendicularly to
the coast, and will not allow ships embayed to clear off shore. They com-
pletely hide the land, and are accompanied by much rain and hail, whtch
follow each other almost without interruption. They geneially last but a
short time, and occur between the middle of December and the end of Febru-
ary, or the beginning of March.

1'he N.E. wind is not frequent in summer, but it is accompanied by thick
fogs, in which case it blows heavily for two or three days, and is then called
nord-este pardo (the dirty noith-easter). When it shifts to the S.E. by the
East, you should as far as possible keep in with the coast, because the wind
wiil shortly come from South. When the South wind, after lasting two or
three days, drifts to 8.W., either, get off the land or else enter some harbour,
because the N.W. wind will soon come on.

In the spring the winds are generally very, light, and nearly always from
N.W. or S.W., accompanied by rain. In some years these winds last until
July.

The ocean-swell from the N.W., coming from the open Atlantic, is the
heaviest and most dangerous on this coast ; it penetrates every harbour and
creek, and there is no shelter from the waves in any of them until the bars
at the entrances become uncovered by the ebb tide. This dangerous state of
the sea commences in the middle of September or beginning of October, and,
with slight interruption, it continues through two-thirds of the year. This
swell is almost always a precursor of the wind from that direction, and
sometimes precedes it by twenty-four hours. Sometimes in the summer
season enormous waves are seen to set in during perfectly calm and serene
weather. They close every harbour, and dash on the coast like enormous
mountains of water, and break on the outlying banks with 20 to 40 fathoms
water over them. It is needless to state that these are most dangerous to a
ship close in with the shore. Captain FitzRoy states that they overtopped
the mainyard of the Thetis, 56 ft. above the water-line.

In August there is a danger of encountering a peculiar squall or tornado,
called on the Biscayan coast galcrna. . It is formed on the land by the sun's
heat, and shifts by the S.AV. ; the horizon becomes obscured, and it quickly
increases in strength as it passes to N.W. Every precaution should be
taken against them ; they are excessively violent, and last threo or four
hours. They bring rain, and sink at night in the N.W. Sometimes, espe-
cially in summer, the gahma is a sudden shift from South to N.W. without
any notice, and in this case is very dangerous. It is also common to seo
winds blowing at the same time from South and N.W., only separated by a
narrow belt of calm between the heavy waves they send up.

The South wind is foretold by the atmosphere being so clear that the dis-
tant lands and inland peaks become very distinct, and apparently close-to.
If the high lands are very clear and distinct, with the wind from East, and
a line of ashy- coloured clouds should be seen on the peaks, the South wind
is coming on. The local sailors also can foretell the approach by the cloud 3

25C OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

of dust raised inland, or by tho direction of tho smoke from the dwellings
oil 3horo.

(101.) North Coast of Spain.— About Santando the prevalent winds in
winter are between South and N.W. by the West. With southerly winds tho
atmosphere remains clear for a few days, but they are then considered to be tho
precursors of N.W. winds. They commence in October and cease in Febru-
ary. When South winds bring clouds and rain they shift soon to S.W., and
thou rapidly to West, always accompanied by fogs, and terminate at N.W.,
blowing violently, and raising a heavy sea with strong gusts. When they
are at N.W. there are clear intervals which allow tho sailor to make out his
position on tho coast.

The heaviest gales generally commence at South very violent, and they are
tho more strong according as the sky is clearest. When it is overcast you
may look for it from N.W. with squalls.

If the N.W. wind should shift suddenly to North and N.N.E. it becomes
very dangerous, because it will not allow vessels to find shelter, on account
of tho rapidity with which it closes all the harbours.

If after two or three days of northerly wind it returns to W. by the N. W.,
it will increase in that direction ; but if it shifts to the N.E. the weather will
be more quiet, and there may be some days of fine weather. When, after
a continuation of N.E. winds, it should shift to S.E. by the East, you may
expect southerly winds soon, and with them bad weather again. In autumn
there is a continuation of fine weather, especially after the bad weather
which usually accompanies the equinoxes.

The spring is almost always a continuation of the winter, during which
the winds from down the coast prevail ; they are not so strong, but the ac-
companying rains are more abundant.

In summer, which generally begins in July, the prevalent wind is from
N.E. Close in with the land they haul to seaward, while the sun is up, on
the horizon, and to the land during the night.

The barometer rises with winds from W. to N.E. by the North, and falls
with all other winds.

We have no trustworthy observations on the prevailing winds on the coast
of Portugal, as affected by local circumstances.

(102.) America. — Gulf and River of St. Lawrence. — Rear-Admiral
Bayfield states that, during the navigable season, the prevailing winds are
either directly up or directly down the estuar} 7 of the St. Lawrence, following
the course of the chains of high lauds on either side of tho great valley of
the river. Thus, a S.E. wind in the gulf becomes E.S.E. between Anticosti
and the South coast, E.N.E. above Point de Monts, and N.E. above Green
Island. The westerly winds do not appear to bo so much guided in direc-
tion by tho high lands, excepting along the South coast, where a W.S.W.
wind at tho Isle Bic has been seen to become West, W.N.W., and N.W.,
on running down along tho high and curved South coast, until it became
a N.N.W. wind at Capo Gaspe. These winds frequently blow strong for
three or four days in succession ; the westerly winds being almost always
accompanied with fine, dry, clear, and sunny weather; tho easterly winds
as frequently with the contrary, cold, wet, and foggy. In the spring tl

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 257

easterly winds prevail most, frequently blowing for several weeks in succes-
sion. As the summer advances, the westerly winds become more frequent,
and the S.W. wind may be said to bo the prevailing wind in summer, in all
parts of the river and gulf. Light South winds take place occasionally ;
but North winds are not common in summer, although they sometimes
occur. Steady North winds do not blow frequently beforo September,
excepting for a few hours at a time, when they generally succeed easterly
winds which have died away to a calm, forming the commencement of
strong winds, and usually veering to the S.W. The N.W. wind is dry, with
bright clear sky, flying clouds, and showers. After the autumnal equinox,
winds to the northward of West become more common, and are then often
strong steady winds of considerable dui'ation. In the months of October
and November, the N.W. wind frequently blows with great violence, in
heavy squalls, with passing showers of hail and snow, and attended with
sharp frost.

Thunder storms are not uncommon in July and August ; they seldom last
above an hour or two, but the wind proceeding from them is, in general,
violent and sudden, particularly when near the mountainous part of the
coast ; sail should,, therefore, be fully and quickly reduced on their ap-
proach.

Strong winds seldom veer from one quarter of the compass to another
directly or nearly contrary ; in general thoy die away by degrees to a calm,
and are succeeded by a wind in the opposite direction. It is not here meant
that they may not veer to the amount of several points. N W. winds seldom
veer round by North and N.E. to East and S.E. ; but they do frequently, by
degi'ees, to the S.W., after becoming moderate. S.W. winds seldom veer
by the N.W. and North to the eastward, but sometimes by the South to
S.E. and East. Easterly winds generally decreaso to a calm, succeeded by
a wind from the opposite direction.

In the fine weather, westerly winds of summer, a fresh top-gallant breeze
will often decrease to a light breeze or calm at night, and spring up again
from the same quarter on the following morning ; under these circumstances
only, may a land-breeze off the North coast be called for. The same lias
been observed of the South coast also, but not so decidedly, nor extending
so far off shore. Admiral Bayfield adds, " I have occasionally carried tho
North land-wind nearly over to the South coast just before daylight; but
have never observed the South land-wind extend more than 5 or miles oif,
and that very rarely. Under the same circumstances, that is, with a ;!':••
weather westerly wind going down with the sun, a S.W land- breeze will
frequently be found blowing off the North coast of Anticosti at night «uid
during the early part of the morning. If, however, the wathcr bo not
settled fair, and the wind does not fall with the sun, it will usually prove
worse than useless to run a vessel close in-shore at night m the hope of a
breeze off the land. Such is tho usual course of the winds in common
seasons, in which a very heavy gale of wind will probably not be experienced
from May to October, although close-reefed topsail breezes are usually com-
mon enough. Occasionally, however, there are years, the character of which
is decidedly stormy. Gales of wind, of considerable strength, then l*ollo\V
p "i> othfvr in q liek pufcession, mid from opposite quarters.

258 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

Nova Scotia. — The prevailing winds on all the coast are from W.S.W.
to SAN'., nearly as steady as trade winds, excepting that during the summer
months ihey are rather more southerly, accompanied with but little inter-
mission by fog, which requires a noi'th-westerly wind to disperse it. It is,
therefore, recommended not to leave an anchorage without making arrange-
ments for reaching another before dark; or with appearances of a fog coming
on, which, with a S.W. wind, is so sudden, that you are unawares enveloped
in it ; nor to keep at sea during the night, if it can be avoided. Whenever
the wind blows directly off the land the fog is soon dispersed.

Sable Island. — In the spring and summer months dense fogs or rain
almost always accompany all winds from the sea, from E.N.E., round South,
to W.S.W. In winter, the rain is frequently replaced by snow. During
the autumnal and winter months, winds from between North and West
become more frequent, and, being off the land, are always accompanied
with clear weather.

Strong gales of wind do not often occur in May, June, or July ; but after
the middle of August they are often of great strength, and it becomes the
more necessary to attend carefully to the indications of the barometer.
Strong winds from East, round South, to W.S.W., are always accompanied
by a falling barometer. When, therefore, these winds begin to abate, and
the barometer at the same time ceases to fall, a change of wind, more or less
sudden, to the opposite direction may be expected, with a rising barometer
and fine weather ; and if it be winter, with intense frost, coating the vessel,
her sails, and rigging, with ice.

Again, a high barometer, stationary or beginning to fall, indicates that a
S.E. or S.W. wind, with accompanying rain and fog, is not far distant ; and
if, at the same time, there bo a bank of clouds rising above the north-
western horizon, the indication is certain.

South Carolina, &c. — About this coast, if the wind blows hard from the
N.E. quarter, without rain, it commonly continues so for some time, perhaps
three or four days ; but, if such winds are attended with rain, they generally
shift to the East, E.S.E., and S.E. S.E. winds blow right in on the coast;
but they seldom blow dry, or continue long. In six, eight, or ten hours
after their commencement, the sky begins to look dirty, which soon produces
rain. When it comes to blow and rain, very hard, you may be sure the wind
will fly round to the N.W. quarter, and blow hard for twenty or thirty
hours, with a clear sky.

North-west winds are always attended with clear weather; they some-
times blow very hard, but seldom for longer than thirty hours. The most
lasting winds are those which blow from the S.S.W. and W.N.W., and from
tho North to the E.N.E. Tho weather is most settled when the wind is in
any of these quarters.

In summer time thunder-gusts are very common on this coast ; they always
come from the N.W. quarter, and are sometimes so heavy that no canvas
can withstand their fury ; they come on so suddenly, that the greatest pre-
caution is necessary to guard against tho effects of their violence.

IJt.Lanrie.H? S3. Fleet Stnitaondon.

( 259 )

8.— HURRICANES.

(103.) Among the most extraordinary phenomena of nature may be classed
those tremendous meteors, the hurricanes and tornadoes of the tropical
regions. Until within a recent period they were very imperfectly under-
stood, and were only regarded as terrible convulsions of the serial system,
when all order seemed to bo broken up. But these, like many other appa-
rent anomalies in nature, have been found reducible to system; and their
various seemingly capricious motions all subject to general rules, which, in
this case, have been aptly denominated " The Laiv of Storms."

The discussions on the progressive nature of hurricanes appear to have
originated in a paper, entitled, "Remarks on the Prevailing Storms of the
Atlantic Coast of the North American States, by William C Kedheld, of the
City of New York," 1831, which has proved to be a very important and
valuable addition to nautical literature. The subject, adopting the " Eod-
field Theory," has since been amplified and illustrated by the late Lieutenant-
Colonel (afterwards Sir) William Eeid, E.E. and C.B.,* Governor of the
Bermudas and of Malta, in his beautiful volume, bearing for tho title, " An
Attempt to Develop the Law of Storms by means of Facts, arranged accord-
ing to Place and Time, and hence to point out a Cause for tho Variable
Winds, with a view to practical use in Navigation," &c, 1838. As con-
nected with this subject, the names of Eedfield and Eeid will be im-
perishable, f

We say that the discussion appears to have originated in tho before-
mentioned works ; but, without deciding on the claims of priority, it must
be mentioned that, besides the names of Eeid and Eedfield, those of Mr.
Piddington, at Calcutta ; of Dr. Thorn, and more recently Professor Meldrum,
in the Indian Ocean; of Mr. Espy, in America; and of Professor Dove, at
Berlin, must be enrolled with them, as the primary instigators of the enquiry
into the origin and nature of storms. Mr. Piddington's " Hornbook " contains
the most valuable information on this important topic.

There are various names applied to these storms ; Cyclones, Eevolving
Storms, Hurricanes, Tornadoes (Spanish and expressive "turned"), Ty-
phoons, &e. ; but all are meant to describe the same thing.

In the foregoing remarks on the winds, on pages 174, 175, the general

* The origin of the relvolving theory has hcen attributed to others earlier in the field
than Redfield and Eeid. Among others, to Colonel Capper, who published his well known
■work on winds and monsoons, in 1801 ; to Romme, a French author, in 1S0G ; anJ to
several others. But these all fell short of establishing the law, inasmuch as they only
noticed the shifting eharater of the winds in one spot, and did not reach the conclusion
that these shifts had an invariable character, and that the whole meteor was progressive.

f " My attention was first directed to the subject from my having been employed at
Barbadoes in re-establishing the Government buildings blown down in the hurricane of
1831 ; when, from the violence of the wind, 1,477 persons lost their lives in the thort space
of seven hours. I was iuduccd to search everywhere for accounts of previous storms, in
the hope of learning something of theip causes and mode of action."— Eeid, "Law of
Storms."

260 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

theory of atmospheric circulation is described ; and in (19 and (20), p. 184,
is a reswne of the whole, which will show the localities in which these phe-
nomena occur. The subject is also illustrated by the plates in this volume.

(101.) Although the "Law of Storms" is now fully recognized, yet
opinion is stili divided as to tho real character and condition of these ro-
markublo meteors. Reid, Eedfield, and others, contend that they are real
vortices — currents of air revolving round a progressive centre; others, as Thorn,
and Meldi'um. contend that the wind blows in spirals around this centre; Epsy,
that tho wind blows toward the centre ; others, again, consider that the vertical
motion of tho air will explain many of the phenomena. It is also argued
that, instead of a circle, the form of the storm is elongated, ellipsoidal, or
even straight, moving -broadside onwards. Jinman considers that, as the air
is blowing away from one area, another current necessarily blows towards
and into that area, causing the peculiar features of these hurricanes. It
would bo out of place, and far too discursive for this work, to discuss these
various propositions. They many readily be found in the numerous works
extant.

(105.) Capt. George Jinman thus expounds his views : — Every hurricane
or gale has two distinct sides, formed by two currents of air flowing in op-
posite directions, and crossing each other at two points. The two sides are
not always equally developed at the earth's surface — that is, the one often
blows harder than the other ; it is but seldom, in fact, that the winds in the
two sides are equal in force. The greatest force will be found at either
confluence, but rarely of equal force at both. It may blow with hurricane
violence at Luth confluences, and only a moderate gale at the sides. *

The centro of a storm is not the most dangerous part. There are times
in which it would be possible for a steam-ship to pass from one side of the
gale to another, across the centre, and yet not experience more than a
moderate gale, whilst vessels on either side of her, under tho confluences,
may be exposed to violent hurricanes. A vessel may become embayed, as it
were, in a storm, in such a position that it may be almost impossible for her
to escape altogether uninjured. There are many positions, indeed, in which
a ship, especially a dull sailing one, may be overtaken, and be unable to
escape. One confluence is generally more distinctly marked than the other,
especially in extra-tropical latitudes ; so much so, indeed, that, for a long
time I imagined that there was but one ; which at that time I named the centre-
line, or core of the gale. The one on the West side of tho centre, in either
hemisphere, is always more marked than the one on the East side.
When I say more marked, I mean that the meeting of the two winds may be
seen more distinctly ; as, for instance, in the North Atlantic, when the wind
flics from S.W. to N.W. This takes place at the confluence on the West
side of the centre. On the East side, where the winds forming a confluence
are from the S.E. and S.AV., their meeting is not so distinctly marked. The
wind seldom flies from S.E. to S.W. ; it more usually veers, but rather more
quickly than at any other part of the storm. The reason is sinrply this :

* i am satisfied that many of those which have heen described hy some writers as
double hurricanes or cyclones, were nothing more than the two confluences of the same
storm.

HURRICANES. 261

the S.E. and S."W. winds, flowing out from the equator, are more highly
charged with vapour, and aro warmer than a westerly or northerly wind,
and consequently have a greater tendency to ascend and to mix with each
other. A N.W. wind, on tho contrary, is a dense, cold wind — a descending
wind ; and on coming in contact with a S.W. wind it condenses tho vapour
which the latter has taken up, thus producing torrents of rain at their
junction. Here we have one material proof that the winds do not blow in
circles ; for, on passing from one wind into another, as from a S.W. into a
N.W., a long bank of nimbus (rain-cloud) may often be seen stretching
away from S.W. to N.E., or with the wind just left, and at right angles to
the wind entered, before which it is being rapidly driven ; showing dis-
tinctly that the two winds are in contact, and blowing at right angles to each
other. This could not be the case if the wind blew in. circles— if it was one
continuous current of air blowing round a centre.

(106.) Dr. Milne Home, President of the Council of the Scottish Me-
teorological Society, remarks : * — With regard to this cyclone (August, 1870,
see p. 283), there can be no doubt that the winds which formed it were ro-
tating round a central area. It was, in fact, a gigantic whirlwind. The
way in which the wind veered at all the places over which it passed, cannot
be explained on any other supposition. The depression of the barometer
within the area of tho whirlwind, and the circumstance that the depression
was greatest everywhere at or near the centre, also indicates another impor-
tant feature, viz., that there was a diminished atmospheric pressure w T ithin
the whole area of the cyclone, and most of all at the centre.

In a paper published in the Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society
for March, 1869, it was pointed out that the whirls which frequently occur
m the atmosphere, known as water-spouts, whirlwinds, and dust storms, aro
formed by currents of air ascending from the earth's surface spirally and
rotating at the same time. These ascending currents have been distinctly
noticed by various articles (such as hay, straw, branches of trees, and in
some cases animals) being seen to be carried up in tho interior of the whirl-
ing cylinder. If it were possible to have an aneroid in the interior of it,
a depression indicating diminished atmospheric pressure would most pro-
bably be observable. In that paper it was attempted to be shown that
cyclones had many features in common with water-spouts, dust storms, and
whirlwinds. It appears that this West India cyclone, in some of its features,
strengthens the spiral theory advocated by Mr. Meldrum.

The diminished weight of the atmosphere at the places passed over by tho
cyclone may bo accounted for by tho suction which draws air towards it from
all quarters and the effect of which is necessarily to produce revolving cur-
rents ascending spirally towards tho place is the upper regions of the atmo-
sphere where a vacuum or great rarefaction originated.

In the paper before referred to a description of a water-spout was given
which was seen to extend upward to a height of 1,700 feet, and of several
dust storms which were more than double that height. If there be a closo
analogy between cyclones and these smaller whirls, it may be inferred that
the gigantic whirls composing the former are greatly higher, or perhaps
several miles in height, and consequently the direction of the wiod
n. a. o. 2 m

2G2 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS

experienced during a cyclone may not always agreo with tho direction ot
the progress of tho scud above, which may be accounted for by the spiral
column not rising perpendicularly in the air.

Tho most difficult part of tho cyclone theory remains to be mentioned.
What causes tho suction to which tho indraught of air may bo attributed ?
What determines the course which all these West India cyclones take in
their passage over the earth's surface ? tho last question is the less difficult
of the two. If the cyclones aro formed, as they appear to be, in the Atlantic
Ocean, a little to the North of the equator, it is evident that they must
move in the first instance to the westward, because the general atmospheric
current is in that direction. When they reach the West India Islands they
get into another current, which carries them first N.W., then North, and
ultimately N.E.

But how is the whirling cylindrical column of a cyclone formed ? There
are several ways in which a whirl may be formed. (1.) If a tub is filled
with water, and a small orifice is made in the bottom, the water in tho tub
as it runs out rotates. At first only the part over and near the orifice ro-
tates, but ultimately the rotation extends to more distant parts. (2.) If a
stream of water is made to flow through a body of water which is quiescent,
whirls or eddies will be formed which consist of columns more or less vertical.
They may be seen any day in rivers where the current passes a point of rock
projecting into the stream, and when that current comes in contact with the
body of the water sheltered by the rock. These eddies are still more com-
mon where two currents, running in different directions, touch one another ;
along the line which separates them whirls are formed, the rotation being
in the direction of tho stronger stream, and its progressive motion being also
in the same direction. (3.) If a long glass cylinder is immersed a little way
into a body of water, and the air is suddenly exhausted or rarefied by drain-
ing it out at tho top of tho cylinder, the water rises, and in rising rotates.
This has been distinctly seen in the case of dust storms, water-spouts, and
whirlwinds.

With regard to tho cause of the air rising. There must e frequently, in
the upper regions of the equatorial atmosphere, condensations of the warm
vapours which aro caniod up from the surface of the ocean by the ascending
atrial currents. These condensations will produce great rarefaction, and
that rarefaction will draw towards it air from tho lower regions of tho atmo-
sphere, and in drawing it will probably cause rotation *

(107.) One moro remark may suffice Is it not possible, nay, probable,
that each of these theories may be correct as to individual cyclones, which
may bo (and aro of such varied character as not to bo reducible in all cases
to a fixed rule ? However, it is certain that in many examples the true re-
volving storm is the proper appellation, and the rules now applied will give
the means of avoiding their fury.

* To causci this rotation the ascending current would appear to require a limited space
to pass through, and this hole, as it were, might ho formed at a point of contact of an upper
and under strata of three strata of air. That it is possible for patches of air of different
consistences to exist side by side, has been proved by the recent fog-signal experiments car-
ried on by tho Trinity House.— En.

HUKRICANES. 263

In our description of the winds, &c., pages 174 — 176, wo gave the theory
that has been universally received as the cause of the trade winds and their
attendant phenomena in the general atmospheric currents.

(108.) From all the investigations on the subject, the following conclusions
have been arrived at. The hurricane, or rotary storm, commences within
the tropics, on either side of the equator ; that in North latitude, the motion
of the revolving circle is from right to left, past the North, or against the sun, i.e.,
in the opposite direction to the hands of a watch, and that the storm pro-
gresses to the "W.N. W., N.W., North, forming a cycloidal curve in about 30°
North hit., and runs off to the N.E.

South of the Equator, or in the southern hemisphere, this rule is reversed,
the storm revolving from left to right, or with watch hands, and passing onwards
in a S. \V., and finally in a S.E. course.

The diameter of these circular vortices varies from 40 to 50, or even 1,000
miles, probably increasing in size in their onward progress. Their rate of
travelling varies from 3 to 50 miles per hour.

There are numerous minor peculiarities connected with these cyclones,
which will bo gathered from the subsequent remarks. But the great point
with the mariner is to avoid their fury ; and, having ascertained their cha-
racter and his relative position on the meteor, to make the best course for
getting away from it. Sir "William Reid's "Law" is simple, and will bo
best given in his own words.

(109.) Sir W. Reikis Rule for laying Ships to in Hurricanes. — That tack on
which a ship should be laid to in a hurricane has hitherto been a problem to
be solved, and is one which seamen have long considered important to have
explained.

In these tempests, when a vessel is laying-to, and the wind veers by the
ship's head, she is in danger of getting stern-way, even when no sail is set ;
for in a hurricane the wind's force upon the masts and yards alone will pro-
duce this effect should the wind veer ahead ; and it is supposed that vessels
have often foundered from this cause.

When the wind veers aft, as it is called, or by the stern, this danger is
avoided, and a ship then comes up to the wind, instead of having to break
off from it.

(110.) If great storms obey fixed laws, and the explanation of them in this
work be the true one, then the rule for laying a ship-to follows like the
corollary of a problem already solved. In order to define the two sides of a
storm, that side will bo called the right-hand semi-circlo which is on the
right of a storm's course, as wo look in the direction in which it is moving,
j ust as we speak of the right bank of a river.

The rule for laying a ship-to will be, when in the right-hand semi-circle to
leave-to on the starboard tack, and ichen in the left-hand semi-circle to heave-to on
the port tack in both hemispheres."*

(111.) Mr. Eedfield says :— " At stations within the tropics, the changes of
wind, during the passage of the hurricane, are sometimes known to exceed

* " An attempt to Develop the Law of Storms," 3rd edition, 1850, page 509 ; and " Tho
Progress, &c., of the Law of Storma and of • Variable "Winds," 1849, page 25.

261

OBSEItVATIONS ON VVIND3.

those which pertain to the passage of a regular circuit of wind ; these
changes sometimes running through the entire circuit of the compass, and
even more. Again, they have been known to shift backward and forward, in
alternate and fitful changes, when near the crisis of the storm. Those phe-
nomena, so far from disproving the rotativo character of these gales, only
prove something more, and afford, at least, probable evidence in support of
one or both of the following positions: — 1. That high land and other ob-
structions often produce sudden and fitful gusts and changes in these violent
winds. 2. That, in accordance with our observations of minor vortices, tho
action of rotation is often impelled, excentrically, around a smaller circuit,
in the interior of the advancing storm.

" In the northern inter-tropical latitudes the recession or departure of tho
south-eastern limb of the storm appears to be followed, not unfrequently,
by strong squalls or gusts from the S.E., this being tho true course of the
general trade wind that determines the track of the storm. These gusts, or
squalls, if mistaken for tho regular action of the hurricane, may occasion
erroneous deductions in regard to the course of the storm."

At stations apparently within the regular track of tho storm, there will
sometimes be an absence of violent wind ; or the violence will pertain to
only one of the phases, which the storm presents, in its regular course over
such locality.

"Some storms are interrupted in their development by the near approach
of another storm. Care must be taken, therefore, not to mistake the N.E.
wind of a storm whose north-western limb is thus intercepted by a border-
ing storm, and which hence is sometimes followed by the natural current of
air from the S.W. quarter, for the changes that pertain to the centre of tho
gale."

(112.) The Season which is most liable to these visitations is between
July and October; they are comparatively rare during other months,
though not entirely unknown. The following is a list of 113, arranged in
tho months they occurred in the West Indies, taken from Mr. Birt's Hand-
Book :—

Jan.

Feb.

Mar

Apr.

May

June

July

Auaf.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov
1

Dec.
2

Total.
113

(113.) The Barometer will be found an unerring indicator of tho approach
of these meteors, provided proper attention be paid to its monitions. As a
general law, the following will be its usual vibrations : — Just previous to
the commencement of the hurricane, the mercury will suddenly rise above
its ordinary level ;* soon after it will begin to fall, and the wind probably
rises, showing that the storm has begun. The mercurial column then begins
to descend, rapidly at first, and then more slowly, till the centre of the hur-
ricane has passed over, when it begins gradually to rise, and the reverse of
the commencement ensues ; it attains a higher level, and then as suddenly
falls to the mean height. This is supposing the whole of the moteor to pass

"Reid," page 421.

HURRICANES. 265

over, and the centre to be crossed; the mercury showing the quantity of
atmosphere above. Upon a little consideration, it will be evident that the
form of the surface of the revolving storm, or the section of the vortex, is
described by the variations, in the barometric column. It by no means
follows that, practically, this will always be found : a ship may only skirt
the exterior of the storm, and, consequently, the mercury will only rise, or
oscillate, according to tho relative position of the hurricane and the ship ;
but it may be taken as an indication, when the barometer begins slowly to
rise, after being depressed, that the greatest danger has passed over, or that
the ship is steering away from it. Therefore, should there be any sudden
change in the barometer, either rising or falling, its indications should never
be neglected, especially during the period, and in the regions, subject to
these storms.* The barometer sometimes sinks two inches during the pro-
gress of a hurricane.

One great advantage in the Aneroid barometer is, that its variations occur
simultaneously with their causes. In the mercurial barometer the friction
of the mercury on the tube, and other reasons, concur to make the column
rise or fall at some time after the change has occurred. It this the Aneroid
barometer possesses great advantage, and it has another very great claim to
notice — that it clearly shows very minute changes, which the oscillation or
pumping motion of the mercury in very bad weather will not allow to be
estimated.

(114.) The main object of the navigator, when assailed by a hurricane,
should be to keep his vessel clear of the centre of rotation, as there tho strength
of the wind concentrates, sudden shifts take place, and heavy and confused
seas break. It is obvious that the nearer the vortex is approached the
quicker the shift of wind will be, and vice versa.

The centre of the storm is most likely to be different at various times; but
it is certain that, in some cases, a certain interval occurs, and this is of con-
siderable extent ; while in others it has been thought that there is no calm
or open space free from impetuosity. At all events, it must naturally bo
supposed, that the nearer the proximity of the centre the greater must bo
the force of the wind, and its more quickly shifting its direction.

Lieutenant Evans remarks that, " When fairly under the dominion or
power of the storm, and in any part of the area, except in tho immediate
vicinage of the centre of rotation, a ship will not be liable to be taken aback;
because, if scudding, she would not intersect the wind ; and, if she bo
lying-to, it will either break her off or draw aft gradually, according to tho

* In connection with barometric changes, we may here advert to the constitution of tho
atmosphere, as mentioned on page 180. To that statement we will add the conclusions,
arrived at by Professor Dove, of Berlin, from his observations. In the northern hemi-
sphere, the barometer falls during E.S.E. and East winds, passing from falling to rising
during S.W., rises with W.N.W. and North, and has its maximum rise with N.E. wind.

The thermometer rises with E.S.E. and South winds, has its maximum with S.W,, falls
with W.N.W. and North, and its maximum at N.E.

Tho elasticity of vapour increases with E.S.E. and South winds, has its maximum at
S.W., and diminishes during the wind's progress by West and N.W. to North; at N.E.
it has a minimum.

■hr

266 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

tack she is on ; but the caso may bo different under certain circumstances.
Most ships are dismasted at the crisis ; that is to say, at the time the -wind
blows strongest, which is always on the nearest approach from the centre to
any given position. The point at which the wind of the hurricane commences,
if observed, will make known to the observer the verge under which he is
placed.

(115.) Prognostics. — "With that threatening aspect of the sky which gene-
rally precedes all storms — such as the greasy halo round the sun or moon,
the rolled and tufted forms of the clouds, with the lurid streaks of light and
extraordinary colours, and the heavy bank clinging to the horizon with its
darting forks and threads of palo lightning — every seaman is acquainted.
The best and surest of all warnings will, however, be found in that invaluablo,
and seldom-failing monitor, the barometer ; the language of which, in the
torrid zone, is unmistakeable, because there it is usually tranquil and undis-
turbed. When any such warning symptoms are observed, in any quarter of
the world, it may be supposed that no time should be lost in making all due
preparation, and especially if to such menacing appearances be added tho
confused and troubled agitation of the sea which often precedes these re-
volving storms, and always shows that they are at no great distance. But if
these combined prognostics should occur within the limits of those regions in
which these cyclones occur, let the seamau immediately consider the possi-
bility, at least, of his being about to encounter a storm of that revolving
type of which we have been treating.* - :

* Although it is true that the prognostics of a common coming storm are, in general,
sufficiently plain to be understood by a spectator, from the angry appearance of the firma-
ment, yet it is also true that there is no particular indication in any one quarter of tho
horizon sufficiently marked, like the space occupied by the Black Squall panoply of the
Caribbean Sea; so that an acute seaman shall say, "thence will the blast come." On the
contrary, tho clouds gather together (we speak from experience) in dense masses, of a
cinereous hue, in every direction, until the whole canopy of heaven is overspread, and tho
gloom at last becomes so intense that, even at mid-da}', to speak within bounds, beyond a
quarter of a mile no object can be even indistinctly seen. There are, however, some
degrees of variation in the intensity of the obscurity ; but we all know that the measure
of distance by the eye upon such an exciting occasion is not likely to be very exact ; at
one period in a hurricane, just as the ship was dismasted, at the crisis, near noon, we
could not clearly distinguish the end of the bowsprit from the quarter-deck — Lieutenant
Evans.

Eegarding the weather which accompanies those cyclonic storms which cross the British
Isles (see p. 249) the Hon. Ralph Abercromby has carefully studied the weather charts
issued by our Meteorological Office, and given his conclusions in a paper read before the
Meteorological Society of London in November, 1877, as follows: — In a cyclone, tho
broadest feature of tho weather is an area of rain about the centre surrounded by a ring
of cloud, outside which the sky is clear. The precise form and position of these areas vary
with the type of pressure distribution, with the intensity (wind force) of the cyclone, and
the rate of its progress ; they are also influenced by local, diurnal, and seasonal variations.
In anti-cyclones, synoptic charts show great irregularity in the position of cloud, &c.

It might obviously be expected that the weather in any part of a large cyclone, as for
instance, in one of those which completely crosses the Atlantic Ocean, would be very
different from the weather in a small cyclone which perhaps only just crossed the British
Isles, and this is fully borne out by observation. In very large cyclones, the steepest
gradient, and the bad weather which accompanies them, are always found at some distance

HURRICANES. 267

(116.) Acting under this anticipation, his first care should he to discover
the position of the storm with respect to the vessel, or, in other words, to
ascertain its bearing. Fortunately this is a problem of extreme facility,
for, as wo have already stated, it is one of the remarkable laws of theso
storms that in opposite hemispheres they revolve in opposite directions — in
North latitudes against the course of the sun, that is to say from right to left,
or in a direction contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch ; and in
South latitudes from left to right ; and, secondly, it i3 known that, no matter
how great or how little may be the size of the storm-field, the wind con-
tinually blows in a circular course round and round a centre or vortex. It
therefore necessarily and demonstratively follows that this centre must
always be at right angles to that circular course ; or, in other words, that the
bearing of the centre lies eight points of tho compass from the direction of
the wind. Now, these two considerations are quite enough for our purpose,
for they enable us to answer the question irstantly and certainly by the fol-
lowing general rule : —

(117.) Rule. — Look to tho wind's oye — sot its bearing by the compass —
take the eighth point to tho RIGHT thereof— and that will be the bearing
of the centre of the storm if in North latitude ; or, if in South latitude, the
eighth point to the LEFT of the direction of tho wind.* For example : sup-
pose the vessel to bo in 14° N. latitudo, tho wind from E.S.E., and tho
barometer and sky indico.te a coming gale — then look at tho compass, take
the eighth point to tha right of E.S.E., and S.S.W. will infallibly be tho
bearing of the brewing storm, if it be of a revolving type ; or, tinder similar
appearances of the weather in 14° S. latitude, with tho wind S.W., tako
eight points to tho left of S.W., and S.E. will consequently be the direction
of tho centre of the impending gale. In the former case, the vessel will bo
on the northern edge of the storm-field ; and, in the latter, she will be
somewhere in its north-western segment.

(118.) In order to simplify this subject, and render it perfectly clear, a
copy of the figure on p. 268, by the late Lieutenant Evans, who wrote on this
subject under the name of " Stormy Jack," may be drawn on thick paper or
card-board. The outer circle to be fixed, representing the points of tho
horizon ; the inner circle, with index, to be moveable, and attached, with a
button in the centre, so as to revolve on the outer or under circle ; thus tho
inner circle may represent the phases of the tvind, as it gyrates round a centre ;
the arrows showing the revolution of the aoriel current from right to left.
The moveable circle is sub-divided into four quadrants, for tho purpose of
facilitating the modo of operation.

Here (says Lieutenant Evans) it will be obvious that, if a vessel be caught
under the N.N.W. verge of the hurricane, the wind, as shown by the arrow

from the centre. Round the centre itself, when the gradients are very steep, the sky i3
broken with hardish clouds, and there is a cold pleasant feeling in the air. In small
cyclones the heaviest rain usually surrounds the centre, and extends more or less to one end
or the other, according to the direction of the nearest area of high pressure, and the steepest
gradient.

* This rule of course can only be considered approximate, as the wind does not always
blow round in a perfect circle, see (104) page 260.— Ed.

268

OBSERVATIONS ON -WINDS.

annexed io that point, will be, apparently, from E.N.E., and tho changes
will be seen as they occur progressively. On tho N.E. verge of the hurri-
cane tho wind will appear to come from tho S.E. On the North verge tho
wind will be East; and if on tho West, it will be northerly, as shown in tho
figure.

The subject, when considered, will be readily understood; only bearing in
mind that tho shifts of wind will appear, in most cases, to be from left to
right, while the general wind is actually pursuing quite a contrary direction.

(119.) To use the instrument ', formed as above, place the moveable circle
upon the under one, East, in juxtaposition with the North point of tho
horizon. The vessel's position may be marked as a stationary spot on tho
outer or under circle— say under the N.N.W. verge, where the wind is at

HUERICANES. 269

E.N.E. ; then move the upper circle in the line of progression to the N.W.,
which is the general line pursued, and the changes of the wind will be seen
as they occur on the object marked.

The direction of the wind is independent of the progression of tho storm;
and as the current of air, whilst sweeping round tho centre, pursues ono
unvaried path, it follows that, under every point of the horizon, there will
be experienced a wind blowing at right angles to it, unchangeable in its
direction ; thus, under the North point of the horizon, there will be an East
wind ; under the South point, a West wind ; and under the East point, a
South wind ; so that, were the storm stationary, a ship scudding round the
entire circle, from any given position, would experience the wind from every
point of the compass in regular succession ; but this, as the fact is, can very
rarely, if ever, happen, on account of the progressive movement of the en-
tire meteor.

As these storms do not pursue a uniform velocity, the rate of their actual
progression can be arrived at only after they have ceased to act on any two
or more stationary spots, or upon two ships, by noting the exact time each
experienced the first shock of the hurricane, and also the time of its depar-
ture repectively. Some cause, or causes, operate to accelerate the rate at
one time, and retard it at another

On reference to the preceding diagram, it will be seen, that if a ship first
encounters a hurricane with the wind at E.N.E., she will be under theN.W.
verge ; and as the progression is (generally) to the N.W., the changes of
the wind will be to the eastward, going round to the S.E. and South, and
ending with it at about S.W. by S. Aziparenthj these changes will be from
right to left.

It becomes necessary here to observe that, although the general medium
course of the hurricane in the West Indies has been found to be N.W., yet
in two or three instances wo have reason for believing that either a deviation
in particular parts of its course, or otherwise, a vibration or oscillation of
the entire meteor, has taken place. Any deviation, however, from the
general course pursued by the storm to the N.W. can easily be detected,
from the veering of the wind ; as that ought to be regular, when the pro-
gressive path of the storm is regular, except at or near the vortex. For
instance, if the hurricane commences at E.N.E., and the wind does not
follow the regular successive changes, as noted above, we may be assured
that the storm is not pursuing a course to the N.W. ; aud the true line of
progression may be ascertained by the circle, so as to gain the corresponding
points of change to those which occur.

(120.) Again, if the storm commences at North, the wind ought to veer
(under the same progressive direction of N.W.) to the N.W., West, and end
with it about W. by S. or W.S.W. But, if after the wind has got to West,
the storm should end with it at South as it did at Antigua, 1804), we
shall be assured that a deviation had taken place to the westward in the
progression, or otherwise a vibration or osc illation to the southward.

The uncertainty of these aberrations should not deter the navigator from
placing confidence in the general remarks here given, as these (based on
Mr. Eedfield's theory) have been arrived at from experience, from facts
N. a. o. 2b

270 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

which are incontrovertible, and from a careful study of the subject; and
besides, should these variationo not happen, and to a certainty they do not
always occur (at least on the ocean), ho may benefit by them ; whilst, under
a case of their occurrence, no rules can possibly bo given for his guidance ;
ho must place his vessel in the best position his judgment points out, and
passively await tho result.

Wo shall now endeavour to explain, in the plainest manner we can, the
operation of the wind, and its effect on a vessel in each of the quadrants,
when the progression is to the N.W.

(121.) First, or N.E. Quadrant. — Wind from South to East. The changes
of wind, if a vessel be lying to, will appear to take place from left to right,
throughout ; as the wind will seem to draw round them from the eastward
toward the South, although it is in fact proceeding the contrary way, or from
right to left.

The navigator's attention is particularly directed to this apparent paradox;
for, whilst he notes the wind down in his journal as veering with the sun,
it is all the time, as remarked before, going the contrary way. The delu-
sion is occasioned by the progression of the hurricane to the N.W., which,
by receding from the vessel's position, has the effect of bringing up tho
more southerly phases of the wind in succession, and consequently, impart-
ing to these an apparent contrary direction to that which the whole current
of air is actually pursuing. This deceptory process is somewhat similar to
the well-known astronomical illusion every day before our eyes; we allude
to the apparent course of the great luminary. Not only can we imagine,
from the evidence of our sense of seeing (not at all times to be depended
upon), that the sun is moving from East to West, but, in common parlance,
such an idea is invariably expressed ; yet everybody knows that this is only
apparent, and that the delusion is occasioned by the diurnal rotation of the
earth round its exis from West to East.

This point, however, once clearly understood, will no longer perplex us ,
and the best mode to adopt, in order to avoid being puzzled, is to use tho
moveable circle with the phases of the wind marked on the rim, placing it
over the fixed circle with the points of the horizon marked to represent the
ocean.

We now proceed with the first quadrant. If a ship scuds to the northward,
the direction of the alteration of the wind will in a great measure depend
upon her velocity, as she is crossing obliquely the course of the progression :
if she keeps pace with the northerly advance of the storm, the wind will
remain the same ; if she exceeds it, the wind will draw round to the east-
ward ; and if the progression outstrips her, the changes will be to the south-
ward. In either of the latter cases the variations will be few, in all pro-
bability ; and the westerly progress may be expected to cause the ship to
be speedily thrown out of the circle of operations.

A ship is likely to enter this quadrant only under the northern verge from
the North to the N.E. point : if she happens to be standing to the south-
ward, within the limits of the Trade wind, she will be liable to be taken
aback ; but if nothing to the northward, of course she will not.

(122.) Second, or S.E. Quadrant. — Wind from West to South. A ship
lying-to, with the wind from any point between South and S.W., the shifts

HURRICANES. 271

will be from the southward toward the West, apparently from left to right.
If the wind be between the S.W. and West, there will be few if any
changes, as the ship will be near the posterior line of the progression ; what
changes may happen will probably be from West towards the South. The
vessel will soon be clear of the commotion. It seems pretty evident that a
vessel will not, in the first instance, be liable to fall under the S.E. verge in
this quadrant, for this reason — that she cannot overtake tho hurricane, as
its velocity, in all probability, at any time would exceed her rate of sailing.
She may, however, just touch literally about tho southern verge, wliero she
should get the wind from the West. To enter this quadrant, therofore, a
ship must pass through some other.

(123.) Third, or S.W. Quadrant.— -Wind from North to West. A ship
lying-to, the wind from the northward (as the storm progresses) will draw
round to the westward, from right to left, truly as apparently so.

As a ship scuds to the southward and eastward, the wind will draw round
in the same manner as mentioned above. It appears obvious, that a vessel
falling into the storm, under any point in this quadrant, would merely feel
the "brush," but she will be liable to be taken aback if standing to the
northward or north-eastward on first entering the scene of operation, sup-
posing her to be within the limits of the Trade wind.

(124.) Fourth, or A 7 ". W. Quadrant.— Wind from East to North. If a ship
lies-to with the wind at any point between East and N.E., it will appear to
draw round from left to right, or from N.E. by E. to East. If she lies-to
with the wind between N.E. and North, the shifts will be from right to left,
or from N.E. by N. to North. Under the N.W. verge (where the wind is
at N.E,), a ship, being then in the line of the anterior progression, will drift,
probably, into or very near to the centre of the circle, which, on account of
the sudden shifting of the wind there, should, if possible, be avoided, as
there the greatest danger may correctly be considered as existing.

If a ship scuds, under the same circumstances of winds, the changes will
appear the same as above given ; but slower in tho first instance, and
quicker in the second, for these reasons : that in the one case, the points of
change are receding from her as she advances ; and in the other, they draw
toward her approach, her velocity through the water accelerating the altera-
tions ; and this difference is occasioned by the progression to the N.W.

Within the limits of the Trade wind, if a ship be standing to the south-
ward, she will not be liable to be taken aback, on striking the storm in this
quadrant, but she would be so if veering to the northward.

It should be constantly held in remembrance, that, under all circum-
stances, the wind remains the same ; or, in other words, that under any
given point of the horizon, the wind will be found to blow from a particular
direction unchangeable, so that there is actually no shifting; the changes
observable being occasioned by the progression of the storm to the N.W.,
and the movements of a vessel.

From this peculiar character of the tempest, the course which a ship will
pursue through the circle of operations, as also the successive changes of the
wind, as these appear to take place, become an easy problem to solve, after
having noted the point from which the first w T ind or the first shift, if felt

272 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

{provided no divergency in the course, or vibratory motion of tne meteor)
takes place.

Although a ship, in most cases, we imagine, may be more likely to fall
into the circle of operations under the north-western verge of the storm than
in any other part, as that is the anterior advancing section, no general rules
can be laid down for tho guidance of the mariner for placing his ship in
such a position so as to ensure her not being taken aback when the storm
shall be first felt, because until that moment arrives, when the direction of
the first blast is to become his "polar star," he cannot, with, unerring cer-
tainty, anticipate his position with respect to the particular verge of the
hurricane that is approaching him.

Under such unavoidable circumstances, he must use his best judgment in
preparation for meeting the worst, and be ready to lay his vessel to, or to
scud, according to the direction of the wind first experienced. To be quite
sure of what he is about to do, perhaps the safest plan would be to wait
until the first shift takes place after the commencement of the storm ; by
which measure his position would be confirmed, a point of material conse-
quence to arrive at.

Every experienced seaman, after having given the theory his best atten-
tion, and mado himself familiar with the whole working of the wonderful
meteor, will of course follow the dictates of his own nature and judgment,
upon an occasion that will assuredly call forth the full exercise of it.
Without, therefore, presuming or desiring to obtrude upon him the manner
we ourselves should act under a case of such uncertainty, which would
demand all the resources of mind of the individual commander, for the first
time placed iD such a dilemma, we shall nevertheless offer it here as a mere
illustration.

Let us, then, suppose that we are steering to the northward in our ship,
within the limits of the Trade wind (call it E.N.E.), and that certain prog-
nostics appear, which our judgment informs us forbode a storm. If it hap-
pens to be the hurricane season, we are bound by prudence to prepare the
ship for encountering a tempest of that nature, even though appearances
may induce us to think that such would not eventually happen ; for, whether
a mere common gale or a hurricane should follow, every sensible person will
admit that, during that season, it is the wisest as it is the safest plan, to
be prepared to meet the worst that may happen under such appearances.
It must be recollected that nature herself proclaims the warning, and her
ad monitions are not to be disregarded with impunity.

Without loss of time, we make the ship snug, hatches battened down, &c.
This done, we should bring her to the wind on the starboard tack, with her
head to the northward, with a fore and a mizen storm stay-sail. We cannot,
as we said before, anticipate under what verge of the storm we shall enter,
but wo shall have done all that prudence can dictate, by lying-to without
square sails, and of courso making our minds up to have the fore-and-afters
blown to shreds by the new wind, come from whatsoever quarter it may.
In this position we must wait patiently until the first shift of wind takes
place. If this should be from E.N.E. to E. by N. and East, we should make
ourselves easy in th9 position obtained, with reference to the particular
verge of the storm, as well as in what we had placed the ship ; having the

HUEEICANES. 273

assurance (from the shift of wind) that the anterior verge which had struck
us, would be now running away at the rate of from 15 to 20 miles an hour,
whilst our drift to the westward would not exceed 3J miles in the samo time ;
so that every point that the wind drew round toward the South, would tell
as plainly as if a map of the whole operations were suspended in the heavens
overhead, for our consolation, that our exit from the commotion was rapidly
drawing nearer and neai*er; and that, if the ship proved equal to contend
with the crisis, and no vibration occurred, wo should escape the centre.

This may sound, in the style of the celebrated Francis Moore, of predicting
memory, very like "taking a poop into futurity." We are, not, however,
studying the doctrine of probabilities. As far as we at present know of the
matter, and (thanks to Mr. Rednold) we have gained a pretty general
insight into it, there appear but two circumstances, at all likely to upset
our calculations and foresight of w. at is to happen, and these are, as inti-
mated before, a divergency in the line of progression, or a vibration of the
entire meteor ; and here we are taught, that, with all the wide and searching
capacity of our minds, there is a point beyond which it is not permitted man
to peer. We have been allowed, however, to glean enough of the economy
of this wonderful phenomenon to excite our unfeigned gratitude to Him
" who rules the whirlwind and the storm." Wo proceed-
On the other hand, if the shift of wind was to the N.E., or even a point
on either side, we should immediately know that wo were in the very jaws
of the lion ;" and to escape being overwhelmed in the vortex we must run for
it.* On this occasion, every moment is of importance, when we bear in
mind that we are now in the path which the centre will follow. To the S. W.,
therefore, we start away, not without an impressive dread, as the wind
comes veering round and round toward the North, of a too close approxima-
tion to the vortex, toward which curve the ship makes inclines. If we could
tell the exact diameter of the hurricane, and its precise rate of progression,
we could calculate pretty accurately whether, and at what distance, we
should pass the centre ; but as these data can never be obtained, we have
nothing otherwise than. prudence to guide us in this particular case, the most
perilous that can occur.

There is a very nice point to be determined upon at this juncture, and
one, although there will be but a few minutes for decision, that should not
be rashly settled ; a sort of choice between the scalping-knifo and the toma-
hawk—a very forlorn hope, take which measure you please — it is this; to
scud under square sail, or to run with bare poles ? Now, however desirable
it is that top-sail should be carried in a storm where the waves rise to a
great height, and break in heavy surf, and a ship's way is lessoned as she
drops into the trough, to prevent her from being pooped, yet, we say,
although it should be practicable to set a close-reefed main-topsail, the pro-
priety of so doing is questionable until the wind has drawn round to the
westward of North (and then it might as well be left alone), for not before

* When the line of progression is to the W.N.V/. (a direction which some of the most
Bouthern storms have pursued), it would be wrong to scud with the wind at N.E. ; but
when at N.N.E., it would be proper to do so.

274 OBLIGATIONS ON WINDS.

that will the dreaded centre have been passed ; and as there can bo no cer-
tainty of a ship's safety until that " consummation " has been accomplished,
the chance of being taken aback with square sail deserves the most serious
consideration of the commander. The danger in both cases is imminent ;
but, in determining for ourselves, we should run with bare poles, until
finally thrown out of the storm. Indeed, after all the judgment, care,
anxiety, and apprehension which may be displayed and felt on so trying an
occasion, our approximation, notwithstanding the vessel's dash of 12 or 13
knots, may be so near the vortex as that every stick shall be blown out
of her. And we impressively declare our conviction, that hitherto the
majority, if not all, the vessels that have been lost in hurricanes and
typhoons, have foundered by falling into the centre with square sail set
whilst scudding. On lying-to, no sail would stand the disruptive puffs for
five seconds !

We have ourselves, in utter ignorance of the operations as they occur, and
are here stated, been scudding in a frigate, partly dismasted, with reefed
main-sail (the only sail available), before the furious blast of a hurricane,
after the wind had veered to the S.W. As it happened, we had fortunately
dropped into the second quadrant, and were drawing near our exit, but we
knew nothing of that ; and if it had happened in the fourth quadrant, and
we had got into the centre, there is no doubt but that the ship must have
foundered ! But to proceed : —

No other resource is available to us under such circustances as described
above ; and no other alternative remains except the desperate one of
heaving-to, defying the fury of the storm, and taking the chance of being
thrown directly into the centre of commotion ; where, if the ship could not
founder, she would, there is scarcely a doubt, lose her masts, and be other-
wise completely assailed at all points by the raging elements !

The N.W. verge of the hurricane, whilst it advances in that direction, is
the "very head and front" of the danger, the nucleus of which follows, in a
direct line, the advance of that point. The consequences, be they the
•foundering of the ship, or the loss of her masts, &c, are inevitable, if prompt
and active measures are not taken to get out of that position.

Should the wind, at first, keep steady at E.N.E. for some time, which it
would do (if the storm is of great extent) when a ship enters under the
N.N.W. verge, the navigator may be a little puzzled how to act, as antici-
pating a shift, to determine his position ; he need be under no apprehension ;
the shift will come in due time (according to the extent of the circumference)
from the E. by N., and so gradually round (but quickening as he approaches
the centre) to the southward : he may, however, expect to lose some of his
spars when the crisis arrives.

We have dwelt longer upon the action of the wind in the fourth or N.W.
quadrant, because under this anterior verge the greatest peril may follow ;
and wo may now be permitted to express a hope that mariners may derive
Bomo little advantage from the perusal of this paper, as the writer has
devoted his best attention to the subject with the sole view of rendering
thorn, as brother sailors, a service. Join? Evans.

(125.) Wo wiil close this portion of our remarks with some general obser-
vations on the subject by Captain Richard Leighton, of Montrose to whose

HUKRICANES. 275

kindness and talent we are indebted for numerous additions to hydro-
graphy:—

" 1st. Outward-bound ships. As the S.E. storm-wind is generally nearly
directly in front of the storm, on meeting with that wind and a falling
barometer, &c, you should bear off freely to the north- west ward, that is,
nearly at right angles with the route of the gale, and all that you run that
way will increase your distance from the centre when it passes you; whilst,
if you run westward, you will pass so near to the centre that 3*011 will be taken
aback by the wind flying into the north-westward ; the object is to skirt the
gale, and haul more westerly as the wind veers to the eastward.

•■2nd. "When the wind is to the sou'hward of S.E., it appears that you
must pass through the right-hand semicirle, and should haul-to and hold
all the southern that you can ; lay down the bearing and distance of the
centre, and as soon as practicable, by a second bearing and distance, estimate
the route of the gale and its progress.

" 3rd. Estimate your distance, and the course that you are likely to make,
clear of leeway, and some veering in the wind, and this will give you an
idea at what distance you are likely to pass the centre, and what is likely to
occur. Knowledge is power. Most carry sail long enough, but many don't
set it soon enough.

" 4th. The further the wind is to the southward, the nearer you must pass
to the centre, and as the wind veers and breaks her off, she will lay in tho
trough of the sea, and is most likely to get damage that way, so that if the
wind gets loose, it is time to be upon the right tack (that is, the starboard
tack, with westerly winds, in the Atlantic, being in the right-hand semi-
circle). Every one knows best what his own ship will bear, and what she
will perform ; however, if you will go ahead till the last minute, when the
barometer sto2)s falling, it is high time to have her round upon the right tack,
as there is generally a tremendous gust shortly after the barometer stops
falling ; or, when it has made a slight rise, and the ship should be upon
the starboard tack, that she may come up and bow the sea when she takes it.

" 5th. To wait for ' the lull,' or the ' sky to the westward lighting up, to
indicate the shift,' will often be too late.

" 6th. Eight miles per hour, I think, is a fair medium for tho rate of
progress of rotatory gales in the Atlantic and Southern Indian Oceans. The
regular West India cyclone travels generally much quicker, and some
Mauritius cyclones have a very slow movement ; that which tho Charles
JDeildle scudded three and a half times round, only progressed about 2-k
miles per hour. At Sea, August, 1851. — E. Leighton.

(126.) EXAMPLES. — To illustrate the preceding remarks and directions,
accounts of a series of revolving storms is given. They are illustrated by
the map before alluded to at the commencement of this section.

lioutes on the Chart. — No. I. Trinidad to Yucatan, over tho middle of the
Caribbean Sea, June 23 to 28, 1831.

No. II. — Barbadoes to the Mississipi, August 10 to 17, 1831.

No. III. Guadaloupe to the Bank of Newfoundland, August 17 to 29,
1827.

No. IV. Guadaloupe and Antigua to Charlestown, and thence to the Bay
of Fundy, September 3 to 10, 1804.

276 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

No. V. Antigua, passing over Cuba, to the coast of Texas, August 12 to
18, 1835.

No. VI. Barbuda to Chavlestown, and thence to the Bank of Newfound-
land, August 12 to 19, 1830.

No. VII. From tho intersection of 20° North and 60° West (N.E. of
Barbuda), passing to the West of Bermuda, and thence N.E. to the parallel
of 42£°, September 29 to October 2, 1830.

No. VIII. From the parallel of 22° (North of Porto-Eico) to Cape Hat-
teras and the coast of Maine, September 1 to 5, 1821.

No. IX. From near the same spot as No. VIII., on a similar route, but
more to the eastward, August 22 to 27, 1830.

No. X. From the parallel of 30° North, on the East side of the Florida
Stream, to Cape Sable of Nova Scotia, January 13 to 16, 1831.

No. XI. Inland storm, over the lakes, and thence to the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, November 10 to 12, 1835.

The route designated as No. I. is that of the hurricane which visited the Islands of
Trinidad, Tobago, and Grenada, on the 23rd of June, 1831. Pursuing its course
through the Caribbean Sea, it was subsequently encountered by H.M. schooner Minx,
and other vessels, and its swell was thrown with great force upon the south-eastern
shores of Jamaica on the 25th, while passing that island, where the wind at this time
was light from the northward. After sweeping through the Caribbean Sea, the
hurricane entered upon the coast of Yucatan, on the night of the 27th, having moved
over the entire route from Trinidad to the western shore of the Bay of Honduras,
in a little more than 100 hours, a distance of nearly 1,700 miles, equal to 17 miles
an hour.

Trade No. II. is that of the hurricane which desolated Bavbadoes in the night of
the 10th of August, 1831 ; and which passed Porto Ilico on the 12th; Aux Cayes, in
Hayti, and S. lago dc Cuba, on the 13th; Matanzas on the 14th; was encountered
off the Tortugas on the 15th; in the Mexican Sea on the 16th ; and was at Mobile
Pensacola, and New Orleans on the 17th ; a distance of 2,000 miles in about 150
hours, exceeding 13J miles an hour. Its course, until it crossed the tropic of Cancer,
was nearly W.N. W. Mr. Redfield adds — "In pursuing its northern course, after
having the ocean level, it must have encountered the mountain region ot the Alle-
ganies, and was perhaps disorganised by the resistance opposed by these elevations
It appears, however, to have caused heavy rains in a large extent of country north-
eastward of the Mexican Sea."

Track No. III. is that of the destructive huvricane which swept over the Wind-
ward Islands, 17th August, 1827; visited St. Martin and St. Thomas on the 18th;
passed the N.E. coast of Hayti on the 19th ; Turk's Islands on the 20th ; the Bahamas
on the 21st and 22nd; was encountered on the coast of Florida and South Carolina
on the 23rd and 24th ; off Cape Hatteras on the 25th ; off the Delaware on the 28th ;
off Nantucket on the 27th, and off Sable Isle and Bank on the 28th. Its ascertained
course and progress were nearly 3,000 miles in about eleven days ; or at the average
rate of about 11 miles an hour. Th6 direction of its route, before crossing the tropic,
nearly N. 61° W., and in lat. 40% while moving eastward, N. 58° E.

Track No. IV. An extensive hurricane of September, 1804, which swept over the
Windward Islands on the 3rd of that month; the Virgin Islands and Pcrto-Rico on
the 4th ; Turks' Islands on the 5th ; the Bahamas and the Strait of Florida on the
6th ; the coast of Georgia and the Carolinas on the 7th ; Chesapeake and Delaware,
with the confnuous positions of Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey, on the Sthj
and the States of Massachusets, New Hampshire, and Maine, on the 9th ; being on

HUKEICANES. 277

the high lands of New Hampshire, a violent snow-storm. The destructive action of
this storm was widely extended on both sides of the track indicated upon the chart,
and the same fact pertains in a greater or less degree to the other storms herein men-
tioned. It appears to have passed from Martinique and the other Windward Islands
to Boston, by the usual curvilinear route, in about six days a distance of more than
2,200 miles, at an average progress of about 15| miles an hour.

Track No. V. The route of the hurricane which ravaged Antigua, Nevis, and St.
Kitt's, in the afternoon and night of August 12th, 1835; St. Thomas, St. Croix, and
Porto-Ilico, on the 13th ; Hayti and Turks' Islands on the 14th ; the vicinity of Ma-
tan/as and Havana on the 15th; was encountered off the Tortugas, on the Bank of
Florida, on the 16th ; in lat. 27° 21', long. 94°, and other points on the 17th and 18th;
and at Matomoras, near the Mexican shore, lat. 20" 4', on the 18th, where it was
most violent during the succeeding night. It also passed over Galveston Bay, in
Texas, and there blew with violence from the S.E. ; while at the mouths of the
Mississippi and along the northern shores of the gulf, the gale was not felt. This
storm is remarkable, as moving more directly and further to the West than is usual
for storms which pass near the West Indian Islands, it having reached the Mexican
shores before commencing its sweep to the northward. Course about N. 73° W. ;
progress more than 2,200 miles in six days; nearly equal to 15^ miles an hour.

Tract N-j. VI. The memorable gale of August, 1830, described hereafter, which,
passing close by the Windward Islands, visited St. Thomas on the 12th, was near
Turks' Islands on the 13th ; at the Bahamas on the 14th ; eastern coast of Floiida on
the 15th ; coasts of Georgia and the Carolinas on the 16th ; off Virginia, Maryland,
New Jersey, and New York on the 17th; off George's Bank and Cape Sable on the
18th; and over the Newfoundland Bank on the 19th; having occupied about seven
days in its ascertained course from near the Windward Islands, a distance of more
than 3,000 miles ; the rate of its progress being equal to 18 miles an hour. If, adds
Mr. Redfield, we suppose the actual velocity of the wind, in its rotatory movement,
to be five times greater than this rate of progress, which is not beyond the known
velocity of such winds, it will be found equal, in this period, to a rectilinear course
of 15,000 miles. The same remark applies, in substance, to all the storms which are
now passing under review.

Track No. VII. was encountered to the northward of the Caribbee Islands on the
22nd of September, 1830 ; its route was to the eastward of all those previously de-
scribed, and was found on the Grand Bank of Newfoundland, October 2, having
caused great damage and destruction on its widely-extended track, to the many
vessels which fell in its way. The ascertained route may be estimated at 1,800
miles, and the average progress 25 miles an hour.

Track No. VIII. experienced in September, 1821, as more fully shown hereafter.
This hurricane was extremely violent ; it w r as encountered to the north-eastward of
Turks' Islands, on the 1st of the month ; to the northward of the Bahamas and near
the latitude of 30° on the 2nd ; on the coast of the Carolinas early in the morning of
the 3rd ; and from thence, in the course .of that day, along the coast of New York
and Long Island ; and it is represented to have continued its course across the States
of Connecticut, Massachusets, New Hampshire, and Maine. The diameter of the
storm appears to have exceeded 100 miles ; its ascertained route and progress about
1,800 miles in sixty hours, equal to 30 miles an hour.

A similar but less violent storm swept along the same portion of the coast of the
United States on the 2Sth of April, 1835.

Track No. IX. The route of a violent and extensive hurricane, which was en-
countered to the northward of Turks' Islands, August the 22nd, 1S30 ; northward of
the Bahamas on the 23rd ; and off the coast of the United States on the 24th, 25th,
and 26th of the same month. It produced much damage, but scarcely reached tho

N. A. O. 2 O

278 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

American shores. Its duration was about forty hours, and progress more tardy thar
some others.

Trade No. X. A violent hurricane and snow-storm, which swept alongthe American
coast from the parallel of 30° North, on the 5th and Gth of December, 1830. This
track corresponds to another storm of similar character, which swept along the coast
on the 13th, 14th, and loth of January, 1831. These violent winter storms ex
hibited nearly the same phases of wind and general characteristics as those which
appear in the summer and autumn.

Track No. XI. The violent inland storm which passed over the Lakes Erie and
Ontario on the 11th of November, 1835. This storm was very extensive, spreading
from the sea-coast of Virginia into the Canadas, to a limit unknown. The anterior
portion of this gale was but moderately felt, and its access was noted chiefly by the
direction of the wind and the great fall of the barometer ; the violence of the storm
being exhibited chiefly by the posterior and colder portion of the gale, as is commou
with extensive overland storms. The regular progression of the storm, in an easterly
direction, was established by facts collected by Mr. Kcdfield, from the borders ot
Lake Michigan to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the coasts of New England and
Nova Scotia.

In pursuing the descriptions above, it is to be noted that the lines on the chart
representing the routes, are given by Mr. Redficld as but approximations to the
centre of the track or course of the several storms ; and the gales are to be consi-
dered as extending their rotative circuit from 50 to 300 miles or more, on each side of
the delineations ; the superficial extent of the storm being estimated both by actual
information and by its duration at any point near the central portion of its route, as
compared with its average rate of progress.

The circular figure which appears upon the Chart, on Tracks Nos. I., V., and VII.
will serve, in some degree, to illustrate the course of the Avind in the various portions
of the superficies covered by the storm, and also to explain the changes in the direc-
tion of the wind, which occur successively at various points, during the regular pro-
gress of the gale.

(127.) The Great Hurricane, which commenced at Barbadoes on the \10lh of
October, 1780,* was preceded in the evening of the 9th by weather remarkably calm,
but the sky surprisingly red and fiery, and during the night much rain fell. The
storm approached from the S.E., and the ships of the squadron stationed here ex-
perienced the hurricane, each in turn, according to the place she was in. A letter
from Dr. Blane, dated from the Sandwich, Sir George Rodney's flag- ship, stated that
it was not previously apprehended that there would be anything more than such a
gale as they experience from time to time at that season ; but, on the evening of the
10th, the wind rose to such a degree of violence as clearly to amount to what is called
a hurricane. At eight p.m. it began to make an impression on all the houses, by
tearing off the roofs, and overthrowing some of the walls. As the inhabitants had
never been accustomed to such a convulsion of nature, they remained for some time
in security, but they now began to be in the utmost consternation. * * * * It
was thought to be at its greatest height at midnight, and did not abate considerably
until eight next morning. During all this time, most of the inhabitants had desertid
their houses, to avoid being buried in the ruins; and every age, sex, and condition,
were exposed in the fields to the impetuous wind, incessant torrents of rain, and the
terrors of thunder and lightning. Many were overwhelmed in the ruins, either by
clinging for shelter too long in the buildings, or attempting to save what was valu-
able, or by unavoidable accidents in the fall of walls, roofs, and furniture, the mate-

* The track of this hurricane ia shown on the Chart, commencing between No. i. and ii.

HURRICANES. .279

rials of which were projected to great distances. Even the bodies of men and cattle
were lifted off and carried above the ground. From an estimate of the number of
deaths reported to the governor, they amounted to more than 3,000. All the fruits
of the earth were destroyed ; most of the trees torn up by the roots, and many of
them stripped of their bark. The sea rose so high as to destroy the fort, carrying
the great guns many yards from the platform, and demolishing the houses near the
beach. A ship was driven on shore against one of the buildings of the naval hospital,
which, by this shock, and by the impetuosity of the wind and sea, was entirely de-
stroyed and swept away. * * * * The mole-head was swept away ; and ridges
of coral rock were thrown up to above the surface of the water ; but the harbour and
roadstead were, upon the whole, improved, having deepened in some places G feet, in
others many fathoms. The crust of coral, which had been the work of ages, leaving
a soft oasy bottom, and many shells and fish were found ashore which had been pre-
viously unknown.

The hurricane passed, in succession, over the Islands of St. Vincent, St. Lucia,
Martinique, and Dominica, and included within its area those of Guadaloupe, St.
Christopher, St. Eustatius, &c. At St. Vincent, every building was blown down, and
the town destroyed. At St. Lucia, which was near the centre of the hurricane, all
the barracks and other buildings were blown down and the ships driven to sea. At
Martinique, likewise, all the ships that had brought troops and provisions were blown
off the island. On the 12th, four ships with their crews foundered in Fort Royal
Bay. The other ships were blown out of the roads. In the town of St. Pierre, on
the N.W. coast, every house was blown down, and more than 1,000 people perished.
At Fort Royal, the cathedral, seven churches, other religious edifices, many public
buildings, and 1,000 houses, were blown down, as was the hospital of Notre Dame,
in which were 1,600 sick and wounded, the greater part of which were buried in the
ruins. The number of persons who perished in Martinique is said to have been 9,000.
Dominica likewise suffered greatly, and Guadaloupe was within the northern verge
of the hurricane.

At St. Eustatius, although not far within the N.E. verge, the loss was very great.
On the 10th of October, at eleven a.m., the sky on a sudden blackened all round; it
looked as dismal as night, attended with the most violent rains, thunder, lightning,
and wind. In the afternoon the gale increased ; seven ships were driven on shore near
the North point, dashed to pieces on the rocks, and their crews perished. Nineteen
vessels cut their cables and went to sea. In the night every house to the northward
and southward was blown down, or washed away with the inhabitants into the sea,
a few only escaping. The houses to the East and West were not so much hurt till
the afternoon of the 11th, when the wind, on a sudden, shifted to the eastward ; and
at night it blew with redoubled fury, and swept away every house ; but the forts,
barracks, hospital, cathedral, and four churches remained. Here between 4,000 and
5,000 persons are supposed to have lost their lives.

Advancing north-westward, the centre of the hurricane on the 14th had reached to
the Mona Passage, on the "West of Porto Rico. Here the Ulysses and Pomona, with
a fleet under their convoy, suffered greatly, and here the Deal Castle frigate was
wrecked. Another frigate, the Diamond, fell within the western verge of the storm
on the 15th, but happily escaped by passing Alto- Vela, on the South side of Hayti.
Above the parallel of 20°, the Stirling Castle was lost on the Silver Kay Bank, and
most of her crew perished. On the 18th we find, in about 22^° N., and 69° W., the
Trident, Ruby, Bristol, Hector, and Grafton, men-of-war, on the S.VV. verge of the
storm. The ship last mentioned, on the lGth, at noon, was in lat. 26|°, long, (by
estimation) 71° 30'; heavy gales and cloudy weather; lying-to under trysails; tho
gales split the sails to ribands. On the 18th, lying-to; strong gales and heavy
squalls. — 17th to 18th, carried rapidly to the southeastward, when the Trident t

280 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

Ruby, and Hector, came in sight as above. At eleven a.m., spoke the latter, in great
distress.

The Ruby, Trident, and Bristol, on the 15th, were as high as 27^° N., and they,
too, from the western bolder of the hurricane, were driven to the southward, uutil
they joined company.

Here the detail becomes imperfect, until we reach the Bermudas ; but to the N.E.
of these isles we find the Berwick, on the 19th, which had fallen, on the 17th, within
the border of the hurricane from a position to the W.N.W., near the latitude of 35°,
This ship had previously been one of Hear- Admiral Rowley's squadron ; she was
proceeding to England under jury-masts, and had reached to the North of the latitude
of the Bermudas when the hurricane overtook her. On the 16th, at eleven a.m.
during calm, there was a great swell from the eastward. On the 17th, at one p.m.,
she was taken aback ; wore ship and handed topsails ; at three, squally, with rain ;
loosed the topsails; six to eight, wind E. by N. fresh gales. On the 18th, winds
variable from the eastward, E. by N. to E.S.E. ; after midnight, strong gales and
heavy squalls. At noon, by estimation, Bermudas S. 53° E., 31 leagues. 19th, at
one a.m., weather moderate, and the ship proceeded on her course.

On the 18th about fifty vessels were driven on shore at Bermuda.

We have been the more particular in giving these details, from having formerly
been misled by imperfect data. In the delineation of the " Great Hurricane," given
by Colonel Reid, he first assumes a circle having a radius of about 170 miles, which
gradually expands, on its N.W., North, and N.E. course, to 270, with, we may pre-
sume, a diminished and proportionate momentum, on the parallel of Bermuda. The
colonel observes that, on reading the logs and the various accounts of this hurricane,
and comparing the different reports of the wind, it will be found that no storm yet
described, proves more strongly than this, the rotatory nature of hurricanes.

(128.) Trinidad, June, 1831.— {No. I. on the Chart.)— -It will not readily be for-
gotten that, on the 23rd of June, 1831, Trinidad, in the parallel of 10j o N., ex-
perienced one of the most awful storms of wind and rain ever remembered by the
oldest inhabitant. The gale commenced at five o'clock on Thursday morning, and
continued till eleven. The wind, after shifting from East, North, West, and South,
finally settled at S.W., and blew without intermission until three in the afternoon.
Eleven or twelve vessels were driven on shore, and several of them severely
damanaged.

It was subsequently stated that the hurricane was felt at all the southern islands,
where the loss it occasioned was very great. Such a storm had not happened at
Granada since the year 1780 ; the devastation was extensive and dreadful; and the
loss in that colony was estimated at £80,000. Its course to Yucatan is described
hereafter.

(129.) Barbadoes, August, 1831. — [No. II. on the Chart.) — In the night following
the 10th of August, one of the most devastating hurricanes that had ever been ex-
perienced visited Barbadoes. Not a single house was left uninjured, and the greater
part were levelled with the ground. On the llh it passed over the Islands of St.
Vincent and St. Lucia, extending a portion of its influence to Martinique and islands
to the N.W.. and to Granada on ihe South, but exhibiting its piincipal violence be-
tween 12£° and 14° N., or the parallels of Barbadoes and Martinique. On the 12ih
it arrived on the southern coast of Porto Rico; from the 12th to the 13th it swept
over the South side of Hayti, and extended its influence as far southward as Jamaica.
On the 13th it raged on the eastern portion of Cuba, sweeping in its course over large
districts. The town of Aux Cayes, in Hayti, was almost destroyed by its force, and
that of St. Iago de Cuba was very much damaged. On the 14th it was at Havanna
and toward the West end of Cuba. On the loth it proceeded north-westward, and
on the lGth and 17th it arrived on the northern shoses of the Mexican Sea, in about
the 30th degree of latitude, raging simultaneously at Pensacola, Mobile, and New

HUKRICANES. 281

Orleans, where its effects were continued till the 18th. At New Orleans, on the 17th,
it came on in dreadful gales, from N.E. to S.E., accompanied with torrents of rain.
Almost all the shipping in the river were driven on shore, and very few of the
smaller craft escaped total wreck. The back part of the city was completely inun-
dated. The sugar-canes, above and below the city, were laid flat, and the loss was
enormous. The gale was felt at Natchez, 300 miles up the river; and hereabout it
spent itself in heavy rains, after having occupied a period of six days in the cycloidal
course from Barbadoes.

At most of the islands, during the hurricane, the winds in the earlier part of the
storm were from a northern quarter, and in its later periods from a southern quarter,
of the horizon ; from which it results, that the gyratory action was from right to left,
as in the storms which pass to the northward of the great islands, and along the
western coast of the ocean.

The distance passed over by the storm, in its passage from Barbadoes to New Or-
leans, is equal to 2,100 nautic miles. The average rate about 14 miles an hour.

(130.) Hurricane of 1830. — The storm which passed the city of New York, on
the 11th of August, 1830, was there, and along all the coast northward of Cape Hat-
teras, considered as a north-east storm. — (See Chart, Route VII.)

It appears that this commenced at the Island of St. Thomas, in the West Indies,
on the night between the 12th and loth of August. On its progress, in the afternoon
of the 14th, it commenced at the Bahama Islands, and continued during the succeed-
ing night, the wind almost round the compass during the existence of the storm. On
the lOth, in the Florida Channel, its effects were very disastrous. Without the
strait, in lat. 26' 51', long. 79' 40', the gale was severe from N.N.E. to S.W. Late on
the same day, off St. Augustin, it was equally so. At 20 miles North of St. Mary's,
from 8 p.m. on the loth, to 2 a.m. on the 16th, it was from an eastern quarter, then
changed to S.W.

Off Tybee and at Savanna, on the night of the loth, it changed to N.W. at nine
a.m., on the 16th, and blew till twelve, On the 18th, at Charleston, the gale was
from S.E. and East, till four p.m.; then N.E. and round to N.W. At Wilmington
(N. Carol.) the storm was from the East, and veered subsequently to the West. In
the vicinity of Cape Hatteras, at sea, the storm was very heavy from S.E., and shifted
to N.W.

Early in the morning of the 17th, the gale was felt severely in the Chesapeake,
from the N.E. Off the Capes of Virginia, on the 17th, lat. 36° 20', long. 74° 2', "a
perfect hurricane," from South to S.S.E., from five a.m. to two p.m., then shifted to
N.W.

Off Cape May, lat. 32°, long. 74° 15', in the afternoon of the 17th, a heavy gale
from E. N.E. Coast of New Jersey, same afternoon, heavy at N.E. Again, in lat.
39", long. 73°, at E.N.E. In the same latitude, long. 70' 30', a "tremendous gale,"
commencing at S.S.E., and veering to North.

Afternoon and evening of the 17th, at New York and in Long Island Sound, gale
at N.N.E. and N.E. Off Nantucket Shoals, at eight p.m., severe at N.E. by E. In
the night of the 17th, off Nantucket, and in the Gulf Stream, lat. 38" 15', long. 67°
30', " tremendous," commencing at South, and veering, with increasing severity, to
S.W., West, and N.W. Peninsula of Cape Cod, in the night between the 17th and
18th, severe at N.E. ; 18th, at Salem and Newbury, heavy gale from N.E. In lat.
39' 51', long. 69', severe from S.E., suddenly shifting to North. In lat. 41° 20', long.
GO' 25', "tremendous hurricane " from N.N.E.

Off Sable Island, in the night of the 18th, lat. 43*, long. 59}°, " tremendous heavy
gale," from South and S.W. to West and N.W. In lat. 43°, long. 48°, a severe gale
from the South ; the manner of change not reported.

This remarkable storm appears to have passed over the whole route above de-
scribed in about six days, at an average of about 16 miles an hour; the duration of

282 OBSERVATIONS ON WINDS.

its most violent portion, at the several points over which it passed, may be staled at
from seven to 12 hours ; and the width of its track is supposed to have been from 150
to 200 miles.

" On the western part of the Atlantic Ocean, between the parallel of New York
and the northern limit of the trade wind, the prevailing winds, for a considerable
period, both previously and subsequently to the occurrence of this storm, were south-
westerly, or from the southern quarter ; and over the whole breadth of the Atlantic,
on the route frequented by ships in the European trade, fresh south-western or
westerly winds also prevailed at the same period, for many weeks. These facts are
well established by numerous marine journals, which have been consulted in relation
to this subject.

Of the vorticular or rotative character of the storm, striking evidence has been
afforded by the journals of two ships, the Britannia and the Illinois, both bound
from America to Europe ; the particulars of which are fully given in the Exposition
by Mr. Redfield.

(131.) In about a tveeh after the storm last described, another occurred, which passed
New York on the 26th and 27th of August, and which was, also, on this coast, a
N.E. storm, of about three days duration. From the eastward "of the Bahamas it
appears to have passed northwardly between the Florida Stream and the Bermudas;
and touching the American shore near Cape Hatteras, raged with great fury for
about forty hours at each locality, as it swept the great central curve of the coast ; and
passing from thence, continued its course over George's Bank, in a north-easterly
direction. It was evidently of greater compass, and slower progress, than the pre-
ceding storm, as is proved by a collation of the various reports of mariners; and its
long duration, and its effects were almost equally violent.

The next remarkable series of hurricanes appear to have originated in the vicinity
of the Windward Islands, near the close of September, 1830, and which, passing
westward of the Bermudas, on a course nearly North, assumed thence a more easterly
course, toward the southern edge of the Grand Bank of Newfoundland. — {See the
Chart, Route VII.)

This storm was very disastrous. In lat. 20T, long. 63°, it commenced, on Septem-
ber 22nd, at one p.m., and continued till half-p-st six p.m., from N.E, and S.W.
alternately. On the same day it passed through lat 22° 4G', long. 65°. At night, on
the 30th, in lat. 2G° 7', long. 66£°, " very heavy," for five hours and a half. On the
1st of October it arrived at lat. 30° 38', long. 63°; severe at S.E., shifted to N.W. ;
thence it was found in lat. 33°, long, G6i° ; lat. 34° 9', long. 66° 12'; lat. 35°, long.
G8 9 ; lat. 38', long. 63° ; lat. 38£°, long. 57°; lat. 40°, long. 61°; lat. 40 5 25', long.
58° 24' ; lat. 41°, long. 55°, and very severe. By an average estimate of rates and
distances, it appears to have proceeded at the rate of about 27 miles an hour.

The extensive hurricane of 1S04, which swept over most of the Windward Islands
in the West Indies, commenced at Martinique, on the 3rd of September, reached
Savanna on the 7th, Boston on the 9th, and became a snow-storm on its arrival in the
interior of New Hampshire.

The great gale of 1815 commenced at St. Bartholomew's on the 11th of September,
and reached Rhode Island on the morning of the 2 !rd, where it was awfully destruc-
tive from the S.E., while in the south-eastern parts of Massachusets, it was then
blowing at South ; at New London from E. to S.E. ; and at New York from North to
N.N.W.

(132.) A S.E. storm in September, 1821— see Chart, Tract VIII.)— was expe-
perienced in the central parts of Connecticut, commenced blowing violently from
E.S.E. and S.E., at about six p.m. on the 3rd of September, having been preceded by
a fresh wind from the southern quarter, and flying clouds. It continued blowing in
heavy gusts, and with increasing fury, till about 10 p.m., when the wind suddenly
subsided. A calm or lull, of perhaps fifteen minutes' duration, ensued, but was ter-

HUKEICANES. 283

minatcd by a violent gust from the N.W., which continued till about eleven p.m.,
and then gradually abated. Much damage was sustained, and fruit-trees, corn, &c.,
were uniformly prostrated toward the N.W.

At New York the same storm was experienced, with at least equal violence, about
three hours earlier than in Connecticut, but blowing from a more eastern quarter.
In the north-eastern parts of Massachusets it was experienced some hours later ; and
at Providence, in Rhode Island, the storm was felt in the south-eastern quarter, but
not severely ; as was also the case in the south-eastern parts of Connecticut. In the
N.W. portions of the latter state, and the adjacent towns of Massachusetts, the gale
blew with its chief violence from the N.W. quarter, and the trees and corn were uni-
formly prostrated toward the S.E.

At New r York the gale was from N.E. to East, and commenced blowing with vio-
lence at five p.m., continued with great fury for three hours, and then changed to W.
More damage was sustained in two hours than was ever before witnessed in the city,
the wind increasing during the afternoon, and at sunset icas a hurricane. At the
time olloio xoater the wharfs were overflowed, the water having risen 13 feet in an
hour. Previous to setting in of the gale, the wind was from S. to S.E., but changed
to the N.E. at the commencement of the storm, and blew with great fury till
evening, and then shifted to the westward.

(133.) TheCyclune of August 1870* took the following course. The calm centre passed
Antigua on August 21 at b' 1 40 m a.m. ; St. Ivitts, at 9 h a.m.; St. Eustatius, at noon ;
St. Thomas, at 5 h 15'" p.m. ; Turk's Island, August 22, at midnight ; Long Island,
August 23, at o 1 ' 30 m p.m. ; Great Exuma, at 8 h 30 m p.m. ; Nassau, August 24, at
4 h 30 ,r - p.m. ; Key West, about 8 p.m. ; Panta Rassa, 5 h p.m. ; Lake City, 6 h p.m.

The rate of progress of this cyclone in passing Antigua was 18 miles per hour. At
St. Thomas it slackened to 13^ miles per hour. In Florida it was only 8£ miles per
hour, and farther North only 5 miles per hour. This diminution in the progressive
movement may probably be accounted for by the obstruction to the cyclone created
by the hills in sr "eral of the islands over or round which it had to pass.

With regard to the diameter of the cyclone, Mr. Jahncke, of St. Thomas, who
seems to have studied the whole phenomena most scientifically, estimated what he
calls the " inner or furious part," at about 180 or 200 miles ; the entire diameter was
about 300 miles. Others, however, judging from the track marked on some of the
islands by the damage done, estimated the diameter at only 50 or 60 miles. As to
the central part, where a comparative calm existed that of course was formed by the
meeting of opposite winds, just as near the equator a calm region prevails from the
same cause. The diameter of this central cyclonic calm may be estimated; for if it
lasted half an hour at any place passed by the cyclone, and the cyclone itself was
moving forward at the rate of 18 miles an hour, the calm centre must have been
about 9 miles in diameter.

The following shows the barometric depression and direction of wind at St.
Thomas:— August 21, noon, 29.83, wind N.E. ; 1 p.m., 29.57, N.N.E.; 2 p.m., 29.19,
N.N.E.; 3 p.m., 29.17, North; 4 p.m., 28.85, N.N.W. ; 5 p.m., 26.G8, West; 5" 35 m
p.m., calm ; 6 p.m., wind S.W. ; 7 p.m., wind S.S.W. The barometer rose gradually
after the calm.

This cyclone is stated to have been divided into two portions in passing the high
ground (6,000 feet) of Puerto Rico. One part of the cyclone diverged to the N.N.W.,
and the other and larger portion proceeded onward AV.N.W. The first part of the
cyclone, Mr. Jahncke states, went towards Bermuda, and was encountered by tho
brig Ada, in lat. 26°, long. Gd\

* Notes on West India Cyclones, by D. Milne Holme, L.L.D. " Journal of the Scottish
Meteorological Society," January and April, 1873. See also page 261.

( 281 )

ON MAKING USE OF HURRICANES.

(13-1.) It has been proposed by Mr. Piddington to make use of these
storms, by taking advantage of the favourable wind which some portions of
their circumferenco offer for expediting the voyage. This has also been
proposed by Sir W. Reid, in his "Law of Storms." Mr. Piddington has
given rules for" this, in the regions he has made more particularly his study
— the Indian and China Seas ; but here the hurricanes do not appear to
travel at so great a speed as those of the Atlantic.

In order to benefit by the hurricane, several conditions are necessary ;
and it need not be again insisted on, that any error or ignorance of the
centre of rotation may be fatal. Of course, the first consideration is, in
what part of the circumference is the ship, and in what bearing is its
centre? — then, at what rate, and in what direction, is it travelling? — and
is it so violent that the ship cannot weather it ? All theso things must bo
weighed well by the mariner, before he endeavours to lay his ship on that
tack which will appear the best to forward his voyage. Should the storm
be advancing in the same direction as his course, and the position of the
ship be upon the anterior verge, should it travel at a rate above that which
he can keep up with it, it is evident that it will pass over him, and the con-
sequence need not be remarked upon. Should the vessel be upon tho
posterior verge of the hurricane, it will, if travelling at 20 or 30 miles an
hour, soon leave her, and then no advantage can follow.

Thus, to " make use of a hurricane," several conditions are absolutely
necessary : these are — " 1. The ship must get into the storm precisely where
the wind blows fair for prosecution of the voyage — which is quite a matter
of chance. 2. If she happen to do so, she must, to derive benefit, regulate
her speed exactly to that of the meteor. Can she do that at pleasure ?
There would be no difficulty in ascertaining the fact of her preserving her
station, or not, by the wind remaining steady, or veering ; but thero is a
necessity that would bind her, and which cannot bo evaded with impunity
when a high sea follows ; she must carry a certain proportion of sail to
prevent her from being pooped. Now this sail may give her a greater
velocity than the meteor at the time ; hence she would run ahead of it.
Agaio, the rate of the meteor may be greater than her utmost speed ; hence
she would be ejected."

* Lieut. Macfarlane remarks that he has never seen a warning given to
vessels, making use of the favourble wind on the eastern side of a cyclone,
to avoid the storm at its point of recurving from N.W. to N.E. A vessel
steering to the northward, having the wind aft, may possibly keep up
with the progress of the hurricane ; but on its reaching its point of recurving
would be in danger of having the vortex pass over her. He is referring to
the cyclone, Track No. XII. on the diagram, which is laid down from the
remarks of six ships.

* From remarks on. the Hurricane of August 1873, by Captain II. Toynbeo, F.R.G.S.,
&C. See " Quarterly Journal of the Meteorological Society," No. 9, January 1S71.

( 285 )

WHITE SQUALLS OF THE WEST INDIES.

(135.) Mr. F. A. Jahncke,* of St. Thomas, says on th's subject :—
I think it would not be out of place to say a few words on White Squalls
which happen sometimes, and are terribly destructive to vessels, either cap-
sizing them or carrying away their masts. They occur with fine weather
and a good breeze, but I have not heard that they happen on land, but
always at sea. It must be a rapid descent of the equatorial wind met below
by the trade wind, which arrests its circular motion ; that must be the
cause, as their duration is only for a few moments.

Captain Toynbee remarks that he has been struck by the frequency of
squalls from the direction of the upper current of air in parts of the sea
where the lower wind was from nearly an opposite direction. In studying
square 3 he found that at the northern verge of the S.E. trade the upper
clouds very frequently moved from N.E., and squalls would come from N.E.,
though the steady lower wind was always S.E. or southerly, as if the upper
current of air sometimes forced its way downward through the lower current,
causing the squall, and then rose again.

9.— WATERSPOUTS.

(136.) The well-known phenomenon, called a Waterspout, which is fre-
quently seen on the Atlantic, proceeding from black dense clouds, always
appears in warm weather, generally in calms, or with little wind ; but they
have been seen during a fresh gale. It has been shown, by the celebrated
Dr. Franklin, and other writers, that a whirlwind on land, and a waterspout
at sea, arise frum the same general causes, and may be considered as one
and the same. At sea they are commonly harmless, unless ships happen to
be immediately under them ; but if, in the progressive motion of the whirl,
it passes from the sea over the laud, and there suddenly breaks, violent and
mischievous torrents are the consequence. At sea, after the spout breaks,
the water descends in the form of very heavy rain. In the vicinity of a
spout, the wind commonly flies round in sudden gusts, and all ships should
therefore take in their square sails.

That a waterspout and whirlwind are identical, has been amply demon-
strated by those who have seen this meteor pass from the sea to land, and
the contrary. They have both a progressive as well as circular motion ;
they usually appear after calms and great heats, and mostly happen in the
warmer latitudes.

(137.) Marine waterspouts, therefore, are caused by the action of atmo-
spheric currents. Malte-Brun thus describes them: — " Underneath a dense
cloud, the sea became agitated by violent commotions, the waves dart

* General remarks on West India Cyclones, by F. A. Jahncke, see " Quarterly Journal
of the Meteorological Society," No. 10, April 1874.

N. A. O 2?

286 WATERSPOUTS.

rapidly toward the centre of the agitated mass of water, on arriving at
which they are dispersed into aqueous vapours, and rise whirling round, in
a spiral direction, toward the cloud. This conical ascending column is met
by another descending column, which leans toward the water, and joins
with it. In many cases the marine column is from 50 to 80 fathoms in
diameter near its base. Both columns, however, diminish toward the
middle, where they unite ; so that here they do not extend more than 3 to
4 feet in diameter. The entire column presents itself in the shape of a
hollow cylinder, or tube of glass, empty within. It glides over the sea
without any wind being felt ; indeed, several have been seen at once follow-
ing different directions. When the cloud and the marine base of the water-
spout move with unequal velocities, the lower cone is often seen to incline
sideways, or even to bend, and finally to burst in pieces. A noise is then
heard, like the noise of a cataract falling in a deep valley; lightning fre-
quently issues from the very bosom of the waterspout, particularly when it
breaks, but no thunder is ever heard."

In order to prevent the danger which a vessel would be exposed to by
coming in contact with these tremendous columns, it is the practice to dis-
charge upon them a cannon ball, which, passing through them, causes them
to burst, and consequently removes all chances of injury connected with
them. This phenomenon is accounted for in the following manner : — Two
winds meet — a vortex ensues ; any cloud which happens to be between them
is condensed into a conical form, and turned round with great velocity; this
whirling motion drives from the centre of the cloud all the particles con-
tained in it ; a vacuum is thereby produced, and water, or any other body
lying beneath this vacuum, is carried into it upon the usual and well-known
principle. The cannon-ball, breaking this cylinder, which is always partly
hollow, causes it to fall to pieces, in the same manner as a touch upon the
surfaco of a bubble reduces the resplendent mass to a drop of common
water.

(138.) The following description of a Waterspout, seen during a fresh gale
upon the coast of North America, was written by Mr. Murdo Downie.

"Upon the forenoon of the 9th of October, 1795, while cruising in his
Majesty's ship Resolution, (then bearing the flag of the late Admiral Mur-
ray), in company with H.M.S. Africa, commanded by the late Admiral,
then Captain, Home, in lat. 32°, and long. 66^° W., having the wind at
N.N.W. blowing a fresh gale, and the ship steering by the wind East
for the Islands of Bermudas, we were surprised by a waterspout, formed
in an instant, directly to leeward, at about 2 miles, or little more, distant.
Both the Africa and we fired several 18-pound shot at it, which fell a little
short ; and, although some of the shot fell very near, yet they had no visible
effect upon it. Its appearance was that of a long slender pillar, with the
upper end spreading into a large dense cloud, of which it seemed to form a
part, and the lower end reached to within about 20 or 30 feet of the sea,
where it was obscured from the sight by waters being violently thrown up
and agitated, so as to resemble a number of fountains or water-engines play-
ing perpendicularly round the lower end of the spout. The pillar became
more transparent in proportion as it decreased in size from the cloud down-
ward, until at the lower end, where it was almost perfectly so ; and a small

WATEKSPOUTS. 28?

column, of an equal diameter, and more transparent than the rest, appeared
up through the middle, so that about the .uwer end it resembled an empty
glass tube in appearance ; from thence the transparent column in the middle
became gradually obscured, the higher up, by the opacity of the outside,
until it altogether disappeared near the cloud. The spout appeared at its
full size, or nearly so, when first seen, and began to decrease shortly after,
and turning gradually smaller, in a short time vanished in a slight shower.

" We were too intently gazing at this extraordinary phenomenon to mark
the exact time it lasted, but supposed it to continue ten or fifteen minutes ;
and its distance from the ship was pretty accurately ascertained by the shot
fired at it nearly reaching ; but what appeared most remarkable was, that,
although the wind blew so strong a gale, that the ship could carry only
reefed topsails from which the velocity of the wind cannot be estimated at
less than 30 or 40 miles an hour), yet the waterspout seemed to move but
very little from the place where it was first seen. The ship was going at
the rate of 5 -J miles an hour, and increasing her distance from the--spout;
yet, after continuing the above-mentioned time, it was considerably within
the verge of the visible horizon, as seen from the quarter-deck, when it
vanished (as upon the quarter-deck the eye was elevated 23 feet above the
surface of the sea, the horizon would therefore be seen about 6 miles dis-
tant). Now, allowing the ship to have increased her distance from the spot
half a mile during its continuance, and that it vanished a mile within the
verge of the visible horizon), leaves 2£ miles for the spout to move in ten
minutes ; whereas the wind must have gone at least 5 miles in that time,
and consequently 2| miles faster than the waterspout. Indeed, it is very
probable the waterspout did not move so much, in proportion to the wind,
as the above calculation gives the least difference between their motions
that could have been allowed from the observations ; the intention of this
calculation being principally to prove that the waterspout in some measure
resisted the force of the wind. - ^^-e— -— -.

"I have always observed that waterspouts, lightning, and other electrical
phenomena, are far less frequent toward the middle of the ocean than they
are upon the land, or near it, and when they happen upon the sea, the cloud
that contains them is generally observed to have come from off the land ;
from which reason we find that electrical phenomena are more frequent,
and are found to reach to a greater distance, upon the sea bordering the
East coast of North America, than upon that bordering the West coast of
Europe ; because of the prevailing westerly winds carrying the clouds
charged with electric fluid off the land upon the sea near the American
coast ; whereas upon the European coast these winds confine the clouds upon
the land. It is also a known fact, that within the limits of the N.E. Trade-
winds, and half-way between the Cape Verde and Windward West India
Islands, more especially in the latitude of these islands, scarcely any of these
electrical appearances ever happen ; whereas upon the shores of Africa and
America, in the same climate, they frequently rage with great fury.

(139.) Description of Waterspouts by Mr. George Maxwell.— There can be no
doubt that waterspouts have, in most cases, been accompanied with electrical
phenomena ; and it is equally certain that the spiral and ascending motion
of the water has been produced by a gyratory movement in the air, arising

288 WATERSPOUTS.

from the meeting of two opposite winds. Mi'. Maxwell had opportunities,
during several voyages to the Congo, of frequently witnessing this interest-
ing phenomenon ; and in a drawing, from which the subjoined figure has
been made, he has represented the different states of a waterspout, as they
commonly occur.

At their first formation, Mr. Maxwell says, they appear as at A, where
the black cloud drops from a level surface into a conical form, before the
disturbance at the surface of the sea, as shown at D, is observed. The
effect produced at D is like that of a smoking furnace. The black conical
cloud now continues to descend, as shown at B, till it almost reaches the
surface of the sea, and the smoke-like appearance rises higher and higher,
till it forms an union with the cloud from which the spout appears to be
suspended. In this condition it is said to put on its most terrific appearance
to vessels which have the misfortune to be in its neighbourhood. "When
the spout begins to disperse, it assumes the appearance shown at C. The
black cloud generally draws itself up in a ragged form, but leaves a thin
transparent tube, CE, which reaches the water, where the smoke-like com-
motion still prevails. Mr. Maxwell observed, at this time, in the upper
part of the tube, a very curious motion.

This singular fact, of the existence of a transparent tube, confirms a
description, by M. Alexander Stewart, of waterspouts which he saw in the
Mediterranean, in 1701. "It was observable of all of them, but chiefly of
the large pillar, that toward the end it began to appear like a hollow canal,
only black in the borders, but white in the middle ; and though at first it
was altogether black and opaque, yet one could very distinctly perceive the
sea-water to fly up along the middle of this canal as smoke does up a chimney, and
that with great swiftness, and a very perceptible motion ; and then, soon

WATERSPOUTS. 289

after, the spout or canal, burst in the middle, and disappeared by little and
little; the boiling up and the pillar-like form of the sea water continuing
always the last, even for some considerable time after the spout disappeared,
and perhaps till the spout appeared again, or re-formed itself, which it
commonly did in the same place as before, breaking and forming itself
again several times in a quarter or half an hour." — "Phil. Transactions,
1702."

Admiral William H. Smith, in his interesting volume on Sicily and the
Sicilian Islands, has noticed, that " waterspouts and various singular me-
teoric phenomena occur in that neighbourhood. Among the latter, on a
warm, cloudy, and hazy day, the 19th of March, 1814, it began to rain in
large drops, that appeared muddy, and they deposited a very minute sand
of a yellowish red colour. The wind, on the day before, had been blowing
strongly from the S.S.W. to the N.E. ; and, during the time the rain fell,
was from the S.W., which leads to the supposition that it was transported
from the deserts of Africa." This remark accords with a number of others
on the sand from the Sahara ox Desert, which is carried by the wind over
the Atlantic, to an almost incredible distance from the western coast.**

(140.) To the preceding descriptions we annex another, as given by the
Honourable Captain Napier, R.N., F.R.S.E., in 1814.

" On the 6th of September, 1814, in lat. 30° 47' N., and long. 62° 40' W.,f
at half-past one p.m., the wind being variable between W.N. W. and N.N.E.,
the ship steering S.E., an extraordinary sort of whirlwind was observed to
form about 3 cables' lengths from the starboard bow of H.M.S. Erne. It
carried the water up along with it in a cylindrical form, in diameter, to
appearance, like that of a water-butt, gradually rising in height, increasing
in bulk, advancing in a southerly direction, and, when at the distance of a
mile from the ship, it continued stationary for several minutes, boiling and
foaming at the base, discharging an immense column of water, with a
rushing or hissing noise, into the overhanging clouds; turning itself with a
quick spiral motion, constantly bending Rr.d straightening, according as it
was affected by the variable winds, which now prevailed from all points of
the compass. It next returned to the northward, in direct opposition to the
then prevailing wind, and right upon the ship's starboard beam, whose
course was altered to East, in hopes of letting it pass astern. Its approach,
however, was so rapid, that we were obliged to resort to the usual expedient
of a broadside, for the purpose of averting any danger that might be
apprehended; when, after firing several shots, and one, in particular, having
passed right through it, at the distance of one-third from its base, it appeared
for a minute as if cut horizontally in two parts, the divisions waving to and
fro in different directions, as agitated by opposite winds, till they again
joined for a time, and at last dissipated in an immense dark cloud or shower
of rain. --s.

"* Colonel Ecid has given, in his " Law of Storms," a chapter (xi.) on " Waterspouts and
the smtller Whirlwinds," with several beautiful figures of the same, which have heen re*
peated in the Nautical Magazine," of July, 1830.

t About 45 leagues S.E. from the B^mudas,

290 WATERSPOUTS.

" The near edge showered in large heavy drops on the ship's deck, until
the cloud was quite exhausted.

"At, the time of its being separated by the effect of the shot, or more
probably by the agitation occasioned in the air by the discharge of several
guns, its base was considerably within half a mile of the ship, covering a
portion of the surface of the water at least half a furlong, or 300 ft. in
diameter, from one extreme circumference of ebullition to the other ; and the
neck of the cloud iuto which it discharged itself appeared to have an altitude
of 40° of the quadrant, while the cloud itself extended overhead, and all
around, to a very considerable distance.

" Allowing, then, from the ship, a base of little more than a third of a
nautic mile, say 2,050 ft., and an angle of 40° to tho top of the neck, we
shall then have, for the perpendicular height of the spout, about 1,720 ft.,
or very nearly one-third of a statute mile. A little before it burst, two other
waterspouts, of an inferior size, were observed to the southward, but their
continuance was of short duration.

"When danger was no longer to be apprehended, I observed the
barometer, and found it at 30.1 inches, with the surface of the mercury very
convex ; an appearance which it had not assumed when at the same height
at noon, about two hours before; the thermometer stood at 82°, having
risen 1° since that time.

" During the continuance of the waterspout, and the subsequent rain,
which might be a little more than half an hour, the wind blew from all
points of the compass at different times, generally shifting at opposite
points, never longer than a fresh breeze for a moment, but in most instances
quite light. It was unattended with any thunder or lightning, and the
water that fell from the cloud was perfectly fresh.

" Having witnessed this extraordinary phenomenon, I endeavoured to
ascertain its cause.

"Although this phenomenon was rather terrific in appearance, yet I am
not inclined to think it would have been attended with any serious calamity
to the ship, had even the whole quantity fallen on board, allowing the loftier
sails to have been taken in, the hatches battened down, and scuppers open.
The cylinder or spout coming in contact with the masts and rigging, would
naturally be destroyed ; and the air rushing in, instantaneously, to restore
the equilibrium, the torrent would thus be checked in its fall by the mere
weight or force of a tropical descent. I have heard many reports of ravages
committed by these aqueous meteors, but never yet met a person who had
actually witnessed or experienced any such distressing effects."

10.-0F THE TIDES.

(141.) As introductory to a General Table of the Tides, we shall give a
few passages from II. MalU-Brun, explanatory of the subject; and also the
results of the recent extensive observations and profound researches of
Professor Whewell and the late Sir John Lubbock.

THE TIDES. 291

The water of the sea yields to the slightest impression ; and, although its
density and weight combine to retain it in a constant equilibrium, it is
agitated to a certain depth by rapid and varied motions. These motions
may be classed according to the manner in which the particles move, and
according to the nature of the agents which cause the motion.

Three kinds of motion may be distinguished in the sea, considered in
reference to their causes. The Tides are sidereal motions, because they
depend upon the influence of the heavenly bodies. General Currents, and
the greatest number of Particular Currents, have their causes in the very
element that is agitated by them ; these, then, are motions of the sea itself.
The third kind comprehends atmospheric motions, produced by the action of
the winds.

The Tides are regular and periodical oscillations, which the seas undergo
from the attraction of the celestial bodies, principally those of the moon and
sun.

(142.) Action of the Moon. — Let us first consider the single action of the
moon upon the sea ; supposing that luminary to be in the plane of the
Equator. It is evident that, if the moon exerted upon all the particles of
the sea an equal attraction, and parallel to the earth's centre of gravity, the
entire system of the globe, and of the waters which cover it, would be
influenced by a common motion, and their relative equilibrium would not
suffer any change. The equilibrium is disturbed only by the difference
between the attractions which the moon exerts, and the inequality of their
directions. Some parts of the globe are directly attracted by the moon;
others only obliquely. The former are in conjunction with the moon ; and
a line drawn from the centre of the two planets would pass through their
zenith. The latter are in quadrature with the moon — that is to say, a line
drawn from the terrestrial centre to their zenith would make an angle of 90°
with the line which connects the centres of the two planets. The attracting
force acting obliquely is decomposed by the obliquity of its angle of inci-
dence ; thus the parts in conjunction being more strongly attracted than those
in quadrature, the weight of their particles is diminished. It is necessary,
then, to there being an equilibrium in all parts of the sea, that the waters
should rise under the moon, in order that the excess of weight of the particles
in quadrature, above those in conjunction, may bo compensated by the
greater height of the latter.

The waters, however, rise, not only on the side where the attracting
planet is, but, also, on the opposite side ; because, if the planet attract the
superior waters more than it attracts the centre of the earth, it also attracts
this centre more* than it attracts the inferior waters in the opposite hemi-
sphere. These waters will then approach less toward the atti acting planet,
than the centre of the earth approaches to it. They will remain as far off,
from and behind the centre, as the superior waters advance from it on the
side of the moon.

Two promontories, or eminences of water, will therefore be formed by the
action of the moon upon the earth ; one on the side toward the moon ; the
other on the side opposite to it ; which gives the sea an appearance of an
elongated spheroid, whose great axis will pass through the centre of the
moon and of the earth. It is high tide under the moon and in the opposite

292 THE TIDES.

point at 180 degrees of distance; consequently, in the two intermediate
points, or at 90 degrees of distance from the moon, the tide will be loio.

The earth, by its rotatory motion, successively presents to the moon, in the
space of twenty-four hours, all its meridians, which, consequently, are found
by turns, and at an interval of six hours, sometimes under the moon, and
sometimes at a distance of 90 degrees from it ; hence it follows that, during
the time which passes between the departure of the moon from one meridian,
and its return to the same meridian, that is, in the space of a lunar day,
which exceeds the solar day by about fifty minutes and a half, the waters of
the sea will ebb twice, and flow twice, in every part of the earth, although
in a manner almost insensible in those places which are distant from the
path or orbit of the moon.

(143.) Action of the Sun. — If we now imagine the sun to be in the plane
of the Equator, it is evident that, as its action is similar to that of the moon,
it should excite in the ocean an agitation similar to the lunar tides. Thus
the sea would ebb twice and flow twice during a solar day ; but, on account
of the immense distance from the sun, those solar tides will be much smaller
than those which result from the action of the moon.

On account of the inequality which exists between the solar and lunar
days, the action of the sun will sometimes change the position of the lunar
tides, and at other times will unite its influence with that of the moon. In
the syzigies, or conjunctions, the action of the moon concurs with that of the
sun to raise the waters. This is the reason why the highest tides happen
at new and full moon ; or when the moon is in its first or third quarters.
In the quadratures, the waters of the sea are depressed by the action of the
sun, at the same point where the action of the moon raises them, and
reciprocally. Thus the tides of the quadratures ought to be less.

The height of the tidal wave produced by the moon is as that produced by
the sun as 100 to 38, when combined, of course, they produce the spring
tide, as above stated ; opposed, they make neaps, the range of them being as
138 to 62, or nearly as 7 to 3. Newton (from the Severn tides) make it 4.48
to 1, which is far too large. Laplace (from the Brest observations), makes it
2.90 to 1, and the late Sir John Lubbock and Dr. Whewell about 2.66 to 1.
Of course, these relations are very much controlled in action by the configu-
ration of the coast or channel.

(144.) "What we have already explained regards the position of the sun
and moon in the Equator. Let us now consider these heavenly bodies in
their various declinations, and we shall see the elevation vary in the inverse
ratio of the cube of the distance of tUe water.

Without entering into details, which would require mathematical demon-
strations, we shall remark only, that the proximity of the sun and moon
seems to be the cause to which we must refer the extraordinary equinoctial
tides, which happen most frequently ; the one before the vernal equinox, and
the other after the autumnal; that is, both of them at the time when the
sun, passing through the meridional signs, is nearest us. But this does not
happen every year, because there are sometimes variations produced by the
situation of the orbit of the moon, and by the distance of the syzigies from
the equinoxes.
(145.) This, then, is the general theory of the tides, and from these obser-

THE TIDES. 293

vations of their general laws may be inferred ; but it has been reserved for
later times to puisuo the inquiry into detail, and to develop the minor offects
which, modify, a-;. I in some places totally change, the character of the tides.
It is chiefly to the late Rev. Dr. Wheicell, Master of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, and to Sir John Zuhbock, that our present knowledge of the tide laws
is owing, and from their observations we will give some extracts.

(146.) In the Eev. Dr. Whewell's papers on the subject of the Tides, he
commences : — " Ever since the time of Newtox, his explanation of the general
phenomena of the tides, by means of tiie action of the moon and the sun, has
been assented to by all philosophers who have given their attention to the
subject. But, even up to the present day, this general explanation has -not
been pursued into its results in detail, so as to show its bearing on the special
phenomena of particular places — to connect the actual tides of all the different
parts of the world — and to account for their seeming anomalies. With regard
to this alone, of all the consequences of the law of universal gravitation, the
task of bringing the developed theory into comparison with multiplied and
extensive observation is still incomplete; we might say, is still to be
Degun.*

(147.) The Tidal Wave. — The tidal wave is not owing to the transfer of the
body of water, which would be a current, but to an elevation of its surface.
This motion is, as readily conceived, compatible with immense velocity ; and
it may be taken as a rule, that the broader the wave, the greater will be its
velocity. If the earth were in equilibrium, and its surface entirely covered
with water, and under the influence of the moon's attraction, it would assume
the form of an ellipsoid, having the semiaxis directed towards the moon
longer by about 58 inches than that transverse to it ; that is, the water
would become higher by that amount. This is merely adduced to show what
may be the amount of the luni-tidal wave, without entering into any other
considerations.

(148.) Velocity of the Tidal Wave.— Kb the whole of the tidal wave must
circulate around the globe in twenty-four hours nearly, the velocity must be
very great ; but it is greatly modified. In the middle of the Atlantic it
would appear to travel at the rate of about 700 miles an hour, but on the
coast it is widely different ; hence its velocity along the eastern coast of
England varies from 35 miles to 160 miles per hour.

In the open ocean, where nothing intervenes to obstruct the course of the
tidal wave, it travels probably with regularity ; and it may be presumed that
its height is also inconsiderable. But when this wave, from an open ocean,
approaches a narrow channel, such as the Bristol or English -Channel — from
being hemmed in, as it were, it forms a tide current. Now, along the centre
of such a channel the tidal wave would travel with much greater speed than
on the sides. Hence the distances at which the hour-marks representing
high water will be wide apart in the centre, and transverse to its general
direction ; while on the shores, the direction of the wave would be altered,

* " Essay towards a First Approximation to a Map of Cotidal Lines;" Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, 1833, p. 147.

N. A. 0. 2Q

294 TIIE TIDES.

and it will approach parallel to the shore ; hence the hour-marks will be
close together, and parallel to the general direction of the main tide-
current.

The tide-wave, advancing through the contracting channel, towards the
end becomes of great height, and, as at Bristol, and in the Bay of Fundy,
sometimes rises to the enormous height of 50 or 70 ft. ; just in the same
manner that the surf runs up a shelving beach.

The variation in the height of the tide (as is found to be the case in some
parts of the coast of France, between places near each other, and having
high water at the same time, is to be accounted for by the convex form of
the tidal wave.

In some parts of the world, as in Australia, Kamtschatka, &c, the tides
offer very singular anomalies. At Adelaide, in South Australia, it is high
water only once in the twenty-four hours, and that during the night. This
arises from what are called interferences, whereby two distinct sets of tidal
waves, in their combination produce apparent rest.*

(149.) One of the most important circumstances of this subject is, that,
in an open channel, the flood current (the current which runs till high water)
will continue running for three hours afterwards, or till half-ebb-, and tho ebb
current, which then begins, will run after low water till half flood. The
time of slack water is intermediate between the times of high water and low
water. In proportion as the channel is obstructed at the further end, the
flood current runs for a shorter time after flood ; and in a closed creek, the
flood current ends at high water. f

Another error to correct is this : — " That the time of the change of current,
or the time of slack xoater, as it may be termed, never coincides with the time
of high water, except close in-shore, and within its influence; the interval is
generally considerable. Great confusion has arisen from these two times
not being properly distinguished." — " Phil. Trans.," 1833, p. 162.

(150.) The Establishment of the Port. — The vulgar establishment of the port
is the interval of time by which the time of high water follows the moon's
transit on the day of the new and full moon. This is, corrected, the mean value
of the interval, freed from the semi-menstrual inequality. Its value at the
London Docks is one hour twenty-six minutes, by the mean of all the
observations.— " Phil. Trans.," 1834, p. 19.

The Corrected Establishment. — The mean luni-tidal interval, or corrected
establishment of each place differs from the vulgar establishment, or time of
high water for new and full moon ; for the time of high water at syzigy is
affected by the semi-menstrual inequality belonging to the moon's position
one or two days earlier, and is therefore later by about thirty minutes than
the mean interval would give \t.\

(151.) The Semi-monthly Inequality. — The interval of tide and month's
transit is affected by a considerable inequality, which goes through its
period twice in the space of one month ; it may be considered as depending
upon the moon's distance from the sun in right ascension, or, which is the

* Phil. Trans., 1833, p. 154. + Phil. Trans., 1833, p. 215.

% Phil. Trans. (Whewell), 1836), p. 202.

THE TIDES. . 295

same thing, on the solar time of the moon's transit. The difference of the
greatest and least intervals at London is one hour twenty-eight minutes.*

(152.) The Age of the Tide. — The tide does not depend upon the passage of
the moon upon that particular day or hour, but from some previous transit ;
hence the tide is observed to take place at London at two o'clock on the
days of new and full moon ; therefore, as the tide of London is found to bo
determined by the position of the sun and moon upon two days and a half
before it occurs, one hour twenty-six minutes is the corrected establishment
for London, as stated above. f

(153.) Difference of the Two Diurnal Tides. — It has been remarked in various
places by separate observers, that the evening tide is higher than the morning
tide in one part of the year, and lower at another. This is thus explained
by Newton, From the vernal to the autumnal equinox, the sun has North
declination ; and as the moon's orbit is never much inclined to the sun's, a
line drawn from the earth's centre to the moon would meet the earth's sur-
face, on the side towards the sun, in North latitude. Now, such a line is
the axis of the tide-spheroid, supposing the tide to be always under the
moon ; and the tide taking place when the moon in the meridian is higher,
as the place is nearer to the vertices or points where the axis of the tide
spheroid meets the earth's surface. Hence, in this case, the tides which
occur on the side of the earth next the sun, or the day tides, would be larger
for a place in North latitude than the tides on the opposite side. For a
similar reason, the night tides would be higher in winter.

(151.) Height of Mean Water. — The mean between high and low water is
found to be constant and permanent, however much may be the difference of
high and low water. It has been found, from a great number of observa-
tions on the South coast of England, not to vary more than 2 or 3 inches ;
therefore all heights ought to be referred to the mean level of the sea, instead
of the vague and uncertain data of high or low water.

The refined surveying operations which have of late been completed have
demonstrated one singular fact, which could only have been elicited in the
laborious and exact processes carried on during the Ordnance Survey. It is,
that the mean level of the sea, as we assume it, is not a level, from whatever
cause it may arise, and it is difficult to assign one. It is found that the
mean level of the sea around Ireland is lower on the South than it is on the
North coast. Taking Courtown in Wicldow as the standard — a spot remark-
able as the node or axis of the great tidal wave of the St. George's Channel,
and where there is little or no rise or fall ; at Ballycastle on the North,
the mean sea level is higher by 0881 foot, and lower on the South at Castle
Townsend by 0-938 foot than it is at Courtown. Thus the mean level is
nearly 1 foot 10 iuches higher on the North than it is on the South of
Ireland. Of course this fact has no bearing upon the seaman's application
of tidal phenomena, but is curious.

(155.) It has been found that a low barometer causes a higher tide and
the reverse. This element, in the disturbance of the regular tides, the
effects of atmospheric pressure, has been estimated by different observers,
and its amount has been ascertained with considerable accuracy. Thus, at

Phil. Trans., 1834 p. 19. f PML Trans., 1839, p. 1-54.

296 THE TIDES.

Liverpool, there is a difference in the height of high water of 10-1 inches for
a variation of 0-91 in the barometer ; and at London it has been calculated.
by Mr. Dessiou that the water rises 6*3 inches for "90 depression of the
barometer. M. Daussy has ascertained that, at Brest, the ocean rises *223
metre, or 8-78 inches, for a depression of 0158 metre, or *622 inch in the
barometer.* These results are nearly identical with those ascertained by
Sir James Eoss in the Arctic regions in 1848 by means of the steady level
of the winter ice. These refinements in tidal calculations are, perhaps, of
little value for the practical mariner when at sea ; they may be useful in
entering a dock ; but they are of the utmost service in generalising the
phenomena of the tides, upon which so little, it may be said, is known that
may bo applied.

(15G.) The foregoing are the principal effects of the causes which produce
the tides in reference to their rise and fall. There is another branch of the
subject, however, which is of great importance to the navigator ; that is, the
currents formed by the alternate elevation and depression of the ocean. As
before mentioned, in the open sea it may be considered that there is no tidal
current, and. that the tidal wave is propagated without any actual displace-
ment in the particles of the water. But when this wave approaches the
coast, the case is widely different, and the wave must necessarily form a
current, sometimes flowing in one direction, and at others in the opposite one.
This variation in the progress of the flood, and ebb tide wave must vary with
every locality, and is influenced by the particular configuration of the coasts,
&c, by which it passes. The question of the form and transmission of
waves is so complicated, and involving mathematical analysis of so high an
order, that it cannot be usefully dwelt on here.

Upon the direction in which the great tidal wave is propogated, we at pre-
sent have much to learn. It has been supposed by the late Sir J. Lubbock,
that it travels from the Cape of Good Hope to Gibraltar in twelve hours ;
from Gibraltar to Edinburgh in about twelve hours ; and from Edinburgh
to London in about twelve hours, f which is in accordance with Bernouilli's
theory. Passing north-eastward from the South Atlantic, it strikes the
S.W. shores of Great Britain and Ireland, and becomes divided by these
lands ; one portion of the great wave passes northward to the West of
Ireland, a portion of it enters by the North Channel, and meets a large
portion from the South which has passed up the St. George's Channel,
another passes up the English Channel passing on to the North Sea along
the Dutch and German coasts, and with another portion of tho western
branch which enters the North Sea between Norway and Scotland, causes a
circulation of tides which is still involved in some obscurity, but which is
elucidated elsewhere ; the remainder passes north-eastward along the Nor-
way coast on to the Polar basin. Along the American coast the great wave
passes from South to North, making high water at a later hour continually,
and entering tho various bays and outlets in the same manner. It may at
once be mentioned that in low latitudes the rise and fall of tho tide is very
inconsiderable, and therefore comparatively unimportant.

* Phil. Trans,, 1536, pp. 220, 221 ; and Conn. dcs. Temps. 1S34.
t rial. Trans., 1836, p. 218.

THE TIDES. 297

(157.) In 1834, from the recommendation of the Rev. Professor WheweM,
a series of tide observations were made, during a fortnight in the month of
June, at the coast-guard stations in Great Britain and Ireland ; and in the
following year a much more extensive series was taken simultaneously be-
tween the 8th and 28th of June. " The chain of places of observation ex-
tended from the mouth of the Mississippi round the Cays of Florida, along
the coast of North America, as far as Nova Scotia ; and from the Straits of
Gibraltar along the shores of Europe, to the North of Cape Norway. The
number of places of observation was twenty-eight in America, seven in
Spain, seven in Portugal, sixteen in France, five in Belgium, eighteen in
the Netherlands, twenty-four in Denmark, and twenty-four in Norway ; and
observations were made by the coast-guard of this country at 318 places in
England and Scotland, and at 219 places in Ireland." This large number
of observations was also undertaken at the instigation of Professor Whewell,
and their reduction was made by Mr. Dessiou and assistants, under his
directions. The details and results are given in the " Philosophical Trans-
actions," 1836, p. 289, et seq.

These observations have given us a far greater insight into the nature of
the tidal progress than was had heretofore. A still more refined series was
carried on for the Fnglish Channel by Admiral Beechey, as hereafter
shown.

(158.) In the ensuing Tide Table for the North Atlantic the vulgar estab-
lishment (143) is given as the tidal hour at full and change, except in some
cases, which are noticed as being the corrected establishment of the port.
These figures are taken chiefly from the Government Nautical Surveys and
the special observations which have been made in various places.

The height of the tide is here quoted as the range— that is, the difference
of level between high and low water both at springs and neaps ; so that the
figures giving neaps do not represent the amount above the low-water
spring tides, but the higher level generally of one-fourth of the difference
of range.

Attached to the table are some brief remarks on peculiarities of the tidal
phenomena, in the form of notes.

TIDE TABLE.

The Figures in

Brack

cts (1.) refer to the subjoined Notes.

High

Range.

High

Range.

Place.

Water,
Full and

Place.

Water,
Full and

Change.

Sps.

Nps.

Change.

Sps.

Nps.

England — Thames and

h. m.

ft.

South Coast.

Lundy Island (4)

5 15

h. m.

ft.

Barnstaple (Bar)

5 30

London Bridge (1) •

2 7

19]

14|

Bideiord

6 7

London Docks

1 57

19^

Ilfracombe

5 42

27]

Gravescnd

1 10

Bridgewater Bar

6 50

Nore -

12 30

15|

Portishead

7 16

41.T

21i

Margate

11 40

ID*

10i

Bristol (King Road)

6 56

22"

Ramsgate

11 44

15"

Chepstow

7 30

50?

Deal

11 15

Newport

7 10?

24?

Dover (2)

11 12

18!

Cardiff -

6 59

Folkestone

11 7

Swansea «

5 56

Dungeness

10 45

21|

Llanelly Bar -

6 16

Rye Bay

11 20

Tenby -

Hastings

10 53

13"!

Milford Haven (en-

Beachy Head -

11 20

10 ;

trance)

5 52

Newhaven

11 51

Pembroke DockYard

6 12

Shoreham

11 34

Cardigan (5) -

7 1

Littlehampton

11 36

Aberystwith -

7 31

131

Selsea Bill

11 45

1G£.

8 *

Bardsey Island

7 40

Portsmouth Deck

Caernarvon

9 33

13f

Yard -

11 41

12f,

6J| Holyhead

10 11

Southampton (3)

/ 10 30
( 12 45

r ijj Beaumaris
b a|| Chester -

10 32
10 30

21|

26"

West Cowes -

10 45

12 L>

Liverpool

11 23

14|

Hurst, Camber

; 10 o

(12

Formby Point
Ribble Lighthouse -

10 35
10 51

28
24

Needles Point
Christchurch ■>

9 46
/ 9
t 11 30

Fleetwood
Lancaster

\ 11 11

(11 12

11 16

27
26]
8i

15
14i

Poole -

/ 9 10
t 12 45

Poulton-le- Sands -

11 26

27|

Piel Harbour (Pier)

11 5

Portland Breakwater

7 1

Whitehaven -

11 14

23i

12f

Bridport

6 5

111

AVorkington -

11 4

Exmouth -

6 21

12 ]

Maryport

11 3

Torbay -

13 J

Southerness -

11 20

Dartmouth

6 16

Annan Foot -

11 56

Devonport Dock

Port Carlisle -

12 10

20?

Yard -

5 43

151

Plymouth Break-

water -

5 37

15|

Isle of Man.

Fowey ...

5 14

Falmouth

4 57

Douglas -

11 12

20f

Lizard ...

1*3

Ramsey -

11 15

16]

12V

Penzance

4 30

Peel

11 8

Scilly Isles

4 30

Calf Sound

11 17

16]

Port St. Mary

11 10

Castletown

11 10

England and Wales —

West Coast.

Scotland, West Coast.

St. Ivc3 -

4 44

9. 1 . Kirkcudbright

11 10

Padstow

5 U

4U S

12-||

Troon •

U 50

TIDE TABLE.

299

High

Rarj

ge.

High

Run

ge.

Place.

Water,
Full and

Place.

Water,
Full and

Change.

Sps.

Nps.

Change.

Nps.

h. m.

ft.

. m.

ft.

Port Patrick -

11 10

Inverness

12 18

Loch Ryan

11 12

Peterhead

lOf

Campbellton -

11 45

Aberdeen

Ayr -

11 50

Montrose

1 25

Ardrossan

11 45

Arbroath

1 35

Largs ...

11 50

Tay Bar

2 6

Greenock

G 2

Dundee -

2 32

Port Glasgow -

Leith ...

2 17

lGi

Dumbarton

Dunbar ...

2 8

15|

Glasgow

1 25

Burnt Isles, Kyles of

Bute -

11 50

England, East Coast.

Ardrishaig, Loch

Fyno ...

11 53

Berwick

2 18

Gigha Sound -

2 22

Tyne River Bar

3 20

14|

Jura, East Coast

4 56

°2

„ Newcastle

4 23

10*

Easdale Sound

5 25

10-12

Sunderland

3 22

14|

Crinan -

4 49

Tees River, Bar

3 45

Loch Alino

5 33

13-2

Whitby -

3 45

Oban ...

5 45

Scarborough -

4 11

15|

Loch Eil

5 15

Flamborough Head

4 30

Tobermory, Mull -

5 36

Humber Riv., Spurn

Portree, I. of Skye -

6 32

; fcPoint -

5 20

18f

10f

Kyle Akin

6 16

„ Hull

6 29

20|

11|

Ullapool, Loch Broom

6 40

Lynn Deep, Sand -

Poolewe, Loch Ewo

6 20

Cromer -

14|

Berneray, Island of

Yarmouth Haven -

9 15

Harris

6 11

Lowestoft

9 56

Stornoway

6 46

Orfordness

11 15

Cape Wrath -

7 30

15±

Woodbridge Haven,

Thurso ...

8 28

14|

Bar -

11 45

Stroma, South side -

9 47

Harwich Harbour -

12 6

Swona, East side

10 24

•

Orwell River, Ips-

„ West sid« -

9 35

wich ...

12 35

13|

Great Skerry, East

Gunfleet Sand, N.E.

side •

11 4

end -

11 40

Orkneys.

Ireland, Sou and
East Coasts.

Stromness

Kirkwall

10 9

Cape Clear

D«er Sound -

10 30

Baltimore

4 23

Widewall

9 3

Kinsale -

4 43

Otterswick

9 13

5 l

Queenstown -

5 1

Ballycottin

4 S4

Youghal

5 14

12f

Shetland Isles.

Ballinacourty, Dan-

car van

ft 12

12J

Balta -

9 45

Waterford (Duncan-

7 21

Lerwick ...

10 30

non Fort) -

5 20

12|

Scalloway

9 30

Wexford (6.) -

7 21

Sumburgh Head

9 45

Arklow ...

8 45

Fair Isle

Wicklow

10 29

Dalkey Island

10 45

Kingstown

11 10

6 h

Scotlaud, East Coast.

Dublin Bar

11 12

„ Harbour

11 9

Duiu-ansby Nesu

10 14

Balbriggan

10 40

Wick -

11 22

Dundalk

Cromarty

11 56

Carlingford, Bar

10 40

300

J.TDE TABLE.

High

mgo.

High

Range.

Place.

Water,
Full and

Place.

Water,
Full and

Change.

Sps

Nps.

Change.

Sps

Nps.

h. m.

ft.

North Sea, E. Coast.

Ardglass

h. m.

ft.

Strangford, Bar

10 30

Skagcn or the Skaw

5 56

„ Portaferry -

Blaavand Point
[ Hierting

Eider, Tonning

1 44

2 45
2 1

5
9

Ireland, North and

Elbe, Hamburg

5 29

West Coasts.

,, Cuxhaven
„ Entrance

1 8
12

10
11

Donaghad.ee -

11 13

Helgoland

11 33

Belfast -

10 43

6-1

Weser, outer light-

Lough Larne

10 30

10"

vessel -

11 30

Tor Point

9 40

Eni3 (outer buoy) -

Ballycastle Bay

G 8

Ameland Cat -

Port Bush

6 8

Terschelling (West)

8 40

Coleraine

6 24

Amsterdam

Londonderry -

8 1

Nieuwediep

7 27

Rathmullen, Lough

Texel (outside shoals)

6 30

Swilly

5 42

121

Bridle -

Shecphaven -

5 25

Hellevoetsluis-

2 30

Gweedore Bay

5 32

Flushing

1 20

Inishkeel

5 10

(Mend -

12 25

Killibega

5 SI

11'

Nieuport

12 18

Ballyshannon (Bar)

5 30

Sligo Bay

5 11

Ivillala Bay -

5 22

10i

France, North Coast.

Broadhaven Har-

bour ...

101

Dunkcrque

12 8

16|

Achillbeg

5 11

\Q%

Gravelines

Westport

4 57

12--f

Calais -

11 49

19^

llf

Inishbofin

4 34

12f

Cape Grisnez -

11 27

Roundstone

4 28

Boulogne

11 25

Greatman Bay

4 39

15j

Cayeux -

11 6

15i

Killeany, Arran Is.

4 28

13|

Dieppe ...

10 44

13"

Galway -

4 35

14f

Fecamp -

9 51

12£

Liscanor Bay -

4 23

Havre ...

9 29

River Shannon, Li-

Honfleur

8 51

merick

6 20

Cherbourg

7 49

,, Foynes Is.

5 35

15J

.Alderney

6 46

„ Talbert -

4 57

lil

Guernsey

6 30

„ Kilbaha -

4 16

13"

Goury ...

7 6

Valentia Harbour -

3 42

Jersey, St. Aubin -

G 21-

Kenmare River (W.

Carteret ...

6 25

Cove) --.

3 52

St. Germain -

6 20

Bantry Harbour

3 47

5.1

Regneville

6 20

Castletown, Bear-

Granville

6 13

haven -

4 14

He de Chausey

G 9

Black Ball Harbour

3 40

Cancale -

G 20

D unman us Harbour

3 57

9 J,

Les Minquiers

G G

Crookhaven

4 9

St. Malo

G 5

Skull -

4 2

Brehat -

5 51-

Cape Clear

Hcaux Light -

5 45

Treguier - - |

5 32

Ploumanach -

5 15

Moalaix Road -

4 53

Norway.

He de Bas

4 49

Abervrac'h

4 14

Lofoten Islands

Ushant 1.7) -

3 32

19}

»i

Vaero -

Trae Islands

11 45

Komsdals Islands -

10 45

___

Bergen - ■ - |

1 80

•

TIDE TABLE.

801

High

Eange.

High

Range.

Place.

Water,
Full and

riace.

Water,
Fall and

Change.

Sps.

Nps.

Change.

Sps. Nps.

France, West Coast.

h. m.

ft.

h. m.

ft.

River Nunez -

Brest •

3 47

Isles de Los -

6 35

He de Sein -

3 21

Mellacoree River -

7 40

Concarneau -

3 12

Scarcies Rivers

7 10

Port Louis, L'Orient

'3 11

Sierra Leone -

7 55

St. Nazaire

3 40

15*

Banana Islands

8 15

He de Noirmouticr -

3 2

Gallinas River

6 45

He d'Oleron -

3 50

Monrovia

Bordeaux

G 50

111

Cape Palmas -

4 30

Cordouan Lt. -house

3 37

13|

Grand Lahou -

4 23

Arcachon

4 37

11|

Cipe Three Points -

Boucaut, Adour Pi v.

3 39

8 i

St. George d'Elmina
Cape Coast Castle -

4 30

Bayonnc

3 45

4 30

River Lagos -

„ Forcados

4 22

Spain aud Portugal.

„ Benin -
Niger, Nun entr.

4 15
4 8

7
6

Port Passage -

Bonny and New Ca-

Bilbao -

3 20

labar Rivers

Santander

3 30

Cameroons River

Corunna

Fernando Po -

Cape Finisterre

Princes Island

3 45

Oporto -

2 30

SL Thomas Island -

3 25

Peniche -

I 54

Anno Bom Island -

3 45

Lisbon Bar

2 30

Setubal -

2 30

Lagos ...

2 7

Newfoundland (10).

Cadiz ...

1 45

9 2

Gibraltar, Old Mole

Little Mecattina

10 30

(8) - - -

2 20

New and Old Fe-

Malaga ...

rolle - - -
Bays of St. Gene-
vieve & St. liarbe

11 45
11 30

Atlantic Isles.

Isle Verte, or Green

Island

Funchal Bay, Ma-

Bay of Pistolet

4 5

deira - - -

12 48

Croque Harbour

6 30

'• 6 I

St. Michael, Azores

12 30

Triton Harbour in

Terceira ,,

12 32

4 S

Notre Dame Bay -

Fayal „ -

11 45

St. John's

7 30

5-7

Bermudas, Ireland

Placentia Harbour -

9 15

Island Dockyard -

7 4

St. Pierre and Mi-

Porto Praya -

6 0?

quelon

9 3

6-7

Sal, Cape Verde Ids.

7 45

Between Cape Cha-

Puerto de la Luz,

peau Rouge and

Gran Canada

12 52

Cape Ray gene-
rally - - -

7-8

Beyond Cape Ray,

Africa.

northward , the tide

is inconsiderable.

Ceuta (9)

1 10

Tangier -

1 42

Mogador

Labrador and Gulf of

Cope Bojador -

St. Lawrence.

Cape Blanco -

11 46

Portcndik

St. Lewis Cipe

6 30

Senegal -

10 30

Chateau Bay -

7 35

n 1

Cape Verde

7 45

Red Bay

7 45

H 1J

River Gambia

8 10

6-9

Bradore Bay -

8 45

4 2

Bijcu»;a Ids., Orango

Belles Amours Bay -

.41 01

Channel

Kegashk t Bay »

10 45

5 *

1 a

IS". A. O.

302

TIDE TABLE.

High

Range.

High

Range.

Place.

i Water,
Full and

Place.

Water,
Full and

Change.

Sps.

Nps.

Change.

Sps.

Nps.

h. m.

ft.

h. m.

ft.

Clearwater Point

11 30

Sable Island, N, side

10 30

' 7

Mingan Harbour

1 16

Shelburno

8 30

Bay of Seven Ids. -

1 40

Anticosti Id., W. pt

Bay of Fundi/, Nova

Point do Monts - -

Scotia.

Chape Chatte -

St. Nicholas Harb -

1 55

East side, Cape Sable

Bersimis River

Island ---

Bic Island

2 15

Cape Sable

8 20

Saguenay, Tadousac

2 45

9£

Cape Sable, Seal Id.

Pubnico -

9 3

River St. Lawrence.

Tusket River -

9 33

(11).

•

Jebogue »

9 47

16|

Yarmouth

10 11

16i

Green Island -

2 45

Cape St. Mary

10 30

19'

Brandy Pots -

3 6

10'

West Port, Grand

He aux Coudres

4 25

Passage

10 47

21J

Pillars -

Sandy Cove, East -

10 39

22|

Quebec -

6 38

Annapolis

30r

Gulliver Hole -

10 51

13J

Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Digby Gut -

11 2

281

16#

Young Cove Point -

11 14

18J

Magdalen Islands -

8 20

Port George -

11 22

19£

Gaspe Basin -

1 50

Isle Haute

11 27

35|

Point Macquereau -

Black Rock Lt.-ho. -

11 36

37 J

Campbell Town, Ris-

Spencer Anchorage -

11 50

40|

tigouche River

Parsborough W. Bay,

Miramichi Bar

Basin of Mines

12 4

451

Richibucto River

3 30

Horton, do.

12 5

27^

Point Escumenac -

4 10

Bay of Fundi/, New

Prince Edward Island.

Brunswick.

Cardigan Bay -

8 40

Cumberland Basin,

Hillsborough Bay -

10 45

Sackville

11 48

Bedeque Harbour -

10 15

Cape Chignecto (12)-

Cascumpeque Harb.-

5 40

Q.uaco ...

11 31

Tracadio

St. John ...

11 24

26|

121

Campobello

11 20

Cape Breton Island.

West Quoddy -
Passamaquoddy

11 3
11 30

22|

25'

10f

Sydney Harbour

Grand Harb.,Gr ,nd.

St. Anne Bay -

8 34

Manan

11 1

17f

Machias, Seal Ids. -

10 58

New Brunswick and

Novia Scotia.

United States. — Fort-
land to New York.

Shediac Harbour

ill]

Mount Desert Id. (13)

11 10

Bay Verte

Portland*

11 25

71?

Pictou Harbour

Portsmouth* -

11 23

71?

Gut of Canso -

9 15

Newburyport*

11 22

6} s

Canso Harbour

7 48

4 M

Salem* -

11 13

101

Harbour Island

7 40

«*

Marblehcad

11 30

Ship Harbour -

7 54

Boston Liuht*

11 12

Jedore Harbour

7 45

6§

4 i

Boston (Charleston

Halifax Harbour

7 49

4 i

Yard) *

11 27

Sable Island, S. side

8 30

Plymouth

11 30

* From the Report of the United States Coast Survey, the times of High Water being
the Corrected and not the Vulaar Establishment.

TIDE TABLE.

303

Iligh

Range.

High

Range.

Place

AVater,
Full and

PlaGe.

Water,
Eull and

Change.

Sps.

Nps.

Change.

Sps.

Nps.

h. m.

ft.

United States. — North

Barnstable

Carolina to Texas.

Cape Cod

11 SO

h. m.

ft.

Monomy Point

11 30

Hatteras Inlet*

7 4

•1

St. George Shoals -

10 30

Cape Hatteras

Nantucket (14)

12 24

1 2'-

Ocracoko Inlet

Edgartown* -

12 16

i H

Beaufort*

7 26

21?

Holmes Hole*

11 43

\ : -

Smithville* -

7 19

Gay Head

7 37

Ciipe Fear

Tarpaulin Cove*

8 4

Georgetown -

Bird Island Light* -

7 59

Charleston* -

7 13

New Bedford, entr.*

7 57

Savannah*

3 13

Newport*

7 45

Cape Florida*

8 31

Point Judith*

7 32

Sand Cav*

8 40

Montauk Poir.t*

8 10

Cay West* -

9 25

Sandy Hook* -

7 29

Tampa Bay* -

11 21

New York* -

8 13

5 i

Pensacola
Mobile -
Mississippi, S.W. pass

2
2

Long Island Sound.

Galveston

Throgs Neck*

11 20

Sands Point* -

11 13

Gulf of Mexico.

Oyster Bay* -

11 7

Bridgeport* -

11 11

Vera Cruz

New Haven* -

11 16

b't

Triangles

New London*

9 23

Campeche

1 42

Stonington* -

9 7

Cape Catoucho

9 30

Watch Hill* -

Cozumel

Royal Harb., Ruatan

Cape Gracias Harb.

8 30

7 45

10 30

1-1

Delaivare Bay and

Man of War Cay

8 10

River.

Blewfields
Greytown •

1 50

9 J

4
1?

Philadelphia* -

1 18

New Castle* -

11 53

Mahons Rivers*

9 52

West India Islands. 1

Cape Hen! open*

3-4

Higbees, Cape May*

8 33

Havanna, Cuba - 1

Delaware Break-

Cape Haytien, St. i

water*

4 3

Domingo
Gun Cay
Abaco ...

6
8 30
8

3
3
3

Chesapeake Bay and

Nassau, New Provi-

River.

dence
Guinchos Cay

7 30
7 40

3-4
3

Richmond*

4 23

Clarence Harbour,

James River*

2 14

Long Island

8 30

Baltimore*

6 33

Exuma

7 20

Cape Henry -

7 40

Crooked Island

Annapolis*

4 38

Inagua

Point Lookout*

12 58

San Juan, Porto j

Cape Charles -

7 45

Rico - - j

8 2

Old Point Comlort*-

8 17

Christianstad, Santa

Cruz -

7 30

Anegado - - j

8 30 j

* From the Report of the United States Coast Survey, the times of High Water being
the Corrected and not the Vulgar Establishment.

301 )

EEMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE.

(1.) River Thames. — During strong north-westerly gales, the tide marks
high water earlier in the Eiver Thames than otherwise, and does not give
so much water, whilst the ebb tide runs out later, and marks lower ; but,
upon the gales abating and the weather moderating, the tides put in and
rise much higher, whilst they also run longer before high water is marked,
and with more velocity of current, nor do they run out so long or so low.

(2.) English Channel. — The tides of the English Channel were but im-
perfectly understood till Bear- Admiral Beechey, E.N., investigated a mass
of observations which had been made about the year 1817, and which de-
monstrated that there was a great resemblance in the characteristics of the
tidal phenomena of the English and Irish Channels, and this investigation
led to a more extensive series of observations throughout the English
Channel, which were also discussed by Admiral Beechey. From his
valuable contribution to science and the mariner in the " Philosophical
Transactions" for 1848 and 1851, we make the following extract: —

Instead of the progressive changes of stream turning progressively later
as the tide advances up the strait, they cease at a certain point, which is in
the English Channel, between the Start and Gulf of St. Malo ; and in the
North Sea, between the Texel and the Estuary of Lynn ; and between
these spots there is a tide peculiar to the channel, quite distinct from that
of the seas on either side of it, which are always running in contrary
directions.

When these streams meet, the tide is ever varying in its direction, accord-
ing as the strength of one stream prevails over that of the other, giving to
the water a rotary motion, without scarcely an interval of slack" water;
while in the space between them the tide sets steadily towards Dover, while
the water is rising there, and aivay from it while it is falling at that place.
This "true Channel stream" is about 180 miles in extent in either direction,
from the point of union of the tides in the Strait of Dover to the region of
rotatory tides off Lynn, and off the Start and St. Malo.

As the true channel streams are always running in opposite courses, there
is necessarily a point where they meet and separate, and this occurs in the
Strait of Dover. But in this strait the stream, although it first obeys one
tide and then another, does not slack with the channel streams, but is found
to be still running at high and low water on the shore, at which times those
streams are at rest, so that the Strait of Dover never has slack water
throughout its whole extent at any time. I have, in consequence, called
this an intermediate tide.

The limits of neither of the streams appear to be stationary, but range to
and fro as the tide rises and falls at Dover, travelling to the eashcard on both
sides, and at high and low water suddenly shifting CO miles to the westward
to recommence their easterly course with the next tide ; and although so
far apart, they possess the remarkable peculiarity of shifting together , so
that the channel streams preserve, as nearly possible, the same relative
dimensions.

REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE. 305

In the Strait of Dover this line of meeting and of separation, oscillates
between Beachey Head and the North Foreland, a distance of about 60
miles. When the water on tho shore at Dover begins to fall, a separation
of the Channel streams begins off Beachey Head. As the fall continues,
this line creeps to the eastward ; at two hours after high water it has reached
Hastings; at three hours, Rye; and thus it travels on, until at low water
by the shore it has arrived nearly at the North Foreland on one side of the
strait, and at Dunkirk on the other. At this time the Channel streams on
both sides slack, but in that portion which I call the intermediate stream,
in the Strait of Dover, the water is still running to the westward ; and when
the new Channel streams mak9, as the water rises on the shore, this inter-
mediate portion is found to unite with, or to oppose, one or the other of these
streams, according as it was before the reverse ; so that, as before men-
tioned, the line of meeting at low water appears off Beachy Head to recom-
mence its easterly course. This intermediate stream forms a remarkable
feature in the tidal system of the Channel ; it is well established, as the line
of meeting and of separation occupies a very limited space, and it seems to
be entirely due to the contracted form of the Channel in this immediate
locality preventing the free escape of the water.

Admiral W. Bullock, in order to test the point of separation, anchored
two vessels a mile apart between Beachy Head and Dungeness ; and found
both vessels at the same time to ride with their heads in opposite directions
in obedience to the streams, which were then running opposite ways.

The Channel stream, which I have described as running between the inter-
mediate stream and the rotatory or mixed streams at tho outer extremities
of the Channel, pursues a steady course along the main trunk of the strait,
slacking only towards high and low water at Dover, when it is preparing to
invert its course; and, contrary to the generally received opinion of a pro-
gressive slack water in a strait having a progressive establishment, this stream
has the peculiarity of slacking throughout its whole extent at nearly the same
time; and this time, as was anticipated in my former paper ("Phil.
Trans.," 1848), corresponds nearly with the time of high and low water on
the shore at Dover, the site of the combined wave, and the virtual head of the
tide.

A simple rule thus suffices to guide the sailor up the main Channel stream
It is, that the stream rims toward Dover while the water is rising there, and away
from it while falling. The tidal hours for Dover, therefore, answer for the
whole of the Channel.

(3.) Southampton, &c. — This port has the singular advantage of having
two high waters, which adds not a little to its dock facilities. The same
phenomena is also found in other places within the Isle of Wight, and is
owing to the channel tide passing round either end of the Isle of Wight, and
arriving at the point a different times.

It will be observed that at Poole the rise and fall is insignificant, while
on the opposite side of the channel we have the gigantic tides of the Bay
of St. Malo, a similar feature to that which is found in the St. George's
Channel.

306 REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE.

(4.) Bristol Channel. — The tides of the Bristol Channel are remarkable
for their rnagnitudo and rapidity. There are few places in the world where
they are exceeded. The Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, and the Bay of Mont
St. Michel, on the French coast, are somewhat analogous. The effect of
these rushing waters is to alter the channels and shift the banks in the
upper portion of the Bristol Channel in a most extraordinary manner. Some
idea is given in our Directions for the Bristol Channel.

Without the Bristol Channel spring tides rise from 22 to 24 and 26 ft. ; but
as that channel narrows, or contracts in its breadth, the velocity and vertical
rise increase in proportion ; and so much that, in King Road, it rises to the
height of 8 fathoms - *' Between Nash Point and Bridgewater Bay, past
Hurlstone Point, &c, the tide sets with great velocity over the Culver Sand,
into Bridgewater Bay and River. Through Caldy Sound, the stream from
Caermarthen Bay makes westward nearly two hours before the flood has
done running without the island ; and the stream makes eastward through
the sound, as well as between the Helwick Sand and Worm's Head, nearly
two hours before the channel ebb ceases.

At Lundy Island ordinary spring tides rise 27 feet, equinoctial springs 31
feet, and neaps 13 feet. In Barnstaple Bay, ordinary springs rise 25 feet,
equinoctial 28 feet, and. neaps 15 feet. In this bay, at from 2 to 3 miles
from shore, a gentle stream sets to the eastward, from the time of low water
to four hours' flood, and then to the westward until low water again. In
mid-channel between this bay and Lundy Island, the streams of flood and
ebb set tide and tide each way, according to the time of flowing on the
shore, at the rate of 3 miles an hour on springs and 2 upon the neaps,
allowing half an hour for slacking and veering out.

It should be understood that, within the range of Swansea Bay and its
offing at about 5 miles West of the Scarweathers, the first-quarter flood sets
directly toward them ; after which and .until half-flood, it sweeps 1 mile
outside, nearing the West end of the Nash Sands ; and ultimately setting,
till high water, S.S.E. by compass, which points well outside of all. It
averages a rate of 4 and 5 knots on springs, and 3 upon neaps, and changes
exactly at the same time that it ceases to rise on the shore ; but slack water
always lasts half an hour.

It has been observed, that over the shoals, and through the different
channels, the velocity of the tides is greatly increased, and there is reason
for believing that on springs the rate is nearly 6 knots.

There is always a strong tide under these shoals, which is, of course, in-
creased or decreased according to the vertical rise. This is of consequence
when working up near them, as some advantage may, in the daytime, be
taken of it, by keeping on the proper side. Its influence will bo manifest
to any vessel thus situated, as she would nearly make her course good when
under their lee, but be swept away furiously on opening the different passages.

* Captain Andrew Livingston, of Liverpool, a gentleman to whom we have been much
indebted for many valuable and useful communications, has informed us that he actually
measured fully 50 feet rise of water, in November, 1813, at King's Road, in a spring tide.
At Chepstow, above, on the opposidc side, the vertical rise of a spring tide is not uncom-
monly GO feet and even 72 feet.

REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE. 307

Should it be desirable to have the true tide, it will therefore be requisito
to keep or the North or South side of all the shoals, according to the ebb or
flood.

(5.) St. George's Channel. — Much that has been said of the English
Channel tides is applicable to those of the St. George's Channel.

In the St. George's or Irish Channel, experiments have shown that, not-
withstanding the variety of times of high water throughout the channel, the
turn of tho stream over all that part which may be called tho fair navigable
portion of the channel is nearly simultaneous; that the northern and
southern streams in both channels commence and end in all parts (prac-
tically speaking) at nearly the same time ; and that time happens to corre-
spond nearly with the time of high and low water on the shore at the entrance
of Liverpool and of Morecambe Bay,* a spot remarkable as being the point
where the opposite tides, coming round the extremities of Ireland, termi-
nate. So that it is necessary only to know the times of high and low water
at either of these places to determine the hour when the stream of either
tide will commence or termimate in any part of the channel. For this purpose tho
Liverpool tide table may be used, subtracting 16' from the times there given,
in consequence of the Canning Dock being later in its high water than the
point which is considered the head of the tide.

The tide from the Atlantic enters the St. George's Channel by two
channels ; of which Carnsore Point, the S.E. point of Ireland, and St. David's
Head, the S.E. point of Wales, are the limits of the southern one; and
Rathlin and the Mull of Cantyre the boundaries of the northern.

The central portion of the stream of flood, or ingoing stream runs nearly in
a lino from a point midway between the Tuskar and the Bishops, to a
positition 16 miles due West of Holyhead ; beyond which it begins to expand
eastward and westward ; but its main body preserves its direction straight
forward towards the Calf of Man and on towards Maughold Head. Here it
is arrested by the flood or southern stream from the North Channel coming
round the Point of Ayr, and is first turned round to the eastward by it, and
then goes on with it at an easy rate direct from Morecombe Bay ; thus
changing its direction nearly eight points.

The outer portions of the stream are necessarily deflected from the course
of the great body of the water by the impediments of the banks on the Irish
side of the channel, and by the tortuous form of the coast on the Welsh.
The eastern portion rushes with great rapidity between the Smalls, Grass-
holm, and Milford Haven towards the Bishops, which it passes at a rate of
between 4 and 5 knots ; sets sharply round those rocks in an E.N.E. direc-
tion, right over the Bass Bank, and into Cardigan Bay ; makes the circuit
of that bay, and sets out again towards Bardsey, at the other extremity of
it ; the streams still continuing outside towards the South Stack, which it
rounds, setting towards the Skerries at a rate of upwards of 4 knots ; and,
finally, turns sharp round those rocks for Liverpool and Morecambe Bay ;

* The entrances of Liverpool and of Morecombe Bay (Fleetwood) are, as beforo stated
16 minutes earlier in their times of higb water than those given for Liverpool in the Tide
Tables.

308 KEMAKKS ON THE TIDE TABLE.

completing in its way the high, water in the Menai, and filling the Dee, the
Mersey, and the Kibble.

The ivestern portion of the stream, after passing the Saltees, runs nearly in
the direction of the Tuskar, sets sharply round it, and then takes a N.E. \ N.
direction, setting fairly along the coast, but over the banks skirting the
shore; so that vessels tacking near the inner edge of the sands on the flood,
and on the outer edge on the ebb, have been carried upon them and lost,
especially upon the Arklow and Codling Banks. Abreast of the Arklow is
situated that remarkable spot in the Irish Channel, where the tide scarcely
rises or falls. The stream, notwithstanding, sweeps past it at the rate of
4 knots at the springs, and reaches the parallel of Wicklow Head. Here it
encounters an extensive projection of the Codling Bank; and while the
outer portion takes the circuit of the bank, the inner stream sweeps over it,
occasioning an overfall and strong rippling all round the edge, by which tho
bank may generally be discovered. Beyond this point the streams unito
and flow on towards Howth and Lambay, growing gradually weaker as they
proceed, until they ultimately expend themselves in a large space of still
water situated between the Isle of Man and Carlingford. There we havo
not been able to detect any stream ; for there another remarkable pheno-
menon occurs — the water rising and falling, without having any perceptible
stream. This space of still water is marked by a bottom of blue mud. Such
is the course of the flowing water at the Southern Channel.

In the North Channel the stream enters between tho Mull of Cantyre
and Eathlin Island simultaneously with that passing the Tuskar into the
Southern Channel, but flows in the contrary direction. It runs at the rate
of 3 knots at the springs, increasing to 5 knots near the Mull, and to 4 near
Tor Point, on the opposite side of the channel. The main body sweeps to
the S. by E., taking nearly the general direction of the channel, but pressing
more heavily on the "Wigtonshire coast.

The central portion midway between the Mull of Galloway and the Cope-
land Islands presses on towards the northern half of the Isle of Man; and
while one portion of it flows towards the Point of Ayr, the other makes fcr
Contrary Head, and is there turned back to the N.E. at a right angle nearly
to its early course. Passing Jurby Point, it re-unites with the other portion
of the stream, and they jointly rush with a rapidity of from 4 to 5 knots
round the Point of Ayr, and directly across all the banks lying off there, and
catching up the stream from the South Channel off Maughold Head, they
hurry on together towards that great point of union, Morecombe Bay. This
bay, the grand receptacle of tho streams from both channels, is notorious
for its huge banks of sand, and also remarkable for a deep channel scoured
out by the stream, and known as the Lune Deep, which is the great haven
to all vessels bound to Fleetwood. &c.

Such is a general description of the streams in the Irish Channel, which -
are produced by the flowing of the water, or which for the purpose of dis-
tinction, we may designate the ingoing streams.

The ebbing or outgoing streams do not materially differ from the reverse of
those, except that in the Southern Channel they press rather more over
towards the Irish coast.

HEM ARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE. 309

(7.) Bay of Biscay.— On the coasts of the bay, the tidal wave advancing
from the westward, makes high water almost at the same hour all around
its shores ; and the range also does not vary greatly.*'

(8.) Strait of Gibraltar.— In the middle of the Strait of Gibraltar the
current mostly and generally sets to the East ; but on each side the flood tide
sets to the westward. On the European side, West of the Isle of Tarifa, it
is high water at eleven o'clock, but the stream without continues to run
until two o'clock. On the opposite shore of Africa, it rs high water at ten
o'clock, and the stream continues to run until one o'clock ; after which
periods it changes on either side, and runs eastward with the general cur-
rent. Near the shores are many changes, counter- currents, and whirlpools,
caused by, and varying with, the winds.

(9.) Africa. — The currents on the African coast (hereafter explained)
render the given times of high water uncertain.

Between Cape Cantin and Cape Blanco they are strong, and set as shown
on the chart.

In the road without the Senegal, the current sets chiefly to the S.W.
From the bar, strong freshes come down after the rains, and a powerful
current of fresh water sets from the river to some distance out to sea.

In the Bay of Yoff, to the N.E. of Cape Verde, the currents set rapidly,
and sometimes in very dangerous whirls.

At the mouth of the Gambia the greatest rise in the dry season is not
more than G ft. Here the- tide continues to run on the surface for an hour
and a half after it ceases flowing on the shore.

The level of the sea, in the vicinity of Cape Coast Castle, is higher, by at
least 6 ft., in the rainy season (which is the season of the strong S.W. and
southerly winds, between April and September), than in the more serene
weather of the dry season.

In the rainy season, or S.W. monsoon, trunks of trees are frequently
carried on shore, and found at G or 8 feet above the level of the sea, of the
other season ; and the tides ell and fioxo regularly in the several rivers ;
but, in the dry season, the same rivers run ebb constantly ; the level of tho
sea being then too low to allow the tide-waters to enter the mouths of the
rive re.

Some remarks on the tides about Cape Blanco, the Channels of the Bis-
sagos, &c, are given in the Description of the Coast hereafter.

(10.) Newfoundland.— On the coasts of Newfoundland the tides are very
irregular ; being greatly influenced by the prevailing wind. On all the
eastern coast they have nearly the same rising; springs about 6 ft., neaps 4.
At the entrance of St. John's they set-in in a lore.

Between Cape La Hune and Cape Ray the flood sets to the westward in
the offing very irregularly, but generally two or three hours after high water
on shore. See more particularly our " British American Navigator."
(11.) River St. Lawrence.— At 3 leagues below Tadousac, or the Sagtienay,

* Commander Gorringe, U.S.N., when examining the hank he discovered in 1876, lying
130 miles West of Cape St. Vincent, found the tides setting regularly N.E. and S.W., at
the rate of 1^ mile an hour.

N. A. O. 2 S

310 REMARKS ON TIIE TIDE TABLE.

is tho eddy of tho flood, and the stream on tlio surface always sets thcnco
downward. Off Tadousac, tho tide ebbs six hours eight minutes. Both
streams here run throe-quarters of an hour after high water. At Green
Island it obbs six hours twenty-four minutes, and flows six hours.

At the Isle aux Coudres it ebbs six hours twenty minutes, and flows six
hours. Here the ebb stream continues an hour and a quarter after low
water, and the flood three-quarters of an hour after high water. Within
the Pillars, off St. Jean, the tide ebbs six hours fifty minutes, and flows five
hours twenty-five minutes. Both streams continue to run an hour after
high and low 7 water by the shore, but they are influenced in duration by
strong winds.

At the Isle of Orleans the stream ebbs seven hours, and flows five hours
twenty minutes. At Quebec it flows four hours forty-five minutes only, but
an hour longer as above.

Erom Green Island to Quebec the tides rise irregularly, but very consi-
derably. From Coudre to Quebec the water falls 4 ft. before the tide makes
down. At the Isle of Coudre, in spring tides, the ebb runs at the rate of 2
knots. The next strongest ebb is between Apple and Basque Isles ; the ebb
of the Eiver Saguenay uniting here, it runs full 7 knots in the spring tides ;
yet, although the ebb is so strong, the flood is scarcely perceptible ; and
below the Isle of Bic there is no appearance of a flood tide.

(12.) Bay of Fundy. — Off Cape Sable the tide runs at the rate of 3, and
sometimes 4 miles an hour ; and in the Bay of" Fundy the tides are very
rapid. Cape D'Or and Cape Chignecto are high lands, with very steep
cliffs and deep water close under them. The same kind of shore continues
to the head of Chignecto Bay, where very extensive flats of mud and quick-
sands are lefc to dry at low water. Here the tides come in a bore, rushing
in with great rapidity ; they are known to flow at the equinoxes from GO to
70 ft. perpendicular ; and it is remarkable that, at the same time, they rise
in the Bay Verte, on the northern side of the isthmus, only 8 ft.

(13.) Mount Desert Rock. — At Mount Desert Rock the stream of flood
divides to run eastward and westward. With the Skuttock Hills about
N.N.E., and within 4 or 5 leagues of those of Mount Desert, the flood stream
sets E.N.E., and the ebb W.S.W. ; but, at the distance of 9 or 10 leagues
from the land, the current, in general, sets to the S.W. and more westward.
From the Mount Desert Eock to the Fox Islands, at the entrance of tho
Bay of Penobscot, the flood stream sets W.S.W. along shore ; but it never-
theless runs up to the northward into Isle Haute Bay, &c.

(14.) Nantucket, &c. — Off this island and its vicinity is that remarkablo
but dangerous collection of shoals, which aro so well known to all who
navigate these waters. Their form and situation, and also the peculiarities
of the Cape Cod peninsula, lead to tho inference that there is some singular
effect of the tides and currents hereabout to which these peculiarities are
owing. This subject has been partially investigated by the United States
Coast Survey.

" The region about Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard is the dividing
space between the cotidal hours of xii. and xv., and in this locality tho
combination of two apparently distinct tide-waves is observed. This combi-

REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE. 811

nation presents the most singular forms, giving at times fonr high tides in
one day near the junction of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard Sounds, and
distorting the tide-wave generally, not only in these sounds, but also on the
open sea-coast of Nantucket and Matha's Vineyard and Islands, and in
Muskeget Channel.

"The great disturbance of the ocean level thus produced gives rise to
those remarkable currents so peculiar to this neighbourhood, and so disas-
trous to commerce."

(15.) Florida, &c— Near Cay West, on the Florida Reef, the tides are, in
some measure, regular within the reef; the flood setting to the westward,
and the ebb contrary. To the westward, between the Tortugas and Cayo
Marques, the flood sets variably through to the northward, and the ebb to
the E.S.E.

It is remarkablo that, on the South side of these kays, the flood comes
from the south-eastward ; but on the North side of them, all the way from
Kay West, the flood runs to the eastward, along the edge of the bank, and
to the southward, through the little channels, in order to fill up the inter-
mediate bays and lagoons, with the assistance of the flood from the
southward.

Westward of Cay West there is a general current to the south-westward,
along the reef, and to some distance to the South side of it.

In Chatham Bay it runs tide and half-tide; viz., three hours flood, then
three hours ebb ; next nine hours flood, &c. Here, in some places, it is a
mere fall ; but in some of the channels it is as much as four men can do to
stem the current with a boat.

During a S.E. gale or storm, the water in the bays and rivers of West
Florida has been known to rise 7 feet perpendicular, and vessels of burden
have been driven in among the pine trees, at some distance from shore.

From Cape Roman, northward and westward, the tide seems to ebb and
flow only once in the twenty-four hours ; but it is irregular, and much
governed by the winds. Yet the effects in a dry season are very perceptible
in the rivers at a distance from the sea.

(16.) Bahamas, &c. — Although at the Bahamas the rise and fall are incon-
siderable, the tide of flood sets an indraught on the northern part of the
Little Bahama Bank from every point of the compass, which renders an
approach very dangerous. The tide sets with some force directly on and
off the western side of the Grand Bank of Bahama ; particularly at the full
and change of tho moon. High water at half-past seven or thereabout.
Rise, 3 or 4 feet. On the Middle Ground of this bank the tides set in every
direction.

In Providence N.W. Channel the current runs generally to the eastward,
about 2 miles an hour.

Near Egg Island, to the N.W. of Eleuthera, it is, however, uncertain, and
great attention should be paid to the lead. In the passage within Egg
Island the tide runs at the rate of 4 miles, and rises about 4 feet, the flood
setting eastward, and strongly over the reefs.

About the Berry Islands and Providence the water rises 2 ft. higher when

312 DESCRIPTION OF THE CURRENTS.

the sun comes to the northward of the line, than it does when the sun is to
the southward, and its strength is in a similar proportion. Kere and at the
Bernini Isles the flood sets to the N.E.

Ill— OF THE CURRENTS.

(159.) GENERAL REMARKS.— A Current is to be understood to be a
stream on, or a particular set in the direction of, the surface of the sea,
occasioned by winds and other impulses, exclusive of (but which may be
influenced by) the causes of the tides. It is an observation of Dumpier, that
currents are scarcely ever felt but at sea, and tides but upon the coasts ; and
it is certainly an established fact that currents prevail mostly in those parts
where the tides are weak and scarcely perceptible, or where the sea, appa-
rently little influenced by the causes of the tides, is disposed to a quiescent
state. This will be obvious by an attentive consideration of the following
descriptions. The necessity of attention to the silent, imperceptible, and
therefore dangerous operation of currents, will be equally apparent.

(160.) The usual method of estimating the existence, direction, and velocity
of a current, as is well known, is the comparison between the observed
position of a ship and that obtained by dead-reckoning. It may be as well
to observe in the outset, that this only method of observation involves some
amount of fallacy, as a current will be the general receiver of all errors or
imperfections of observation, and beyond doubt the strength of currents has
been frequently exaggerated from this very cause. Now, as the latitude is
attained far more easily and accurately than the longitude, it follows that
this exaggeration has been chiefly shown in those currents supposed to move
to East and West. Still, by combining a large number of observations, we
may safely conclude that they will neutralize each other's errors, and afford
something like an accurate conclusion.

(161.) We have an excellent repository of a vast number of current ob-
servations in the elaborate charts of Major Rennell, a great mine for facts in
surface current theory. Commander Maury's charts, and the more recent
ones of our Meteorological Office, likewise afford a great addition to our
stock of knowledge. This is also increased by numerous detached observa-
tions scattered through many works. All these, as far as attainable, have
been integrated at a great expenditure of labour, in the chart of the North
Atlantic Ocean, which this work particularly elucidates.

(162.) But since that chart was constructed a much more extensive series
of observations have been incorporated with those just named, in a set of
charts, one for each month of the year, published by the Meteorological
Department of the Board of Trade in March, 1872. They were contained
in the first 800 registers collected by that office, and were reduced by Mr.
R. Strachan. Some idea of the amount of labour which was required to
accumulate these observations may be gathered from the fact that the
number of them exceeded 7,500, each of which took 24 hours to make. In
addition to these the whole of the available data in Rennell's and Maury's
charts have beea integrated with them, and thus we have a far more perfect

DESCRIPTION OF THE CURRENTS. 313

viow of tho Atlantic currents, between the equator and 40° N., and from the
African 'coast to the Gulf of Mexico than has been attainable before. A
portion of the information then collected was published by Admiral FitzRoy
in 1859 on the Board of Trade Wind Charts, which showed the phenomena
for the months of February, May, August and November, being the middle
month of each seasonal quarter.

(163.) In this book, limited as it necessarily is to generalities, space could
not be afforded to give the introduction of these monthly charts, but in the
subsequent descriptions of each branch of ocean circulation in the North
Atlantic we shall add the notes which elucidate the current charts, and
which also have been drawn up by Mr. R. Strachan.

In pursuing these calculations it was found that in many localities the
currents were represented as most devious and erratic, frequently of great
strength, and yet on a mean, showing that there was no continued set of the
waters in any special direction. The diagrams of the direction of the wind
at the Liverpool Observatory, page 250, in their more complicated parts,
give a good notion of their motions, as their paths, when traced, resemble
each other much. In other parts, as in the great Equatorial Current, the
motion, as estimated, is remarkably uniform, and this demonstrates that
these observations generally are entitled to confidence.

(164.) In founding any theories of circulation or movement of the ocean
waters upon the basis of the acknowledged to be, imperfect observations
used by Major Rennell, it may be objected that many of them are now old,
and therefore still less trustworthy. To this it may be replied, that they
were mostly taken in wooden ships by careful navigators in an age when
great pains was taken with the dead-reckoning. A doubt may very fairly
be expressed whether the observations of an equal number of modern ships
would give us trustworthy results. Modern speed, less attention to D.R.,
more refined astronomy superseding it, and above all, the greater quantity
of iron in modern ships, which, acting on the compass, will inevitably tend
to invalidate the most carefully kept log, will all tend to give confidence in
these old observations.

(165.) There is one general result in discussing any large number or
collection of current observations. They show that the surface water moves
at a much lower velocity than has been attributed to current motion gene-
rally. Perhaps this may in some degree arise from the fact that only thoso
of remarkable strength have been selected, without properly taking into
account the greater number of observations which would give a much more
moderate rate. Thus Major Rennell estimated the Gulf Stream to move in tho
narrows at from 82 to 96 and 120 miles per day. A more rigid calculation
of his and other older data gives 65*4 miles per day as an annual average.
And this last estimate is much reduced by the more rigid investigation which
has been carried out by the Meteorological Office in 1872, which gives a
mean annual rate of only 48 miles per day.

(166.) Bottles.— It has been a well-known practice for many years to send
these floating messengers as indicators of currents. In 1843, Captain A. B.
Becher, R.N., drew up a very interesting chart of the North Atlantic with
the points of " despatch and arrival " of a very large number of these current
bottles. Tho practice and the accuracy of the teaching of these bottles led

314 DESCRIPTION OF THE CU11KENTS.

to along controversy, which, however, certainly did not tend to, overturn
their authority, so it need not be longer adverted to hero, than to say that
the principal objection to them was, that they wore rather impelled by the
prevailing wind than drifted in the current. But this is also a demonstration
of what can bo otherwise proved, that the wind and surface currents of tho
Atlantic and other oceans obey tho same law, and move very much in tho
same circuits. Theso bottles, then, will form an important part of the sub-
sequent demonstrations of tho direction and rate of currents. The chart oi"
Captain Becher's alluded to, bears intrinsic evidence of its trustworthy
character, as in each region the bottles obey precisely the law which would,
a priori, be laid down for them.

Further speculations as to. the causes of the currents, and the general view
of their circulation and character, is reserved to the end of this section.

(167.) It may be observed that this section deals chiefly with the surface
currents of the Atlantic, as that is the only feature which affects navigation.
But this superficial action is not the only point to be considered in relation
to ocean currents, as it will not explain many phenomena known to exist.
The researches which have been carried on in H.M. ships Lightning and
Porcupine in 1868-70, and Challenger, 1873 — 1876, under the superintendence
of Dr. Carpenter, Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S., and Professor "Wyville
Thomson, L.L.D., F.R.S., have thrown much light on the temperature,
condition, and probable movements of the lower beds of ocean water, which
will be hereafter alluded to. Indeed, this may be considered as a new
branch of terrestrial physics, from which many most important facts will be
derived.

(168.) That the waters of the ocean do circulate over and intermingle
with every portion of the water-surface of the globe is certain. Its compo-
sition and character are everywhere, in every region, exactly the same. This
universality of character can only be accounted for by inferring that the
ocean waters are continually being intermingled, as is the case with the
atmosphere, as before described (2.) page 173.

It may be objected that the specific gravity of the surface water varies
considerably in different regions, and that it is therefore an argument
against this intermingling of the sea waters. But it will bo found that
there are local causes which affect the saltness of the surface water. In the
Arctic regions, where it is frequently found of great density or increased
saltness, it is doubtless caused by the formation of ice, subtracting the fresh
water from the surface. Again, in the equatorial regions, it is usually found
of low specific gravity, or containing less salt, which may also be accounted
for by the great rain-fall which, by intermingling the light fresh water with
the surface, lowers its density. Very much speculation has been used cu
this variation in the surface density and on its dynamic effects, in producing
currents and other phenomena.

But it is deferentially urged against this reasoning, that almost all tho
experiments made upon the density of the water at any considerable depth
(above 20 or 30 fathoms) show a remarkable uniformity in the density in all
regions (1*027), as will be shown in a later part of this book, and that,
therefore, the real character of sea water, below local influences, is every-
where nearly the same.

DESCRIPTION OF THE CURRENTS. 315

(169.) But wo have remarkable proofs that not only tho upper strata, but
also the whole ocean to its bed is of one universal character. Ono may bo
cited. During the voyage of H.M.S. Bulldog, in tho summer of I860, for
the purpose of obtaining the deep-sea soundings between England and
Labrador, for the electric telegraph cable, when nearly midway between
Ireland and Greenland, they brought up from the depth of 1,260 fathoms
that is nearly 1 J statute mile, several live starfish, which had clasped their
slender arms round that part of the sounding line which lay on tho bottom.
Now, as tho process of winding this line in would occupy upwards of an
hour, and these delicate animals having passed through the strata still
attached and alive, it follows that had the water varied in character even in a
slight degree, that they would have loosened their hold and have died.

It is needless to pursue this subject further now. It will bo found more
amplified hereafter, w r hen the question of the depth of the Atlantic is dis-
cussed. It is only here cited in order that should tho mariner in the course
of his voyage be able, from his observations, to add to the knowledge of this
interesting but new subject, it.will afford him great interest, and be bene-
ficial to the rest of the world.

(170.) The subject of the temperature of the ocean will be treated of specially
hereafter. It is of importance in some localities, as it will indicate the
changing from one current to another, as from the Gulf Stream into the cold
Arctic current within it, or the reverse. It was formerly thought that a
decrease of temperature was a sure indication of approaching shoal water,
and its study was therefore inculcated as a precautionary measure. This
point, however, has been shown to be in general fallacious. It arose from
the fact that vessels crossing the Gulf Stream, or attaining soundings on
the American coast, experienced a very sudden decrease of heat in the water.
This is now accounted for in a very different way, therefore this topic is
not of so much importance in the practice of navigation as was formerly
thought.

(171.) Leaving for a future page the remarks on the origin and causes of
ocean currents, it may be here briefly remarked that the action of the wind
seems to be a main cause of the general surface circulation. Doubtless there
are several other forces which combine with or help to neutralize the action
of the wind, such as the tidal wave, the differing effects of temperature, of
specific gravity on the surface and of the very difficult subject of wave- action
which should be taken into consideration. But the tiny ripple raised by a
breath of air on the surface of still water, enlarged by accumulation into an
oscillating wave by a more powerful wind, may be driven forward into a
wave of translation, and thus the wind becomes the real origin of a drift
and finally a stream current, and this can be satisfactorily traced over a
great portion of the ocean surface.

(172.) There are many evidences that the surface currents, which alone
control a ship's movements, have but very little depths. A very few fathoms
below the surface their velocity and power become much decreased, and it is
more than probable that at a moderate depth compared with the dimensions
which have been usually attributed to them, they cease altogether or become

316 DESCRIPTION OF THE CURRENTS.

imperceptible to ordinary means of measurement. This has been found to
bo eminently the case in the experience gained in laying submarine telegraph
cables. If the motion of the surface water were continued to any great
depth, or if there were changeable and varying sub-surface streams, it would
v«ry greatly interfere with the success of these enterprises, but no such
obstacles have shown themselves to be of any magnitude.

(173.) Of Currents there are two distinctions :— 1. The Drift Current; 2.
The Stream Current.

The Drift, or Drift Current, is the mere effect of a constant or very prevalent
wind on the surface water, impelling it to leeward until it meets with some
obstacle which stops it, and occasions an accumulation and consequent stream
of current. It matters not whether the obstacle be land or banks, or a stream
of current already formed. The drift current is generally shallow, and at a
mean, perhaps, of no more than half a mile an hour, when the wind is con-
stant and a good breeze. Such a current, from a predominance of westerly
winds, occupies the northern region of the Atlantic, from the N.W. and
West to the E.N.E. and S.E. ; and such, likewise, is the central portion of
the ocean under the influence of the trade wind.

The Stream Current is formed by the accumulated waters of a drift current.
It is more limited, but it may be of any bulk, or depth, or velocity. Of such
is the temporary stream setting at times from the Bay of Biscay to the West
of Ireland ; and of such is the Florida or Gulf Stream, setting from the
Mexican Sea to the Banks of Newfoundland, and terminating to the West
of the Azores.

In some parts the current is compounded of drift and stream ; for a stream,
already formed, may pass through the region of a prevalent wind, in a
direction according with that of its drift current, and receive an acceleration
of motion from it accordingly. Of such are the Equatorial currents, which
will be presently noticed.

(174.) The illustrative chart at the commencement of this section, page
313, will best explain the general current system of the North Atlantic.
Although this gives the mean of. all observations throughout the year, and
therefore would require considerable modification in various parts, if it was
made to show what is to be expected at any special time or season, yet it
will correctly represent that circulatory system which is found to bo common
to all oceans.

Around a central area, crossed by the parallel of 30° N. latitude, and
termed the Sargasso Sea, the whole of the water between lats. 10° N. and
42 r or43° N., limits varying with the seasons, revolves against the apparent
course of the sun. To the North of this a portion of the water is deflected
to the N.E., and, as it is presumed, after circulating around the Arctic basin
re-enters the area on the West. As the meteorological equator, or tho
division between the phenomena of the noi'thern and southern hemispheres
lies to tho North of the terrestrial equator we find that a reverse current,
of varying magnitude and force runs from West to East on this division or
from 2° or 3° to 8° N. across the whole breadth of the ocean and along tho
African coast, while to the South of it the westerly curront of the South
Atlantic runs strongly across the ocean and along the northern face of tho

DESCRIPTION OF THE CURRENTS. 317

South American continent, a portion thus entering the northern circulatory
system.

There is then some difficulty in assigning a separate designation for each
part of what is almost a continuous stream, and in former times when the
subject was much less understood, some inappropriate terms were applied
to various portions and have become recognised and followed throughout.
For the present, therefore, wo are compelled to use a somewhat confused
nomenclature, but it will be sufficiently explanatory till a general revision of
the science may impose a new terminology.

As, has been before stated, the charts drawn up by Mr. R. Strachan for
the Meteorological Office will be considered as the ground work of this
section, but with some modifications of the nomenclature used.*

(174.) Of the currents and regions of the Atlantic, the first in ordei*, from
the Land's End of England, is Bennett's Current, a temporary but extensive
stream, which sets at times from the Bay of Biscay to the westward and
N.W., athwart the entrance of the English and St. George's Channels, and
to the westward of Cape Clear.

Second. — The Easterly and S.E. Currents to the coasts of Europe and
Africa, and southerly to the Coast of Guinea, where it may be termed the
North African Current, flowing to the westward of South and merging into
the westerly drift.f

Third. — The Guinea Current, an Easterly stream across the Atlantic be~
tween 5° and 8° N., and continuing along the coast of Africa, into the Bights
of Benin and Biafra.J

Fourth. — The Sargasso Sea or central area, between the Azores, Canaries,
and Bermudas, &c, in which it seems that there is no particular or very
various and slight currents, and is covered with the well-known Sargasso or
Gulf Weed.

* The discussion and integration of current observations involve a great amount of
tedious labour, and in (he works drawn up previous to that above referred to, there is no
question but that the data used by Eennell and others required much revision, as each
succeeding and better estimate gives a lower rate of progress to the movement of the surface
waters, though previous discussions as to their nature have been confirmed. In the remarks
on the Board of Trade monthly current charts, Mr. E. II. Scott, the Director of the
Meteorological Department, says :— To this summary it may be added that the number of
observations employed in the construction of the General Chart exceeded 7,500, each of
which took 24 hours to make, so that some idea may be formed of the length of time
required to accumulate them, and the great difficulty which is experienced in collecting
information about currents.

t This southern set along the coast of Portugal and N.W. Afiica is a faint converse of
the Gulf Stream on the opposite side of the circulatory system. The northern portion of
it was termed by Eennell the North Atlantic Current, as trending from the termination of
the Gulf Stream to the coasts of Europe, &c. (Investigation, &c, p. 53.) In the Meteoro-
logical Office Work, 1872, it is called the North African Current. For the present the
name which has been applied in former editions of this work is provisionally retained.

% Since it has been established that this Guinea Current has a different origin and cha-
racter to that assigned it by Eennell and others, who argued that it was a continuation of
number two, the term in some degree is a misnomer. It is an Equatorial Counter Current
•which is found in some seasons to run across all oceans. This origin was first intimated by
the author in lSJ.'v.

N. A. O. 2 T

318 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Fifth. — The North and South Equatorial Currents, the vast streams caused
by the Trade winds. That of the N.E. Trado running from between the
tropic and Capo Verde, on the eastern side, towards the Carribbee Islands
having a general westward tendency, and that from the S.E. Trade, which
is usually found to the N. of the Equator, passing strongly to the westward,
South of the counter or easterly current, number three above, and then
strongly to the W.N.W. along the Colombian coast, joining the N.E. Trade
current in the Carribbean sea.

Sixth.— The Currents of the Colombian or Caribbean Sea, and the Mexican
Stream, a continuation of the Great Equatorial Streams into the Mexican
Sea, from the south-eastward and eastward.

Seventh. — The Florida or Gulf Stream, an outset from the Mexican Sea,
setting thence to the north-eastward, through the Strait of Florida, and
thence eastward toward the Newfoundland Banks, &c.

Eighth. — The North Fast Drift which passes over the eastern side of
the Atlantic, from the area East and South of the Newfoundland Banks
towards and past tho North West Coast of Europe and into the Arctic
Basin.

Ninth. — Tho Arctic or Labrador Current, passing southwards from Davis
Strait down tho coast of Labrador, round Newfoundland, and thence south-
westward pa^t Nova Scotia anil the coast of the United States inside the
Gulf Stream.

In explaining this subject, we shall endeavour, in tho first place to esta-
blish the fanta which prove the existence of theso currents, and then attempt
to deduce the eausos, according to the given description.

1.— RENNELL'S CURRENT.

(175.) This current, which is occasionally of considerable breadth and
strength, frequently sets athwart the entrance of the channel to the N.W.
and W.N.W. at some distance to the westward of the Isles of Ushant and
Seilly. As it apparently depends on temporary circumstances, it is con-
sidered as a temporary stream ; and, although a certain quantity of northerly
indraught is always to be allowed for, with the tide of flood, on approaching
the Seilly Islands, tho current, unless with particular winds on the ocean,
will be scarcely, if at all, perceptible.

The general causes of currents, so far as they depend upon the state of
the winds, &c, are generally known to seamen ; and that a long-continued
wind, in one particular direction, will either produce a stream whore no
obstruction exists, or cause an accumulation of the water against an
opposing coast, until a reverberation takes place, needs no demonstration.
Tho latter appears to be the case in the present instance. A long and con-
tinual prevalence of westerly and south-westerly winds, in combination with
a current that commonly sets into the southern parts of the Bay of Biscay,
occasions an accumulation of water in the Bay, which seeks an escape, by

EENNELL'S CUEEENT. 319

setting to the N.W. or W.N.W., within the limits described by half-arrows
in the accompanying chart.

It would be very difficult to understand how that the great preponderance
of winds from the westward of North and South, which prevail in the
latitudes of Cape Finisterre, should not have some effect in forcing the
water toward the coast ; and, if so, what can become of it, unless it forms
some current, which we should very naturally expect to find would follow
the trend of the coast against which it is propelled.

That such a current does actually prevail is too well known to be doubted.
Mr. Kelly, the author of a treatise on Navigation, in two volumes, published
in 1733, has given a particular instance of it (Vol. i. p. 434) ;* by which he
shows that a ship becalmed with her sails furled for forty-eight hours, was
in that time carried by the current 46 miles to the northward ; and we have
many subsequent examples of vessels which have been set, by the course
of the stream, to the northward, or upon the rocks, of Scilly. But the
writer to whom we are more particularly indebted for an elucidation of the
subject, is the late Major Eennell,* who has given an illustration of it,

* From the name of this gentleman, the current is now generally denominated Ebnnell's

CURRENT.

The currents of the ocean appear to have attracted the attention of Major Eennell at an
early period, and they continued to occupy the attention until the last ehb of this honour-
able life. The results have appeared before the world in five large charts, with a descrip-
tive volume, dedicated to his lato Majesty, William the Fourth, under the editorship of
Mr. Jno. Purdy, the original author of this volume.

The Major's first Chart and Remarks on the Agulhas or South African Current appeared
in the year 1778, and the important tract on the Scilly or 'thwart Channel Current, in the
year 1793. In the meantime, and subsequently, some cursory remarks on the same subject
were introduced in the " Illustration of the Geography of Herodotus," the Philosophical
Journals, &c. In or about the year 1810, on the suggestion of a friend (Mr. Purdy), who
expressed a wish to see all his writings on this subject combined and republished, he com-
menced his Current Charts of the Atlantic Ocean, and collected from the journals of his
numerous friends a gleaning of information which, at length, from repeated accumulations,
presented a most beautiful and singular instance of successful perseverance, on a subject
never before attempted upon a plan so comprehensive. To an ordinary mind such a topic
would have been regarded as dull, uninviting, and impracticable; by the author it was ap-
preciated according to its importance and usefulness to mankind, and he treated it accord-
ingly. He had long lamented the general ignorance prevalent on this subject, and which
had, from time to time, produced so much loss of life and treasure, especially in relation to
his native country. It is true that, in later times, practice and experience have taught the
mariner, in many cases, how to shape his course to tho best advantage ; but still he was
deficient in theory, and knew not the rationale, the ivhy and ivherefore, of the courses which
he adopted, and the variations which might be most advantageously made in his outward
or homeward passages, according to the fluctuations of season and circumstances. Such
knowledge is now, in a great measure, supplied.

Among the names of the contributors to the work on the currents, that of General Edward
Sabine is conspicuous ; and were any apology required for the undertaking, his words might
be quoted with propriety. In the year 1825, this gentleman published his Account of Ex-
periments to determine the Figure of the Earth by means of a Pendulum vibrating seconds in
different Latitudes, as well as on various Subjects of Philosophical Enquiry ; and in the follow-
ing terms,

" On a general review of the currents particularized on the Pheasant's progress (in 1822)

320 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

which places it beyond all controversy ; and from whose paper, published in
the " Philosophical Transactions, of the year 1793, wo extract the following
observations : —

11 In crossing the eastern part of the Atlantic, the Hector, East India ship,
Captain Williams, in 1788, encountered between the parallels of 42° and
•19°, very strong westerly gales; but particularly between the 10th and 24th
of January, when, at intervals, it blew with uncommon violence. It varied
two or more points, both to the North and S.W., but blew longest from the
northern point ; and extended, as subsequently appeared, from the coast of
Nova Scotia to that of Spain.

"Within CO or 70 leagues of the meridian of Scilly, on the 30th of
January, between the parallels of 49° and 50°, the effect of the current was
first experienced, which set the ship to the North of her intended parallel,
by nearly half a degree, in the interval between two observations of latitude;
namely, in two days. The wind, ever afterward, prevented the ship from
regaining the parallel ; for although the northern set was trifling, from the
31st until she arrived near Scilly, yet the wind, being scant and light, never
enabled her to overcome the tendency of the current. It is also to be
observed that the direction of the current was much more westerly than
northerly ; the ship crossed it on so very oblique a course as to be in it a
long time, and was driven, as it appears, nearly 30 leagues to the West by
it ; having soundings in 73 fathoms, in the latitude of Scilly, and afterwards
ran 150 miles by the log, directly East, before she reached the length of
the islands; running, in effect, 120 miles, and shallowed the water only 9
fathoms.

" The current was not only sensible by the observations of latitude, but
by ripplings on the surface of the water, and by the direction of the lead
line. In consequence of all, the ship was driven to the North of Scilly, and
barely able to lay a course through the passage between those islands and
the Land's End.

" There being no timekeeper on board, the longitude was uncertain; but
it was concluded that the current, at times, extends to 60 leagues West of
Scilly, and runs close to the West of the islands. The breadth of the
stream, where the Hector crossed over it, was supposed to be about 30
leagues.

" A journal of the Atlas, East India ship, Captain Cooper, furnishes much
clearer proofs, both of the existence of the current, and the rate of its
motion. This ship, outward bound, in January, 1857, had advanced 55
leagues to the westward of TJshant, when violent gales began at South, and
for four days continued between that point and West by South ; during
which time the ship was lying-to, with her head N.W. On the 5th day

in bor voyage, commencing at Sierra Leone and terminating at Now York, it was found
that bho was indebted to tbeir aid, on tbe balance of the wbole account, and in the direc-
tion of bcr course from port to port, not less than sixteen hundred geographical miles, tho
wholo distance being nine thousand, offording a very striking exemplification of the im-
portance of a correct knowledge of the currents of the ocean to persons engaged in its
navigation ; and consequently of the valuo of the information in tho acquisition and arrange-
ment of which Major Kennell passed tho latter years of his most aseful life."

EENNELL'S CUEEENT. 321

the wind abated, but was S.W. ; stormy weather then ensued for nine days,
the wind blowing from all points between South and S.S.W., but chiefly,
and most violently, from W.S.W. and S.W. ; and when the ship then pro-
ceeded southward on her voyage, she was, by the reckoning, only 2\ degrees
of longitude West of Cape Finisterre ; but, by timekeepers, more than four
degrees and a half.

" On the day the gale commenced, the reckoning was within fourteen
minutes of that by tho timekeepers ; the latter being more westerly, owing
to the current. On the third day after, the difference was about twenty-four
minutes, when the ship was 25 leagues S.W. from Scilly, in soundings of 76
fathoms. The ship, in longitude 8° 28', had entered into the stream ; and,
its course being opposite to that of the Hector, it facilitated her progress,
and carried her clear of the S.W. coast of Ireland.

" After this, in the course of fifty-one hours, the ship had set two whole
degrees to the westward of her reckoning; and in the forty-five hours
following, she had a further set of twenty-three minutes ; so that, in four
days only, she had been carried by the current no less than 2 degrees and
23 minutes; and, since the gale began, 2° 32' of long., or 93 nautic miles.

" It consequently appears, that the Atlas experienced a westerly current,
from about 24 leagues W.S.W. of Scilly, to near 4 degrees of longitude West
of the meridian of Cape Clear, where its effect was imperceptible. It may,
therefore, be inferred, that the stream goes off to the N.W. in the parallel
of 51°; between long. 14° and 15 C , and the S.W. coast of Ireland.

" No northern set is indicated in the journal of the Atlas. This would
have been remarkable, had the weather permitted nice attention to the
reckoning; „ut it is to be remarked, that observations on the latitude wero
not regularly made ; and besides, that the great distance of 36 miles was
allowed for only twenty hours' drift to the N.W., when the ship was
lying-to.

" From the nature of this current it must be obvious that its velocity will
always be proportionate with the strength and direction of the wind, by
which its direction will always be regulated, and that the middle of the
stream will preserve its original course in a greater degrees than its borders.
The direction of this appears to be N.W. by W., the eastern border moro
North ; and the western more West ; so that the northern current is stronger
close to the West of Scilly than more to the westward.

" From the foregoing observations may be deduced the following
inferences : —

" 1st. That ships, which cross the current obliquely, steering a true E. by
S. course or more southerly, will continue longer in it, and be more affected
by it, than those which steer more directly across it. In crossing it with light
winds the effect will be the same. Allowance must be made for the moro
northerly direction of the eastern edge of the current.

" 2nd. That, after the continuance of westerly gales, even should a good
observation of latitude be made, it would be imprudent to run eastward
from the Atlantic during a long night. For a ship might remain in the
current so long as to be drifted from a parallel, deemed a very safe one, to
that of the Eocks of Scilly. It is, therefore, recommended that vessels, at
such times, should keep, at the highest, 48° 45' because in 49 3 30' the whole

322 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CUEEENTS.

effect of the currents may be experienced in the worst situation. But from
the current in 4b° 45', a southerly wind will set the ship into the channel.
Coming from tho Atlantic, it would bo still better to make Ushant.

" 3rd. That ships, bound to the westward from the channel, with a south-
westerly wind, so that it may appear indifferent which tack they go on,
should prefer the port tack, as they will then have the benefit of tho
current."

(176.) In a Supplementary Paper on tho effects of westerly winds in
raising the level of the English Channel, dated 22nd June, 1809, Major
Eennel has stated : —

" In the observations on a current that often prevails to the westward of
Scilly, which I had the honour to lay before tho Eoyal Society many years
ago, I slightly mentioned, as connected with the same subject, the effects of
strong westerly winds, in raising the level of the British Channel, and tho
escape of the superincumbent waters, through the Strait of Dover, into the
then lower level of the North Sea.

" The fact of the high level of the channel, during strong winds between
tho West and S.W., cannot be doubted ; because the increased height of
the tides in the southern ports, at such times, is obvious to every discerning
eye. Indeed, the form of the upper part of the channel, in particular,
is such as to receive and retain, for a time, the principal part of tho
water forced in, as may be seen by the chart ; and as a part of this water
is continually escaping by the Strait of Dover, it will produce a current,
which must greatly disturb the reckonings of such ships as navigate the
strait, when thick weather prevents the land, or the lights of the Eorelands
and the North Goodwin, from being seen.

" There is another circumstance to be taken into the account, which is
that the shore of Boulogne, presenting a direct obstacle to the water impelled
by the westerly winds, will occasion a higher level of the sea there than
elsewhere ; and, of course, a stronger line of the current toward the
Goodwin.

" It must, therefore, be inferred, that a ship passing the Strait of Dover,
at the back of the Goodwin Sands, during the prevalence of strong West or
S.W. winds, will be carried many miles to the northward of her reckoning;
and, if compelled to depend on it, may bo subject to great hazard from the
Goodwin.

"It will be understood, of course, that although the stream of current
alone has been considered here (in order to simplify the subject), yet that,
in the application of these remarks, the regular tides must also be taken
into the account. But from from my ignorance of their detail, I can say no
more than that I conceive the great body of the tide from the channel must
be subject to much the same laws as tho current itself. The opposite tide
will, doubtless, occasion various inflections of the current, as it blends itself
with it — or may absolutely suspend it ; and the subject can never be per-
fectly understood without a particular attention to the velocity and direction
of the tides in moderate weather, to serve as a good ground work."

(177.) After the publication of the first paper on the current of the chan-
nel, and the supplementary paper immediately preceding, Major Eennell
published some further important observations upon it, which were read

EENNELL'S CUKRENT. 833

before the Eoyal Society, April 13, 1813, and from which we have the fol-
lowing extracts : —

" During the interval of twenty-one years, since the Society did me the
honour to receive my Observations on the Currents to the Westward of Stilly,
more facts relating to that current have been collected, as well as observa-
tions on its effects, in different parts of its course, between Cape Finisterre
and Scilly, the whole tending to confirmation of the general system set forth
in 1793; and, in one instance, affording perhaps a clearer proof of the
strength of the stream, in respect to its northerhj direction, than any of those
adduced on the former occasion.

"In pursuing the detail of these facts and observations, I shall begin in
the neighbourhood of Cape Finisterre, and proceed with the course of the
current along the Bay of Biscay ; and thence across the mouth of the Eng-
lish Channel to Sciily, and the entrance of St. George's Channel.

" The first three facts (not detailed here) regard the current from the
open sea, setting into the South side of the Bay of Biscay, and along the
North coast of Spain ; which current has been supposed in the former paper
to be occasioned by the prevalent westerly winds, which force the water
near the shore into the bay, and along the southern coast of it. The water
so displaced would be followed, of course, by the adjacent water behind it, in
t!ie open sea ; and so on successively, to a certain extent. The cause must
surely be referred to as the origin of tho Scilly current. The three facts
converge, as it were, to one point ; that is, in the proof that the waters of
the Atlantic flow into the Bay of Biscay, along the North coast of Spain.

"It would seem that the north-westerly current, by Scilly did not, at
least in* many cases, balance the easterly current round Cape Ortegal and
the land of Finisterre.*" The loss of his Majesty's frigate Apollo, with most
of her convoy, may surely be attributed to the operation of this current.
Captain (afterwards Commissioner) Wallace assured me, that after having
made, as he supposed, ample allowance for clearing Finisterre, yet, in tho
night, he had a very narrow escape from shipwreck. Very many others
have been brought into the same kind of danger ; so that the land of Finis-
terre, were it not discernible at a considerable distance, and its offing clear
of rocks and shallows, and, moreover, situated in a finer climate, would
prove a kind of Scilly to mariners.

"I have not been able to obtain any proofs on record concerning the
course of the current round the Bay of Biscay. I formerly collected some
information from a French commander respecting it. He said that the
setting of the current along the coast of France, to the North and N.W.,
was a fact well understood, and even acted on, by many in the choice of the
lack, on which the current gave the greatest advantage with dead winds.

"One circumstance, and that a very striking one, in respect to this par-
ticular, is, that the soundings in the Bay of Biscay show little or no muddy

* Nor, admitting an equal rate in both places, could it well be. For the current enters
the Bay of Biscay in an East direction, but goes off from it N. W. ; so that, if a ship wan
carried 50 miles to the N.AV. from Ushant, she would only have made about 35 westing ;
but, in the other case, she would be carried the whole 50 eastward, toward the Bay and
Cape Finisterre,

324 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

bottom to tho southward of the Gironde River, but everywhere to the northward.
This seems to show that the mud of the Gironde, Charcnte, Loire, &c., &c, is
all carried to tho northward ; and by what cause but a northerly current ?
Had tho motion of the sea been variable, the mud would surely have been
destributed to tho South, as well as to the North, of the mouth of the
Gironde. The alluvial embouchures of the rivers in general here, and the
positions of the banks formed be them in the sea, point to tho N. or N.W. ;
apparently the effect of the same sea-current.*

Major Rennell continues these remarks at this time, so as to include the
English and St. George's Channels ; but, as the navigation, 6et, and dura-
tion of the tides are much better understood now than when they were
written, we omit them for the future. Sufficient has been said on this, tho
first independent current of the Atlantic which was commented on.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE CURRENT.

(178.) Inset into the Bay of Biscay. — A bottle from the Lady Louisa, bound to St.
Michael's in lat. 45", long. 13 3 45', 2nd February, 1830, found on the coast of Lit, in
the province of Bayonne, 14th October, in the same year.

Channel Soundings into the Bay. — Bottle from the brig Hope, from Havannah, 31 s*
March, 1838, in lat. 50' 10', long. 9' 43'; wind strong from the eastward for three
days ; found on the 1st of June, 1838, on the coast of llochefort ; having probably
been first impelled to the S.W. by the ebb tide and prevalent wind, and thence fol-
lowing the general inset to the South and East.

Query. — " Why should the sea be higher, or more dangerous, in the Bay ot
Biscay than it is in the middle of the Atlantic or elsewhere ? Is it really so ? are
questions often asked.

" I believe that there is a shorter, higher, and consequently worse sea, in and near
the Bay of Biscay, than is often found in other places, and attribute it to the effect
of immense Atlantic waves rolling into a deep bight, where they close upon each
other, and receive vibratory undulations from each shore ; augmented, perhaps, by
the peculiar formation of the bottom of that bay, the variation in depth, and the
eTects of currents, which, when running over uneven ground, or against the wind,
alone cause a heavy swell — a striking exemplification of which may be seen on the
bank of Agulhas, near the Cape of Good Hope." — Capt. FitzRoy, vol. ii., p. 45.

From Channel Soundings to the lt r cst of Scotland. — A bottle thrown from the ship
Duke of Marlborough, Capt. Jeft'ery, by Mr. George Thorn, near the Sole Bank, in
lat. 43' 38', long. 9 3 W. ; found on the shore of Carsaig, near the middle of the South
side of the Island Mull, 14th April, 1821, and made known by Mr. Hector Maclean.
At the time this bottle was thrown into the sea, the ship was on its passage to
London from the Cape of Good Hope, and an allowance was made for current to the

* From a view of the Chart of Soundings between Spainand IrelanJ, one might be led
to suppose that the deep water and steep shore along the North coast of Spain had been
partly occasioned by the water driven in from tho Atlantic, in westerly storms, along that
coast ; and which had gradually worn away the matter there, and deposited it on the bank
which extends from Bayonne to the westward of Ireland. For the bank seems to expand,
as it goes northward, in like manner as the current ; and the water is shallower than mi^h*
bo expected, in proportion to the depths further in.

EENNELL'S CURRENT. 325

N.W. of 12 miles to the twenty-four hours. From the spot in which it was dropped,
it seems unquestionable that the bottle was carried by the current to the West and
North of Ireland, and thence between lslay and Mull, to the place in which it was
found. It has, therefore, well answered Mr. Thorn's purpose of confirming Kennel's
Current.

Bay of Biscay to the North of Scotland. — A bottle, enclosing a song composed on
board, from the Great Western steamer, on her voyege to New York, at midnight of
September 10, 1838, in lat. 4S' 3' N., long. 9' 52' W. ; picked up by Captain Thorn-
ton, of the Ceres, in passing through the Pentland Firth, on the 16th of the same
month. It must, therefore, have drifted to the north-westward and northward, off
the western coast of Ireland, and thence to the N.E. and East, by the general drift
from the Greenland Seas.

St. George's Channel, — A bottle from the ship Osprey, of Glasgow, Alexander
M'Gill, master, which sailed from Greenock. This bottle (No. 310) was thrown into
the sea 1st March, 1822, on the ship's return from Calcutta, in lat. 49° 54' N., and
long. 12° 30' W. It was found on the shore, upon the South side of Milford Haven,
on the 0th of the following month, April.

Easterly Current to Bristol Channel. — A bottle from the brig Albert, It. L. Robert-
son, master, lat. 47° 20' N., long. 22' W., 24th January, 1822, on the passage from
Virginia to England, the wind then about W.N.W., and had so prevailed for two or
three days. Found in Rockham Bay, about 4 miles West from Ilfracombe, 29th July
1822, and attested by the agents to Lloyd's.

Bay of Biscay, North Side. — A bottle from the ship Graham 3Ioore, 6th of July,
1821, in lat. 47* 47' N., long. 7° 51' W. ; found, 15th of September, 1821, on the coast
of St. Jean de Mont, arrondissement of Sables d'Olonne, department of La Vendee ;
and made known by the Journal de Paris. This bottle was impelled in an E.S.E.
direction, the north-icesterly current not then prevailing, and was within the influence
of the tide.

By Captain Livingston's Journal, 28th of November, 1820, " It appears that in 24
hours, ending at noon of yesterday (on the passage from Gibraltar), we made about
15 miles North by current; and in 24 hours, ending at noon this day, about 13
North, and in the two days rather more than 20' E. Therefore about N. 40^' E. 37
miles in the 48 hours."

Inset to, and Outset from, the Bay of Biscay. — A bottle from the Iris, Captain
Skinner, in lat. 47°, long. 21°, 9th September, 1802; found at the Isle of Skye (lat.
57° 15', long. 6° 20'), 22nd February, 1803. (Probably carried into the bay on an
eastern direction, subsequently northward by Rennel's Current, and thence by the
eastern drift to Scotland.)

The ship Jessie, Bevan, master, left London for the Bahamas, about the 13th of
November, 1833. She was struck by lightning and abandoned by her crew, in lat.
45° long. 15°, and on the 5th February, 1834, drove on tne Isie Groix. near L'Orient
and was immediately dashed to pieces.

Inset; Bay of Biscay. — A bottle from the Carshalton Park, Lieut. J. Steele
Park, 27th July, 1827, in lat. 4S° 39' long, 10° 21'; taken up, 21st December, 1827,
on the shore of Pembron Road, near the Loire, in the Bay of Biscay, lat. 17' 19',
long. 2° 30' W.

A bottle from II.M.S. Arrow, in lat. 48° 30', long. 9° 25, 14th July, 1838; wind
from S.W. for five days, a fresh gale, and then S.W. Another bottle from tho
Maitland, transport, in lat. 49' 5', long. 18° 19', 10th of March, 1838. Both found,
on the 25th of February, 1839, on the shore of Arcachon, in the bay, lat. about
44° 40' N.

A metal cylinder, ea>t from II.M.S. Chanticleer, Capt. II. T. Austin, 3rd of May,
1831, in lat. 44° 38V, long. 11° 4° W. ; found near Vivero, on the North coast of

N. A. O. 2 U

326 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CUEEENTS.

Spain, 12th of September following, at about 150 miles from the 6pot where it was
dropped into the sea.

A bottle from the bark Mary, of London, Abyah Locke, master, 12th of April,
1832, in l»t. 48° 30' long. 10° 56' ; found on the coast of Jart, lat. 36° 25' 4th
March, 1833.

Another bottlo from the same vessel, 1st April, 1832, in lat. 46' 15' long. 17° 58';
found near Capo Ferret, 14° 3S' 21st February, 1833.

A bottle thrown over from the Wellington, August 23rd, 1837, in lat. 45° 10' N.,
long. 12° 58' W. ; thrown on the South coast of the Isle of lie, probably about the
end of February, 1838 ; found March 2nd, 183S.

Tide Water on Soundings. — A bottle from the bark Wallace, of Alloa, bound to
Van Dieman's Land, 12th of April, 1835, in lat. 52° 13', long. 15° Picked up at 5
miles from Ushant, 21st of August, 1835.

A bottlo from tho Kent, troop ship, in lat. 50" 20', long. 19' 0' W, August 19th,
1836. Picked up near Cape Blancnez, a few miles from Boulogne, December 20th,
in the same year.

Bay of Biscay, South Side. — A bottle from the schooner, Morning Star, of Liver-
pool, Capt. Andrew Livingston, 7th of October, 1821, lat. 42" 45' 39" N., long. 13°
3' 21' W. Found about 22 miles to the northward of Bayonne, in the arrondisse-
ment de Dux, lat. 43° 5S' N., long. 1° 20' W., and made known by the direction of
the Minister of Marine and Colonics of France in the Monileur of January 24,

1822.

One of the most singular routes of the kind that we have met with was a bottle
covered with barnacles, picked up at the Mizen Head, on the S.W. of Ireland, Oct.
19, 1837. Its enclosed note stated that it was dropped off Cape Hoon, from the
Salem, H. Crukcrs, master, of the United States, in lat. 53' 3' S., and long. 67° 5' W.,
on the 24th of June, 1830.

(179.) The daily rate of the inset into the Bay of Biscay, as estimated from tho
drift of the bottles quoted in Captain Becher's Chart (131), is as follows: — The num-
bers refer to Bottle Chart in the Nautical Magazine for November, 1852— No. 2
(drifted 250 miles, 4-8 miles per day; No. 3 (230m.) 33 m.; No. 3a (270 m.),
4-5 m. ; No. 5 (420 m.), 1*8 m.; No. 11 (150 m.), 7 m. ; No. 11a (100 m.), 3 m.
No. 1()' (200 m.), 1*2 m. ; No. 28 (700 m.), 4-5 m. ; No. 28a (700 m.), 2-2 m. ; No. 33
(650 m.), 4-1 m. ; No. 37a (680 m.), 2 m. ; No. 40 (980 m.), 3-1 m. It will be seen
that the longest courses have the quickest rates, so that we may suppose that when
the bottles become entangled in the shore tides and devious drifts, they do not
travel so fast in direct distance. The mean rate of all these bottles is 3.26 miles per
day. The rate at which those travel up the English Channel is very much greater,
averaging 11 to 14 miles per day.

The foregoing are the principal arguments and facts upon which the
existence of the thwart-channel current is inferred. That there is some
cause for the drifting of the various vessels, &c, in a northward and west-
ward direction, there can be no doubt ; nor can there be any doubt that the
stream varies both in strength and in direction. Without enquiring into
tho sufficiency of the cause to produce these effects, or of the correctness of
the views promulgated by Major Eennel, the foregoing remarks have been
repeated, as originally given; and here we would add, that they were
formed long before any correct knowledge of the tides or of the tidal cur-
rents was acquired, and also that a very just estimate of the amount of de-

WESTERN EUROPE 327

rangement of the regular tides, or of the set of the current across the mouths
of the English and St. George's Channels, is formed from his dissertations.
The remarkable revolution of the tidal streams at the entrance of the English
Channel, caused by the cross action of that wave proceeding up the English
Channel with that of the wave coming northward, has been well developed
in the observations discussed by Adm. Beechy, as stated on p. 304.

2.— THE EASTERLY AND S.E. DRIFT-CURRENTS TO THE
COASTS OF EUROPE AND AFRICA.

(180.) The currents on the shores of the Atlantic seem to have different
tendencies to the South and North of the English Channel. They are cer-
tainly very devious and uncertain ; but along the "West Coast of Ireland and
Scotland, as well as on the offing, the general set is to the northward. Off
the southern part of the Bay of Biscay there is a well-marked current to the
S.E. and southward^ not only during those periods when the westerly winds
have been prevalent, and causing the Rennell's Current, last described, but
it appears to be constantly met with ; and therefore, in sailing southward
from British ports, this tondency of the waters should be carefully consi-
dered, especially when the shores are neared, for there they run strongest.

(181.) As stated hereafter, this well-marked current was considered to
be a portion of a stream, which, running to the southward and eastward
along the African coast to the Bight of Biafra, was the head of the
Guinea current. But in a discussion on the general system of Ocean
Currents,* it was shown to be exactly analagous to an equatorial counter
current, setting from East to West, between lats. 5° and 8° or 10° North,
across the entire breadth of the Pacific Ocean. In an examination of the
then existing data, it was found that this well-known Guinea Current was
but an extension of this counter current, which might then be traced nearly
over to the American Coast.

In the much more extensive series of current observations collected in the
Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, and arranged by Mr. R.
Strachan, the character of this current is fully established in accordance
with the views expressed in 1853. As the charts contained in that workf
embrace a much wider range of observation than was before attainable, we
shall quote on this current, as on the other branches of the subject, the
general remarks which have been based on the results obtained for each
month.

(182.) By a careful calculation of the currents experienced by the ships
cited in Maury's and Rennell's Charts' they appear to set with great regu-
larity, and constantly to the south-eastward. The experience of eighty-two
ships for the year gives a mean direction and rate of 9-1 miles per day to

* On Oceanic Currents, &c, by A. G. Findlay, in Journal of Royal Geographical So-
ciety, vol. xxiii., 1853, pp. 222, 233, &c.

t Currents and Surface Temperature of the North Atlantic Ocean, fram tho Equator to
lat.. 40° N., for each Month of the Year. 1872.

328 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

E. 34° S. for tho offing of 350 miles off Cape Finisterre and tho northern
part of Portugal. The average of the months is greater than this : —
January, 9-4 miles to S. 40° E. ; February, March, April, 11, 159, 12-8
miles per day to E. 24° S. ; May, July, 12-8, 10- miles per day S. 25° E. ;
August, October, November, 202, 105, 16*7 miles per day to S.S.E. Thcso,
compared with the drift of bottles, show that the latter must bo affected by
surface causes, as their rate of travelling is much less.* All theso observa-
tions are integrated on tho Chart of the North Atlantic referred to pre-
viously.

(183.) We now give the remarks drawn up by Mr. Strachan on this
current in the work before quoted, first those for the annual mean, and then
for each month in succession.

The North African Current. — If a line be traced from the Azores to Ma-
deira, and thence to the African coast, in lat. 28° N. (Canary Islands), it
will be seen that to the northward, as far as lat. 40° N., the average general
direction of the current is to the S.E., at from 3 to 12 miles a day, the rate
being strongest between longs. 10° and 15° W. Eastward of the 10th me-
ridian tho direction becomes more easterly toward tho Straits of Gibraltar,
but counter currents have been experienced off the coasts of Spain and Mo-
rocco. It is to be noticed that tho resultant rate close to tho coast of For
tugal is only 1*4 miles a day, arising from tho variation in direction of the
observations here. South of Madeira tho current, between tho coast and
the 20th meridian, turns to the South and then to S.S.W., down to lat. 10°
N., its rates ranging from 3 to 13 miles per day. Between the meridians of
10° and 20° W., and the parallels of 30° and 10° N., this current appears to
slough off to the S.S.W., S.W., AV.S.W., and finally merges with the
westerly drift of the North equatorial current about the meridian of 20° W.,
the rate being about G to 9 miles a day. On tho whole it does not appear
that the waters of the North African current mingle to a great extent with
those of the Guinea Current. On the contrary, it would seem that they aro
finally forced towards the West by the superior strength of the Guinea
Current. Even the portion of the current which passes eastward of tho
Cape Verde Islands does not appear in general to mingle with the Guinea
Current. Tho general tendency northward which the Guinea Current ex-
hibits off Sierra Leone must lead rather to the inference that some of the
water of this current finds its way into the westerly drift (North Equatorial
Current), mingling with the receding North African Current about latitude
10° N. Off the African coast, from 10° to 17° N., the current is a variable
one, at times setting to the northward, fed by the Guinea Current, but moro
frequently to the southward, fed by the North African Current. Hero,'
therefore, tho general rate comes out low, being from 3 to 6 miles, though
the seasonal rates are much higher. Among the Cape Verde Islands the
rate is also extremely trifling, and this is probably accounted for by the

• Estimating the set of the current by Captain Becher's bottle-chart, mentioned on
page 313, we get the following:— Boltle No. 7 (drift 500 miles), 3-2 miles per day ; No. 8,
the carcase of a dead whale (220 miles), 8 miles : No. 9 (300 miles), 12 miles ; No. 13 (250
miles), 4-1 miles; No. 18 (1,000 miles), 3 miles; No. 136 (550 miles), 5-5 miles per day,
giving an average of nearly G miles per day.

THE NORTH AFRICAN CURRENT. 329

effect of tides upon a ship's course near the land, as sets in various directions
have been reported here.

January. — The North African Current flowing to the southward between
Portugal and long. 18° W., acquires an easterly tendency towards the Medi-
terranean Sea. After passing the Madeira Islands it flows to the westward
of South, extending to long. 25° W. in the latitude of the Cape Verde Islands,
where it merges into the westerly drift. The portion which passes between
these islands and the continent merges into the Guinea Current about lat.
10° N. The daily rate of this current is from G to 18 miles.

February. — The North African Current, between the parallels of 40° and
30° N., extends from the coast to long. 18° W. Here it appears to be fed
by a drift from the W.N.W., which is traceable to long. 35° W., and a ten-
dency towards the Mediterranean is apparent. The daily rate is from 9 to
22 miles. Southward, to the 20th parallel, observations are deficient, but
between 20° and 10° N. the current, though very feeble, is still perceptible
Eastward of the Cape Verde Islands it tends towards the land while drifting
onward to join tho Guinea Current in lat. 10° N. Westward of these islands
it soon becomes lost in the westerly drift. From tho 20th to the 5th degrees
)f latitude tho rate of this current varies from 8 to 19 miles per day.

March. — The North African Current does not appear to havo a decided
southerly set near the land as much as along the 20th meridian, where it
travels 20 or 30 miles a day abreast Cape Verde. The easterly tendency
towards the Mediterranean is well marked at from 7 to 20 miles per day.
To the North of the Canary Islands there is evidence of a counter westerly
set at the rate of 10 to 14 milos. From lat. 15° N., long. 20° W., to 5° N.,
15° W., a north-westerly set has at times been experienced of 17 to 23 miles
daily, considerably stronger than the south-easterly sets, which are re-
ported there in this month. From 20° to 10° N., and 25° to 27° W., the
currents appear to be uncertain, but to the westward the westerly drift seems
established.

April. — The North African Current exhibits more decided southing than
in March, but the inset to the Mediterranean is scarcely perceptible. It
extends about 10 J from the land, from lat. 40° to 8° N., where it joins the
Guinea Current on the right, and the westerly drift on the left.

May.— The tendency of the current towards the Mediterranean is still
evident, but the How southward is more decided than in April. From 40° N.
to the Canary Islands the rate is from 7 to 21 miles. This current extends
generally about 10° from the land. South of the Canary Islands the current
tends towards the West. It mingles with the Guinea Current about lat.
7° N., and with the westerly drift along the meridian of 25° W., reaching
as far South as lat. 7° N. As a south-westerly current its rate is about 12
milos.

June. — The North African Current can be traced from lat. 40° to 9° N.
It still sends an easterly current towards the Mediterranean, at a rate of 6
to 18 miles. Between the Canary and Cape Verde Islands its direction is
south-westerly, but the stream is feeble, the rate being from 6 to 18 miles.
It does not pass between the Cape Verde Islands and the coast, but lies en-
tirely to the westward of these islands, where it soon becomes merged in tho

330 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

westerly drift. Between lats. 20° and 9° N., longs. 23° and 30° W., it i»
stronger than elsewhere, its velocity ranging from 8 to 19 miles per day.

In July the current appears to be feeble and unsettled, and the indraught
to the Mediterranean is barely traceable.

In August it does not seem that the current is well maintained, nor is
there decided evidence of a set towards tho Mediterranean ; however, the
observations in this month are deficient.

September. — The North African Current can be traced to the Cape Verde
Islands, but it is feeble throughout its course. Very little tendency is ap-
parent towards the Mediterranean ; indeed, the direction of the set is some-
times opposite.

In October the current reaches to lat. 10° N., but it is feeble and irregular,
being best defined close to the coast.

In November the current is stronger and more regular than in September
and October. Off Portugal its set is E.S.E., and rate about 12 miles. It
can be traced as far South as lat. 9° N.

In December tho North African current has become a steady flow, and can
be traced at times from lat. 40° N. to 10° N. In the region of the Cape Verde
Islands it loses force, and becomes less regular.

(184.) In addition to these remarks we give, as in previous editions, the particulars
of various bottles and other experiments, which are very interesting, and will be
serviceable in estimates of what amount of current may be expected in this part of
the voyage.

South- Easterly Current off Channel Soundings. — Tn August, 1826, Captain Living-
ston, in the Jane, between lat. 48° 53', long. 16° 7', and Cape Clear, had a set of
1° 14' S. and 1° 54' E. So that in four days the vessel was set, by a counter current,
74 miles S. and 65 E., or nearly S. 41° E. about 99 miles; equal to a daily average
of 24J miles.

Toward the Hay of Biscay. — The ship Carshalton Park, Captain J. S. Park, on
returning from Jamaica to London, in July, 1824, in lat. 48°, and long. 13 d , got into
a stream setting to the southward, and which thence operated so strongly against the
ship, that some difficulty was found in getting sufficiently far to the northward for a
good Channel track. The wind shifted suddenly from S.W. to N. ; the vessel imme-
diately hauled up E. by S. ; and although the weather was fine, and the water quite
smooth, she made no better than a true E. by N. course.*

Off the Coast of Portugal. — A bottle from the brig Freeland, Captain T. Midgley
(from Liverpool to Africa), in lat. 41° 50' N., long. 14° 23' W., 11th of February,
1833. Picked up close to the shore, off the Harbour of Vigo, on the 1st of March
following, having traversed, in a true E. \ N. direction, about 80 leagues.

St. George's Channel to Cape St. Vincent. — On the 14th of August, 1823, Captain

* The same ship, on tho 10 th of July, was on Channel soundings, the latitude by meri-
dian altitude of the sun, 48° 53' ; the longitude, by chronometer and lunar, 9° 44' and
9° 56', respectively, "kept the ship E. £ S. and generally East till 1 1*51 p.m., when, by tho
moon's meridian altitude, it was found that the latitude was 49° 21'. "We had gone, during
this interval of llh. 51m., 68 miles by the log, carefully attended to, in smooth water.
Now, allowing 2\ points of variation, we ought to have made 26' of northing ; whereas, id
point of fact, we made 13' only."

Influenced, probably, by the Channel ebb ; the current appeared also to have a tendency
to the West.

BETWEEN THE AZOEES AND AFEICA. 331

Capt. Livingston, in the sloop Favourite, on his passage from Liverpool to Gibraltar,
took his departure from the Smalls Lighthouse, and thence he regularly made obser-
vations on the current, &c., so far as adverse weather permitted. On the 23rd he had
arrived on the parallel of 46 3 23'; previously to which the course seems to have been
materially affected by the tide, but here the differences amounted to 51' 55" southerly,
and only 4' 39" N. From lat. 46° 23' August 23, to Iat. 36° 52', August 31, the cur-
rent invariably predominated to the southward, and between these parallels amounted
to 89 miles in the eight days.

At 4 1 ' 53 m of August 31, with Cape St. Vincent bearing true North, an excellent
meridian altitude of the planet Saturn gave lat. 36° 52' 8". The total southing to
this point gave 2° 18', and the difference of longitude between dead reckoning and
that by landfall gave 1° 42' 7" of casting.

In the brig Friends, of Glasgow, 24th of August, 1820, Captain Livingston states
— " The current set us round Cape St. Vincent without our having seen Lhe cape,
though we steered courses for the purpose of seeing it, and we were looking out for
it, when I got a lunar, and ascertained that we were then past it. Immediately after
this the sea became smooth, being broken off by the cape."

Between Cape Finisterre and the Azores, the general drift of tbe surface of the sea
appears to be to the south-eastward ; varying, however, to the East and West, and
even to the northward, as the winds operate, either one way or the other, more espe-
cially during winter, as already noticed.

H.M.S. Pactolus, in May, 1816, experienced a current South a little East, at the
average rate of 30 miles a day, from the English Channel to St. Michael's.

Captain Charles Hare, in the brig Ward, from New Brunswick, September, 1823,
with westerly winds, which had prevailed for fourteen days, between latitude 43M0'
and 45° 20', long. 22h a to 16 3 , found the current E.S.E. 1± mile in the hour.

Between Portugal and the Western Islands, — Captain George Cheveley, June,
1830, lat. 44° to 27', long. 11° to 21°, current S.E., three-quarters of a mile an
hours.

The Current along the Coast of Portugal appears to set nearly in the direction of
that coast. On the 25th of October, 1810, a gunboat for the service of Cadiz, being
in tow of the Rebuff gun brig, broke adrift in a gale of wind, in lat. 39° 44', and
long. 9° 38' W. On the 19th of November following, his Majesty's sloop of war
Columbine, when cruising 8 or 9 miles to the westward of Cadiz Lighthouse, observed
a gunboat to leeward, which proved to be the identical boat that twenty-five days
before had broken adrift from the Rebuff. The distance traversed by the boat was
about 350 miles, or 14 miles a day, chiefly by the current, the wind in the meantime
being so various as nearly to render the drift negative, or, if anything, against the
set of the current.

On the currents setting toward the Bay of Biscay and the Strait of Gibraltar, Capt.
afterward Admiral, Sir Erasmus Gower made observations in five passages to Madeira,
from which he concluded the most general direction to be to the S.E., and the mean,
velocity about 11 miles in every 50 leagues.*

* The effect of a current setting to the south-eastward, and the necessity of a compe-
tent knowledge of currents in general, cannot any way be more forcibly shown than by
noticing the melancholy catastrophe of his Majesty's ship Apollo, Captain J. W. T. Dixon,
and the merchant ships under her convoy, on the 2nd of April, 1804. The Apollo, with
sixty-nine ships for the West Indies, sailed from the Cove of Cork on the 26th of March.
With a fair wind, blowing strong, they steered about W.S.W. until the 31st, when tho
wind changed more to the westward. At noon, on the 1st of April, latitude observed
49° 51' N., longitude, by account, 19» 29'. At eight p.m. the wind shifted to S.W., and in-
creased to a gde, with a heavy sea. The convoy 6tood to the S.S.E., and, at half-past three

332 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

In proceeding to Tencrife, Sir Erasmus Gowcr observed a constant current setting
to the southward at the rate of a mile an hour ; equal to 22 miles in the distance
between Madeira and that island.

Capt. Mackintosh, of the llindostan, who had made twenty passages in this route,
generally experienced a current from the 39th degree of latitude to that of the
Canaries. In this part of the ocean he generally found, from repeated and accurate
observations, that this current sets to the E.S.E. He found it strongest opposite to
the entrance into the Mediterranean or Strait of Gibraltar ; and, in one voyage, the
current was computed, by his chronometer, to set about 40 miles per day. This cur-
rent inclines more southerly as it approaches the Canaries. It strikes on the coast of
Morocco, and takes, about Cape Boiador, a different direction. Nearly in-shorc, from
an indefinite point, one part of the stream sets northward toward the Strait of
Gibraltar, and the other parts sets to the southward.

M. le Baron le Roussin, in the corvette Bayadere, bound from Rochcfort to Brasil,
in February, 1819, after passing Cape Finisterre, found the prevailing winds from
noon to noon, and currents, as follow :

Latitude. Longitude. Winds. Currents.

Feb. 22 .

. 42°

43'

3S' .

. IP 40' C* ,

,. N.— W.N.W. .

. S.S.W. 24 miles

23 .

. 40

28 .

,. 13 44 17 .

, . N.— N.E.

. S.S.E. 12 —

24 .

. 37

49 .

. 13 35 30

N.E.

. S.S.E. 12 —

25 .

. 34

11 .

. 14 13 30 .

. N.E.— S.E. .

. S.E. 6 —

26 .

. 31

17 .

. 14 14 40 .

. N. and N.E. .

. S.10°E.12 —

But on arriving at the Canaries, with the wind North and N.E., the current had
changed.

On the course of the same vessel, from Brest to Brasil, in October, 1821, the cur-
rent had set on the last 24 hours (October 6), lat. 40° 24' 36', long. 14° 29' 30',
S. 15° E. 20 miles; on the three following days, nearly in the same direction, but
with less than half the strength. In lat. 35° 20' 50", long. 12° 54' 40", 15 miles
S.E. In lat. 33' 54', long. 12" 48, it had set only 6 miles S. 5° E.; but, on the next
day, in 34° 18' 24 N., and 12° 21' W., 25 miles S. 25° E.; and again in 34° 14' 34",
South, 20 miles. Off the African coast, lat. 32 3 56' 20', long. 13° 16' 20", it had set
32 miles to the S.W., or in a direction nearly parallel with the shore.

At about 74 leagues W. h S. from Cape Mondcgo, on the 9th of June, 1799, M. d<
Humboldt, in the sloop Pizarro, was on his voyage to the West Indies ; and, on this
da) - , in lat. 39" 50', and long. 13' 50', he says that they began to feel the effects of the
current setting toward the Strait of Gibraltar, &c. From the parallel of 37° to that of
33°, the vessel was sometimes carried, in twenty-four hours, from 18 to 26 miles to

next morning, struck on the coast of Portugal, in about 40° 22' N., 3 leagues to the north-
ward of Cape Mondego. Captain Dixon, and about sixty men of the Apollo, perished in
their endeavours to reach the shore; the other part of tho crew remained two days clinging
to a fixed part of the wreck, without nourishment. About forty sail of merchantmen were
wrecked about the same time ; some sank with all their crews, and most of them lost several
men. The lamentable event has been attributed to want of chronometric observa'ions,
and the consequent ignorance of the set of the current, which must certainly have been
very strong.

" The immediate cause of the loss of so many of the Apollo 's convoy appears to have been
the blind confidence with which the commanders followed their commodore ; either keeping
no reckoning themselves, or believing his more accurate than their own. Several ships
were saved by leaving the convoy, and it is slid that the commander of a Clyde ship warned
the Commodore of his danger in time to have avoided it." — A.L.

WESTERN EUEOPE AND AFRICA. 333

the eastward. The direction of the current was, at first, E. by S. ; Lut nearer the
strait it became due East, and it assumed a more southerly direction on the passage
tow r ard Tenerife. " Several pilots, who frequent the Canary Islands, have found
themselves on the coast of Lanzarotc, when they expected to make good their landing
on Tenerife."

Don Vicente 'fofino had, ten years before, proceeded in the Lucia, from Cadiz, for
Mogodor; he sailed on the 27th of April, 1785, and on the 1st of May, before mid-
day, arrived at the last-named port. On the 6th he sailed from it, and on the
morning of the 8th anchored attain in Cadiz. On his voyage out, he found that the
current, in four days, had set him 21 \ miles S. 18° E., and on his return S. 49° W. 39
miles. This variation of the current shows, that the waters throughout all this
extent do not always run to the S.E., but that they vary, with the line of coast, to
the south-westward also.

H.M.S. Pique was once set to the S.E., 98 miles in five days, between Cape
Finistcrre and Madeira. H.M.S. Raleigh, August, 1826, found the current from off
Cape St. Mary, toward the Strait, to set W. 34" S. 26 miles in the twenty-four
hours.

(185.) The following observations on the currents between the Canary and Cape
Verde Islands, have been selected from Commander Maury's " Sailing Directions,"
1859, vol. ii. The experience of all the ships whose logs are there recorded, is nearly
unanimous in stating the southerly and easterly drift. Of course the vibration of the
Trade winds with the seasons has much to do with the southern limit of this southerly-
set, as will be seen below : —

Ship Jenny Pitts, Capt. J. L. Snow, December 27, 1853, lat. 30° 3' North, long.
•20' 0' W., current 8 miles S. by W.j 18th, 28° 52' N. 18° 10' W., 6 miles S.S.W.;
30th, 25° 26' N., 18 r ' 26' W., 8 miles S. by E. ; January 1, 1854, 19° 51' N., 22° 55' W.,
8 miles S. by E. ; 2nd, 16° 42' N., 21° 23' W., 10 miles S. ; 3rd, 13 3 42' N., 22° W., 8
miles S.

Ship Margaret Mitchell, Captain T. Jameson, January 11, 1851, lat. 30° 16' N.,
long. 17" 35' \V„ 22 miles E. by S. ; 13th, 26' 7' N., long. 20 n 24' W., S. 39' W. 14
miles; 14th, 24° 15' N., 20° 11' W., 12 miles E. by S. ; 16th, 20° 18' N., 20° 31' W.,
18 miles, S. f W.

Ship Romance of the Sea (W. W. Henry), February 18, 1855, lat. 30° 10' N., long.
18 c 10° W., 1£ knot, N.E.; 19th, 29° 20' N., 19° 0' W., l\ knot, N.E.; 20th, 26 0' N.,
19° 28' W., 1 knot E.N.E.

Ship Gloriana, Captain Henry Toynbee, from London to Sydney, April 22, 1855,
30° 18' N., 19° 20' W., 121 m ii es S. 5° W. 5 24th, 26' 3' N., 21' 32' W., 8\ miles
N. 25° E.; 25th, 23° 38' N., 22' 50' W., 4£ miles N. 12 W.; 26th, 20° 37' N., 24" 22'
W., 6§ miles N. 15" E.; 27th, 17° 22' N., 26° 4' W., 9£ miles S. 57° W.; 28th,
14* 5' N., 26° 23' W., 16 miles S. 60° W.j 29th, 11° 12' N., 26° 36' W., 20 miles S.
9° W.

Ship Resolute (D. McKenzie), June 17th, 1854, lat. 29' 54' N., 21° 12' W., 12 miles
S. 60' E.; 19th, 26° 1' N., 24° 2' W., 12 miles, S. 13 a E.j 21st, 21° 44' N., 26° 22' W.,
12 miles W.S.W.

Ship Orion (H. Libbey), July 3, 1856, 29° 5' N., 23° 30' W., 12 miles S.

Ship Panther (N. G. Weeks), August 10, 1854, in lat. 28° 9' N., 22° 30' W., 12
miles W.S.W. ; 12th, 23° 32' N. 25° 38' W., 15 miles W.S.W., &c. Note.— The ship
at this time in the N.E. Trades, which have during the summer reached to the higher
latitude.

Ship Hurricane (St. Very), August 22nd, 1855, lat. 30° 31' N. 18° 0' W., 12 miles
S.W.; 23rd, 27 11' N., 19 1 15' W., 8 miles S. £ W. ; 24th, 23° 50' N., 19° 25' W., 11
miles S. by W.; 25th, 21° N. 19^° \V-i 6 miles S. & W. ; 20th, IS' 4' N., 19° 45* W.,
7 miles S. § W.

N. A. O. 2 S

o34 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Barque Mca (B. Buxton), August 17, 18.39, lat. 25° 41' N., 21° 14' W., 12 miles S.,
18th, 23° 16° N., 22° 54' W., 8 miles S.

Barque Adlcr (E. Thiel), October 27, 1849, lat. 25° 17' N., 23° 33' W., 27 miles S.
31° W., two days ; 30th, 18° 13* N., 25° 49' W., 13 miles S.W.j 31st, 15° 45' N, 20°
35' W., 12 miles S.W. h W. (trade wind).

Ship Colorado (Bicker), October 19th, 1855, lat. 31° 15' N., 16° 49' W., 12 miles
S.E.; 20th, 28° 33' N., 18° 47' W., 24 miles S.S.E.; 21st, 26° 16' N., 20° 11' W., 12
miles S.W.; 24° 22' N., 21' 15' W., 6 miles S.W.

(186.) Mr. James Grey Jackson, in his valuable " Account of the Empire of
Morocco,"* has stated that the coast, between the latitudes of 20 and 32 degrees
North, is a desert country, interspersed with immense hills of loose sand, which arc,
from time to time, driven by the wind into different forms, and so impregnate the air
with sand, for many miles out to sea, so as to give the atmosphere an appearance of
hazy weather; navigators, not aware of the circumstance, never suspect, during such
appearances, that they are near land, until they discover the breakers on the coast,
which is, in some parts, so extremely flat, that a person may walk a mile into the sea
without being over the knees ; so that ships strike when at a considerable distance
from the beach ; added to this, there is a current, which sets in from the West towards'
Africa with inconceivable force and rapidity, with which the navigator being gene-
rally unacquainted, he loses his reckoning, and, in the course of a night, perhaps,
when he expects to clear the African coast, in his passage southward, he is alarmed
with the appearance of shoal water ; and, before he has time to recover himself, finds
his ship aground on a desert ' shore, where neither habitation nor human being is
visible. In this state his fears are soon increased by a persuasion that he must either
perish in fighting a horde of wild Arabs, or submit to become their captive; for soon
after a ship strikes, some wandering Arabs, strolling from their duar in the desert,
perceive the masts from the sand-hills ; and, without coming to the shore, repair to
their horde perhaps 30 or 40 miles off, to apprise them of the wreck, when they im-
mediately assemble, arming themselves with daggers, guns, and cudgels. Sometimes
two or three days or more elapse before they make their appearance on the coast,
where they await the usual alternative of the crew either delivering themselves up,
rather than perish with hunger, or throwing themselves into the sea.

(187.) The ship Montezuma, of Liverpool, Knubly, master, sailed on the 26th of
October, 1810, from Brazil, but was wrecked on the 23rd of the next month, at three
a.m., on the African coast, somewhere between Capes Noon and Bojador. Among
the crew, who were laken and sold by the Arabs, was Alexander Scott, an apprentice.
This person was detained in the country for nearly six years ; and a very interesting
account of his captivity, drawn up by Dr. Traill, with geographical observations on
his routes, and remarks on the currents which produced the catastrophe, by Major
Kennel, were given in the fourth volume of the " Edinburgh Philosophical Journal."
As these remarks give a very clear notion of the movement of the waters, derived
from observation, we repeat them as heretofore.

(188.) Major Rennell remarks on the currents between Cape Finisterro
and the Canary Islands : — " I should consider myself highly culpable if I
neglected to state, by way of caution to navigators, the result of my inquiries
respecting the currents which appear to have caused the shipwreck of the
Montezuma, and of a great number of other ships of our own and other

* London, quarto, 1809. See, also, the affecting "Narrative of the Shipwreck and
Captivity of M. de Brisson," in 1787 ; and that of Robert Adams, wrecked in the American
ship Charles, John Horton, master, 1810. The latter is noticed more particularly, with
others, in the description of the Coasts of Africa, hereafter.

WESTERN EUROPE AND AFRICA. 335

nations, on the western coast of Barbary, having examined a multitude of
journals of ships that have sailed in that track, with timekeepers on board,
and which have also, when opportunities presented themselves, had their
rate checked by celestial observations.

"The general result is, that navigators who depart from the parallel of
the southern part of the Bay of Biscay (or say 45°), and sail in the usual
track southward, will be assailed first by a S.E. current, and then by an
easterly one, until they have passed the parallel of Cape Finisterre, when the
current will again turn to the South of East, and gradually becomo a S.E.
current, till, having passed Cape St. Vincent, it becomes easterly again,
owing, no doubt, to the indraught of the Strait of Gibraltar ; and this
easterly current is pretty general across the mouth of the bay, between Capo
St. Vincent and Cape Cantin.

" Beyond this bay (which may be termed the funnel, of which the strait
itself is the spout ) the current again becomes S.E., or rather more southerly
(as it is more easterly toward Cape Finisterre), and continues as far as the
parallel of 25°, and is, moreover, far beyond Madeira westward ; that is, at
least 130 leagues from the coast of Africa, beyond which a S.W. current
takes place, owing, to the operation of the N.E. Trade wind.

"The rate of motion of this current varies very considerably at different
times; that is, from 12 to 20 or more miles in 24 hours. I consider 16 as
rather below the mean rate. I have one example of 140 miles in eight days,
in one of his Majesty's ships, equal to 17£ miles per day; and, in another,
of only 12. And in a very well kept East India ship's journal, 170 in nine
days to Madeira, or 19 per day. The direction of the stream likewise
varies, but commonly more toward the South than the East, after passing tho
mouth of the strait.

" Near the coasts of Spain and Portugal, commonly called the Wall, the
current is always very much southerly, owing, perhaps, to the falling in,
obliquely on the shore, of tho great mass of water brought by the S.E.
current ; which can run off only toward the South, and round Cape St. Vin-
cent toward the strait's mouth. And amongst the Canary Islands, and be-
tween them and the coast of Barbary, the currents are less regular.

" It may be taken for granted that the whole surface of that part of the
Atlantic Ocean, from the parallel of 40° to 45° at least, and to 100 to 130
leagues off shore, is in motion toward the mouth of the Strait of Gibraltar.

"According to what has been said, in the course of the above remarks, it
must be expected that a ship, sailing in the usual track to Madeira or the
Canaries, will bo carried to the south-eastward, at the rate of 16 miles per
day, that is, even if she has a fair wind, she will be carried by the current
150 or 160 miles to the south-eastward, in the course of a voyage to Ma-
deira or the Canaries ; and, consequently, on a S.E. iy S. course, will be
carried 80 or 90 miles to the eastward of her intended port. If we supposo
a S.E. course, the error in easting will be no less than 109 ; which distance,
if they are bound to Tenerife, would carry them to Allegranza or Forteven-
tura ; and, if intending to make Allegranza, would place them on shore on
the coast of Barbary. The French and Spaniards report that their ships
have often made Allegranza when they supposed themselves on the lino
toward Tenerife. It must be added that, if a ship had a long passage, tho

336 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

error would be greater in proportion, and might possibly amount to 200
miles of easting.

" It would seem advisable, therefore, that every ship going to the Cana-
ries, or intending to sail between those islands and the main land of Africa,
and boing without timekeepers, as that class of merchant ships commonly
are, should, to every day's reckoning, add ten miles of easting. This would,
in the first instance, prevent them from deceiving themselves as they went for-
ward ; in like manner, as it is better to set a clock forward at once, than to
charge one's memory continually with its being too slow. Ten miles does not
seem too much as a cautionary measure, as a ship has very lately been car-
ried 99 miles to the East in eight days in that track. "What would not have
been the error had she had even a moderately long passage ?

"It is this current which has furnished the roving Arabs of the Desert
with the victims from every nation, and the good Mr. Wiltshire, the Eng-
lish Consul at Mogodor, with objects of benevolence." — 27th Feb. 1819.

The Eliza, commanded by John Searchwell, sailed from Cork for Rio
Janeiro with settlers, on the 12th of August, 1827, and ran ashore on the
coast of Africa, during a fog, on the 25th of the same month. "Whilst
making signals of distress, three fishing boats from Canary came to her
assistance, and succeeded in saving all the lives on board, consisting of 18
mariners, 244 men, 46 women, and 42 children; in all, 350 persons, who
arrived at Canary on the 3rd of September.

About the end of October, in the same year, the Olymphc, from Havre for
Buenos Ayres, with colonists, was cast away on the same part of the African
coast. The passengers, about 300 in number, consisting of French, English,
Germans, and Swiss, were taken from the shore, saved from captivity by
Canarian fishing-boats, and conveyed to the Grand Canary, where they
were landed on the 7th of November. Such has been the effects of tho
current !

The preceding description of the currents between the English Channel
and Canary Islands was corroborated, 1826, by Capt. R. H. Newby, in tho
Napoleon schooner, which left Dartmouth on the 21st of July, and was set to
the eastward of reckoning, while crossing the Bay of Biscay, 1° 21' of longi-
tude in 48 hours. On Monday, the 25th of the same month, the entrance
of Ribadeo bore S.W. by compass, about 15 miles, and the vessel was then
in about 6° 55' "West.

The effect of the easterly cerrent was proved by the bearings of a re-
markable mountain inland, and some whitish cliffs on the shore ; and Capt.
Newby says, the schooner was setting to the eastward as fast as I havo
noticed a ship to lose ground to the eastward while standing inshore of
Beachey Head during a strong flood tide and moderate westerly breeze. At
about 5 p.m. the wind veered to the N.E., and even then, although tho
vessel was going at the rate of 3£ knots through the water, she made very
little way to the westward till toward sun-down, when the breeze freshened
to 7 or 8 knots. During the night passed Cape Ortegal; and the next
morning, at 6 a.m., the light-tower at the entrance of Coruna bore South.

Upon going over the two day's work, July 27th and 28th, it appeared
that, instead of passing, as supposed, to the westward of Madeira, the
Napoleon was actually without a sight of the island to the eastward; and had

WESTERN EUROPE AND AFRICA. 337

the vessel been involved in fog, or have been bound to Lanzaroto or Fuerte-
ventura, and steering, by reckoning, a fair course for them, the consequence
must have been that she must have fallen into broken water when least
expected, or have grounded on the main shore, somewhat between Cape
Ghir and Cape Noon, and property, if not life, would have been lost.

The following remarks on the currents on the western coast of the Spanish
Peninsula, are given in the Anuario Hidrografico for 1867 : —

On the western shore of the peninsula the currents are strong, and in its
immediate neighbourhood run from South to North, and North to South,
according to the prevailing wind. But in the offing they incline to theN.E.
or S.E., according as the wind may be S.W. or N.W. Against these on-
shore winds vessels must therefore take precaution, for if the S.W. wind is
blowing, or even the N.W. also, the vessel will drift to the shore. Expe-
rience has shown that allowance must be made for drift by steering more
westerly courses than the lay of the coast would require to keep clear of it,
especially when it is blowing hard.

It is observed on the coast of Galicia, and tho same would naturally
occur on the coast of Portugal, that, on one or even two days previous to a
gale, the current sets towards that point of the horizon from which it will
eventually come ; that is, when the current sets to the South without any
apparent cause the Vendaval will come in a gale, and a similar result fol-
lows when the current sets to the North. So that the fishermen who have
most to do with allowing for currents know very well by them when a N.E.
or S.W. wind is about to set in.

The current generally produced by the wind sets to the N.E. and North,
when that is from any point between South and West, and it sets to the
South when the wind is anywhere between West and East from the north-
ward. In winter, the current sets mostly from some point between North
and East, and in summer from some one between North and West ; and its
hourly rate is about 2 miles, and even more, with a strong Vendaval.

The navigator who finds himself off Cape Finisterre with a Vendaval to
beat against, must bo careful of the shore in bad weather, for he will be
drifted insensibly to leeward until he has passed Cape Prior.

With respect to ships off Cape St. Vincent, bound towards Cape Finisterre
with fresh N.E. winds, they will find enough to do, to overcome the current
they will meet with along tho coast. And with fresh N.W. or S.W. winds
there is also a rise in the level of the sea, in all the estuaries and ports of
the peninsula, the reverse of what takes place at Cadiz and in tho Bay of
Biscay with N.E. winds.

(189.) Tub Baron Roussin's Remarks ox toe Currents between Cafe

BOJADOR AND TIIE IsLES DE LoS.

The general currents on the African coast, between Cape Bojador and the
Isles de Los, with the exception of some places subject to a more or les9
regular tide, are uniform during the eight months which comprise the fine
season. They follow exactly the trend of the coast from North to South.

From Cape Bojador to the Cay of Cyprian (lat. 22° 20') they therefore set to

338 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

the S.S.W., from that bay to Cape Blanco; and along the whole extent oi
the Bank of Arguin to its western point, which is in the parallel of 20° 6' 20"
North, they set S. by W. To the southward of this point the waters, being
no longer guided by the edge of the bank, which turns abruptly to the S.E.,
do not follow in a body, within a certain space, any fixed or determined
diroction. One part of their mass experiences a number of irregular wind-
ings, until, finding itself in the active body of the general current, which
left the bank at its most salient point, it rejoins it, and is carried on as
before.

In the vicinity of Tanit Bay, in the parallel of 19° 10' N., it again resumes
its former direction, and follows the trend of the coast, thus setting to tho
southward as far as the two Palms, near Portandik, aud from thence S.S.W.
to the Marigot of Musquitoes. It then sets S. £ \V. till abreast of the Bar
of Senegal, where in a space of 4 leagues in circumference, it is disturbed
by the stream of that river. This stream is so strong as to oblige vessels at
the anchorage off the bar to trend to it, in spite of the strongest winds.
The current, joined by the waters of the Senegal, pursues its course along
the coast, which trends to the S."W.,. observing a very gentle curve, which
forms the Bay of Yof, and which terminates at Cape Verde. The strong
currents hitheito pretended to set into the Bay of Yof are, therefore, merely
chimerical, and the depth given to this bay in all the charts is no less so.
Cape Verde being the most western point of Africa, and hence forming an
obstruction to the general direction of the waters which flow along that
coast, must occasion a great variety of currents in its vicinity. It is, in fact,
what takes place, and it would, therefore, be difficult to define a particular
one. This only appears certain : vessels passing in sight of Cape Verde are
not carried on it, as is generally supposed ; but, on the contrary, they aro
swept off by tho prevailing tendency which the waters have to flow to sea-
ward. In running close to the Almadie Rock, this repulsion is sensibly
felt during the eight months which I have mentioned. It appears that tho
current rushes between the rocks, and spreads itself in different directions.

Immediately to the southward of Cape Verde the current is almost impercep-
tible, and it is scarcely possible to assign any particular direction to it as far
as Cape Naze. The whole of the coast lying between this cape and Capo
Manual forms a well defined bay, totally free from current, and in which
there is not a single river. The same is observed with respect to the road-
stead of Groree, although, according to the observations of Mr. Adanson, a
regular tide exists there, with a rise and fall of 2 feet 6 inches. In the
offing of Cape Verde the current has been always found to set to the south-
ward. From Cape Naze it again follows the direction of the coast, inter
rupted only at the mouths of the principal rivers, which lie between this
cape and Cape Roxo. Erom this point, localities of a very different nature
produce particular effects in the current. The Archipelago of the Bissagos
here succeeds the straight coast which extends to the northward. Largo
rivers empty themselves amongst these islands, forming various channels,
more or less encumbered with sand-banks. These obstacles cause a variety
of currents, which will bo explained when treating on the Bissagos.

Strength of the General Current. — The rate of the general current on tho
African coast, deduced from numerous observations, has never exceeded a

THE GUINEA CURRENT. 339

mile and five-tenths per hour on the coast itself, and on the outer edge of the
banks ; and more frequently it has been found from seven to nine-tenths of
a mile. This is diminished one-third, and frequently one-half, at a distance
of 4 leagues from the coast. Should a vessel have run past her port, thero
is no fear of her stemming this current, and, by long boards, easily regain-
ing her destination.

In the rainy season, which is from the commencement of June to tho end of
October, as the wind blows from various directions, the currents are no longer
regular, and it is impossible to establish any positive law respecting them ;
but, even under these circumstances, their strength is not eo great but that
it may be surmounted.

3.— THE GUINEA CUERENT.

BEING AN EASTERLY STREAM ACROSS TIIE ATLANTIC, AND ALONG THE COAST
OF AFRICA, INTO THE BIGHTS OF BENIN AND BIAFRA.

(189.) In the description of the winds (6), p. 175, and (64, 65), p. 222,
and in the diagram illustrating the Best monthly Routes across tho Equator,
it is shown, that between the N.E. and S.E. trade-winds there is a belt of
calms and variable winds, which, on the African coast, assume the character
of monsoons, as, duriog the summer months especially, the wind blows more
or less toward the African coast.

In the currents there appears to be an analogous system, as thero is an
easterly current flowing with considerable velocity eastward, in an opposite
direction to the great equatorial drifts on either side of it. Its existence
and character along the Guinea Coast has been long known. It was for-
merly thought to be a continuation of that current which we have just
described as passing southward from Western Europe, but later investiga-
tions seem to point to the fact that it is a flowing back of the waters
heaped up to the westward by the prevalent winds. In tracing the cur-
rents of the Pacific Ocean, * we find that there exists a precisely similar cur-
rent in that great ocean setting into the Bay of Panama, in the same latitude.
This current is traced very far to the westward— in fact, nearly across the
ocean. f

(191.) Commencing with the ordinary westernmost part traversed by
vessels crossing the Equator, we select from Commander Maury's Sailing
Directions the following facts : —

(192.) Capt. H. T. Walter, barque Phantom, says : — In July, 1853, between lat.
5° and 8° N.. and about long. 36° and 38° W., the current set us fast to the eastward.

* See Director)^, for th« North Pacific Ocean, by A. G. Findlay, and also Journal Eoyal
Geographical Society, vol. xxiii., 1853, pages 222, &c, as before quoted on p. 327.

t Tho non-continuity of this Guinea current with that ■which flows southward from
Portugal and N.W. Africa, the North African current, was demonstrated by the author
about twenty years since, and its analogy with the equatorial counter-current in the Pacific,
and also with a periodical easterly current in the Indian Ocean,

340 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Again, in August, 1854, about the same latitude and longitude, the current set is
110 miles N.N.E. in three days. Capt. Millet writes : — December 25, 1855, lat. 4°N.,
long. 29" W., have experienced an easterly current these last two days. 1 have
always noticed such along these latitudes, sometimes more to the northward thai,
this, and in lat. 1" N., and long. 44\

"We have here examples at opposite seasons of this current in the western crossing
of the Atlantic.

Ship James Brown (Captain C. W. Kerlin), January 12, 1856, lat. 8" 43' N..
long. 31° 37' W. ; current 20 miles East. 13th, lat. 5" 3*0' N., long. 30° 21' W. ; 28
miles East. Crossed the equator on the 16th, and experienced a north-westerly
current.

Ship Margaret Mitchell, January 23, 1854, lat. 4" 36' N., long- 22° 25' W.j 13 miles
E. by S. 24th, lat. 3" 1' N., long 22° 30' W., S. by E. 20 miles.

Ship Gravina (Capt. C. Spraguc), March 4, 1S55, lat. 2° 48' N., long. 26° 46 W. ;
S. 34° E., 17 miles. 6th. lat. 1" 22' N., long. 27° 43' W., 12 miles N. by E.

Barque Eylantinc (Gleason), April 7, 1855, lat. IP 28' N., long. 24° 25 W.j current
setting to eastward, though the ship was steering S. by AV. \ W.

Ship Mary L. Sutton (P. E. Rowland), April 24, 1856, lat. 16° 4' N., long. 33' 30'
West; current E. 45 miles. 25th, lat. 12 e 40' N., long. 32° 32' W. ; East 10 miles.
26th, lat, 9 1 22' N., long. 31 c 20' W. ; East 10 miles. (This is more to the northward
than usual.)

Ship Aetos (D. McLaughlin), May 18, 1856, lat. 5° 43' N., long. 24° 44' W. ; 24
miles E. by N. 19th, lat. 3° 39' N., long. 24* 44' W. ; 14 miles E.N.E. 20th, lat.
2° 56' N., long. 24° 0' W., 15 miles E.N.E. 21st, lat. 2° 16' N., long. 23° 34' W. ; 15
miles E.N.E. 22nd, lat. I" 20' N., long. 25° 15' W. ; 10 miles N.E.

Ship Edwin Flye (W. Flye), June 27, 1856, lat. 5° 38' N., long. 26° 17 W. ;
N. 8° E., rate 1-2 mile per hour. 28th, lat. 4° 5' N., long. 27° 29' W. ; N. 18° E., 1
mile per hour. 29th, lat. 3° 52' N., long. 25° 12' W. ; N. 22* E., rate 1-3 mile per
hour.

Ship Panther (X. G. Weeks), August 19th, 1854, lat. V 57 N., long. 25' 54' W. ;
24 miles E. by S. 20th, lat. 6° 55' N., long. 23 c 28' W. ; N.E. £ E., 48 miles. 21st,
lat. 5° 41' N., long. 20 3 30' W., 48 miles N.E. by E. £ E. 22nd, lat. 4* 56' N., long.
18° 7' W.; E. by N., 1-2 miles per hour. 23rd, lat. 2° 41' N., long. 20° 4' W. ; 1 mile
per hour S.E. by S.

Barque Mea (B. Buxton) August 27, 1849, lat. 5° 57' N., long. 19° 32 W. ; half .
knot N.E. 28th, lat. 4* 12' N., long. 17° 33' W. ; half knot N.E. 29th, lat. 4° 0' N.,
long. 19° 47' W. ; 6 miles E.N.E.

Brig Director (Capt, Skinner writes : — " You perceive that 1 had a strong current
between lat. 7° and 5° N. on Sept. 7 — 10. Not getting an observation for four days, I
found the brig nearly 3 e farther East than I expected ; whether I had it in one, two,
three, or the fourth day, I cannot say, but suppose I had some each day. I Avas
speaking with several captains, and they say that they have always found a strong
current about them going to the eastward."

Captain Maury adds — " An eastwardly current is often found North of the line in
summer and fall ; and at those seasons it may be counted on with some degree of
certainty." (This refers to thG western crossing of the equator recommended by
Captain Maury.)

Ship Flying Dutchman (A. Hubbard), October 12, 1854, lat. 8' 55' N., long
40 3 52' W. — " I notice for the last two days (from lat. 11° IS') the lines of agitated
waters, previously noticed, appear all to run nearly E.N.E. and W.S.W., and follow
each other at regular intervals of some 4 or 5 miles ; the motion of the waves run-
ning at right angles to the line of rip. October 14, lat. 6 1 46' N., long. 39° 4' W. ;
current East, I knot. 15th, lat, 6° 50' N., long. 37 3 26' YV. ; current East 1£ knot.
One year ago last July I experienced a similar current in the same latitude, but some

TEE GUINEA CUEEENT. 341

10° farther East. October 16th. lat. 6° 49' N., long. 36' 25' W. ; current East 1 J
knot. 17th, lat. 6 C 29' N., long. 35° 18' W. ; current S. 89° E., 2 knots. 18th, lat.
5" 59' N., long. 35° 19' W. ; current East, northing 1£ knot. 19th, lat. 5° 4a' N..
long. 33° 33' W. ; current East, southerly 1± knot, slight current rips. Oct. 20, no
current. All these days generally calm, or light variable airs."

Ship Raven (J. Crocking), Oct. 27, 1855, lat. 6° 18' N., long. 26° 50' W. ; current
N.E. 1 mile. 28th, lat. 5° 24° N., long. 29' 50' W. ; current N.E. 1 mile. 20th, lat.
5° 10' N., long. 30° 1' W. ; current N.E. 2 miles. 30th, lat. 4' 40' N., long. W 0' W. ;
N.E. 2 miles.

Ship Robert ratten (G. S. Paine), Oct. 30th, 1856, lat. 10° 14' N., long. 33' 50' W.j
" tremendous tide rips, the strongest I ever saw." October 31, lat. 8° 26' N., long.
32° 28' W. ; current changes to eastward \ knot per hour.

Ship Scaryo (N. dwell), Oct. 4, 1856, lat. 6° 53' N., long. 25° 13' W. ; 24 miles
East. 5th, lat. 6° 25' N., long. 24' 42' W. ; 18 miles E. by S. 6th, lat. 5' 36' N.,
long. 21° W. ; 18 miles E. by S. 7th, lat. 4' 48' N., long. 23° 29' W. ; 18 miles
E. by S.

Schooner Thomas A. Ward (J. D. Hoff), October 12, 1855, lat. 6° 5' N„ long.
27° 40' West ; the last twenty-four hours have been the most calm that I ever saw,
not a breath from any quarter, and a terrible rolling sea. We drifted S.E. 35
miles.

Ship Colorado (Richer), November 1, 1855, lat. 5° 51' N., long. 21° 54' W. ; cur-
rent 20 miles S.E- 2nd, lat. 5° 22' N., long. 20' 55' W. ; 29 miles S.E.

Rarque Clara (E. Cook, jun.), December 9, 1854, lat. 6' 48' N., long. 26° 56' W. ;
1-3 knot per hour N. 35° E. 40th, lat. 6° 9' N., long. 27° 57' W. ; 1 knot. N. 62' E.
11th, lat. 6° 10' N., long. 26° 46' W. ; 08 knot N. 37 E.

The foregoing are the principal notices of the easterly current as recorded
in Capt. Maury's Sailing Directions, vol. ii., eighth edition, and, in fact, is
nearly all that is mentioned on currents, as but very few, if any, of tho
abbtract logs quoted in that work mentioned any westerly or other currents,
tho only exception being that in some very few cases a notherly set is
noticed. Besides this, there is frequent mention of current or tide rips,
often of a very formidable character, denoting great activity and change in
the currents of this troublesome region.

(193.) One of the most remarkable examples of this easterly current
recorded, and one which unmistakeably demonstrates its existence and
activity, was encountered by John Alexander Mann Esq., F.E.G.S. and
F.E.A.S.* He left Cayenne in French Guiana, in the brigantine Monte
Christo, 120 tons, bound for Paranahyba, on July 26, 1862, the day of tho
new moon ; the wind blowing from the East. A direct northerly course was
steered until the 30th, when the ship was in 7° N., and the log, by dead
reckoning, was the same as Cayenne, i.e. 52° 14'. On August 7th, spoko
the Austrian brig Iiarita, which gave longitude 27° 24' ; that of the dead
reckoning of the Monte Christo gave 42° 14', so that the vessel had been
drifted nine hundred miles to the eastward, and for eight consecutive days she
had been drifted 3| knots an hour to the E.S.E. There was a great doubt
as tothe accuracy of the longitude, but at noon of the 15th, in lat. 0° 45' S.,
they spoke to a Dutch brig, which gave the longitude as 27° 8', while tho

* See Proceedings of tho Royal Geographical Society, Vol. VII., 1863, page? 50, 51.
N. A. O. 2 Y

342 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

D.R. placed thorn in 44° 0', which, compared with the position on the 7th,
shows that they were drifted 120 miles further to the eastward. In fact,
had tho ship been left to the current, it would have soon reached the African
coast, having drifted 1,020 miles in 20 days.

Throughout tho remainder of tho voyage, which lasted 14 days longer,
the same current was experienced. Tho captain of the Loyal, which arrived
some days after, abandoned his chronometer from the same cause, believing
it to be out of order. Afterwards, in sailing from Surinam to Cayenne, in
the Alecton, French man-of-war steamer, Mr. Mann met with the same
phenomenon.

(194.) These facts are very important, in connection with the westerly
crossing of the Equator, which has been strenuously advocated, and tho
influence of this powerful current, which appears to have much constancy
during the northern summer months, may have much to do with the
readiness with which vessels, having reached too far to the westward,
contrive to weather the eastern extremity of Brasil. This will be adverted
to hereafter.

(195.) The easterly current thus passing across the Atlantic strikes tho
coast of Africa about Sierra Leone and the coast of Liberia. Of course,
when near the shore, it assumes its direction to tho S.E., and runs with
great velocity. As is shown by the Chart of the Currents, at page 312, its
mean annual velocity is between 14.1 miles and 26.5 miles per day, strongest
in the summer months.

Its mean direction off Cape Palmas and Cape Coast Castle is E. 12° N.,
and its calculated velocity from Major Rennel's and Maury's observations
is — for January, 17*4 miles to 27'6 miles; February, 26 miles to 32 miles;
April, 11 "5 miles to 33*7 miles; May, 22-7 miles to 36 miles; June, 30
miles; July, 18-2 miles; August, 15-7 miles to 26*4 miles per day. Theso
are from the records of 75 observations.

(196.) It southern edge appears to bo in about 2h° to 2° N. up to the
head of Bight, and as the southern streams set in an opposite direction, they
are serviceable in mating a return passage as presently explained.

Tho temperature of the Guinea current is high, and demonstrates its
equatorial origin, although the branch of it which comes from tho northward
past Cape Verde has probably a lower temperature as coming from a higher
latitude. The equatorial current to the southward of the Guinea current is
also of a lower temperature, coming direct along the African coast from
the southern polar regions. The mean summer temperature is about 78°,
but in our winter and autumn months it is higher, being from 82-6° to 83°
as a mean, and sometimes it is found higher than this.

(197.) LT.M.S. Challenger, in crossing this current, made the following ob-
servations on the temperature of the sea at different depths. From the Capo
Verde Islands, 300 miles West of Cape Verde, her track was in a general
south-easterly direction for 88 miles to a position 150 miles S.S.W. of Sierra
Leone; thence, in the next two days, she proceeded to a position 160 miles
to the S.S.W., or 310 miles from Sierra Leone. The date of this passage
was August 10th to 21st.

THE GUINEA CURRENT.

343

Temperature Observations, in degrees (Fahrenheit), by H.M.S. Challenger, while
crossing the Guinea Current in August, 1873.

Position

of Ship.

£
ti %,

-M

*\-#

°|M1W

mHMJl

-US'

~n>

Ci t*

CO ■*

CO (N

CN CI

■-i-tco

col-?-*

-o

r-t CN

i-H (M

i-H CN

1-1 cN

1-1 CN

OS rH

CO rH

l "

US ,-H

CO rH

At the S

if Face , .

athcirn

65|

—

59"

62i

—

100

571

200

54±

48i

48}

49i

300

43"

400

500

1000

—

1500

—

■" "■

■

The above table, it must be remembered, refers to the time of year at
which tho Guinea Current is at its greatest power. Subsequently, in re-
turning home, the Challenger, in the passage from Ascension to the Capo
Verdes, in April, 1876, found the surface temperature in lat. 2° 30' S. to bo
82A° ; in 0° 15' S., 81£°. In lat. 3° N., long. 15° W., 300 miles S.W. of
Capo Mesurado, the temperature was 83' on the surface, in the same position
in which a temperature of 78° only was found in August, but the warm wator
did not penetrate to so great a depth. At 50 fathom3, 65° was found in
August, but only 59° in April. Sir Wyville Thomson remarks — "Whero
the rate of the current is highest, we have as usual a rapid fall in tho tem-
perature below the surface. This is caused by the cooler water rising to
supply the placo of the hot surface water, which is being rapidly drifted and
evaporated away."

(198.) At the distance of about 59 leagues South of Cape Palinas (long.
7f° W.) the outer border of the Guinea current sets to the East; and tho
same directions of it continues to a similar distance South of Capo Three
Points (long. 2° W.) ; we thence, at 2° North of the Line, find it take a moio
northerly course, toward the Bight of Benin and tho Bight of Biafra ; in tho
latter it mixes with the waters of the South African Current, which, coming
from the South, sets thence to the North and N. W., and both, uniting, form
a head in the bight. From this bight and southward of the Equator the
currents thus blended set to the S.W., W.N.W., and N.W. in orw ex-
panding and uniting stream, which greatly facilitates the passage of ships
from Fernando Po to Sierra Leone.

The prevalence of the Harmattan wind, which has been described (p. 22«),
must interrupt the course of this current ; but its existence, at other times,
nearly as described, has long been confirmed, and is incontestable.

(199.) Near Cape Mount the current sets in toward the shore as alove

314 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

stated. The ship Charles, a French whaler, in 1833, was wrecked on tho
coast of Liberia, in about 30 leagues to tho S.E. of Cape Mesurado, probably
on the reefs near the Eiver Sestros. This vessel had left the port of Havre
for the fishery near Tristan da Cunha, in the Southern Ocean, but the captain,
intending to run along the coast beyond Capo Palmas, in tho hope of falling
in with whales, unfortunately lost his reckoning, by being deprived, for
forty-eight hours, of all means of taking observations ; and was moving at
the estimated rate of 7 miles an hour, when he found himslf close on shore
in the midst of breakers, which in the course of the night forced him on the
reef, and dashed the ship to pieces. The captain and crew got safe to land,
but were soon stripped by the blacks, and the captain himself left without
covering. In this condition they made their way along the shore to tho
N.W., until they reached Cape Mesurado, where they were received with
all kindness by the colonial agent of Liberia, who sent them in a small
government schooner to the Isle of Groree. The catastrophe is evidently attri-
butable to this easterly current.

On the western side of Cape Palmas it sets along shore with such force to
the S.E., that ships which do not steer a point nearer than the true course
will be carried from the land. About Cape Three Points, likewise, the stream
runs strongly to the eastward, and frequently sets directly in upon the reefs
about that cape. Eastward of this cape the current has carried many ex-
perienced mariners, bound to Cape Coast or Annamaboe, to leeward of those
ports, and occasioned much trouble, with delay, in beating up again. About
Terra Formosa, in July and August, the current has also been found to set
strongly to the eastward.*

Thus far, we have given a general description of this remarkable current.
"What follows is from tho Board of Trade Monthly Analysis, 1872, with which
is incorporated further information gained from a study of Captain Toynbee's
work on the Meteorology of the Area included between lat. 20° N. and 10°
S., and long. 10° to 40° W., published by the Meteorological Office in 1876.
See the Diagrams illustrating the Best Monthly Routes across the Equator.

(200.) The observations on the western portion of the Guinea Current are
neither as complete nor as numerous as might be wished, nevertheless they
lead to the conclusion that from the 20th meridian westward this current
undergoes periodical changes. We shall make this evident from a tabular
statement of the information yielded by the charts, illustrating the above-
mentioned works : —

* In the Derrofero tie las Antillas the following remarks aro said to have heen found
among the papers of the deceased Admiral Don Josef Varela. " At Prince's Island, and in
its vicinity, the waters generally run to the North, which circumstance ought to be kipt in
mind in making the island, and steering for the anchorage. There are also currents to
the South, but they aro not so strong, or of so long duration. The pilots of the place say
that the currents depend on the phases of the moon, but wo found that they were irregular."
From this we may infer that there is some irregularity in the outset or revolving current ;
for which consequently, every precaution should be taken.

TDE GUINEA CURRENT.

343

Guinea Current.

Chart.

Commences in —

On 20th meridian flows
between latitudes —

50° W. S° N.
2.5 G
26 10
28 13
25 (i
35 2
30 G
42 G
45 7
37P 8

3° and 10 5 N.

2 „ 10
*4 „ 12

4 „ 12

April

2 „ 12

°, 10
3 „ 8

July

4 „ 1 2
4 „ 15

3 .. 14

,50? 7 3 „ 10

30 6 3 „ 10

23 5 *3 .. 10

It thus appears that the Guinea Current has its maximum extent in
August, reaching to 45° W., and occupying 11° on the meridian of 20° W. ;
and having its minimum extent in December, attaining long. 23° W., and
having a width of only 7° on the meridian of 20° W. From December to
August it is extending its longitude westward and widening northward ; and
from August to February it is losing its extension westward, and its northern
limit is retreating southward again.

(201.) In January the Guinea Current appears to originate about long.
25° W., lat. 6° N. ; at long. 20° W. it extends from lat. 2° to 1(T N. Here
it is joined by the North African Current, which checks its tendency to the
northward, and the united waters flow eastward along the coast of Guinea,
being traceable nearly to Fernando To. From its origin to Cape Palmas its
rate is from 10 to 15 miles per day, but off this cape it acquires a greater
velocity, ranging from 13 to 35 miles per day, which it maintains until it
reaches the meridian of 5° E. The southern limit of this current is probably
about lat. 2° N., but observations are here wanting.

In February it commences in long. 25° W., lat. 10° N., but is seldom felt
so far West. From the 20th meridian it is well defined up to Fernando Po,
trending southward to St. Thomas, its southern limit being about lat. 2° N.
From 20° to 10° W. it has a rate of about 10 to 20 miles in the 24 hours,
and seems to be occasionally reversed, from 7° to 0° W. ; its rate has been
observed to be as much as 44 miles, though this can hardly be usual ; further
eastward the rate varies from 13 to 24 miles. An eddy current is indicated
in the Bight of Benin.

In March the Guinea Current can be traced from lat. 13° N., long. 28° W.
At first it appears as a weak current having a rate of 5 to 10 miles in the 24
hours ; but near the African coast, and in about the region of 2° N. and 18° W.,
its velocity increares to 20, 30, and 40 miles, the strongest current being
marked on its southern limit.

* During February and December frequent westerly currents have also been reported
here.

346 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CUERENTS.

In April it commences in about 6° N. 25° W., and rapidly widens till it
oxtends from 8° N. to 2° N. on the 20th meridian, with a rate of 12 to 23
miles. It maintains about tho same rate to long. 8° W. Between 5° and
0° W. its rate is from 26 to 30 miles ; further eastward it loses strength, and
oither dies out in the vicinity of Fernando Po, or is deflected southward,
and drawn in with the Equatorial Current. The current has been observed
to run strongly to tho southward in lat. 12° N., 28° "W.

In May it seems to be felt at times as far West as 35° W.. about lat. 2° to
5° N. In 30° W. it is farther North, and on the 20th mcridim it lies be-
tween lat. 3° and 10° N. Along this route its rate is from la to 33 miles. As
it nears the African coast it is felt at times as a northerly current, probably
influenced by the wind. Here, too, its rate is from 12 to 13 miles. In the
Gulf of Guinea it is easterly, the rates varying from 16 to 45 miles.

In June the Guinea Current probably commences about lat. 6° N., long.
30° "W. Thence it spreads northward and southward, so that when it crosses
the 20th meridian its width is from lat. 3° to 8° N. Its rate thus far is from
15 to 20 miles. Between 20° and 25° W. the North African current is run-
ning strongly to the southward between lat. 8° and 18° N. The southern
portion of the Guinea Current finds its way, but with coniderablo northing,
into the Gulf of Guinea. Here its rate is strong, from 16 to 36 miles, and
it appears to be confined within narrow limits of latitude. A counter cur-
rent has been observed in the Bight of Biafra. Captain Toynbee remarks :
" The easterly current on the coast of Africa has become stronger since May.
Perhaps this may be accounted for by the fact that the N.E. Trade extends
much further North than in the winter, drawing more water off Africa,
whilst there avo fewer westerly gales in the North to heap water against
Africa, hence the deficiency must be made up by an increased easterly cur-
rent near to the Equator. It will be seen that it does increase in amount,
and becomes more north-easterly near the coast of Africa as the summer
advances.

In July it is indicated about 6° N. and 42° W., if the observations here
are trustworthy. Observations are wanting to the eastward till it crosses
the 35th meridian, between lat. T and 11° N. In long. 20° W. it extends
from 4° to 12° N., its rate being from 15 to 20 miles a day. A portion of
its waters is turned to the N.W. by the coast about lat. 10° N., and passes
to the northward past Cape Verde, but the main current passes into the Gulf
of Guinea, attaining a rate of 28 miles. Between the meridians of 10° W.
and 0° there are no observations of this current, but it is shown eastward,
between the coast and lat. 2" N., where its rate is from 32 to 11 miles. Al-
though tho western limit of this current is not well defined, the data show
that its rate and extent are remarkable.

In August the Guinea Current is indicated between lat. 8° and 10° N., in
long. -15° W., and from 40° to 30° W. there are but few observations. It
appears, however, to be running at a velocity of from 15 to 20 miles an hour
in thi-3 region to the southward and northward of East. At 30° W. it ex.
tends from 5° to 12° N. latitude, and at 20' W. from lat. 4° to 15° N. At this
part it.3 rate is between 10 and 25 miles per day. Farther eastward it is
stronger, and off Sierra Leone has a velocity of 50 miles, with direction

THE SARGASSO SEA. 347

northward of East. Abreast Capo Verde it neutralises tho North African
Current.

In September it can be traced to 37° W. longitude. In long. 30° "W. it ex-
tends from 5° to 10° N. latitude ; in 20° W., from 3° to 14" N., and its rate
is from 8 to 32 miles. It maintains about tho same rate in the Gulf of
Guinea, where its southern limit is about lat. 1° or 2° N. Its velocity is in-
creased to 30 and 40 miles in the 24 hours in rounding tho Coast of Liberia.
It appears to neutralise the North African Current in about lat. 1 2° N. 3
southward of Capo Verde.

In October it has been noticed in 50° W., between 5° and 10° N. Thence
to 30° "W. there are only a few observations. At 30° W. it extends from 6°
to 10° N., and at 20° "W. from 3° to 10° N. Both the rate and set are varia-
ble, though the general tendency towards Africa is evident. Between 15°
and 20° W., and 4° and 8° N., it appears as a strong current, with a velocity
of 30 to 40 miles in the 24 hours. In the Gulf of Guinea its rate is greater,
but nowhere exceeds 23 miles. Tho isotherm of 80", in lat. 3° N., seems to
mark the border of this current.

In November it cannot be traced farther than 32° W. At 30° W. it ex-
tends from about 4° to 10° N , and at 20° W. from 3" to 10° N. It appears
to be now losing strength and regularity. From 20' to 10° W. tho observa-
tions are deficient in number. Off the S. W. Coast of Africa it runs more to
the southward of East than in previous months, indicating the effect of tho
westerly winds North of the N.E. trade, driving water against Africa, which
runs to the southward. In tho Gulf of Guinea it is also feeble and unset-
tled as to direction.

In December the Guinea Current is indicated in 23° \V., latitude 4" to
0° N. The set is irregular, and tho rate feeble, from 11 to 14 miles. It
has contracted in breadth since November. At longitude 18° W., its
breadth is probably from 3° to 10° N. latitudo. Thence to longitudo
10° W. observations are wanted. The current has been observed far to tlie
westward in this month, in one or two instances between lat. 6° and 8° N.,
and long. 35° and 40° W., and also in 47° W. and 5° N. In tho Gulf of
Guinea it flows between tho coast and lat. 2^° N., at a rate varying from
20 to 30 miles.

4.- THE SARGASSO SEA.

(202.) The central portion of the Atlantic, which is comprised between the
Trade wind and Anti-trado wind systems (19), p. 182, also bounded on the
South by the westerly drifts of the Trade winds, and to the North by tho
easterly current, presently described, appears to be in a different physical
condition to the other portions of the Atlantic Ocean, and indeed from any
other portion of the globe.

Its apparently chief characteristic is well expressed by the name now
usually applied to it — the Sargasso, or Weedy Sea. The well-known gulf-
weed, which is found more or less over its whole area, seems to be quite

318 OBSERVATIONS ON TIIE CURRENTS.

peculiar to it. There may bo a somewhat analogous physical conditions in
tho North Pacific, but this is not so easily defined. This gulf-weed is con-
stantly found, in greater or less quantity, scattered over its whole area, and
when it is found in places not its usual habitat, it may be safely inferred that
it has drifted out of this extensive area by the action of the current.*

(203.) It is very difficult to define the limits within which this gulf-weed
is found. It is more than probable that the fluctuations of the season greatly
affects them, as it does the limits of the Trade winds and intervening calms,
the more particularly as it is to the varying currents caused by these winds
that the weed is retained in its locality. Consequently we may look for its
North and South boundaries more to the southward during the northern
winter months, and the reverse during the summer. The tropic, or about
the parallel of 23° N., may be its southern edge in the longitude of the
Azores, from whence this limit extends to the Virgin Islands and the Ba-
hamas. Its northern edge runs from the Azores to the outer edge of the
Gulf Stream off Cape Hatteras. It is not so abundant to the westward of
the meridian of the Azores. This will give a breadth of 1,000 miles in its
eastern part, and a length of 3,000 miles from East to West. As before
stated, its limits may change greatly at different times, but it may always
be looked for within this area, that is between the southern edge of the
Gulf Stream and the northern limit of the Equatorial Current.

(204.) There has been much speculation as to the causes and conditions
which have made and retained this peculiar area in its integrity.

Major Rennell says : — It has been observed that tho waters of the Atlantic
have a greater tendency toward the middle of the ocean than otherwise, and
this seems to indicate a reduced level, forming a kind of hollow space or
depressed surface. It is certain that the sotting of the currents is such as
might be expected to take place if such a hollow existed ; for the currents
do really set into the Sargasso Sea from the North and from the South ;
whilst in the middle part, although within the region of the Trade wind, tho
currents are not regular, but indicate a kind of vortex, f

By others it is considered as an immense eddy or whirlpool, formed by tho
inclination of the water to the westward, caused by the influence of the Trade
winds and the Gulf Stream.

Others, again, argue that it is a raised surface, maintained in a quiescent
condition by the surrounding currents, and retaining all that is poured into
it by the surrounding influences.

It is also considered as the grand receptacle of the Gulf Stream, which,
recurving at the Azores here, turns into this spaco all that it has transported
through its long course.

All these theories have some facts to bear them up in some degree, but
others can be adduced to show their futility.

(205.) It is here urged that a simple explanation can be given of this

• A good account of this weedy sea, which is called by the French " Mer de Varec'h,"
by Capt. Leps, of the French navy, is given in the "Annales Hydrographiques," 1857,
p. 565, &c. As tho conclusions thus arrived at entirely accord with the particulars given
in this volume, it has not been thought necessary to (juuto from it.

t Eennell's "Investigation," p. 72.

THE SARGASSO SEA. 349

curious region, in the analogous condition of the atmosphere, so powerful
an agent in the production or alteration of ocean drifts and currents.

By referring to Maury's Trade Wind Charts, cited on page 195 (34), it
will be seen that there is an uncertainty about meeting with tho northern
edge of the N.E. trade-winds through an extent of at least 10° of latitude;
add to this the vibration of this zone of trade-winds consequent on the motion
of the sun in the Ecliptic, which amounts to from 5° to 8° in latitude, as
exemplified in the diagram of the limits of tho trade-winds at page 196, we
have a range of 15° to 18° of latitude over which, during some portion of
the year, and over a large section of it throughout the year, that there is
nothing but light airs and variable winds, being, in fact, the "horse lati-
tudes," see page 229 (73 to 77).

Under this zone, therefore, the sea is subject to no continued or regular
drift, and consequently whatever is thrown on to its surface will remain for
a long time, and the Sargasso, or gulf-weed, being one of the few marine
plants which lives when broken from its rocky bed, it may exist here for a
very long period, and thus accumulate by the fresh additions constantly
making by the outer or eastern edge of the Gulf Stream, as well as that
drifted around the northern part of the Atlantic, and passing with the S.E.
current by the Azores (328) into this quiescent zone. That the Gulf Stream
is the primary feeder to this weedy sea will be shown presently.

(206.) There is another condition also which favours the maintenance and
growth of this peculiar plant. The temperature of this water is very equable,
le3s warm than that under the more vertical sun, and not varying more than
6° or 7° Fahr. throughout the year in the eastern part, or 8° or 9° in the
western part. This temperature is, as said, lower than that of the southern
part of the great equatorial streams to the South of it, but it is higher than
that of the current, which sets S.E. and S. between the Azores and Spain,
and lower than that of the surface of the Gulf of Mexico and the early
course of the Gulf Stream. It may, therefore, be considered that it ap-
proximates to the water-climate of the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico, that of
the sea around the Bahamas, &c, where it is known that this weed grows
naturally.

(207.) The Sargasso, ov gulf-weed, which is its peculiar characteristic, is one
of the few plants, aquatic or terrestrial, which will live and flourish when
separated from its native stem. Its appearance is too well known to require
any detail. The sea was called Sargagao by the early Portuguese navigators,
from the weed bearing berries like grapes, "sarga." This term has thus
been corrupted into Sargasso, and been applied to the plant itself instead of
the place it grows on. There are more than one species of it known to
botanists, as sargassum valgare, &c. It is frequently called fucus natans —
floating sea- weed ; and is known to sailors as gulf-weed, that famous stream
being always more or less marked with it.

(208.) There are several species of the sargassum, distinguished by the
form of the leaves and the fructification. These different species are more
or less abundant in different localities.

The old story of Columbus, who had much difficulty with his men, when
they declared that even the sea changed its nature into terrestrial to pre-
W. A. 0. 2 Z

350 OBSERVATIONS ON TIIE CURRENTS.

vont his proceeding on his discovery voyage to America, has been oft re-
peated.

The sea is commonly studded over, like an inundated meadow, with the
bushes, which are in some places very abundant, and in others more dis-
persed. " If we could imagine the surface of a wide extended moor, covered
with water, the furze and heath bushes would appear something like the
clusters of fucus scattered over the thickest part of this sea."

The fructification of all sea-weeds is peculiar, but they require a fixed
basis to vegetate. Although apparently flourishing in vast areas in this
Sargasso Sea, they can only be looked on as cut flowers rather than as com-
plete plants, although their constitution enables them to live a long period
without being fixed to their parent rock like most other alga). They are
found in every state of decay, and when old they become covered with minute
and beautiful parasitic growths, which deserve much attention to those who
have the leisure and taste to examine them, especially with the microscope,
which in this region reveals a vast and little known world. Besides this,
too, the tufts afford protection and shelter to a vast quantity and variety of
minute fishes, crabs, and other Crustacea and aninialcula), which will afford
an inexhaustible fund of interest to the observer. Naturally enough, there
is a limit to its sepai'ato existence, and when subjected to any change of
temperature, or difference of locality unsuitable, by a continuous wind or
current, large areas become decayed, die, and sink to the bottom, to be
renewed by the continual fresh importations from tho Gulf of Mexico.

It is sometimes drifted on to the shores of the British Isles and Western
Europe, and appears among the other sea-weeds in the works on algology,
but it is accepted as a shipwrecked stranger, not as a native of our bhores.

(209.) The Gulf of Mexico abounds with the native growths of the Sar-
gasso weed. It is found attached to the rocks, at the bottom, in most parts
of it. The soundings on the Campeche Bank, Chiriqui, the Andros Islands,
on the Bahama Banks, New Providence, &c, all furnish the supply of grow-
ing plants. The spores (or seeds) of these become attached to these rocks
in the manner usual with all alga), and the young plant grows, not from a
root, because the attachment to the rock is not of that nature, till it attains
some size, when offering greater resistance to the progress of the continual
current than the stalk is able to bear, it becomes detached, rises to the
surface, and then is borne onward by the stream till it emerges through the
Gulf of Florida by the Gulf Stream. As will be shown hereafter, this stream
has a tendency to throw all floating bodies off to the right-hand of its course, it
follows, that this weed is gradually cast off into this central area, aided proba-
bly by the westerly prevalence of the winds which at times occur in this part.

One opinion may be safely controverted, that which assigns the depths of
the Atlantic over which it is found as its native place. The great depth and
consequent cold disproving the possibility of a plant living in such extremes
of temperature.

(210.)— H. M.S. Challenger, in crossing the Sargasso Sea (June 14th to
July 1st, 1873), found the current variable, both in strength and direction;
in 63° W. 19 m. N.E. ; in 59° W. 12 m. N.E. ; in 53° W. 6 m. S.S.E. ; in
50£° W. 17 m. E. by N. ; in 49° W. 18 m. N.N.E. ; in 45° W. 6 m. West ;
in 42° W. 22 m. N.W.;in38°W. 27m.N.; in36°W. 4 m. North; in35°W.

the sargasso sea. 351

16 m. E.S.E., and in 32° W. 8 m. S.W. The depth westward of 38° W. was
between 2,000 and 3,000 fathoms, with a bottom of oaze, and with no signs
of weed, disproving entirely the idea of some naturalists that the weed grows
in this locality. Eastward of 38° W., the depth varied from 1,675 to 1,000
fathoms. The temperatures of the sea surface were greater in the western
part of the district 73£% than in the eastern, where it was generally found to
be about 71°, at 100 fathoms the temperature was about 66°, at 500 fathoms
about 48£, and at 1,000 fathoms about 37|° Fahrenheit.

"The floating islands of the gulf-weed, with which we had become very
familiar as we had now nearly made the circuit of the ' Sargasso Sea,' are
usually from a couple of feet to two or three yards in diameter, sometimes
much larger ; we have seen on one or two occasions fields several acres in
extent, and such expanses are probably more frequent nearer the centre of
its area of distribution. The general effect of a number of such fields and
patches of weed, in abrupt and yet harmonious contrast with the lanes of
intense indigo which separate them, is very pleasing. These floating islands
have inhabitants peculiar to them, and I know of no more perfect ex-
ample of protective resemblance than that which is shown in the gulf-weed
fauna." — Sir Wyville Thomson.

(211.) Captain Andrew Livingston, on his way from New Orleans to the
Strait of Florida, saw large quantities of it ; and every one who has navi-
gated the Gulf Stream has remarked the weed in it, or along its borders.
Sir Philip Broke and the Baron Alexander von Humboldt say that the
stream contains a great deal. Sir Philip says, " "We were always surrounded
with gulf-weed." Major Rennell adds, " He spoke of that part of the Gulf
Stream out in the Atlantic ; the others might speak of other parts."

In the second volume of the Colombian Navigator," 1818, p. 220, is a
description of the Andros Isles, as lately surveyed, and it is there shown,
that in the groat sponging district, upon the Bahama Bank, West of Andros,
vast quantities of the gulf-weed are produced ; and this is one of the beds
from which the ocean has been supplied.

On the wood found in the ocean, we have the following remarks, by
Captain Livingston, whose name has so frequently occurred in the preceding
pages : —

"Many persons supposo that the gulf-weed (fucus nutans) grows upon the
rocks about the Bermudas ; others, that it originates among the Florida
Reefs ; and a third party, that it grows upon the water, without ever
adhering to anything fixed.

" All these positions seem to me equally wide of truth. Neither on the
Bermuda Pocks, nor among the Florida Peefs, has a single branch of gulf-
weed ever been found growing upon the rocks ; and, among all the gulf-weed
met on the ocean, no person has ever found a single tuft with roots, or that,
on mature examination, could be supposed, by any person of sound judg-
ment, to have grown on the surface of the water. On the contrary, every
stalk of the weed seems to have been broken off short from something to
which it firmly grew, and all the ends of these stalks are uniformly decayed,
or dried up, from the end to a short distance.

" It has been stated* as a well-known fact, that the fucns natans grows on
the rocks along the Gulf of Paria, and on the coasts of Caraccas, &c. l£

352 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

this be tho case, it is rather strange that it should not rather grow on other
rocks and coasts of tho West Indies. It has also been stated, that in tho
whole sea of floating bushes, Mar do Sargasso, not a withered plant is ever
discovered. This is not true, as I have seen abundance oifucus nutans in a
state of great decay. I note the following from my journal of the Brilliant,
from Gibraltar towards Havanna : 8th February, 1819, 'the weed much
decayed;' 9th, a.m., 'weed passed through, much decayed;' 10th, p.m.,
' passed through much decayed weed ; I remark, that the further we run to
the westward, the more decayed is tho gulf-weed;' 13th, 'the gulf-weed
begins to look fresher.'*

" These particulars have been given in order to show that I have not
spoken at random ; on the contrary, actually made my remarks on the spot.
Some of the weed was quite brown, and in small fragments, evidently
separated into such by its state of decay. It is true, that the weed soon
decays when it is taken out of the water, as I have often tried the experi-
ment. The weed is never of a verdant green colour, but seems as if blanched
from having been, in some degree, hid from light ; I suppose from vege-
tating under water."

(212.) Mr. Turner, and many other botanists, thought that the greater part
of the fuci (weeds) which we gather on the surface of the ocean, and which,
from the 23rd to the 35th degree of latitude, appear to the mariner like a
vast inundated meadow, grow primitively at the bottom of the ocean, and
float only in their ripened state, when they are torn off by the motion of tho
waves.

"The causes that unroot these weeds, at depths where it is generally
thought the sea is slightly agitated, are not sufficiently known. It has been
said, that if the fucus adhere to the rocks with the greatest firmness before
the display of its fructification, it separates with great facility after this
period, or during the season which suspends its vegetation, like that of the
terrestrial plants. The fish and the molluscs that gnaw the stems of the
sea-weeds no doubt contribute also to detach them from their roots.

" On proceeding hence, toward the West Indies, from the 22nd degree of
latitude, we found the surface of the sea covered with flying fish, which
threw themselves up into the air 12, 15, or 18 feet high, and fell down on
the deck. I do not hesitate to speak of an object, of which voyagers dis-
course as frequently as of dolphins, sharks, sea-sickness, and the phospho-
rescence of tho ocean. None of these objects can fail of affording interest-
ing observations to those who make them their study."

(213.) Captain Bourke, in the brig Archibald, December, 1815, found lai'go
quantities of tho weed near the parallel of 20°, to the northward of the
Island Porto Ilico, and of the eastern part of Hayti ; but on the passage
through tho Bahama Channel, eastward of the meridian of 70°, and on the

* On the 8th of February, the Brilliant wag in 24 a 17' N. and Go 3 1' W. On the 9th, in
24 34°' N. and 66° 59' W. On the 10th, in 24° 51' N. and 68' 39' W. On the 12th, in
25° 34' N. and 71° 5' W. On the 9th, the ship passed the meridian of Turto Rico, and was
hence proceeding toward Providence Channel, Bahama. The decayed weed, we have no
doubt, had drifted from the central area of the ocean. — Ed.

THE SARGASSO SEA. 353

North sides of Hayti and Cuba, none of the weed was seen. This may be
accounted for on the supposition that it was drifted by the current from the
great bed of weed to the N.E., as before explained.

Lieut. John Evans, R.N., states: — " In November, 1810, H.M.S. Belvedere,
in the centre of the Atlantic, lat. 33° 20', long. 41° 37', passed through pro-
digious quantities of fucus nutans, in line North and South, as far as the eye
could see ; and, notwithstanding that there prevailed a very heavy swell
from the North, their position was not altered. The quantity of this weed
met with between the 30th and 36th degrees of latitude is really astonish-
ing ; at times you may sail for leagues through it, covering, as a mantle,
the surface of the sea. I have often seen it in lines about 300 or 400
fathoms in length (sometimes only a few yards), and frequently in large and
small patches of irregular shape, but generally in a circular form. The
deep-sea line should be put over the side frequently in this particular part of
the Atlantic.

On the 17th April, 1828, at noon, in the Mexican Sea, a vessel under the
command of Lieut. John Evans was in lat. 26° 52', long. 89° 17'. On this
day fucus nutans, or gulf-weed, was seen, in parallel lines, S.S.E. and N.N.W.
It was in flower, and completely covered with young barnacles. " From the
lat. 25° to 28° in this sea we met with fucus in parallel lines S.S.E. and
N.N.W. ; it flowers like fern and other eryptogamia. In calms the fiici float
near the surface, some of the leaves appearing above water ; the patches seen
in the Florida Stream, and the bunches examined, were old, brown, and
covered with young barnacles."

In the year 1825 the brig Erin, from the Pacific Ocean to Liverpool, when
to the westward of the Azores, passed compact parallels of fucus nutans, in
lat. 39° 59', long. 33° 46'. The weed was less broken than any they had
before seen ; the nodules large and of a deep yellow-brown colour, and tho
lines extending, as far as the eye could reach, in a direction about S. by E.,
being nearly at right angles with the vessel's line, which was E. by N. The
wind was 8 E. by S., strong gales and a heavy sea.

(214.) The fucus nutans is found in localities to the eastward of the Sar-
gasso Sea. For the following communication we are indebted to the lato
Captain Thomas Mirfgley, and it is a great acquisition to our knowledge of tho
wide range that this plant has : —

" On my outward passage to Africa, in a perfect calm, at daylight on tho
morning of the 18th of January, 1841, in lat. 6° 46' N., long. 14° 56' W., I
found the ship amongst a number of small bunches of weed, and many
cuttle-fish shells.

" On carefully examining some of the bunches of weed, I wa3 surprised
to find it the true fucus nutans, or Sargasso or gulf-weed, being in cveiy
respect precisely the same as that found in the N.E. trades, but apparently
much fresher, having exactly the same kind of oblong, narrow, serrated leaf,
same stem, same nodules, and just the same pale yellow colour. Tho pods
were also surrounded with a very fine kind of network (flustra), and thero
were a very few minute barnacles attached to the stem, which scarcely
showed any marks of decay ; indeed, the two bunches brought on board
(which were each about 4 inches in diameter) appeared to have becu but

354 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

very recently separated from the parent stem, and they each contained a
small but very lively crab.

" The lively fresh appearance of the weed, and the two crabs, induced mo
to try for soundings, and, as the weather was perfectly calm and the water
smooth, I was enabled to get a perpendicular cast of 112 fathoms, with a
well-armed heavy lead, but found no bottom.

" The weed was in detached and small bunches, and could only have ex-
tended over a comparative limited space ; for when a breeze of wind sprang
up, and the vessel had sailed 20 miles to the eastward, there was not a single
sprig or bunch to be seen.

" This weed appears to be unknown upon the Krou coast, for I had two
intelligent natives of Sangwin and Grand Sestros on board at the time I
picked the weed up, and they severally declared they had never seen it upon
any part of the coast.

"The vessel had been perfectly becalmed for fourteen hours previous and
two hours subsequent to the time of picking up the weed, so that she gra-
dually drifted amongst it by a current, which I found, by good observations
and carefully-kept reckoning, to set E. by S. by compass, very nearly three-
quarters of a mile per hour. Temperature of water, when weed was picked
up at daylight, 79', and at noon, 81° Fahrenheit, "

(It had evidently been drifted out of the area by the current described
on page 339. Its not being known further East is probably owing to tho
difference of temperature of the sea, which kills the weed before it arrives
there.)

(215.) Mr. Luceock, in his "Notes on Brasil," has likewise described tho
Green or Weedy Sea. He states that it extends from 11° to 35° of North
latitude, and from 30° of longitude to an indefinite distance westward.
" Here," he says, " the ocean is covered by nodules of sea-weed, from 3 to
18 inches in diameter, somewhat resembling in form a cauliflower when
stripped of its leaves. They float lightly on the water, in parallel lines, at
a very few yards from each other, and have a yellow-brown colour, like the
long stringy fibre which is sometimes seen floating in the English Channel,
and which I suppose to be the natural colour of all marine plants, growing
deeply beneath the surface of the water. These nodules, or spherules, are
composed of a vast number of small branches, about half an inch long,
which shoot from each other at an angle of about 40° ; hence they multiply
continually towards the superficies of the sphere ; and each extreme point
produces a round seed-vessel. This is little more than one-tenth part of an
inch in diameter, is hollow, and contains a small reddish-brown seed, scarcely
occupying one-fifth part of the husk. The leaf of the plant springs from the
joints of the branches, is oblong, indented at the edges, about 1£ inches
long, and a quarter of an inch broad.

" When the nodule is dexterously taken up, all the branches may be
traced to one principal stalk ; and this invariably shows a fracture, the part
by which it has been joined to some larger stem. This fracture is frequently
quite fresh, and, in large and vigorous plants, shows distinctly a woody part
and a cortex. On the edges of the latter, the first symptoms of decay appear.
They become brown, and separate themselves from the wood. This, also,
then assumes a darker colour, and exhibits the regular process of disorgani-

THE SARGASSO SEA. 855

sation, just in the same manner as does a slip from a currant or gooseberry
bush. In process of time, the whole of the plant assumes a darker hue ■
and, as it decaps, floats considerably lower than it did. When kept out of
the water for a few hours, it becomes harsh and brown, and acquires the
peculiar smell of marine vegetables in a state of putrefaction.

" A great number of very minute barnacles are found upon the leaves and
stalks. The seed-pod is usually enveloped in a sort of honeycomb work
which may be taken from it, and, when examined by a lens, resembles in
appearance the network of a fly's eye. (This is called flu&tra.) Among
other inhabitants of the plant is frequently a number of small crabs, per-
fectly formed, and evidently young, yet vigorous and active; and when a
nodule, taken fresh from the water at night, is hung up in a small cabin, it
emits phosphorescent light enough to render objects visible.

"The singular arrangement of the plants, in parallel lines, is evidently
owing to the wind, whose direction they always observe. Each nodule places
itself under the lee of its more windward neighbour, and thus observes the
law of floating bodies when exposed to a current of air. Should the wind
suddenly change, as it sometimes does, a point or two, in this part of the
Atlantic, and blow strong, these lines become broken, and form what are
commonly called fields of weed. These, however, are generally small, and
seldom, I suspect, remain long so disarranged.

5.— THE NOETH EQUATOEIAL CUERENT.

(216.) The name which is usually given to the great drifts of the Trade
winds, having as wide a range or latitude as 50° or 60°, is scarcely expres-
sive. The Equatorial Current, strictly speaking, is the counter-current we
have just described. However, the drift which is intended passes to the
S.W. and W. of the Azores and Canaries, and from the Coast of Africa to
the Gulf of Mexico, northward of the easterly counter-current in the North
Atlantic ; while the great drift of the S.E. Trade wind, crossing the Equator
southward of the counter- current, and running strongly to the N.N.W ,
along the coast of Guayana, join its strengh to the northern portion, and
thus, together, passes through the Caribbean Sea.

The drift of the N.E. trade is not so powerful as that of the S.E. trade,
as the interference of the land causes such a great change in the regularity
of the winds which certainly must be taken as the greatest cause in the
production of these currents. In general it is a very feeble current, and the
mean rate has been over estimated in former times by many observers. In
its northern limits in the open ocean its annual average, from a careful cal-
culation, amounts to from 8-2 miles to 11-6 miles per day ; in its southern
and stronger portion it is from 16 to 22*4 miles per day. "Westward of tho
Cape Verde Islands, its mean direction is nearly due West, which is
remarkable, considering the northing of the Trade wind. It would seem
scarcely necessary to enlarge much upon the rate and extent of this well-
known current; but, aa it may be interesting to compare individua

356 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

experience with that of preceding voyages, we give as heretofore a series
of examples by which the ordinary rate and circumstances may be
reckoned on.

(217.) H.M.S. Challenger (Feb. 15th— March 14th, 1873), in crossing the
Atlantic directly botween the Canary Islands and Sombrero, the northern
extreme of the Caribbeo Islands, found the current to flow as indicated in
the current chart, p. 313, the velocities however were greater in places. In
long. 19° W. the current flowed to the S. by W. at a rate of 10 miles in the
24 hours ; in 22° W. 9 miles S.S.W. ; in 25° W. 13 or 14 miles W. by S. ;
in 31° W. 10 miles W.S.W. ; in 33° W. 21 miles W.S.W. ; in 35° W. 14
miles W.S.W. ; in 37° W. 8 miles W.S.W. ; between 39° and 42° W. 11 or
12 miles W.S.W. ; between 42° and 45° W. 16 miles W. by S. ; in long. 46£
W. 12 miles S.S.W. ; in 48^° W. 11 miles W.N.W. ; in 51° W. 7 miles
W.S.W. ; in 53 e W. 4 miles W.S.W. ; in 54° W. 18 miles West; in 55£ W.
15 miles W.S.W. ; in 57£° W. 16 miles West ; in 69£° W. 16 miles W.S.W. ;
in 62° W. (70 miles N.N.E., from Barbuda) 10 miles N.W., and off Som-
brero 7 miles W.N.W.

The wind observed was about N.E. between the Canary Islands and 35°
W., thence East with a little South in it as the Caribbee Islands were
approached.

The temperature of the sea surface was 64° Fahrenheit at the Canary's,
and increased as the voyage proceeded to 75° at Sombrero. A temperature
of about 46J° was found right across, at a depth of about 500 fathoms, and
at 1000 fathoms the temperature varied from 37° to 39°. Bottom tempera-
ture 34° to 36.

(218.) As it would be beyond the scope of this work to give a series of
monthly charts, like those published by our Meteorological Office, although
they are very interesting and most important, our remarks must be limited
to those verbal extracts from that work, such as has been given previously.

The Westerly Drift."' — Under this name are included the currents of the
vast central expanse of the North Atlantic, bounded on the East by the
North African Current, on the South by the Guinea Current, on the West
by the chain of the West India Islands, and the northerly and north-
easterly portion of the Gulf Stream, on the North by the easterly part of
the Gulf Stream, and passing beyond the chart in 40° N. The westerly set
may be considered to commence at the 30th meridian. From lat. 1° N., as
its mean southern limit, to the parallel of 20° N., the set is more constant
and steadier than it is farther northward. Indeed, as the latitude increases
the regularity of the set and the rate decrease. Here the latter averages
from 12 to 24 miles a day, and this part of the drift enters the Caribbean
sea with the equatorial current. Between the parallels of 20° and 25° N.
the drift averages from 8 to 12 miles, and can be traced to about long. 63° W.
From 25° to 30° N. the set is irregular, and the rate from 4 to 1 miles,
traceable also to longitude 63° W. Between 30° and 40° N. the set is so
irregular in direction and feeble in force as to lead to the conclusion that
here the true westerly wind does not exist.

* By this term it is to be understood that what we call the North Equatorial Current or
Drift i« meant.

THE NORTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT. 357

From lat. 3G° N., long. 65« W., to the Bahamas, along the right edge of
the Gulf Strep ra, we find evidence of a counter current setting to the S.W.
then to the South, at about 12 miles a day; and about lat. 28° N., long.
78° W., turning to the S.E., in conformity with the contour of the Bahamas
Shoals. This south-easterly current is probably periodical, and seems at
times to extend to long. 63° W,, in lat. 34° N., its greatest rate not exceed-
ing 15 miles a day. About long. 64° W. from lat. 20° to 27° N. there is a
feeble northerly set, but not supported by many observations.

(219.) In January the westerly drift of the North Equatorial Current
seems confined to the torrid zone, and to vary from 6 to 24 miles per day.
There are indications of an easterly drift in lat. 23° N. Farther North the
observations are deficient and conflicting, but indicate a drift to the south-
ward of West.

In the Mediterranean Sea, between long. 0° to 10° E., the inward set from
the Atlantic appears to be exhausted ; probably the currents here depend on
the winds.

In February the vast central area of the Atlantic appears to have variable
currents, judging from the very few observations recorded for February.
The westerly drift of the tropics, if it exists at all, must be very feeble, not
averaging more than 8 or 12 miles daily. Between lat. 30° and 37° N.,
long. 42° to 65° W., the drift seems to be northerly, but the observations are
not numerous. See however the remarks relating to H.M.S. Challenger,
p. 356.

In March it does not appear to extend beyond 25° N. latitude. Between
27° and 55° W. observations fairly represent the general westerly set, while
they give its rate at from 6 to 35 miles; it has its greatest rates in lat. 5° N.
In April the westerly drift may be said to extend to 30° N. The observa-
tions differ greatly as to the rate, though they agree in indicating greater
strength in the lower latitudes. In mid-ocean, between 30° and 40° N., the
directions are variable, and the rates feeble.

In May, North of the Equatorial Current to lat. 30° N., and from 25° W.,
to the West Indies, the general movement of the ocean seems to be to the
westward, at a rate of from 6 to 1 8 miles. In the western portion of this
region observations are, as usual, deficient.

In June it appears in mid-ocean and towards the Bahamas. It does not
extend northward of 30° N. The rates are various, and the observations
are altogether scanty, as they are for July, August, and September.

In October it is badly represented. The Mediterranean easterly current is
well shown, but there is no indication of an inset from the Atlantic, probably '
from a deficiency of observations there.

In November it exhibits a decided set to the southward between 25° and
30° N, and 40° to 60° W.

In December the westerly drift seems to maintain its usual gentle flow, but
from lat. 20° to 40° N., long. 40° to 70° W , there is scarcely any data.

(220.) In the work (before mentioned in a note in 203) by Captain

Toynbee, a very full discussion of the direction and strength of the current

between 10' S. and 20° N., and from long. 10° to 40° W. is given. Any

verbal description of this work would give but a poor idea of its utility, and

N. a. o. 3a

358

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

it has been thought best to give the information in the diagrams relating to
the Best Monthly Routes across the Equator, given hereafter, to which
therefore the reader is referred.

(221.) It will be scarcely necessary to recapitulate the evidence upon which
the mean rate was set down in the chart of the Atlantic Ocean, before
referred to (see (34) p. 195), The General Chart of the Currents, at p. 313,
will with the foregoing remarks, fully explain this part 'of the subject. As
the current is well established, we need not extract the numerous observa-
tions given by Captain Maury, as they almost all tend to the same conclusion.
But the drift of bottles is so marked an evidence, that we give a number of
instances which will be very instructive.

(222.) Bottles. — The following have been selected from Captain Becher's
list, explaining his bottle chart in the "Nautical Magazine," of November,
1852. It has been before quoted from (166), page 313 :-~

Signature.

Where left.

Where found.

1— 1

CO .
CJ 05

S3 [3

6hip.

Latitude
N.

Long.
W.

ft.

"3
P3

1833
1822
1828
1825
1836
1837
1836
1820
1838
1820
1822
1824
1851
1843
1826
1820
1842
1836
1850
1850
1852
1848
1835
1835
1835

28-4
13-3
27-4
24-0
17-9
17-3
14-5

4-1
14-1

5-2

6-2
22
24-7
19-2
C. Verde.
C. Verde.
14-5
14-5

1-1
12-4

0-5 S.

5-2

8-6

1-3
11-5

25-5
39-2
28-0
19-0
29-0
36-6
34-4
24-3
25-2
24-7
15-6
53'5
30-4
30-8
Ids.
Ids.
34-4
34-4
26-8
26-1
22'6
40-3
52-0
47-8
61-5

Cuba

Grenadines ....
Martinique ....

San Salvador . .
Turks Island . .

Crooked Island. .
Hayti

506

216
437
519
265
190
278
139
169
322
192
226
300
375
3S2
2S3
277
278
307
186
155
151
35
50
17

2750
2010
2530
3300
4C00
1410
2460
2220
2110
2300
2920
1200
2300
2250
2800
2610
2100
1700
3800
3610
2430
1320

610
1000

240

5-4
12-1

Robertson . .
Creswell ..
Liddell ....
Belcher ....

5-8
6 3

Echo

15-1

7-1

8-9

16-

William Lockerby

Parker ....

12-4
71

15-2

C. McCarthy ....

Field

Cunningham
Kuper ....

57
7-0
6-

7-1

Thorn ....
Rey

Collinson . .
McCluro . .
Messum ....

9-9,

Martinique ....

Ambergris K. . .
Martinique ....

St. Vincent ....

7-6

10'3

20-

15-6

8 7

17-4

20-

14-

The mean rate of travelling of all these bottles is 10-6 miles per day. But this
average requires several qualifications which will make it considerably higher. The
distances are measured direct, but it is most probable that these messengers pursued
a more or less devious course. Again, it will be seen that the bottles thrown out on
the northern part of this trade-wind drift have travelled much slower to their desti-
nation than those which started from near the equator.

(223.) Besides the above, we add the following examples of bottle drifts from our
former editions.

Central Drift to the Virgin Isles.— A bottle from the- Emerald, Captain Nockells,

THE NOETH EQUATOEIAL CUEEENT. 359

ibound to Jamaica, 17th December, 1831, in lat. 36° 40', long., by chron., 12° 32'.
Found on the North side of Anegada, 8th January, 1833. The winds for the last
three days, previous to the 17th of December, were from North and N.W. to S.W.
For eight days preceding these it blew a continued and heavy gale from S.W. and
W.N.W.; the barque lying-to the whole time, and drifting from lat. 41° 28' 227 miles
to the northward.

Equatorial Current to Tobago. — A bottle from the schooner Julia. William
Davidson, master, in lat. 6° N., and long. 40° W., Nov. 6, 1821. Found 7th of March,
1822, near the shore of Little Rocky Bay, Tobago.

Central Drift and Equatorial Currents. — A bottle from the ship Gambia, in the
River Gambia, lat. 13£° N., in the latter part of 1831. Picked up on the southern
side of Virgin Gorda, lat. 18° 30'.

Central Drift and Equatorial Currents. — A bottle from the Two Brothers, of
Baltimore, in lat. 17° N., long. 26° W. (off St. Antonio), 21st of November, 1826.
Found at Acklin's or South Crooked Island, in lat. 22° 12' N., long. 74° 18', on the
8th of December, 1827. Hence it appears to have drifted, in a W. by N. direction,
from the vicinity of the Cape Verde Isles to the West Indies, under influence of the
drift from the N.E. and the Equatorial Current, probably, in the first instance,
W.S.W. and thence W.N.W.

Madeira to the West Indies. — A bottle from the ship Symmetry, of Scarborough,
Capt. Smith, on her way from Leith to Buenos Ayres, off Madeira, 9th of June, 1825.
Picked up at Salt Kay, Turks' Islands, after a lapse of ten years, 9th of June, 1835.

Cape Verde Islands to Brasil. — The Hazard, of Greenock, August 4, 1812, lost the
N.E. trade, in lat. 11° N., long 25° W. ; and the wind, under the 12th, varied from
West to S.W.; from the 12th to the 17th it generally blew from South, never ex-
ceeding one point easterly. Gained the S.E. trade on the 17th, in lat. 2° N. long.
27° 30' W.; the trade kept southward between Penedo de S. Pedro, or St. Paul's
Islets, and the coast of Brasil (at Rio Doce), and experienced a westerly current
amounting to nearly four degrees. Attested by Captain J. W. Monteath.

Between Madeira and Brasil. — In the Jane, Captain Livingston, April and May,
1824, found a surplus effects of currents, between Madeira and Brasilian Trinidad in
thirty-nine days, equal to 1° 19' 47" S., and 6° 3' W.

(224.) The foregoing is a sufficient elucidation of the features, velocity,
and limits of the N.E. trade-wind drift of the Atlantic, but as has been
before mentioned, particularly in (39 to 45), pages 198—202, the division
between the northern and southern systems of wind, and consequently of
current, being to the northward of the equator, the South Equatorial Current
enters the Caribbean Sea, and increases the force of the Gulf Stream.

THE SOUTH EQTIATOEIAL CUEEENT.

The South Equatorial Current, which passes over the equator in its
northern portion, in its direction is, like that of the Northern Equatorial
Current, nearly due "West. Setting upon the northern coast of South
America, it runs with great velocity close in-shore at times, sometimes
reaching 100 miles per day, and not unusually 60 miles. It is scarcely
necessary to dilate on this current, as it appears to be regularly and con-
stantly met with. Its progress through the Caribbean Sea, &c, will be

360 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

dealt with in the next section. For an idea of its strength and direction in
the equatorial region, between the longitudes of 10° and 40° W., the reader
is referred to the diagrams illustrating the Best monthly Routes across the
Equator.

(225.) It will be seen that, throughout the breadth of this ocean, the set
of the stream is not to S.W. or N.W., as might be expected from the direc-
tion of the trade-winds, which may be taken as the prime mover of these
mighty drifts, but westward.

This fact would seem to indicate that the rotation of the earth on its axis
has more to do with its motion than has usually been attributed to it. But
our present knowledge of the subject is not sufficiently extensive or accurate
to define what amount of action is due to that source, or how much to the
wind, lunar influences, or temperature, all of which combine to produce the
phenomena we are considering. Theoretical speculations, however, are not
necessary in a practical work, although they may be interesting.

(226.) Arrived at the barrier formed by the line of the Antillas, a largo
portion of the stroam is necessarily arrested, the remainder pouring through
the openings, which, between Barbuda and Trinidad, are not in the aggre-
gate 230 miles in width, or not one-half of the range. From this, or other
causes, the westerly drift through the Caribbean Sea is not so persistent,
probably, as it is in the ocean to the eastward, as will be presently de-
scribed.

(227.) H.M.S. Challenger (in August 21st, September 6th, 1873) crossed
the South Equatorial Current from lat. 3° 25' N., long. 15° W., 420 miles
W.S.W. from Cape Palmas, to Cape San Roque ; visiting on the way St.
Paul's Rocks and Fernando Noronha. She found the currents much as repre-
sented in the illustrative diagram, page 313, but having generally a greater
velocity ; thus, in lat. 3° 25' N., long. 15° W., the current flowed 9 miles to
W.S.W. in the twenty-four hours. Thence she steered direct for St. Paul's
Rocks, and in long. 17° 30' W., found the current setting 23 miles to the
N.W. in twenty-four hours ; in long. 20° W., 20 miles W.N.W. ; in 22° 30'
W., 17 miles N.W. ; in 24° 30' W., 26 miles W.N.W. ; in 26° 30', 21 miles
W. by N. ; in 29° W. (50 miles E.N.E. from St. Paul's Rocks) the high
velocity of 39 miles to W. by N. was found ; at 70 miles S.W. of St. Paul's
Rocks, 29 miles W.N.W. ; midway between St. Paul's Rocks and Fernando
Noronha, 25 miles S.W. (South-West); near Fernando Noronha, 21 miles
West ; at 60 miles S.W. of Fernando Noronha, 27 miles N.W. ; at 90 miles
East of Cape San Roque, 30 miles W.N.W. ; and on the coast of Brazil the
currents were generally found flowing to the N.W. and W. as far as 15° S.

Tho wind at the commencement of this passage blew from the S S.E., but
afterwards came more from the eastward. At Capo San Roque its direction
was from the S.E. Varying force from 3 to 5 (Beaufort Scale, see p. 176).
Tho temperature of the surface water observed in this passage varied from
77° to 78°. At a depth of 10 fathoms in the eastern and central part of the
region traversed, the temperature of the water was 78°, while near St.
Paul's Rocks at this depth it was only 77°, and near Fernando Noronha only
75°. At 50 fathoms, in the central part of the district, it was 62° to 63°,
and in the western 67°. At 100 fathoms the temperatures were from 55" to
67% and at 1,000 fathoms 36° to 37°. The higher temperature at 50 fathoms

THE SOUTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT. 361

in tho western than, in the eastern part of the district, seems to indicate the
banking up of the warm water to the westward by the prevalent wind.

(228.) On this current the following is extracted from Mr. R. Strachan's
remarks in the Meteorological Report, 1872 : —

The South Equatorial Current commences on the African coast, and seems
to extend at times as far as to 3° N. lat., though more commonly here
it is not found beyond 1° N. To the first meridian its rate is from 12 to 17
miles. It now extends generally to lat. 3° N., and maintains this limit to
long. 25° W., during a course nearly "West of over 1,500 miles, at rates
changing from 26 to 12 miles per day. It now has a tendency to the N.W.,
and attains lat. 6° or 7° N., and as a general result, maintains this limit until
it reaches the coast of Brazil. Near the equator the mean rate is less than
24 miles per day, and this becomes lower as the latitude increases, so that
in lat. 5° N. its velocity is less than 18 miles. For nearly 300 miles from
the coast of Brasil and Guiana the direction of the current is affected by the
land. Off Brasil, the rate is from 62 to 37 miles per day ; off Guiana, it is
from 31 to 24 miles. Having passed the 50th meridian, the northern edge
of the equatorial merges with the westerly drift, though in some months
this is effected in longitudes more to the eastward, even so far as the meri-
dian of 25° W.

The westerly current, which enters the Caribbean Sea, has a rate of 37 to
46 miles North of Trinidad, but the rate decreases as the latitude increases,
and in lat. 17° N. it is only 12 miles a day. In this sea the westerly current
averages about 20 miles a day. The mean velocity of the Yucatan current
is 34 miles, but it flows Into the Gulf of Mexico, towards N. W. by N., with
a velocity of 41 miles; and at times the current seems to be carried right
across the gulf. To the North and East there is no escape for it, owing to
the Gulf Stream ; hence the check felt in issuing from the Yucatan Channel
boars it off to the westward, but not until it has attained its maximum
strength in about lat. 23° N., long. 86° W.

There are times, probably, when the Yucatan current is weaker than the
Gulf Stream, then a counter current, an overflow from the Gulf Stream,
flows round Cape Antonio towards the Isla de Pinos.

The waters of the Equatorial find a passage westward and northward
round the Gulf of Mexico, and they keep up a well-defined movement of its
water. Probably, in about lat. 27° N., long. 90° W., a considerable portion
of tho Equatorial Current which passed through the Yucatr.n Channel finds
its way into the Gulf Stream. Hereabouts it would appear that the currents
are intricate, and difficult to ascertain by a day's run, from their conflicting
influence upon the ship's course.

(229.) Of the currents in the vicinity of Anegada and Virgin Islands, SirRobt.
Schomburgk says : —

" It is well known that the tropical current, caused by the earth's rotation,
sets to the westward, and its grand movement in these latitudes is directed
through the Caribbean Sea ; but it is probable that a branch of it, turned
aside by tho north-eastern coast of South America, sweeps along the Carib-
bean Islands to the N.W. till it reaches the Bahamas ; and it is this branch
which at present attracts my particular attention, and in proof of the ex-
istence of which I adduce the following remarks : — -

3G2 OBSEEVATIONS ON THE CUEEENTS.

" Yessols bound from America to the West Indies, and chiefly to St.
Thomas's, frequently find themselves to the North of the Virgin Islands ;
and this deviation from their intended course has proved but too often fatal,
having brought them on the reefs of Anegada when they thought themselves
far to the southward of that dangerous island. Nor can repeated occur-
rences like these be attributed exclusively to errors in the observations for
determining the latitude, or to false reckoning."

The American brig William and Thomas left New York 28th of October,
1829 ; made Bermuda on the seventh day after her departure, when, contrary'
winds retarding her course, land was discovered in the morning of November
15th. According to reckoning, it was supposed to be St. Martin's, but it
was fortunately known, on approaching, to be Virgin Gorda, or probably, in
the night, the vessel would have gone on the reefs of Anegada.

The English brig Francis, bound from Nassau, in New Providence, to
Trinidad, cloudy weather having precluded an observation for several days,
was supposed to be far distant from Anegada ; but making land in the
evening, supposed to be St. Martin's, was wrecked at eleven p.m. on tho
reefs of Anegada.* 4

The American brig Lewis, bound from Philadelphia to St. Thomas's and
Maracaybo, and supposed on the day previous to be on the parallel of St.
Thomas's, was wrecked on the south-eastern reef of Anegada, 9th of April,
1831.

During his continuance at Anegada, Sir Eobert Schomburgk acquired
additional proofs of the existence of a north-westerly current. He found on
the south-eastern reef several buoys with tyer (coir) ropes attached to them,
which appeared to come from St. Martin's. On the 24th of September, 1831,
after a severe gale, two buoys were found on the same reef, which had pro-
bably been attached to anchors on some ground to the S.E.

On sounding between Virgin Gorda and Anegada, Sir Eobt. Schomburgk
threw the log every thirty minutes, and, taking bearings of some remarkable
objects, the drift was found to be always westerly ; and the result appeared
to be the same whether the tides set North or South. On one day he left
his anchorage, and sailed 10 miles to the northward of Anegada, where the
boat was lowered, and rendered stationary by means of a kettle filled with
stones, it being then southern tide ; in spite of which the log was carried
N.W. by W. A similar experiment was made in the waters between Virgin
Gorda and Anegada, with the advantage of anchoring ; and the set was
always the same, the drift being nearly 1 knot.

The north-western or ebb tide between Anegada and Tortola is much
stronger than the flood to the S.E. ; undoubtedly from the circumstance that
tide and current work the same way.

On these circumstances Sir E. Schomburgk observes, that the wind, from
March to June, frequently blows from the South and S.E., and the velocity
of the N.W. current will be thus increased ; in consequence of which,
vessels bound during that time for these islands are more subject to error in
• f ' — — ■

* A great quantity of cork shavings are washed annually ashore on the North side
Of Anegada. They are drifted by the Equatorial Current from the coasts of Spain and
Portugal.

THE SOUTH EQUATOEIAL CURRENT. 363

their course than at any other period ; and lighter bodies being more in-
fluenced by the currents than heavier ones, may be taken as the specific
cause of the last remark.

An example of an extraordinary velocity on the northern edge of this
current is given by Capt. W. Code.

Capt. W. Code, ship Albion. — 1857, from August 5th, noon, lat. 0° 36' N.,
long. 43° 21' W., to 6th, noon, lat. 1° 51' N., long. 45° 59' W., experienced
a current of N. 72° W. 73 miles, although not the slightest rippling or
agitation of the sea was visible.

On the 7th, at noon, lat. 3° 50' N., long. 48° 40' W., the current was found
to have been N. 61° W. 108 miles. Surprising current; measured log
lines and log glasses which are correct, so there is no doubt that the current
has carried the ship the distance noted.

(230.) The Rollers, or Heavy Ground Swell, off the north-eastern portion
of the Antillas, which has from time to time produced so much mischief,
was first described by Sir R. H. Schomburgk, as shown in the Journal of the
Royal Geographical Society, 1835, and copious extracts from the same are
given in the third volume of the " Columbian Navigator," to which the
reader is referred for a complete explication of the subject.

The phenomenon appears to be caused by the meeting and combination of
the drift from the N.E., and the Equatorial Current from the S.E. or E.S.E.
It rises, rages, and subsides, says Sir R. H. Schomburgk, when the air is
calm, when there has been no indication whatever of a previous gale, or
even when light airs have, for a considerable period preceding, come from
the southward of East. The waves approach in gentle undulations, but
suddenly swell against the shore, and break with the greatest impetuosity.
The rise takes place sometimes gradually, but more frequently quite unex-
pectedly, the waves reaching an uncommon height.

A heavy "Ground Sea" is distinguished by something grand and sub-
lime. The sea approaches in undulating masses, which suddenly rise to
large ridges, crested with foam, and form billows that burst upon the beach
with the greatest impetuosity ; the spray flying, where the waves dash
against cliffs, often more than 100 feet high, attended with loud roarings
resembling thunder, which subside into a rumbling noise, caused by the
nodules and fragments of rock with which the breaker was charged when
advancing, which on its retreat roll backward, and are again driven forward
by the next surge. "Wave then follows upon wave in quick succession, there
being, apparently, only a short interval after the third. The sea, for many
miles from shore, assumes a peculiar aspect, different tints of blue, from the
lightest to the darkest, forming a strong contrast with the snowy foam of
the breaking waves, when they strike against a hidden rock, or with the
white line visible along the whole coast. The Eastern Bahamas, the north-
eastern coast of Jamaica and Hayti, but chiefly Porto-Rico and the Virgin
Islands, and, in a less degree, the Northern Caribbee Islands, are subjected
to this ground sea.

It may be considered as a rule that whenever the wind gets to the north-
ward of East for a day or two, there will be a ground sea on the northern side
of the islands. The friction of the wind on the surface of the water" causes
little elevations or ridges, which, by continuance of the force, gradually in-

364 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CUEEENTS.

crease, chiefly when the wind sweeps over a great extent of water. Finding
no resistence, and having sufficient depth to sink directly down, they pro-
ceed with the direction of the wind, and remain natural waves, until they
meet repercussion from dashing against the shore, when they rise to an
elevation much above their natural state.

The period when the ground sea sets in is generally October, and it con-
tinues, though with some intermission, till April and May. The wind ac-
companying or preceding a ground sea is, generally, from the East of North ;
the winds are, therefore, propelled, more or less, in a western as well as
southern direction, and the Bahamas, and even Bermuda, may escape, whilst
the islands from Barbadoes to Porto Eico, but more particularly the latter
and the Virgin Islands, receive its first impulse.

A. southern galo will likewise produce a heavy swell on the southern side
of these islands; and, during the gale of the 30th and 31st August, 1833,
this was folt with great violence on the southern shore. But generally
speaking, neither in force nor duration are these surges to be compared with
those of the northern side ; the group of the Virgin Islands being protected,
in this direction, by the Caribbean Islands or by the Colombian coasts, and
not exposed to the swell of the main ocean.

To one who crosses during a severe ground sea, from the southern side of
Tortola to the northern, where the breadth of the island is inconsiderable,
the singular spectacle is afforded of the sea, which on the southern sido is
perhaps " as smooth as glass," on the northern shore tossing, foaming, and
roaring, as if agitated by a severe gale. The effect is most curious, and if
it were not for the -warning that is heard long before the cause becomes
visible, one might fancy the wand of a magician in action.

The northern coast of Port Rico is subjected to a ground sea, of scarcely less
force, and which has had the same effect on its coast as that of the Virgin
Isles. The "Old English Pilot" observes, that the sea along the North
coast of Porto Eico " beats sometimes very ragingly." The force of the
waves that batter against the cliffs on which the More stands is amazing ;
and any observer will admit that the spray is sometimes carried more than
100 ft. high. It has been said that, several years ago, a brig, inconsequence
of carelessness, here became unmanageable, and was soon dashed to pieces
against the cliffs, but few of the crew escaping.

6,— THE CUEEENTS OF THE COLOMBIAN OE CAEIBBEAN SEA,
AND THE MEXICAN GULF.

(231.) "On the Colombian coast, from Trinidad to Cape la Vela, the
current sweeps the frontier islands, inclining something to tho South, ac-
cording to the straits which it comes from, and running about .1-1 mile an
hour, with little difference. Between the islands and the coast, acd par-
ticularly in the proximity of the latter, it has been remarked that tho current
at times runs to the West, and others to the East. From Cape la Vela tho
principal part of the current runs W.N.W. ; and, as it spreads, its velocity

CUEEENTS OF THE WEST INDIES. 865

diminishes. There is, however, a branch, which runs with the velocity of
about a mile an hour, directing itself toward the coast about Cartagena.
Eroni this point, and in the space of sea comprehended between 14° of
latitude and the coast, it has, however, been observed, that in the dry
season the current runs to the westward, and in the season of the rains, to
the eastward.

"On the Mosquito shore, and in the Bay of Honduras, no rule can be
given for the alterations of the current. All that can bo said is, at a good
distance from land, it has generally been found setting towards the N.W.

"In crossing from the coast, or from Cartagena, to the islands, it has been
discovered that from La Guayra to the eastern part of Hayti, on a voyage
made in December, a difference of 106 miles to the westward was found
during the seven days the voyage lasted." — Uerrotero de las Antillas.

(232.) The Baron Alexander von Humboldt, in describing his passage
from Curaana, westward, to La Guayra, aaid: — "The general motion of the
waters between the tropics toward the West is felt strongly on the coast
during two-thirds of the year only. In the months of September, October,
and November, the current often flows toward the Hast, for fifteen or twenty
days in succession. Vessels on their way from La Guayra to Port Cabello
have been known to be unable to stem the current that runs from West to
East, although they had the wind astern. The cause of these anomalies is
not yet discovered. The pilots think that they are the effect of some gales
of wind from the N.W. in the Gulf of Mexico ; yet these gales are much
more violent in spring than in autumn. It is also remarkable, that the
current to the East precedes the change of the wind. It begins to be felt,
at first, during a calm ; and, after some days, the wind itself follows the
current, and becomes fixed in the West." — Personal Narrative, vol. iii., page
378.

(233.) Captain C. S. Cochrane, E.N., in his Journal, March 16th, 1823,
says: — " In the afternoon we perceived high land through the haze, and
hauled up for it, wishing to make a point about 50 miles to the windward
of Santa Marta ; but, on getting in-shore, we found that we were 7 miles to
the leeward of that place, the current from the eastward having been running
for the last twenty-four hours upward of 2 knots an hour ; which agrees with
Baron Humboldt's account, that the current runs from \\ to 2 knots an
hour, according to the force of the wind and season of the year. The natives
gay, that the moon likewise has a considerable effect on this current, which,
at the changes of new and full, runs to the eastward for 24 hours.

"Here I must caution all captains of ships navigating on this line of
coast to allow for the current, in general, at least 1& knot per hour, on an
average, with an increase in proportion to the strength of the breeze, and an
abatement at the new and full moons ; otherwise, vessels heavily laden, over-
shooting their ports, may lose as much as three weeks by having to stand
away nearly to the Antillas before they can get sufficiently to windward to
gain the port they have missed ; and even men-of-war run a risk of carrying
away spars and masts in beating-up." — Vol. i., p. 52.

(234.) In the third volume of the " Colombian Navigator," 1839, may be
found "Remarks on the Currents of the Atlantic and West Indies, made by
n. A. o. 3n

366 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CUEEENTS.

Lieut. A. H. Bisschop Greevelink, in the Echo, a brig of the Dutch Eoyal
Navy, during four years of service, 1833 — 1837," and which describes the
route of that vessel from England to Surinam, in August and September,
1833. On the evening of the 13th of the month, the Echo, having arrived
in lat. 17° N., and long. 35° W., lost the trade-wind, and the wind then
shifted to the N.W., with a strong breeze; gloomy weather, and much rain,
during the twenty-four hours. The following day the wind, diminishing,
passed to the S.W. and S.S.E., and terminated in a calm; currents weak
and variable to the S.W. and eastward.

On the morning of the 16th, in lat. 14° 40', and long. 30° 20', a light
breeze sprung up from the S.E., and from that time till we reached the
coast we had to struggle with a never-ceasing variety of wind and weather,
continual rains with squalls, and scarce a day passing without lightning in
one or other quarter of the horizon. On the 18th we passed by several rip-
plings or eddies, being then in lat. 12°, and long. 39° 30' W. They usually
stretched from East to West, and were often seen to cover the whole surface,
everywhere boiling and bubbling as in a cauldron. Current always weak,
and during the last forty-eight hours to the West and W.N.W. at a rate of
half a mile an hour.

After losing the trade-wind we had to creep over more than 900 miles, as
the wind had left us, in every appearance, for ever ; the rains were copious
and continual in this space, and lightning was seen very frequently. On the
18th (lat. 11° 52', long. 39° 25'), we passed through a number of eddies;
and on the 24th (lat. 8° 3', long. 45° 37'), the first indication of a change in
the colour of the sea became visible ; yet it was slight, and may be attri-
buted to a branch of the northerly current observed in the succeeding day.
On the 27th (lat. 5° 52', long. 48° 38'), we received a gentle S.E. breeze,
which brought us, though slowly, toward the coast. In the night of the
28th (lat. 5' 7', long. 49° 56'), we crossed the edge of meeting currents from
the Ethiopic Ocean and Brasilian shore and from the Maranon ; after which
we entered the boundary of the tides. In the evening of Sept. 30th, came
to anchor in 5 J fathoms. In the night observed longitude by chronometer,
54° 11' 45".

Although we had not seen land since we lost sight of the Lizard, by which
to examine our timekeepers, I felt not the least doubt about their rate (the
one a Knebel, and the other a Parkinson and Frodsham), by their reciprocal
conformity, corroborated by any lunar observations (which, by-the-by, I
think are never to be neglected) ; and as I was desirous to obtain some
observations about the currents, so peculiarly remarkable in these seas, I
took every opportunity which circumstances allowed io satisfy my curiosity.

On the 22nd of September and subsequent days the ripplings became less
in number ; and on the 24th, in the afternoon, about the 8th degree of
latitude and 46th of longitudo, we perceived the first change in the colour of
the water from the common blue to a somewhat darker hue ; and, as this
was a somewhat uncommon case, I attributed it to a branch of current ob-
served the following day at noon, setting due North, at the rate of more than
a mile an hour, straight across a south-easterly current observed during the
preceding days, mingling the muddy waters of the Maranon and other rivers
with those of the ocean. Erom the 24th to the 28th nothing particular

QUERENTS OF THE WEST INDIES. 367

occurred ; we were always steering to the S.W. with light, variable winds,
and a continuance of rain sufficient to penetrate our very bones. Currents,
weak and changeable, being lastly observed to run N. by W. 18 miles in
twenty-four hours. This, at present, I call weak, being afterward accus-
tomed to fall in with a velocity of twice and thrice that number of miles
At noon we altered our course to W.S.W., being then in lat. 5° 7', and
long. 49° 45' 55".

In the night, however, having a lunar altitude, we were not a little sur->
prised at finding the ship thrown 35 miles to the northward of her supposed
situation, although I may say to have been prepared for this occurrence by
Captain Edward Sabine's relation in the "Memoir," whose track we were
crossing just then, in the same month.

At break of day we saw the water totally altered in colour, and thickly
mingled with mud, as if we were sailing in a flood of ochre ; hove the lead,
and found 45 fathoms, fine sand, white and black. At seven in the morn-
ing, by chronometric observations, I found the westerly offset 33' 38"; and
finally, at noon, in lat. 5° 21' 49", long. 51° 46' 15", it appeared evident that
the current, in the last twenty-four hours, had been running with the rapidity
of 67 miles to the N. 30° W. In the afternoon we perceived the land toward
the S.W. by S., being the Family Islands of Cayenne, and at the same time
we entered the boundary of the tides.

This, indeed, seems to confirm the opinion of those seamen who attribute
the principal strength of currents hereabout to the waters of the Maraiion,
&c, predominating over those of the ocean ; but this is to be admitted in a
partial degree only ; for, as operating on the general direction of the Equa-
torial Current, I esteem it as of no influence at all.

(235). The numerous voyages made by the Echo, in the West Indian
Seas, with a particular detail of each, more especially in regard to the
currents, are given in the volume above mentioned ; and from these voyages
and experiments the general inductions are, that between the Caribbee
Islands and the Coast of Guyana, in the months of August, September, and
October, the current veered to the northward of N.W., and in other months
more westerly, or even to the southward of West, as in November and
December, 1834; but we learn, also, that the greatest velocity of current
has been observed in August and September, when the Maranon is at its
lowest level, as well as in December and March, when this river begins to
increase, and attains its greatest height ; even on examining the details, in
order to discover any regularity in its force, we find an irregularity recon-
cileable only with that of the wind ; and, more generally, by applying the
theory of trade winds, and their influence upon the surface water of the
ocean.

After having once rebounded from the Brasilian coast, the United Equa-
torial and Ethiopic currents are again compelled to retire westward by the
influence of the S.E. trade wind (apparently, also by the disposition of the
waters in these regions to retire westward) ; and, although at pressing the
Maraiion, which disembogues towards the N.E., the combined current may
in some degree, according to its variable form and strength, derive an im-
pulse to the northward, yet it soon yields to the force of the N.E. trade

;5G8 observations on the currents.

wind, and the south-westerly drift thereby produced, which sets toward the
Caribbee Islands.

In proportion to the force and extent of these winds, the general current
(oward the shore of Guyana, as in December, 1835, and November and
December, 1834 ; or allowed to expand freely to the North, as in August,
September, and October ; even to the N.E., as in March, 1837, especially
when preceded by long and violent indraughts, and followed by calm
weather.

By the influence of the Maranon waters, the general current is prevented
from sweeping tho coast to the westward of Cape North ; as the stream of
this great, river, being unobstructed, seems to gather all its strength, and
force tho western boundary of that gigantic drift to an uncertain distance
from shore. Iu this manner we may account for the weak westerly current,
creeping along that part of the coast comprehended between the Maranon
and Gulf of Faria, called the region of the tides, and which is produced by
the remaining effluxion of the Maranon, confined between the western border
of the general current and the muddy banks of Guyana. It is incorrect to
fix this border in 9 fathoms of water, as I have found it in twice and thrice
that depth ; but, on the other hand, I think that if what has been supposed
by Admiral Cosmo de Churruca should ever again happen — I mean the
destroying of the Equatorial Current by the action of the rivers — the At-
lantic will be found of a whitish hue, so far as these currents shall reach,
because their thick muddy waters never mingle with those of the ocean until
they have been subdued by, and are at rest with, them.*

The direction of currents in the Atlantic is reconcileable with the force and
direction of the trade wind, but not without exceptions ; because the height
of the water-level in the Caribbean Sea will sometimes baffle every calcula-
tion both within and without the range of islands, as shown indubitably by
experiments founded, not only upon the method of ascertaining currents at
sea, but also within sight of land, and observations made on shore along the
coasts. It has also been found that during calm weather, even with strong
easterly winds, the currents have sometimes been running for days together
to the eastward, especially in the latter parts of January and July, when, by
the then prevailing strong winds, the water is heaped up in a very uncommon
degree, and the iuner part of the Caribbean Sea, most probably overcharged,
succeeds in re-establishing its equilibrium by forsaking the power of its
wrathful driver. In this manner, I think, we ought to reconcile those cir-
cumstances mentioned by that illustrious Spanish commander.

In the Caribbean Sea the force and direction of currents are more distinctly
modified by the direction of the wind. With continual light winds and
smooth water tho currents are generally weak, augmenting only in propor-
tion to the increasing wind. This may serve as a proof that, among other

* Tho great force of the Maranon current was observed by Captain W. Code, in the
ship Albion. He says:— On Octobor 8th, 1857, at noon, lat. 6° 14' N., long. 50' 1' W.,
current N. 18 miles. This current must bo caused from tho waters of the River Maranon.
Tho water is not salt, merely brackish tasto, the sea boiling and making a great noise,
which I have found seldom to occur when tho currents aro strong. — "Meteorological
Report," 1872, p. 80).

CURRENTS OF THE WEST INDIES. 369

less perceptible causes, under which they are governed here, wind is the
most powerful agent ; for the indraught through the channels appears
plainly to proceed from the force and extent of the trade winds. In this
sea, from the Windward Islands westward, to 72° of longitude, the general
direction of currents, observed during our four years' cruize, was N.W. and
westerly ; the weakest in October, November, April, and May, the strongest
in December, January, February, and March, along the coast of Venezuela,
and in July and August in the northern parts ; but, in general, so much
always depended on the force of the wind, that, with few exceptions, almost
every voyage was affected by a force of current corresponding to that of the pre-
vailing wind.

(236.) Extracts from the Journals of Lieutenant Greevelink. — "In
January, 1834, the Echo, in crossing the Caribbean Sea, from Curagao to
windward, experienced a drift of 40 miles to the West, and escaped only by
running straight for the coast of Hayti, beating to windward along that and
the coast of Porto Rico, with the best success, and even assisted by weak
easterly currents when near the shore. Wind from the E.N.E. sometimes
blowing a gale ; but, when sheltered by the land, the water was tolerably
smooth.

" In December, 1836, the Echo, then on her passage from Surinam to Cura-
cao, with sharp breezes, found the current sweeping through the channel
between Tobago and Granada; and, further on, along the Leeward Islands,
with a velocity of more than 2 miles an hour to the W. by N. ; but, in
October, 1836, on the same route, with light wind and calms, the water ran
for days together to the northward, at the rate of only half a mile an hour.

"In March, 1836, the same vessel, from Curacao to La Guayra, with very
strong winds, spent six days in beating up against a current of 40 miles
mean daily strength; and on the 8th of April left La Guayra for Porto
Cabello, in the bight to the westward, when, instead of making this passage
in some hours, she had, during three days, to contend with light, variable,
and even westerly winds, and currents to the N.E. 15 miles daily.

"The Baron von Humboldt's remark about the increase of the currents
near the Testig03 proved true on our approach to the same islands, in De-
cember, 1835. * In the morning of the 12th, the longitude observed was
62" 45' 15", and the difference West in twenty-four hours appeared to be
32' 15"; shortly after, the cluster of rocks came in sight; and at noon, at
the very moment that the sun passed the meridian, the S.W. island, placed
by Don J. F. Fidalgo in 63° 12', bore East, distance one mile, having run
by log 20 miles to the W. f N. ; so that, during these last four hours, the
westerly difference amounted to 8 miles, whereas, in former watches, it was
only 5^ miles.

"A similar circumstance, we have reason to believe, also takes place at
other groups of this range of sunken islands, and near such capes as are low
and reaching far out, so as to obstruct the motion of the water beneath, and

* The remark is as follows, The Baron, on approaching the Testigos, July 14th, 1799,
Bays: — '• During a calm, the current drew us on rapidly toward the West. Its velocity
was 3 miles an hour, and increased as wo approached the meridian of the Testigos, a heap
of rocks, which riso up amid the waters.

370 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

thereby redouble the force of the surface current, as denoted by the many
instances of shipwreck and carcases of vessels (sad admonishers of pre-
caution) spread among these flat, barren rocks, and produced solely by the
irregularity of currents, which baffle every calculation, even those of the
coast traders.

" But this variety in the westerly currents here is not the only cause of
danger. The total change in the setting of the currents from West to East
is of a nature which requires the utmost care and attention, as they not
only occasionally happen with calms, but also sometimes with fresh breezes
from the eastward. One of the first mentioned instances, particularly re-
markable, we observed during our passage in October, from Surinam,
through the Channel of Granada, toward Curagao. On the 7th and 8th,
between the Island of Tobago and Cape Malapasqua, the water flowed to
the N. by E. and N. hj TV., with a trifling force; when suddenly, on the 9th,
we had a difference of 17' 54" North, and 34' West; and, on the following
day, at the new moon, we were driven 11' 12" to the North, and 35' 54" to the
eastivard of our supposed situation. This case was too singular not to excite
our attention, as the high mountains of Caraccas showed us almost hourly
tho East or westerly direction in which we were driven ; the weather being
perfectly calm, and the water constantly smooth, by which means we were
able to verify ovr chronometrical observations, and to remove every doubt
respecting the truth of so extraordinary a circumstance, the result whereof
was as follows : —

"By the westerly current we drifted in sight of the high land near La
Guayra, and kept working up against the strong easterly set in the whole
following day. On the 10th, from seven in the morning till four in the
afternoon, we had 14 miles difference West, agreeing with the bearing of
Monte Avila. From that time till six in the evening, when that mountain,
of which we had lost sight for a moment by drifting to the westward, again
became visible, the water flowed again to the eastward ; and on the 11th, at
six in the morning, with an observed latitude, and the said mountain bear-
ing S.E. by S., we were in long. 67° 21'; and this by calculation being
67° 47', we found a difference of 26 miles to the eastward in sixteen hours.
From this time till four in the afternoon, again 10 miles to the West; and
from thence until the following morning, 22 miles easterly difference.
During the night we hove-to to the southward of Caraccas Bay, Curagao,
and were obliged to keep Little Curagao in mind, as the current was setting
strongly to the eastward.

" Whether this flux and reflux were caused by the moon (then new), or
by any other agent, I shall not attempt to determine. Indisputably there
occasionally appear satisfactory reasons for ascribing to that luminary some
influence over the currents in these regions, and the above-mentioned case is
probably one of them ; but, as Captain Livingston says on the subject, ' the
winds have a still more powerful influence.' Indeed, when roving in these
seas, studying the ' Memoir ' and the ' Colombian Navigator,' and enjoying
the pleasure of reading all that science and skill have ever produced in the
description of these regions, we always meet with Captain Livingston's re-
marks as so many illustrations, and feel a continued increase of respect for
so accomplished a navigator.

CURRENTS OF THE WEST INDIES. 371

" The reflux of the current to the eastward, for some hours daily, we had
also occasion to observe, in January, 1834, near the coast of Hayti, Porto
Rico, and even in the Atlantic, while working up with smart breezes, and
even with very strong winds; and once, in May, 1835, a merchant vessel,
steering for Curagao, with her mainmast broken, passed in the night to tho
southward of Buen-ayre and Little Curagao without seeing the land, being
totally unacquainted with any existing current, and consequently with her
real situation. At daybreak, finding herself opposite the eastern part of
Curagao, and supposing it to be the Island of Buen-ayre. she stood to the
West for Curagao, as she thought ; but on her passing the harbour of St.
Anna she guessed her error, and tried to gain the entrance, in which she
succeeded toward sunset, after hard struggling "with a hard wind and a
rough sea, but assisted by a current to the eastward.

"It should be borne in mind that the captain of this vessel was unprovided
with a time-keeper, from want of which he knew nothing about easterly or
westerly currents ; and if, on his approaching Buen-ayre, he had accident-
ally stood a few miles to the N.W., so as to make its northern coast, he
would have found a watery grave, designated,, perhaps, only by some piece
of floating timber, a splinter, or broken spar.

" The uninterrupted easterly currents alluded to have already been men-
tioned by Baron A. von Humboldt ; and, whenever I witnessed them, I
found them just as described by that celebrated traveller. It may, however,
be remarked that although this change in the general motion of the water is
most common in the three months quoted, and chiefly along the Colombian
coast, yet sometimes it also happens in other months, and in other parts of
the Caribbean Sea ; as we, in fact, once experienced it in December, once in
April, near the coast above mentioned, and once in March, on our passage
from Guadaloupe to Barbadoes, during which, vessels from St. Vincent's
made their way toward the same islands in a few hours."

(237.) Mr. Town, in his "Directions for the Colombian Coast," has
said: — "Although between the Island of Jamaica and the Spanish Main,
westerly currents are most frequent, yet they do not always prevail ; for
ships have been known to be driven by the current from 50 to 60 miles to
the eastward in four or five days. From the beginning of May till November
(the rainy season), the sea-breeze seldom or never blows home to the main ;
and ships going there should never go to the southward of the latitude of 11°
until they are at least 40 or 50 miles to the westward of their intended port ;
after which they make a South course, as the land-breeze, which is generally
from the S.W., and the strong easterly current, will set you to the eastward
of your intended port, if great care be not taken. When to the eastward,
if light winds prevail, you must stand to the northward until you meet the
sea-breeze, which will lie between the latitudes of 10° and 11°, and then
run to the westward.

"Being off Porto Bello, in H.M.S. Salisbury, on or about the 12th of
August, 1816, and being a little to the eastward of that port, with light
variable winds for several days, the ship was to the eastward, at the rate of
30 miles per day ; and, having been afterwards placed in the same situa-
tion, I found it necessary to make the land well to the westward, and to
keep close to it. From November until May (the dry seasoji) you should

372 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

endeavour to make the land well to the eastward, and run along shore ; as
the sea breezes generally blow very strongly, and the current sets to the
westward at .the rate of about 2 miles an hour.

"Between Chagres and Porto Bello, during the rainy season, there is
generally a northerly current, at the rate of from 1£ to 2£ miles an hour.
After the end of the rainy season the current sets to the southward and
westward, and strong southerly and easterly winds prevail here. From
November until May (the dry season) the southerly and westerly are very
light winds, except in squalls, which end with heavy rain. In sudden
squalls you will often have the wind from all points of the compass.

"If at Chagres, at any time during the rainy season (May till November),
and bound to the eastward, endeavour to get 4 or 5 leagues from the land
as soon as you can ; for the winds are, in general, very light, and the cur-
rent very strong. The latter sets from Chagres directly on the rocks of
Porto Bello, and thence along the land from E. by N., E.N.E., E.S.E., and
according as the land lies ; its general rate being from 1 J to 2£ miles in an
hour. Great care should be taken when near the land, if a heavy squall
and rain appear to be coming on. During this you will have the wind from
all points of the compass, and often so strong that all sail must be taken in.

"In crossing the Gulf of Darien, little or no current will be found;
wherever there is any, it sets about South, S. by W. or S. by E., up the
gulf.

"Near Cartagena the current generally goes with the wind; but off the
Islands of Rosarito it sets to the N.W. and N.N.W., from 1 to 2 miles an
hour.

" BetweeL Cartagena and the Magdalena, in the rainy season, you cannot
put any dependence on the winds or current ; but from November to May
the trade wind blows home.

" I should recommend, if turning to windward, with strong trade winds,
to keep the shore close-to ; whereas, by going off from the land, you will
not only have a heavy sea, but also a strong N.W. current. If you have
light variable winds, approach no nearer ot the land than 4 or 5 leagues, as
you may be certain of easterly current."

Captain Livingston says : — "During five weeks in which I remained at
Cartagena, in June and July, 1817, the current in-shore set constantly and
strongly to the northward, at the rate, I am convinced, of not less than 1£
mile an hour, or nearly as strong as the Mississippi at New Orleans. I have
seen the Esh sloop of war, current-rode against a very fresh sea-breeze,
when at anchor, nearly West from the city, distant about half a mile."

(238.) Upon the Current between the Grand Cayman and Cape Antonio,
Captain Monteath has said : — "In the months of May, 1814 and 1815 (two
voyages in which I was chief mate of the ship Prince Regent from Kingston) ;
in June, 1817, in the ship Fame ; and in April and December, 1820, in the
ship Mary, between Grand Cayman Island and Cape Antonio, I invariably
found the current setting strong to the eastward, or E.S.E. ; and I have
heard it generally remarked that vessels shaping a course from the Caymans
for Cape Antonio have found themselves off, or even to the eastward of,
Cape Corrientes : this has, in the above cases, invariably happened to
myself."

CUERENTS OF THE WEST INDIES. 873

Further on, "In my passage from Kingston toward Campech6, in the ship
Fame, June, 1817, between Cape Antonio and Cap-"-. Catoche, I found the
current to set due North, 27 miles, in a run of eighteen hours."

We have already given, in a preceding page, the remarks of the Spanish
navigators on the Currents of the Mosquito Khore and Bay of Honduras.
We now add those of our friend Captain W J. Capes, of London.

Captain Capes says : — " Between Jamaica and Bonacca the current gene-
rally sets to the northward and westward. Here, in May. 1S1G, I was set
60 miles to the westward by the current, and found that it set rather
northerly, from one-quarter to half a mile an hour."

"If a ship be lying-to, under Rattan, it will not bo amiss to try the
current. It is my opinion that the current about Bonacca takes two different
directions; one part setting to the N.W., and the other part branching to
the S.S.W. I have found it so on several trials, which is the- reason that I
prefer taking a departure (for the bay) from the middle or East end of
Rattan ; for, if a ship take her departure from the West end, her course
will be N.N.W. ; but it very frequently happens that ships got down on
those reefs when they take their departure from the West end. The reason
is this — a ship steering N. W. from the West end has more of tho current on
her beam, which sweeps round the end of Rattan very strong at times ; con-
sequently, ships that take their departure from the East or middle part do
not feel so much of the current."

(239.) Bottles. — Caribbean Sea to Yucatan. — A bottle from H.M.S. Chanticleer,
in lat. 15° 29', long, 76° 3', at neon on the 23rd of February, 1831 (the ship being to
the southward of Jamaica), was picked on the 20th of the next April upon the
eastern coast of Yucatan, after having traversed over a distance of nearly 700 miles,
at the rate of 28 miles per day.

Serranilla to Yucatan. — A bottle from a boat belonging to H.M. surveying-ship
Thunder, at anchor under Serranilla West Kay, 10th of March, 1834, picked up
at Half-Moon Kay, in the Bay of Honduras, on the 23rd of the next month, April j
rate 10 miles per day.

Tobago to the Cayman. — A bottle from the American brig Emma, on her way
from Philadelphia to Berbice, 17th of June, 1838, in lat. 11° 4', long. 58° 50', picked
up on the 27th of the following August, upon the eastern shore of the Grand Cayman,
2,000 miles, at the rate of 28-6 miles per day.

Windward Channel, bctioeen Jamaica and Ilayti. — A bottle from H.M.S. Thunder,
in lat. 18° 56', long. 74° 56', 7th of April, 1839 ; current then setting S.W. by S. half
a knot ; picked up in the Grand Anse, near Jerimie (long. 7° 1'), on the 24th of the
same month.

Ilayti to Florida. — A bottle, some years ago, from the ship Robert, Captain
Coulter, eastward of Alta Vela, on the South coabt of Hayti; picked up about thir-
teen months afterward on the shore near St. Mary's, in Florida.

From bottles enumerated in Captain Becher's list: Ship Race-horse, Captain
Home, thrown over in lat 12" 12', long. 65° 50', 17th April, 1836; picked up April
22nd, at Bonaire, 150 miles in 5 days. Ship Chanticleer, Captain Austen, thrown
over February 23rd, 1831, in lat. 15° 30', long. 76°; picked up on the East coast of
Yucatan, April 30th, 680 miles in 56 days. H.M.S. Thunder, Capt. Barnett, thrown
N. A. O. 3 C

374 OBSEEVATIONS ON TIIE QUERENTS.

over at Chagres, April 22nd, 1840; reached Belize, October 1st, 1840. H.M.S,
Thunder, March 10th, 1834, started at Serranilla Bank; picked up near Belize, April
23rd, 57o miles in 44 days.

(240.) On the northern coast of Ilayti, and in the -windward passages, there
does not appear to be any general current. On the North side of Cuba tho
case is nearly the same ; but in the channel there is a regular tide through-
out the year, subject, however, to certain variations.

The currents of tho Caribbean Sea appear to be varied by the influence
of the moon and chango of seasons, and combine, in some degree, with the
tides, especially about Cuba, Jamaica, and Hayti.

In tho Bahama Passages the currents are devious ; both weather and lee-
current having been found. These, also, appear to be influenced by tho
tidal causes ; for the tides are inoperative on the banks, and sometimes set
strongly.

(241.) Bahama Islands, &c. — The following is extractad from Captain
Maury's "Sailing Directions," 8th edition, vol. ii. Capt. W. C. Berry,
says : —

" Having had long experience in the trade between New York and New
Orleans, I herowith furnish you with a few remarks on winds and currents.
For the last six years I have commanded tho ship Vicksburgh, constantly
trading between these two ports. In making the passage out, after passing
tho Holo-in-the-Wall, I have frequently found a current from one to three
miles per hour, setting to the eastward through the N.W. channel of Provi-
dence, particularly after the wind has prevailed from the eastward a few
days. This no doubt has been the cause of putting a number of vessels on
shore among the Berry Islands. I have latter^ made it a point to take
the last bearings of the light on the Hole-in-the-Wall, and either haul up
or keep off as I found the current ; generally running on a West course
until quite down with Little Stirrup Kays, then steering "W. by N. £ N., by
compass, if in the night, until I was up with the Great Isaacs. The last
three voyages, having reached the vicinity of the Little Isaacs in the day
time, I have hauled in on the bank between the western Little Isaacs and
the East Brother Eock, and steered S."W. by W. by compass, which has
brought me out in good passing distance from the Moselle Shoal. During
one of my summer passages out, after passing the above shoal, I was com-
pelled to anchor, and remained there for six days. The wind during all
this time was light from the southward, and I could not help remarking the
regularity of the current setting along the Bernini Islands, ebb and Qow,
about two milos per hour. This continues as far as Gun Kay, when close
in, littlo oi no current is experienced, except the ebb and flow, which is
directly off the bank. In crossing the Santaren Channel, the current is
governed greatly by the winds; with strong southerly winds the current sets
about N.N.W., two miles per hour ; on the other hand, with strong northerly
winds, little or no current is felt. After leaving the Double-headed-Shot
Kay, I have generally hauled over for Florida Beef, and in the day timo
kept close-in, when I have frequently found an eddy current setting to tho
westward from one to ono and a half miles per hour. After passing the
Tortugas, I have invariably felt a southerly current until I had reached the

CUBEENTS OF THE WEST INDIES. 375

longitude of 84° 30' W., and even further than this at times, as will be seen
by referring to my journals, particularly in November, 1848.

"Returning from New Orleans, I have always made it a point to keep to
the westward until I had reached the longitude 85 c , latitude 28°, before
keeping off. My object in doing this is, that the .wind here generally pre-
vails from the northward and eastward, and that the current generally sets
to the southward and eastward, which generally facilitates the passage.
After rounding the Tortugas, with the wind from the eastward, I have
generally beat down on the Florida side ; knowing that the strongest current
prevails on that shore, unless too close in. From Carysfort Eeef to Mata-
nilla, I have always endeavoured to keep in the middle of the stream.
During all my voyages, I have made it a rule to steer N. by W. from Mata-
nilla to latitude 22 D , and then North to latitude 31°, before hauling up
N.E. by N. ; by so doing I have, with a few exceptions, kept the strongest
current. On some other occasions, I have hauled up on a N.E. by N.
course, when in latitude 30°, longitude 79° 40', and have soon found myself
on the eastern edge of the gulf. After rounding Cape Hatteras, it is ad-
visable to keep to the westward, especially in the winter season, on account
of the prevailing westerly winds."

(242.) The following is an additional detail of the best information we
have been able to collect of the currents in the Caribbean and Mexican Seas,
from the Derrotero de las Ant Mas, Sfc.

In the Channel between Trinidad and Grenada, the current has been found to
set nearly West ; on the South side half a point southerly, and on the North
side half a point northerly. Its velocity from 1 mile to 1£ and 2 miles
per hour.

Between Grenada and St. Vincent's, among the Grenadines, the currents
are devious ; but the general inset appears to be W. by N.

Between St. Vincent's and St. Lucio the current, from the eastward, sets in
more northerly ; and within, on the West, it has been found setting to the
N.W. Between these islands it seems to be as strong as in any other part
of the range.

Between St. Lucia and Martinique it has been found nearly North. Very
variable on the western side of the latter.

The current sets nearly in the same manner between Martinique and Domi-
nica. Northward of Guadaloupe, it sets W. | S. ; and between Montserrat and
Antigua, N.W.

At the distance of about 1°, within the ranqe of the Caribbee Islands, and to
the Virgin Islands, the current has been found setting, in general, to the
W.N.W. from 1 to 1£ miles an hour.*-'

In the Mona Passage, between Porto Eico and Hayti, the current has been
marked as frequently setting to the N.W., and we have instances of a set
through to the S.W. ; but Captain Monteath, in February, 1816, when pro-
ceeding southward toward Porto Eico, in from lat. 23£ to 22°, long. 64° to

* On the leeward side of the Virgin Isles devious currents are found, frequently to the
south-eastward. The same have heen ohserved on the western side of St. Christo-
pher's, &c.

376 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

65°, found the current setting N.N.E. at the rate of 20 miles in the twenty-
four hours ; and he says, that off the N. W. point cf Porto Rico it invariably
sets from the Caribbean Sea to the North and N.N.E. On the western side
of the passage it set North, 2 miles an hour ; but there have been instances
of an inset from the N. W.

From Trinidad, westward, and off the North side of the Spanish Leeward
Isles, the current has been found setting West and S.W. to the Gu4f of
Maracaybo ; thence S.W. also to Cartagena ; but it varies, as already
described.

From Cartagena toward the Channel of Yucatan it has been found N.N.W..
N.W., W.N.W., and N.W. by N., from 1 to nearly 2 miles, and then de-
creasing to 1J mile per hour. It has also been found setting to the east-
ward, as shown in the present pages.

(243.) Counter Currents. — From the foregoing it will be seen that the
great drift which, passing from the Atlantic through the Cribbean Sea into
the Gulf of Mexico to feed the Gulf Stream, is not nearly so constant nor so
strong as might be argued, d priori, from the apparent magnitude of that
mighty current. Not only is it inconstant even in the mid-channel, but it
is diverted by local causes and land configurations into opposite directions,
as is shown to be the case iu the great Bays of Guatemala and Honduras,
as described below.

Upon referring to the description of the Guinea or Equatorial counter-
current, as recited in pages 339 to 317, it is shown that it extends much
farther to the westward, during the period when the sun is in northern
signs, than had been before attributed to it. The western extension of the
Guinea Current, coincident with the increase of the belt of equatorial calms
(58), page 217, and (65), page 222, may owe its origin to the same causes,
hitherto almost unexplained, as that to which this uncertainty of the great
westerly drift across the Caribbean Sea is owing.

Whether it is owing to the influence of tide, the effect of distant and
local winds, or of temperature, or of some hitherto unexplained effect of the
earth's rotation, has yet to be argued. It is probable that hereafter a sys-
tematic examination of these apparently contradictory phenomena will lead
to some important conclusions in the general subject of meteorology.

(244.) In the Bays of Guatemala and Honduras, as above said, the currents
are frequently found to be running rapidly from West to East, especially
near the shores. This counter-current is seldom encountered outside the
lines which join their outer points. From Cape la Vela, or northward ot
the Gulf of Venezuela, the current generally sets to the N.W. toward the
Channel of Yucatan, as has been before remarked.

" In the space between Cape Gracias a Dios and Cape de la Vela offshoots
and eddies from the great equatorial current are found. This assertion is
not merely grounded on those of former navigators, or on the examination
of the coast outline, but on actual experience. — (Capt. W. S. Smith, R.N.,
H.M.S. Lame, 1833.)

"A writer, worthy of great respect, Captain Mackellar, R.N., has stated
— ' The current between the island of Jamaica and the Spanish main, or
coast of Colombia, is not always to be depended upon as setting to the west-
ward, as is generally supposed ; for, in crossing from Jamaica to the main,

CURRENTS OF THE WEST INDIES. 877

ships have been known to be driven to the eastward by the current.' This
circumstance must be of rare occurrence at the northern part of the passage,
and is here mentioned to make known its possibility. I myself have made
runs across between Jamaica and the opposite main at many times and
seasons, and am, therefore, governed by practice as well as theory in the
following remarks.

1st. Local current between the South side Jamaica, the Iforant Kays, and Pedro
Shoals. — This is very uncertain, both in rate and direction. Its rate may be
from to 1 J knot per hour ; and its direction, either North, East, or West,
according to existing circumstances.

At the Morant Kays, the current is known to be variable. Over the
Pedro Shoals it is supposed almost ever to run in a westerly direction.
Between these two dangers, therefore, it behoves a ship at night to be full
of precaution, and not to rely on the continuance of any current she may
have ascertained, when either to the northward or southward of her then
situation.

2nd. Current southward of the Morant Kays and Pedro Bank, oi between the
parallels of 17° and 15°. This current runs, perhaps always, true West to
N.W. by W. from 20 to 55 miles per day.

Among the Musquito Shoals the currents are equally strong and more un-
certain. Between latitude 15° and a line extending from Capo de la Vela
and Cape Gracias a Dios, including some of the Mosquito Kays, the direc-
tion is W.S.W. to N.W. 20 to 40 miles per day.

3. Southwnrd of the imaginary line between the Capes de la Vela and Gracias
a Dios and to the distance of 30 miles from the coast, the sets are so very
variable as to baffle all system. Sometimes no current whatever is felt ; at
other periods it may run North, South, East, or West, 35 miles a day. Let
it be borne in mind, however, that their direction is very seldom toward the
East, but generally toward the West. St. Andrew's Isle and the frontier
rocks of the Mosquito Bank are equally beset by changeable currents, of
velocities amounting to fifty miles a day.

4. Inshore or Land Current, between Cape Manzanillo, near Porto Bello
and San Juan de Nicaragua. This current sets from westward to eastward.
It is an eddy, striking out from the Caribbean Current at Capo Gracias a
Dios, and eventually returning into it, with a broken and divided force, to
the North of Cartagena. The breadth of this current extends from the
land to a distance of about 30 miles in the offing. Its rate i3 from ono to
two knots, and its direction parallel to the curvature of the coast and capes.

The streams out of numerous rivers, entering this current, seems to in-
crease its rapidity ; for close in shore, between the rivers, the rate is roldom
less than 2 knots ; at 6 miles off the land it runs about 1 knot ; and at a
greater distance the same.

(245.) From Cape Antonio the current sets, at times, to the E.S.E., past
the Isle of Pines. Capt. Livingston has informed us that, in March. 1818,
he found that current between the Great Cayman and Isle of Pines to set in
that direction, at the rate of fully 2J miles an hour, or 60 miles in the 24
hours. In August, 1817, he found the set nearly the same, but the current
not half so strong. The " Spanish Directory " says : — " From Cape de Cruz,
on the South side of Cuba, it is noticed that there is a constant current to the

378 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

westward, with some inclination to the southward or northward, and which
has been known sometimes to set 20 miles in a single day." In opposition
to this the exact words of Capt. Livingston are — " I have twice experienced
a strong current, setting about E.S.E., between the Caymans and Isle of
Pines ; and on the latter of theso occasions both my mate and myself sepa-
rately calculated it to set about 60 miles per day, or 2i miles per hour. This,
however, I incline to think a very particular case, such as may but seldom
occur. The winds at this timo were light and westerly. On the other occa-
sion, so far as I recollect, it set about 12 or 14 miles per day only. All my
papers on these subjects have been lost ; but the first instance was too re-
markable to be forgotten."

(246.) A further evidence of this is given by Captain Harry Miles, ship
Illustrious. 1858, December 29th, in rounding Cape Antonio (West of Cuba)
I could not detect any current. At times I have found it strong to S.E.

1859, April 16th, noon, lat. 25° 36' N., long. 83° 33' W., at 8 p.m. sounded
in "38, 35, 33, and 32 fathoms, bottom at first depth coarse white sand, with
broken shells, and gradually becoming of a greenish hue as the water
shoaled. The wind being shy from S. W. I anxiously anticipated the current
which Blunt assures us " runs lively to southward along the edge of Tortu-
gas soundings," in lieu of which, by a series of first-class observations,
verified on making Bush Kay Light, I ascertained the set N.N.E. 1£ mile
per hour since striking soundings. In fact, coupled with former experience,
I am convinced that, although during the influence of northerly and easterly
winds, a S.E. current of considerable strength most certainly exists, yet with
a southerly breeze it is not only neutralized, but, as in the present instance,
may set in a contrary direction, or to N.E.

(247.) Off the South side of Cuba the current has frequently been found
setting to the eastward when the moon is increasing, or in her first two
quarters ; and thus it continues from Cape Antonio to Cape Maize. It is
represented that it runs to the eastward for a fortnight, and then to the
westward about the same time. Coasters from the Caymans commonly
take the advantage of the easterly current for making their passage to
Jamaica.

From this information we may conjecture that the current, which has
been described as setting to the E.S.E. from Cape Antonio to Cape Maysi,
is not permanent, but, at times, on the contrary, imperceptible, according to
the age of the moon ; and this has, we believe, been verified, in several in-
stances, while the cause has remained unknown.

Captain Manderson had stated, that when a strong easterly wind has been
blowing between Cuba and Florida, vessels heaving-to off the South side of
Cape Antonio, at about 2 leagues from the shore, have, in the course of one
night, been carried against a strong sea breeze, nearly as high as Cape
Corrientes, being a distance of 10 leagues. Our friend Captain Rowland
Bourke, when once lying-to in the Archibald, for the night, off Cape Antonio,
found himself, next morning, off Cape Corrientes.

Capt. Dunsterville has said, " I am firmly established in an opinion, from
twelve years' observation, that not only are the winds and the weather on
the West India station influenced by the change of the moon, but the cur-

CUEEENTS OF THE WEST INDIES. 379

rents also ; and it is frequently found that, if the waters run to the eastward,
it is at the change and full of the moon."

On this subject Captain Livingston says, " It is a prevailing opinion with
many, that the moon governs entirely the currents among the West India
Islands. No doubt the moon has some effect on them, but the winds have a
still more powerful influence.

" It is rarely, indeed, on the North side of the island of Jamaica that
there is a westerly current when the North and N.W. wind prevail ; the
current then always, or almost always, setting to the eastward.

" On the South side of Cuba, when the wind is westerly, which it often
is, you are always certain of a reflowing current round Cape Antonio. This
is easily accouuted for ; as when the fresh trade-wind ceases, and the
westerly wind sets in, the barrier is, in some degree, removed, which
confined the waters in the Mexican Sea, and they seek to regain their level
as well by the channel of Yucatan as by the Strait of Florida."

Between the Isles of Pines and main land of Cuba is a strong north-easterly
indraught, generally running from 1 to 1£ miles an hour, and which has
caused the loss of many vessels on St. Felipe Kays and the dangerous bank
etretching therefrom to the westward.

In the Windward Channel of Jamaica, the current generally sets with
the wind to leeward or S. W.; yet both here and at Jamaica it is variable.
Some have affirmed that, when a current runs to. leeward, on the South side
of Jamaica, there is frequently one setting eastward on the North side ; and,
at other times, no current is to be perceived ; also that, when a lee current
runs on the North shore, the same circumstances may be perceived on the
South shore as were before observed on the North.

(248.) Channel of Yucatan. — The principal entrance from the Caribbean
Sea into the Gulf of Mexico is 110 miles in width, between Cape Antonio,
marked by its fine lighthouse, and Cape Catoche, the N.E. point of Yucatan.
The current most usually sets with considerable rapidity to the northward
through it.

According to the calculation of all attainable observations derived from
Major Eennel, Commander Maury, &c, the following is the mean rate of
the current in the various months : — January, 33 miles per day ; February,
34 miles per day; March, 36 miles; April, 33 miles ; May, 17 miles; June,
26 miles; July, 29 miles; August, 31 miles; September, 30 miles; October,
38 miles; November, 36 miles; December, 48 miles per day. The annual
mean of all these observations is 32-7 miles per day. From the monthly
results given in the charts drawn up by the Meteorological Office, 1872, this
annual mean is given as 33*9 miles (or 30-76 miles) per day. These velocities
are much inferior to what might be supposed from the magnitude of the
outset of the Gulf Stream as formerly calculated, but this, as will be seen
presently, has been over-stated.

(249.) Gulf of Mexico. — The Mexican Sea appears to be the receptacle
and terminus of all the waters flowing westward, and although we are not
perfectly acquainted with all the features of the current, yet sufficient is
known to warrant the affirmation, that the current through the Yucatan
Channel diverging to eastward and westward, the western branch circulates
around the whole of the shores of the Gulf to westward and northward, and

380 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

thence flowing eastward and south-eastward joins the eastern, and perhaps
principal, branch of the Yucatan current, forming the mighty Gulf Stream.

On the chart of the North Atlantic, before mentioned, all the observations
attainable having been integrated, and it plainly shows that the circulation
stated above does exist, and that it follows the main trends of the coasts of
Yucatan and Mexico, and thence along the coast of Texas, at rates varying
from 14 to 31 miles per day.

(250.) The mean temperature of the water of the Gulf of Mexico is
probably as high as any part of the ocean, from several manifest causes,
and hence it is, in the bed of this sea, that those nurseries of the Sargasso
weed exist (206), which, torn from their habitat by the force of the current,
&c, are drifted into that great central area of the Atlantic, to which they
give the characteristic peculiarity.

It is also probable that animal life is peculiar and abundant in these tepid
waters. " The phosphorescent lights observed in the Mexican Sea shine
with greater brilliancy (April) than I had noticed elsewhere ; some of these
were very large, and flashed like the priming of a gun, sometimes at a long
distance from the ship. I observed that the little shining spiracles were
confined to tho sides of the vessel and her wake, and that the waves, when
they broke into foam, did not (as in other parts of the ocean) sparkle.

" The colour of the water in the Sea of Mexico is of a dark indigo, darker
or more intense than that of the ocean generally ; the colour of the sea in
the Florida Channel is a fine blue, not so dark as that of the Sea of Mexico,
or of the ocean generally. Phosphorescent lights are equally abundant in
the Florida Stream, some unusually large and brilliant ; and some of the
small lights appeared to spring out of the water with a sweep motion, which
I had never before observed ; the temperature of the water was 79°, that of
tho air 76°."— J. E.

(251.) The following exemplification of the currents of the Mexican Gulf
is taken from the eighth edition of Maury's " Sailing Directions," vol. ii.,
p. 17:-

There is a constant set from the Caribbean Sea into the Mexican Gulf to
form the Gulf Stream. Vessels passing up to the northward may take
advantage of it. It is bifurcated just after entering the Gulf. The bottle
paper of the Hermes followed this Yucatan current to the " fork," and then
took the western branch.

" H M.S. Hermes, 15th April, 1858, lat. 17° 59' N., long. 78° 50' W.,
H. Congton, commander, J. E. Solfleet, master. This bottle thrown over
at the West end of Jamaica, wa9 found on the South side of Padre Island,
lat. 26° 5' N., long. 97° 10' W., Aug. 23, 1857, and forwarded by Mr.
J. R. Baker, who says, ' The drift shown by the course of this bottle con-
firms my own observations since I have been here, viz., that the current
divides between Cape Antonio and Cape Catoche, the western part of it
keeps a westerly course until it reaches this coast between San Fernandino
on the coast of Mexico, from Corpus Christi on Texas, where it meets the
south-westerly current from the coast of Florida and Louisiana. And it is
strange to remark the mixture of floating objects thrown on the beach of this
coast by the meeting of the currents. Flat boats, oars, saw- logs, clap-
boards, old skiffs, &c, from the Mississipi, mixed up with branches of the

THE GULF STREAM. 381

mangrove, mahogany, bay cedar, young cocoa-nuts, canoe paddles of maho-
gany, &c, from the Caribbean Sea and Coast of Honduras.'

"It may be remarked on this that the easterly winds may have something
to do with the westerly drift from the Mississippi of objects which float high
out of the waters.

"Another bottle, from the ship Admiral? S. Picken, commander, thrown
over on the Equator, long. 30° W., 17th February, 1856, came ashore at
Aransas Pass, Texas, October 24th, 1856, 250 days afterwards, having
drifted 4,300 miles, or 16 miles per day."

(252.) It is difficult to define the separation between the currents which
pass eastward and westward to the North of the Yucatan Channel. It is
certain that they set with considerable velocity to the southward and south-
eastward over the Tortugas Bank, and also to the S.E. from the Mississippi.
Perhaps a line might be drawn from the centre of the 6trait to the mouth
of the Mississippi, to the West of which it will usually bo found that the
streams have westing in them, and to the East of it that they set towards the
Gulf of Florida.

In the strait between Cuba and the Florida Eeefs, that great stream which
is described in the next section, has really its commencement.

7. THE GULF STREAM.

(253.) The Florida or Gulf Stream has received more attention — has been
the subject of more speculation — and has served as the basis of more
theories than all the other currents of the ocean collectively. Although
modern research, conducted with all refinement, in contradistinction to the
imperfect observation of the passing seaman in former years, has shorn it
of much of the grandeur and magnitude it has formerly been invested with,
still it is a mighty and majestic current, well worthy of all the laborious
investigation which the philosopher or mariner have bestowed upon it.

The investigations which the United States Government surveyors have
carried on in the narrower portion at the commencement of the stream, hava
dissipated all preconceived notions of its enormous magnitude ; and these
were only commenced in 1855, and when subsequently published they were
so startling as to be received almost with incredulity. But the subsequent
most careful measurement of its depth, velocity, temperature, and other
collateral features in many parts, down to 1866, have entirely confirmed this
first statement, made by Commander Craven, in 1855, that the narrowest
was the shalloivest part of its course. From these and from the other
numerous sections which have been examined on lines transverse to its
course between Florida and Nantucket, we are enabled to calculate with
some approach to exactness, what is the amount, rate, and temperature of
the volume of water which is transported by it into colder latitudes. The

N. A. 0. 3D

382 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

sections of the stream to N.E. of the Narrows were examined between 1845
and 1854.

(254.) It may seem, therefore, somewhat surprising, that — in the face of
its now known much smaller volume and much slower rate of travelling, and
also of the well-ascertained interferences it has to encounter — a much more
extended area should bo claimed to be under its influence, than what was con-
sidered when very much less was known of its real character. When Major
Rennell's "Investigation" was published in 1832, and which contained a
digest of all that was known, the conclusion was arrived at, " that as a
current, it may be said to terminate at ordinary times at the western side of
the Azores," and this is the sum of all the arguments subsequently
used, with the exception, that Dr. Franklin, in November, 1776, on approach-
ing the European coast, was never out of the warm water of the Gulf
Stream ; and that General Sabine, in 1822, also crossed its warmer
waters.

It is only since the accession of our exact knowledge of the Gulf
Stream proper, or that between Florida and the Newfoundland Banks, that
the argument has been exalted— that it is the Gulf Stream, which, after tra-
versing the intervening space of the Atlantic, transports the amenity of
climate over the whole of the north-western shores of Europe, but also in
entering the outer basin past and around Spitzbergen, it keeps an open sea
there, and by its warmth maintains a constant circulation around the North
Pole.

(255.) It was during active researches in the Arctic regions, when the
progress and fate of Sir John Franklin and Captain Crozier, with their
ship's crews, were involved in such profound security, that it was claimed
for the Gulf Stream to have volume and power sufficient to have vast in-
fluence in ameliorating the Arctic climate. The failure of every attempt
to penetrate the mystery which had been so zealously directed towards the
channels "West of Baffin's Bay prior to 1851 — 1852, led Dr. Augustus
Petermann to examine into the possibility of reaching the neighbourhood
of Behrings Strait by the way of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlia, and the
elaborate and most useful investigations he then carried on led him to the
conclusion that the varied phenomena he then eliminated, the abundance of
animal life, the temperature of sea and climate, and features in almost,
every department of physics, could only be attributed to a warm north-
easterly current, which he considered was an extension of the Gulf Stream.*

(256.) To this last conclusion we still firmly demur, as has been done in
previous editions of this book, and this expression may be taken as a recan-
tation of those ideas which obtained before we were made acquainted with
the true dimensions of the Gulf Stream proper, f In saying this it must be

* See Parliamentary papers on the Arctic expeditions ; Further Correspondence, &c,

1So2, pp. 142, et s:q. ; also Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xxii., p. 118 — 12S,

on the Distribution of Animal Life in the Arctic Regions, Ly A. Petermann, F.R.G.S.

t See Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xiii., 1SGS-9, pp. 102 — 112-

On the Gulf Stream, - ' Ly A. G. Findlay ; and the Journal of the Royal United Service

Institution, vol, xiv., 1870.

THE GULF STREAM. 383

distinctly understood that the effects claimed for it on the eastern side of the
Atlantic are not for a moment questioned. There can be no difference of
opinion as to the facts which Dr. Petermann and many others bring forward
in the elaborate memoir which he published.* 1 It is rather a question of
nomenclature, for the connection between these phenomena and the Gulf
Stream proper is not shown.

The facts are incontrovertible, but it is strongly affirmed that these effects
cannot be produced or effected by the Gulf Stream as now known, or by
any fluctuations in its character. A very much wider field of action must
be brought to bear on the subject ; and it is contended that this north-
easterly drift, or indraught along the Scandinavian coast, should have a
distinct name, as being an independent current, having its origin somewhere
between the coast of Europe and the Great Banks, and propelled north-
ward by the S.W. winds which prevail throughout the year on this side of
the Atlantic, or by some greater cause. But in thus stating the case it must
be qualified in a degree by the fact that the Gulf water forms a small part of
this current, which is so cooled down and intermingled with the Arctic
current, that if any direct connection does exist, it is with both of these
currents, and that, perhaps, in an equal degree.

(257.) In the preceding pages we have traced the course of the waters from
the shores of Europe down to the great set or tropical drift, and thence through
the Channel of Yucatan to the entrance of the narrow channel between the
North shore of Cuba and the Florida Cays. Here may be said to be the
commencement of the Gulf Stream as an independent current, as it flows
swiftly hence to the eastward in opposition to its previous course, and then
northward through the Narrows between Cape Florida and the Bernini Isles.
Keeping this direction with its high velocity and temperature, it is deflected
to the N.E. by the form of the American coast, and assuming a more easterly
direction, and gradually spreading its warmer waters over a broader area
through an immense region of perpetual fogs rising from its tepid waters,
it pursues its course with a gradually decreasing rate and temperature,
until it reaches the southern part of the banks of Newfoundland. At this
part it encounters the Arctic Current, which, crossing its track and import-
ing into it the influences of an arctic temperature, and the counteracting
effects of an adverse current upon its diminished force and much decreased
volume, it ceases to maintain its character as a Gulf Stream or an inde-
pendent current.

(258.) History. — The Guii Stream was known by its present name, and
in its now known form, from very early times. The northern equatorial
drift was noticed by Columbus, September 13, 1492, when in lat. 27° N.,
long. 40° W., and this is the first ocean current observation. In the subse-
quent voyages, in 1502-3, he observed the strength of the streams in the
Caribbean Sea. The first voyage through the Gulf of Florida was that by
Ponce de Leon, in 1512 or 1513, and this gave the first account of the

* See Geographisehe Mittheilungon, Gotha, Justus Perthes, vol. xvi., 1870, part 6 and
7. This most valuable essay, with smple references, has been translated for the U.S.
Hydrographic Office.

334 OBSERVATIONS ON TIIE CURRENTS.

stream itself, and ho named the present Capo Canaveral el Cabo de Corrientes,
from the circunistanco. Several other Spanish voyagers, about this period,
also experienced its effects, especially the pilot Antonio de Alaminos, who
sailed through it in 1519. In Mr. Kohl's exhaustive and most interesting
Monograph,* theso and very many other onrlier voyages are noticed, and
the whole history of the subject from the earliest to the latest days are
dilated on.

(259.) That excellent obsorver, William Dampior, in his " Discourses on
the Trade Winds," &c, published in IG90, page 105, gives the following
observations : —

" And 'tis as probable that the current, which sets to leeward on all thf
coast from Cape St. Augustine to Cape Catoch, never enters the Bay of Mexico,
but bends still to the northward, till 'tis checked by the Florida shore; and
then wheels about to the East, till it comes rearer the Gulph's Mouth, and
thore joining with tho soaking current that draws down on the North sides
of Jlispaniola and Cuba, passes altogether with great strength through the
Gulph of Florida, which is the most remarkable Gulph in the World for its
Currents, becauso it always sets very strong to tho North. STet near the
shores on each side this Gulph thore are tides, especially on the Florida
shore ; and Ships may pass which way they please, if they are acquainted.

"It has formerly been accounted very dangerous to meet with a North in
this Gulph ; and for that reason our Jamaica ships, to avoid them, have
rather chosen to go to the Eastward and pass through the Cacuses (Caycos)
in the season that Norths do blow. The Cacuses aro sands that lie off the
N.W. end of Jlispaniola. Those that went from Fort Royal in Jamaica -had
good reason for this ; for if a North took them at their going out, it would
help them forward in their way, which, should they have been going
towards the Gulph, it would obstruct them. Then besides, if a North take
a ship in the Gulph, the wind blowing against the Current makes an. ex-
traordinary Sea, and so thick come the Waves one after another that a ship
can't possibly live in it, yet of late they go through at all times of the Tear,
and if a North takes them in the Gulph, they put away right before the
Wind and Sea, with a small head sail ; yet the Current is then as strong or
stronger than at other timos, and forces them back, stern foremost against
both Wind and Sea ; for though the surface of the Sea is raised in Waves
and driven violently with the Winds to the southward, yet the Current
underneath runs still to the Northward ; neither is it any strange thing to
see two diffeient Currents at one place and time, the superficial Wator run-
ning one way, and that underneath running quite contrary; for some-
times at an anchor, I have seen the Cable carryed thus by two different
Streams, the under part having been doubled one way, and the upper part
the contrary."

It is, therefore, somewhat surprising that a claim should of late years
have been made for Dr. Franklin as the real discoverer of its nature and its
warmth in 1770. The tale is this :— Being in London in that year, he was

* Gesi-hichtc des Gulfstroms uml seiner Erforschung, &c. Eine Monographic J. G
Kohl. Bremen, 1SGS.

THE GULF STREAM. 385

consulted by the Treasury as to why the Falmouth packets were generally
a fortnight longer to New Y'ork than common traders were from London to
Providence, Rhode Island ? He therefore consulted a Nantucket whaler,
who explained that tho Rhode Island captains, being acquainted with the
Gulf Stream, avoided it, while the Falmouth commanders, being ignorant
of it, were set back 60 or 70 (! !) miles a day by it. The Nantucket captain
laid its course on a chart, which is also stated to have been followed almost
without an alteration. "Without stopping to refute this altogether, which
may be done by Dampior and his predecessors, it will be evident that some-
thing else than the Gulf Stream must have retarded them 60 or 70 miles a
day in that latitude, if they were thus delayed.

(260.) Causes. — There have been very many speculations as to the cause
of this great stream, but they have been promulgated before any increase of
knowledge upon which to found arguments, and, as has been said above,
recent investigations have overturned most of those which have been ad-
vanced. It has been supposed that it runs out of the Gulf of Mexico from
the superior level of that sea, but facts are wanting for such an assumption.
Capt. Manderson, R.N., promulgated an opinion in his " Examination as to
the true course of the Florida Stream," that it was owing to the Mississippi
and the floods from the other rivers falling into the Gulf of Mexico. It was
still further argued that the velocity of the Gulf Stream might be deter-
mined by the flood from these rivers. But Captain Andrew Livingston, in
our former editions, overturned this hypothesis by showing that what is
poured into the sea by the River Mississippi is not a three-thousandth part
of tho volume of the Gulf Stream. He thought that it might be accounted
for by the motion of the sun in the ecliptic, and its influence on the Atlantic
waters.

The effects of temperature is also advanced as the prime movei', by in-
creasing the heat of the water it expands, and thus becomes higher than the
cooler waters beyond it, and as the Gulf of Mexico has the highest tempera-
ture, here is the head water of the Gulf Stream on that account. Sir John
Herschel says on this point : — "Let us see what this declivity, formed by
unequal temperature, would amount to. The equatorial surface-water has
a temperature of 84° ; at 7,200 ft. the temperature is 39°, the level of which
temperature rises to tho surface in lat. 56°. Taking the dilatability of sea-
water to be the same as fresh, a uniform increase of temperature from 39°
to 84° would dilate a column of 7,200 ft. by 10 ft. (or 9,971 ft. more exactly),
at which height, therefore, above the spheroid of equilibrium (or above the
sea level in 56°), the equatorial surface is actually raised by this dilatation.
An arc of 56° on tho earth's surface is 3,360 geographical miles, so that
(were tho water to run direct North) we have a slope of l-28th of an inch
per mile for the water so raised to run down. As the accelerating form,
corresponding to such a slope (of l-10th of a second, 0.1" of arc) is less than
the two-millionth part of gravity, we may dismiss this as a cause capable of
creating only a very trifling surface drift, even were it the proper direction
to form, by concentration, a current from East to West; which it would not
be, hut the very reverse."

Evaporation has been assumed as another cause, but it can be shown that
the lines of maximum evaporation are near the tropics, that is, near to tho

86 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

[i. >int where the Gulf Stream removes and flows away from, instead of run-
ning towards, it this be taken as a sole cause. But the line of greatest pre-
cipitation is near the equator, and therefore the surface water of the ocean is
there lighter, or of less specific gravity than under the evaporating tropical
influences ; this source of instability will cause the waters to flow directly
towards this line, throughout the whole circuit, and not in the form of a par-
tial stream. Besides this, it may be shown by the few experiments hitherto
recorded, that the density of sea-water, at some fathoms below the surface,
is very nearly the same all over the ocean, so that surface experiments
afford but imperfect data, upon which little or nothing can be grounded in
our present state of knowledge.

(261.) There have been so many objections raised to the plain fact that
the trade and anti-trade wind will account for many or most of the pheno-
mena of oceanic circulation, that it would be far too discursive for a prac-
tical work to enter into such a field of speculation. As has been stated
before, (2) 173, the winds and water of the Atlantic seem to follow much
the same law, as far as their different natures will allow, that is, they
circulate more or less around a central axis or area — the calms of Cancer in
the one case, and the Sargasso Sea in the other. All further theory mus 1 -
be sought for in those works which deal with speculative science.

Captain Maury has adduced arguments against the theory of assuming
the trade winds as the prime cause of the Gulf Stream, in opposition to the
line of reasoning followed by Sir John Herschel. He has drawn up several
tables to show that the S.E. trades have a greater preponderating force over
the N.E. trades in the Atlantic, but he proceeds on the assumption that the
equator is the division between the two systems. This basis, which he else-
where disproves, will very inadequately explain the relative force and dura-
tion of two trade winds, as is shown in (35), on page 195. In fact from
arguing in this way, he endeavours to prove, that from the much greater
force (nearly twice) of the southern trades, from their much greater con-
stancy, and still further, that from the greater preponderance of westerly
winds within the tropics, on the North side of the equator, that the North-
East Trade Wind scarcely blows at all in the North Atlantic. A position which
is disproved by his pilot charts, and by the experience of all sailors. It
need scarcely be argued against that the S.E. trades have quadruple the
force, and nearly double the duration of the N.E. trades, making them eight
times as important.

But besides this, the wind and current charts demonstrate that the S.E.
trades, and their consequent drift, are almost always felt throughout nearly
the whole year, to the North of the equator, and in fact send a large pro-
portion of the water into the Caribbean Sea (11), page 178. The trade-
winds may therefore be held to be a great cause of the Gulf Stream.

(262.) In the previous pages, describing the equatorial currents, it was
shown (216), (230), pp. 355 to 364, that the united stream of the northern
equatorial drift and the much more powerful stream from the South equa-
torial regions, when passing Cape San Roque and the northern coast of
Brasil, have a breadth of not less than 2,000 to 2,200 miles, and these flow
with a velocity varying at times from 60 to 80 miles per day in the southern
part, to 10 or 15 miles in the northern part of the drift. The streams thus

THE GULF STEEAM. 387

combined impinge on the eastern faces of the line of the Caribbee Islands,
and what slight drift may pass westward to the northward of Porto Bio and
and the Bahama Islands, does not reach the Gulf Stream, but forms, appa-
rently, a recurving current to the S.E. along the north-eastern side of the
Archipelago. This equatorial stream, which has a mean annual temperature
of 77.6° (varying between 72.5° and 81.4°) on the eastern or African side, and
increasing to 80.6° (from 79.7° to 84.2°) on the American side, covers an area
of not less than 5,400,000 square geographical miles of tropically heated
water. The whole of this moving surface impinges on the eastern face of
the Caribbee Islands, and here another difficulty awaits us. The line of
islands diminish the water way by one half, so that theoretically the stream
should rush through the openings between the islands with redoubled
velocity, but no such phenomena occurs. The currents through the Archi-
pelago are constant but not more violent than in the ocean to the East of
them. One half of this great drift therefore appears to die out on reaching
the obstacle,* and no clue has as yet been given *to its extinction, but it
shows one thing, that the movement must be very superficial or it would bo
impossible for a great body of water to be thus quietly arrested. The only
outlet it appears to have is the comparatively puny Gulf Stream with a
breadth of not more than one six-hundredth part of the parent source.
Moreover, as has been shown on pages 376 to 381 (243) to (251), that it has
not sufficient power in the Caribbean Sea to maintain a persistent west-
wardly course, but that it is liable to frequent interruptions and is sometimes
even reversed.

The whole subject is fraught with many difficulties.

(263.) The Gulf Stream has had from very early times a very bad reputa-
tion among ship-masters for its dangerous character, and the hundreds of
wrecks and millions of property which have bestrewed its margin have given
good occasion for such a character. For not only is it to be dreaded for its
stormy character, but also its violent stream renders a ship quite unmanage-
able during a calm. At these times should hazy weather occur, and the
sameness of the shores mislead the stranger, he is open to many difficulties
and dangers. But the excellent system of beaconage along the Florida
Beefs, as presently described, and the important lights which direct by
night, have very much reduced its bad character, and diminished the
employment of that enterprising race, the wreckers of Kay West and the
Florida Beefs.

(264.) Characteristics. — The indications of the stream are the appearance and
the temperature of the water. The stream, in its lower latitudes and usual
course, where it flows uninterrupted, may be known in fair weather by its
smooth and clear blue surface; for, without the line formed by a ripple on
its edge, the water in some places appears like boiling water of a blue
colour ; and, in other places, it foams like the waters of a cataract, even in
dead calms, and in deep water.

* There is an exactly analogous case in the ahrupt termination to the Guinea current in
the Bight of Biafra. It is traced up to the coast itself, and 'with a mean rate of 15 or 16
miles per day, and then disappears ; it does not apparently unite •with the South African
current setting to the northward.

388 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

On the outer edge of the stream, especially in fair weather, there aro
great ripplings, which are very perceptible. The appearance of the sea-
weed, by day, is an indication of this edge of the stream ; this weed being,
commonly, on the edge without the stream, in greater quantity and larger
clusters than within it.

It has been said that the water within the stream does not sparkle in the
night. We are assured by Captain Livingston that, though this a common,
it is a misconceived, idea. "I have frequently seen it sparkle much ; even
last night it sparkled considerably, when we were in about 25° N., and 80°
or 79° 40' W. ; and off Cape Roman, Cape Fear, Cape Hatteras, and the
entrance of the Delaware, I have seen the water sparkle pretty much,
though I think not equal to what it does in many other parts of the ocean."
— In the Stream y 10th of September, 1818. A. L.

Mr. Ellicott has said (Journal, 1803): — It has been mentioned by Dr.
Franklin, that the water of the Gulf Stream does not sparkle in the night.

This, so far as my observations go, is incorrect : I saw but little or no
difference between that and the other water on the coast ; but, if there was
any, that of the Gulf Stream was the most sparkling and luminous. It may,
however, be observed, that the same water is very different, at different
times, in this respect.

"The same ingenious writer and philosopher likewise observes, that the
gulf-weed is a sign of being in the stream. This is in part true, but by no
means to be considered as a general rule, because the water on the borders o)
the stream is constantly mixing with the adjoining water, and leaving some of the
weed behind, which consequently falls into the eddy currents, and is carried
off many leagues.

(265.) Extent. — The Gulf Stream commences its great career between the
Tortugas Bank and the coast of Cuba, therefore the line joining the Dry
Tortugas and Havana may be taken as its starting point. It is here 95
miles wide. At the channel between the Kay Sal Bank and Sombrero Kay
it is only 48 miles wide ; off Cape Florida, its narrowest and shallowest
part, it is 45 miles. Between the edge of soundings off Jupiter Inlet and
the Mantanilla Reefs it is 50 miles. This part of the Gulf Stream, which
confines it, before it shoots off uncontrolled into the Atlantic is 330 miles
long.

Pursuing its way northward, its warmest waters and strongest current
keeps near to the edge of the bank of soundings which fronts the coasts of
Georgia and the Carolinas, following the general curve very strictly, and in
its main strength keeping 50 miles off Cape Hatteras, where the whole
breadth occupied by the three or more warm bands is included in a breadth
of 200 miles, the breadth of the bands themselves may not be more than 120
miles. This portion of its course from the channel within the Matanilla is
about 590 miles further.

To the northward of this, its N.W. edge still follows the edge of the banks
of soundings, and being diverted more to the East by the obstacles lying off
it, gradually winds more to the eastward towards the parallel of 40°, to a
line transverse to its course trending S.E. from Cape Cod, which will Lo
about 430 or 450 miles beyond the Cape Hatteras section. It is here from
250 to 300 miles broad. Beyond this it pursues an easterly course for

THE GULF STREAM. 389

1,250 miles to the meridian of 40° W., which is 350 miles East of the Great
Newfoundland Bank, and shirting the southern edge of the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland, it proceeds with diminished velocity and temperature to
about the meridian of 40° "West just named, when its further drift to the
eastward cannot be distinguished from that of the whole surface of the
ocean to the North and South of it. The total distance we have thus gone
over will be about 3,500 miles, throughout the whole of which its charac-
teristics may be distinctly traced, although its lateral boundaries are not so
easily defined.

It has been usual to extend its independent existence some 1,200 or 1,500
miles further to the shores of Western Europe, as before stated, but when
its volume in the outset, or in its narrowed part, is considered, it will be no
great sacrifice of previously formed opinions to curtail it of its more ex-
tended features.

(266.) Throughout its latter course its left-hand margin carries the
greatest strength. In the Gulf of Florida its southern side is the most
powerful. Northward of the gulf its eastern and south-eastern side is
difficult to define, as it is found that the Gulf Stream may be said to consist
of several longitudinal bands of water, as presently described. To the
southward of British North America its force gradually disappears till it is
lost in the central still water of the Sargasso Sea. The diagram of the
currents which elucidates this section will give a clearer idea of its relation
to the great circulatory system, than any long description can do.

(267). Depth. — Deep-sea sounding has of late years been conducted with
such precision and certainty that any doubts which were formerly held on
this topic must be abandoned. It is true that the labour and appliances can
only be at the command of Government vessels in their extended use ; but
the United States' Government officers have done well to maintain their
national honour in their endeavours to elucidate their famous current.

We are now made intimate with the former hidden mysteries of the com-
mencement of the Gulf Stream, through the observations conducted by the
United States' Coast Survey between 1855 and 1859. In the first named
year, Lieutenant-Commander Craven obtained soundings and temperatures
along the bottom of the stream in its narrowest part, 45 miles wide, between
Cape Florida and the Bernini Isles, which were so remarkable as to overturn
all pre-conceived notions. The next section is from the Carysfort Reef Light-
house to the Bahama Bank, about 50 miles southward of the former, and
was examined by Lieutenant-Commander Craven in May, 1859. The next,
by the same officer, and in April of the same year, is between Sombrero
Kay on the Florida Reefs, and the West point of the Salt Kay Bank, and
thence to the Coast of Cuba, near Cayo Piedras ; and the fourth is at the
point where the Gulf Stream, as a stream, may be said to commence, between
the Lry Tortuga and the Havana. This was examined by Commander
Sands in 1856.

In the section between the Tortugas and the Havana, thirteen soundings
were gained, the distance across being about 95 miles. The stations are
not quite equally distributed in distance over the whole interval ; but tho
n. A. o. 3 £

390 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

following figures will give the common results. The stations commence from
tho northern side : —

03 35 65 130 200 330 520 G10 710 770 fathoms.

It will be seen that the deepest water, about 800 fathoms, is on the Cuban
side, being within 5 miles of Havana. This characteristic is followed all
tho way along the Cuban side and that of the Great Banks. At the Havana,
as above shown, there is au abrupt descent of nearly a mile within 5 miles
of the shore, while on the side of the Tortugas and Kay West the water is
comparatively shallow and the descent gradual.

This fact goes to confirm the conclusion, that the strong current of the
Gulf Stream makes the circuit of the Gulf of Mexico (249), since if it im-
pinged directly upon the land of Kay West and the Tortugas, we should
find its effects in the wearing of a deeper channel on that side.

(268.) In 1866 it became necessary to lay an electric cable between the
Florida Kays and the Havana, and the U.S. Coast Survey, under Mr.
Hilgard, undertook the examination of the bottom. The line of soundings
was carried from Sand Kay to the Moro Castle of Havana, in a diagonal
line across the main strength of the stream, where it first enters the
channel which gives its name — a distance of 82£ miles. To this particular
attention is drawn, as it contains the clue to the real character of the Gulf
Stream.

Of this breadth of 82 miles, the Gulf Stream does not occupy more than
40 miles on the southern side of the channel, and it wa3 found that the
depth of the stream was not more than one-third of the entire depth of the
channel, or about 1,200 ft., not reaching to the summit of a submarine ridge
which was discovered here.--*

Such a well-established fact at once overturns all former speculations as
to its enormous depth, and high temperature to all depths ; for it was found
to have only a temperature of 60° Fahr. on the summit of the submarine
ridge, and only 45° at the bottom. It will thus be no great sacrifice to
abandon pre-conceived opinions.

A single fact also will suffice to show that the Gulf Stream does not fill
this narrow channel. Between 1857 and 1862 Capt. E. B. Hunt, of the
United States' Engineers, was employed at Kay West, one of the Floridas,
on the threshold of the stream. f His careful observations fully bear out the
elaborate geological survey by Prof. Agassiz in 1850-51, J and demonstrate
that these Kays a«nd reefs are slowly, but surely, extending to the westward
by the mechanical agency of a counter-current North of the Gulf Stream, in
direct opposition to the strongest part of the course. During strong
weather, the sea about the reefs becomes milky, or " white water," from
the bottom being stirred up by the waves. This white water is inevitably

* See Report U. S. Coast Survey, 1866, and abstract of a paper read before the U.S.
Academy of Sciences, by Henry Mitchell, Esq. American Journal of Science, Jan. 1867,
pp. 69—74.

t American Journal of Science, &c, vol. xxxv., pp. 197—210, and pp. 388—396.

X Professor L. Agassiz in Report of TJ. S. Coast Survey, 1851. Appendix 10, page 145,
1860.

THE GULP STREAM. 30 1

drifted to the westward, and the matter it carries is slowly deposited both
North and South of the line of Kays, and to 30 and 40 miles to the south-
ward of them.

(269.) The next section is about 120 miles further East, from the Som-
brero lighthouse to the Salt Kay Bank, and four stations were observed iD
the distance of 45 miles.

60 130 600 375 fathoms.

The last being within 5 miles of the Salt Kay Bank, the descent from the
Florida side being more gradual.

(270.) The next section is between the Carysfort lighthouse and the Great
Bahama Bank, a line bearing about E. by S. and W. by N., true, distance
63 miles. Six stations were observed, commencing from the Florida sido ;
they were as follow :

120 380? 500? 470? 370? 213 fathoms.

The steepest descent is that on the eastern side of the stream, as beforo
noticed.

(271.) The next is the most important because the most remarkable-—
that across the narrows of Cape Florida, a distance of 45 miles. It was
taken nearly East and West, true, and at equal distances 5 miles apart.
The depths were as follow :

72 170 170 260 300 315 325 300 100 fathoms.
320 370

(272.) The shallowest and narrowest part of the stream is therefore here.
From hence northward there is a rapid descent of the bottom from 350 to
800 fathoms, or 2,700 ft., in a distance of 200 miles ; and the temperature
sinks from 80° on the surface to 40° at the bottom. At this last section,
also, instead of the even curve which the bottom seems to have as in the
southern sections, it is here somewhat irregular, and hence northward thero
are some curious variations of temperature discovered in crossing the axis of
the stream which are not found to the south-westward, as will be presently
explained.

The fact of the shoalest part of the bed of the Gulf Stream being on the
Florida side will account for the existence, on that side almost exclusively,
of a counter or westward current, which will be more fully dilated on
hereafter.

(273.) The same process of deep-sea sounding and gaining the tempera-
ture has been carried on at various points to the northward on lines perpen-
dicular to the axis of the stream, extending from the shore to beyond its
outer limits. The latest and most eastern being those of H.M.S. Challen/jer,
to the N.W. and North of Bermudas, see page 412.

It is difficult to explain the nature of these soundings and their results
without accompanying diagrams ; but they are, of course, of more
utility to the physical geographer than to the sailor. What follows on this
head is mainly derived from the Reports of the United States' Coast
Survey.

The general plan of exploration of the Gulf Stream, laid down in 1845,
Was to observe the phenomena on sections perpendicular to its axis from

392 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

well dotermined points on the coast. In pursuance of this design, sections
were run from near Montauk Point, Sandy Hook, Cape Henlopen, Capo
Henry, and Cape Hatteras, previous to 1348. Lieut. Com. Craven was
directed in 1853, in returning from the Florida Reef, to run four sections
across the stream from near Cape Canaveral, St. Augustine, St. Simons,
and Charleston ; and Lieut. Comg. Maffit, after closing his work at George-
town, South Carolina, to run three sections respectively from Charleston,
Cape Fear, and Cape Hatteras.

On the Charleston section, bottom was carried from 10 fathoms, 38 nau-
tical miles S.E. from Charleston Light, to 100 fathoms, 65 miles S.E. from
tho light. The bottom was not reached at 500 fathoms, nor in 600 fathoms
in the stream. At 97 miles from Charleston Light, after crossing the
warmest water of the Gulf Stream, bottom was struck in 300 fathoms in the
mam strength of the current, and was kept at variable depths from 500 to
370 fathoms to 207 miles from the coast, or 80 miles beyond the outer limit
of tho stream. The bottom was brought up in every case, and has been
preserved, showing some very interesting results.

After crossing the Gulf Stream on the Canaveral section, Lieut. Comg.
Craven struck soundings of 400 fathoms, at 69 miles from the coast. It
appears thus that the existence of soundings of from 300 to 400 fathoms,
after crossing the Gulf Stream at these two points of our coast, was dis-
covered independently by the two officers nearly at the same time. In the
subsequent sections run by the Corwin, soundings were struck 125 miles off
St. Simon's in 500 fathoms, and off Charleston in 480 fathoms.

The form of the bottom on the Charleston and Canaveral sections shoals
gradually from the shore to 53 and 36 miles respectively, then suddenly
fails off to below the depth of 600 fathoms. On the Charleston section 96
miles from the coast, is a range of hills, steep on the land side, and having
a height of 1,800 ft., and a base of about 11 miles on the seaward side; a
second range of 1.36 miles from the coast, 1,500 ft. high, and 28 miles base
towards the shore, and 600 ft high, with a base of about 17 miles, on the
outer side. Beyond this is a more gradual rise. On the Canaveral section
the inner range is 68 miles from the coast. In fact, on tho Canaveral section,
after sounding at the depth of 1,060 fathoms, the steamer drifting a mile
and a quarter, the line showed bottom at 460 fathoms. Both are stated to
have been good up and down casts. These first observations, while they
are merely a foundation to build upon, are undoubtedly in the highest
degree interesting and important in their connexion with the phenomena of
■ he Gulf Stream.

On the sections from Cape Fear and Cape Hatteras, after leaving the
shoals near the shore, the depths increase very rapidly.

Lieut. Comg. Craven noticed ripples in connexion with the irregularities
of the bottom on the Charleston section. Similar ripples were observed on
the Sandy-hook section and on the Montauk section in 1845, and were com-
pared to the "rips" on the Nantucket shoals. These are, however, pro-
bably a secondary effect of the irregularities by the changes of current pro-
duced.

(274.) As far, then, as Cape Hatteras the bed of the Gulf Stream has
been fuund not to exceed 600 fathoms in depth, and is in many parts veiy

THE GULF STREAM. 393

irregular. ' To the northward of this, the ocean is very deep. At 200 miles
eastward of Cape Hatteras the depth is 2,500 fathoms ; at 150 miles east-
ward of Capo Henlopen 1,500 fathoms; at 180 miles E. S.E. of Nantucket
off the S.E. point of George Shoal, 1350 fathoms; at 230 miles eastward of
Nantucket, off the eastern edge of George Shoal, 1,340 fathoms, and at 180
miles southward of Halifax, and 40 or 50 miles S.S,E. of Le Have Bank 1,250
fathoms. Between this latter sounding and Bermudas the depths vary
between 2,000 and 3000 fathoms. These are depths to which the Gulf Stream
has little or no influence, as is shown by the. temperature taken by H.M.S.
Challenger, hereafter quoted, page 412. Although thus deprived of a large
portion of the magnitude with which it was formerly believed to be invested,
it is not the less a wonderful stream, as it is able, so expanded and
thinned out, to maintain its course and character unimpaired over the counter-
currents of a totally different origin and nature which flow beneath it.

(275.) Breadth. — As has been stated before, it is difficult to define the
exact boundaries of the Gulf Stream, which is, in fact, but one out of a
series of several. But whilst the more minute examination which has been
made has added something to our knowledge of its features, it has not
hitherto been sufficiently extensive to fix its limits, either by an average, or,
if it is more exactly defined, to give us the position of its margin in different
seasons. However, as numerous observations have been given on its drifts,
we may give a rude approximation to its extent from the positions where
the drift has been found to be appreciable. In the narrowest part it is
about 40 miles broad — a breadth it maintains to abreast of Canaveral. Off
Charleston it is about 70 miles; off Cape Look-out, 100 miles; off Cape
Hatteras, 120 miles; while off Nantucket, it is probably expanded to 300
miles, so that it has widened to more than seven times the extent it com-
menced with. That the southern side of the Gulf Stream to the northward
of Bermudas is very ill-defined will be best understood by studying the
temperatures taken by H.M.S. Challenger in April and May, 1873, see page
412. It will be observed that the temperature was higher at Ber-
mudas than at most stations to the northward, both at the surface and
below. Only in two observations between Bermudas and Halifax was the
surface temperature found to exceed that at Bermudas, and then only by 1°.
The direction of the currents in the passage between Halifax and Bermudas
(May 20—28) also indicate that the stream here was weak in power. As
far as 37i° N. the current was observed to flow in a southerly direction
between S.W. and S.E. at rates varying from 10 to 26 miles in the 24 hours.
In 37° N. the current flowed strong to the eastward 32 miles. In 3GJ- N. only
7 miles N.E. ; in 35° N. 7 miles E. by N , and at 60 miles North of Bermudas a
weak current of 3 miles flowed to the N. W. The wind in this passage south-
ward of 40° N. was generally from the N.E., and varied in force from
3 to 7 Beaufort Scale (p. 180), btween 40° N. and 36° N. southward of this
it was very light.

(276.) Velocity. — We abandon the calculation which we made in 1856,
of the velocity of the stream, as derived from the data given by Eennell,
Maury, and numerous other authorities. Generally — perhaps it may be said
always — these observations gave a higher rate of motion than subsequent
and more carefully corrected observations have shown to bo the case. The

394 OBSERVATIONS ON TIIE CURRENTS.

work of tho Meteorological Office, before quoted, the Currents of the North.
Atlantic between the Equator and 40 3 N., as drawn up by Mr. Strachan, at
first under the direction of the late excellent Admiral Robert Fitzroy, and
afterwards by his successor Robert H. Soott, Esq., M.A., must now be taken
as the standard authority, and from it we take the following general, and
then the monthly observations on the Gulf Stream, as far as the parallel of
40° N., above-mentioned.

(277.) The Gulf Stream, as far as the observations on these charts go, may
be considered to commence near the delta of the Mississippi. A current set-
ting N.E. by N., averaging 20 miles a day, in lat. 26° to 28° N., long. 95° to
90° W., appears to cross the 90th meridian, and unite with the Gulf Stream,
which takes a direct course to the Florida Reefs, setting S.E., its rate in-
creasing from 9 to 29 miles per day, in a distance of about 500 miles. On
the right it has the Yucatan current which it forces westward. At times
part of this S.E. current finds its way round the West end of Cuba into the
Caribbean Sea, as has been previously explained. On the left there appears
to be an off-flow towards the E.N.E., and North of the Florida Isles, about
lat. 26° N., long. 83° W., the configuration of the land occasions a sort of
eddy, and the currents experienced there are extremely variable in direction.
There being no outlet for the waters towards the N.E., and the Yucatan
current confining it on the S.W., the main part of the stream is forced into
the Straits of Florida, turning to the N.E. by E. in its passage between the
Florida Reefs and Cuba at a mean rate of 39 miles. About lat. 25° N. the
straits between Florida and the Bahama Banks become contracted, part
being known as the Narrows. Here the set becomes almost due North, and
its rate greater, averaging 48 miles. This rate and set is maintained to
iat. 30° N. Thence to lat. 32° or 33° N., the direction of the set is N.E. by
N., while the rate has decreased to 40 miles. Now the set changes to N.E ,
and is maintained to iat. 38° N., long. 70° W., the mean rate of the main
stream being from 48 to 43 miles. The stream is strongest towards the land
side, being pressed upon by the Artie current, which probably causes the
very high velocities sometimes experienced about lat. 36° to 3S° N., long.
74° to 70" W. On the right side the stream is free to spread out, being only
resisted by a feeble westerly drift. Here accordingly we find the current
weaker, even down to 10 to 20 miles a day. It must be remarked, however,
that the observations made on the right edge of the stream must frequently
bo in part due to the influence of the westerly, or rather south-westerly
drift, upon the ship's run in 24 hours, the final result depending on the
preponderance of one or the other current during the interval. "Whenever
this lias been suspected the observations have been separated from those
believed to have been made entirely in the Gulf Stream, and averaged by
themselves. In long. 70° W. the width of the stream averages about
120 miles, extending from lat. 3G° to 38° N. Thence its set becomes
E.N.E.. and its main portion seems to pass North of lat. 40° N., the limit
of the Chart, near long. G0° W. Between 70° and 60° W. the rate is
from 37 to 27 miles per day. The southern edge of the stream can be
traced to long. 45° W., about lat. 38° N., but the rate is feeble and tho
set variable.

The temperature of the Caribbean Sea is above S0° from July to October,

THE GULF STKEAM.

595

during the rest of the year it is below 80° ; the minimum, about 75', occurs
in February and March. In the same latitudes, nearly 10 3 to 20° N., off tho
African coast, the lowest temperature occurs in January, and the highest in
July, when it rises to above 80°, as in the Caribbean Sea ; but with this ex-
ception these eastern waters are always from 3° to 7° colder than the western.

It will be noticed that the maximum and the minimum temperatures take
place later in the year in the Caribbean Sea than off the African coast. Tbio
circumstance is probably due to the prevalent currents.

The Gulf Stream keeps the sea off the Southern States of the United
States, from the Mississippi to Cape Hatteras, at a temperature above 80',
from June to October ; above 70° during January, February, and March;
and above 75° during the intervening months, April and May, November
and December.

In striking contrast to this high and equable temperaturo of the seas of
the Southern States, is the low and variable temperaturo of the seaboard of
the Northern States, from lat. 40° to 36° N , due to the presence of the cold
Arctic current. Here in January, February, and March, the temperaturo
of the sea falls below 50° ; in April and May, and also in November and
December, it is below 60°; in June and October it is below 70° ; and in July,
August, and September, it attains to 75°. Where the warm waters of the
Gulf Stream intermingle with, or flow side by side with the cold Arctic
current, the changes in the temperature of tho sea are large and sudden,
and are noticed by all navigators of that region. If we contrast these ex-
treme changes of temperature off the American coast with the slow change
observed off the coast of Africa, the influence of currents in modifying the
temperature of the sea and determining climatic peculiarities becomes strik-
ingly evident. With this view the following tabular statement has been
compiled from the charts, from which it appears that on the meridian of
74° W., the change of temperature from lat. 40° to 35° N., or in 300 miles,
is on an average 18° ; while on the meridian of 20° W., from lat. 40° to 10*
N., a distance six times as great, the average in the temperature of tho (sea
is but 15°.

Sea Teniperatui

e in Lon. 74° W.

Sea Temperature in Lon. 20° W.

Change in
300 Miles.

Change in

Months.

1,800 Mil, s.

Lat. 40 » N.

Lat. 35° N.

Lat. 40° N.

Lat. 10° N.

J anuary . .

February. .

March....

April ....

May

Juno ....

July ....

August . .

September

71 '

October . .

November.

December .

Average . .

396 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CUEEENTS.

In January the Gulf Stream may be traced from about long. 87° W. be-
tween lat. 25° and 30° N. Thence it flows to the S.E. and East between
Florida Eeefs and Cuba, and is forced to the northward by Florida Channel,
where its rate is 39 miles. Beyond this, observations are deficient, but they
indicate the stream as far as 37° N., 70° "W.

In February it can be traced from the 85th meridian, between lat. 23° and
27° N., through the Gulf of Florida, northward to lat. 32° N., thence north-
eastwai-d to lat. 37° N., in long. 72° W., data are wanting beyond this. Its
rate, North of Cuba, is 33 miles ; through the Narrows, 53 miles ; thence to
lat. 32° N., 48 miles; beyond this, observations vary from 70 to 21 miles per
day. A counter current to the south-westward is indicated from 35° to 30° N.,
which appears to become deflected to the E.S.E. by the Bahamas, but its
force is inconsiderable, and it is probably variable in direction as well as Id
rate.

In March it seems to commence about lat. 28" N., long. 90° W., whence it
flows S.E., rapidly increasing in velocity, passing around Florida at the
mean rate of 40 miles, which it maintains up to lat. 30° N. Farther north-
ward observations are not so numerous, and while they indicate a current to
the N.E., and then E.N.E., up to lat. 37° N,, long. 62° W., they assign to it
extraordinary differences of rate. One observer vouches for a rate of 106
miles in 24 hours, about mean position 37° N., 72° W. From 30 to 35° N.,
the stream is reported as unusually weak in this month. There is evidence
of a southerly set between 27° and 30° N., eastward of the Gulf Stream, as
far as long. 70° W.

In April the Gulf Stream appears to commence at the mouth of the
Mississippi, flowing south-eastwardly towards Cuba, where it is turned east-
ward, and then to the N.E. and N. round Florida. Commencing with a rate
of 22 miles, it becomes 36 miles off Cuba, and 48 miles off Florida, main-
taining this rate to lat. 32° N. Its direction is now to the N.E., but its rate
is undiminished to lat. 35° N. Beyond this, observations indicate the current
to long. 58° W. in 38° N. It appears to extend from the coast to 65° W. on
the parallel of 36" N. The counter current to the S.W. is shown consider-
ably farther eastward than in the previous months, being to the East of the
70tk meridian in lat. 31° N. Its rate is from 11 to 22 miles.

In Hay it may be considered to commence from the delta of the Mississippi,
with a rate of only 16 miles, but flowing S.S.E. it becomes 27 miles; then
E.S.E. 35 miles, and passes between Florida Eeefs and Cuba at the rate of 44
miles. Between Florida and the Bahamas it has the greatest mean strength
yet noticed, 64 miles. Thence it continues N., N.N.E., N.E., and E.N.E., at
a mean rate of 40 miles, until it reaches lat. 37° N., long. 70° W. Eastward
there are indications of this current across the Atlantic, as far as the Azores,
the rates given varying from 6 to 29 miles. On the whole, this stream ap-
pears to be stronger, and to extend farther into the open ocean, than in April.
There is evidence of a remarkable overflow from the Gulf Stream, setting
E.S.E., at from 14 to 22 miles per day, between lat. 28= and 33° N., and
shown as far as 70° W. ; also into the Santaren Channel, as if all the water
could not pass with the main stream.

In June it may be considered to commence off the Mississippi at 12 miles
per day. Thence it flows S.E. towards Cuba, at from 17 to 38 miles, then

THE GULF STREAM. 897

Ea9t between Florida Reefs and Cuba, at 50 miles. From lat. 25* to 30° N.
there are no observations of it. From lat. 30° N. it flows north-easterly to
lat. 35° N., at from 46 to 63 miles. Between 35° and 40° N. it becomes
more oasterly, and its rate is variously given, from 14 to 48 miles. It can
be traced to long. 45° W. in lat. 37° N. There is no evidence that it reaches
the Azores. It has greater extension southward between long. 55° and
70" W. than has been noted hitherto. There is no evidence of an overflow
North of the Bahamas, although the stream appears to be quite as strong as
in May.

In July the Gulf Stream may still be traced from the Mississippi, flowing
south-easterly towards Cuba, at a rate of about 24 miles. Between Florida
Reefs and Cuba it attains 51 miles, and from 25° to 30° N. it has been found
to average 72 miles nearly due North. Thence it flows eastward of North
to lat. 36° N. in long. 70° W., at a rate of 30 to 43 miles. Its set is now
eastward, and can be traced to long. 35° W., but the observations are neither
numerous nor consistent. On the whole it appears that the Gulf Stream is
very strong this month, and that its southern limit is in lat. 36° N., between
40° and 72° W. longitude.

In August the Gulf Stream, also, is not represented from its origin to lat.
35° N. From 35° to 40° N., and between 75° and 55° W., it appears to be
strong, the rates varying from 12 to 56 miles. In the same latitudes, be-
tween 45° and 30° W, longitude, there is decided evidence of a southerly
set.

In September it is traceable from lat. 30° N., long. 80° W., at 72 miles a
day, to 38° N., 63° W. at 31 miles. Between 60° and 70° W. it does not
appear to extend farther South than about 37° N.

In October it passes through the Straits of Florida at 37 miles per day,
but the observations are deficient in number.

In November, on the East of Florida, it has a rate of 70 to 53 miles ; in
lat. 34° N., it is 46 miles. Elsewhere there are no data.

In December the Gulf stream is well shown from long. 87° W. to 67° W.
In its south-easterly flow to the West of Florida its rate is from 10 to 20
miles. East of Florida it flows due North, at from 50 to 54 miles. Thence
to lat. 38° N., in its north-easterly course it maintains the rate of from 38 to
58 miles.

The Arctic Current, between the Gulf Stream and the coast, has been fre-
quently experienced, its rate being from 10 to 15 miles. It may be the
pressure of this cold water which causes the remarkable increase in the
rapidity of the stream about lat. 87° N.

(278.) In the Strait of Florida, within the Bahamas, when a northerly
gale, increased to a storm, opposes the stream in its course, this adverse
power causes it to fill all the channels and openings amongst the Martyr
Isles and Reefs, and to overflow all the low coast. Shipping have even been
carried over the low cays, and left dry on shore.

In the month of September, 1769, there happened an inundation, which
covered the tops of the highest trees on the Cayo Largo, &c, and during
which the Ledbury, snow, John Lorain, master, was carried over the reef by
the N.W. current of the stream, caused by a gale from the N.E. The vessel

N. A. O. 3 P

398 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

bilged in shallow water, but an anchor was thrown out, and the next day
the vessel was found to have grounded on Elliot's Kay, with its anchor
among the trees.

The water is supposed at times to have risen to the height of 33 ft., and to
have been running against the fury of the winds at the rate of 7 miles an
hour. During these times the Strait of Florida exhibits a scene beyond
description.

Besides the effect which different winds have upon the stream, it is subject
to another power that also directs it toward or from tho coast ; and that is,
the moon, which, according to her position, has different effects upon it,
not, however, in equal power with those of the wind ; but the disposition of
the stream is increased to its extreme, if the effect of both the wind and the
moon are combined ; for at this time, the ocean rising highest, this regu-
lates the flood and ebb, and divides them in proportionate times ; conse-
quently it directs and increases them, with an easterly moon and wind to the
West, and with a westerly moon and wind to the East ; so that the West and
East shores are at times deprived of, and at other times overflowed by, tides,
occasioned by these vicissitudes.

The boisterous East, N.E., and North winds which affect the Gulf Stream,
generally begin in September, and continue until March ; when, if the moon
happens just at the time to be on the full or change, they commonly end
;• with a hurricane.

(279.) Captain Livingston has said : — " The calculations of the velocity of
the Gulf Stream are not to be depended on. I have found it setting at the
rate of 5 knots, and even upwards. This was on the 16th and 17th of
August, 1817. On the 19th and 20th of February, 1819, it seemed to be
almost imperceptible. In September, 1819, it set at much about the rate
described in the charts."

Ono remarkable instance of its diverging from the usually supposed velo-
city is given in a communication of Captain Giles, of the barque Charles,
who found it to run 5 and 5£ knots, in January, 1843. "The first day I
bt'tran to make any material progress was with the Tortugas bearing about
IS.Vj. ; the following day I had a current of 53 miles S.E. by S. ; the n^xt
ddy, CO miles S S.E. ± E. I was then in lat. 24° 10', long. 85° W. The
weather would not permit our sighting the Tortugas, though we passed
thou: very closely. The next day we made, by very good observations, 75
miles of due easterly current, which, with the ship's work, placed her in
lat. 24 J 12', and long. 81° 33' W. The succeeding day, towards dark, the
wind being strong from E.S.E., and considering myself in the vicinity of the
indraught of the Great Inlet, I put the ship's head to the southward, under
close-reefed topsails, and nothing more set, and reached her to till daylight,
that being twelve hours good ; towards noon it fell calm. I then found that
wo had been set nearly in the direction that the elbow of the land trends
one hundred and ten miles, we being at noon in lat. 25° 15' N., long. 79° 45'
W. Tho loliowing day we had light, variable airs and calms, heavy rain,
ranch rhundor and lightning, and very thick weather (as it had been the day
previously). We picked ourselves up at noon, lat. 27° 20' N., and long.
79- 3'>' W.,' having had the current N. by E. one hundred and twenty miles. I
intended to pass through tho Providence N.W. Channel, but the current

THE GULF STREAM. 399

swept us past the mouth of it in the light airs which we had on the last two
days of our passage."

(280.) Captain (aft. General) Saline, E.R.S., says:— "There can be little
hesitation in attributing the unusual extension of the stream in particular
years to its greater initial velocity.

"On the 5th of December, 1822, the Pheasant, bound to New York,
quitted the northern boundary of the stream in lat. 36 J°, long. 72£°. In
the stream, in latitude 36 s 14', long. 72° 25', the temperature of the surface
water was 74°, and of the air', 65\ Between 10 a.m. and noon the tern-
perature had fallen from 74° to 62.4°, being a difference of 11.6. The
surface water on which the ship entered was in motion to the westward, at
the average rate of 16 miles in the following twenty-four hours, aud gene-
rally to the West and S.W. between the northern side of the stream and
the banks on the coast of Maryland. This motion may be more properly
characterised as a drift current, occasioned by the prevalence and strength
of recent northerly gales, than as a counter current. In approaching tho
bank (or soundings), the surface water at eight a.m. and at noon, on the 7th
of December, was 59.5°; at three p.m. it had fallen to 54.2*; on which,
upon sounding, bottom was found in 33 fathoms ; on the following morning,
in 30 fathoms, the surface was 53.5° and at eight a.m. on the 19th, in 12
fathoms, but still with no land in sight (being 20 miles off the coast), 41.5°.
In the afternoon of the same day, when about 2 miles distant from Sandy
Hook (New York Harbour), the water had finally lowered to 45°. Thus, in
a space of the ocean scarcely exceeding 200 miles in direct distance, the heat
of the surface progressively diminished from 74° to 45°."

(281.) Temperature.— The high temperature of the Gulf Stream is one of
its chief characteristics, and has attracted from very early times almost as
much attention as its velocity. A work was composed on this subject,
entitled " Thermometrical Navigation," written by Col. Jonathan Williams,
and published at Philadelphia, 1799, from which the following extracts are
given.

Commodore Truxton says : — " In the stream the water is much warmer than
the air ; indeed, I have known it 10° warmer ; but as soon as you get within
the stream (that is, between it and the coast), the water becomes colder
than the air ; and the more as you get on soundings, and approach the
shore. If mariners, who have not the opportunity of determining their
longitude by celestial observations, will only carry ivith them a good thermo-
meter, and try the temperature of the water, and compare it with that of the
air every two hours, they may always know when they come into or go out
of, the Gulf Stream. Indeed, I have always made a practice, when at sea,
of comparing the temperature of the water and air daily, and often very
frequently, during the day, throughout the voyage ; whereby I immediately
discovered anything of a current that way going, and afterward found its
strength and directions by observations for the latitude and longitude. It
is of the utmost consequence in making a passage to and from Europe to
be acquainted with this Gulf Stream ; as, by keeping in it, when bound
eastward, you shorten your voyage ; and by avoiding it, when returning to
the westward, you facilitate it inconceivably ; so much so, that I have fre-
quently, when bound from Europe to America, spoke European ships,

400 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CUEEENTS.

unacquainted with the strength and extent of it, off the Banks of New-
foundland, and been in port a very considerable time before them, by keep-
ing out of the stream ; whereas they lengthened their passage by keeping
in it. The general course of the Gulf Stream being marked on the chart,
I would advise those who make the northern passage from Europe never to
come nearer the inner line of it, by choice, than 10 or 15 leagues ; and then
probability will be that their passage will be assisted by the help of a
counter-current, which runs within it. In coming off a voyage from the
southward, be sure to steer N.W. when approaching the stream, if the wind
will permit you ; and continue that course until you are within it, which may
be easily known by the temperature of the water, as before mentioned. I
have always considered it of the utmost consequence, when bound in, to cross
the stream as speedily as possible, lest I should be visited by calms or adverso
winds, and by those means driven far out of my way, which would prolong
tho voyage considerably, especially in the winter season."

(282.) From the fact that when crossing the Gulf Stream from East to
West, the temperature suddenly fell when its western edge was passed, that
is, coincidently with obtaining soundings, it was argued by Colonel "Williams,
and long maintained that the thermometer would certainly indicate tho
approach to soundings by a fall in the temperature of the water in any part
of tho ocean.

From the facts quoted, he infers that, " By the coincidence of these thrco
journals, at so great a distance of time, and without any connection with
each other, this important fact seems to be established : — A navigator may
discover his approach toward objects of danger, when he is at such a distance as to
be able easily to avoid them, by attentively examining the temperature of the sea ;
the water over banks and shoals, in these regions, being colder, in general,
than that of the deep ocean."

Now although this remark holds good as to this portion of the American
coast, and in some other parts of the world, under similar influences, yet it
is founded on a fallacy, and certainly has not that universal application
which former observers endeavoured to claim for it. This question is now
generally well understood, and it is only necossary thus to refer to it, as a
memorial of past times. When it was first promulgated, the extension of
the Arctic Current to the southward in such a remarkable manner inside the
Gulf Stream was not suspected. And although Mr. Eedfield's views, given
hereafter, are now fully maintained, yet the more extended observations of
the United States Coasts Survey, have revealed such singular facts, that
even now we must confess that our knowledge of the compensating system
of tho ocean is exceedingly imperfect.

(283.) The mean surface temperature of the Gulf Stream, in the early part
of its course may be ascertained from the vast and confused mass of figures
contained in Captain Maury's Thermal Charts. The temperatures thus
recorded, however, show large variations between themselves in the same
periods. This may arise from two causes — the one from the variation known
to exist in the stream itself, and which is frequently considerable ; and
the other from the imperfection of the thermometers used, and this, as
many of the observations appear to have been derived from voyages mado
before standard thermometers were employed, may include a considerable

THE GULF STREAM. 401

portion of the discrepancies which exist. Another and very important addi-
tion to this branch of the subject, is tho work of Lieut. Andrau " Onder-
zoekingen met den Zeetherniometer," published by the Netherlands Royal
Meteorological Iustitute, Utrecht, 1861.

The following are the result of the calculations for the temperature of the
main strength of the current from the narrows of the Little Bahama Bank
to the meridian of Halifax. To the eastward of this, or long. 60°, the tem-
perature, especially in winter and spring, becomes rapidly lower and very
irregular, as will be presently alluded to, and therefore our comparison will
now be limited to this section, which comprises a distance of about 1,200
miles, and which is traversed by the stream in aboiit 25 to 35 days.

Upon comparing these temperatures, which are carried so many miles
unimpaired by the Gulf Stream with the inner Arctic Current between tho
stream and the shores of Virginia, New Jersey, New York, &c, a surprising
difference will be seen, especially in the spring months, when the differenco
is at a mean 30°, and other seasons from 15° to 23". This will be more fully
entered into in the next section.

(284.) It has been found that the temperature of the stream varies in a
greater degree than could be accounted for by the climates it had passet!
through, being sometimes warmer to the North, and cooler to the South, of
any particular position. This seems to be accounted for by the variability
of the source of the stream in the Gulf of Mexico and elsewhere, which it
would be very difficult to follow up to any specific determination.

(285.) Warm Bands. — The Gulf Stream was found, in the early operations
in its investigation in 1815-48, to consist of a series of alternations of cold
and warm water, a fact which was very surprising at the time, but the
results of the latter explorations in 1853, entirely confirm the former ones
in this respect. In fact the Gulf Stream is merely one of a number of bands
of warm water separated by cold water. The observations on the Hatteras,
Cape Fear, and Charleston sections, show a counter-current where the cold
streaks are found ; and as these observations and those for temperature are
entirely independent of each other, the coincidence in result is very striking.
This fact is of too great importance not to be carefully followed up. It would
appear from general reasoning, that this was not unlikely to be the case."

On the land side, the division between the cool and warm water is very
distinct. It is now concluded that this separation into distinct belts is owing
to the form of the bottom, as they appear to be strongest North of the
section of Capo Canaveral, where the range of submai-ine hills and dales
(272) is found very much to coincide with the position of those cool and
warm belts ; and this conclusion is strengthened by the fact, that South of
Cape Florida, where the bottom is even, they disappear altogether.

(28G.) Subsurface Temperatu res. —It was formerly held that the Gulf Stream
flowed on in ono majestic current of warm water from its surface to its bed.
The magnitude of its effects and the extent of its area seemed to leave
room for no other conclusion. But the first observation of ice-cold water at
a small depth in its narrowest and strongest part overturned all these hypo-
theses, and left a most perplexing condition in which we are at a loss to

402 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

know where to look for an explanation.* How this cold water, flowing
directly contrary to the course of the upper strata, should preserve its polar
characteristic almost unimpaired to such an enormous distance from its
origin, and under such apparently adverse circumstances, cannot be ex-
plained with our present views. Again, by what power, or source of action,
are the lower strata made to move in an opposite direction to those superin-
cumbent upon them, and which, it might be supposed, would be acted on by
the same laws and move in the same manner ? It is one of the most
remarkable evidences of that grand compensating system by which the
Great Creator has commanded that all the harmonies of the universe shall
be maintained — which keeps the atmosphere and ocean in a perpetual con-
dition of interchange, and thus makes them fit for the sustenance of his
creatures.

We have alluded to this universal intermingling of the ocean waters before
(168). Of the presence of polar water in these tropical regions thero can
be no doubt. The following extract from the Eeport of the Superinttndent
of the U. S. Government Survey will place it beyond question : —

" The southern sections present on a small scale, the same phenomena
which we formerly traced over a large expanse in the more northern ones.
Examining the Canaveral section, which is the furthest South, we see the
cold wall almost as plainly as on that from Sandy Hook ; the curve, showing
the mean results between 70 and 100 fathoms, rises some 17 degrees, from
57£° to 74£° Farenheit, in the distance of 23 nautical miles. The warm
water, overlying the cold, is deeper in its overflow towards the shore — that
is all. Passing the warmest water, there is a fall of temperature of several
degrees, followed by a rise. On the St. Simons section the cold wall is again
well shown, and is the first of those distinct bands of minimum temperature
dividing four maxima, of which the greatest body of warm water of the
Gulf Stream is the second from the shore. Near the surface the first and
fourth maxima are the highest; at 15 fathoms, the first and second ; at 150
fathoms, the successive maxima rise as they recede from the shore. The
Charleston section presents, as a general feature, between 25 fathoms and
250 fathoms four minima and three maxima. Within the cold Avail mini-
mum is a decided warm belt, and probably further on in-shore is a cold one.
The rise in the mean of the temperature at 20 and 30 fathoms is 11° Fah-
renheit, namely from 64° to 75°. The advantage of not relying on surface
temperatures, or those near the surface, where the distribution is so much

* In the experiments made by the United States' Coast Survey the temperature was
gained from all depths, from the surface down to 600 fathoms. At great depths a peculiar
thermometer was used, constructed for the purpose, whose principal of action depends on
the differing expansion of two metals. It is a spiral coil «omposed of two strips of silver
and platinum soldered together, which, from their unequal contraction and expansion by
the effects of temperature, act on an index, which registers the extreme temperatures.

But later experiments have shown that many of these results are fallacious, both as
respects this differential evil, and especially with the ordinary thermometer with unpro-
tected bulb as was formerly used ; and therefore all of them will require revision, as the
probability, nay certainty, is that the recorded temperatures at great depths have been
placed much too high. Of this more hereafter.

THE GULF STREAM. 403

less regular and marked than below, will be recognised in all these results,
and was early provided for in my instructions.

" The underlying cold water from the northern regions is as plain in the
southern section as it was in the more northern. 400 fathoms vertically
below the warmest water of the Gulf Stream, on the Cape Henlopen section,
in August, 1846, the temperature was 49° Fahrenheit, and in the same
position off Cape Canaveral, in Juno, 1853, it was 48£ .* The latitude cor-
responding to the first temperature was about 37° 20', and to the last about
28° 20'. Lieut. Charles H. Davis, in October, 1845, found a temperature of
40° at 1,000 fathoms, in lat. 39° 25', and long. 69° 1', and Lieut. George M.
Bache 40° at 2,160 fathoms, in lat. 34° 13', long. 68° 5'. Lieut. S. P. Lee,
in August, 1847, found 37° below the Gulf Stream, at the depth of 1,000
fathoms, in lat. 35° 26', long 73° 12' ; and again 48° beyond the Gulf Stream,
at the same depth, in lat. 30° 10', and long. 68° 9'. Lieut. Eichard Bache,
in July, 1848, found a temperature of 42° at 1,000 fathoms, in lat. 35° 6',
and long. 74° 7', below the surface of the Gulf Stream.

" The fact that the side limits of the polar current recede from the shore
as the depth increases, is clearly marked on all the sections. Directly down
below the maximum surface temperature we soon plunge into this cold cur-
rent, the warmer water receding from the shore, and at 400 fathoms reach
temperatures, the differences between which at the North and South, are of
an order corresponding to the variations of the ocean waters in different
years and at different seasons. For example, at the depth of 400 fathoms,
on the Sandy Hook section, in 1846, vertically below the crest of the Gulf
Stream the temperature was 51° Fahrenheit; on the Henlopen section, at
the corresponding point, 51°; on the Cape Henry section, 54J°; in 1848, on
the Cape Henry section, 52^; and on the Hatteras section, 52°; in 1853,
on the Hatteras section, 51°; and on the Cape Fear section, 54°; all tho
foregoing observations being made in July and August of the several years.
In June, 1853, the temperature at the point and depth before noted on the
Charleston section, was 55°, and near Cape Florida, 14 miles E.N. U. from
the light, was 51°, varying from 54° to 46° in the intermediate localities.
The low temperature of 46° was observed on the Canaveral section. The
temperature at 400 fathoms, near Cape Florida, is the same as was observed
on the Sandy Hoi k sei-tion in July, 1846, viz, 49°.

" I remarked that these differences came within the annual changes near
the surface. Not to complicate the examination with surface irregularities,
if we compare the maximum temperatures at 12 or 15 fathoms below the
surface of the different sections, in the same year, we shall find, as a general
rule, an increase of temperature in passing southward, as 81°, 83°, 82°, from
the Sandy Hook to the Cape Henry section ; in 1846, 75^, 76°, 77£°, 79£°,
from the Charleston section to the Cape Canaveral. But in successive years
tve have for the highest temperature at 12 fathoms, on the Cape Henry

* Reference may be agaiu made to the note on the previous page relating to these deep
sea temperatures. The comparisons with the recent, show that these temperatures are too
high by 2° or 3° at 500 fathoms, and perhaps as much as 6° or 10 3 at 2,000 fathoms. This
is owing to the great pressure of the water on the unprotected bulb of the thermometer
forcing up the mercury.

404 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

section, higher than that of Hatteras ; and the temperature in Juiy, 1846, on
the axis of the Gulf Stream, higher at Sandy Hook than in June, 1853, at
Canaveral, by a degreo and a half, and higher than Charleston by five and
a half degrees. It is obvious that hero an interesting field of enquiry opens,
requiring careful research."-' 1

(287.) The Cold Wall. — The separation between the warm, deep, blue
waters of the Gulf Stream and the inner cold counter-current is some-
times so well marked that "one end of a ship is seen in the one, and the
other end in the other current." Although it does not follow that this
line of demarcation is as distinct as Captain Maury says, as above, yet a
remarkable feature has been eliminated by the United States' Coast Survey
so often quoted here. It is, that the separation between the two currents
is so well marked beneath the surface, and to the greatest depths, as to have
obtained for it the title of the "Cold Wall," being, in fact, an upright
division between them. This peculiarity has been found to exist almost
along the whole coast of the United States, where the stream skirts the
bank of soundings. Without diagrams the features cannot be made quite
intelligible ; but the main fact, so interesting to the physical geographer, is
as above stated — that there appears to be a marked non-affinity between the
waters flowing in opposite directions.

It was at first supposed the cold wall was cut off at Cape Hatteras, but
the subsequent researches have qualified this notion. The cold water has
been traced as far as the Tortugas. Off the Sombrero Kay the cold wall was
strongly marked at depths varying from 70 to 100 fathoms, while everywhere
the warm water overflows the cold wall, and reaches quite to the shore.

The shallowness of the stream in the Strait of Florida, connected with the
fact that the bottom falls off rapidly to the . North and South, afforded an
excellent opportunity for testing the question whether the cold water of the
under polar current is forced upwards by the change in depth — as, should
this be the case, the cold water would appear in the shallow part of the
strait ; and this has actually been found to be the case, as the warm surface
water of the temperature of 80° and the cold water of the bottom of the
temperature of 49° nearly approach each other. It does not follow by this
that the " waters run up hill," as has been stated.

(288.) Counter Currents. — Besides the great arctic current which flows
southward inside the stream to be described in the next section, there are
some other counter-currents on each side of the stream which require notice
here. They appear in the first part of its course in the Gulf of Florida,
where they have been known to flow from the earliest times, as has been
alluded to in (253), page 381.

(289.) The Counter- Current along the Florida Beefs is marked on all the old
surveys of these reefs, and is, during the summer months especially, fre-
quently met with. It may be readily accounted for. On page 389 (266) it
will be seen that the main strength of the Gulf Stream, after passing the
" Great "Whirlpool"! of the Mexican Gulf, runs with the greatest swittness

* Professor A. D. Bache, Report U.S. Coast Survey, 1853, pp. 48-9.
t See Dr. Lorimer, April 21, 1769, "Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc, Philadelphia," vol. i.,
p. 2-50.

THE GULF STEEAM. 405

past the coast of Cuba, and that the channel is by much the deepest close to
the South side, and slopes more gradually from the North. On the shallower
water, but not within the reefs, this counter-current runs, by which a vessel
may with easo and knowledge work to westward. It may bo taken as an
eddy, aided by the trade wind, which may give it an additional impetus.
It has been well elucidated by Lieutenant E. 13. Hunt, Engineer, U.S.A.,
who, having stayed in the neighbourhood for some time, obtained some par-
ticulars from the well-informed residents of these Kays.*

(290.) Captain Geiger, who for some thirty years, has been observing the
waters of this vicinity, most of that time having acted as a pilot off Kay
"West Harbour, and who is, perhaps, better acquainted than any other
person with the currents there prevailing, gives the following statement
of facts : —

A strong North or N.E. wind keeps the Gulf Stream back, and makes
a westerly current near the shore. During June, July, and August,
the westerly current prevails more than the easterly current from 5 to 15
miles from the reef. The direction of the current depends mostly on the
wind. The westerly current prevails for from one- third to two-fifths the
entire time from year to year, for from 2 to 15 miles outside the reef off tho
West. He has known it 25 to 30 miles off Sand Kay.

Y/hen the Gulf Stream is strongest on the Cuba shore, the westerly
current is strongest on the North side ; and when it is weakest along tho
Cuba shore, the Gulf Stream sets close along the reef. He has found the
westerly current as far up as Carysfort, but not frequently, and not broad
or strong. The current broadens from Carysfort to the westward, and con-
tinues about constant along its course.

The tides on the two sides of the reef are about six hours apart on an
average, but set, on the whole, as much one way as the other over the reef.
Sometimes there is a narrow easterly current for a mile from the reef, then
a westerly current, and then the Gulf Stream. A considerable number of
the Gulf traders know of, and make use of, this current in going westwardly.
After northers the westerly current may be expected. Sometimes in cross-
ing to Havana no Gulf Stream indications are found, and sometimes a
westerly current is found along the North shore of Cuba.

Notwithstanding Captain Geiger's long observation of these currents, he
says that he is quite unable to reduce them to rule, or in any way to know
beforehand how the current will be found to set.

Captain Richardson, pilot, of the United States' Coast Survey steamer
Coriven, says: — "The westerly current appears irregularly, chiefly in winter,
but sometimes during the prevalence of the regular trades. It extends
from 10 to 15 miles off from Sand Kay, and runs sometimes two miles per
hour. It never prevails over the reef proper. It spreads further from the
reef as it goes West. Off Indian Kay it sometimes extends 7 miles from the
edge of the reef; at Bahia Honda, sometimes 10 miles ; and at Sand Kay,
from 10 to 15 miles. Some years (as in the winter of 1856-7) there was

* Silliman's American Journal, March, 1859, vol. xxvii., pp. 207—214. See also the
remarks on page 390, relating to the " white water " of the Tortugas.

N. A. O. 3 G

406 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

very little of this current. The Gulf Stream usually runs stronger on the
Cuban side. In one case, in 1852, two vessels bound East passed Tortugas,
■which separated about 100 miles in twenty-four hours, by one captain
knowing this current and the channel, while the other kept in the westerly
or counter-current. The tide below the Quicksands and Tortugas sets flood
N.N.E., and ebb S.S.E., differing from the Charts."

(291.) But this counter-current, also, is felt on the Cuban side sometimes,
probably all the way from the Bahama Old Channel. Of this we have
several instances from the communications of Captain Livingston and
others ; the most singular of these, however, is that of Captain Loudon, of
the brig Perry, on returning, in the latter part of November, 1827, from
New Orleans to Liverpool. Captain Loudon had made the Iron Hills in
Cuba ; shortly after noon he tacked ship to the northward and westward
about 8 or 9 miles off shore ; next day he kept beating to windward, as
Dear to the middle of the strait as he could judge, and without sighting the
land on either side, the wind then blowing a fresh gale to the northward ;
and he continued beating in the same manner until about eight a.m, of the
second day, when, by reckoning, he ought to have been near the Salt Kays ;
but obtaining a lunar observation, it showed, to his astonishment, his
longitude to be to the westward of 83°. Supposing his observation to be
erroneous, he took a second set of lunar distances, which gave a similar
result. Still, however, doubtful, he stood on, and in a short time afterward
gained soundings on the Tortugas Bank .' The northerly gale had now
abated, and he worked his vessel in, on soundings, to the northward of the
Dry Tortugas. With a favourable wind he ran through the Tortugas
Channel ; but as light and baffling winds succeeded, he made for the stream
as it became dusk, and with such wind got through the strait in the two
following days, having, on his way, found the current very rapid along the
Martyrs. Captain Loudon justly remarked, that so extraordinai-y a circum-
stance, of which ho is positively certain, ought to bo generally known.

"Masters of vessels from Vera Cruz, &c, to Havana, often lengthen
their voyage by keeping away too much to the southward after rounding the
Dry Tortugas, fearful of being carried away to the eastward of Havana by
the strength of the Florida Stream ! Some have fetched in about the Port
of Honda, the Cock's Comb, and one vessel even as low as Cape Antonio." —
Lieut. John Evans.

(292.) Easterly Drift from the Gulf Stream, on the North and N.E. of the
Bahamas, &,'c— The Gulf Stream about the Bahamas appears to have a drift
or tendency to the eastward ; and there is reason to believe that an off-set of
the stream, from without the Mantanillo Bank, sets, if not generally, very
frequently, to the eastward and S.E. It would seem as if the stream in
passing eastward along the southern Florida Kays still kept on this easterly
course with a considei'able rate over the shallow Bahama Banks, and in the
deep channels to cause very uncertain streams.

Capt. Livingston has said : — " The notices we have, tend to prove that an
easterly set-off from the Gulf Stream sets to tho northward of the Bahamas;
of this I am so firmly convinced, that if in charge of a ship from the Havana,
or even New Orleans, bound to Jamaica, I should, if allowed to follow my

THE GULF STREAM. 407

own plan, run out of the Strait of Florida, and atterap making my passage
with the aid of this set-off. This is to be undersood, in case I should not
have westerly winds in the southern parallels; for such winds are, I am told,
more frequent than formerly ; and I know that they are by no means of rare
occurrence on the S.W. of Cuba."

(293.) The last remark is one that would be adduced by many to prove
that the surface of the Gulf Stream is roof-shaped, and that any floating body
remaining inactive on it has a tendency to drift to its margins, especially to
the eastward and south-eastward. How far this assumption will be borne
out by more exact observation, it is difficult to judge, but there certainly
seems to^be some ground for the opinion, as its edges especially are marked
by a larger collection of Gulf weed and other drift matter than are found in
the centre. Again, there seems to be a tendency for vessels to be floated to
the East'and S.E. without their knowing it. It has been urged by Captain
Maury that this may be owing to the effect of the earth's rotation, which
runs the current from under the ship, and, as he says, the tendency of a
railway train going North or South, is to run off the rails to the eastward of
its route. This has been made the subject of some interesting experiments
by M. Foucault and others ; but we know so little that it were futile to
argue on it.

(294.) In the northern regions of the stream, when the cold upon the land
is in winter most intense, which is generally between December and March,
heavy and continued gales very frequently prevail, which commonly proceed
from between the North and "West, across the course of the stream, from
Cape Hatteras until past George Shoal, and bend its direction to the east*
wards; being aided at the same time by the discharge of the great bays and
rivers, increased by the force of the wind blowing down them, and the
constant supply of stream that passes along the coast of the Carolinas, the
whole produces so strong a current to the eastward as to render it impossible
for a ship to approach the coast until a change of wind commences.

During the prevalence of a southerly or easterly wind, which is not so
common here, it has been found that the current is forced close to, and in
some parts upon, the edge of soundings ; being thus pent in between the
wind and the shoal grounds near the shore, the breadth is greatly diminished,
and the velocity proportionately increased. This circumstance has been in
particular observed from about the longitude of Flock Island, along the edge
of the Nantucket Bank, thence beyond George's Dank, and also along the
coasts of Georgia and part of South Carolina. In the first instance, that the
southerly winds forced the current to the edge of soundings, where it then
ran from 1J to 2 knots; and in the latter instance, that the easterly wind
forced the current upon soundings. With West and N.W. winds, the stream
would be removed some leagues further off.

From what has been said, it is clear that the eddies about the edges
of the stream must vary according to the circumstances above explained.
Along these edges, but more particularly along the outer edge, there is
generally a current in a different direction, which is accellerated by the
wind in proportion to its strength, blowing contrary to the stream, and
retarded, and perhaps altogether obstructed, by the wind blowing in the

408 OBSERVATIONS ON TIIE CURRENTS.

direction of the stream. In the latter case the limits of the stream will be
extended.

(295.) The Channel of the Gulf Stream.— The peculiar and dangerous
character of the shores of the Gulf, and the necessity which existed for the
establishment of some means of averting the mischief it annually occa-
sioned, led to a minute examination of its features so geologically and
geographically interesting, which has been made practically useful by the
erection of a fine line of beacons and the necessary lighthouses upon the
Florida .Reefs.

Professor Agassiz, who investigated this subject, has shown that the
Florida Kays and Reefs are essentially of coral formation in various stages
of existence. At Kay West, the basis of this is shown to be a coarse oolitic
rock with cross stratifications, and dipping at various angles in different
directions. The formation of coral upon this rock extends not only over the
Kays, but also to the main land of Florida, and by a careful process of
inquiry and reasoning it may be inferred that a very different order of things
existed at no very remote period of tho world's history.

We have a peninsula— a narrow, flat strip of land, projecting for about
5 degrees from the main land, between the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of
Mexico, and forming an effective barrier between the waters of the two seas,
which otherwise, even by the change of a few feet in the relative level of the
intervensng peninsula, would communicate freely with one another ; and this
peninsula we now know to have been added to the continent, step by step,
in a southerly direction.

We know that the time cannot be far behind us when the present reef,
with its few kays, did not exist, and when the channel, therefore, was
broader, and the Gulf Stream flowed directly along the main range of kays
We know, further, that at some earlier period the kays themselves were not
yet formed, and that the channel between Cuba and Florida was wider still,
washing freely over the grounds now known as the mud flats, between the
kays and the main land, and that there was then nothing to impede a free
communication between the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean.

If it is true that the Gulf Stream and the south-west winds have an in-
fluence in determining the course of the isothermal lines upon the two sides
of the Atlantic, and of raising beyond their normal altitude the mean annual
temperatures of north-west Europe, then we may look to tho physical changes
which have occurred on the south-eastern extremity of tho North American
continent for the cause, or at least a partial cause, of those changes of
temperature which have taken place in the beginning of the present period,
in those very north-western portions of Europe which are now so much
warmer than the corresponding latitudes on the American continent, and
which, soon after the accumulation of the glacial drift, had as low mean
annual temperature as the coasts of Labrador, Nova Scotia, and New Eng-
land in our day.

The present condition of the Florida country then is this : — On the outer
edge we have " thereof" a submerged line of danger to the navigator, which
rises nearly to the surface of the water, on which every variety of coral life
is developed. It follows the line of Kays within it in a perfectly parallel
curve, and forms the boundary to the Ship Channel inside it for hundreds of

THE GULF STREAM. 409

miles. Upon this line and space are small patches which rise above the
surface, of course of dead coral, and upon these is gradually heaped the
debris of the reef, in tho form of sand and broken coral, till it attains a
permanent level above tho surface. Within this reef is a channel which
has a depth of from 2 to 7 and 8 fathoms, which, with care and some know-
ledge, may be navigated, and which has various openings to it through the
reef.

These Kays consist generally of coral boulders and the fragments of coral
and shells heaped up by tho action of the waves, and which have become
agglutinate by some obscure process, till they become firm land, not by the
upheaval of old coral growths, but by the action of a stormy sea and
tremendous waves. They are generally level, and it is only at times that
the water rises sufficiently to account for their elevation. On page 397 (278)
13 an instance long recorded of an extraordinary rise in tho waters.

In the year 1846, the water roso eight and a half feet above high- water
mark at Kay Vacc.13. Kay "West was entirely inundated during the same
gale; and though that island is somewhat protected by the reef, at present
the rushes, driven upon it by the flood, may be seen among the trees and
bushes, at a height almost equal to its loftiest summit. In 1841 the water
roso ten feet above high-water mark at Cape Komaine, on the western shore
of the peninsula.

This brief notice must suffice on this head. Proceeding still further
northward, we find an important result of the operation of the Gulf Stream,
in tho formation of the range of the Sea Islands of Georgia, so famous for
the growth of its peculiar cotton. These low alluvial deposits are the results
of gradual accretion still going on, which affords a genial soil for the cotton
plant, while the tepid waters of the Gulf Stream, which rush past them,
tempers the easterly winds which blow on this seaboard, and add their
important influences to the peeuliar growth of this cotton plant.

(296.) Recapitulation.— We have thus described this famous stream, per-
haps at greater length than is needed, from its origin in the Mexican Gulf
to the offings of Capo Cod and Nantucket, a portion of its course much better
known than any other, and easy of definition, which is not the case with its
further progress.

It has been shown (265) that, between the Tortugas and Havana, it is
only about 40 miles wide, and not 1,200 feet deep, travelling with a mean
annual velocity on the surface of 32-7 miles per day, as was previously esti-
mated in this work, or of 30 7 miles as calculated from the Board of Trade
charts, which will always be preferred.

Passing onwards to the Narrows of the gulf between the Bernini Islands
and Cape Florida, distant 330 miles from the first section, we come to that
part which, beyond contradiction, decides the whole character of the Gulf
Stream, as the ivhole of it passes over this outfall. It is here 39 J miles
wide, and thw water above the temperature of 60° is about 1,200 feet deep
in the centre of the stream. The sectional area of the stream in this part is
therefore about 6 '64 square miles.

Its velocity was calculated, in former editions of this work, to be about
65*4 miles per day on an annual mean ; but the much more exact d ata of
the Meteorological Department (1872) gives an annual mean of 48-0 mile g

410 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

per da)'. (In Spring, 43-6 miles; Summer, 45 - l miles; Autumn, 4f)'8 miles;
and Winter, 53*4 miles per day); which is contrary to previous calculations.
These figures accord very well with those which result from the calculations
made for the Tortuga-Havana section.

Now, as the inference is that the cold substratum of the Gulf Stream is
moving in a direction opposite to its course, that is, southwardly, there is
some poiut where, there is no movement. Making all possible allowance for
the decrease in velocity from 48-0 miles on the surface to 0-0 at the bottom
(and this must be done in an empirical manner, and may be much overrated)
the mean velocity of tho whole mass will not exceed 36-25 miles per day.
The sectional area of the stream not exceeding 664 square miles, it follows
that there are not more than 2407 cubic miles of water passing per day
over a given line in this part of its course.

Its mean rate of progress, when passing Cape Hatteras, is given as
nearly the same as in the Narrows, 47-2 miles per day, though this is in
excess of the velocities given at intermediate points. The surface water
will take 13| days to pass from Cape Florida to Cape Hatteras, 630 miles
apart ; but if the whole mass maintains the same rate, it will not pass over
under 17 days, and will be at the annual mean, only 4°. 2 Fahrenheit cooler
(varying from 10° to l°-2). Off New York, it will be 10° cooler (varying
from 17° in winter to 3°. 9 in August). Off Cape Hatteras the breadth of the
stream is 120 miles, therefore it has expanded to a breadth of more than
three times (3-3) its width at the outfall, and its whole mass will make a
bed of water 366 feet thick.

From this line to that of the section running S.E. of Nantucket,
the distance is about 480 miles. On and near this section temperature
soundings were taken by the U. S. coast surveyors, Commander Craven in
1354, Davis in 1845, and Bache in 1846, and their observations place us in
a difficulty ; for the warmer waters were not found to exist northward of the
parallel of 38° N. ; the " cold wall" showed itself to the North of this, and
then two less warm beds as far as 40° N. But the observations for current
motion show its eastern progress much further than this, in fact up to 41° N.
If we accept the lower estimate of its rate made by the Meteorological Office
(as should be done), it will take 16 days to move the whole mass from
Hatteras to Nantucket, or 33 days from the Outfall. Its temperature has
only reduced from 12° to 18° since it left the Gulf of Florida. It is this
id course and consequent preservation of its original warmth, that has
so remarkable in all ages.

• hile it has thus carried the tropical heat so near to, and amidst
tic coid, its volume must be spread over a very much wider
I ace, for its somewhat undefined breadth off Nantucket may be assumed
at 300 miles, or seven times its original breadth ; and if its velocity through-
out were equal, it could only be 170 ft. deep, but as its rate has somewhat
diminished it may be taken as 200 ft. ; but then its surface has much cooled
down, and the body of warm water cannot bo assumed even as high as this
calculation makes it.

(297.) This brings this wonderful current down to the new phase of its
character. Hitherto it has been a rapid heat-bearing stream, pressing on
to the American coast, beyond the usual limits of where the division lies in

THE GULF STKEAM. 411

other oceans between the westward tendency of sea and air within the
tropics, and the eastward movements of extra-tropical latitudes. Hence-
forth it leaves the coast on a due eastward course to the South of the great
collection of banks which lie of the British American possessions, and this
portion of the stream will be considered in the next pages.

(298.) Eastern Extension between about 68° W. and 48° W.: — In examining
the condition of the Gulf Stream, in the next 850 miles, we encounter many
difficulties. Its physical features, the interferences it encounters, the op-
posing streams which neutralize its onward course, and the ever-varying rate
of its current, have all to be taken into consideration. By confining the
observations to those made, in the summer season, by the U.S. officers, off
Nantucket, and to the current observations integrated by the Board of
Trade, it might almost bo inferred that the Gulf Stream ceased between
Nantucket and the S.W. part of Nova Scotia ; for while the first makes the
whole bulk of its warmer water to lie South of lat. 38° hereabout, the current
observations show no eastward drift to the northward of that parallel in the
same region. But the varying easterly drifts, and the generally much
warmer water which is found than is due to the latitude, will point to its
origin. By the rapid transport of heated water into these regions by its
northern course, one feature is brought into existence which has not been
sufficiently considered — that of the fogs which characterises the whole section
now to be considered. The Nova Scotia and Nantucket Bank, as well as the
Newfoundland Great Bank, is proverbially a region of dense mist. The cool
winds condense the evaporation from the warm Gulf waters over thousands
of square miles ; and this process, as is well known, is one of the most
effective methods of cooling that can be imagined.

In addition, therefore, to the inter-mixture of an enormous bulk of
Arctic water* in this part of its course, it has the no less attractive atmo-
spheric agents at work on its surface in bringing down its waters to less than
the normal temperature due to the latitude. The area, always more or
less enveloped in fogs, and densely so when the prevalent N.W winds blow,
is not less than 20,000 square geographic miles in the offing between Nan-
tucket and the Grand Banks, and this is leaving out of the reckoning all
the other areas subject to the same chilling influences.

H.M.S. Challenger, in her deep-sea exploring expedition, twice crossed the
course of the Gulf Stream in its eastern portion, and Sir Wyville Thomson
remarks that where they crossed it about 250 miles eastward of the Chesa-
peake, the stream was 60 miles in width and 100 fathoms deep. "We pre-
sume that he considers that the stream had a river-like appearance to this ex-
tent. It may be interesting to quote the temperatures at different depths.

* Com. W. Chimmo, R.N., in 1868, found that the Arctic current swept the rocky hottom
bare on the Grand Bank and on the Flemish Cape, at the depth of 250 fathoms. He also
found that the under stratum of cold water was universal, and that the Gulf Stream was
very superficial ; thus, in lat. 44° 3' N., long. 48° V W., which would he in the main strength
of tne stream, while the surface was temperature 61° ; at fifty fathoms it was 43°, or 18°
colder, and this in July. See Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol, xiii.

412

OBSERVATIONS ON TIIE CUEEENTS.

Temperatures observed in crossing and recrossing the Gulf Stream hj II. M. S,
Challenger, April and May, 1873,

Bermudas towards

Sandy Hook.

Halifax towards

Bermudas.

Position of Ship.

^i~>

CO co

o
O O

co t»
65

CO <M
CO l^.

' 75

I~- r-H

co r>.

CO cm
CO !>.

n so
47

1 .

PH CO

Tt< CO

C~. CO
CO CD

co co
co co

co co

At the Surface . .

50 fathoim

—

100 „

6-5

150 „

—

200 „

250 „

300 „

400 „

—

500 „

—

46 |

1000 „. I

—

— 1

—

1500 „

—

33 :

Bottom , .

—

(2850)
fms.

(1750)
fms.

(1240)
fms.

(1250)
fms.

(2020)
fms.

(2800)1
fms. j

(2050)
fms.

(2C50)
fms.

Taking a general view of the temperatures between St. Thomas and
Halifax (each of which places lie on about the same meridian as Bermuda),
it is to be noticed that the surface temperature gradually increases to the
northward and southward of Bermuda ; to the northward by reason of the
warm water of the Gulf Stream, till a maximum of 72° is found in 36J° N. ;
and to the southward by reason of the lower latitude and the Equatorial
currents, until the surface temperature is found to be 79° at St. Thomas.
Below the surface, however, a state of affairs is found to exist as follows :—
100 fathoms below the surface at Bermuda a temperature of 66° is found; at
St. Thomas, 70°; in 36A-° N. At 200 fathoms— at Bermuda, 63±°; at St.
Thomas, 63°; in 36£° N. to 40° N., 63°. At 500 fathoms— at Bermuda, 46^°,
which temperature continues the same to 40° N. ; but at the same depth, in
proceeding to the southward, the temperature gradually decreases till at St.
Thomas it is only 43o-°, or 3° colder than that found 21 degrees of latitude
to the northward. This, although a small difference, must be due to the
effect of the Gulf Stream. Proceeding to the eastward from Bermuda, to-
wards the Azores, the temperature of the surface water decreased gradually,
and that at 500 fathoms remained pretty constant at 46£° for 700 miles.

The velocity of the Gulf Stream in the section now under consideration
is very various; but, as a mean, has been placed at from 26 to 36 miles per
day. If this estimate is reduced from more exact observations,- as has
been done in the course of the stream to the S.W., these figures must be
placed at about 20 or 27 miles respectively, and it would thus take about
forty days to bring the stream from Nantucket to 48° W., a distance of about
850 or 900 miles. This would make a period of 72 days from Florida.
But all calculations on this head are very vague, as we do not know the

THE GULF STREAM 413

relative velocity of various parts of its stream, And nothing cf that at a
short distance below the surface.

The limits of the stream have now become a subject of groat difficulty.
Formerly it was thought that its waters flowed eastward as far South as lat.
36° or 37° between longitudes 65° and 55° W., but with a feeblo current, and
are so marked on the Admiralty Pilot Chart of 1868. But in the Board of
Trade Monthly Charts of 1872 there is positively no evidence of an easterly
set to the southward of lat. 39° beyond longitude 60°. This adds very much
to the complexity of the problem of how the warmer waters can possibly
reach the coasts of N.W. Europe, as is strenuously claimed for them. The
northern margin is known to be in a continual struggle with the Arctic cur-
rent, whicb sets in an opposite direction to its course with about an equal
velocity ; and, therefore, a mere verbal account can give but little delinito
information.* With this uncertainty about its limits or existence in some
parts, it is evidently difficult to estimate its breadth ; but, according to tho
generally received extent, it may be about 300 or 350 miles on the meridian
of 48° W., a most vague amount, but whicb makes it about eight times tho
breadth that it was in the Narrows of Florida ; and, as its mean velocity is
less than one half of what it was at the commencement, it follows that the
whole body of water passing Florida will not be more than 20 or 26 fathoms
deep over sucb a line ; and, as its temperature is lower on the surface at the
eastern part of the course in question than it was at its commencement, it
follows that the film of warm water it sends up here cannot be more than a
few inches in thickness. The area supposed to be covered by it between
Nantucket and long. 48° "W. is not less than 280,000 square miles ; and,
therefore, 239 cubic miles poured over this per diem will make a stratum of
5.15 ft. thick per diem. Further, it may be said that thus far it receives no
tributaries; every observation on the surface recorded negatives such a sup-
position.

Temperature. — There is one singular fact — elicited by later researches, and
by a comparison with the Current Charts of the Meteorological Office—
which is, that the main body of the warm water, which bas been traced
along the United States' coast, bears off in a due easterly course south-
ward of the parallel of 38 c N. — that is, directly across the ocean (not on a
great circle course, but to the southward of it) toward the Strait of Gib-
raltar ; and this, too, where there is not the slightest evidence of an easterly
current on tbe monthly or annual mean chart of the currents. This is very
remarkable, and well deserves attention from those who study the distribu-
tion of Ocean warmth. There can be no doubt of the fact, since Maury,
Eennell, Andrau, and the Meteorological Office, all agree on the point.

(299.) The late Dr. Petermann, who gave an immense amount of study to
the subject, bas drawn up two charts to illustrate his views. They are taken
from the mean values of Maury's and other charts, and are for the months
of July and January. On the July chart, the core of the Gulf Stream

* At times the change from warm to cold surface water is very marked. Commander
Chimmo found it change, in going northward, from 72° to 58° in 2\ hours.

N. A. O. . 3 H

414 OBSERVATIONS ON TIIE CURRENTS.

(Kern des Golfstroms) shows tho form of a tongue, of a temperature of
81.5° (at somo places even 84° was observed), extending North of the
Equator to the 38th degree of latitude. This may be called not only a
warm, but, better, a hot stream. This hot stream produces itself as a
•double tongue, with a mean temperature of from 77° to 81.55° towards the
North as far as the 40th degree of latitude (in one spot only), and toward
the East to the 43rd degree of longitude ; that is far beyond Newfoundland.
In January, the tongue of 77° reaches to lat. 37° and long. 70° 30' W., and
at the place where the East end of this tongue of 77° terminates in July, we
find in January a temperature of 63.5° and 65.8°.*

To this it may be added, that the East end of the tongues of warm water
above mentioned are 300 miles South of the southern edge of the Gulf
Stream, as usually placed ; and, as stated before, in a part of the ocean
where no easterly stream is felt.

The evidences of this portion of the Gulf Stream being much warmer
than is due to the latitude, are much qualified by a reference to the Tem-
perature Tables of Lieutenant Andrau, drawn up for the Netherlands
Meteorological Institute. For January, the latitudes of these two "hot
tongues" are 36° N. and 33° N. respectively. On taking the figures lying
between these paralells, they show thus, premising that each temperature is
given for the mean between each meridian 5° apart ; the first being from 50°
—45° W., the last to the right hand 20° to 15° TV.

Lat. 36° | — | — | 63.7° | 62.6° | 63.1° | — | 61.2°
Lat. 33° ] 69.3° | 65.8° | 65.8° j 65.7° | 66.4° | — | 63.9°

These figures show that the temperature is very uniform nearly across
the ocean, and they accord almost exactly with those of our Meteorological
Office.

For July, the hot tongues are in the latitudes of 38° and 34° N., and the
figures show a similar result ; and from this it would seem that the main
bulk of the hotter waters of the Gulf Stream is lost in mid-ocean, about the
meridians West of 45° W.

It is, therefore, safe to affirm that Rennell was correct in his statement,
that the portion of the stream to the southward of lat. 40° (he says 42J°), and
long. 40° — 30° W., drifts with an almost imperceptible surface movement,
until it is lost in the neighbourhood of Corvo, where its temperature and
attributes do not vary from those portions of the Atlantic manifestly far
away from its influences.

(300.) It is with the northern portion (North of lat. 40° N.) of the Gulf
Stream, then, that we shall have to deal in its future course eastward, and
this is very much cooler than the hot core above adverted to. On the
meridian of 50° W. the water in July is at a temperature of 70°, on the
parallel of 40° N., and is only 45.5° at 300 miles to the northward. In
January these figures stand at 61° and 34° respectively, and thus in these
5° of latitude the water becomes cooler by 24.5° and 37°; and, looking

•* Mittheilungen, 1870, page 219; and Knorr, pages 42, 43,

THE GULF STREAM. 415

generally at the isothermal lines, it would seem as if they were crowded
to the southward by the land and the influence of the Arctic Current.

Arrived at the Grand Bank of Newfoundland, we encounter a totally
new feature in its condition. It here encounters the full force of the
Labrador Current, which, setting southwards over the Banks with nearly
equal velocity and bulk, cuts off the eastward course of the Gulf Stream in
all that part of the current which runs North of 42° or 43' N. The iso-
therms, derived from the immense mass of figures in Maury's thermal
charts, show, as Dr. Petermann says, that the Polar waters set against and
penetrate it like an immense wedge.* This cold water gulf penetrates for
150 to 200 miles southward of its general limit ; and in July, which is the
period when the Arctic ices drift down in the greatest quantities, this is most
evident, as the Arctic water is not more than 48°, while that of the Gulf
Stream to the southward is 68° and upwards. In January, the period when
the Arctic regions are entirely frozen, and no icebergs descend into these
southern latitudes, the effects on the surface are not quite so manifest, but
are equally evident as far South as lat. 38° N.

Now, this "cold water gulf" is no surface interference of a temporary
nature. It is a strong permanent current, flowing to a greater depth than
the Gulf Stream at all seasons of the year. That it entirely cuts off all the
lower beds of the warmer water is demonstrated by the fact, stated on page
438, that icebergs, 80 and 100 ft. high, have been seen as far South as
lat. 36° 10' N. in April, 1829, and 38° 40' in June, 1842. This shows that
the more- powerful southern Arctic drift, of which many evidences are con-
stantly met with in the summer months, by the ice drifts, and in the winter
by the cold water, must cut off the eastward progress of this northern por-
tion of the Gulf Stream waters. But it is very probable that a small portion
of the warm water does get over to the eastward of this in " hot
streaks" which are so remarkable ; because, although the thermometer on
the surface shows that there is no continuity in the waters on the East side
of long. 48° with that to the West of that meridian, yet the current obser-
vations show that the drift is still, generally, to the eastward. f

Up to this point we have said nothing about the speculations that have
been promulgated respecting the heat bearing properties of the Gulf
' Stream ; but, in this book, space will not allow us to enter upon them.
Those of Mr. James Croll, however, must be noticed, as they refer to a
method of estimating this by the powers of absorption of the sun's rays by
the ocean's surface, represented by the dynamic enumeration of foot-pounds.
But I would deferentially demur to its calculations. He takes no account

* Mittheilungen, 1872, page 220 ; Knorr, page 43.

J It is quite certain that the surface motion is not of any great depth, and that at a few
fathoms heneath the surface it is inappreciable to any ordinary mechanical means. There
is direct evidence of this in the deep sea sounding trials, and more especially in the electric
cable laying experience. In these, if there should be any under currents of force, or
in different directions, it would *be shown directly by their action on the submerged
line. In the case of the Electric Telegraph cables, the refined dynamometric apparatus
employed is, generally, so uniform in its evidence, that the question of sub-surface action
may be said to have been settled by it.

416 OBSERVATIONS ON TIIE CURRENTS.

of the time it takes for the water to circulate, or of its ascertained depth.
Ho very much exaggerates the known volume of the stream, and does not
refer to the interferences it encounters, the fog banks, nor of the Labrador
Current. However valuable his suggestions may be, they must be applied
in a different way.*

(301.) Having thus brought the Gulf Stream through its remarkable and
well-defined course, which on its northern margin is not less than 3,500 miles,
we arrive at the conclusion, which is here repeated from our former editions,
that its further progress as a distinct current cannot he traced. It merges into
the general ocean drifts common to the sea for many hundred miles on either
sido of it. This conclusion is in antagonism with that of many who contend
for its extension and evidences up to the shores of N.W. Europe, and into
the Arctic basin. But while the facts on which this conclusion is based are
not for one moment Questioned, yet their connexion with the stream which
has thus far been described is not shown, and the effects claimed for it are
so immeasurably greater than the parent source, that they must be inevitably
referred to much more powerful causes. These will be briefly discussed in
the ensuing section.

8. NORTH-EASTERLY SET TO WESTERN EUROPE, ETC.

(302.) The previous pages have brought the Gulf Stream up to the
meridian of 50° or 48° W. The southern portion of the eastward Current,
that southward of lat. 40° N., passing over towards the Azores, with
the other drifts, forms the head of the North African Current (183), while
the portion North of that parallel ceases as a heat-bearing stream on the
same meridian. Its further progress is manifestly entirely cut off by the
very much deeper Arctic Current; and this is the case throughout the
year.

But it is contended by Dr. Petermann, that as the ocean becomes sud-
denly warmer to the eastward of the meridian of 48°, and this, too, for an
extent of not less than 300 or 400 miles in a N.N.W. direction in July, or
N.N.E. direction in January, as shown by the direction of the isotherms,
this warmer water must be the Gulf Stream, f Undoubtedly, looking only to
the direction of the isotherms, there would seem to be grounds for this
assertion ; but the positive fact that the Polar Stream entirely intersects it,
and that there is not the slightest evidence of any northerly set to the East of
the Great Bank (on the surface at least) precludes such a supposition. The
eastward course of the surface waters is continued alike over the colder as

* See " Geological Magazine," vol. vi., April 1869; and "Philosophical Magazine,"
February, 1870.

t "It is by no means annihilated (by the- Polar Stream); on the contrary, it sallies
forth intact from the conflict." Again : " The Gulf Stream is not disturbed to any degree,
either in its direction or in its temperature, until a very short distance East of Newfound-
land, when it bends sharply round to the North." — Mittheilungen, 1870, page 220 • Knoir,
pages 43, 44.

NORTH-EASTERLY SET TO WESTERN EUROPE, ETC. 417

over the warmer areas ; and as the surface temperature we are discussing
must be dependant in some degree on surface motion, there must be somo
other great agent at work to produce this effect. How this operates is not
clear ; and, like many other mysteries of the ocean, it awaits an explanation
it is certainly not caused by surface current.

Looking at the general arrangement of the isotherms, it would seem as if
the waters of the ocean South of the parallel of 45° or 50° N. latitude, and
eastward of the 40° meridian, were at their normal temperature, and that it
was the effect of the Polar Stream and the arrangement of the land on the
western side of the ocean that broke up the symmetry, by forcing the
warmer waters several degrees of latitude southward of the position they
would occupy but for this combination of causes.

. The rate of the drift is from 6 or 10 miles to 20 or 24 miles per day; and
as far as 50° N. it seems generally to flow due East towards the French and
Portuguese coasts, and thus forms the head of the temporary Rennell's
Current. But, singular to say, observations are not abundant hereabout,
and the true rate can only be given approximately ; it is of no great
power, and has but little effect on a vessel's course. Beyond the doubt,
whether the water thus far can be considered as the Gulf Stream, there is
no controversy as to this part of the ocean circulation.

(303.) It is to the N.E. of this that there is a difference of opinion. It
has been generally believed in former times, that the climate of the western
portion of the British Isles, that of Norway, Iceland, and a large area
around the northern part of Europe, was dependent on the Gulf Stream,
which flowed continuously throughout as a heat-bearing current ; but this
cannot now be maintained, since we have been made so intimately acquainted
with the dimensions and character of the stream in its greatest strength.

(304.) Bottles. — The observations for its velocity and direction are not very
numerous ; and, therefore, we have recourse to the drift of floating bottles,
about which much controversy took place, at the time they were collectively
brought forward in the " Nautical Magazine," in 1853. As they tell a sin-
gularly consistent tale, which is entirely confirmed by similar experiments
in the southern hemisphere, their testimony must be brought into the ques-
tion. See (166) p. 313, ante.

The following statement of the drift of bottles is derived from Captain
Becher's Bottle Chart. Many of the particulars contained in it have
been given in our former editions, but they are here given entire in
order that an estimate may be formed of the strength of the current in which
they have drifted. It may be premised that the length of their courses is
given in the shortest or direct distance. It therefore underrates their pro-
gress, as they have doubtless not generally pursued the shortest track to
their destination : —

These bottles, taken from Captain Becher's list in the " Nautical Maga-
zine," 1853, have been selected from those which have made the ordinary
drift. The chart which shows their direction points most clearly to the
eastward and north-eastward drift, although the rate is not high, being for
the above 6-6 miles per day, which is probably below their actual rate.

418

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Ship.

Osprey

Wallace

Tyno

Kent ,

Niger

Bolivar ......

Mary

Ibbetson . . . .
President

Virginia

Persian

Albert

Ardent

Superior.. ,, ..
Enterprise . . . .

Mary

Orbit

Romulus . . ..

Helen

Sandwich . . . .
J. Cropper. . ..

Seine

British Queen
Royal Union . .
Elizabeth . . . .

Victoria

Alexander . . . .
Alexander
Newcastle . . ,,
J. Esdaile . . . .
R. de Holland
Jessy

Delia

Normandie
Graham . . .

Signature.

McGill ..
Robertson

R. Hope. .
W. L. . .

Merret . .

Lock

of Stockton
Scott

Mallard . . .
Robertson ,
Duncon . . ,
Munson . .

Godfrey . . ,

Boot

Crawford ,
Butman . . ,
Squire . .
Marshall

Hamilton
Grant . . . .
J.E

Parry ....
Parry ....

Napier . .
King ....
Groeneld
Cook ....
Johnstone
Adey....
Spalding
Beach.. . .

Where left.

Year.

Lat.

Long.
W.

1822

49.6

12-5

1835

52.2

15.0

1834

46.6

16 9

1836

50.3

19.0

1839

48.2

18.9

1840

46.9

18.6

1832

44.2

18.0

1826

55.5

18.3

1836

48.5

19.6

1838

42.2

19.3

1834

47.1

20.4

1822

47.3

21.9

1824

57.0

24.5

1842

53.8

24.0

1833

45.1

24.3

1840

47.3

27.4

1811

46.8

27.0

1819

57.8

30.7

1834

47.3

33.6

1821

50.3

30.4

1824

48.3

38.1

1811

50.7

40.3

1838

43.9

44.5

1822

48.2

45.2

1819

47.0

49.2

1834

45.0

50.0

1818

59.1

52.3

1818

62.0

54.0

1819

38.9

64.0

1821

36.9

71.8

1850

46.0

20.5

1846

50.6

20.5

.1847

47.3

21.7

1842

50.0

26.0

1844

57.1

33.2

1847

51.1

45.5

Where found. -j

Wale3

Ushant

Devon

Boulogne . . .
Quiberon . . .

France

Killala

France

Cork

Ireland

Somerset . . .

Lewis .'

Dunnet Head

France

Clare Island .

Ireland

Shetland . . .

Scilly

Hebrides . . .
Mounts Bay r .

Kerry

Newport . . .

Scilly

Rathlin Isle .
Lands End .

Staffa

Donegal

Ireland

Lancashire ,
Glandore . . .

Brest

Brest ...... .

Ireland

Norway

Barnstaple. ..

a
A

270

130

450

600

126

890

177

700

310

700

300

128

650

750

113

600

186

820

171

610

175

800

316

980

111

850

330

860

110

1000

179

1150

184

1100

398

1230

274

1130

1700

1450

311

1600

215

1760

437

2400

416

'2600

356

2700

495

3000

345

680

480

206

700

138

600

228

1400

233

1560

7.5
7.2
8.4
7.0
4.5
7.0
2.2
5.0
4.1
17.0
4.1
4.3
3.6
5.0
3.1
7.7
2.7
9.1
6.4
6.3
2,4
4 5
25.7
19.9
5.0
8.2
5.5
6.2
7.3
7.0
2.0
S.O
3.5
4.0
6.1
6.7

It will be observed that the velocity of the drift varies greatly, a long
course having been performed at a mile an hour and upwards, while in
other cases their progress would be inappreciable in the navigation of a
ship.

There is a very marked feature, that of their eastward, and not north-
eastward tendency, as might be inferred from the prevalence of the S.W.
winds.

(305.) Of this eastward tendency of the waters on the eastern side
of the Atlantic there can be no doubt, and this is the great question to be
elucidated, but which, from its great extent, cannot be discussed here, as it is
foreign to the purpose of this work. This fact is manifested by abundant
proofs. Besides the greater warmth of the water, which diminishes as we
proceed westward, there are tropical products, such as seeds (the beans of
the mimosa scandens, cocoa-nuts, &c), which are frequently washed ashore
at the Fceroe Islands, Iceland, Norway, &c, all proving a south-westward
origin.

NORTH-EASTERLY SET TO WESTERN EUROPE, ETO. 419

(306.) The arrangement of the isothermal lines on the ocean N. of 45° or
50', as shown by Dr. Petermann's charts, as well as by all other physicists,
show that a great change occurs in the static condition of the water North
of lat. 50° throughout the year. Instead of the lines of equal temperatures
running East and "West, they have a N.E. and S.TV. direction, nearly to
Spitzbergen. On referring to the wind diagrams given at pp. 229-231, it
shows that the winds hang generally to W.S.W. or between S.S.W. and
TV. by N. ; and as these south-westerly winds have the greatest force, they
have the greater effect on the climate of the countries under their influence.
But when it is known that the water is warmer than is due to the latitude,
to a depth perhaps of 500 or 700 fathoms, it is a manifest impossibility that
the anti-trade wind can be the transporting agent.

In the absence, then, of any clearly assignable cause for this elevation of
the temperature, it must be considered that the whole body of the ocean-water
on the eastern side of the Atlantic is drifting to the northward. To assign this
cause to the Gulf Stream is to ignore the statistics of the stream ; and it is
again affirmed that this very marked stream-current should have a distinct
designation.* 1 As the area which is now claimed to be raised in tempera-
ture by the Gulf Stream far exceeds 1,500,000 square miles, it follows that
the quantity of water which passes along the American coast, which can
reach it, cannot cover it to a greater depth than 6 inches per diem, and
this after a period of one, two, or perhaps three years,f through the fog-
banks of N.E, America, and through the Labrador Stream.

(307.) As Dr. Petermann, by his valuable labours, has thrown more light
than any other author on this remarkable and interesting stream, which he
contends is the extension of the true Gulf Stream, we quote his words as to
its influence on N.W. Europe, &c.

" While the (Gulf) Stream has in January, on the 50th parallel of latitude,
still a temperature of 54.5°, the thermometer shows at the same time, at
Prague or at Ratibor (in Silesia), on the same parallel of latitude, tem-
peratures of 24°, and sometimes still lower ones. (There can be no com-
parison between land and ocean temperatures. The immense influences of
radiation and evaporation, or deposition, between the two conditions, ren-
> der them quite incongruous. There is no better evidence of this than in
the climate about the North Cape. While the sea around it in January has
a temperature of 36°, that of the land is sometimes — 24° and 26° below
zero, a difference of more than 60" of temperature, and this is clearly owing
to the direction of the wind, which, as Mr. Buchan shows, prevails from the

* A singular argument about its rate has been adduced. General Sabine, when at
Hammerfest, in 1823, saw some palm oil barrels drift ashore, being (as was supposed) from
a vessel wrecked at Cape Lopez, in the preceding year. Therefore, these barrels had been
drifted by the Gulf Stream from Florida, not in one or two years, but in two months!
From the well-known velocity of the stream in its different parts, they must have passed
through the Straits of Florida, &c, at the rate of seven hundred and ninety miles per day. —
Mittheilungen, 1870, p. 241 ; Knorr, p. 85.

t Dr. Petermann suggests that the term " Gulf Stream " should be used for this
European current, and that the true stream should be called the "Florida Stream." But
this is reversing the argument. The real Gulf Stream has been thus known from the
earliest times, and the term has only been applied of late years to the European current.

420 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

S.S.E.*) The isothermal line of 54.5° (10° R.) runs up in July toward
Iceland and the Fteroe Islands to the 61st degree of latitude. There it
meets for the second time the Polar Stream, which on the East coast of
Iceland again threaten to block up its way and to destroy it."

The summer observations of temperature collected by Admiral Irminger,
of the Royal Danish Navy, has thrown great light on the important question
of this warm water extension. His conclusions are based on the observa-
tions he zealously collected from the voyages of the Danish vessels going
in the summer season between Denmark, the Orkneys, and Greenland.!

"As already noticed, an arm of the Gulf Stream proceeds towards the
North along the AVest Coast of Iceland, and this arm extends to the East
alon"- the entire North coast, and "does not meet the Polar Stream until it
has reached the N.E. end of the island. Only for the months of May, June,
July, and August, figures are found in Irminger's collection off the North
Coast of Iceland, all of which show a higher temperature than those off the
East coast. In July, temperatures were observed on the North coast of
45.0°, 47.1°, and 49.3° (Lord Dufferin, 46.0°), while off the East coast, for
6° of longitude, none higher than from 40" to 42.6° were found.

"Between Iceland and the Fteroe Islands the Gulf and Polar Streams are
contending against each other, and the result of this struggle is a sea
divided in a great number of hot and cold bands, which fact is demonstrated
clearly by Lord Dufferin's cruise from Stornoway to Reikiavik, in 1856, and
fully corroborated by Dr. Wallich in the Bulldog expedition of 1860. The
chart accompanying Dr. Wallich's memoir, has a very good representation
of these currents.

" The fact that the two streams, in their contest, appear as many bands
and strata, alongside, over and beneath each other, is proved not only by the
observations of the temperature on the surface of the sea by Admiral
Irminger and Lord Dufferin, but also by the researches of Dr Wallich in
regard to the nature of the bottom of the sea. The latter found there
volcanic stones pointing as to their origin to Jan-Mayen, and at other places
ophiocomte of two to five inches in length, which could have been carried
there only by the warm Gulf Stream. Another argument is that the drift

* There could be no better evidence of the fallacy of comparing a land climate "with that
influenced by the sea surfice than this above quoted. The direction of this S.S.E wind,
passing over some of the coldest plains in Europe, and probably also from great distances,
has thus lowered its temperature to this extreme degree. A S.W. wind, on the contrary,
brings, as may be readily inferred, the warmer influences of the surface it passes over.
Therefore the ocean temperature, on the Western side of the Atlantic, has no manner of
relation to the temperature of places many hundreds of miles inlind, on its eastern side,
although in the same latitude.

t Dr. George Forchhammer, Professor at the Copenhagen University, has given a very
valuable paper " On the Composition of Sea-water in different parts of the Ocean."
(Philosophical Transactions of the Koyal Society, 18G5, page 203, et seq.) And, by his
extended researches, he has shown the origin of various branches of the ocean circulation.
As regards that flowing around Cape Farewell from the eastward, he says, from its great
salinity, 35-278 per 1,000, that it is very probably the returning Gulf Stream. At all
events, it is no polar current, which will be easily seen on comparing it with the Baffin's Bay
current, with a salinity of 33.281, or to the water North of Spitzbergen, 33*623.

NORTH-EASTERLY SET TO WESTERN EUROPE, ETC. 421

ice penetrates here further to the South than anywhere else East of Iceland.
Scoresby, for instance, in 1822, observed great masses of heavy ice in lat.
64° 30' N., long. 7° 0' W., and detached pieces even as far South as 63° 40'
N. (long. 8° W. of Greonwich), and as far East as long. 3° W. of Greenwich
(in lat. 66° 49' N.). Even still farther southward ice has been seen by Sir
James Clark Ross, in lat. 6° 0' N., long. 6° 0' W., which is S.E. of the
Ea^roe Islands.

" In the same manner the temperature of the sea at the Ea>roe Islands,
oven down to the Shetland and Orkney Islands, appears depressed in com-
parisoii with that of the West Coast of Iceland. The isothermal lines show
from Jan-Mayen, a remarkable concavity as far as the North Sea, which
can be caused only by the cooling influence of the Polar Stream. Reikiavik
and Stykkisholmr (lat. 65° 4' N.) have, in July, a temperature of the sea
of 52.9° and 50°, while at Thorshavn, in 62° 2' N., it is only 48.9° At
times the temperature of the air also is, in consequence of this cooling in-
fluence, depressed from the Shetland Islands to the German coast.

" The mild weather of the British Isles is well known. The mean tem-
perature for January at London is 37.4°; at Edinburgh the same ; at Dublin
40.5°. The further we go from East to West or from South to North, or,
in other words, the nearer to the Gulf Stream, the higher we find the tem-
perature. At Unst, on one of the Shetland Islands, 560 miles North of
London, the mean temperature of the air for January is 40. 3', and that of
the sea even 45.5° (East Yell).

" A drift current, therefore, is out of the question, else the temperature of
the air would be higher than that of the sea. Clearly, the warm current of
the sea is tempering the air, and not vice versa. The lowest temperature
observed in London is only — 5°; at Penzance, on the West coast, +24. l c ;
at Sandwich, on the Orkney Islands, +15.8°; and at Bressay, on the Shet-
lands, -j-14.9°. At Madrid, +13.3° has been observed, and 27.5° even at
Algiers, which provides Europe with the cauliflower in winter.

" While on the western side of the North Atlantic Ocean the Polar ice
reaches down to lat. 3G° N. (the parallel of Gibraltar and Malta), and the
name of Labrador is sufficient to characterise the climatic qualities of all the
land between 50" and 60° N., there extends on the East side of the ocean
along the Norwegian coast, cultivated land up to 71' N., the northern-
most land of the world in which, under the influence of the Gulf Stream,
agriculture is the main occupation of the inhabitants. Wheat is grown up
to Inderol : n, in lat. 64° N. ; barley up to Alton, in 70' N., where sowing
generally is done between the 20th and 25th of June, yielding in the short
space of ei^ht weeks, to the 20th or 30th of August, on the average six or
seven fold ; the potato yields, at the same place, on the average, seven or
eight fold— in favourable seasons, even twelve to fifteen fold ; it thrives on
the coast as far East as Vadso, on the Russian boundary line. At Alten
(70° N.) relishable cauliflower is raised even in less favourable summers."

(308.) On the vexed question of the influence of the sea on the climate of
the British Isles much cannot be said here. In an essay, by Mr. Nicholas
Whitley, CE.,*" he arrives at this conclusion respecting it. "Our S.W.

* See Proceedings of the Royal Geographical SoH*+" • fl. xiii, 1S69, pp. 229 et seq.
N. A. O. 3 I

422 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CUEEENTS.

■wind has its birthplace where the temperature of the sea is at least 55° in
January, causing the thermometer on the Cornish coast, under its influence,
to stand steadily at 52°, and the great warmth of the past winter resulted
from the continued persistency of this wind rather than from any excess of
heat in the sea.

" The S.W. wind gives to Penzance a mean winter temperature of 44°,
being the same as that of Montpelier ; Cork falls short of it by only half a
degree ; and the Scilly Isles at this season exceed this noted winter resort
by 2£°."

In a further examination of the log-books of the Cunard steamers, sailing
between Liverpool and New York for a period of five years, which results
have been carefully tabulated, he says, "The extent and greatest intensity
of the Arctic Current is sharply shown by the thermometer in every voyage.
The cold water on the Banks of Newfoundland reaches its mean monthly
minimum of 30° in January, and its mean maximum of 52° in September,
and its width is fully 400 British miles.

" On the eastern side of the cold current, and in close proximity to it, there
is a bed of very warm water, having a mean temperature in January of 50°,
being 27° warmer than that on the Banks, over a width of about 200 miles.
This appears to be a strong eddy of the Gulf Stream, curving northward,
and holding the Arctic Current in its warm embrace.

" From this part of the sea to near the Irish coast the warmth is more
equally distributed through the water, and the thermometer does not detect
any well-defined branch of the Gulf Stream flowing to the N.E. There is,
however, a decided rise in the temperature about the middle of the Atlantic,
amounting to from four to six degrees above that of the sea at Scilly, and
the figures on the chart appear to indicate that it lies in a S.W. and N.E.
direction. It is most probably the drift of the Gulf Stream driven to tho
N.E. by the prevailing S.W. wind.

" The means represented in the table show that East of the cold water of
the Newfoundland Banks (the Polar Stream, which has there a width of
400 miles, and a temperature in January of 30°, and in September of 52°),
there is a warm bed of water, 200 miles in width, with a temperature of
57° in January and 61° August. Between this bed and tho Irish coast
the temperature is more uniform ; there is, however, in the middle of this
distance, in about longitude 25° W. of Greenwich, a belt of water of a
decidedly higher temperature."

(.309) What has just been quoted refers to the S.W. coasts, carrying the
views farther northward there is a veiy important meteorological paper of
Mr. Alexander Buchan, Secretary to the Meteorological Society. " On the
Temperature of the Sea on the Coast of Scotland," based on observations
carefully collected from numerous stations, between January, 1856 and 18G5,
and the one great fact elicited, is given in the following: —

The great excess of the temperature of the sea over that of the air in the
North is perhaps the most remarkable fact in the meteorology of Scotland.
It is a difference, moreover, as the following table will show, which may be
considered constant from year to year: —

NORTH-EASTERLY SET TO WESTERN EUEOPE, ETC. 423

1857

1858

1859

I860

1861

1862

1863

1864

Mean annual temperature ot sea at Sandwiek . ,
Mean annual temperature of air at Sandwiek . .

49.5
47.5

49.4
46.0

49.4
45.7

47.5
44.1

48.6
46.3

48.6
45.8

48.S
46.4

48.1
45.5

2.0

3.4

3.7

3.4

2.3

2.8

2.4

•> 6

This table teaches, if examined closely, the slowness with which changes
in temperature of the air are completely propagated through the waters of
the ocean in those northern parts where the power of the sun's rays is
greatly diminished.

When the tendency of the temperature of the sea to follow that of the
air is considered, it can scarcely admit of a doubt that, if the waters of the
sea were stationary round Orkney from year to year, their temperature
would ultimately fall to that of the air, or at least to about half a degree of
it. But this is not the case ; there is some influence at work keeping the
temperature of the sea 3° above that of the incumbent air. The enormous
amount of heat sufficient to maintain the whole waters of the sea in the
North from 2° to 3° above the air, must be brought from warmer latitudes
by currents of some sort or other. Since, then, a sea current from the
South must be conceded, what is the agent employed?

Hitherto we have referred but very slightly to the movements or tem-
perature of the lower strata of the ocean waters, but this very wide question
has a most important bearing on our present subject. The very important
investigations which were carried on in H.M.SS. Lightning and Porcu-
pine, under the superintendence of Dr. Carpenter and Mr. Gwyn Jefferys.
These will be adverted to in a special section at the end of this book ; but, as
connected with this portion of our subject, it may be stated that the voyage of
the Porcupine, in 1 869, demonstrated that there was a stream of warmer water
900 fathoms deep between Iceland and Spain, and equally as much near the
Kockall Bank. Between the latter and the Fa3roe Islands it reaches to the
bottom, or a depth of 767 fathoms, and at this the temperature is 41-5°.

These last facts are conclusive as to this movement of warmer water not
being the Gulf Stream. By what possible reasoning can it be inferred that
this can be the Gulf Stream, as it is nearly five times as deep, and hundreds
of miles broader than that stream is at its origin ; and, as it has been before
shown, it receives no "tributaries." We, therefore, repeat the asseition
that this great ocean current has a distinct origin, and should have a special
designation.

We cannot pursue the question farther : it must be sought for in the
numerous works bearing more especially on this subject, many of which
have been referred to.

In a subsequent Chapter, this question with the surface and deep sea tem-
peratures of this great current will be discussed.

In concluding this brief account of the most remarkable feature in ocean
physics, we can only express the hope that the combined observations of the
recent investigations will place this science of Rheology, as it may be termed,
on as firm a basis as its cognate branches.

424 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

9.— THE ARCTIC, OR LABRADOR CURRENT.

(310.) The last section treated of the warmer tropical waters which passed
into the northern regions, carrying with them the ameliorating influence on
the Arctic climate. The present deals with the same waters as they emerge
at a minimum temperature from these frozen regions, and bring their ice and
cold into the grand system of circulation and compensation.

Tho limits of the N.E. drift about Iceland has been mentioned previously.
To the West of this, then, we may place the great drift which comes down
from beyond Spitzbergen, and transports the immense quantities of ice upon
the eastern shores of Greenland, which has generally rendered this, one of
the most inclement regions of the world, unapproachable by ships. Several
instances of this drift could be recited, but as it is not interesting to navi-
gation, they need not be dilated on. The ice this current brings into the
low latitudes is an important consideration in the navigation of the Atlantic,
as is well known. This branch of the Arctic drift, however, does not pro-
bably furnish many of those gigantic iceberg?, which, drifting down Davis
Straits, float over the Newfoundland Banks, and far into the northern margin
of the Gulf Stream.

The estimated rate of this drift from Spitzbergen, calculated from the rate
of vessels in the pack-ice, is from 8 to 14 miles per day.*

(311.) It was formerly considered that this S.W. stream, after passing
Cape Farewell, the South point of Greenland, made direct for the coast of
Labrador, and thence over the Newfoundland Banks. But Commodore
Irminger, of the Royal Danish Navy, has demonstrated that it does not do
so, but that it passes around Cape Farewell to the westward, and thence
passes northward along the shores of West Greenland.

"If the current existed, which the before-named writers state to run in a
direct line from East Greenland to the banks of Newfoundland, then the ice
would likewise be carried with that currant from East Greenland ; if it were
a submarine current, the deeply immersed icebergs would be transported by
it ; if it were only a surface- current, the immense extent of field-ice would
indicate its course,! and vessels would consequently cross these ice-drifts at
whatever distance they passed to the southward of Cape Farewell. But this
is not the case ; experience has taught that vessels coming from the eastward

* See Findlay, on the course of Sir John Franklin's Expedition, " Journal of the Royal
Geographical Society, xxvi., 1856, page 33.

t " An observation which it is interesting to mention here, and which gives a proof of
the very little difference between the temperature of the surface and that at some depth,
is mentioned in the voyage of Captain Graah, page 21. He says, 'The 5th of May, 1828,
in lat. 57° 35' N., and 36° 3G' W., the temperature of the surface was found 6-3° (46-2°
Fahrenheit), and at a depth of 660 feet 5-5° R. (44.5° Fahrenheit).' This proves that there
is no cold submarine current in the place alluded to, to the S.E. of Cape Farewell. A still
ir.ore conclusive experiment is rctorlel by Sir Edward Fairy, in the account of his first
voyage, June 23, 1819 ; in lat. 57° 51' N., long. 41° 5', with a very slight southerly current,
the surface temperature was 40.^ Fahrenheit; and at 235 fathoms 30°, a difference of only
UV'-Ed

THE ARCTIC, OR LABRADOR CURRENT. 425

steering their course about 2° (120 nautic miles) to the southward of Cape
Farewell, seldom or never fall in with ice before they have rounded Capo
Farewell and got into Davis Strait, which is a certain proof that there does not
exist even a branch of the Arctic Current which runs directly from East Greenland
towards the Banks of Newfoundland.''''*

The limits of this Spitzbergen Current, as it may be termed, is therefore
indicated by the distance to which the ice it transports is found to extend,
and the examples cited may be taken, as above, to a distance of 120 miles
South of Cape Farewell, and to 150 miles of the Danish settlements of
S.W. Greenland.

(312.) In the space of ocean between the southern limits of this current
and the known south-easterly drift down the Labrador Coast, an anomalous
condition seems to exist, we have no notice of the set of the streams, if any
within it, but its characteristics seems to be the drift-ivood within its area.
These floating relics have evidently a southern origin, and point also to
the truth of the statement that a warm cuirent sets toward and past
Iceland.

"Another proof that the current from East Greenland does not run in a
straight line towards the banks of Newfoundland, is also derived from the
observations of the temperature of the surface made on many voyages to
and from Greenland.

"Supposing that the Arctic Current from East Greenland pursued its
course in a straight line towards the Banks of Newfoundland, it would be
crossed, on the voyages from Copenhagen to the Danish colonies in Green-
land, between 38° and 45° W., and so high a temperature in the surface of
the ocean as from 4° to 6° R. (41° to 45.5° Fahrenheit), as is found only on
this route and marked in the plan, would, according to my opinion, be im-
possible only 1° or 2° to the southward of the parallel of Cape Farewell ; as
it is a well-known fact that the principal ocean currents maintain their tem-
peratures through very considerable distances of their courses.

" This comparatively high temperature of the surface of the ocean so near
to the limits of that current which carries enormous masses of ice from the
ocean near Spitsbergen round Cape Farewell, warrants my opinion that the
waters of the Atlantic Ocean move in a north-westerly, or northerly direc-
tion, towards the eastern and southern coasts of Greenland,! and that this
in-draught towards the land is undoubtedly the cause of the ice being so
closely pressed on to these parts of the coast as it is so frequently on the
South coast, and almost constantly on the East coast, rendering the eastern
coast entirely inaccessible from the seaward. £

* "Journal of the Royal Geographical Society," vol. xxvi., 1856, pp. 40, 41.

t Graah says in his Narrative (page 23, English translation) : — " In the mouth of Davis
Strait I found the temperature of the surface of the ocean from 4 5 to 3 - l° R. (41° to 39 a
Fahrenheit), though we were in the proximity of the ice. From this I conclude! that a
current from the South predominated here, because I never before in the vicinity of ice hr d
found the temperature of water exceeding 1 S° R. (36° Fahrenheit), and this conclusion
was confirmed when, coming to the northward of the ice, I found the temperature of the
water l'l° plus R. (34 - 5° Fahrenheit)."

J Besides the evidence afforded by the ice-drifts and the temperature of the water, as
cited by the author, conclusive proof of a northerly set is found in the drift-wood which

420 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

"From the foregoing it seems to me to bo demonstrated that the current
from the ocean around Spitzbergen, which carries such considerable masses
of ice, after it has passed along the East coast of Greenland, turns westward
and northward round Cape Farewell, without detaching any branch to the
south-westward, directly towards the banks of Newfoundland.

" This current afterwards runs northward along the S.W. coast of Green-
land until about lat. 64° N., and at times even up to Ilolsteinborg, which is
in about 67' N." — Admiral Irminger.

(313.) This current, then, after drifting over the Atlantic, passes up the
eastern shore of Davis Strait to and beyond the entrance of Baffin's Bay,
between Cape Walsingham and Holsteinborg. It here encounters the
southern set which passes down Baffin's Bay, especially on its western side,
transporting those immense icebergs which are annually launched from the
glaciers of West Greenland and other parts, as described by Dr. Rink. This
current, which enters Baffin's Bay, especially by Lancaster Sound, is the
grand outlet of the waters which run from West to East through the laby-
rinthine Archipelago, once the scene of the exciting search for the expedition
of Sir John Franklin, and is unquestionably the continuation of that drift
past Spitzbergen, described previously.

It thus brings into warmer latitudes all the ice which remains from the
melting influences of the Arctic summer, and also is continually floating
southwards that which collects in Baffin's Bay and its inlets. Its southward
drift is constant, winter and summer, as has been demonstrated by the drift
of several vessels of the Arctic searching squadrons — as the Grinneli
Expedition, Sir James Ross, H.M.S. Resolute, Sir L. M'Clintock in the
Fox, &c.

About 10 miles per day may be taken as the drift down Baffin's Bay, as
estimated by the author in the "Journal of the Royal Geographical So-
ciety," quoted previously.

(314.) The Baffin's Bay Current and the Spitzbergen Current has joined
in the strength, set with great force down the coast of Labrador, the west-
ward tendency being probably owing to the earth's rotation, which here
rapidly increases southwardly in these parallels. It is probable that it sets
at from 1 J to 2 miles per hour, close ashore on the Labrador coasts. But its
chief interest to the sailor are the masses of drift ico and tremendous ice-

has teen so frequently met with around Cape Farewell and off the West coast of Green-
land. A few examples will suffice. A plank of mahogany was drifted to Disco, and formed
into a tahle for the Danish governor at Ilolsteinborg (" Quarterly Review," No. xxxvi).
(But Admiral Sir Edward Belcher thinks that this plank is not mahogany, but is black-
birch, and therefore is a Siberian produce. If it had made such a lengthened voyage as
that from the Gulf of Mexico, it would have become worm-eaten.) Admiral Lbwenorn
picked up a worm-eaten mahogany log off the S.E. coast of Greenland. Captain Sir
Edward Parry, in his second voyage, September 21th, 1823, picked up a piece of yellow
pine quite sound, in lat. 6CP 30' long. 61° 30 W. ; and on his third voyage seven pieces of
drift-wood were found in the vicinity of Cape Farewell. Again, Captain Sir John Ross
found much di iflwood around Cape Farewell ; und Captain Sir George Back saw in lat.
56° 50', long. 36" 30', a tree with the roots and bark on. These instances might be multi-
plied ; but, as has been before stated, it is very probable that the drift-wood has come from
the northern coast of As : a. — Ed.

THE ARCTIC, OR LABRADOR CURRENT. 427

bergs which it floats southward across his track, and constitutes one of the
most formidable dangers of the Transatlantic navigation. As this is the
most important feature it has, it will be dilated on more fully hereafter, aa
the limits within which these ice-drifts are encountered are also the limits
of the current now being discussed.

(315.) These ice-drifts are seldom met with to the eastward of the meri-
dian of 49°, that is, about 300 miles beyond tho limits of the Grand Bank.
Near to the banks they become more numerous, and in some years tho sea
appears to be covered with them, and vast numbers of bergs ground on the
banks.

To the southward the extent of this ice-drift is uncertain, as it depends
upon two causes : the one, the force and extent of the Arctic current from
the northward ; and the other, the depth to which the icebergs are immersed.
As before-mentioned, there appears to be a perpetual struggle between the
opposing forces of the Arctic Current and Gulf Stream to the southward of
the banks. This process, invisible at other seasons, is made apparent during
the season of the ice-drifts by the deeply immersed bergs passing quite into
ihe course of the Gulf Stream under the influence of which they rapidly dis-
appear. As will be seen presently, the view now accepted of this phenomena
is that the Gulf Stream overruns the cool waters proceeding southward and
south-westward ; and although the northern edge of the warm waters of the
stream are met with in the summer months over the southern end of the
Newfoundland Banks, or as high as 45° N., yet these bergs are found drift-
ing as far South as 39°, and even to 36° 10', or 420 miles southward of the
banks, and beyond the limits of the Gulf Stream.

(316.) The waters of the Arctic Ocean are thus brought again into that
system of circulation which gives to sea water a universal character (168).
In former years it was not thought that its effects extended further than
this, and the cool S.W. current inside the Gulf Stream was considered to be
an eddy of that great current, whose temperature was dependent on the
shallowness of the soundings, in contradistinction to the supposed un-
fathomable depths of the Gulf Stream. Captain Ponton, in the earlier
editions of this work, had, however, been led to conclude that the southward
drift past Newfoundland, and the current from the Gulf of St. Lawrence
with the eddy from the Gulf Stream, combined to form the counter current
in question.

Its true character was first argued out by Mr. W. C. RedfieU, a name
well known to science. He drew up a summary of remarks and suggestions
for the observers of the United States' Exploring Expedition, under Captain
Wilkes, in 1838, and which was read before the American Philosophical
Society in May, 1843. From that paper we will make a few extracts :

" . . . . From what source is that south-westerly current derived,
which commonly prevails along the coast of the United States, in the direc-
tion which is opposite to the Gulf Stream ?

"I am aware that it is usually considered by seamen as an eddy current
derived from the Gulf Stream ; but from this view I am compelled to dissent.
Eor, in the first place, this current never assumes the gyrating form of an

428 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

eddy ; but continues its course, when unobstructed by gales, in a direction
which is generally parallel to the coast. But,' secondly, in case this current
be derived from the Gulf Stream, it must necessarily partako of the same
elevated temperature; whereas the reduction of temperature which occurs on
crossing the north-western limit of the Gulf Stream is most remarkable,
and is almost without parallel in the Atlantic, except in the immediate
vicinity of ice.

"It appears vain to allege the proximity of soundings or shallows as ex-
plaining this extraordinary change of temperature, fur this cannot avail if
the waters of the counter-current be derived from the Gulf Stream, to say
nothing of the erroneous character of the position here noticed.

"From the evidence which is afforded by numerous facts and observa-
tions, it appears that the current in question is neither more or less than a
mere sluggish prolongation of the Polar or Labrador Current, which sweeps
along the north-eastern shore of this continent and the Island of Newfound-
land ; and this current, if I mistake not, may be traced in its gradations of
temperature, by the thermometer, from off the southern coasts of New-
foundland and Nova Scotia, through the entire distance, to Cape Hatteras,
if not to Florida.

" An eddy current, off-setting to the Gulf Stream, would nowhere be so
likely to be met with as at the point of intersection of this stream with the
extremity of the Grand Bank of Newfoundland, and sweeping from thence
upon the southern shores of the island of that name ; and yet the harbour
of St. John's, in the southern part of Newfoundland, is known to have
continued ice-bound, in 1831, so late as the month of June, although in the
latitude of Paris. This fact is a convincing proof of the unimpeded con-
tinuation of the Polar Current to the southward, in this region, notwith-
standing the near proximity of the Gulf Stream."

H.M.S. Challenger, proved the correctness of this theory. In May, 1873
(210 miles S.S.E. from Sandy Hook), proceeding to the northward, Sir Wy-
.ville Thomson says, * " Although on the surface the influence of the Gulf
Stream was still felt to a certain extent, the contrast between the observa-
tions of this day and the day before was most marked. "We had crossed the
' cold wall,' and the temperatures registered were almost purely those of the
Labrador return current. . . . The collection as a whole had a decidedly
Arctic character and recalled some of our dredgings on the coast of northern
Europe, although it seemed that few of the forms were absolutely identical."
The temperature soundings (p. 412) will give an idea of the way in which
the cold w r ater underlies the warm in this region.

(.317) The velocity of the current over the Banks and to the southward
of Newfoundland is very variable, but at times is great. "We can rather
argue from its effects than from direct observation ; for one result of this
influx of warm water into a cold region is the production of dense fogs so
peculiarly characteristic of the Banks. "Bank weather" is not favourable
to astronomic observations, and hence the paucity of them.

'• Voyage of the Challenger^ vol. i., p. 37'3.

THE ARCTIC, OE LABRADOR CURRENT. 429

(318.) Upon a survey of the Virgin Roclcs in July, 1829, the current at
about 80 miles E. by S. from Capo Race was found setting over them to tho
W.S.W. at the rate of a mile an hour.

To different currents must be attributed the loss of the sloop Comus, the
transport Ilarpooner, II. M.S. Drake, and the brig Spence, all of which were
lost, at different times, upon one spot; the little bay, called St. Shot's Bag, on
the South coast of Newfoundland, and lying between Cape Freels and St.
Mary's Bay. The particulars of all these melancholy events have been given
in our " British American Navigator," pp. 5, 6, and therefore need not
be repeated. The Comus was from the West, and was lost in the night of
the 24th of October, 1816, after having sounded, as supposed, on the inner
edge of the Green Bank. The Ilarpooner, a transport with troops, was from
Quebec, and bound for London. She struck at 9 p.m. of November 10th,
1816. The Drake sailed from Halifax for St. John's, 20th June, 1822, under
very favourable circumstances, upon a direct course for Cape Race ; but on
the 23rd the weather became thick, and at noon she was supposed to be 90
miles from Capo Race, but at half-past seven p.m. breakers were reported
ahead, and the ship was soon after a total wreck. The Spence was from
Richibucto, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with lumber, bound to Liverpool,
and was totally lost at St. Shot's, at four p.m., 16th July, 1822. Another
vessel, the George Canning, from Chaleur Bay to Aberdeen, was wrecked
here, during a dense fog, on the 17th of June, 1829.

The five vessels, it may be seen, were all from tho westward, and all, it
may be presumed, were set to the northward as well as to the westward, of
the situations which they were supposed to occupy, and tho route which each
intended to pursue. They can be accounted for only by the supposition of
currents winding round the coast, opposing each other, and operating as
above explained ; for it seems clear that the westerly current from the Grand
Bank so opposes the easterly one as to limit its operation eastward, and give
it a northern inflection; thus producing the indraught into the southern
bays of the island.

It appears that the south-westerly current, over the Grand Bank, sets over
the whole of the northern part of that bank. In a summer voyage, 1826,
lat. 46° 24', Lieutenant Hare (30th September) sounded on the outer edge of
the bank, with thick blowing weather from S.W. ; and, on the next da}', in
45° 56' N., and 48° 6' W., had no bottom at 120 fathoms, with a very heavy
swell from W.S.W. , although he found that a current had carried him S.
67° W. 34 miles. Thus appeared, in close conjunction, a south-westerly
current, with another from W.S.W., where the edge of the two entered
into collision with each other.

(319.) The current which sets out of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, between
Newfoundland and Breton Island, also adds its effect to the current setting
to the S.W. It is composed of the stream of fresh water which constantly
sets down tho river, and the water which enters from the Labrador current
through the Strait of Belleisle.

The current usually sets into the Strait of Belleisle, between the island
and the coast of Labrador. It transports immense quantities of ice in somo
years into the Gulf, if they are not too large to be intercepted by the mode-
rate depth of the strait, although this feature varies very much indeed in
n. a. o. 3 k

430 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

different years. This curront has been observed to run 2 miles an hour with
tho wind from N.E., while at other times it is almost insensible, and it is
stated sometimes to run in the opposite direction, especially during the ebb
tides with S.W. winds. After it enters the gulf, it runs 39 or 50 miles
further, when it becomes dispersed and merged into the general streams.

The outset from the gulf is very frequently of some considerable strength,
especially with westerly winds or in calm weather. But its strength is
reduced, or it even is retarded altogether, with opposing winds, which have
a powerful effect on it at all times.

Both these currents are modified by the tides, but in a way directly con-
trary ; for, while the Strait of Belleisle current is ameliorated by the flood,
and retarded by the ebb, the other is increased by the ebb and checked by
the flood tide which enters the gulf from the southward. The tidal hour is
therefore important in estimating the probable set of these currents, which,
however, it may be said to be exceedingly difficult at all times to estimate
and allow for correctly.

(320.) Sable Island has been famous for its wrecks, which greater know-
ledge and consequent caution have rendered less frequent. Its position and
formation are remarkable, as it lies apparently in the strength of the Arctic
Current. Its dangerous character is greatly increased by the prevalent fogs
which are dense and very constant. As is well known, it is a mere sand-
bank, with two parallel ridges of sand blown above the sea level, and form-
ing a curve convex to the southward, showing the direction of its principal
growth. From each end extend long " bars" or shoals; that to the West
extends 17 miles, and that to the East 14 miles, the whole extending over
50 miles. The westerly winds and current tending in the same direction are
constantly wearing away the "West end, and adding to the East, by drifting
the sand of which it is formed and that which it brings to leeward.

The wrecks, which now average two annually, have usually occurred from
the effects of the S.W. current which we are now considering, and which,
though irregular in its action, has usually some effect on a ship's course ;
added to this, as has been previously shown, the Gulf Stream is here found
with much diminished force, and consequently there are some anomalies in
the immediate neighbourhood of Sable Island. The best account we have
of the streams is that given by Mr. Darby, who was superintendent of the
establishment here.

Mr. Darby has said, " On the South side of Sable Island, the current, in
shoal water, with prevailing South and S.W. winds, sets rapidly eastward
until it reaches the end of the N.E. bar. It then unites and blends with the
St. Lawrence Stream, which passes the bar in a S.S.W. direction, and runs
strongest in April, May, and June. I have sufficient reason for believing
that the Gulf Stream, on the parallel of 42° 30', running E.N.E., occasions
the St. Lawrence Stream, then running S.S.W., to glide to westward. The
strength of this stream has never been noticed, and three-fourths of the
vessels lost on Sable Island have been supposed to have been to the easticard
of the island, when, in fact, they were in the longitude of it."

" Easterly, southerly, and S.S.W. winds set a rapid current along shore
in shoal water, to W.N. W. and N.W . ; that is, along the shore of the
western end of the island, but not the eastern nor middle, as there the cur-

THE AECTIC, OE LABEADOE CUEEENT. 431

rent, with southerly and S.W. winds, sets to the eastward. The natural
tendency of the flood-tide is toward the coast. When it strikes the island
it flows to the eastward, over the N.E. Bank, and to the westward, over the
N.W. Bank, and passes the "West end in a N.W. direction, so rapidly that
it carries the sand with it ; and the hills of the West end being high and
narrow, they are undermined at their base by it, and tumble down some
thousands of tons of sand at a time. This the current beneath catches, and
sweeps away to the N.W., increasing the bank. »So soon as the current
passes the extreme point of the dry bar, it tends more across the bank to
the N.E. ; the motion of the sea contributing to keep the sand in motion;
the current carries it to the N.E., and spreads to the N.W.."

(321.) In following the course of this current along the coast of the
United States, we have no very clear notion of its mean velocity ; but that
it does run to the southward, we have many evidences, besides the tempera-
ture of its waters. It is probable that the surface, at least, is obedient to
the varying of the winds, which blow over it, but it preserves its course
almost unimpaired and quite appreciable on the surface as far South as Cape
Hatteras, after which its presence does not appear so manifest, except as a
submarine current. In (272), (286), &c, the presence of the cool water it
transports is shown to exist, in a great degree, even close beneath the
warmest and strongest parts of the Gulf Stream.

There is great? evidence of current action all along the coast of the United
States beyond the Cape Cod Peninsula, itself of remarkable formation. The
long straight lines of low alluvial shores, fronting extensive shallow lakes,
separated from the ocean by narrow beaches thrown up by the sea, all
bespeak the work of the ocean and its drifting waters.

There is another singular feature, too, in the more southern portions of
its course. The long lines of shoals which project seaward from the Capes
Hatteras, Fear, Look-out, &c, that is, in the section where its surface action
is not so manifest, indicate some process going on which as yet has not been
entirely explained.

In a nautical sense the allusion to this current is sufficient to guard against
its effects in approaching the coast, or in taking advantage of it to work
against the current of the Gulf Stream. No particular instructions have
been issued respecting it, and, therefore, this will close our notice of it as an
inner current of the Gulf Stream.

(322.) There is another part of the ocean in connection with this where
the currents are not strong or regular, but peculiar. It is the part be-
tween Bermudas and the coast of Georgia. There seems to be some con-
nection with the fact of Cape Hatteras cutting off a portion off its southern
progress and the very irregular temperatures that are met with to the south-
eastward of that cape. The cold veins alluded to on page 401 (285) are,
perhaps, a portion of this ; but it certainly seems as if the cold water, after
passing under the Gulf Stream, appears on the surface intermingled with
the warmer waters of the Equatorial Current, and cause a slight drift to the
south-eastward, and have something to do with that eastward tendency of
the Gulf Stream (292) in throwing off its' floating objects to the eastward of
its course— a fact which has been attributed to its being " roof-shaped" a

432 OBSERVATIONS ON TIIE CURRENTS.

form owing to the greater force and velocity of its centre, -which causes the
water along the middle of its course to bo higher than the lateral portions.

In the southern part of this current its influence on navigation, as said
above, is of minor consequence. Its principal feature is its ice-transporting
powers in the more northern portion of its career ; and as this has a most
important bearing on the navigation between Europe and America, some
notice on this point follows.

ICEBERGS, ICE ISLANDS, AND DRIFT ICE IN THE ARCTIC

CURRENT.

(323.) Although we have noticed the annual floats of ice which descend
from the northern regions, it may not be inapposite to recall to the seaman's
mind the necessity of guarding against these tremendous and dangerous
objects — more dangerous than permanent rocks, because unfixed, and more
dreadful, because frequently obscured in snow and fog.

The ice which is thus met with is of two descriptions ; that which is formed
on the surface of the sea during the polar winter — the field and floe-ice ; and
that which is formed in the course probably of many years upon land, and
is periodically launched into the sea in the form of gigantic bergs of
enormous height and dimensions.

Of the first description of ice no special mention is necessary, as its pro-
duction and presence in the regions under consideration is very readily
comprehended.

(324.) Icebergs are a much more interesting subject, and their majestic pro-
portions at once attract attention and invite enquiry as to their formation ;
consequently we find many accounts and speculations have been advanced to
account for them, and various localities pointed out as their birth-place.

Captain (afterwards Dr.) Scoresby, whose opinion is invaluable, observes,
" that, however dependent the ice may have been on land, from the time of
its first appearance to its gaining an ascendancy over the waves of the ocean,
sufficient to resist their utmost ravages, and to arrest the progress of maritime
discovery at a distance of, perhaps, from 600 to 1,000 miles from the Pole,
it is now evident that the proximity of land is not essential, either for its
existence, its formation, or its increase."

Dr. Scoresby's acquaintance with ice-bergs in progress of formation was
confined to Spitzbergen and portions of Greenland, where they do not form
so marked a feature as has been found by others. It is to Dr. Rink, a
resident in Greenland, that we are indebted for the most complete account
of these marvellout phenomena, and in making a few extracts from his
work,* we may draw attention to the parallel condition of the South Pole in

* Dr. Rink " On the Origin of Icebergs," &c., Journal Eoyal Geographical Society, vol.
sxiii., 18-33, p. 143, tt seq.

ice In the arctic current. 433

producing these icebergs on a far more stupendous scale than is found in the
northern region ; for while in the North their dimensions are confined to a
few hundred yards, in the South they are very frequently miles in extent,
and from 2,000 to 3,000 feet in thickness— a magnitude owing to the vast
extent of country in which they are produced as explained on p. 431 (327).
Their protrusion into the sea involves the same considerations as the
"glacier theory" of the land, so very interesting and important in geological
questions.

(325.) The larger icebergs in the northern regions rise above the surface
of the sea to the height of from 100 to 150 ft. and upwards, and some aro
4,000 ft. in circumference. The part above can scarcely be considered more
than one- eighth of that below the surface of the water, so that the cubic
contents of the iceberg may amount to 100,000,000 of cubic ells, or about
06,000,000 cubic yards — a fragment of ice which, if we suppose it to be
fairly landed, would form a mountain about 1,000 ft. in height. All agreo
that the icebergs of these arctic seas are originally formed on terra firma,
from the snow and rains which, from the severity of the climate, are never
able to reach the ocean in a fluid state, but which, in the course of years,
are transformed into a mass of ice, and are then, through some physical
agency, thrust forward into the sea.*

The ice thrust forth into the sea, in the form of massy mountains, is
originally formed over an enormous extent of country, from whence it, by
an agency similar to that by which the progress of glaciers is effected, is
thrust forward and brought to a point at the place from which the ice-
bergs proceed. For the formation of icebergs accordingly a tract of land of
a certain extent is necessary, in which the sea forms so few and small creeks
or inlets that rivers or watercourses of some maguitude must necessarily be
present.

(326.) Where the above-mentioned condition exists, in conjunction with
the necessary temperature of the climate, the formation of ice does not
proceed from certain mountain heights, but the tvkole country is covered with
ice to a certain elevation; mountains and valleys are levelled to a uniform plane;
the river beds are concealed, as well as every vestige of the original form of the
country. A movement, commencing far inland, thrusts the outer edge of this
mass of ice forward toward the sea ; and when it reaches the frith it may be
seen to sink, and to diverge and even extend out several miles. There the
agency of the obliterated rivers may be observed in the greater or lesser

* It is a well known fact that all the ice formed from snow upon the surface of land,
■where the heat of summer is incapable of melting and preventing its gradual increase, has
a tendency to extend and move downward, as water should do, according to the same laws,
in the case of rain instead of snow having fallen upon the surface. Those masses of snow ac-
mulated in high regions of mountain chains, even in the hottest parts of the globe, gather
in the valleys, which thus form the natural drainage for the highlands, and being congealed
into a comp ict body of ice, move slowly down into lower and warmer regions, till the in-
creasing heat, by thawing them, sets a limit to their farther spread. These masses of com-
pact ice spreading down through the valleys or clefts, and constantly furnished with further
.supplies by the snow accumulated in the surrounding highlands, are, in Europe, seen on
the largest scale upon the Alps, where they are known under the name of " Gletcher," or
glaciers.

434 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

rapidity with which the matter in a solid state is carried forward to the
ocean. The massy crust, still preserving its coutinuity, proceeds from the
ishore, borne by tho soa, until some circumstance or other destroys the
equilibrium, and breaks some fragments off the outer edge, which is again
thrust forward, and again detaches new fragments, thus continually renewing
the supplies from the interior.

(327.) A track or body of land of the requisite size is, in the northern
hemisphere, only to be found in Greenland, and more especially in that part
which lies in the North of Arctic Circle, where in the interior, beyond
the inlets of the sea, the country increases in breadth from East to West,
and affords space for the original birth-place of these large ice-bergs.
Neither Spitzbergen, nor the narrower parts of Greenland, nor the Penin-
sula, nor the islands which surround it, are adequate in size to produce the
yearly excess of indissoluble ice, which, from that large and unknown continent t
is very slowly protruded; and, as it seems, in a lesser degree toward the
eastern shores of Greenland, along with the icebergs are driven past Cape
Farewell, the greatest quantity going to the West, into Baffin's Bay. The
friths or fiords, which, piercing far into the country, receive and transmit
the icebergs, are called ice friths.

(328.) From November to June the water, in which the icebergs are to
proceed to the ocean, is so covered by the ocean ice, that they are shut up
in the inner ice friths ; but in July, and especially in August, they are carried
in mass by the current to the open sea. This is called the shooting oat of the
ice friths, which lasts till late in the autumn, when the continually easterly
storms finally clear out the inner waters, unless the icebergs are intercepted
by certain banks, on which they sometimes remain long aground.

(329.) Icebergs consist mostly of hard, brittle ice, of which the white
colour originates from very fine lineal pores, uniformly divided through the
whole mass, all being of the same size, equi-distant, and parallel throughout
the whole iceberg. This uniform structure may have arisen at the time it
was formed in the interior of the country from corned snow — perhaps re-
peatedly thawed and frozen. The white iceberg is in many directions
crossed by broad stripes of intense blue coloured ice, which is quite clear,
and either contains no air bladders, or, at all events, very irregular ones.
These blue stripes are several ft. in dimension, and in them are generally
found "dirt bands" of foreign matters, such as stone, gravel, and clay,
which the icebergs carry off embodied in them. The blue ice is, by
thawing, dissolved into regular large grains, which is not the case with the
■white ice that forms the main mass of the icebergs. It seems probable that
these blue strips are formed by a filling up of the fissures in the inland ice
with water — perhaps mixed with snow, gravel, and stones ; and such a re-
frigeration of the water in the fissures may be supposed to be an important
agency in setting in motion these great mountains of ice.*

* Transparent ice, free from interior spaces or bubbles, is one of the purest substances
in nature, and it is not possible to detect the presence of the minutest portion of air, or
any substance that may bave been held in solution by the water from which it is formed.
Tho strongest poisons, or colouring matter of any description, are most effectually separated
from water by the process of freezing it. This must, of course, only be understood to

ICJS IN THE ARCTIC CURRENT. 435

It would be out of place to enter into detail upon this subject, but from
the above-mentioned notice, as well as the works of Dr. Scoresby, Sir George
Nares and others much interesting matter may be gleaned. "We must,
therefore, consider them here as only affecting navigation.

(330.) Mr. W. C. Redfield, to whom the world is so largely indebted for
his researches in meteorology and physical geography, published a pamphlet,
accompanied by a chart, upon the ices of the North Atlantic. In this he has
clearly shown that the Gulf Stream passes over the cold Arctic Current, which
transports the deeply immersed icebergs into and across it. " No impulsion
but that of a vast current, setting in a south-westerly direction, and passing
beneath the Gulf Stream, could have carried these immense bodies to their
observed positions, on routes which cross the Gulf Current, in a region where
its average breadth has been. found to be about 250 miles. Other obser-
vations on this subject have been given in the chapter on the Gulf Stream.
The same influence will also cause the presence of floating ice in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence, by carrying it through the Straits of Belle Isle ; but the
depth of this would prevent the progress of the larger icebergs (319).

It need scarcely be mentioned, that greater circumspection is necessary in
passing near the regions where these dangers may reasonably be expected.
The following instances selected from many others, may operate as sufficient
cautions : —

(.331) On the 21st of June, 1794, in lat. 45° 18', on the eastern steep edge of the
Grand Bank, in a thick fog, H.M. frigates Dcedalus and Ceres were suddenly in-
volved amidst some very high and dangerous islands of ice. The weather was so
thick that objects were not visible at 50 yards distant. The Dcedalus commanded
by Sir C. H. Knowles, hauled up and passed close to the stern of a ship that lay
stranded upon one of the ice islands, and sailed to windward of it through a great
quantity of drift ice, and to leeward of another ice island. The Ceres, Capt. Thos.
Hamilton, passed in the same track, and saw the wreck a quarter of an hour after
the Dcedalus. The course was East, the wind S.W., the sea very high, as the wind
blew hard the night preceding, from the southward.

Again on the 15th of June, 1810, the Dcedalus, commanded by Captain Inglefield,
with a fleet from Jamaica, in lat. 41° 33', and long. 51° 1 7 , to the southward of the
Grand Rank, passed two icebergs, and the next day anothei ; providentially the fog,
which had been very dense, cleared up for an hour, and allowed the fleet to clear the
dangei's.

On the 2nd of August, 1813, H.M.S. Bedford, 74, then bearing the flag of
Vice-Admiral Stirling, accompanied by the Cyane, Captain Forrest, and Faicn,
Captain Fellowes, with a fleet of 105 sail from Jamaica, at eight a.m., just as the
fog cleared away, fell in with an extensive ridge of ice, having an iceberg at each
extremity, aud about 1 mile in extent, even with the water, over which the seas
broke with considerable violence. Had the fog not cleared up as it did, about thirty
ships must have struck upon it, as that number were steering directly for this for-
midable reef, and were within the extent of its sweep. The thermometer was at
this time ranging from 63° to 65°, i:i lat. 45 3 , the long. 44° 30'.

refer to those masses which are quite clear and transparent, or the spaces or vacancies left
in the ice will naturally contain portions of the adventitious matter. Ice, therefore, is one
of the hest sources from which a supply of fresh and wholesome water can he obtained,
and if these hollows he washed in fresh water, ice water will be found preferable to, and
purer than any other.

436 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS,

On the 31st of August, 181 G, Captain Gooday, in the skip Jones, on his passage
from St. Petersburg to New York, in lat. 40' 50', long 47' 53', saw an island of ice,
from about 1 mile to 1 J mile long, and from 54 to 70 ft. high. When first seen, it
appeared like a white cloud.

In January, 1818, the brig Anne, of Poole, W. Dayment, master, left the harbour
of Grcenspond, Newfoundland, in the morning, and in the evening of the same day
got among ice ; proceeded thus about 40 miles, and at daylight next morning -was
completely beset, and no opening to be seen in any direction from the mast-head. In
this state the vessel continued for fifteen days, drifting with the ice about GO miles
S.E. by E., or about 4 miles in every twenty-four hours. The ice was now become
very heavy, high above the surface, and about twenty-nine large bergs were in
sight. With this ice the vessel drove until she was in 44° 37' N., and about 300
miles to the south-eastward of Cape Race, when, on the 17th of February, she got
clear through the only opening that appeared in the horizon from East to S.E., all
the rest of the circle forming one compact body of ice, as far as the eye could reach.
The vessel had been shut in for twenty-nine days, in the last fourteen of which she
drifted from lat. 40° 57' to lat. 44° 37', about 2S0 miles, or 20 miles a day, S.E. by E.
tremendous gales of wind blowing the whole time from the West to the N.W. In
the course of this passage the master declared that he saw more than 100 largo
islands of the solid blue ice, known to traders by the name of Greenland Ice.

On the 17th day of the same month, January, 1818, the brig Funchal, of Greenock,
sailed from St. John's, Newfoundland. At about 15 miles to the westward of this
port she fell in with a field of ice coming down from the northward, about 8 miles in
breadth, and extending to the northward beyond the reach of sight. Having cleared
this, and proceeded westerly about 250 miles, on the 20th, in lat. 47£°, she encoun-
tered a still more extensive field, floating to the westward, in the midst of which was
an iceberg ; she cleared this, though not without difficulty, and brought with her a
gale of wind, with snow, sleet, and rain, the whole way to Scotland.

On the Gth of May, 1823, the Mountstone, of and from Plymouth, was lost on an
iceberg, on her passage to Newfoundland. The master and crew, with passengers, in
all ten persons, took to the boat, without provisions, from which three only of the
number were taken by a passing ship, on the 14th of the same month, the remainder
having died of hunger !

Our next case is that of the Ajax, of Wiscasset, New England, on the passage
toward London, March and April, 1826. The following is an extract of a letter from
William S. Shaw, the commander, to his owners on the subject. His means of pro-
tecting the vessel, under perilous circumstances, are worthy of especial notice.

"On the 12th of March, at 4 a.m. (sea account), between lat. 42 3 and 44° North,
weather thick and cloud}-, with squalls of hail and snow, we ran the brig in between
two reefs of ice, jammed together apparently in a solid mass, the sea being much
smoother than usual, which did not alarm us ; we knew we were far from land or
breakers, until we felt the ice alongside of us ; so soon as we perceived which, we
hove-to until daylight, when we found we were surrounded by a solid body of ice.
Around us were thirty icebergs, about 150 ft. high, and nearly the size of Segwine
Island. Finding the ice chafed us badly, we got out fenders. As we had run into
the ice before the wind, it was impossible to get out the same way. At sunrise
discovered a narrow opening to leeward, for which we steered under easy sail, and
drove her through. Wc were now in a bay, about 1^ mile wide, the reefs on either
side, and large cakes of ice in contact with us.

" The wind still blowing fresh at N.W., we kept her before it about 3 miles, but
could not discover an opening to the southward and westward ; tacked and steered
N. E. about 12 miles, it being very difficult to avoid the large cakes of iee that
crowded thickly around us.

ICE IN THE ARCTIC CURRENT. 437

" Finding there was no opening in this direction, and that the two reefs extended
as far as we could see — that there were numerous large islands of ice North of us,
and an almost innumerable collection of small ones ahead, we concluded at 10 a.m..
to crowd her through the ice; and having prepared fenders of every kind, such as
old junk, spars, cordwood, hales of cotton, and part of one cable, we drifted her
into it. We were now in the midst of the ice in a severe gale, accompanied with a
thick snow storm ; and had it not been for our precaution, in preparing fenders, the
ice must have soon made a hole through us. At mid- day, old Sol deigned to show
his brazen face, and laughed at our comical situation. This circumstance enabled
us to take an observation, by which we found ourselves in lat. 44' 30' N., and long.
43° \V. (between the Azores and Newfoundland).

" As our fenders were nearly destroyed, wc were compelled to cut up more of our
cable, wooden fenders not sinking deep enough for the purpose of defence under
water. You may judge of the difficulty of crowding the brig through by our pro-
gress which was but half a mile an hour, under two reefed topsails and foresail, the
wind blowing heavily. At one o'clock p.m. we suspended two bales of cotton under
our chains, that they might not be carried away by rolling against the cakes of ice
which we occasionally met, some of which were 100 feet in circumference, and 6 feet
thick.

" At one time v.-e were so completely enclosed, that I got out, with part of tho
crew, and walked on the ice — a walk that few mariners have probably enjoyed at
that distance from land on the "Western Atlantic Ocean. At 8 h in the eveniua-,
found the surrounding ice much thinner, and the islands less frequent ; handed all
sails except the close-reefed main-topsail, which wc hove to the mast to keep her
from ranging ahead on the islands.

"At daylight, finding ourselves clear from the great body of ice, though not from
the islands, we made sail, and steered E.S.E. and E.N.E. for three days, with a
good breeze, and under short sail during tho night. It was '.he opinion of all
hands, that we sailed three hundred miles before wc were clear of the large islands
of ice."

In July and August of the same year, 1826, II. M.S. Ringdove was on her passage
from New York, and fell in with an immense iceberg off the Banks of Newfoundland,
drifting to the southward, the magnitude and sudden appearance of which astonished
every person on board. For the description of an iceberg seen Ly Capt. J. S. Park,
L K Jth June, 1826, see page 440.

In the month of March, 1828, several vessels arrived at New York, which had
fallen in with islands of ice in lat. 43-° to 44°, long. 4T 3 to 49°. This was considered
as unusually early in the season for such dangers to be met with. In this season the
brig Catherine and Hannah, Captain Lumsden, which afterwards arrived at Cork,
picked up, on the 4th of May, in lat. 4-3° 1 1', long. 56° (near Banque-reau), a boat be-
longing to the Superb, of and from Bristol, for Quebec, which ran foul of an iceberg
on the 21st of April, that stove her forward. This unfortunate occurrence obliged
all hands to take to the pumps, at which they continued without intermission for
two days and a night, when a schooner hove in sight ; and the captain proceeded in
the jolly boat to treat with them to take the crew. "While the captain was so en-
gaged, the vessel being quite in a sinking state, the crew left the pumps to get the
boats out to leave her. They succeeded in getting out a beat (tho one subsequently
picked up), and seven men got into her ; upon which they unhooked the tackle,
slipped from the ship, but could not regain her, and it coming on thick weather, they
could not find the schooner ; thus the unfortunate men were left without provisions,
water, mast, sail, or anything that would enable them to struggle for existence, savo
and except two oars. In this state they were buffeted about for eleven days, when
N. A. o. 3 s,

438 OBSERVATIONS ON TIIE CURRENTS.

they wore fallen in with by the Catharine and Hannah. Of the seven men only two
were alive; and one of these survived only twenty-four hours. It is almost super-
fluous to say, that the only food which they had taken was the bodies of their de-

!-<"l companions.

Captain Barclay, of the Brilliant, for Leith, from Quebec, which he left on the -3th
of June, 1829, narrowly escaped shipwreck, having fallen in with a heavy body
of ice, about 20 miles East of the entrance to the Strait of Belle-Isle in foggy
weather. The vessel got clear on the 19th of June, after being three days and nights
amongst them, and being obliged to proceed 1| degrees to southward.

On the 11th of May, 1833, between the Outer and Grand Banks of Newfoundland,
the brig Lady of the Lake, John Grant, master, from Belfa-.t, with 230 passengers,
in lat. 4G° 50', long. 47° 10', fell in with ice, and while end avouring to pass between
1 wo larg-e pieces, a tongue under water in the ice struck the port bow, and stove it
entirely in. It is not requisite here to repeat an afflicting detail ; the consequence
was, that the brig soon foundered, and only the captain, with fourteen other persons,
were ultimately saved.

The barque Perthshire, l~t. Simpson, from Pictou, Nova Scotia, fell in with a field
of ice, in lat. 4G 3 19', long. 40° 40', on the 8th of June, 1845. It was about thirty
miles in extent, and on its North end there was a ship, high and dry on the ice, with
the crew on board; but could not render them assistance.

(332.) The following are from Mr. Redfield: — " On the 1st day of January, 1844,
Captain Burroughs, in the ship Sully, met with an iceberg in the Atlantic, in lat. 45°,
long. 48'. This is earlier in the winter than any other case which wc have met with.
Captain B. states, that he had mot with ice near this position on the 1st of February,
cm a summer voyage,

In September, 1822, Captain Couthouy saw an iceberg aground on the eastern edge
of the Grand Bank, in lat. 43° 18', long. 48° 30'. Sounding 3 miles inside of it, the
depth was found to be 105 fathoms. In the month of August, 1827, the same ob-
server while crossing the banks, in lat. 46 3 30', long. 48° W., passed within less than
a mile of a large iceberg, which was stranded in between 80 and 90 fathoms. He
was so near as to perceive distinctly large fragments of rocks, and quantities of earthy
matter embedded in the sides of the iceberg ; and to sec from the fore-yard, that the
water, for at least a mile round it, was full of mud, stirred up from the bottom by the
violent rolling and crushing of ths mass.

On the 27th of April, 1829, Captain Couthouy passed, in lat. 36 1 10' N., long. 39'
West (probably South of the Gulf Stream), an iceberg, estimated to be a quarter of
a mile long, and from 80 to 100ft. high. It was much wasted in its upper portion,
which was worn and broken into the most fanciful shapes. In 1831, at da} light of
the 17th of August, lat 3G D 20' N., long 67° 45' W., upon the southern edge of the
Gulf Stream, he fell in with several small icebergs, in such proximity to each other,
as to leave little doubt of their being fragments of a large one, which weakened by
the high temperature of the surrounding water, had fallen asunder during the
strong gale which had prevailed from the S.E. — Silliman's Journal, vol. xliii.,
1842°

Ship St. James, Meyer, July 12th, 1844, lat. 44 3 , long. 47° 12', passed twelve large
icebergs ; July 20th, passed 25 ditto ; and July 21st, passed 30 ditto, lat. 43 3 50' long.
52° 26', saw the last of it.

Ship Formosa, Crawford, June 18th, 1842, lat. 38 s 40', long. 47° 20', saw an ice-
berg 100 ft. high, and 170 ft. long.

(333.) A very interesting item in our enumeration of ice-floes is that of those met
with in April, 1851, on which were the wrecks of two ships, which had the appear-
ance of, and from all probabilities were, the ships of the unfortunate Arctic expedi
lion under Sir John Frankk'n. The particulars have been so extensively detailed

ICE IN THE ARCTIC CURRENT. 439

elsewhere, that we shall merely give the original announcement, which will suffice
for the present purp ise. Much more extended particulars will be found in the public
newspapers of April the 9th, 1N52, and subsequently; the " Nautical Magazine,"
May, 1852, page 2G5, et seq. ; and the "Parliamentary Paper," on the Arctic ex-
pedition.

'lhe brig Renovation, of Shields, Captain E. Coward, bound to Quebec, on April
20th, 1851, when near the East edge of the bank, in lat. 45" 30', wind N.E., fresh
breeze, clear weather, as much as they could carry fore-topmast studding-sail, fell in
with ice-floes, one of which was very large, with field-ice attached, on which there
were two three-masted ships, having their ma^ts struck and yards down, and all
made snug; to all appearance they had all passed tire winter together on the ice.
Took the spying glass, and carefully examined them to sec if there was any one on
board, but could see no one, &c. &c. A further statement says they were apparently
two full-rigged ships (one about 500 tons, and the other 350), on an iceberg,
high and dry, the larger one on her beam ends, &c. Singularly enough this state-
ment had been published in the " Limerick Chronicle," May 28th, 1851, a year
previous to any notice having been taken elsewhere.

In our minds there is no doubt but that these were the ill-fated ships which had
been drifted out of Melville Sound and Baffin's Bay; and thus eluded all the elaborate
and anxious searches that were made. The incident is a singular one in the history
of arctic ices.*

The Carlo Man ran. commanded by Mr. Tillinghors, passed on May 23, 24, 25,
1851, between lats. 41' and 45 ; . and long. 49°-54° large quantities of ice.

On June 27, 1851, the Washington steamer, from New York to Southampton,
passed 10 very large icebergs between longs. 50°-45° in lat. 47\

(334.) Lieutenant Evans, the intelligent officer to whom we are indebted
for a part of these extracts, says, " There is scarcely a doubt but that most
of the vessels from the West Indies and America, that have been missing,
perished in the same manner as the Mount stone, icebergs having been met
with some degrees to the southward of the Banks of Newfoundland in June
and July. The commanders of vessels, therefore, who have occasion to
pass between the parallels of 35° and 50° N., cannot be too cautious ; a
look-out man should be placed on the fore-yard during the night, and in
foggy or hazy weather, also in the day time. In addition to these, there
should be one on each bow ; and during a fog the foresail should be hauled
up, especially in crossing the banks, where the icebergs have been met with
aground. Careful attention, too, should be paid to the thermometer, as
experience has shown that to be an indicator of the vicinity of ice. Captain
Franklin observes, that the approach to ice would be evidently pointed out
in those parts of the Atlantic where the surface is not continually chilled by
the passing and melting of ice, as in the Arctic Sea ; and he strongly re-
commends a strict hourly attention to the thermometrieal state of the water at
the surface, in all parts where ships are exposed to the dangerous concussion

* See Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xxvi., pp. 26—35, " On the Pro-
bable Course pursued by Sir John Franklin's Expedition," by A. G. Findlay. Notwith-
standing that this great mystery has been partially cleared up by the expeditions of Dr. Rae
nnd Sir L. M'Clintock, yet no vestige of the ships themselves have been seen by Europeans.
That portion, as well as others, is still involved in mystery ; and the opinion is still tonabia
vnd maintained by many, that these derelict ships were the Erebus and Terror.

i'O OBSERVATIONS ON THE CUEREN D3.

of floating icebergs, as a principal means of security. There would bo very
little trouble attending such a point of duty; yet, we believe, there are
many masters who would not undergo it, but trust to chance the safety of
their vessel, their own lives, and those of their crew and passengers. Many
have mado repeated voyages across the Atlantic without, having seen floating
ice, and theroforo become incautious. It is to these we would particu-
larly recommend the perusal of this paper. The following extract fully
corroborates Captain Franklin's assertion: — " Tho morning of the 1st of
August (says Captain Lyon) was thick and foggy, with rain ; at 10 a.m. wo
discovered, through the haze, our first piece of ice, a small berg of about 70
feet; we soon passed this and several others, but saw no floe or brash ice,
although there was every reason to suppose that a pack was near, from tho
sudden smoothness and change of temperature in the water, now at 32°,
while the air was at only 34°. Repeated observations of this hind have now
brought to a certainty the assertion, that the approach to ico from an open
sea may be ascertained by the sudden change of the thermometer; and
acting from past experience, I caused the more active look-out to be kept,
on observing it to fall suddenly this morning; yet this change first took
place in a very thick fog, and we ran about 10 miles before the ice was
seen."

Cautions. — "Captain Wcddell recommends that, with a free side wind,
an iceberg or ice island should be passed on the windward side ; and by this
means, the loose ice, which always drifts furthest, is avoided.

We may sum up the admonitions which have been given by the following
remarks : —

Tho indications of an iceberg are — 1. A natural effulgence, or tee blink,
which frequently renders them visible at some distance, even in the darkest
night. At a short distance this effulgence may appear like a white cloud,
extending over, or nearly over, the vessel's masts.

2. A considerable decrease in the temperature of the water, as shown by
the thermometer, in comparison with the heat of the adjacent sea, and with
the air above.

3. The roaring of the sea at the base of a berg, which may be heard
by an attentive listener, when afar off.

(335.) Lieut. J. Steele Park, from whose journal we have given extracts
elsewhere, recites the following incident, which will speak for itself an incul-
catory caution : —

" June 29th, 1826. — A light breeze from the southward, with foggy
' Bank weather? as the sailors call it. Steering E. by S. At eight o'clock
this morning it cleared away, and I took altitudes for my chronometer,
which made the longitude 42° 42' ; and, at the same time, we discovered an
island on the starboard beam, 3 or 4 miles off. Shortened sail, hove the
ship to, and sent the mate to see what it really was; for, although I had no
doubt of its being an iceberg, yet it certainly looked something like land ;
and I did not wish to leave it in any kind of uncertainty. The fog, which
had cleared away at eight o'clock, and left a beautiful blue sky, returned
suddenly when tho boat was about half-way from the ship. The mate, an
active, skilful seaman, had a compass with him, and ho apprehended no
danger, but pushed on for the island, instead of returning, when he saw the

ICE IN THE ARCTIC CURRENT. 441

fog spreading. Hour after hour passed away, and no appearance of the
boat. Night came on, dark as the grave, with a cold, benumbing drizzle,
and a fog so dense that we could scarcely see across the deck. My grand
object was to keep the ship as near the same spot as possible. All day and
night we kept the bell tolling, and fired a great gun occasionally; a tar
barrel was also blazing at the main-yard arm, but all was unavailing. I
shall never forget the terrors of that night. I reproached myself as the
cause of their destruction ; and I prayed most earnestly for daylight and
clear weather. I thought daylight would never come ; but it came at last
and the fog was thicker, if possible, than the day before. The most san-
guine now began to despair. About five o'clock something was heard, like
the blowing of a conch shell, but so faint and indistinct that we thought it
was only the echo of the great noise we were making on board. However,
it was soon discovered that the sound was coming nearer and nearer ; but
as no person on board knew that they had a shell in the boat, we were still
in a sad state of anxiety ; for it might, perhaps, be a ship sounding her
shell in the fog, as is usual at sea. In a few minutes the splash of oars was
heard, and in five minutes more the boat was alongside, with all hands safe
and sound, thank God ! but cold and hungry enough. The mate tells me
he rowed round the iceberg, which he thinks was about 309 feet in length,
150 feet in breadth, and 40 or 50 feet above the surface of the water. It
was melting away rapidly ; streams of water were gushing down its sides,
and they had only got a few yards from it, on their return, when (to use
his Own words) ' it took a sally and fell over on its beam ends.' Our last
sight of the ice, when bearing S.W. 3 or 4 miles, was in lat. 42° 13', long.
4 f J° 44'."

( 442 )

IV.-MAGNETIC VARIATION.

(336.) Among the changes which have come over the system of navigation
of late years, none have been more important than the different relation
which the compass now bears to the ship as compared with its place in
former times.

Eucle instruments, unadjusted, with errors unsuspected, and under in-
fluences destructive to their accuracy, have given place to what may be, in
some cases, over estimation, of this primary aid to the seaman. In its very
nature the compass is imperfect and incompetent to show, at sea, the minute
quantities, which are now disputed over. The consequence is, that it is
made, like the topic we have just discussed, ocean currents, the scapegoat
for many errors of seamanship and judgment, which a more intimate know-
ledge and therefore greater mistrust and induced caution would have
avoided.

(337.) Our present task deals with the geographic distribution of magne-
tism, not with those local effects caused by the ship or its relation to outer
circumstances, but to its position in the Atlantic. The other points, most
important in themselves, must be discussed elsewhere.

The features of the earth's magnetism, as related to the ship, are the
declination, inclination and intensity. The dip and intensity are very im-
portant elements in the adjustment of the compass in its passage through
the varied magnetic conditions which an over-sea voyage across the Equator
conducts a ship through, but they have but little influence on the directive
power of the needle in the latitudes universally traversed in commercial pur-
suits. The declination or variation is one of the most important elements in
navigation, and its correct estimation and application most essential to the
safe conduct of a ship.

(338.) The reasons why the compass is now placed in so much higher con-
sideration than it was in former years are manifest. The great increase
of the use of iron both for ship building as well as in the fabric of wooden
ships, and the consequent vastly increased influence that the ship has upon
her compasses has been one chief reason why attention is so imperatively
demanded. Again, since the universal use of steam, the course of a vessel
in passing directly from one point to another requires to be much more
accurately laid than was thought necessary when wooden ships only were
used.

Another reason, which has arisen in the course of years, is that caused by
the secular variation. The accurate government surveys, which have now
been in progress for 40 or 50 years, in their earlier portions, in some cases,
remained as they were issued, and consequently this change from the varia-
tion of the compass they show, has amounted to a considerable quantity,
such as would endanger the safety of a vessel where they have been
implicitly trusted to.

The appreciation of this change, which has thus become manifest simulta-
neously with the necessity for improved compasses and improved methods
of usiug them, have placed the magnetic element in charts on a fresh basis.

MAGNETIC VARIATION. 44;;

Ono most important result of this movement was the appointment by tho
Admiralty of the late Captain E. J. Johnson as superintendent, in 1842, of
the Compass Department. The great improvement in compasses dates from
this appointment, and the investigation of the difficult and varying pro-
blems of local deviation have been since pursued by eminent men, among
whom may be noticed Professor Airy, Dr. Scoresby, W. AYalker, E.N ,
Archibald Smith, Esq., and many others. These researches havo been
mainly directed, as before observed, to the effect the ship's iron has on
her compasses. Captain F. G. Evans, R.N., who has succeeded Captain
Johnson, has drawn up a far more perfect chart of the geographic distribu-
tion of the magnetic variation than we hitherto possessed ; former charts
having become of impaired value from the lapse of time, and from the
imperfection of the observations on which they were based. It is from this
chart brought down to the period of 1879, by applying the secular change
requisite to the chart of 1871, that the illustrative chart has been con-
structed.

(339.) The isogonie lines, or those upon which the variation is of the same
amount, on this chart, will represent this element, generally as near as the
ordinary ship's compass will show it, and will serve to draw attention to any
unsuspected change in the magnetism of the ship, besides affording thf-
sailor some information when observation cannot be had.

(340.) The variation of the compass in all parts of the coasts of the Atlantic
are given with the Tables of Geographic Positions at the commencement of
this work, and the amount of annual decrease or increase in this variation
is also indicated. To these notices, therefore, the reader is referred.

It is for the open ocean that the illustrative chart and these notes are in-
tended, and on the chart are inserted the amount of annual change in
different parts, so that the approximate variation may be ascertained in
future years by applying the necessary correction.

(341.) But it must not be supposed that this annual change is regular and
of the same amount in each year. By the accurate observations that are
now self-recorded, the connection between these changes and apparently
very remote causes have been identified. One of these, at the first glance a
very singular one, is that the spots in the sun, if absent or present in large
quantities, have a marked magnetic influence on the declination, thus demon-
strating the source from which the magnetism of the earth is chiefly derived.
As the Greenwich observations will illustrate our subject as well as any, and
this volume might be filled with interesting results on this subject, the
notices will be limited to the extracts from those observations as being
.sufficient to impart a notion of the ever varying amount of the magnetic
variation.

444

MAGNETIC VARIATION.

Westerly Magnetic Variation at Greenwich.

Month.

1844

1848

1850

1855

1860

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20

L862

April

23 19 22
23 18 43

23 18 42
23 19 23
23 19 8
23 18 40
23 13 25
23 13 6
22 12 52
22 11 50
22 49 41

22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22

50
49
53
52
52
53
53
52
51
52
51
51

2
5
46
27
46
21
18
36
31
11
46
40

22 2S 5
22 27 28
22 26 54
22 25 44
22 25 1
22 2! 47
22 23 41
22 22 4
22 25 43
22 19 1
22 18 27
22 IS 27

21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21

49
4S
48
48
48
40
48

4 7
46
45

50
13
41
44
25
12
14
31
9
21
59
54

21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21

14
13
11
15
17
16
15
15
12
13
12
11

58 37
58 21
57 32
50 43

May

49 5

52 31

49 39

51 46

50 33
50 6

50 9
49 35

Table, showing the Mean Monthly Westerly Declination of the Magnet and the
Mean Monthly Dip from 1865 to 1870.

Month.

1805

f 1S06

1867

1S08

L869

1870

20 31 6
20 32 25
20 33 58
20 33 51
20 30 36
20 31 27
20 33 1
20 33 1
20 34 11
20 32 56
20 33 18

o ' »

20 33 7
20 32 56
20 31 44
20 32 13
20 30 35
20 28 47
20 26 16
20 25 13
20 23 39
20 23 38
20 22 56
20 22 22

20 22
20 21 20
20 23 20
20 23 8
20 21 57
20 20 27
20 19 54
20 19 36
20 18 57
20 13 50
20 17 50
20 16 3

20 20 17

20 15 4
20 14 50
20 15 23
20 15 54
20 15 16
20 13 20
20 12 4 7
20 12 57
20 13 19
20 10 54
20 9 47
20 9 19

20
20

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
19
19

9 12

8 30
8 14
6 56
6 27
4 51
4 22
3 44
1 47
38
59 29
58 37

1
9 If

19 57 2S

19 56 4 1
19 50 21

19 oo

May

19 54 50

19 52 52

July

19 52 57

19 52 16

19 51 55
19 51 40

19 51 IS
19 50 26

20 32 43

20 27 47

20 13 14

20
07

4 21
54 48

19 53 39

08 2 40

68 1 25

67 57 14

67 50 36

07 52 3S

(342.) Upon examining these columns of figures, it will be at on 'e seen
that the decreasing amount of westerly variation is very iar from being
regular, and that at some times the variation is absolutely increasing. Thus,
the variation in June, 1847, was 22° 43' 0"; in June, 184S, 22° 53' 21", an
increase of 10' 21". The decrease between January, 1816, and January, 1847,
was only 1' 38"; to January, 1848, 1' 4"; to January, 1849, it decreased
14' 6"; and to January, 1850, 5' 51"; the mean annual rate for these four
years being 5' 44". The variation in 1870 was about 19° 54', so that it had
decreased 3° 28' 56'' in the twenty-six years that had elapsed since 1844, or
at the rate of 8' 0" per annum ; but its mean rate at Greenwich is about %h,
at present.

The needle also varies very considerably at times in the course of the day,

GENERAL REMARKS. 445

the maximum westerly declination is at 2 p.m. This diurnal change amounts
to 7', 8', 9' and 10'. This topic is so large and comprehensive, that it must
be left to other works devoted entirely to the subject, to afford further
information.

V.-OF PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC:

I. GENERAL REMARKS.

(343.) In the preceding pages we have described those natural phenomena
of winds, currents, &c., which govern the track of a ship across the ocean.

The object of the present section is to apply these principles to the sea-
man's practice ; but, previous to entering upon this portion of the task, we
will make a few general observations upon great circle sailing, which has
been revived as a new subject, when in fact it is one which was among the
earliest principles recognised in navigation. This is not the place to enter
into disquisitions on the working of great circle problems— that must be
left to works specially devoted to nautical mathematics. The excellent
"Practice of Navigation," by Lieutenant Raper, or Towson's Tables, pub-
lished by the Hydrographic Office, will be found excellent guides ; but still
a greater simplicity in the application to ordinary purposes of navigation is
a great desideratum, and one which, perhaps, we shall endeavour to supply
at a future day.

Great circle sailing was known and acted on very early in the history of
navigation. It is more than probable that Cabot, Columbus, Magalhaens,
and all the first great navigators were acquainted with the subject ;* but
this, it must be remembered, was prior to the knowledge of the principles
of finding the longitude. When Gerhard Mercator, in 1569, published a
universal map, on the projection now known by his name, a new era com-
menced in navigation ; but its true principles were not correctly described
till they were done so by Edward Wright, in 1599. In this projection, as
is well known, the meridians being parallel to each other, and straight lines,
the latitude is distorted and decreased in proportion as these meridians are

* It is alluded to directly in a work by Pedro Nunez, in 1537 ; again, by Pedro de Me-
dina, in 1545 ; but his system was erroneous, and was corrected by Martine Cortes (or
Curtis), whose work, " The Arte of Navigation," was soon after, in 1561, translated out of
the Spanish into English, by Richard Eden, and was long the text book of British seamen.
Numerous other works, in which it is correctly and distinctly described, afterwards ap-
peared, as one by Michael Coignet, of Antwerp, in 1581 ; an excellent work by Roderick
Zamarano, in 1585, &c. That by this time it was thoroughly recognised is evident by
John Davis's Book, published in August, 1594, called the " Seaman's Secrets ; wherein is
Taught the Three Kinds of Sayling— Horizontal^ Paradoxall, and Sayling upon a Great
Circle" It is also described in Richard Polter's " Pathway to Perfect Sayling," about the
same time. After this it is found in most of the old works on navigation.

N. A. 0. 3 M

446 PASSAGES OYEE THE ATLANTIC.

more distant from each other than the correct difference of longitude would
give for that latitude. Consequently a straight line drawn between any two
points on such a plain chart, will give the correct compass bearing, which,
if maintained throughout the course by a ship, will lead her from one point
to the other. This course is well known as the rhumb course, and is that in
universal use from its simplicity. But it is not the shortest course, except it be
due East or "West on the equator, or North or South on a meridian, which
are great circles. This course, developed on a sphere, is found to be a spiral,
and is considerably removed from a great circle or shortest distance if a
great extent of longitude is traversed by it. We need not pursue this sub-
ject, but an example will explain its application.

(344.) From a point off the Lizard, in lat. 50° N., long. 5° 30' W., to Cape
St. John's, in the Bay of Notre Dame, in Newfoundland, also in lat. 50' N.,
and 55° 30' "W., the course, true, is of course West, and the distance on this
parallel is 1,928 J miles. But if a ship were to quit the Lizard on a N.
70° 20' 30" W. (true) course, and then gradually bearing more westward,
attaining the latitude of 52° 45' N., in long. 30° 30' "W., thence bearing more
southward, and approaching Cape St. John's on a similar angle to the
parallel that she had left the Lizard, she will have sailed over 1,893 miles,
or 35£ less than on the parallel ; but, in her greatest separation, she will
have been 165 miles distant from the rhumb course. Therefore, if she were
to take any course between this great circle course and the parallel of 50°,
she would have a less distance to traverse ; and this is the great advantage
which the great circle sailing offers — that of a wide range of choice (in a
higher latitude) without increasing the distance.

Further, if she were to assume a course as much higher in latitude as the
great circle course is above the rhumb, she will find that it will be of the
same length as the latter. Thus, in the example cited, if on leaving the
Lizard she were to bear away for a point in lat. 55° 30' N., long. 30° 30', and
then approach Cape St. John's, such a curve will be found to be exactly
1,928 J miles in length, and yet be, in its maximum separation, 330 miles
apart from the parallel. The advantage of such a range of choice will
appear subsequently in the remarks upon the transatlantic passages.

(345.) The great difficulties in application of the principle of great circle
sailing to practice are, the laborious nature of the calculations, now, how-
ever, much reduced, and the inference as to how a course so much at variance
with that which the chart will apparently dictate as the most direct, will
place a ship in respect to favourable winds or currents. Still, the scope it
allows to the navigator must be considered as no mean advantage, even if
its shorter distance may not be an inducement to rigorously follow out its
principles.

(346.) In the following general sailing directions, tho application of the
facts in physical geography which have been described in the preceding
sections of this work, must be left to the discretion of the commander in
most cases. In fine weather, and with fair winds, the estimation of the
various influences which affect the ship's course are not difficult to make.
But it is the adverse circumstances of a voyage that call for the seaman's
skill and intelligence, and what has been said will help him to form a judg-
ment of what is going on and how best to proceed.

GENERAL EEMAEKS. 447

But there is an infinite variety of circumstances which render it impossible
to lay down any fixed rule which may be implicitly followed to avantage at
all times. Therefore, in cases where a definite course is pointed out as the
best to be pursued, and a vessel should be driven out of her intended route,
it does not follow that it is right to endeavour to regain that course to pursue
it afresh, but rather it should be considered that a fresh voyage has to be
commenced, and the course shaped from the latest point as if it were a start-
ing point.

(347.) A vessel under steam only is considered in the light of a sailing
vessel with a fair wind. In a certain sense this is true, as it enables her to
be independent of wind or current. But it should be remembered that the
same contrarieties which affect and hinder a sailing vessel from pursuing a
direct course, will also, in a degree, be adverse to the progress of a steamer ;
and, therefore, if a moderate deviation from the shortest route will lead her
into more favouring winds or currents, that course will be most advantageous
to the vessel under steam as it is to the sailing ship.

There is one circumstance which may be mentioned respecting a ship
under steam as to how she is affected by the direction and strength of the
wind. If a vessel be steaming before a fresh breeze, strength No. 8, at the
rate of 12 or 13 knots, she will experience a perfect calm, while the sailing
vessel will be only able to carry her top-gallant sails and royals. If eho
steams in the teeth of the wind, she will seem to have a strong gale, under
which a sailing ship could only carry close-reefed topsails. This will be
made apparent by consulting the table of the velocity of the wind on page
ISO. Now, a vessel steaming with the wind otherwise than directly fore or
aft, will not feel the wind in its true direction ; for it will appear to blow
from that direction and with that force which is a combination of the rate
and direction of the ship's course with that of the velocity and direction of
the wind itself. Its apparent and real course and velocity may be found by
constructing a pai'allelogram of forces— a well-known problem. It is for
this reason that the wind as registered on board a steam-vessel does not
give the correct bearing of its course, and it is much more disguised than it
is in a sailing ship when close hauled, as alluded to in (12), on p. 178.

As the steam-vessel, then may be considered in a great measure inde-
pendent of wind and current, the great object of the past and succeeding
remarks is mainly applicable to sailing vessels.

(348.) It has been well observed that the wind systems of our globe
naturally govern the tracks of ships crossing the oceans, the trade winds
carrying them from East to West within the tropics, while the anti-trade or
passage winds will bring them back again eastward beyond the tropics. If
it were not for the intervening belt of calms, sailing directions for vessels
going into opposite hemispheres would be of the simplest kind; but the
well-known equatorial embarrassments — "the doldrums" — generally make
a very different matter of it, and cause many considerations to enter into the
problem of shaping a course. In the North Atlantic, these obstacles of the
intervening calms seem to be at their maximum, and in the future remarks
one chief point, now still argued, will be found to be that which has engaged
attention almost ever since over-sea voyages commenced — where is the best
place to ayoid these calms and contrarieties of the equator.

448 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

The directions which follow will commence with our own country, although
very briefly ; for it is presumed that almost every one who will use this book
is either well qualified to navigate our own channels, or has more extended
works on this point to guide him.

And even in the remarks on more distant voyages very brief notices
would generally suffice, for most are now familiar with the varied particulars
of the hydrography of the Atlantic as it affects a ship's passage. Notwith-
standing the vast labour that has been bestowed on the research into its
phenomena, it does not seem that a corresponding advantage has accrued to
shipping ; for in many cases the directions of a century since will be found
as useful as those based upon these refined inquiries. However, one thing
nay he averred, that passages are now made with much greater certainty
than formerly, and even if the average duration of a voyage is shortened a
few hours, very much has been gained ; and, by the comparison of a great
number of voyages made under different circumstances, it may be safely
pronounced which is the best course to pursue, and what the average length
such a voyage will be.

2. TO AND FROM THE ENGLISH CHANNEL.

Outward.

For vessels leaving the Downs, and having rounded the South Foreland,
the track is W.S.W. 21 miles to Dungeness, the depth 20 to 10 fathoms.
From a mile off Dungeness to abreast the Royal Sovereign Shoal Lightvessel,
the course is W. by S. 24 miles, and in depths varying from 18 to 12 fathoms.
In working down, and while to the eastward of Folkestone, stand in to 13
fathoms, and off towards the Varne to 16 fathoms. This latter bank has
lost much of its dangerous character by the placing of the light-vessel,
which marks its N.W. face. Between Dungeness and Bexhill keep
outside of 9 or 10 fathoms, and within 25 fathoms. To the westward keep
South of the Royal Sovereign Lightvessel, which will keep you clear .of the
shoals. Having arrived at 4 miles South of Beachy Head, a course may be
shaped down Channel. This course will necessarily be much controlled by
the wind and tide ; but under any circumstances the English coast should
not be left. If the wind be contrary, the best position with the commence-
ment of the ebb is in shore. The flood tide, especially at its commence-
ment, tends to the southward, filling the large indentations of the French
coasts before it sets up the Channel, and then it sets on to the coast South
of Boulogne. It is well to remember that the tidal streams throughout the
fairway of the English Channel set towards Dover while the tide is rising
there, and away from it while falling, so that the Dover tide-table answers
for the whole distance between the Lizard and Beachy Head. H.W.F. and
C. at Dover llh. 12m. All this is explained on pages 304, 305, ante.

If the wind is favourable a W. by N. course for 60 miles brings you
off St. Catherine's Point; from thence W. £ N. 94 miles to the Start. In
working down do not come nearer the Owers than in 20 fathoms, and to St.
Catharine's than 22 fathoms. From thence to St. Alban's Head into not
less than 22 fathoms toward the indraught. Between Portland Bill and the

TO AND FROM THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. 449

Start, if the weather be clear and favourable, you may stand into Lyme Bay
to 17 or 16 fathoms. Throughout all this course keep off until in from 35
to 36 fathoms. From the Start to the Lizard, the course and distance
are W. h N. 64 miles, which course continued for 46 miles further brings
the ship 10 miles South of the Bishop Light.

Throughout the course as far as off Plymouth, the tides set fair up and
down ; westward of this they revolve in all directions, and must be most
carefully attended to, as is also most necessary when to the East of Beachy
Head.

In case of bad weather or contrary winds, and necessity for shelter, the
following places may be safely sought for. With the winds broad easterly
or westerly, ships may stop on either side of Dungeness, in East or West,
Bay, and also on either side of Beachy Head, in Seaford Eoad, westward
and eastward of the shoals on the other side, and near Bexhill ; and with
westerly winds the Park inside the Owers Lightvessel is also used. Within
the Isle of Wight there is anchorage sheltered from all winds. Westward
of the Wight, Studland Bay (near Poole) affords good shelter from westerly
gales. The Refuge Harbour in Portland Eoadstead affords security against
nearly all winds. Good anchorage is also found against southerly winds in
Torbay, Plymouth Sound, and Falmouth.

Most sailors have had some experience of the detention caused by contrary
winds in the English Channel. Some of the more remarkable of these de-
tentions have long lived in remembrance. The Right Hon. Maurice Fitz-
gerald, in some evidence respecting the Western Harbours of Ireland, gave
a curious illustration of the difficulties in making way against these westerly
gales. An officer of considerable experience commanded a small vessel of
war belonging to the Cork squadron. Information was received that a
smuggler was to land on the western coast ; he was ordered to cruise off the
Skelligs to intercept her. He sailed from Cork, but was brought up six
different times at Crookhaven, and, being extremely anxious to reach the
ground upon which he was to cruise, he determined to sail round the North
of Ireland, and he did so, and reached the Skelligin a very few days.

The detention of Rear-Admiral Christian was proverbially known. He
sailed from Portsmouth with an expedition for the West Indies on Nov, 16,
1779, and, after having been repeatedly blown back, he did not ultimately
clear the channel, till the end of the following March.

It seems that the wind generally draws up and down the Channel more or
less, and does not blow true as in the open ocean. Thus, a westerly wind in
the offing may become a W.N.W. wind in the English Channel, and a N,W.
wind in the St. George's Channel ; and the same with the easterly winds.
By referring to (93), page 250, and the illustrative diagram, the reader will
see some exemplification of this in the case of Liverpool, and in (97), pages
252, 253, those of the English Channel are discussed, where it will be seen
that the western predominate over the eastern quarters as 229 is to 132. A
new feature in our weather knowledge, which accounts for the prevalence of
these westerly winds, will be found discussed on (92), page 249.

As a further illustration of the direction of the wind in the upper part of
the Channel, we may adduce the following resume of 10 years' observations
made by the Royal Society : —

430

PASSAGES OYER THE ATLANTIC.

Table of tiie Winds observed at the Royal Society's Apartments in

London.

Easterly.

102

91 -
101

Westerly.

1826
1827
1828
1829

Mean ....

Easterly.

129
115
104

130

Westerly.

1820
1821
1822
1823
1821
1825

168
196
181
189
195
188

187
189
192
171

101

186

Or, supposing a feather to have been abandoned at the beginning of each
of these years, the mean direction and number of days the feather would
have advanced is as below : —

Year.

Direction.

Days.

Year.

Direction.

Days.

1820
1821
1822
1823
1824

S. 86° E.
N. 89' E.
N. 84 3 E.
S. 81° E.
S. 74° E.

/2
81
91

1825

1826
1827
1828
1829

S. 75°. 8 E.
N. 58° E.
N. 58* E.
N. 39° E.
N. 57° E.

86
47
54
95
38

Mean for 10 years N. 85° E. 66 days per annum.

This shows how far the westerly predominate over the easterly directions.
North-easterly winds are of a maximum in May and June.

Our remarks as to the lighthouses and other points of departure will be
useful to a ship leaving dock to gain a sea-rate for her chronometers. In
the geographical tables, pages 7 and 8, the chief land-marks are given to
the minutest accuracy ; and in the tables of lighthouses, the position of any
one of the lights there given will equally answer as a point of departure.

Homeward.*

The Bristol Channel I consider safer to approach than either the British
or St. George's Channels. The parallel of Trevose Head, on which stand
the two lighthouses, has been generally recommended, and that on the parallel
of Lundy Island may be used according to circumstances, direction of the
wind, &c. In thick or dark weather the soundings will indicate when you
have passed a line cutting Scilly and St. Ann's Lights near Milford Haven,
and also on nearing the shores on either side. The South side of Lundy
is preferred, as you can go safely round it, taking care to keep the light in
sight above the land ; and as there are generally pilots lying under the
island, you are sure not to miss them by pursuing this route. .

For approaching and proceeding tip the Bristol Channel, various directions
have been given. 1st. Soundings. — The great difficulty is that the soundings

* General Notes on the Appproaches to the Channels and for Navigating the British
Channel, by Captain Richard Leighton.

TO AND FEOM THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. 451.

are very deep, and the same water may be got in different positions, both in
latitude and longitude, so that a false position by dead-reckoning in the
longitude, or in the latitude by the want of observations, is almost as likely
to be confirmed as detected; I mean by detached casts of the lead. As a pre-
caution against this, I would advise ships (particularly those navigating by
dead-reckoning) to "seek the ground early," so that by striking the edge
of the bank they may obtain, as it were, a departure, and then take frequent
casts of the lead, and make with them a tablo in the following form, noting
the true course and distance between each two casts, and carefully observing
the quality of the ground as well as the depth of the water : —

True Course. Distance. ] Depth. | Quality of the Ground.
And where a few of these are obtained and set off upon the chart, one will
check the other. Ships, as well as steamers, have been lost by not " stop-
ping to sound."

The prevalent winds are considered to be S.W. and westerly from May to
December, both inclusive, and from January to April, both inclusive ; al-
though long and heavy S.W. and westerly gales may occur at this season,
yet they are more frequently interrupted by northerly and N.E. winds, par-
ticularly in February and March. N.W. winds are considered to be gene-
. rally of short duration.

To approach and pass Stilly, the parallel of 49° 15' to 49° 25 has generally
been recommended ; in place of which I would recommend that from 49° 30'
to 49° 40', according to the wind, &c, as likely' to be attended with greater
safety; and if the Bishop Eock or Scilly be not made, having taken every
precaution to ascertain the longitude, once that its meridian is past, strike
for the Lizard, and if possible, make it, and thence proceed by the rules of
the best coasters. Lights can be seen when celestial observations cannot be
made ; and as the navigation is generally free from outlying dangers, courses
should be shaped from one prominent point or light to the next, keeping at
a moderate distance to ensure seeing them, if possible. The ships generally
met with in this route are coasters, and they keep a good look-out, and are
generally very anxious to get out of the way of large foreign-going ships.

Easterly Winds in the Winter and Spring Months. — Those winds are very
destructive upon the East coast, and often cause heavy losses and great de-
tention among the shipping ; and, although they may blow long and steady
in all the channel, yet at times they do not extend to the westward of Cork,
but more generally about the edge of soundings ; I have known them to
blow long and remarkably steady in the Bristol Channel, and yet ships were
arriving at Cork with heavy S. W. winds.

Whilst speaking of soundings and channel navigation, I want to strongly
urge the use of Captain Sumner's method, as by it a single altitude giving
the line A A with a cast of the lead, or a bearing of the land, will often fix
a ship's position with certainty, and its many uses and advantages will soon
suggest themselves after a little practice.

My reasons for dissenting from choosing the parallel of 49° 15' to 49° 25'
to approach the channel, are : —

1st. A ship in this parallel will pass from 30 to 40 miles to the southward
of Scilly, and will not expect to see it. I think this precaution attaches too
much importance to Maior Eennell's thwart channel current, which I do not

452 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

consider to be a definite current, but only at times occasioned by a cornbina
tion of circumstances, driving a great excess of water into the Bay of Biscay,
and the excess of tide to the northward does not require so great an allow-
ance.

2nd. That parallel is the centre of the dangerous group of Guernsey,
Jersey, the Caskets, &c, which, I believe, have caused more wrecks to ships
bound up the British Channel than getting to the "northward of Scilly"
has done, and the channel course trends to the northward, the difference of
longitude between Scilly and the Caskets may appear great, but great errors
occur in dead reckoning, and a ship goes far in a winter night and a westerly
gale, but allowing them to avoid these dangers.

3rd. That parallel has led to or encouraged the imprudent and dangerous
practice of galloping up in mid-channel, with neither anchor nor cable clear,
and trusting to celestial observations and chronometers, as though it were in
the middle of the Atlantic ; and here we have the Conqueror, Reliance, &c,
sad examples of the effects of not making and keeping hold of the English
coast, lights, &e. A great deal was said and written about those cases, but
I consider that the amount of error in the course and distance from a posi-
tion off Scilly or the Lizard, to place a ship on shore between Boulogne and
Calais, instead of being in a position off Dungeness, to be an every -day
occurrence in navigating such a distance in tideways and blowing weather
without any check to correct the account, and neither "storm-waves" nor
" storm-currents " were required to cause them.

4th. Foreign-going masters generally keep at too great a distance from
the land, by which they not only frequently miss a sight of lights, &c,
which it is important that they should see, but they lose the benefit of some
degree of familiarity with the land, objects, &c, which a nearer approach
would give them, and which in the want of having to go into roadsteads,
&c, would be found of very great service.

5th. It is not by keeping near the land that ships get embayed and lost.
If it were, colliers would never be safe ; they are as much afraid of getting
off the land as foreign-going masters generally are of coming near it. The
general rule in coasting is to see every guide as you pass it (unless thick
weather should prevent it, and in that case strict attention to the lead until
you find the next) ; this rule and attention to the set and duration of the
tides are the grand points in coasting.

8.— TO AND FEOM THE ST. GEORGE'S CHANNEL.*

11 Many shipmasters have been bewildered in St. George's Channel, espe-
cially in thick weather, from ignorance of the tides and want of experience ;
some, we are sorry to add, from want of due consideration, and others from
not allowing for the indraught into the bays on the Welsh coast, in which
the two lightvessels are placed to remove some of this latter danger.

* General Instructions and Admonitions for Vessels bound from Liverpool and other
Western Ports to the Atlantic Ocean, and for Returning from the Ocean to the fame ; by
Captain Thomas Midjjley, of Liverpool.

TO AND FEOM THE ST. GEORGE'S CHANNEL. 453

" The writer of the following hints and observations begs to be understood
as laying no claim to merit in their compilation ; his only motive being to
assist and advise the stranger, and those who, from want of experience, have
acquired only a slight knowledge of this dangerous navigation."

Special caution to the effects of the tides seems necessary to be inculcated
of late. Some most lamentable shipwrecks have recently occurred on the
banks on the S.E. coast of Ireland, by vessels leaving Liverpool under what
ought to have been favourable circumstances. The unthinking hardihood
of the commander who will place his ship's keel on a special course as if it
were a groove, which, if most accurately kept, will just shave clear of de-
struction, and without taking into account the numerous causes which will
horse him off his course, such as bad steerage, leeway, heave of the sea,
and, above all, the set of the tides — cannot be too strongly deprecated. And
yet, as above said, some losses have occurred which have most certainly
arisen from a culpable neglect of all these particulars, and been attributed
to charts or local magnetic attraction unadjusted, or, indeed, anything but
the real cause — the thoughtlessness of the sailor. On page 307 some brief
remarks on the tidal streams of the St. George's Channel are given, which
will do to remind the sailor of what is said in more extended works.

Another point of caution most important is, the character of the lights
marking its dangers. In the table their present condition is given, and it is
sincerely to be hoped that no misleading alteration will take place. Govern-
ment official entanglements led to much confusion and unnecessary alterations
in the Irish lights, which, as they were, or as they are, answer their purpose
well ; but unknown alterations must lead to confusion, doubt, and danger.
Therefore, let the seaman who has been absent, perhaps for years, enter
these difficult channels with all caution.

Captain Midgley's instructions are arranged as follows : —

(a) On proceeding from Liverpool westward to the Bay of Holyhead.

(b) On taking the North Channel, and proceeding thence to Tory Island.

ocean.

(d) On proceeding by the South of Ireland from the ocean to Liver-

pool, &c.
(Throughout these remarks, the courses, bearings, and state of the winds, Sfc, are
to be understood as by compass.)

(a) On proceeding from Liverpool westward to Holyhead.

Liverpool being the principal and central port in St. George's Channel,
and the prevalent winds being from the westward, W.S.W. and S.W.,
during eight or nine months of the year, I shall suppose that a large ship
leaves that port, with an adverse wind from the westward. Having dis-
charged the pilot off the lightship, stand to the northward all the ebb tide
(which, in Liverpool Bay, sets to the N.W., and the flood to the S.E.), and,
if laying N.N.W., or to the westward of this direction, during the first
quarter of the flood, keep the lead occasionally going, with a careful look-
out for the Isle of Man, which is moderately high, and on the South side
bold-to.

w. a. o. 3 N

454 PASSAGES OVEE THE ATLANTIC.

Should there be a strong breezo and a heavy sea, the vessel may not
weather the West Hoyle Sands, on the starboard tack ; and great caution
is, therefore required when going near them, as they are bold-to and very
dangerous. In thick weather the lead must be constantly used, and the
sands should not be approached nearer than in 10 fathoms of water.

The soundings along the North coast of Wales, eastward of Point Lynas,
will pretty accurately determine the distance of the ship from the land, pro-
vided due attention be paid to the depth of water; but the quality of the
soundings will not indicate the particular part of the coast she may be
abreast of.

The Ormes Heads are very bold, and marked by a fine light, and any
vessels may safely steer a direct course from thence to Point Lynas, which
may be known by the castellated building near its extremity, used as alight-
house, and its telegraph station upon the summit.

Point Lynas and tho land to the westward of it is very bold, but the ebb
tide hence runs very strongly to the W.N.W. and through the Sound inside
the Skerries. Off the Middle and West Mouse the spring ebbs run at the
rate of 7 knots ; and all vessels should, consequently, give this part of the
land a good berth, during light winds, at such times as the flood or ebb may
be running strong ; or they may, upon an ebb tide, get into the vicinity, or
perhaps upon, the Coal Pock, the Skerries or Platters.

The Coal Pock bears E. h S. 2J miles from the Skerries, and lies with the
West Mouse (a large rock always high above water) on with the two beacons
on Carnel Point. By night a red light from the Skerries will point out its
direction. The Platters are nearly the whole length of the Skerries Eocks,
and lie at about one-third of the distance between the Skerries and Carnel
Point.

Beaumaris is a good harbour for all ships, into which a Liverpool pilot
will conduct them, provided no licensed pilot for the port may be found ; but
the Beaumaris pilot-boat is generally cruising off the chops of the bay,
between tho Ormes Heads and Lynas, or lying at anchor within it.

Holyhead is also an excellent harbour, well sheltered by the Government
pier.

(b) On taking the North Channel, and proceeding thence to

Tory Island.

If, after weathering the Hoyle Sands, the wind should be so far to the
southward of West as to enable a vessel to weather the Isle of Man, it may
be a matter of consideration whether it be most advisable to go through the
North or the South Channel, but this should not be hastily decided on. In
the summer months the winds are more variable than in winter, and then it
is certainly advisable to choose that passage which is nearest to the destined
port, giving the preference to the North channel if bound to British
America, Newfoundland, or the northern parts of the United States. In
winter, the prevalent winds are from S.W. and W.S.W., and these winds
often blow steady for several days.

Should the North Channel be preferred, with southerly and S.S.W. to
W.S.W. winds (and it should not be attempted with any others that have

TO AND EEOM THE ST. GEOEGE'S CHANNEL. 455

westing in them, especially by a stranger), it is advisable to take a departure
from the Calf of Man, and steer a direct mid-channel course, with
a careful look-out, as the passage is narrow and the tides very rapid,
but running directly through the channel, the flood setting from the north-
ward toward the Mull of Galloway. With a W.S.W. wind it will be neces-
sary to keep the Irish shore aboard, after passing the two lights on the
Maiden Bocks; or it is possible, in a strong gale from this quarter, that
there may be some difficulty in weathering the Isle of Islay.

The North Channel is well lighted, and has many excellent harbours fit for
the largest ships, as Lough Eojde, Belfast Lough, Loch Ryan, Campbeltou,
Lamlash, &c, but it is advisable for vessels, if possible, to take those upon
the Irish coast, as they can get to sea with southerly and S.W. winds, when
it may be difficult to get away from either Lamlash or Campbelton.

After passing Tory Island, do not be too anxious to make southing, but
steer well to the westward, if possible ; for there is always a very heavy sea
and a strong indraught upon the West coast of Ireland, and strong westerly
and W.N.W. gales are very prevalent in the winter. Although there are
some excellent harbours in the N.W. of Ireland, they may be considered as
inaccessible to a stranger, owing to the great difficulty of procuring a pilot
in the winter season ; every exertion should, therefore, be made to keep off
this dangerous and too often fatal coast.

The depth of water, or quality of soundings in the North Channel, will
give little or no indication of the progress of the vessel, so that a good look-
out is here the mariner's best safeguard ; the coasts on both sides being bold,
excepting about the South Bock and Maiden Bock, both of which dangers
are well lighted, but require a good berth in passing, particularly the
latter.

In running through the North Channel with S.W. winds, every stitch of
canvas should be carried that the vessel will probably bear, as these winds
often fly suddenly round to the N.W. quarter, see (92) ; and in that case
blow so hard, for twenty-four or thirty-six hours, as to compel a vessel either
to bear up for the South Channel, take a harbour, or lie-to in a narrow
and dangerous channel for a more fayourable wind.

to the Ocean.

If it be intended to persevere in Working down the South Channel, it will
be the best way to keep the Irish shore aboard by short tacks, should the
weather be squally with heavy rain, as the vessel will then have the benefit
of the N.W. wind and smoother water, should it fly round to that quarter,
as is often the case. In dry or moderate weather there is little fear of a
sudden shift of wind ; and a vessel, in such case, may make a long board
toward the coast of Wales. Should it come on to blow from the S.W, with
much rain, get the Irish coast on board as soon as possible, especially in
the winter.

Vessels passing up or down the South Channel with westerly winds will
find a strong indraught setting into Caernarvon and Cardigan Bays, as well
as into the Bristol Channel ; and this may be probably, in some degree,

456 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

accounted for by the following, and, perhaps, other causes : — Southerly,
S.W., and westerly winds prevail over the Atlantic, between the Azores and
Great Britain, during eight or nine months of the year, causing the surface-
current in this vast space to flow to the eastward ; the tides in the neigh-
bourhood of, and to some distance westward of Scilly run nine hours of the
twelve to the northward, or into St. George's Channel, which, like the Strait
of Gibraltar, has some resemblance in form to the pipe of a funnel; and it
is probable that, in gales of wind from the S.W. quarter, there is very
little, if any, ebb from the western edge of Channel soundings to a position
15 leagues West from Scilly, and thence to the northward, on the same
meridian, until within 15 leagues of the South coast of Ireland; neither do
I think it at all unlikely that a portion of the stream of "Rennell's Current,"
which frequently, as I shall hereafter show, runs with velocity to the N.W.,
may be diverted by westerly gales into a more northerly direction, and being
opposed in its course by the South coast of Ireland, finds its way to the
eastward, and thus contributes to raise the level of the water, and make a
strong tide or indraught into St. George's Channel.

This stream of tide sets E.N. E. toward the Tuskar, and nearly in the same
direction, or a little more northerly, toward the Smalls, and rushes with
great velocity, past Skokham and Skomer, through the sound, towards
St. David's Head, and along the South and East coasts of Cardigan Bay,
from whence it diverges toward Bardsey Island ; in the Sound between
which island and the main it runs with great strength.

It is generally advisable to keep the Irish shore aboard in turning down
the St. George's Channel, with S.W. winds and heavy rain. In the South
Channel the lead will impart some idea of the position of the vessel, or at
any rate will indicate, by the depth of water, the probable distance of the
vessel from the land. The banks on the Irish coast, between Howth Head
and the Arklow Bank, may be safely approached to 20 fathoms of water,
and nearer should it be clear weather, which, by-the-bye, is not often the case
in this neighbourhood. When near the N.E. end of the Arklow Bank, and
from thence to the westward, no vessel should shoalen her water under 28
fathoms, without daylight and constant caution. The lights on these banks
require close attention, as they have at times been mistaken, which led to
several alterations in their character a few years back. The tides of both
flood and ebb run directly over these banks, in a N.N.E. and S.S.W. direc-
tion, and in light winds must be carefully attended to.

In beating to the westward, should a vessel shoalen her water on the coast
of Wales to 30 fathoms, she will be quite far enough in-shore, and should
tack immediately, for it should be recollected that there are 36 to 40 fathoms
very close to Bardsey.

Should a vessel be caught with hard N.W. gales upon this dangerous
coast, every exertion must be used, by carrying taut well-set sail, to get the
ship round Bardsey, when she will have St. Tudwal's Bead (which is well
sheltered with westerly winds) under her lee. The fixed light of Bardsey
is open to seaward only when it bears from N.E. J E. to E. | S. Should
N.W. winds continue blowing hard, it will be better to run for St. Tudwal's
Road, on the North, or to Fisgard Bay, on the South, than to persevere too
long in attempting to work out of Cardigan Bay.

TO AND FEOM THE ST. GEOEGE'S CHANNEL. 457

Any moderate-sized vessel may find good and safe anchorage in Fisgard
Bay, by running in to 2 or 3 cables' lengths from the Cow Rode, on the West
side of the entrance, and anchor when the land to the westward of it is shut
in, and the rock bears N. by E., distant 4 cables' lengths. At this anchorage
there is full five fathoms at low water, over a bottom of stiff clay and mud,
which holds remarkably well, and the ship will lie well sheltered with all
winds, except those from the N. around by the eastward to S.E. by E. or
S.S.E. N.E. winds throw in a heavy sea.

The coast in the vicinity of Fisgard Bay is clean and bold, and the bay
may be readily distinguished from the offing by the Cow Eock, which
is always above water off the western point of the entrance, and by the
remarkable appearance of Dinas Head (the eastern point), which, upon an
easterly or S.E. bearing, exactly resembles the head of a large gurnet.

Were the advantages of Fisgard Bay more fully known, they would bo
duly appreciated. When the writer commanded the brig Freeland, of Liver-
pool, that vessel was disabled, by the loss of her sails, in the heavy N.W.
gales which prevailed in December, 1833, and was obliged to run into this
bay in order to save the vessel from a lee shore ; and in this place she lay in
safety, at single anchor, with 70 fathoms of chain, during the tremendous
gales that caused the Liverpool lightship to part her moorings, and compelled
her to run into the Mersey for shelter.

From what has been stated above, it will be seen that this bay is of easy
access and egress, but it should never be used unless in a case of necessity,
and then with a good and careful look-out at all times, and everything should
be in readiness to trip the anchor at the moment the wind veers to the east-
ward of North, if the weather be not very moderate and settled.

On weathering the Smalls, when outward bound, it is advisable to keep
well to the westward if the wind will permit, so as, on advancing southward,
to give Scilly a wide berth — say of 18 or 20 leagues.

{d) on proceeding by the south 01' ireland er0m the ocean
to Liverpool, etc.

In coming from the westward, many navigators endeavour to make the
Fastnet Eock and Cape Clear, as it is high land, and has an excellent re-
volving light. The coast in the neighbourhood is also generally bold. But
I do not think this is an advisable plan for a stranger, unless he has obtained
good observations a very short time previously ; for I have known vessels
to be detained several days in endeavouring to work round the Cape against
strong southerly gales and a N.W. current — unquestionably Eennell's.

In two of these cases, one in 1836, and the other in 1839, two different
shipmasters ran with confidence for Cape Clear, upon the faith of good ob-
servations for latitude, taken forty-eight hours previously, and both made
the Skelligs on the starboard bow, when steering E. by S., with the wind
from the southward and S.S.W., thick weather and rain. When the Skelligs
were near, one of these gentlemen considered his vessel to bo on the parallel
of the Cape, and the other (in 1839) thought that he was at least 10 to 15
miles to the southward of it. It may be proper, however, to add that the

458 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

latter denied the existence of Rennell's Current, until he thus found the
effect of it.

In thick, hazy weather, it may ho well to run upon the parallel of 51° N.
until the vessel gets into 65 fathoms or less water; then steer E. by N. or
E.N.E., keeping the lead occasionally going, and be careful not to advance
into less than 40 fathoms, when a channel course of E. by S. may be shaped,
having constant recourse to the deep-sea lead. By proceeding in this
manner, it is probable that the land will be mado in the vicinity of
Waterford, or about the Saltee Islands, Waterford may be known by
its lighthouse on the Hook Point, on the East side of the entrance of the
harbour.

A little to the westward of Waterford are the TnitEE towers, on Great
Newton Head, and TW r o towere, upon Brownston Head, as described in tho
Sailing Directory. The latter are about 6 miles to the westward of the
Hook Point of "Waterford, and are too remarkable to be mistaken. The
Saltee Islets are 4 J leagues to the eastward of the Hook Point, known by its
tower and fixed light. The Great Saltee is high, and may be readily known
by the Coningbeg lightship, moored to the S.W. of it. No vessel should
attempt to pass between the light-vessel and the land if it can possibly be
avoided, the passage between being rocky and dangerous.

The weather is often very thick on the Nymph Bank, with wind from the
southward and N.W. quarter, and the Tuskar is, consequently, very difficult
to make. The Smalls aud Tuskar, on the opposite sides of the Channel,
when seen in this thick weather, have often been mistaken for a large sloop
with a peaked gaff-topsail set. No vessel should run with confidence up
St. George's Channel without previously seeing one or other of the light-
houses on these rocks, or the land in the vicinity, as the tides are hereabout
very strong, and hidden dangers abound in the vicinity of both places, as
shown by the charts. To the eastward of the Nymph Bank the weather
generally becomes a little clearer than upon it.

The course may be safely altered when the Tuskar bears North, and an
allowance of one point or more must be made for the direction of the wind,
particularly if blowing from the N.W. quarter, as this wind not only in-
creases the indraught into Cardigan and Carnarvon Bays, but it throws a
heavy sea upon the whole line of the coast of Wales northward of St. David's
Head.

In running from the Smalls toward Holyhead, it is, at all times, advisable
to steer a point or more to the northward of the direct courso, unless there is
easting in the wind ; and should Holyhead or the South Stack Lighthouse
be made upon a bearing to the northward of N.E. by E. £ E., the course
should be altered a little, to bring it upon this bearing, otherwise the vessel
may find some difficulty in weathering it upon an ebb-tide, if the wind
should come out from the N.W. quarter, as there is a strong set (along the
land) to the southward into Carnarvon Bay.

The island or rock called the South Stack, distinguished by its lighthouse,
is very bold, but, with light wind and a flood tide, strangers should give it
a berth of 3 or 4 miles, as there is much danger of being set inside the
Skerries, if this is not attended to. In light winds and a flood tide steer
well to the northward, until the Skerries bear E. by N., then gradually

TO AND FROM THE ST. GEORGE'S CHANNEL. 459

edge away to the eastward, until the lighthouse bears E. by S., distant 2
miles, when the flood tide, with a very little assistance from the wind, will
carry a vessel safely to the northward of it.

The Skerries may be approached by a stranger, on the North side, within
a mile; and when the lighthouse bears S. by W., steer E. by N. 2 miles,
and East 1 mile, or until the upper beacun on Camel Point comes open to
the eastward of the lower one, when the vessel will be clear to the eastward
of the Coal Rock. On proceeding thence with a southerly wind, give a small
berth to the Middle Mouse, a large rock always above water, and very bold.
On steering thence toward Point Lynas, take particular care not to shut up
the light if it be in the night. Should the light happen to be shut up, in-
stantly run to the northward or N.N.E. until it opens, and heave-to or stand
off and on for a pilot, about 4 or 5 miles to the eastward of the light, or
between it and the Great Ormes Head.

In thick weather, after passing the Skerries, and at night if the light
cannot be seen, great caution is requisite, in order to avoid the Coal Rock,
and keep clear of the ebb tide running through the Sound ; for, upon an
ebb tide, the land between Point Lynas and the Skerries must not be ap-
proached within 3 or 4 miles without a commanding and favourable breeze.

Vessels hound to Liverpool should make signal for a pilot immediately after
passing the Skerries, as the pilots are very often well to the westward, and
keep a diligent look-out ; but should no boat be seen, cruise about for one
in the position before stated (between Lynas and the Ormes Head), as the
tides here do not run strong ; but do not, on any account, run a single mile
to the eastward of the Great Ormes Head ; for, should thick weather come
on, the vessel will be in danger of being upon the West Hoyle or the Burbo
Banks, and lost. It sometimes, but rarely, happens, when an unusual
number of vessels come up on one tide, that there is no pilot-boat on the
Lynas station, but it will only be left for a few hours, and vessels should
wait with patience, for here a pilot is sure to be obtained.

The Liverpool pilots are under very excellent regulations, are exceedingly
skilful in their profession, and in point of character and conduct are not
surpassed by any similar body of men on the coast of Great Britain.

Although I have before noticed the necessity of an unremitting attention
to the lead in thick weather, perhaps I may be excused for adding here, that
such attention is of the greatest importance ; as, owing to the velocity of the
tides, it affords the mariner the only certain indication of his safety or
danger, and contributes to relieve his mind in some degree from the anxiety
ho must feel whilst his vessel continues within the limits of this dangerous
navigation.

460 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

4.— OF SHIPS BOUND ACEOSS THE EQUATOR.

It is probable that there has been more discussion upon the route from
the British Isles to the Equator, and on the best meridian for crossing the
line, than upon any other passage. And yet the results of these inquiries
as to this, the great highway of the ocean, have served to confirm in a great
degree the opinions published in the early days of navigation, before any
of the modern improvements and appliances had been brought to bear
upon it.

The directions which were given by 31. If Apr h de Mannevillette, in his
great " Neptune Orientale," published a century since, might be followed
now without losing much of the advantages which deep study and extensive
inquiry into data lately acquired, would give to the shipmaster.

Captain Maury at the time of tho publication of his "Wind and Current
Chart," in 1849, first advocated a more westerly crossing of tho Equator
than had been before pursued. This arose from looking at tho voyage from
the opposite side of the Atlantic to that on which all previous sailing direc-
tions had been composed. The configuration of the land about the
equatorial portion of the Atlantic is peculiar, and causes the difficulties of
a trans- equatorial voyage. The eastern point of the continent of South
America, Cape San Roque, the " great bugbear" as Maury calls it, and the
land about Pernambuco, lying in the strength of the S.E. Trade, and the
consequent strong current to leeward which runs past it, were constantly the
dread of the older mariners whose ships made so much leeway, and were
incapable of sailing on a wind as our modern clippers do. But from the
improvements in ships and their rig and management, much that was
formerly insuperable is now quite practicable, and many of the difficulties
of clearing Cape San Roque have vanished upon later inquiry.

The other difficulty which also combines with Captain Maury's argument,
is the intervening belt of calms and moonsoons (which extends nearly across
the ocean between the trade winds), which have a triangular form, the base
lying upon the African coast, between Cape Verde and the Equator, and
gradually getting narrower to the westward, and therefore by crossing them
well to the westward they are traversed in a shorter distance, and their
detaining effects are much less experienced.

The work of Captain Maury, although it has done good service, must now
give place to those of Captain Toynbee, recently published by our own
Meteorological Office.* In these the information is more reliable than
that afforded by Captain Maury, not only by reason of the larger number of

* (1) Charts of Meteorological data for square 3. Lat. 0°-10° N., Long. 20°-30 W., and
Remarks to accompany the Monthly Charts, which show the best routes across the Equator
for each month, &c. 1874.

(2) Charts of Meteorological Data for the Nine 10° Squares of the Atlantic, which lie be-
tween 20° N., and 10° S. and extend from 10° to 40 W. with accompanying Remarks, ending
with the Best Routes across the Equator. 1876.

ACEOSS THE EQUATOE, 461

the observations from which they are compiled, but also because of the
greater accuracy of the observations, all having been mado with instruments
tested and owned by the Meteorological Office. The period over which the
observations extend, is mainly between the years 1855 and 1870. They
were nearly all collected by the late Admiral Fitzroy from British ships of
the Mercantile Marine.

Captain Toynbee in the introductory remarks of the latter of the two
works (mentioned in the note on the previous page) says : — The part
of the sea with which wo are about to deal is of the greatest importance to
the navigator, as it contains the much dreaded Doldrums, through which
every ship bound to the southward of the Equator must pass ; and it is no
uncommon thing for ships to lose a fortnight or even three weeks, through
taking a wrong route for the month."

In treating, therefore, of the third portion of this subject, or that which
relates to the passage from Madeira to and across the Equator, we shall in
the first place give Captain Toynbee's remarks, and afterwards such informa-
tion from former editions of this work, as may be thought worthy of the
6ailors perusal.

For Steam-ships the Great Circle route from the Lizard to Cape Horn is
probably nearly the best that could be followed, even if it were not the
mathematical course. It passes near to the West end of Madeira and the
Cape Verde Islands, as is directed for sailing ships, and then crosses the
Equator in longitude 3 If W. It almost touches Pernambuco and close to
Eio de Janeiro towards the Strait of Le Maire, the total distance being
6,988£ miles.

Again the Great Circle route from New York to the Cape of Good Hope
is a good route for steam-ship3 out or home. It cuts the Equator in 22° W.
passing through Ascension and just westward of St. Helena, the distance
being 6,877 miles.

To steam-vessels there will be no difficulty in following either of these
nearest routes, and they will only be modified in sailing vessels by the force
of the trade winds, which will make the course though the Trades more
southerly than the Great Circle in going southwards.

Although a voyage round either of the great Capes— the Cape of Good
Hope or Cape Horn — involves a more extended problem than that of the
passage over the North Atlantic, with which this book especially deals, yet
the difficulties and all phenomena which regulate the whole voyage are
encountered North of the Equator, and therefore the discussion of the voyage
to the Equator includes the whole problem, and what would follow for the
South Atlantic is simply and easily followed.

The General Instructions for making the passage from the English or
the St. George's Channels to the Equator may be briefly summed up as
follows . —

1. From the Lizard or the Tuskar, steer "W.S.W. to gain an offing, to

longitude 10° or 12° W.

2. From thence steer so as to pass to westward of Madeira.

3. Thence to the West of the Cape Verdes, and across the Equator.
(Each of these portions of the voyage will be discussed separately.)

N. A. O. SO

462 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

1. Leaving the Channel.

As has been said before, the Great Circle course from the Start to Pernam-
buco, commencing S.W. by W. £ W. {S. 37£ TV. true), carried on for 1,220
miles, takes to a point 30 miles Wast of Madeira, 15 miles outside Ushant
and 55 miles off Cape Torinana or Cape Finisterre.

"With every circumstance in a vessels favour, this course made good may
be followed ; but, as will bo seen by former discussions, she will be
affected t>y numerous causes, which generally have a tendency to placo her
to the eastward of her course, and thus involve her among the dangers of
the French and Spanish coast3.

A much more prudent course is at once to make your westing after leaving
the entrance of the channel, as time will generally be saved by so doing, and
all uncertainty avoided.

Therefore steer to the "W.S."W. or S.W. by "W. in fine weather after passing
the Bishop Rock or the Lizard, until the longitude of 10° or 12° be attained.
By doing this, the perplexing influence of the revolving tides which occur
between the Start and the French coast, page 304, will be in some degree
avoided. Again the uncertain Rennell's Current, pages 318 — 324, will less
affect a vessel, or if strong, will assist her in making the necessary offing.

But the most important object, in thus early in tho passage getting to
westward, is to avoid the well known indraught into the iinglish and St.
George's Channels and the Bay of Biscay, see (178), pages 324 — 326. This
westward tendencj^ of the wind and current would, if not properly estimated,
cause some difficulty in weathering Ushant, should the wind become at all
adverse, and the strong tides, and dangerous navigation around these pro-
jecting headlands, render them very unpleasant neighbours.

It is probable, too, that the wind may veer more to the westward, as you
get beyond the influence of the St. George's Channel in drawing it towards
its more northern direction ; and again, as westerly winds have a tendency
to veer to the N.W., if you give plenty of sea room, you can pursue your
course a point or two free. With the wind decidedly contrary to making a
course to the South of West on reaching the chops of the channel, it may
become a question ass to how far a more northerly route is advisable.

In a discussion on the Packet Service about 1834, when a western port of
Ireland was advocated as a better starting place than Falmouth, Sir Francis
Beaufort drew up a comparison of 60 passages made by the Falmouth
Packets, in contrary winds (30 outwards, 30 homewards), and what would
have been the advantage had Cape Clear been the starting place in-
stead of Falmouth, the desideratum being of course the safe weathering
of Ushant and Cape Finisterre. Of course this was previous to the Steam
Mail Service, and when the Falmouth packets were in a high state of effi-
ciency, that is, from 1826 to 1830. Sir Francis Beaufort constructs the
diagrams by laying off the tracks from Cape Clear of the vessels as if sailing
with the same wind as that experienced by them in sailing from Falmouth.
The average timo occupied by the 30 outward packets from Falmouth to
lat. 42° 40', off Capo Finisterre, was 9 days 12 hours, varying from 12 days
to 6 days. Had the packets started from Cape Clear, they could have

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 463

arrived at the same parallel in a mean time of 4 days and 21 hours, thus
showing a saving of 4 days 11 hours, or nearly one-half. In the homeward
route, the same mode of calculation shows that 4 days 9 hours may be
saved in the same manner. Now, as Cape Clear is about the same distance
from Madeira as the Land's End, it is evident that a vessel is in no worse a
position by approaching it. Crookhaven, or some of the harbours on the
S.W. side of Ireland, will afford her shelter as well as the S.W. of
England.

This is said in case the vessel encounters strong head winds which will
not allow her to make southing, which, after all, is the grand object, in
order that you may quickly gain the N.E. trades. If the ship will not lay
better than N.W. on the port tack, perhaps it is better to make a short
board until the wind veers a little either way. If you are well to the
westward of Ushant, and the weather moderate, supposing the ship will lay
South or S. by W., you may safely stand on to the southward ; but should
the weather be threatening, and a westerly gale apprehended, it will be
prudent to keep the Channel open, rather than by beating to windward, you
get past Ushant, and thus embayed on the dangerous French coast, where
also the wind is liable to shift close in shore. By keeping the English
Channel under your lee, should you not be able to maintain your course,
you may then run for some shelter.

2. Passage to Madeira..

When the ship is sufficiently to windward of Ushant or Cape Finisterre
there can be no difficulty in making for Madeira, so as to pass within sight
of it to the westward.

Cape Finisterre should be passed at a considerable distance, or, at least,
the course should be so shaped as to do so, for fear of the prevalent drift
which is frequently powerful along the North coast of Spain, and the effect
of the prevalent westerly winds should horse the vessel to leeward and into
the Bay of Biscay, which is especially to be avoided. The prominent head-
lands of the coast of Spain being now marked by a fine system of light-
houses, there is less danger of mistaking the country than there was formerly,
as in many parts it is difficult to make out the bays aud inlets, and of cuurse
it is a most dangerous iron-bound and lee shore.

By sighting Madeira an opportunity is afforded of testing the rate of the
chronometers, as a sufficient interval will have elapsed to gain a sea rate,
and having it thus early iu the voyage will avoid much uncertainty in the
subsequent passage. It may be stated that any point of the island will
answer equally for giving a longitude. The tables on pages 39, 40 will give
the positions of the most prominent points, or the description and chart
hereafter will give further information.

It is better to pass 7 or 8 leagues off Madeira, as the winds are generally
steadier particularly in winter. In November, December, and January,
westerly gales prevail, which produce eddy winds and severe squalls near
the land, occasioned by the mountains obstructing the regular course of the
gales, and beside tho weather hero is very precarious.

464 PASSAGES OVER TIIE ATLANTIC.

However, notwithstanding all that has been said in former directions as to
passing within sight of Madeira and the Cape Verdes, it is a question whether
a more westerly course to the Equator may not be attended with some ad-
vantages. There is some reason to think that the nearer the land the more
baffling and uncertain the wind is, and, as its tendency is to the westward, it
is argued that some gain of time has been found to arise from crossing the
parallel of 30° (as well as the equator) on a more westerly meridian than
that of Madeira. The following abstract was made by Lieut. Maury in the
former editions of his "Sailing Directory" (in 1855), and showed the
number of days (average) that it took from lat. 33° to the Equator in the
several crossings by 86 vessels :—

East of 16° 24 days from the mean of 6

Between 16° and 17° 23 „ 6

„ 17° „ 18" 24 „ 14

„ 18° „ 19° 24 , 22

„ 19' „ 20' 23 „ 19

„ 20' „ 21° 22 „ 6

„ 21° „ 22° 21 „ 7

» 22° „ 23' 18 , 8

Thus, as the place of crossing the parallel of 30° is further to the West,
so is the average passage thence to the Equator diminished. East of the
meridian of 19°, the average passage, as far as the data of these tables may
be relied on, is about 24 days. To the W. of 19° the ratio of decrease as to
length of passage, according to this showing, is most rapid.

Captain Maury says the winds along this route are an exact counterpart of
those that are found in the Pacific, on the route from California to Peru,
Chili, or Cape Horn ; for the deserts of Mexico and the United States hold
very nearly the same relation to the N.E. trade winds of the Pacific that the
desei-ts of Africa do to those of the Atlantic ; and though quick runs may be
made now and then, both along the West American and West African
coast, yet, in the long run, experience in the Pacific has amply proved that
the navigator saves time by keeping off from the coast, and so I apprehend
it will be here. Indeed, experience in the Atlantic goes directly to show the
same thing, and to place the opinion almost out of the category of con-
jecture, for this is the very point upon which the advantages of the new
route from the United States to the line are based.

Tho passage to the line from England and the English Channel ought not
On tho average, to be as long by several days as it is from the United States.
In the first place, tho distance from the Land's End is not so great by two
or three da>s' sail; and, in the next place, the winds are fairer. Vessels
bound to the line from any of the Atlantic ports of the United States have
to sail close hauled most of the way, but from Europe they go free.

If the performance of the ships whose abstract logs I have, which furnish
the data for these tables, be a fair specimen of what ships generally do on
this route, and I suppose it is rather above than below, it would appear
that the averago passage tho year round to tho line from England and the

ACKOSS THE EQUATOR. 465

English Channel is 36 days ; the months giving the longest averages, such
as they are, being January and March 47 days, August 46, and June 39.
The first two are evidently too long, their averages being determined from
only two or three passages each. The average to the lino from the United
States has been brought down from 41 to 31 days; and the average from
the British Isles and English Channel can be, I am encouraged to believe,
reduced to less than the American average ; and the observations, to be con-
tained in the abstract logs that shall be kept for us during the next year or
two, will, probably, enable us to decide this question.

In the meantime, the route which I venture to recommend — not, however,
without some misgivings, arising from the want of more ample data— is the
same, very nearly, for all vessels from whatever part of Europe.

They should aim, whenever the wind will allow the option, to cross the
parallel of 30° N., between the meridians of 25° and 30° VV., but should not
contend with adverse winds for it ; having reached this crossing, their
course thence is due South for the line, between the same meridians.
In summer and fall they should enter the southern hemisphere about the
meridian of 30°, but during the rest of the year they will generally not be
forced so far over to the West, though they should not care to go East of
longitude 25°.

Vessels from as far North as the English Channel should aim to cross the
parallel of 40°, between the meridians of 20° and 25°; and for this reason —
besides that of winds a little more propitious — viz.: In crossing the calms
of Cancer the navigator wants to be in such a position that he may always
be able to go on that tack which will carry him most rapidly across this belt
of calms. In other words, he wants to be in that position where it is imma-
terial to him whether he be making easting or westing, provided he be on
the tack which will give him the most southing. For this reason he should
aim to enter the calm belt between longitude 25" and 30° W.

The average crossing place of 30° at present, is about the meridian of
19° W.

The above remarks of Captain Maury will be found useful as a guide in
approaching the region discussed in the following section of our subject.
Captain Toynbee's remarks will of course supersede those above given,
relating to the crossing of the Equator.

3. ArriioAcinxG akd Ckcssixg tjie Equatoii.

In the previous edition of this work, wo had merely the experience of
American and Dutch shipmasters as a guide in forming an opinion as to the
best routes East or West of the Cape Verdes, and across the Equator.
Now, however, that the valuable works of our own Meteorological Office
have been published, as described at the commencement of this section
(page 460), what formerly was the only guide, must be treated as a minor
consideration, and is therefore only briefly alluded to hereafter (p.
476 et scq.).

The works {note p. 460) of the Meteorological OfE 3 to those with leisure

466 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

to property study them, 'will be found both interesting and valuable. In the
adjoining diagrams, of course, but a very brief description is given, compared
with that in the elaborate charts which accompany the original works.

A warning is hero given that the direction of the wind or current
is only shown from that point at which it was most frequently observed, and
the force of the wind or current from that direction alone indicated. Capt.
Toynbee's remai'ks supply further detail, and will, we believe, make what is
here given from these valuable works quite sufficient for the sailors require-
ment.

Square 3* lies so much in tho highway of all ships passing to and fro,
between the North and South Atlantics, that it contains nearly 60 per cent.
of the 125,000 observations from which the charts are constructed.

In several of tho squares the number of observations is so small that it
would be useless to give them on monthly charts for each 2° square, as was
done for square 3 a , they have therefore been sifted into spacces of 2° of lati-
tude by 5° of longitude. This method has the advantage of enabling us to
represent a larger space on tho same chart ; and in most instances the spaces
seem to be small enough to point out any differences which actually exist.

Captain Toynbee remarks: — "Having thus given a general view of the
work we have in hand, I will now refer to the monthly diagrams, and also
call attention to some interesting facts which have struck me in writing the
remarks. Perhaps I ought first to say that in several instances the number
of observations is so small that the isobars, isotherms, and wind and current
arrows are not always so correct as a larger amount of data would make
them ; still in square 3 (which is the centre of the district) and in squares 39,
301, and 302, there is a large number of observations, so that the general
result is satisfactory ; for we find that the same month in different years has
very much the same kind of wind and weather. I may add that though all
data have been referred to the centre of the space to which they belong, it
sometimes happens that nearly all tho observations have been taken on one
side of that space.

In the first place, then, it will be seen that we are dealing with a part of
the sea where the two Trades are always meeting, though the latitude in
which they meet varies with the season. This work therefore gives the
meteorologist a constant opportunity for studying the motion of air where
two air currents meet, and also the weather resulting therefrom.

Besides the meeting of two currents of air there are also two currents of
water, which are mainly produced by the trade winds, and apparently in-
creased in speed by the drift of water forced against Africa by the winter
gales of each hemisphere ; the direction of the trades tends to draw water
away from the coast of Africa, and as the land prevents an influx of water
from the westward, there is a third current or back drift to the eastward
into the Gulf of Guinea to replace the water drawn away by the trade winds.

■ The sea was divided into 10° squares, at the suggestion of Mr. MiusJeii, formerly
Secretary to the Admiralty, and the numbers then given to the various squares have been
adopted by the Meteorological Office in their mariue work.

WINDS

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ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 467

This is the well known Guinea current, which seems to bo chiefly the result
of gravity.

It must be remembered that winds are named after the direction from
which they come, whilst currents are named after the direction toivards which
they go ; for instance, an arrow pointing to the north-westward represents a
S.E. wind, but a N. W. current ; therefore in the diagrams the tails of the
wind arrows and the heads of the current arrows point towards the points of
the compass after which they are named.

Remarks on Winds, of the regions under consideration, for each month
are given in pages 203 — 207 ; on the Currents : North African Current p. 328
330, Guinea Current 345— 347, North Equatorial Current 357, the South
Equatorial Current is described in pages 359— 3G4. Beaufort's Scale of Wind
(Force) is described on pages 179 — 180.

Best Monthly Routes across tiie Equator by Captain Toynbee,
F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S., etc.

Although the following suggestions are considered to be the safest, when
giving advice for all classes of ships, they are not intended to override a
Captain's own judgment, for he has the advantage of knowing the qualities
of his own ship.

Special attention is necessary in critical parts of the sea, such as that near
Cape St. Roque, where at one season of the year outward bound ships are
liable to be caught by southerly winds and leeward currents, and at another
season of the year homeward bounders by light north easterly and northerly
winds.

January.

Ships hound to the southward should pass to tho westward of the Cape Verd
Islands, for although the wind is equally strong close to their eastern side in
January, it is decidedly stronger on the western than on the eastern side of
square 3.

Although the north-easterly wind prevails to the Equator west of the
meridian of 30° W., and fast weatherly ships have done well after crossing
the equator to the westward of that meridian, others have been hampered
by the land, which is shown by the January wind remarks. A dull sailing
ship which crossed the equator in 32° 45' W. on December 13th, was 35
days before she cleared the land. The safest westerly limit for such a dull
sailer is 26° to 27° W.

Referring to the eastern half of the January Wind Chart for square 303,
and taking S.E. by E. as a central point; then when the wind is not from
that point :—

468 PASSAGES OYER THE ATLANTIC.

Between 0° & 2° S. the prob. is about equal that it will either be more Sly or

more Ely or N. Ely*

„ 2° & r S. „ 2 to 1 that it will be more Sly.

„ 4° & 6° S. „ 4 to 3 „ ,,

„ 6° & 8' S. „ 4 to 3 ,, Ely or NEly

„ 8°&10°S. „ 4 to 1 „

The January Chart for square 303 shows a prevailing westerly current of
from 20 to 30 miles in 24 hours, and that it is stronger in the northern than
in the southern half of the square. Exceptional currents, stronger than
the means shown on the chart, are sometimes recorded. The chart
for square 303 shows a large per centage of smooth sea in January. The
above named facts, taken together with the qualities of his ship, will enable
the navigator to decide on his best route.

Ship* hound to the Northward should cross the equator between 25° and 30°
W. so as to avoid the light north easterly winds which sometimes blow near
the South American coast in this month, and also to pick up the fresh N.E.
Trade, which prevails in that longitude between 4° and 6° N., but not
further to the eastward.

February.

Ships hound to the southward should pass to the westward of the Cape Yerd
Islands, as the western sides of squares 39 and 3 have stronger winds than
their eastern sides. They should stand to the southward in about 26° W.
and when they meet the southerly wind, take the tack which gives the most
southing, endeavouring not to cross the equator to the westward of 28° W.

Referring to the eastern half of the February Wind Chart for square 303,
and taking S.E. by E. as a central point; then when the wind is not from
that point : —

Between 0° and 6° S. the probability is about equal that it will be more Sly

Ely. or N.Ely.
,, 6° and 8° „ slightly in favour of its being more

Ely. or N.Ely.
,, 8° and 10° „ about 2 to 1 that it will be more

Ely. or N.Ely.
The prevailing current is still westerly, averaging from 20 to 30 miles a day,
and generally stronger in the northern than in the southern half of the
square. The chart shows that confused seas are not uncommon. The Re-
marks on Wind, for square 303, shows that ships which crossed the equator
to the westward of 30° W. were not much hampered, but there seems to be
no inducement to cross to the westward of 28° W.

Ships hound to the northward should carefully avoid the eastern side of
square 3, where the north easterly wind is light, and there is much light
north westerly wind, so should cross the equator to the westward of 25^ and
to the eastward of 30° W., by which means they will not get too near the

* In working out these probabilities all observations of wind from N. hare been con-
sidered as north-easterly, and all from south have been considered as southerly. The few
bservations from the western half of the compass have not been included.

Between 0°

2°

4 C

6°

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. ' 4C9

coast of South America, where light north-easterly winds are not un-
common.

March.

Ships hound to the southward should pass to tho westward of tho Cape Yerd
Islands, tho N.E. trade heing stronger on the western than on the eastern
sides of squares 39 and 3. The March diagram shows that between 35° and
40° W., north-easterly winds prevail to tho coast of South America, and to
2° S. between 30 s and 35° W.

Referring to the eastern half of tho March Wind Chart fur square 303,
and taking S.E. by E. as a central point; then, when the wind is not from
that point —

2° S. the prob. is about 3 to 1 that it will be more Ely. or N.Ely

4°S. „ 3 to 2

6° S. „ 3 to 2 „ Sly.

8°S. „ 5 to 4

8° & 10° S. „ 5 to 3 „ Ely. or N.Ely

The prevailing current in this part is still westerly, though now inclined
more to the southward, and its rate from 20 to 30 miles in 24 hours; it is
strongest between 2° and 6° S., weakest between 8° and 10° S. There is a
large percentage of smooth sea in March. The Remarks on Wind in square
303 show that ships which crossed the Equator between 29" and 30° W. were
hampered by tho land ; so that it seems best to cross the Equator in 27° or
28° W.

Ships bound to the northward should cross the Equator between 26° and 30°
W., this will enable them to avoid the north easterly winds which are com-
mon in square 303, and, on the other hand, the light north-westerly winds and
calms which are common on the eastern side of square 3.

April.

Ships bound to the southward should pass to the westward of tho Cape Yerd
Islands, for although the N.E. trade is as strong on the eastern as on the
western side of square 39, it is much stronger on the western than on the
eastern side of square 3 ; they should then stand to the southward in about
26° W., taking the tack which gives the most southing when the wind draws
southerly.

Referring to the eastern half of tho April Wind Chart for square 303, and
taking S.E. by E. as a central point; then, when the wind is not from that
point —

Between 0° & 4 S. the prob. is about 3 to 1 that it will be more Ely. or N.Ely

,, 4° & 6 S. „ 5 to 3 „ „

6° & 8° S. „ 4 to 3 „ Sly.

8°&10°S. „ 3 to 2 „ Ely. or N.Ely.

The prevailing current is still westerly at a rate of from 20 to 30 miles in

24 hours, exceptional currents being stronger, it is strongest between 2 a and

8° S. There is a good deal of north-easterly swell in the north eastern part

of square 303, and of smooth sea in its south eastern part. Near the South

n. a. o. 3 p

470 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

American coast there' is much light north-easterly wind, and it does not
seem likely that a ship would have great difficulty in getting to the south-
ward there, still the wind is lighter in square 303 than in square 302, and
the Remarks in square 303, show that ships which cross to the westward of
30° W. are sometimes hampered, it would therefore be well not to cross the
Equator to the westward of 27° or 2S° W.

Ships bound to the northward should cross the equator between 25° and 30°
W. so as to avoid the largo amount of light north easterly wind which is
recorded in square 303, and the light north westerly winds and calms which
are common on the eastern side of square 3.

May.

Skips hound to the southward should pass to the westward of the Cape Verd
Islands, where the May diagram and chart show the wind to be stronger
than to the eastward. In square 3 the north easterly wind prevails to 4° N.
and is stronger between 25° and 30° W. than between 20° and 25° W.

Referring to the eastern half of the May Wind chart for square 303, and
taking S.E. by E. as a central point ; then, when the wind is not from that
point —
Between 0^ & 2° S. the prob. is about 2 to 1 that it will be more Ely or N.Ely

„ 2°& 4°S. „ 5 to 3

„ 4° & 6° S. „ 5 to 4 „ Sly.

„ 6°& 8°S. „ 2tol

„ 8° & 10° S. „ 4 to 3 „ „

Form October to April the wind draws more easterly in the southern part of
the square, but from May to November it draws more southerly. The
westerly current is stronger than in previous months, and frequently exceeds
30 miles in 24 hours, it is strongest between 2° and 6° S. The sea is also
higher than in previous months. It may therefore be well for a dull sailing
ship to make a little easting after passing the Cape Verd Islands, more
especially as the Remarks on Wind in square 303 show that the wind,
weather, and sea near the South American coast are very trying. In one
case the ship crossed the Equator in 26° 18' W., but still was much ham-
pered. Hence it seems right that a dull sailer should not cross the Equator
to the westwai'd of 25° W. in May. The Captain of a smart ship, when
outward bound, may prefer keeping well to the westward and risking the
detention near Cape St. Roque.

Ships hound to the northward should cross the Equator between 25° and 30
W., thus avoiding the unsettled wind and weather near South America on
the one side, and the large amount of calm and light north west winds in
the eastern half of square 3 oh the other. The Diagram shows that the
prevailing south easterly wind is stronger, as well as being more settled,
between 25° and 30° W. than between 30° and 35° W., especially in the
southern part of the district.

June.

Ships hound to the southward should pass to the westward of the Cape Verd
Islands, where the wind is stronger than to the eastward of them, and steer to

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 471

the southward in about 26° W., standing to the S.E. with first of the
southerly wind which they will probably meet with in 6° N., and keeping
on the starboard tack, if they can mnke southing, until they have made a
fair amount of easting, as the "Remarks on Wind," in squares 302 and 303
show that the ships should not cross the Equator to the westward of 28° W.,
and it would be all the better if they crossed two or three degrees to the
eastward of that meridian. Between 8° and 4° N. the prevailing current
will probably be easterly, but south of 4° N. it is likely to be very strong to
the westward ; the requisite easting should therefore be made on getting the
first of the southerly wind, as the S.E. trade becomes more easterly near the
Equator.

Referring to the eastern half of the June Wind Chart for square 303,
and taking S.E. by E. as a central point; then, when the wind is not from
that point —
Between 0° & 4° S. the prob. is about 4 to 3 that it will be more southerly.

„ 4 ° &6 ° S - » » 3to2

,, 6° & 8° S. ,, ,, 3 to 1 ,, ,,

8°&10°S. „ „ 2tol

So that, as in May, the wind becomes more southerly in the southern than
in the northern half of the square, especially between 6° and 10° S. The
westerly current in square 303 is still strong, especially in the northern half
of the square where it frequently exceeds 30 miles in the 24 hours. There
is much southerly, and even south-westerly, sea in June. In cases of ships
crossing the Equator, all those in square 303 show the importance of crossing
well to the eastward.

Ships hound to the northward should cross the Equator between 25 u and 30"
W., so as to avoid the unsettled wind and weather, which are more extreme
near the South American coast than further to the eastward, and on the
other hand to get a more steady N.E. trade after passing 6° N. than exists
further to the eastward.

July.

Ships bound to the southward should pass to the westward of the Cape Verd
Islands, where the N.E. trade is stronger than to the eastward. On getting
the first of the southerly wind, in about 10 D N., they should stand to the
south-eastward, making all the requisite easting in the northern part of the
southerly wind as it draws more easterly near the equator. Between
10° and 4° N. they will probably experience an easterly current, but this
will help them to the windward, and place them in a better position for
dealing with the very strong westerly current which prevails, after passing
to the southward of 4° N.

Referring to the eastern half of the July Wind Chart for square 303, and
taking S.E. by E. as a central point ; then, when the wind is not from that
point : —
Between J & 2° S. the prob. is about 2 to 1 that it will be more southerly,

2°&4°S. „ „ 3 to I

4° & 0° S. „ „ 5 to i

6°&8°S. „ „ 6tol

8°&10°S. ,, „ 3tol ; , „

472 PASSAGES OVER TLIE ATLANTIC.

Showing that the wind is much more southerly than in Juno. The wind is
more southerly in July than in any other month. The westerly current in
square 303 is still very strong, especially in the northern half of tho square,
where the mean of four or live observations is sometimes 3-5 miles in 24
hours! There is also much southerly sea in July. The "Remarks on
Wind," square 303, give cases of ships which had crossed the Equator to the
westward of 30° \V., getting hampered by the South American coast. Tho
wind is also much more squally and unsottled in square 303 than in the
squares to tho eastward of it, so that ships will do well not to cross the
Equator to the westward of 25" to 28° W. in July.

Ships bound to the northward may be guided very much by the longitude in
which they approach tho equator ; those from the eastward may cross
between 20° and 25° W., as the southerly winds are slightly stronger on tho
eastern than on the western side of square 3, but they should be in 25^ W.
when in 10° N., so as to get a better N.E. trade than that which exists
further East. Ships from the westward would do well to cross the Equator
and stand to the northward in about 30' W.

August.

Ships bound to the Southward should pass to the westward of the Capo Verd
Islands, where the N.E. trade is stronger than to the eastward of them.
On getting the first of the south westerly winds in about 10° or 12 N. they
should stand to the south-eastward, not fearing the effect of the easterly
current which prevails between 10° and 4° N., as a pretty strong westerly
current may be expected to the southward of 4° N. The diagram shows
that the prevailing southerly wind becomes more easterly as the equator is
approached so that the requisite easting should be made with the first of the
southerly wind, and as the winds near Capo St. Roque are more southerly
and unsettled than they are further to the eastward, it is important to cross
the Equator well to the eastward, say in 25° or 26° W., or even two or three
degrees further to the eastward.

Referring to tho eastern half of the August Wind Chart for square 303,
and taking S.E. by E. as a central point ; then, when the wind is not from
that point —

Between 0° & 6° S. the prob. is about 2 to 1 that it will be moro southerly.
6° & 8° S. „ „ 5 to 1 „

„ 8°&10°S. „ „ 2tol „

The wind is still remarkably southerly between 0° and 8^ S., off tho most
eastern part of South America. The westerly current is still strong ;
strongest in the northern half of the squai'e. Southerly and confused swells
are very .requent. The " Remarks on Wind," square 303, give cases of
ships that were hampered by the South American land ; one, a fast iron
ship, having crossed the equator as far east as 27° 22' W.
• Ships bound to the northward should avoid the South American land, as the
wind is lighter to the westward of 33° W. than it is to the eastward. They
should be in 25° W., or further W., on crossing the parallel 10° N., as tho
N.E. trado is stronger and extends further S. on the western side of tho
district than it does near tho Cape Verd Islands.

ACEOSS THE EQUATOE. 473

September.

Ships hound to the southward should pass to the westward of the Cape Verd
Islands, where they will have a better N.E. trade than to the eastward.
On getting to the south-westerly wind in 10° or 12° N. they should stand to
the south-eastward ; that wind, with the prevailing easterly current, will
carry them fast to the eastward, but the diagram shows that to the south-
ward of 4° N. the prevailing wind is south-easterly, and the current westerly,
which will carry them fast to the westward.

Eeferring to the eastern half of the September Wind Chart for square
< r ;03, and taking S.E. by E. as a central point; then, when the wind is not
from that point —

Between 0° & 2° S. the prob. is about 3 to 1 that it will be more southerly.
2° & 4° S. „ „ 2 to 1 „

4° & 8° S. „ „ 3 to 1 „ „

8.&10°S. „ „ 2tol

The prevailing current is westerly from 20 to 30 miles in the 24 hours, the
difference of its speed in the northern and southern halves of the square
is not so great as in previous months. The sea is still very southerly and
confused. The "Eernarks on "Wind," square 303, give cases in which ships
were hampered off the South American coast ; in some cases after crossing
the Equator in 27° W., so that it would be well to cross in 26° W. or further
to the eastward.

Ships bound to the northward are not likely to meet with north-easterly
winds near the coast of South America, still it seems well that they should
cross the equator to the eastward of 30° W., as the winds in square 4 are
lighter than those in square 3. The eastern and western sides of square 3
seem to have equally good winds for getting to the northward, but it may
bo well for the ships from the eastward to cross the Equator in about 26° W.,
as the winds are stronger on the western than on the eastern side of
square 39.

October.

Ships bound to the southward should pass to the westward of the Cape Verd
Islands, where the N.E. trade is stronger than to the eastward, and steer
S. until they meet the first of the southerly wind in or about 8° or 7° N.,
then stand to the south eastward until the wind changes, so that they can
make the most southing on the port tack. The prevailing current is easterly
between 10" and 6° N., but westerly further to the southward.

Eeferring to the eastern half of the October Wind Chart for square 303,
and taking S.E. by E. as a centra] point; then, when the wind is not from
that point —

Between 0° & 2° S. the prob. is about 3 to 1 that it will be more southerly.
2° & 6° S. „ „ 2 to 1

„ 6° & 8° S. „ „ 4 to 3 „ „ E. or N.E.

S C &10°S. „ „ 4tol

lTere, for the first timo since April, the wind gets more E. or N.E. in the
southern than in the northern and central parts of the square. The current

414 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

is still westorly from 20 to 30 miles in 24 hours, and stronger in the northern
than in the southern half of the square. Southerly seas are very frequent
in the southern part of the square The " Kemarks on Wind," square 303,
give cases of ships crossing the Equator in 30° W., or further W. ; all but
the last wore hampered by the land, so that 28" W. seems a safer limit in
October, though the Wind Chart and Remarks show that the winds near
South America are more favourable fur getting to the southward in that
month than they have been since April.

Skips bound to the northward whilst S. of the equator will find stronger
winds between 25° and 30' W. than in any other longitude; after crossing
the Equator they will find the southerly wind stronger and the N.E. trade
stronger and more easterly in that longitude that they are iurther to the
oastward.

November.

Skips bound to the southward should certainly pass to the westward of the
Cape Verd Islands, for although the diagram shows that to the southward
of 16° N. the prevailing wind is slightly stronger in the western half of
square 39, the amount of calm is greater in the eastern, especially between
14° and 16° N. ; and the mean force of all winds is greatest in the western
half. After passing the Cape Verds it may be well to haul slightly to the
eastward, so as to be in 25° W. when in 6° N., and then with the first of
the southerly wind to take which gives the most southing, endeavouring if
possible not to cross the Equator, to the westward of 29° W. A slight
easterly current will probably be experienced between 10° and 4° N. ; in
other parts it is likely to be westerly.

Referring to the eastern half of the November Wind Chart for square 303,
and taking S.E. by E. as a central point ; then, when the wind is not from
that point —

Between 0° & 2° S. the prob. is about 5 to 3 that it will be moro southerly.
„ 2° & 4° S. ,, ,, equal that it will be more southerly

or easterly, or north easterly.
„ 4° & 6° S. ,, ,, 2 to 1 that it will be more easterly or

north easterly.
0° & 8° S. „ „ 5 to I „ „

8°&10°S. „ „ 11 to 1

In November the tendency in the wind to become more easterly or north-
easterly in the southern part of the square is very decided. There is still a
westerly current of from 20 to 30 miles in 24 hours, and sometimes it exceeds
30 miles ; it is strongest between 2° and 4° S. The per-centage of south-
westerly current is greater in the southern part of the square than in previous
months. Smooth seas are much more frequent than in previous months,
especially in the southern part of the square. The "Remarks on Wind,"
square 303, give cases of ships which crossed the Equator in 30° W. or
further W. ; all, excepting the last two, made very fair passages to 10 3 S.,
one, a dull sailer with light winds, whilst the other, though a fast
ship, was very much hampered, but she crossed tho Equator in 33' 50' W. j

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 475

so that a good sailing ship need not fear crossing in 31° "W. if driven to
do so by circumstances.

Ships bound to the northward should cross the Equator between 25° and 30'
W., as by doing so they will avoid the lighter winds which prevail near the
South American land on the one side, and also those which exist in the
eastern halves of squares 3 and 39 on the other, beside getting a more
easterly N.E. trade.

December.

Ships bound to the southward should pass to the westward of the Cape Verd
Islands, where although the wind is much more easterly than it is to the
eastward of them, it is decidedly stronger. On the eastern side (between
14° and 16" N.) the wind chart of square 39 shows that there is 15 per cent,
of calm. These ships should haul a little to the eastward after passing the
islands, so as to take the first of the S.E. trade in about 25° W. or slightly
further E., then take the tack which gives the most southing. The pre-
vailing current is westerly throughout this route, and, as the diagram shows,
averages 25 miles in 24 hours near the Equator, so that a dull sailer, which
is not weatherly, should make rather more easting before getting S.E.
trade.

Referring to the eastern half of the December Wind Chart for square
303, and taking S.E. by E. as a central point ; then, when the wind is not
from that point —

Between 0° & 2° S. the prob. is about 3 to 2 that it will be more easterly or

north-easterly.
„ 2°&6°S. „ „ 2tol

6°&8°S. „ „ 3tol

8°&10°S. „ „ 6tol

In December the tendency for wind to be more easterly or north-easterly
than S.E. by E., when not from that point, prevails throughout the square.
The current is still westerly, averaging from 20 to 30 miles in 24 hours, and
sometimes exceeding 30 miles ; it is strongest in the northern half of
the square. There is still much smooth sea in the southern part of tho
square. The "Remarks on Wind," in square 303, give cases of ships
which crossed the Equator in 30° W. or further W., they all had to tack off
the land, and would no doubt have done better if they had not crossed to the
westward of 21)' W. One ship was so hampered by southerly winds and
westerly currents near South America that she stood to the north-eastward,
and re- crossed the Equator to make easting, not getting to 10" S. before 25
days after her first crossing ! !

Shij)* bound to the northward should cross the equator between 25» and 30*
W., thus avoiding on the one hand the lighter winds which prevail near the
coast of South America, and on the other the light winds and calms which
are more common on the eastern than on the western side of square 3. On
the western side of square 39 the winds are very favourable for going to
the northward, but quite the reverse on its eastern side.

476

PASSAGES OYER THE ATLANTIC.

"We will now give a few extracts from the information, on this subject,
which appeared in former editions of this work.

East or West of the Cape Verdes.* — With regard to this subject, the
Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute and the Meteorological Institute
of Utrecht have done good service to the mariner in their excellent publica-
tions. The latter office published a table of the times and crossings of
455 Dutch vessels from the Channel to the Line. To this list the Americans
added the sailings of 144 vessels, many of which are probably clippers, so
that there was the experience of these 599 vessels to appeal to in the choice
of the route in this part of the voyage,

Number of Vessels, Dutch and American, and their average time from the Lizard to
the Line, hj the passage East and hj the passage West of the Cape Verde Islands.

AMERICAN

DUTCH.

East.

West.

East.

West.

Days.

Vessels.

Days.

Vessels.

Days.

Vessels.

Days.

Vessels.

29.5

28.5
27.8

4
3
2

27.

31.5

28.9

32.1

31.5
35.3

33.6

31.

32.9

January

17
11

Average and sum ....

28.G

29.1

32.9

32.5

March

29.7
24.2
32.1

1
5

30.5
26.1
31.8

36.G
31.8
33.2

30.5
28. 7
32.

A pril

May

A verage and sum ....

2S.7

29.5

33.9

30.4

3G.7
34.5
30.2

2
3
2

29.7
30.6
31.5

32.5
35.5
35.4

4
4
4

33.1

33.9
33.8

July

Average and sum ....

33.8

31. G

34.5

33.6

128

42.4
33.2
29.7

2
4
3

33.3

32.

36.3
32.4
36.8

9
9

36. 2
32.9
36.8

Average and sum ....

35.1

32.4

35.2

35.3

Total average and sum

31.5

30.6

111

34.1

114

32.9

341

It appears that the passages East are uniformly longer for the Dutch, except in Decem-
ber, January, June and October ; and that for the American they give the shorter aver-
ages for January, February, March, April, August, and November. But the averages for
these are derived from an insufficient number of passages, only two or three, fourteen in
nil, for each month.

* It will be seen in the above remarks that Captain Toynbce in no month recommends
the route eastward of the Cape Verdes.

ACROSS THE EQUATOK. 477

There is a difficulty here in estimating the relative value of the American
and Dutch results, as we do not know what the class and sailing powers of
the two fleets were ; but it is probable that the superiority of the American
tracks would not be so great, if the Dutch had selected vessels of an equal
class for the comparison. However, it would seem that there is certainly
some few hours' detention on the average by going inside the islands, com-
pared with the outer passages contained in the foregoing Tables.

Captain Sir Edward Belcher, in his outward voyage round the Cape of Good Hope,
in the Samarang, March, 1843, diverged from the " beaten track," with considerable
advantage. His reason for so doing was, that by crossing the Equator 10° or 15° more
eastward than is usually done, when arrived in the parallel of St. Helena, he would
be many miles to windward of the usual route. " Having always considered the
eastern route the preferable, I attempted, on my homeward voyage, in H.M.S. Sul-
phur, to reach Porto Praya direct from Ascension. In this, however, I failed, owing
to the occurrence of westerly breezes driving us toward the African coast, until in the
parallel of the Cape de Verde Islands, which proved that from the Cape de Verdes,
southerly, towards the Equator, in the month of June, favourable breezes without
calms might be reckoned upon; and I was reminded that ships coming from Ascen-
sion and St. Helena generally make good passages, passing to the westward of the
Cape de Verdes, My experience, while employed on the African station, taught me
that a fair passage from the Cape de Verdes to Sierra Leone, or the coast easterly,
could always be anticipated, and that no retarding calms are to be met with on the
verge of the African soundings. Vessels also from the African coast, seeking Ascen-
sion for change of climate, find this remark applicable, and it might be fairly assumed
that if we could reach the Equator under light airs and moderate breezes in a less
number of days than the average passage to 24° West longitude (the increased
distance being impeded by many days' calm), and by crossing to the eastward of the
tenth degree of West longitude, the westerly current would be avoided, and we
should be able to fetch to windward of Ascension, or possibly sight St. Helena, many
hundred miles to windward of the ' beaten track.' The result proved as anticipated.
Leaving Porto Praya on March, 7th, we experienced light -and moderate breezes,
with south-easterly current. Between the 7th and 21st of March, or from Porto
Praya to the Kquator on the ninth meridian of West longitude, we averaged 81 miles
per day, and experienced no more than 10 hours calm. Before the south-westerly
breezes quitted us, we had been carried as far as 8° West. After light south-westerly
airs, we were enabled, on the 28th of March, by a succession of breezes from the S.E.,
to pass 150 miles to windward of Ascension, in 9° 44' E., arriving in Simon's Bay
Cape of Good Hope, on April 25th." — Voyage of the Samarang, pp. 7, 8.

This passage, which takes advantage of the easterly Guinea Current
(pp. 339 — 347), will be more specially alluded to hereafter. If a West
African port should be sought, of course the advantages are on the side of
the inner passage ; but this, as said above, will be alluded to presently.

As each portion of the passage over the Atlantic is, in a great measure,
dependent on the other, it cannot be pronounced on absolutely whether, of
itself, one part of a course can be most advantageously pursued in a certain
direction. In the next ensuing paragraphs, this problem will be considered
in connection with the further progress of the voyages.

N, A. O. 3 Q

478 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Crossing the Equator.— As this question stood for some years, it was that
to cross the Equator in 30° W. was the best route in all seasons. In 1818,
Lieutenant Maury published his Wind and Current Chart of the North
Atlantic, upon which he marked the great circle track joining New York and
long. 31° W. on the equator, distance 3,370 miles, and upon this track was
the following: — " The distance by the route usually pursued is upwards Ox
4,100 miles. Outward-bound vessels are recommended to try this route to
Rio Janeiro. The tracks of vessels on this chart show the average passage
from the United States to the Line to be 38 days, and to Eio 55 days.
There is reason to believe that the prevailing winds along the (great circle)
route here indicated will be found more favourable — steadier and stronger
than they are by the usual route, and the distance is nearly 1,000 miles
less. Hence I respectfully invite the attention of navigators to this route,
under the expectation that, by taking it, they will shorten their passage
several days."

By the chart on which this note is placed, it seems that the practice of the
American ships was to run down to westward between 34° and 40° N., and
cross the parallel of 30° between 30° and 38° W. Naturally a better course
would suggest itself, and the great circle course is that which would stand
prominent. Captain Maury having received much encouragement by the
adoption of an approximation to this track, to the great advantage of
American voyages over the former easterly track, argued strongly on
the advantages that would be gained by the route from Europe being made
to cross the Equator on the same meridian (about 30° W.).

Of the vessels mentioned in the table on page 476, it is shown that the
mean longitude of the American crossing is 26£° W., while the Dutch is
22|° "VY". ; and yet the contrast between their passages is not so great as the
difference in the position with regard to the equatorial calms or "doldrums"
would seem to warrant an inference. It may, therefore, be advised generally
that the meridian of 26° W.* is a good crossing, and that, if further West,
it is questionable whether any advantage is gained.

In an able discussion of the logs of several clippers in the "Mercantile
Marine Magazine," the same conclusion is independently arrived at. " We
have yet to learn if the most favourable crossing be westward of 25 c W. for
English vessels outward-bound to the East. The passage by the eastward of
the Cape Verdes has been strongly recommended, as shown by the preceding
extracts, and it is certainly worth attention that the best passage recorded
in that article was made by a vessel (the Lady Raffles), which run down her
southing eastward of the Cape Verdes."

Captain H. Toynbee, E.R.A.S., E.R.G.S., also discussed the westerly
crossing of the Line, as tried by him in his well-known ship, the Gloriana.
This voyage was made in October, 1858, and the Line was crossed in
30£° W.

"On the 2nd of October, 1858, the Gloriana was inlat. 17° 43' N., long. 26° 29' W.

* This has proved correct within 1°, as will he seen hy referring to Captain Toynhce's
remarks. His monthly routes are all hetween 26° and 28° W,

ACEOSS THE EQUATOR. 479

From this position, being West of the Cape Verde Islands, I endeavoured to make a
true South course when the wind was fair, and preferred the tack which gave the
most southing when it was foul.

From the 2nd to the 7th we went on well, for on the latter date we were in lat.
7° 29' N., long. 27° 52' W., having been driven by the wind and about 38 miles of
current, 83 miles further West. From the 7th to the loth we had ' doldrums.' Until
the 10th, when we were in lat. 6° 25' N., long. 26' 57' W„ the weather was chiefly
fine, with a mixture of northerly and southerly swells; after that, heavy rain squalls,
'ooking very threatening, but not sufficient wind to require the royals to be taken in,
with a high southerly swell. During the whole time the wind was from East round
by South to West, but chiefly South ; the current was generally to the eastward from
li° to 5° N.

" Oct, 15th.— Lat. 4° 8' N., long. 25° 41' W. ; current in the last 24 hours West,
16 miles ; wind S. by W., by compass ; variation 17° W. This was the point wli rs
I had to decide whether to steer to the eastward, making a little northing, until I
considered my ship far enough to windward, or to the westward, making about
W.S.W., with the certainty of a westerly current. I cl^e to go to the westward,
feeling sure that the wind would gradually draw to the S.E., whereas I think that,
had we gone to the eastward, we should have continued in the variables, if we did
not run back into calms.

"Oct. 16th.— Lat. 3° 15' N., long. 27° 22.^ W. ; course and distance, S. 62i° W.,
114 miles; current in the last twenty-four hours, N. 39' E., 12 miles; variation, by
azimuth compass, 17° 3' W., by steering compass, 16° 3' W. At 10 a.m. a large ship
passed us steering to the eastward, and we lost ^i^ht of a barque whirh was in com-
pany, so I suppose that she also went off to the eastward. The wind drew to the
South by compass, so that we were able to make true S.W. ± W. The weather
during the last twenty-four hours looked unsettled, especially in the N.W., where
there was lightning; but even when we broke off to W. by N. for an hour, I felt that»
oy going on the port tack, we were drawing into the S.E. tiaJe.

"Oct. 17th.— Lat. 1°30' N., long. 29' 24' W. ; by * lunar, 30" W.; course and
distance, S. 48|° W., 162^ miles; current, S. 77±° W., 13 miles. The wind from
S. by E. to S.S.E. ; the sea smooth, and weather very delightful.

" Oct. 18th.— Lat. 0° 52' S., long. 31° 24' W. ; by * lunars 32° W. ; course and
distance, S. 41° W., 184 miles ; current, S. 44° W., 12 miles. The wind from S.S.E.
and S.E, by S.

" Oct. 19th.— 5 a.m., lat. per meridian altitude of Sirius, 2° 32' S. j noon, lat.
3° 15' S„ long. 31° 56' W. ; current, S. 13 3 W„ 8 miles; wind, S.S.E. ± E.; bearing
and distance of the Rocas, supposing them to be in lat. 3° 55' S., long. 33° 44' W.
and taking the mean of the above longitude as my position at noon, S. 38° W., 51
miles. 3 p.m. — Lat., per meridian altitude of Venus, 3 1 33J' S. 3.20 p.m. — Long.,
per altitude of the sun, using the London rates for the best chronometer, 33° 10£' W.
Hence, since noon we had made S. 36° W., 25 miles.

" Throughout the afternoon we steered about S. 35° W., and at 5 p.m. we saw the
reef about 12 miles off, extending from nearly right ahead out on the weather bow;
and at 6 p.m. we kept away W.S.W., so as to pass it at the distance of about 5
miles,

"The sighting the Ilocas was one of very many instances in my experience proving
the look-out man, either from want of practice or from feeling a want of interest in
what he was doing, unable- to see an object almost staring him in the face. From
8.30 p.m., I ordered a regular look-out from fore-topsail yard, and at 5 p.m. felt so ■
sure that the reef must be in *ight, that I determined to visit the topsail-yard myself;
when, on stepping into the rigging, something strange caught my eye, which proved
to be a beacon on the western part of the reef; yet from the topsail-yard the look-
out man had seen nothing, and cruld hardly see it when I pointed it out. A (similar

480 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

case happened one evening on our way towards Torres Straits, when I sent an officer
up to look round as the sun set, though I always kept a man on the fore-topsail-yard
lie quickly saw a long line of broken water right ahead, it being part of Lihou
Shoal, extending further to the eastward than it was laid down either in charts or
books. I find that in moderately fine weather, when observations show that the land
may be sighted, a good night-glass on the forecastle and a patent lead are first-rate
safeguards; indeed, tho three L's are all right enough, but much depends on the
quality of these said L's.

"Now it remains to be decided how we should have fared if on the 15th we had
stood to the eastward, making easting, with a little northing, until we thought our-
selves far enough to windward. In our present case we certainly had to tack off
America (though it is the first time in my extreme westerly routes that I have had to
do so), yet in two days we beat 111 miles to the South and 27 to the East, and cleared
the difficulty. It would not be right, however, to tempt ships near reefs and land
unless they gain by it ; and merely by a comparison of my own voyages of other
years at the same season I should condemn this route, for I never did worse from 10°
N. to the equator than this year. Once at the very same date I passed between the
Cape de Verdes and Africa. Then we were 13 days from 10° N. to the Line, but were
not troubled near South America and had a better S.E. trade. This time we were
only 12 days, but lost a day near South America. In October, 1852, I passed 10° N.
about 2° further East within a day or two of our date, and was only 8) days to the
Equator, which we crossed in 20° W., having been carried into 18° W. by a strong
S.W. monsoon, which turned into the S.E. trade without a calm. Still, this probably
was an exception, and I should like and shall try to see the logs of some ships which
passed through the Doldrums with us.

" September 25th, 1856, and October 15th, 1857, 1 crossed the Equator much in the
same longitude as this year — that is, 30° W. ; in September passed 25 miles to the
westward of Fernando Noronha, and in October still nearer, and both voyages we
weathered America with ease. Once in May I crossed the Equator between 28° and
29° W., and could not weather America, but was much bothered off Cape St.
Augustine.

"Again, from Cape St. Augustine to the Abrolhos, the ships which pass far West
do not seem to do so well as those which go far to the eastward. For instance, as I
am now writing on the 26th of October, we have done but S. 14° W. 51| miles, and on
the 25th, S. 23" W. 85 miles. For all this, one feels inclined to blame the westerly
route ; at any rate until it is proved that the ships which went to the eastward have
done as badly or worse than ourselves.

" The conclusion I am inclined to draw from all this is, that in October, when once
your ship is so near the Equator as to expect the S.E. trade, and the wind sets in from
S. by W. by compass, go on the port tack with the yards sharp up, and keep well
full ; thtn the wind is almost certain to tutn into the S E, trade, with beautiful wea-
ther. My experience would lead me to say that in October, when you are below 5°
N., with a steady S. by W. by compass wind, you have the commencement of the S.E.
trade, and should stand boldly on the port tack ; but I am not yet decided as to how
a ship ought to steer after passing to the westward of the Cape de Verdes, though I
thiiJc as we have done this year; that is, due North, with a fair wind, and the tack
on which you make the most southing with a foul; because the probability is, that
you will have a S.W. monsoon, which will drive you well to the eastward. If there
were not this probability I would have a ship in October steer to get the S.E. trade,
or rather the S. by W. wind, in about 20° W., for if she does not get into the latitude
of Cape St. Koque quite so soon, I think she will be in a better position by the time
ahe loses the S.E. trade."

In a subsequent discussion, when Captain Toynbee had procured the logs from other
ships of similar class which left th» channel at the same time, the Gvsport, which

ACROSS THE EQUATOE. 481

was also West of the Cape Verdes on the same day, bore to the S.E., crossing the
equator in 25° W., and reaching 20° S. a week before the Gloriana. The Alfred,
which pursued a similar course to the Gloriana, crossing the Line in 32^ \V. ; and
the Vernon and Octavia, which passed inside the Cape Verdes, crossed the Line in
25° and 26' W.

" The first question raised is — Was the Gloriana right in steering due South on
the 2nd when the wind was fair ? The Gosforth's track says no, she ought to have
steered S.S.E. until in 25° W., and then to have made a little easting with the
southing whenever it was possible. But the tracks of the ships ( Vernon and Octavia)
which passed East of the Cape de Verde Islands, say on no account go to the eastward
of 22° W. This advice is only applicable when the wind is light and variable ; of
course, if a S.W. monsoon is experienced in these parts a south-easterly course must
be followed until the wind draws to the South.

" On looking at these tracks I suppose Maury's correspondent, Captain Windsor,
would say that the captain of the Gosforth is « one of those men who are kicked
through the world in good luck to keep them out of harm's way,' or how could he
have had a run of 184 miles between the 5th and 6th of October, when ships to the
right and left of him did but little more than half that distance in the same time ?
Not being a believer in luck myself, it seems to me that the little easting he made
from the 2nd to the 9th placed him in a position by which he was enabled to keep off
the coast of South America, and so avoid the light winds from the 24th to the 26th
which affected all the ships North of 20° S. Here my second query is answered, for
we find that the westerly crossing of the Line was not the cause of the light winds
we experienced on the 25th and 26th ; or, to be more explicit, the ships several de-
grees East of us suffered from them to the same extent as ourselves.

The Alfred and Gloriana have given the extreme westerly route a fair trial. They
started from 20° N., differing one day in their dates, and on the 23rd of October, after
passing Cape St. Roque, the Alfred was in the same position as the Gloriana had
held on the 22nd.

The extreme eastern route between the Cape de Verde Islands and Africa was fairly
tried by the Vernon and Octavia. It is manifestly wrong for the early part of October,
for they lost much on the ships which took the western route.

" Considering the positions of the four hindmost ships on the 28th of October, I am
inclined to think that the Gloriana's is the best, for to get South of the calms and
variables near the tropic of Capricorn is more important than to make easting, so
much so, that, when there, I chose the tack which gives the most southing. Hence
the readers of my last paper on the subject will see that this research proves that we
were better off than most of our neighbours, and no doubt the commanders of the
other ships will examine this chart with great interest.

" It will be noticed that the Gosforth's track ends on the 21st, so that although,
where it commenced, she was but a trifle more than half a day in advance of the Glo-
riana, she ended with an advance of seven days. Thus she gained on the Gloriana,
6* days ; Alfred, 1\ ; Octavia, 8£; Vernon, 9|.

" The conclusion I draw from this is, that early in October neither the extreme
eastern nor the extreme western route is good. Therefore, a ship should pass West
of the Cape de Verde Islands, and then, when the wind will permit, haul to the S.E.
when South of them, so as to be about 23° W. when she is 5~N., she should then take
the tack which gives the most southing.

" Maury's ' Sailing Directions ' support this opinion. The averages he deduces from
the table in page 148 of the 2nd vol., dated March, 1859, plainly prove that the ex-
treme western route is a disadvantage in October. And, again, the American part
of the table in page 457 shows that ships should not go East of the Cape de Verde
Islands in October, though it is contradicted by the Dutch part of the same table,
*rith more ships to take an average from. Still* most of the nine Dutch ships may

•182 . PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

have passed East of the Cape de Verdes much later in October than the Americans;
at any rate sound reason seems to support the middle route, for if a ship works her
way to the South in the longitude of the Cape de Verdes she is more likely to get a
spirt of the S.W. monsoon, which sometimes blows at this season, and avoids the cer-
tain calms of a more easterly course, as also the danger of being detained a day 01
two near Cape St. Rogue by the more westerly route.

"From the end of October to February I would pass East of the Cape de Verde
Islands, and perhaps also in March and April. Early in December we took this
route, and were on the Equator on the 23d day from England.

" A few tracks similar to these for each month in the year would soon decide the
best route,"

We are unwilling to omit those instructions which have appeared in ou.
former editions, and which for nearly a century directed almost all the
European shipping; but, of course, what has preceded will supersede them
where they differ. Still much is good to the present day, and may be fol-
lowed advantageously.

31. D'Apres de Mannevillette, in his Directions from the English Channe 1
to the Ease Indies, says, " When you steer out of the Channel, you ought to shape
your course so as to pass Cape Finisterre at the distance of 25 or 30 leagues; this
distance," he adds, " will be sufficient, in whatsoever season of the year your voyage
may happen ; you may indeed double that cape still nearer, if circumstances require
b i', from its latitude, you should always shape a course for the Island of Madeira.

M Though a sight of that island is not indispensably necessary in this passage, it is
proper, however, to gain a sight of that, or of the Island of Porto Santo, that you
may be able to keep on your course afterward with greater certainty, whether you
pass between the Canary Islands, or leave them to the eastward, as may be judged
most convenient.

" In the passage from the coast of France to the Canaries, you may frequently find
differences in your reckoning to the eastward, which arise most probably from the
indraught of the currents toward the Strait of Gibraltar: some have made the land
on the coast of Africa when they expected to have discovered Tencrife; others have
gained sight of Allegranza, off the uotthern part of Lanzarote, instead of Tenerife;
and, though the errors in reckoning may not frequently be so considerable, yet it is
safer to be on your guard, when you judge by your reckoning, that you are in the
latitude of these islands, especially in the night-time, or when the want of moonlight,
or very thick hazy weather, prevents you from discovering dangers at such a distance
as to be able to escape them.

"The differences to westward, though much more rare, are yet not without ex-
ample; chiefly when the winds have hung contrary for some time after the departure
from the ports of England or France.

«' Ships are, however, now generally recommended to pass to the westward of the
Canary and Cape Verde Islands; it having been found that, in this route, steadier
winds may be expected than those generally prevalent close to or among the islands.
On the African coast, W.S.W. and S.W. winds are frequent. The track now
generally adopted by ships having chronometers is that to the westward of all th
islands.

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 483

" Should it be required to touch at Senegal or Goree, the best course will be to
make the coast of Africa near Cape Blanco, lat. 20° 55' ; as there are soundings at 5
or 6 leagues off the eoast, and no danger in making the land, either by day or night,
provided the lead be kept frequently going ; and thus you may steer up to the cape.

" Though it may seem natural enough not to suspect anj T errors of consequence <n
your reckoning in so short a passage as from the Canaries to the Isles of Cape Verde,
yet there are instances of such, as well to easting as to westing. It is with respect to
errors in our westings, that I advise all vessels to keep 30 leagues to windward of
Bunavista, before they stand in to make the land ; lest, in keeping a direct course for
that island, they should pass between the Isle of St. Nicholas and the Isle of Sal;
and, finding themselves to westward of Bonavista, when they reckoned themselves to
be still to eastward of it, they should miss their refreshments at the Isle of St. Iago,
an accident which has happened to scveial vessels.

" The making of these islands is often difficult, occasioned hy the fogs which hang
frequently around them. For this reason, those who come from the northward Oughi
to steer their vessels in this track with all possible precaution.

" The most convenient course for vessels which continue their voyage from the
Canaries, without touching at the islands of Cape Verde or Goree, is to steer, after
they lose sight of the Canaries, so as to pass about 45 leagues West of Cape Blanco,
or near the meridian of 20°; from this position they will make good their course due
South, as far as 12° N., and afterward S.E. by S., till they meet with those variable
winds which succeed to the trade winds. By this they will keep the mid-channel
between the islands and Cape Verde, and coast along the bank below that cape, at e
sufficient distance, even though they should make an error in their reckoning of 15 or
20 leagues to the eastward.

But as, when the sun is near the northern tropic, the trade wind has been often
found to fail within the sight of the Cape Verde Islands, it has been recommended to
ships, at these times, to pass the islands to the westward, at the distance of about 10
leagues, in order to preserve a steady wind, and prevent delay, by keeping clear of
the light eddy winds, which then prevail near and among the islands. When to the
southward of these isles steer to the S.E., so as to get between the meridians of 18°
and 23° W., upon losing the N.E. trade wind. Should the southerly winds then
commence, advantage may be taken of the shifts to stand on the tack which will gain
most to the southward, so as to cross the Equator between the longitudes above men-
tioned, if the wind will permit. Be cautious of making a long tack, either eastward
or westward, with a dead southerly wind, in the hope of having a better, unless the
wind should veer, so as to produce much southing.

The S.E. trade wind, at its northern limit, generally inclines far to the southward,
particularly in July, August, and September, but frequently in other months. A ship
meeting this trade should not be kept too close to the wind, but keep clean full, in
order to make good way to the S.W., and clear of the southern limits of the westerly
current that generally prevails about the Equator.

It has been already shown, in the description of currents, that ships, passing the
line too far to the westward, run the risk of not been able to weather the coast of
Brazil. But 31. D'Apres has observed, that there is not one instance to prove that,
by passing the Line to the eashvard of the limits above mentioned, ships meet with
calms of a long duration, and currents setting with great rapidity toward the River
Gaboon, as had before been generally imagined.

31. UAprcs adds, " Vessels which sail from St. Iago should steer S.E. as far as the
12th degree of latitude ; after that S.E. by S. Those which depart from Goree should
steer S.S.W., if they desire to keep clear of the shore, till they reach the parallel of
10 degrees, thence their course should be S.E. by S."

His words on crossing the Line are, " When the variable winds succeed the trade
winds, the best method of crossing the Line with speed is, to take advantage of the

484 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

very first variable winds, for gaining the ordinary track of the trade winds, so soon
as you possibly can ; and for this end, to keep indifferently to that tack which bears
most to southward, without tumbling yourself about crossing the line at any deter-
minate point, lest you make your voyage longer than is necessary.*

On the Return toward England, in crossing the N.E. trade wind, a ship's
sails should be kept well filled, to enable her to gain speedily to the north-
ward. In this track the Sargasso or gulf-weed will be met with in the
Sargasso Sea, and which is sometimes found as high as 41° N.

Beyond the northern limit of the trade wind, ships generally cross the
parallel of 33° N. in from 39° to 42° W., in order to make use of the southerly
and westerly winds which prevail here more than they do to the eastward.

Should the wind veer to the N.W. on approaching toward the Azores,
you may pass through one of the channels of these islands, and thence
pursue a course to the English Channel, according to circumstances.

It is not advisable to pass to the eastward of these islands, because
adverse winds often prevail from the northward between them and the coast
of Portugal ; and the currents are also generally unfavourable to this route ;
yet it has sometimes happened that ships passing this way have, with S. W.
and West winds, reached the channel sooner than those which have pro-
ceeded to the westward. With these S.W. and westerly winds, you must
be cautious in approaching the channel, in case the current should prevail
which sometimes sets athwart it, as before described.

5. -ROUTES TO AND FROM THE SENEGAL AND GAMBIA.f

Whatever may be the season of the year, it is advisable to gain an offing
of 25 leagues to the westward of Cape Finisterre ; from hence it may be
immaterial whether a course be shaped to the eastward or westward of
Madeira. A commander desirous of touching at the Canaries will adopt the
former, and will shape a course for Teneriffe, having nothing to apprehend
on this course but the Salvages, the position of which has been well deter-
mined. In the Canarian Archipelago the winds are mostly from North to
N.E. If the course to the westward of Madeira be adopted, a vessel will make
the westernmost of the Canaries only, and her place may be rectified by a
sight of Palm a or Ferro.

But a sight of the coast of Africa is by no means necessary for vessels
bound to the Senegal or Goree. What has been said of the currents and
prevailing winds in this navigation, leaves no doubt that it is perfectly use-
less to make the land more than 15 or 20 leagues to the northward of the
Senegal, when bound to the Bar-anchorage. This digression is the utmost

* Capt. Maury says: — "No sailing directions can be given for these calm belts, except
such as are contained in these emphatic words:—" Make the best of your way across
them without regard to longitude." To which may be added, that nearer to North
and South the course is, the better, as it crosses their direction at right angles.

t Abridged chiefly from the Baron Rouesin.

TO THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 485

which should be made from the above course ; and by means of the lead,
and some few latitudes carefully observed, it might even be made a direct
one. On leaving TenerifTe, the course should be S.W. f S. (S. by W. \ W.)
as far as the parallel of 21°, then S. by W. f W. (South) as far as 20°, and
from thence S. by E. { E. (S.E. by S.) without any further alteration.

The first course will carry a vessel more than 25 leagues from the nearest
point on the African coast, and in a track where no danger has been found.
The second will conduct her 36 leagues to the westward of the westernmost
point of the Bank of Arguin. By the third she will make the coast
in the neighbourhood of the JIariyot or Layoon of Mosquitos (lat. 16° 35 \'),
from whence she may coast the shore until abreast the Senegal, in
15°55'N.

If it be found necessary to make tbe land during the night, the lead,
being the only means of correcting the estimated run, should be used fre-
quently and with great care. At about 10 leagues from the shore to the
northward of the Senegal, a bottom of white sand will be found, with 70
fathoms. From thence the depth gradually decreases towards the shore,
and at 1 mile from it there are 7 or 8 fathoms. When in 15 fathoms of
water, it is advisable to anchor until daylight, to avoid running past the
bar, which has no distinguishing mark by night.

There is a source of error attached to the navigation of the African coast,
which must be carefully guarded against. It is the optical illusion caused
by the great horizontal refraction, which renders any correct estimation of
distance almost impossible. Numerous instances of it might be cited which
would hardly be credited ; thereforo the moment the coast is seen, the lead
only should be trusted to determine the distance from it.

Track from Senegal to Goree. — The Ahnadies of Cape Verde (described here-
after) are 31 leagues S.W. by W. \ W. {S. 40° W.) from the roadstead of the
Senegal, and the prevailing currents set nearly on that bearing ; it is there-
fore, the course to be steered from the Senegal to Capo Verde during the
day. During the night steer a quarter of a point more westerly. From
Cape Verde to Goree the course is direct. It is merely to coast the shore at
the distance of 2 miles. From Cape Verde to Cape St. Mary at the mouth
of the Gambia, the direct course and distance are S. by E. | E. (S.E. by S.)
30A leagues, in all which space soundings may be found.

Return to Europe.— The voyage from the Senegal to Europe presents no
difficulty, and calls for no other precautions than those commonly used in
long voyages on seas void of dangers. ' These precautions are, not to trifle
with the wind, but rather to make a good run in a given time, than to en-
deavour to make good the proposed course. In all return voyages from
places within the Tropics, the grand point is to leave the region of the trade
wind and get into the variables, and the currents setting to the eastward, as
soon as possible. As the winds generally blow from East to N.W. on the
coast of Africa, from the month of December to the end of June, you should
keep on the starboard tack until out of their influence. The course made
good will bo about N.W., and you will then be in the neighbourhood of the
Azores. It is immaterial whether you pass to the northward or through the
channels of these islands, but it has been remarked that the winds are
n. a. o. On

48G PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

strongest on the westward. It is seldom possible to pass to the eastward of
them. The distance, no doubt, would bo shortened ; but this passage can
be effected only by keeping close to the wind thus far ; and experience has
proved that, by such procedure, little is to be gained.

6. DESCRIPTIVE REMARKS AND SAILING DIRECTIONS FOR
THE NAVIGATION TO AND OF WESTERN AFRICA.

WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE CURRENTS, SEASONS, ETC. ; BY CAPTAIN
THOMAS MID GLEY, OF LIVERPOOL, 1837.*

On the Passage from England to the Western Coast of Africa, it may be
well to make the island of Madeira and sail to the westward of it if possible;
for by so doing the ship will be placed in the best position as to her future
course. After passing Madeira, steer so as to leave Palma about 70 or 80
miles to the eastward (if nearer, the ship is liable to be becalmed), and then
steer a course to make the N.E. end of Bonavista. Bonavista requires a
good berth, as the currents about it are strong and uncertain, and dangers
extend from the North and East sides to a great distance from the land.

In the icinter, when strong westerly breezes, of long continuance, prevail
to the northward, it may be impossible to make Madeira without much
trouble and delay; in this case endeavour to get a good observation for
longitude, or a sight of the Salvages ; and should westerly winds still con-
tinue, run boldly to the southward. On nearing the Canary Islands, you
will find the wind either gradually decrease to a calm, or it will veer to
the northward with heavy squalls. The squalls in this neighbourhood give
little warning, but are frequently exceedingly heavy and dangerous. Any
ship may very safely run through the passage to the eastward of Palma, as
a strong steady N.N.E. or N.E. breeze almost constantly blows through it ;
and by keeping mid-channel, there is little fear of being becalmed. When
clear of the Canaries, a course may be shaped to make Bonavista, as above
directed.

The passage between the Islands and Cape Verde is generally and very pro-
perly adopted by vessels trading to the Western Coast of Africa ; for, by
running to the westward of St. Antonio, they have again to make easting in
the tract of sea which lying contiguous to the southern limit of the N.E.
trade wind, is so often disturbed by calms, squalls, thunder, lightning, and
heavy rain.

The currents between the coasts of Great Britain and the Cape Verde
Islands are now so well known, that it is almost superfluous to make any
further remarks upon them, excepting that their velocity is by no means ex-
aggerated; and the dangerous effect which they have upon vessels, between
the Bay of Biscay and the Capes Noon and Bojador, on the African coast,

* la those remarks, &c, by the late Captain Midgley, as in other parts of this volume,
the courses and hearings ai-e hy comjmss, unless where otherwise expressed ; and every
hearing or direction of the current is intended for the true.

TO AND OF WESTERN AFRICA. 487

cannot be too strongly impressed upon the minds of those who have charge
of valuable lives and property.

Those passing Bonavista in the months of June, July, August, and Sep-
tember, should not be too anxious to make easting ; for they will lose the
trade wind soon after passing the parallel of the Island of St. Jago, and,
after a short interval of calm, fall in with the S.W. wind and its usual
accompaniments of heavy squalls and iain. On the further progress, the
vessel makes to the southward and eastward, the S.W. winds generally be-
come variable to the westward, and the squalls not so frequent.

At this season of the year it is advisable to give St. Anne's Shoals a berth
of 50 leagues to the eastward, as the sea sets in so heavily upon the coast,
between these shoals and Cape Palmas, that making southing when near the
land, in these months, is attended with much difhculy.

From October to April or May, the weather in this tract is generally fine,
and the nights cool, beautifully serene and clear, with heavy dews ; and in
these months a more direct track may be pursued from Bonavista to tho
southward and eastward, than the one above mentioned. In the infiuonco
of the trades, the breeze is generaliy steady from N.N.E. and N.E., and tho
sea smooth, occasionally, however, interupted by tornadoes, which, in tho
neighbourhood of Cape Verga and Sierra Leone, blow with terrible fury.
Such is their violence, that it is frequently necessary to keep the ship directly
before them, under a foretopmast staysail only.

Between the Cape Verde Islands and the coast, the currents in the abovo
tracks are variable, but mostly found running to the southward, and seldom
exceeding 1 mile an hour ; generally from half to three-quarters of a mile,
until hauling up for St. Anne's Shoals. At about 40 leagues to the westward
of these, I have several times found them setting about E.S.E. by chart,
fully li- mile in the hour.

The sea between the meridian of 20° W. and the bank of soundings ex-
tending from the African coast, is perhaps the most luminous part of the
Atlantic Ocean. In the very dark gloomy nights of the wet season, with a
trong breeze of wind, and when not one solitary star is visible, nothing can
exceed, no pen can describe, the awful grandeur and magnificence of the
scene. The whole surface of the sea appears as one vast sheet of liquid fire ;
and the ship, sailing at the rate of 6 or 7 knots through the water, causes
streaks of light to be emitted from the sea, that throw a strong yet sickly
and appalling glare upon all the sails, creating an indescribable sensation in
the mind, that is very far from being agreeable, as the vessel appears to be
surrounded by breakers on every side.

Although I have several times noticed this luminous appearance in the
same track, I am led to remark more particularly upon it on account of a
most awful night which I passed on the 24th of August, 1834, in or about
lat. 7° 30' N. long. 17° 50' W., which left an impression upon the minds
of all on board that I fancy will not be very soon effaced ; for the vessel
appeared to be sailing through a sea of liquid fire, whilst the heavy dark
mass of clouds appeared to rest upon her mastheads, and not a single star
was visible amid the horrid gloom. No bottom was found at 120 fathoms.
Temperature of the air 82 c , and of the water 79° (Fahrenheit).

Vessels in icant of Eroumcn should call at Grand Sestros.—'Fxom sonieyearj,'

488 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

experience I can confidently say, that they are the most willing and best
disposed men upon the Krou coast ; and, if well used, are faithful to their
employer in every difficulty he may have to contend with to leeward. Every
vessel should take four or five, or more of them, in proportion to her size ;
for, in the Oil Rivers, if white men are exposed in the boats or canoes, laLd-
ing or taking in casks, they very soon fall victims to the climate. The
Krounien prefer rice to any other diet, and a good supply can generally bo
procured at a cheap rate, except between January and June ; but, consider-
ing the detention of lying-to, in order to procure it, the rice may be exported
from England, for ships' use, at very nearly as cheap a rate. One of the
Kroumen is of more real service in the Oil Rivers than two Europeans ; they
are generally well versed in the English language; and are contented with
a dash or present when left at Fernando Po, after the vessel has completed
her lading.

On approaching the Krou coast it is usual to hoist the ensign and fire a
gun, and the vessel will be soon surrounded by canoes. A small canoe may
be purchased for the ship's use for a mere trifle, and will be found extremely
serviceable in the rivers.

The navigation between Cape Lahou and the land of Formosa presents no
difficulty to the navigator ; the currents in the route run to the eastward at
1, 1£, and sometimes 2 knots or more, in the hour. If there be no induce-
ment to call at Bereby, Drewin, or Cape Lahou, for ivory, it will be as well
(and will certainly expedite the passage) to shape a course from Cape Palmas
for Cape Three Points ; and then, giving that land a berth of 5 or 6 leagues,
shape a course for the land of Formosa.

In steering across the Bight of Benin, the current will be generally found
running about 1 mile an hour to the N.E. ; and must be allowed for by
steering one-third of a point to the southward of the direct course.

A mere inspection of the chart will show that what is erroneously called
Cape Formosa is, in fact, an elbow land rounding off gradually to the east-
ward ; and regular soundings upon a muddy bottom extend for some con-
siderable distance to the westward and southward of it. The land is here
extremely low, and should not be approached in the night nearer than in 8
or 10 fathoms, unless by a vessel prepared to anchor.

After making the land, the oldest and most experienced traders to the Oil
Rivers are frequently deceived as to the position of the vessels ; for the best
description of the rivers from Formosa to Bonny is but vague and imper-
fect ; and I therefore proceed to give such directions as I think, from my own
experience, will be found useful to vessels bound to the Bonny or New
Calabar Rivers.

The rivers between Terra Formosa and Bonny have all shoal bars at the en-
trance, and generally appear from the offing to be narrow. They have no
peculiar feature to distinguish them, other than their being open to such
points of the compass as are expressed in the Sailing Directions.

The Seasons here appear to have been imperfectly described. The raine
generally commence in the latter end of May, or early in June, and gra-
dually increase, with strong S.S.W. and S.W. breezes, during the months of
July, August, and great part of September, towards the end of which month
they as gradually terminate. In July and August heavy squalls frequently

TO AND OF WESTERN AFRICA. 489

prevail ; and in these months the wind very rarely shifts more than between
S.S.W. and S.W., and the rain is incessant from sunset to nearly noon next
day, when it ceases for a few hours, and again commences with more or less
violence in the evening. In October the weather becomes more settled, with
light land winds, and occasionally showers of rain, which, however, yield to
the moderate sea breeze that sets in about 10 or 11 a.m. In November the
tornadoes commence, and are at first violent, gradually decreasing in strength
as the Harmattan or dry season commences, although they are occasionally
prevalent from this month to May. In December, January, and February,
is the Harmattan season ; and in these months the sea breeze sets in about
noon, and blows with very moderate force from the W.S.W. and westward
until sunset, when it dies away to a calm. During the night there is little
or no wind, and the weather is extremely sultry and oppressive, and very
heavy and unwholesome dews. After daylight a light air springs up from
the northward or N.N.E., which gradually increases to a moderate force,
and continues until about 11 a.m., when it falls calm, and soon after is suc-
ceeded by the light westerly breeze. The Harmattan, however, sometimes
blows steadily and without intermission from the N.E. quarter for several
days together, especially about the new and full moon. It is at this season
that the smokes prevail, and are exceedingly injurious to the European consti-
tution. These smokes are so dense that it is impossible to see a cable's length
from the ship for days together ; and any vessels that may be in the offing,
inward bound, have no resource but to anchor, and wait with patience for
clearer weather. In March, April, and May, the weather is clear, with
light land winds at day-break, which gradually die away, are succeeded by
the W.S.W. breeze about 10 a.m. ; and this breeze blows with moderate
force during the remainder of the day and greater part of the night. In
these months the atmosphere is serene and clear, particularly during the
nights, which are very fine indeed. The palm oil season commences in the
early part of March ; the oil becomes plentiful in April, and continues to be
so until September, wheu it declines ; and from October till March it is,
properly speaking, out of season, although small quantities of it may be pro-
cured in these months.

In the foregoing remarks as to the season and climate, I beg to be under-
stood as speaking of the New Oalabar and Bonny Rivers only, and now
proceed to consider the best means of preserving the health of the crews of
vessels trading there. Masters of vessels should be on their guard against
shipping plethoric or lusty men to go to the Oil Rivers of Africa. Drunkards
are still worse subjects than these ; for if a man undermines his constitution
by intemperance in England, he cannot repair it in Africa. I have too fre-
quently remarked that human skill is of little avail in saving the life of a
drunkard when once attacked with the African fever. The fact is, a drunkard
is predisposed to sickness, and soon falls a victim to the climate. The ple-
thoric or lusty man, if he has not tampered with his constitution, has a
rather better chance ; but should he fortunately recover from the fever, ho
is often annoyed with attacks of ague all the passage home, and does not
recover until he arrives in England. Thin, raw-boned subjects are the best
for the coast of Africa ; and they should be selected from men who have
made several voyages to the West Indies, as they are, in some degree,

490 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

seasoned to a warm climate ; and thoao that have never made voyages to
tropical climates should be decidedly rejected. To preserve the health of the
crew, tho vessel should be housed over as soon as possible alter her arrival
in the river. Plenty of mats should bo procured, and a good, substantial,
tight house be at once made, to shelter the crew, and preserve the vessel
from the weather. Every care should be taken to make the house perfectly
water-tight, as well for the comfort and health of the seamen, as for the
advantage of working tho palm oil in wet weather. An overstrained economy
in the purchase of a few mats is highly reprehensible. The seamen will
generally hang hammocks under the house; and, if well sheltered from the
weather, will enjoy better health than they would by sleeping below in the
steam emitted from the oil. In these rivers it is presumed that the Krou-
men do all out-duty required in the boats, &c. ; for a European should not
be allowed to put his foot over the side, either for the purpose of visiting or
going ashore, even on ship's duty (unless unavoidable), as it infallibly leads
to dissension and drunkenness from the worst of spirits ; and a drunken tit
in Africa is the almost sure forerunner of sickness, and probably death.

All vessels should keep a sufficient quantity of English water on board for
use in the country, as the Bonny and New Calabar water has an immense
quantity of animalcula), is very unpleasant to the palate, and injurious to
health. Cocoa is an excellent and nutritious article of diet ; and the crew
should be well supplied with yams, which are the only vegetable, excepting
corn and plaiutains (the latter not plentiful), that can be procured in these
rivers.

If the crew unavoidably get wet, they should immediately rub themselves
thoroughly dry with coarse cloths, and put on dry clothes. The forecastle
should be frequently cleaned out with a solution of chloride of lime, and the
seamen's clothes and bedding kept well aired. Attending to these precau-
tions will be found the best means of preserving health.

Here I may observe that fresh stock of all kinds is very scarce and very
dear in these rivers, so that vessels bound to Bonny or New Calabar would
do well by procuring their fresh stock and corn to windward, either on the
Krou Coast, Frisco, Cape Lahou, the various settlements on the Gold Coast,
or at a small village on the sea coast, near Cape St. Paul, called Dokko, or
Occo. At these places stock of all kinds is abundant, and very cheap when
obtained in barter.

Current. — I have almost omitted putting the mariner on his guard against
the effect of the strong easterly current that runs from Terra Formosa to
Old Calabar. This current runs with greater or less velocity almost through-
out the year, except in or about the Harmattan season, when it occasionally
sets to the westward and W.S.W. Vessels that have advanced much to tho
eastward of Terra Formosa, and cannot see Foche Point before night, should
anchor, in order to prevent the effect of the current ; but in squally weather,
or the wet season, it may be as well to work to windward, heaving to occa-
sionally during the night, according to circumstances ; 9 or 10 fathoms is
quito close enough to stand in-shore in the night ; when in 6 fathoms tho
surf can be very distinctly heard.

When once to leeward on this coast, getting up to windward again is
attended with much trouble and difficulty. I may here remark, that too

TO AND OF WESTERN AFRICA. 491

much attention cannot be paid to the lead upon any part of the coast of
Africa, as the current frequently sets directly in upon the land ; and from
careful observation, upon the windward coast, I can confidently assert that
the thermometer is no guide whatever on approaching the land. In more
than 100 experiments upon the surface water, I could never detect any
sensible difference in the temperature when sailing toward the land from
no bottom into 45 and 40 fathoms, and then into 14 or 15 fathoms, on the
Krou Coast. In the dry season there is little difference hereabout in the
temperature of the air and water; the former averaging 77° to 81° (in the
shade), and the latter 74° or 75° Fahrenheit.

Directions.— The Homeward Passage, through the Bight of Biafra, presents
no particular feature to the attention of the navigator, if I may except the
strong N.E. currents that almost invariably prevail in it. All homeward
bound vessels that do not intend calling at Fernando Po, should use every
possible exertion to pass to the westward of the island, as a good board may
be then made to the southward on the starboard tack. Except in the Har-
mattan or tornado seasons, no advantage can be derived by standing close
in- shore, as there are no land winds, and a near approach is, at any time,
very dangerous, as the whole of the coast, from Camaroens to the Gaboon
(except about Corisco), is generally bold-to, and the soundings in nowise to
bo depended on. On this part of the coast there is no trade, and the inha-
bitants are miserable naked savages. On getting to the southward of
Prince's Island, the very excellent directions of Mr. Finlaison (given here-
after) may be followed with advantage.

Many navigators have remarked, that on standing to the westward between
Prince's and St. Thomas's, even when making a trifle of northing, the N.E.
current has been found to diminish in strength as the vessel makes westing.
Even so far to the southward as 3° South there is seldom any easting in the
wind before passing the meridian of Greenwich.

Vessels bound to the northward should not attempt crossing the equator to
the eastward of 20° W. (the meridian of 21£° W. is to be preferred), and
should then make a North or N. by W. course, to get into the N.E. trade
wind, which having once fairly gained, the homeward navigation is generally
well understood. In this route, after leaving the Guinea Current in the
Bight of Biafra, the ship will gradually get into the Equatorial Current as she
gets to the southward, and this current frequently runs with considerable
velocity. On examining my journals, I find that, by good lunar observations
and an excellent chronometer, I have, at various times, made the following
differences to the westward of dead reckoning, in the run from St. Thomas's
to longitude 20 = West of Greenwich, between the parallels of 0° 35' North,
and 3° of South latitude. In April, 1830, the brig Anne was set 237 miles
to the westward and 78 miles to the northward of account in 20 days. In
October and November, 1831, the barque Severn was set 240 miles to the
westward, and 94 to the northward of account in 23 clays. In October, 1833,
the Freeland was set 146 miles to the westward, and 51 to the northward of
account, in 20 days. In August, 1835, the same vessel was set 228 miles to
the westward, and 43 to the northward in 19 days; and in November and
December, 1836, the Caledonia was set 373 miles to the westward and 107
miles to the northward in 18 days. But it may be observed that, in the

492 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

latter vessel, I never crossed the equator, but was generally 8 or 10 miles to
the northward of it, until 1 crossed the meridian of 12° W. In the above
runs I have occasionally, but rarely, found slight differences to the south-
ward. When to the southward of the equator, abreast of the Bight of Benin,
I have always found a current running at least three-quarters of a mile an
hour to the northward.

By Commander W. B. Oliver, R.N.

Conceiving that a shorter passage by a sailing ship from the Bights, or
Prince's Island to Sierra Leone, than that made by proceeding to the south-
ward of the Line, might be made by keeping to the northward, I deter-
mined to ascertain the fact ; and though each time accompanied and retarded
by a prize, mado three unusually short passages, viz. — one from the River
Bonny, anchoring at Prince's, and landing prisoners at St. Thomas's in
eighteen days, the other two in 13 days each from Prince's Island to Sierra
Leone ; and, on returning to England in H.M. schooner, unaccompanied by
a prize. Thirty-nine days having been the shortest of three prizes I sent
up under the old directions from Benin and the Gaboon. I issued different
directions to prize-masters; and, although not acted on, in absence from
myself, I feel assured they would have proved, as they did in my company,
an improvement on the old one; a copy of which directions are as fol-
lows: —

Your first object will be to get to the southward, unless you can make a
West course {true) without any northing ; nor should you go to the port
tack unless you can do so, or to avoid the land, Should the wind hang so
much to the westward as to prevent making a good course on the port tack,
pass to the eastward of Prince's or St. Thomas, or both, as you will sooner
get out of the strong easterly current, but do not approach the land within
20 fathoms, day or night, and get frequent casts of the lead.

When to the westward of St. Thomas, and on or near the Line, steer W.
h N., or W. by N., according as your noon sights give you a northerly set
or not, until in the longitude of Cape Palmas, 7° 45' W. ; when steer, in tho
rainy season (May to September), N. W. by N. ; in the other months, N. W.,
until in 13° W., the longitude of the western limit of the St. Anne Shoals;
you may then make a true North course, sounding every 5 miles by night,
or thick weather, and every 10 miles by day, from 6° N. to 8° N. If you
reach the latter without striking soundings, it will prove that you have
passed to the westward of the Anne Shoals; when keep away E. by N., by
compass, to 8° 15' N. ; then steer E. by S. £ S. {East, true), and you will
make the high land of Sierra Leone; if by night, anchor on reaching 12
fathoms.

Theso instructions can only be acted on in a general way, as of courso
much depends on winds and currents ; but I wish them to have full weight
with any officer detached in a prize ; and remember, the land about Sierra
Leono should always bo mado to the southward of tho capo.

( 493 ^

7.— OF SHITS BOUND TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES,
WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR NAVIGATING THEREIN.

The courses of these ships are regulated by the winds and currents which
have been described in the preceding chapters. The consequence is a cir-
cuitous track, requisite to be taken, not only to the West Indies, but to the
southern parts of the United States. For having passed Cape Finisterre, as
before described, the best course is then to the S.S.W., so as to gain the trade
winds quickly. The preceding observations on passing Madeira, &c, may,
therefore, in this instance, be usoful, as well as in the former.

As the great object is to attain the N.E. trade, in order to run down your
westing with as little delay as possible, the remarks upon the passage across
the Equator will almost apply equally to this voyage ; the more especially
those given by Capt. Maury as to a icesterly track from the channel leading
through steadier winds, and therefore more particularly applicable to the
route across the Atlantic in the Trades, where there is no object in main-
taining an easterly position to avoid being driven to leeward of the Brasilian
coast.

In confirmation of this view, Captain George Cheveley, of Liverpool, re-
marks, that he would recommend to ships clearing the English Channel,
if bound for the West Indies, to make the S.W. quadrant, true, so as to pass
nearly at an equal distance between Madeira and St. Mary's Captain
Clevely adds, that, by pursuing this track, he has invariably held a steadier
breeze, and got much quicker into the Trades than when he proceeded
further to the eastward, and so endeavoured to make more southing. He is
aware that the latter is the general practice, of which he entirely disapproves,
so far as concerns a West India passage.

Ships for Jamaica generally pas3 to the sou'hward of the Island Mont-
serrat, and thence proceed for the high rock called Alta Vela, off the southern
point of St. Domingo, whence they take a departure for the eastern end of
Jamaica. When homeward bound, they pass either through the Windward
Channel or the Strait of Florida, as the wind and other circumstances may
prevail or dictate.

Between the months of October and March, northerly winds prevail over
the Mexican Sea and the adjacent regions; and when northerly winds pre-
vail in the Strait of Florida, the Windward Channel must, of course, be
preferred ; but, at all other times — at least, generally at other times — the
quickest, and, therefore, most eligible, passage is through the Channel of
Yucatan, and thence, with the Florida Stream in your favour, through the
Strait of Florida.

Although the Windward Channel appears, by the chart, to be the shorter
and readier passage, yet ships are frequently opposed here, both by wind and
current, as will appear by the following statement, made by an ingenious
officer already quoted : — "After the defeat of the French fleet, commanded
by Count de Grasse, in April, 1782, and the British had arrived at Port
Royal, in Jamaica, a squadron was detached to gain the Windward Passage,
run down the Bahama Old Channel, and cruise to the eastward of the
Havana, to prevent a Spanish squadron, in the harbour, from effecting a

N. A. 0. 3 S

494 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

junction with the French ships that had escaped into Cape Francois \ Cape
Ilayticn']. For six weeks did the English squadron beat against fresh sea
breezes and a lee current ; and, during that time, never advanced further to
the eastward than off Morant Harbour, though the ships were much strained
by carrying a press of sail to attain their object; but, after struggling so
long, were compelled to return, baffled, into port. Now, though the first
object might have been to meet the Spanish squadron on its way to Cape
Francois [_Haytien~], if it had sailed, yet, so soon as the effect of a lee
current was ascertained, the object of gaining the Windward Passage ought
to have been immediately abandoned, when, by bearing away with a favour-
able current for some distance, and before a fresh trade wind, Cape Antonio
might have been passed the second day, the squadron have been off the
Dry Tortugas on the third, and by beating along the Florida shore with a
weather current, when to the eastward of the meridian of Havana, it could
have stretched over to Cuba in the night ; and, in all probability, havo
gained the appointed station in six days, or even, perhaps, as soon as it
could have gained Cape Maysi, if the easterly wind had been moderate, and
no current to contend with.""'

"When the trade wind blows strong, and in frequent squalls, during the
summer months, between Jamaica and Hayti, and a short turbulent sea is
found eastward of the former, then will those bound for Europe or the
United States shorten the period of their Voyage by bearing away for the
"West end of Cuba, and passing through the Strait of Florida. For the
strait presents a more eligible navigation in these months than the "Wind-
ward Channel. The sea breeze will ensure a quick run to the Channel of
Yucatan ; and the current, perpetually setting eastward between Cuba and
Florida, will, in a few days, carry any vessel into the strait, where it will be
nearly impossible to remain much above two days, in the strength of the
stream, after being on the parallel of the Bernini Islands, even if there were
not a breath of wind.

But as the North winds prevail in the Strait of Florida in October, and

* " I think that this paragraph, unless qualified, is calculated to mislead ; particularly
in the words, ' when, by hearing away with a favourable current for some distance, and
before a fresh trade wind, Cape Antonio might have been passed on the second day.' Ad-
mitting the general experience of the writer of this passage, I think he states an extreme
case. The distance from Port Iloyal to Cape Antonio is 518 miles; which (divided by 48)
equals more than 10^ miles per hour. Generally, there would be nothing extraordinary in
this performance, but I much doubt if it be often accomplished in the locality alluded to,
at the time of the year supposed; viz., in the middle of May. In that month of 1833, I
was ordered from Montego Baj^ to New Providence ; at the former place I consulted some
of the most experienced commanders of West Indiamen, whether the most eligible course
would be that of Cape Maysi or Cape Antonio ; the majority recommended the latter, and
I more readily deferred to their advice, from its concurrence with that contained in the ex-
tract, the previous consideration of which had occupied my mind.

"Finally, although the advice contained in the extract above is judicious in establishing
the advantages of the Leeward Passage, I repeat, that the hopes of making it so speedily as
is represented will not often be realised, for neither very favourable currents, nor fresh
trade winds, will be experienced upon that track at the season indicated ; nevertheless,
there is the all-important distinction between the passages of certainty and uncertainty." —
Lieutenant IF. IT. Brady, JR.N,

TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES. 495

frequently during winter, when variable winds and strong land breezes are
not CDmmon on the coast of Jamaica, shipping will find this the most favour-
able period for gaining the "Windward Channel. In January or February,
if the wind offers a favourable opportunity for gaining the East end of Cuba,
this track should be taken ; but if the sea breeze be strong, the Strait of
Florida should bo preferred.*

When the sun has approached the Tropic of Cancer, strong westerly
winds begin to blow along the western coast of Florida, and prevail during
the months of June, July, and August, from the Bay of Apalache, south-
ward. These westerly winds cause fluctuations in the atmosphere, which
prevail more about the western end of Cuba thau farther eastward ; and
near the Havana they have little influence. At this season, vessels from
Jamaica have met a westerly wind in the Channel of Yucatan ; others have
experienced a fair breeze at some distance, after passing Cape Antonio ; and
the wind here will be found sometimes at N.W., West, and S.W., veering
about variably.

The wind in the eastern quarter sometimes fluctuates about the western
end of Cuba, but not generally.

At this season the wind blows impetuously off Jamaica, and in frequent
squalls ; and vessels bound thence to Europe should universally prefer the
Leeward Passage. They will probably pass through the Strait of Florida
before they could gain the entrance of the Windward Channel, though
straining, with every effort, against the wind. The appearance of a favour-
able opportunity for passing through that channel should not be suffered to
deceive ; for it may be no indication of the general state of the wind
eastward.

From the West Indies to the English Channel, after having cleared the
Strait of Florida or Windward Passages, vessels may pass either to the
northward or southward of the Bermudas, giving the islands a good offing,
and attending to the preceding remarks on currents, &c. In summer, the
track to the northward of these isles has been recommended, passing thence
to the northward of the Azores. In winter, the track to the southward of
the Bermudas is to be preferred ; because, in this season, gales of north-
westerly wind may be expected from the coast of America ; and, therefore,
vessels should continue a little to the southward of lat. 30° or in about lat.
29° 40', if wind permits, until certain of being to the eastward of the Ber-
mudas ; nor should they run to the northward of lat. 35° or lat. 36°, until
within a few degrees of the Azores. Thus will the heavy gales be avoided,
which frequently rage more to the northward. f

In shaping a course at any season, it should be remembered that the
Great circle course from Cape Florida to the Lizard follows the outer edge

* In sailing for the Windward Channel, get the coast of Hayti on board as soon as you
can, as you may then find a windward current, and, in the evening, the wind oil shore.

t As the most destructive hurricanes on record, in this part of the Atlantic, have
occurred in the vicinity or on the borders of the Gulf Stream, this is an important reason
for ships from the West Indies, bound to Europe, not to advance too far to the northward.
See further, " Voyage from the West Indies to the Azores," attached to the description
of those islands hereafter.

496 PASSAGES OVEE THE ATLANTIC.

of the Gulf Stream in its earlier course, and passing about midway between
the Bermudas and Cape Hatteras, it bears away north-eastward over the
tail of the Newfoundland Banks, and reaches the parallel of Scilly on a duo
easterly course. The vertex of the Great Circle being in lat. 50° and long.
13° 48' W., of course its direction is nearly East and West for several degrees
on either side of this point. The shortest distance between the Lizard and
Cape Florida is 3,671 miles. It leaves the Strait of Florida on a nearly
due N.E. course true (N. 45° 35' E.), and reaches the channel on an E. £ S.
true course.

During a great portion of the year, it is probable that this course could
be strictly followed to advantage. Of course, the consideration of meeting
with cyclones which follow very nearly this Great Circle course toward the
N.E. is important, and therefore during their season, July to October, as
shown in (112), on p. 264, a more easterly route had better be pursued, that
is, if the Florida Channel be taken ; but if, as is more probable, the wind-
ward passage is taken in this season, the Great Circle course thence will be
the most advantageous.

But upon this subject Major Eennell has said, " Notwithstanding the ad-
vantages to be gained, in point of distance, by ships returning from the West
Indies by the favouring current of the Gulf Stream, which may be perhaps
reckoned equal to several days' sailing ; yet experienced navigators are still
of opinion that, on the whole, it does not present equal advantages with the
southern route.

" It was, until latter times, held as a maxim not to advance to the north-
ward of the parallel of lat. 33°, in returninge from the West Indies, because
of the prevalence of storms northward of it. This wise rule of our ancestors
has again been taken up, and His Majesty's ships, and of course convoys,
will be, in future, directed to proceed by the South of Bermudas, and to
cross its parallel at a few degrees to the eastward of the isles, and thence to
steer direct for Corvo.

" But, it may be observed, that a track which should cross the parallel of
Bermudas at a very few degrees to the eastward of it, and then lead directly
toward Corvo, would cross a most critical portion of the space, in which not
only the warm water of the Gulf Stream prevailed, but in which several
gales have been actually experienced. Therefore, it would seem that the
parallel of the Bermudas should not be crossed at less than about lat. 15°
[say lat. 14°] to the eastward of the islands.

" But, it may be asked, Where is the necessity of going to Corvo or Florea
at all, for by it ships are placed in a situation proverbially known as a place
of storms ; that is to say, on the West and N. W. of the Azores ? Why not
go between them and the greater Azores, or rather to the southward of them
all, and thereby pass through a kindlier climate at all times ?

"Any calculations or comparisons of time in making the different pas-
sages would be nugatory, since the security of lives and property is the
main object ; but it even happens that ships, which have had all the advan-
tage of the Gulf Stream, have been crippled, and made more delay than in
the southern passage with adverse currents."

TO AND FKOM TEE WEST INDIES. 497

Directions for Sailing to and from the West Indies and North America,
translated from the " derrotero de las antillas," by captain
Livingston.

These advices, or directions, are simple applications of a principle derived
from the general prevalence of the winds, as already described.

Were it not for the constant wind from the eastward, which reigns within
the tropics, it seems likely that the maritime commerce between the two
hemispheres would never have existed ; for, by its means, not only are the
voyages rendered very simple, which would otherwise be interminable, but
people in the most distant regions communicate with facility ; and thus the
navigator who is bound to the westward has only to place himself within
the limits of the general wind, in the certainty that, in this manner, he
must effect his purpose in the shortest possible period. Such is the first
rule, which ought always to be attended to for this navigation.

The second rule is derived from the first ; it is, that any one, bound to the
East from the West, ought to get out of the region of the trade-winds into
that of the variables or anti-trades.

We have here the two precepts which direct the operation of navigators
in extensive seas ; and in attending to them we shall observe, that every
one bound from the Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) to the eastern coasts of
America, ought to get into the trade-winds as soon as may be, holding in
mind an advice, which may be considered as a precept, that is, never, in na-
vigating extensive seas, to keep close-hauled, but alivays take care to sail with the
wind free; or at least to keep seven points from it.

Taking it as granted that the first care of every one bound to America
ought to be to get into the limits of the general wind, it is clear that, with
scant winds, the tack in the third quadrant (S.W.) will be most advan-
tageous, and ought to be followed always when it can. All the endeavour
ought to be to get into these winds, without being particular as to the
means, and without keeping close to the wind to pass between the coast of
Africa and the Canaries ; but taking the passage that suits best, be it that
between the Canaries and Madeira, or be it between Madeira and the
Azores ; and certainly either of these is preferable to that to the East of the
Canaries ; for the proximity of the coast of Africa deadens the wind, and,
consequently, is unfavourable to the brevity of the navigation.

Having gained the general winds, the navigator must take precautions
conducing to prevent any error of situation, in making his port of destina-
tion ; for, if he who navigates by observations is exposed to be even 10
leagues in error, he who has no more than dead-reckoning to direct him
may, probably, be 6 degrees wrong. It imports much to guard against this
error ; keeping it in view that, in proportion as it will be easy for any one,
making a landfall to windward of his port of destination, to run down to it ;
so will be the difficulty if he makes the landfall to leeward of his port, in
beating up again in a sea wherein both the winds and currents are contrary.
Even if bound to the coasts of the United States of America, it will be ad-
visable to run into the limits of the trade-winds, in order to get to the
westward in as short a time as possible ; and although this mode may

498 PASSAGES OVEE THE ATLANTIC.

appear long, on account of having again, after crossing to augment the lati-
tude, it will be sufficient to keep in view tho following maxim, to convince
any one of the contrary : — If in the one way the distance is shorter, in the other
the velocity with which the ship proceeds towards her port of destination more than
balances it.

There are, nevertheless, many occasions on which a vessel may run across
to tho American coast without reducing her latitude, and these occasions
may be frequont iu tho forty or fifty days which follow the two equinoxes,
as epochs during which the N.E. winds generally prevail ; therefore vessels
which, at these times, make their passages, may at once follow their voyage
in high parallels, without descending to low ones.

In summer, as the region of the general or trade- winds extends to about
lat. 28° 30' N., it follows that the round about is trifling ; and this circum-
stance ought to be attended to in the calculations which every captain of a
ship should make before he fixes on the course he will pursue.

Eecapitulating what we have said about the course which is most ad-
visable for crossing to the United States, from the coasts of Spain, it follows
that, if the winds permit it, West is the preferable course ; and, in case the
winds will not allow of shaping that course, the most advisable track will be
that which comes nearest to it, if the voyage is made at the times above
mentioned after the equinoxes ; but if at any other time, a course in the
third quadrant (S.W.) should be preferred ; for this will carry the vessel
soonest into tho general winds, with which the necessary longitude may be
shortly gained.

Vessels bound to Cuba during the rainy season, or season of the South
winds, should pass to the northward of Porto Eico and Hayti ; but during
the Norths they ought to go to the southward of these islands. The ports
chiefly frequented are, St. Iago on the South, and Havana on the N,W. If
bound to the first, it is necessary, in whatever season, to proceed directly to
it, that is, in tho season of the Norths, to steer from Cape Tiburon, to make
some point on the South of Cuba to windward of the intended port, or even
to windward of Guantanamo ; and in the season of the Souths, to steer from
the Point of Mole St. Nicholas almost West for the port, marking, in the
first instance, various points on the coast of Cuba.

If bound to Havana, in the time of the Norths, you should pass to the
southward of Cuba, although you will have to return the distance, between
Cape Antonio and Havana ; because this inconvenience is not comparable to
that which might be occasioned on the North side of the island by a hard
North, which would not only expose a vessel to heavy risks, but might pro-
tract the voyage much longer than the course above described, because the
distance in the latter case may be worked up in a short time.

From St. Iago de Cuba, as the coast is clear, a vessel for Europe may
easily make her way by the Windward Passages, while all those which are
bound from Havana will take the Strait of Florida. Tho risks in the latter
emanated from bad charts and ignorance of tho currents ; the charts aro
now rectified, and the current is known.

By the Strait of Florida wo understand tho space included between the
meridian of tho Dry Tortugas and the parallel of Capo Canaveral. The
simple inspection of the chart will show this to bo a bed or course, which,

TO AND FEOM THE WEST INDIES. 499

like a river, conducts the water to the northward. This river, or general
current, flows first to the E.N.E. as far as the western meridian of the
Double Shot Kays, by which Kays the stream is divided from E.N.E. to
N. by E., the direction which it pursues on the parallel of Cape Florida ;
thence to Cape Canaveral it runs Norih, with something of an inclination to
the East.

As it is undoubted that this general current is caused by a superabun-
dance of waters, which seek, by this drain, to regain their level in the open
ocean, it follows that its rapidity will be greater or less, according to the
said superabundance of waters ; but as a change cannot be momentary, on
account of the great reservoir in which the water is contained, but progres-
sive, and of course slow, we hold that, having once ascertained the velocity
of the current, we may calculate it for three days or more in advance with-
out much error, if the wind remains in the same direction ; for an alteration
in the wind may affect the force of the current considerably, as already
explained.

On the meridian of tho Havana stripes of current are, at times, found
setting to the E.S.E. and S.E. from the Tortugas Soundings. Care should
be taken not to confuse the southern differences, caused by this branch of
the current, with those caused by the eddy current near the Colorados — the
one giving eastern departure, the other West. The distinction is very clear,
and can admit of no doubt, because the eddy current is met only from the
meridians of Cavanas and Bahia Honda to Cape Antonio, and not farther
out from the coast than the parallel of 23°

As the velocity of the current varies, it is requisite for every navigator
to ascertain its strength as frequently as possible, while within the stream.
Every one who enters this channel, having marked well either the lands of
Cuba or the Florida Reef, so as accurately to establish this point of de-
parture, ought to determine, in his first day's work, the velocity of the
current by the difference of latitude by account and observation. We say
during the first day's work, because the generality of common navigators
make use of meridian altitudes of the sun alone to find the latitude ; but
it is very clear that altitudes of the planets and fixed stars ought not to be
neglected ; not only because by this you cannot be in doubt of your real latitude, but
also, because they may be more exact than latitudes deduced from meridional altitudes
of the sun, when that luminary passes in the proximity of the zenith, and because
these repeated observations during the night assure, as much as possible, the situation
of the ship. Thus you may go on, with a clear idea of the operation of the
current, and the way that the ship is making. Having ascertained the
velocity of the current, use can be made of it to find the ship's departure,
and this knowledge will be most important when you fail in obtaining ob-
servations for latitude ; because, in such a case, wanting a knowledge of the
difference of latitude given by the current, you will be in want of everything ;
but if you know the velocity of the current, with it and the course which it
follows, you may find the difference of latitude and departure which the
current gives ; and which, though it will not give the position of the ship
with that precision with which it might be obtained by latitude observed,
will still approximate sufficiently to the truth to enable one to avoid danger,
if prudence and seamanlike conduct are combined.

500 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

For those who have little experience in the navigation of these seas, we
add:—

1. — That it is most convenient to direct your course in mid- channel ; not
only because it is the furthest from danger, but because you will there have
the strongest current, which is desirable.

2. — That, as you cannot ascertain, with all necessary certainty, the posi-
tion of the ship, notwithstanding the rules given to diminish the errors occa-
sioned by the currents, you ought, with the utmost care, to shun the eastern
coast of Florida, as being very dangerous, the trade-wind blowing upon it ;
while there is not be least risk in running along the Salt Kay Bank, and
the eflge of the Great Bank of Bahama. Upon the latter, also, you meet
with good anchorages, very fit to lie in during the hard northerly gales
experienced between November and March, and which do not fail to cause
many damages, and sometimes even force vessels to bear away, which is
always dangerous, for the weather is always thick with such winds, and the
worst case will be to run into one of them upon the coast of Cuba, when
hoping to have made Havana or Mantanzas. Hence, therefore, as soon as
there is an appearance of a North, the best way is, if near the Salt Kay
Bank, to anchor on it ; and, if near the Great Bank, to approach the edge
of it, in order to be able to anchor when it may be necessary ; for although
you may have a hard North, so long as you can lie-to in it, you ought to
pursue your navigation, as the current will certainly carry the ship through
the strait.

3. — It is very necessary to sight the Kays on the Salt Kay Bank, even
though you have no fear of a North ; and there may be occasions in which
every exertion should be made to make them ; especially if, from want of
observations, the situation of the ship is not well known.

4. — When, owing to calms or light winds, a vessels is in danger of being
carried through the strait by the current, she ought immediately to
approach the edge of the Salt Kay Bank, or of the Great Bank, to descend
from it to the coast of Cuba, without trying to beat down the lost ground ;
for, by doing this, she would only render the being carried through more
certain.

5. — Should you involuntarily approach the coast of Florida, you should
take extraordinary care to examine whether you have advanced out of the
general current and into the eddy. That you may know this, observe, the
eddy forms a remarkable and visible line between it and the general cur-
rent, which line of division is, in many places, out of sight of land ; that, in
general, you have no soundings on it; and that it shows, not only by the
change in the colour of the water, but that also in it, during the greatest
calms, thero is a kind of boiling or overflowing of the water. From this
line of division the water gradually changes colour ; so that, near the
Florida Kays, it is of a beautiful sea-green, and at last it becomes almost as
white as milk.

6. — When in the eddy you have to make the correction of currents on
courses entirely different from those in the stream. This is the more neces-
sary to be remarked, because, from ignorance of this circumstance, several
have been shipwrecked.

7. — When you enter the channel, or strait, from the Tortugas Soundings,

TO AND FKOM THE WEST INDIES. 501

with the intention of passing through, take care to become certain of tho
land of Cuba, or some part of the Eoef of Florida, in order to have a good
point of departuro ; for, although the latitudes and soundings on the
Tortugas Bank are more than sufficient to ascertain the place of tho ship, yet
the variable set of tho current toward tho Havana may produce a serious
error, if not properly attended to. The meridian of the Havana is, in a,
word, the best point of departure for ships bound to the north-eastward.

On PROCEEDING TO THE WlNFWABD OE CaRIBBEE ISLANDS.

As to choosing the North cr South part of any of these isles for making
your landfall, you ought to consider, first, which point is nearest to the port
or road to which you are destined ; and, secondly, the season in which you
go. In the dry season, it is to be remembered that the winds are generally
from the north-eastward, and in the rainy season they are often from tho
south-eastward. Thus, in the dry season, it is best to make the North side,
and in tho wet season the South, but without loosing sight of tho first con-
sideration.

There can be no mistake in recognising any of the Autillas ; nor, in
making St. Bartholomew's and St. Martin s alone, can there be any doubt on
seeing at once the eminences or heights of various islands. That this may
not mislead any one, they must remember the following instructions: —

When in the parallel of St. Bartholomew's, at less than 4 leagues off, if
there be no fog or haze, the Islands of St. Eustatius, Saba, St. Christopher's
Nevis, and St. Martin's, appear plainly.

The mountain of St. Eustatius forms a kind of table, with uniform de-
clivities to the East and West ; the top is level, and at the East part of this
plain a peak rises, which makes it very remarkable. To the West of tho
mountain seems to be a great strait, in consequence of the lands near it
being under the horizon (or seeming drowned), and to the West of that there
then appears, as it were, another long, low island, the N.W. part of which
is highest ; but it is necessary not to be deceived, for all that land is part of
the land of St. Eustatius. From this station Saba appears to the N.W. ; it
is not so high as St. Eustatius, and apparently of less extent than the
western part of St. Eustatius, which is seen insulated.

The JV. IF. part of St. Christopher 's is also seen formed by great mountains,
in appearance as elevated as St. Eustatius, with low land to the East ; to
the eastward of this low land Nevis will be seen apparently higher than all
the others.

The lands of St. Martin's are notably higher than those of St. Bartholo-
mew's; and this island appears also when you are some leagues further
from it than from St. Bartholomew's.

When there are any clouds which hinder St. Martin's from being seen,
there may be some hesitation in recognising St. Bartholomew's; and thus it
is proper to notice that the latter, seen upon its own parallel, appears small,
and with four peaks, trending North and South, occupying almost its whole

N. A. 0. 3 T

5C2 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

extent ; and, if you are not more than 3 leagues from it, you will see, aleo,
the appearance of an islet to the North, and another to the South, at a very
short distance. As this island, has neither trees, high mountains, nor
thickets, it is not subject to fogs ; and it may therefore be seen oftener than
St. Martin's, St. Christopher's, Nevis, St. Eustatius, and Saba ; it is there-
fore advisable to keep its appearance in mind.

At 8 leagues to the East of St. Bartholomew's you may see Nevis, very
high ; from it to the West the strait called the Narrows, and then the lands
of St. Christopher'' a, appearing to rise out of the water, and which continue
increasing in height to the westward, so that the western-most of two
mountains, which are at the West part of it, is the highest. This mountain,
which is higher than that called Mount Misery, has to the West of it, a gentle
declivity, terminating in low land ; and it cannot be mistaken for any other.
To the West of this you may also see the large strait toward St. Eustatius;
but from this situation you will see only the high S.E. part of that island, or
rather, its mountain, in consequence of which it appears like a very small
island, while its mountain seems to be lower than Mount Misery; but it is
easily known by the table, which its top forms, by the uniform declivities to
the East and West, and by the peak on the S.E. part of it. Saba seems,
from this situation, equal in size to the visible part of St. Eustatius ; but it
shows only an eminence without peaks, with declivities, and almost round.

If a small islet appears to the West of, and very near to St. Eustatius,
that must not confuse you ; for it is the N.W. extremity of that island; and,
on getting nearer, you will perceive the land which connects it with the S.E.
part. Mount Misery, on St. Christopher's, which has a very high and sharp
peak, on the eastern part of its summit, seems at a distance to be the summit
of Mount Eustatius ; but it cannot be mistaken for such, if you attend to its
surface being more unequal than the table land at the top of St. Eustatius;
and that there is another less elevated mountain to the East, and with gentle
declivities, which show much land to the East and West of the high peak.

When you are 6 leagues to the East of St. Bartholomew's, its N.W. ex-
tremity appears insulated, and has the appearance of a pretty large island,
on the top of which there are four small steps (like steps of stairs, Escalones),
with a considerable strait to the South, between it and the principal island :
in the middle of this strait you may also see a smaller islet ; this is really
one of the islets which surround the island ; but the first is only the N.W.
point, to the North of which you will see some islets : all these are much
nearer St. Bartholomew's than St. Martin's.

Finally, in navigating from one of the Antillas to another, there is no
difficulty, unless you have to get from leeward to windward ; yet this will be
reduced to a trifling consideration if the passage be made by the straits to
the northward of Martinique, in which the currents are weakest ; but the
same does not follow in the southerly straits, in which the waters set with
more vivacity toward the West : and it would be impracticable by the Straits
of Tobago, Granada, and St. Vincent, in which the waters commonly run at
the rate of not less thau 2 miles an hour.

IN THE WEST INDIES. 503

Particular Instructions for tiie Navigation of tije Windward
Islands, &c.

It has been remarked, by an experienced captain in the Royal Navy, that
for those bound to Jamaica or any of the ports in the northern range of islands
(the Bahamas excepted), the safest land to make is the Island of Desirade,
near Guadaloupe ; for, if you should not see other land before dark, you may
haul to the northward, into the latitude of Montserrat, having nearly 60
miles to run on, during the night. Some commanders make St. Martin's or
St. Bartholomew's, when bound to Tortola, St. Thomas's, St. Croix, and the
islands to leeward ; but in this case they should be aware of the dangerous
Island of Barbuda, and also of Anguilla ; for a small error in the latitude,
perhaps, from want of an observation, or irregularity in the current, would
place them in a very perilous situation, should they attempt to run on in the
night.

Strangers should pass St. Martin's, when they make it, on the North side,
the passage between it and Anguilla being clear ; St. Bartholomew's, Nevis,
St. Christopher's, and Antigua, on the South side. Barbadoes should like-
wise be passed on the South side, in order to fetch into Carlisle Bay ; and
Granada and St. Vincent's on the South side. No particular directions are
necessary for the other islands, as every seaman knows the danger of
running to leeward or past the land ; — a very serious occurrence for a dull
sailing-vessel.

Vessels on making Barladoes and the other Windward Islands, when approach-
ing from the northward, should be very careful not to cross the latitude of
the low or northern islands during the night, although their reckoning may
bo many degrees to the eastward of the isles. The low islands on which so
many vessels have been lost, are Barbuda, Anguilla, Dog and Prickly Pear,
Sombrero, Anegada, and its Horseshoe Reef; of all these, the first and last are
the most dangerous. Before you see Anegada, in clear weather, Virgin-
Gorda, and perhaps Tortola, will be seen very distinctly ; distance is often
deceiving at sea, and this land, by those not well acquainted with it, has
been frequently mistaken for the East end of Porto Rico ; and, although
directions have been given for avoiding this error, by observing that there is
only open sea to the eastward of Virgin-Gorda, and that to the eastward of
Porto Rico lie several islands, yet it is neceesary to observe that these islands,
when the high land of Porto Rico is first discovei'ed, cannot be seen, so that,
if you make the land at the close of day, it is proper to be aware of this cir-
cumstance. It may also be remarked, that Anguilla and the Dog and
Prickly Pear Isles cannot be seen until some time after you make St.
Martin's, which is high laud, and lying to the southward of these low isles.
Barbuda is dangerous in the night time only, but to strangers also, in
the day, having reefs under water all round, excepting at the extreme S.W.
point.

On passing to leeward of the high island?, which obstruct the course of the trade'
wind, danger arises from strong gusts coming from the mountains, which
sometimes dismasts a vessel. Be cautious to keep so far from such land a3
to be able to work your ship, should tho wind suddenly shift and blow on

604 PASSAGES.

the shore, which it often does during the day. When the wind is baffling,
you will find it advantageous to keep your course along shore so long as you
have steerage-way, although all your sails may be aback; for it frequently
happens that the wind comes round to its former quarter before you lose
your headway, and by this one ship may get into another current of air,
which brings her into a fresh breeze, while another, in company, by altering
her course to get her sails full, loses the opportunity of getting into the
breeze, and may be detained by calms and baffling winds great part of the
day. "We have often seen the after-sails filled, with the wind aft, while the
headsails were flat aback, with the wind ahead, which continued so long
that the foresail was hauled up to continue the headway.

In navigating among the Win (heard Islands, every precaution must be taken
in allowing for the direction and strength of the currents. It has already
been shown, in the preceding section, that the general prevalence of them is
to the westward, but with different velocities, disturbed at times by the
lunar influence, and varied by the contour of the coast, &c. An easterly
current is seldom or never found out of sight of land, but N.W. and
northerly, in the passages may generally be found ; and it has been re-
marked that, in some instances, when the current runs to leeward on one
side, it runs to windward on the other ; also, that it may set to windward on
both sides, while, at the same time, to leeward in the middle, and frequently
the reverse.

The intelligent officer to whose book we are indebted for these observa-
tions, says, " In the daytime, attention to the progress you may make in
getting to windward, hy the appearance or bearings of the land, is the best
rule you can have, first trying a short tack in-shore, where, if you make
little or no progress to windward, your best way is to stand across, and try
the other side of the channel ; and, if that do not answer, the mid-channel
will most likely prove the best; for, although contrary to the general
opinion, we have often found it so ; much, however, depends on the time of
day. In the morning and evening you should endeavour to be near the
shore, the North side of the passage in preference, where if the wind be
moderate, and the coast not much exposed to the general trade wind, you
are pretty certain of having the wind two or three points off the land. In
like manner, you should endeavour to be in the offing about one o'clock p.m.,
as the wind generally blows more on the shore at that time. "We have also
observed that the land and sea breezes prevail most where the land on the
coast is low.

" Should you he hound to a place to the westward of you, and no land in the
way, the best tack to be upon is the one on which you will lie tip nearest to
E. by N., that being the point from which the trade wind generally blows ;
when it changes from that point you may consider it a slant of wind, and
take advantage of it accordingly — particularly if it veer to the South during
the day, or to the North by night ; thus it will be found to be advantageous
to be on the port tack at night, and the starboard tack by day."

In squally weather the wind is so very variable, that it is seldom possible
to take advantage of it in getting to windward.

To windward of the islands and to the northward of Barbados, in moderate trade
winds, tho Equatorial Current will be found generally to set in a direction

THE WEST INDIES. 505

from N.W. by N. to N. by W. at the rate of from half a mile to three-
quarters of a mile an hour. As you approach the islauds, it becomes more
irregular; near to the eastward of Point Salines, Martinique, it frequently
sets strong to North, and even N.E. We have also felt this set of the
current near to Point Moulacique, the South point of St. Lucia, and have
frequently seen vessels bound to Gros Islet Bay, St. Lucia, from Barbados
only the night before, driven so far to the North as to have passed the Island
of St. Lucia, and also a considerable part of Martinique, before they dis-
covered their mistake ; and, being strangers, they had to wait until an ob-
servation could be taken to ascertain the latitude, before they could find out
their true situation.

In the passages lying nearly in a North and South direction, the current sets
generally about N.N.W., until you are past the most northerly land on the
eastern side of the passage, when the western current being no longer ob-
structed by the land, sets with great strength in a more westerly direction.
This is the case in all the passages from Antigua to Hayti, and those on the
South between Trinidad and Paria, and on the coast and Leeward Islands
from Margarita to Buen-ayre, as the current inside to the South of these
islands (in the dry season) sets about N.N.W. £ W., at the rate of nearly
2 miles an hour. Ships running to westward, inside, should make an allow-
ance for it, and keep a good look out, for it must be borne in mind, as
already shown, that the currents here are variable, according to the season.

In order to touch at as many of the Windward Islands as jiossible, without
having to beat to windward; suppose your vessel to be at Barbados, and
you have to call at as many islands as you can, in as little time as possible —
from Barbados you can steer for Tobago, hence for St. Vincent's which is as
far to windward as you can fetch ; and, with a northerly trade wind, you
will not be able to do that. From St. Vincent's you may steer to any of the
Granadines, and so on to Granada ; and at times you may fetch Trinidad,
but this is not to be depended on. Prom Granada you cannot alwaj's fetch
St. Kitts, but in general, the Virgin Islands, St. Croix, St. Thomas, &c.
The general course this way is to go to Tobago, and thence to Trinidad.

Another track is from Barbados (S.W. side) to St. Vincent's (South side),
hence to the Granadines and Granada.

Prom Barbados to the N.W. you may go to St. Lucia, passing round tho
N.E. point of the island to Gros Islet Bay and the Careenage; from this
place you fetch Port Royal Bay, Martinique, then St. Pierre, Roseau (Do-
minica), the Saintes, Basseterre, and sometimes Point-a-Pitre, Guadaloupe.

From Basse-terre, Guadaloupe, you can seldom weather Montserrat,
unless you tack and take advantage of the variable winds under Guada-
loupe, which is the best way, if you are bound to Antigua, or to the north-
ward between Antiqua and Nevis ; but if not, you may pass close to the
West side of Montserrat, and so steer for Nevis or St. Kitts, or to tho
islands to the westward ; or you may pass on either side of St. Eustatius or
Saba, if you can lie round without tacking, and so through the Dog and
Prickly Pear or Sombrero Passage to the northward.

In steering through these passages, or across 'hem, it is recommended to keep
well to windward, as the wind will often head you as you approach the
opposite side, and the currents are very strong ; and it may be remarked

50G PASSAGES.

that, in standing to the southward, you feel the force of the current more
than when you are standing to the northward.

From these remarks, and a reference to the chart of the islands, it may bo
readily seen what other track can be accomplished. Thus, from Barbados
to Antigua, and the islands to the westward of it, you pass to the eastward
of Disarade if you can ; if not, between that island and the East point of
Guadaloupe ; when you are clear of this last point, you have Antigua and
all the islands to the westward in your route.

The intercourse between Barbados and Demerara is very uncertain, and you can-
not always trust to fetch from one place to the other, even in fast-sailing
vessels. From Demerara you can generally weather Tobago ; of course, it
must always depend on the wind and current ; therefore we speak in general
terms only. Indeed, we have sometimes seen southerly trade winds con-
tinue for a long time, and also northerly winds ; and we have seen, owing
to N.E. winds and lee currents, vessels from Cayenne not able to weather
Barbados, and a vessel from Antigua a month in getting to Barbados, owing
to southerly winds.

In toorking to windward through any of the passages in the night time, it is
strongly recommended not to trust to the distance run ; for, although you
may have an offing of 4 leagues, and you could lie up so as to make a long
stretch, yet, before you have gone the distance of your offing, you will pro-
bably find it full time to tack from the shore. In the passages lying nearly
East and West, the western current runs so swiftly, that, in standing to the
southward on the port tack, and lying up S.E. by E., you will often find
that you have made little or no easting. This has been the case with several
vessels leaving the South shore of Antigua ; they stood on, lying up S.E. by
E., which course they expected to make good, and thought perhaps to
weather Point Antigua on Guadaloupe, but the current deceived them, little
or no easting had been made, and they ran ashore among the small kays of
the Bay Mahaut, Guadaloupe, nearly due South from that part of Antigua
which they had left the previous evening.

When bound to windward it is sometimes difficult to beat through the pas-
sages between the islands. Of these passages, the easiest are considered to
be between St. Vincent's and Becquia, between Martinique and St. Lucia,
and between Antigua and Guadaloupe. The wind, in general, blows a
strong breeze, so that a vessel may carry double-reefed topsails, courses,
top-gallant sails, jib, and driver. These are the most suitable sails for
working the ship in the night, the weather in the passages being too gene-
rally squally. If more reefs are out, you will be liable to spring your masts
and yards ; for, however fine the weather may appear, strong and sudden
gusts may come on several times in an hour. Finally, too much sail is
hazardous, as the squalls may head you until they blow past, when you come
up to your old point ; and in this way it is obvious you may run a long way
to leeward in carrying sail through a squall.

THE WEST INDIES. 507

General Remarks on the Navigation or the Caribbean Sea, feom
Leeward to Windward, by Lieut. G-reevelink.

The best way to beat up in the Caribbean Sea is still an object of dispute
among a great many European mariners ; there are some, and they form
the greatest number, who always prefer the northern part; others who choose
to keep in the middle between 14' and 16° of latitude ; and a few, to beat
up off the southern coast, till they are able to make Antigua, and run out
by the channel between that island and Guadaloupe.

The first of these methods, the one generally adopted, is evidently the best;
as the South coasts of Hayti and Porto-Rico are tolerably clean, and afford
smooth water when the wind is to the northward of East ; but in the hur-
ricane months, this part is rendered unfavourable, not only by these dan-
gerous visitors, but also because the currents are then often very strong in
the northern channels, whereas they have, at the same time, been observed
to be very weak in those southward.

The second route depends, I imagine, more on vague reports of a current
setting between those parallels to the eastward ; but this will, I trust, no
longer be credited, at least, in the tract of sea here described. During the
intervals, however, in which light winds are of some duration, the westerly
current may be found very weak, as is undoubtedly proved by our passage
in April, 1837. Yet this is no reason why a constant weak current, or an
easterly one, should be stated when found only occasionally in those parts
where they have once been met with.

The third route, by which the hurricanes aro generally avoided, has been
treated with too much neglect, partly by its being impeded by the Leeward
Islands, and partly by the unknown force and direction of currents, and
want of local experience of the coast ; but hereafter I doubt not but this
track will be adopted as the best in those months which threaten destruction
in the northern passages, because it is almost universally followed by the
coasters and pilots.

Commanders bound from one of the interior parts of the Caribbean Sea,
toward the coast of Guayana, generally prefer passing out by the Channel of
Antigua and Guadaloupe, which is one of the fittest for that purpose with
northerly winds ; but when, on the contrary, the wind is from the southward
of East, I should not advise any attempt to pass that way, but to proceed
directly to the North, by the westward of Barbuda, prolonging the stretch
well, in order to gain, with the other tack, the windward side of the
islands. In July, 1836, we laboured for several days to get out of the first-
mentioned passage ; and in August, 1835, we were happy enough to reach
English Harbour, though unable to effect our purpose of getting into the
main sea, being harrassed by south-easterly winds and strong westerly
currents.

After having reached the Atlantic, when destined toward the coast of Guayana, it
is best to deep your wind, if blowing from the northward of East ; as, in
that case, it may enable you in one stretch to make the desired port ; but,
with unfavourable winds, I think it advisable to run straight for the coast,
and beat to windward along the bank of soundings. This is most probably

508 PASSAGES.

attended with less loss of time than the working to the eastward in higher
latitude, which may bo proved beyond any doubt by comparing some of the
many instances which havo occurred of vessels falling to leeward of their
port of destination, and trying to regain it by making a long stretch to the
northward ; when, after fourteen days, they made the coast nearly at the
same place ; with those of others who effected it completely in only three or
four days, in the space mentioned. I know many reports of this sort, but
they want sufficient authenticity to be relied on.

As a general remark, it may be kept in mind that to get soundings ought
to be the principal object of ships bound to this coast, as, with the present
knowledge of depths hereabout, together with an observed latitude, it may
show them their place of situation East or West of the intended place very
near the truth, becauso the general tendency of the mud-bank is nearly
N.W. and S.E. ; and thus, to the eastward of a certain meridian, there will
be found more water than to the westward, upon the same parallel.

It is absolutely erroneous to state, that the limit of soundings is marked
by the change in the colour of the water ; as more than once, and particularly
in November, 1834, in 25 fathoms of water, to the N.E. off Marowyne River,
the colour was perfectly blue and transparent, and at other times tinged of
an ashy hue by the mud.

Steam Navigation between Tobago and Demerara.

"We take the following from an illustrated work/'-' which gives numerous
directions for the West Indies : —

" Between Tolago and Trinidad the current sets along towards the W.N.W.
and W.S.W., almost always at the rate of 2 knots per hour, and not unfre-
cjuently 3 or 4 knots.

" After clearing the channel, the stream will generally be found running
nearly parallel with the line of coast the whole distance to Demerara, though
it sometimes takes a more northerly direction, particularly in the months of
July, August, and September.

In shaping a course, therefore, for Demerara, vessels should keep well to
the eastward of the port, not only to avoid the banks off the mouth of the
Ussequibo, but because the objects to the eastward are more remarkable,
which is of the utmost consequence on a coast where its features bear one
uniform appearance, without a hill, the bearing of which would point out a
ship's position ; and the land so low that vessels may be aground before it
is visible. The had will be found the best guide, as the soundings very
gradually decrease, and there is no danger while navigating in 7 fathoms
water."

The most remarkable features of the coast eastward of George Toicn are
the chimneys of the boiling-houses, and a remarkable row of cabbage trees about
12 miles from the lighthouse. There is also a singular tree about 15 miles

* " Practical Observations on the West India Navigation," by a Commander of one of
the Royal Mail Steam Packets. London, 1344.

IN THE WEST INDIES. 509

from the point of Corobana, called General Murray's Tree ; it is most con-
spicuous when seen at the termination of a point.

Demkraka. — This port should never be taken by a stranger without a
pilot ; indeed, even those who are most intimately acquainted with its locali-
ties, in vessels drawing more than 12 feet water, should always take this
precaution.

In a steam-vessel the navigation is most simple at proper times of the
tide.

Navigation to Jamaica via St. Juan, Porto Eico, Care HaYties',
and St. Jago de Cera.

Steamers leaving St. Thomas's to perform the Jamaica route, via tho North
side of Porto Rico and PTai/ti, should leave the small islet of Bcrgantin (which
is a high rock resembling a ship when at a distance), on their left ; and
Jlontalvan and Cabrito on their right, bearing in mind that a reef extends
from Montalvan a good cable's length.

After passing Culebra and Culebrito, I should recommend shaping a courso
to pass outside a rock on which the Barossa is said to have struck ; for
although it seems to be doubtful, yet masters of Porto Pico vessels have
assured me it does exist. From their statements I am inclined to believo
that it is considerably nearer the shore.

San Juan PTarbour wilt readily be distinguished by the Jloro, which, when
first seen, makes like an island having extensive fortifications on its summit,
rendering it exceedingly remarkable.

This Aloro Castle is on the East side of the entrance, and is steep-to within
half a cable's length on its northern side. The position to lie-to for a pilot
is about 2 cables North of the Moro, with the ship's head off shore, taking
great care not to drift near the low rocky island on the western side of tho
entrance, which has much foul ground around it ; and the current generally
setting strong in that direction.

The harbour is not difficult of access by day, but at times the sea breaks
right across the entrance, which culls for the promptest attention at the
helm.

I do not consider it safe at any time to enter this port at night in large
ships. Eise and fall of tide, 2 feet.

From Sa?i Juan a course should be shaped so as to pass 6 or 7 miles from
Cape T'iejo Francais (Hayti), making allowance for a current which sets
towards the Porto Eico coast, when within the distance of 10 miles from the
shore. The first land that will be seen on this track (after losing sight of
Forto Eico) will be Cape Raphael, which is of moderate height, and is the
termination of the high land ; the coast thence to Cape Engano being exceed-
ingly low. Raphael may also be known by a small conical hill [Mb. Redonda),
a short distance inland, which, on coming from the N.W., is seen near tho
termination of the point.

The next cape to the N.W. is Cape Samana, which makes like an island
on many bearings, particularly from the N.W. After passing Cape Samana,

N. A. 0. 3 TJ

510 PASSAGES

Cape Viejo Francais will be seen, which also makes like an island with low
points at each extremity.

Cape Isabella is the next headland, which is very low, and, like Cape Viejo
Francais, also makes like an island. Between these two capes there is a
remarkable high hill, sloping down to the water's edge, with a flat summit,
and a remarkable notch on its extremity when seen from the N.W. This
land is Cape Casrouge.

The Grange is the most remarkable object, and cannot be mistaken for any
other part of the coast if attention be paid to the book of directions.

Vessels may pass inside the Monte Christi Shoals ; but as the channel is
not well known, I have invariably gone outside, on the principle that a
steamer's progress is so rapid through the water, that in a very short period
of time after shoal water is descried, the vessel is on shore. Although I
have adopted this line of route, I have, on former occasions in H.M. ships
passed inside, and am well aware that there is a good channel ; but a large
chart of this portion of the coast should be in possession of the commander
before he navigates his ship in doubtful water.

Cape Haytien is a high cape, sloping down towards the East, and having
a small rock, called Picolet, at its foot, presenting the appearance of a white
patch when first seen from the eastward. The water is deep tolerably close
to this rock, and it may be approached to the northward without fear.

I should, however, recommend all vessels to go in at slow speed, with
strict attention to the lead, as the late earthquake is likely to have changed
the face of nature in the bottom of the sea, as well as on the land.

From Cape Haytien the course should be shaped to pass between the
Tortugas and Hayti, in which channel there is always much less sea than
outside, besides being a more direct course.

St. Jago de Cuba. — This harbour cannot be taken at night, and never even
during the day without a pilot, as it is exceedingly narrow, and the greatest
attention is required at the helm, owing to the sudden turnings in the
channel.

From St. Jago de Cuba to Morant Point, I would recommend a course to
be shaped (during night time) 15 miles to the West of the Formigas, as I
have on more than one occasion experienced a set in their vicinity of half a
mile an hour to the N.E. This is by no means a usual occurrence, but
knowing the existence of deviations from the general set of the stream, it is
as well to be on the guarded side, more especially as the saving in the dis-
tance is very trifling.

Morant Point is very low, with a lighthouse upon its extremity having an
excellent revolving light, which may be seen 16 or 18 miles distant. From
the Point to the Kegs of Port Royal it is only necessary to run down about
2 miles off shore, taking great care at night to avoid the low land about
Cowbay Point, which is very deceiving.

On returning by this route, the foregoing observations will be equally avail-
able. It is, however, perhaps as well to observe, that after leaving St. Jago
de Cuba great advautage may be gained by keeping about 2 miles off shore,
where there is frequently a weatherly set, and invariably less current.

In making Porto Pico from the westward the land is low, gradually rising
to a high chain of hills j thence, trending East, it again falls, and then rises

IN THE WEST INDIES. 511

to another chain of mountains called Zuquillos, which terminate in low land
at the eastern extremity of the island. St. Juan may he known by its
situation between the above two ranges of mountains, and by having on its
West side a number of remarkable hillocks in the form of haycoclos, which
are frequently seen before the Moro shows itself ; but the fortifications are
most commonly the first objects descried. I would also caution vessels to
be extremely guarded at night, in not mistaking the channel between Culebra
and Porto Rico, which is exceedingly dangerous. The distance run by the
ship after leaving St. Juan will of course be a good guide, but between
August and October the currents are often so variable, that the most careful
navigator may be deceived in hazy weather, or at night, as there is under
these circumstances a great resemblance between Culebra and St. Thomas's.
The latter, however, if seen before sunset, may be distinguished by its being
higher, and making in three small peaks.

From the mean of several observations, I have found the current along the
Porto Eico coast and Hayti to the northward to be as follows, though the
very unusual state of the weather in the West Indies of late has rendered
these very uncertain, and therefore great care should be taken in ascertain-
ing the direction of the stream, always distrusting published accounts.

Between 18° 29' North latitude and Porto Eico, the current generally sets
obliquely on the shore towards the E.S.E. Between 11° 29' N. and 18° 89'
N. it runs to the E.N.E. To the northward of this latitude the stream
takes a more northerly direction, particularly in the vicinity of the hanks of
the Bahamas.

To the distance of 10 miles along the Hayti North Coast the current fre-
quently runs towards the shore, but'beyond that distance it takes the diree*
tion of the coast.

During the hurricane months it should be remembered, that the currents
are more uncertain than at any other period."

Navigation between Grenada and Jamaica, along the South side op

Hayti to Jacmel.

Leaving the island of Grenada, the current will almost invariably be found
setting between W.S.W and W.N.W., but more commonly in the former
direction than the latter. It is generally strongest between December and
April, and of least force in the hurricane months ; indeed, between July and
October (on reference to former journals), I find not unfrequent sets to the
East and N.E., particularly when hurricanes have visited any part of the
West Indies ; but except in these months it is very rare to find the stream
deviating from the W.S.W. , W., or W.N.W.

Alta Vela. — This little island lies about 16 miles S. \ E. from Beata
Point, in lat. 17° 28' 40" N., and long. 71° 39' 30" W., and is directly in the
fairway of the steamers coming from Grenada to Jacmel. It is high, barren,
and quite bold close-to, and may be seen 25 or 30 miles distant, making in a
peak.

The course from this island {Alta Vela) to Jacmel is N.W. & W., about 67
miles ; on which lino vessels will make the Frayles, which lie about 10 miles

512 PASSAGES.

from Bcata Maud. They are a cluster of steep r^M-eoloured roch, and
are said to be steep close-to, though from the imperfect survey of this part
of the coast I would advise ships to give them a berth of a mile at least.
For the above reason, also, I would not take the channel between Alia Vela
and Bcata Island, as scarcely anything is to be gained by it.

The current most commonly sets very strong 1o the westward in the vicinity
of the islands ; but after passing the Fraylea Rocks a strong S.E. set is fre-
quently experienced, particularly during the night, when the trade does not
blow homo.

From Jacmel to Jamaica, shape a course so as to pass 5 miles clear of the
Isle of Vaclxc, which is about 8 or 9 miles in length, and makes like a group
of small islands when first seen, particularly from the westward. The cur-
rent between this island, and along shore to Jacmel, generally sets to the
westward, but when within 5 or 6 miles of the shore, an easterly set is fre-
quently experienced, particularly at night.

The first headland after passing the Isle of VacJie is called Abacou Point,
low at its extremity, then suddenly rising to a moderate height.

The next cape to the westward is Cape Gravois, which is very low, the
land between being of a moderate aud equal height. From this cape to
Tiburon the land becomes very high. The cape itself (Tiburon) is of mode-
rate height, but a short distance from its extremity it suddenly rises to a
high mountain, and when first made from the sea, appears to slope down to
the water's edge.

The Isle of Saona is situated at the S.E. extremity of Ilayti, and is very
low, level, and covered with trees. In running past this island, shoal water
will be seen some distance from the shore. At night I would recommend
running 10 or 12 miles to the eastward of the reckoning, when bound
through the Alona Passage, as it is the turning point, and being very low, ships
would be in the reefs before seeing the land, except with clear nights.

Jamaica to the Bae of Maracaybo, Awul and May, by Captain
dunsterville, e.n.

On sailing from Jamaica we had fresh easterly winds and squally weather,
then winds variable round the compass.

From Alta Vela, in lat. 17° 28' N., long. 71° 40', we took our departure for
the Isle of Orula, on the eastern side of the Gulf of Maracaybo, allowing
for the strong westerly currents above three-quarters of a mile an hour.

Saw the Monks, which are rather high rocks ; and, by the altitude of the
star Antarcs, made the northern one to lie in lat. 12° 28'. Hauled to the
S.E., and ran along the western coast of Paraguana, sounding, when distant
from the shore about 3 miles, from 12 to 8 fathoms, till we arrived at Punta
de los Estanques, whence we took our departure for the Bar of Maracaybo,
S.W. £ w.

To the eastward of the Bar of Maracaylo, about 8 leagues, are high moun-
tains ; the land westward of these is low, and continues so, with occasional
breaks in it, by kays and hillocks, which are at the entrance of the lagoon.
Further westward are two pieces of land, not particularly high, on the loW

IN THE WEST INDIES. 51$

S E. termination of which are three little hillocks. This is the Ida Tudos,
on which stands the Castle of St. Carlos. When bearing S.S.W. £ W. tha
hillocks are over the fort, which is white. Do not steer for the latter,
but continue on about West, not going into less than 5 or 5 J- fathoms, when
you will open the ruins of Fort Zapara to the southward, and the Castle of
Bajo Seco to the westward, in lat. 10° 59', long. 71° 42'. This fortress is,
likewise, white, and is situate on a small sandy hay. To the westward of
this lies the bar, having at this season a depth over it of only 11 ft., hard
bottom ; but in the rainy season, August, September, and October, there is,
at least, 13 ft. of water,

The breezes hero are very heavy from the N.N.E. to N.E. by E. in the
early part of the year ; yet at about 8 a.m. the wind is generally more
moderate ; and from 2 p.m. to 2 a.m., in the following morning it blows a
perfect gale, with a heavy sea, which makes it dangerous to lie at anchor
here.

The best anchorage off the bar is in 5 or 5} fathoms, with the Castle of
Bajo Seco South or S. by W. ; off shore about 3 or 4 miles. The soundings
on the South side of the gulf [bay ?] are regular, decreasing gradually as
you approach the shore. The current runs to the N.E. when the moon
rises ; and it is high water, on the full and change, at 5 h 15 m .

In beating to windward, endeavour to be near the north-western shore at
about 1 p.m., in order to take advantage of the winds which draw to the
N.N.E., so as to make a good lay to the eastward.

The communication with the city of Maracaybo is kept up by one of the
ship's boats, hiring a pilot for the. occasion, who, on making the general
signal, will come out from Bajo Seco in a boat with latine sails, should the
weather be moderate. If you have to communicate frequently with the city,
or to cruise in the gulf, I should recommend beating up to the anchorage of
Estanques, in the Peninsula of Paraguana ; but, in beating up, do not go to
the eastward of Punta Gorda, the S. W. point of Paraguana.

The Anchorage at Estanques is very good for a vessel of the largest class,
even within half a cable's length of the beach, and capable of containing
twenty sail in safety. The best marks for assisting a stranger to find the
anchorage is the Mountain (or Pan) of Santa Anna, which much resembles
Vesuvius, and may be seen, in clear weather, 8 or 9 leagues off. This
mountain, when bearing E. ^ N., leads to the anchorage. The place may
also be known by being a long tongue of sand, with some huts on the
extreme point, occupied by fishermen, who in the season, take immense
quantities of fish by the seine. The Bustard anchored in 4£ fathoms, and
veered to 25 fathoms on the N.E. anchor (from which quarter the prevailing
winds come strongly), and 82 fathoms on the best bower to the S. W. Point
Estanques, S. I E., Point Salines, N.N.W. % W., off shore 2 cables' lengths.
No supplies can be obtained here. Rabbits may be shot, but can be pur-
chased cheaply. The little water that may be procured is muddy, and not
fit to drink.

If you are bound to the eastward, when clear of the gulf stretch
to the northward, as the currents run so strong between the Isle of Oruba
and Cape St. Boman, that it is nearly impossible to beat through ; but

614 PASSAGES.

should you go between the island and main, be cautious in standing by
night to the S.E , as the coast from Cape Roman to Aricula (S.E. 19 miles)
is very dangerous, and the currents thereon,

In stretching across, from Point Chicabctcoa, on the West side of the mouth
of the gulf, to Jamaica, we found a strong current, running due West nearly
1 mile an hour,

The Channels or Providence.

The Channels of Providence, between the Great and Little Banks of
Bahama, are copiously described in the Sailing Directions mentioned
below, as well as the winds and seasons of this portion of the West
Indies. The lighthouses on Gun Kay and the Great Isaacs in the Florida
Strait, together with those erected on the Florida Reefs by the United States
Government, and the fine line of beacons along the face of the latter will be
eminently useful in facilitating the navigation. We have been assured, by
an intelligent navigator, that it is not unusual for twenty sail of vessels, of
from 100 to 400 tons burthen, to pass the Great Stirrup Kay within musket-
shot, and even within hail, in one day ; these, for the most part, proceeding
from the United States to Cuba and the Mexican Sea. They make the Hole
in the Wall, now distinguished by its lighthouse, then the Stirrup ; thence,
if the weather appears threatening, they pass through the N.W. channel ;
otherwise they shape a course, picking their way, across the Bahama Bank,
to the southward of the Cat Kays, beyond the Gun Kay lighthouse. Here
they enter the Florida Strait, and pursue a southerly course, where the Gulf
Stream is found, as described, to run with the least velocity to the northward.
— (See further, " Sailing Directions accompanying the Chart of the Wind-
ward and Gulf Passages," published by Mr. Laurie.

Directions for Proceeding to Demeeaba, etc., prom tue N.E.

In the third volume of the "Colombian Navigator," pp. 128 to 160, we
have given a copious description of the coast, and directions for making
the rivers of Guayana. To that description &c, the following remarks in
addition, by Captain George Cheveley, will be found a useful and valuable
addition : —

"If, when in lat. 10° N., the water changes to a dark or black colour, or
dirty drab, and then in 8° turns again to the usual sea blue, you may rely
on being to windward. There are no soundings, only this remarkable
change.* You will then, in running further in, on the coast, observe a
perfect division, or line of change, on the water, nearly N.W., from blue to

* This (HscoloureJ water appears to be in the stream of the Equatorial Current ; as may
likewise be that which is met with at SO or 100 leagues to the East of Barbadocs. — Ed.

IN THE WEST INDIES. 515

green, where the current sets strong in that direction. On proceeding, you
will again change to thick muddy water, influenced by the tides, which
should be carefully calculated and allowed for. Many ships have run to lee-
ward from want of this, and a due allowance in the course when the tide is
running, which is always with the flood. As you approach in-shore 4, 5,
and 6 fathoms, should the water then be of a red colour, you may make sure
of being to windward, and need not fear running, even should you obtain no
pilot. This is most perceptible from Miconie down to Corobana Point : to
leeward all is dirty, thick mud.

''The lighthouse on the weather point of the Demerary River shows a
bright fixed light to seaward, from 12 to 14 miles; with this light-tower
bearing from South to S. \ W., flood making, you cannot do wrong by
steering in on that course, should you not obtain a pilot, and come-to off the
fort, keeping outside the poles on the "West side. I mean this as a safe
plan for a stranger.

"The deepest of the channel has worked of late much to windward; and
deepened so as to allow vessels of 17 and 18 ft. draught to beat out in two
or three tides. I ran in without a pilot in April, 1830; was on the bar at
dead low-water spring tides, least water 2 fathoms, and am convinced 1 1 ft.
may always be found. The pilots, of course, wish the bar to be thought
shoal and dangerous, and endeavour to keep in ignorance those who should
make these things more a matter of study than is at present the case."

The following is by Capt. Henry Faithful], June, 1865 : —
" In making the land to the eastward of Demerara River, the coast is
very low, and scarcely above the high-water level — the sea at that time rising
into the jungle when the tops of the trees alone are visible at the distance
if 10 miles off the shore ; the sameness of the whole coast is such that it is
impossible to say where you are by the look of the trees, consequently the
lead is the only sure guide by night or day. Soundings may be obtained
150 miles East of the lightvessel, in 35 fathoms, much sand, little mud, and
small stones ; the nature of the ground changes as you advance to the
westward — less sand, more mud, and no stones, — until in 12 fathoms it is all
mud. During the night or early in the evening, it would be advisable to
make Berbice light-ship, which, under ordinary circumstances, cannot be
mistaken for the Demerara lightvessel. It is well in sight from the deck
when in 13 fathoms, mud, and is about G6 miles from Demerara light-ship,
to which the course is about N.W. by W. by compass, but allowance must be
made for tide — flood setting S.W., ebb N.E., — the average strength of the
flood being 2 miles, of the ebb 3 miles, — increasing the ebb in the rainy
season to 5 miles and decreasing the flood to U miles per hour. By con-
stantly keeping the lead going, and subtracting J of a fathom from the
soundings for the lead sinking into the mud, you will not get into danger,
but on no account should a vessel be brought into less than 6J fathoms by
night or day ; there is no danger of missing the light-ship in this depth ;
she is anchored at 3J fathoms low water, rise and fall 9 feet. At night
time, in coming from the eastward the revolving light on the point, visible 16
miles, will be first seen ; if not bearing to the southward of West, haul out
immediately — the tail of the Litchfield Bank, with 8 ft. at low water, ig

518 PASSAGES

between the ship and light-vessel, and your ship is in danger of sticking in
tho mud ; when the light-vessel is seen bearing West, steer for her, and
round-to, to westward, as close as possible ; a pilot will be sent immediately,
day or night.

"The three great things in coming up this coast are Lead, Lead, Lead.
In case of getting ashore on this coast, there is no fear of the vessel going
to pieces — the bottom is too soft ; but there is no landing on the coast, for
it is too muddy ; the boat that leaves the ship to get assistance must find a
creek or trench, and go up it at high water ; she is sure to find a plantation
a few miles inland, and can then send to George Town for assistance ; once
on shore and requiring steam, the commander may think himself very lucky
if ho gets off under £1,500.

" In the rainy season the wind is frequently from the westward. In beat-
ing up do not come into less than 7 fathoms—under that the rollers have
oo much power over a ship in light winds ; should a vessel get under that
depth in a calm, or from the wind having suddenly failed, with flood tide,
anchor immediately with 60 fathoms of chain — getting under weigh again
when tide is done. These directions refer to ships of 1,000 tons, and not to
coasters. If coming from the northward in 8° N., you have 32 fathoms, the
light-ship bears due South of you ; if more, you are to the eastward ; if less,
to the westward. This rule holds good up to the light-ship."

8.-01' SHIPS BOUND TO AND FROM THE NORTHERN PORTS

OF AMERICA.

In the introductory remarks to this section of the work, we have alluded
to the principles of great circle sailing, and have pointed out the advantages
which it possesses, not so much in the shorter distar.ee which it gives over the
rhumb course, but in the scope it allows the navigator in the choice of a
parallel on which ho can make a good passage, without materially increasing
the actual distance to be sailed over.

In no case can this bo better exemplified than in tho course over the
northern parts of tho Atlantic, between the British Isles and the northern
American ports. We alluded to a case, not impracticable, of the courses be-
tween the Lizard and Cape St. John's, in Newfoundland, and showed that two
courses might be taken not more than 35 miles greater than the shortest
distance, of exactly the same length, and yet be 330 miles apart in latitude
in their greatest separation.

An imaginative course will well explain for our present purposes : — From
the Lizard to Sandy Hook, New York, the distance and course by compass
are 2,952-5 miles S., 78° 51' W. But if a vessel leaving the Lizard were to
commence sailing N. 73° 24' 40" W., and passing about 85 miles southward
of Capo Clear, gradually bearing to the West, attaining a maximum latitude
of 51° 50' 30", long. 20° 27' 20" W., and then, if it were possible, approach
New York on a S. 54° 3G' W. course, she would sail over 2,865 miles, or 87A-
milos less than the compass course. This great circle course passes over Capo

TO AND FEOM NORTHERN POETS OF AMERICA. 517

Bonavista and La Hune Bay in Newfoundland ; St. Anne's Bay in Breton
Island ; Pictou and Cape St. Mary in New Brunswick ; near Boston, New
London ; and over Long Island, in the United States.

A line of the length of 2,952-5 miles, placed in a higher latitude than the
rhumb line, as shown in page 446, is just as much above the great circle
course in latitude as this is above that by compass. This corresponding arc
from New York leads considerably inland of the coast of the Eastern States,
intersecting Chaleur Bay, Cape Bonaventura in Gaspe Bay, Anticosti, passes
45 miles N.W. of the Strait of Belle-Isle, approaches within 189 miles of
Cape Farewell, Greenland, attains a maximum latitude of 57° 12' N., and
intersecting the S.W. part of Ireland, at Kinsale, reaches the Lizard in a
S.E. direction. These two lines, of the rhumb and the corresponding arc,
are upwards of 700 miles apart at the greatest deviation from each other.

"With these considerations so manifest, we shall be better prepared to
understand that a higher latitude than the usually received one cannot, of
itself, be disadvantageous; and by the excellent observations of Captain
Hare, presently given, will be more clearly evident. See also pp. 243 — 250.

By referring to the Chart, it will be seen, that from the Land's End of
England to St. John's, Newfoundland, the true bearing is W. 4° S. ; and
from the same point to Cape Sable, or the S.W. end of Nova Scotia, it is
about W. 9° S. But the circumstances of navigation in general render a
direct course more tedious and difficult than a circuitous route, and the best
passages have been made by pursuing a high northerly course.

It seems probable, from all that we have said on the winds and currents,
that on prosecuting a north-westerly course, from the Bank of Channel
Soundings, the winds and currents respectively may counteract and balance
each other ; that, on further prosecution of the same course, the winds will
be found less westerly, and therefore more favourable than in the more
southerly parallels ; and that, in advancing toward the mouth of Davis's
Strait, the advantages both of wind and current may be combined.

Caution must be taken not to advance too near the eastern coast of New-
foundland, if bound to New Brunswick or the southern ports ; nor to the
eastern coast of Breton Island, as here the vessel may be swept round by
the strong westerly currents, which have been described in the preceding
pages (424 to 432), and which, now understood, instead of producing mis-
chief, may prove highly advantageous in facilitating the ship's course.

The propriety of these arguments was confirmed by experience, in more
than forty passages made to and from New Brunswick, &c, by Lieut. Chas.
Hare, of the Royal Navy, previous to the fall of 1824. Annexed is a copy
of that gentleman's communication.*

"Ships from Scotland, in the spring of the year, and bound to New
Brunswick, have always arrived sooner than those from the English

* Many succeeding passages made by Captain Hare, since 1824, have concurred to prove
the propriety of these directions, which have been highly approved by the American
captains of home ships, as well as by British masters. This gentlemen had crossed the
Atlantic for the ninety-eighth time, in the year 1839, and the one-hundred and eleventh in
1846.

N. A. O. 3 X

518 PASSAGES OVER TIIE ATLANTIC.

Channel; which is attributed to their being more to the northward on
leaving the land.

"Ships from Liverpool generally arrive before those which sail from the
English Channel ; the cause being the same.

"In the spring of the year, I would never go to the southward of lat. 46°
or 47°, until I reached long. 37° or thereabout ; then edge to the southward
as far as lat. 43°, in order to avoid the icebergs, keeping a very strict look-
our; this parallel (43°) I should endeavour to preserve, or nearly so, but
nothing to the southward, until up to Cape Sable, Nova Scotia ; for it carries
you to a safe and proper distance from Sable Island, a place that cannot be
too much dreaded. In this track you will be without the northern edge of
the Gulf Stream, and assisted by a south-westerly current from the Banks
until past that island.

In the fall of the year my track is far more to the northward than in the
spring. On leaving the land as late as the middle of October, or there-
about, I generally steer to the north-westward until I get as far North as
55°, and until I enter the longitude of 30°, then edge to the southward, to
enter the banks in lat. 46°, shaping again a course to pass about 60 miles to
the southward of Sable Island, as above. If bound to Halifax, and very
sure of my latitude, I might be tempted to pass to the northward of Sable
Island; but, at all events, it would be at great risk; and I should not, under
any circumstances, recommend a stranger to attempt it, as the weather is
mostly foggy, and the set of the currents unaccountable. The soundings on
Banquereau are incorrectly laid down in every chart that I have yet seen ;
being, in fact, within an hour's sail of the N.E. bar of Sable Island ; from
which cause I once very narrowly escaped shipwreck. Numerous gannets
are always hovering about this island, and are a very excellent indication of
your near approach to it, particularly on the South side.

"By crossing the banks thus far North, you will find the advantage as
you approach the longitudes of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia ; the strong
N.W. and North gaies having then commenced, you will frequently be com-
pelled to lie-to for two or three days ; and should then ensure sufficient drift,
before you are blown into the strong influence of the Gulf Stream ; which
would be the case at a few degrees to the southward, and inevitably in a
S.S.E. direction, at an inconceivable rate. Last November (1824) the case
occurred ; the vessel being hove-to, under main-topsail and storm-trysail to
the westward of the banks, in lat. 45°, was, in four days, swept into
lat. 39^", consequently into the Gulf Stream, when the longitude became
also considerably affected, and I took the first opportunity of making a
N.N.W. course, to get out of it as soon as possible.

" To prove the advantages of a northern track, late in the fall of the year,
I may notice that I have, in one or two instances, read in the American
newspapers the accovmts of very long passages experienced by ships which
met heavy gales in the latitudes of 35° and 38°, when several vessels were
disabled, and others suffered loss of sails ; yet, on the same day, in lat. 54°,
I had moderate weather from the N.N.E., with top-gallant studding-sails
set ; which strongly encourages me to believe, that the blowing weather, in-
cident to approaching winter, commences southerly, and inclines northerly

TO AND FROM NORTHERN PORTS OF AMERICA. 519

as the season advances, and not the reverse ; an hypothesis generally formed
by English ship-masters, but, in my opinion, certainly erroneous.

" I am further of opinion that the influence of the Gulf Stream, in the
parallels from lat. 35° to 42°, whether from the warmness of the water or
other natural causes, has a strong tendency to attract the wind from a western
direction ; as I have invariably found the wind more alterative in the
northern latitudes before mentioned than the southern ones ; and it unques-
tionably must be allowed by all mariners of any observation, that gales
experienced in the Gulf Stream or its vicinity blow with much greater
violence than they do in that part of the Northern Atlantic not under its
influence; beeides, the squalls from the southward or S.W. are much more
sudden and heavy, and near the banks they are attended with dangerous
lightning. The thermometer (an instrument easily understood) is of the
greatest importance for ascertaining your approach to it ; and, if bound to
the West, I would, for my own part, endeavour to avoid its effects as cau-
tiously as a lee shore ; for it may be depended on, that no ship, however
well she may sail, will effect westing in the Gulf Stream with a wind from
that quarter; and it is to be remembered that its velocity is accelerated
according to the strength of those winds ; and its extent in breadth, at a few
degrees to the westward of the Azores, is many more degrees than is com-
monly supposed.

" These observations, I hope, may be useful to my brother mariners en-
gaged in these voyages ; and permit me to say, that they are grounded on
the experience of more than forty times crossing the Atlantic in the Royal
and the merchant service, and in the command of vessels in both ; latterly
in one of 400 tons burthen, the Waterloo, owned in St. John's, New Bruns-
wick ; and, as the custom-books in Liverpool can testify, landed four full
cargoes in thirteen following months ; which, including the time required to
discharge the same, then load out to St. John's, there discharge and load
home again, leaves but very little time for the ship to cross the Atlantic
eight times in fourteen months, which, in fact, was done.

"Still further, in corroboration of my approved northern track, allow me
to observe, that in the fall of 1823, by keeping a high latitude, the brig
Ward, myself master, also owned in New Brunswick, performed a voyage
out and home in seventy-two days. The same vessel, likewise, on the 3rd
of October, 1824, left the English Channel, and arrived again in the Downs
on the 3rd of January following.

"I must add, that a strong, well-found, and well-manned vessel, alone
can perform these voyages ; for they must be maintained with unremitting
attention and perseverance.

11 The necessity and propriety of the above remarks were particularly ex-
emplified by the Ward, which, on her passing through the Downs, in 1824,
left ships there which were bound to the westward, weather-bound, and
found them there on her return, having been driven back by adverse winds ;
while she, getting out of the Channel, performed with ease a prosperous
voyage to St. John's, New Brunswick, and back, exactly in three months,
assisted by chronometer, thermometer, &c."

Although the voyage to and from North America, between the parallel of
60° and 40°, has always been attended with a degree of peril from masses

520 PASSAGES OVEK THE ATLANTIC.

of ice which drift to the southward, during the summer months, from the
pohir regions, yet many an unwary mariner makes his run across the
Atlantic without any apprehension of meeting these floating dangers, or
without sufficiently exercising a proper discretion and vigilance to guard
against coming in collision with them. Commanders of ships should there-
fore, bear in mind the imperative necessity there is for using their utmost
vigilance and attention when crossing the above-named parallels, especially
between the meridians of 30° and 60° W., to guard against coming in con-
tact with these formidable dangers of the ocean. Upon the subject of the
ices which come down from the northern latitudes, much that is interesting
and necessary to be known will be found in a former part of this book,
pages 432 to 441.

The New York packet ships, when making their winter voyage from Liver-
pool, kept in high latitudes until nearing Newfoundland. This they did for
the twofold object of avoiding the tempestuous weather so generally ex-
perienced to the southward, and of obtaining fairer winds ; and thus by
slipping within the mighty stream from the Florida Channel, they evaded
its retarding influence. The voyage by this route is shortened ; and, although
bad weather must be expected, it is not so violent as further South ; besides
which the eastern currents are avoided.

Gulf of St. Lawrence, &c. — Those bound to the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
after passing to the southward of the Virgin Rocks, on the Grand Bank,
and the Island of St. Pierre, should keep a middle course between New-
foundland and Breton Island ; not forgetting what has been heretofore said
on the winds and currents. Recollecting also, that the harbours on the
coast, westward of Fortune Bay, are impeded with dangers : there are many
rocks about the entrances, and many of the harbours are imperfectly known.
The rocks are not to be seen in thick weather, and fogs very much prevail
on the coast.

Commanders of vessels bound to the Gulf of St. Lawrence will do well to
observe that, off the South coast of Newfoundland, between the meridians
55° and 56°, and the parallels of 45" 20' and 46° 15', is a deep gully in the
sea, extending in a true N.N.E. and S.S.W. direction, and separating the
Bank of St. Pierre from the Green Bank. The method adopted by the French
vessels bound to St. Pierre for making that island is as follows : —

From the longitude of 52° W., in lat. 45°, they steer a N.W. course by
compass, which carries them across the Green Bank, in 48 fathoms of water ;
and when on the meridian of 55° 10', in about 45° 35' N., they suddenly
deepen their water, from 45 to 90 fathoms. A further run on the same
course of about 10 miles carries them across this gully, when they shoalen
their water again to 35 and 30 fathoms; and, after a further run of 24 miles,
they steer about N.N.E. directly for the island, and seldom or never miss
it. — {See the Chart of Neivfoundland, fyc.)

Those who have lost their reckonings, on finding this gully, which may

* Sec the remarks upon the Gales of the Azores, in the description hereinafter given of
those islands.

TO AND FROM NORTHERN PORTS OF AMERICA. 521

be known by the water shoaling on the East and West sides of it, an ex-
periment that is frequently made for ascertaining whether they are actually
in it or not, — may safely take it as a fresh departure. Commanders, not
being aware of it, when they have found their water deepen from the Green
Bank to the westward, have imagined themselves entering the Gulf of St.
Lawrence ; and, by steering a course too far to the northward, have been
lost to the eastward of Cape Ray, on the rocks of Newfoundland. The
length of the gully is about 60 miles, in a true N.N.E. and S.S.W. direction,
and the middle of it is in lat. 45° 50', and long. 55 3 15'. — {Communication of
the French Commandant to Captain Sir Richard Grant. R.N., 18;i3.)

The little Island of St. Paul, which lies to the north-eastward of Cape
North, now distinguished by its lighthouses, is bold-to, steep, and high,
and, with a good look-out in the daytime, cannot be considered as dangerous
even in thick weather. The land of Breton Island is very high, and, though
fogs are about it frequently, it is seldom so much obscured as not to be
seen in time. On entering the Gulf, the Magdalen and Bird Islands with
their lighthouse will be seen, as they lie in the direct course from Cape
North to the River St. Lawrence.

There is, in clear weather, a safe passage between the Bird Islands aud
the Magdelens ; but, in thick weather, it is advisable to keep either to the
southward or the northward of both, as the wind may permit.

In Pleasant Bay, on the S.E. side of the Magdalen Islands, there is clear
and good anchorage, very near the shore ; and it is a very safe place for
vessels to ride in, with a westerly wind, and infinitely preferable to beating
about in the gulf with a foul wind. There is a safe passage into it between
Amherst Island and Entry Island.

As the weather to the southward of these islands, between them and
Prince Edward Island, is generally much clearer than on the North, the
passage that way is preferable, particularly after the early part of the year,
when S.W. winds mostly prevail.

Vessels bound to or from the River St. Lawrence now use the Strait of Belle
Isle, as a channel which gives the shorter and better route to Europe in the
summer months. It should be remembered that the ices described in (331),
(pages 435 to 439, which float down the Labrador Coast to the Great Banks,
have to be carefully avoided during the season of their frequency in Feb-
ruary or March to July. Again, the shorter days in the higher latitudes, and
the prevailing fogs which infest the Newfoundland coast have to be taken
into account during the winter and late autumn months. The lights
on Belle Isle and Amour Point, in the Strait of Belle Isle, will very
much facilitate the navigation thus pointed out. With the caution thus in-
dicated, this route offers many advantages. The Canadian mail steamers
now follow it, although an accident from ice to one of them, in the month
of May, 1861, will act as a warning.*

* When within the gulf the northern shore should not be made too free with, as it is
possible that some outlying rocks may have escaped the vigilance of the Admiralty sur-
veyors. The Grange Rock, off Coacoacho Bay, is an example The S.S. North America
discovered it by striking on it in September, 1858. It is 1| mile outside the line of dangers,
near a spot where the Admiralty chart showed no bottom at 47 fathoms.

( 522 )

9.— BETWEEN EUROPE AND NEW YORK, &c.

There seems to be little hope that much can be added to our knowledge
of this well-beaten track, and that the passages can be shortened by adopting
any fresh route. Soon after Maury's Pilot Charts, an analysis was made of
them in order to find out the best route by computation for each month in the
year, of a track between New York and Europe.

It is only in quite recent years that any attempts have been made to
reduce the winds of the northern portion of the North Atlantic to any
system, and at the present time the increased knowledge is not sufficient to
justify the alteration of those tracks across the Atlantic, which experience
has proved to be most advantageous. In the future, when the reason of the
superiority of one route over another, and the progressive seasonal changes
of the wind, current, &c, are more fully understood, we may expect the
passage to be shortened. One feature helping in this direction we may
mention, and that is the recently discovered mode of progress of the
air across the British. Isles in an easterly and north-easterly direction.
This is described in (92) p. 249. Of the occasional progress of storms (or
areas of low barometric pressure (around and into which the wind blows)
across the whole breadth of the Atlantic, we have good evidence, see (90),
(91), pp. 243 — 249, and in a recent publication of the Meteorological
Office,*" Captain Toynbee remarks, in speaking of the synchronous charts
which illustrate that work : — "The advantage of such charts to navigators
is that they give a picture of what was going on over the whole Atlantic at
the same moment of time. By comparing successive charts they also show
any changes which had taken place during 24 hours. For instance, the wave-
like shapes of some of the insobars in high latitudes (being undulations
of pressure which are followed by the wind arrows) illustrate for the
navigator the changes of barometer and wind which he so frequently ex-
periences in these latitudes. The chart of the first shows the ridge of a wave
near Iceland, whilst on the second its ridge was North of the British
Islands, having passed to the eastward at a rate of more than 20 miles an
hour, and carried with it wind changes from N. W. to S. In a ' Report to
the Committee on the Meteorology of the North Atlantic,' published by
this office, it is shown that steamers bound to America pass through a
large number of these undulations, whilst those from America experience
comparatively few of them. Hence the steamer bound to the westward will
have much quicker changes of barometer and wind than one steaming to the
eastward, because the latter is to a certain extent moving with the undula-
tions. So that in these latitudes a fast-falling barometer in a ship steaming
to the westward is not so great a sign of bad weather as it is when
steaming to the eastward, because in the first case the mere speed of the
ship to the westward often increases the rate of fall of the barometer;
whereas the speed of a ship to the eastward tends to make the barometer
fall more slowly than it otherwise would do, or even to rise. It is no

* Meteorology of the North Atlantic during August, 1873, illustrating the Hurricane of
that month. 1878.

BETWEEN EUEOPE AND NEW YORK, &o. 523

uncommon thing for steamers bound to the eastward to have a rising
barometer with a southerly wind, which rarely, if ever, occurs when steaming
to the westward. Of course the barometers of sailing ships are similarly
affected, but, as their speed is not generally so great as that of steamers,
the change is not usually to the same extent."

The work mentioned {note p. 522) illustrates Buys Ballot's Law (p. 184).
An area of high barometrical pressure 800 or 900 miles in diameter, with the
Azores on its eastern margin forms a centre around which appear to
revolve the smaller areas of low pressure, these areas of low pressure
form the centres of the West India cyclones, and of our storms. This
subject cannot be further discussed here, but in future years will gain in
importance.

It will be needless to dilate on the Pilot Charts of Captain Maury, or to
give the copious tables that were drawn up to illustrate these routes. They
are given on the illustrative diagram of the tracks across the Atlantic, and
the lines there laid down will be sufficient to show their relative position.
These tracks certainly seem to us to diverge so much from any regularity of
order in different months, not exhibiting any gradual change with the
seasons, as might reasonably be expected, but have a general zig-zag course,
at variance with the generally received laws of simplicity and order which
natural phenomena, governing these courses, usually assume. This want
of an apparent general law of change is doubtless owing to the imperfection
of the data upon which they are based.

But as these recommendations have been followed out by a great number
of vessels, chiefly the fine clippers and passenger ships between Liverpool
and New York, their voyages have been discussed and tabulated by Captain
Maury in his last edition, and the general mean result of the best six pas-
sages in each month is given in the ensuing tables.

The computed routes, with the probable amount of fair or head winds,
gales and calms, and distances required to be sailed over in each section of
the voyage are omitted. The tables of actual experience which follow will,
it is thought, be quite sufficient to give an idea of the subject. Only
the mean results are given here, not the details from which they ara
derived.

( 524 )

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( 525 )

N. A.

526 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

These two tables give the mean track and time occupied by the best six of
each of the sailing passages discussed as proceeding from Europe to America,
and from America to Europe. The ports on the European side are London,
Liverpool, Havre, and a few from the Clyde, Hamburg, &c. The last
column gives the total duration of the voyage, and the intermediate day
columns the time occupied in sailing between the respective meridians 5°
apart.

But these six best passages of course are considerably below the average
length of the ordinary voyages, which may be briefly stated as follows : —

Europe to America.— January, 19 to 87 days; mean of all, 40" 1 days.
February, 21 to 52 days ; mean, 32*5 days. March, 2\\ to 42 days; mean,
31-5 days. April, 24 to 43 days; mean, 33*7 days. May, 18 to 47 days;
mean, 32-0 days. June, 29 to 54 days; mean, 36*7 days. July, 31 to 45
days; mean, 368 days. August, 22 to 42 days; mean, 33-1 days. Septem-
ber, 23 to 40 days ; mean, 29- 1 days. October, 18 1 to 46 days; mean, 31*0
days. November, 28 to 53 days; mean, 37.2 days. December, 27J to 48
days; mean, 37-6 days.

America to Europe. — January, 17 to 28 days; mean, 21*0 days. February,
16 to 28 days; mean, 22-6 days. March, 16 to 27 days; mean, 22 days.
April, 15 to 28 days; mean, 22*5 days. May, 18 to 28 days; mean, 23*2
days. June, 19 to 25 days; mean, 22'5 days. July, 17 to 27 days; mean,
21-5 days. August, 21 to 28 days; mean, 24'1 days. September, 18 to 29
days; mean, 23*1 days. October, 16 to 27 days; mean, 21-9 days. No-
vember, 17 to 26 days; mean, 22-0 days. December, 15 to 28 days; mean,
21-2 days.

These figures will show with how much more certainty the eastern voyage
is made with the anti-trade winds and easterly currents in its favour, than
the average voyage with their adverse influences to retard and embarrass it.
Upon this subject see the remarks on the atmosphere, pages 183 — 195, and
also those by Capt. H. Toynbee (85) to (89), pages 238 to 243. The progress
of storms across the Atlantic is described in (90) to (92), pp. 243 to 250.

These tables will suffice to show all that is necessary on this well-beaten
track.

10— STEAM TRACKS TO AND FROM AMERICA.

The continually increasing amount of collision, which has advanced much
beyond tho ratio of the use of steam, has led to many plans for averting it,
but apparently without a corresponding effect in adopting them. The terrors
of this danger in the open sea are manifest, and many sad examples are too
well known not to induce caution — one, that of the U.S. mail-steamer Arctic
striking tho French steamer Vesta, near Cape Race, in Oct. 1854, led our
American friends to consider whether some means could not be employed to
lessen tho danger. Accordingly, R. B. Forbes, Esq., of Boston, proposed
ono tio.ck for steamers going to, and another for those coming from America.
This problem was worked out by Capt. Maury, and we give here the result
in his own words : —

STEAM TRACKS TO AND FROM AMERICA. 527

The shortest distance possible for a steamer between Liverpool and Sandy
Hook is 3,009 miles; the average distance actually accomplished is 3,069
miles ; and the distance by the middle of the lane coming is 3,038. There is
also another recommendation in favour of this lane to the West, which is
this: it lies along the northern edge of the Gulf Stream, where there is an
eddy setting westward often at the rate of a knot an hour. On the
average, I assume that the set of this eddy will amount to 12 miles a day
for three days and a half, or say 40 miles. This makes the distance by the
lane coming practically about 2,998 miles; or, allowing 20 miles for detour,
we shall have 3,018 miles, which will shorten the average time of the passage
this way three or four hours, with less risk of collision, and less danger from
Cape Race by the way.

It may be urged against this lane that it cannot always be followed on
account of the ice, and that, inasmuch as it crosses the Grand Banks, the
steamers that ply in it may now and then run down a fishing vessel. The
reply is that, as far as the fishermen are concerned, they are now liable to
be run down by the steamers both going and coming. Whereas, with the
lane, that liability is incident to the steamers alone that are westwardly
bound, and the fishermen will have the advantage of knowing pretty nearly
where the steamer will pass, and which way she will be coming. And as
for its being obstructed by ice, so as to compel the steamers, as it occa-
sionally will, especially in May or June, to turn out of it now and then, the
Erie Canal, of New York, is obstructed by ice the whole of every winter,
but that does not prove it to be of no value ; it only shows that it, like this
lane, would be of more value to commerce if it were never obstructed by ice,
or anything at all.

The Grand Banks afford a pretty good landmark, which can bo used in
the thickest weather. Generally the water temperature is found to fall as
soon as you near these Banks ; it is generally a good landmark for them.
The eastern edge runs North and South, and, therefore, affords an excellent
correction for longitude. Having ascertained by the lead when the vessel
first strikes this edge, then noting the soundings and the distance run before
clearing the Grand Banks, the latitude will also be known with accuracy
sufficient to enable the navigator to decide whether he be in or out of the
lane, and, if out, on which side. The lane crosses the Banks near their
greatest width, 275 miles. If a steamer be crossing there in a fog, and in
doubt as to her position, she can judge, by their breadth and the soundings,
pretty nearly as to latitude. For instance, if the breadth of the Banks,
when crossed, be less than 275 miles, but the sounding not less than 40
fathoms, the vessel has crossed the Bank to the North of the lane ; but if
she find herself in less than 30 fathoms, then she has crossed to the South of
it. Should she, however, find herself in water that suddenly shoals to less
than 20 fathoms, and as suddenly deepens again, then she is near the Virgin
Rocks, or the Rock and Nine-fathom Bank to the East of them, and her
position is immediately known.

It should be recollected, however, that these lands are not channel-ways
in which steamers must keep or be lost. Gales of wind, ice, and other
things will now and then force a steamer out of them, and in such cases she

528 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

will actually be where she is now, for she will then be in no more danger than
she is now ; only when she gets back into the lane she will be in less.

You will doubtless observe the advantageous position of the fork to
Halifax, in the lane from Europe. As this lane approaches Newfoundland,
it edges off to the South in such a manner as to render it impossible for a
vessel so to miss her way as to get ashore. Suppose a steamer attempting
this lane to be, when she nears the Grand Banks, 100 miles out in position
(a most extravagant case), and that she be out on the Newfoundland side,
she would, if behaving properly, be steered parallel with the lane, and if
bound to New York, she would go clear of Cape Race. But she might be
bound for Halifax, and by steering West too soon, might run upon the land ;
but recollect that the lane to Halifax turns off on soundings, and a West
course from where the lane from England strikes -soundings on the Grand
Banks will take you clear of everything. So without the most gross neglect
of the lead and all the proper precautions, which it is the duty of the ship-
master to take, it would seem impossible for him to run his steamer into
danger here.

In the longitude of the Grand Banks, the lane to Europe is 200 miles
South of the lane to America. As a rule, this lane for the eastern bound
steamers can be followed always, admitting that an exception now and then
in practice will make the rule general. It will be observed that this lane
runs E. 15° S. from Sandy Hook to the meridian of 70°, where it takes a
course E. 12° N., towards its junction with the arc of a great circle, South
of the Grand Banks. Though the distance by this lane, from Sandy Hook
to this junction, is a few miles longer than the direct line, yet on account of
the Gulf Stream it is in time the shortest distance that a steamer can take.
From the Capes of Delaware it is obviously the shortest

I will close this report with a recapitulation as to distances and courses
by each lane, between New York, Halifax, and Philadelphia, on one side,
and Cape Clear and the Scilly Isles on the other ; first begging leave to say
that, according to my computation, founded on such statistics as I have
touching the velocity of the Gulf Stream, if two steamers bound for Cape
Clear, and of exactly equal speed, were to start from Halifax, to see which
should first get into the great circle part of the lane to Europe from New
York, and if one were to go strait for it by steering East, and the other
were to follow the European lane from Halifax as projected on the chart,
this one would reach the point of destination quite as soon as the other, the
drift of the Gulf Stream compensating for the greater distance.

DISTANCE BY LANE TO AMERICA.

By Great Circla.

From Scilly Isles to Halifax 2,351- 2,305

„ „ Capes of Delaware 2,948 2,909

Sandy Hook 2,882 2,840

From Cape Clear to Halifax 2,192 2,170

„ Capes of Delaware 2,789 2,765

„ „ Sandy Hook 2,723 2,695

„ „ „ by actual average . . 2,754

STEAM TRACKS TO AND FROM AMERICA. *29

This statement shows that by the lane to America the distance is actually
shorter, both to Sandy Hook, and, we may infer also, to the Delaware, than
the average distance by the present route ; for the route actually pursued
by the steamers now, both to Sandy Hook and the Delaware, may be
considered the same from Cape Clear or the Scilly Isles, as far West as
long. 70°

DISTANCE BY LANE TO EUROPE.

To Scilly Isles. To Cape Clear.

From Halifax 2,436 2,285

„ Capes of Delaware 3,024 2,873

„ Sandy Hook 2,980 2,829

LANE TO AMERICA.

From Scilly Isles to Cape Clear

„ Cape Clear to lat. 51°.23', long. 15°.0'

„ lat. 51°.23', long. 15°.0' to lat. 5P.16', long. 20".0'

„ „ 51.16 „ 20.0 „ 60.56 „ 25.0

„ ., 50.56 „ 25.0 „ 50.23 „ 30.0

„ „ 50.23 „ 30.0 „ 49.36 „ 35.0

„ „ 49.36 „ 35.0 „ 48.33 „ ' 40.0

„ „ 48.33 „ 40.0 „ 47.15 „ 45.0

„ „ 47.15 „ 450 „ 45.38 „ 50.0

„ „ 45.38 „ 50.0 „ 45.0 „ 51.45

„ „(«)45.0 „ 51.45 „ 44.10 „ 55.0

„ „ 44.10 „ 55.0 „ 42.40 „ 60.0

„ „ 42.40 „ 60.0 „ 41.42 „ 65.0

„ „ 41.42 „ 65.0 „ 40.30 „ 70.0

„ „ 40.30 „ 70.0 Sandy Hook

„ „ 40.30 „ 70.0 to Capes of Delaware

„ „(a)45.0 „ 61.45 to Halifax

Course.
W. 33°.7' N.

1°.55' N.

2°. 17' S.

6.5

9.50
13.31
17.45
21.8
25.10
27.13
19.45
22.27
14.34
17.45

0.43 S.
W. 22.8 S.

3.53 S.

Distance.
159 miles.

187 „

189 „

193 „

199 „

207 „

216 „

228 „

83 „

148 „

236 „

231 „

236 „

183 „

249 „

503 „

LANE TO EUROPE.

From Capes of Delaware to lat. 39°. 40', long. 70".0
„ Sandy Hook to lat. 39°.40', long. 70°0'
„ lat. 39".40', long. 70°.0' to lat. 40°.31', Ion

„ 40.31

„ 41.09

„ 41.33
,,(6)41.53

„ 43.55

„ 45,46

„ 47.18

„ 48.32

„ 49.30

„ 60.14

„ 50.45

65.0
60.0
55.0
50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0

41.9

41.33

41.53

53.55

45.46

47.11

48.32

49.30

50.14

50.45

65°.0'

60.0

55.0

50.0

45.0

40.0

35.0

30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0

15.0 to Cape Clear
„ Cape Clear to Scilly Isles
„(5)Halifax to lat. 43°.30', long. 60°.O'
„ lat. 43°.30', long. 60°.0' to lat. 42».30', long. 55 9 .0'
,, „ 42.30 ,. 55.0 „ 41.53 „ 50.0

Course.
E. 10°.46' N.
E. 10°29' S.
12.24 N.
9.39
6.5
4.57
29.6
27.28
24.4
20.18
16.21
12.46
9.17
E. 4.34 N.
E. 27.39 S.
E. 20.7 S.
15.17
9.28

Distance.

236 miles.
192 „

237 „
227 „

225 „
232 „
251 „
241 „

226 „
212 „
206 „
199 „
192 „
189 „
151 „ •
163 „
181 „
225 „

The courses and distances are for the "middle" of the lanes.

530 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Besides the detour from the great circle which a vessel from New York,
Halifax, Boston, or Philadelphia, would necessarily make by following the
European lane to Cape Clear, it would require an additional detour of only
15 miles for vessels bound into the English Channel to use it also as far as
Cape Clear. This lane, therefore, will, in consequence of the favourable
currents of the Gulf Stream, put a vessel into Southampton quite as soon
as she could reach that port from New York or Philadelphia by the great
circle route. Vessels from Halifax will have to make the greatest detour of
any by adopting the lane to Europe; but for them it is less than 100 miles
out of their way as they now go, and it will prolong their average passage
eastwards, perhaps two or three hours. I say perhaps, because I am not
sure but that the steamers from Halifax and New England are set back by
the cold current 20 or 30 miles on the route now used for the eastern pas-
sage. The Gulf Stream, even from where they will join it by this lane,
will set them forward, on an average, 40 or 50 miles at the least. It seems,
therefore, that the attractions of this lane as it regards safety should more
than outweigh the probable loss of an hour or two during the passage.
When I speak of distances by the lanes, it should be recollected that the
middle of the lane is meant, as per table of courses and distances on pre-
vious page.

Thus it appears that one lane will practically shorten the distance from
Cape Clear to Sandy Hook and the Delaware by 30 miles, while the other
prolongs the distance going to Europe 75 miles ; which prolonged distance,
when measured not by safety, but in time alone, the Gulf Stream, better
weather, and diminished frequency of fogs, will more than compensate for.
In my judgment, these lanes, if properly followed, will make the average
length of passage, as determined by the mean of all for the year, probably
less each way, certainly not more than an hour or two longer than it now is.
Individual passages coming will, perhaps, not be made so quickly as they
have been, but, on the average, trips will be shortened.

Admiral FitzEoy also devoted some attention to this subject, and it is our
duty to allude to it here.

Another question appears to require notice in these pages, because it is
still a " moot point " with many persons interested in navigating the
Northern Atlantic. In a well-known publication, Maury particularly re-
commended " Lanes for steamers."

If steamers could always steer direct courses, being full-powered, and not
liable to be headed off in occasional heavy seas, such an arrangement might
be advantageous ; but as it is otherwise, and as screw (auxiliary or mixed)
ships sail while steaming, they cannot conveniently keep to prescribed
" lanes," however desirable it might otherwise seem.

However, as the traffic increases between Europe and America, some
special arrangement may be required, even more urgently than now ; in
which case it might perhaps be found practicable to consider an imaginary
line, from lat. 50° and long. 20° to the crossing of 45° N. and 55° W., the
"line of separation" northward of which should go all vessels bound to the
westward, and South of it all those heading to the eastward.

STEAM TRACKS TO AND FROM AMERICA. 531

A great safeguard would be legislative enactment against high speed
during fog, heavy rain, or snow : — authorizing a majority of passengers to
make objection; to inspect, note, and sign the log, before disembarking ;
and, by a quorum, to give subsequent evidence. — " Meteorological Papers,"
1858.

On former pages we have given some extracts from an essay by Herr
von W. von Freeden, Director of the Hamburg Meteorological Office, on the
"Winds, &c, along the Tracks of the North German Lloyd steamers. What
is given on pages 232 — 238 refers to the winds ; and, as an application of
that investigation, we give the following from the same work.

Normal Tracks for Steamers.

We append the tables given by Herr von Freeden, for the normal tracks
for each month of the year, with his remarks on the same.

It will be seen that the proposed tracks simply contain the latitude in
which every tenth meridian should be crossed in the various months, as well
as the true course and distance in nautical miles from one point of crossing
to the next. In all cases where the routes are variable, 330 miles have been
entered as the distance to be run, from the Needles to 10° W., and 183 miles
from 70° W. to Sandy Hook. Any slight difference which may have been
caused by crossing these meridians on other than the fixed latitudes of 50°
and 40|° N. has been considered to be of no importance.

( 532 )

MONTHLY Normal TRACKS for the North German Lloyd Steamers running between
the Lizard and New York.

Outward Tracks.

December.

January.

February.

The Ships

Lat. N.

.5 •
"J

Correct Course

Lat. N.

•5 ■

Correct Course.

Lat. N.

.S •

Correct- Course.

pass

From the

Needles.

■* '

o '

o >

10W. -

49 54

330

Variable.

49 54

330

Variable.

330

Variable.

20 „ -

49 48

383 S. 89 6 W.

50 6

3S7

N.88 14 W.

50 17

385

N. 87 28 W.

SO „ -

49 6

392, S. 83 51 W.

49 24

390

S. 83 49 W.

49 43

387

S. 84 58 W.

40 „

47 24

412 S. 75 41 W.

47 54

406

S. 77 13 W.

48 13

404

S. 77 8 W.

50 „

440 S. 70 52 W.

45 24

438

S. 69 59 W.

45 42

436

S. 69 45 W.

60 „

42 48

452! S. 73 1 W.

42 42

461

S. 69 26 W.

42 30

472

S. 65 58 W.

70 „

40 42

465! S. 74 17 W.

40 24

470

S. 72 55 W.

40 36

463

S. 75 45 W.

Sandy

Hook.

183

Variable.

Hook.

183

Variable.

Hook.

183

Variable.

March.

April.

May.

10 w. -

50 12

330! Variable.

49 54

330

Variable.

330

Variable.

20 „

50 30

383 N. 87 18 W.

49 40

387

S. 87 56 W.

49 48

385

S. 88 13 W.

30 „

385, S. 85 32 W.

49 4

392

S. 84 44 W.

48 50

396

S. 81 34 W.

40 „

48 20

405 S. 75 42 W.

47 36

408

S. 77 33 W.

46 50

420 S. 73 24 W.

50 „

422 S. 70 39 W.

44 42

451

S. 67 17 W.

43 42

462

S. 66 W.

60 „

42 20

483 S. 62 55 W.

42 30

454

S. 73 5 W.

42 30

444

S. 80 40 W.

70 „

40 48
Sandy

458 S. 78 25 W.

40 42
Sandy

462

S. 76 28 W.

40 36
Sandy

462

S. 75 44 W.

Hook.

183l

Variable.

Hook.

183

Variable.

Hook.

183

Variable.

June.

July

330|

50 20

385

49 45

3871

48 16

404,

45 42

437'

42 54

461

40 36

468

Sandy

Hook.

183 1

August.

10 w.

20 „

30 „
40 „
50 „
60 „
70 „

330|

50 24

385

49 24

391!

46 40

433

44 12

446

42 48

443

40 42

465

Sandy

Hook.

183

Variable.
N. 86 25 W.
N. 81 10 W.
S. 67 46 W.
S. 70 38 W.
S. 79 5 W.
S. 74 17 W.

Variable.

Variable.
N. 87 2L W.
S. 84 48 W.
S. 77 15 W.
S. 69 23 W.
S. 68 38 W.
S. 72 52 W.

Variable.

50
50 18
49 42
47 24
44 36
42 20
40 32
Sandy
Hook.

330 Variable.
385 N. 87 19 W.
387l S. 84 40 W.
42o| S. 70 50 W.
449 S. 68 3 W.
456 S. 72 39 W.
403 S. 76 30 W.

1831 Variable.

10W.

ifi „
20 „
25 „
30 „
35 „
40 „
45 „
50 „
15 „
60 „
65 „
70 „

September.

49 54

330

50 3

386

49 26

390

47 52

407

45 28

436

42 54

457

40 40
Sandy
Hook.

467
183

Variable.
N. 88 40 W.
S. 84 33 W.
S. 76 40 W.
S. 70 43 W.
S. 70 18 W.
S. 73 20 W.

Variable.

Jreat Circle from 50° X. 10° W.
to 44° N. and 55° W.

330

50 16

193

50 17*

182

50 16

193

49 43

190

49 5

199

48 13

205

47 6

213

45 42

223

230

42 54

231

41 48

231

40 42f

231

Sandy

Hook.

18?

Var
N. 85

tf. 89
S. 89
S. 80
S. 79
S. 75
S. 71
S. 67
S. 64
S. 73
S. 73
S. 73

iable.
10 W.
40 W.
44 W.

2 W.

8 W.

19 W.
36 W.
57 W.

20 W.
25 W.
25 W.
25 W.

Vat table.

49 48

330

49 38

390

48 56

394

47 15

413

44 38

446

41 50

468

40 30
Sandy
Hook.

458
183

Variable.
S. 88 32 W.
S. 83 52 W.
S. 75 51 W.
S. 69 22 W.
S. 68 58 W-
S. 79 57 W.

Variable.

•Vertex in 60» b i.v, aau 18* *S \\.

In 68* W.

( 533 )

MoXTITLY NORMAL TRACKS for the North German Lloyd Steamers running between
the Lizard and New York.

Homeward Tracks.

,g .

Lat. N.

fl^

40 42

183

468

46 6

466

48 32

432

402

50 30

385

The

Needles.

330

1. :3 Correct Course.

Variable.
N. 72 E.
N. 66 30 £.
N. 70 15 E.
N. 77 20 E.
N. 85 32 E.
S. 85 32 E.

Variable.

January.

Lat. N.

40 30

41 50
44,
46 48
49
49 48
49 48
The

Needles.

183
459
458
453
423
394
387

330

Correct Course

Variable.
N. 79 57 E.
N. 73 31 E.
N. 68 15 E.
N. 71 50 E.
N. 83 E.
East.

Variable.

February.

.5 •

Lat. N,

(5 s

o '

40 30

183

41 48

458

44 36

468

47 18

451

413

49 36

393

49 40

387

The

Needles.

330

Correct Courw.

Variable.
N. 80 12 E.
N. 68 59 K.
N. 68 56 E.
N. 75 42 E.
N. 84 45 E.
N. 89 25 E.

Variable.

April.

May.

The

Needles.

183 Variable.

440 N. 82 58 E.

457 N.
449 N.
463^ N.
397 N.
385

330

76 3". E.
73 19 E.
61 48 E.
78 57 E.
88 31 E.

Variable.

40 30

183

41 24

456

43 6

456

45 54

460

48 12

431

49 6

400

49 36

365

The

Needles.

330

Variable.
N. 83 12 E.
N. 77 4E.
N. 68 34 E.
N. 71 21 E.
N. 82 15 E.
N. 85 36 E.

Variable.

40 30

183

41 36

457

42 30

449

45 24

•465|

47 48

437

49 24

408j

49 48

390

The

Needles.

330 1

Variabl .

N. 81 42 E.

N. 83 6 E.

N. 68 3 E.

N. 70 45 E.

N. 76 24 E.

N. 86 28 E.

Variable.

July.

The

Needlps.

1«3
457
450
475
434
398
387,

Variable.
N. 81 42 E.
N. 81 34 E.
N. 64 32 E.
N. 69 14 E.
N. 80 9 E.
East.

330 Variable.

40 36

183

459

43 48

452

46 48

459

423

49 54

394

.49 54

386,

The

Needles.

3301

Variable.
N. 79 VI E.
N. 76 11 E.
N. 66 54 E.
N. 71 50 E.
N. 82 7 E.
East.

Variable.

40 32

183

41 34

45;

43 15

454

46-24

466

49 15

436

49 54

391

49 50

381

The

Needles.

330

Variable.
N. 82 12 E.
N. 77 9 E.
N. 66 3 E.
N. 66 59 E.
N. 8 4 16 E.
S. 89 24 E.

Vaiiable.

September.

October.

45 ■

Needles.

Gieat circle from 41° N. 65° YV.
to 49° 50' N. and 40 J W.

183 Variable.

461
451
449
426
399
388
330

N. 77 58 E.
N. 76 40 E.
N. 70 30 E.
N. 72 14 E.
N. 81 20 E.
N. 87 47 E.
Variable.

40 30

183

229

43 12

259

45 3

242

46 34

228

47 49

217

48 47

208

49 31

201

50 1

196

50 18

194

50 21*

1S8

50 12

192

49 50

194

The

Needles.

330

Variable.

N. 82 29 E.

N. 59 23 E.

N. 62 46 E.

N. 66 19 E.

N. 69 58 E.

N. 73 38 E.

N. 77 24 E.

N. 81 12 E.

N. 85 5 E.

N. 88 52 E.

S. 87 15 E.

S. 83 25 E.

Variable.

30.

183

470

462

439

401

388

385

The

Needles.

330

Variable.
N. 72 39 E.
N. 68 25 E.
N. 68 3S E.
N. 78 30 E.
K 84 5 E.
S. 87 1 E.

Variable.

* Voitex in 50° 21' 7" N. ; 21° 3' 8" W.

\N. A. O.

( 534 )

11.— EOUTES BETWEEN NORTHERN EUROPE AND THE
UNITED STATES.

^et your offing, and proceed as though, you were bound to Rio, until you
get into the N.E. trades. Then steer West until you fall in with the track
of homeward-bound Rio traders, and then take that.

Shipmasters, bound as above, should study the trade- wind chart carefully,
in order to ascertain the extreme northern parallel near which they may rely
upon finding the N.E. trades. The limits of these for the month should
then be marked on the chart for every-day reference and use. Having
reached the mean polar limits for the month, it will, as a rule, be wise to go
2° or 3° farther South, in order to be sure of a good time in " running
down the trades."

Having reached the parallel of 30°, between 20° and 25° W., the best
course is still a little to the West of South, until the parallel of 20° N. be
reached. Do not care to make more than 5° of westing between these two
parallels. From 30° N. to 20° N. by this route, the average time will be
six days in fall and winter ; five in spring and summer ; thus putting you
fairly within the trades in eighteen days, on the average, from the Channel.
It will be less from Lisbon, the ports of Spain, and Gibraltar.

Now, suppose you enter the trades at a mean between the meridians of
25° and 30° near the parallel of 20° ; you should then " run them down " on
that parallel to 60° W. It will take two weeks to do this ; total, so far,
from the Channel, 32 days. Arrived here, you are in the fairway of home-
ward-bound Indiamen and Rio traders ; and from this point every navi-
gator knows the way to his port. If it be on the Atlantic, South of the
Chesapeake, 10 days, on the average, will put him into it — total, 42 days
from the chops of the channel, and from Liverpool a day or two more,
from Spain and Portugal a day or two less, to our Atlantic ports. By this
route Savannah is brought nearer than Charleston ; and Fernandina, made
for the voyage from Europe, our nearest southern port. If, on the contrary,
he be bound into the Gulf, it will take him 15 days, from the homeward-
bound Rio track to put him into New Orleans or Mobile — total to Gulf ports
47 days. These times are for ordinary sailers. A smart ship, with a smart
captain, will always make the run in less time.

This is a mere general sketch of the average route. Clever navigators
will know from the charts how to vary it according to the season, and smari;
ships will gain upon the time, especially in reaching and " running down
the trades."

The sketch supposes the ship to enter the trades near the intersection of
the meridian of 25° with the parallel of 20° N. There is no particular ad-
vantage in entering the trades either on that meridian or upon that parallel,
or of entering them at all, if you happen to find good winds before you get
to the trades.

Thus, suppose a vessel to be off the Lizard, bound to Charleston, and that
she have a 7 or 8 knot breeze that will enable her to lay up direct for port ;
why should she, as long as that wind lasts, run out of her way to find one
that will not enable her to do any better ? On the contrary, let her take ad-

BETWEEN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES. 535

vantage of it to make westing as fast as possible, and when it grows lighter
or becomes adverse, as it will, then let her master stick her away South in
search of a better wind.

By doing this, the voyage, as I have sketched it, may be considerably
shortened. The trade-wind chart will show the navigator exactly how far
South he ought to go to look for the trades in each month. A reference to
this, with the injunction to make the most of a good wind wherever he finds
it, seems to be almost the only sailing directions that are required for the
ports above named, especially in winter and spring.

In the fall of 1856, Capt. Macloon, of the Georgia, asked to have pointed
out to him a better route from Liverpool to Savannah, stating that he had
tried three, and had had by them two passages of 60 days each, and one of
54. The reply was, in substance : —

" You ask for a new way to come from Liverpool to Savannah. I have
often thought that if I were in that trade, considering the passage is a long
and tedious one, I should try it on the trades ; that is, when you come out
of Liverpool, proceed as if you were going to cross the Line (for which you
will find sailing directions at page 460 et seq of this work). Aim to cross the
parallel of 30° N. in about 25° W., and then steer S.W. till you get well
into the trades, even if you have to go as far as the parallel of 20° N. Now
steer West till you get about the meridian of 60°, and then haul up for your
port. If you have a smart ship, and will try this passage next November,
you will make something like this run : From Liverpool to the parallel of
30° N., 14 days; thence into the trades, say 22° — 20°, 5 days ; thence to the
meridian of 60°, 10 days ; thence to Savannah, 7 days ; total, 36 days.

" Within that time this passage can be made by this route ; but as I sup-
pose the Georgia is not a clipper, I will give you a week longer, or 43 days ;
and if you do not make it in that time, I shall be disappointed.

" M. F. Mauey."

From June to October, inclusive, there is not much choice of routes. On
the one hand the N.E. trades are uncertain at that season of the year — the
hurricane season ; while to the North calms are most prevalent, and gales
less frequent. During these months therefore, the best route is the straight
course, for the Atlantic ports especially, taking advantage of the winds as
they present themselves, for they are too unstable for one to go either to the
North or South to look for them.

At this season of the year the calm belt of Cancer is far North, and vessels
that attempt to make westing between 28° and 34°, will find the winds more
baffling than they will either to the North or the South of those parallels.
I caution navigators to avoid the belt between these parallels as much as*
possible ; and when they have to cross it, I advise them to cross it nearly on
a meridian. The trade-wind chart shows the position of this calm belt for
each month.

Transient vessels, bound into Philadelphia and New York, would find the
Bouthern route, in the winter months, the most desirable on account of the
weather, but the passage by it would, at- that the most favourable season

536 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

for it, be prolonged about a week on the average. The mistake that has
been generally made by vessels taking the southern route is in their not
going far enough South to get well into the trades. The trade wind chart
will leave no one in doubt upon that point, and no vessel attempting the
southern route should think of steering Nt>rth, whatever be her port, until
phe falls into the great track followed by the homeward-bound vessels from
the other hemisphere. They cross 25° N. in about 6.5° W.

Dull-sailing passenger ships from the North of Europe would do well,
especially from December to March, inclusive, by taking the southern route,
even though they be bound to New York. If they cannot gain time by this
route, they will gain at least smooth water and pleasant weather until they
reach the offings of our own coasts.

In summer, the great circle route is the best to all the Atlantic ports.
Even for the Gulf ports and Cuba the route in summer time should be de-
cided upon according to the wind one meets with while gaining an offing
from Europe, rather than by considerations growing out of any fancied pre-
ference as to winds by the way. If they be such as to force you to the
South, make as much westing as you can before crossing the parallel of 38°.
Having crossed that parallel, it is then advisable to-go South in search of
the N.E. trades to carry you into the Gulf.

The reason why the North or great circle route is recommended to vessels
bound into any of the Atlantic ports during the summer and fall months,
from May to October, inclusive; the reason why no preference is given to
the southern route over the great circle during that period, even for gulf-
bound vessels ; and the reason why such decided preference is given to the
southern route, from December to March, may be gathered from a little
reflection as to the course of the trade winds and a careful consideration.

From December to March gales of wind are most frequent along the
northern route. These are mostly from the westward. This circumstance,
therefore, is against the great circle route in the winter time. But from
May to October the case is different. The gales along the great circle are
much less prevalent.

On the other hand, the trade winds being a flow of air from colder to
warmer latitudes, the difference of the temperature between the calms of
Cancer, from which, and the calm belt of the Equator, into which the trade
winds flow, is greater in the winter than in the summer time; consequently
the more rapid, constant, and steady in the winter flow.

In* the summer, however, the air in the calm belt of Cancer, though it be
as far North as 35°, attains as high a temperature, especially on the conti-
nents of Africa and America, as it does in the belt of equatorial calms.
Then why should not the air flow towards those continental heated places
as well as to the Equator ? It does ; and thus the trade winds are fre-
quently broken up in the summer time, and therefore they cannot be relied
on as in winter. There is another reason why the winter trades should be
fresher, more steady, and constant than the summer trades, and it is this :
In the winter time the calm belt of Cancer, out of which the trade winds
flow, is some 500 or 600 miles nearer than it is in the summer time to the
equatorial calm belt into which the trade winds blow — the places of hi<rh
and low barometer are then closer to each other; and no one engaged in

FROM THE UNITED STATES TO THE EQUATOR. 537

the business of commerce need be told that the closer the places of demand
and supply be together the more certain and steady will be the supply.

And there is also another reason why the southern route, even by the gulf-
bound ships, should be abandoned, and why the great circle route should be
preferred in the summer time, -which is this: — From July to October the
hurricane season rages, in the West Indies, while from June to October the
gale charts show the great circle route to be the least stormy.

The remarks about the southern route, for vessels bound in winter as far
North as the Chesapeake and New York, are intended especially for the pas-
senger ships from Bremen, Hamburg, and other ports in the North of
Europe, and they are earnestly commended to the attention of the masters
of such ships. — 2Iaury.

12.— FROM THE UNITED STATES TO THE EQUATOR.

In a previous section (pp. 460 — 484) the passage from Europe to southern
latitudes was discussed, and it was there shown that a more westerly crossing
than has heretofore been usual has been attended with great advantage. To
those pages we therefore refer the reader, for the arguments which equally
apply to the voyage from the western side of the Atlantic.

One of the great results of Captain Maury's inquiries was the im-
provement of this route ; and before such a mass of evidence had been col-
lected he recommended the great circle route to the longitude of 31° West
on the Equator, as has been alluded to on page 478. This route, consi-
dered in connection with the direction of the winds and currents, is that
which would naturally be chosen, if the crossing in that longitude would
be considered to be a safe one to guard against being drifted to leeward of
Cape f?t. Roque. Later experience has shown this fear to be fallaceous in
a great measure, and that it seldom occurs that vessels get into difficulties
here.

Capt. Maury devotes 220 pages of closely printed matter to this question ;
but, as his results will answer our purpose as well, we will briefly select the
prominent points elicited : —

Off St. Roque, in Brasil, the tracks of all vessels bound out of the North
Atlantic Ocean into the southern hemisphere fall in with each other. This
is the great passway between the North Atlantic and the other great oceans
of the world. Here the tracks of vessels, both from Europe and America,
come together, whether their destination be around either Cape Horn or
the Cape of G-ood Hope. Passing the offings of this great promontory of
Brasil, the highway then forks. All vessels for India, China, or Australia,
hugging the wind, turn off to the East; those that are bound around Cape
Horn keep strait on ; while those that are bound to the La Plata, to Rio,
or any of the South American ports, being restricted in their courses by the
winds on one hand and the land on the other, make the best of their way
South, and turn off to the right as they reach the proper parallel. For
these last, no further sailing directions are required after passing St. Roque.
Their way is plain.

538

PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

The following Time Table, by the new route, the old, and the middle, is
derived from the logs of 1,160 voyages, and it therefore may be held to em-
body the experience of 1,160 navigators touching the best route hence to
the " fairway of St. Roque." The meaning of this table is so plain that
analysis and discussion can add but little to the force of its own silent story.
This table shows, for each month, the average time from port to 30° N. ;
the place of crossing that parallel, and the time thence to the Equator, and
the place of crossing it, also by each of the three routes. It shows, also,
the distance from 30° N. to the Equator, and the average number of miles
" made good" daily for so much of each route as is included between these
parallels.

Time Table by the Different Routes.

LONG. OF

CROSSING —

DAYS

FROM —

Distance from

30° N.

Line.

Port to

30° N.

30° N.
to Line.

30° N

. to Line.

Longitude.

Dags.

Total

Average

miles.

per dag.

December..

. . Old Route

32 2 W.

25-5 W.

1 18-9

20-4

1835

jqual 89

Middle „

366

291

12 5

20-5

1860

,9 90

New „

447

3i-5

10-8

15-0

1965

» 131

Old

34*3

24-4

171

• 174

' 18->5

„ 108

Middle „

34 - 5

281

162

14-9

1830

„ 125

New „

43'2

3°-

109

143

1960

„ 137

February .

..Old „

2 9"5

22'6

16-6

23-2

1835

Middle „

35"i

25 -6

15-7

146

1870

„ 128

New „

4 2- 5

3°' 2

11-8

14-3

1940

„ 135

Old „

31-2
33"

237
28-2

16-4
14-2

20-9
17-2

1860
1820

99 89

Middle „

99 106

New ,,

42 \S

29-

11-5

16-3

1970

„ 121

Old

3 2 4

25-6

17-2

18-1

1835

„ 101

Middle „

33 2

28-1

16-7

17-2

1825

„ 106

New „

40-6

29-9

13-7

15-8

1910

„ 121

Old

33"

24-

22-8

19-4

1885

„ 86

Mi-Idle „

3 6 "4

29- 1

195

20-2

1855

„ 92

New „

41*2

3 1 "

12-9

16-5

1890

„ 114

Old ' „

32-7
39'5

26-4
282

21-1
176

23-6
21-4

1830
1920

,9 71

Middle „

„ 90

New „

43 5

307

13 8

21.2

1945

„ 92

..Old „

316

242

246

20-3

1850

„ 91

Middle „

42*1

277

15-1

24-4

1990

„ 82

New „

45 '2

3°\5

13-

20-5

2000

„ 97

..Old „

316

25 "3

22-

1830

„ 83

Middle „

41-4

267

16-

22-2

2000

„ 90

• 9

New „

45'7

3°'4

14-2

24-4

2010

„ 82

September . .

. . Old

33-8

25-2

19-3

23-0

1867

„ 81

Middle „

3»-8

29-

16 8

25-6

1880

„ 73

New ,,

4i'7

3!'5

158

16-4

1890

„ 115

Old „

28-9
33*

267
2 9"5

19-
16-

20-7
20-

1810
1815

Middle „

99 90

New ,,

43*

3'7

12-6

21-9

1930

„ 88

November . ,

..Old „

32-

258

177

18-9

1830

„ 97

Mi-Idle „

34 - 4

289

20-2

18-8

1825

New ,,

42"5

3°7

11-8

187

1940

„ 104

FEOM THE UNITED STATES TO THE EQUATOR. 539

The daily distances give to the navigator practically the best idea possible
as to the difference in the winds by these several routes as they cross the
N.E. trade wind belt, supposing that belt to lie all the year round between
the Equator and the parallel of 30° N. Thus, in some months, as in Octo-
ber, for instance, there appears to be practically no difference in the winds,
the average rate of sailing being 87 miles per day by the old route, 88 by
the new, and 90 by the middle— a difference purely accidental, for the N.E.
trades are, at this season, pretty nearly broken up. The gain by the new
route, for this month, is not in crossing the trade wind belt, but in reaching
it. It takes, from our Atlantic ports, 12*6 days to reach it by the new route,
19 by the old, and 16 by the middle; and having crossed 30° N., the trade
winds thence to the Equator, at this season, are the same for all routes.
Not so at other seasons.

From 30° N. to the line, the average distance sailed daily during the
winter months is 92 miles by the old route against 134 by the new. To
what is this difference owing? Are the ships that take the new route the
faster ? That can hardly be. They are better navigated I have no doubt,
for, as a rule, the log-books show that. But still that is not sufficient to
account for all this difference. In winter, a ship that takes the new route
from 30° to the line will go nearly as far, on the average, in one day as she .
could go in a day and a half by the old route. This is owing, in a great
measure, to the fact that the new route lies through a region of the ocean
where the breezes are brisk, and brisk breezes always help to make both
officers and crew brisk. This great difference of time and speed is proLably
o.ving to this circumstance more than to any other.

SECTION IV.

PARTICULAR DESCRIPTIONS OP THE COASTS AND ISLANDS
OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC ; WITH DIRECTIONS FOR SAIL-
ING AMONG THE ATLANTIC ISLES.

0^ The Bearings and Courses are those by Compass, unless where otherwise
expressed ; bat those given thus [ W.S. TT.] signify the True ; and the given direc-
tion of Wind, Tide, and Current is to be considered as the True.

1.— ENGLAND, IRELAND, FRANCE, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.

It would be beyond the limits and scope of the present work to enter into
the minute description and directions for the extensive line of coast of north-
western Europe, as would be sufficient guide to the mariner ; such details
must be sought for in the special Sailing Directions which accompany each
chart, and where all necessary instructions are given.

This book being specially concerned with the general navigation and phe-
nomena of the ocean, only those more prominent features sought for in an
over-sea voyage in the more frequented coasts, or those which may not be
given in any other of our publications are here alluded to. The lighthouses
are amply described in the lists in the preceding part of the volume.

THE ENGLISH CHANNEL is amply described in our Sailing Directions
for the same, and on pages 448 to 452, ante, are given some useful remarks
as to its general navigation, with which most sailors are well acquainted. In
passing from the Strait of Dover westward, the first place where shelter may
be found on the English coast is Dungeness Bay.

Dungeness lies 20 miles W.S.W. £ W. from the South Foreland, and 13
miles S.W. by W. f W. from Folkestone. It forms a remarkable shingle
point, projecting in a S.S.E. direction 4 miles beyond the fair line of the
coast, affording shelter in the East Bay from North round westerly to East,
or for nineteen points of the compass. If there is any southing of East in
the wind there is no shelter in either bay. The bottom in both bays is fine
sand over clay and mud, and excellent holding gi'ound throughout.

On Dungeness two lights are shown, a second light at the extremity of the
point having been found necessary on account of the rapid increase of the

•

SOUTH COAST OF ENGLAND. 541

shingle. This outer light is S.S.E. £ E., 225 yards from the main light-
house, and shows a bright flash every 5 seconds. The main lighthouse is
painted in red and white bands, and shows a fixed light elevated 92 feet,
bright to seaward and red over the anchorages, in the West Bay from West
to the land, and in the East Bay from N.E. by E. | E. to the land. A
fog-horn is sounded, two blasts in quick succession, once in every two
minutes in foggy weather.

To the W. £ S., distant Z\ miles from Dungeness lighthouse, lies the
eastern end of a narrow ridge of sand, called Stephenson Shoal ; it thence
extends for nearly three-quarters of a mile in the same direction, and carries
a depth of from 19 to 23 feet water, with 4 or 5 fathoms around it. The
South Foreland and Dungeness Lights in one, lead three-quarters of a mile
to the southward.

The West Road of Dungeness is that space between the first building to
the westward of the lighthouse, and the black coastguard buildings at
Jewrys Gap. It affords good shelter against north-easterly winds with the
wind as far to the southward as E. by S., and is much frequented by vessels
bound to the northward. The best anchorage, in about G fathoms, is with
Eomney Church tower in one with Lydd Church, and Dungeness Lighthouse
E. i S. Smaller vessels may run further in towards the beach, guarding
always against a sudden shift of wind. The western tide runs easy, and
affords a good slack for running or working in.

East Road affords good shelter to vessels of all classes in from 4 to 12
fathoms, upon pretty good holding ground with the wind between N. by E.
and S.W. The best position for anchoring is, Lydd Church, just open to the
northward of No. 2 Battery, and the lighthouse bearing S.W. by W. 3 W.
7 fathoms water.

Pilots.— The pilot cutters, with London pilots on board, cruising between
Dungeness and Dover, show at night two flame lights in quick succession
every 15 minutes.

The Royal Sovereign Shoals are a number of rocky banks which lie
directly in the track of vessels proceeding between Dungeness and Beachy
Head. The principal names to them are, the Eoyal Sovereign, Horse of
Willingdon, Elphick Tree, Eattan Shoal, Kinsman Nab, Long Shoal, and
Southern Head. The Royal Sovereign, by far the most formidable of this
group, has only 9 feet water on it, and, being 6£ miles from the uoint, it is
very dangerous. It bears E.S.E. just 8 miles from the Beachy Head light-
house; S.S.E. h E., A\ miles from Langley Point; and S.E. by S. 2 miles
from the Horse of Willingdon.

The Light-vessel marking the outer side of these shoals was placed in
position in the year 1875. She is moored in 12 fathoms water, with Light-
house Cliff just open of Beachy Head, N.W. by W. £ W.; Eoyal Sovereign
buoy North (westerly) distant 2 miles and Dungeness E. by N. 23-J miles.
She carries a gong for foggy weather, and a gun to warn vessels standing
into danger.

Seaford Cliff, kept in sight to the southward of the pitch of Beachy Head,
will load at least 2 miles to the southward of the Eoyal Sovereign Shoals.
Beachy Head light, kept open of the next eastern cliff, also leads outsido all

N. A. 0. 4 A

542 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

the shoals. Fairlight Mill, in a line with the N.W. part of the cliff east-
ward of Hastings, leads to the eastward of them.

From Beachy Head to the S.E. part or Elbow of the Owers (the light-
vessel), the bearing and distance are W. by N. \ N. 12 leagues ; and to St.
Catherine's Point, on the same bearing, the distance is 20 leagues. From
Beachy Head to Selsea Bill, the coast trends in a curve ; but the direct
bearing and distance are W.N.W., 13£ leagues.

Seafonl Road. — Between Shoi*eham and Beachy Head the depths very
gradually decrease from the offing towards the land, and vessels may anchor
all along the coast with off-shore winds in from 2 to 9 fathoms water ; but
the anchorage of most general resort is that in Seaford Eoad, which lies
between the tide mill which stands to the eastward of Newhaven and the
Martello Tower near the beach at Seaford. The best anchorage in the road
is between the tower and Blatchington Battery, with Beachy Head Light-
house just shut in by the cliffs, over a bottom of sand, shells, and mud. At
this anchorage Beachy Head Cliffs will afford shelter with the wind as far
southerly as E.S.E., and it is therefore superior to the western Bay
of Dungeness. Seaford Head is often mistaken for Beachy Head by
vessels coming up channel within 4 or 5 miles of the land ; they may how-
ever be distinguished by there being a small building (the coastguard
houses) on the highest part of Beachy Head, whereas there is nothing on
the former but a conspicuous large green patch on the face of it.

At 9 miles westward of Seaford Eoads is the town of Brighton, the lights
of which are conspicuous at night, and at 8 or 9 miles beyond this is Worth-
ing, another watering place. The coast is generally very low.

At 5 miles to the N.N.E. of Worthing is Chanctonberry ring, a large
circular thick grove of trees 964 feet above the sea, and frequently the
first object seen on making the land. A reference to this object would often
assist the mariner when all other objects are too low or indistinct to be
observe d.

At 13 miles beyond Worthing is Selsea Bill, off which runs the line of
shoals marked at its S.E. point by the Owers Lightvessel, showing a
revolving light. These shoals are described in the Directions for the
Channel.

SPITHEAD. — The limits of the best anchorage at Spithead are Southsea
Castle N.E. to E. by N., and Gilkicker Point N.N.W. to N.W. A good
berth for large ships is with Southsea Castle Lighthouse on with the North
end of the Spit Fort N.E. by E. £ E., and Kickergill Tower on with a red
and white mark on the western end of Monkton Barracks N. by W. £ W.
in from 10 to 12 fathoms water; but small vessels may berth themselves
nearer to the Spit sand, in about 7 fathoms, care being taken not to open
Kickergill Tower from the East end of the barracks. Vessel moored should
have open hawse to the southward. The torpedo ground near No-mans-land
Fort, and also that near Gilkicker Point is marked by green and white buoys.
Tho space marked off by these buoys is to be avoided.

The entrance by tho Needles Channel will be found in our Directions.
They require too much space to be described here.

In the southern part of Poole Bay the ground is clear, and there is an
open anchorage in 6 or 7 fathoms water, over sand and gravel, with

SOUTH COAST OF ENGLAND. 543

Studland Church bearing West 1£ miles. In the northern part of the bay,
however, are several patches of dangerous rocks, with 6 and 7 fathoms
between them.

PORTLAND.— The Roads of Portland lie between Weymouth and the
Portland Breakwater, which abuts on to the N.E. point of the island, and
runs offshore in a direct line East, by compass, for 3,500 feet; but at tho
distance of 2,000 feet from the shore is an opening of 400 feet wide,
between two circular heads of masonry. From the eastern end it curves
round to a true North direction for 5,600 feet, making the total length of the
breakwater 3,000 yards, or nearly 1J miles. Its outer extremity is in
8 or 9 fathoms water, and the depth of 4 fathoms will be found 1 J miles
within the pier.

A circular fort forms the end of the breakwater, and on this is shown a
fixed reel light, which is however not visible to the southward between
S.S.W. and W. by S. £ S., being obscured by Portland peninsula. It is
also obscured to the westward by the Chesil Bank, to an observer 15 feet
above the sea when he is within 2 or 2i miles of it, and tho light bearing
botween E. by N. \ N. and E.S.E. A bell is sounded at the lighthouse in
foggy weather. Vessels, in passing, should keep not less than a cable's
length eastward of the light.

The Bill, or southernmost point of Portland, lies W. by N." 5 leagues
from St- Alban's Head, and about 3J miles to the southward of the North
point of the isle. It has a white obelisk on its extremity, and half a milo
within it are two white lighthouses.

At Night the leading mark between the Shambles and the Bill is the two
bright fixed lights or Portland Bill in one, N.W. by N., until tho fixed red
light on the breakwater bears N. by E. f E., when steer for it, taking care
to keep a safe offing when approaching Grove" point, and a prudent distance
when passing the breakwater. During the eastern stream the higher light
should be kept open to the westward of the lower one, as that stream sets
with great velocity over the Shambles ; and as the western stream sets as .
strongly into the Pace, similar precautionary measures should be taken not
to be set to the westward.

Shambles.— The eastern end of the Shambles, adangerou8 shoal, of coarse
shingle, sand, and shells, bears from St. Alban's Head, W. \ N. \\h miles,
and from the Bill of Portland E.S.E. 4£ miles. The bank extends thenco
W. £ N. 2 miles, and the West end lies with the Bill of Portland N.W. h
W. 2 J miles. It is steep all round, having 14 fathoms close to it; but always
shows itself by a break or ripple. On its East and West ends are from 6 to 7
fathoms ; but, near the middle, are only 11 feet at low water. The shoal, in
fine weather, is always distinguishable by the rippling. The tide rises over
it about 10 feet perpendicular. Its eastern end is marked by. a lightvcssel,
on which is a powerful fog trumpet.

TORBAY. — The entrance into the bay, formed by Hob's Noso and Berry
Head, is 3| miles wide, and the ground within is generally clear and good.

In sailing in, you may, if necessary, keep close either to Berry Head or
the Orestone. To sail between tho Orestone and Loadstone, keep nearly
in mid-channel, taking care not to approach too near the West side of
the Orestone, as the water is shoal for half ti cable's length from tho rock

544 DESCRIPTIONS OP THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

on that side. To the S.W. by S , a little more than a cable's length
from the Orestone, there is a sunken reck, with only 6 or 8 feet over it at
low water.

Ships may anchor in Torbay in 6, 7, 8, and 9 fathoms ; the ground is
strong clay and remarkably good. The common marks for anchoring are,
Berry Head South, S. by E., or S.S.E., and Brixham Church on with the
pier-head. The best ground is about a mile from Brixham pier-head, in 7
fathoms of water ; but ships may ride, well sheltered on the North side. A
great swell is forced into the bay by easterly winds , but, about 1£ miles
from Brixham pier-head, there is an underset to windward, by means of
which ships ride easier than in other parts of the bay. In general, the
deeper that you anchor in the bay, the better will be the riding, being more
out of the stream. From the middle of the bay, in 7 fathoms, Berry Head
bears S.S.E., and the Orestone E.N.E. Small vessels commonly lie aground
at Brixham, on the South side, and at Torquay, on the North side, of
the bay.

DARTMOUTH.— The entrance to Dartmouth Harbour lies nearly 5 miles
from Berry Head, and about 7 miles to the N.E. of the Start Point. It is
situated between two high lands, within which is an excellent harbour,
sufficiently capacious to contain 300 sail of vessels, secure from all winds, in
from 7 to 15 fathoms.

On the eastern side the Mewstone and the Outer and Inner Froward
Points are outermost, within is Kingswear Castle, lately re-edified. A con-
spicuous octagonal granite beacon, 80 feet high, stands on the high land at the
back of the Mewstone, elevated 500 feet above the sea, and bears from the
Mewstone N. by W. £ W., 6 cables distant.

On the eastern side within the Mewstone, above alluded to, are the Vertical
Rocks, so named from their high, upright sides, running parallel with the
shore for a quarter of a mile to westward of it. The water is deep close to
them. Beyond these are the West Rocks, dry at very low tides ; the Castle
Ledge, marked by a black buoy, 100 yards outside it, has only 8 feet over it.
Battery and Kingswear Points touching N. by W. J W., lead to the east-
ward of it, up to Castle Point. Beacon Hill in one with Kingswear Castle,
and outside Inner Froward Point N.N.W. leads clear inside Old Castle
Pock. The Mewstone, the Shooter, the Bear's Tail, Castle Ledge, and the
Blackstone, on the western side of the entrance, all lie in one line.

The Pin Rock, a formidable rock of 13 feet, one-third of a mile East of the
Homestone, was blasted away in June, 1865, and now lies with 5 fathoms
water over it.

Ships coming in from sea, if obliged to wait for an opportunity of enter-
ing, generally anchor without, in the part called the Range, which has a
depth of from 7 to 10 fathoms. Here they lie safely when the wind does
not blow in ; and when it does, it will lead into the harbour. From S.W.
to E.S.E., the wind blows true in, and from N.W. to N.E. true out: all
other winds blow in flaws. Pilots are always ready ; a signal may, there-
fore, be hoistod for one when approaching tho Range. A steam-tug is also
established, and will always be ready.

The fairway mark leading up to Battery Point is the flagstafl of Dart-

SOUTH COAST OF ENGLAND. 545

mouth Castle in one with Sir Henry Seale's house on Mount Boone, or
Battery and Kingswear Points touching N. by W. £ W.

The Kingswear Lighthouse shows a fixed light, white in the fairway, green on
the West side of the fairway, and red on the East. Above the entrance and
up to the town is also marked by a light showing white in the fairway.

To sail in for Dartmouth from the eastward, with a leading wind, from off
the Mewstone, steer for Combe Point, until you bring Kingswear Point on
with Dartmouth Castle ; thence, by steering with this mark on, you will
clear the eastern ledge. When nearly abreast of the Blackstone, and having
left the black buoy off the Castle Ledge on the starboard side, keep the castle
open on the port bow, until the southernmost house in Kingswear is open of
Dartmouth Castle Point. This mark leads clear of the C'heckstone, marked
by a chequered black and white buoy, whence you may run in and anchor.

To sail in from the westward, with a leading wind, give a good berth to the
Combe Rocks, which lie off the shore on the West side ; the outer Combe dries
at half ebb, and has deep water all round ; then steer to the eastward, until
Kingswear Castle is open to the eastward of the Blackstone. This mark
kept on will carry you clear of the Homestone, which has a black and white
horizontally striped buoy in 7 fathoms, half a cable S.E. of it, and S.W. by
W. h W. 5-£ cables from the Castle Ledge buoy. With Stoke Church shut
in, you will have passed the Homestone, and may steer for the Blackstone.
Having passed the latter, keep Dartmouth Castle on the port bow, and pro-
ceed as above.

For sailing ships, great inconvenience attends the ingress to, and egress
from, Dartmouth Harbour, in consequence of the frequent and violent flaws
of wind, which issue very suddenly from the high lands. Therefore, no
square-rigged vessel should attempt to enter or leave the harbour without a
leading wind. Between S.W. by S. and S.E. by.E. the winds blow truly in,
and as truly out when between N.W. by N. and N.E. Even cutters cannot
always succeed in getting to sea with S.W. winds. These remarks of course
do not affect steamers.

Start Point may be well known from its rugged cock's-comb-like appear-
ance; the hillocks on its side within the lighthouse are five in number, each
about 200 ft. in height. Peartree Head, within the point, rises to 386 ft.

There are no dangers in the vicinity of its projecting points to the South
and S.W. except the Pear Tree, the Start, and Cherrick Rocks ; the latter
lies S. | W. upwards of 2 cable's lengths from the point, and is just awash
at low water springs. A sunken rock, with Dnly 12 ft. water over it, also
lies at the same distance due East from the lighthouse ; to avoid it a vessel
should not shut in the village of Hall Sands with the Start Point, until the
Pear Tree Rocks open out to the southward of the Start Rocks, when, by
giving the latter a berth of about 2 cables' lengths, she may proceed to the
westwai'd.

A Lighthouse stands upon the Start at 140 yards from its extreme point ; it
is a stone tower 110 ft. high, exhibiting a powerful revolving light, at an
elevation of 204 ft. above high water, and showing a bright flash every
minute to seaward, till it comes to the bearing of West, on which it is
eclipsed, and may be seen in clear weather at the distance of 20 miles. A
fxed light is also shown in the same tower, 192 ft above high water, in

54G DESCRIPTIONS OP THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

the direction of Berry Head, visible only when tho Start Point bears W. £ S.
and S.W. by 8., to guide vessels to Dartmouth and the Berry Head.

To tho north-eastward of the Start lies a dangerous bank of pulverised
shell and fino gravel, called the Skerries.

To avoid the Skerries at night, a vessel should not approach them within
20 fathoms water ; and in coming from tho northward, if wishing to run to
tho westward of them, sho should keep the fixed light on a S.W. £ S. bear-
ing, and pass the Start at a distance of a quarter of a mile on its northern
side, and half a mile on the southern sido. When Start Light bears N.W.
A W., she will be to the sou'hward of the Skerries.

The Ecldystone Lighthouse, with, its fixed light, bears E. \ S. 39 miles
from tho Lizard, and W.N.W. \ W. 13 miles from Bolt Head, near Sal-
combe. It is painted with a broad red stripe, which will distinguish it at
once from tho Bishop Rock Lighthouse*

From tho Eddystone Lighthouse, at the distance of 8-£- miles, N.W., there
is a bed of sunken rocks, called the H.and Deeps, which lie nearly in the fair-
way of ships bound from the westward for Plymouth Sound. They consist
of rocky pinnacles, and on the shoalest part are from 22 to 24 ft. at low
water spring tides. Tho shoal has, commonly, a ground swell on it ; and
with a S.W. gale and ebb tide, tho sea hero runs very high, so that a ship
may depress (or send) 5 or 6 ft.

The best mark for clearing this dangerous shoal is furnished by the Break-
water lighthouse, in one with Pcnlco Point, E. by N. -J N. ; it leads a long
mile to tho northward of them, and a mile to the S.E. of them when in one
with Mount Batten in Plymouth Sound, N.E. by E. i E.

PLYMOUTH SOUND is the most capacious and secure harbour in South
Britain. Tho magnificent Breakwater is 5,000 It. long, and at its West end
is the lighthouse, showing a red light seaward, and bright northward of
S.W. h W. over the anchorage within. Below this red light is a leading
bright light, visible only in the fairway of tho western entrance. A large
bell is tolled in fogs or snow storms.

On the East end of the breakwater is a beacon, a granite obelisk, sur-
mounted by a staff and ball. This ball is so constructed that ten persons
might find shelter within it should they be cast away on the breakwater.
Besides these there is a look-out house or signal-station on the Hoc, at the
head of tho Souud, eastward of which is an obelisk, painted red and white.

The entrance of Plymouth Sound is distinguished on the eastern side by
two remarkable large rocks, which lie upon the extremity of reefs that
stretch from the shore. Of these rocks the southernmost is called the Mew-
stone; the northernmost, the Shagstone. The first lies nearly S.W. by S.,
half a mile from Wembury Point, or the S.E. point of the Sound, and has,
just within it, a smaller one, called the Little Mcwstone, from which a shoal
stretches to the W.S.W. nearly 2 cables' lengths, and is marked by a red
buo3' at its outer extremity.

The bearing a?id distance from the Great Mewstone to Rame Head are N.W.

* Caution. — The lighthouse is not considered quite safe. The rock on which it stands
it) Icing gradually undermined by the sea.

SOUTH COAST OF ENGLAND. 547

by W. A W. 4£ miles, and to Penlce Point N.W. by W. 3J- miles. The
entrance of Plymouth Sound lies between the two latter, and it may, from
a distance, be readily known ; the land over Plymouth being high double
land. On a near approach, Eame church will appear open to the northward
of Rame Head, and the square tower of Penlee will be seen standing upon
the highest part of the land over Penlee Point, which affords the more
certain mark.

Renny Rocks appear like a black rock, lying N. by W. nearly 1 mile from
the Mewstones, and at about one-eighth of a mile from shore. At the dis-
tance of a cable's length "W.N.W. £ "W. from the islet stands the Shaystone.

The Tinker, and the Knap and Panther, are well known as the principal
shoals in the lower part of the Sound. Of these, the outer one is the Tinker.
This shoal, which is a cable's length broad, stretches nearly one-quarter of
a mile East and West, and its western extremity lies N.N. W. £ "W. more
than \h mile from the Little Mewstone. It has on it from 10 ft. to 3£ fa-
thoms of water. On theshoalest part of the western end, without the depth
of 14 ft., there is a ivhite buoy.

There is also a white buoy on the eastern side of the Tinker, which marks
the Eastern Channel. With the Bolt Head open to the southward of the
Mewstone, or hidden behind it, you will be well to .the southward of the
Knap and the Tinker.

The Knap and Panther are extremities of one rocky ledge, upon which
there are 3, 3 J, and 4 fathoms of water. This ledge is more than one-third
of a mile in length, and extends in the direction of N.E. by E. £ E. and
S.W. by W. £ W. Each end is distinguished by a black buoy.

A reef extends S.S.E. h E. nearly a quarter of a mile from Penlee Point,
and terminates in a sunken rock of 12 ft of water, called the Dray stone. A
chequered red and ivhite buoy has been placed on it. It lies in 5£ fathoms, 2
cables' lengths from the point.

The New Rock lies N.W. £ W. rather more than three-quarters of a mile
from the buoy of the Knap, with Maker church tower bearing N. by E. £E.

Western Channel. — This channel, lying to the westward of the Knap and
Panther, has sufficient depth for the largest ships ; and is the principal chan-
nel to Plymouth Sound, being the only one that can be used safely by large
vessels at all times of the tide.

Ships coming in here for the Sound should, in the first instance, to clear
the Draystone, as well as the Knap and the Panther, bring the breakwater
lighthouse in a line with the white tower on Mount Batten. To keep to the
southward of it, you keep the end of Bovisand Pier in a line with or open to
the southward of the beacon on the East end of the breakwater.

The Leadiny Mark through the channel is, the breakwater lighthouse in
line with the white tower on Mount Batten, at the entrance to the Catwater,
bearing N.E. by E. § E., as above.

There is generally a good deal of sea running during the ebb tide, near
the West end of the breakwater, and near the West end of the work a ship is
very liable to miss stays in working out, by reason of a cross sea and an
eddy tide. The ship should, therefore, be put about before getting too near
to the West end of the work, in order to avoid the risk of missing stays and
drifting upon it.

548 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

To sail in during the night, bring the Eddystone light S.W. £ W., and steer
N.E. by N., or N.E. by E., according to the wind and tide, until the water
shoalens to 20 fathoms, in which Penlee Point will be If mile distant; or,
until you make out the breakwater light, which should be brought to bear
N.E. by E. h E. until the white loading light in the lighthouse is seen, when
the channel will be open ; and keeping the white leading light in sight, run
direct for it. After rounding the breakwater, haul to the north-eastward,
but do not anchor till the red light has fully changed to white, which it will
do when it bears S.W. A- W. The water shoalens to 9 or 10 fathoms, about
three-quarters of a mile from Penlee Point ; this side being the safest to run
in by in the night, or in thick weather. Be careful to go no nearer to the
point than in 9 fathoms, as this depth is but little more than half a mile from
shore. With the point W.N.W. you will be above the danger, and may then
steer fur Oawsand Bay, according to circumstances.

The Eastern Channel into Plymouth Sound should not be attempted by
vessels of any considerable draught of water, unless with a free wind, be-
cause of the numerous rocks which are scattered in its vicinity, and the
occasional send or depression of the sea there, with south-westerly and
south-easterly winds. The mark for this Channel is, to bring the beacon
on the eastern end of the breakwater in one with the striped obelisk on the
Hoe bearing N. by E. f E., which will lead between the Tinker and the
Skagstone.

In the centre of the fairway, however, are three rocky patches, of 24 and
18 ft. water, at low water springs, the eastern extremities of which rather
encroach upon this line of direction ; two of these lie nearly half a mile to
the southward of the Breakwater, and are marked by black and white
chequered buoys ; the Tinker by white buoys; and the shoal bank (which
extends from the eastern shore and the Shagstone) by two red buoys. The
above mark will lead up to the East end of the breakwater, leaving the red
buoys to starboard, and the chequered to port. The breakwater may bo
rounded for the anchorage at the distance of 60 or 80 fathoms, leaving the
Leek Bed and Duke Rock to the northward.

The Eastern Channel is perfectly safe, and always desirable with a lead-
ing wind and smooth water ; for this reason it is much frequented in easterly
winds. It is not, however, desirable to beat through this channel, unless in
small vessels, in charge of persons well acquainted with the locality, for
there is no anchoring ground in the channel.

FALMOUTH.- From Rame Head to St. Anthony's Point the bearing and
distance is W. i N. 32 miles. The harbour of Falmouth is one of the best
in England. Its advantages arise partly from its peculiar situation, and
partly from the influx of several rivers. The entrance is formed by the bold
rocky coast of St. Anthony's Head on the East, on which is the revolving
light, and by the headland called Pendennis Point on the West, distinguished
by Pendennis Castle, which stands over it, on the summit of a hill. A lower
fixed light is shown between S. by W. -} W. and S.S.W. $ W., below the
revolving light, and vessels by night must not lose sight of this in passing
the Manacles. From the Point of St. Anthony to that of Pendennis the
bearing is N.W. by W., distance exactly 1 mile.

Within St. Anthony's Head, on the East side, are the castle and town of

SOUTH COAST OF ENGLAND. 549

St. Mawes, which stand on the North side of St. Mawes' Creek, or the
entrance of the River Penkule ; and within Pendennis Castle, to the N.W.,
stands the town of Falmouth.

On the North side of the Pendennis Peninsula is a fine range of docks,
with the necessary graving docks and other appliances, fitting it for an im-
portant packet station, in connection with the Great "Western Railway.

In the entrance of the harbour, at the distance of one-third of a mile to
the S.E. by E. of Pendennis Castle, and E. by S. from Pendennis Point, is
the Black Rock, which is uncovered, in spring tides, from 2\ hours' ebb to
3^ hours' flood. There is a beacon on it (a cone with mast and ball), which
sufficiently indicates its situation. "Without this rock, at the distance of about
a cable's length, S.E., is a rocky shoal of 16 ft. of water. Between this
shoal and some rocks which lie off St. Anthony's Head, is the usual entrance
into the harbour.

"Without tho entrance of the harbour is the Outer Anchorage, or what may
be more properly called Falmouth Outer Road, from St. Anthony's Point
toward the Manacle Eocks. Here there is good anchorage with the harbour's
mouth open, equal in point of riding to Mevagizey Bay, superior to Cawsand
Bay, and very little inferior to Torbay, with the wind from S.W. round to
the westward, and northward to the N.E. point of the compass. The best
position is in 12 fathoms, a mile South of Pendennis Castle, with Badock
Church on the high land in line with the middle sandy beach of Swanpool
N.W. by N. \ N., and Pennare Head open to Killygerran Head E.N.E.
In taking this anchorage care should be taken to avoid the Old Wall, a
rocky shoal, lying South by compass, \\ mile from St. Anthony's Point. It
is a small pinnacle rock, with no more than 26| feet of water on it. The
marks for it are the Eestronguet smelting-chimney up the creek in line with
the eastern end of the broken rocks off St. Anthony's Point N. h W., and
the Greeb Point next North of Killygerran Head showing East of the
latter, N.E.

Within the Old Wall for 4 cables' lengths there is a depth of 8 and 9
fathoms, but between that and the point the depths are very irregular from
27 feet and upwards.

A vessel from the westward bound to Falmouth by night should keep the
Lizard lights in sight to tho southward of the Beast until St. Anthon}' lower
fixed light comes in sight, which is shaded over the Manacles on the bearing
of S.S.W. £ W., and leads 2 cables East of a bell buoy on their eastern side.

In the daytime the Beast should be kept open of Black Head ; and when
St. Anthony lighthouse bears N.N.E., keep it on that bearing till Killigan-
noon house is in one with Fenarrow orMylor Point, bearing N. \ E. easterly.
which will lead in through the eastern channel, and through the narrows
into Carrick Eoad, where a vessel may anchor in from 12 to 18 fathoms, or
px-oceed on until Budoc Church comes over the rising ground of Trefusia
Point, or the summer house is in one with Falmouth Church bearing W r . by
S., which will lead through the Cross Eoad, till St. Keverne Church comes
over Pendennis Point, bearing S.W. ; with which mark she may anchor in
St. Just Pool in from 12 to 15 fathoms, over a muddy bottom.

In hazy weather, a vessel should give St. Anthony Point a berth of 2 or 3
n. a. o. 4 b

550 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

cables' lengths, and run in with the land of St. Mawes about a point on the
starboard bow, and then steer for Penarrow Point. She should not approach
the land of St. Mawes nearer than 2 cables' lengths, nor St. Mawes Bank
within 9 or 8 fathoms. With the" wind at East she will sail in free on tho
starboard tack, and at W.N.W. on tho port tack.

Western Channel. — Vessels not drawing more than 18 feet may safely pass
between the Black Pock and Pendennis Point, and at half tide there is water
for ships of the line. By taking the centre of the channel, and steering a
N. by E. course, it will lead up between tho buoys in the narrows ; or when
the Black Eock beacon and lighthouse are in one, steer for St. Mawes Castle
until Killigannoon House comes on with Penarrow Point, bearing N. i E.,
and proceed as before.

THE LIZAED.— The Lizard is a bold land, which lies 5 miles W. by S.
from Blackhead, and W. £ N. 12f leagues from the Eddystone. It may be
seen 7 or 8 leagues off, in from 40 to 42 fathoms of water, and may bo
readily known by the two lighthouses which are erected upon it. These
lighthouses, with fixed lights, when in a line, bear W. by N. and E. by S.,
222 feet from each other, and may be seen 6 or 7 leagues off. The towers,
each 61 ft. high, are white, the East light being elevated 229 ft., and West
light 232 ft. A powerful fog trumpet is established here, giving one blast
once in every five minutes. There is also a Signal Station.

This headland is one of the most noted among English navigators, as it is
from hence that ships take their departure from the English Channel ; and
it is also the best place for a landfall, when homeward bound. The position
of the high lighthouse, according to the grand trigonometrical survey, is
lat. 19° 57' 34", and long, from Greenwich 5° 12' 4'' W.

MOUNT'S BAY— This spacious bay lies to the N,W. of the Lizard, and
is particularly distinguished by the high island called St. Michael's Mount.

St. Michael's Mount, which gives name to Mount's Bay, is a remarkable
and picturesque isle, near the village of Marazion, 14 miles N.N.W. \ W.
from the Lizard Point, and 2 miles E.S.E. from Penzance Piei. On its
summit is a church and residence. At the bottom on the N.E. side is a
small harbour. At low water there is a dry passage to the isle from the
main land.

At about 4 miles from the Lizard, and at a small distance from shore, lies
a remarkable cragged rock, called the Gull Rock ; ships bound up Channel,
if opposed by an easterly or S.E. wind, may run in on the North side of this
rock, and here find shelter, near the shore, in 8 fathoms of water ; but great
care must be exercised in order to guard against a sudden shift of wind.

On the West side of the bay there is tolerable riding in Griiavas Lake, near
Newlyn, with westerly and southerly winds ; but near this place are two
sunken rocks, called the Lowlee (marked by a red buoy) and tho Cam Base.
The first, which has only 5 ft. over it, lies about one-quarter of a mile from
Penlee Point, with the church of St. Paul, bearing W. by N. § N. The latter
has 4 ft. over it, and lies about one-quarter of a mile North from the former,
with St. Paul's Church on with a long hedge, appearing end on, about half-
way between Penlee Point and Newlyn, and bearing W. by N. Between
these rocks there is a depth of 10 fathoms.

In the winter season the anchorage in Grua.vas Lake ought not to be re-

SOUTH COAST OF ENGLAND. 551

sorted to but as a preliminary to entering the pier of Penzance, or that of
Mount St. Michael. In approaching the shore from the offing between the
Lizard and Laud's End, the depths of water will be gradually found to
diminish, and the bottom is mostly of coarse sand, interspersed with whole
and broken shells.

Near the shore, between Mount's Bay and the Land's End, there are
several dangerous rock. Tho first is the Rundlestone, a small rock, about 4
yards long and 2 broad, the baso of which is dry at low water, and covered
before half flood. It has a fino conical stone beacon on it. From this
beacon the lighthouse on the Longships, hereafter noticed, bears N.N.W.,
distant nearly 4 miles; the flagstaff on Point Tol-Peden-Penwith N. 4° E.,
three-quarters of a mile ; with tho point distant a quarter of a mile. The
ground without the Eundlestono is clear, but there are rocks and foul
ground to the eastward and northward of it ; therefore a passage within it
cannot be recommended to strangers. A black bell buoy lies S.W. 11 cable
from it, and by night Longships red light covers the rocks.

The Wolf Rock Lighthouse bears from the Land's End, or the western-
most point of land, S.W. J W. 8J miles. Between the Eundlestone and
this rock there are from 20 to 36 fathoms of water. It is steep on all sides,
and has within a cable's length of it from 30 to 40 fathoms all round. The
lighthouse was completed at the end of 1869, is of gray granite, 143 feet
high, and at an elevation of 110 feet shows a first-order dioptric light, which
revolves every half minute, showing alternately a bright and a red flash
of equal power at an elevation of 110 feet, visible 16 miles. A fog-bell is
sounded in foggy weather, three times in quick succession, every quarter of
a minute.

Longships.— About 3 miles N.N.W. i W. from Tol-Peden-Penwith, or
the S.E. point of the Land's End, and 1 mile W.N.W. from the western-
most point, lie the high rocks called the Longships ; which extend in a North
and South direction, about half a mile. On the largest of these rocks
stands a granite lighthouse, from which a fixed light is shown, bright to the
westward between N.N.E. J E. and S. by E. ; to the eastward of these
bearings the light appears red. When approaching from the northward,
by keeping in the bright light, you will pass half a mile westward of the
Brisons ; and approaching from the southward, three-quarters of a mile
westward of the Eundlestone.

LAND'S END may be seen in clear weather 8 or 9 leagues off. When
first seen at a distance it appears in two round hummocks, on the highest
of which is a spire steeple, the base of which is 409 ft. above the sea; upon
a nearer approach, on the outermost point another spire will appeal*. By
these objects the Land's End may be readily known ; but at all times the
Longships lighthouse will indicate its situation.

Cape Cornwall lies N.N.E. £ E. about 3£ miles from the Land's End. In
the bay between, called Whitesand Bay, which lies about a mile to the north-
ward of the latter, vessels may ride in from 19 to 25 fathoms, well sheltered
from E.N.E. and easterly to S.S.E. winds ; but the danger arising from
westerly winds make it little frequented. The South side of the bay is
formed by Peddenmeandue Point, from which the ground is foul and rocky
to half a mile N. W.

552 DESCRIPTIONS OP TEE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

The SCILLY ISLANDS consist of a great many small isles, islets, and
rocks above water, surrounded by innumerable rocks and ledges, some of
which appear at half tide, others at low water, and the greater part not at
all. Many have 6, 5, and 4 ft. on them at low water spring tides. The
channels or passages into the harbours are called Sounds. They are dan-
gerous, but well known to the fishermen of the islands, who act as pilots.
With an easterly wind, a number of pilot boats are on the lookout for vessels
from the westward.

St. Agnes, which is also called the Lighthouse Island, lies nearly H mile to
the S.W. of St. Mary's. It is the southernmost of the Scilly Islands, ex-
clusive of a group of large rocks, which cannot properly be called islands.
Shipwrecks have been too frequent about these islands.

The Lighthouse stands on the most elevated ground ; it is 53 ft. high, and,
being painted white, is a useful daymark to all ships coming from the
southward. The light revolves every minute' and in clear weather may be
seen at more than 5 leagues off; the lantern being 138 ft. above high water
mark.

From the lighthouse of St. Agnes, the Lizard bears E.S.E., distant 14 \
leagues ; the Longships lighthouse E. \ S., distant 8 leagues ; and the Wolf
Rock lighthouse E.S.E. \ E., 6f leagues.

The S.W. Dangers of Scilly are those called the Bishop and Clerks, com-
posed of a high rock, called the Bishop, on which is a lighthouse, and of
several ledges to the South and East. The Bishop's Ridge, having a race
upon it, lies nearly a mile to the South of the Bishop, with the lighthouse
on St. Agnes bearing East, 4 miles distant.

BISHOP ROCK LIGHTHOUSE is one of the most important structures
in the English lighthouse system. It is a noble granite tower, and shows
a brilliant fixed light at 110 ft. above high water.

It is placed to the S.W. of all the dangers around the Scilly Isles, and
renders the approach to them comparatively easy, as it is almost the only
dangerous quarter from which to make them.

The great importance of the Scilly Islands arises from their advantageous
situation, as looking equally into the St. George's Channel and into the
English Channel. From this reason many ships, when the wind is favour-
able, in coming in from the S.W., endeavour to make these islands, in order
to steer their course with greater certainty. It is also sometimes convenient
for vessels to take shelter among them rather than beat about at sea in bad
weather, and a strong gale at East will be frequently the means of bringing
in numerous vessels. Upon firing a gun, and making a waft, a boat imme-
diately puts off from the nearest island with pilots.

In coming from the southward you will descry Scilly, in clear weather, at
the distance of G or 7 leagues, and have GO fathoms, with gray sand,
broken shells ; you may also see the land from the southward, in 55 fathoms
of water, stony ground with some shells ; but at 7 leagues distance to the
northward, you will have sand and oaze mixed together.

The Seven Stones are a dangerous reef of rocks, which appear above
water, some at half tide, and some at low water. They are a mile in extent
from N.N. W. to S.S.E. The sea always breaks upon them ; and, except in
vory bad weather, they may be seen from a considerable distance. The

BRISTOL CHANNEL. 553

Pollard Pock, on the N.W. side of this reef, lies 14£ miles W. by N. £ N.
from the Longships lighthouse, with the Daymark on St. Martin's W. by
S. £ S. 7 miles distant. The Telegraph Station on St. Mary's* bearing
S.W. I W. leads 2£ miles North of the Seven Stones.

The lightvessel, showing two fixed bright lights (to be altered to triple
flashing light in May, 1879), is moored in 40 fathoms of water, about If mile
E. ^ S. from the Pollard Bock of the Seven Stones, and about the same distance
N.E. by E. | E. from the South Stone. A fog-horn is sounded on her in
foggy weather at intervals of 10 seconds.

Vessels navigating between the Scilly Islands and the Land's End should
endeavour to bring the lightvessel to bear to the westward of South, when
coming from the northward ; and those approaching the lightvessel from the
southward, should keep her to the westward of North.

HARTLAND POINT.— The land of Hartland Point is very high, and
directly from it, to the distance of about one-third of a mile, is a ridge of
rocks, on which the sea breaks very heavily. The mark to clear these rocks
on the West is Sharp* 's Nose, S.W. by S. \ S., or kept well open. This
Sharp's Nose is a high bluff land, nearly 3 leagues to the southward. The
mark to clear the rocks on the North is, Gallendxj, or Gallantry Bower, to the
West of Clovelly, with a tuft of trees on it, kept open, or bearing S.E.

Hartland Point may be readily known from the connecting cliffs trending
nearly at right angles to each other. It appears of a dark brown colour,
and its summit resembles the ruins of a buildirig, elevated 350 ft. above the
sea, toward which it slopes abruptly to the perpendicular cliffs. The light-
house on the point was established in the year 1874. Its revolving light;
shows alternately at intervals of half a minute a bright flash twice, and
a red flash. A powerful fog trumpet is sounded for five seconds in every two
minutes in thick weather.

Hartland Point forms the S.W. point of the Bristol Channel.

Should a vessel be forced into the entrance of the Bristol Channel, so that
she cannot lay out again, the most prudent course is to proceed as directly
as possible, for Milford Haven ; but, should the weather be thick, and
circumstances prevent this, she may proceed to Lundy Island, there anchor,
or take a pilot for the harbour of Ilfracombe. By obstinately endeavouring
to beat out of the channel, many lives and much property have been sacri-
ficed ; it being next to impossible for a vessel to get to windward here, when
opposed by the swell and indraught.

A vessel from the Longships, if bound into the Bristol Channel, with the
wind from the N.E., should stretch as far to the North as she can, and to
the westward of the rocks (the Man and his Man) off St. Agnes' Head, and
then work up in the slack. With an easterly wind you may find a good
stopping place for a tide, on the western side of Trevose Head, sheltered by
the Cow and Calf. In the great bight northward of this, between Tintagel

* St. Marys.— On the South point of St. Mary's, called Peninnis Point, is a Signal
S.ation. Vessels making their names by Commercial Code are reported in the Shipping
Gazette, and to the owners if required. There are also stations at Penzance, the Lizard,
Piawle Point, St. Catherine Point, Yarmouth, Duugencss, Dover, Deal, ind Broadstairs,

554 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

Head and Hartland Point, the tide is quite slack, and a vessel may gain
ground against the obb.

With the wind to the South or S.E., and a commanding breeze, you may
run between the Longships and the main, or haul close round the Long-
ships within a cable's length, and keep the English shore on board : for so
soon as you bring the Longships and Brissons nearly in a line you will gain
the true channel tide.

Spring tides, as already noticed, set very rapidly in the Bristol Channel.
When the wind is to the S.S.E. in the channel, the stream westward of
Hartland Point is mostly found setting S.S.W.

Pilots for Bristol may be engaged at Lundy or Ilfracombe. Vessels
bound to Bristol, or any port well up Channel, are recommended, in general,
to keep near the English shore, though without going into any of the bays,
after passing between Lundy Island and Hartland Point.

MILFORD HAVEN has been generally considered as the most capacious,
the most commodious, and the most secure harbour in the British Islands.
It was usual formerly to state that " there was no sort of danger on its
entrance that could not be avoided without a pilot," an assertion based on
the supposed accuracy of the elaborate Admiralty Survey ; but an accident
led to a closer examination, which showed that the entrance is bestrewed
with dangers to vessels of the largest class at dead low water.

St. Anrfs Head is a bold promontory, advancing from a back ground of
nearly table land, with a large black rock at its extremity, always appearing
above water. At 4 cables' lengths W. by S. from the high lighthouse is the
end of a rocky spit, with 3 fathoms on it, lately discovered, and at half a
mile S.S.W. from the high light is another patch of 4 fathoms. The light-
houses on the western side are whitewashed, and in thick weather a Fog-
trumpet is sounded here. This point lies N.E. \ N., 33J leagues from Cape
Cornwall; N. f W. 47 miles from Hartland Point; and N. £ W., 34| miles
from the North end of Lundy Island.

To enter the haven with a fair wind, at any time before half ebb, give
St. Ann's Head a berth of one-quarter of a mile, in a depth of 12 or 11
fathoms, then steering so as to bring the lower light (which shows exclu-
sively in the haven) to bear W, \ S., and afterward running E. ± N. about
1 J mile, the depths will decrease to 8 and 7 fathoms, and you will be in the
middle of the harbour.

The two lights on Great Castle Head, facing the entrance, when in line
N.E. by E. | E. lead in the best water between St. Ann's Head and Mid-
Channel Eoek by night.

In the entrance to the haven the first danger met with was only discovered
in the latter part of 1851 — a very singular circumstance, considering that the
whole of the coast was supposed to have been carefully and completely sur-
veyed, as has been before remarked. It is a small patch, called the Lewis
liock, or Mid-Channel Pock, l£ cable's length from N.W. to S.E., and having
only 18 ft. least water at its S.E. extremity. It lies exactly on the line of
the two lighthouses at St. Ann's in one, or N. by W. £ W., and nearly a
mile from them. A spiral buoy, painted in red and white horizontal bands, with
staff and diamond, marked " Mid-Channel Eock," is placed near it. Besides
this rock there is another, discovered at the same period, called the Sheep

ST. OrEOEGE'S CHANNEL. 555

Rock. It is a small patch of 4J fathoms, lying half a mile due West of
Sheep Island. Both of the patches have deep water around them.

Another sunken rock, called the Chapel Jloclc, which lies at the distance of
half a mile, W.N.W., from Eat Island, and has 15 ft. of water over it
at low spring ebbs, is marked by the two following buoys:— A can buoy,
painted in red and white vertical stripes, lies to the eastward ; and a buoy
painted red, is laid to the westward of the rock in 6A fathoms. The striped
Cirapel Eock Buoy marks the port side of the eastern entrance, and the red
buoy the starboard side of the Western entrance.

A rocky shoal, called the Harbour Rock, having 20 ft. over it, lies at the
distance of nearly half a mile, N.W. by W., from Thorn or West Angle
Point without the islet off that point. The channel between these shoals
and the western shore is nearly a mile in breadth, and by night the red
light is shown over them from St. Ann's high lighthouse.

The course in is N.E. by E. f E. (on which bearing the lights on Great
Castle Head are in one by night), until you open Dale Eoad, in the N.W.
corner of the Haven. Here you may come-to, in 2 or 3 fathoms, so soon as
Hale Town comes open. But be cautious of not mistaking a bay on the
West side of Dale Eoad, as it is dangerous. Large ships should lie further
out, at the distance of about H cable's length, N.N.E. from Dale Point,
where there will be found 4 fathoms of water. The best channel up to
Milford, and that commonly used, is to the southward of the Stack. Upon
the South side, hereabout, is excellent ground, in from 8 to 13 fathoms,
where ships may lie landlocked from all winds.

At the distance of a mile S.S.E. from the Stack lies Angle or Nangle Bay,
in which the ground is clear and good,- In this place vessels, having lost
their cables and anchors, may run aground on soft oaze ; but should keep
nearly in mid-channel between the outer points.

The most convenient and common anchorage for large ships is in ITub-
lerston or Man-of- War Road, at the distance of 4 miles to the E.S.E. of Dale
Point. In sailing for it, keep in mid-channel until the town of Milford
bears N.E. by E., when you may anchor in 10 or 12 fathoms. On either
side, stand no nearer to the shore than to the distance of 1J cable in
length.

SMALLS. — The Smalls consist of a cluster of low bare rocks, upon the
largest and westernmost of which is the lighthouse, a granite tower, 141 ft.
high from base to vane, painted in red and white bands. The light is bril-
liant and fixed, 125 ft. above high water. A bell is sounded in thick weather,
and explosive rockets are in use.* The rocks are about one-fifth of a mile in

* Rocket Signals.— This sound signal (established in 1878) consists of a charge of gun
cotton in a rocket head -which explodes at a considerable height, and discharged during
thick and foggy weather, day or night, every half hour. The effect of this signal will more
closely resemble that, of a gun than an ordinary rocket, little light being shown. Mariners
should observe that this rocket is a fog signal only, and not a summons for assistance.

Also, that should assistance be required at the lighthouse, or by passing vessels, the sig-
nal will be a Call Rocket of great brilliancy, showing a magnesium flame in falling, as well
as a vivid rising trail ; this rocket, which will only be used at night and in clear weather,
Till be fired at frequent intervals.

556 DESCKIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

extent, but very narrow, in a N.E. by N. and S.W. by S. direction, and are
never entirely uncovered.

There are several detached rocks at the distance, more 01 less, of. one-
quarter of a mile from the main group, which must be carefully avoided.

Passages between the Smalls and Hats.— When the Hats are seen to break,
this is a good and safe channel, although not more than If mile wide. If
tho South Bishop, distinguished by its lighthouse, can be made out, this
islet, just open of St. David's Head, will clear all.

To clear the Smalls, Hats, and Barrels, to the northward, care must be
taken to give the Smalls a sufficient berth to clear the N.E. rock, the transit
of which is passed when the lighthouse bears S.W. by W. I W. When the
land is distinguishable, an excellent clearing mark is, the N.E. end of
Grassholm on with the S.W. end of Skomer ; this will lead at the distance
of about three-quarters of a mile from the Hats, and 1£ mile from the
Barrels.

To clear the Smalls and Barrels, to the southward, the Smalls ought not
to be approached within 1 mile, on coming from the westward, until the
lighthouse is brought to bear North, in order to avoid the S.W. rock, as
the soundings are extremely irregular, varying at that distance from 40 to
25 fathoms, generally gravel and broken shells, so that no dependence can
be placed on the lead. At night, the Smalls light must not be brought to
the westward of N.W. i N., nor St. Ann's light to the southward of S.E. by
E. J E. ; these bearings will give the Barrels a berth of about 1£ mile.
Observe well that the moment St. Ann's light is unmasked to the southward
of Skokham, a vessel is nearly in the line of direction of the shoals.

Vessels bound to Milford Haven, Sfc. } from the S.W. of Ireland, are recom-
mended to make Grassholm, frequently the first land seen, by day, or the
Smalls lighthouse by night. Should there be a long flood to run, it will
be the best, particularly with the wind to the southward, to pass well South
of the light, or to try and make St. Ann's light upon a bearing of E.S.E. J E ,
passing outside Skokham : but on an ebb tide, opposite precautions may be
taken ; and having passed to the northward of the Smalls, keep St. Ann's
light open between isles Skomer and Skokham, bearing about S.E. by S.,
which will lead between them.

ST. GEORGE'S CHANNEL.— To give extended descriptions of this im-
portant navigation would swell this work far beyond its proper limits. On
pp. 452 — 459 are given some general instructions for sailing iip and down
this channel, which must suffice. One especial point requires every attention,
and that is the set of the tides. In pagos 307, 308, are given the general
features of these currents, which, being neglected, have led to several
deplorable accidents on the banks off the S.E. coast of Ireland. It is there-
fore most earnestly recommended to the sailor to pay every attention to this
important subject.

On the eastern side of the channel the indraught to Cardigan and Caer-
narvon Bays is in some degree deprived of danger by the establishment of
the lightvessels described in the list, which will warn a ship from passing
too far to the eastward, and thus getting embayed on this iron-bound shore
and its dangerous shoals.

The Refuge Harbour at Holyhead has assumed an important position in

SOUTH COAST OF IRELAND. 557

the navigation, and will afford shelter from bad weather for a large portion
of the compass. St. Tudwall Roads, in the northern part of Cardigan Bay,
will also be found a valuable place of shelter, now that it is so well
lighted.

SOUTH COAST OF IRELAND.— As ships bound across the Atlantic
may be driven to seek shelter on the Irish coast, a few brief notices of the
principal places on the southern coast follow. Complete descriptions of the
whole coasts of Ireland are given in our Directories, accompanying the
charts.

CARNSORE POINT lies N. by E. J E. 41| leagues from Cape Cornwall,
and from the Smalls lighthouse, N. by W. % W. 37 miles.

To the E.S.E. 5 E., at the distance of 6^ miles from Carnsore Point, is the
remarkable rock called the Tuskar. Its bearing and distance from the Long-
ships lighthouse, off the Land's End of England, are N. by E. £• E. 42£
leagues; and from the Smalls lighthouse, N. 4 C W. 11 leagues.

The Tuskar Lighthouse shows a revolving light every minute, twice
bright and once red alternately. A hell, sounded every half minute, denotes
the proximity of the rock in foggy weather, and a gun is to be established.
The rock is about 15 ft. above the sea at high water, and the elevation of
the lighthouse 101 ft. above the base. The bright lights may be seen at 5,
and the red light at 4 leagues off. A bell is sounded in thick weather.

At half a mile due West of the lighthouse are some rocky heads, and at
three-fourths of a mile S.W. of the light is the South Rock, of 9 fathoms ; to
avoid these, be careful to keep sufficiently without the rock on that side.
And nearly midway between the Tuskar and main is the long, narrow bank,
called the Bailies' Prong ; the ripple on the South end of which bears from
the Tuskar "West, and from Carnsore Point E.S.E., about 2 J miles. The
bank extends nearly 3 miles N. by E. £ E. Its shoalest water is from 5£ to
7 fathoms, with 8 and 10 fathoms near each end. To elear it on the East
side, keep nearer to the Tuskar than to the main.

The Saltees Lightvessel, showing three flashes (during 23 seconds) once
in every minute, lies in 32 fathoms, with the Great Saltee bearing N.E. £ E.
about 4i miles distant ; the Hook Lighthouse of Waterford Harbour, N.W.
I W. 11 J miles; and the Tuskar Lighthouse, nearly East, 20 J miles. Be-
tween the lightvessel and Great Saltee Island lie the Coningby and Coning-
more Rocks.

A. fog- trumpet is established on the Saltees lightvessel, giving a blast of 5
seconds duration, followed by an interval of 20 seconds ; a second blast of 5
seconds duration will then be given, which will be succeeded by an interval
of 4£ minutes before the next blast is sounded.

WATERFORD HARBOUR, is the estuary of the Rivers Suir and Barrow.
From the Longships Lighthouse, off the Land's End of England, the Hook
Point of Waterford bears N. by W. £ W. true, and N. £ E. by compass,
nearly 43 leagues; from the North end of Lundy Island, off the Bristol
Channel, N.W. by W. true, and N.W. by N. nearly, by compass, 33£
leagues; from St. Anne's lights, Milford Haven, W.N.W. £ W. true, and
N.W. by compass, distant 23^ leagues; and from the Smalls Lighthouse
W.N.W. northerly, true, and N.W. i N. by compass, distant 17| leagues,
w. jl 4

558 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

Upon Hook Head, or the Hook Point, is a tower, painted red and white in
horizontal bands, 115 ft. high, which exhibits a brilliant fixed light, at 152 ft.
above the level of high water, and seen from all points between E.N.E.,
seaward, to N.N.E., 17 miles off. There is a bell sounded in fogs.

The entrance of the harbour between Hook Point on the eastern, and Red
Head on the western side, is 2f miles wide. Three miles within these points
on the western side, is the remarkable promontory, called Credan Head, the
extremity of which bears N. by E. 3£ miles from Hook Point.

The pier at the little harbour of Dunmore, on the West side of the
entrance, affords a secure anchorage with westerly gales, as well as from the
prodigious sea which rolls along the southern coast, but it is not calculated
for an asylum harbour, from its space being very confined, and its want of
depth, there being only one spot within the pierhead with more than 14 ft.,
and 9 to 12 ft. being the ordinary depth at low water.

In coming in from sea for Waterford Harbour, you will descry the re-
markable inland mountain called the Slievnaman, which should be brought
to bear N.E. £ N., as it will, with that bearing, lead in sight of Hook
Tower ; whence you may round Hook Point, which should not be approached
nearer than to the distance of 2 cables' lengths, as the tide sets round it very
irregularly.

With the entrance open, the course to Duncannon Foit will be N.E. by N.,
which will lead past Credan Head, at the distance of 1£ cable's length. In
the night the two lights will be seen on the Fort of Duncannon, elevated one
above the other, to direct vessels to that point. These kept open of Credan
Head, and bearing N.E. ^ N., lead directly up the harbour. The Bar is
marked by three buoys at \\ mile above Credan Head. That to the East is
a blade nan, and the two to the West are red can buoys. After crossing the
bar, keep the Duncannon lights in one, and then bearing to the West pass
the fort at the distance of about 1 cable's length, keeping the lead going,
and then steer N. i E. for Ballyhack church. When the Iron Pile Light-
house, near Passage, comes on with the town of that name, you may steer
upward in mid-channel, keeping the light open on the port bow, and while
passing it, giving it a berth of half a cable. A vessel will thus pass through
the best part of the channel leading to the Passage anchorage, and can
bring up in safety.

Ballycottin Bay, on the North of the Ballycottin Isles, has been recom-
mended as a place of safe resort in westerly winds. The only disadvantage
of this anchorage is, that the wind setting in from S.E. to E. (which wind,
however, very seldom blows) renders it necessary for vessels to put to sea as
quickly as possible. The prevailing winds on this coast are westerly through-
out the year ; therefore this anchorage is safe and convenient with the wind
from S.W. to N.N.E. by the North. Vessels taking shelter from a westerly
gale, should anchor with the Government houses bearing S.S.W. to S.W,
and the outer island S.E. to S.S.E., in about 3 fathoms, low water. The
bottom is smooth and even, of fine sand and clay, perfectly clean, and the
holding-ground good. The outside island, on which is the lighthouse, is
high, with a bold, rocky coast, steep-to, with deep water, and no dangers ;
so that a vessel, in taking the bay from the westward, may round the island
close-to, and find herself suddenly in smooth water.

CORK HARBOUR. 559

CORK HARBOUR. — The entrance of this excellent harbour lies at the
distance of 46 leagues N. by W. f W. (JV. W. \ JSf.) from the Longships
Lighthouse off the Land's End of England ; and from St. Anne's Point,
Milford Haven, nearly 39 leagues N. W. by W. f W. ( W. \ N.} In coming
up for this place from the southward, bring Knockmeldown Hill, N.E. by N.,
keep it thus until you see the Old Head of Kinsale, which is a remarkable
bluff headland, with a lighthouse upon it. From this head the entrance of
Cork Harbour bears E.N.E. 5 leagues.

When off the harbour, Roche's Tower and lighthouse are remarkable on
the point upon the eastern side. Without this point are two rocks, called
the Cow and Calf, otherwise the Stags, which dry at low water, and will be
avoided by attending to the following directions. Without the entrance,
which is three-quarters of a mile broad, the ground is clean ; and, with a
northerly wind, ships may lie here, in from 7 to 10 fathoms, awaiting the
daylight, or a flood tide. With a leading wind, ships may enter at anytime
of the day, if proper attention be paid to the marks for the dangers.

The Lighthouse on Roche's Point exhibits an intermittent light, showing
bright for 15 seconds, and eclipsed for 5 seconds alternately. The tower is
white, 49 ft. high, and the light, which is shown at 98 ft. above the level of
high water, may be seen at 10 miles off, from all points seaward between
S.E. by E. and N. by E.

At the base of the tower & fixed IrigM light is shown, to mark the position
of the Dauntfs Hock, 4| miles to the S.W. The light is shown between the
bearings of S.W. by W. and S.W. J S. In approaching Cork Harbour,
therefore, keep eastward of the limits of the fixed light until the rock be
passed.

A fog-be 11 is sounded twice in a minute during thick or foggy weather.
There is also a Commercial Code Signal Station on the point.

Daunt's Rock Lightvessel lies in 14 fathoms water, 8 cables 8. by E. of
the rock, and shows a fixed red light. There is also a large buoy to the N.E.
of the rock, and in thick weather a gun is fired twice, with an interval of 5
minutes, once in every quarter of an hour.

Roche's Point is bold ; so also is Dog's Nose, a high point half a league
further in, and N. by E. from Roche's Point, on the same side. Upon the
latter, some remarkable white walls lie on the face of the cliff, to the south-
ward of the fort.

From the entrance of the harbour to the Narrows, in the upper part of it,
and through them to the anchorage of Queenstown, the channel is marked
by a double series of buoys, red on the western side, and blade on the
eastern. Besides these there are two buoys on the Harbour Hock, and two
on the Turbot Rock.

On entering the Harbour of Cork, the channel eastward of the Harbour
Rock and Turbot Bank is generally preferred, and a vessel may, at any time,
be worked in or out. On coming in, therefore, endeavour to pass between
Roche's Point and the Harbour Rock, or between the Harbour Rock and
Turbot Bank. The first route may be easily effected by keeping Cuskinny
House wholly shut in with the point at Dog's Nose ; this mark also leads to
the eastward of the Turbot Bank. The depths in the channel are 5, 6, and
7 fathoms. To pass between the Harbour Rock and Turbot Bank, keep the

560 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

white house in Ringabella Bay twice its own apparent breadth open to the
southward of the Beaulna Cove Point.

Having arrived within or to the northward of the rocks, which will be
when a round stone martello tower, on the heights near Ringaskiddy (west-
ward of Spike Isle), appears lour times its own breadth open to the north-
ward of the lowest part of the declining land under Fort Camden, thence
steer for the middle of Spike Island, keeping as nearly midway as possible
between Forts Carlisle and Camden, until two remarkable houses, inland, to
the northward of Cuskinny House, and eastward of the old barracks, appear,
the northern house between Cuskinny House and the southern house, three-
fourths nearer to the latter than the former. This mark will lead up be-
tween the shoals towards Queenstown.

Continue running upon the mark last given, until two whitewashed marks
in the upper and lower walls of the old fort or hospital appear in one, and
when Ballybrickan House comes nearly into contact with the S.W. angle of
the buildings on Haulbowline Island, you should haul suddenly to the west-
ward, steering N.W. by W. toward a large storehouse on the upper quay at
Queenstown, for about 2 cables' lengths, and then W.N.W. parallel to the
beach of Queenstown, until Roche's light-tower shuts in with the eastern
end of Spike Island. The last mark is the best for anchoring, and where
you will have from 4 to 9 fathoms of water.

The Outer Road, or anchorage of Cork Harbour, is between Fort Camden
and the buoy of the spit. You proceed up to it with Queenstown church
just shut in with the eastern angle of the citadel on Spike Island, and may
take a station at pleasure in from 12 to 7 fathoms. Merchant vessels may
ride off Queenstown, in smoother water and less tide ; they may also anchor
further up the harbour, off Passage, and ride anywhere between the first
houses and Marino Point.

Those working into or out of Cork Harbour should be aware that the tide
sets, in the first instance, into the bight formed between Dog's Nose and
Eoche's Point, and then obliquely across to Cross Haven, whence it is
again warped into a N.E. direction, which produces corresponding counter
tides and eddies along both shores. The tide of ebb has a directly opposite
tendency. The time of high water, &c, is shown in the conclusion of this
section.

KINSALE. — From Poor Head, which lies 4 miles eastward from Roche
Point, the Old Head of Kinsale bears W. by S. 6 leagues. Two white-
washed towers stand on the cape, and between them are the black ruins ot
Baron de Courcy's Castle. The southern tower is round, the northern square.
The southern was formerly the lighthouse.

Old Bead Lighthouse is erected on the rocky point at the southern end of
the Old Head of Kinsale, distant half a mile S.8.W. h W. from the old light-
house tower. The light is a bright fixed light, elevated 236 ft. over the
level of the high water of spring tides, illuminating an arc from N.E. £ N.
seaward, to W. by N. The tower is circular, and 100 ft. in height from
its base to the top of the dome, and is marked by two horizontal belts,
coloured red.

On the arc limited by a line across the entrance of Courtmacsherry Bay*i
between a line drawn to the Seven Heads and another line drawn to the

SOUTH COAST OF IRELAND. 661

Horse Rock from the lighthouse, it is coloured red ; further within the bay,
northward of that line, it is of the natural colour. Thus vessels, unless going
to Courtmacsherry Harbour, should not pass into the bay within the limits
jf the red colour of the light.

In order to fall in with the Old Head, when approaching from the offing,
bring and keep Knockmeldown Hill N.E. by E. This hill lies inland to the
northward of Youghal.

The Harbour of Kinsale, though narrow at the entrance and all the way up
to the town, is very safe, and capable of receiving vessels of any size. The
entrance is formed by Hangman and Prehaun Points on the eastern, and
Money and Strookaun Points on the western side ; and it lies about 5 miles
N.E. from the pitch of the Old Head. After rounding the Breem Rock, lying
under the eastern side of the Head, with 7 fathoms close to it, steer for the
harbour's mouth, by keeping the whole of Charles Fort, an extensive castel-
lated building at a mile within the harbour's mouth, open to the westward
of Hangman Point, and minding not to bring that fort within its own appa-
rent breadth of Money Point, on the port side ; and having reached well
within the former point, keep as near mid-channel as possible, and anchor
until you obtain a pilot. The anchorage of Queenstown is the one generally
resorted to, and it affords good shelter, even with the wind directly in. This
place is a little within or to the N.W. of Charles Port, and about 1£ cable
from shore. There is, however, water enough for the largest ships close up
to the town of Kinsale, the channel to which lies close along the eastern
shore ; but it is very narrow and circuitous, and requires the assistance of a
pilot. The wind between S.S.W. and E.S.E. is a free wind in, and from
"W.N.W. to N.E. a fair one out.

There is a bar of coarse sand a little to the southward of Charles Fort,
having 12 to 18 feet over it at low water of spring tides. When the body
of Charles Fort bears E.S.E. \ E. you will be within or to the northward of
it, and drop thence almost immediately into deep water.

The dangers on going into Kinsale Harbour are, Farmer Ledge on the
port, and the Bulman Rock on the starboard side. The Farmer lies close to
the western shore, and is uncovered at three-quarters ebb. The Bulman lies
above 2 cables' lengths to the southward of Hangman Point, and has only
3 feet over it at low water, and sometimes dries at very low tides. A red can
buoy is moored to the S.W. of it. The marks for it are, the northern angle
of a triangular field on with the peaked top of Crow Head, and the Small
Sovereign Island on with Froward Point. By keeping Charles Fort wholly
open to the westward of Hangman Point, you will pass considerably to the
westward of the Bulman ; and by not bringing that fort within its own
apparent breadth of Money Point, you will avoid the Farmer.

During the night a light is kept on Charles Fort as a guide to ves sels
entering the harbour. It is bright and fixed, at 98 feet above the sea, open
to the harbour, on a N.E. by E. bearing, and may be seen in clear weather
14 miles off. When running for the harbour in a very dark night, some
caution is, however, necessary, as this light and that on Old Head are the
only guidance, and it will be prudent to keep an offing until daylight, or till
a pilot can be obtained.

To the westward of Kinsale, the S.W. coast of Ireland is well lighted,

562 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

the chain of lights having been completed in 1877 by the fine light on
Galloy Head. These lights are all sufficiently described in the Tables of
Lighthouses given in the early portion of this book.

Cape Clear, the southermost promontory of Ireland, upon an island of
the same name, lies at the distance of b\\ leagues N.W. by W. \ W., true
and N.W. \ N. by compass, from the Longships lighthouse, off the Land's
End of England ; and at the distance of about 5 J miles eastward from the
S.W. part of this island lies the entrance to the harbour of Baltimore.

A lighthouse was ei'ected on the S.E. side of Clear Island, to the east-
ward of the Cape, and was first lighted on the 1st of May, 1818, but it
was superseded by the more important light on the Fastnet Rock, to
the S.W.

THE FASTNET ROCK, a small, steep, and conspicuous rock, lies nearly
b\ miles W. by S. from Cape Clear. Between is a depth of from 12 to 35
fathoms, the least depth being near to the rock. The lighthouse is 92 feet
high, and has a broad red horizontal belt at mid-height. The light is
elevated 148 feet, is revolving, visible once in every 2 minutes to the distance
of 18 miles ; but is not entirely obscured within short distances.

Between Cape Clear and the River Shannon, the land, on advancing to
the North, increases in height, and is very irregular and broken ; but the
southern part of the coast is seldom wholly free from fog and haze during
the summer months, and is generally annoyed by powerful gales and a
turbulent sea during the winter season.

Long Island Sound, which lies within Long Island, to the S.W. of Skull
Harbour, is well sheltered, of easy access, and capable of receiving large
ships, which may enter at either end of the island, anchor anywhere, tho
ground being good. The only thing to be avoided is a sp>it of sand, which
extends northward from shore, at about half a mile within the East end of
the island, and more than halfway over the channel.

In the anchorages the depth varies from 2 to 7 fathoms, and the ground
is everywhere a soft cohesive mud. The chief passages are, one from the
S.W. between Goat Isle and Turf Isle, or the Blaclc Rock to the westward of
it, called Man-of-War Sound ; one between Goat Isle and Long Island, and
one between Long Island and Three Castle Islaud on the East, Either of
these passages may be safely taken without a pilot, tlrrough water sufficient
for a line-of-battle ship. When entering by the S.W. passage, you have
merely to keep in mid-channel all the way through, as well as from thence
to the anchorage.

Crookhaven is a small but important harbour, lying 8-5- miles N.W. N.
from Cape Clear. It is only two miles in extent, from East to West, by
one-third of a mile in breadth. Its entrance lies between a rock called the
Alderman, on the South side, and a peninsula called Rock Island, on the
North. Although narrow, the harbour is well sheltered and commodious
for vessels bound to the eastward; the ground is good, and the water more
than halfway up, sufficiently deep for large ships. This is a very con-
venient place for vessels drawing 14 feet, during bad weather or easterly
gales, against which it affords the most ample shelter; but it is to be
regretted that the bottom has considerably risen, and the depth, in conse-
quence, decreased about 2 feet.

SOUTH COAST OF IRELAND. 563

A lighthouse is erected on Rock Island Point, at the northern side of the
entrance. The light is a fixed white one. The lantern is open to seaward,
and to the haven, from E. by S. to W. by N., and is elevated 67 feet above
the level of the sea. The light appears red over the Alderman Rock and
toward Streek Head, or when bearing between N.W. by W. and N. \ E. In
anchoring by night, therefore, keep northward of the red light.

Having fairly opened the harbour, run directly in, keeping in mid-channel.
The ruined signal-tower on Brow Head, three times its own apparent
breadth open to the northward of O'Driscoll's house, a remarkable white
one, entirely insulated, bearing West, will lead to the northward of the
Alderman Rock, and into the fairway.

The opening of Crookhaven cannot be made out until you are very near
the Alderman ; to make it, therefore, steer in due North from the Fastnet
Rock, keeping that rock South, as near as may be, until Mizen Peak comes
in one with Alderman Head. In proceeding thus, you cannot be deceived
because, at the same time, or nearly so, Mount Gabriel will appear in one
with Leamcon signal-tower and castle to the N.E., and Brow Head, with its
signal-tower, will appear to close in with Streek Head, to the westward.
The harbour will now begin to unfold itself; the revenue officers' houses on
the northern shore will first be seen, and, ultimately, Coghlan's tower, which
stands as above explained.

A vessel cannot enter Crookhaven unless the wind is to the southward and
eastward of S.S.W. by compass, or to the eastward and northward of N. by
"W. ; but when the wind happens to be foul for Crookhaven, it will prove
fair for Long Island Sound. You may anchor, with westerly and northerly
winds, at a mile N.E. from the Alderman Rock, in very good ground, but
great circumspection must be taken as to southerly winds.

Bantry Bay- lies to the northward of Dunmanus Bay ; it is large, safe
and commodious for nhips of any size. The stream of tide is scarcely
sensible in any part of it ; the water is sufficiently deep, almost close to
both the shores ; and there are no rocks nor shoals in the way, but such
as may be easily avoided, even in the night. Ships may stop anywhere
in the middle of the bay ; or, in most parts, near to either side. The Bay
extends nearly in the same direction as that of Dunmanus. It is 6 leagues
in length, and from 2 to 3 miles broad. Its entrance, between Three
Castle Head and Sheep Head, is 3£ miles wide. Off the latter point is a
rock of 18 feet at 2 cables' lengths from its extremity. The depth of water
throughout the bay varies from 10 to 31 fathoms, and the ground is of the
most tenacious description. It is, however, much exposed to westerly
winds ; but even when these prevail, the harbours named Bearhaven, Bantry,
and Glengariff, may be resorted to with great convenience, and even without
a pilot.

Bearhaven is an excellent harbour, spacious, and well sheltered from all
winds ; the ground is everywhere good, and easy of access, in a country
abounding with many necessary refreshments. Its proximity to the sea, and
situation on the coast, render it an excellent rendezvous for a fleet.

The lighthouse on Roanearrig Island will materially assist the navigation of
Bantry Bay, and more particularly that of the eastern entrance to Bearhaven,
off which it stands. It is a white tower, with a red belt round it, showing

564 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

a fixed light at 55 feet, which may be seen at 12 miles off, between E. £ S.
and N.W. by W. h W.

The haven has two entrances, one at the East end of Bear Island, and the
other at the West end. The western entrance is the most direct and con-
venient for ships from the westward or southward ; but the other is the
safest for strangers. You may anchor anywhere off the North side of the
island, in from 5 to 11 fathoms; but the best place is off Ballynakilla ; and
ships that wait for a wind only will find the West end of the haven most
convenient.

Valentia.— Brea or Bray Read is the S.W. extremity of Valentia Island,
which lies on the South side just within the entrance of Dingle Bay; the
island thence extends 6 miles East, and forms the harbour of the same name,
which is capable of receiving the largest ships. It affords excellent shelter
against all winds that blow, with good holding ground in 36 and 42 feet at
low water springs.

Those bound into this place should steer in for Doulus Head, giving the
northern side of Valentia a berth of about a mile or more, until the remains
of Cromwell's Fort, on which a light is established, bear S. by E., which
will then be in one with the square tower of the church standing on a cliff
of Valentia Island, considerably above the water's edge, and close to which
stands the parsonage house, now in ruins. This mark leads to the entrance
of the harbour. When passing Cromwell's Fort, keep one-third nearer
thereto than to Beginnis, to avoid the reef projecting from the latter.

COAST OF FRANCE.— In the upper part of the English Channel, the
coast of France is a part to be avoided by a passing ship. Upon it all the
power of the tide and wave which traverse the Channel from West to East
seems to be expended. Its shores are the depository of all the matter
washed and worn off from the shores to the westward, and the light drifting
sand of which they are composed, choke up all its harbours, and bar access
to any shelter when required for a ship in distress. All this is explained in
our Channel Directory; and in pages 304 — 306, ante, there are some remarks
upon the Tidal Streams, which are very peculiar here, and require very
much attention.

Ambleteuse Road, between Boulogne and Cape Grisnez, affords some
shelter from gales between N.N.E. and S.S.E. round by the East; but the
sea is very heavy, especially when strong winds appose the current, and
moreover the tidals streams are at times very strong, so that the ship may
become tide-rode in a very ugly position. Boulogne is difficult to enter on
account of the thwart current.

The Bay of the Seine is very dangerous. It is open to all winds from N.W.
to N.E., and the tides are very strong, so that ships embayed here with those
winds are in great danger. There is some shelter inside the banks, which
extend N. and S. of Marcouf, but the tides are so strong that they alone
will embarrass, and the formidable Race of Bavfleur, which runs around
Cape Barfleur so turbulently, is much to be dreaded in N.E. gales.

COAST OF FRANCE. 565

CHERBOURG, with its majestic Digue, affords excellent shelter, and
ample descriptions and directions are given in our English Channel Direc-
tions. The following are a few extracts : —

Cherbourg Eoad is comprised in the space between the Foint de Querque.
ville and Pelee Island, lying E.S.E. and W.N.W., 3f miles distant from
each other. Its southern limits are the shores of the two great bays, the
Ste. Anne to the West, and that of Cherbourg to the East, divided by Pointe
du Hornet.

It is sheltered on the North side by a magnificent artificial breakwater,
La Digue, built in 6 and 7 fathoms water.

The principal anchorages for large vessels and men-of-war are the Great
Eoad, and the western anchorage ; for smaller vessels, those called the Little
Road, and the anchorage between the Pelee Island Bank and the eastern
branch of the Digue.

The Bay of Ste. Anne does not offer many good spots for anchoring ; the
bottom is uneven, and the holding ground bad. And besides, vessels are in
great danger if caught here by gales between N.E. and N.W., which send
a bad sea into it.

The Great Eoad (Grande Eade) is the man-of-war anchorage, and is
limited to the North and N.E. by the Pelee Island Bank ; and extends to
the West as far as the North of the Church at Chei-bourg. In the North
part, the bottom is, in general, of schistose rock in a state of decomposition,
and the holding is good, but there are some spots of bare and cutting rocks.
The current of the flood begins half an hour after low water by the shore,
and ends three-quarters of an hour after high water in the military port.
Its greatest rate is two miles, and of the ebb If mile an hour.

The Western Anchorage, lying to the South, and near to the West end of
the Digue, is a fine bottom of sand and broken shells, four-fifths of a mile
in extent, and with 6 and 7 fathoms water. It is bounded on the South by
the rocky bottom, which, running from the Great Eoad, extends to the S.W.
of the West end of the Digue. The current of the flood begins then nearly
an hour after low water by the shore, and finishes an hour after high water
at the military port.

The Little Road (Petite Eade) is to the South of the Great Eoad, in the
part which is sheltered from West winds, and the sea occasioned by them,
by Fort du Hornet and the military port. In this anchorage, which is of
good holdiug ground, the pilots place those vessels waiting for the tide to
enter the commercial port. Strong winds from S.W. to S.E. are troublesome
in this anchorage, as vessels are liable to drive and be carried on the rocky
bottom of the Great Eoad, or even on to the Digue.

The anchorage to the South of the eastern branch of the Digue, which is
used by vessels seeking shelter, lies between the Digue and the northern
slope of the Pelee Island Bank, and extends from the Central Fort, where it
is a quarter of a mile wide, to nearly the West end of the Digue, at which
part it is narrowed to 1A cable in width. It is a sandy bottom, in some parts
rather muddy, the depth varying from 26 to 32 ft. Vessels are here shel-
tered from N.W. to N.E. round by the North.

Western Entrance to Cherbourg Roads. — Large men-of-war enter by tlio
n. a. o. 4 D

566 DESCRIPTIONS OF TIIE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

passes at each end of the Digue, tho principal of which is the West, lying
between it and the Chavagnac Fort.

You will run precisely in mid-channel, by keeping the little light-tower
(with a red light) on the end of the eastern jetty of the Port du Commerce
clear, but seen a very little distance West, that is, to the right of tho bat-
tery of the Fort du Hornet.

There is no difficulty in entering with a leading wind, but large ships
beating in must give the Chavagnac Fort a berth, and take care of La
Tenarde, off Fort du Hornet. It is considered that it would be imprudent
to attempt to beat in at night through the West Passage with large ships,
unless there is moonlight.

The flood tide sets here S.E. and E.S.E., 3 miles at its greatest strength,
and begins l h 30 m after low water by the shore, and ends l h 20 m after high
water at the military port ; the ebb current nearly the same, running to
N.W.

The passage between the Forts of Querqueville and Chavagnac is nearly as
wide as the former, but is not practicable for large vessels but between
half-tides of high water. As the bottom is uneven, and covered with rocks,
it is dangerous to anchor in it. No vessel should attempt it while it is calm,
as you risk being carried on to the rocks at the bottom of Ste. Anne's Bay.
There is no advantage in coming near the shore of this bay, with the wind
from land, as it frequently comes in gusts, particularly with those from
S.W.

The Eastern Entrance is comprised between the East end of the Digue
and the western slope of the Pelee Island Flat ; the most dangerous points
of it are marked by buoys. The mark for this passage was a beacon on the
rocks in front of the Hotel de Ville on with the church tower of Octeville,
bearino- S.W. by W. \ W., but this beacon has been lately removed.

The eastern passage is separated from the East part of the Great Eoad
by the Pelee Island Bank, the breadth of which on the above bearing is 4
cables' lengths ; the least depth on it being 22 feet. Besides being very
narrow, it is inconvenient from the currents crossing it obliquely. This
renders it dangerous for sailing vessels in light winds, and impracticable for
them in calms.

The approaches are facilitated at night by the following lights : — The first
is on the Guardhouse of Fort Querqueville. It is fixed, and 59 ft. above high
water, visible 9 miles off. A lifeboat is stationed here.

The second is on the Central Fort of the Digue, 5,100 yards E.S.E. of the
former. It is a fixed light, varied by a flash every three minutes, visible 10
miles off. The third is a fixed light, on the N.E. bastion of Fort Eoyal on
Pele Island, 1,750 yards S.E. by E. \ E. of the flashing light of the Central
Fort.

A fixed red harbour light is placed at the end of the East jetty of the Port
du Commerce, at 33 ft. above high water, visible 3 miles.

The extremities of the Digue itself are marked by a green light, visible 4
miles, on the eastern end ; and a red light, visible 7 miles, on the western
end.

The great bay which is formed on the coast between Cape la Hague and
the Brehat Isles, in which are the Channel Islands, is most dangerous to the

WEST COAST OF FEANCE. 567

stranger. Its furious tidal streams ; the countless rocks which cover and
uncover to an enormous extent in the great range of tide, render it impos-
sible in a few words to describe any of its navigation. Indeed, local and
intimate knowledge alone can conduct a ship through any of its intricate
passages.

ALDERNEY or Aurigny.— The eastern end of Alderney bears W.N.W.,
8£ miles from Cape la Hague. This island is about 3£ miles in length by
a medial breadth of three-quarters of a mile.

The coasts of Alderney are surrounded with rocks, which render the navi-
gation difficult and dangerous ; more particularly as the tides set strongly,
and in various directions. The chief port, that of Braye, is on the North
side of the island, and on the western side of Port Longy is a signal post.

Until of late years, Alderney possessed but two small harbours ; one,
called Port Longy, on the south-eastern side of the island, and the other,
the old harbour of Braye, on the northern side, both of which dry at low
water neaps. The Harbour of Refuge in Braye Bay consists of a breakwater
for the purpose of enclosing Braye Bay. The N.W. breakwater is com-
pleted, and extends 1,609 yards in a curved and E.N.E. direction from the
cape.

The breakwater shelters from westerly and N.W. gales the space within
a line drawn S.E. by S. from the outer end of the breakwater to Roselle
Point, including Braye Eoad, the old harbour of Braye, and the new har-
bour of Craby, which was constructed for the use of vessels employed in
bringing material for the new works. The whole of the anchorage thus
enclosed is sheltered from the N.W. ; the inner part as far as North ; and
the portion between the Braye Eock and the breakwater is only open from
E. by S., round northerly, to N.E. by E.

Two fixed red lights are exhibited at the head of the harbour of refuge to
mark the fairway channel by night ; the lower light is exhibited through a
long tube which screens it in every direction excepting on a line through the
middle of the fairway. This light is fixed on the parapet of the old pier at
Braye, and elevated 25 ft. above high water at spring tides ; it may be seen
5 miles off in clear weather. The upper light is fixed at the N.E. corner
of Braye reading room S.W. by W., 370 yards from the lower light ; it is
elevated 55 feet above high water, and may be seen from a distance of 8 or
9 miles

BAY OF BISCAY. — In former pages, when the best routes to the south-
ward were considered, the indraught into the Bay of Biscay is especially
mentioned as a tendency to be avoided. (See pages 324—326, 463, &c.)
But as it may sometimes happen that a vessel may get embayed without
being able to weather its outer points, only a few remarks on its more
available roadsteads will be given here. In the lists of lighthouses is given
descriptions of these monitors which well mark its coasts, and by means of
which a ship may avail herself of many anhorages, which it would occupy
too much space to describe here.

USHANT (Ouessant) is a steep craggy island, about 4 miles in length
from East to West, and 2 miles in breadth. On its S.W. side is a harbour,
that of Zawjmd, but of difficult access. The rest of the island is surrounded
with rocks, a part of the North side excepted, where there is anchorage.

.568 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

The anchorage on tho North side is between Ushant and a little island
named Queler, where vessels may lio sheltered from all winds but those from
the northward.

Douarnenez Bay. — This capacious bay, which, lies to the southward of
Brest Harbour, will accommodate a large fleet, it being more than 6 miles
in extent each way. Its entrance is so wide, and its bottom altogether so
clear and regular, that no leading mark is required ; provided that sufficient
berth be given to several rocks which lie on the North side, as generally
represented on tho charts. The course and distance from the S. W. end of Ushant
to the bay are, S.S.E. \ E. 10 leagues. There is nothing in the way that
can take a ship up ; only observing to avoid the Basse Vieille, off the Bee de
Chevre, on the North side of the entrance. This rock lies about one-third
over from the point, and appears just above water at two-thirds ebb. It is
steep-to, having from 17 to 12 fathoms close to it. The marks for it are,
Kidizient Mill, to the westward of St. Lawrence's Church, on with the
middle of a reef of dry rocks which lie off the Point or Beck de Chevre,
bearing E.N.E. £ E. ; a village, on with the N.W. cliff of the same point,
bearing N.E. by E. ; and the western Tas de Pois (or haystack), in one with
the Toulinguet Eock off the Lighthouse Point. Its bearing and distance
from the Bee de Chevre are, W. f- S. 1£ mile.

A clump of trees, with a small chapel in the midst, stands on the North
side to the eastward of Point Chevre, having a windmill to the westward,
and two to the eastward. With the windmill next to the eastward of these
trees, just open of the Chevre Point, you will have passed the Basse Vieille,
and may steer for what part of the bay you please, all being fair and clear,
excepting what may be seen above water, and what may be near the shore.
The best ground, however, is considered to be that toward the North' side,
being clear sand, with a depth of from 9 to 15 fathoms. The general depths
over the bay are from 18 to 12 fathoms ; and all, as before observed, is clean
ground.

The best leading mark into the bay is the high mount of Locrenan (in
the S.E.), just shut in to the southward of the Point Leide, a rock on tho
West of the little bay of Douarnenez. This will lead, in a fair course, clear
to the southward of the Basse Vieille.

The village of Douarnenez stands on the southern shore of the bay. A
red light is shown on the head of the mole. Tristan Island, on which is a
lighthouse showing & fixed light, visible 10 miles, lies off the village, and at
about three-quarters of a mile northward of it is the outermost of two small
sand patches, with 17 and 8 ft. water, which lie with the centre of tho island
in line with Plouare Church. There is good anchorage off the village in 5
or 6 fathoms.

Chaussee du Sein, or Saints' Bridge, requires but little description, as it
is clearly exhibited on the chart, and the lighthouses by means of which its
position is indicated at night are fully described in the list of lighthouses.
This extensive chain of foul ground trends 9 miles to N.W. by W. from the
principal island, and is studded all over with rocks, either above or under
the water. From the westernmost patch of 3J fathoms, Ushant lighthouse
bears N. by E. i E., distant 24 miles, and He de Sein S.E. by E. £ E., 8£
miles, and a little open southward of Pointo du Baz.

WEST COAST OF FEANCE. 5G9

BELLE ILE. — This island, being high, and seen from a great distance,
may afford good shelter in a westerly gale. Its N.W. end is in lat. 47° 23',
and its South point in lat. 47° 16'. The N.W. end of the island is sur-
rounded with rocks. In a line between the East end of the island and the
He de Groiz, lies the rocky bank called the Birvideaux.

If a ship, with the wind at N.W. or W.N.W., keeps between the latitudes
above mentioned, when running for the island, on approaching she may
steer along the South side at the distance of 2 miles, to Point de tfEchelle, or
Point des Canons, the S.E. extremity. From this poiut haul up for Point de
Jierdonis, the easternmost point, which is situate 2\ miles from the former.
Under this point may be found anchorage, in from 15 to 8 fathoms, shel-
tered from N.W. and westerly winds. Should the wind here veer to S.W.,
a ship may run to the northward of the point, and anchor on the N.E. side
of the island.

On the South side of the island there are many rocks near the shore, both
above and under water.

Four lighthouses stand on the shores of Belle-Ile. On the North end of
the island a Iright flushing light is shown at an elevation of 112 feet on the
Pointe des Poulains. This light in line with the light at Goulfar clears the
Birvideaux Eocks. Near the middle of the S.W. side of the island, Port
Goulfar light-tower exhibits, at 276 feet above high water, a white light,
which revolves every minute, and is visible, in clear weather, at a distance of
27 miles. Care should be taken that this light is not mistaken for the re-
volving light on the Plateau du Four, 25 miles eastward of it. Lights are
also established on the moles at Le Palais and Sauzon, in Belle He.

The Isle of Uadic, which lies about 7| miles East from the East end of
Belle He, has many rocks, with foul ground about them. The fixed light,
near the eastern point ot the isle, may be seen about 9 miles off. The Car-
dinals extend to the S.E irom Ha>dic, and the extremity bears E.S.E. £ E.,
1 2 miles from the S.E. end of Belle He. Should a ship be driven to the
eastward of Belie He, she must give the Cardinals a good berth, and may
then haul up to the northward for anchorage.

In the Bay of Quiberon, after you have brought the Cardinals to bear
S.S.W., S. by W., or South, there is good anchoring, with clear soft clay,
and very even soundings, in from 10 to 12 fathoms. With these bearings,
you will be shut within some foul ground, lying off the Cardinals, in an
extent of 3 miles in leDgth, with the Cardinals from W. by S. to S.W. by
compass.

BASQUE ROADS lie within the Isles of Be and Oleron. The northern
point of Oleron has a lighthouse, called the Tour de Chassiron. The rocks
which surround this end of Oleron, called the Antioche Rocks, on which is a
refuge beacon, extend 2 miles to the East of the lighthouse ; but within
them there is anchorage. The Tour de Chassiron exhibits a fixed light,
elevated 164 ft. above the sea.

On sailing into the Eoads, it is safest to keep over to the Isle of Ee, until
near the S.E. end of it ; only taking care to avoid the Lavardin, marked by
a tower. Then steer for the West part of the Isle of Aix, a low fortified
island, which lies about halfway between Oleron and the main land, and
has a bright light on its South point, which bearing S.E. by S. will clear

570 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

the slioals off tbo East side of Olcron, and lead to an anchorage in the
southern part of Basque Eoad. The roads extend from the Lavardin Shoal
to this little island, and havo from 10 fathoms close to the shoal, to 12 and
13 in the middle of tho road ; and from 5 to 9 fathoms at about \\ mile to
the North and N.W. of the Isle of Aix. There are 6 fathoms at half a
league West from the island, and good ground.

The soundings in mid-channel, between the Isles of Be and Oleron, are
generally from 12 to 15 fathoms, shoaling towards each side. This channel
is nearly 2 leagues in breadth. The French Man-of-war Boad is on the
South side of the Isle of Aix.

The Roche Bonne. — This very dangerous shoal is a great flat of rock
situate between the parallels of 46° 10' and 45° 15', at 12 leagues westward
from the lighthouse on Baleine Point. The plateau extends N.W. i- W. to
lat. 46° 15', with a breadth of 2 or 3 miles. A lightvessel is moored on the
East side of the plateau, in lat. 46° 12' N., long. 2° 20' 51" W., and shows
two fixed white lights. In clear weather they should be seen from a distance
of 10 miles. During foggy weather a bell will be sounded for one minute at
intervals of three minutes, but on a near approach will continue sounding.
Too much confidence must not be placed in the vessel retaining her station.

The rocky bottom, situate to the N.N.W. of the Boche Bonne, is known
to the fishers under the name of Banche Verte, and is not dangerous. West-
ward of the rocks, in all their extent, the bottom is of mud.

The GIR0NDE. — The entrance of this river, with the banks and rocks that
impede its navigation, are so clarly exhibited on the general chart of the
bay, and particular chart of the harbour, as to render a minute description
unnecessary. But care is requisite at all times, as the banks and channels
shift very much. The lights are described in the list.

The Tour de Cordouan, standing nearly in the midway of the mouth of
the river, is the most elegant lighthouse in Europe. This tower was com-
pleted in 1665; its original height was 169 French feet; but in 1727, the
upper part being calcined, an iron lantern was erected, which increased its
height to 175 ft. ; and its elevation is now given as 63 metres, or more than
206 ft.

Its light is revolving, and visible to the distance of 9 leagues. The eclipses
succeed each other once in a minute ; but every great flash of light is imme-
diately preceded by a flash less brilliant. In ordinary weather the eclipses
do not appear total within the distance of 3 leagues. The light shows red
to the north-eastward between N. by E. f E. and E. by S.

Pass die JSford. — The mark for the entrance by day is the Church of St.
Palais and that of St. Pierre de Boyan in one, bearing S.E. £ E. Tho
churches lie on the North side of the river, and about 8 and 10£ miles
respectively above Point de la Coubre ; this direction will lead across the
bar, and about one-third of a mile off Point de la Coubre, leaving the light-
vessel to starboard, when off the latter point, and when the semaphore
comes between the two beacons on the point, as given on the chart, you will
have fairly entered, and should change the course to S.E. \ S., which may
be continued for 8 miles, until the church of St. Palais bears North, about
half a league distant. From the last spot a S. S.E. course, 6£ miles, will
bring you up to Mecher Road, where there is good ground of sand and mud,

WEST COAST OF FRANCE. 571

and from 8 to 10 fathoms at low water. The Passes are each buoyed
according to the French system, black buoys to the left to port, and red to
starboard in entering. Buoys painted red and Made in horizontal bands may
bo passed on either side.

Should circumstances require it, you may run up and take shelter under
the Point de Grave, which affords a safe retreat during westerly and S.W.
winds. The mark is, Eoyan steeple and mills N.E. £ N. At this place,
between Verdon and the bank called the Taille Fer, coasting vessels are
commonly sheltered in bad weather.

By night. — Vessels entering the Gfironde by the Passe du Nord should
approach by keeping the lights on Point de la Coubre and Palmyre in a line
S.E. by E. J E. until the lightvessel on the Grand Banc is in one with the
Cordouan light ; keep these two in line until near the lightvessel, which pass
to the northward, then steering eastward until the red leading lights of St.
George and Sulzac are in one E.S.E. \ E., which are to be kept so until the
lights of Tallais and Eichard are in one. By day the lighthouses serve as
leading marks.

The Passe de Gravels 12 miles southward of the Passe de Nord, and 8
miles in length. To sail through this channel, bring the light-tower {fixed
green light) on the downs of St. Nicholas in line with that on Pointe de
Grave {flashing light) E. £ N., and steer with these on until the Chay light'
tower and that of Poyan {each a fixed red light) are in line N.E. by E. £ E.,
proceed with these in line until the Talais floating light {fixed white) is in
line with Eichard light-tower {fixed red), which is the leading mark up to
the anchorage in Verdon Eoad. If these marks are followed, 12 ft. at
least will be carried over the shoalest parts at low-water springs ; but if
they are departed from, there must not be a greater depth than 8 ft. calcu-
lated upon.

In going through the Channel de Grave, be cautious of advancing too near
the shore, as the tide of flood sets strongly upon it; and never, if avoidable,
attempt to anchor in it.

No large vessel should attempt to leave the river by this channel, unless
with a rising tide and favourable wind.

Tides. — At the entrance of the Passe de Grave, with the Cordouan Tower
bearing N.E., the tides set as follows : — First of the flood, North ; one-third
flood, N.E. ; half and two-thirds flood, E.N.E.— First ebb, S.E. ; one-third
ebb, South ; half and two-thirds ebb, West. In the channel within, with
Cordouan bearing N.N.W., the flood sets, generally, E.N.E., and the ebb,
W.S.W. Between the great Bank of Cordouan and the Point de Grave the
flood sets, generally, S.E. ; the ebb from West to W.S.W.

The tides, both ebb and flood, set through the different channels with
rapidity ; and great caution is therefore requisite on making the river.
Should the landmarks be obscured by thick weather, or if night comes on,
it will be prudent to anchor in the first convenient spot.

Bayonne stands on the left bank of the Adour, at the confluence of that
river with the Nive.

Care should be taken, when bound for the Adour, to keep to the northward
of the entrance, if the wind has previously prevailed from N.N.W. to East;

572 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

but southward of it, when the wind has prevailed for five or six days from
South to W.N.W. Experience proves that in the former case the current
sets to the S.W., and that vessels have sometimes been carried down to the
coast of Spain ; and, in the latter, they have been drifted northward of the
bar, where, finding no shelter, and being unable to keep off the land in bad
weather, they have been stranded between the Adour and Vieux Boucaut.

To the North of the Adour there is no anchorage in bad weather, not
even in the Fosse of Cap Breton. A vessel may, however, run for a chance
of saving her crew on the beach at the head of the Fosse ; but, to gain the
entrance in bad weather, it is necessary to work off about G miles from the
coast. To the North and South of the Fosse the sea breaks heavily on the
sandy flats, where it is scarcely passable. It may be worthy of notice that
in the event of unusually bad weather, and when a vessel can neither pass
the bar or remain in the open sea, she can often seek refuge in the roadstead
of St. Jean de Luz.

St. Jean de Luz Bay, at 10 miles S.W. of the Adour, is three-quarters
of a mile wide and half a mile deep, and affords anchorage in 3 to 6 fathoms
water, sand and rock. It has been made suitable for a harbour of refuge in
bad weather by the construction of a breakwater about 30 ft. above the sea,
extending from Socoa across the bay to the eastward. There are mooring
buoys in St. Jean de Luz Bay.

At night. — Entering St. Jean de Luz Bay, bring Socoa fixed bright light
to bear S.S.E., and steer for it; when the two fixed red lights on St. Barbe
Point are in lino, alter course and keep them so until the two fixed green
lights at Siboure are in line ; this last course leads between Socoa mole and
Artha breakwater ; when Socoa light has changed from white to red, haul to
the S.W. for the anchorage, and anchor when the light appears white in the
anchorage.

A red or tricoloured flag indicates that a vessel can enter the port ; when
it is hauled down, and a flag hoisted on the end of the jetty, the vessel should
anchor.

COAST OF SPAIN.— Off the North coast of Spain, which is high, bold,
and rocky, the depth of water, in general, is from 150 to 200 fathoms, foul
ground and coral ; but, in many places, there is no gi-ound at that depth,
even near the shore. The pi-incipal harbours on this coast are those of
Bilbao and Santandcr ; yet both of these are devious and shoal.

Bilbao. — Its entranco, which is 3 miles wide, is formed by the points, named
Luzuero and Galea. On Galea is a lighthouse, showing a bright fixed light.
The greater part of its coast is lofty, steep, and rocky ; but the bottom of the
bay, on the eastern side, is low and sandy.

On Cape Machichaco, 10 miles to the eastward, is a lighthouse, showing a
fine fixed light, varied by a flash every 4 minutes.

The mouth of the River Bilbao is impeded by a shifting bar, having less
than 1 fathom over it at low water. Here are two piers or kays, within
which is the town of Portugalete, and off which is the best anchorage in the
harbour. Spring tides rise about 13 ft. In winter a heavy sea sets into tho
bay, which at times renders it impossible for the pilots to go off.

In coming in, when the tide does not serve for taking the bar, with an
unfavourable wind, you may come-to in the bay, midway between the outer

COAST OF SPAIN. 573

points, Luzuero and Galea; bring the latter in a line with Cape Villano, in
16 fathoms, with sandy bottom. There is here sufficient room, in case a
heavy on-shore wind should bring home the anchor or part the cable, to let
go a second anchor, before the ship can get ashore. In summer you may
lie nearer to the land, in from 10 to 12 fathoms, all tho bottom being of
sand.

On making the bay from the westward, Point Galea, on the eastern side,
may be readily known by its white colour and lighthouse. Should you
pass Santona, the bay may be thence distinguished by three sharp-pointed
mountains ; of these the northernmost is that of Luzuero, the middle one and
highest, the hill of Serantes, on the West of the bay. The southern one
appears liko an island. On steering for the first, you will of course mako
Point Luzuero.

Pilots seldom await vessels eastward of Bilbao, as tho land is generally
made to the westward. A chief pilot,' whose duty is to guide vessels across
the bar, is always in attendance outsido the bar, and his boat will be known
by a red flag, with which he directs the vessel's course, when tho entrance
is practicable.

Santander. — Of this harbour a particular plan is given on tho Chart of
the Bay of Biscay. Cape Mayor with its revolving light visible 20 miles, is
on the western side of the entrance. Cape Menor, or Little Cape, half a mile
more to the S.E., has a battery on it. This is lower than Cape Mayor, and
terminates in a low flat point, with a small reef of rock below it.

On the same side, at the distance of 1 3-10ths miles to the south-eastward
of Cape Menor, is Point Puerto, where a green light is shown from a brick
tower. Vessels coming from the westward will not sight this light until it
bears S. £ W., on which bearing it clears the shoal water off Cape Mayor.
The land between Cape Menor and Point Puerto forms the sandy Pay of
Sardinero, in which vessels anchor, when the wind and tido do not serve for
going into the harbour. The best anchorage here is with tho Capes Menor
and Mayor in one ; and at 3 cables' lengths from the former you will find
from 10 to 12 fathoms, bottom of sand ; but more to the southward it is all
of rock or stone.

The extensive sands on the South side of the harbour frequently shift, and
a great portion of them is dry at low water. On the North side, from Point
Puerto eastward, the coast is rocky, and defended by several batteries. Tho
town has a small pier.

With the wind blowiug fresh from the S.W. or N.W. quarters, it is im-
possible to take the harbour of Santander ; but vessels may, with flood tide,
occasionally bring up in the Eoad of the Promontory, which is clean and
roomy, and there wait for a wind. With an ebb tide it will be bettor
to come to in the outer bay, off the beach of Sardinero, as already de-
scribed.

An islet named Monro, which is high and steep, lies in the entrance at half
a mile N.E. from Puerto Point ; on it a bright light is established ; close to
its eastern side is a large rock, and there is a shoal at a cable's length to the
N.W. of it; otherwise there is deep water around it, and the channels on
eacli side are clear and good.

N. A. 0. 4 E

.'574 DESCEIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

Although Santandcr is considered as the best harbour on the North coast
of Spain, eastward of Cape Ortegal, there is little doubt that it is now filling
up, and that the channel and even the anchorage now used may, in a few
years, become impracticable. Pilots wait under the lee of Puerto Point, and
it is compulsory on all vessels above 50 tons to take one.

On Cape Penas is a revolving light, visible every half minute ; on Capie
Btcsto (long. 6° 29') is a bright fixed light with a red flash every 2 minutes;
on the Orrio de Tajria, near Eibadeo, is another fixed and flashing light ; and
on Cape Esiaca is a revolving light. These principal lights, with the others
described in the list, will indicate the chief points of the coast.

CAPE ORTEGAL, Cape Prior, with the other headlands in the vicinity,
are high and steep. The ground without generally rocky and foul. At the
foot of Cape Ortegal are nine or ten sharp-pointed rocks above water, with
15 or 16 fathoms close to them ; and there is a rocky shoal at half a mile
N. by E. from the cape. A watch-tower on the highest land, at If mile
from the cape to the southward, is a good mark for distinguishing it from
seaward. Hence to Cedeira the land is steep and rugged, but to the north-
ward of Cape Prior it falls into sandy bays. At different distances from
shore are many scattered rocks, on which the sea breaks in a swell.

Both the stream of tide and current of the sea set in toward the land of
this coast ; so that the utmost attention is requisite, in order to avoid being
embayed with light winds. With a good steady breeze, large ships may,
however, pass safely within 2 miles of Cape Ortegal.

FERROL. — From Cape Prior to the Harbour of Ferrol the land is highly
mountainous, with large rocks above water along shore. On Cape Priorino,
6J miles S.E. by S. from Cape Prior, a bright fixed light, varied by a red
flash every 2 minutes, is shown. This cape, which forms the North side of
the entrance of Ferrol, may be rounded at the distance of half a mile or less.
The bay, forming the entrance of Ferrol Harbour, is only a mile wide ; and
the channel from it into the harbour but 2 cables' lengths in its narrowest
part. There is, nevertheless, sufficient depth in mid-channel for large ships
at all times of the tide, viz., 8 to 10 and 12 fathoms. When within, you
keep over to the North side, where you may haul up, and anchor in from 4
to 6 fathoms, sheltered from all winds.

CORUNA, &c— The North part of the Peninsula of Coruna is distin-
guished by the remarkable lighthouse called the Tower of Hercules, con-
structed with three sides, and exhibiting a fixed light with flash every three
minutes. On the coast, without the elevation on which the lighthouse stands,
there is a bank of rocks extending N. W. to a considerable distance ; but,
from the meridian of the lighthouse a ship may range along the coast into
the harbour, to the S.E. and South, and find anchorage with the town bear-
ing S.W. in 14 and 15 fathoms. A fixed light is also shown from St.
Antonio Castle, and a red light on the mole head.

At 19 miles to the westward of Coruna is St. Adrian Point, off which are
the Cisargas Islands. On the largest of these stands the lighthouse, which
Bhows a bright fixed light, varied by a red flash every 4 minutes, at an ele-
vation of 358 ft.

From CAPE ST. ADRIAN, the high land continues to the Bay of Cama-
rinas, with rocks above and under water. Cape Villano, on which is a light-

COAST OF POKTUOAL. 615

house, is of roclr, not very high, but perpendicular toward the sea. Within
it, at a short distance, is a sharp peak, of a red colour, which at a distance
appears like a tower. At the distance of a cable and a half N.N.W. from
the cape is the Rock of Bufardo, steep-to, and over which the sea breaks.
. CAPE TORINANA, which is 3 leagues to the S.W. f W. [8. 7V. hj 8.~\
from Cape Villano, makes a sharp and steep projection into the sea ; it is
not very high. At a distance it is not always distinguishable from the high
land at the back of it. E.S.E. 1 mile from Cape Torinana is the African
Rock, which breaks in rough weather. This coast must be avoided as much
as possible on account of the sunken rocks lying off it.

The Nave of Finisterre, a high mountain, stands at the distance of 5§ miles
to the S. by W. £• W. [South'] from Cape Tori li ana. Its summit is flat ; and at
about one-third of its height from the sea there appears to be a short point
with hummocks on it, and having at its base a small but high island. In
the bay, formed between Cape Torinana and the Nave of Finisterre, vessels
may safely anchor during north-easterly and easterly winds, off a fresh-
water rivulet, in from 6 to 8 fathoms, sandy bottom, but not in deeper water,
as there the bottom is rocky. Care must also be taken not to advance too
near the North shore, as it also is foul.

CAPE FINISTERRE is only half a league South of the Nave. It may
be readily known from the sea ; because there is a bight between it and the
Nave with low beach, and the land behind less elevated. As there are no
other points like these on the neighbouring coast, they cannot easily be mis-
taken. There is a lighthouse on it, which shows a bright revolving light at
half-minute intervals.

PORTUGAL.— The coast of Portugal is varied with rocky prominences
falling away into low sandy bays. Its harbours universally require the
aid of pilots. Such are Viana, Oporto, Aveiro, and even Lisbon. The latter
has, however, a good channel with 6 fathoms over the bar at low water, yet
it should not be attempted by a stranger, lest the winds fall calm, and the
strength of the current set him on the banks. Here the powerful operation
of the tides has caused the destruction of many ships. Off the city the ebb
runs down at the fate of 7 knots, and the danger in entering is when a
strong ebb is running down, opposed to a strong wind from the sea, which
makes a complete break, sometimes all over the bar. Under these cir-
cumstances a vessel is almost unmanageable, and the tide may sheer her
about ; but in the middle of the South Channel the tide sets directly through.
To enter the river with a sailing vessel, during the ebb, would require a
brisk gale and all sails set, in order to make any way, or even to stem the
current ; and it is to be observed, that within the river the wind comes very
irregularly through the valleys on each side, unless it proceeds from the
West or S.W. It is, however, tolerably steady when in the direction of the
river.

CAPE ST. VINCENT.— A light is shown from the convent, revolving
every two minutes, at 221 feet. About 50 yards from the Cape is a high
isolated rock. Soundings extend to a considerable distance from Cape St.
Vincent. To the southward of the Cape fishing-boats may frequently be
seen at anchor, fishing about 8 miles off shore.

570 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

Off the Capo to the westward the surf, by beating on tho precipitous and
cavernous rock, may sometimes be heard to a surprising distance.

GORRINGE OR GETTYSBURG BANK, lying between the Madeira Isles
and Cape St. Vincent, at about two-thirds of the distance from the former,
was first discovered by Commander Gorringe in the U.S. eteatn-sloop
Gettysburg, in December, 187G, while engaged in carrying a line of deep sea
sounding between Gibraltar and the Azoros for telegraphic purposes The
bank was examined by Commander Egerton in II. M.S. Salami's, in March,
1877, this latter examination extending over four days.

The area of the Gorringe Bank, comprised within tho depth of 100
fathoms, is nearly circular in shape, has an average diameter of 5 miles, and
is included between the parallels of 36' 29£" and 30° 34£' N., and long.
11° 32' and 11° 38' W.

The shoalest part, within the depth of 35 to 30 fathoms, appears to be a
narrow ridge 2 miles in extent, running nearly East and West; the least
depth of 30 fathoms being confined to a small patch in lat. 36° 31£ N., and
long. 11° 35 J W.

The nature of the bottom at depths under 50 fathoms was found to consist
of rock and coralline matter; in depths exceeding 53 fathoms, pebbles, coral-
line substances, shells, and sand.

Beyond the depth of 100 fathoms the sounding increase rapidly. The
depth of 1,000 fathoms from the shoal ground being about 5 miles in a
northerly direction; G miles in a southerly; 13 miles to the westward;
and 1 1 miles to the eastward. At 20 miles distant in a north-westerly
direction, 2,750 fathoms were found, and in a north-easterly direction, 1,640
fathoms.

The tide was observed in H.M.S. Salami's, when at anchor on the shoal
ground, 'on 4th March (spring tides), to set regularly N.E. and S.W., with a
maximum velocity of about 1£ knot.

Fish in abundance were caught on the bank.

San Lucar, or the Port of Seville. — A vessel bound for San Lucar, or
Seville, should, after sighting land, bring the town of San Lucar just open
of the point on which stands the ruin of the Fort of Espiritu Santo, and
with the Bonanza and Malandar lighthouses in one, bearing about East,
steer for them until Espiritu lighthouse bears S. by E. ; then keep a little
to the northward, and bring Malandar lighthouse in one with the South end
of Bonanza custom house, which will pass the Riza spit in 4 fathoms. When
off the end of the reef, Espiritu lighthouse will bear about S. by W. £ W.,
and when the reef is rounded, steer for Salvador Castle till Malandar light
bears N.W. £ N., then steer about N.E. J E. for Bonanza Road, and anchor
with the light bearing S.E. i E. in about 4 fathoms, sand. The lights are
described in the table.

It is best to wait till flood tide to run in with. Weather permitting, a
pilot may always bo obtained, but they only put off when a ship is bound to
the port.

It is recommended that no ship taking the bar of San Lucar should
attempt it on the ebb tide, especially if they have any suspicion that there
are freshes in the river, because, with a broken sea and strong tide, a vessel
may sheer on shore before she could recover herself.

WEST COAST OP AFRICA. 577

TRAFALGAR. — Cape Trafalgar, by the ancients called the Promontory of
Juno, is about 15 or 16 miles to the eastward of Cadiz, and 23 or 24 miles
to the southward of it ; its appearance is flat, and distinguished by a white
building, and a lighthouse showing a revolving light every half minute.

2.— THE COASTS OF AFFvICA, FROM TANGIER TO CAPE
MESURADO.

Caution Before proceeding with the description of the coast of Marocco,

we will direct the attention to the following notice, issued by tho British
Consul, and which notice ought to be borne in mind by all frequenting these
coasts : —

In consequence of several boats' crews having landed from shipping
of various nations, on the open coast of Marocco, or West Barbary, in
search, it is supposed, of water or other provisions, the Moorish authorities
are desirous that all persons bo cautioned that it is not only against the law
of this land, and against the sanatory regulations, to land on any part of
this coast, in places where there is not a port for its reception, but that,
in consequence of the strict injunctions given to the people of this country
by their government to prevent any persons whatever "setting footing on land,
or approaching near to it on the open coast, the lives of those who infringe
the laws in such respect are exposed to danger.

The undersigned feels it, therefore, his duty to give all the publicity he
can to this notice, for warning all commanders and masters of vessels, and
especially those navigating under the flags of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland, not to venture, upon any account, to land, or to allow
any person under their care or orders, to land or approach within gun shot
of the coast of Marocco or AVest Barbary, excepting within the harbours of
any of the well-known ports of this country. — E. W. Drummond Hay,
Consul.

TANGIER. — The town of Tangier, anciently called Tingis and Tingia,
which stands on the western side of the bay, is now a place of increasing
importance in the export of grain, beans, hides, oxen, wool, &c. The great
desideratum of the port of Tangier is a mole, there being no kind of pier
either for the landing of goods or passengers. The old mole was destroyed
by the English in 1683, and a new one opened in 1876. On the head of this
a small fixed reel light is shown at an elevation of 20 feet, said to be visible
3 miles off.

The bay affords convenient anchorage for vessels of all sizes, opposite to tho
town, in from 9 to 12 fathoms, sand; but it is to be observed that on the
southern side there is a rocky ledge, the Boure& Rocks, bearing E. by S. £ S.
from Tangier Point, and S.W. by W. from Cape Malabata. This cape, in
a line with Europa Point, Gibraltar, leads clear of the shoal, and the an-
chorage, therefore, lies with Gibraltar open of the cape. Ships moor to tho
N.W. and S.E., with the longest cable to the N.W.

578 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

On the South side of the bay is a high and pleasant-looking hill, and
about the town is a wall and some fortifications. On the shoalest part of the
ledge, before-mentioned, the depth is only 16 feet, and there are 5 fathoms,
on rocky bottom close to it. It is about half a mile off the shore, and not
more than 3 or 4 fathoms in length. Between it and the eastern shore are
10 fathoms of water, and at the distance of about 10 fathoms from it are
7 fathoms. On entering the bay with an easterly wind, you may borrow
towards Point Malabata at pleasure. From the anchorage, in 8 fathoms,
the North end of Gibraltar, open to Malabata Point, bears N.E. by E. % E.;
the old bridge of Tangier, S. i W.; the old tower of Malabata, E.S.E. f E.;
and tile town of Tangier, N.W. by W. £ W., about 1 \ mile distant. There
is broken coral all over the bay, and ships should never lie with more cable
out than is sufficient to keep them from driving. There is said to be a spot
of clean ground, in 9*- fathoms, with the North part of Tangier town wall
on with a white patch on Cape Spartel, bearing W.N.W. \ W., and the
pleasant hill above-mentioned bearing from S.S.W to S.W. by S. Easterly
or Levant winds cause a heavy swell to tumble into the bay.

It is high water, on full and change days, at l h 42 ra ; the tide in the bay
rises 5 to 8 feet; the flood sets to the westward till 12 h , but does not extend
thus more than lh mile from the shore.

In all the extent letween Cape Spartel and Cape Cantin (lat. 32° 32') as shown
on the chart there are regular soundings toward the shore. In this track
there are no harbours of consequence ; those which exist being nearly
choked up with sand. On sailing along, the inland mountains may be seen
at a great distance, covered with snow, even in April and May.
" CAPE SPARTEL, the N.W. point of the state of Marocco, is situate in
lat. 35° 47' 40" ; and long. 5° 56' W. The cape, at a distance, appears like
an island, and is so high as to be seen, in clear weather, at the distance of
15 or 16 leagues. The ground about the cape is quite clear, with the ex-
ception of some high rocks, steep-to. The Lighthouse, which is the first
established on the coast of Marocco, is a well-built stone tower, 79 feet
high, standing half a mile East of the cape, and showing a fixed bright light
at an elevation of 312 feet.

Around the West side of the cape, and at about one-third of the whole
height from the summit is a range of well-defined basaltic columns, appear-
ing like a coronet. At the distance of 2 miles from shore are 98 fathoms,
the bank immediately dropping to an unfathomable depth. To the south-
ward of the cape the bank extends much further off, and there is excellent
anchorage on a bottom of mud and sand, and shelter from easterly winds.

The following descriptions of the coast between the parallels of 36° and
28^ (those of Cape Spartel and Cape Juba), we owe principally to the Survey
of Lieutenants W. Arlett, in the JEtna, and H. Kellett, in the Haven,
1835-36 ; and to the notices of Mr. T. J. Evans, of H.M.S. Dido, 1837-38.

From Cape Spartel the direction of the coast is S.W. 20 miles to Arzilla, a
small fortified town situate close to the shore, between which and Capo
Spartel there is good anchorage all along with a easterly wind. The deptli.fi
of water are regular, 10 to 15 fathoms, over a sandy bottom, at 1 or 2 miloO
off shore. The coast-line is a flat, sandy and shingly beach, rising to a fino
grazing country in tho interior.

WEST COAST OF AFEICA. 579

The Roadstead of Jeremia, the usual anchorage near Cape Spartel, extends
from it 8 or 10 miles to the S.W. The Dido anchored in the following
positions in smooth water, and well sheltered from a strong Levanter, or
easterly wind.

1st.— In 15 fathoms, sand and small shells, Cape Spartel bearing N.E. £
N. ; the town of Arzilla, S. by W. f W. ; extremity of land to the right,
two points nearly in a line, S.W. by S. Distance to the nearest shore about
1 1 mile ; soundings very regular to a depth of 5 fathoms, at 2 cables' length
from shore.

2nd.— In 13 fathoms, coral rock, gravel, and sand, Cape Spartel bearing
N.E. £ N., centre of the town of Arzilla, S. \ E. ; two bold and prominent
points to the S.W. of the town, nearly in a line S.S.W. f W.

At the village of Almadronis, nearly midway between Cape Spartel and
Arzilla, landing can.be effected.

Four or five miles to the N.E. of Arzilla is the Wed el Ayasha, a small
river, barred across the entrance, but reported to flow sufficiently strong for
a good supply of water ; and the distance to roll the casks, the boat being
anchored clear of the surf, not above 50 yards. The preceding description
shows how far caution may be required.

Twelve miles inland from Arzilla is the Mel Sahib, a range of mountains
very conspicuous from the sea, the loftiest of which is 3,170 feet above the
sea. Jibel Hasan, another peak in this range, more to the northward, is
2,270 feet high. Just to the North of the town of Arzilla is a castle in
ruins ; and date trees, which overtop the walls, are growing in the court.
On the wall fronting the sea, which is strengthened by three towers, twenty
guns are mounted. Under the southern angle of the wall is a well white-
washed tomb. The country around is well wooded, and a quantity laid out
in gardens. The population is supposed to exceed 600.

In the latitude of Arzilla the bank extends 12 miles from the land. Here
is a mackarel fishery, on which twenty or thirty Spanish and Portuguese
feluccas are emj>loyed. The method of taking the fish is by three hooks
fastened together : the fisherman throws a handful of salt or sand into the
water, to which the fish rise, and are immediately jigged with great
dexterity. They are cleaned and salted on the spot.

From Arzilla the coast trends to S.W. | W., and at the distance of 4 miles
the coast hills rise to the height of 734 feet : at 5 miles further is the Soffit
el Beida, a remarkable white cliff, in the shape of a wedge, which rises to
308 feet above the sea, and presents the same form in all directions. It may
be distinguished when five leagues off; but the best mark for the coast is the
Peak of Fas, an insulated mountain, resembling a sugar-loaf, which stands
S.S.E. [S.S. 2° £.] from off the entrance of Laraiche, next described.

LARAICHE or El Araiche, a picturesque ruin, is situate on the deep
southern point of the Eiver Al Ehos, which here meanders through a rich
and fertile valley ; Al Klxos signifies the how; El Araiche, the pleasure-garden.
The population of Laraiche in 1876 numbered about 5,000, of whom 4,000
were Mohammedans and 1,000 Jews. Wheat, barley, maize, beans and
pease grow in the district. About 150 vessels visit the place during a year.
Supplies are abundant, and there is a fine spring of water on the northern
shore, very convenient for shipping.

580

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

! A

Vessols not drawing above 12 feet water can pass over
the bar during spring tides, the average depth of water
being 13 feet. The best anchorage is with the town be-
tween South and S.S.E. The mouth of the river, which
appears very broad, is really very nai-row at low water,
and has then only 5 and 6 ft. water over it, but there is a
rise and fall of 9 to 12 ft. Inside the water deepens 24
feet. A " pap," or rising point, on the North side of the
river, is 201 ft. high above the sea. The best anchorage
in the roads for vessels intending to enter the river is with
the distant conical mountain, Fas, appearing in the centre
r f the entrance, 1 mile from the point, in 12 fathoms, sand.

Between Arzilla and Laraiche the ground is tolerably
clean, but not very good, being coarse gravel, with 25 and
30 fathoms of water, at from 1 to 3 miles from shore.
Before Laraiche the depth decreases, and there are only
4 fathoms at 2 cables' length from shore. In sailing along
this coast, care must be taken not to advance too near,
unless it should be with a strong easterly wind ; for some-
timos, in calm weather, there is here a heavy swell from
the West or N.W., which would render it difficult to get

off shore.

The site of Old Mamora is known by several whitewashed
tombs, the chief of which is that of Muley fiti Selham, at
the outlet of a stream said to flow from a small lake 20
miles to the southward of Laraiche. At 2 cables' length
from the bar is a depth of 5 fathoms, gradually increasing
to 34 at 2 miles from shore. The coast between Laraiche
and this spot is straight, and for the most part about 300
feet in height ; reddish cliffs for the first 10 miles, then
sand-hills partly covored with brushwood. There are
everywhere from 20 to 25 fathoms of water, at half a
league from shore, and you may anchor off the coast hence
to Sla or Sali. Ships, in fact, must sometimes anchor here,
during a calm, to avoid being drifted by the currents,
which set to the southward, along the coast ; and the velo-
city of which, especially at the full and change of the
moon, is frequently from 1 to 2 miles an hour.

The Peak of Fas, above mentioned, serves as a mark for
Old Mamora, from which it bears nearly true East.

From this place the coast extends 10 leagues S.S.W
to Mahedia. The coast is very clear, a little higher than
the former, and readily known, being of white sand as far
as about the middle of its declivity, while the upper part
appears like cliffs. The River Sebou, on the South bank
of which the town is situate, is impassable, except in boats,
or on rafts, at some distance from the sea, although navi-
gable near the ocean. The town extends from the sea-
shore to the top of the highest land, so that you may

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 581

readily distinguish from the offing the walls of an old castle, situate in the
upper part of it. Ships may anchor, at half a league, from shore, in 12 or
14 fathoms, sandy ground; but when the wind blows from the offing, and
sometimes in fair weather, the swell is here very great, as well as along the
coast. The best anchorage is with the town from S.E. by E. to S.E. by S.

MaJied iy eh was formerly a place of some consequence, and is noted for tho
ruins of fountains, arches, &c. Tho town now contains only 300 to 400 in-
habitants, chiefly fishermen, who subsist by the sale of shebbel, an excellent
fish, much like salmon, which is caught here in great abundance.

In the summer the wind generally prevails from N. by E. to N.E. along
the coast. During winter, there is a blustering S.W. and S.S.W. wind ;
and, in this season, when it begins to chop about to the South or S.E.,
shipping must get off, for then it commonly shifts to the S.W. and W.S.W.
with foul weather. When it changes to W.N.W. or N. W., the weather is
likely to be clear.

Between Mehedyeh and Sla or Sali, the coast is rather low, with double
land, very even, with a white sandy strand, therefore readily known. At
about half-way the strand rises, and thence, southward, the shore consists of
black and steep rugged rocks, with small hills.

SLA and RABAT. — The towns of Sla and Rabat are divided by the river
called the Bu Itegrel. Sla, or Salt, says Captain Washington, once tho
terror of the seas, so renowned for its rovers, whose daring exploits reached
even to our coasts ; whose city and port were a constant scene of riot and
bustle, and activity ; now ruinod, still, and lifeless. The present town, built
on a sandy point, extending to the sea, forming the north-eastern bank of
the river, is about half a mile in length by a quarter in breadth, surrounded
by walls 30 feet high, and square towers every 50 paces. The mosques,
arches, and fountains in the city show traces of beautiful sculpture, and of
great antiquity. Streets narrow, and houses sombre, like all Moorish towns.
Population about 10,000, of which 500 may be Jews. In the year 1876,
44 vessels entered, of which 23 were English. Export chiefly wool, grain,
beans, &c.

The river is here about 500 yards broad when full. The bar, about one-
eighth of a mile from the entrance, extends almost across in a W.S.W.
direction, with 3 or 4 feet on it at low water, leaving a channel at each end ;
the Moors use the eastern. Rise of tide 9 or 10 feet. From tho anchorage
off-shore the water shoalons very gradually till close to the bar, where it
suddenly drops from 7 to 2 fathoms. Here is almost invariably a heavy surf.
Mr. Vice-Consul James Hay said, in 1865, that the bar can only be crossed
by vessels drawing less than 8 feet water.

Rabat, on the S.W. side of the river, is 50 or 60 feet above its level, on
banks of crumbling sandstone. It is crowned by a venerable and battle-
mented Kasbah, or citadel. A curtain of 500 yards, facing the sea, flanked
by two circular batteries of twelve guns each, about as many more in the
Kasbah, and a small battery overlooking the river at the S.W. end of the
town, form its sea defences. The town is three-quarters of a mile long by
one-third in breadth, and walled orchards of about 200 acres roach along
the banks of the river.

N. a. o. 4r

582 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

A remarkable old tower at Rabat, called the tower of Beni Hassan, is the
best seamark for this placo. It is built of hewn stone, is 189 feet in height,
35 or 30 feet broad. At a small distance to the northward of it are the
ruins of an ancient wall, on which were formerly a battery and castle.

The country in this neighbourhood is planted with vines, oranges, and
cotton, of an excellent quality. There are docks for ship-building, both at
Sla and Rabat.

The Road of Sla is dangerous for shipping, and the accumulation of sand
at the entrance will scarcely permit a vessel of 100 tons to enter the river
without danger. Vessels may lie in safety out of the river, near Rabat,
from April to September inclusive ; but they are not secure in the rest of the
year, the wind blowing from the southern quarter, and often obliging them
to quit their moorings. The best anchorage in this season is between the
Mosque of Rabat and the old tower of Hassan, keeping the former to the
northward. As a great number of anchors have been lost in the road, much
attention must be paid to the cables. Mr. Vice-Consul Frost, in 1875, men-
tions the fact that, in 1875, many vessels coming here were unable to com-
municate, and a proposal was on foot for placing a hulk outside the bar for
the reception of cargo when communication is impossible.

El Mansoria, shown on the chart, is a square of 150 paces, enclosing an
Arab village. The tower of the mosque, 80 ft. high, stands 180 ft. above
the sea, from which it is less than a mile distant, and may be visible at 6
leagues. The coast here is iron-bound and rocky.

Fidallah, a peninsula, frequently mistaken for an island, forms a harbour,
having a depth of 5 or 6 fathoms, which affoods shelter to small vessels
during westerly winds. A roadstead here is supposed to be the only one,
with the exception of Agadi, in the parallel of 30° 27', wherein ships on the
coast may ride in security during winter. This is owing to a projection of
the land South of the peninsula, above mentioned.

The village of Fidallah, situate at three-quarters of a mile from the sea,
is a walled square, of about 200 paces, enclosing a respectable mosque, the
ruins of European merchants' houses, and an Arab encampment. It may
perhaps, contain 300 inhabitants — Moors, Arabs, and Jews.

Between Rabat and Point Fidallah there is no danger beyond a quarter
of a mile from shore ; the Bank of Soundings extends to the distance of 20
or 22 miles from the land, increasing south-westward. From 160 fathoms,
mud, the water shoalens suddenly to 90 or 80 fathoms, between which
depths and 60 fathoms it continues for many miles, sand and mud, decreas-
ing to 30 fathoms at 3 miles from shore. The inland features vary slightly;
two lines of barren and gently undulating hills, from 230 to 300 feet in
height, extend nearly parallel to the coast ; the more distant are from 4 to 6
miles from the sea, the nearer not more than a mile, sloping gradually to
the beach, which is generallly sandy, with occasional patches of rock.

DAR EL BELDA or Casa Blanca (both names meaning "White House"),
lying at 4 leagues W. by S. from Fidallah, is a small walled town on the
beach, within a point projecting half a mile N.N.E. true, and forming a
cove, three-quarters of a mile deep, and well sheltered from westerly winds.
This town, as well as Fidallah, was built for the exportation of corn. In
1876, beans, maize, and pease were exported to the value of £83,074. The

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 583

towers of three mosques are conspicuous, and one is of superior height.
Around the town are many palm-trees and gardens ; water is abundant.

This place is easily known by its towers, one of which seems almost as
high as Hassan's Tower at Sali. The coast between is low, and bordered
with small islets, all very near the land.

The anchorage is good at 1| or 2 miles from the shore, where there is 15
to 17 fathoms water. Near the town there are reefs extending nearly a
quarter of a mile from the shore, over which the surf is constantly breaking.
Between the anchorage ground and the shore a good bottom is found ; but
in consequence of a strong current which sets in from the westward, you
should anchor beyond its action.

The landing-place is a narrow entrance with a sandy bottom about forty
yards wide, with reefs on either side, over which the surf breaks in almost
all weather. In making for this entrance the shore boats, long before they
approach, steer to windward, and afterwards shape their course for the
inlet, aided by the current. Strong W. or N.W. winds stop communication
with the shore.

AZAMOR. — On a sand-hill at about 13 leagues to the south-westward of
Dar el Beida is the small town of Azamor, situate on the South side of the
mouth of a river called the Morbega, or Wad-oom-er-begh. Its walls, crum-
bling to ruin, are tenanted by storks. The place is dull and lifeless ; streets
narrow and dirty ; but provisions, fish, vegetables, and fruit, abundant and
good. The population about 1,000, including Jews. These carry on a con-
siderable trade in wool, which is shipped from Mazagan. The inhabitants
of the country around, who are of superior stature, are chiefly pastoral,
possessing large flocks of sheep and goats, and mostly live in tents. Wood
is scarce and dear.

The bar of the river is dry at low water. The entrance is dangerous, and
the shore flat, having not above 8 or 10 fathoms of water for 1 or 1£ leagues
from shore, and foul rocky ground, so that it is not safe to anchor hereabout.

MAZAGAN. — From Azamor to the remains of the town of Mazagan, or
Mazighan, on the S.W., the distance is 10 miles. This place is on a low
rocky point, projecting to the N., which forms the western limit of a sandy
cove, of about \\ miles, and affording a good roadstead for small vessels.
It is defended by several redoubts. Excellent water, and good supplies may
be got. A large proportion of the buildings are used as store-houses for wool,
beans, maize, &c. of which great quantities are hence exported. There is a
tank, admirably constructed, which will contain several thousand tons of
water. A lofty building, 140 feet high, now in ruins, appears to have been
a lighthouse. There is anchorage off the coast, at a league from the shore,
in 15 fathoms, sandy ground; but at the West point of Mazagan is a ledge
of rocks, which stretch to the N.E. about a league into the sea, and are un-
covered at low water. A dangerous patch of rocks, because the sea only
breaks on them at low water in bad weather, lies 720 fathoms W.N.W. from
the old light-tower. The best anchorage is to bring the two flagstaffs on
the Sardinian consul's house in one, and anchor in 5 fathoms water ; by
doing so, you come upon a patch of blue clay, the rest of the bay being all
rocky bottom without exception. The shore hence toward Cape Blanco
North is everywhere rocky and dangerous, to a considerable distance from

584 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

it ; and ships that stop here must anchor at 2 leagues off, in 35 or 36
fathoms of water, oazy ground. The swell is almost always very great, and
the current is very strong. From Mazagan to Port Blanco the distance is
4 leagues. The shore between is merely a ridge of saudhills. About mid-
way are the ruins of Tett, or Tid, an ancient town, and a conspicuous tower,
128 feet high, and 118 feet above the sea, which may therefore be seen from
a great distance. Two largo tombs, kept whitewashed, stand on either side
of it.

The coast hereabout should not be approached nearer than 1J mile, as
scattered rocks lie off the shore, and the bottom is very uneven. The beach,
in some places sandy, is generally lined with craggy rocks. A line of barren
hills, 200 ft. high, slopo to the beach along the whole distance, and termi-
nate just to the northward of the- cape in a low and dark but abrupt and
rocky cliff.

CAPE BLANCO North.— This is in lat. 33° 8', a littlo to the southward
of the headland last mentioned. It is 170 ft. high, appears to bo of white
sandstone, and the lines of strata, white and red, rising parallel to the
horizon for some distance, suddenly drop at nearly a right angle to the
water, and the cliff appears like a wall. In a bight on the S.W., which is
formed by the cape, is a good anchoring place of sufficient extent for several
ships.

At 22 miles westward of Capo Blanco are soundings of 150 fathoms, fine
sand, gradually decreasing to 28 fathoms at 4 miles from the shore.

A dark and rather projecting cliff, formerly represented as an islet, under
the name of Duksal, stands at about 4 mile3 southward from Capo Blanco ;
and, at 6 miles from the cape, hills rise gradually from the beach to the
height of 465 ft., the greatest elevation on the western shore of Marocco.
Hereabout are the ruins of Woladia, where it seems there was once a har-
bour. At 4 and 7 miles to the southward of these, on the edge of the cliff,
aro those of two other small towns, supposed to be Eder and Teturia.

CAPE CANTIN, or Has al Hudik (Cape of Palm Groves), in lat. 32°
32£', is a steep headland, which rises precipitously to 211 ft. above the sea,
and has a ledge of rocks projecting from it ; on its summit is a small sepul-
chre. At 16 miles westward from the cape are soundings of 100 fathoms,
fine sand ; this depth gradually decreases eastward.

From the preceding description it will appear, that between Cape Blanco
and Cape North the coast is much bigger than the coast between Cape
Blanco and Laraiche. It trends to the S. by W. £ W. 21J leagues, and
is safe all along, having only some small islets very near the land. At
2 leaguos off the depths are 40 and 50 fathoms, oazy ground. The cur-
rents are very strong, and generally run in the direction of the coast, S.W.
byS.

From Cape Cantin to the North point of Asfee, or Soft Bay, the coast trends
S.S.W. {nearly South) 4 leagues, and is much higher than the coast already
described. Between these points, at the distance of a league from shore, is
a rocky bunk extending North and South, true, having over it from 30 to 40
fathoms, and at times abounding with fish. From the North point of the
bay (which is foul) to the town of Asfee, or Safi, the distance to the S.S.E.
is 2£ leagues.

WEST COAST OF AFBICA. 585

San, Saffe, or Asafi.— The North cape of the Bay of Safi forms two head-
lands ; on the southern one is a tomb, or sanctuary. The coast between Cape
Cantin and the bay is one continued white cliff, with a sandy beach at its
base; the cliff, rising gradually to its southern pi-ojection, is there 530 feet
in height, and here the bay commences. In the bight within is a ravine,
the bed of a winter torrent ; and on the slope stands the ancient town of
Safi, in lat. 32° 18' or 32° 19', between two hills, which render it intolerably
hot; and, in winter, very disagreeable, as the waters from the neighbouring
mountains, occasioned by the rains, discharge themselves through the main
street into the sea. The road is safe in summer ; but in winter, when the
wind is from S. or S.W., vessels are frequently obliged to make off to sea.

Safi is a considerable town, surrounded by a wall 31 ft. high, with a ditch,
and defended by 24 heavy guns, next to the sea. The tower of one mosque
is 209 ft. above the surface. Fresh water is scarce, and procured from
wells southward of the town. The country in the immediate vicinity appears
Eandy and barren ; but the interior abounds in corn, and two falls of rain in
a year are said to be sufficient to bring it to maturity.

During the summer months, or from March to October, the bay affords as
good anchorage, and smoother water, than any other on the coast, but is
entirely exposed to westerly winds ; the bottom is of sand and mud, and
thero is generally a depth of about 15 fathoms at a mile from shore. Vessels
may anchor at a league from the town, in 20 or 22 fathoms of water, gray
"and oazy sand. To anchor in the road, the North point, on which stands a
low tower, must be brought a little to the northward of N.N.E. Or, far-
ther in the bay, the same point may be brought North (by compass) a little
easterly, when the northernmost of the northern points will appear about
a ship's length open, without the southernmost ; and the high castle of the
town S.E. by E. or S.E. ; the depths 14 to 18 fathoms, fine gray sand.
There is also anchorage within, in 15 fathoms, with the North Point
N.N.W. or N. by W. ; but these are the summer roads ; in the winter, you
must anchor farther from the land, in 20 or 22 fathoms, as already shown.
You may boldly run in to the summer roads by night, with the castle bear-
ing E. by S. or East.

If bound to Safi, from the northward, shape such a course as will lead
sufficiently to the westward of Cape Cantin, in order to avoid the rocks
about that cape. You may easily know on which side of Safi you aro
standing, as the land to the northward of the bay is high and uneven, and
that to the southward of it is plain, even land.

From the South point of Safi Bay, which is very low, to the mouth of
the Wad Tansift, or Biver of Marocco, the coast trends S.S.W. £ W. 16 miles,
and presents, generally, a line of sand-hills, from 140 to 200 ft. high, which,
in some places, terminate in low cliffs, and in others slope to the beach.
Inland is a ridge of sandy-looking hills, covered with brushwood, the highest
G50 ft. above the sea. There is a large tank on shore, nearly midway be-
tween Safi and the Tansift, and on the southern bank of the river is an old
castellated building, square and roofless, which was built for the use of
travellers. The Bar of the Tansift, although a considerable river, is in
summer entirely dry at low water.

From the Tansift the coast extends in the direction of S.W. by W. h W-,

586 DESCEIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

to a low sandy point, forming a cove to the northward of it, with rocks
within half a mile from the beach. The coast, which from the Tansift is
barren and uncultivated, is from 200 to 300 ft. in height, here assumes
features of fertility. The lofty Jib el Ifadid, or Iron Mountains, extending
more than 20 miles, is a mass of high land, which here rises to the height
of 2,350 ft. ; another, nearer the sea, with a conspicuous tomb on its sum-
mit, rises to 2,100 ft.

A sandy beach continues from the reef point nearly S.W., 12 miles, to
Mogador ; the inland prospect is here bounded by the Botof sand-hills, which
extend parallel to the beach, at the distance of a mile.

MOGADOR, Suerrah, or Suirra, exports almonds, esparto, beans, goat-
6kius, gums, olive oil, orchilla weed, ostrich feathers, bees-wax, &c. In
the year 1877, 40,289 tons of shipping entered the port, of which 9,327 was
British and 24,076 French. The population of Mogador numbers 14,000 to
16,000 inhabitants, of which 4,000 are Jews. The town is built on alow
flat desert of accumulating sand, which separates it from the cultivated
country, and is defended from the encroachment of the sea by rocks, which
extend from the northern to the southern gate, though, at spring tides, it
is almost surrounded by water. There are two towns, or rather a citadel,
and an outer town. Those Jews who are not foreign merchants, are obliged
to reside in the latter, which is walled in, and protected by cannon a3
well as the citadel.

An island, which lies to the S.W. of the town, forms the harbour. This
island is about 1| mile in circumference ; and between it and the main land,
on the South, is the anchorage. There are here, in some parts, only 12 ft.
at low water ; therefore large ships do not enter the port, but anchor at
about 1£ mile westward of the Skala, or long battery, which extends along
the "West side of the town toward the sea.

On approaching the land in the parallel of Mogador, the first remarkable
feature which appears, is the craggy summit of Mount Atlas, covered with
enow, and contrasting with the dark ridge of hills between it and the coast.
To the northward the Jibel Hadid appears insulated, and, as you draw
noarer, a long patch of sand becomes visible ; and finally, the white towers
of Mogador rise, as it were, from the water. Soundings, in 100 fathoms,
may be found at 23 miles from shore, when the water immediately becomes
discoloured ; the soundings decrease very gradually, over a bottom of sand.

Mogador has a beautiful appearance at a distance from the sea, the houses
being all of stone, and white. The streets are, nevertheless, narrow and
dull. A winter seldom passes but some ships are driven ashore by the
S.W. winds ; and this happens generally between the 8th of December and
the 18th of January, the season called Liali by the Arabs, and the only
period dangerous for shipping in the bay.

The want of water has been diminished, by the construction of an aque-
duct, which conveys the stream from the river, 1 \ mile distant to several
large tanks in different parts of the town. A watering-place is constructed
near the landing-place of the port, where vessels can water from, at high
water, with great facility. The market is excellent ; provisions of all sorts,
including fish, poultry, and game, are abundant and cheap ; as are, also,
fruit and vegetables.

WEST COAST OF AFEIOA. 587

The position of the British Consul's house, as given by Lieut. Arlett, is
2 L° 30' 29" N., and 9° 46' 0" W. Capt. Boteler makes the longitude 9° 44'.
From the roof of this house, the highest snowy peak of Atlas is seen, bear-
ing S. 45° E.

The roadstead, during the winter, can scarcely be considered tenable ; and
oven in the summer, the strong N.E. winds which prevail cause a very
disagreeable sea. A westerly wind throws a very heavy swell into the
harbour ; but, notwithstanding reports which prevail to the contrary, it is not
generally unsafe for vessels properly found in cables and anchors. "A
steamvessel may always consider herself safe, taking the precaution if she is
inside, to have two anchors down, one N.W., the other S.W., and having
the engines ready to assist the cables." — Annuario de Madrid, 1865.

The North Passage into the harbour, which is 2J cables across, is between
the town and island. A ledge of rocks extends from the main, among which
those next to the island stand high above water. In coming from the north-
ward, if you would sail in behind the island, you must run between it and
those rocks, close by them, where you will have 5 fathoms of water. The
best anchorage is under the island, in 2|- fathoms, as there the ground is
good.

South Passage. — A small reef extends from the South end of the island,
toward the main land ; and on the South side of the passage a bank extends
from the main land to a considerable distance. The channel is tortuous,
and has only from 3 to 3£ fathoms at low water. In sailing outward, run
along by the latter, and you will soon be in 4, and thence to 10, fathoms of
water. The tide flows here, on the full and change, at 4 h , and rises from 10
to 12 ft. The current is scarcely perceptible.

When the town was attacked by the French squadron under the Prince
de Joinville, August 15-16, 1844, a survey was made of the place by Lieut.
J. A. Prouhet, and the marks he gives for entering by the North Passage,
is to bring the three central towers, or portions of the Emperor's house
(which stands about If mile duo South of the town), in line, or rather the
two to the S.E., just open of that to the N. W. pavilion.

To leave the anchorage, run towards Cape Sem, until the two northern-
most pavilions come in line about E. by S. true, when bear away to the west-
ward, keeping them in one till well past the island.

At 8 J miles S.W. from Mogador lies Pas Tagrifelt, or Cape Sem, a low
eandy point, sloping gradually from the height of 490 feet, and terminating
in a reef of rocks which extend, on all sides, to the distance of rather more
than two-thirds of a mile. The coast between this and Mogador is a con-
tinuous line of bare sand-hills, 70 ft. high, and sloping to the beach. • In
the background are the Botof sand-hills, covered with a dark evergreen.
Under the cape is said to be a rocky bank, stretching 2 leagues off, and upon
which, at a league from shore, has been found 13 fathoms ; at 2 leagues, 20
fathoms, rocky ground ; at 3 or 4 leagues, 35 and 40 fathoms, oazy sand.
Hereabout the current sets violently to the southward.

Cape Tefelneh.— Cape Tefelneh, at 18£ miles S.S.W. from Cape Sem,
rises to the height of 780 ft., and terminates in a point from which a ledge
of rocks extends half a mile, with deep water close to them. There is an-
choring ground under it, on the South, affording shelter from East and

588 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

N.E. winds, in 10 fathoms, eand. At 8 miles to the northward of Capo
Tefelneh is JTuIeiJiat, a small village on the side of a wooded hill. A little
stream, Tidsi, falls into the sea at its foot, through a picturesque ravine ;
between these, high cliffs, apparently of sandstone, face the sea.

CAPE GHIR, or Geer (properly Has Afemi), is situate, according to
Lieut. Arlett, in lat. 30 c 37' 30", and long. 9° 52' 30", and projects boldly
into the sea at 25 miles to the southward from Cape Tefelneh. The inter-
mediate back land rises to the height of 2,895 ft. above the sea ; the country
appears wooded, and numerous villages and tombs may be seen. On ap-
proaching Cape Ghir from the westward, it presents a bold bluff slope on
each side, the highest part 1,235 ft. above the sea. The depths of water
gradually diminish, and soundings are found at 26 miles off. The coast
between Cape Tefelneh and Cape Ghir is a sandy beach. Cape Ghir is very
remarkable, and may be seen when 4 leagues off. To the northward of tho
cape, about 4 miles within land, stands a round hummock, which is a mark
for the cape, and the land farther to the northward is still higher ; but on
approaching the cape no land will be seen to the southward of it. From the
North side of the cape a reef extends to some distance out to sea, and
should not be approached nearer than in 20 fathoms of water.

AGADIR, or Santa Cruz.— The town of Agadir, or Santa Cruz, stands at
6 leagues south-eastward of Cape Ghir, at the bottom of the bay of the same
name. This is the last port of Marocco in the Atlantic Ocean. The ruins of
the town, called by the Portuguese Fonte, remain at the foot of the moun-
tain ; and the arms of that nation are yet to be seen in a building erected
over the spring.

The bay is considered as the best road for vessels on the coast of Marocco,
being large and well sheltered. It abounds in fish, immense quantities of
which are caught by the inhabitants of the town. Owing to the jealousy
of its government, Agadir has ceased to be a place of trade ; yet it was
formerly the centre of a very extensive commerce, whither the Arabs, and
the people of Soudan, resorted to purchase merchandise for the markets of
the interior of Africa ; and caravans were constantly passing to and from
Timbuctoo.

From the northward high barren hills slope to the beach, which is
rocky, to the distance of 5 miles N.W. of Agadir, where a streamlet, the
Wad Tamarect, flowing through & green valley, discharges itself into the
sea. The high land, extending from Cape Ghir to Agadir, usually called
the Heights of Idantenau, is the western extremity of the main chain of
the Atlas, which ranges hence in an E.N.E. direction, and rises at 9 miles
eastward of Agadir, to the height of 4,408 ft., and a remarkable conical
hill, 3,980 ft.

At 6 or 7 miles to the N.W. of Agadir, above a point stretching into the
bay, is a good anchoring place, with from 20 to 12 fathoms. In sailing
from the cape to the road, be sure to run along by the land of the cape till
you are before the castle, because northerly winds are very prevalent here ;
and should you keep too far from shore, you may be forced to fetch it up
again with difficulty. If coming in by night, approach no nearer than in
12 or 14 fathoms.

To anchor in the Eoad of Agadir, enter tho bay so far that the castle

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 589

may bear N.N.E., and the storehouses E.N.E. Here you will be to the
southward of a rocky ledge, lying off the town, in 7 or 8 fathoms of water.
The best riding is with Cape Ghir bearing North, in 6 or 7 fathoms. Care
must be taken to have your anchors ready ; your small bower is always to
be laid out before the land-wind, and the others to soaward ; the sheet-
anchor must also be in readiness, and brought out to the S.W. against a
storm, which is soon perceived by the rising and swelling of the sea. It is
likewise necessary to keep the foresail to the yard, that you may defend
yourself the better, should you happen to be driven from your anchors.

From Agadir southward the authority of Marocco lessens, and the Wedi-
noons proudly boast their independence.

Immediately to the southward of Agadir a very low and fiat country com-
mences, and extends thence 29 miles. At 5 miles to the southward of
Agadir is the mouth of the Suss, a fine river, rising at the base of the Atlas;
but the bar is dry at low water, and can never be passed by vessels drawing
more than 4 or 5 ft.* From the Suse the coast southward continues sandy.
The Wad Messa, about 30 miles from the Suse, has, likewise, a bar dry at
low water, but may have 4 or 5 ft. over it at high water, spring tides. At
a short distance within this, on the North side, is a village ; and near the
beach, on the South, is a castellated building.

At a few miles to the northward of the Messa are the wells called Tomie,
or the Seven "Wells, off which is an open roadstead. On this parallel, about
30° 0', is a depth of 86 fathoms, dark sand, at 16 miles from shore; and
45 fathoms, sand and mud, at 5 miles from the same, decreasing thence
gradually to the beach.

Cape Aguluh of the charts is only a slight rounding of the coast, in lat.
29* 49', long. 9° 48'. f From the Messa southward the beach still continues
sandy, but verdant hills, approaching the sea, break off into cliffs, appa-
rently of sandstone, about 100 ft. in height. In the interior is a ridge of
high mountains, at 50 or 60 miles from the coast. The interval between
appears like a wooded and well-cultivated country, with many houses and
farm buildings. Immediately to the southward of the cape is a little sandy
bay, and a valley crossed by a bill, on which stands the village of Aguluh.
A small stream runs down the valley. The slopes of the hills were waving
with corn, nearly ripe, in May, 1835. At half a day's journey (by land)
South of the Messa is a small town, called by Mr. Elton, Seed Bom Noire,
where there is a small harbour.

At 12 miles to the southward of Aguluh, the features of the country
change ; the hills become barren and abrupt, and form in successive ridges,
gradually increasing in height till they join the line of distant mountains,
which rise to the height of nearly 4,000 ft., and appear to be the S.W. ex-
tremity of an off-set of the Atlas. More to the southward the appearance
of the inland country continues the same, but the coast changes to dark

* Mr. "W. J. Elton, Vice-Consul at Mogador, says that the depth in the mouth of tho
Suse and of the Messa (Massa) is 12 feet at high, and 2 leet at low, water.

t "Where the Messa has commonly been represented. The latter, we presume, 13 in lat.
29° 56' or thereabout.— Ed.

N. A. O. 4 O

590 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

red cliffs, broken into coves, on the beaches of which boats may be seen ;
and there aro many villages, but inhabited by people of perfidious cha-
racter.

In lat. 29° 22', is a remarkable white cliff, supposed to be of limestone,
and described by Lieut. Arlett as follows : — It strata are extremely curved
and irregular, and it forms a good mark for the coast ; behind it, and stand-
ing alone, is a conical shaped mountain, rising to the height of 3,900 feet.
In this latitude, at 25 miles from shore, are soundings in 105 fathoms,
broken shells ; outside of this the bank drops very suddenly. On standing
in-shorc the soundings decrease rapidly to 60 fathoms. At 5 miles from
shore are 28 fathoms, coarse sand ; the depth thence decreases very gra-
dually to the beach. From the cliff above described the country assumes a
more rugged and barren appearance ; the hills steep, with deep and narrow
ravines ; the coast, alternate hills and sandy bays, with prominences rocky
and rugged.

In 29° 10' N. is a cove, marked on the charts Reyuala or Gueder. A rocky
prominence on each side projects to a short distance ; the sides are steep
and barren ; these are separated by a deep and narrow ravine, down which
a slender stream finds its way to the sea. In this cove the water is deep,
and bottom clean to the beach ; a landing may generally be effected in it,
but it affords no shelter.

In lat. 29° 3' the mountainous country terminates, and a sandy desert
commences. There is also a break in the coast, which seems to be tho
dry bed of a river, and is called by the Canarians Rio do Play a Blanca, or
White Beach River. At 4 miles to the southward of this the coast is of
bold sandstone cliffs, with sand-downs in the interior devoid of herbage, and
thus it continues to Oape Noon, in lat. 28° 45' 45', as shown in page 32.

Cape Noon presents a cliff of sandstone 170 ft. above the sea; but owing
to the cliffs to some distance on each side being of the same height, and the
country inland a flat desert, it is difficult to make out the exact projection
till very near it. The cape is steep-to, and clear of danger.

Here the depth gradually increases outward ; and at the distance of -1
miles from shoro the depths are from 30 to 54 fathoms, bottom of reddish
sand; at 12 miles, 57 fathoms, dark sand; and at 30 miles, 98 fathoms,
coarse red sand ; the water then deepens very suddenly. For a long dis-
tance, both to the northward and southward of the cape, as well as to sea-
ward, the water is very much discoloured. It has a red tinge, and is so
thick that the track of a ship is visible for a length of time. At 4 miles to
the south-westward of Cape Noon is the River Shleema (the Akassa of tho
charts); and at 31 miles more, in the same direction, is the Akassa, in lat.
28° 19'. (This must be the Inoon of the Chevalier de Borda, given in
page 32.) Each river has a bar, but both appear to have deep water inside,
and the banks of both are verdant and fringed with shrubs.

The Shleema, when well open, may be recognised by two remarkable
hills, which will then appear in the centre of the gap. They are conical ;
and on one of them, 325 feet high, are some ruins, said to be those of a
fortress. The coast between Cape Noon and the Shleema affords secure
anchorage, with moderate depth of water, from the month of March to
October.

WEST COAST OF AFKICA. 59i

WEDINOON, or Noon, is a kind of intermediate depot for merchandise
on its way to Soudan, and for the produce of Soudan going to Mogador.
Gums and wax are produced here.

The coast line between the Shleema and Akassa (or Inoon) is a continued
sandstone cliff. A table-land, about 900 ft. high, at 3 miles from the shore,
shows just above the cliffs, near which there is a regular depth of 20 fa-
thoms, with good ground. On approaching, the table-land appears to break
into detached hills, one of which, 950 ft. high, and more insulated than the
others, serves to identify the river.

The Fishery carried on by the people of the Canaries commences near the
parallel of Cape Noon, the fishermen seldom venturing to the northward,
although fish are equally abundant, from their dread of the Moors, who on
that part of the coast, possess boats. From the cape to the Bank of Arguin
(an extent of 200 leagues) the inhabitants of the desert have not a single
boat. The fishermen frequently land, not only to procure water, but to
barter their fish for wood and orchilla ; on these occasions great precautions
are taken, as atrocities have frequently been perpetrated on both sides.

Porto Cansado. — From the .River Akassa (Inoon of Borda ?) the coast and
country continue as described above. The cliffs are above 120 ft. in height
to lat. 28 c 7', or to Porto Cansado of the charts. Here the cliffs terminate,
and a low sandy beach begins, continuing in a S.W. direction 18 miles, to
lat. 28° 2', long. 12° 14', where there is the entrance of the Porto Cansado of
the Portuguese, which is described in the Narrative of Judah Paddock.
The entrance of this harbour is narrow, widening inside, and forming a sort
of lagoon. The sea breaks heavily across, and at times it is barely possible
that boats may enter. Its only distinguishing mark is a table hill, 580 feet
high above the sea.

From Porto Cansado the coast trends westward to Cape July, in 12°55" W.
At a short distance to the westward of Porto Cansado, a cliff, from 90 to 100
feet in height, again commences, and continues for 17 miles. The cliff is
of dark sandstone, and the bottom, being also of darli sand, gives a green
appearance to the water. A flat desert extends inland ns far as the eye can
reach. There is no beach, the sea breaking against the cliffs, on which it
appears to be encroaching. Where the cliffs terminats, the land becomes
broken into sand-hills partly covered with bushes, and the coast trends in a
true direction S. 80° W. to Cape Juby, 15 or 16 miles.

Cape Juby is a low sandy point ; near its extremity is a hummock, covered
with bushes, appearing like an islet. Eocks extend from the cape to one-
third of a mile. Here the coast changes abruptly to S.W. (true), and forms
some coves, off the points of which are scattered rock3. From Cape Noon
to Cape Juby the bank of soundings extends to an equal distance, and the
depth increases very gradually to the shore.

Currents along Shore. — During five months (from March to August), the
time occupied by the JEtna and Raven, in the survey of the coast, a distance
of 750 miles, no day passed in which the former was not at least twelve
hours at anchor, usually at the distance of from 4 to 5 miles from shore, and
in positions well adapted for making observations on the currents, which
were constantly attended to. Independently of this, the Raven was re-
peatedly sent to the distance of 20 and 30 miles from land ; particularly

592 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

when fixed and conspicuous objects afforded opportunities for ascertaining
her exact position ; by comparing which with that which should have been
given by the course steered, the rate and direction of the cm-rent could be
ascertained to a considerable degree of exactness.

From Cape Spartel, along the coast, to Arzilla, and also to the distance of
7 or 8 miles from the shore, a regular tide was experienced, running parallel
to the coast ; but its strength was rather greater to the northward than to
the southward. In this distance, at 15 miles from land, no tide or current
was perceptible.

From Arzilla, southerly, a tide was still experienced, gradually diminish-
ing in strength till its direction could not be ascertained. From the parallel
of 34° 30' N. to the distance of 20 miles in the offing, a steady southerly set
was first experienced. This current, in the offing, continues invariably to
follow the direction of the land; its velocity increasing or diminishing from
the rate of four-tenths to 1 mile an hour, according to the strength or dura-
tion of the north-easterly winds.

From Mogador to Capo Boiador, except in particular instances, the cur-
rent continues invariably to run in the direction of the coast. Its greatest
strength is usually at the distance of from 3 to 6 miles from the land, gra-
dually decreasing on receding from it. Its average rate between 3U-° to
28° N. is from one-half to three-quarters of a mile in the hour. At Cape
Juby, probably from its stream being in some measure confined by the pro-
jecting capo, and perhaps by the Canary Islands (distant 58 miles) it in-
creases its rate to 1 1 mile, but diminishes off Cape Bojador to 1 mile. It
did not appear that this current was influenced by any particular wind, but
near tho shore a tide was generally perceived. — (See remarks on the cur-
rents on pages 334 — 338.)

Shipwrecks. — The various tribes of Arabs frequenting the coast of the
desert, have already been alluded to, as well as the danger of failing into
their power. Their practice has been, when a ship is stranded, and the
crew compelled to surrender, to take everything portable from the vessel in
boats ; and then, if the sea do not dash it in pieces, they set fire to it, that
it may not servo as a warning to other ships which may be so unfortunate as
to follow tho same courso.

The tropical regions of the African coast between Cape Boiador and Cape
Blauco, present to contemplation the Sahara, considered as the most extensive
desert on the globe. This desert consists of inadhesive sands, which are
driven about by the winds, and chiefly by those from N.E., by which they
are disturbed and carried to an astonishing distance.

This question of the red dust, which falls in the open air, is more amply
discussed hereafter. Tho few remarks which follow will suffice here.

Of the merchant-fleet from St. Helena, under convoy, in November, 1813,
most of the ships had their sails covered with red sand, and they must havo
been fror^. 400 to 500 miles from shore, in about 27° and 28° N., after a

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 593

succession of easterly winds. " I once," says Mr. Luccock, " saw the sails
and deck of a vessel covered with it, when 400 miles from the coast, and
have heard of the same phenomenon being remarked at a far greater
distance. This moving expanse of sand was probably, at some anterior
period, a large inland shallow sea, communicating with the Mediterranean
by the Syrtes [Gulf of Sydra], &c."

A similar phenomenon occurred to the brig Parssloro\ on her voyage from
Barbados to Belfast, and when she was upwards of 900 miles from the main
land of Africa. The wind, it will be observed, had been at East, and was
interrupted by one of those gales which will be noticed hereafter, in our
description of the Azores. In lat. 30° 50' N., long. 32° 40', Cape de Verde
Islands bearing S.E., distant 590 miles, the appearance of a heavy squall
rising in the S.E. direction. Half-past six p.m., lightning, thunder, and the
squall approaching nearer. At thirty minutes past six p.m., the sun about
15° above the western horizon, became overcast with peculiar looking clouds,
and every appearance of an approaching storm. I consequently shortened
sail, although the barometer did not indicate anything serious. At eight
p.m., the wind became very variable, from N.E. to S.W., every ten or
fifteen minutes alternately, for two hours. There was a fall of rain when
the heaviest of the squall was on the zenith. At midnight it had all passed
to the S.W., and the wind resumed its former place, East. At daylight, the
decks, rigging, spars, and paint work were covered with mud : and as the sun dried
it, it had the appearance of a very fine red mould, with no sand in it.

CAPE BOIADOR* is in lat. 26° 7'. The cape has some rocks about it,
but on its South side is a bay affording anchorage in 4 or 5 fathoms, and
ships may anchor further out in from 15 to 20 fathoms, within a league of
the shore, on a bottom of sand, broken shells &c.

The Baron Roussin says, that the coast to the northward of Cape Boiador
is similar to that of the desert to which it belongs. It is arid and sandy,
the only signs of vegetation being a few small tufts of dried brambles,
scattered promiscuously here and there. It presents no other variety than
some flat downs of a tabular form, whose base can scarcely be seen at the
distance of 3 miles from the beach. The nature of its soil is exclusively sili-
ceous, being sand without any mixture whatever. The surface of this plain is
so completely horizontal, that it actually appears to have been levelled. In
some places on the coast it terminates in a steep cliff, and in others in a gentlo
descent toward the sea. These cliffs are streaked with horizontal beds of
different shades, approaching to white ; the lower ones being generally
thinner, and of a more reddish cast than the upper. To the northward of
the parallel of 23° N., this soil is overspread with a crust of black earth,
which, from its being nearly general, may be taken as its covering, and is
of a tolerable thickness. This species of crust, no doubt, derives its con-
sistency from the great humidity which it contracts during the rainy season,
and the extreme heat to which it is again suddenly and constantly exposed.

* Cape Boiador, or properly Boyador, was the limit of Portuguese knowledge up to the
year 1435. Beyond it was the "Sea of Darkness," which they feared to penetrate, but in
the year named, Alfonso (ionoalve3 de Balday rounded it» See Major's " Life of Prince
Henry the Navigator, pages 8a, 133, &c.

594 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

By the repeated shocks of the sea, huge masses of this black crust fall to the
bottom of the cliffs, and relieve the sameness of the shore. They first re-
semble rocks on -which the sea breaks, but their corners arc soon worn away,
and they present but a heap of sand. On the whole extent of the
coast, as far as Cape Verde, there is not a single piece of granite. Cape
Boiador, which lies in 26° T N., and 14° 34' 34' W., is not very remarkable.
When seen from the northward, it presents a strand of red sand, having a
gradual descent towards the sea ; and its western extremity, which is very
low, forms a small bay with the cliff which immediately follows. The
position here given is that of the easternmost point of the cliff, which has
been selected as the most remarkable one in the neighbourhood ; its height
being about 70 ft. The depth along the coast, 3 or 4 miles to the northward
of Cape Boiador, varies from 12 to 20 fathoms, increasing gradually toward
the parallel of the cape. The nature of the bottom throughout is of sand
and broken shells, or of sand and gravel. At the distance of 2 leagues to
the seaward there are 25 fathoms of water ; and the sandy bottom becomes
more general — a circumstance which is common to all the African coast.

In 1876 Mr. Donald Mackenzie was on this coast surveying between Cape
Juby and Cape Bojador, with the purpose of finding out the possibility of
opening up a water communication with the interior by means of canals, or
by flooding the desert with sea water. We have no results of this ex-
pedition.

It is possible to anchor in the small bay of Cape Boiador, but the bottom
is foul. At the distance of half a mile from the shore there are 13 or 14
fathoms of water.

From Gape Boiador the coast trends S.TV. £ S. about 22 leagues, to a very
remarkable cliff, about 300 ft. high. The cliff seems to be the Penha Grande,
or Great Rock of the charts. As its height considerably exceeds that of any
spot in the vicinity, it may serve as a good land-mark.

All the coast thus far presents, alternately, cliffs and sandy beaches ; but
more particularly the former. It is from 150 to 200 ft. in height; being
Qat at its summit. The land in the interior, on which brushwood is very
scarce, is of a darkish colour.

The depth of water on this part of the coast is considerable. At 2 miles
from the beach, bottom cannot be found at 22 fathoms. On the parallel of
25° 50' N., and at 1£ mile from the shore, bottom may be had in 15 or 20
fathoms, gravel and broken shells. The depth again increases ; and under
the Penha Grande, at a mile from the foot of the cliff, there are 20 fathoms,
hard bottom, with gravel and broken shells. The summit of the Penha
Grande is in 25° 7' 6" N., and 14° 50' 53" TV. ; it is flat and arid ; all its
declivities are precipices from broken earth, which has fallen down, the
colour of which is gray. The whole of the coast is perfectly clean, even to
the beach.

From the Penha Grande, after a slight indentation, the coast trends
S.S.TV. £ W. 8 leagues, and includes a slender bay, now called the Garnet
Bay. It then forms a well-defined elbow, and trends nearly 8.W. by TV. -} TV.
29 leagues. On all this extent it presents ono continued cliff, with the ex
ception of two or three places, where it slopes to the sea; the cliff being
about 150 ft. high. Frequently, at a short distance from the water's edge,

WEST COAST OF AFEICA, 595

between tlie clitf and the sandy rocks which here cover the beach, there is a
chain of white sandy downs. The summit of the cliff is even and horizontal ;
it follows nearly a right lino, interrupted only by some small flat downs,
scarcely perceptible. The whole of the beach is continually washed by an
exceedingly heavy surf, and there is no sign of vegetation on the whole
coast.

Garnet Bay (or Gurnard Boy'), which is the Angra dos Ruivos discovered by
the Portuguese, sent out by Prince Henry in 1435, abounds with cod, bream,
hake, and various kind of other fish. Two leagues to the southward of it
are seven small table-hills, called the Seven C^tfes, which constitute an ex-
cellent land-mark.

Prom the elbow formed by the coast, on the South side of Garnet Bay, to
the south-westward, the depth diminishes a little; from 16 fathoms it
gradually lessens to 1 1 fathoms, and continues nearly the same in a space of
6 miles. We shall now have arrived at the parallel of 24 s N., and im-
mediately abreast of an interruption in the cliff, at a beach of white sand,
about a league in extent. Beyond this sand, which does not reach far into
the interior, is a body of still water, having the appearance of a lake or
river, with a sandy islet in the middle of it. This is the upper part of an
inlet, named Rio do Ouro, or Gold River.

Continuing a south-westerly course, along a neck of sand, which separates
the river from the ocean, and which is alternately interspersed with cliffs,
after running 10 leagues from where it was first observed, we arrive at its
entrance. In this run, at the distance of 1 to 3 miles from the shore, the
soundings vary from 16 to 8 fathoms, with a hard bottom and shells. On
approaching the river, white sand will be found.

RIO OURO.— The entrance of this inlet is in 23° 36' N., and 15° 58J' W.
Its breadth, taken from the outer cliff on the West bank, to the cliff on the
bend of the coast forming the East bank, is 1\ miles ; but a very low, sandy
point stretches to the southward, from the West bank, in such a manner as
to leave only a free channel of a mile in width at the utmost.

Neither to the northward, nor at the entrance of this channel, does any
island exist, although the old charts mark several ; but at 20 miles to the
N.E. of the northern point of the entrance, and on the meridian of the islet,
in the interior before mentioned, there is a cliffy mound of sand, which,
being insulated on a low sandy flat, might have been mistaken for an islet.
This, however, forms a part of the bank with which it is connected at its
southern point.

No particular current was observed off the Rio Ouro, which consecpiently
does away with the composition of a river emptying itself by this opening.
At the distance of about 3 miles seaward from the mouth of the inlet, the
bottom is of sand and shells, with a depth varying from 9 to 16 A- fathoms.
In the middle of its entrance is a circular breaker, 1 mile in diameter, on
which there appears to be very little water. The northern point is wholly
surrounded by breakers, but they are only a continuation of the surf which
is found on the whole coast. The adjoining sea is well stocked with fish.

Prom the southern point of the River Ouro, the coast trends nearly
S.W. \ S. (S.S.JV.) The cliff continues to a distance of 5 leagues, when
white sandy downs succeed, of which the summits are mostly flat. At 1

596 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

league northward (N.N. TV.) from the extremity of the cliffs, and at 3 miles
from the coast there is a bank, having only 32 ft. of water ; its direction is
parallel to that of the coast, and it is about 2 miles in length. Thirteen
fathoms have been found on the edge of this bank ; to the northward of it
the bottom is sand and sholls ; to the southward, fine sand ; and on the bank
itself, broken shells.

ANGRA DE CINTRA, or Cintra Bay.— At the distance of 3 leagues
from the southern extremity of the Fisherman'' s Cliffs, or the Cliffs of the Rio
Ouro, amongst a number of oven downs, there is one somewhat elevated
above the rest, extending parallel to the coast. From being flattened at its
summit, and having its southern extremity peaked, it becomes remarkable.
It is situated at a short distance from tho beach, at the head of a small bay,
named Angra de Cintra. This bay is sheltered, on the North, by a very low
sandy point, which, detaching itself from the coast, runs parallel to it, and a
reef projects from its southern extremity, which may be considered as a con-
tinuation of it. The break in the coast, between the northern and southern
reefs, which form the opening of this bay, may be about C miles ; but, on
doubling the northern reef, the bay is found to extend about 4 miles inside
of the sandy point which protects it.

The depth of water in this bay is not great ; at the distance of a mile insido
it is only 4£ fathoms, sandy bottom ; but the stillness which prevails in it
atti'acts a great number of fish, and it forms a harbour for the night to the
fishing vessels of this coast. It is to be observed, that besides the reefs
stretching from the North and South points of the bay, there is also a rock-
near the middle of the entrance, which breaks in blowing weather.

All the coast from the Bay of Cintra to the Rio Ouro is well stocked with
fish, and is frequented by eighteen or twenty small vessels from the Canary
Islands, which catch and salt fish for the consumption of those islands.
Fresh water may be obtained by digging at the foot of the high down, or
sand-hill, above mentioned, as a place of observation.

It does not appear safe to attempt the channel into Cintra Bay, between
the point and the northern reef, as the breakers seem to be connected
between them ; but the entrance to the southward of this danger is quite
safe. The least depth found was 6 fathoms, in the middle of the entrance.
During the time of the rollers, as the sea breaks over this in 6 fathoms,
vessels should pass either to the northward or southward, where they will
find from 9 to 10 fathoms. The fishermen who frequent this creek attract
some few Arabs, or Moors, to the spot, who seem to have no fixed habitation
there, nor on any other part of the coast. These belong to the fourth tribe,
who are dispersed in the desert, and called the "Tribe of Thieves," com-
plete wanderers and vagabonds. It is composed of the discontented of the
three tribes, which are scattered along the coast from Cape Boiador to the
Senegal ; they subsist exclusively on dried fish, and the plunder from wrecks,
which formerly were so frequent here. No advantage can be derived from any
communication with these poor and miserable people.

In the Bay of Cintra, at 2 miles from the beach, are from 9 to 16 fathoms
of water; the bottom of sand, sand and gravel, sand and shells, sand and
mud, generally covering siliceous or flinty rock, of the same nature as the
neighbouring coast. Toward the bottom of the bay the mud becomes

WEST COAST OF AFEICA. 597

thicker ; and here the anchor would sink down into a bed of greenish clay,
which is excellent holding ground.

Anchorage may be found along the coast from Ciutra Bay to the Eio
Ouro ; but the bottom, from being composed of siliceous rocks, must be un-
favourable for holding.

From Cintra Bay the coast trends S.S.W. £ W. to a distance of 7 leagues ;
the shore is low, but it gradually rises, and becomes a continued down of
white sand. At 3 leagues to the southward of this bay, in the interior, may
be seen four or five small insulated sandy downs, which are rather higher
than the adjacent ground, and, with the lower one, may serve as a mark for
this coast. These heights are called the Downs of Cintra, and they can bo
seen at the distance of 4 or 5 leagues only. The Down of Cintra, a re-
markable peaked sand-hill, according to M. Eoussin, is in 23° 5' 25" N., and
16 5 10' W.

ST. CYPRIAN BAY.— Having run 6^ leagues along a moderately high
coast, which presents alternately cliffs and sandy beaches, we arrive at an
inlet, or bay, formed by rather a deep bend of the beach. The bottom of
this bay is low, and the sea breaks violently on it. The eastern point of the
bay is formed by a cliff, 150 ft. high, having a circular form toward the sea,
with a fiat top, and much resembling a fortification. The western side is
also formed by a steep cliff, which, after extending 2 J miles to the west-
ward, turns abruptly to the S.W., and forms Cape Barbas, in 22° 19^' N.,
and 16° 39' W. The bay formed by the cape is that which bears the name
of St. Cyprian.

The Bay of St. Cyprian, being open from N.E. to W.N. W. {true), is un-
sheltered from the prevailing wind on the coast. In consequence of this
there is generally a heavy sea in it; and the anchorage, although on a
bottom of sand and mud, in 10 to 20 fathoms, offers very little security, and
should be resorted to only in cases of necessity. The abundance of fish in
this bay frequently attracts the fishermen from the Canaries, who, seduced
by the hope of being quickly laden, and the appearance of a moderate
breeze, anchor too near the bottom of it. In this situation, if the wind
freshens up, being equally incapable of beating out with their crazy vessels,
or with their ground-tackle of riding out the heavy sea which sets in, they
are sure to drive and be thrown up on the beach, where their crews fre-
quently lose their property and lives ; or, which is not less deplorable, are
robbed and detained in slavery by the Arabs.

From Cape Barbas the coast trends nearly "vV.S.W. (S. W.) 3 leagues. It
is formed almost by one uninterrupted cliff, about 80 ft. high, at the foot of
which the sea breaks violently. At 1 mile from the beach there are from 9
to 12 fathoms, and at 2 miles, as much as 17 fathoms; with a bottom of
muddy sand, or sand and broken shells. The coast then declines into white
sandy downs, studded here and there with cliffs. At about 3 leagues from
this it forms a rather remarkable little bay, with a shore of white sand.
The mouth of this bay is barred, at about 3 miles from its bottom, by a flat
of banks and reefs, on which there is very little water. These reefs serve
as a foundation for an islet, called that of Pedra da Gall, and another small
islet, which M. Eoussin has named Virginia. These islets are merely rocks,
n. a. o. 4 II

598 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

of a natnre similar to that of the coast. The first, which is rather higher on
the northern than on the southern side, is about half a mile in circumference.
The latter, or southern one, is three times that size, and has some sandy
patches. It is also 3,000 fathoms from the coast, and about a league 8. by W.
(true) of Pedra da Gall. They aro connected together by a chain of fiats,
which stretches 400 fathoms to the S.W., and 1,000 fathoms to the N.E. of
Pedra da Gall. At 1 mile westward from these islets may be found 18
fathoms of water, with muddy sand. The depth increases to the southward,
and the bottom becomes harder.

From Pedra da Gall to Cape Blanco the distance is 29£ leagues. The
coast in this extent is nearly straight, and moderately high ; its true direc-
tion S. 15° W., and it presents only a few indentations of a ti'ifiing depth.
It is one continued down, the whiteness of which becomes more vivid on
approaching to the southward. In some places it presents peaked cliffs, in
others there is a gentle descent toward the sea, and the whole is devoid of
vegetation.

CAPE CORVOEIRO. — Having, says M. Eoussin, on our way from the
northward, reached the parallel of 21° 50' N., after passing a sandy beach
of about 2 leagues in extent, with (ew indentations, we find ourselves abreast
of a moderately high cliff, whose irregular summit forms a striking contrast
with the uniform smoothness of the adjoining coast. The cliff is 5 miles in
length N.E. and S.W., after which the downs again commence, having pre-
viously formed a small bay to the southward of the cliff. The most salient
point of tho cliff is Cape Corxoeiro; but it is not well defined, and is only
remarkable from the breaks in the beach where it is situated. The strength
of the current hero is the same as on the whole coast, about nine-tenths of
a milo per hour ; but further out to sea it loses half that velocity. Between
the irdots and the coast, at a distance of half a mile from the latter, the depth
is from 6 to 9 fathoms, with a bottom of sand, sand and shells, or sand and
rocks. At the distanco of a mile from the coast it varies from 10 to 20
fathoms, with mud and sand. The muddy bottom prevails to the southward
of Cape Corvoeiro, and all this coast is perfectly safe. At 25 leagues to the
northward of Cape Blanco we discovered, from the masthead, that the beach
along which we were running, was formed by a tongue of sand from 2 to 3
inilos in breadth, beyond which we observed water. This is now called
Zcvrier Bay, and is situated to the eastward of Cape Blanco. From Cape
Corvoeiro the coast is formed of white and red sandy downs, assuming
various shapes, alternately terminating at the water's edge in broken cliffs
and low sandy beaches.

CAPE BLANCO, in 20° 47' N., and 17 c U' W., is the southernmost face
of a white cliff, about 150 ft. high, It rises vertically from a gentle slope
which extends from its base to the sea. With a point 4 miles to the north-
ward, it forms a bay, at the bottom of which is a beach of white sand, inter-
spersed with masses of the cliffs. Through one of these masses the sea has
perforated a hole, which, in shape, much resembles an arch. The anchorage
in the bay, as well as on the whole coast from Capo Corvoeiro, is good; a
bottom of muddy sand prevails throughout, with a depth varying from 19
to 12 fathoms. At 1 mile to the sou hward there are 9 and 12 fathoms, and

WEST COAST OF AFEIOA. 599

large vessels may anchor at this distance to the eastward, where they will he
sheltered from the prevailing N.N.E. and N.W. winds.

The portion of coast terminated by Cape Blanco is a long promontory,
which, projecting from the main, forms with it a bay of nearly 8 leagues
from North to South, and about 6 broad. The bottom in this bay is gene-
rally composed of soft mud, and there is a depth of water varying from 40
to 17 ft., reduced to the lowest springs. On the western side there is excel-
lent anchorage for vessels of moderate size.

In a radius of 8 or 10 miles round Cape Blanco, and in Levrier Bay, the
currents are subjected to regular tides. The flood sets E.N.E., an^ the ebb
W.S.W., the greatest velocity of either being from 1 to 2 miles per hour ;
but it attains this rate only when the wind blows with it. The greatest rise
above the level of the lowest tide is 10 ft, and it is high water, on the second
day after full and change, at h 14 m ."'-'

All this coast abounds with good fish, as cod, bream, soles, &c. On the
little beach eastward of Cape Blanco, a single haul of the seine has pro-
duced a thousand pounds' weight. The best kind of turtle, namely, the
green kind, also abounds hereabout. According to the information obtained
from the Canarian fishermen, who frequent the coast, a small quantity of
drinkable water may be obtained by digging a little to the northward of
Cape Blanco. This spot is occasionally visited by some Arabs, who possess
a few muskets, and against whom it is necessary to guard.

In 1830, Captain (Sir Edward) Belcher, in H.M.S. JElna, by the mean
of several observations, assigned to the extremity of Cape Blanco, lat.
20° 46' 26" N., long. 17° 4' 10" W. This gentleman has given a geological
description of the cape and neighbouring country, which is inserted in the
"Journal of the Royal Geographical Society " (vol. ii., pp. 299—303), and in
which he particularly noticed the practice of the Canarian fishers, in the
vicinity of Greyhound Bay ; the anchorage of these vessels, schooners, with
their boats, is in a bay about 3 miles North from the cape, where they are
quite sheltered from N.N. W. to S.S.E. Those of the fishermen whom Captain
(Sir Edward) Belcher met with, were courteous and communicative, and they
stated that their usual fishing-ground is in 25 fathoms, where they take fish of
from 8 to 60 pounds each, and that their average daily work is about 3 cwt.
in the boats. The schooners have polacca foremasts ; and, when fishing,
they furl all the sails in one ; their burden is from 100 to 150 tons. The
fish taken by the (Etna were porgy, mullet of several kinds, rock-cod, and
red-snappers, probably called bream by former voyagers. Mussels and other
shell- fish are very abundant at low water.

* " The tides about Cape Blanco arc irregular, and rnucli influenced by the land near
Avhich they run. High water, at full and change, may be looked for about noon ; the
greatest rise, under every advantage of springs and winds, does not exceed 6 feet. South-
ward of the parallel of the cape the indraught has a velocity of 2 6 miles, and the off-set or
ebb the same. Eastward of the meridian of the cape the tide bends northerly, and at 3
miles chord its velocity appears from S.W. to N.E., about If, following the circular course
into Levrier or Greyhound Bay. North of the parallel of the cape the ebb sets North, and
flood South ; and, close in-shore, the tide is considerably weaker than at 3 miles, whero its
greatest influence may be expected." — Captain Sir Edw. Belcher.

GOO DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

The summit of the Blanco Peninsula is composed of lines of sand hills and
rocky eminences, just what one would expect to find if the sea were to quit
its position, and show us the beds over which it flows. In every position,
where a bush or rocky islet is prominent, there, on its southern side, you
will surely find its sand hill — a proof of the prevalent winds, as well as an
admirable model of the formation of shoals, &c, under water, and pointing
out most perfectly the "steep-to" approaches to banks, past which rapid
streams or currents flow, with their concomitant shallow tail, formed by dead
water or eddies.

With the exception of these new-formed and forming sand-hills, the whole
surface is covered, in a most extraordinary manner, with shells, of all dimen-
sions, and of the species genei'ally found in the bay. These are loose, and
some are more than 60 ffc. above the level of the sea !*

The Spaniards affirm that there is no rainy season here, but strong
northerly and north-easterly winds the whole year. In June and July they
were North, N.N.E., and N.E. Highest temperature of air in the shade,
7o"; of the water, 76°.

BANK OF ARG-UIN, &c. — The Bank of Arguin commences at 4 leagues
to the southward of Cape Blanco. It is a great shelf of about 30 leagues
in length, and reaches to the southward of Capo Mirik. The North point of
itisinlat. 20 c 33' 12" N., long. 10° 56' 30" W. The coast between this
point and Cape Blanco is replete with shoals. The most considerable one is
that of the Bayadere, at 1 a- 10th, miles to the southward of the cape. There
are only 20 ft. of water on this shoal, and it occasionally breaks. Another
lies W. £ N. (W. ly S.) 3 miles from the cape ; and a third at 8 miles
S.S.E. £ E. (S.E.) of it; on which, like the first, 20 ft. of water have been
found. The channel, loading to the anchorage, eastward of Cape Blanco,
lies to the northward of these shoals.

The Banlc of Arguin is*a flat of sand, constantly increasing, of the same
nature as the coast. The body of it is hard, and covered with broken shells.
Its outer edge, which has been traced from numerous soundings, has been
fixed at the depth of 8 fathoms, as no vessel can run within this limit with-
out risk : and, at a very short distance to the eastward of this boundary,
there is less than 4 fathoms. No particular part on the edge of this bank has
been seen quite dry; but close to the breakers, which occur in many places,
thero are not more than 10 ft. of water; and the shallows between them
do not appear to have more.

Between the North point of the bank and its western extremity, situated
in 20° 6' 20" N., and 17° 7' 30" W., on advancing from seaward, the sound-
ings progressively decrease. At 10 leagues to the westward, from 40

* Tho Island of Arguin lies in the mouth of a hay to the S.E, of Cape Blanco. Accord-
ing t<> Captain Grovcr's account it is about 8 miles from the main land, between which and
the island the water is shallow. To the seaward there is a depth of from 5 to 7 fathoms
chsc to (he shore. On this point the evidence appears to he conclusive. It is formed of a
•vhitieh rock, covered with shifting sands to the depth of 9 feet. The South end rises to
about 30 feet. The island produces no wood, and only a small caustic shrub, but has ex-
cellent water, though of milky appearance. The wells are difficult Lo find, but are im-
portant. The number of inhabitants was abuut (iO.

WEST COAST OF AFKICA. 601

fathoms they decrease to 8, with a very gentle ascent; but to the southward
of this parallel the bottom becomes more uneven ; and from the point where
the Medusa was lost, in 1816, in lat. 19° 53' 42", long. 17° 0' 35", a great
irregularity takes place.

From the westernmost extremity, the edge of the bank trends S.S.E.
(S.U. i S.), and extends as far as Cape Mirik. The nature of the ground
about the Bank of Arguin has a very remarkable characteristic, which may
prove of great service to navigators. From the depth of 8 fathoms, which
has been assigned as the limits of this bank, to that of 25, to seaward, in-
cluding an extent of more than 5 leagues, the lead invariably brings up a
mixture of sand and broken shells ; and, in proportion to the proximity of
the bank, the latter prevail. Beyond the depth of 25 fathoms, as far as that
of 55 and 50, at 8 or 10 leagues to seaward, the bottom is entirely of white
sand. Hence it is evident, that by soundings, and a rough observation for
latitude, the distance from tho Bank of Arguin may always be known.
Should less than 25 fathoms be found, with a bottom of sand and broken
shells, you will be less than 5 leagues from its edge ; and in proportion as
shells predominate in the soundings, you will be nearer to it, and should
avoid getting to the eastward. Should you have more than 25 fathoms,
with fine sand, you will be more than 5 leagues from it. To the northward
of the parallel of 20° N., this may be particularly depended on ; to the
southward of that limit, it is subject to some exceptions; but as the bank
then takes a direction S.S.E. (S.E. J S.), it becomes no longer dangerous,
if a ship is kept on a wind in 20 to 25 fathoms, and sounds frequently.
Henceforth we may conclude (which all mariners must be convinced of), that
a strict attention to incessant sounding is so indispensable as to need no
further recommendation.

Currents. — It has been already shown, in pages 328 and 338, that the
prevailing currents set from North to South along the whole coast. Along
the edge of the Bank of Arguin, as far as its western extremity, this direc-
tion is constant ; and in the rainy season, should any deviation be expe-
rienced, it may be relied on to happen very seldom. One proof of this may
be adduced. On the 13th of July, when the wreck of the Medusa was found
by the brig Argus, after 13 days' absence from the frigate, it was abreast of
Portandik, at 15 leagues from the shore, a distance of 90 miles, and nearly
on the meridian of the place where she was lost. It must, therefore, have
driven at the rate of 7 miles per day along the coast.

Cape Mirik is that point of the coast which terminates the Bay of Arguin
on tho South, being a very low sandy point, on which there is a small down.*
It is surrounded by the southern part of the Bank of Arguin, and cannot
be approached by large vessels, on the West, within 3 leagues, and on tho
S.W. within two.

Tanit Bay.— The coast from Cape Mirik tends S.S.E. £ E. (S.E.) 10
leagues, it then forms a complete elbow, gradually trending S. -} W.

* Captain Owen gives this down in 19- 1 25' N., and 1G 3 34' W". Baron Roussin as 10° 22'
li* N., nnd 16" 31 p 21" W.

C02 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

( S. by 7s 1 .) It is low, and presents a continued chain of small regular downs,
composed of white sand, and interspersed with small bushes. To the north-
ward of the bay, formed by the bend of the coast, some downs may be
observed which are rather higher and more insulated than the rest. A few
huts are seen near the beach, and in the dry season numerous parties of the
thieving tribe assemble here to tntch fish and dry their stock. Two large
pieces of water may be seen between, the high downs ; but whether these be
fresh or salt is unknown. The latter seems most probable. The bay bears
the name of Tanit, and the North point of the down, at the bottom of it, as
observed by Baron Eoussin, is in 19° 3' 48" N., and 16° 12' 20' W.

Angel Hillocks. — From Tanit Bay the general direction of the coast is
South in au extent of 12 leagues. At the distance of 4 leagues from the
termination of this bearing are some downs, which are rather higher than
the rest of the beach, and with some bushes on their surface. The beach
itself is formed by a very low flat of quick-sand. These downs are the
Angel Hillocks, composed of sand, of which the summit is from 15 to 20
fathoms above the sea, and they constitute a useful land-mark. They are
divided into two groups ; the summit of the northernmost, which is much
smaller than the other, is studded with tufts of brushwood, while the
southern, which is formed of eight or nine hummocks, is nearly destitute of
it. The latter, which is the highest, stands in 18° 29' 30" N., and 16° 2' W.
The coast, from these hillocks, gradually declines in height, and more so as
it approaches to the southward, when it soon falls into a uniform line of
sand, with occasionally a bush here and there, scarcely above the level of
the sea.

Angel Bank. — No part of this coast, southward from Cape Mirik, should
be approached within 5 miles, nor to a less depth than 6| fathoms. By
attending to this rule all dangers will be avoided, and, amongst others, a
shoal which extends outward, 3 miles from the coasts, abreast of the
northern part of the Angel Hillocks, from which it derives its name. On
this bank there are regular soundings on a bottom of sand, with sand and
broken shells, affording anchorage in case of necessity. On receding from
the beach the depth increases ; and, at some distance from it, is greater than
to the northward of the hillocks.

PORTANDIC .*— At 4 leagues to the southward of the Angel Hillocks, on
rather an elevated part of the coast, and a little within the beach, there is a
stunted palm, and the only one seen on the coast between this and Cape
Boiador. It is in lat. 18° 18' 54' N., long. 16° 2' 12' W, and Portandic is
supposed to have existed at about 1 mile to the southward of this spot. Not
a vestige now remains sufficient even to indicate to strangers the spot on
which this little establishment once stood. But since the survey it has
been ceded to France, and a fort is mentioned. From the palm tree the
coast trends nearly S.S.W. (South), then S.W. (S.S. W.) It is straight aDd

r By a convention, signed March 7th, 18-57, the (juecn ot England relinquished her
lights to trade between the mouth of the River St. John and the Buy and Port of Portanlic
inclusively, and in return the French ceded the Factory, or Comptoir, of xllbreda, on the
North Bank of the Gambia, -with all rights belonging thereto.

WEST COAST OF AFEICA. 603

low, interspersed with small bushes, and presents a continued sameness. In
an extent of 35 leagues there are only two downs of red sand, covered with
brushwood, and discernible only at about 2 miles from the beach. One is in
lat. 17° 25' N., the other in 16° 55' N. From the mast-head some sheets of
water at the foot of these downs may be seen. At 2 leagues to the southward
of the latter the interior of the country becomes a little clothed with brush-
wood, and occasionally presents some level plains, but the coast remains
uniformly barren.

Portandic to the River Senegal.— On the parallel of 16° 35' 24", and at
the termination of the 35 leagues of coast already described, we arrive at
the huts of Ingulagher, or the spot called by the French the Marigot or La-
goon of Mosquitos. This in the rainy season forms a mouth of the Eiver
Senegal, the banks of which aro covered with mangroves. At the distance
of 2 or 3 miles from the beach regular soundings may be found, in from 7 to
13 fathoms, fine sand, occasionally mixed with mud, affording safe anchorage
between this and the palm of Portandic. To the 60uthward the depth gra-
dually increases.

The Marigot of Mosquitos is about 12 leagues to the northward of the
Isle of St. Louis, in the Senegal ; and it communicates with the sea only when
the rains have swollen the river. It then covers the bank at its entrance,
which may bo passed over by boats ; but they must be prepared against the
surf which is common to it, as well as the entrance of the Senegal. To the
southward of this Marigot the river is separated from the ocean by a straight
tongue of sand, formed by small white downs, nearly bare, and gradually
becoming lower toward the extremity. Within this tongue of sand the
stream of the Senegal washes a number of small islands which lie parallel
to the coast, and on which a covering of thick bushes gives the country some
appearance of fertility. They are known by the name of the Antelope Islands,
Griel Wood Island, and Thiong Islands. This last is at a very short distauco
to the northward of the Isle of St. Louis.

Griel Wood Island is distinguished by its bushes, among which are some
trees higher than the rest, presenting a remarkable contrast to tho barren
desert of 200 leagues, which precedes it. Its distance from the Isle of St.
Louis, in a straight line, is not more than bh leagues. Both to the north-
ward and southward of Griel Wood Isle, the stream of the river may be
distinctly seen from the mast-head, running between the isle and the beach ;
and it is the surest mark for discovering the landing-place to the northward
of the bar.

A vessel may run along the coast, at the distance of 2 miles from the beach,
in from 9 to 14 fathoms, over an excellent bottom of thick green mud.

SENEGAL. — On continuing your route to tho southward, the French
establishment of St. Louis, in the Senegal, will soon be seen. This place is
remarkable for its white buildings, and a very high palm-tree, which stands
conspicuously close before the flag of the fort. The latter is in lat. 16° 0' 48"
N., and long. 16° 31' 1" W. The western bank of the Senegal is so narrow
and low, abreast of the northern part of this island, that the town appears
to stand on the sea-shore ; and it is only on nearing it that the channel which
separates them can be seen.

On pacing near the Isle of Senegal it affords a very agreeable prospect.

604 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

Fort St. Louis forms the principal object in this perspective. To its right
and left extend the two parts of the town, the streets of which are well ar-
ranged. The woods which lino the East bank of the river appear, at a
distance, to belong to the isle, and givo it a cheerful and rural aspect ; but
this illusion disappears on a nearer approach ; for no place can be more arid,
parched, or deprived of vegetation, than the Isle of St. Louis, the soil of
which is nothing but a fine shifting sand. The water of the isle is brackish
and unwholesome.

Mr. Hutchinson, in a paper read before the Society of Arts, in March,
1874, remarks respecting the trade here : — "Of the trade at Senegal there
is not much to be told. The chief articles of export from this are gum
Arabic, ground nuts (the Arachis hypogea), and hides ; gold-dust and ivory
are sometimes exported, but in small quantities. Its chief importance arises
from the fact of the river here being the inlet to the principal French colony
on the coast. The capital, St. Louis, situated about 20 miles up the stream,
is garrisoned with a large force. Of these, however, there is but a small
amount who are native Frenchmen, the majority being Negroes and Mu-
lattoes. By the treaty of our government with France, relative to West
African affairs, in 1783, it was stipulated that the English gum trade should
be confined to Portandik, which is about 100 miles North of the Senegal
embouchure."

A light is shown on the government house on the He de St. Louis, and it
is proposed to establish a light on the North end of the isle.

A little Moorish town, Gattandar, consisting of huts on a sand hill, stands
upon the strand, opposite the town of St. Louis. From this place a canoe
is launched on the approach of a vessel. The anchorage off the mouth of
the river may be taken in 7 to 1 fathoms, according to circumstances.
The depth extends from 2 to 4 miles to the bar.

If standing in for the land by night, heave a cast of the lead every hour,
as you fall into soundings all at once, 50 fathoms close to the edge of the
bank, at the distance shown on the chart, or about 8 leagues from shore,
and thence shoaling to 8 fathoms at \h mile from it.

The mouth of the Senegal presents nothing remarkable when seen from
the northward. The breakers which prevail on the whole coast as far as
Point Barbary, the northern point of the entrance, prevent those on the bar
from being distinguished ; and vessels may run past without seeing them, if
they keep at too great a distance from the shore. From Gattandar you may
run at the distance of a mile from the beach without danger ; which will
enable you to observe the smallest alteration in the coast. A small post in
the centre of the river, abreast of the English Islet, where there is a signal-
post, and a guard-house on Babague Island, at a short distance to the east-
ward of the bar, will then be passed in succession. This guard-house is a
remarkable small square house, near which there is a second signal-staff ;
and a vessel may anchor when this guard-house bears E. J S. (E. by N.)
As the winds generally blow from the northward, in consecpience of the
facility for communicaion with the shore, it is advisable to anchor rather to
the northward than to the southward of the bar.

The Bar of the Senegal is not stationary, and is generally available for vessels
drawing 11 ft. water. The western bank of the river, from the Isle of St.

WEST COAST OF AFEICA. 605

Louis, is so low that high tides completely cover it, and, at times, force open
a new channel. Its northern point, in 1817, was in lat. 15° 55' 18" N., and
long. 16° 30' W., and it increases gradually to the southward. As the nature
of the entrance is so variable, it is manifest that no safe directions can be
given. In April, 1873, " the entrance of the river was divided into two parts
by two shoals, situated nearly in the middle. These banks form two passes :
one along the Barberie land, and the other along the Cayor shore. The
North channel only is practicable for ships. It extends in a S.W. and N.E.
direction for 1,968 yards; the width being about 87 yards, and the depth
varying from 8 to 1 1 feet. With the flood tide the current runs at the rate
of 2 knots, while with the ebb its strength is about 4 knots, with a direction
extremely variable. Erom the middle of this channel the Marche de Gran-
diolle bears S. 15° E. ; Pilot Station N. 36° E. The South Channel seems
to be improving, having now a depth at the entrance of from 12 to 15 feet.
It runs first East, drawing close to the Grandiolle shore, then turning ab-
ruptly to the North, along the mainland, it joins the stream, passing over a
s nail bank with only 3 feet water over it."

The dangers attending the bar of the Senegal are well known to be of no
trifling nature. In the rainy season, and even in March, when the river,
increased by the rains, discharges a greater body of water into the sea, the
bar is frequently impracticable even by decked boats. The waves, caused
by the impetuosity of the river water meeting with that of the ocean, are
very considerable, and succeed each other so rapidly that it is impossible to
find a smooth. It is not uncommon, in these cases, to see breakers at the
distance of a mile from the bar, and in 8 fathoms of water. From the month
of April to the end of September the bar may generally be crossed by decked
boats, and sometimes even by canoes ; but it is advisable that they should
be steered by natives.

At times the waves are very remarkable. When the sea is but slightly
agitated, one may perceive three waves, perfectly distinct, approach and
break against the bar, immediately after each other ; and these three waves
appear to be, as it were, connected ; for there is often a considerable interval
of time between the attack of the first three waves and the approach of
the succeeding trio.

Vessels of a moderate size only should be employed in the commeracil
navigation of these parts ; otherwise the loading and unloading, when
necessary to employ lighters, becomes expensive. Inside the mouth the
depth is from 6 to 8 fathoms : and, with the assistance of the tide and a
pilot, a vessel may very easily beat up to the Isle of St. Louis.

Winds.— The winds are not at all dangerous in the navigation of the
coasts of the Senegal. They blow nearly along the coast from the N.E. and
N. W. during the greater part of the year ; and as, in the rainy season, the
squalls always come from the S.E., and the winds which succeed them are
very weak, when they once pass the S.W. quarter, getting under way is
always easy. Those vessels in the road which cannot depend on their
ground tackle, may return to it when the squall is over.

Currents.— It has already been said that the general and almost constant
direction of the current is along the coast from North to South, as far as the
n. a. o. 4 I

606 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

mouth of the Senegal. Abreast of this opening, and in a space of several
miles to seaward, the river tides affect the general uniformity of this current.
The flood and ebb tides are alternately felt at the bar and anchorage ; they
have no settled direction, but maybe considered as setting about N.W. and
S.E. ; and are frequently so strong as to make the vessels tend at the an-
chorage, or at least to lay with their broadsides to the wind, in the strongest
breezes. This anchorage is rendered very inconvenient by the short sea
which is always upon it.

Senegal to Cape Verde. — If a straight line were drawn from the anchor-
age at the bar of the Senegal to the red light on Almadie Puint lying N.W.
£ W. 2 miles from Cape Verde Light, its direction would be nearly S.W. by
W. i W. [5. 40° W.), and its length 31 leagues. The arc described by
the intervening coast, and subtended by this chord, bends so little, that it
would not exceed the whole length by more than 4 leagues, and its greatest
depth would be 13 miles.

The coast, as far as 2 or 3 leagues to the southward of the Senegal, is
just as low as that to the northward, and resembles it very much ; it after-
ward becomes rather higher, but is uniform in general appearance. It is
composed of a chain of white sandy downs, scattered over with brushwood,
amongst which a small cluster of trees may be distinguished. It generally
presents two well defined plans. The first is the next to the sea, formed of
white sandy downs, on which there appears some verdure. The second,
which is considerably higher than the first, commences at about 2 miles in
the interior, and is formed by downs of a greyish colour, which are covered
with bushes.

In running for the Senegal, from the southward, the mouth of the river
is more easily distinguished than when approaching from the northward,
from its appearing more open. At the distance of 8 leagues from the mouth,
and on the parallel of 15° 26' N., a large red sandy down may be observed,
entirely bare, which, to those ignorant of their latitude, may serve to indi-
cate their distance to the southward of the bar. From this down, south-
ward, the coast presents nothing remarkable as far as the Little Paps, of
which the northern is in latitude 14° 56' 24" N., and longitude 17° 4' 30" W.
The Little Paps are the two highest downs between the Senegal and the
Paps of Cape Verde. They are situated on the beach, and are easily known
by a slight undulation of their summit, and three or four other small hills
adjoining them to the southward. They are visible at the distance of 4 or
5 leagues. The Bay of Yof commences from this point.

The Little Paps bear E.N.E. £ E. [iV 50° E.~\ from those on Cape Verde,
at the distance of 9 leagues. When running this distance, in fine, clear
weather, both are frequently seen at once. The latter may be seen at the
distances of 7 or 8 leagues. From about 8 leagues to the eastward of Cape
Verde, the coast rises very much, and becomes more wooded. The country
about the cape is covered with trees, amongst which there are several of
remarkable height. All this coast may be approached within a very short
distance. Within 2 miles to the northward of the village of Yof, situated
near an islet of that name, there are 55 fathoms of water on a bottom of
mud and sand.

CAPE VERDE is the westernmost point of Africa ; it is the extremity of

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 607

a peninsula formed on the North by the Bay of Yof, and on the South by
the bay in which the Isles of Groree and Dakar are situated, aud is composed
of moderately high land. To the westward, as far as the two par>s, the
coast next the sea becomes nearly perpendicular. Cape Verde, as seen from
the northward, terminates in very low land, on which are some unconnected
hillocks, which, at a distance, may be taken for islets.

The Lighthouse stands on the western mound of Cape Verde. It is 65 ft.
high, and shows a powerful revolving light every half minute, at an elevation
of 370 ft. above the sea, and visible 27 miles off. The lighthouse, which is
white, with a bronze lantern, is 65 ft. high, and situated in lat. 14 Q 43' 30' N.,
long. 17° 31' W.

The extreme point of Cape Verde extends 1,000 fathoms still further West,
in a flat of blackish rocks, awash with the water's edge, and which, in two
or three places, rise from 8 to 10 ft. above the level of the sea. This rocky
flat is called the Almadies, and the point which joins it, Almadie Point, on
which a fixed red light is shown fi'om a square white tower, 39 feet high.
From it the lighthouse on Cape Verde bears S.E. -} E. 2 miles, and the ex-
tremity of the point westward is distant 1 mile.

The sea on the Almadies breaks incessantly. Amongst the rocks are some
smooth spots appearing like channels fit for boats. The flat may be coasted
at the distance of a mile, there being, on the West, 35 fathoms of water ;
the bottom is of broken shells. Hence to the northward, in an extent of 3
miles, the depth increases to 80 fathoms, bottom of mud and sand. To the
S.E. the depth is not so much ; in running along these breakers and the
coast, to a distance of 2 miles in that direction, which will extend to the
meridian of the paps, the depth varies from 25 to 39 fathoms, the bottom,
sand and shells, or sand and rock. The depth then continues to decrease
to the E.S.E. The highest and westernmost rock of the Almadies, which
appears from a distance in the shape of a die, is in lat. 14° 44' 29", and
long. 17° 33' 29", as shown in the Table, p. 32.

The prevailing currents between the Senegal and Cape Verde follow the
direction of the coast, in the same manner as those to the northward ; and
the idea of a current setting violently into the Bay of Yof is altogether
false. The sea on this part of the coast is not particularly heavy nor dan-
gerous ; the smallest coasters of the Senegal and Goree expose themselves
to it with impunity every day.

Southward from the Senegal, as far as parallel of 15° 20', including an
extent of more than 12 leagues, at 2 or 3 miles from the coast, the bottom is
excellent, being of pure mud, with a depth varying from 12 to 30 fathoms.
From this parallel, to the southward, doubtless the depth increases consider-
ably. At 2 leagues to the westward of the Little Paps, for instance, there
are from 64 to 70 fathoms of water. The muddy bottom continues here,
and is so soft that the lead sinks deep into it, and the anchor alone would
hold any vessel obliged to come to in consequence of calm. It is only in
these cases that anchoring becomes necessary ; if there is wind from either
quarter, the formation of the coast will always allow a favourable board to
any vessel well found and well managed.

From Almadie Point to Cape Manuel the coast trends S.S.E. J E. [#.i?.]
in a distance of about 3 leagues. In this extent it is high, covered with

608 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS -AND ISLANDS.

trees, and generally terminates at the sea-side in basaltic cliffs or sandy rocks.
In some places only the cliff slopes towards the interior, and forms small
bays with beaches of white sand.

At 2,000 fathoms N.W. by W. J W. [7F. hj N.~\ off Cape Manuel, and at
half that distance from the coast, there is a group of rocky islets, called the
Magdalen Isles, of which there are two principal ones. They are perfectly
barren ; even the largest, in the crevices of which were formerly some
laolabs* is nothing but a bare rock of a reddish colour mixed with basalt,
and perfectly destitute of any vegetation. The shape of this islet is that of
a crescent open to the westward, and its greatest extent is nearly North and
South. On the North side it has a gap, forming a very small creek, which
affords a landing. The other rocks are to the south-eastward of the prin-
cipal islet, separated by a space of 1,000 fathoms, in which there is a depth
of from 4 to 6 fathoms. The sea breaks with violence on all these rocks.

The space between the Magdalen Islands and the main seems to offer a
safe channel; but it should not be attempted by a stranger. In coasting
the shore from the Almadies to the Magdalen Islands, the soundings vary
from 34 to 19 fathoms. These islands may be approached on the southern
side within 100 fathoms.

Cape Manuel is high, formed of columns of basalt, and covered with very
thick brushwood. The lighthouse is a square tower built on the cliff, 39 feet
high, and bears S.S.E. from Cape Verde light 6 miles distant. It shows a
■fixed red light, visible 8 miles off. At the distance of a pistol-shot from it,
to the southward, there is a depth of 8 fathoms; and at 100 fathoms to
the north-westward of its extreme point, close to the beach, is a small in-
sulated rock. In doubling Cape Manuel, the extensive bay is opened, which
is formed by this cape and Cape Naze, which may be called the Bay of Goree.
At the distance of 2,100 fathoms from Cape Manuel, E. £ N. [iV. 65° E.]lies
the Island Goree; and a vessel intending to anchor must steer for it, and
may approach on the South side within two musket shots.

GOREE. — The Island of Goree with the Senegal fell into the hands of the
British in 1809. By the treaty of Paris they were restored to the French
in 1816. As far as regards climate, they are more favourably situated than
any of our settlements on the coast. The adjoining country is inhabited by
the Jaloff nation. Gum, copal, and ground nuts are the principal exports,
chiefly to Rouen and Marseilles. The French Government attach much im-
portance to its maintenance, and have expended large sums on its military
defences, and in the construction of the port of Dakar.

Goree Isle is merely a rock; about 400 fathoms in its greatest length, frorr
N. by E. J E. to S. by W. \ W. {N. hj W. to S. hj E.), and 167 fathoms it
breadth. It is a volcanic production, composed of basalt and sand, of the
same description as the Magdalen Islands and Cape Manuel, from which it
seems to have been separated. The southern part, which is about 500 feet
above the level of the sea, is the highest, and like a round mountain, may

* The baobab (or Adansonia) is a species of a very large tree, of a fine green colour, but
which does not keep its verdure all tho year round. From the trees of this sort on Cape
Verde that cape derived its name,

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 609

be seen at the distance of 5 or 6 leagues. The rest of the island is very low,
and the North point is distinguished only by its batteries and private build-
ings. A fixed light is shown from the fort. The landing-place is on the
N.E. side of the island, between the point and the bach of the mountain ;
to the southward, is a small sandy bay.

The roadstead is to the N.E. of the island. This roadstead, which is shel-
tered from all winds from S.S.W. to N.N.E. (by the North), is perfectly
safe during eight months of the year ; that is, from the 1st of November to
the 1st of July ; but during the rainy season, the squalls from the S.E. are
dangerous. The best anchorage for large vessels, in either season, is at the
distance of 800 fathoms from the landing-place, with Cape Manuel Light-
house bearing W. by S. £ S. (S. 52° TV.), a sail's breadth open of the North
point of the island. At this spot there is a bottom of thick clayish mud,
with a depth of 12£ fathoms, and it is convenient to weigh from, with the
wind from any quarter.

To fetch the anchorage from Cape Verde, in the fine season, when the
winds are from N.E. to N.W., it is necessary to run close by Cape Manuel
and the South point of Goree, keeping by the wind on the port tack, and
sounding until in 8 or 10 fathoms. When within a mile of the land, tack
and beat up to the anchorage. All the channel between Goree and the
Peninsula of Cape Verde is perfectly safe, having in it from 5 to 13 fathoms
of watei', and the shores may be approached within the distance of 200
fathoms. A vessel intending to remain any time at the anchorage should
moor N.E. and S.W., as the two cables will then bear an equal strain in the
heaviest of the squalls.

The watering-place of Goree, used by vessels which frequent this island,
is about 3,000 fathoms N.N.W. of the anchorage. It consists of several
pits dug in the sand on the sea-side, near a marsh, and close to a negro vil-
lage called Han. The water is neither agreeable nor wholsome, and should
not be drunk until it has been filtered, acidulated, or cleansed by boiling
or other means. The cove in which it is situate is exceedingly well
stocked with fish, and hauling the seine will be attended with success, by
any number of vessels touching here.

DAKAR. — This port is established on the coast nearly due West true from
the Island of Goree, the channel between being 2 miles wide.

Some important works are executed here by the French Government to
make a coaling station, and to afford vessels frequenting the colony of
Senegal a port of shelter from the dangerous effects of tornadoes, which
are common on this coast in the winter. The island of Goree had been
considered as suitable, but it was discovered that the ground was not suffi»
ciently firm. Therefore the Bay of Dakar on the main land opposite to
Goree was selected.

In the Bay of Dakar two jetties are constructed, forming a double basin.
One above 300 yards in length, with depths of 3 and 4 fathoms, and the
other, which is 350 yards in extent, is carried out to a depth of 6 fathoms,
and affords shelter to vessels of the largest size. A bright light, elevated 15
feet, is shown on the head of the East pier.

By the accounts from Senegal (March, 1865), the Sevre, troop-ship, of
900 tons, and 259 feet long, was in the road of Dakar. This vessel had

010 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

anchored between the two jetties, and 230 feet from the second, and had a
depth of 5\ fathoms under her bows, and 5 astern, and by the commander's
account she was entirely sheltered from the sea and tide.

The coast, from Capo Manuel to Cape Naze, which forms Goree Bay,
may be run along at the distance of 2 miles. One bank only lies at 800
fathoms E.S.E. | E. (E. 3° N.) from Cape Belair, having soundings which
vary from 16 feet to 12 fathoms, with a bottom of muddy sand, or sand
and shells, as far as the parallel of Cape Naze.

From the Bay of Han, northward of Goree, the coast rises a little at some
miles in the interior, but it is exceedingly low at the sea-side, where it pre-
sents nothing but a white sandy strand. We again perceive the little downs,
the chain of which joins the paps of Cape Verde, and which we run along in
going round the Bay of Yof. Those downs rise progressively to the south-
eastward, and are covered with trees as far as Cape Naze. The Naze Cape
is terminated by cliffs of about 200 fathoms in height, the woody summit of
which may be seen, in fine weather, at a distance of 7 or 8 leagues. In
running along the coast toward Cape Naze, we pass successively several
negro villages of the kingdoms of C\oyo and Baol, belonging to Darnel. The
most considerable of these villages is llufisk, on the eastern side of Goree
Bay , then follow the anchorages of Bamicr, Red Cape, Yongop, &c, all of
which points are frequented by coasters from Goree, who trade for stock ;
they offer nothing interesting. The highest part of Cape Naze is in lat.
14° 31' 30" N., and long. 17° 7' 25" W.

There are some rocks, westward of Eufish, stretching into the sea, which
may be avoided by keeping half a mile from the shore. To the West and
W.N.W. of Cape Naze is good anchorage, in 4 or 5 fathoms, hue sand ; but
to the South and S.W. of the cape the bottom, generally, is not good.

In the night time, you must proceed in 17 fathoms, having sometimes
recourse to the lead ; the land, even in the night, will direct you sufficiently
to avoid the rocks. In the season of the tornadoes the road of Eufisk is
not good ; but in the summer, you may safely lie there in 6 or 7 fathoms
close to the shore, if agreeable.

About 3§ miles S.E. of the Red Cape lies Cape Naze, with a small bay
between ; from the latter the coast extends to the S.S.E. f E. (S.E. | E.)
about 4-\ leagues, as far as Portudal, formerly a French factory ; and then 5
leagues S. -JE. (S.S.E. | E.)to Cape Serene ; between this cape and Portudal,
2 leagues off the coast, and parallel to it, lies Amboroo Bank, on the South
tail of which you find only H fathom. Ships that come from the westward
must be cautious of this shoal ; the ground is very hard upon it, and close to
it is a depth of 5 fathoms.

To the S.E. of Capo Naze the land declines in height, and the downs are
partially covered with bushes. The point near a little river, the Soman, is
thus covered, and the country hereabout appears to be clothed with trees.

Portudal consists of a number of huts on the shore. The coasters of
Goree irequent this place. All the coast in the vicinity abounds in trees;
and at 2 miles to the southward of the village is a small wood, very remark-

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 611

able from its trees being much higher than the rest, and whioh, therefore,
serve as a mark for the coast.'"

The Road of Portudal is far from being good, and is fit for small vessols
only ; they lie close to the shore, athwart of the little houses between the
cliffs. All the coast near Portudal is bordered with rocks, and must not be
approached too near.

Joal. — Three leagues S.E. f E. (E.S.E. | E.) from Gape Serene lies Joal
or Yoal, standing on the North bank of a river of the same name, from which
a shoal, with only 2h fathoms of water upon it, projects into the sea. The
Road of Joal is not much better than those we have just mentioned ; the
entrance of the river, between Joal Point and the point to the South of it,
which they called Palmarin Point, is 3 miles broad, with a depth of 3 fa-
thoms of water in mid-channel.

Colonel L. S. O'Connor, C.B., Governor of the Gambia, paid a visit to
the King of Bur Sin, at his seaport of Joal, in January, 1856. His object
was to enter into a treaty for the protection of vessels and persons wrecked
on these shores, which was carried out, and therefore some appeal may be
made hereafter to. that treaty should misfortune render it necessary.

From Palmarin Point to the northernmost of the Birds' Islands the coast
extends S. £ E. (S.S.E. -J E.) 8 leagues; and, from the mouth of the Salum
River, which lies 4 leagues south-eastward of the point, to the Birds' Islands,
the shore is bordered with a sand, named the Red Bank, that stretches 4 miles
into the sea, and close to which are 4 fathoms of water. The Birds' Islands,
four in number, and very small, lie on the bank.

TheSalum River is navigable for 90 miles, and vessels of 250 to 300 tons
can always ascend it easily to Khaolah; the last and principal trading port,
and to which the tide extends. The bottom throughout is of soft mud, and
therefore may be grounded on without danger. All the people at Goree are
intimate with the river, and can act as pilots. The only difficulty is the bar,
which, like that of the Senegal, is liable to shift, and is extending to the
South. The Sandy Point of Sangomar has thus extended a mile since 1828,
the period of the survey. The bar is only about 50 yards broad, and on it
are from 8 to 9 ft. water, perhaps less at spring tides. In taking the bar
you must be able to bear freely to the N.E. by compass, which may bo
readily done with the sea breeze (N.N.W.) in the afternoon. The best time
is therefore the two or threo days following the first and last quarter of the
moon : it is high water then at from 4 to 6 p.m., and you can make sail for
the bar at 2 or 3 o'clock the moment the breeze sets in and is well established,
but not if it is too fresh, for then the breakers are strong.

From Palmarin Point to the pitch of Cape St. Mary the distance is 1 1
leagues, S. £ W. (S. hj E. £ E.) The entrance of the Gambia lies between
the pitch of that cape and the low islets called the Birds' Isles.

* A more particular detail of this coast, and of all the shore between Cape Naze and
Cape Koxo, by M. Le Predeur (extracted from the Annates Maritimes), was published at
Paris in 1828. To the description is annexed a copious table of the positions of places, as
determined in 1826 and 1S27, on board the frigate La Flore andgoelette La Dorado, voider
the orders of Captain Massieu > 1 ' CJierval, which may be advantegeously compared with more
recent observations.

612 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

In sailing off the coast botween Cape Verde and the Gambia, shipping
must proceed with, caution, as the Amboroo Bank, the shoals of Joal, and
the banks in the vicinity of the River Salum, are dangerous, being very
shoal.

RIVER GAMBIA.— Between the parallels of 13° 30' and 13° 40', in an
extent of 10 miles, is the estuary or mouth of the great River Gambia. It is
bounded on the South side by a point named Cape St. Mary, on which a fixed
light was formerly shown. A red light was also shown on Barra Point, but
these lights have been discontinued. On a point 6 miles S.E. £E. (E.S.E. i- E.)
from this is the British settlement and town of Bathurst.

The Gambia is one of the principal colonies of the British on the coast of
Africa, and the nearest to Europe, a fortnight or three weeks being sufficient
time for a steamer to reach the Thames from Bathurst. The advantages of
this noble river for carrying on trade with the natives in the interior were
well known upwards of 240 years ago, for a company was formed in England
for that purpose in 1818. From the time of the first voyager, Thompson,
at that period, up to that of Mungo Park, in 1795, it was considered that
the Gambia and Senegal were branches of the Niger. Several expeditions
were sent out, and the British factory was placed on tho small Island of
St. James, about 17 miles from St. Mary's. Besides this settlement in
1724, the African Company had another factory at Joar, about 100 miles
distant from St. James's Island. In 1688, the latter fort was destroyed by
the French.

In 181 G the new settlement, the present Bathurst, was formed at the Island
of St. Mary's, on the faith of a treaty for the exclusive trade with the Gambia
with the French. The Island of St. Mary's was purchased from the King
of Combo; and on the opposite bank, a large tract of country, extending
1 mile inland, and about 36 miles long, was purchased from the King of
Barra. It is to the eastward of Barra Point, and is of little advantage
except as giving a command of the mouth of the river. There is no British
establishment on this tract except Fort Bullen, immediately opposite to
Bathurst, and a small house, the residence of a missionary.

In the vicinity of Cape St. Mary's, 7 or 8 miles to the southward of
Bathurst, is a more valuable territory acquired by Lieutenant-Governor
Huntley, in 1840, by purchase ; i, is called Baccow, and has some barracks
for the African corps.

McCarthy's Island is another British settlement, up the river, at the
distance of about 175 miles from St. Mary's, though this distance is usually
called 300 or 250 miles. The island is about 5& miles long and 1 mile broad,
and the river is navigable up to it for vessels of large tonnage ; beyond it
the trade is carried on in small schooners ; the breadth of the river here is
about 200 yards. The falls of Barraconda, which stop the navigation of the
Gambia, are about 300 miles above St. Mary's, and from this to Fort St.
Joseph, or Gallam, the French settlement on the Senegal is about 150 miles,
or five days' journey on foot. There are several islands on the Gambia,
between M'Carthy's Island and the mouth.

The Island of St. Mary's is situated on the South bank of the river,
opposite to Barra Point, where a battery has been erected, and where a few
black troops are stationed ; the breadth of the river is about 2 miles.

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 613

The island is separated from the main land by a very narrow creek, called
Oyster Creek ; the length of the island is about 4 miles, and the extreme
breadth 1 mile. The total population of St. Mary's is 3,514 souls, resident
strangers; of the fixed population, 42 are whites and 3,294 coloured
people.

BATHURST is situated in the Island of St. Mary's ; it is a small pro-
sperous-looking town, with several excellent stone houses, especially on the
wharf where the houses of the merchants are situated. In 1875, 233 vessels
entered the port, including the visits of mail steamers. The whites nearly
all return to Europe every year to avoid the bad season. They numbered
only about 25 in the year 1875. Jillifree is on the North side of the river,
and is about half a mile from Fort James.

Albrida, or Albradar, a fort which belonged to the French, is about half a
mile from Jillifree ; their possession of this place was considered not to be on
any well-founded claim, and was also a very serious inconvenience and
injury to the British trade in the river : but, as shown in the note on page
602, it has been exchanged for Portandik.

Of the Gambia, Sir Edward Belcher says : — "The Gambia, considered in
a mercantile point of view, and, as regards supplies appears to offer more
decided advantages than any of our possessions on the coast of Africa ; and
may, indeed be said to be the only point where anything approaching to
trade can be satisfactorily pursued. Even in its present state it is by far
the most healthy part of the coast ; and, had a portion of the liberality of
Government to Sierra Leone been extended to Bathurst and its dependencies,
I feel satisfied that, long ere this, it would have acquired that character
which eventually, with infinite labour, it will establish for itself from its
own resources." The constitutions of the residents appear to be as sound as
in any part of the world, and the strongest has been here thirty years with-
out visiting Europe.

But it is to be regretted that, at Bathurst, the only fresh water to be had
is from private wells ; but, by close work in the dry season, as much as five
tons a day may be obtained. Wood may be had at the beach, well dried,
in convenient lengths for stowage, at a dollar and a half, or six shillings
sterling, per cord.

Cape St. Mary is readily known by its making like a plain ; low by the
seaside, with an acclivity to toward the interior. It has some trees, one
house for convalescents upon it, and an octagonal lighthouse.

The narrowest part of the mouth of the Gambia is between the town of
Bathurst and Barra Point, to the N.E., the distance between being only 2\
miles.

From Bathurst Point, the Banyan or St. Mary's Shoal, a dangerous rocky
shelf, extends 5 miles N. by W. {N.N. TV. £ 7V.). It is even with the
water, on the ebb. At a mile to the N.E. of this is a bank called the Middle
Ground; and at three-quarters of a mile northward of the latter, is a smaller
one, the African Knoll.

Buoys.— Four buoys (1875) mark the entrance to the River Gambia.
The Fairway Buoy, in lat. 13° 35' N. long. 16° 50' 10" W., chequered black
and white, surmounted by a white cage, lies in 4|- fathoms, with Cape St.

N. A. O. 4K

€14 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

Mary (centre of red cliff) bearing S.S.E. f E. distant 91 miles; Middle
Buoy E. by S. £ S. b% miles.

Northern or Red Bank Buoy is red, surmounted by a black cage, and lies in
5 A fathoms, with Cape St. Mary bearing S. by E. distant 13 miles; Fairway
Buoy 8.S.W. I W. distant 5 & miles.

Middle Buoy, painted red, and surmounted by a black cage, has been
moored in 4f fathoms, nearly midway between Fairway and African Knoll
Buoys, with Cape St. Mary bearing S. £ W., distant 5£- miles ; and African
Knoll Buoy E. by S. f S. 6£ miles.

African Knoll Buoy is Hack, surmounted by a cage, and lies one cable off
the north-west part of the African Knoll in 5 fathoms, with Cape St. Mary
bearing S.W. by W. i W.; the flag-staff at the north-east extreme of
Bathurst S. -} W., distant 7j miles.

Vessels sighting the Northern Buoy, should immediately steer southward
to sight the Fairway Buoy, from which Cape House may be seen in clear
weather. From the Fairway Buoy, by steering so as to pass just northward
of the Middle and African Knoll Buoys, the least depth found will be 4£
fathoms. Nearer the Horse-shoo Bank the depth is 5 fathoms. Vessels
should go no nearer to the Horse-shoe Bank than to the distance of 1J mile
northward of Middlo Buoy, as tho shore is reported to have but a depth of
2 fathoms in places. From the Middle Buoy (red) the African Knoll Buoy
(blacJc) bears E.S.E. 6-i miles, and after passing northward of the latter,
within half or three-quarters of a mile distance, the town of Bathurst may
be steered for S.S.W. about 6-A miles, and anchorage taken up abreast the
town.

When advancing to tho Gambia, from the northward, you ought not to
approach the river nearer than in 7 or 6 fathoms, before Cape St. Mary
keeps in sight. It may be advisable for a stranger not to proceed farther
than in 5 fathoms without a pilot, unless a vessel draws less than 12 feet of
water. Those leaving Goree, when bound to Gambia, may steer about
S. by E., keeping their lead constantly going, and approaching the coast no
nearer than in 7 fathoms. When near the entrance of Gambia, the ground
will generally be found an oozy sand ; but, near the cape, sometimes sand
and sometimes red shells will be found. Tho ebb in the river runs very
strongly, nearly eight hours, but tho flood is not so strong. Spring tides aro
very rapid.

Having approached within one mile of Barra Point, from which a small
spit stretches off to about a quarter of a mile, keep over for mid-channel
between that point and Banyan or Bathurst Point. You have, 8, 9, 10,
and 1 2 fathoms between tho two points, and good anchorage in 9 fathoms
water, muddy ground, with Barra Point bearing N.E. by N., and Banyan
Point N.W.

The flood tide sets to Barra Point, and the ebb directly on the Middle ;
be therefore very cautious during calms on an ebb tide/'

* At the Gambia, in the season of the Harmattan, the rainy season had just terminated
on the 9th of December. Upon this occasion the colours are hoistei and a gun is fired. On
a second visit in May and June, 1831, the end of the dry season, symptoms of approaching
rains with squall.— £tr Edward Belcher,

WEST COAST OF AFEICA. 615

From Barra Point to Dog Island Point, on the same side of the river, the
bearing and distance are S. J W. (S. by E. h E.) 8 miles. The coast between
forms a deep and shoal bay, and the fiats extend from it into the middle of
the river. From Dog Island Point and Reef the coast takes a sudden turn
to the S.E. and E.S.E., and it trends from Dog Island Point to Lemaino or
Lemon Point, S.E. h E. (E.S.E. \ E.) 2 leagues. On this shore, at half a
league more eastward, is the French former settlement at Albreda, and at
half a mile further is the English one named Jillifrce. One mile south-
eastward from Jillifree, on an islet in the river, is Fort James.

To go up to James Fort, which is 17 miles above Bathurst, you steer in
mid-channel 2 leagues, with the town of Bathurst N. £ W. \_N.JST. W. I W.]
This leads to a fair offing from Dog Island Point. The course hence, in the
fairway, to abreast of Leinain Point, is S.E. \ E. [E.S.E.'] 6J miles; and
thence to Fort James, E.S E. £ E. [East] 3| miles.

In order to avoid the shelf which extends from the Banyan or western
shore, approach no nearer to that shore, in turning, than in 5 fathoms ; nor
nearer the Barra side, when above Dog Island Point, than in 4 fathoms ; but
if near that point, then in 6 fathoms. Lemain Point should have a berth of
a mile, as some shoals stretch from it. You may haul in and anchor before
Albreda in 4 fathoms, half a mile from it, the ground shoaling gradually
to within a cable's length of the shore.

After giving Lemain Point a berth, do not haul for the Barra shore till
you are abreast of Albreda, for the flat continues to the eastward of that
point to a considerable distance.

In 1826, the River Gambia, to the distance of more than 190 miles,. from
its entrance, was surveyed by Captain Richard Owen, R.N., with his assist-
ants, Messrs. Tudor and Mercer. This valuable survey exhibits the depths
of water all the way up to Pisanea, where remain the ruins of a factory,
and where the tide, in the dry season, rises 3 ft. It appears from the survey
that, at 3 miles above James Fort, this noble river is nearly 2i miles in
breadth. Here it takes a north-easterly direction, and thus extends for 10
miles to a point on the South shore called Moota Point, and a creek, Jukardai
on the North. The depths of this reach, in mid-channel, are 5J, 4§, 4 J, to 6,
6, and 7 fathoms. Pursuing thence an easterly course, its depths alter-
nately shoalen and increase to a great distance.

From Boonyadoo Creek, or the Fourth River, which faces the mouth of the
Gambia, to Jukcrda Creek, above- mentioned, is a line of coast, 1 mile (nautic)
in breadth, and 42 miles in length, the sovereignty of which was ceded to
His Britannic Majesty, by treaty with the king and chiefs of Barra, signed
at Jillifree, 15th of June, 1826. A small spot (400 yards by 300) occupied
by the French, at Albreda, excepted.

From Cape St. Mary (the true cape) the coast stretches 11 miles W.S.AV.
to the Bald Cape, where St. Anne's Bank, with the Tongui Rocks, extend
about a league into the sea, and include three sandy islets, called the
Byjols.

Upon the coast of Cape St. Mary the ground varies all along, but it
becomes whiter to the southward. When past the Cstpe you find a reddish
sand, which, at 2 or 3 leagues more to the South, changes into a gray,
then into a whitish, sandy bottom j and, about Cape Roxo, it becomes such

016 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

fine sand as that which is put into the time glasses. The varieties of ground
extend from 25 fathoms in the offing to 5 fathoms off the shore.

The coast between the Said Cape and Cape Roxo, in a distance of 20 leagues,
is very low, with a sandy beach, and covered with trees. The middle part
is one low and continued forest, with clusters of large high trees, at a dis-
tance resembling islands.

In sailing between the two capes, by keeping in 5 or 6 fathoms along
shore, you will find that depth down to the entrance of the River Casamanza

4 leagues to the northward of Cape Eoxo ; there you have only 4 fathoms,
and the ground mostly red sand. About 2 leagues southward from that
entrance, and abreast of a cliffy point, near which you may anchor, the
ground is so clammy, about a musket-shot from the shore, in 2 fathoms of
water, that the lead is brought up with difficulty.

Tho RIVER CASAMANZA, or Casamance, is situate about 16 leagues
to the southward of Bald Cape. If a bar did not obstruct this entrance, the
liver might be navigated by frigates ; but it can be gained only by a very
narrow channel, having a depth of 2 fathoms, but it can be entered with
ease by a steamer under proper pilotage.

The Portuguese, established on the banks of this fertile river, havo
ascended to the distance of many leagues from its mouth ; they have several
establishments on it, the principal of which are called Zinghicor, 45 miles up
tho river, and Malcia Kaconda. They have carried on an advantageous trade,
especially in ivory, rough hides, aromatic seeds, and dying woods, with the
Feloop and other negroes, who inhabit the banks of the river.

There is a French establishment, Carabane, 5 miles from the mouth of the
Casamanza, on the northern point. Toward this there are two passages,
divided by tho bar, which extends outward, to the West, nearly 4 miles.
The deepest channel is on the South side of this bank, and has 3J-, 6, 4,
increasing to 8, fathoms off the point. The river upward, which has a
serpentine form, has been surveyed by Captain Boteler ; and from his
survey it appears that there is another French settlement, the factory of
Serrin, at ten leagues up the river on the South side, and 4 leagues below
Zinghicor, which is on the same side. The soundings in mid-channel,
from tho entrance to the latter place, vary from 8 to 4, 6, 3^, 5, 6, oh, 8, and

5 fathoms. The French have placed another establishment at Sejeu, having
purchased the land of the natives. In 18G5, it was stated that the channels
had considerably altered, and that little dependence can be placed in the
charts.

CAPE ROXO (lat. 12° 21') is improperly called a Cape, it being an
obtuse point of low land, from which the coast takes an E.S.E. direction to
the River Cacheo, or Rio San Domingo, the navigation to which is impeded by
extensive shoals, called the Cacheo Ranis and Falulo Breakers. The point
or cape, when bearing E.S.E. or E., presents a down of white sand, of
moderate height, covered with brambles. On one side of the points formed
by the coast to the northward, are a number of tufts, of a remarkably
raj colour, and it is supposed that, from these tufts, the name of Roxo (Red)
has been imparted to the headland, although they are distant from it about
2\ miles.

WEST COAST OF AFEICA. 617

M. Eoussin says, that on all approaches to Cape Eoxo, the soundings are
regular, but the depth inconsiderable. From the Eiver Casamanza, to the
distance of 2 or 3 miles from shore, there is a depth of only 6 to 4 fathoms.
At 10 miles to seaward are 8 and 7 fathoms ; and at a short distance to the
S.S.W. the first bank of the Bissagos is met with.

Cacheo, on the South bank of the river of that name, has been the chief
Portuguese establishment between Cape St. Mary and Cape Verga, and was
formerly very considerable. They carry on the same kind of trade here as
at Casair.anza. The country is singularly fertile and well peopled.

The mouth of the river is about 6i leagues to the south-eastward of Cape
Eoxo, and the entrance is between two reefs. In proceeding for it, give
Cape Eoxo a berth of about 5 miles. Steer S.S.E. on soundings of from 4
to 5 and 6 fathoms, on a sandy bottom. Go close to the eastward of Cacheo
Bank, which has 2i fathoms of water on it. Continue S.S.E. until you see
breakers ahead, and run straight for them, until you are in 5 fathoms of
water. You will see a single tree bearing East, then steer E. by S., leaving
a reef, which extends out about 4 miles from that tree, on your port hand.
This reef, although it is said to have 2 fathoms on it at low water, breaks
at half tide. Close into the beach, at the tree, there is a passage of 1\
fathoms, which is fit for small craft only. Continue your course E. by S.,
when you will be apparently 4 miles from the land on your port hand, and
will come to a shoal called the Mud Bar, on which there is a depth of only
18 ft. at ordinary high water, but is only soft mud, and about two cables
in breadth. You may then see a clump of palm trees (ten or twelve in
number), bearing E.N.E. ; and when these palm trees bear N.E. by E.,
you will be over the bar, and will have from 5 to 5, 7, 8, and 9 fathoms up
to Cacheo Fort, by keeping in the middle of the river ; and when abreast of
the Fort, which belongs to the Portuguese, anchor in the middle of the river
in 9 fathoms.

BISSAGOS and Bijooga Islands. — We have now arrived at the Archipe-
lago of Bissagos and the Bijooga Islands.

This ai'chipelago is an extensive assemblage of islands and shoals between
the parallels of 10° 42' and 11° 40' N., and between the meridians of 15° 30'
and 17 J W. Of the interior navigation among the isles little is known, and
tho hostile disposition of the inhabitants renders it probable that no com-
plete survey of it can be made without danger.

The principal isles that constitute the archipelago are said to be sixteen
in number, besides many islets, all surrounded by shoals, as shown on the
chart.

The archipelago is bounded on the North by the Jeba Channel, or Great
Channel of Bissao ; and on the East by the Channel of Rio Grande. These
channels were partially surveyed by the officers under Captain Eoussin, in
1818, and Captain W. F. Owen, in 1826 ; and to their surveys we owe our
knowledge of the navigation presently to be described. The southern
breaker, called that of the Bayadere, was discovered in 1818, and is repre-
sented by M. Eoussin in lat. 10° 42' 56", long. 1G 3 17', and the mouth of the
Eastern or Eio Grande Channel is 7 leagues more to the eastward.

Jeba Channel— The main land, forming the North side of this channel,
is intersected by several rivers, which divide it into islands. The first of

G18 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

these is Cacheo, then follow Jatt, Bassi, and Bissao, of all which the land is
low. But thore is, near the S.W. end of Jatt, at 13 leagues S.S.E. I E.
(S.E. I S.) from Cape Eoxo (lat. 11° 50') a small but conspicuous isle, named
Cayo, which is bold-to, and very useful as a sailing-mark. This isle, when
on an easterly bearing, appears like three isles, but on nearing will be found
to be connected with a flat, which is common to all, though intersected, at
high water, by shallow lakes. Its soil is sandy, and mixed with flinty rock.
The beautiful trees with which it is covered may be seen, in clear weather,
at 3 or 5 leagues off. At 6 leagues more to the eastward (U.S.I?.), off the
S.E. end of Jatt, are several islets, called the Ancoras, which distinguish the
western sido of a river, bearing the same name.

The islands, generally, which, border the Jeba Channel, are not high.
The beach is generally of white sand, interspersed with black and red rocks,
which, being covered with lava, are, doubtless, with the whole archipelago,
of a volcanic origin. The are all well wooded to the sea-side ; and the
height of the trees, with theix vigorous appearance, indicate that the soil
must be fertile. The Island Bissao, on which the Portuguese are estab-
lished, is not so thickly wooded as the others ; but this is owing to the
clearance they were obliged to make for their safety, as the isle is equally
fertile with the rest. The large isles of the archipelago are inhabited by a
race of negroes, known in the country by the name of Papels.

On the Eio Grande the Portuguese have several establishments. The
settlements of Portugal, on the coast, do not extend beyond Cape Verga.
The objects of trade consist chiefly in elephants' teeth, wax, hard soap,
rough hides of every kind, dyeing and building wood, indigo, cotton, drugs,
resin, and resinous gums, gold in small quantities, orchilla, &c.

The extremity, or N.W. part of the Bissagos Shoals, is composed of hard
sand. From this extremity the bank and isles extend to the southward and
south-eastward, 23 leagues, toward the Eastern Channel of the Eio Grande ;
and the flat, which is from 12 to 6 leagues in breadth, is interspersed with
banks above and under water, and islands, either dry, or drowned and
marshy, the detail of which is little better than unknown.

The North edge of the shoals of Eio Grando, adds Capt. Gamble, is in lat.
11° 40', and we led round them in 11° 43', carrying from 11 to 15 fathoms.
The tide of ebb runs very strongly over the flats to the S.W. ; and within
the heavy breakers the ebb runs W. by S,, and the flood E. by N. The tide,
at full and change, rises 1 2 ft.

Cape Eoxo has already been described. Should you fall in with this
point in the evening, come to an anchor, bringing it to bear North, as then
you will be well laid, in order to proceed farther.

The outer part of the Breakers of Falalo bears S. f E. (S.S.E. h E.) 17 \
miles from Cape Eoxo, and lies to the south-westward of the Eiver Cacheo.
The breakers are divided into two groups, and extend in a true E.S.E. and
W.N.W. direction 3 miles. They are very steep-to, and close to them are
from 6 to 3 fathoms. A merchant vessel may advance within sight of them,
and thence proceed toward the Isle Cayo ; but the best way of proceeding
to the Jeba or Bissao Channel is as follows : —

From a point at 2 leagues to the westward of Cape Eoxo, proceed S.W.
by W. f W. (S.W.) 12 miles; then haul up on the port tack, as at this

WEST COAST OF AFKIOA, 619

distanco tho depth increases. The next course will be S. £ W. (S. by E.)
for 25 miles, which will bring you to the parallel of 11° 47', where a depth
cf nearly 50 ft., with a muddy bottom, will be found.*

You now enter the channel of the Jeba, and will find that a run of 12
leagues E.S.E. £ E. {East) will lead to the South point of the Islet Cayo,
the trees of which, as we have shown, may be seen at a considerable distance.
All the space to the northward of this track is replete with banks, which
extend to the main shore ; but those of the Falulo are the only ones that
break incessantly.

Proceeding thus, the depths will be found always regular, from 7 to 8
fathoms, and the bottom constantly of mud. It must be observed, that
when entering the Great Channel, the northern banks should be approached
in preference to the southern. As the former descend by a gentle declivity,
they always warn a vessel when she is out of the channel, by each cast of
the lead giving a gradual decrease of depth. The southern banks, on tho
contrary, are extremely steep ; close to a depth of 40 ft. there will be found
one of 25, on a bottom very unfit for anchoring.

In order to be assured that you are keeping the channel, keop constantly
sounding, and observe, that in all the channels which separate tho banks to
the N.W. of the Bijoogas, the bottom is almost exclusively soft mud with-
out any mixture. At each cast, therefore, when the lead sinks into tho
ground, you may be certain that you are following the proper channel, and
the middle of it may be found by the lead sinking deeper, and being less
easily extricated. If the bottom becomes hard, it is a certain proof that
you are near some bank, and if the vessel has much way on her, she must
alter course directly for that side on which the bottom is softer.

A vessel seeking or running for the anchorage off the Islet Cayo need not
mind passing close to it. This part is perfectly 6afe to the beach, at half
a mile from which there is a depth of 8 fathoms, on a soft muddy bottom.

The great Channpl, on the meridian of the Island Cayo, is about 4 leagues
in breadth ; but this space is divided into three channels, by means of two
banks, on which there is very little water. Of these banks the northern-
most is the Bank of Cayo, having a depth of only 10 ft. on it, and lying 4
miles to the southward of the islet of that name. It is rather narrow from
North to South, but its length from East to West is about 5 miles. The
best of the three channels is to the northward of this bank, in which there
are from 7 to 9 fathoms.

At the distance of 2 miles southward from the Cayo Bank is the Bank of
Carasche, which breaks continually, and a part of which is dry at low water.
Like the first, which extends true East and West, and its length is also about
5 miles. The least depth between the two is 9 fathoms. At 4 miles to the
southward of the Bank of Carasche is the North point of the island of the
same name, which forms part of the South bank of the Great Channel.

* Vessels coming from the north-ward, after making Cape Roxo, may steer S.W. from
that cape, in 8 fathoms, all along, until they catch from 10 to 12 fathoms, green oaze;
then steer S.E. by E ., taking care not to get into less than fathoms on the port hand on
Cacheo Bank, &c— Mr. Sivann, a pilot.

620 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

There is a channel between the bank and the island, but the depth is irre-
gular, and the bottom is bad.

On advancing for the Portuguese establishment at Bissao, and having
arrived to the eastward of the two banks before mentioned, you may safely
proceed 5 leagues S.E. V S. (&'. 60° E.), and will thus coast the island of
Jatt to its S.E. point, which, from the troes upon it, appears to be the
highest part of the whole coast on the northern side of the channel. The
course thence is S.E. by E. f E. (E. 5 U S.) 6 leagues, in which extent the
Ancoras, situated to the S.E. of the island of Jatt, the channel between
that island and Isle Bassi, and the southern part of the last island, will be
passed successively to the northward ; on the South you will cross a large
bay, formed by the islands CarascJie and Corhelk, will pass the Parroquet
Island (Pityalawa), lying to the eastward of the latter, and finally arrive on
the meridian of the western point of the Island of Bissao, at about 3 miles
from it. Prom the Parroquet Isles, the southern side of this channel is
formed by a bank, several parts of which are dry at low water.

To the southward of the town of Bissao is an islet, called Bonn ; and at 2
miles above this is another, called King's Isle. On the South side of the
river is another, called Areas, which is 7 miles from Bonn, and nearly on the
same meridian. The latter on the eastern side of the channel to Rio Grande,
is the distinguishing mark for that channel. Prom the S.W. end of the
Isle Bissao the course to Bonn is East (E. 20° N.) This course runs
parallel to, and within 2 miles of, the Island of Bissao, and passes over
several patches, on which there are only 26 ft. at low water. These patches
are to the northward of the eastern channel, the mouth of which is near the
Island of Areas, which is seen at the same time. They may be avoided by
altering the course occasionally ; but as the depth on them is not less than
26 ft., and does not experience any considerable rise, as they are of no great
extent, a vessel may pass over them without any fear, and may shape a
direct course.

At 3 J miles W. i S . (W.S.W.) of Bonn, is the Point and Grove of St.
Martin of Bissao, where the coast forms a slight elbow. This point is not to
be approached with safety, nearer than 1| mile by a large vessel. At 3
miles S.S.W. I W. (S. 5° TV.) of this point, and in a continuation of the line
from Bonn to the highest point of King's Island, lies one of the knolls
above spoken of. It is the easternmost to be met with on the course above
stated. To the eastward of the meridian of Point St. Martin, the depth
increases toward Isle Bonn. This knoll, with 26 ft. water on it, is a small
bank of not more than 100 fathoms extent in every direction, having deep
water to the northward and southward of it.

When a vessel is within 3 miles S.S.W. £ W. (S. ly W.) from Bonn, she
should steer direct for it, so as to pass within 209 fathoms to the eastward of
the island. This part is extremely steep, having, at the above distance from
it, a depth of 8 fathoms. Prom hence she should run between King's Island
and the fort, and anchor in 6 to 8 fathoms, on a soft muddy bottom. Having
doubled the Isle Bonn, the coast of Bissao should be approached nearer than
King's Island, as the depth is greater, and varies from 6 to 7 fathoms. It
would be superfluous to mention the necessity of sounding constantly in this
internal navigation.

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 621

In March (1856) Captain Canal, of the French ship Aghj, proceeding to
Bissao, encountered a most powerful southerly current. He had allowed
for 1| knot, but having become entangled to the South of Carasche, ho
found that he had set at the rate of 3 miles per hour. — (See pages 337-8.)
He had grounded on a shoal, and was compelled to cast overboard 40 tons
of ballast to lighten the ship, and after five days he contrived to pass safely
through the Archipelago to the North and East, and arrived at Bissao. Ho
sent a boat out to sound, and by that and the colour of the water he managed
to arrive without casualty. Bissao, he says, offers but few resources for fresh
provisions.

SISSAO. — The Road of Bissao lies in the principal stream of the River
Jeba, between the eastern side of the Island of Bissao and the small island
opposite, called King's Island. This roadstead is perfectly safe in all
weathers. It is so completely sheltered, that the sea is alwaj's smooth ; and
the bottom is of such a nature that with good ground tackle a vessel may
ride there in any season. It is advisable to moor N.E. and S.W., as the
tides set in this direction ; and in the rainy season, as the squalls come
from the S.E., the anchors, being thus placed, will bear an equal strain.

The Portuguese Fort stands at 100 fathoms from the beach, and is a square
redoubt, flanked at the four angles by a bastion. The wall of the ditch,
which on each face is about 100 paces in length, may be about 30 feet in
height.

The watering place at Bissao is on the beach, at about 33 paces to the
southward of the fort. It consists of several pits, dug about 4 ft. deep in
the sand, and may afford sufficient water to fill thirty casks in twenty-four
hours. This water before being filtered, coming from sand and rock, is not
agreeable to the taste, although it has the reputation of being wholesome,
and ot keeping well ; nevertheless, it should not be drank without being
acidulated, or purified by other means. It may be either brought on board
in boats, or rafted off at high water.

Independent of wood and water, excellent bullocks, of about one hundred
weight, at the rate of from twenty to twenty-five dollars each, have been had
at Bissao ; also goats, pigs, and poultry. There is also rice, maize, and
yams, and some fruit, 6uch as bananas, lemons, and oranges. These articles
are exchanged for gunpowder, brandy, iron, clothing, and dollars, by apply-
ing to the governor.

Governor O'Connor says: — "Bissao, declining when I visited it last in
April, 1855, has since then greatly deteriorated in trade and appearance.
The old buildings, totally neglected, are sinking into ruins, the troops with-
out barracks living in miserable mud huts, the port occupied by only a few
colonial and coasting vessels, the market scantily supplied with the com-
monest necessaries of life, are indubitable evidences that the power and
prestige of Portugal are rapidly on the wane in this part of the world."

The waters which surround the Bissagos are far from being supplied with

fish, and it is erroneously affirmed, in some works on Africa, that amongst

these islands cargoes of salt fish may be procured. Mud prevails too much

in the bottom ; and the few fish which are found are not even considered

n. a. o. 4 L

622 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS,

wholesome. No dependence can be placed on this resource, between the
Gambia and the Isles de Los.

Dr. Madden says, " Bissao is the great stronghold of the Portuguese slave
trade. The island of this group, on which the Portuguese Fort and Factory
are established, is situate at the mouth of the Eiver Jeba, about 100 miles
South oi the Gambia."

Winds in the Great Channel of the Bissagos. — The winds here follow nearly
the direction of the land, and vary their course according to that of the
channel. In the Great Channel they vary from West to North ; at the an-
chorage of Bissao they are generally from S.W., except in the morning,
when they are from the northward. In the rainy season, which commences
here in the beginning of June, and continues about five months, they blow
from the S.E. with the tornadoes, as on the whole cuast, and then, passing
round by South, return to the northward. Whatever may be the direction
of the wind, a vessel, with the assistance of the tides, may always find her
way into or out of the Great Channel, and the working is extremely easy
with the assistance of the chart, which should accompany these directions.
The remark respecting the northern bank being approached in preference
to the southern, should be attended to here ; the islands to the northward
being perfectly safe, whilst those to the southward are surrounded by very
steep and hard banks. Large vessels should not approach nearer to the
Isle Corbelle than 3 miles, nor to the line which connects it with Isle
Carasche. All the space which lies between the island, to the southward of
this line, is filled with banks, having little water on them, and the greater
part of which lie in the channel. If it should fall calm, and it be wished
to let a vessel drift with the tide, she must not be abandoned to it until she
has opened the channel she intends entering.

Anchorage in the Jeba or Great Channel. — A vessel may anchor anywhere in
the Great Channel, the bottom being of soft mud and excellent holding-
ground, with the exception of one place at 2A miles to the southward of the
Isle Jatt. Here the depth is from 20 to 22 fathoms, and the bottom of
coarse gravel. In all other part of the channel the depth varies from 13 to
15 fathoms, without any sudden alteration.

Tides. — The usual prevailing currents on the coast to the northward of
Cape Roxo are found to be complely changed on passing this cape. They
have here no longer one only direction ; and, in all channels of the Bissagos,
are suspended by tides, which are more or less regular. Those in the Jeba,
or Great Channel, are perfectly so. Westward of the Isle Cayo the flood
sets S.E. and the ebb N.W., each six hours, or nearly so, with the exception
that the current gradually assumes these directions, requiring nearly an hour,
from the change, before it is completely settled in its course. The flood
generally sets to the northward, and the ebb to the southward. The greatest
difference which has been observed between the high and low water marks,
is 8 feet ; and at the equinoctial full moon the rate of the flood and ebb is
about 1 2-5ths of a mile an hour ; at other times it never exceeds 1 mile.
At the entrance of the Great Channel, which is 6 leagues to the westward,
and on the parallel of the Island of Cay, it is high water, at full and change,
at 9" 15 m .

WEST COAST OF AFKICA. 623

From the meridian of Cayo, and as far as that of the Isle Bonn, the
stream follows the direction of the channel ; and here the tides are regular.
It is not known that the length of the ebb exceeds that of the flood. The
greatest rate of either never exceeds 2J miles per hour, in spring tides, and
the rise is found to be 8 ft., as outside the channel.

On the meridian of Cayo it is high water, at full and change, at ll h . Be-
fore Bissao the rates of the highest tides never exceed 2-6 miles per hour,
and the rise is never more than 14 ft. In common tides the rate is never
more than 2 miles per hour, and the main rise is 1\ ft. It is high water, at
full and change, at the anchorage of Bissao, at 12° 30 m .

Channel of the Bolola, or Rio Grande.— The eastern channel, or Channel
of the Eio Grande, branches into the Jeba Channel to the westward of the
Island Areas. The western bank is formed by a flat, which extends to the
eastward of the Parroquet Islands and Isle Galinha, the banks which connect
these with the Hog Islands and by Kanyahac Island. The eastern bank
comprises the Isle Areas, Bulama, or Boolam Island, and the banks which
connect these two islands. It is then intersected by the mouth of the Bolola,
or Rio Grande, after which it again commences at Bossessame, and forms a
chain of reefs as far as the Island Yornber, in 11° 3' N., and 15° 40' W.

The channel is then divided into two branches by a bank, which is about
4 leagues in extent from North to South, and on which, amongst several
islets and breakers, are situated Cavalho and Honey Island. Seven miles to
the southward of the latter lies Pullam Island. The western or main branch
has, on its western side, the Island of Orango, and a long chain of reefs,
which extend S.S.W. from that island.

To enter from the northward. — The first difficulty which presents itself, on
entering this channel from the northward is when passing the Isle Areas.

From the S.W. part of the island a bar stretches out, on which there is a
depth of only 19 ft. at low water. It is terminated, at the distance of 4
miles, by a rocky bank, which also forms a part of the bar. Although the
depth may be a little more at the distance of a mile from this bank, a large
vessel should not venture near it without previously considering well the
time of tide. If she be obliged to anchor, the best ground will be found near
the meridian of Areas, on the North.

The mark for running through this channel, from a position bearing
W. £ S. (TV. S.W.) from the Isle of Areas, is to steer so as to keep the
western point of the Island Bulama constantly bearing S. |W. (S. 17° H.)
until within 2 miles of the shore of this island. From hence, if it be in-
tended to go to the southward, a vessel should steer for the middle of the
strait formed by the island and Galinha ; but should a vessel be bound to
the northward, she should steer N. by E. £ E. \_Nort1i\ from the above bear-
ing of Areas, until she has passed the parallel in which it lies.

BULAMA, or Boolam. — The western end of Boolam may be approached
within a mile. This island, which is well wooded and of moderate height,
has several well-sheltered roadsteads, which afford safe anchorage. One of
these, on the S.W. side of the island, has a depth in it of from 22 to 24
fathoms, with a bottom of soft mud. The configuration of the land is such,
that the strength of the current, being carried more to the southward, is
almost imperceptible at this anchorage; and although the tide rises from 12

624 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

to 15 ft., the sea is generally smooth and the landing easy. At this roadstead
fresh water may be procured from two places.

The island, however, on account of its insalubrity, was abandoned for
many years ; till one of the slave dealers of the Havanna, a Seiior Gae-
tano Nozzalino, obtained a Royal Portuguese Charter for settling on this
island; and, in 1820, he established himself there. During ten years the
island was in the hands of Nozzalini, it was frequented by slave dealers.
But, in December, 1838, Lieutenant (aft. Admiral) Kellett, of H.B.M.
Brisk, visited the island, attacked and destroyed the factory, and carried away
119 slaves, and subsequently carried away another batch of slaves, which
the owner asserted were his domestics, notwithstanding the fetters with
which they had been manacled were found amidst the ruins of the bar-
racoon.

From the western point of Bulama the course is S. by E. £ E. \_S. 36° E.~\,
the distance 3b leagues. This course crosses the mouth of the Rio Grande,
which separates Bulama from Bossessame, or Bessessema, continues along the
banks to the S.E. of Galinha, at the distance of a mile, the greater part of
which is dry at half-tide, and extends to about l£ mile from the banks on
the western part of Bossessame. The soundings on this track are very
irregular, and vary from 35 to 8 fathoms, with a bottom, generally, of sand
and gravel.

"On the right-hand bank, called Bessessema, are two settlements: one
cultivated by a Frenchman, M. Henrique Orteau ; the other a small location
belonging to a vagrant English subject named Lawrence.

"The bank and grounds at Bessessema are cleared to a considerable
distance ; of a rich alluvial soil, they produce corn, kus, rice, ground-nuts,
sugar-cane, yams potatoes, vegetables, tropical and European fruits, flowers
in abundance.

" M. Henrique Orteau employs about 300 natives ; has a well-built open
town; the huts very lofty, with thick mud walls, and broad piazzas, are
admirably calculated for the climate. He represented the place as healthy,
and that even in the rainy season fevers seldom or never prevailed." —
Governor O'Connor, 1857.

When at 2 miles to the westward of Bossessame, or Bessessema, a vessel
may run for Kanyabac Island, steering South 3 leagues. The depth in this
course varies from 7 to 20 fathoms, red sand and shells. To the westward
of this track are the four little islands called the Hog Isles, and in the
country, Roulan, Banah, Chieeya, and Corett. The lattor, which is tho
northernmost, is the most remarkable, being covered with large trees.

KANABAC. — All the eastern side of Kanabac or Kanyabac is perfectly
safe, and may be approached to within a mile, in from 6 to 10 fathoms. The
S.E. point, which the inhabitants call Barel, is about 60 ft. high, very bold
and formed in peaks. On rounding this point to the westward there is a
small cove, called by the inhabitants Port Manel. It has a very good bottom
for anchoring, but at low water a very small depth. This part of the
Eastern Channel is formed by the S.E. coast of Kanyabac Island on one
side, and a continued chain of banks, on which the sea breaks, on the other.
Tho latter connect Bossessama and Yomber Islands, and have on them an
islet of white sand.

WEST COAST OF AFEICA. G25

Eanayabac Island, one of the most considerable of those which form this
channel, is of moderate elevation, and rather higher on the southern than
northern end. It presents alternately a sandy, volcanic, and ferruginous
soil. If we may judge from the numerous population, and the quantity of
cattle on it, this island must be very fertile.

The large trees, called in the country Pullam Trees, with palm trees, and
vegetables of all kinds, are very plentiful on it.* The port of Manuel, lying
between Point Barel and an islet called Pom}), seems to bo the chief resort
of all the canoes belonging to the inhabitants of the southern part of tho
island.

From Point Barel, near the middle of Kanyabac, the course is S.W. J W.
[#. 30° W.~\ 13 miles. This will take a vessel within 2 miles of the western
side of a very extensive bank which lies to tho northward of the Isle Ca-
valho. The depth on this course is from 10 to 21 fathoms, tho bottom of
sand and shells.

From 2 miles West of the banks to the northward of the Isle Cavalho, the
direction of the southern parts of the channel is S.W. £ W. (S. 30° W.) This
bearing, extended to a distance of 13 miles, will pass the eastern shore of
Orango Island, at a proper distance, and also breakers which stretch more
than 2 leagues off to the S.W. of this island, and to the parallel of Pullam
Island, at 3 leagues from it. Orango Island is the most considerable of tho
Bissagos. From hence, any course between S.S.E. and S.W. by W. [_S.E.
£ S. and S. W. £ £.] will lead a vessel perfectly clear of all danger, and out
to sea.

The eastern part of Orango is not very high, and is of the same nature as
the adjoining islands. The most conspicuous point, when bearing N.W. by
W. i W. [ W. by N.~\ is a well-defined capo, much higher than the adjacent
land, and remarkable from several spots of yellow sand, which form a
striking contrast to the brown appearance of the coast. This cape, forming
tho S.E. point of the island, is called Cape Cameleon, or Yellow Cape. At 4£
miles to the East of it is a spot nearly dry at low water; but the depths
between are from 5 to 1 1 fathoms

Pullam Island, which derives its name from that given by the natives to
the large trees (Bombax, or silk cotton), with which it is covered, has not
above a mile of extent in any one direction, and is very little above the level
of the sea. Its shores are rocky, and rendered very difficult for landing, by
the constant surf which breaks on them. It is impossible for large vessels
to approach this island ; from S.W. to E.S.E. it is bounded by flats, which
extend to a distance of 4 miles from it, several parts of which are dry, or
breaking.

The winds in the Eastern Channel are generally light during the fine sea-
son, particularly in the night or morning. They set in gradually in the

* Captain (aft. Admiral Sir Edward) Belcher has noticed that tho Pullam treo is tho
bombax or silk-cottom tree, and has no reference to the p^lin. Puliam Island, which will bo
presently described, as deriving it3 name from tho " large trees with which it is covered,"
can hardly boast half a dozen palms, which hide their diminished heads besido the mors
majestic Pullam trees.

626 INSCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

afternoon, and blow almost always from S.S.W. round by West to N.N.W.,
but they remain a very short time at any intermediate point, and soon follow
the direction of the land, which, as well as we could determine, trends nearly
N. by E. and S. by W. Easterly winds are limited entirely to the rainy
season.

The tides are as regular in the Eastern as in the Jeba or Great Channel
The length of the ebb is equal to that of the flood ; the former sets to the
northward, the latter to the southward, but the different points of the chan-
nel, and the irregularities of the bottom, affect those directions. The mean
rise of the tide is from 12 to 15 feet. The strength of the stream varies
according to the breadth and depth of the channel, being greater where it
is confined than in the wider parts ; it is consequently more considerable in
the Strait of Bulama, and the Honey Island Channel, than in any other
part. Nevertheless, it seldom exceeds 2£ miles per hour, but is frequently
as much as 2. At 2 miles to the westward of Pullam Island it is high water,
at full and change, at 10 h 15 m .

RIO NUNEZ. — The River KaJcoondee, or Kahindy, commonly called the Rio
Nunez, or River of Nuna Tristao, is a very considerable river, broad at its
entrance, but impeded by several shoals, among which the least water in the
channel is 3 fathoms. It has been celebrated as a place of trade for ivory.
The situation of the entrance, as shown in the Table, is 10° 36' N., and
14° 42' W.

Between the mouths of the Rio Grande and the Rio Nunez the coast is
very imperfectly known, but it appears to be, in general, shoal, and dan-
gerous to a great distance from shore. On the edge of the bank, in lat.
10° 37', and at 25 miles S.E. by S. (S.E. £ E.) from Pullam Island, is a rocky
bank, called the Alcatraz, with a rocky islet in its centre. It is surrounded
with breakers, and the reefs extend from it both to the N.W. and S.W.
At 6 miles to the westward is a depth of 20 fathoms. Sir Edward Belcher
has described the islet Alcatraz, the landing to which was not at all difficult,
but the whole summit of the rock was covered with boobies (pelica?ius sula),
the eggs of which were procured. Alcatraz may be approached on the S.E.
side ; but the reefs stretch from it 5 miles S. W., trice, and above 3 miles in
width, at right angles to this bearing. Lat. 10° 38', long. 15° 20 J'.

Nearly in the route between the Alcatraz and the Rio Nunez, in lat. 10° 30',
and long. 15° 11', is a much more dangerous reef, surveyed, in 1820, by
Captain Owen, and by him named the - Conflict Reef. Its western edge is 14
miles to the S.E. from the Alcatraz, and its breadth each way is from 3 to 4
miles. Two other rocky banks, to the southward of it, are comprehended
within a distance of 8 miles; the South point of the latter is in 12° 20', and
has near it a depth of 11 to 16 fathoms. From this spot the mouth of the
Rio Nunez bears about E.N.E. £ E. (NJS. by E.) 10 leagues.

The descendants of the Portuguese, who still exist on the banks of the
Rio Nunez, are so mixed with the negroes, that they have been described as
negroes themselves.

In the old charts of this coast no island is laid down at the mouth of the
River Nunez; and we first learned, from the information of Captain Living-
ston, that a considerable island, where Woodville formerly gave a shoal,

WEST COAST OF AFBICA. 627

had arisen within the last thirty or forty years. It is called Sandy Island, is
now covered with trees, and has many palms upon it.

Sandy Island, according to Captain Belcher, is in lat. 10° 36' 37" N., long.
14° 42' 19" W. Seventy years ago it was a mere sand-bank, even at low
water ; subsequent deposition, however, has not only formed it into an
island, at least 6 feet above high water, and bearing large trees, with a fair
surface soil, but has also added a very extensiye range of shoal on its
northern, western, and south-western sides.

Vessels bound to the Nunez should make the land in 10° 31' N. ; or, if
coming from the southward, should, at least, not advance into less than 7
fathoms till in that latitude. They will then approach the river, steering
East (AT. 75° E.) through regular soundings; and it is necessary to re-
member chiefly, that, with a flood tide, there is a dangerous rocky flat on
the starboard beam going in, while, on the other hand, a vessel may play
with the edge of the breakers on the point of Sandy Island on the port
side. The constant warning also, " Keep in mud," which is familiar in all
channels along this coast, should be here especially kept in mind.*

For a vessel to refit, no place can be better adapted than Sandy Island.
It is uninhabited ; and a vessel maybe moored within 150 yards of low-
water mark, or even less, if required, but should be prepared to haul off in
case of a tornado. Small vessels may be grounded or hauled up for repair
or examination ; a space sufficient for the encampment of a crew, even of a
line-of-battle ship, is free from trees ; and stores may be conveniently landed.
Immense quantities of drift-wood lie piled on the S.W. side; and plenty of
live timber grows on the island, of which the palm yields an excellent cab-
bage for the use of the sick or convalescent-! Fresh water alone is scarce
and ill-tasted ; and a great annoyance arises from the clouds of fine sand
which are incessantly in motion over the island. The temperature, when
the JEtna was there, did not exceed 105° in the tent; which was, however,
oppressive, from the necessity of keeping it pretty well closed, to prevent
the sand from imbedding the instruments. A breeze generally prevailed
throughout the day, except between nine and noon. The western side is
by far the most cool and pleasant, but not so convenient for communicating
with the ship.

The river is very serpentine in its form, and the trees on either side im-
pede the wind in its true course. Still, however, a pleasant, and after noon,
even a fresh breeze generally favours vessels bound up, and affords favour-
able slants in many of the reaches down. The general depth may be
stated at 2£ to 3 fathoms at low water, with a rise and fall of about 12 feet;
and although the lead generally gives mud, the anchor frequently hooks a
rock, and good and long buoy ropes are especially necessary, which should
be got on board the instant the tide slacks, in order to be in readiness to

* Captain Livingston says : — In making the Nunez it is advis i"blc to make it from the
southward ; but beware of the very dangerous Sandkinsal Socles, extending 6 or 7 miles to
the southward of Bencer or the East Point. The reefs and hanks at the entrance of the
river are certainly increasing, and generally break, even in moderate weather.

t This cabbage makes a delicious pickle, and is considered one of the finest anti-scor-
butics in the world, doubly valuable when other vegetables are not to be h id. — E. B.

628 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

trip the anchor instantly, if found to be foul. The change of the tide is
very rapid, and much inconvenience will be felt if completed before breaking
ground.

The three principal settlements Walkeria, Cassasez, and Itebucko, or De-
bucko, are all near oach other, and from 70 to 80 miles up. We had formed
great expectations of the supplies which could be procured at these settle-
ments, but woro much disappointed. Bullocks and sheep could be procured
with some difficulty ; fowls were very scarce ; and vegetables could not be
got at all. Those nativo towns are never prepared to meet a sudden increase
of demand for food.

Below Walkeria not a single habitation was observed on the Nunez,
though the cultivation of its banks might be profitably pursued. The want
of fresh water prevents the natives from settling here.

Above Cassasez, which is 2 miles above Walkeria, the river is much inter-
rupted by rocks of close-grained basalt, several of them presenting a perfect
columnar formation.

The range of the thermometer, while the JEtna's boats were in the river,
March and April, was at six a.m. from 75° to 84°; at noon from 84° to 94°;
and nine p.m. from 81° to 83°. The dews were slight ; but at other seasons
are said to be very heavy, accompanied by a fog, lasting frequently till
noon.

The following observations on the Kakundy or Rio Nunez are from a
copious and valuable communication by Captain Livingston, who visited the
river in the year 1829.

To enter the Nunez, bring Sandy Island, above mentioned, to bear N.E
or perhaps a little (but very little) to the northward of that bearing, and
steer in right for the island, which is bold-to on the South side. The shoals
generally break, and extend about 5 or 6 miles, to the S.W. by W., or
thereabout, from Sandy Island.

Giving Sandy Island a small berth, steer about N.E. for Big Island,
which, in clear weather, may be seen after passing Sandy Island. Keep
close to Big Island, as a rocky spit extends two-thirds or more, over from the
Talabunch (Talabooncho ?) or western shore. It is scarcely prudent for a
stranger to run much above Big Island, but rather to send a boat up the
river for a pilot, and one may generally be engaged at Walkeria, or a little
higher up ; or one may sometimes be had from a coasting vessel.

On going up the Nunez in a boat, be cautious not to mistake any of the
creeks on the western side for the main river. Fresh water may always be
obtained by digging a few feet deep at the root of any palm tree.

In going up the Nunez Captain Livingston grounded about three-quarters
of a mile or a mile to the northward of Sandy Island. The vessel lay for
two tides on fine sand without receiving any damage. When at anchor, on
coming down the river, in 7 fathoms, about a quarter of a mile off shore,
the centre of Sandy Island bore N. by W., and the extremity of the breakers
on the long spit of sand, which extends 5 or 6 miles from the West end of
the island, W. by S.

The situation of Talabunch (Talabooncho) village may known by some
remarkable large trees, which may, in certain situations, be seen from sea,
before Sandy Island can be descried. I have heard it remarked, that

WEST COAST OF AFE1CA. 629

wherever you see a large cli.uip of majestic pullara trees (the cotton tree of
the West Indies) you are sure to find a negro village ; and wherever you
meet with a palm tree, you may be sure of finding fresh water, by di^ginc
a few feet deep, however arid the soil may appear.

No person ought to land at Talabunch unless in company with eight or
ten others, well armed, and on their guard ; but on the opposite or eastern
side, Talalunchana, the negroes, though of the same tribe, are remarkably
civil and honest.

The Barrier of the River (as it has been translated to me from (he Soozee
language) is, I think, about half way up the river between Big Island and
Walkeria. Eidges of rocks, almost like walls, and which appeared to me,
when in a boat at low water, like walls of lava, extend about two-thirds
across the river from the port or western shore ; and at about a mile or a
mile and a half above that, it is said that rocks, even worse, spit out from
the starboard or eastern shore ; but these were not seen in passing, when
covered with the tide. There are other dangers in the river, but none of
magnitude until after passing Walkeria and some houses about 2 miles
abuve it, at Cassashe. These places are both on the eastern or starboard
shorf. Between them and the viliage Rebucko is a very dangerous spot;
but vessels drawing 10 feet may proceed to the latter near high water.

Both banks of the Nunez are generally muddy ; mangroves grow into the
very water, and some of the finest tree or mangrove oysters adhere to their
trunks and branches.

In the rainy season tornadoes are frequent and violent; but, with caution,
vessels may have sufficient time to prepare for them. I observed none here
to begin with small clouds or a small cloud, but all with heavy thunder
clouds.

Vessels going to the Nunez ought to be well supplied with provisions, and
not to depend on what can be obtained there, as a great scarcity frequently
prevails. There are many cat-fish in the river, and above Eebucko some
other kinds of fish. There are pike, similar to those of Britain, but with
scales much larger.

The time of high water, on full and change days, at Walkeria, is 10 h I7 m a.m.
Eise, from 16.J to 18 feet or more. Depth, at low water, 15 feet; bottom
of fine mud. Latitude of the wharf at Walkeria, by two meridian altitudes
of Jupiter, agreeing to one second, 1 0° 54' 22" ; longitude, by 52 sets of lunars
East and West, mean, 14° 18' 55'' plus 3" for distance of place of observation
equal 14° 18" 58". The tide at Walkeria runs strongly, and while I was there
flowed five hours and ebbed seven; but during floods in the river (which
sometimes rise considerably) it ebbs or runs down louger.

Walkeria was named from Walker, a slave factor, who realized a large
fortune and died here. This place is composed of thatched huts, mostly
supported on stakes, though some have mud walls, and there are two of two
stories each. The population may be from 500 to 600 ; all Mandingo Mo-
hammedans, excepting the slaves. Buoy Mode, the chief, who speaks a little
English, said he had five wives, but he wanted to get some more! His arms
bore many gris-gris or charms (they called them gregories), and even hia
horse's neck was loaded with no small number of them.

v. a. o. in

630 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

RIVER C0MP00NEE.— Captain (Sir Edw.) Belcher, in the prosecution
of his survey, made out three mouths to the Rio Nunez, and 10 miles N.W.
of the northernmost, much to the westward where land was expected, saw
a cluster of islands, which gradually showed their close approximation to the
main, and were ascertained to form the North and West boundaries of the
entrance to a river or inlet, larger at its mouth than the Nunez ; and, at 12
miles within the distance to which he surveyed it, deeper, swifter, and pro-
mising as large or larger branches. "Where Captain Belcher stopped it
came from the East, and showed several extensive arms leading to the North
and West. The entrance by which he ascended has two large channels,
equally navigable, but its mouth is so studded with shoals, that until better
known, few vessels will probably venture into it; the natives North of the
Nunez having also the general reputation of being dangerous. The western
entrance is equally fair and navigable to the sea. The northern alone is
very shoal, and probably passable for canoes only : several of these were
seen at a distance, and one country schooner; from which, and the numerous
fires at night, it seems likely that the banks are well inhabited, and have
some tralhc.

Up'in a renewal of the surve3 r in 1832, it was found that smaVl vessels only
could navigate this river without great risk, there being a chain of ree's,
whi.h nearly bars the passage ; but abave this barrier the channel is suffi-
ciently deep fur larger vessels, and has few dangers.*

The coast from the Rio Nunez to Sierra Leone, in 'an extent of about 55
leagues, is in general low, in most parts swampy, and intersected with creeks,
which, connecting the adjoining rivers, form an excellent navigation ; but at
unequal distances, from 5 to 20 miles, in a right line from the sea, the land
rises gradually; and beyond that distance, in many places, towers into lofty
mountains, which, after a tornado, when the air is pure, may be seen 10 or
12 leagues off.

A small isle, called Toting Gonzalez, lies about 5 miles to the eastward
from the regular entrance of the Rio Nunez. It is the southernmost of three,
having channels communicating with the Nunez ; about 5 miles true East
from it is the mouth of the River CoppaUh.es. From Young Gonzalez a long
and dangerous flat of rocky ledges, gravel and sand, extends S.W. (by com-
pass) nearly 6 miles. At low water, a patch, three-quarters of a mile in
length, has over it only 6 feet of water. Its composition is a coarse red
sandstone, or conglomerate, like lava, till broken. The Coppatches is a trading
river, but shallow, and frequented only by boats, or vessels not drawing
more than 4 feet of water.

CAPE VERGA, in lat. lat. 10° 19', is the termination of some moderately
elevated land, and not a mangrove island, as commonly described. A long
and dangerous spit extends from it N.W. 6J miles. In the deep bay within
this no vessel can enter which draws more than 4 or 5 feet of water. This
place is South (S. 21° E.), from the mouth of the River Coppatches.

* Sir Edward Bi Ichor has given a pleasing description of its course upward ; for which
sre ihe Geographical Journal, vol. ii. pp. 287-8. In the upper part many indications of
Luflaloes, hippopotami, deer, lions, panthers, monkeys, &c, wtre seen.

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 631

The coast hence southward appears to be a great series of islands, some
forming, others breaking up, so that in twenty years the aspect probably
will be materially changed. The high mountains of Cape Verga, which
stand about 3 leagues inland, to the north-eastward of the cape, serve as a
mark for it, and may be seen at the distance of 15 leagues. Thus, bearing
E. £ S. {E.N.E. h E.), they are equally useful to ships bound to the Rio
Nunez, which, with this bearing, will clear the banks lying without the river
at 5 or more leagues to the south-westward.

Of the mountains within Cape Verga, two, in particular, are the most
conspicuous, and the highest, according to M. Roussin, is in lat. 10° 18' 52",
long. 14° 21' 20". These mountains have no particular peak, but form
nearly one mass, extending from N.E. to S.W., and are about 500 fathoms
in height.

RIO P0NG0.— The entrance of the Rio Pongo is about 24 miles S.S.E.
\ E. (S.E.) from Cape Verga. The river is well-known as a place of trade
on this part of the coast, and its consequence has been increased by
settlements of slave-traders on its several branches. To the country are
several entrances, or inlets, but all seem to be included under one general
name, Pongo or Pun gas ; each is impeded by a bar of mud or sand ; and
the coasts, to the head of the several rivers, are entirely covered with man-
groves.

The first of the Pongas, or entrances to the Rio Pongo, is about 10 miles
to the south-eastward from Cape Verga. This is called the Cossenceg Bar,
having a shallow and dangerous entrance, though within are 4 and 5 fathoms
of water.

The best channel in, for a stranger, is over that called Hissing Bar, or the
Mud Bar, which lies in lat. 10° 2'. and extends more than 2 miles out from
the river to the westward. On the North side of it are only 6 feet, on the
South side from 6 to 9 feet, and on the middle 12 feet at low water. From
this bar, two hills up the country, called the Paps, bear E.N.E. , and serve
as a mark for the river. A grove of palm trees, on the North side, is
also a distinguishing mark.

To sail over the Mud Bar, get the river open, and steer in N.E. by E.,
keeping the Paps, which are moderately high, a cables' length open of the
North point, by which you will carry 4 fathoms in depth at high water, or
2 fathoms at low water. Anchor in 7 or 8 fathoms, in the middle of the
river, abreast the palm trees on the port hand, which trees appear to extend
about 2 miles in length. Then send your boat up the river for a pilot, or
fire a gun twice or thrice, at intervals of about an hour, and in all proba-
bility a pilot will come off to you.

If bound to this place in the night, approach no nearer than to the depth
of four fathoms until daylight. If bearing in, stand no further to the north-
ward than to bring the two hills in the middle between the two points of the
river; then stand to the southward to 2 and 2 J fathoms, and proceed as
shown hereafter.

If going in, with a fair wind, bring the North point of the river, with its
palm trees, to bear N.E., and run in with it bearing N.E. by E. On
entering keep on the South side, within the bar, as the flood tide sets on
the northern breakers. Should you here have a quarter-less«two, you

002 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

need not foar, as the bottom is all of mud. The river hence lies East and
We. t. about 8 miles, and its depths, in mid-channel, are 3, 4, 7, 6, and 5
fathoms.

The Sand Bar is 5 miles to the southward of the Mud Bar, and its en-
trance is more intricate; therefore not to be attempted without a ^ood pilot.
This is, nevertheless, the n outh of the Pio Pong->, properly so called. In
the best channel, at the entrance, the depth is 12 feet at low water, and
within it are 4 and 5 fathoms.

A small sand-bank having showed just above water, at high tide, to the
northward of the Sand Par, and mangroves having taken root on it, the
bank consequently increased, and the natives have planted palm trees on it-
There is said to be a passage of 3 fathoms.

Vessels bound to the Pongas sometimes make the high land of Cape
Verga, and sometimes go to the Isles de Los for a pilot, although one is not
always to be found there. Some run in by their latitude, taking care to
Bound frequently, as soundings extend 1£° to the westward.

The time of high water here, on the full and change, is 9 h . The rise,
about 10 feet.

Sand Bar of the. Rio Bongo, N.N.E. \ is.— A. Barkia mil; remarkable table-land.

Prom the Bio Pongo to Dcmhia River, a place of some trade, and more to
the south-westward, the distance is 8 leagues. Two leagues to the south-
ward of the latter is Sangaree River, whence the land juts out to the S.S.W.,
true, 6 or 7 miles to Tumda Point ; beyond which, to the eastward, is the
high vulcanic land named Mount Suzos; and westward are the Ilhasdos Idolos,
or Isles de Los, at 2£ miles from the point.

Mount Suzos has a regular conical peak, excepting that, on its southern
side, at half-way up, there is a large protuberance. This insulated moun-
tain, in lat. 9° 34', is a certain mark for the Isles de Los during the rainy
season. In the dry season the atmosphere is always so hazy, that the coast
of the continent is seldom seen, even near these islands.

At about 4 leagues to the northward of Mount Suzos is another mountain,
called the French Mountain, to which M. Roussin assigns the latitude of
9" 45' 50", and long. 18° 26' 10".

On the 25th of May, 1826, Captain Owen, when in lat. 10° 2' N., saw the
Suzos or Sangaree Mountains ; one folmed a sugar-loaf, between 4,000 and
5,000 ft. in height. Ilaving been twelve days in the neighbourhood, on a
previous occasion, it may seem strange that it was not then observed ; but it
was during the dry season, when there is always such a haze over the land,
particularly in the day, that the view is always much limited ; but in the
rainy season every shower clears the atmosphere, and the most distant
objects may be discerned.

ILHAS DOS IDOLOS, or Isles de Los.— These isles, which have already
been mentioned, lie between the parallels of 9° 25' and 9 3 42 N., and between
meridians 13° 46' and 13° 52' W. They are six in number, but only three
are inhabited, the rest being little better than rocks. Those which are

WEST COAST OF AFKICA. 633

inhabitated are extremely pleasant, and, in general, healthy. The eastern-
most island, on which the English factory was established, Mps nearly North
and South, with a high wood-crowned hill at each end, which, when seen
from sea, appears like two islands. It is 4i miles in length. The road is
on the eastern side; and, daring the dry season, is very safe; but, in the
tornado and rainy season, there is no- security, unless in the goodness of
anchors and cables.

Tamara, or Footalar, the largest and westernmost of these islands, is nearly
semi-circular, rising on both sides from the sea by a gentle ascent, to a
moderate height, and is covei'ed with good timber trees. It is 5 miles in
length, and the summit of its northern part is 465 ft. above the sea. That
of Factory Island is 470 feet.

In a description of the Idolos, or Delos Isles, by the Baron Eonssin, the
Admiral says, the isles worthy of description are, Tamara, the Isle Idolas, or
Factory Island, and Crawford Island, by the French called Isle Frangoise.
Tumba, on the East, is so connected to the continent by beds of sand, mostly
dry, that it can hardly be considered as an island.

Tamara, may be seen in fair weather at the distance of 7 or 8 leagues.
On approaching, it appears like a range of hills, thickly wooded; its ele-
vation is moderate, with the northern part higher than the South. It is, in
shape, like a crescent, with its concavity to the S.E., forming several fine
anchorages and depths of 6 to 3 fathoms, at low water.

You may enter the roadsteads on the eastern side of Tamara, either from
the northward or southward, only giving the coasts a berth of three-quarters
of a mile, beyond which distance both the North and South point are quite
dear. A reef, the Arcthusa, surrounds the North point to the distance of a
quarter of a mile. The western side is bold-to, and may be approached
safely. Near the principal anchorage within Tamara is a spring of fresh
water, where 80 bogheads may be obtained in 24 hours.

At the distance of 1A mile S.S.E. from the South end of Tamara is an islet
named Coral Me, leaving a passage between of 9 aud 8 fathoms ; but, in the
same direction at a quarter of a mile from Coral Isle, is a small but dan-
gerous reef, which must be cautiously avoided.

The central island of the group is Itooma, or Crawford Island, the western
summit of which is 300 feet in height. From this island to the N.E. are
shoal hats, extending to the distance of 2 miles, toward the North end of
Factory Island, leaving a channel between of only two-thirds of a mile.

The Isles de Los are of volcanic origin, being formed chiefly of hard blue
andiron-coloured lava, with occasional masses of porphyritic hornstone of
different elevations. Of the vegetable productions, the most remarkable are
the palms, which furnish palm oil and wine, and the silk cotton tree. The
natives also speak of a tree, the bark of which is an excellent bitter, but it
was not seen.

The native belong to the tribe named Baccas or Barkas (query Bagos?),
who al30 occupy other islands along the coast. A great .similarity exists
between their language and that of the tribes inhabiting the banks of the
Nunez.

The rainy season hero commences in April, and ends in December.

The Seasons : — To begin with January. About the 8th or 10th of this

634 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

month the Harmatian, or cold strong easterly winds, continue, with some
strength, for about a week or ten days ; after which, the land-wind and
sea-breeze take place till about the middle of February, when the wind
becomes continual and N.W. or N.N.W., till the last full change of the
moon in March. The tornadoes generally begin and prevail, more or less,
till May or June ; then the rains set in, and are almost continual all July
and August; they begin to abate in September, and go off in October,
giving place to the tornadoes, which continue till about Christmas. During
the rainy seasons the winds are mosly between South and West, or in the
S.W. quarter; and the tornadoes always blow with prodigious force from
the E.S.E. or thereabout, accompanied with thunder, lightning, and a
deluge of rain. When a tornado has happened in the night, it is impossible
to imagine the clear state of the atmosphere next morning; we have nothing
like it in Europe.

Sir Edward Belcher says that the rainy season between the Gambia and
the Isles de Los ranges in its commencement, between the 1st of April and
the 1st of June; and terminates from the 1st to 31st of December. Off the
Conflict Keef and Bijoo^as, rains and tornadoes were experienced on the
12th, 14th, and 15th of May, 1831.

The flood, at the Isles de Los, sets to the North. The tide rises and flows
as shown in the Table.

Coast between the Isles de Los and the Pongo — (Sir Edward Belcher.)
— Tumbo Point is about 2 miles distant from Factory Island ; and is a long
rocky flat, partly covered at high water, and divided from the main by a
narrow channel, navigable for canoes at high water, but nearly dry at low,
when the natives affirm that they can walk across, though the depth of mud
makes this improbable. From this the main land rises gradually, and
partakes much of the features of the Isles de Los, without, however, being
quite so denuded or bare as the summit of Tamara. The whole interior
is mountainous ; the highest peak, of which we could obtain measurement,
being 2,910 ft. above the sea. This mountain is called Kahdimah. Further
on, the Sangaree or Soomba Ridge commences, and forms the entrance of the
Sangaree or Dcbrika River. The highest point of which, Tikitee-chin, or, as
pronounced, Tikit-chin, is 1,705 ft. above the sea. Its western point is
called Alligator's Point, and off this the mud extends above a mile, dry at
low water.

The whole o" this bay is one series of flat3 and reefs ; and no vessel
drawing above 6 ft. should venture within a line drawn from Tumbo to
Alligator Point. Vessels drawing 15 ft. should not, when working up along
this shore, do more than open Crawford Island ; and, to ensure good room,
should even tack when the East Eud of Tamara opens the South end of
Factory Island. Within these bearings the soundings are very regular, and
nowhere less than 5 fathoms.

The entrance of the Sangaree River has 2 fathoms in it ; but there is
little inducement to ascend it, there not being the slightest trace of trade
along its shores, nor any supplies to be prosured from them, excepting
wood. The water is scarce and bad. The ^Etna's boat ascended C5 miles.

More to the North there is a small isle in the centre of a river called the
DCtnbia, but which is, in fact, a mouth of tho Sangaree. From this isle,

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 635

Alligator Point bears S.E., true, 5£ miles. The river will admit very small
vessels ; but the greatest depth is only 1 fathom at low water, where the sea
curled.

The shores hence are thickly clothed with mangroves, and extend about
16 miles to the first acknowledged mouth of the Pongo, called Tabourg or
Old Pongo, which is bordered to a mile out by dangerous breakers.

Directions foe Sailing fhom Cape Eoxo to the Isles de Los.
By the Baron Roussin.

The description of the Bissagos, already given (page 617), points out the
course to be steered in order to double their S.W. extremity. A vessel
starting from a point 4A leagues to the westward of Cape Roxo, which
will be a little without the medium of 17° 0' 0" W., to the parallel of 10° 40'
North, will be outside of all the dangers. From hence a courso of S.E. J E.
(S. 68° JE.) and distance 68 leagues, will lead her to the West point of
Tamara Island. On this course the soundings will never be under 8 fathoms,
until near the shore of the island ; and those on the first course will be con-
siderably more.

From the parallel of Cape Eoxo to that of the western breaker, 11° 31' 32"
North, at a distance of more than 4 leagues to the westward of the meridian
of 17° 0', the depth will increase progressively from 8 to 28 fathoms, and
the bottom be entirely of mud. This remark may be depended on to show
that a vessel is not far to the southward of the parallel of the Jeba or Great
Channel ; she cannot at the utmost be more than 10 miles from the positions
already given. From this point, as far as the parallel of 10° 40' N., the
bottom is nearly free from mud, and on passing to the southward of the
parallel of 11° 20', very slight traces of it remain, but are succeeded by a
bottom of fine white sand, sand and gravel, sand and broken shells, with a
depth varying from 12 to 50 fathoms. A vessel, having left Eoxo, and
arrived in lat. 10° 40', may thence steer a direct course for the Isles de Los.

The S.W. edge of the Bissagos follows a gentle curve from the western
breaker as far as the southern one, that of La Bayadere. The bottom, in
this part, presents a singular peculiarity. Amongst the fine white sand,
sand and broken shells, sand and gravel, of which it is most frequently com-
posed, a greenish-coloured sand is sometimes found. The depth decreases
very gradually from 50 to 9 fathoms, from S.W. to N.E.

The remainder of the course to the Isles de Los passes over deep soundings
as much as 50 fathoms at the point of departure, and the least depth is 12
fathoms. No precise rule can be given as to the changes in the depth along
this track, nor as to the various nature of the bottom. It is known only
that the ground, in the space passed over by this course, seems to be fur-
rowed with channels, which, commencing from the southern extremity of the
Eastern Channel of Bissagos, diverge toward different points between S. TV.
and &.S.E., true. The furrows above mentioned appear to have been caused
by the legular tides in the mouth of the l£io Grande, and piove, be^ jnd a

636 DESCRIPTIONS OP TnE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

doubt, that the outlet of the same channel is partly caused by that river.
With respect to the nature of the bottom, M. Boussin says that he remarked
the total absence of mud. The bottom is of fine sand, in some places mixed
with broken shells, small pieces of brittle rock, and gravel, which appeared
to be only a covering to beds of a whitish volcanic sandstone, into which
the lance penetrated but 3 or 4 inches, and did not hold. A muddy bottom
is not found until about 10 leagues to the westward of the Isles de Los, and
then only in small quantity, till within a very short distance to the N.W. of
those islands.

Tides. — In proportion to the distance from the mouth of the Jeba or Great
Channel of Bissagos, either to the northward or southward, the tides lose
their regularity. The interruption in tho tides is evident in going to the
southward, as, at a few miles South of the parallel of the western breaker,
11° 31' 32" N., they are no longer perceptible, even on the edge of the
Bissagos.

Captain C. T. Budge, ship Jane Blade, December, 1856, says : — " It is my
opinion that the current along the coast from the Bissagos Shoals to Cape
Palmas is variable, and in the parallel of Cape Mount coming from the
westward with S.W. winds, I have always found northing in the set, let the
current be easterly or westerly. Ten miles off the land the current runs
parallel to the land either way, strongest off the capes. I have commanded
ships on the West coast of Africa 12 years and have found the currents very
variable at all times."

Coasts between Isles de Los and Sierra Leone. — The portion of coast
between the Isles de Los and Sierra Leone comprises an extent of 66 miles,
and contains several rivers, islands, and banks, besides various inconsiderable
creeks.

Between the Isles de Los and the sharp low point of Tumbo there is a safe
channel, through which, by Capt. Owen's charts, ships may carry 3 fathoms
of water, and which may be, at times, highly convenient to use, or even to
run through the group ; yet, without some good reason for so doing, it will
always be advisable to go outside the islands, where certainly no dangers are
to be met with.

In approaching this part of the coast it may be remarked, that though the
3-fathoui boundary, in some places, extends to a considerable distance, yet
the soundings are so regular as to give ample warning. A tumbling sea, at
times, may prevail in a strong breeze, yet as no gales but the tornadoes, which
are of short duration and off shore, are known upon this coast, a commander
need never be alarmed ; for there is always good anchorage under foot, and
no long swell current to force the vessel into danger.

From Tambo Point to Matocong Island the bearing and distance are S.E. by S.
23 miles. Tumbo Point is the S.W. extremity of an island bearing the same
name, and separated by a very narrow high water channel from the main
land. To the southward of this point the land falls back to the north-
eastward about 7 miles, forming an extensive but shallow bav, at the bottom

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 637

of which is an inconsiderable stream, called Tannaney River, accessible to
canoes only.

In the extensive bay between the Isles de Los and Matacong Isle no
detached dangers exist. The coast is safe to approach, the soundings being
gradual, and always affording good anchorage ; and it is, in all parts, acces-
sible to large ships to the distance of 6 miles, which generally may be con-
sidered sufficiently near to distinguish the land, and often to recognise the
mouths of the rivers.

Mahneah River, about 12 miles E.S.E. from Tumbo Point, is at low
water, scarcely accessible to the smallest coasting vessels, but the rise of tide
exceeds 2 fathoms. The entrance is about 6 miles south-eastward from that
of Tannaney, but the water between is very shallow ; and a mud-bank,
which extends south-westward from the "West point of the entrance, is un-
covered at low water, more than 2 miles from that point. A similar mud-
bank lines the East side also, leaving the channel between above a mile
wide, but carrying only from 4 to 8 ft. at low water.

To enter this river, it is necessary only to bring the western point of the
entrance, while at the distance of 5 miles from it, to bear N.E. by E. | E.,
'and then steer toward it in that direction, until you get close to the S.W.
mud-bank, when you may proceed along by the edge of that bank, in a con-
venient depth, according to circumstances. Within the river the depths at
low water aro from 6 to 10 ft. only.

The water discharged from this river must be very great, as the ebb tide
runs out with great rapidity.

River Morebiah. — The mouth of this river is about 18 miles S.E. by E.
£ E. from the Isles de Los, and about 7 miles northerly from Matacong
Island ; and, though its breadth within the points nowhere exceeds half a
mile, yet it is far superior to the Mahneah, last described. Its entrance is
narrow, and forms an elbow at the commencement, which, to render per-
fectly safe, would require two buoys, because the coast is destitute of good
objects to serve as marks.

In approaching the coast abreast of the river, with its opening bearing
E.N.E. £ E., distant about 9 miles, and Matacong Island S.E. by E. \ E.,
you will have 6 fathoms of water, on black mud ; from this situation the
depth will decrease gradually, on a bottom of the same kind, to 3 J fathoms
at the entrance of the channel. With the rounding of the land between the
rivers Mahneah and Morebiah bearing N.N.E., the East point of tho
entrance E. £ N., and the middle of Matacong Island S.S.E. f E., you will
have that depth. From this position steer N.N.E. until the East point of
the river bears E. I S., and then stand in towards this point, or about East ;
but remembering that both flood and ebb set partially over the extensive
shoals that form the S.E. side of the channel. Some of these, however,
being dry at low water, and nearly so at high water, their steep boundary
is nearly discernible. In the elbow of the channel the least depth is 1}
fathom at low spring ebbs ; this depth, however, continues but a short way ;
and, from the time of altering your course to the eastward, or steering
straight in, you will seldom have so little as 2 fathoms. Beyond the East

N» A. O. 4 N

638 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

point the depth varies from 4 to G or 7 fathoms, and for the extent of 7
miles up the river it appeared to be clear of all danger.

About 4 miles abovo the East point of this river, and on the same side, a
remarkable round mass of granite rock rises abruptly, about 40 ft. from the
water's edge. It is about 400 yards in circumference ; others may be seen
inland, and the natives assert, that several are scattered about as far as the
Suzos Mountains, which, they say, are also of granite.

It is high water, on full and change days, at 7 h 40 m , and spring tides rise
11 feet.

Tho contrast which this coast presents to the eye, in different states of the
atmosphere, has been already noticed in pages 227, 228, and 632.

Matacong Island. — The beauty of this island consists in the luxuriance
ot the trees, tho verdure of those spots which have been cleared away, and
the gentle rise, which renders it a conspicuous contrast to tho low swampy
tract opposite. It is more than a mile long, and having been purchased
from the natives by Mr. Gabadon, a merchant of Sierra Leone, is now esta-
blished for rearing cattle. The island appears to be of lava, yet on its
summit there are two large pieces of granite ; but there is reason to believe
that thoy have been artificially placed there.

Matacong is surrounded by mud-banks and rocks in all directions, so that
no vessel of any burden < an lie at anchor within 2 miles of it. The channel,
which divides it from the main, is nearly three-quarters of a mile broad,
but its muddy bottom, at low water, is left dry.

From Matacong Island to Sallahtooh Point, a distance of 14 J miles S. £ E.,
the general features of the coast are the same as those already described,
but the mountains are too distant to be distinctly seen ; here and there a
cotton tree, with smooth trunk and spreading foliage, rises above the sur-
rounding thickets, and serves to identify the locality of the coast to those
who are acquainted with it ; but a stranger can make the mouth of the
river which he intends to enter by his latitude only, or by running the coast
down from some known point.

From Matacong Island the coast trends to the eastward a little more than
3 miles, where it turns abruptly to the northward, and'forms the West point
of the mouth of the River Forecarreah, the interval beiDg fronted with sand
and mud banks, which extend more than 3 miles to the southward. Tho
entrance of this river is above 2 miles wide, and the least depth is 1 fathom
at low spring ebbs. To sail in, it will be necessary to pass close to tho
banks which project from the West point, but, at the same time, to bo
cautious in approaching them, as they are steep-to, and dry at low water.
The outer sand will be apparent, even in fine weather, at any other time
than high water, and, if seen, it may be safely skirted in 2 fathoms near
low water, or in 4 fathoms at high water ; and that you may not get in at
the back of this sand, do not bring the highest part of Matacong Island
to the westward of N. by W. % W., until the West point of the river bears
N.E. I E. You may then safely enter, recollecting as a guide that you
should always keep the western side aboard, off which, however, you will
have to edge occasionally to avoid the banks ; yet this river is of very little
consequence, as a ridge of rocks nearly crosses it at a short distance from
its mouth. The ebb tide is extremely rapid, and the overfalls in the vicinity

WEST COAST OF AFEICA. 639

of the rocks are dangerous to those who do not possess a local knowledge of
the river.

The RIVER MELLACOREE, which is (or was) of considerable impor-
tance in the timber trade, has better objects for marks than any of thoso
already described, and the facilities of its navigation are greater, yet buoys
are indispensably requisite to make this secure.

For entering the Mellacoree, observe that, at 8 miles off shore, there are
6 fathomsof water; and, with the river's mouth bearing E. by N., it will
be fairly open. Steer toward it, in that direction, until the soundings have
decreased gradually to about 3 fathoms at low spring ebbs, with the follow-
ing bearings :— East point of Yellaboi Island, S. by E. ; Sallahtook Point,
distinguishable by the trees being higher than elsewhere, bearing S.E. ^ S. ;
Bentee Point,* known by a remarkable large tree, E. byN. ; the outer point
of Tannah River, E.N.E. £ E. ; and the rounding of the land to the north-
ward of the river, N.E. J N. ; you will then be at the spot indicated by the
outer anchor in the plan, and in the fairway. The Middle Ground is steep
and dangerous, but the soundings on the southern side are gradual, though
the mud-bank is very wide ; borrow, therefore, rather on that side until
nearly as far as Bellangsang Point, when you must haul over to the mouth
of Tannah River, and there anchor. Higher up there are some patches of
rocks in the middle of the river, but at low water they are seen, as well as
the deep-water channel between them, which is one-third of a railo in
breadth, with a depth of 7 to 9 fathoms. By keeping the East point of the
River Tannah, bearing N.W. by W. \ W., you may pass through this
channel in safety ; and, there being no further danger, you may ascend the
river to the factories established below Devil's Island, on the South shore ;
the general depth varies from 5 to 9 fathoms. Here it is high water, on full
and change days, at 7 h 40 m ; spring tides rise 11 ft.

Besides the channel on the South side of the Middle Ground, for which
directions have been given, there is also an inferior one to tho northward ;
to enter which, when 5 or 6 miles off shore, bring the "West point of Tannah
River to boar E. f S., and by carefully using the lead, you may proceed in
with safety ; for, although at its termination, it takes a slight turn round the
N.E. corner of the Middle Ground, yet this is generally so well indicated
that you can scarcely be deceived.

The Tannah River, which falls into the Mellacoree, is also navigable,
though much smaller, and the tides are not so strong as in tho main
stream.

On account of the soft nature of the bottom, vessels may ground in several
places in the vicinity of the Mellacoree River, without being injured ; but a
patch of foul ground, which surrounds the long reef of Sallahtook Point,
must be carefully avoided.

From Sallahtook Point the coast trends S.S.E. 7 miles, to a small river,
on the western point of which is situated Sangatook Factory ; and about 1£
mile to tho westward of this point is Yellaboi Island, surrounded by mud-
banks that are dry at low water.

* This point is on the South side of ihe river, and immediately opposite to (mother point,
on which there are two very large trees.

640 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

Yellaboi is a low, swampy island, nearly 2 miles in length, and covered
with trees, which, toward its western extremity, give it the appearance of an
abrupt cliff, easy to be recognized ; abreast the S.E. extremity of the river
there is another small river, called Inglis Pahboyeah.

Corteemo Island. — Four miles S.E. from Yellaboi we come to a much
larger island, with extensive mud- banks on the north-westward, but with a
deep channel between it and the main ; it is called Corteemo, and lies in tho
mouth of the Rivers Scarcies. These rivers are known by the names ot
Great and Little Scarcies ; the former is navigable for large ships, but the
other is adapted to very small vessels only, and requires very careful
pilogage.

Great Scarcies. — The channel into the Great Scarcies River is the best on
this part of the coast ; for, although the banks are steep, yet it is broad and
deep, and a ship of the line, by taking a proper time of the tide, might moor
off the inner point of Yellaboi Island.

To sail into this anchorage bring the West end or highest part of Yellaboi
Island to bear E.N.E. and steer toward it in that direction, until you
decrease the depth to 5 or 4 fathoms, which will happen suddenly. Now
change the course, and keeping in 4 to 5 fathoms, steer direct for Inglis
Pahboyeah River, bearing E. h N.,* taking care to keep it well open of the
inner point of Yellaboi Island, until the West point of that island bears
N. by E. £ E., when you must haul directly in toward it, and skirting along
the steep mud-bank which borders the South side of the island, steer for its
S.E. point, close to which you may anchor in 4 J fathoms. In reaching this
anchorage, the least depth you will have to pass over will be 2k fathoms at
low spring ebbs ; and this occurs only after hauling in for the island, and
running along the edge of the mud-bank.

A timber-ship lying at this place, could easily have her cargo rafted down
to her, excepting during the rains, when, as affirmed, the strong winds
occasion so heavy a sea, as to make it unsafe to lie theie with her raft ports
open. With little difficulty, however, she might proceed to Kakongkah
Island ; though the channel is narrow and crooked, and would perhaps re-
quire buoys to point it out.f It would be scarcely possible to give intelli-
gible marks for this winding channel, but it is so apparent in the plan, that
by using the boat ahead, aud never passing over the 3-fathom boundary line
described therein, except in crossing the three short flats, you can scarcely
go wrong ; the bottom, however, is so soft, and the water so smooth, that
no damage will arise from touching. It is high water here, on full and
change days, at 7 h 10 m , and spring tides rise 11 ft.

SIERRA LEONE, &c. — From Yellaboi Island, mentioned in the preceding
page, the Cape of Sierra Leone bears S. by W. £ W. (South) 25 miles. This

* Inglis Tahboyeah River— the entrance is nearly a league to the North of Corteemo
Island.

t KakongJcah is a small isle in the mouth of Great Scarcies River, having a factory near
its western extremity.

WEST COAST OF AFKICA. GU

cape, with the coast eastward, forms the South side of the great river, bearing
the same name.

The coast northward of the mouth of the river is low and level, bordered
with a shoal bank 3 miles in breadth, and which has upon it several dangerous
rocks ; but on the South side the land rises into hills, which, forming ono
upon the other, tower into lofty mountains, crowned with perpetual verdure.
These are, properly, the Sierra Leone, or Lion Mountains, which have given
name to the river and country. From the foot of the hills, points of land,
projecting into the sea, form excellent bays for shipping and craft, and
convenient places for hauling the seine.

The mouth of the river, which is 2 leagues wide, is obstructed by an
extensive bank, called the Middle Ground, but on the South side of this is a
safe and deep channel for vessels of any burden. The latitude of the cape
is 8° 30' N.

Vessels bound from Cape Verde to Sierra Leone are recommended to gain
soundings in lat. 9° 15' N. on the grand bank which extends from the
Bissagos to Cape St. Anne ; and having gained bottom in 50 fathoms, gray
sand, on the edge of the bank, to make a true S.E. by S. course, keeping in
soundings until in lat. 8° 20' or 8° 30'. Then make an East course good,
and you will make the land of Sierra Leone, the mountains of which may be
seen in clear weather 14 leagues off; but as, on this coast, the weather is gene-
rally hazy, it is seldom seen further off than o, and frequently not more than
4 or 3 leagues ; although, at the same time, a good observation may be had.
This is occasioned by the constant vapours, caused by the sun, which ascend
from the mountains covered with thick woods.

Appearance of Cape Sierra Leone, bearing S.E. by E., distant about 5 leagues.

In standing in for soundings, and approaching Sierra Leone, keep the lead
constantly going, as the current sets in various directions, but generally
tending to the eastward. It is requisite to be very attentive to this par-
ticular. Should you bo standing in, in the night, in lat. 8° 30', and shoalen
your water from 20 to 18, 13, and then suddenly to 8 and 7 fathoms, you
will be at the distance of 3 leagues from the river, and should immediately
anchor and remain till daylight.

The danger on standing in for the oape is the Middle Ground, hereafter
described, which extends 7 miles from the eastern shore, and nearly to the
meridian of the cape, leaving an entrance only 2 miles broad. Having
made the land of Sierra Leone, bring the cape, which may be easily known
by a small negro town standing upon it, to bear S.E. by S. ; then steer
directly for it. At this place pilots for the river may be had.

A rock, called the Carpenter, lies at the distance of nearly a milo "W. £ N.
{W.S.W. i W.) from the N,W. extremity of the cape. This rock always
shows itself by the breakers over it, and at half-tide may be distinctly seen.
The flood-stream sets directly through between the cape and the rock. You.
may advance within half a mile of the rock ; but those beating down the

642 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

river, with the sea breeze, and a strong ebb tide, must be careful and give
it a good berth, as the ebb tide sets strongly between the rock and the
cape. From the cape, a ledge of rocks extends in a direct line toward the
Carpenter.

Cape Sierra Leone Lighthouse was completed in 1849, and shows a red
fixed light. It stands on the extremity of the cape, and is 69 ft. in height.
It bears from Carpenter Rock E. £ S. by compass, and from the western
edge of the Middle Ground, S.W. £ S. Vessels, therefoi-e, coming from the
westward should be careful not to bring the light to bear more to the east-
ward than E.S.E. \ E., and coming from the southward not to alter the course
until the light is on that bearing ; and coming from the northward should
not bring the light more to the westward than S.S.AV. 5 W., until King
Tom's Point comes in one with the centre barrack, S.S.E. £ E., to avoid the
Middle Ground.

Within the cape the general trend of the coast is nearly true East 6 miles,
but it is broken by several inlets, which are called bays. Of these, the first
within the cape is a small cove, of pleasant appearance, called Cape Bay ;
the next is Pirate's Bay, so named from being the place where the pirates
formerly used to careen and refit their vessels ; tho third is Whiteman 's Bay ;
the fourth, St. George's or Freetoxcn Bay, whereon stands Freetown, protected
on the hill-side by a fort, and above the fort, on the summit of the hill, are
the new barracks. On the East of Freetown is Susan's Bay, and at a milo
eastward of the last is Thompson's Bay, bounded on the East by Farran
Point.

Freetown. — The general aspect of the country in the immediate vicinity
of this colony, and the external appearance of Freetown, give a stranger, on
arrival, an idea of salubrity and prosperity, which subsequent experience
may not altogether realize, or, at least, reconcile with the result of further
observation.

Its more striking features are the largeness of the scale on which the
public buildings are constructed ; the wideness of the streets, and the regu-
larity of their lines ; the number of stone houses, and the excellence of the
roads ; the abundance in the markets, the multitude of well-dressed negroes
in these places, the variety of stalls and shops in their own quarter, well
supplied with British goods ; the cleanliness and tho comfortableness of
their small abodes, the size and structure of the principal church, and the
numerous chapels and schools in the town and suburbs ; and last, though
not least, the admirable order that seemed to prevail amongst tho negro
population, without any apparent exercise of magisterial severity, or rigour
of political restraint, to repress or control the people.

From ten o'clock in the morning till five in the evening a white man is
seldom seen abroad ; at the latter hour, the race-course and the promenade
on the battery are frequented by equestrians and pedestrians ; and, perhaps,
no circumstance that strikes the attention of a stranger, makes so strong an
impression on his mind as the general expression he observes of languor
and debility in the looks of every individual he meets of European birth
(with perhaps two or three exceptions) in the colony. The young and old,
the acclimated even as they are deemed, who have had their seasoning,

WEST COAST OF AFKICA. 643

either in one fever, or the periodical return of that malady, and have sur-
vived these attacks, show plainly enough the baneful influenco of the climate,
which leaves the features without vivacity, and frame without vigour, and
the whole constitution apparently deficient in vitality.

The settlement of Sierra Leone was formed in 1787 ; and the new colony
occupied a tract of about 20 miles square, and was peopled, in part, by
negroes from America; and was increased by various additions from the
West Indies.

In 1791, the tract of land that was ceded by the native chiefs, in 1787, to
the British sovereign, was made over to the Sierra Leone Company ; and,
in 1796, Governor Macaulay enlarged the limits by an additional quantity
of land towards the sea-side on the western boundary, obtained from a native
chief called King Tom ; possession of this was finally gained in 1801. At
this period the colony did not extend beyond the peninsula, which is about
18 miles long and 11 broad. In 1824, a new sovereignty of the territory
was purchased of the chief of the North Bulloms, on the North side of the
Sierra Leone River. We have derived this statement from Dr. Madden's
report ; but in Colonel Doherty's remarks upon it, he states, that the limits
of the colony are strictly confined to the peninsula. The resident population
of the settlement in 1871 numbered 37,089, of whom 107 were whites.

River Entrance. — The Middle Ground, already mentioned, forms the North
side of the channel into the river, which is half a league in breadth. The
general depths in the channel are from 6 to 10 and 12 fathoms. From the
cape the extremity of the Middle Ground bears N.E. \ N. (N.N.E.) 2 miles,
and the bank extends thence eastward to the Bullom shore. The ground is,
in general, composed of hard sand ; and in some parts large stones. It dries
in several places, at about the middle of half ebb, and at all times the sea
breaks over it. On its eastern part there is a channel, but it is fit for small
vessels only.

The Bullom shore, which forms the North side of the entrance of the river,
is level, and covered with wood. On this shore, in lat. 8° 40', is an islet,
called Leopard Isle, whence the coast rounds to the south-eastward, nearly
12 miles, to Tagrin Point, and between are eight negro towns, of which the
fourth, from the northward, is that of the King of Bullom. The edge of
this coast is low, swampy, and bordered with shoals. In the river, eastward
of Tagrin Point, is Tasso Island and several smaller isles, the formation of
which can be understood only by reference to the particular chart.

Ships from the northward, when bound to Sierra Leone, should be careful
how they approach the cape. They must keep their lead going, and not
approach any nearer than 6 fathoms, until they see the high land. No one
should stand in for the cape until he gets that high land to bear E. by S. JS.
{East), and, when he is 6 leagues off, he will see the cape making in a small
low point, with a ridge of cocoa-nut trees close to the water's edge ; and
when within 3 leagues of the cape he may observe the Carpenter Rock, with
the sea constantly breaking over it. You pass the cape within a quarter of
a mile, in 9 or 10 fathoms. You will now open the first cove, called Cape
Bay, and thence pass Pirates' and the other inlets which have been de-
scribed. In all these bays excellent fish may be caught with the seine, and
sometimes green turtle.

644 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

Having passed the cape as above, your course will be S.E. by E. £ E.
(E. % S.) up the river ; this leads clear along shore to Freetown, which is
3£ miles from the cape. The general depths will be 12 to 18, 13, and 14
fathoms. In working to the northward, advance no nearer to the Middle
Ground than in 7 fathoms.

To anchor off Freetown, bring the fort (Fort Thornton) to bear S. by W. ;
the East point of the bay, S.E. £ E. ; King Tom's or the West point, W. byN.,
offshore a little quarter of a mile, 15 or 16 fathoms, with mud. Moor with
the best bower to the eastward. The watering place here is very convenient
and the water excellent. You will fill your casks in the boat, with a hose
which leads from a cascade. A green light is shown at the landing-place by
night.

In sailing up beyond Freetown to Farran Point, or further eastward, you
will find regular soundings, 14 to 16 and 17 fathoms. You may make free
with the shore all the way up, as it is very bold.

Farran Point is remarkable. It is elevated, and has a house on its sum-
mit. In hazy weather, several vessels, on coming in, have mistaken this
point for Cape Sierra Leone, although it is nearly 2 leagues eastward from
the cape, and have thus touched on the Middle Ground. But Farran Point
serves as a good mark for the mid-channel, between the Middle Ground and
Carpenter, when kept well open to the North of the cape, and bearing S.E.
by E. * E.

Vessels coming in more from the northward will clear the West end of
the Middle Ground in 3J fathoms, with King Tom's Point (West of Free-
town) on with the central barrack, bearing S.S.E. f E. {S.E. % E.)

The tide at Freetown flows, on the full and change days, at 7 h 50 m , and
rises 12£ ft.

During the rainy season the tide is very regular and strong, running 6
and 7 knots an hour, and the ebb sets rapidly on the Middle Ground. In
tho dry months it commonly flows on shore at 7 h 30 m , with seven and a half
hours' ebb, and four and a half flood. In this season the ebb runs 2£ miles
an hour, the flood only 2.

Sierra Leone to Cape St. Anne, Sfc. — From the Cape of Sierra Leone the
coast, at the foot of the mountains, forms a slender sandy bay, bordered with
trees, which extends more than 3 miles to the southward of the cape, where
it terminates in a rocky point. At three-quarters of a mile further is
another point, more conspicuous and projecting, named the False Cape.
The last bears from Cape Sierra Leone S. by W. J W. (S. $ E.), distance
4 miles.

From False Cape to York, or the Sisters' Eiver, the coast trends irregu-
larly S. | E. (S.S.E. i E.) 12 miles; and from York to Cape Chilling,
S.fW. (S. by E.) 7 miles.

At Cape Chilling the hills of Sierra Leone terminate, after having made
a high double land, which is seen a great way off; the mountain near the
South is of a prodigious height, its summit being perpetually covered with
clouds, and can be perceived at the distance of 14 or 15 leagues. The cape
itself is low, and covered with trees ; and at 4 or 5 leagues off appears like
a small island. Upon this cape is Kent Town, a village of liberated Africans

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 645

and disbanded negro soldiers ; but, as no sure market exists for their indus-
try, they raise little from the soil except for their own use. This village
is delightfully situate on the side of a hill, with a large house for the super-
intendent. — Capt. Owen, 1826.

BANANAS.— Off Cape Chilling, and separated by a space of 2 miles in
breadth, lie the Banana Isles. The outer or S.W. end of these isles is 7
miles S.W. by W. \ W. (S.W. i S.) from the cape. The greater part of
their coast is foul and rocky.

The Bananas very much resemble the Isles de Los, but the land is more
elevated. They are extremely fertile, and have plenty of water, but no run-
ning streams. Wild cattle are abundant upon the greater isle. It is a
remarkable fact, that pigs are the only domestic animals that cannot be pro-
pagated here ; as there appears to be some herb, of which they are im-
moderately fond, but which is fatal to their existence.

A few years ago H.M.S. Tartar anchored off Cape Chilling and to the
northward of the Bananas, with the N.E. point of the isles S.S.E. £ E., and
the western part S.S.W. Between the ship and islands the water deepened
to 8, 9, and 7 fathoms ; but within a cable's length of the shore, between
the westernmost island and the next, there was found a depth of only 2
fathoms. The westernmost islet was then inhabited by only one French-
man, Jean Baptiste Major, and his four slaves.

Jia.it Point, S.S.E. \B. * West Point, S.S. W,

The Bananas appeared as above, from the Tartar's anchorage, at the dia
tance of 4 miles.

There is anchorage as well to the southward as to the northward of theso
isles, but the best is said to be in 5 fathoms, about 2 miles from shore, on
clear clayey ground, with the N.E. point S. § E., and the highest hill S. by
W. h W. There are sandy bays, which may be seen from the anchoring-
place, and where you may land ; but the best is at the S.W. end. Wood and
water are obtainable hero. The watering-place, which is close to the beach,
has a very good run of water.

Mr. Woodville has said, "It is very evident that the whole chain of
mountains called Sierra Leone, as well as the Isles Bananas and the Isles
de Los, are volcanic productions, if we are to judge from the great quantity
of lava found there, and from the small pieces of it taken up by the lead, in
sounding, at certain distances from the land, opposite to these islands, and
nowhere else ; also from the conical figure of many of the hills, and from the
ferruginous soil in the country."

Yawry Bay.— At 6 leagues S.S.E. J S. (S.K £ S.) from Cape Chilling is
Point Tassa. The coast between forms Yawry Bay, the shore of which is
bordered with a shoal 4 miles broad, having on it many oyster beds. Great
part of the bank is uncovered with the ebb, and has only 4 ft. over it at
high water.

Off Tassa Point is a group of islets and rocks, called the Maintain Isles

K. A. O. 4 O

640 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

and Bengal Rods, which extend from the point 5 miles westward, on the fiat
between Yawry Bay and Sherboro Inlet.

Tides. — The tides divide off the False Point of Sierra Leone. To the
northward of that point the flood runs to the northward ; to the southward
of that point it sets to the South. Ilence, at the Bananas the flood is from
the N.W., and the ebb contrary. Here the tide flows, on the full and
change days, at 8 h 15 m . During the equinoxes it rises 9 or 10 ft. perpendi-
cular; other spring tides 8 or 9 ft. At the Plaintain Isles it rises about a
foot and a half more than at the Bananas; but at the Bashaw or Turtle Isles
more to the southward, the rise is or 7 ft., common spring tides.

SHERBORO INLET,— The Inlet or Sound of Sherboro, commonly called
Sherbro River, is between the island of that name and the main land. The
westernmost headland of the island is Cape St. Anne, in lat. 7° 34', and
nearly on the meridian of Point Tassa, which lies in lat. 7° 55£'.

From Point Tassa the coast, forming the North side of Sherboro Inlet,
trends 12J- miles S.S.E. £ E. (S.JE. J J?.) to the mouth of a river, the Yal-
luclca, and thence it winds to the south-eastward, leagues further, to the
Bagroo River. It is bordered by a mud-bank, off which are several shoals,
the positions of which can be understood only by reference to the particular
chart.

The South shore of Sherboro Inlet is the North shore of Sherboro Island,
which is 3 leagues in extent, from Cape St. Anne on the West, to Jamaica
Point on the East. On this shore, at 12£ miles eastward from Cape St.
Anne, is the spot and remarkable tree called Little Row Grande, and Z\ miles
more to the East is Row Grande. At 1J league eastward of the Pow Grande,
on the shore, is Jenkin's Village, off which is the general roadstead for large
vessels, having 5, 0, and 7 fathoms of water. All the shore between this
and Capo St. Anne is bordered with an extensive mud bank.

Bashaw or Turtle Islands. — On a great flat, which extends more than 4
leagues to the N.W. from the western end of Sherboro Island, is a group of
eight or nine islets, called the Bashaw or Turtle Rsles, which are evidently the
remains of a considerable tract of land now submerged by the sea. The
bank on which they exist also exhibits innumerable ridges, knolls, blind
channels, and pools ; but is navigable on almost*every part by large boats at
high water, and at low water by light boats and canoes.

Directions for Slierhoro Inlet have been given as follows: — From off the
West end of the Bananas, steer toward the Bengal Rocks S.S.E. f E.
(S.E. % E.) 14 miles, and so as to give them a berth of about a league;
having rounded these rocks, steer S.E. £ S. (S.E. ly E.) 5 leagues, taking
cire to avoid the hard sand-bank on the East, which is steep-to. In run-
ning on, you may shoalen your water to 4 fathoms, on the flat of Yallucka
River, upon the eastern side, and thence continue the same course, 4 leagues
further to the southern bank, making due allowance for tide, whether ebb
or flood. The last course will lead to H- mile from shore, in about 4 fathoms
of water, and without the edge of the bank. You may now run up along
shore, for 2 leagues, to Jenkins, taking care to avoid the edge of the Middle
Ground on the North, which here leaves a channel of only half a mile between
it and the shore.

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. C4",

Bank and Shoals of St. Anne, Etc.— The Bank of St. Anne, which has not
yet been thoroughly surveyed nor defined, may probably extend frcm the
parallel of 8° to V 3H' N., and from long. 13° 6' to 13° 32'. The northern
limit, as shown in the Table, p. 34, is 7° 56' ; this is the limit to which the
bank has been actually surveyed; so likewise the western limit is given in
13° 29', where thcro aro 10 and 12 fathoms of water; but 13 fathoms have
been found at 7 loaguos more to the westward, upon the general bank of
oundings extending from shore ; and there is a spot of 8 and 9 fathoms in
about 7° 56' N., and 13° 48' W.

Upon the Bank of St. Anno are a number of small and dangerous insu-
lated shoals, separated by channels of 6, 7, 8, and 10 fathoms. The bank
itself is divided from that of the Turtle Isles by a narrow swashway, having
5, 6, and 7 fathoms.

But it appears that a vesiel bound from Sierra Leone to the Windward
Coast will clear overy danger by proceeding over the great bank S.W. \ W.
(S. W. hj S.) 12 leagues lo the parallel of 8° N. ; and thence, on the meri-
dian of 13° 40' to lat. 7= 30', from which point a course S.E. by E. i E.
{E. £ S.) 22 leagues, leads to the Shebar, or Bar of Sherboro River, at the
S.E. extremity of Sherboro Island.

Captain Midgley recommends that, "in the wet season vessels should give
the St. Anne shoals a large berth to the eastward, as the current, as well as
the sea, runs with great velocity into the bight of Cape Mount, and vessels
which may unfortunately happen to fall in with the land to the northward
of Sinou, in the wet season, will find considerable difficulty in working to
the southward.

When Lieut. Badgely, with other officers and two boats, in 1820, proceeded
from Great Turtle Island, in order to survey the southern part of Sherboro
Inlet, they found a good channel, with about 6 fathoms, but the atmosphere
was so thick that the object was totally defeated.

The Boom Kittara River runs in a parallel direction with the shore, at a
distance from it of 1 or 2 miles. The strip of land between, called General
Turner's Peninsula, is 8 leagues in length, and it is terminated by the Forks,
in long. 12 c 8 J' W. At 6-£ leagues further to the S.E. is the River Galinhas,
or Gallinas.

GALLINAS. — The bar of this river is only passable for large boats or
small coasting craft, and is very dangerous during the rains, when it is fre-
quently impassable. During the dry season it may be generally passed with
safety, excepting occasionally at the full and change of the moon, which has
a very marked effect upon the surf on the whole of this coast.

After passing the bar, the river opens out into a spacious sheet of water,
about 3 miles across in every direction, which is studded with islands for-
merly occupied by the slave dealers, and affording very favourable situations
for trading factories.

From hence the river runs, in three branches, to the north-eastward, to
the northward, and to the N.E. The first, during the rainy season, joins
the Boom Kittara Eiver, thus affording a direct inland water communication
with Sierra Leone : but in the dry season, at about 8 miles up, is too shallow for
canoes to pass. The next branch runs past the town of Grhindamar (where
the king resides), 9 miles from the sea, and is navigable about 5 leagues

648 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS.

for largo canoes. The third branch runs close inside the sea-beach to the
S.E., about 4 miles, and then turns suddenly to the N.E. at a place called
Soolimane ; from hence it is navigable for largo conoes about 7 miles.. This
branch forms the S.E. boundary of the Gallinas territory. To the N.W. it
terminates at a place called Casi, on the banks of the first branch, known by
two conspicuous round trees, which form the principal landmarks in this
quarter. These limits comprise about 12 miles of sea coast.

The coast here is very low and remarkably uniform, and for this reason
three baobab trees near the mouth of the Gallinas are an excellent land-
mark. At about 6 leagues south-eastward from the mouth of the Gallinas
is that of another small river, the Manna, off which you may anchor in 9 or
8 fathoms: this mouth is shut up by the beach, on which there is always a
great surf. It is sometimes called Roc-Manna, from the unusual circum-
stance of the shore being covered with blocks of black rocks. At 8 miles
further eastward, passing several villages or factories, you find tho little
River Sugury, beyond which is the bight formed by Capo Mount, having from
10 to 14 fathoms of water, with a bottom of black mud.

From the River Gallinas to Cape Mount the coast is very low, and covered
with trees. It has a fine sandy beach all the way. At 5 or 6 miles off are
regular soundings, from 15 to 18 fathoms, mud and sand, until you arrive
at Cape Mount. II. M.S. Tartar, Sir George Collier, anchored in 15 fathoms,
muddy bottom, Cape Mount bearing S. by E., and a remarkable large clump
of trees North. Merchantmen anchor further in, at 9 and 10 fathoms.

CAPE MOUNT, which may be seen at 9 or 10 leagues off, is a promontory
of high hills, projecting into the sea, the highest peak being 1,066 ft. above
the sea; on each side the land is low, rather highest on the North side, with
a flat sandy beach to the eastward. The cape itself is distinguished by cliffs,
which may be seen 4 leagues off. It is very remarkable, especially in
coming from tho westward, when it first makes like an island, and contrasts
greatly with tho low and uniform coast to the West of it.

To fall in with Cape Mount, you ought to keep in the latitude of 6° 40',
having, on account of the current which sets toward the shore, frequent re-
course to tho lead when you think yourself near the land. In the night
you may not approach nearer than to 26 fathoms, unless well acquainted.

To the westward of the cape lies the Road, into which you may run, until
the point of the cape bears South and S. by E. There, in the summer season,
that is, between October and May, when the weather is generally fair, is
anchorage in 9, 8, 7, and 6 fathoms, sandy ground ; but it is more common
to lie in 15. 14, 13, 12, and 10 fathoms, because the tornadoes and southerly
winds sometimes mako a very hollow sea. The watering place is near a
largo tree in front of the outer point of the cape ; and here, in the fino
season, you may take in water with great facility.

In coming ashore with your boat, you must bring a hawser with you, and
fasten one end of it to the land, the other being dropped with the anchor to
seaward, so that you may prevent the breakers by it ; for as you run directly
against the flat beach below the town, without any shelter of banks or cliffs,
in tho morning, you may easily get ashore with smooth water.

To the northward of Capo Mount there is a river of the same name, which
has been celebrated for its trade. There is 7 feet water on tho bar at low

WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 649

water, and 13 at high water; the current runs very strongly out, and the
best time for crossing the narrow bar is at half flood. Between the cape and
the entrance of the river there is good riding in the bay, during fine weather,
in from 15 to 6 fathoms ; but from 14 to 12 fathoms should be preferred in
tho rainy season, and even there it is hazardous, unless provided with the
best ground tackle ; for southerly and S.W. winds, in that season, set into
the bight with a tremendous sea and heavy gusts, which raise a violent surf
on the shore, that may be heard at a great distance.

Those approaching from the westward by night, without a previous sight
of land, must take the precaution of sounding in time, in order to avoid the
danger arising from the velocity of the current. As there are 15 fathoms
close in-shore, you should not advance by dark nearer than in 20 or 25
fathoms. Tho same precaution should be taken during tho Harmattan, when
the sun is obscured by haze for days together, and the current varies.

CAPE HESURADQ lies about 14 leagues S.E. f S. {S.E. hj E.) from
Cape Mount. Hence its latitude is 6° 19' N., in longitude 10° 49'. Between
the two capes the coast is very low, with a white sandy beach, above which
the land is covered with trees of varying colours. About 3 leagues to the
northward of the cape is the River of St. Paul, navigable for boats only ;
but ships may lie off it at pleasure, in from 16 to 6 fathoms, good ground.
The depth of 10 fathoms is nearly two miles from shore.

Cape Mesurado, though not so high ns Cape Mount, is an elevated pro-
montory, almost perpendicular on the North side, but with a gradual de-
clivity towards the sea on the South. There are regular soundings, of 20
to 15 fathoms, muddy bottom, at 8 miles off-shore, along which the current
sets strongly. At 2 or 3 miles off-shore, with the cape S.E. by S., is a depth
of 15 to 10 fathoms, muddy bottom, and a common anchorage. With the
capo bearing N.E., the land appears like an island, with trees rising out of
the water to the North ; and at 7 leagues off it appears in its insular form,
the land on each side being very low.

The lighthouse, a red tower 40 ft. high, shows a fixed light, at an eleva-
tion of 210 ft., and consequently ought to be visible 15 miles off, but it is
a very bad light, and stated to be uncertain. In 1874 it was out of order,
and in its place a lantern light is shown on a flagstaff 20 yards S.W. of the
light-tower.

MONROVIA, the capital of Liberia, contains about 300 houses, and 2,000
inhabitants, and is built on a depression of the ridge which sweeps inland
from the cape.

From its fine situation it is more salubrious, and far preferable to Sierra
Leone. It is the outlet of the products of the St. Paul to the North, to
which it is connected by Stockton Creek. The settlements of Caldwell, &c,
on the St. Paul, showed every indication of comfort and prosperity ; far
more so than in Monrovia.

The Description of tile Coast oe Guikea, from the River Gallinas east-
ward, with directions for the same, is given in the Sailing Directory for the
Ethiopia or Southern Atlantic Ocean, Eighth Edition, p. 537, &c.

THE ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN:

3.— THE AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLANDS.

THE AZORES, or Western Islands, are nine in number, and named
Santa Maria or St. Mary's, St. Miguel or St. Michael's, Terceira or Tercera,
S. Jorge or St. George's, Graciosa, Fayal, Pico, 1 lores, and Corvo. The
land is, in general, high ; the coasts steep and rocky.

These islands are said to have been discovered about the middle of the
fifteenth century by Joshua Vandenberg, of Bruges, in Flanders, who, in a
voyage to Lisbon, was driven to them by stress of weather. At Lisbon, he
boasted of his discovery ; on which the Portuguese, in that spirit of enter-
prise so strongly manifested by them at this period, set sail and took pos-
session of them, calling them Acores, or Isles of Ha whs, from the many hawks
and falcons found amongst them. It appears that they were entirely desti-
tute of inhabitants, and of every animal excepting birds. The latter were
numerous and of various species.

Antonio Gonzalo says, that the great Don Henry, Prince of Portugal,
considered these isles as so considerable an acquisition, that he went in
person to take possession, in 1449. This was forty-three years before
Colombo landed in America. And it has been affirmed that the Flemish
merchants, on the part of their countrymen, sent a conlony thither, many of
whose descendants continue in Fayal to this day. Hence the isles have been
also called Flamingos, or Flemish Islands.

The capital of the Azores is Angra, in Terceira, the residence of the civil
governor, but the general residence of the bishop is in the Island of St.
Michael.

The climate is delightful ; the air generally clear and serene ; the soil so
prolific, that both European and tropical plants arrive at the greatest per-
fection : the face of the earth is, however, so diversified, as in some places
to exhibit, within a small, extent, volcanic hills and productions, gardens of
aromatic plants, pastures, vineyards, orangeries, &c. The greatest inconve-
nience of these isles is, their having been subject to eruptions and earth-
quakes ; and, in some parts, where the coasts are low, the sea has, at times,
overflowed the land, and occasioned considerable mischief. Yet, in the
cultivated parts, the lava, once a stream of fire, is planted with oranges,
lemons, and vines; and the land, formed from the decomposition of volcanic
substances, is sown with Indian corn, small beans, and wheat. The islands
fit ill abound in waste lands, fit for the cultivation of flax, the vine, &c. Ce-
reals and oranges have been the chief articles of export since the vines were
destroyed by disease in 1853.

THE AZOEES. 651

Being generally mountainous, they may be described from a considerable
distance, and form a most valuablo mark for vessels in erroneous reckonings,
as no outlying dangers exist to impede an approach. The peak on the Isle
of Pico, noticed hereafter, may be seen more than 20 leagues off.

It cannot be doubted that this archipelago must bo considered as an
immense ridge, on which craters are thrown up so as to form islands. The
Island of St. Mary, the only one not situated in the general direction of the
others, is not volcanic ; no part of its surface appears to have suffered from
heat or eruption subsequent to its formation. The Island of Pico is elongated
from S.E. to N.W. in the same manner as all the other islands, St. George,
St. Michael, and Terceira ; and Flores and Corvo lie exactly in the same
direction. Fayal appears to be nothing more than a part of Pico, for the
general direction of these islands and their shores perfectly corresponds ; and
St. Michael's and Terceira appear to be connected by an intermediate range
of volcanic formations, as will be subsequently seen. Pew places offer such
a variety of volcanic phenomena as St. Michael's; and the historv of tho
eruptions and earthquakes on and near it give ample proof of the violence
of tho subterraneous forces over which it lies. In the descriptions of the
separate islands will be found notices of the principal volcanic phenomena
that have been recorded. The reader is directed, for a more complete
description of the volcanoes, &c, of the Azores, to an article in the " Nautical
Magazine" for 1841, page 752, consisting of extracts from the "Philoso-
phical Transactions," and "Von Buch's Descripcion Phisique" of these
islands.

The population of the Archipelago from the census of 1857 amounts to
241,646.

Winds at the Azores.— In the former part of this work, in the section
treating on the subject, we have given descriptions of the general phenomena
of the winds and hurricanes of the Atlantic, and the laws by which they
appear to be governed, as deduced from the numerous and careful observa-
tions that have been made at various times. In connexion with that system
of aerial currents, and their perturbations, we have reserved the considera-
tion of that part of the subject which is connected with the Azores, and
their vicinity. It will not be necessary to recapitulate any of the principles
or statements which have been before given, for which the reader must refer
to that division of the subject, as detailed in page 228 and following, and in
pages 466-7.

Similar hurricanes to those described in the section devoted to the subject
seem to be prevalent at the Azores, and in some measure to be governed by
the same laws. This it will be very impartant for the mariner to know, and
therefore the following observations, by T. C. Hunt, Esq., the British consul
at St. Michael's, will be interesting: —

"The regularity with which gales enter these seas in the N.W. quarter,
and, after crossing them, disappear at the S.E., is a circumstance the know-
ledge of which may be highly serviceable to the commanders of ships sailing
across the Atlantic.

"The centre of a gale, on its approach, always effects a descent in the
barometer, and a change in fall of rain. In its actual passage over the
instrument, the descent generally reaches 28*50, from which a rise of one-

652 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

tenth appears to take place for every 10 miles' removal of the centre; so
that the number of miles distance from the centre of an approaching gale
might, perhaps, be indicated by the number of hundredths shown by tho
barometer over tho extreme of 28 - 50.

" The difference in the fall of rain"' has also its regularity, the approach of
the centre bringing a temporary increase, and then a cessation of the rain,
which i3 renewed, and, in a reversed order, diminished on the removal of the
centre. According to tho observations made at this office, there appears to
bo in every gale of wind a zone of rain about 120 miles in breadth, heaviest
on tho inner edge, which is about 60 miles distant from the centre; that the
fall of rain decreases in proportion to the distance from this line; and that
tho fall on the inner edge, being about twelve-hundredths of an inch per
hour, the decrease is about one-hundredth for every 10 miles of removal.

"In order to follosv out the views of Colonel (Sir "W.) Eeid, the British
consul and the vice-consuls at the Azores kept regular daily tables of the
direction and force of winds, between May, 1840, and Nov., 1841; and the
courses of twenty gales which occurred were compiled from them, and the
details of them are given in the 'Nautical Magazine,' as beforo quoted."

From the particulars of these twenty gales, of which the courses havo
been accurately observed during the years 1840-1, f there appear to be some
general conclusions which may be deduced. The first circumstance de-
veloped by the inquiry is, the general direction of storms passing across the
Azores. The coincidence of this course with the Great Atlantic Current,
which is a continuation of the Gulf Stream, which may every day be traced
to the neighbourhood of the Azores, and which the sudden rise of water in
those islands (where, having been hastened by a gale, it is suddenly checked
in any locality by the operation of the wind, accompanied by a diminution of
atmospheric pressure) proves to be sensibly carried beyond them, goes very
far to identify the Azorean streams with the tropical gales and hurricanes
traced in the able work of Colonel Eeid, from the South American coast,
along the course of the Gulf Stream to Cape Hatteras, in North America.
There is a further resemblance in their diameters. In the chart which
Colonel Eeid has composed of the great hurricane of October the 10th, 1780,
the diameter given to it, in the latitude of the Azores, is about 550 miles. Of
the Azorean gales under consideration, four were about this diameter, eleven
of about or under 650, and five under 900.

With respect to navigators, for whose benefit these inquiries are chiefly
intended, the use which may be made of this knowledge of the courses,
taken by storms across the Azores, is in the direction of vessels which may
be reached by them. It seems probable that if a ship were met by a violent
gale near the Azores, her best course would be to steer, so far as the veering

* In the Azores a southerly wind creates great humidity in the atmoshere ; a northerly
wind removes it. Under the former influence, there is frequently two per cent of water
in the air, under the latter, less than one.

t The commencement of these gales was on the following days, viz. :— 1840, June 4th,
Aug. 10th, Oct. 3rd, Oct. 7th, Oct. 9th, Nov. 2nd, Nov. 11th, Nov. 14th, Nov. 28th,
Dec. 1st, Dec. 6th, Dec. 11th, Dec. 15t.h, Dec. 27th; 1841, Jan. 11th, Feb. 3rd, Feb. 11th,
March Gth, March 19th, Sept. 8th, and Sept. lbth.

*,/

.0 ;. •■'■'

- j\ "x"£- ixj &\s\jfusrrn r* :,i

■^^^■v--

-. '■

'.i, /..,„/.,. Gordo

I, M.,.l,t,„„.l.i

. ..iCHA^

Kutaisi. Statute Mile

THE AZORES— ST. MICHAEL'S.

G53

of the wind would allow, due North or South ; that if she steered to tho
eastward, she would accompany the gale, and he overtaken by the greater
violence of its centre, and that by steering to the West she would sooner
meet the centre, or run into a new gale.

"Whatever may be the cause of the occasional deflection of the Azorean
storms, whether it arises from collision with another storm, or from atmo-
spheric gravitation (the radiation of heat from the islands being always very
great), the uniform effect appears to be a diminution of their progressive
velocity, and frequently an increase of their rotatory force.

But as far as these effects can be foreseen, from a knowledge of the de-
flection (presuming it always to be accompanied by a slower progression), it
is worthy of observation, that the deflection never appears to take a turn to
the northward, but always to the South. If this be true, the safest course
for a ship in these gales is to the North, unless there are very cogent reasons
for a departure from this supposed rule.

The following Table shows the mean duration in days, of the winds from
each quarter, from the results of ten years' observations made by Thomas
Carew Hunt, Esq., between January 1, 1840, and December 31, 1849 : —

aS
Q
'A

03
3

3
U

J3
O

'A
<

1-9

3
CD
3
<

a
.a

"a
m

>
o

03
O

a> s3

Whole Year.

X. ..

1-32

1-12

1-18

1-27

1-52

0-15

2-11

0-14

1-40

2-15

2-78

3-52

7-29

11-07

18 36

N.E. .

7-64

6-13

6-73

8-89

10-9

10-1

13-7

15-1

11-6

109

6-84

7-71

69-04

460

115-04

E. ..

107

0-53

0-G6

1-80

1-28

076

117

0-30

1-20

0-62

0-59

1-72

6-51

5-19

11-70

S.E. ..

4-4;

3-90

8-03

2-44

3-1?

2-73

4-71

4-94

4-45

3-74

3-60

20-98

23-17

44-15

2-Sf

Q-U

2-25

0-79

0-95

0-67

0-11

0-08

0-12

1-51

1-54

2-72

11-13

13-35

S.W. .

6-4t>

6CC

901

4 -OS

3-73

4-43

1-63

2-6C

3-44

4-13

6-94

5-32

23-20

38-46

61-66

w. ..

1-10

1-17

1-58

1-51

2-38

1-51

2-09

l-7£

1-01

1-35

1-39

1-52

10-23

8-17

18-40

N.W. .

5-SC

7-0-1

■J-44

8-06

8-09

8-2i

4-82

4-7r.

5-53

5-19

6-08

6-53

39-52

37-11

76-63

Calm .

019

0-5i

0-12

0-57

0-50

0-2-3

0-17

1-2C

0-74

0-65

010

0-08

3-51

1-70

5-21

Surf

•

on
Shore.

l'lf

6-49

2-70

115

0-5(

0-03

0-2C

2-07

4-42

6'42

7-38

6-65

38-85

45-50

ST. MICHAEL'S.— The Island of St. Michael consists of a number of
mountains, hills, and declivities, which are evidently the production of vol-
canic eruptions. The mountains and hills clearly indicate, by their conical
figure, and the cavity at their summits, their being the production of fire,
and bear unequivocal marks of the effects of this destructive agent, in an
accumulation of lava, scoriae, and volcanic sand.

Externally, the volcanoes appear extinguished, but they are supposed still
N. A. O. 4 P

054 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

to burn internally and invisibly. Of this, Caldeiras, or fountains of boiling
water, in the Valley of Furnas and other parts are evident symptoms. There
have existed three principal craters, whose vertices now form three great
lakes, situate towards the centre and the northern and southern portions of
the island. From those craters vast mountains have been thrown up ; and,
in proportion as these ceased to vomit forth matter, partial eruptions burst
out, and formed the lateral hills and declivities, which extend themselvis in
every direction from the mountains surrounding the lakes. The cessation
of fire from the different craters has been attributed to water, which appears
to have gained access to each, and suddenly extinguished the effervescence
of its mineral contents ; and the fire now seems confined to stations, where
it operates only in boiling the water with various degrees of activity and

force.

The island, in fact, seems to be of such a structure and conformation,
that the water passes freely throughout its volcanic caverns, and is easily
forced out without shaking or disturbing the earth. Of these extinguished
craters, that (the Sette Cidades) in the N. W. part of the island is the largest,
and is about 3£ miles long by 2 miles broad. The interior is occupied by
two lakes, and the ridgo bounding it is nearly of equal height throughout,
except where it rises into peaks, and on the N.W. presents a gap between
two hills, 1,620 and 1,770 ft. high. The second crater is about 3,060 feet
high, and is called the Agoa de Pao ; it is in the middle of the island, and
situated in a large mass of pumice stones. Agoa das Furnas is the third
crater, 995 ft. high, and in it are the hot water springs, but it is not so high
as that of Alagoa Grande. From Agoa das Furnas the mountains of pumice-
stone continue higher, forming a continual range as far as Pico de Vara, the
highest of which is 3,560 ft. above the sea, and is the only summit on the
island where snow is found.

After Gonzalo Velho Cabral had succeeded in establishing a colony in the
Island of St. Mary, discovered in 1431, he landed on the N.W. coast of St.
Michael, in 1444, and the extensive plains he saw appeared to him to be so
capable of being highly cultivated that he returned immediately to St.
Mary to make preparations for colonizing his newly-discovered country.
But when he went there the following year, with everything necessary for
the establishment of his colony, what was his surprise when in the place of
the plains he found an enormous mountain, which had been elevated on
them, with an immense crater. This mountain is called the Alagoa de los
Sette Cidades, on which are the two lakes Logoa Grand and Lago Azul, as
mentioned before. After the elevation of this great mountain, the island
remained tranquil until 1522, when an eruption overturned the two hills
Sorical and Rubical, and entirely destroyed the town of Villa Franca, and
4,000 inhabitants also lost their lives. In 1563, an eruption occurred of the
Pico Sapadeiro, and a large current of lava ran into the sea on the North
side. In 1591, seven shocks of earthquakes occurred, and Villa Franca was
again destroyed. In 1638, the island to the West was found as described
elsewhere. In 1652, some hills near Ponta del Gada threw up an immense
quantity of stones and cinders, spreading destruction around. In 1691, after
Borne very violent earthquakes, several small islets appeared not far from the
coast. In November, 1707, a torrent, attributed to the breaking of a

THE AZORES— ST. MICHAEL'S. ' 655

waterspout, fell on Ponta del Gada, and caused great damage. In 1719, a
new island appeared in the West, also mentioned hereafter. In 1720, a
succession of violent earthquakes injured the towns and villages, and shook
down great rocks from the cliffs, &c. In 1744, October 5, another fall of
water occurred, washing down the valleys of Povoagao and Fayal de Leira,
carrying away great parts of two villages. The cause of these floods, still
occurring remains unexplained. The great Lisbon earthquake in 1754 was
also felt here, but there was no eruption. In 1806, a mass of rock slipped
from the valley of the Furnas, leaving a chasm 100 yards in diameter ; and
in 1811 a similar fall occurred close to tho same place. The eruptions of
August 11, 1810, and of Sabrina Island, June 13, 1811, are described
below. In 1838, another landslip occurred at the Furnas. In 1839, De-
cember 5, a rise of the sea, like that in 1755, washed down several houses,
&c, on the South coast. The last earthquake which was felt here was that
which devastated Terceira, in June, 1841, of which a description is given
in the notice of that island.

The circumstances attending the formation of Sabrina Island are described
as follows (the island had previously been apparently quiescent ) ;•*— In tho
early part of the year 1811, a most awful and tremendous explosion of smoke
and flame issued from the sea at the distance of half a league from the shore
at the western end of the island. From the depth of about 40 fathoms, in
the ocean, issued smoke, fire cinders, ashes, and stones of an immense size.
Innumerable quantities of fish, some nearly roasted, and others as if broiled,
floated on the surface of the sea toward the shore. Thus a dangerous shoal
gradually formed. f On the 10th of June, the crew of the Sabrina, British
sloop of war, observed two columns of white smoke arising from the sea,
which they supposed to arise from an engagement, and made sail toward it,
but were disappointed by the wind dying away. The smoke continued to
ascend, with volumes of flame, and they then concluded it was a volcano.
Next day they were close in with the land of St. Michael, and found tho
volcano still raging. They learned on the island that smoke was first
observed on the 13th of June; two or three days previous to which there
had been felt repeated shocks of earthquake in the capital of St. Michael,
which threw down several cottages and portions of the cliff toward the
N.W., so that destruction was feared on the island ; but these ceased as

* The approximation to an eruption has, however, at times appeared to have been very
close. On the 11th of August, 1810, at the hour of ten p.m., slight shocks of an earth-
quake were felt, which continued, at intervals of a few minutes, for four hours. Between
two and three o'clock next morning, a dreadful rocking was experienced throughout the
whole island ; several houses, unable to resist its violence, were thrown down, and many
others were greatly damaged ; and such persons as sought safety in the open air were dashed
to the ground. On the eastern side of the island an orifice was discovered, resembling tho
crater of a volcano, and out of which flames occasionally burst forth ; but they do not
appear to have been accompanied by any ejection of volcanic matter.

t The flames were first seen the night of the 1st of February, but invisible indications
of its operations had been felt in shocks on the island, from the middle of the preceding
veir. Its observed situation was S.W. of Point Ferraria, and due West fram the Pico de
Ginetes, at about U mile from the nearest shore. The brig Swift, with all her crew, were
lost on this spot, before the existence of the shoal was known.

C56* DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

soon as the volcano broke out. On the 18th, the Sabrina went as near to the
volcano as she could with safety, and found it scill raging with unabated
violence, throwing up, from under the water, large stones, cinders, ashes,
&o , accompanied with several severe concussions. About noon on the same
day they observed the mouth of the crater just showing itself above the
Burface of the sea, were there were formerly 40 fathoms of water. At three
p.m., same day, it was about 30 feet above the surface of the water, and
about a furlong in length. On the 19th they were within 5 or 6 miles of the
volcano, and found it about 50 feet in height, and two-thirds of a mile in
length, still raging as before, and throwing up large quantities of stones,
some of which fell a mile distant from the volcano. The smoke drew up
several waterspouts, which, spreading in the air, fell in heavy rain, accom-
panied with vast quantities of fine black sand, that completely covered the
Sabrina's decks, at the distance of 3 or 4 miles. On the 30th they proceeded
on a cruise, leaving the volcano about 150 feet high, and still raging as
formerly, and continuing to increase in size. On the 4th of July they again
visited it, and found that a complete island was formed, and perfectly quiet.
The captain and several officers landed upon it, and found it very steep, and
its height from 200 to 300 ft. It was with difficulty they were able to reach
the top.

On the 17th of June, Captain Tillard, of the Sabrina, accompanied by Mr.
Ucid, the British consul, with two other gentlemen, proceeded overland to
the cliff nearest to the volcano, and which was between 300 and 400 feet
above the level of the sea. The first appearance it presented was that of
an immense body of smoke revolving in the water almost horizontally, in
varied involutions ; when suddenly would shoot up a column of the blackest
cinders, ashes, and stones, in form like a spire, and rising to windward at
an angle of from 10° to 20° from a perpendicular line. This was rapidly
succeeded by a second, third, and fourth, each having great velocity, and
overtopping the preceding one till they had attained an altitude as much
above the level of the eye on the cliff as the sea was below it. These bursts
wore accompanied by explosions of the most vivid lightning, with the noise
like the continual firing of cannon and musketry intermixed ; and, as the
cloud of smoke rolled off to leeward, it drew up the waterspouts, above
mentioned, which formed a beautiful and striking addition to the scene.

Subsequently the islet fell by degrees into the sea ; and, in the middle of
October, no part was left above water ; but a dangerous shoal remained in
the place which it had occupied. In February, 1812, smoke was discovered
still issuing out of the sea near the spot.-" In June, 1841, Captain Vidal,
in H.M.S. Styx, anchored in 16 fathoms, on the site of Sabrina Island, and
fouud that the least water thereon was 15 fathoms.

St. Michael's contains one city, five principal towns, fifty-four parishes, and
about in 1840, 39,098 males and 41,711 females— total 80,809, living in
19,726 houses.

* About 15 leagues to the westward, a volcano, which had appeared in 1G38, broke out
from the sea in 1719, and disappeared in 1723. A depth of 80 fathoms was afterwards
found on the spot which it had occupied. But see the description of Terceira for thi
volcanci shoal.

THE AZOKES— ST. MICHAEL'S.

657

The coast is very bold, and may be approached without fear in almost
every part, the N.W. side excepted. Its military strength consists of 300
or 400 troops, with a militia of several thousand peasantry. The principal
fortification is the castle of St. Bras, which is close to the sea, and the
western end of the city of Ponta Delgada * The island has many strong
local holds ; and several of the hills and passes, if judiciously fortified, would
be impregnable.

The chief trade of St. Michael's consists in the export of oranges to English
ports; of these, in the year 1876, in British vessels, £123,000 worth, and in
Portuguese vessels, £13,500 worth was exported. In addition to these, tan-
gerines, bananas, and pine-apples were largely exported, also cereals. Of
the 342 vessels visiting St. Michael in 1876, 133 were Bridsh, 14 American,
4 Brasilian, 1 Dutch, 2 French, 1 German, 186 Portuguese, and 1 Spanish.

Outline of the haul over Ponta Delgada,

The Road of Ponta Delgada, off the principal city, has good holding
ground, on which ships may ride safely, excepting during gales from "W.N. W.
to S.S.E. Should a vessel be forced to quit the anchorage in winter, by a
southerly gale, it will be best to round the western end of the island, and
await a shift of wind from the N.W., which commonly succeeds a S.W.
wind. Thus may the roadstead be easily regained ; but, by running to the
south-eastward, it may be ten days, or more, before you can beat back to
the road. In beating up, keep close in-shore, only avoiding some rocks,
which lie near Ponta del G/alera. Fresh water is easily procured in the craft
of the islaud.

The City of Ponta Delgada is the chief seat of commerce, and contains
full 20,000 inhabitants. This town appears exceedingly pleasant from tho
offing. At Fouras, 18 miles inland, are the hot springs of mineral water,
where baths have been constructed, and are much resorted to by invalids.

Lights. — The light-tower, completed in August, 1878, is 2G h. high, and
situated about 200 yards within the extremity of tho breakwater in progress.
The light is a fixed ra? light of the fourth order, elevated 47 ft. above the
sea, and should be visible in clear weather from a distance of 9 miles. The

* The Hospital of Mercj' at St. Michael's, thanks to the liberality and kindness of some
of the merchants, now admits British seamen patients, where they are well treated.

658 DESCRIPTIONS OP THE ISLANDS.

soundings, in an easterly direction from low water at the extremity of the
breakwater, increase regularly to the depth of 12 fathoms. A small fixed
bright light is also shown on the Custom-house.

Signals. — In 1869 it was announced that the following signals had been esta-
blished: From vessels to the shore. — 1. Want a pilot— national flag on the fore-
topmast, and pennant underneath. 2. Am damaged — pennant on theforetop-
mast, and national flag underneath. 3. Have no anchors — national flag aft,
pennant underneath. 4. Am very leo.hj— pennant aft, national flag under-
neath.

From the shore to sea. — 5. Look out for a good place to receive a pilot—
red flag, a streamer below. 6. Pilot cannot be sent on board — a streamer, and
red flag below. 7. Put out to sea with the least delay — national flag, and the
red one below. 8. Can come into the harbour — red flag. 9. General pro-
hibition to enter the artificial harbour — black ball, and red flag below.

The Breakwater has been making slow progress during many years, and at
one time threatened to be rather detrimental than advantageous to the ship-
ping frequenting the roadstead of Ponta Delgada, on account of its so fre-
quently being washed away and strewing the anchoring ground with the
stones of which it was constructed. Mr. Consul Read, writing in May, 1874,
remarks: — "The breakwater forming the artificial harbour of Ponta Del-
gada has attained an extent of 580 metres (about 630 yards), the projected
length being 860 metres at low watermark. The portion already constructed
does not yet present the form definitely adopted, namely, that of the break-
water at Holyhead, but has an appearance of solidity, considering its great
breadth at low water, and the almost complete state of the slopes under low
water mark, which are a guarantee of its resistance against the violence of
the sea, and consequently of the shelter afforded to vessels during the time
required for advancing it to the desired form. To effect this object, and to
construct the remaining 280 metres of the breakwater, it is considered that
ten years will be required in order that the work may be carried out with
security, and that the annual grant, amounting to about £18,000, may not
be exceeded.

"The part of the artificial harbour already sheltered has an area of about
25,000 squave metres, with a depth varying from 10 to 30 ft. below low water
mark ; from forty to fifty vessels, moored in six tiers, can find shelter in this
part, including steamers of 500 to 700 tons. No less than seven steamers
of considerable tonnage, and twenty- eight vessels of various sizes, having
remained in perfect security on the 6th of February of this year during a
heavy gale from the S.E., the quarter to which the harbour at present is
most exposed. Vessels drawing 20 ft. can enter this part of the harbour.

" The part of the artificial harbour corresponding to the portion of the
breakwater still to be completed will present an area of more than 90,000
square metres, with a depth varying from 30 to 60 ft., and admitting about
100 vessels of all 6izes. Thus, when completed, the harbour will afford
shelter to about 145 vessels, including a fair proportion of vessels of large
tonnage, even trans-atlantic mail steamers and ships of war.

" A quay was also commenced last year, alongside of which vessels draw-
ing 18 ft. will be able to discharge. I am informed its length will be 50
metres.

THE AZORES— ST. MICHAEL'S. 659

'' In the foundry which forms part of the breakwater works, important re-
pairs to machinery, &c, of vessels can be effected with efficiency, the S.S.
Sidonian, of the Anchor Line, not long ago having put into the port to have
her screw-shaft repaired, and the manner in which the work was executed
obtained the highest praise from the captain and chief engineer."

In March, 1877, the breakwater had not been increased in length, but
some pile- work was in progress at the sea-end of the work. A new market
is opened near the port.

The Floating Dock, completed in 1875, at a cost of £11,000, ha3 been used
by a steamer of 1,000 tons.

The artificial harbour, formed by excavating the 6quare of St. Francis,
and cutting a canal between it and the mole, was opened on March 1, 1870.
The dues were fixed as follows : — From the 1st of April to the 30th of Sep-
tember, 10 reis for each cubic metre on vessels of less tonnage than 60 metres,
and 30 reis on those exceeding that figure; and from the 1st of October to
the 31st of March, 20 reis per cubic metre on the smaller vessels.

The next place of consequence to Ponta Delgada is that called Ribeira
Grande, on the North side of the island; but there is no anchorage; and,
having no harbour, it is dependent for its commercial supplies on the towns
on the South side. Villa Franca, which is on the latter, has a very inferior
anchorage, and that for small vessels only.

St. Michael, bold all round, may be approached without fear, as there are
no rocks or dangers more than a furlong from the shore, excepting some
rocks at the N.W. end, and the volcanic shoal, already described. The
former extends about half a mile from the Bay of Mosteiros, near the north-
western point. The winds most prevalent from October to April, are from
S.W. to N.W., which frequently come in heavy squalls, particularly from
the northward. In approaching from the eastward, Ponta de Galera, the
southernmost point, should have a good offing, as the high land above it
often occasions a calm, and there are some rocks off the point.

On approaching the N. W. end of the island from the westward, the appear-
ance is very unpromising, as it presents barren mountains of stupendous
bulk, with a coast like many ramified pillars of basalt, exhibiting, at top, a
few trees of stunted growth. The impression made by a scene of rough and
craggy cliffs, is, however, soon dissipated by a pleasing contrast on the
southern coast, as this presents a beautiful acclivity, adorned by luxuriant
vegetation. Open pastures, bounded by woods, vineyards, and corn-fields,
interspersed with orange and lemon trees, everywhere meet the eye, and
afford a landscape, extensive and various, that will always, in clear weather,
be seen with delight.

Those coming in on the northern side of the island must be cautious of
not getting embayed near Ribeira Grande, as there is no good anchorage on
that side in case of a shift of wind.

The Road of Villa Franca is sheltered by the Porto do Ilheo, a remark-
able volcanic rock, having a circular basin in its centre, with an entrance
to it on the N.E., fronting the town of Villa Franca. The entrance of this
basin has 7 ft. of water, and is just broad enough to admit a small vessel.
The basin is about 100 fathoms in breadth, and has had a depth of from

660 DESCRIPTIONS OF TIIE ISLANDS.

to 18 ft. ; the bottom of sand and small stones. This place is resorted to
by small vessels for the purpose of careening, &c. It affords shelter from
gales between West and South ; but as a part of the S.E. side is low, the
wind from that direction throws a heavy swell into it, and renders it dan-
gerous ; and vessels caught by this wind must be scuttled, as the only way
to save them. Not more than four vessels can lie with safety on the outside,
in winter, under shelter of the rock on the N.E., where there are 4 and 5
fathoms of water. The ground near the town is foul and dangerous ; but it
is stated that a ship may lie in 8 or 9 fathoms, between the town and islet,
by fastening a hawser on shore.*

The Porto do Ilheo is a great natural curiosity ; it having been originally a
volcano of great height, whose apex has fallen into the caverns beneath, and
forms the basin. Its appearance is extremely rugged and irregular. On its
South side is a remarkable detached rock, distinguished by the name of the
Pyramid.]

Of Villa Franca, Tofmo says : — " It is situated on a beach, which forms but
a very small bight. The channel between the islet {Ilheo) and coast is of the
width of 3 cables' lengths, or thereabout, and is its principal anchorage ; it
has 10 and 11 fathoms of water, sandy bottom, and vessels moor North and
South, with a hawser on shore, on the islet ; but the latter, owing to its
diminutive size, does not shelter a vessel from the sea wind, between E.S.E.
by South to S.S.W. The town is capacious, and water, with all kinds of
provisions, may be had here."

The breakers seen to the N.E. of St. Michael's will be found described in
the next section.

Don Vincente Tofino, in his description of St. Michael's, states that Point
Ferraria, the westernmost point of the island, is high and sloped, but a low
point projects from it into the sea, so as to form a rocky ridge to the
S.W. At the distance of a league from land this ridge has over it from 7
to 10 fathoms of water, and a heavy sea rises over it, very high.J The little
harbour of Hosteiros, to the N.E., serves for boats only. Of the islets here,
the largest is high, sloped, and smooth at its summit, with an aperture,
through which the sea passes from one side to the other.

North Side of the Island. — Between the Ponta dos Mosteiros and Ponta
da Bretanha the land of the coast is high and rocky, and it forms the Bay

* There is a rock and reef (the Lobeira Hock) lying S.W. by S., three-fourths of a mile
off Point Albufeira (which is 4^ miles East of Villa Franca). It is not volcanio, but haa
always been known. It is not on the early charts.

t In a letter to the editor, dated 2Sth of May, 1828, Captain Livingston says; — "The
Ilheo seems to be filling up with sand. The most of the rock is a kind of conglomerate of
lava, in detached pieces, sand, debris, and pumice-stone, and on the East side it seems
gradually wearing away. The highest part appears about 80 feet high. There are culti-
vated terraces on it, with cane reeds, planted for shelter, and they grow not only potatoes
and maize on it, but there are even a few poor vines, and some fine heath 3 to 4 feet in
height.

" The singular volcanic Peak of Camarinhas, on the West end of tho island, was the last
active volcano in St. Michael's."

% There is a similar ridge, with islets on it, extending about a league from Point Matogos,
the" N.W. point of the island ; it has from 2 to 6 and 7 fathoms over it.

THE AZORES-POET OAPELLAS. 661

of Joao Bom ; at the bottom of which appears a very shai'p-pointed mountain,
called the Pico de Maffa, which serves as a very useful mark for ascertaining
the coast.

Within the Ponta do Bretanha, and extending eastward, is the long village
of Bretanha. The country here is highly cultivated, and pasture land.

The Villa de Ribeira Grande, already noticed, is rich, stored with all kinds
of provisions, abounds with good water, but landing is practicable only when
tho sea is very smooth.

PORT CAPELLAS.— The following description of this small harbour on
the North side of St. Michael's is by Mr. Ilunt, the British Consul: —
" Persons having stated that the bottom of the North side of St. Michael is
foul in the anchoring depths, and that no vessel would be likely to recover
her anchor if she brought up there, I thought it my duty to take the earliest
opportunity of proceeding thither, with the agent for Lloyd's at this port,
for the purpose of ascertaining the truth of these assertions.

" The result of our survey was, that at about half a mile distant from the
shore, between Ribeira Grande and Oapellas, there is a line, which, with
occasional projections towards the land, separates the foul and stony bottom
of the coast from a perfectly smooth and firm bed of fine sand, sloping to
seaward ; that, along this line, the depth varies from 25 to 35 fathoms ; and
that, from the rugged nature of the coast itself, the small port of Capellas
is the only part at which it would be safe for boats to disembark." In a
small plan, also by Mr. Hunt, the marks for anchoring are, first, the outer
point of the port on with the Morro of Rio Grande, bearing E. by S. ; and,
second, Point St. Antonio on with Point Minho.

Arnel Point and Lighthouse. — The N.E. point of the island is Ponta da
Ribeira ; at If- mile to the S. by W. £ W. (S. ly~ E.) from this is the Ponta
del Arnel, having a small port of the same name, but it is unsheltered, and
the bottom rocky. The two points are of equal height, but between them is
a slender bay, with sloped rocky land, in the middle of which, is a very re-
markable glen, wherein is a small river.

The lighthouse on Arnel Point is situated on the eastern side of the build-
ing, which serves as the keepers' dwelling. It is an octagonal tower, the
base of which is 183 ft. above the sea. The light is a fixed bright light,
varied by a flash every 2 minutes; elevated 222 ft. above the sea, and visible
18 miles off; the flashes 25 miles. Position, lat. 37° 49' 20" N., long.
25° 8' 30" W.

The distant view of St. Michael's is sometimes deceiving, in consequence
of the haze which frequently covers the land ; and the following observa-
tions will be useful in explaining any uncertainty which may be felt in
making this island. Captain Midgley says: — " On the 26th of September,
1840, at daylight, I hauled up on a N.E. by E. course, by compass, to make
St. Michael's, with a moderate S.S.E. breeze and fine clear weather. At noon
saw the West end of the island bearing N.E. £ E., and although the weather
was apparently clear in every other part, a small portion of the land could
only be seen, the remainder being covered with clouds and haze. The above
bearing and observed latitude placed the ship 31 miles from the West end
of the island. At 3 p.m. saw the eastern extremity of tho land distinctly,

N. A. 0. 4 <*

662 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

but could not make out the land in the centre of tho island ; indeed, the haze
which hung over it so completely deceived me for some time, that I con-
sidered two islands were in sight, and that 1 must have made some mistake
in my observations ; but, on drawing nearer to tho land, as the sun approached
the horizon, the fog dispersed, and I had a good sight of the centre of the
island also. After sunset, the evening was tine, with serene clear weather.
At 8 p.m. the light of Ponta Ferraria was seen at 10 miles off — but such
a light! had it not been marked on the chart, I conld not have believed it
reflected from a lighthouso established for the direction of shipping— the
light was really miserable ; and, as it was not shown until long after every
trace of daylight had disappeared (for the weather was quite clear, and a
careful look-out kept for it), the light which was seen might have been
reasonably supposed to be tint of s >me fishermen or passing vessel. (It has
since been stated that no lights are exhibited.)

" On December 31st, 1841, I intended to pass to the southward of St.
Michael's, but a scant wind obliged me to bear up for the West end of that
island, on passing which it again had the appearance of two separate islands,
with well-defined extremities to each, the land in the centre being covered
with fog and haze. When seen from the northward, on the following day,
it had again the same appearance, that of two separate and apparently well-
defined islands."

ISLE OF ST. MARY.— The preceding description of the appearance of
St. Michael's will apply generally to St. Mary's and the other islands. The
town is on the South side, toward the West, on a bay, in which there is an
islet ; and between this island and the land is the anchorage, with a depth
of 6 and 5 fathoms.'"

• St. Mary's has a town and three villages, with about 4,500 inhabitants.
Its chief productions are wheat and barley, of the first cpuality, with wine
and cattle ; but only sufficient for its own consumption. It has water in
abundance, but of wood little, and a scanty proportion of fruit and vege-
tables.

" The Island of St. Mary is about 7 miles in its greatest, and 5 miles in
its smallest diameter. It has nearly in the centre the double-peaked moun-
tain of Pico Alto, 1,889 ft. in height, which falls on the East and West sides
to a shelving base of about a mile in breadth, and 850 ft. above the sea.
To the North and South it throws out a range of undulating heights, which
terminate at the sea in lofty mural cliffs of more than 200 ft. elevation. The
East side of this range is covered with hills, diminishing in altitude as they
recede from the centre, and intersected by numerous gorges of increasing
width and depth, the channels by which the heavy rains of winter reach
their points of discharge. The West side is a slightly inclining and undu-
lating plain, also cut by ravines, terminating in cliffs more than 100 ft. high.
The aspect of St. Mary's is therefore on all sides perfectly bold ; the central

* Immense quantities of mollusc®, or sea-worms, are certain signs of the proximity ot
St. Mary's. Some of them are of a white colour, or of arrowroot mixed with hot water,
and are about 18 inches long, with orange spots on them, like the eyes of a peacock's tail.—
A. Livingston,

THE AZOPES-ST. MARY'S. 663

peak distinct ; the subordinate rango high and of varied outline; and the
coast abrupt, precipitous, and based by the usual accompaniment of fallen
masses.

"In its geology, St. Mary's is not like the other islands, where the sur-
face of recent volcanic matter conceals whatever may have been their
original constitution, or the progress of their growth. It is of trap forma-
tion, and contains in its beds of marine shells, proofs of its elevation from the
sea, but there are some points of similarity in its structure to that of St.
Michael's ; this is also the case with respect to Madeira, and still more to
Sicily."*

"On the 31st of December, 1841," says 'Captain Midgley, "at sunrise,
with very clear weather, I made St. Mary's, bearing E.N.E. by compass,
distant 45 miles, at which time the land appeared from the deck to be like
two small well-defined paps, rising out of the water close together ; but on a
nearer approach on the same bearing it appeared like a saddle land, which
appearance it retained until the summits of some of the lower hills became
visible."

Ponta do Castello, the S-E. point, is high, and has a break, which forms
a peak, in the shape of a sentry-box. A vessel may anchor with this point
S.W. £ S. (S. by W.) and close to it in 10 fathoms, bottom of sand.

On the Eastern Coast, at 2£ miles N.N.E. i E. (N. 2° W.) from Pta. de
Castello, is the Ponta dos Cedros, which is likewise high ; between these is a
small point, off which is a low rock, at 3 or 4 cables' lengths from the coast,
called Mulha Rock, but between it and the coast is a clear passage of 12
fathoms, in mid-channel, at half-flood.

At N. | W. {K W. by N.) 4| miles from Pta. dos Cedros is Ponta dos Jfa*
tos ; between is the Pta. de la Feiteira, with the Islet and Port of San Lonrenzo.
The point is high and remarkable, when near the coast. The islet is like-
wise high, and, on the eastern side of it, has a cave, into which the sea
entei's, and where a boat may be sheltered.

San Lourenzo Port is formed by the Islet and Ponta dos Matos, which
are a full mile distant from each other. The bottom is sandy, and between
the points is a depth of 10 fathoms, increasing gradually outward, but the
depth of anchorage should not be less than 20 fathoms. "Water may bo
readily obtained here by making hollows, or small pits in the sand on the
beach, where the least excavation produces water of the best quality. There
are several houses and a church close to the beach.

The Ponta das Lagoinlias is the N.E. point of the island. The Islet Lago-
inhas, which lies off this point, is high, and sloped like a mitre ; and, on
being seen, in an East or West direction, exhibits a small level point, ex-
tending a little way into the sea. A rock, lying between the islet and land,
obstructs the passage to large vessels.

The North side of tho island affords neither shelter nor anchorage ; the
whole of the western side is low and uniform.

The port and town are situated, as already noticed, on the S.W. side of

■ * From a description of St. Mary's, by Mr. Consul C. Hunt, in tho "Journal of tho
Royal Geographical Society," vol. x\\, 184-5, p. 260, et seq.

064 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

the island. The bottom here is sandy, and in some parts rocky, with from
10 to 4 fathoms of water. The rocky part is on the western side, and the
eastern is the clearest. The Ponta da Marhao is the easternmost part of the
bay, and this, with the next point to the eastward, Malbusca, form a larger
bay, divided into two parts by a black point, Pedrera. The coast hither,
from Point Marbao, is the most regular, and is called Figueral; on the top
of it is a remarkable rugged mountain, but it is not so high as those on the
North side of the island. Ponta do Malbusca is high, and stands at a
distance of 2 miles to the westward of Ponta da Castello, the S.E. point of
the island.

The Road of St. Mary is open, and exposed to southern gales. On this
account it is resorted to, in summer, by small vessels only. In order to be
ready for a start, it is proper to anchor to the S.E. of Marbao Point, oppo-
site Pigueral, already described. The best anchorage known to the pilots
is about a mile from the coast, in a line with Malbusca Point, and with tho
castle at the S..W. part of the town of St. Mary entirely open of Marbao
Point. Here is a depth of 36 fathoms, bottom of sand ; but, at a short dis-
tance eastward, the ground is foul. Hence it is that Port San Lourenzo, on
the N.E. side, is considered as the best anchorage about the island. At
either place refreshments may be obtained, as at the other islands, with the
addition of partridges, which abound here.

THE EORMIGAS BANK AND ROCKS lie N.E., true, from the N.E., and
nearest, point of Santa Maria, 19| miles distant.'" It is formed by a sub-
marine mountain of very irregular elevation, and which, traced to the depth
of 200 fathoms, was found to extend 6h miles N.W. to S.E., by about 3
miles in greatest breadth.

Near its western margin there is a narrow cluster of black rocks, known
as the Formigas (or Ants), which are about 800 yards in length by 150 in
extreme breadth, their relative direction being N. 25° E. and S. 25° W., or
North and South, true. The southernmost of them, for about 350 yards,
forms rather a closely connected mass, having a small bay on the West.
The northern ones are more separated from each other, and all are of com-
paratively little elevation, but the profile exhibits a few hummocks. That
on the southern extremity, which is 27 feet above low water springs, is in
lat. 37° 16' 14" N., long. 24° 47' 6" W.

The most elevated rock of the group, named Hormigon, by Torino, is 35 ft.
in height, and stands on the eastern side, about 200 yards from the northern-

* Captain A. T. E. Vidal, who has surveyed these is!ands, says, with respect to Tofino'a
representations of the Formigas ; — "It is with regret, and vexation I have to state that I
find Tofino considerably in error in that celebrated hydrographer's work, relative to this
locality. The true bearings of Punta Castello, as ascertained by Capt. Vidal, differ from
those of Tofino 4° 34' more westerly, and Pico Alto 6° IS' more westerly. This difference
in bearing is on a distance of 22 miles. Although my observations on board the vessel with
sextants perfectly confirmed the true bearing obtained with the theodolite, I was unwill-
ing to think Tofino to be in error. I therefore landed again the next afternoon a little later
to have a lower altitude, and that second day's result was Punta Castello S. 29° 2' "W., and
Pico Alto S. 40° 36' W. ; Tofino or his people are therefore in error. This correction will
place tho danger about 3' of longitude to the eastward of its assumed position, and in tho
same latitude.

THE AZOKES— FORMIGAS HOCKS. 665

most rock, and somewhat more isolated than the others, and having an in-
clination to the southward.

With smooth water there is no difficuly in landing, particularly on the
southern rocks ; but in strong winds or a high swell the sea rolls over them
all, leaving a black naked surface entirely devoid of vegetation. At 130
yards South of the southern Formiga is another small rocky shoal patch,
visible at low water, the channel between having 5 to 15 fathoms. Again,
GOO yards South of the South Formiga is another small rocky patch, having
1? fathoms on it at low water. It is steep-to on all sides but the North,
where it is connected with the rest by irregular depths of 8 to 14 fathoms.

On the North the Formigas may be approached within a few yards, but
a narrow ridge runs out 400 yards with varying depths, but no danger.
It has 18 fathoms on its outer end, and immediately drops into 30 and 50
fathoms. On the East and West the Formigas are quite clear, with deep
water close up to them ; on the West the bank extends half a mile, but all
very deep water.*

Tofiiio thus describes them : — " The Formigas are some rocks which na-
vigators have considered as extremely dangerous, imagining a great part of
the space hereabout to be strewed with sunken rocks, and therefore to be
avoided ; but; having examined these dangers, it is proved that the whole
of them are visible, concentrated and clear, and that vessels of any burthen
may steer for them, in order to pass on the North and South side, as may
be most convenient.

Other rocks also exist, as shown in the next paragraph, at the distance
from them of about 3J miles to the south-eastward. We derive our know-
ledge of the latter through the favour of Capt. Livingston.

Dollabarrats' Shoal.— To the S.S.E. of the Formiga there is a danger,
which was shown on a chart of the Atlantic Ocean, 1766, but afterward
omitted in other charts, from want of positive information as to its existence.
This shoal was seen by P. Dollabarats, commander of the ship La Marie de
Seboure, in 1788, on his return from Martinique to Bayonne. On the 7th of
March, at 3 p.m., when about to double the Formigas, at the distance of
three-quarters of a league, he descried a breaker to the S.E. of his ship,
which appeared to extend a league true North and South. He observed that
it lies S.E. 5° S. {true), at the distance of li league from the Formigas.

A new and very beautiful brig, the Zillah^ Martin, of Dundee, bound to
Hayti, struck on a sunken rock "off the Formigas," at 10 o'clock in the
night of the 9th of April, 1832, and was abandoned at 3 p.m. of the next
day, having then 7 ft. of water in the hold. About midnight she was seen
to go down. Crew picked up and saved by the Morley, of London.

Capt, J. D. Markland, of H.M.S. Briton, in a letter dated 20th February,
1832, writes: — "I hove-to for the night between St. Michael's and St.
Mary's, being anxious to see the Formigas Hocks; and soon after daylight,
with a thick morning, we fell in with a dangerous shoal breaking heavily,
and as the fog cleared away we saw the Formigas. When the rocks and

* Account of the Formigas Bank, by Capt. Alex. Vidul, R.N., Journal of the Royal
Geographical Society, vol. xix., 1848, p, 100.

666 DESCRIPTIONS OP THE ISLANDS.

the shoal were in one, the shoal bore from the rocks S.S.E. about 3 miles.
This must be the Lollabarats* Shoal. The Formigas are properly placed."

In confirmation of this statement, the following appeared iD the Shipping
Gazette. Notice to Mariners. — Lisbon, Dec. 6th, 1843. A notice has been
issued by the Minister of Marine, to the effect that a shoal, with ll£ ft. of
water on it, has been discovered about 4 miles to the south-eastward of the
" Formigas," or Great Formiga Rock, in the vicinity of the Azore Islands.

Captain Vidal has set the question at rest, and has accurately fixed its
position. " Dollabarats' Shoal bears (S. 44° JE.) trice, from the Formigas,
distant 3£ miles, and is in lat. 37 c 13' 30" N. We anchored close to it,
and scoured the ground with oui boats. It is a fearful danger ; the least
depth we found on it was 11 feet at low water. It consists of two or three
rocky heads or knolls, which at low watei springs have only 1 i ft of water
on them. At that time of tide their position is marked by several large
white patches, which may be distinctly seen, especially so in bright sunny
weather. The shoal is near the southern edge of a rocky ridge, which ex-
tends from it N. 15|-° E. 1 6-1 0th mile. The soundings over it are most
irregular, varying from 14 to 50 fathoms at its edges, but there are no
actual dangers on it. The Dollabarat's Shoal is a very insidious danger
in smooth water, but in stormy weather the sea breaks over it with great
violence."

Tulloch Reefs?— In 1808, Capt. William Tulloch, of the brig Equator, of
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on a voyage from Madeira to St. Michael's,
was alarmed by some of his crew seeing breakers. He counted distinctly
twenty-one heads of rocks, none of which appeared to have much water over
them, and two of the rocks showed occasionally above water in the wash of
the sea. Their extent, the captain thinks, did not exceed half a mile from
North to South, and was still less from East to West. They bore E.N.E.
by compass from the highest rock of the Formigas, then in sight, distant
about 10 miles, and appeared very black below water.

The breakers on the Tulloch Rocks have been stated to have been several
times seen since 1808; among others, by the Ayrshire, bound from the
Clyde to Dermerara. Mr. Ferguson, the mate of that ship, gives their
situation as about nine miles E.N.E., by compass, from the Formigas.

Captain J. Henderson, commanding the ship Fortesque, from Mauritius to
London, states that he saw the Tulloch Rocks on the 17th of April, 1829.
Breakers were observed for half a mile East and West. The Greater For-
miga and breakers in one bore W.S.W. (by compass), the former about 4
leagues, and the latter 2 miles distant. There appeared to be several heads
near the surface of the water.

Notwithstanding all that has been asserted as to the existence of this reef,
it was not found by Capt. Wilkes, U.S.N., in 1838 ; and Capt. Vidal, R.N.,
in order to set the question of its existence in some better light, sought
minutely for it. In the first instance, the steamer was started E.N.E., from
the Formigas, and carried out 14£ miles in that direction, sounding, at fre-
quent intervals, with 200 fathoms, without reaching the bottom. She re-
turned, traversing across this bearing. On three subsequent trials, with all
caution and look-out, no signs of shoal water or soundings were obtained.
"We must express our opinion," says Captain Vidal, "upon this reputed

THE AZORES— VOLCANOES. 667

danger, as formerly upon the apparently well- authenticated statements rela-
tive to the Aitkin Rock. It looks very like a whale, but, seeing the difficulty
there is in discovering small rocks beneath the surface of the ocean, we by
no means presume to assert that Tulloch Peef does not exist, but we enter-
tain a very decided opinion that it will not be found in the position which
has been assigned to it."

Volcanoes between Terceira and St. Michael's. — It is stated that, in 1719,
a volcano appeared at 15 leagues to the westward (query, N.W.) of St.
Michael's and disappeared in 1723, and was supposed to occupy the situa-
tion of that which had appeared in 1838. It is stated that, in 1720, an
island appeared at the S.W. extreme of St. Michael's, about a mile from
shore ; this, perhaps, is connected with the other statement, but it is not very
circumstantial. But we have the following accounts of this occurrence :
Mons. Segur Dupreyon has found some documents relating to it in the
French colonial archives; the first states that, at the end of 1720, a volcano
broke out at 28 leagues off St. Michael's towards Terceira, which formed
two shoals. A second statement affirms that it ejected large quantities of
pumice. A plan was also forwarded to France of the new island, though
it could not be approached in consequence of the jets of boiling water which
were thrown upwards of 120 ft. high. The consul announced that, on July
the 7th, 1722, this new island had sunk down, and could only be distin-
guished by breakers.*

In the "Philosophical Transactions " is a much rnoro complete account
of this volcano. It is dated May 12th, 1722. In that communication it is
described as lying 17 leagues S.E. from Terceira. " The fire broke- out on
November 20th, 1720, in the night, and the prodigious noiso it made caused
an earthquake, which shattered down many houses in the town of Angra
and places adjacent, to the great terror of the inhabitants." The governor
went to the island a month afterwards. " In the afternoon we made an
island all fire, and smoke ; we continued our course till the ashes fell on our
deck like hail or snow all night. We bore from it, the smoke and fire
roared like thunder or great guns." " Prodigious quantities of pumice-
stone, and half- broiled fish, were found floating on the sea for many leagues
round the island, and abundance of sea birds hovering about it." "This
island is almost round, and supposed to be about 2 leagues in diamoter. By
good observation, it is in 38° 20' ; its long. 26° 33." f

More recently a dangerous shoal has also been reported to exist between
St. Michael's and Terceira, seen at the latter end of 1848. These notices
were transmitted by H.M. Consul, T. C. Hunt, Esq., to Lloyd's. In sub-
stance they are as follow : — Benjamin Pratt, of the William, on December
31, 1848, saw breakers, mast high, evidently caused by a shoal, and not by
a floating mass. The observations then taken place it in lat. 38° 16' N.,
and long. 26° 41' W. The next is the declaration of Victorino Falcao, of
the Tres Amigos: — On December 31, 1848, saw a shoal where the sea broke

* Comptes Rendua de l'Academie Franoaise, 1838, p. 302,

t "Part of a Letter from T. Forster, Esq., F.R.S., to Mr. Macfcin, Sec. R.S." Phil.
. 1722. To this description are attached several views of the ishind, which wore
taken at the time.

608 i^xjoorvii J xiUi\k3 Ul<' llijii IoIjAAJJ.^.

the height of a ship, at intervals of about 10 minutes. By calculation it is
in lat. 38° 18' N., and long. 26° 50' W. The third is the declaration of
George Perkins, of the Plymouth : — On December 25, 1848, I saw the sea
breaking heavy at the distance of 2.1 or 3 miles to N.N. W. A heavy sea
was running, and the water broke 60 ft. high in different places, at intervals
of about 10 minutes, as if on an exteuded shoal, having several heads. It
was certainly not a floating obstruction ; I consider it a narrow reef, about a
mile in length, running from N.N.E. to S.S.W., about 40 miles W.N.W. A
W. (by compass?) from the N.AV. point of St. Michael's.

In Mr. Hunt's observations on the earthquake of 1841, presently alluded
to, he says: — "It is by no means a great stretch of hypothesis to suppose
that the late earthquake has, like some former ones, been accompanied by
the ejection of submarine volcanic matter, which may have been thrown up
within a short distance of the surface ; so that, in fact, in that part of tho
sea where there was previously 200 fathoms of water, there may at this
moment exist a most dangerous shoal.

"As in navigation the extreme of safety should always be chosen, the
commauders of vessels approaching Terceira would do well to keep a good
look-out, and be prepared for indications of shoal water, at from 15 to 20
miles to the eastward of it."

Another announcement is, no doubt, connected with the same volcanic
centi-e. It is in the "Nautical Magazine," July, 1843, p. 482, entitled
"Malabar Bank." Extract of a letter from Captain Sartorius: — " In lat.
38° 57' from the observations at noon, and long. 26° 5' by chronometer, and
from supposed most correct bearing of the land, the N.E. end of Terceira,
taken at 8 a.m., given lat. 38 : 57', long. 26 c 56.', the ship grazed over, appa-
rently, a shoal of about her own length. There was no sudden shock, no
appearance of discoloured water, or any other indication of the vicinity of
rocks or shoals ; and at the time the motion was felt the ship was going 8
knots, wind aft, and studding-sails set.

"I immediately shortened sail, and sounded with 180 fathoms; no bottom.
There was too much swell to risk a boat for examination. My own indivi-
dual opinion is, that it is as likely to have been the shock of an earthquake
as passing over a shoal."

This spot will be about 30 miles to the N.E. of the reported situation
of the submarine volcano above described, and if the reader will turn to the
" South Atlantic Memoir," in the description of the Volcanic Region, he will
find that a submarine shock and grounding on a shoal give precisely the
same sensation in a ship. That this was a shock that Captain Sartorius felt
there can be but very little doubt, and it is most probable from the same
volcano. We must therefore recommend to the seaman's notice the cautions
of Mr. Hunt, as given above.

But notwithstanding all this evidence, there has been no indication of any
shoal or elevation found in a search all over this channel, as no bottom has
been found with from 180 to 200 fathoms of line. This, however, only
proves that there is no present danger, but it is quite possible that the
volcanic action hidden here is capaole of raising the bottom to the elevation
above described.
TERCEIRA.— The island is fertile, pleasant, and healthy. The lava

THE AZOEES— TERCEIEA. 669

districts here, as at St. Michael's, produce excellent vines, although not equal
to those of the Canaries and Madeira. The land yields large crops of wheat
and other grain, pasture for cattle, and a prodigious quantity of lemons,
oranges, and all those fruits of hot and cold climates, which are propagated
to the greatest advantage in temperate countries. The capital, as already
noticed, is Angra, on the South side of the island, having a harbour defended
by a fortress, in which resides the governor of the Azores. Angra is dis-
tinguished by several handsome churches, convents, &c. Besides this, there
is another town, Praya, and fifteen villages, all of which contain about
30,000 inhabitants. In the Bay of Angra, and around the island, fish of a
good quality is abundant.

The coasts ot Terceira are high, and so surrounded with craggy rocks, as
to render the island almost impregnable. The interior is in general mode-
rately high, but the western side is higher than the eastern, and is dis-
tinguished by a rugged mountain, extending nearly East and West, and of
which the western extremity, Pico de la Scrreta, is the most elevated. This
peak may be known by a great break on the eastern side, at a short
distance.

The part of the island * in which Praya is situated, is tho most fertile of
the whole ; on which account it was the part selected by the first discoverers
for their residence, and its population was entirely agricultural. It is tho
part from which levies were principally made to resist the landing of an ex-
pedition in favour of Don Miguel, in August, 1829 ; when a small military
force, with their assistance, and the possession of the strong forts on the Bay
of Praya, beat off the much superior force of Don Miguel.

The town of Praya had, in the year 1614, been totally destroyed by an
earthquake, which considerably injured the town of Angra, and was severely
felt in the island of St. Michael. Since that time it had escaped injury,
•although menaced by many severe shocks of earthquakes.

On the 12th of June, 1841, at 4 p.m., a violent shock of earthquake was
felt at Praya, extending with diminished violence to the westward. At
5 1 ' 25 m , a second and more violent one was felt ; the trembling continued
throughout the 13th, and on the 14th an undulation destroyed all the build-
ings which had been weakened by the former shocks. Tho inhabitants of
Praya then retreated to the fields for safety. During the 14th the motions
were slight ; but on the 15th, at 3 a.m., a violent trembling and hori-
zontal undulation commenced, and continued, with intervals of about 10
minutes, until 3 h 30 m a.m., when a strong vibratory and distinctly visible
rocking motion of the surface threw down the entire town of Praya, and
injured many other parts of the island. The ground remained comparatively
quiet until 2 1 ' 40'" a.m. of the 16th, when another violent shock did further
damage. After this no further damage was done, but the island did not
become perfectly quiescent until the 26th of June.

* Tho following account of the island, and the great earthquake of 1841, we have taken
from a communication by Mr. T. C. Hunt, the British Consul at St. Michael's, to tio
"Nautical Magazine," September, 1841, pp. 631—633.

N. A. O. 4 £

670 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

It was observed, ■with respect to the whole progress of these phenomena,
that the motion was greatest at Praya, where a rent has been left in the
ground of about an English mile in length, from the edge of the water
stretching westward ; and that every convulsion was preceded by a loud
subterraneous noise resembling thunder, so exactly varying in intensity ac-
cording to the severity of the succeeding shocks of earthquake, that the first
became the harbinger and guage of the other.

The number of houses destroyed was estimated at 800, besides other con-
siderable damage, amounting to the value of £180,000.

Tho less severe shocks did not extend beyond the Island of Terceira,
others were experienced of apparently equal force at St. George and Graciosa,
and only that which destroyed Praya was felt (but not severely) at the
capitals of Pico and St. Michael's. At Fayal, and at the eastern end of St.
Michael's, no motion was perceived.

It is therefore probable that the origin of this earthquake was a submarine
volcanic eruption, and that its position or centre was about 17 miles due East
from the eastern end of Terceira.* This has been practically confirmed by the
accounts of the volcanic shoals before described.

Angra lies on the South side of Terceira; it is the capital of the island.
At the town provisions are cheap, and in plenty. The bay may be readily
known by means of a remarkable forked hill, near the sea, on the "West side,
named Monte Brasil,\ and by two little steep islets, called the Cobras, or
Goats, which lie about 4 miles to the eastward of the mount. About 2 miles
to the south-eastward of these islets is another, called Los Frayles, with
breakers near it.

In approaching from the S.W., or South, or S.E., steer directly for Monte
Brasil. Should the wind be adverse, when approaching the land, tack
boldly without the bay, as there is a sufficient depth over it, and up to the
shore.

But ,beware of a calm, as the currents are very strong and variable. If
you have not a leading wind, when sailing up toward the mount, avoid too
near an approach to the coast, between it and the westernmost part of the
island, as it would in a calm be attended with the utmost danger ; the coast
being ironbound, a ship driven on it would be in a most perilous situation.

The Bay of Angra is open to all winds from S.S.W. by the South to the
East. The swell from the S.W., in particular, which sets round Mount
Brasil, on the western side of the bay, is tremendous. The ground at the
entrance is foul, and ships should always moor to the northward of Fort St.
Antonio, which is on the West side of the bay.

Vessels may safely remain in the road in June, Jul}', August, and Sep-
tember, when the winds are light, and prevail from between West and N.W.
But on the commencement of winter, the winds from the offing rage so
violently, that, upon the least appearance of bad weather, it is requisite to
put off to sea, the coast affording no shelter.

* This proposition has been ingeniously argued out by Mr. Hunt, from the various
degrees of intensity that the shocks were felt in the different hearings and distances ; by
arranging these together, it fixes the centre of the action as above.

t See the particular plan of the Road of Angra ou the Chart of the Azores.

THE AZORES— TERCEIE A. 671

Porto Praya, on the eastern side of Terceira, has been described as the
largest and safest bay in the Azores. " This bay," says M. Fleurieu, "has
the form of a crescent ; the point toward the North has, at its extremity, a
small islet to the N.E. To lie in the best place, this islet must shut in with
the point, and the two towers seen on the bottom of the bay must be brought
together ; you will then be in 24 fathoms, sandy ground, the town bearing
N.N.W. and North. You may also anchor nearer to the shore, in 20 and
1C fathoms. The boats must not attempt to land at the bottom of the bay
toward the S.W., on account of a sandbank, upon which they would ground ;
but they will find a good landing-place near the castle."

The following is a more particular detail of the Coasts of Terceira, abridged
from Tofifio.

The Mount of Brasil, near Angra, is moderately high, and has two small
columns or pillars at the top, which serve as look-out places. The hill
descends gently toward the North, and at its base, on that side, is the Citadel
or Fort of St. Juan, the chief defence of the island, and particularly of the
city of Angra, which stands to the northward and N.E. of it. From the
citadel a line of wall and batteries extend to Fort St. Antonio, on the East
side of Mount Brasil ; the opposite or N.E. side of the bay is defended by
Fort St. Sebastian.

Merchant vessels regularly anchor in the line of the forts of St. Antonio
and St. Sebastian, or rather farther in, mooring with the four anchors.
This is necessary, the bay being open to the sea from S.S.W. by South to
East, and therefore extremely unsafe when winds from those quarters may
be expected, the coast being mostly of sharp rocks. Large ships anchor to
the eastward of Mount Brasil, in from 30 to 40 fathoms of water, sandy
bottom, and they must be ready to get under weigh in the instant that the
wind appears to be coming on from the south-eastward or south-westward.

On the western side of the castle of St. Sebastian is a little beach, slightly
sheltered by a wall of the castle. It is called Puerto de Pipas, and is the
spot wherein fishing-vessels are secured, by grounding them on the sand.
It may serve as a landing-place when the wind will not allow you to land at
the mole.*

The boats of the island come out as soon as any vessel is seen to anchor,
and by them supplies may easily be obtained, even while keeping under
way, tacking in and out, as they will bring water, wood, and all kinds of
provisions.

The Ponta de las Continendos is the S.E. point of the island. It presents
an eminence, having three peaks on its summit. At about halfway between
this and Angra are the Cabras or Goats, already noticed, which lie S.E. by E.
{E. by S.) 4 miles from the summit of Mount Brasil, and two-thirds of a
mile from the nearest part of the coast. Of the two islets, the eastern is tho
largest and highest ; when seen from the East or West, it appears like a
wedge. Between the islets is a channel for row-boats, with from 8 to 10
fathoms of water ; between them and the coast a ship may pass, and there aro

9, 12, and 13 fathoms of water, with sandy bottom, and rocks near shore oniy.

i _ .

* It is sometimes much easier to land on the rocks under the cliff, on the Mount Brasil
side of the bay, than at Puerto de Pipas. A footpath, of difficult ascent, marks the proper
spot to attempt landing at.— A. L.

672

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

The Fraylcs, or Friar'a LjIo, before mentioned, is a low islet, having two
pyramidal peaks. A shoal extends from the S.E. side of it, about a cable's
length, over which the sea breaks. Several cliffs on the islet give it the
appearance, at a distance, of several isles. A ship may pass, with all safety,
in the channel between this and the Cabras, the depths being from 60 to 75
fathoms, gravelly bottom, and clear ground.

The eastern coast of Terceira is generally broken, rocky, and dangerous.
The easternmost point is that named Malmcranda, which is high and oblique,
with a large shoal near to it, which shows itself at low water. To the
fouth-westward of this point is the town of Prat/a, defended by batteries.
The bay on which the town is situate is of great depth, with good holding-
ground, and a fleet may anchor here, sheltered from the South, by the West,
round to the North, but entirely exposed to the eastward ; the safest an-
chorage, therefore, is with Point Malmeranda in a line with the northern
islet, Cameiros, and the highest tower or steeple of the town, which ia tho
northernmost, open to the West. Here is a depth of 26 fathoms, with
sandy bottom ; and, as at Angra, supplies may be obtained from tho boats
of the place.

Remarks on Terceira, hj Captain Livingston, 1822. — " At about G^ or 7 miles
North of Angra is a valley near the summit of the mountain ; a great deal
of steam issues from crevices of the earth, or rather clay, which clay, I am
informed by a scientific gentleman here, is actually lava, decomposed hy the
action of sulphuric acid. Some of the clay looks, when cut by a knife, much
like castile soap ; it is of various hues, and the natives of Terceira use it as
paint. There are small quantities of sulphur formed around some of the
apertures. The steam which rises is very hot ; we cooked some eggs by
laying them among the clay, at mere cracks whence steam issued. My
thermometer ranged only to 152° of Fahrenheit's scale. I exposed it to the
steam at the first aperture I reached, but the mercury rose so rapidly, that,
from fear of bursting the tube, I was obliged to withdraw it, I think, in
about three or four seconds. Persons visiting Angra, who have any curi-
osity in their composition, should see this fumaso or souffriere. The access
to it is by no means very difficult, though, if you ask any of the Portuguese,
they will describe it as accessible only at some periods of the year. Ono
may ride to within less than half a mile of it. Ponies, or asses, and guides,
may readily be hired.

" Some vessels, mistaking Praya for Angra, have stupidly run in there ;
but the Goats and Mount Brasil are sufficient to show the most entire
stranger the difference. I annex a sketch of the former.

" Tho Goat Rocks were sketched at nine a.m. 25th January, when
about 2 miles distant, tho weather boing hazy, and the tops of the moun-

THE AZORES— PICO. 673

tains of Terceira covered with denso masses of clouds. Point at the left
bearing N. by E. by compass, and that at the right hand N.E. i N. also by
compass.

" Bloody flux is very frequent both among strangers and natives, and is
often fatal. A Scottish surgeon there told me it was the worst disease he
met in the island.'"

" Vegetables are excellent and cheap. Poultry and eggs good and rea-
sonable ; beef and mutton tolerable, the former about threepence per pound.
Some of the island wine is tolerably good.

The North Coast of Terceira should not bo approached by a stranger, as it
is rocky and dangerous. The western coast is also inaccessible.

PICO. — This island derives its name from the remarkable peak or volcanic
mountain which stands upon it. The summit of this mountain, whose sides
are neither very steep nor uneven, is terminated by a small sugarloaf, so
very regular, that one would think it had been made by art. The height
of the peak, above the level of the sea, according to the geometrical opera-
tion of the French astronomers, is about 1,172 English fathoms; by the
survey of Captain Vidal it is 7,613 ft. ; and consequently, in clear weather,
it can be seen 24 or 25 leagues off; but it is frequently so obscured by
clouds as not to be seen at any distance. "When tho southernmost point
of Fayal is in a line with the peak, E. by S., this mount appears as shown
below.

The peak has been described as filled with dark volcanic caverns, which
have frequently emitted smoke, flames, and ashes, to a considerable distance.
At the foot of the mountain, toward the East, is a spring of fresh water,
generally cold, but sometimes so heated with the subterraneous fire as to
rush forth in torrents, in a boiling state, and sending forth a stream of sul-
phureous vapour, vitrified stone, ccc.

Pico, when the Feah (A) bears RS.E. hj compass -(B) R by S.

Pico contains about 22,000 inhabitants, who occupy three towns and
eleven villages. The soil being stony, little grain is produced, and tho
greater part of the whoat and maize for consumption is imported from tho
neighbouring islands. The wine is the staple commodity, and is reputed
the best in the Azores. This, with brandy, is exported in considerable

* It deserves to be known, that the size of a hazel-nut of Castile soap, scraped fine and
dissolved in about three wine-glasses of boiling water, to which add half a wine-glass of
good spirits and a few lumps of white sugar, scarcely ever fails of curing bloody flux. Two
or three doses may be required. I have tried it on myself and others with great success.
— A. L.

674 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

quantities. The cattle are various, numerous, and excellent ; fruit is
abundant, and equally fine. Besides these they have cedar and other
timber, including a beautiful kind of yew, called Teixo, which is remarkably
solid and fine.

The S.E. point of the island, which is rather low and sloping, is named
Ponta de la Illia ; a ridge extends from it to the eastward, 1 cable's length.
The next projection on the South coast is Pta. de Calheta, or Nesquin, distant
5 miles W. £ S., true; between are the little harbours Mudh de Manama and
Nesquin, fit only for coasters, which may ground on the sand, the bottom
being generally rocky. At N.W. f "W. {W. by N.) 6f miles from the Pta.
de Calheta is the Pta. de Arrife, which is rather more elevated : the coast
between continues rocky, and is not to be approached by strangers. Eight
miles N.W. f W. [W. hj N.) from Pta. de Arrife is that of Santa Catalina;
the coast between forms a slender bay, in which, at 2h miles from the former,
are the town and lagoon of Lagens ; the latter communicates with the sea
by means of a bar, over which the coasters pass at high water. The fisher-
men have another place of shelter, in Puerto Praima, which is on the N.E.
of the point Sta. Catalina.

On the S.W. and W. sides of the island is nothing remarkable, but its
rocky coast and islets. From the Pta. de la Baxios, on the N.W. side,
breakers extend outward to the distance of nearly a league, during a gale.

Off the most prominent part of the western coast are the little port and
isle of La Magdalena. From the town, which stands here, the greater part
of the produce of the island, for exportation, is shipped off for Fayal in
small row-boats. The islets are surrounded by rocks ; but very near the
latter the depths are 6, 7, and 8 fathoms, rocky ground.

The North coast, from Pta. de los Baxios to the East end of the island, ig
altogether rugged, and may be considered as inaccessible.

FAYAL. — This island has been celebrated for its excellent pastures, fish,
wood, &c. The air is always mild and pure ; the cold of winter never felt,
and the heat of summer always tempered by refreshing winds. Its in-
habitants are computed at about 17,000. The island produces wheat and
maize, sufficient for itself and a part of Pico. The cattle reared here are
not sufficient for the consumption of the island, and supplies are, therefore,
sent from the neighbouring Island of St. George, which produces a great
number. The annual produce of wine is scanty.

Fayal, when the point (A) bears N.E. by E. h E. by comjmss, and (B) E. by S.

Horta. — The chief town is Horta, on the S.E. side ;* and there are,
besides, nine villages on the island. The name Fayal is understood to be
derived from Faya, the beech tree, with which, and other wood, the island
abounds.

* Sec the particular plan of the channel between Fayal and Pico, on the chart. For a
urther description of these islands, see hereafter.

THE AZOKES-FAYAL. 675

In the journal of Mr. Keilor, an intelligent Master of the Royal Navy, it
is stated that those who run for Fayal should not depend on the peak of the
next island as a guide, because it is sometimes covered for five or six days
successively.

Mr. Keilor adds, Fayal has a good bay, opposite to Pico, which is formed
by an isthmus, extending to the S.E., and a point about 1£ mile to the
north-eastward. "Water, in general, is bad and scarce.

The S.E. point of Fayal is a mount, with a hermitage on its summit,
dedicated to Our Lady of Guia (JV.S. de la Guia). The North side of this is
connected by a neck of land to a smaller mount, of a black colour, Caimado,
at the foot of which the town of LLorta commences. Near the mount, on
the West, is a sandy cove, Port Pirn, where, in fine weather, some small
vessels load and discharge their cargoes, but it is quite open to the S.W.

The northern point of the Bay of Horta is named Espalamaca ; its bearing
and distance from that of La Guia are N.E. £ E. (N.N.E. |- _£".), If mile
nearly. At the bottom of the bay is a beach of black sand, which com-
mences near Point Espalamaca, and terminates at Mount Caimado. "Within
it is the town, facing the sea. In the latter are two very remarkable build-
ings, nearly alike ; one of these is close to the sea-side, and was formerly
called the Company's College ; the other is in the most westerly part of the
city, upon an eminence, and near the Carmelite Convent. These objects in
a line bear nearly N. by W. I W. (N. 42° W.).

Nearly in mid-channel, between Fayal and Pico, is a rocky shoal, the
Chapman Pock, of 3J fathoms ; it is about 20 fathoms in extent from N.E.
to S.W. (JV.N.i:. to S.S.W.), and 10 broad. The marks for it are the
Company's College and Carmelite Convent, above mentioned, in one ; Point
de Espalamaca, N. by E. ± N. (iV. by W.) 2 l-10th miles ; and the hermitage
of Guia, N.W. | N. {N.W. by W. f W.) 1 G-lOths miles. See, further, the
particular plan in the large chart.

The regular anchorage of Fayal is in the bay opposite to the town of
Horta. It is the best anchorage in the Azores, on every account, excepting
that it is open to the winds from North to N.E. and from S.E. to S.W., and
these winds are frequent in winter. That from S.E. is very destructive, as
it blows right in. Those who anchor should, therefore, always be prepared
for a start on a shift of wind. The safest method is to let go the anchor in
35 or 40 fathoms, where the bottom is of sand, at about 1£ mile from the
town, which will be with the Point of Joao Diaz a little open to the right of
Point Espalamaca, and the Company's College in the town a little open to
the southward of the Carmelite Convent, already described. From this spot
a ship may depart with any wind.

In the summer season and favourable weather, the general anchorage is
with the two buildings in the town, as above described, but nearer to the
town, in 25 fathoms, sandy bottom; small vessels proceed further in, to 20
to 15 fathoms.^ 1 There are means of repairing vessels at Horta ; but, as

* Mr. William Lane, agent to Lloyd's, in November, 1832, gave notice that, for the use
of vessels passing through the channel between Fayal and Pico, or those requiring assist-
ance from the shore, he had erected a flagstaff behind the Castle of St. Cruz, Fayal, and

676 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

there is only one establishment, the charges are exorbitant. In 1869, 43
vessels visited the anchorage, and in 1870, 62 vessels.

A breakwater, which will convert the roadstead of Horta into a valuable
harbour of refuge, was commenced in 1876. Mr. Consul Read, in March,
1877, writes : — " As regards the works for the breakwater at Fayal, I am
informed by Mr. Vice-Consul Dart, in March, 1877, that operations hitherto
havo been confined to land, such as the purchase of land for quarries, the
ei-ection of stores, sheds, &c. Four cargoes of timber have been imported
from the Baltic, coals, iron, and some machinery from England, and the
amount expended to the present date, including all labour, salaries to
officials, and two locomotives (not yet arrived), is calculated not less than
38,000/. to 40,000/."

To sail in for the Road, if from the northward, no further direction is
requisite, as the way is perfectly clear. If coming in from the S.W., with
a free wind, the regular passage is between the mid-channel shoal and
Mount de Guia ; or, if more agreeable, between the samo shoal and Pico,
according to circumstances. With the wind from the West or N.W.,
take especial care to avoid the shoal, by observing the marks for it, above
described.

If, on approaching the road from the S.W., the wind should be dying
away from the eastward, and you intend to tack, so as to gain the anchorage,
keep over toward Pico, within the distance of a mile or a mile and a half;
because at a little further out the bottom is rocky, and you cannot anchor,
in case of necessity ; besides, by proceeding thus, you will be free from
variable eddy winds and calms, which are caused by the mountains ; and
the coast is sufficiently clear.

Southern Coast of Fayal. — The point of Santa Catalina, which is Z\ miles
nearly N.W. by W. i- W. {W. | N.) from Guia Point, is of low and black
rocky land, and it likewise has a hermitage ; between these points is the
cove of Feteira, with its beach and village. Near it are several islets.

The Point Caddo Bianco- is the S.W. point of Fayal. It appears like a
little round mountain of moderate height, sloped on every side, so that at a
distance it appears like an island. The coast hereabout is rocky, and affords
no anchorage.

At the West end of Fayal are the two islets named Capelinos, lying in a
South (S.S.E.) direction. Between them and the coast is a channel, which
in fine weather admits fishing boats.

The point of Jorge Lourcnzo is tho northern point of Fayal. Its upper
part is high and sloping. From this point to the N.E. point of Riveirina
the coast trends S.E. \ S. {E.S.E.). Point Riveirina is high and sloped,
and forms a round front of about half a mile; at the foot of it is a low point,
with three islets. S.W. £ S. (S. by W.) from this point, at 2 3- 10th miles,
is that of Joao Diaz, which is low, black, and rocky, with rocks at its ex-
tremity. Between the points the coast forms a slender bay ; the land is

provided the telegraph fhigs of Captain Marryat, so as to enable them to communicate
an}- information they wish to.be leported, or to acquire immediate assistance in case of
distress.

THE AZOEES— ST. GEOEGE. 677

high and oblique, and it presents, near the middle, a remarkable slope of
a red colour, which may be seen from the mid-channel shoal, called the
Shoal of Fayal.

At nine-tenths of a mile to the southward from Point Joao Diaz is that of
Esjmlamaca, on the North side of Horta Bay. It is high and sloping, with
a small round -front, having a vigia, or look-out, on its summit. Between
these points the coast is a little indented, and has a beach, with a church at
the bottom of it. Trading-vessels at Port Magdalena, on the opposite side,
when assailed by violent winds from the southward, frequently bear up, and
find good shelter here.

ST. GEORGE. — This island lies at the distance of 12 miles from Pico, and
is separated from Graciosa by a channel 20 miles broad. It is a long,
narrow island, about 29 miles long, and a little more than 3 in its average
breadth. On its South coast is the little town called Villa das Velas, or
Vellas, with a port where small vessels may lie sheltered from all winds.

This island, when Tofino described it, contained more than 11,000
persons, in three towns and seven villages. He says that it produces
much wine of a good quality, which it exports to Terceira and America.
The island has been famous for its cattle, with which it supplied other
islands, and its cheese is said to be fine. The produce of wheat and
maize is equal only to the consumption of a part of the inhabitants, as the
lower class substitute the root of the yam. Wood and fresh water are
abundant.

On the 1st of May, 1808, a dreadful volcano, seen from Fayal, burst out
about the centre of this island, in the midst of fertile pastures, about 3
leagues S.E. of Vellas. On the 3rd a crater was formed. In two days it
had thrown out cinders, or small pumice-stones, which a strong N.E. wind
had propelled southerly, and which, independent of the mass accumulated
around the crater, had covered the earth from 1 to 4 ft. in depth, half a
league in width, and three leagues in length ; then, passing the channel,
had done some injury to the eastern end of Pico. The fire of this largo
crater had nearly subsided on the 3rd of May ; but in the preceding evening
another small crater had opened, 1 league to the northward of the largo
one, and only 2 leagues from Vellas. In a short time the island, heretofore
rich in cattle, corn, and wine, was nearly ruined ; and a scene of greater
desolation and distress had seldom been witnessed in any country.

The channels among the Azores are in general clear and deep, and may
be navigated at all times ; that, however, between St. George and Pico
should not be attempted, unless in settled weather, or with a steady breeze,
fjr a sudden calm may prove fatal, as a strong current runs through the
channel, according to the state of the tide.

The Ponta del Topo is the easternmost point of St. George's Island. This
point lies W. by N. (JV.S.W. § W.) 27 miles from the summit of Mount
Brasil, in Terceira. It is of moderate height, with rocks around it, and near
its eastern part is a low islet, likewise surrounded by rocks.

Prom Pta. del Topo to Pta. del Norte Grand the North coast presents
nothing remarkable. There are several breaks on it, but it is mostly
low and regular. Hence to the West end of the island, Pta. del Ro&ales, it is
N. \. o. 4 s

678 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

more rugged and barren. Off the point last mentioned are several islets, of
which two very high pyramidal ones are remarkable ; one of these is at the
foot of the point, and the other half a mile to the S.W. of it. To the
W. by S., true, of Point Eosales, the pilots say that there is a rocky shoal of
7 fathoms. The sea may break over it in a storm.

From Pta. de Eosales to the Morro Grande (Great Hill), near the Port of
Vellas, the coast trends S.E. by S. I S. {S.E. by E.) The Morro is high, of
a blackish colour, and has a vigia. or look-out, on its summit. To the N.W.
of the Morro, and on its skirt, is an indent of the coast, wherein several
vessels have been lost, by mistaking it for the Port of Vellas, the bottom
being all rocky, and a vessel, once in, cannot leave it without a change of
wind.

Puerto de las Vellas. — At 1£ mile S.E. f E. {E. by S.) from the outer
point of the Morro Grande is Pta. la Caimada, rather low, with a small
castle. Between the two points is the Bay or Port of Vellas, sheltered from
winds from N.W., by the North to S.E.

In the bottom of the bay, on the shore, is the town of Velas or Vellas, the
chief town of the island, and on the S.E. side of this is a small mole,
having 3 fathoms within it, but with rocky bottom. The regular anchorage
is to the South (S.S.E.) of the mole, in 9 fathoms, fine black sand. Vessels
moor with two anchors to the N.W. and S.E. This is a place of little con-
sideration.

FrOm Point Caimada, on the eastern side of Port Vellas, the coast by the
sea continues low and rocky, but the land within rises to a good height.
Thus it continues to the Pta. de los Monteros, the S.E. point of the island,
which is high and sloped. Four leagues from the Bay of Vellas is the
Point de Caleta, whence a high mountain rises, with a gentle acclivity, and
close to it, on the East, is a town of the same name, whence much wood is
exported to the neighbouring islands.

GRACIOSA. — Graciosa is said to take its name from its beauty and fer-
tility in corn, fruit, pasture, and cattle ; supplying Terceira and several of
the other islands with a great part of its produce. It is the most fertile of
all the Azores, and has about 8,000 inhabitants, distributed in two towns
and two villages. The greatest extent of the island is only 8 J miles, but in
this extent the quantity of barley which is produced is almost incredible,
together with wheat, maize, wine, and all kinds of fruit and vegetables. Of
sheep, hogs, and fowls, the inhabitants have more than they can consume.
The only scarce article is wood, for this is obtained from St. George's and
Pico. The chief town is Santa Cruz, on the N.E. side.

Ponta Blanca is the S.W. point, and Carapacho the S.E. The mountains
over these points appear at a great distance like islands, particularly on ap-
proaching the South side from the S.W. Point Carapacho is low toward
the sea, and has several islets about it ; but at a little distance inland it is
high and craggy. At 2 cables' lengths S.E. £ S. (E.S.E.) from the point is
the Islet Abajo, with others in its vicinity, but between it and the point the
largest ship may pass, should it be necessary, to the anchorage of Praya, on
the eastern coast.

Between the Point Carapacho and the Ponta dos Fana3s, 1^-mile N.E.-jN.
(iV". 14° E.) the coast is almost uniform and clear. At the last, the Bay of

THE AZORES— GRACIOSA. 679

Praya commences, the North side of which is Pta. Negra; the bearing
and distance between are N. by E. (N. 15° TV.) 1 J mile. Pta. Negra is low
and rocky, and near it stands the town of Praya.

An islet, called the Isle of Praya, lies at half a mile E. £ S. {E.N.E.) from
Point Negra ; it is low on the We3t side, but rather higher on the East, and
there is a passage between it and the point. At the distance of 1-J cable to
the southward of the islet is the anchorage.

At 3 miles N. \ E. {N.N. W.) from Point Negra is the Point of Josef Ferrer,
which is very low, being even with the water, and having a dangerous shoal,
at about 2 cables distance to the E. \ S. {E.N.E.) The coast between these
points is rather regular than otherwise, with a few little bights ; of these
bights, the first is close to Point Negra.

The best anchorage about the island is with the Islet Abajo, lying near
the S.E. point, in a line with the westernmost part of Praya Isle, or rather
a little open ; this is off the southern extremity of a great slope of land,
extending toward the Point of Josef Ferrer. The depths are from 30 to 40
fathoms, sandy bottom. Here vessels load and unload, and are ready to be
off with any winds ; but they lie sheltered only from South by the "West,
nearly to North. All the goods from the town of Santa Cruz are brought
to this anchorage to be shipped, as they have no other.

On the West of the Point of Josef Ferrer are the bay and town of Santa
Cruz. The coast is low, and the land rocky, with scattered fragments of
rock about it. Close to the town, on the S.W. side, are three small hills
near each other, and a church is on the highest part of every one of them.
These, therefore, are good marks for the North side of the island.

The Ponta de Pico Negro is the North point of the island ; it is high,
oblique, and of a very black colour. The coast hence to the S.W. continues
high and rocky. From the Pta. de Fozzo de Porco, the western point, half a
mile S.W. £ S. {S. 10° W.) is the Point of Jorge Gomez, low and rocky, with
a church near it. There is landing here. At 3f miles from that point is
Point Blanca, very high and sloping, within which, at a short distance, is
the highest mountain on the island, 1,378 ft. high. The coast between is of
high rock. On the summit of Pta. Frayle, northward of Point Blanca, is
a stone that resembles a man.

At S.E. £ S. {S.E. by E. i E.) 2£ miles from Point Blanca is the low and
rocky Point of Folgo ; the coast between forms a bay, and the village of
Folgo is at the bottom of it.

FLORES. — This island contains about 7,000 inhabitants. It has two
towns, both on the eastern side, Sta. Cruz and Lagens, and four villages.
The chief productions are yams, wheat of excellent quality, cattle, sheep,
and hogs. The exports are wheat, cloths, bacon, with the weed or moss
called orehilla, used for a dye, as already noticed. The latter is found
clinging to the rocks and declivities, and is not obtainable without great
trouble and danger.

The island is very mountainous, but much more so towards the South
than the North. The fort of the town of Santa Cruz is in lat. 39° 27', and
long. 31° 8' 37"; and to the West of it, in the interior of the island, is a
remarkable peak, the Morro Grande, 3,687 ft. high. The land is well cul-

680 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

tivated, and has abundance of water, falling down in numerous cascades
from the heights.*

Ponta del Gada, the North point of Flores, is of moderate height, smooth
on its summit, not very projecting ; but at its base is a cluster of islets,
extending outward a quarter of a mile ; the ground around them is clear.

Ponta Ruiva, the N.E. point of Flores, is high, sloped, rugged, and ob-
tuse. At the foot of it is an islet, called the Pan de Azucar, or Sugar-loaf;
a fishing boat may pass between. In the bay to the -westward of Ponta
Ruiva there is anchorage in 25 fathoms, sandy ground, sheltered from
■winds from S.E. by the South to W.S.W. It is frequently resorted to foi
■water, or by vessels that are compelled by the wind to quit the eastern side
of the island.

The point of Santa Cruz is 2f miles S. -J E. (S.S.E. \ E.) from Point.
Ruiva. It is low and rocky, with several rocks about it. In the interval is
the islet of Alvaro Rodriguez, very near to the coast ; and to the S.E.
(E.S.E.) of this is anchorage, in 36 fathoms, sandy bottom, sheltered from
the West and S.W. At true South, three-quarters of a mile from the point,
is the castle of Santa Cruz, which is very near to the town, the principal
port of the island.

At If mile southward from the castle of Santa Cruz is Ponta Cabeira, low
and rocky land, which rises with a gentle acclivity to the distance of a mile.
Between these points the coast forms a bay, with a beach and a small river
at the bottom of it. This bay is the best anchoring place about the island,
and is sheltered from all points between N.N.E. by the West to S.W. The
proper depths are in from 35 to 40 fathoms, sandy ground. This is the
nearest anchorage to Santa Cruz, and therefore the most frequented.

At 1£ mile S.W. by W. (S.S.W. f W.) from Point Cabeira is that of
Lomba, which is high and oblique ; between these points the coast forms a
bay, with a beach and small river at the end of it. A vessol may anchor in
this bay, in 25 fathoms, sandy bottom, but it is not so well sheltered as that
to the northward, being open to easterly and southerly winds.

From the Point of Lag ens, which is 4 miles to the south-westward of Point
Loma, a ridge of rocks extends to the distance of 1^ cable to the S.S.E. At
2£ miles S. by W. (S. hj E. \ E.) from Point Lagen3 is a rock or shoal, of
4| fathoms; its size is about that of two ships, and appears, when near it,
like a large flagstone. Between it and the coast is a great depth of water.

In the little bay, on the North side of Lagens Point, is the town of
Lagens, having a large church, which is a useful mark for this part of the
coast. A vessel may anchor very well in this with a wind between North
by the West to S.W. by W., in 25 fathoms, sandy ground. This anchorage
is much frequented, because a vessel can here get under way more easily
than at Santa Cruz, having better room for working out.

From Lagens Point westward the coast rises in height to Point de Roca
Alia, at a little distance from which, toward the North, is the highest part

* The anchoring ground about the island is generally at beyond the distance of a mile
from landi Within that distance the ground is rocky, and much further out it is the
came*

THE AZORES -FLOEES. 681

of the island. The Point of Lope Bas, which is nearly a mile W. by N. £ N.
(TV. £ S.) from Lagens Point, is low by the sea, but within high and sloping.
That of Eoca, lj mile further, is obtuse, very high, sloping, and black.
The coast here is neai-ly straight, high, and rugged.

The Ponta de los Ilheos Agua Caliente, which is low and rocky, is so called
from a mineral spring which exists here, and of which the water is hot.
Between this and the Point Eoca Alta is a bay, with anchoring ground in
25 fathoms, sandy bottom. There are several islets at the foot of the former
point.

The Pta. de Catarinas, with its islets, lie 1J mile more to the northward.
The coast between is wholly rocky. At If mile further to the N.N.E. is
Pta. dos Bredos, high sloping land, of a whitish colour, with islets at its base.
One of the latter, on the South side of the point, resembles a column. The
coast between affords anchorage in 20 or 25 fathoms, sandy ground.

The Pta. del Baxio, which is very low, is 2f miles to the northward of
Pta. dos Bredos. The coast between is rocky, but you may anchor off it in
32 fathoms of water, sandy ground, and sheltered from N.N.E. , East, and
South. Close to Baxio or Shoal Point is a very remarkable church, that of
S. Pedro or St. Peter.

Fanaes.— At 2\ miles N.N.E. £ E. (N. 6° E.) from Baxio Point is that of
Fanaes, which is not very high by the sea, but it forms abruptly like a
mountain, and is of a black colour. The bay in the interval is that of San
Pedro, which has anchoring ground in 25 or 30 fathoms, bottom of sand ;
and here water may be readily obtained from a cascade that falls from the
mountains, by means of a hose, so as to fill the casks without taking them
out of the boat. The Islet Monchique lies at rather more than a mile
N.W. h W. (TV.NW. i TV.) from Point Fanaes. The depth between is
sufficient for any ship.

The following observations upon this place are by Mr. E. May, Master of
H.M.S. Skylark:—

"At daylight, bore up for the Bay of Fanaes; at 5 h 10 m shortened sail,
and sent a boat for water. The beach consists of large stones, none smaller
than a man's head. These stones extend from the beach two or three boats'
lengths, making it dangerous for boats to land.

"The best landing-place is a passage between a point of rocks that lies
to the South of the beach. From thence you may procure water, from a
fountain, about half a mile from the beach, employing small casks, and at
the rate of three to five tons per day, by employing natives, if the weather
is fine, and the wind between S.S.E. and N.E. With any other wind, par-
ticularly if blowing hard, there would be too much surf, and the passage too
narrow, in such weather to enter. This place may be known by a very
high, steep mountain, a little to the left of the landing place, from whence
the Island Monchique bears N.W. 1J mile. Between the island and the
shore is a clear passage for any ship ; but she should borrow towards the
rock, as a reef projects a cable's length from thence, although there are no
hidden dangers in the passage.

Refreshments. — "At this place, by the assistance of shore-boats, about
four tons of water were obtained in ten hours. The place abounds in
poultry, bullocks, sheep, pigs, vegetables of all kinds, and eggs, all very

682 DESCRIPTIONS OP THE ISLANDS.

cheap. Those who came off to the ship were well dressed, clean, healthy
people. The shore of the island is bold, and may be approached to the
distance of a quarter of a mile. Leaving Fanaes, I would recommend
vessels to run due West for 2 or 3 miles, to get clear of the high land to the
North of the landing-place, by which they would avoid being becalmed
under this land when the wind is from N.E. to S.E., and would be enabled
to run clear of the island. Corvo has also a bold shore, and can be seen off
deck 55 miles distant, as was proved by us the day after leaving the island,
both by log and observation. Flores may be seen still further off, as it is
higher than Corvo."

It is important to know that such useful refreshments can be so readily
procured. A tedious homeward passage may make this place of the greatest
benefit. This has been confirmed by Captain Henry Toynbee, in 1859.
Captain Toynbee says: — " Twice have I hove-to for a few hours off Santa
Cruz, and taken in as many bullocks, pigs, sheep, fowls, &c, as were re-
quired for a few days' fresh mess for the invalid troops on board my ship."
In July, 1859, the Fitzjames put in here in a distressed condition at Captain
Toynbee's recommendation, and was received with every kindness by Mr.
M'Kay and his family. The captain procured all he required. Bullocks,
£4; potatoes, 8s. the bushel; eggs, 5Jd. a dozen; fowls, 12s. a dozen
This knowledge may be the saving of much misery to a homeward-bound
ship after a protracted voyage.

Ponta Albernas is the N.W. point of Flores. It is moderately high,
sloped, and of a red colour. Between it and Point Fanaes is the islet of
Maria Gadella, which is high and round. W, by N. \ N. (TT. by S.) from
this islet is anchorage, in 30 or 40 fathoms, sandy ground. From the point
eastward to Pta. del Gada, already described, the coast is entirely rocky.

The bank of soundings is nearly of the same form as the island, except
that to the North it extends further off than elsewhere. From the depth of
200 fathoms, which is met with 5 miles off on the meridian of Ponta Delgada,
the soundings diminish gradually up to the point, near which the depth is
22 fathoms. The same may be said of all the coasts, only that the narrower
tho bank, the more rapid the descent.

To the East the mean breadth of the bank is 2 miles ; at this distance the
depths are above 100 fathoms; at the outer edge on this side the bottom is
uniformly sand, or coral and sand, sometimes to the northward, sand and
shells. To the South, on the parallel of Pta. Lagens, the bank is not more
than 1| mile in breadth, but its edge trends in a W. by N. direction, so that
at Pta. Ilheos it is nearly 4 miles broad. The bottom is sand as far as this.
On tho West coast the medium breadth is about 2A miles. The quality of
the bottom on this margin is sand, but sometimes rock, or sand and coral.
Excepting the two shoals, Escolar, with 27 ft. water off the South side, and the
Penra dc Laranjeira, with 11 fathoms at 1J mile S. 16° W., true, from the
S.W. point, there is no danger on the surrounding bank. But here and
there aro rocky patches, which it is best to avoid in anchoring. A general
remark on the anchorage of Flores is, that a position should be taken at
more than a mile from the land, as nearer than that a rocky bottom is more
frequently met with.

Reported Keefs.— Between Fayal and Flores, and off the latter, it is

THE AZORES— CORVO. 683

stated that some rocks exist. They were announced by M. M. Ferreira, of
the Brasilian brig Constante. The first showed above water, at low water,
in lat. 37° 56' 20" N., long. 33° 4' 8" W., and has been named Constante Reef.
The second, Ferreircds Beef, is nearer the islands, and in lat. 38° 26' 44",
long. 30° 25' 10"; the sea broke on this. Nearly on the same reported
position as the first reef, another announcement, under the name of the
Ehoon Hocks, was issued, in the " Nautical Magazine," July, 1844. This
was an extensive group of rocks, some of them more than 16 ft. above
water; lat. 38° 32', long. 33° 16'. Again, a rock, called the Atila Hock, was
announced in 1857 to lie in 36° 31' N., and 32° 24' W., or 200 miles W.S.W.
of Fayal, and a singular warm mist and boiling sea was passed through on
November loth, 1857, by the Estremadura, in 39° 57' N., and 25° 50' W.
All these reports seem to indicate a series of dangers which are very per-
plexing to deal with, for after repeated searches, they have not been again
met with. But the notice of them here will attract attention and induce
caution.

CORVO is the northernmost of the Azores, and is formed by a single
volcanic mountain, 3i miles long, North and South, and 2J East and West,
or 9£ miles in circuit. The extinct crater of this mountain is called the
Caldvira, and occupies all the N.W. part of it, and is 3J miles in circum-
ference. The highest part of the ridge surrounding the Caldeira is on the
S.W. side, and is 2,548 ft. in height. The East and West margins are
lower, in some places not exceeding 1,434 ft. Its bottom is occupied by
two small lagoons, the surface of which is 1,273 ft. above the sea, and 1,275
below the highest peak. The bottom is cultivated, and used for pasturage,
as indeed the greater part of the island is. The summit, even in summer,
is so frequently capped with clouds, that rills of water were running down
the mountain in the month of August.

The lower land of the S.W. end of the island has all the appearance of
being added to the original portion by an eruption of lava, and is diligently
cultivated. The only inhabitants on the island are comprised in the village
of Corvo, standing on the East side of the South point, on a rising ground
close to the coast, and containing 160 or 170 thatched stone houses. They
are dirty, and have an uncomfortable appearance, separated from each other
by filthy lanes. At the South end of the village stands the church, a small
stone building with a square tower and short spire, which, being kept well
whitewashed, is a good sea-mark. About 250 yards S.W. by W. from it
there is a little rocky hill, surmounted by an antique horizontal mill. The
population in 1843 was 784 persons; 383 males, 401 females. They are
poor, primitive, and contented. The church is in lat. 39° 40' 9" N., long.
31° 7' 16" W. ; variation, 27° W. It is high water, full and change, at
I2 h 25 m , and the rise of tide 3 feet 6 inches.

Ponta de Pesqueiro-alto is the South end of the island. On its eastern side,
facing the village, is a small stony beach, where a few fishing-boats are
hauled up. Ponta de Casa bears N. 52° E, 1 J mile from it. It is a sharp,
well-defined point ; and at the distance of 60 or 70 yards from it there is a
rock just visible above water, on which the sea at times breaks violently,
and there is a similar rock a quarter of a mile N.N.E. of it. Ponta de VEste
is the next point, and is N. 16° E. } distant 1 mile; and the next is Ponta de

684 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

N.E., a bold bluff, 760 ft. high, and 1£ mile N. 16° W. from the last. The
cliffs increase in altitude as you proceed northerly ; and to seaward of the
Ponta de N.E., bearing N. 51° E., one-third of a mile off, is a small block of
rock, steep-to on all sides, with 3 or 4 ft. over it at low water. Proceeding
north-westward, the next point is Joao de Moira, JSf. 57° W. two-thirds of a
mile, and thence to the North extreme, Ponta de Norte, N. 79° W., about
the same distance. The coast between these two points presents a series of
high inaccessible cliffs, fronted as beforo by a narrow belt of stones. From
the top of the cliffs the land rises with great abruptness to the margin of the
Caldeira, a height of 2,200 ft., where the horizontal distance from the sea
does not exceed 2,500 ft. Ponta de Norte is a high rock, 868 ft. high, jut-
ting out 150 yards from the coast, inaccessible from the sea, and, when seen
from East or West, shows an overhanging face to northward. About West
from this, one-third of a mile, is a small elevated islet of naked lava, and
S. 47° W., one-fifth of a mile from this, is Ponta de Turrais, the N.W.
extreme of the island. It is very remarkable ; it runs directly down from
the North edge of the crater into the sea, a sharp, serrated ridge of dark
lava. At 300 yards North of it, with Ponta de Norte bearing East, there is
a sunken rock, on which the sea breaks violently. In rounding the island
it will be advisable not to near this point in less than 20 fathoms.

The next extreme point, South of Ponta Turrais, is Ponta d' Oueste, bear-
ing S. 14° W. 1| mile, the coast between being partly a steep declivity,
covered with shrubs and wild vegetation. To the southward of this the
coast consists of lofty cliffs, and at nearly three-quarters of a mile South of
it is a small, low, detached rock, named llheo de IfuUter, 50 yards off the
beach. From this the coast runs S. 27° E., a mile to the Sugar-loaf Rock, a
mass of lava standing at the base of a bold, cliffy point. Henco to the south-
ward the coast consists of a ragged outline of steep cliffs, and then a low
coast of very broken outline, fringed by numerous rocks, to the meridian
of the old horizontal mill previously mentioned. This portion of the coast
is fronted by innumerable rocks, projecting from the shore in narrow ridges
of broken lava to an average distance of 200 yards. In strong winds the
sea rolls over them in enormous breakers, but the danger is not so wide as
it appears to be.

The bank surrounding the island is generally steep, and very abrupt on
its outer edge. At Ponta de Casa it is 1 mile from the point. At Ponta de
Norte, 1-jV mile ; or a quarter of a mile, 12 fathoms ; half a mile, 30 fathoms,
three-quarters of a mile, 40 fathoms ; 1 mile, 50 fathoms. Along the N.W
side the bank is comparatively shallow and rocky, to the extent of half a
mile from the land, where there are 15 fathoms, and the edge of the bank
is If mile off. Off the South point it does not reach to 1 mile off.

A short distance to seaward of the rocks in front of the cliffs near the village,
and with the church bearing N. 31° W., three-tenths of a mile distant, lie
throe patches of sunken rocks, on which are 3 and 4 fathoms water. They
are steep-to. There are no dangerous rocks before the stony beach in front
of the village, but the surf which usually plays upon it makes the cove to
tho westward of the mill a preferable landing-place.

Tho best anchorages at Corvo (mentioned by Torino) are on the westward
side, between the parallels of tho llheo do Mulher and the Sugar-loaf Eock ;

THE AZORES. 385

30 to 35 fathoms, fine brown sand, about 1 mile off shore; and on the
eastern side, in 25 to 30 fathoms, sandy bottom, about half a mile due
East of Ponta de Casa. Capt. Yidal cannot advise the adoption of these
anchorages, nor of any others the island may afford, except as a matter of
necessity.

It has no fuel to spare, no facility for watering, nor, indeed, anything to
offer which cannot be most abundantly and conveniently obtained at Flores j
whilst from its size and form it affords little shelter from wind or sea.

The flood tide sets upon the island N. 30° E., and the ebb in the opposite
direction, at an ordinary velocity, in springs, of 1^ mile per hour. When
this is opposed by a gale it occasions a very high, confused sea, as it sweeps
over the rocky, uneven bottom at the North and South points.

The bank of soundings around Corvo is nearly of a circular form, and
extends with some regularity on the Ea3t side to the distance of 1 mile and
a third ; on the West side, a mile and two-thirds ; the same to the North.
It is narrowest to the South near Point Pesqueiro Alto, where it is only two-
thirds of a mile.

To the eastward it is generally of sand, sometimes with coral, and rocky
patches. To the West the prevalent bottom is also sand, with some gravel
and rocks. A vessel should not anchor till she is assured beforehand of the
quality of the ground and depth of the water, which increases regularly
from the shore to 50 or 60 fathoms, and then suddenly falls to above 200
fathoms.

It is high water, on full and change days, at Flores and Corvo, at 12 h 20 m ,
and the rise and fall is about 3£ ft. The tidal hour and range is nearly the
same, or a quarter of an hour later at the other islands.

Flores and Corvo form a separate group from the rest, and the channel,
120 miles broad, has no known danger, and therefore is probably the best
to use in passing through the archipelago. The current sometimes sets to
the N.E. through this channel with varying strength according to the wind.
But, as a general rule, the continuation of the drift from the Gulf Stream
bears to the S.E. and South, rarely to the S.S.W. This is more usual to
the North of the islands.

4.— THE ISLANDS OF MADEIRA
AND PORTO SANTO.

PORTO SANTO, etc. — Ships are recommended to make, in the first in-
stance, the Isle of Porto Santo, and thence proceed for the Road of Fuuchal,
on the track shown upon the particular plan given in the Chart. The land
of Porto Santo is very remarkable, and may be seen, in fine weather, 15 or
20 leagues off. It first appears in two or three very high hummocks, by
which it is distinguished from Madeira, and the little isles named the
Desertas.

K. A. o. 4 i

686 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

It is said that it was discovered by two Spaniards in a voyage to explore
the coast of Africa, but being driven off in a storm, they here found shelter,
and named it, in consequence, Porto Santo. At present it is a depend-
ency of Madeira, and its population, in 1877, amounted to 1,760 persons.

Porto Santo (a) bearing South, 14 miles.

It is 6f miles in length from N.E. to S.W. Its mean breath is 2A miles,
and its circuit 17 miles. The surrounding bank of soundings is more con-
siderable than has been supposed. The N.E. part consists of numerous rocky
pointed mountains, some nearly 1,700 ft. in height, and all its North coast
is generally high inaccessible cliffs, with detached rocks at their bases.
The central part is much lower than the extremities, but the North and
N.W. coasts rise to 700 ft.; from whence it slopes to the South, and ter-
minates in a beautiful white sandy beach, which forms its entire S.E. shore.
On this central part are several sandfields, covered with what appear to be
fossil heath stems, probably coral formation. The S.W. end of the island
is also rocky and elevated, some of the hills exceeding 900 ft. in height. The
town, Villa Baleira, is situated near the centre of the bay on the S.E. side,
about 300 yards from the beach. The church and court-house on it are
conspicuous ; and a little to the West of them is a small battery, in lat.
33° 3' 30" N., long. 16° 20' 14" W.

The Pico de Castello, 1,447 ft. high, is N. 4^° E. from the church; and
on its summit are the ruins of several water tanks and stone buildings. The
two peaks immediately to the East, called Fachio and Guadaya, are the
highest in the island, the former being 1,600 ft. high.

The island is chiefly used for pasture, cultivation extending along the
shore of the bay and the low land. The island suffers grievously for the
want ot water, but produces wine, grain, and vegetables ; also plenty of
live stock and poultry. The banks around abound with fish.

The landing at Porto Santo is usually made upon the beach in front of the
town, though there are no artificial facilities for so doing. It is high water,
at full and change, at 12 u 50 m ; the rise of the tide is 7 ft. Generally, ves-
sels should not anchor in the bay within the line joining the South extreme
of Ilheo Baixo and the low extreme of Ponta de Incao, bearing S. 49J° W.,
and N. 49h° E., and the South point of Ilheo de Cima N. 73° E., 2 miles
distant In this position, which is 1J miles from the landing-place, there
will be 17 fathoms water, over a bottom of small gravel and broken shells.
The edge of the bank is rather less than half a milo to the South of it ; the
depth of water increasing rapidly. During the settled weather in summer
vessels may anchor near the shore, but care should be taken not to be caught
in the bay. In the present condition of the island it is of little service to
navigation, as Madeira itself offers superior advantages.

Ponta de Incao, the S.E. point, is composed of high rocky cliffs. Off it
lies the Ilheo de Cima, a table-topped island, 360 ft. high. There is a boat
passage inside it. Off it is a good fishing station. Ponta dos Frades, a bold
point, steep-to, is 1 mile N. by E. from Ponta de Incao, and between them

POETO SANTO. 687

is the small sandy bay of Ponta dos Frades. Ponta Branca, the N.E. point
of the island, is composed of three bluffs, the northern one of which forms a
fine, bold promontory, the peak of which is 1,390 ft. high. Three rocky
islets, steep-to, with navigable channels between, lie off the Ponta Branca.
The outer, or N.E. Rock, is 330 ft. high ; the rocky bank, on which they
stand, has a patch of 10 fathoms at 2i miles N. 32° W. from the N.E. rock.

Off the S.W. point is Ilheo de Ferro, 380 ft. above the sea, almost inacces-
sible, and having a narrow but safe channel inside it. Baixo Island, off the
South point, Ponta de Calheta, is If mile in length, and is only visited for
its. limestone quarries, a singular feature. They are national property.

Off the N.W. coast of Porto Santo the bank of soundings extend for 8
miles, with a general depth of from 25 to 35 fathoms, fine white sand. Near
its N.E. margin is the Falcon Eock, the position of which was first ascer-
tained by the officers of H.M.S. Falcon, Lieutenant J. Bowen, in January,
1802. It is a mere knoll, on which there are 4 \ fathoms at low water. It
is said to break at times. When on the rock the highest land of the N.E.
rock bears S. 60° E. 6£ miles ; of Ilheo de Fonte, S. 13° 10' E. 4f miles ;
and of Ilheo de Ferro, S. 5° 30' W. 8f miles. Vessels coming from the N.E.,
with a fair wind, may pass it, keeping the Ilheo de Fonte (off the middle
of the North coast) in line with the high land at the S.W. end of Porto
Santo. At nine-tenths of a mile N. 37° W. from Falcon Eock is a shoal
patch of 1 1 fathoms, named the Styx Bank.

Porto Santo («■) N. by E. 12 miles.

DESERTAS.— To the S.E. of Madeira, the Desertas, a line of narrow
rocky islets, extend nearly in a North and South direction by compass, the
North extremity of which bears S. 34° 8' E. 10 miles distant from its Easfc
point. Between them in this space is a bank of soundings of from 45 to 75
fathoms, about 2 miles broad, on which, in settled weather, fishing-boats
frequently anchor. This bank continues quite round the Desertas.

Chao, the northernmost, is nine-tenths of a mile in length, and one-quarter
of a mile in width at the North end. It is tabled land ; the highest point
to the North is 336 ft., and is surrounded by high rocky cliffs. Off the bold
bluff at the North extreme is a remarkable detached rock, called by the
Portuguese the Furrilhao, but known to navigators as the Sail Eock. It lies
due North of the point, 100 yards distant, and is 160 ft. high. At 300 yards
N. 65° W. from it is a breaking rock, and a narrow ridge of irregular sound-
ings extends from it N. 30° W. nine-tenths of a mile. The surface of Chao
is composed of light soil, with rocks and stones, covered with long coarse
grass, and a few aromatic herbs. Near its centre is a pond of turbid water.
The highest land is near the North point, and is 336 ft. in height.

The Beserta Grande is the largest and most elevated of the three islands.
It is 6£ miles in length by 1 broad at the widest part. From Ponta de
Pedregal, on the West side, to its South extreme, it consists of a con-
tinuous chain of rocky heights, the highest peak of which, 1,610 ft., lies
1£ mile E.S.E. of the point. The width of the passage between Chao and

668 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

the North point of Deserta Grande is but little more than 300 yards between
the rocks, and this is further contracted by a breaking rock in the centre, so
that it is only practicable for boats in fine weather. Ponta de Pedregal is
2 miles from the North end. It is a detached rock, with high land towering
abovo it to more than 1,200 ft. in height. Between this point and the next
to it to the North is the little cove of Castanheira, where there is a boat
landing-place, marked by a detached rock. Ponta de Boqueirao, the South
point, is ■ik miles S. 30° E. from Pedregal, with a rock close to it, but the
point is steep-to and clear. The East coast is a rugged, broken, irregular
line of cliffs. Northward of Point Pedregal the island is differently formed
to what it is southward, consisting here of two ridges, with a ravine
between them. At the head of this valley or ravine, at the foot of a green
hill near the centre of the island, about East of Pta. Pedregal, is a small
house, and near it two ponds or reservoirs of turbid water ; and a few yards
down the valley is a delicious spring, though yielding but a limited supply.

The Bugio, or South Deserta, is about 4£ miles in length. Its greatest
breadth is not half a mile. The passage to the North of it is two-thirds of
a mile in width, and is perfectly clear; depth 19 to 20 fathoms, and 7
fathoms within 30 yards of either point. Both shores are rocky cliffs, oi
less altitude than the Deserta Grande, surmounted by a very sharp serrated
rocky ridge of hills, which runs the whole length of the island. There is a
gap in this ridge, near the centre of it, which at a distance gives it the
appearance of two islands. The highest peak on the North part is 1,349
ft., and on the southern part 1,070 ft. in height. Ponta d' ' Agalha, the South
extreme, has a few rocks quite close to it, but 5 fathoms at 130 yards off.
It is in lat. 32° 23' 15" N., and long. 16° 27' 37" W.

The bank of soundings round these singular islands is tolerably regular,
extending 1£ mile from the East side, and 2 miles on the West side; and
in a narrow ridge to Madeira as before mentioned.

The islands have no permanent inhabitants. They are frequented for
orchilla ; and on the centre one some cattle and sheep are pastured, and
attended by a few casual visitors.

There is much danger to vessels passing close under the lee of these
islands with strong breezes, in the violence of the gusts from the high land,
which are most variable, both in direction and strength. It is no uncommon
thing to see the water whirled into the air, and then precipitated on the
vessel's masts and decks.

The tide sets by these islands at springs at the rate of li to 2 miles per
hour. The flood N. 31° JE., and the ebb S. 31° W., and its rise is 7 ft.

MADEIRA. — The date and manner of the discovery of thi3 beautiful
island are involved in some obscurity. The most probable is the romantic
tale of an Englishman of good family, named Robert Machim and Anna
D'Arfet, two lovers, who, fleeing from the wrath of the lady's friends to the
shores of Prance, were driven by a storm far away to sea, and at length
met with this unknown and uninhabited island. Here they landed, and
both died, the crew again departing. There are some variations in this
ttory, both in date and particulars, but about 1344 is mentioned as the time.
There is great probability of its accuracy ; and in the present little church

. Tri.Uo t'S, r '«/ j( - ' <v *"

^«y„ ., 3 .^ ^;

MAIDIElJiA,

.„ ,^-^''-"

Fuucha] twjrf JV-«M Coaj-r ,y Madeira

MADEIRA. 689

of Machico is said to be preserved a portion of tbe cross found over tbeir
graves, on the re-discovery between 1417 and 1419. This lattery discovery
arose from the circumstance of a dark cloud being constantly seen in the
S.W. by the settlers at Porto Santo, who had gone from Spain to the con-
quest of the Canaries. They sailed towards it, and on June 1, 1419, they
discovered the point now called, after their vessel, Cape San Lourenzo.

Madeira is of volcanic origin, though the only sign of a crater is upon
San Antonia (5,076 ft.), near Machico, at the East end of the island. It is
a collection of mountains, the highest of which, the Pico liuivo, is near its
centre, and is 6,056 ft. high. To the West of it the ridge of the Lomba
Grande, nearly of equal elevation, extends for 2£ miles, and forms the North
edge of the stupendous ravine of the Cnrral, one of the wonders of Madeira.
The western side of this is formed by a ridge of which the rocky summit of
the Pico Grande is 5,391 ft. high. South of Euivo is a ridge of peaks of
nearly equal elevation, amongst which the three remarkable peaks of the
Torrinhas are 5,980 ft. high. South of these, three-quarters of a mile, is
Pico Sidrao, and half a mile farther S.E. is Pico Arriero, 5,893 ft. high.
These may be considered to form the axis of the island, from which the
mountains generally slope gradually to the South coast, and on the North,
with few exceptions, they drop precipitously on to the bold high coast.

The cultivation is confined to the coast, or to the bottoms of some of the
va ; leys, and occupies altogether a very small proportion of the surface.
Vines form the chief feature ; for the corn grown annually scarcely supplies
a two months' consumption to the inhabitants.

In the year 1809, 15,363 pipes of Madeira wine were exported from this
J J and by British ships. In the year 1851 the shipments to all countries were
reduced to about 7,000 pipes, after which time, in consequence of the failure
of successive vintages, the wine trade gradually dwindled away till the year
1861, when the annual export was reduced to about 360 pipes. With the
renewal of the Madeira vineyards, the export trade of the wine has been
steadily increasing since the year 1861, and in the year 1871 the export to
all countries, but chiefly to Great Britain, amounted to 1,760 pipes.

In the island may be found almost every European and tropical luxury.
The myrtle, the geranium, the rose, and the violet, may be seen on every
side. The geranium, in particular, is so common, that the honey of the
bees is strongly impregnated with its odour.

With the general increase of steam-navigation the consequent resort of
shipping to the port of Funchal for coaling purposes has steadily increased,
and the British coal trade has become important, as shown by the increase
of British shipping entering the port of Funchal since the year 1851, viz. —
In 1851, 112 British vessels measuring 28,959 tons; in 1871, 340 British
vessels measuring 202,480 tons; in 1876, 424 British vessels measuring
371,876 tons, and foreign 182 vessels, of 77,620 tons.

* The distance to which tho mountains of Madeira ought to be seen from a vessel's
deck is about 90 miles ; but of course, at this low elevation, it would require a very clear
atmosphere. Sir Andrew Lang says, that on leaving Madeira for the West Indies, De-
cember 2Gth, 1822, tho Pico Ituivo was distinctly visible when the ship had reached 75 sea
miles from the anchorage at Funchal, bearing N. 40° E., at 2^' p.m. ; lost sight of it soon
afterwards, from the thickening atmosphere.

690 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

The population of Madeira at the time of the census in December, 1876,
numbered 122,081.

Winds. — The N.E. trade-wind sets in about the middle of April, and con-
tinues until the end of September.

Gales are principally to be apprehended in November and December,
commencing a few points on either side of South, gradually veering round
to the westward, and terminating in the N.W.

In the winter months eddy-winds and squalls, proceeding from the high
land, are frequent and severe, and the ships are often forced to put to sea
from the road. Severe westerly and S.W. gales, with rain, then frequently
prevail, and prevent regaining it for some time. At these periods, Madeira
and the Desertas are often obscured in fog. The squalls have been found
so sudden and violent near the Desertas and about the S.E. end of Madeira,
as nearly to overset the ships in the vicinity ; and many have been driven
by them far to the eastward.

At Madeira is a wind called the Leste, which occurs in August and part of
September, which, as its name implies, comes from the East, although all
East winds are by no means Lestes. It appears to be of the same kind as
the Harmattan of Western Africa, and is of a hot, close, drying nature, par-
ticularly oppressive to some constitutions, which it affects by languor, head-
ache, and a parching of the skin and lips. What is remarkable, the resi-
dents are those whom it most disorders in this way. Visitors in general
suffer much less ; and the invalids are never so well as while it lasts. A
peculiar clearness and cloudlessness in the atmosphere are among the in-
variable indications of Leste, and the weather during its continuance is
most delightful ; the sky of a deep blue, so stainless that one might fancy it
had never been sullied by a cloud ; with a transparency in the atmosphere,
which, like the effect of moisture, seems to bring out fresh hues from every
object.

At times, but not frequently, the Leste is accompanied by a strong wind,
but the weather is still delightfully warm and pleasant. The nights, too,
are delicious — soft and balmy; and with the moon shining in summer
brightness, and the orange trees in flower, the air is loaded with perfume.
With the departure of the Leste, rain almost invariably follows.

The climate, generally, is delicious, and strikes with peculiar charm to a
stranger, whom a short sail has transferred to it from the very midst of the
gloom and chill of an English December. Indeed, the great natural dis
tinction of Madeira is the climate, which, perhaps, taken altogether, is the
finest in the world.*

* The mean temperature, from observations during eighteen years, has been given as
follows:— January, 64°.18; Feb., 64°.3 ; March, G5°.8; April, 65°. 5 ; May, 65*.53 ; June,
69".74; July, 73°.45 ; Aug., 75°.2; Sep., 75°.76 ; Oct., 72».5 ; Nov., 69°.8; Dec, 65°. The
year is, therefore, one summer, with comparatively little alteration, either of temperature
or hue.

" In fine weather — and it is fine at Madeira nine months in the year — the view of this
steep and lofty island, covered with bright verdure, and enlivened by numerous scattered
houses, as white as snow, is very striking to a stranger who arrives from the low and
tame-looking shores of the South coast of England.

" Seamen are often deceived, when about to anchor in Funchal Roads, in consequence

MADEIEA. 691

Water, of excellent quality, is abundant. Springs are found everywhere,
and copious ; even the streams at the bottom of the ravines, fed by the
mountain mists, are never dry in the hottest season ; and the height from
which they descend enables the inhabitants to divert the course of the water
at any elevation or in any direction ; the whole cultivated region, therefore,
is irrigated on all sides by these levadas, or water-courses. On the coast fish
is abundant, and forms an important article in the food of all classes.

The towns and villages are invariably situated on the sea-coast, and com-
monly at the outlet of a ravine ; but where the bottom is fertile, and tho
surface permits, the cabins and quintas, or country seats, are often scattered
up a considerable extent of the valley.

The Corral or Curral of Madeira, a few miles north-westward from
Funchal, is one of the grandest scenes in the world. Admiral W. F. Owen
says, that the Curral means simply a sheepfold, and is an immense valley,
'completely surrounded by hills, whose sides are literally perpendicular, in
no part being less than 1,000 feet high. Eound a part of these cliffs is a
narrow road leading to the garden houses and country plantations, cut out
of tho rock, about 10 or 12 ft. wide. On riding along the road over the
Curral, it seems like an unfathomable abyss, filled only by clouds and
vapours rolling in a constant motion over each other.

" The money current in Madeira is chiefly Spanish, English, and American ;
Portuguese coin being represented by copper money only. The computation
is decimal in character, the unit reis existing hypothetically as one-fifth of a,
farthing." * The Portuguese coins (copper) are as follows — cinco-reis— one
farthing, dez-reis = one halfpenny, vintem = one penny.

The extreme length of the island is 3 If miles, its greatest breadth 12
miles, and the circuit along the line of coast 79 miles.

High water, full and change, 12 h 48 m ; rise 7 ft ; the flood runs JV. 30° E,
at \h mile per hour on springs.

ST. L0TJRENZ0 POINT and Lighthouse— On Fora Island, 340 ft. high,
the outermost island off St. Lourenzo Point, which is the easternmost point
of Madeira, stands an octagonal lighthouse, 41 ft. high, showing a fixed
light, with a flash every half minute, at an elevation of 343 ft. Tho light is
visible, in clear weather, 25 miles. The position of this lighthouse is lat.
32° 43' 14" N., long. 16° 39' 30" W.

of the sudden transition which they have prohahly made from a low shelving coast to an
abrupt and high mountain side ; for the bottom of the anchorage slopes away suddenly an
the heights overlooking it, and the anchor must, indeed, be let go upon the side of a moun-
tain. Hence ships seldom go close enough, unless guided by a person who knows the
place ; and many a chain cable ran out to the clinch, when chains were first used, owing
to an incorrect estimate of the vessel's distance from shore, and not taking time to sound
accurately.

" Closing the land quickly, after passing some time at sea— approaching high cliffs or
hilly shores, after being for a time accustomed to low coasts— or nearing a flat shore,
after the eye has been used to precipices and mountains — almost always is a cause of
error in estimating distance, however experienced a seaman may be," — Captain FitzRoy
vol. ii., p. 46.

* The Climate and Resources of Madeira, by M. C. Graham, M.D.. P.R.G.S. London,
1870.

692 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

Fora Islot is separated from San Lourenzo Point by a channel 200
yards wide, the depth in it at low water being from 3 to 4 fathoms, rocky
bottom ; but a swell or strong; breeze with opposing; tide causes so great a
turmoil in it, that it is frequently unsafe for boats to pass through.

The islet is steep to in all directions, except its S.E. side, off which are
dangerous rocky patches surrounded by deep water. The outer one, which
lies S.E. nearly 4 cables from the islet peak, is a small rock with 4 fathoms
on it and 13 and 26 fathoms close to it. The inner patch is more extensive,
bearing from the peak S.E. by S. 3 cables ; and upon this are several rocks,
some with 15, others with only 4 ft. over them.

Ponta Furada is a bold basaltic point, surmounted by a hill 550 ft. high,
and through it is a fine lofty arch, made by the waves. Half a mile West
of it is Ponta de Piedade, crowned by a rocky hill, surmounted by a small but
very conspicuous white chapel. North of this, quite across the narrow neck
which forms the East extreme of Madeira, occur those curious fields of
fossils, similar to those described at Porto Santo. Canical Point and village
are \\ mile W. by S. of this, the coast being lower. To the S.W. of it the
cliffs are bold and high, as far as Machico Bay, 1 £ mile S.W. of Canical.

Machico Bay is a most romantic spot, celebrated in tradition as the place
where the first discoverer, Robert Machim, landed with Anna D'Arfet. The
village church is supposed to cover their graves. The village has a consi-
derable number of fishing boats. Between Machico and Ponta Queimada the
distance is half a mile, and thence to Ponta de Santa Catarina 1J mile ; off
the latter is a steep rock, but the whole coast is bold, and no outlying dan-
gers. Ponta Guindante is the next projection ; between them there is a bay,
at the North end of which is the valley of Santa Cruz. Close around Guin-
dante, the S.W., is the village of Porto Novo, in a small shingle bay, whei6
a considerable ribeira has its outlet.

Atalaya Point is nine-tenths of a mile S. 40° W. of Pta. Guindante, and
has a singular small pointed peak on the cliff, close to it. From this Ponta
Oliveira bears S. 5 1° W. 1 mile ; it is a clean rocky point, steep-to, upon
which you can land, and the ascent from it is easy.

Cabo Garajo, the Brazen Mead, the East point of the Bay of ifunchal, is 12
miles W. by. S. from Fora. It is a bold rocky headland, jutting out at right
angles to the line of coast. It is formed by perpendicular cliffs of reddish-
yellow tufa, and above them is a narrow hilly ridge of land, crowned with a
rocky knob or knoll, 420 ft. above the sea, on which is a Telegraph Station,
from which all vessels are reported to the station on the Loo Rock. This
knoll particularly distinguishes the head when seen from the westward. The
cape is steep-to.

THE BAY OF FUNCHAL is bounded to the East by the Brazen Head,
and on the West by Ponta da Cruz, bearing from it S. 87° 40' TV., distant
5 miles. The coast to the We3t of Cape Garajo is a series of rocky cliffs
and small stony points to Santiago Fort, which is exactly midway between
the two extremes of the bay. It is also at the East end of the town of
Funchal.

FUNCHAL, the capital of Madeira, was named thus by Gon calves Zarco,
on July 3rd, 1419, when first landed on, from the quantities of fennel
growing here.

MADEIRA. fi93

" The resort of steamships to the port of Fun'chal for coaling purposes,
continues to increase, and the demand for the supply of beef, poultry, vege-
tables, and other island productions taken by shipping (which exports arc
overlooked in custom-house returns of trade) continues to enhance the
price of provisions. The same cause is contributing to raise the wages of
labourers and servants, and to increase the expense of living in Madeira." —
Mr. Consul Hay ward, April, 1874.

The Electric Telegraph Cable, during the year 1874, was established be-
tween Madeira, Lisbon, St. Vincent, Cape Verdes, and Brazil.

The number of vessels visiting Funchal Eoads during a year is about 600.
By a decree dated 27th December, 1870, the tonnage dues payable in Por-
tuguese ports have, with some very small exceptions, been levied at the port
of Funchal. One ton register is reckoned as 1,183 metres.

" Funchal," says Captain Wilkes, " has a very pleasing appearance from
the sea, and its situation, in a kind of amphitheatre formed by the moun-
tains, adds to its beauty. The contrast of the white buildings and villas
with the green mountains forms a picture, which is much heightened by the
bold quadrangular Loo Eock, with its embattled summit, commanding the
harbour in the foreground.

The town of Funchal stretches along the margin of the bay for nearly a
mile. The cathedral is a fine building : before its western edge is a pan is
or open space, and beyond that the Terreiro da Sc, a very pleasant prome-
nade, under four or five parallel rows of trees, and enclosed by a wall, a few
feet in height. The church of Nossa Senhora do Monte is the neatest in the
island. It is seated on a terrace just half-way up the mountain, and com-
mands one of the most enchanting views in the world. The city of Funchal
had a population of 16,776 persons in 1877.

Directions. — Madeira is often so entirely clouded over, as not to be visible
at the distance of 5 leagues. But when abreast of Porto Santo, the island
commonly appears as one great mountain, with its summit hidden in the
clouds. Shortly after appear the Desertas. Having passed those islands,
you will soon perceive the ships in the Road of Funchal; and from their
riding, it will be seen how the wind is in the road, as it is common to have
a strung breeze from the N.E. or East, on passing the Desertas, when, at
the same time, the wind in the road is from the S.W. or W.S.W.

When sailing in toward Funchal Road, a large rock, named the Loo Eock,
with a fort on it, will be seen on the west side of the road, a little to the
westward of the town. A red fixed light is shown from an iron column on
the fort, at 112 feet, seen 8 miles off. With this rock or the red light,
N. by E., when in 38 or 36 fathoms, let go the port anchor with two-
cables on it, for should there be a fresh breeze from the eastward it will be
scarcely possible to bring up, until the splice is veered a good way out. It
is requisite to ride in the road with a whole cable, and with a splice so
situated that you may be able to cut near it, should circumstances un-
fortunately compel you to put to sea without weighing anchor. While
riding, keep a slip-buoy on the cable, have a hedge anchor and a 9-inch
hawser to the westward, to keep the ship steady, with the hawser on the
starboard bow, as the wind generally veers from the eastward to S.W. and.

N. A. 0. 4 U

694 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

"West. When the land wind makes a cross, the end of the hawser may bo
shifted.

The general anchorage is from 30 to 35 fathoms, with the citadel (called
the Peak Castle, a brown square fort on a hill over the N.W. part of the
town) a little open to the eastward of the Loo Rock ; the latter at the dis-
tance of half a mile.

AVith the Loo Eock and citadel in one, bearing nearly N.N.E. £ E.,
and Fimchal Steeple N.E. \ N., the anchorage appears equally good,
in 35 fathoms, stiff ground. With the same marks, with the Loo about a
mile off, there is good ground in 45 fathoms. To the westward the ground
changes to sand and rock, and to the eastward it has a sudden declivity
from 50 to 55 fathoms, stiff clay ground, to 100 fathoms, rock, and then no
ground. A red wreck buoy was placed 3^- cables S. J W. from the East end
of the Loo Eock in 1871, and this position should be avoided, as the
buoy sometimes shifts.

In case of a S."W. gale, which may be frequently expected in winter, the
situation with the Loo and citadel in one, or the citadel just open to the
westward of the Loo, will be found most convenient. On the contrary, the
citadel, well open to the eastward of the Loo is the best situation when a
south-easter may be expected.

The Pontinha is an artificial embankment carried out in a south-easterly
direction, from the land to a small islet, which is crowned by the fort of
San Jose. The work affords some shelter from S.W. winds, and on its
eastern side is the most convenient landing place, there being on the inner
side of the islet a flight of steps which lead from the sea to the fort, and to
the top of the embankment, which joins the road to the city.

When coming into the road, with a brisk wind, sail should be reduced and

secured in time, to prevent having too much way through the water, at the

moment of anchoring ; and ships should be brought up with their head to

eaward ; for thus, in case of any accident in bringing up, sails may be had

off shore, or otherwise, as required.

Those riding in Funchal Roads should be very active when they observe a
swell coming in from the S.W. or S.E. • at this moment, no time is to be
lost in getting under way, for the swell indicates that a gale is certainly
coming on ; particularly so in the months of December and January,
generally the commencement of the rainy season. Should it come on
to blow very hard from the westward, the best mode is to run to leeward
of Desertas, where shelter from the wind may be found, and water per-
fectly smooth ; thus you avoid the risk of losing sails, by heaving to wind-
ward.

Admiral FitzEoy says : — The roadstead of Funchal is well-known to be
unsafe in S.W. gales ; and there can be no doubt that the most prudent
plan is to keep at sea while they last ; but I have been told by old traders
to Madeira, that ships sometimes remain at anchor, about half a mile from
the Loo Eock, and ride out S.W. gales without difficulty; the under-tow
being so considerable, that their cables are little strained." — Yol. ii. p. 46.

These statements require some modification. On October 15th, 1842,
Madeira was visited by one of the most dreadful storms that had occurred
since the flood of 1803, which swept 400 persons into the sea.. On the 25th

MADEIRA. 695

it blew a tremendous hurricane from the South, which, with the terrible sea,
drove four out of the six vessels on shore, with total destruction, aad nearly
all the crews were lost.

Steam vessels, that are prepared to weigh at short notice, anchor off the
city in less thau 10 fathoms, and the Cape mail packets anchor inside the
Loo Rock ia 3£ to 4i fathoms.

For coaling from beach store, vessels should anchor £ of a mile off shore,
in 14 fathoms, mud, Loo Rock "W. by N. h N., Church Tower N. by E. .VE.;
if to coal from colliers, a short distance to leeward of them. A white flag
with St. George's cross indicates the coal store on the beach. The flag is
always hoisted over the coal store, adjoining Bangers pillar, when coaling
from the beach is practicable.

A weft hoisted at the fore indicates an order to send off coals. This,
when shown by steamers in sight of the port, will bring coals alongside as
soon as they anchor.

When hound into Funchal Road from the Eastward, the best way for ships,
however large and numerous, with the wind north-easterly, is through
the passage between the Desertas and Madeira. The north-easter will
carry them to the offing of the Brazen Head, the East point of the Bay of
Funchal! In the night, a single ship may keep over toward that bluff
point, and, with her boats towing ahead, when becalmed, luff up into the
stream of the land-wind, and by that means fetch the anchorage. Ships
must show a light at their ensign-staff in the night, to prevent being fired
at from the forts at Loo Castle. In the day, they should keep further
distant from the land than in the night, to avoid being becalmed under it,
and to gain the stream of the sea-breeze. If, from over-caution, or other
reasons, they fall 2 or 3 leagues to the leeward of the road, they should
then keep plying up in the stream of the valley, until they gain the vein
of the sea-breeze. In working in with a land-breeze, it is best to make
short tacks, opposite the valley ; as here both the land and sea-breezes are
most regular.

Small vessels, from North America and the "Western Islands, come in,
generally, round the West end of the island, but are frequently becalmed a
considerable time under the high land there. Eor this reason ships, on
leaving Funchal, should make sail with the land-wind, and stand directly off
from the road ; ships bound to the southward, by taking a contrary method,
having continued several days becalmed under the western part of the
island.

From the Pontinha to Ponta da Cruz, the distance is 1£ miles ; the coast
between has a broken outline of rocky cliffs, points, and bays. The bay to
the "West of the Pontinha is half a mile across, and its shores are composed
of steep cliffs, with a high bold bluff at its west extreme. Along the base
is a beach of sand extending as far as the watercourse. The whole of the
bay is comparatively shallow, and appears to offer the best position in
Madeira for any artificial harbour works.

The Gorgulho, a detached sugar-loaf formed rock, lies off a pretty little
bay, half a mile "West of this. Four-tenths of a mile North of this rock
is Monte de Cruz, 862 feet high, with a telegraph on its summit, and hence
there is a succession of rocky cliffs for another half mile to Ponta da Cruz,

696 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

at the S.W. extremity of which there is a semi-detached pointed rock with
a small iron cross on the top of it. This rock is the South extremity of
Madeira, and is in lat. 32° 17' 18" N., long. 16" 57' 11" W.

Immediately to the West of Ponta da Cruz is the little bay of Prai/a
Formosa, formed by a shingle beach; and at If miles from it is the mouth
of the Socorrldos River, a mountain stream, perhaps the largest in Madeira,
which drains the celebrated valley of the Curral. At the West side of the
mouth of this is a small bold rocky part, round which are the village and
little boat harbour of Camera de Lobos. The West side of this is a narrow
wavy line of black lava, running out South at' 270 yards. The little town
is old and poor enough, but the sides of the mountains around are covered
with quintas and vineyards, and are said to form one of the finest wine dis-
tricts of the island.

CAPE GIRAO, a magnificent headland, is five miles West of Funchal.
It is the termination of a ridge of mountains lying westward of the valley
of the Jardlm da Serra. The cape is nearly perpendicular for 1,600 feet
above the sea, which nearly washes its base ; and upon the high land which
covers it is a grove of pine trees, 2,079 feet above the sea. The hills
continue rising until they reach the head of the valley, at an elevation of
4,535 feet.

At 2 miles from Cape Girao is the Ilheo de Lapa, a conical-shaped rock, in
front of the village of Campanaris. The coast to the East has a continuous
line of stony beach ; towards the West this characteristic alternates with
clean black rockv points.

Ponta do Sol is 5| miles W.N.W. of Cape Girao. It is a bluff rocky
cliff, with some fragments of rock lying close in front of it ; the largest of
these is pointed, and has a small wooden cross on it. The Ponta do Sol in
a westerly gale and stormy weather appears surrounded with the colours of
the rainbow, arising doubtless from the spray of the surf; hence, probably,
its name has been derived. The village of Ponta do Sol is up the ravine
to the West of the point ; its church may be seen through the narrow gorge.
Westward of this the coast is a long wavy line of narrow stony beaches,
above which are cliffs of small elevation, much broken by ravines and land-
slips ; one remarkable piece of cliff stands 1 \ miles West of Ponta do Sol.
Three-fourths of a mile beyond this is the village of Magdalena, at the out-
let of a ribeira ; 2 miles beyond Magdalena is another ribeira ; the space
between is called the Arco da Calheta. At 5 miles from Ponta do Sol is the
town of Calheta, but little can be seen of it through the very narrow ravine.
At a quarter of a mile West of it, above the cliffs, "on a ridge of land, is a
conspicuous long building like a monastery. Ponta Galera is seven-tenths
of a mile from Calheta ; it is a natural jetty of flat rocks of black basalt, 100
yards long.

Ponta Jardlm is U mile N. W. by W. of Ponta Galera ; it appears to be a
landslip ; upon the top of it are a small village and a chapel. The soundings
off this part of the coast are regular, over dark sand, and extend off 1J
mile, with 30 fathoms 1 mile off. Paul do Mar, a village on the coast, is 1
mile from Ponta Jardiin. There is a waterfall here, and a great land-slip.
The land is cultivated in terraced vineyards. A grove of pines above Paul

MADEIRA. 69*

do Mar is 2,080 ft. (or one-third of a mile) above the sea, while its horizon-
tal distance from it does riot exceed half a mile. This will give an idea of
the bold character of the sceueiw.

The beach of shingle and large stones extends 1 7-10ths miles to Point
Fajao d'Ovelha. Here it is broken through by a little spur of black lava;
the cliffs become more elevated, and above them the land rises with a steep
ascent to the highest peaks of the western mountains, 4,270 ft.

Ponta Parga is the western extremity of Madeira, and is 2| miles
W N.W. of Ponta Fajao d'Ovelha. The bold rocky cliffs of the point are
935 ft. high, and the smooth-topped hill to the East is 1,380 ft. On the
heights, 1 mile East of the point, there is a church. Some rocks and large
stones lie scattered around the base of Ponta Parga, and a rocky ridge of 11
to 20 fathoms runs off it \h mile, and occasions a heavy sea in westerly
winds. Ponta Parga is in lat. 32° 48' 6" N., long. 17° 10' 38" W.

The bank of soundings extends 5 J miles West of Fajao d'Ovelha Point;
to the N.W. of Ponta Parga its breadth is 2£ miles. It is fiat, with 40 to
46 fathoms, light brown or dark gray sand, and occasionally rock. From
these depths it drops very suddenly to 200 fathoms.

Ponta Tristao is the next point, N.E. of Ponta Parga, bearing N.E. 5
miies. The coast between it is a wavy line of coarse stony beach, with high
rocky cliffs rising abruptly from it. Above the cliffs the land rises steeply
to the ridge of mountains above 4,000 ft. high, and 2 miles from the shore.
Ponta Tristao, the North point of Madeira, is a high, bold bluff, 1,070 feet
high, off the foot of which are a few sunken rocks, extending 130 yards,
but clear beyond. On the heights, 1 mile to the South, is the parish church
of Magdalena, 1,700 ft. above the sea. At nine-tenths of a mile N. 60° E.
from the point, and about half a mile from the adjacent beach, is a singular
cluster of ilat rocks, a few feet above the sea, called the Rochas de Rabacal.
With any sea, the surf rolls over them, but they are steep-to, and a deep
chaunel inside them.

Ponta Moniz is H mile from Ponta Tristao, and is formed by a mass of
lava running out N.E. about 470 yards beyond the general line of coast, and
looks as if it had flowed over and beyond the cliffs into the sea. The shores
of the point have a very irregular and broken outline. On either side of it
are detached rocks, and right off the bluff are four others in a straight line.
On the East side of the point is a small fort with a round tower; and 140
yards S.W. of the outer islet off the point is another rocky point and another
round tower, at which is the best landing as at a jetty. The town of Monizis
on the higher part of the point ; the chapel being one-third of a mile from
1 he landing-place. The whole point is cultivated with vines. In front of
tho point, at the distance of 120 yards, is an islet of the same name, com-
posed of yellow tufa resting on black lava. Its shores are precipitous, and
it is the resort of sea-fowl. It has no channel inside it. The little bay,
locally called Porto Moniz, is in fact a rocky bank, varying in depth from 2
to 40 fathoms.

One mile S. 42° E. from Ponta Moniz are a group of rocks, called the
Janellas,. lying near the outlet of that ribeira. They are five in number, the
largest 133 feet in height. At 2 J miles 8. 52° E. from the outer Janella is
the point and village of Sieeol. Tho point is a comparatively low, rocky,

698 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

projecting piece of land, with a great variety of feature. The town stands
on the top of the point, a short distance from the cliffs, and surrounded by
vineyards. The best landing is on the largest rock at the East extremity of
ihe point, which is on this account connected with the shore by a wooden
bridge.

San Vincente is 3J miles from Ponta Siecal. The outlet of the ribeira is
marked by an isolated sugar-loaf rock, standing a few yards within the
beach. This rock has been excavated and converted into a chapel. Ponta
Ddgada is 3| miles from San Vincente, the coast between lying generally
similar to that West of the latter, a piece of low land at the foot of the
mountains, with houses and cultivated enclosures. Ponta Delgada is a com-
paratively low point, composed of rocky cliffs, with a tower upon the top of
it. The houses, which are numerous, and many of them pleasing and re-
spectable, are scattered thickly among the richly cultivated vines and
orchards, with a very pleasing effect. The church, large and handsome, is
close to the sea. Close round the point, on its East side, is a small bay,
with a little bit of fine shingle on it, which offers the best landing.

Ponta do Arco, a bold black point, is 1 2-5th miles East of Ponta Del-
gada. Nearly midway are a few large detached rocks, the largest called
Pocha de Boa Ventura. A group of low rocks lie off 230 yards to the
W.N.W. of it, and abreast of it are two ribeiras, the larger named Entroza.
Nearly three-quarters of a mile inland from Ponta do Arco is a conspicuous
sharp, wooded peak, 2,746 ft. high, the summit of the Arco de San Jorge,
a valuable station on the survey from its unmistakeable peculiarity of
feature.

Ponta de San Jorge is in lat. 32° 19' 44" N., long. 16° 54' 47" W. It is
a high, bold, rocky bluff, nearly 700 ft. above the sea, and may be called the
N.E. point of the island. A small low rock just seen above water, on which
the sea commonly breaks, lies E. \ S. three-tenths of a mile from Ponta San
Jorge. The next point to the S.E. is Santa Anna, bearing S. 59° E., distant
1 l-10th miles. On the same bearing is a large isolated rock, Ilheo de San
Jorge, 134 ft. in height, one-third of a mile from Santa Anna Point. The
point is formed by a gradually rounding narrow beach of large stones and
coarse shingle, from which the land rises very abruptly. One-fourth of a
mile from the sea it attains an elevation of 1,100 ft. The country above
the sea-face is well wooded and extremely beautiful ; and the quintas spread
over it are amongst the most favourite summer retreats of this island. A
detached rock lies a quarter of a mile S.E. of the point, and is about 12 or
14 ft. high. At 1 l-5th mile from this point, and 400 yards off shore, is a
small isolated rock, which uncovers at low water.

Ponta Cortada, a remarkable point, is 1 9-1 0th miles S. 52 c E. from Ponta
de Santa Anna : at 6-10ths of a mile to the N,W. of it there is a singular
sharp peak, 1,730 ft. high, standing close to the edge of the cliff overlooking
a large high mass of rock at its base, called the Pocha do JVavio. Ponta Cor-
tada has a very sharp termination, with a peak above the cliff, and deep
water close up to it.

Ponta de Fayal, the next point, is comparatively low and narrow, and has
a perpendicular rocky cliff extending from its outer extreme along its N. W.
side. Outside the point, bearing N. 40° E. one-third of a mile off, is a black

MADEIRA. 699

basaltic root, called the Ilhco de Fayed, with a sugar-loaf rock in its centre,
74 ft. high. A quarter of a mile S.E. of the point there is a sharp, bold,
rocky spux\ The small town of Fayal lies up the bay between them. The
cliffs from which this spur projects rise to a considerable elevation, and form
tho sea-face of a singular fiat-topped mountain, named Penha d'Aguia, or
Eaglet Rock, whose summit is 1,915 ft. high.

Ponta da Cruz is the outer extreme of a small peninsula, 1 6- 10th miles
S.E. of Ponta do Fayal. It is surrounded by low rocky cliffs, and in front
of it there are four detached rocks, the outer one of which is 500 yards off
the point. To the S.E. of the point is a bay, three-quarters of a mile across,
called Porto da Cruz. It has a shingle beach at its head, and here is also
the little town of Santa Cruz. The coast beyond consists of bold rocky
cliffs, of no great elevation at the sea, but the land rises above them preci-
pitously. The last habitation seen on this part of the island was close to
the coast, half a mile beyond Ponta da Cruz.

Ponta de San Antonio is 1 and 9-10th miles to the E.S.E., and is a bold
rocky point. Two rocks lie close at the foot of it, and half a mile inland is
a mountain, 2,510 ft. high, densely covered with trees. A dreary iron-
bound coast, without inhabitants, extends for 5^ miles to Ponta do Castello,
the cliffs of which are of reddish tufa, 534 ft. high, bold and perpendicular.
At the foot of the bluff, 100 yards off, is a breaking rock. The shore
throughout is broken into innumerable small coves and bold fantastic points,
with a great variety of detached rocks, but in no caso beyond 250 yards
from the shore. A mile and three-fourths from Ponta de San Antonio, and
about six-tenths of a mile inland, is a high green woody peak, named Cas-
tanhas, 2,058 ft. above the sea. The land frast of it has a steep descent to
Canigal. Three miles and a half to the East is Ponta Bode, a bluff, with a
bay on each side of it. One mile and a half further is Ponta Eosto, with
a group of rocks off it. There are other rocks off this point which need not
here be particularized.

The bank of soundings extends further off this part of the coast than any
other, except Ponta Par go, and the depths over it are tolerably regular,
except in front of Ponta da Cruz. Its breadth hereabout is from 2i to 3
miles, and the depth from 20 to 80 fathoms, the bottom generally of dark
gray sand, and occasionally with coral.

5.— THE CANARIES, OR CANARY ISLANDS.

This group of islands was supposed to be known to the ancients undev ihe
name of the Fortunate Islands. An expedition to conquer it was undertaken
in 1334 by Louis de la Corda, a Castilian prince, but it was repulsed by tho
bravery of the original inhabitants, the Guanches. It was left until the year
1402, when Jean de Bethencourt, a baron of Normandy, took possession of
Fortavcntura and Lanzarote, for John, King of Castile, and Alphonso,
King of Portugal. Prince Henry of Portugal made several ineffectual

700 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

attempts to conquer the archipelago, which finally, after much negotiation,
was ceded to Spain iu 1479 by treaty. The brave Guanches, in the almost
inaccessible rocks of Tenerife (or Hell as it was termed) defied the Spaniards,
and were not thoroughly subdued until 1496.*

The land of the Canary Islands is generally high, being varied by vol-
canic mountains, among which that called the Pic (or Peak) of Tenerife, is
super-eminent. The inequality of height is, however, so great as to produce
differences in the temperature of the different islands. For eight months in
the year the summits, excepting those of Lanzarote and Fortaventura, are
covered with snow ; yet in the valleys, and on the shores, the cold is seldom
so great as to render fires necessary. A great proportion of the surface of
the islands is covered with lava, calcined stones, and ashes, formerly emitted
by volcanoes, the remains of which are still visible in all the islands and
some of them, among which is the Peak of Tenerife, are not yet entirely
extinguished. The number of inhabitants, according to the census of May,
1857, was 234,046; in 1867, 267,036. The first discoverers found neither
corn nor wine, though at present there is both ; cochineal, tobacco, barilla,
and orchilla, are also largely exported. The canary bird is still found in the
country.

"In February, 1867, the navigation and port dues established by Royal
Order of December 17, 1851, which had till then not been exacted in the
ports of this archipelago, were by order of the government imposed upon
Spanish and foreign vessels entering the ports of these islands, in which
artificial works have been constructed, namely, Santa Cruz, Tenerife ; Las
Palmas, Grand Canary ; Santa Cruz, de la Palma ; and Arrecife, Lanzarote.
The artificial works alluded to in the above-mentioned ports, or rather roads,
may be said to be only commenced, although they have been in the course
of construction for years, and afford at present no protection to vessels at
anchor ; the petition of the board against these dues might, on this ground,
be favourably entertained as regards the anchorage duty."— -Mr. Consul
Grattan, 1868.

Free Ports. — On July 27, 1852, a Royal Order arrived at Santa Cruz, Tene-
riffe, declaring the following ports of this archipelago free ports, the order
to take effect on October 10 of that year : — Santa Cruz and Orotava. in Tene-
riffe ; Las Palmas, in Grand Canary ; Arrecife, in Lanzarote ; Santa Cruz,
in the Island of Palma : Puerto Cabias, in Fuerteventura ; and San Sebas-
tian, in Gomera.

* Allegraxza (the northern isle) is synonymous with joyous, a name given by the first
conquerors of the islands, Jean de Bethencourt, and Gadife de Salle. This was the first
point on which they landed. After remaining several days at Graciosa, they conceived the
project of taking possession of the neighbouring isle of Lanzarote, where they were wel-
comed by Guardarfia, sovereign of the Guanches, with the same hospitality that Cortes
found in the pr.lace of Montezuma. The shepherd king, who had no other riches than his
goats, became the victim of coward treachery, like the sovereign of Mexico ! — Humboldt.

The history of the Canary Islands is very fully described in a work printed for lha
the Hakluyt Society, entitled " The Canarian ; or Book of the Conquest of the Canaries in
1402:" by Messire Jean de Bethencourt, Kt., composed by Pierre Bontier, monk, and
Jean le Verrier, priest. Translated and edittd by Richard Henry Major, F.S.A., &c, &c.
London, 1872.

THE CANARY ISLANDS— THE SALVAGES. 70 1

Port Dues.— KM goods landed from foreign countries in Europe, the coast
of Asia, and Africa within the limits of the Mediterranean, and the coast of
Morocco in the Atlantic, pay 5 reals vellon per ton of 1,000 kilog., and 3
reals for each passenger that disembarks; from all other ports, 10 reals per
ton of goods landed, and 5 reals for each passenger. Vessels engaged in
the coasting trade between ports in the Spanish Peninsula and adjacent
islands, pay 3 reals per ton on goods landed, and 2 reals on each passenger.
Pilotage (not obligatory), 67*50 reals in the day-time, and double at night.
Government stamp to clearauce, 2 reals. Ballast, 1^ dollar per boatload,
said to contain from 2 to 2| tons. Ballast guard, per day, 15 reals vellon.
(1852.)

Vessels may pass between the Canaries, and through their principal
channels ; as there is no known danger but what may be plainly discerned,
excepting a sunken rock, laid down in some charts, in the southern part of
the channel between Tenerife and the Grand Canary, about 8 leagues E.S.E.
of the South point of Tenerife, and 4 leagues westward of tho centre of
Canary, but which is not shown in the survey of Admiral Vidal, and another
off the East point of Tenerife.

In sailing from Funchal to Tenerife, keep well to the westward, steering
S. by W. £ W. {nearly South) in order to avoid the Salvages, which are very
dangerous in the night.

If prevented from weathering the Salvages or the Piton (described here-
after) by prevalent westerly and S.AV. winds, common in the months of
January and February, when a heavy swell may set the ship much to lee-
ward, you may safely bear up and run to leeward of the Great Salvage ;
only observing that if the swell be very heavy you must cautiously avoid
three shoal spots, lying to the northward and eastward of that isle. Of
these, the northern one is about three-quarters of a mile to the northward
{N.N. W.) of the isle ; the inner one on the N.E., 250 fathoms from it ; and
the outer, in the same direction, 1 and l-10th miles. Two others, with 3
and 3£ fathoms, lie at about half a mile from the eastern shore.

The SALVAGES consist of an island named Ilha Grande, or the Great
Salvage, a larger islet named Great Piton, and a smaller one called the Little
Piton, together with numerous rocks. The Great Salvage lies in lat. 30° 8',
long. 15° 55'. It is of very irregular shape, and has a number of rocks
about it within the distance of a mile. It is much intersected, and has
several deep inlets, the most accessible of which is on the East side. It is
covered with bushes, amongst which the thousands of sea- fowl make their
nests. It is surrounded on all sides with dangers, most of which show, but
many require all caution in approaching.

The Great Piton lies at the distance of 8J miles W.S.W. fW.(S. W. by
W.) from Ilha Grande. This isle is 2| miles long, N.E. \ E. and S.W. \ W.
{N.E. ly N. and S. W. by S.) and has a hill or peak near its centre. The
Little Piton lies at a mile from the western side of the former, and is three-
quarters of a mile long, nearly in the same direction ; both are compara-
tively narrow. These isles are seated upon, and surrounded by, one dan-
gerous rocky bank, which extends from the western side of the little isle
half a league to the westward.

N. A. O. 4 X

702 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

It has been said of the Great Piton, that, in some respects, it resembles
the largest Needles Rock at the West end of the Isle of Wight ; and, at a
great distance, looks like a sail. Its southern part appears green ; its
northern part barren. It may be seen 5 or 6 leagues off. The Little Piton
is very flat, and is connected to the South point of the greater one by a
continued ledge of rocks. The whole of the eastern side of the Great Piton
is rocky and dangerous.*

LANZAROTE is above 3,000 ft. high, and its mountains maybe discerned
at a great distance. On approaching it appears black, rocky, and barren,
and it has many extinct volcanoes. From its northern extremity, in lat. 29°
14', a barrier of precipitous cliffs rise to the height of 1,500 feet, extend in
a S.W. direction 7 miles, and terminate in a sandy plain, where, in 1825, a
volcanic eruption took place, and two considerable hills were thrown up,
which were burning in 1835 ; a stream of lava, from 200 to 300 yards broad,
found its way to the sea in the bay. The shore along all the N.W. side to
the S.W. extremity of the island is high and precipitous, with the exception
of a cove, called Januvia or Janubio, once a harbour for small vessels, but
converted into a salt-water lake by an eruption in the year 1765.

On the eastern side of the island the shore is much lower than the western ;
near the middle of it is the Port of Naos, a small but secure barbour, formed
by several rocky islets, and having two entrances, the northern with a depth
of 12, and the southern of 17£ ft. at low water, with a tidal rise of 9 ft.
During winter, nearly all the vessels of the island resort to this place. Two
bomb-proof forts, the one mounting 11, and the other 12, heavy guns,
defend the respective entrances. The town of Arecife is situate immediately
to the southward of the port ; many of its houses are large, and the streets
are capacious; inhabitants about 2,500. The entire population of the island
is estimated at 17,500. During the year 1876, 57 vessels visited Lanzarote.

The greater part of the inhabitants of Arecife are engaged in the fishery
on the opposite coast of Africa, which gives employment to between 400 and
500 men from this island alone, about 250 from Fuertaventura, and propor-
tionably from the other islands.

The highest land in Lanzarote is Montana Blanca, above 2,000 ft. in height
above the sea, situate nearly in the centre of the island, and cultivated to the
summit. The wine of this island is very superior to that of the other
islands ; the gi'apes are superior in flavour ; the soil selected for their cul-
tivation is decomposed scoriae. f Camels are used in Lanzarote as beasts of
burden, on account of the scarcity of water.

Puerta de Naos. — Any vessel not drawing more than 18 ft. may enter this

* See "Nautical Magazine," October, 1851, pp. 509 — 517. The occasion and result of
a visit by llear-Admiral Hercules Robinson in 1813 is there amusingly related. In sub-
stance it is, that in 1804 the crew of a South American Spanish ship, bound to Cadiz with
produce, and about two millions of dollars in chests, rose upon and murdered the captain,
off some islands corresponding exactly in description and site with the Salvages. The
treasure was carried on shore, and buried in the white sand above high-water mark in a
enug little bay on the South side of the island, and over it was buried also the body of the
murdered captain. This tale was told to an English sailor by one of the two survivors,
whose tale led to the unsuccessful search by the Prometheus. Still the tale appears credible.

t The proceeding description oi Lanzarote is chiefly that of Lieutenant Arlett, 1835.

THE CANARY ISLANDS -LANZAROTE. 703

port at high water, spring tides, and lie secure from all winds and weather :
although, in sailing along the coast, the shipping appears as if at anchor in
an open road, the harbour being formed by a ridge of rocks, not perceivable
at any distance, as most of them are under water ; these break off the swell
of the sea, so that the inside is as smooth as a mill-pond. As there is no other
convenient place in the Canaries for cleaning or repairing large vessels, it
is much frequented for that purpose by the shipping trade to the island.

Lights. — On the point abreast Cruce Island, in Port Naos, are two light-
houses 20 ft. high, each exhibiting a fixed red light. The lower light is 50
yards from the shore, 35 ft. above the level of the sea, and visible in clear
weather 6 miles. The upper light is about 125 yards farther inland, 47 ft.
high, and visible 7 miles. The lights in line N.N.W. § W. lead through
the S.E. entrance to Port Naos, but the channel is narrow, and should not
be taken by a stranger without a pilot.

On the West side of Arecife lies another port called Puerto de Cavallos>
This is also an excellent harbour, formed, like Puerta de Naos, by a ridge of
rocks; but its entrance is shallow, there being no more than 12 ft. of water
in it, with spring tides. A square castle, built of stone, stands upon a small
island between the two harbours, and so defends them both ; this island is
joined to the land by a bridge, under which boats go from one port to the
other, or from Puerto de Cavallos to Puerto de Naos.

At the North end of Lanzarote is a spacious channel, called El Rio, which
is the strait dividing this island from the uninhabited one, called Graciosa.
A ship of any burden may pass through this strait ; for, if she keeps in the
midway between the two islands, she will have 6 or 7 fathoms of water all
along.

The Rio is, in general, more than a mile wide, and forms the only safe
harbour in the Canaries for large ships ; but the extreme difficulty of com-
munication with Lanzarote presents an insuperable obstacle to its being
resorted to as a harbour for trade. Here basaltic cliffs rise almost perpen-
dicularly to the height of 1,500 ft., and can be climbed only by a narrow
path which winds along the face of the precipice ; halfway up the cliff is
the only spring of fresh water in the island, but rendered useless from its
situation, except to a few goatherds. Prom the bottom of the cliff to the
shore of Lanzarote is about two musket-shots distance. The ground in
the space is low ; and here was a salina, or salt work. The fishermen of
Lanzarote have constructed a small stone pier, where boats can land under
safe shelter ; and on the Graciosa side there is a small bay where landing
can always be effected. There are no resources here, nor any inhabitants.
Some indifferent water may be got by digging in the sand at some distance
from the sea. Pish is abundant and good. — Lieut, du Marais, French Marine,
1857.

On the N.E. extremity of Lanzarote are two remarkable rocks, composed
of black vitrified matter, but in shape resembling the " Needles," at the
western extremity of the Isle of Wight.

If a smooth place to lie in, while the trade wind blows, be required, a ship
coming into this harbour from the eastward must run a good way in, and
double a shallow point, which lies on the starboard hand, taking care to
give it a good berth ; and this is easily done by approaching no nearer than

70 i DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

in 4 fathoms ; when past it, edge toward Graeiosa, and anchor in any con-
venient depth ; for it shoalens gradually toward the shore, close to which
there are 2 fathoms. This place in the summer season has been used for
careening large ships. Off the Isle of Graeiosa the water, however, is not
so smooth as at Puerto de Naos, especially if the trade wind happens to blow
hard from the East, which sends in a swell that makes it troublesome, if not
impossible, to careen a ship properly. But the wind hero does not often
blow from that quarter, those winds which most prevail being from North
and N.N.E. In mooring here, great care must be taken to have a good
anchor, with a large scope of cable toward Lanzarote ; for in East and S.E.
winds heavy gusts or squalls come from the high land of that isle. In the
winter the wind sometimes shifts to the S. W. ; then it is necessary to weigh,
and run back to the eastward, round the shallow point before mentioned,
until the ship be sheltered from that wind, and there anchor.

On the South side of the island is Pechiguera Point, where & fixed light is
shown from a white column, at an elevation of 51 ft., visible 12 miles off.
This light marks the western entrance of Bocayna Strait, 6 miles wide,
which separates Lanzarote from Fuertaventura and Lobos Island.

The Isle of Allegranza, the northernmost of the Canary Islands, is com-
posed of lava and cinders, the remains of an extinct volcano. It rises to
the height of 939 ft. above the sea. The edge of the crater is well defined,
and two-thirds of a mile across ; its bottom is cultivated for barilla. The
western cliffs are precipitous, and 700 ft. in height. About 40 persons were
resident on the island in 1835, piuncipally employed in collecting orchilla.

The only landing-place is on the South side, where a cavern extends about
500 paces, slanting from the sea, and terminates in a little sandy bay, open
above. At the entrance the rocks form a natural jetty. The village is
situate immediately above, and abreast is the only anchorage, half a mile
from shore.

Light. — On Delgada Point, the easternmost point of Allegranza, is a dark
gray lighthouse with a green lantern, from which a revolving light every half
minute is shown, visible 13 miles off, between the bearings of N.N.W. £ W.
round by East to S.W. by W. f W.

Graeiosa, forming the North side of the Rio of Lanzarote, is about 5
miles in length and 2 in breadth ; and, as may be inferred from its appear-
ance, it is destitute of water. Allegranza is 7 miles to the northward of it.

Near Clara is a dangerous rock, 3 or 4 fathoms high, and covered with
scorioe, resembling coke. In the old charts it is called the lnfierno or Hell
Rock, and may have been higher. It is now called the West Rock, or Roca
de Ouest.

Eight miles to the eastward of Graeiosa stands the Roca del JEste, or the
East Rock, the craggy summit of an extinct volcano. Many ships have been
wrecked upon these islets in the night, being misled by errors in their
reckoning and by the currents.

FUERTAVENTURA,— This island is divided from Lanzarote by the chan-
nel named Canal de JJocagna, which is 6 miles in breadth ; the island as
shown by the chart is singularly formed and variegated ; it is less moun-
tainous than the other islands, yet both the northern and southern ex-
tremities rise to 2,500 ft. above the sea.

THE CANARY ISLANDS— FUEETAVENTURA. 705

It has two ports of trade ; Ca bras on the East, and Tarajahjo on the S.E. ;
but Cabras contains little more than 1,000 inhabitants. The anchorage at
the latter is indifferent, and at the landiDg-place, a beach of shingles, still
worse.

Lieutenant Arlett says that, although the general feature of Fuertaven-
tura is extreme barrenness, still there are many spots of great fertility ; the
most conspicuous of these is the valley of OUva, toward the North end,
where there is a village of the same name, the residence of the Lieutonant-
Governor, a descendant of the Baron Bethencourt, who possesses a very con-
siderable portion of the island. The valley of Oliva is about 15 miles long,
and generally from 2 to 3 wide. The only two streams of pure water in the
island have their rise in the mountain of the Atalaya, or watch-tower ; they
are husbanded with great care, and irrigate the whole of the valley.

A paved road across the island, from Cabras to Betancuria, is the only one
existing ; the other ways being mere tracks following the direction of the
valley, where the ground is less cumbered with stones, and softer to the
camels' feet. The population is from 17,000 to 18,000, scattered in small
villages over every part of the island.

The interior formation of Fuertaventura is as follows: —To the North is
a group of extinct volcanoes; some of them, as Monte Mudo, on the N.E.,
rise to the height of 2,160 feet, and they branch to the southward of Port
Cabras, East and West to the sea, thence following the direction of the coast
on each side for about 30 miles ; again uniting, they encircle an extensive
and arid plain and several detached villages. From the summit of the hills,
the course of some brackish streams may be traced by the verdure they im-
part. There are also date palms, the only trees, excepting the fig, on the
island.

From the southern point of junction of the mountains, one of which,
Chilegua, on the western coast, reaches the height of 2,160 ft., a narrow
sandy isthmus, about 5 miles long and 2£ broad, projects, connecting it with
the southern extremity of the island, a peninsula, occupied by the Monte
Jandia, a mountain which presents the most remarkable features ; from the
N.W., its precipitous face is seen to rise to the height of 2,820 ft. ; and
spurs, or buttresses, diverge from its centre to the N.E., East and S.E., by
which it may be ascended to a frightful ridge on the summit.

Lobos and Light. — On the South side of the eastern entrance of the Bo-
cayna, very near the N.E. shore of Fuertaventura, lies the little island of
Lobos, or Seal's Isle, which is about 1) league in circumference, uninhabited,
and destitute of water. On the North point of this island is a dark yellow
building, with a green lantern, from which a red light is shown, and near it
is a good road for shipping ; the mark for which is, to bring the East point
of Lobos to bear nearly N.E. by N., and anchor halfway between it and
Fuertaventura, or rather nearest to the latter. Although this road seems to
be open and exposed, yet it is very safe with the trade-wind, for the water
is smooth, and the ground everywhere clean, being a fine sandy bottom.
Directly ashore from the road, on Fuertaventura, is a well of good water, of
easy access.

Through the broad channel, La Bocayna, ships sail very safely, as it is
deep in the middle, and shoalens gradually toward Lanzarote, near to which

706 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

are 5 fathoms of water ; but very near or close to Lobos, the ground is foul
and rocky. In this passage vessels of any burden may find room enough
to ply to windward, and there is no necessity of approaching too near to
Lobos.

When a vessel comes from the eastward, with the trade-wind, and is
passing through the Bocayna to the westward, so soon as she brings a high
hill on Lanzarote directly to windward of her, she will be becalmed, and
soon have the wind at S.W. Should this happen, make short tacks until
you obtain the trade again, or a constant northerly wind, the first puff of
which will come from West or W.N.W. So soon as this is perceived, you
must not stand to the northward, otherwise you will immediately lose it
again, but must steer toward Lobos ; for the nearer you approach this isle
the more will you have the wind ; so that, before you are two-thirds over,
you will meet with a steady wind at North or N.N.E.

When there is a great westerly swell hereabout, the sea breaks horribly
on the rocks at the N.W. end of Lobos. Captain Glas affirms, that he has
seen breakers there nearly 60 ft. high ; of which, were one to strike the
strongest ship, she would be staved to pieces in a moment. " When I first
saw," says Captain Glas, " those mighty breakers, our ship had just passed
through the channel, between Fuertaventura and Lobos ; we had a fine brisk
trade wind at N.N.E., and although there were no less than 10 fathoms of
water when we came into the westerly swell, yet we trembled lest the waves
should have broken, and thought ourselves happy when we got out of
soundings. We heard the noise of these breakers, like distant thunder,
after we were past them 6 or 7 leagues.'^

The Lighthouse on Jandia Point, the S.W. point of Fuertaventura, a low
rocky point, shows a revolving bright light, appearing every minute, visible
through an arc of 274°, or when beai'ing from S.S.W. f W. round by South,
and East to N.W. by W. f W. It is 108 ft. high, and is visible 15 miles
off. The conical gray tower is 62 ft. high, and stands about 110 yards from
the sea at low tide, in lat. 28° 3' N., long. 14° 31' 26" W. The Griego Bank
extends about S.W. a mile from the lighthouse. The currents in the vicinity
form into strong eddies, and a wide berth should be given to the point.

CANARIA, or Grand Canary. — The Isleta, or N.E. point of this island,
lies 16 leagues N.W. by W. £ W. ( W. hy ST.) from Point Jandia, the S.W.
end of Fuertaventura ; and, in clear weather, either of these islands may be
seen from the other. The centre of Canaria is exceedingly high, and full of
lofty mountains, which tower so far above the clouds as to stop the current
of the N.E. wind that generally prevails here ; so that when this wind blows
hard on the North side of the mountains, it is either quite calm on the other
side, or a gentle breeze blows upon it from the S.W. This island is the
granary of the Canarian Archipelago, and has, in some districts, two wheat
harvests in the year — one in February, the other in June. Cochineal is
largely produced, and tobacco grown. Duringtheyear 1876, Spanish vessels
to the number of 867 visited Las Palmas, and others to the number of 136,
including 99 Jiritish.

Isleta Point Lighthouse.— On the N.E. end of Canaria is the penincula
called the Isleta, 2 or 3 leagues in circumference ; the isthmus, by which it
is connected with the main island is low aud sandy, about 2 miles long, and

THE CANARY ISLANDS— GRAND CANARY. 707

a quarter of a mile broad at the narrowest part of it. On the N.E. part of
this peninsula stands a conical gray lighthouse, which shows at 817 ft. a
fixed light, with red flashes every two minutes. Visible 18 miles off.

On each side of this isthmus is a bay, which, being exposed on the N.W.
side to the swell of the sea, is therefore an unfit road for shipping ; but
small barks get in between a ledge of rocks and the shore, and lie there
smooth and secure from all winds and weather. Here the natives repair
their small vessels.

On the other side of the isthmus is a spacious sandy bay, called by some
Puerto, de Luz, and others Puerto, de las Isletas, from some steep rocks or
islets at the entrance of the bay, toward the N.E. This is a good road for
shipping of any burden, with all winds, except from S.E., to which it is
exposed ; but that wind, which is not common here, seldom blows so hard
as to endanger a ship.

Shoal ground, of 6J fathoms, was found by H.M.S. Resistance, one of the
ships of the channel squadron in 1875, when proceeding out of the anchor-
age, then one of 7£ fathoms, and immediately afterwards the water deepened
to 10 and 11 fathoms, the approximate position assigned to the shoal sound-
ings, is, Luz Castle bearing N. % W., distant 11-10 mile, and Fort S. Cata-
lina N.W. by W., 7 cables.

The landing-place is the very bight or bottom of the bay, where the
water is generally so smooth, that a boat may lie broadside to the shore,
without danger. Thence, along shore, about a league to the southward, is
the city of Palmas, the capital of the island, where a light is shown at night
on the mole. Shipping, that discharge their cargoes at Palmas, generally
anchor, in good weather, within half a mile of the town, for the quicker
despatch ; but that place is not a good road.

The next port of any consequence in Canaria is Gando, situated in the
middle of the East side of the island. It is a good place for shipping with
all winds, except from the southward ; and there good water, with other
refreshments may be had.*

Las Palmas is a large handsome town, containing 18,000 inhabitants; it
has a cathedral, hospital, and college. It is well supplied with water,
having fountains in all the principal streets ; and its market, likewise, is
well supplied. The city appears to great advantage from the sea, the streets
rising regularly above each other, which gives it a very commanding aspect.
It extends at least a mile in length. There is another large town, with a
lofty church, about 4 or 5 miles to the southward, which stands considerably
higher and more inland than Palmas. Prom the number of houses seen,
while sailing along the island, it has the appearance of a considerable
population, and of being well cultivated. A fixed light is shown from the
mole.

Canary affords more anchorages than any of the other islands ; the bank
almost everywhere extending farther. During summer there is here a con-

* The pilots of Tenerife assert that a rock, -with only 12 ft. of water over it, lies W.N.W.
2| leagues from Point Aldea, the western point of the Grand Canary, and that the sea
breaks on it in rough weather. Its precise situation appears to he unknown.

708 DESCRIPTIONS 01 THE ISLANDS.

6tant N.E. wind ; the land, obstructing its course, causes the calms which
prevail off the S.W. shore to the distance of 8 or 9 miles, when the aerial
currents again unite. Within this space a westerly current runs close in
shore, which is advantageous to the coasters.

El Oumbre, or the summit of the highest peak of Canary, has been stated
by Lieut. Arlett to be 6,648 feet above the level of the sea ; the mountain
Sancillo, near the centre of the island, which has a large wooden cross on
its summit, 6,070 ft.

TENERIFE or Teneriffe.— Point Naga, the N.E. end of Tenerife, bears
N.W. \ N. (Kir. ly W.), 15£ leagues from the N.E. point of Canaria;
but, from the western part of Canaria to the nearest part of Tenerife, the
distance is 10 leagues. In the centre of the island is the famous peak,
called, by the ancient and present inhabitants, the Peak of Teyde, 12,176 ft.
high.

The bay or roadstead of Santa Cruz, on the N.E. coast, is the most fre-
quented of any of the Canaries. About 150 British vessels and 225 foreign
visited the roads during the year 1876.

On coming toward the island in clear weather, the peak may be clearly
discerned at a great distance.'* It first appears like a thin blue vapour or
smoke, very little darker than the sky ; at a farther distance the shade dis-
appears, and is not distinguishable from the azure of the firmament. Before
you lose sight of this towering mountain, it seems at a considerable height
above the horizon, although, by its distance, and the special figure of the
earth, all the rest of the island, the upper part of which is exceedingly high,
is sunk beneath the horizon. But, in general, in sailing toward Tenerife,
when the trade wind blows, the island appears as a haziness of the sky, or
as a cloud, till within the distance of 5 or 6 leagues, and then the headlands
show like land, and are very conspicuous.

Tenerife presents to the eye the most singular object, perhaps, in the
northern hemisphere. The island appears, on sailing along the coast, from

* They say, in tho Canaries, that the peak, in very clear weather, is seen from La Bo-
cayna, or the channel between the Isles of Lanzarote and Fuertaventura, at the distance of
about 50 leagues.

•' The Peak of Tenerife is probably the most striking monument of nature in the world ;
for, though the Chiinborazo (in South America) soars to the height of 22,000, and the
Himalayan Dewalgiri (in Asia) to the astonishing height of 27,000, while Tenerife is but
'2,176, yet the latter, by its arising directly from the level of the sea, is seen more con-
spicuously, and stands at a more magnificent elevation. The view from the summit, which
it requires a whole day to ascend, is unspeakably grand. On the top of this vast pyramid
of basalt is a crater, 40 yards deep, from which vapour continually ascends, and specimens
of finely crystallized sulphur are gathered round its lips. From this summit, when the sky
is unobscured, the whole island is seen like a model. Rising around it, at a distance, are
eeen the Canaries, glittering on the horizon, their peaks and pinnacles coloured by every
change of day. At favourable times, Madeira and the African coast are visible."— Captain
Alexander, 1837.

Baron Humboldt says :— " It may bo admitted in general that the Peak of Tenerife is
seldom seen at a great distance in the warm and dry months of July and August; and that,
on the contrary, it is seen at vsry extraordinary distances in the months of January and
Fobruary, when tho sky is slightly covered, and immediately after a heavy rain, or a few
hours before it falls."

THE CANARY ISLANDS— TENERIFE. 709

North to South, to have once been a complete cinder ; and presents to view
a great deal of the.brokenness and irregularity of half-consumed coke. The
resemblance, however, contrary to expectation, becomes less perfect as we
approach the peak, the great chimney of the fiery caldrons boiling beneath.
The island is of a triangular form, its North and South sides being about 45
miles long, and its West end about 24 miles. Some very interesting parti-
culars of it, with photographic views, are given by Professor 0. Piazzi Smyth's
account of his astronomical visit in 1856.*

In Baron Humboldt's ascent of the peak, it is stated, that the volcano
has not been active at the summit for thousands of years, its eruptions
having been from the sides ; the depth of the crater being only about 120 ft.
The peak forms a pyramidal mass, having a circumference at the base of
more than 57,107 fathoms, and a height of 12,176 ft., or rather more than
2 geographic miles. Two-thirds of the mass are covered with vegetation,
the remaining part being sterile, and occupying about 10 square leagues of
surface. The cone is very small in proportion to the size of the mountain,
it having a height of only 537 ft. The lower part of the island is composed
of basalt and other igneous rocks of ancient formation, and is separated from
the more recent lavas and the products of the present volcano by strata of
tufa, puzzalana, and clay.

Capt. Beechoy, in his narrative of the voyage of the Blossom, observes : —
" As I purposed touching at Santa Cruz we immediately hauled up for the
land, aad it was a fortunate circumstance that we did so ; for so strong a
current set to the southward during the night, that, had we trusted to our
reckoning, the port would have been passed, and there would have been
much difficulty in regaining it. I mention the circumstance with a view of
bringing into notice the great southerly set that usually attends the passage
of ships from Cape Finisterre southward. From this cape to Point Naga,
our error in that direction, or more correctly S. 33° W. {true), was not less
than 90 miles."

Pnnta de Anaga, the eastern point of Tenerife, is in lat. 28° 28' 33" N.,
and long. 16° 6' W. To the northward of the N.E. point of Tenerife is a
chain of black rocks called the Aaagas, which are steep-to, but dangerous.
To the South of the N.E. point is a high conical rock close to the shore,
called the Mancha Blancha, though it is usually of a dark colour.

A dangerous sunken rock lies off the East point, which is omitted in the last
survey, though it appears in the older charts. It was seen by the mail
steamer Cleopatra in December, 1859. It is known to the pilots as the Bajo
de la Mancha, and bears 1| miles, East, true, from Anaga Point, and E. by S.
from the rock described above, as La Mancha Blancha. It has 18 ft. at low
water, and 21 ft. at high water. It only breaks occasionally.

* " Tenerife, an astronomer's experiment, or specialties of a residence above the clouds,
by C. Piazzi Smyth, F.R.S., 1858." Professor Smyth and a party of scientific men went in
Robert Stephenson's yacht, Titania, to Tenerife, in June and July, 1856, and carried the
instruments up to the flanks of the peak to Guajara, 8,903 ft. above the sea. The results
of these observations were very remarkable, and the expectation was fulfilled that the
astronomical objects would be seen with much greater clearness and brilliancy when tho
lower strata of cloud and vapour was passed.

N. A. o. 4 y

710 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

Roque Bermejo Point and Lighthouse stands near, the N.E. extreme of
Tenerife. The light is a fixed white light, varied by a flash every three
minutes, at an elevation of 810 ft. above the sea, illumines the arc of the
eastern horizon between Drago Point to the South, and the Anaga Rocks to
the North, and is visible in clear weather from a distance of 35 miles.

The tower is 39 ft. high. It stands at If miles N. f W. from Anaga
Point, and 3f cables N.W. \ W. from Eoque Bermejo Islet, which is con-
nected to Eoque Bermejo Point by a short reef covered at high water. Drago
Point is between Anaga Point and Eoque Bermejo Point. The position of
the lighthouse is lat. 28° 35' 25" N., long. 16° 8' 6" West.

Santa Cruz. — At a short distance from Poiut Anaga, the East point of
Tenerife, are the high perpendicular rocks above described ; and 4 or 5
leagues thence, on the S.E. side of the island, is the bay or roadstead of
Santa Cruz. The best road for shipping here is between the middle of the
town and a fort or castle, about half a mile to the northward of it. In all
that space ships anchor, from a cable's length distance from the shore, in
6, 7, and 8 fathoms of water, to half a mile in 25 or 30 fathoms. Particular
care must be taken, in going in, not to bring any part of the town to the
northward of West, lest calms should be occasioned by the high land under
the peali ; otherwise you will be in danger of driving upon the shore ; and,
when ashore, will have no ground on the opposite side of the ship, with 200
fathoms of line, so that anchors and cables are of no use.

Here vessels, if moored with good cables and anchors, may lie securely in
all winds, although the bay is exposed and open to those which blow to the
N.E., East, and S.E. ; however, it is not above once in the space of four or
five years that they blow so hard as to cause any considerable damage. The
surf frequently beats on shore, with great violence, for several days together;
and the pier is ill-contrived for shelter.*

Mooring buoys four in number were placed in the roads about 3 cables
apart during the years 1873-4. In March, 1875, there were but two of
these buoys, one for large vessels moored in 24 fathoms at 350 yards east-
ward of the mole, the other in the South part of the roadstead in 31^ fathoms
with the Torre de la Conception, bearing W.N.W., and at 260 yards from
the mole head. The latter buoy was for vessels undergoing quarantine, or
requiring provisions or coal.

A red light, elevated 26 feet above the sea, is shown from a moveable
platform on the extreme end of the mole. It replaces a lighthouse destroyed

* " The Bay of Santa Cruz is much exposed to all -winds between E.NE. and S.W. by
"W. ; and, as the easterly winds are very prevalent, there is generally a great swell setting
in, although it seldom blows hard from that quarter of the compass.

"In 17^ fathoms, fine sand and blue clay, directly off the jett y, with the end thereof on
with the gateway leading into the town, bearing about N.W., is a convenient berth for
watering, and good ground.

" The jetty is built on a curve, to break off the swell, for the convenience of boats, being
the only landing-place, where all goods are landed and shipped. Ships generally lie off
the jetty, in from 17 to 35 fathoms, good holding ground. The best mark is the high
square building, like a lighthouse, just over, and in one with, the mole or jetty head.

"Tide rises about 4 ft., sets round the bay, High water, 4 h 30 m (?)."— Mr. William
Wood, IT.M.S. Tartar, 1823.

THE CANARY ISLANDS—TENEPJFE. 711

by a storm in 1873. lu steering from the South, the light ought to be kept
in sight, the coast out of the range of the light being dangerous. At 56
yards from the extremity of the mole another Jtxecl light is shown, visible
y miles off.

The following directions for the anchorage of Santa Cruz were issued in
August, 1845, by Mr. Richard Bartlett, the British consul at that place.

While running tor the anchorage keep both leads going, and bring up to
the northward of the Mole Head; or, bring the clock front of the square
church with cupola to bear W.N.W., and anchor with this mark on, or to
the northward of it.

" Ships may anchor when in less than 30 fathoms. Give a larg9 scope of
chain cable. When the northernmost fort (Fort Paso Alto) bears N.N.E.,
the depth of water will be about 25 fathoms on the lines pointed out. The
shore may be neared without risk, the water being deep, and no dangers
that are not apparent. The anchorage to the South of the lines indicated is
reserved for vessels in quarantine." The foregoing will be sufficient ; but
another good anchoring mark is, not to bring the Mole Head anything North of
W.N. W.

Lieut. Church, of H.M.S. JEtna, makes the following observations on the
anchorage of Santa Cruz: — "Whilst surveying the Canary Islands-in the
yEtna, we had, of course, considerable experience of Santa Cruz, and had
no reason to consider it an unsafe anchorage. During the very many times
that the JEtna was there, in only one instance did we experience a gale
from the south-eastward. Most of the shipping slipped at the commence-
ment, and got into the offing ; but we remained at our anchors, and rode it
out well. Although a heavy sea tumbled in, there was much less strain on
the cables than might have been expected, arising, as it appeared to us,
from an offset, which, together with there being a great uphill drag for the
anchor, diminishes the chance of driving.

" The church tower with the cupola (San Francisco) open a little to the
right of the Mole Head, is considered the usual anchorage, the vessels con-
gregate here to be near the landing-place. But, in a man-of-wai', I would
(especially if there are many vessels here) anchor considerably to the north-
eastward, or windward of this resort, the bank of soundings being wider,
and so avoid having merchant ships in the hawser ; indeed, I see no reason
why ships should not anchor nearly as far North as the Paso Alto Battery,
the most northern battery, in case the roads are crowded with shipping.

"I have noticed that ships, coming from the north-eastward to Santa
Cruz, run down at too great a distance from the land, and do not haul in
till they get nearly abreast of the town. They get a cast or two of the
lead with no bottom, and immediately they get into soundings, the anchor
is let go in a hurry, the bank being narrow, and the ship's head in-shore,
there being little time for consideration.

" Instead of this method of proceeding, I think it would be advisable, on
making the N.E. end of Tenerife, Punta de Anaga, to haul in upon the
bank of soundings immediately on passing Punta de Antiquerra, as from
this point to Santa Cruz the bank extends as far out from the land as at the
town, and the anchorage is just as good and as safe anywhere when abrea-:t
of the Barrancos. I would get into the depth eearly that I wished to an-

712 DESOEIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

chor in, and then run down with tho light wind parallel to the shore. Be-
sides having time to anchor leisurely, there is the advantage of being
enabled to let go the anchor under foot, wherever you may be.

"Should it fall calm while the ship is outside soundings, she maybe
taken away to leeward by the southerly set, which once caused us twenty-
four hours' trouble to get back again. From experience, we latterly adopted
tho system I have mentioned."

Commander T. L. Barnard, in H. M.S. Vixen, says : — "With the wind
on shore, I should recommend a steamer to steer boldly under the sterns of
the vessels at anchor off the Mole Head, and bring the head to wind with
the Mole Head on with the church tower, in from 25 to 30 fathoms."

The aspect of Santa Cruz is gloomy, and the heat is uncommonly ex-
cessive. On a narrow and sandy beach, houses of dazzling whiteness, with
flat roofs, are stuck against a wall of black perpendicular rocks, stripped
of vegetation. A fine mole, built of freestone, and the public walk, planted
with poplars, are the only objects which break the sameness of the land-
scape.

Orotava. — The next best port to that of Santa Cruz is the port of Orotava,
on the northern side of the island, and which lies about 8£ leagues to the
westward of Point Anaga. Here the riches and fertility of the island are
chiefly to be found, for here the wine is mostly made, and shipped when the
weather allows. It is a good harbour in the summer season, or from the
beginning of May to the end of October ; but in winter ships are often
obliged to slip their cables and put to sea, lest they should be surprised by
a N.W. wind, which throws in a heavy sea ; luckily these winds rarely
happen, and in general give warning, so that a vessel has time to get away.
Straggling rocks project about two ships' lengths from shore, on which the
sea breaks furiously. It is commonly calm in the road, but there is almost
always a long northerly swell, that causes ships to roll very much.

The anchorage is in 50 fathoms, about 1^ mile from shore, with the peak
bearing S.W. ; and it is proper to continue a pilot on board whilst lying
here.

Orotava stands upon a gentle slope at the foot of the mountain, and is
surrounded by fields of corn, gardens and vineyards. The culture of the
soil is here promoted to a very great degree, particularly in some patches so
elevated and so secluded as to appear inaccessible to the husbandman. But
the plain is very forbidding ; and the beach is composed of naked, pointed,
and cinereous, or scorched rocks.

PALMA. — From Point Tefio, the western end of Tenerife, to the nearest
part of the Island of Palma, the distance is about 15 leagues. The summit
of this island is higher than the general level of Tenerife, its peak ex-
cepted ; hence some navigators run toward it with great confidence in the
night.

The chief port is that of Santa Cruz, on the East side of the island. The
mark by which a stranger may find it is tho following: — "When he ap-
proaches the East side of the island, Palma will appear shaped exactly like
a saddle. Let him steer so as to fall in a little to windward of the lowest
place, or middle of the saddle, till he comes within a mile of the land ; then;

THE CANARY ISLANDS— GOMER A. 713

running along shore to the southward, he will perceive the town close by
the sea shore, and the shipping lying in the road ; but, as the land behind
the town is high and steep, one cannot discern the shipping till within a
mile of them. The road is within a musket-shot of the shore, where vessels
commonly ride in 15 or 20 fathoms of water, and are exposed to easterly
winds; yet, with good anchors and cables, they may remain with great
safety in all winds ; for the ground is clean and good, and the great eleva-
tion of the island, with the perpendicular height of the land facing the road,
repels the wind that blows upon it, though ever so strong.

When there is a great N.E. wind at sea, it comes rolling into the bay, but
the want of wind and the deepness of the water deprive it of strength and
power; so that ships, in such a case, ride here with a slack cable. These
circumstances render the road of Santa Cruz, in Palma, more secure than
any of those of Canaria or Tenerife ; but in the winter the rolling swell
which comes into the bay, breaks high upon the beach, and prevents boats
from going off, or landing, for the space of three or four days together.

Santa Cruz de la Palma is a large town, but not so good as that of Palnias.
in Canary, or the towns of Tenerife. In coming to it from the offing, a
church on one of the heights and some windmills are the first objects seen.
It has seyeral forts, and near the mole is a castle, or battery, mounted with
a few cannon. In the middle of the town, near the great church, is a
fountain, filled by a rivulet, which plentifully supplies the inhabitants with
good water.* A mole was completed in 1875.

Taxacorta or Tassacorta, the port next in consideration to that of Santa
Cruz, is on the S.W. part of the island ; it is exposed to westerly winds, and
little frequented by any vessels, excepting boats.

In all the island there is no town of any note, excepting Santa Cruz, but
many villages, the chief of which are St. Andres and Tassacorta. In the
north-eastern part, inland, is a remarkable high mountain, called La Cal-
dera, or the Caldron, being hollow, like the Peak of Tenerife.

Light. — On Cumplida Point on the N.E. side of Palma, a revolving light
is shown, and eclipsed every minute, illuminating an arc of 239° between
Caviota and Barlovento Points. Elevated 207 ft., and visible 20 miles off.

GOMERA is divided from Tenerife by a perfectly safe channel 15 miles
wide. The island is very rugged and uneven, the middle being a plateau,
above which the mountain Alta Garaone rises to 4,440 ft. The shores are
everywhere rugged, and nearly perpendicular to the sea. A few rocks lie
off it, and there are some small sandy beaches, at one of which, on the East
side, is the principal town.

The Port of Gomera lies S.W., about 17 miles from Point Tefio, of Tene-
rife. St. Sebastian, the principal town, is situated close by the shore, in the
bottom of a bay, on the eastern side, where shipping lie land-locked from all

* The following notice, which appeared in the Shipping Gazette, in March, 1840, will be
useful to vessels touching at Palma:— ."Several English vessels having lately sent ashora
their boats at Tassacorta, without receiving the succour they required, I beg, through
you, to inform the shipping interest in general, that the orders from the Spanish Govern,
ment are, that no communication be held, or refreshments given, at any other place, except
this and the town of Santa Cruz, on the N.E. eido of Palma."— Canaries, January 10th
1840.

714 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

winds, except the S.E. Here you may anchor at a convenient distance from
the shore, in from 15 to 7 fathoms; but as the land-wind frequently blows
hard, it is necessary for a ship to moor with a large scope of cable, other-
wise she will be in danger of being blown out of the bay. The sea here is
generally so smooth that boats may land on the beach without danger. On
the North side of the bay is a cove, where ships of any burthen may haul
close to the shore, which is a high perpendicular cliff, and there heave down,
clean, or repair. When boats cannot land on the beach, on account of the
surf, they put ashore on this cove, from whence there is a pathway along
the cliff to the town.

The town has plenty of good water, which is drawn from wells in every
part of it; and in the winter, a large rivulet from the mountains empties
itself into the port. On the South side of the moUth of this rivulet stands
an old round tower; and on the top of its perpendicular cliff, on the North
side of the cove, is a chapel and a battery, with a few pieces of cannon.

Care must be taken in passing round the East end of Gomera, as a sunken
rock, the Bermeja Shoal, lies 100 yards off shore, at a mile northward of the
North point of the bay.

To the best of my remembrance, says Capt. Glas, the land that forms the
North point of the bay is the most southerly point of land, on the East side
of Gomera, that can be seen from Point Teiio, on Tenerife. That land,
when one is to the northward of it, at about a league distant, bears a great
resemblance to Rame Head, near Plymouth Sound. In going into the bay >
it is necessary to stand close in with this point, for the land wind is com-
monly too scanty for a ship to fetch the proper anchoring place ; from that
reason it is better to come in with the sea breeze, which generally begins to
blow here about noon.

The best place for a ship to lie in here is where a full view may be had
along through the main street of the town, and at about the distance of a
cable's length from the beach. It is necessary to moor as soon as possible,
because of eddy winds that sometimes blow in the bay.

FERRO, or HIERRO. — This island, the westernmost of the Canaries, has
neither road nor harbour worthy of particular description. The land rises
Bteeply from the sea, and is craggy on all sides for about a league, so as to
render the ascent very difficult. Its summit is an uneven plateau, the
highest points of which are 4,580 and 4,990 feet above the sea. At the
northern part of the island the sides of these mountains are nearly perpen-
dicular cliffs, commencing at Point Salmone, and extending round to the
N.W. point, Pta. de la Dehesa, and are called Pisco de Taretai. The only
roadsteads are at Naos, at the South end, where there are no inhabitants
nor ehelter ; and at Puerto del Uierro, on the East side. The latter is only a
Blight inlet, with a sandy beach between two rocky points, off the northern-
most of which is a detached islet, which has a shoal running off for one-
third of a mile. In the interior of the island, at the North end, is Falverde,
the chief town, surrounded by high peaks. It produces, however, many
trees and shrubs, with better grass, herbage, and flowers, than any of the
other islands, so that bees and honey abound. The wine is poor, and there
aro only three fountains or springs of water on the island.

THE CANARY ISLANDS— DIRECTIONS. 715

DIRECTIONS FOR SAILING AMONG- THE CANARY ISLANDS,
BY CAPTAIN GLAS.

If a ship, lying at Palma, wants to go to Lanzarote, and will not wait for
a fair wind, (which, indeed, seldom blows there, especially in the summer
season), let her stand over to the N.W. side of Tenerife, and beat up along
shore until she weathers Point Naga ; thence with the wind that generally
prevails in these parts, she will be able to weather Canaria, and fetch the
Point of Jandia, of Puertaventura, or perhaps Morro Jable, the southern
point, whence it is easy to beat up to Pozonegro, along the East side of tho
island, because there the sea is always smooth. It is not quite so easy to
beat up from Pozonegro to the Isle* of Lobos ; yet it may be done without
difficulty when the weather is moderate. If the wind should happen to
blow hard, she may stop in the Bay of Las Playas, until it proves more
favourable.

From the Isle of Lobos, she will find no difficulty in beating up to Porto
de Naos, in Lanzarote. It is not advisable, for those who are not perfectly
well acquainted with that harbour, to attempt to conduct a ship in, because
the entrances are very narrow.

It is common for ships that come loaded from Europe to Santa Cruz,
Tenerife, &c, to have part of their cargoes to unload at Port Orotava; these
ships, when the trade wind blows hard, will sometimes find it impracticable
to weather Point Naga. When this is the case, bear away to the leeward
point of the island, and keep near the shore, where, if you do not meet with
a southerly wind, you will be carried by the current, in the space of twenty-
four hours, from the S.W. point of the island to Point Teiio, whence you
may easily beat up to Porto Orotava ; for when the wind blows excessively
strong at Point Naga, it is moderate weather all the way from Point Teiio
until within 2 or 3 leagues of Point Naga. But I would not advise a ship
to boar away as above directed, unless when the trade wind blows so fresh
that she cannot weather Point Naga ; because in moderate weather there is
little or no wind stirring on the coast between Teiio and Port Orotava.

In rounding Point Naga, or Anaga, the sunken rock alluded to should bo
guarded against.

The Coast of Africa, East of the Canaries, is level, and is rendered in-
accessible by a heavy surf, which breaks on it continually. The Canarians,
in the sea between this coast and the islands, employ a number of vessels to
fish for bream and cod.

OF THE CALMS OF THE CANARY ISLANDS.

It has been already noticed, in the description of the Island Canaria, that
its mountains tower so far above the clouds, as to stop the current of the
-N.E. wind that generally blows here ; so that when the wind blows hard on
the North side of the mountain, it is either quite calm on the other side, cr

716 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

a gentle breeze blows upon it from the S.W. These calms and eddy-winds,
occasioned by the height of the mountains above the atmosphere, extend 20
or 25 leagues beyond them to the S.W. There are calms beyond, or to lee-
ward of, some of the rest of the islands, as well as Canaria ; for those of
Tenerife extend 15 leagues over the ocean, the calms of Gornera 10, and
those of Palina30. "I have," says Captain Glas, "been frequently in all
the calms of the islands, excepting those of Palma ; and, from my experience
of them, I may venture to say, that it is extremely dangerous for small
vessels, or open boats, to venture within them when the wind blows hard
without. It is true, indeed, the wind raises the waves of the sea to a moun-
tainous height ; yet those waves follow each other in regular succession ;
for, were they to fall confusedly one against another, no ship would bo able
to sail on the ocean. But in a storm, the wind driving the sea before it each
wave <nves place to the one which follows ; whereas, in the calms in the
Canary Islands, the sea, not moving forward in the same direction with the
sea without, but being, as it were, stagnant, or at rest, resists the waves
that fall in upon it from without; and this resistance causes them to break
just in the same manner as the billows break upon the sea shore, but with
less violence, on account of the different nature of the resistance. This
breaking of the waves is only on the very verge of, or just entering into
the calms ; for within them the water is smooth and pleasant.

"Upon first coming into the calms, the waves may be seen foaming and
boilino- like a pot, and breaking in all directions. When a vessel comes
amongst them, she is shaken and beaten by the waves, on all sides, in such
a manner, that one would imagine that she could not withstand their force ;
however, this confusion does not last long. The best way to manage a ship
entering the calms is immediately to haul up the courses, and diligently attend
the braces, to catch every puff of wind that offers, in order to impel the
ship into them as soon as possible. The crew must not think it strange to
be obliged to brace about the yards every two or three minutes, according as
the wind veers and hauls ; but after a ship is once fairly into the calms, she
will either find a dead calm and smooth water, or a pleasant and constant
breeze at South or S.W., according as the wind blows without, to which this
eddy-wind, as it may be called, always blows in an opposite direction."

7. -THE CAPE VERDE ISLANDS.

The CAPE VERDE ISLANDS, a colony belonging to Portugal, derive
their name from the nearest point of the coast of Africa, and were discovered,
it is said, in 1450, by Antonio Noli, a Genoese, in the service of Portugal.
They consist of the Ilha de Sal or Salt Island, Boavista, Maio or the Isle of
May, St. Iago, Fuego, or Fogo, Brava, San Nicolao, Sta. Lucia, St. Vicente,
and San Antonio, besides several small islets. Of these isles, the most con-
siderable is St. Iago, the chief town of which is the seat of government.
The population is estimated at 85,393 persons. Salt is the principal article

THE CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 717

of commerce. The first port in the archipelago is Porto Grande on the North
side of San Vicente.

We have alr< ady shown (pp. 460 — 465) the usual courses and allowances
to be made in sailing to these islands ; and have there noticed the logs by
which they are frequently surrounded. The estimated limits of the N.E.
trade- winds in the vicinity may be seen in pp. 199 and 200. Thus much
premised, we immediately proceed to the description of tho isles.*

ILHA de SAL.— The Isle of Sal lies between lat. 16° 34' and 16° 51', and
on the meridian of 23° W. The northern part of the isle is mountainous ; the
southern very low and sandy. Both the eastern and western sides are irre-
gular ; and the former has almost continued reef, along shore, from North
to South.

Sal derives its name from the salt ponds upon it, wherein the water crys-
tallizes into a beautiful salt, the chief production of the isle, as the land is
so barren as to bear no trees nor verdure, excepting a few inconsiderable
shrubs.

On approaching the island from the North, it will be found in general that
the currents are very irregular. You may, on approaching, see tho high
land at 14 leagues off; sometimes at a greater distance. The land makes
in three hillocks, of which the northernmost is the highest. This is the Peak
of Martinez, in the N.E., the summit of which is 1,340 ft. above the level of
the sea.

The best roadsteads of Sal are on the western side of the island ; but
there are three small bays on the eastern side, and one on the South. The
middle bay on the eastern side, where a ship may lie, is apparently shel-
tered from the N.E. by a sandy reef stretching out to tho eastward, and here
salt may be obtained. f The other bays en this side are open to the N.E.
trade- wind, which makes a very heavy sea on the beach.

Great caution is required on approaching the South end of the island in
the night, it being so low as hardly to be seen 10 miles off in the day.
Keep your lead going, and approach no nearer than in 30 fathoms, unless
bound into the South Bay, which lies between the S.E. and South points of
the island. %

The S.E. point of Sal is called Wreck Point, H.M. sloop Erne having been
wrecked near it in 1819; this is surrounded by a reef. From South Point,
forming the West side of the bay, a dangerous sandy spit extends about 1

* Mr. Finlaison has said that, " In leaving Tenerife for the Cape Verde Islands, you
will certainly have the wind from E. hy S. to N.E. as you approach the islands." He also
adds, that in the passage a current was generally found setting from S.S. W. at the rate of
half a mile nn hour, which is contrary to the current on the African coast. (See pp. 337-8.)

t Firestone Hiil. — A promontory on the eastern coast stands at 2 leagues from the North
Point. At the back of this is the Salt-pond Hill, a natural curiosity, as upon this is the
salt-pond, 150 feet above the level of the sea. The surface of the pond, in a circular form,
is 45 feet below the top of the hill,

X Hearkening for the noise of the surf will often give ample warning in approaching
land, either during a fog or by night, and ought to be attended to, if heard ; but no one
ought to run rashly, making certain of hearing it. — A. L.

N. A. O. 4 Z

718 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

mile into the sea. If coming into the bay between these points, after round-
ing Wreck Point in 8 or 9 fathoms, bringing that point to bear E. by S. and
the opposite point W. J N., anchor in 9 fathoms, sandy bottom. Here you
will be sheltered from the N.E trade, and lie in perfect safety.

At 5 miles to the West, from the North Point of Sal, is Manuel or the
N. W. Point. Nearly true South, 8A- miles from the latter, is a little islet,
called Bird Isle, near a promontor)', Lion's Head, which is 620 ft. high. At
a league to the northward of Bird Isle is a small bay, called Palmyra Pay,
and immediately to the south-eastward of the Lion's Head is Mordeira Pay,
which is one of the best in the Cape Verde Islands.

Mordeira Bay is in a semi-circular shape, 1 league in extent between its
outer points, Lion's Head and Turtle Point. It is a safe anchorage during
the N.E. breezes. Captain Bartholomew says that it has plenty of fish and
turtle, but has no watering-place ; nor could water be procured by sinking
casks in the sand.

H.M. ships Leven and Parracouta anchored in this bay in 1822, and caught
a great many most delicious fish ; yet the place produces little else but salt
and orchilla ; a few goats contrive to pick up a scanty subsistence, but eagles
abound.

The principal mark for anchoring in Mordeira Bay is Bird Island just
shut in with the foot of Lion's Head, at 1^ mile from the bluff land; there
are several foul spots ; therefore the ground should be examined before the
anchor be dropped.

From Turtle Point, the South point of Mordeira Bay, to the South point
of Sal, the distance is \h league. The ground between is smooth, and has
7 fathoms over it, at half a mile from shore, which is sandy ; but be careful
if you anchor, that the ground is clear. In rounding the South point, with
the spit extending from it, approach no nearer than in 10 or 8 fathoms, as
the latter is steep.

The latitude of the Lion's Head, according to the Admiralty Survey, is
16° 41'; long. 23° 0' 15". High water, 7 h 15 m ; rise, 5 feet.

Between Sal and Bonavista there is generally a strong current.

BONAVISTA. — The Island of Bonavista, properly Poavista, has been so
called from the beautiful appearance it made to the first discoverers in the
year 1450. The face of it is variegated ; partly low, partly rocky and moun-
tainous ; formerly fertile, now more barren. Salt is the principal article of
trade, which the inhabitants readily exchange for old clothes, biscuits, meal,
and raw silk. The principal place is English Road, on the N.W.

The eastern side of Bonavista is partly environed by a reef ; and on the
N.E. are the reefs on which the Uartwell, East Indiaman, was lost in 1787 ;
and on which the Resolution, Capt. Cook, was nearly driven by a southerly
current. Half a league nearly from the West end is a coral reef, on which
the sea breaks ; and at times the current sets on it very rapidly.

From the South end of Sal, the N.W. point of Bonavista lies true South,
or S. by W. £ W. by compass, distant 7 leagues ; and from the same end of
Sal, to clear the N.E. reefs, the course by compass is S.E. by S. 11 leagues,
in order to allow for the current that sets to the S.W. on Bonavista ; be sure
to make this course, and it will bring you to the eastward of these reefs, the
easternmost part of which lies in lat. 16° 10'.

THE CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 719

Bonavista is of an irregular shape, but neaily octagonal, and each way 3
leagues in extent. Its eastern side is low, but the interior is mountainous,
and a ridge of high land from N.W. to S.E. divides the island into two un-
equal parts. Of this island chain, Mount Juan Fernandez is the northern
part, and the southern is called the South Mount a in. Two miles from the
N.E. end are two conical hills, Mounts Ochel or Ochello, and Broyal ; at the
N.W. end is the Peak Reshee, and in the S."W. is the Platform Hill, with an
elevation within it called the Man Mountain. English Boad, on which the
town is situate, forms a bay of 5 miles in extent from N.E. to S.W., and its
northern part is protected by an islet, called by the English Small Island.
The South point of this bay is Coral Point ; and off this point, which is foul,
at the distance of half a league, is a coral reef.

Off the N.E. coast, as already shown, are the Hartwell Eeefs, and three
kays, called Butch, Braithwaite, and North Eays. Between these is sufficient
depth of water for ships, in case of necessity, and proper depths for anchor-
age, under the lee of the reefs ; but many rocks are here scattered, with
only 12 or 13 ft. over them, and 4 fathoms close along them, on which, with
a wind, the sea breaks very high. Of the channels between these reefs, the
best lies between a ledge to the E.S.E. of Braithwaite or the Middle Kay,
which is always visible, and Dutch or the South Kay. This channel ia
three-quarters of a mile broad, and has regular soundings, from 15 to 5
fathoms ; having been tried by H.M. sloop Bulldog, which often sailed in
and out of it, and several times anchored under Braithwaite Kay, with thar''
kay N.E. by E., Dutch Kay, S. | W.

Braithwaite Kay i3 about 2 miles from the shore. The passage to the
north-westward, between this and North Kay, is half a mile broad, and its
least water is 7 and 8 fathoms. The passage between Dutch Kay and Bona-
vista is narrow, but in the best water are 7 fathoms. Dutch Kay bears
from Braithwaite Kay S. £ W. (S. by E.) 2 J miles.

The North Kay is connected to the shore by a reef, having over it only
5 ft. of water. "When this kay is in line with the summit of Mount Ochel,
or the N.E. high mountain in Bonavista, it bears about W.S.W. h W.

In sailing out to the south-westward, with the wind easterly, stand well
to the southward, taking advantage of the current here setting easterly, and
take care not to borrow too near the back of the reefs.

Bonetta Rock (?)— A ship, the Madeline, bound to New South Wales,
was reported to have struck and been wrecked on a reef, at about 8 leagues
E. N.E. from Bonavista, in April, 1835. Some smart but justifiable remarks
upon this report were afterwards given in the " Nautical " (December, 1839),
the writer of which represents the case as a matter " very nicely cooked up
for the edification of seamen," and the benefit of a certain "market." He
adds that Captain Yidal has, by his researches in the JEtna, satisfactorily
proved that no such danger as the Madeline or Bonetta Reefs have any
existence.

. These imaginary dangers were also sought for by the American exploring
squadron, as shown hereafter, and the result seems to be, that the Madeline
was impelled to the S.W. by the current, and wrecked on the Eartivell Beef
of Bonavista. The question of the existence of this danger has been defi-
nitely settled by Lieutenant Lee, U.S.N., on the cruise of the Dolphin, as he

720 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

found a depth of 1,580 fathoms on the spot, and great depths close up to the
islands, as shown hereafter.

The long list of wrecks on the Hartwell Eeef, and the fact of so many
vessels being to the westward of their reckonings, and that in the short run
from Madeira or the Canaries, will give great weight to the fact of the
westward tendency of the currents, which, as has been stated before, tend
directly towards this formidable danger, and therefore will call for all the
vigilance and care so imperatively necessary for the safety of ships passing
this place.

The Brazen Hill and Point (otherwise Brazen Head), in lat. 16° 2', on the
S-E. coast, is the first high land to the southward of East Sand Head, which
is the easternmost point of Bonavista. The Head is remarkable, being very
bluff and perpendicular on each side. The beach is sandy. Point Urrateo,
or the South Point, which is nearly 3 leagues more to the south-westward, is
low and foul, and an islet of the same description lies at three-quarters of a
mile to the eastward. To the westward of the point is anchorage in what is
called Portuguese Road, with Platform Hill bearing about N.N. W. and nearer
in-shore, in from 13 and 14 to 8 and 6 fathoms. In the latter depths the
landing-place will bear N.E. by N. more than a mile distant.*

North and West Coasts,— Erom the North Kaxj, off Mount Ochel, already
described, the coast is foul to Broyal Point on the North coast ; and there are
several reefs between the latter and the N.W. end of the island, which is
called the North Point and Reef; Small Island, which forms the N.W. side of
English Road, is 4 miles hence to the S.S.W. {S. ly W. \ W.)

English Road, on the West coast, is a safe anchorage during the summer
months, while you have the N.E. breezes, but there are three reefs in it, as
shown on the chart. Vessels generally haul close round Small Island in 6
and 7 fathoms, and pass within the first reef (of 10 ft.) in order to avoid the
necessity of making a tack to get to the anchorage. The best mark for the
latter is the town open with tho N.E. end of Small Island, and the highest
part of that isle about N.E. by E. The Ten- feet Eeef generally shows
itself; but when this is not the case, a stranger will do well to stand outside
rounding it at about 1£ or 2 miles from Small Island, approaching it no
nearer than in 6 fathoms, and, after juco opening tho town, taking care not
to shut it again.

The new town is on the middle of tho bay, and the second reef {New Town
Reef) lies to the westward of it, at a short distance from the beach. The
Inner Reef lies, in like manner, half a league more to the northward. The
■ Ten-feet Reef is about 100 fathoms in length, and extends nearly East and
West, at rather more than a quarter of a mile from Small Island.

Mr. Keilor has said: — "Wo experienced in a calm a very large sea,
breaking in every part of the bay, and were at the same time riding with
a very short scope of cable, by reason of a strong current setting out of the

* Mr. Finlaison says, that it is requisite to give the point under Platform Hill a good
berth, as there is a reef extending from it. In the day you may sec the sea breaking on it
The mountain E.N.E. clears the danger.

THE CAPE VEEDE ISLANDS. 721

bay, against the sea : this current runs so high as to frequently break on the

deck."

In the rainy season, which is during the months of July, August, and

September, the Island of Bonavista is subject to light airs and changeable

winds, with heavy swells in the bay and roadsteads.

The tide flows in English Eoad at 7 o'clock, on full and change days,

and the sea rises 5 ft. Observe that there is no fresh water for shipping

at Bonavista. There is water, but not plenty of it, near the Portuguese

Eoad.
Leton Rock, or John Leton's Rode, a dangerous reef, lies to the S.W. of

Bonavista. This shoal has been described as just even with the surface of

the sea, which breaks upon it with great violence. The bottom about it is
rocky, and swarms with fish. Its extent from North to South is about a
mile.

From the centre of the reef the North point of Bonavista bears N.E. £ N.
(N. 26° E.) 9| leagues, and the South point of the same E. by N. (2V. 64°^.)
7 leagues.

This danger appears to be en the central part of an extensive bank of
coral soundings, extending over 4 or 5 miles to the southward, and con-
siderably to the eastward and westward. Some ships had soundings of 25
to 50 fathoms to the "West and S.W. of the reef, at from 2 to 5 miles from
the breakers. Immediately after striking, the Lord Melville had 25 fathoms,
her head being to the eastward ; shortly after, 30 fathoms. This ship hove-
to, with her head easterly, until daylight, and had from 30 to 40 fathoms,
all coral soundings. Others had soundings 10 or 12 miles to the southward
of the reef, generally coral, sometimes intermixed with sand and shells, and
not less than 20 fathoms. The mean of the observations and chronometers
of the fleet gave 15° 49' N., and 23° 14' W., as the situation of the reef,
which is on the meridian of the Isle of Mayo ; its situation, according to
the Admiralty survey, is 15° 41' N., and 23° 13' W.

ISLE OF MAYO. — This island is raised considerably above the sea, but a
great part is level, excepting three inland mountains of considerable height ;
but these show as hummocks, and are not conspicuous. On the S.W. side
is a sandy bay, called English Eoad, within which is the town and extensive
salt-pans. The soil of this isle is generally dry and unproductive, and there
is but one spring of water in the island. The coast is, however, plentifully
stocked with fish, which supply, with a few vegetable productions, subsistence
to the poor inhabitants.

From the S.W. end of Bonavista to the Island of Mayo, the course is
S.W. by S., distant 15 leagues; Mayo is about 4 leagues in length from
North to South, rising most toward the middle. On approaching the island
from the S.E., the appearance is very different; you may descry, in tho
North part, two hummocks, which appear like two islands ; but, when
nearer, the land is perceived by which they are connected. Southward of
these is a mountain {J/onte 3Iaio), with very low ground to the South, over
which two hillocks are seen.

At half a league from the middle of the North side of the island is a
dangerous reef, the Galhao, extending N.N.E. & n d S.S.W. three-quarters of
a mile, which must be cautiously avoided.

722 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

In English Road ships may anchor in 7 or 8 fathoms of water. The
landing is very indifferent, no good water to be had, and the place is quite
defenceless. The shore to the eastward of and abreast the town is steep,
bluff, and rocky ; but, to the westward, a low white sandy beach extends to
a rounding point, from which a spit of sand and coral stretches outward, at
a short distance from the extremity of which there is no ground at 45
fathoms. The spit may be rounded in about 16 fathoms, and a ship could
not anchor further out than in that depth, the edge of the bank being steep.
At half a mile West from the town there is anchorage in 12 fathoms, lati-
tude, according to particular plan, 15° 16' 10", long. 23° 15'. By general
chart, 15° T 30" N., and 23° 17' W.

ST. IAGO. — Ships running from Bonavista to St. Iago, and being obliged
to ply to windward during the night, must be cautious how they approach
Maio, on account of the reef before mentioned off the North point of that
island ; having doubled that point, they may steer S.W. to make the land of
St. Iago, and thence southward until they make the Road of Praya the
common place of anchorage, which may be known at night by the lights
presently described.

The land of St. Iago is very high, the peak of San Antonio, the highest
point of the ridge, being 4,720 ft., and the eastern coast is bordered with
rocks, hying very near the land, along which you may sail very safely, at
the distance of 2 miles. The S.E. part, which is in reality the East point,
appears as a long low point, when you are to the northward or southward of
it ; and from this point, S. IF. by S. true, about 6 miles, lies the East point
of Porto Praya. Between the two, and near the former, lies a bay, which
so much resembles that of Porto Praya, that many vessels, deceived by the
likeness, have run the hazai'd of being lost in this dangerous place; at the
bottom of it are several cocoa-nut trees, and a few houses. The land be-
tween this and the point of Porto Praya is mostly perpendicular, appearing,
in some places, like the Berry Read, in Torbay ; and though the fort of Port
Praya, which stands on a small cliff, is a mark by which the true bay may
be distinguished from the false one, yet the surest mark is, that the North
or East point of the false bay is surrounded with breakers ; whereas the
point of Porto Praya is high, steep, and free from shoals. You must haul
close round the point, and keep within a cable's length of the shore to go to
the anchoring-place. It may also be noticed that there is a look-out on the
cliff, at half a league to the northward of the entrance of Porto Praya.

Porto Praya is a fine bay, which lies between two points, bearing from
each other IF. by S. and E. by JV., true, about 1£ mile. As you sail round
the East point, you will soon open the forts at the bottom of the bay, to the
westward of which, in a valley, are several cocoa-nut trees and several
houses.

The Coaling Station is on the inside of Quails or St. Marie Islet, which is
1 mile from the town of Praya.

" The anchorage is well sheltered, and has a depth of water of from 5 to
7 fathoms. There is an admirably-managed free hospital at Praya ; and the
island of St. Jago abounds in sweet potatoes, cabbage?, pumpkins, and a
variety of fruits, such as oranges, lemons, and bananas. Drinking water is
good, and can be put alongside ships at the rate of 8s. per 100 gallons. The

THE CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 723

population of St. Jago is over 30,000, and the island is extensively culti-
vated. It exports produce to St. Vincent and other islands adjacent. The
port charges on vessels calling for refreshments only is said to be 5 dollars
for a ' health visit.' The only drawback to the port is that there" is no dock
for the repair of vessels; but this will doubtless be met as the shipping
trade increases." — Liverpool Telegraph, December, 1874.

The sandy cove, on the East side of the bay, is an excellent place to
haul the seine in, as is also the head of the bay. The principal fish are
the mullet (gray and red), rock-fish, snappers, cavalla, and a variety of
small fish.

St. Marie, or Quails, or Frenchman's Island, on the western side of the bay,
is a small black island, almost even to the top, but rugged at each end, and
some rocks lie off each end to about half a cable's length ; there is also a
rocky ledge off the North end, where the water is, in general, shallow. You
will not have more than 3 fathoms of water between this and the fort ; inside,
or to the westward of the island, it is navigable for boats only, and on the
western side of the island the coaling station is situated.

Lights. — On the South point of Quail Island & fixed bright light is shown,
elevated 85 ft. above high water, visible in clear weather 5 or 6 miles. The
light tower is white, 14 ft. high, and surmounted by an iron tripod, the top
of which is 41 ft. above the ground. On the North point of Quail Island a
fixed red light is shown, elevated 65 ft. above high water, which in clear
weather should be visible 1 or 2 miles. The lantern is on the roof of a red
house, 23 ft. high, standing between two detached buildings. On the Mole
of Praya, at the new landing place, is a small red light, visible only a short
distance.

Caution. — These lights are the property of a private company, and cannot
always be depended upon.

Commander Dunsterville says : — "This island, bearing W.N. "W. £ W. 8
leagues, appears very high. Mount St. Antonio, rising out of its centre, is
of a conical form, and terminates in a peak, which peak, bearing N.N.W.
(by compass) leads to Porto Praya Eoad ; and, as you advance westward, you
will see the East end, which is very low. As a further guide, you will see
an opening, several miles north-eastward of the harbour, on Signal-post
Hill, which gradually slopes to the westward; also Red Hill, which is on the
port side of the bay, N. by W.

" The town is situated on an eminence rather high, and perfectly white,
the houses being visible from S. by E. to S.W. by W.

"In sailing into the bay, keep well to the eastward, as the ground to the
westward is foul. Anchor in from 10 to 7 fathoms, with Red Hill W. by N.,
outer eastern entrance E.S.E."

" Quail Island, though centrally situated, is too near the main land to
assist any one in finding the anchorage. Do not approach it, on any point,
nearer than half a mile, as the vicinity is rocky, and some rocks do not
appear above the surface."

A visitor, in 1852, complains of the want of clearness in the directions
for Porto Praya, as he says there is some confusion in the names of the S.E.
and East points. The East point is that to the North of St. Francis Bay,
and the S.E. point is that on the East side of Porto Praya. The peaks which

724 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

are sometimes pointed out as good marks, are so frequently obscured by
haze as to bo of little service. IIo therefore suggests the following brief
directions as sufficient: — After making tho Island of St. Iago (outward
bound), steer to the S.W. till the South extreme of the road bears W. by N. f
when the South point will be distinctly in view, having Eed Hill behind
upon the same bearing ; haul up then to the westward, and pass the point
about three-quarters of a mile off. Quail Island (having a very black ap-
pearance) will then be seon to the N.W. ; steer up for the North end of it
till you fairly open the bay ; then luff up to about N.N.W., and anchor
midway between Quail Island and the eastern shore of the bay, in 7 fathoms,
leaving Eed Hill just open to the northward of the island.

Tho best anchorage is, to bring the flagstaff on the fort N.W. by N.
(If. W.) about three-quarters of a mile, the body of Quail Island West, and
the point of the bay opposite Quail Island E. by S., in 7 and 8 fathoms.
Many commanders prefer anchoring nearer the N.E. side of the bay than
the Isle of Quails, for the sake of more easily getting under sail, without
running the risk of being carried by the currents upon the points of rocks
to leeward, before the vessel has gained fresh way enough to steer clear of
them ; and it has been observed that vessels may anchor anywhere in the
bay, from 9 to 11 fathoms, good bottom, but nearer to the eastern shore than
to the Isle of Quails, as the wind, except in the months of August, Septem-
ber, and October, generally blows from the N.E.

The Bay of Praya, being under the South end of St. Iago, should you be
to the leeward of it, you will find it difficult in beating to windward against
so strong a current as there is here.

To those bound from Praya Bay to Bonavista, Mr. Keilor recommends
that they should endeavour to sail in the evening, as the current will be
favourable. He adds : Do not stand too far over toward the African shore,
nor work between Mayo and St. Iago, and you will find the ship get to the
eastward very fast.

Winds. — Capt. FitzEoy, who visited this place in H.M.S. Beagle, January,
1832, made the following observations : —

" The wind being always from the North or East during this season of
the year (December to June), a ship can moor as close to the weather shore
as may be convenient ; but during July, August, September, and October,
no vessel should deem the bay secure, or anchor near the shore, because
southerly gales sometimes blow with great strength, and the rollers, or
heavy seas sent in by them, are dangerous to ships which have bad ground
tackle, or are lying near the land. As I have myself experienced the force
of these gales, in the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands, and witnessed the
sea raised by them, I can confidently warn those who are inclined to be in-
credulous about a gale of wind being found in 15° of North latitude, beyond
the limits of the hurricane regions.

" Strong gusts come over the land into the bay during the fine season,
when the breeze is fresh ; therefore, a ship entering with intent to anchor,
ought to have a reef in her topsails, and be ready to clew up the top-gallant
sails at a moment's warning.

" From August to October is the rainy and sickly season. In September,
a S.W. gale is usually experienced ; but from five to ten hours before its

THE CAPE YERDE ISLANDS. 725

commencement, a dark bank of clouds is seen in the southern horizon, which
is a sure forerunner of the gale. Should a vessel be at anchor in the port
at such a time, she ought to weigh and put to sea until the storm has ceased,
and the swell subsided. In the month of September preceding our visit, an
American merchant brig and a Portuguese slaver were at anchor in Port
Praya. A bank of clouds were seen during the day in the S.W., and the
American went to sea ; but the slaver remained at anchor. A storm arose
at night, drove the slave-vessel ashore, and dashed her to pieces in less than
half an hour, yet did the American no danger whatever, and the next day
she anchored again in the port.

" Except during the rainy season, the wind is always north-easterly, and
then the sky is clear and the sun very powerful ; but a dry haze hangs over
the island in a peculiar manner, and a quantity of fine dust, quite an impal-
pable powder, frequently settles on every exposed surface, even on the sails
and rigging of a vessel, when passing near tho islands."

In settled weather, there are often regular land and sea breezes in the bay
— the sea breeze setting in near noon, with a great surf on the shore, and
ending at 4 or 5 o'clock in the afternoon. The N.E. wind eets in toward
evening, and continues during the night.

Santiago, or Ribeira Grande, commonly called La Cidade, stands at the
bottom of a ravine at 6 miles to the West of Praya. Vessels of any size can
anchor before it in the fine season. The best place is said to be with the fort
flagstaff in one with the episcopal palace. From hence to the S. W. point of
St. Iago there is no anchorage ; between this and the North point of tho
island, Ponta Bighuda, there are Rileira Barca and Ribeira Prata. These
two beaches are 6 miles apart, and between them is a projecting point,
near which are some houses. "Water may be got at these anchoring places
in the fine season. Tarrafal Bag, on the same coast, is about 6 miles North
of Ribeira Prata. It is large, and, according to the people of the place,
safe at all seasons. There are no houses except a custom-house post, but
provisions and water are brought down from the interior.

Point Bighuda is very high and abrupt, and is 3 miles North of Tarrafal
Bay. Tho eastern side of St. Iago is dangerous from the calms produced
by the high lands, which reflect the N.E. winds, and by the currents and
bad sea which are found on it. The only place worth mentioning is the
little harbour of Santiago, which will scarcely hold four vessels of 100 tons.
It lies about the middle of the coast, and may be known by some clumps of
cocoa-nut trees and a small church to the South.

F0G0, or Fuego. — This island, much higher than any other of the Capo
Verde Islands, is only a continued mountain, rising into a peak of 9,760 ft.
in height, which has been in activity in recent times. This island has,
nevertheless, about 7,500 inhabitants, which the eruptions of the volcano
have forced sometimes to quit the island. The ground is clear within a mile
of tho shore, on the N.W., West, and South parts ; but on the S.E., Eact,
and N.E. parts, it is rocky. At about 4 miles from the North end of Fogo,
it is said, there lica a rock, with 12 or 14 ft. of water on it, over which tho
eea breaks when it blows hard, but not clso, and the bottom is clean all
round it; but its existence is qne^fi'jnable.

N. a. o. 5 a

726 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

The town is that of Nossa Scnhora da Luz, on the western side. The road-
stead is open, and the anchoring ground off the town very close in, being
only half a mile from the shore. In 25 fathoms, rocky bottom, the northern
extremity bears N. 15° E. (N. 4° W.) ; the southern extremity, S. 68° E. ;
the northern flagstaff, N. 31° E. ; the southern, N. 21° E.

No other soundings are to be obtained near either Fogo or Brava, with a
line of 130 fathoms, at three-quarters of a mile from shore.

The marks, says Mr. Keilor, when a brig was at anchor off the town, in
10 fathoms of water, were the town bearing E. by N., a quarter of a mile ;
the mount, E.N.E. ; the South end of Brava, S.E. by S. The bay is open,
with foul ground, and a bad landing for boats. Corn, fruit, and cattle may
be purchased at Fogo, but water is scarce.

BRAVA. — Brava is very high, and might be seen at a great distance,
were it not constantly covered by a dense atmosphere. Its climate is tem-
perate and healthy, and for this reason the Governor of the islands some-
times resides here. The winds here prevail at N.E. or East, most part of the
year, excepting in July, August, and September. The channel between
Fogo and Brava is 9 leagues in breadth. Five miles to the N.N.E. of Brava
are the Rombos or Homes, two small rocky isles, nearly connected by smaller
rocks, forming a crescent. The westernmost isle is lofty, and has a peak
on it. Between these islets and the North end of Brava is a clear passage.
The boat landings are bad, except in the harbour on the N.E. side of the
island. Corn, live stock, and fruit, may be obtained.

Although Brava is very high, its mountains rising one above the other,
like pyramids, yet being so near the Isle of Fogo it seems, in comparison,
to be but low. It produces plenty of salt, and abounds most with saltpetre
of any of the islands. According to Captain Roberts, it has several bays or
roads, where a ship may anchor, the best of which, called Fiirna, or the
Oven, lies toward the N.E. end of the island ; if you haul in near the rock,
which is a very good quay, having water enough by the side for a largo
steamer, you will lie land-locked from all winds ; nor does any wind
blow in there, except from the S. by E. to the S.W., which heaves a sea into
the bay, and makes it very well deserve the name of a harbour.

ST. NICOLAS. — The land is high, and the coasts, therefore, subject to
heavy squalls, &c.

There are two remarkable mountains which, ma}' be seen from a distance
of 15 leagues — one in the shape of a sugar-loaf, called the Peak of Trade,
which is near the middle of the island ; the other, Monte Gordo, near the
West end.

From English Road, in Bonavista, to the East point of St. Nicolas, the
true bearing is W.N.W., and the distance 22 leagues ; the course must be
regulated according to the set of the sea. The East end of the island may
be known by its being a platform point, having a pyramidal rock, which
appears like a sail, at a short distance.

On the South side, at 1£ league from this end of the island, is a bay,
having a black sandy beach and a pond of fresh water, supplied from the
mountains, and hence called, by the English Freshwater Bay, properly Pre'
guizo Bay. To anchor in this bay, shut all the land to the eastward within
the East point of the bay ; vou will then lie in 7 fathoms of water, within

THE CAPE VEBDE ISLANDS. 727

half a mile from the shore. There is good landing for the boats, with plenty
of good water in fine weather, and at neap tides ; for, as the tides rise here
5 or 6 ft. on the new and full moon, the pond is then overflowed. At this
time you are subject to heavy squalls ; and, notwithstanding the wind blows
off shore, the sea is very high close to the beach.

At about 4 leagues to the westward, from the middle of Freshwater Bay,
lies San Jorge or St. George's Bag, where a ship can get refreshments ; but
there is no water. This bay is known by a sugar-loaf mount, and a flag-
staff on the hill above the bay. There is tolerably good anchoring in 7
fathoms close to the shore; but without that depth, or in 9 or 10 fathoms,
the ground is rocky. There is a shelf stretching S.E. by S. from the N.E.
point of the bay, on which less water is found than within it ; so that, should
your anchor start, which will happen if you are not careful, the bank being
very steep, and the squalls very sudden, it may hook this shelf and be lost.
The marks to anchor are the cove or landing-place for boats, N.W., dis-
tant a quarter of a mile ; Sugar-Loaf Mount N.E. by E., and the flagstaff
N.W. by N.

Terrafal Bay. — On the S.W. side of St. Nicolas is Terrafal Bay, where
you may anchor in from 20 to 10 fathoms, with the coast to the southward
bearing S. by E., and the Islands Baza and Branco in a line bearing
N.W. £ W. (7T.iV.7P. h W.) and the landing-place East, a quarter of a
mile.

The custom-house is situate on the S.E. angle or corner of this bay. From
this to the West point of St. Nicolas there is a bank of soundings, with from
40 to 20 and 35 fathoms at half a mile from shore. In the last depth is
anchorage, in sandy ground, at a mile S. by W. from the West point, but
sheltered only from the N.E.

There is in Terrafal Bay, a high bluff rocky point, nearly a quarter of a
mile short of the sea-side ; in which place it is low, stony, gravelly, and in
some places, shingly ground, the shore being a pebbly beach. On each side
of this point is a very deep gully, out of which come violent flaws or gusts
of wind ; and, therefore, when anything of a hard gale blows, it is very
difficult to turn up into this bay. To avoid these flaws, you must anchor
right against the point, between the gullies, where you may ride very easy
under its lee, in from 1 6 to 3 fathoms.

Within the bay the depths are 12, 13, and 14 fathoms, soft ground ; and
then they shoalen gradually to the shore, to the depths of 4 to 5 fathoms,
where you have again sand to the pebbly beach. The only anchorages are
on the South side of the island. The northern coast is not frequented.

By digging a well, almost anywhere on the low land, you may water
here, unless the rainy season has failed ; but there is always water in the
valley, about half a mile from the sea, whence the natives will bring it
down on asses for a trifle. From this road you may see in clear weather
all the leeward islands ; but if it be in the least hazy the Isle Baza is not
discernible.

BAZA, BRANCO, and STA. LUCIA.— These islands lie between those of
St. Nicolas and St. Vincent, as shown on the charts. Bugged and moun-
tainous, they partake of the general character of tho other islands. Rata
lies true West 8 miles from the West point of St. Nicolas, and appears in

728 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

the old charts under the name of Chaon or Dog's Isle. It is nearly 2 miles
long from East to West, and 1£ broad. The landing-place is under the
N.W. point, facing the West. This island is low and uninhabited. The
edge of its coast is steep and rocky, and landing is difficult when there is
any wind. Between it and JBranco, at about one-third from Baza, is a coral
reef, extending S.S.W. and N.N.E., and having on its shallow part 6
fathoms of water, but deepening gradually on the West to 15, and on the
East to 18 and 20 fathoms. The sea continually breaks over the reef, owing
to a strong tide or current setting through between tho isles.

Branco, the Eedonda of the old charts, is a league to the N.W. of Bazn,
and much higher. In the passago between are soundings of 6 to 18 in the
middle, aDd decreasing near Branco to 7 fathoms. The latter is a narrow
island, 2 J miles long from S.E. to N.W. A spit of sand stretches from its
S.E. end, on which the seas are violent, and its shore is altogether rocky.

Praya Branca, on the N.W. side of the island, has a small village of about
thirty stone-built houses, thatched with reeds. The scenery here, being on
the side of a stupendous mountain, is picturesque and magnificent. A small
stream of water supplies the village ; bananas and papayas are planted on
the borders of the brook ; cassada and vines on the banks of the valley.
The bread is made from maize, or Indian corn, and from farinha, or flour of
cassada. The natives are, in general, poor, but very courteous.

Monte Gordo is in the central part of the island, toward the West. Its
summit is 4,200 ft. above the level of the sea. The mountain is composed
entirely of volcanic matter, very fragile and porous, and does not form a
peak liko many of the smaller ones on the island. It is well clothed with
vegetation, even to the summit. The JSuphorbium balsamifera flourishes to
about 3,700 ft. above the level of the sea. The prospect hence is very ex-
tensive, calm, and beautiful.— Mr. Forbes : Capt. Owen, vol. i., p. 27.

St. Lucia lies at the distance of 3£ miles to the northward of Branco, and
the Bank of Soundings extends to this island. The bank here forms a
regular flat of 10 to 13 fathoms. The South coast trends nearly East and
West 4 miles, and in the middle of it is a good landing-place. A steep
bank, half a mile broad, stretches from it, having on its edge 2 to 4 fathoms.
In the bay formed by the S.W. coast are the ruins of a village, at three-
quarters of a mile from the South point. To the westward of this is a little
islet named Leon. The N.W. part of St. Lucia is high mountains.

Capt. Bartholomew describes St. Lucia as of moderate height, with a bay
on the S.W., where small vessels may anchor, being sheltered from all points
but South and S.E. The beach is sandy ; the anchorage, small pebbles and
sand. In the middle of the bay is an islet, named Leon, with the ruins of a
village on it, a::d frequented by fishermen only. There are many turtle
here, and much orchilla is gathered, with some cotton, in a wild state.

The passage between St. Lucia and St. Vincent is named Foul Channel. In
Foul Channel, when blowing fresh, and the tido setting to windward, it
boars the appearance of shoal water, but H.M.S. Leven beat through, and
did not find less than G fathoms, with 15 fathoms in mid-channel.

SAN VICENTE, or St. Vincent's.- The island of St. Vincent is separated
by a channel, 4 miles broad, from that of St. Lucia, and by one of 7 miles
from that of St. Antonio. This island is 1 1 miles long, from East to West,

THE CAPE VEEDE ISLANDS. 729

and about 6 broad. It has two chains of mountains, the N.E. and S.W
which form a central valley that terminates in the bay called Porto Grande,
upon the N.W. side of the island. The N.E. coast forms two bays, sepa-
rated by a low peninsula, of 2 miles on either side, and this coast has been
described as altogether dangerous.

The general aspect of it is mountainous, with sharp peaks ; the coast is
rocky, and rises abruptly, but tide, ebbing, leaves a sandy beach. No doubt
can be entertained that the general character of tho island is volcanic ; the
interior is formed by ranges of hills of different heights. The surface of
the country is undulating, and in the interior and loftier parts has a ten-
tency to table lands.

"With regard to the physical divisions of the island, it is divided by a
valley running from West to East ; in the southern division one range of
mountains proceeds from "West to East ; another from North to South, but
both connected by a hill. The northern part of the island consists of moun-
tain chains lying N.E. and S.W., and N.W. and S.E.

The water runs from the elevated parts to the sea coast, and loses itself
in the sand, but the quantity of it is not capable to form in the dry season
a river; the principal valley is divided by a hill, which connects the
northern and southern division. The watercourse, running West, takes its
rise 520 feet above the level of the sea ; the bed is gravel, covered with
mud, united by chalk. The coast forms a great number of little bays, in
general capable of containing vessels ; the chief port is named Porto
Grande, situated on the West side of the island, and is a good anchorage
for about 300 vessels ; water and provisions cannot easily be procured ; the
former defect might be remedied. The wind blows generally from the
N.E. ; in the rainy season, which commences in the month of July, and ends
on the 15th of October, the S.E. wind prevails. During the last years the
rains have been regular in point of time but sometimes not in quantity.

The telegraph cable, joining Brazil with Europe, and touching here and at
Madeira, leaves the island from a building situated on the shores of the bay
next northward of that in which the town is situated. One portion ex-
tends from this building in a N.W. by N. direction, and then N.N.W. to a
position midway between Eibeira Julian Point and Bird Island, and thence
passes away to the westward. The European cable, from a position about
a mile N.W. by N. of the cable house, thence trends away to the north-
eastward.

Porto Grande is the largest and best bay in the Cape Yerde Islands ; it is
capable of holding 300 sail of large ships, well sheltered under the high
lands, and has a fine appearance.

Porto Grande is the port of call for mail steamers to and from South
America, and the West Coast of Africa, as well as for men-of-war, that
can be furnished with coal in large quantities, at the rate of 18 tons per
hour, from iron barges holding about 20 tons each, towed by steam
launches. Other supplies may be had to a moderate extent. The price of
fresh beef is Id. per pound, and vegetables 2d. xoer pound. Water may
bo purchased at £<?. per gallon, but steam vessels would probably find it

730 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

cheaper to distil their own. It is also the residence of Her Majesty's
Consul.*

Porto Grande bay is situated at the north-west side of St. Vincent ; it is
2 miles wide at the entrance, the points bearing E.N.E. and W.S.W. from
each other, and one mile and a half deep. Between the points of entrance
the depth is even with 24 fathoms in the centre, shoaling gradually on the
west side to 9 fathoms half a cable from the shore ; but to the eastward
there are 17 fathoms within 80 yards of the rocks. In the centre of the bay
the depth is 10 fathoms, shoaling gradually in all directions towards the
shore, the Orontes bank being the only obstruction, with 21 feet on it.

There is ample anchorage ground, sheltered from all quarters. During
the N.E. trade violent squalls are of frequent occurrence, and ships should
always be prepared with a second anchor in case of parting, or drifting.
Moorings are laid down in 5 fathoms, half a mile "W. by N. | N. from the
coaling jetties. Vessels of 15 feet draught may anchor at 3 cables and a
half from the shore, but vessels of large draught are recommended to anchor
outside or westward of the buoy to avoid the Orontes bank, of 21 feet.
A good berth for a large ship is in 10 fathoms gravel, Bird island bearing
North, fort E.S.E.

In coming into Porto Grande under sail, shorten sail in time, and look out
for heavy gusts over the high land. If in want of coal, a berth should be
picked up as near the buoys as possible, where the water is smoother and
the squalls less felt.

Going into Porto Grande at night the high land all around is very decep-
tive, and Bird island is the only guide ; it always shows clearly and distinctly,
even on the darkest nights. After passing Bird island, bring it to bear
N. by W., and anchor on that bearing in 6 fathoms, sand, the west point of
the bay bearing W. by N.

Orontes Bank, of about half a cable in exient, with 21 feet water on it,
lies, W. \ N. 5 cables from the northern coal jetty ; and from it the mooring
buoy, distant one cable, is in line with the east point of the bay, bearing
N. by E. i E.

Bird Island is 600 3 r ards long north and south, and 150 yards broad; it
lies without the entrance of the bay at nearly three-quarters of a mile from
its N.W. point. The island is rocky, 273 feet high, and appears conical.
You may pass it on either side.

It is high water, full and change, at Porto Grande at 7h. ; springs range
about 5 feet.

Ships should moor with a kedge, as a very strong current commonly
sets to the N.E. between Bird Island and the shore, and, as the N.E.
Wind is variable, at night it is impossible to keep a clear anchor without
this precaution ; for the wind at times comes in strong gusts from off the
land."f

* In 1874, the Portuguese Government proposed to erect two lighthouses for the con-
venience of the increased numher of vessels visiting the port.

+ In working between St. Antonio and St. Vincent, to Porto Grande, you may stand to
n mile off St. Antonio, and as near as you please to St. Vjncent, as the current generally
bets strongly through to the N.E. — R. Keilor.

THE CAPE VEEDE ISLANDS. 731

Mr. Fiulaison adds, " In running between St. Antonio and St. Vincent
wo sounded in 42 fathoms, bits of coral mixed with sand and small stones.
Within half a mile of Bird Island we had 42 fathoms.

" Having proceeded about 8 miles to the southward of St. Vincent, 40
fathoms of water were found ; and on approaching Still Bay, at the S.W.
side of the island, found regular soundings, ooze and sand, to 20 fathoms,
nearly in the centre of that bay. We anchored in this depth, with the
West point of the bay W. by N., and its East point E.S.E. ; the distance
between the two points is 2i miles ; regular soundings from the ship to the
shore, and very good landing on the beach."

Captain Bartholomew describes the bay on the S. W. side as the Bay of
S. Pedro, having a fine sandy beach, and he says that vessels may anchor in
10 fathoms near the middle of the bay, or rather more to the westward.
The anchorage is good in the dry season, and the inhabitants say there is
plenty of wood and water. The American whalers frequent this place.

On the eastern side of the island is another anchorage, the Praya da Gatta,
with a sandy beach, and he says that vessels may anchor in 6 fathoms ; the
bottom is clear, but a sea sets directly in when the wind is either N.E. or
S.E., the Island of Sta. Lucia sheltering between these points. This bay
and coast are without wood, water, and inhabitants.

ST. ANTONIO. — This island, as already shown, lies at the distance of
8 miles to the N.W. of St. Vincent and it appears altogether like an
assemblage of high mountains, particularly to the West. It is 22 miles
in length from East to West, and about 1 1 in breadth, and its highest
peak is estimated at 7,100 ft. above the level of the sea. There is no an-
chorage.

Of the two highest mountains in the West, the Sugar-Loaf is the most
elevated, and both are commonly covered with clouds. According to the
Admiralty survey the Sugar-Loaf stands in 17° 4' N., and 25° 20£' W. The
island is very woody, but has plenty of goats, fruits, and salt ; it produces
wine, cotton, indigo, &c. There is a village, Santa Cruz, on its S.E. side,
but the ground is not fit for anchorage.

Terrafal Bay is only half a league to the northward of the S.W. end of
the island. The edge of the bank, with 40 fathoms, is about one-third of
a mile from shore. At a cable's length within are 50 fathoms, and it then
shoalens inward to 20, 8, and 4 fathoms ; the latter near the beach. Lati-
tude of the landing and watering-place, 16° 57', long. 25° 24' 48".

" This watering-place of Terrafal Bay is one of the most convenient for
the purpose amongst the Cape Verde Islands. The bay is spacious, and has
a black sandy bottom. Vessels anchor in 20 fathoms, at three-quarters of a
cable's length from the shore, sheltered from the N.E., and South winds and
sea ; and when the wind comes to the westward of South or North there is
always, from the extreme high land, a calm in the bay, the wind never
blowing home, but only occasioning a swell to set in.

" From the high mountains over the bay a small stream descends, which
is never dry ; on the first level spot a large pond has been formed as a reser-

Mr. Finlaison says that ships bound through this channel should keep over toward the
latter, as no danger whatever is to be apprehended on that side.

732 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

voir to receive the stream, with a sluice to conduct it to the sands between
the flat and the beach, which is a gradual descent; the fiat may be about 60
or 70 ft. above the level of the sea, and is generally moist and cool. In the
vicinity of the pool is a fine plantation of bananas, papayas, &c, and in tho
lower sandy grounds a cotton plantation with some trees of the asclepias pro-
cera. Just above the beach is a well ; and when the water is let off from tho
pool, all the soil between it and tho well must be saturated before any can
arrive at tho latter.

8.— BERMUDAS OR SOMERS ISLANDS.

These islands, and the surrounding reef, are of an oval form, the longest
diameter lying N.E. by E. and S.W. by "W. 25 miles, and the breadth
10 to 12 nautic miles. The islands themselves are on the S.E. side of tho
reef, and are shaped in the most irregular manner imaginable ; they extend
about 15 miles in length in the general direction of the reef given above.
The breadth is very various, the greatest about 1$ miles. The chief islands
are Bermuda, containing the town of Hamilton, St. George's, with its town of
the same name, Somerset Island, and Ireland Island, on which is the dock-
yard ; these are the principal : besides these are St. Davids, Longbird,
Paget's, Smith's, Cooper's, Nonsuch, Castle, and many inferior islands and
rocks.

The following general description is extracted from that by Sir Wyville
Thomson, the well known naturalist of the Challenger Expedition. The paper
in full, containing other useful and interesting information, will be found in
the numbers of " Good Words" for February and March, 1874. The stay of
H.M.S. Challenger lasted 36 days at the islands.

History, etc. — Bermudas or "Somers,"or, by corruption, "The Summer
Islands," seem to have been discovered about the j'ear 1503, by Juan Ber-
mudez, a Spaniard, in the vessel La Garza. About 100 years later, the Sea
Adventure, one of a small fleet dispatched from London to convey the newly-
appointed Governor, Sir Thomas Gates, Admiral Sir George Somers, and
some other officials to the young colony of Virginia, reckoning themselves,
on Monday, July 24th, 1609, St. James's day, within seven or eight days' sail
of Cape Henry, " the clouds began to thicken around, and a dreadful storm
commenced from the N.E., which, swelling and roaring as it were by fits, at
length seemed to extinguish all the light of heaven and leave utter darkness.
The blackness of the sky and the howling of the winds were such as to in-
spire the boldest of our men with terror, for the dread of death is always
more terrible at sea, as no situation is so entirely destitute of comfort or
relief as one of danger there."

Af ! or seeing St. Elmo's fires on the rigging, springing a leak, and under,
going every possible trial, moral and physical, for five days, Sir Georgo
Somers at length sighted land, and the wind, lulling a little, they ran their
ship ashore, where she became a complete wreck.

Early in May, 1610, however, Sir George Somers had completed a pin-
nace, the Patience, and on the 10th of May the little party set out, and

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BEEMUDAS OR SOMEES ISLANDS. 733

about midnight of the 18th they " were sensible of a charming odour
from the land resembling that from the coast of Spain, near the Straits of
Gibraltar." They reached Fort Algernon in safety, but they found the
Virginian colony so badly off for provisions that Sir George Somers volun-
teered to return to Bermudas for supplies ; and during the trip he died near
the site of the present town, St. George's, where there is a monument
erected to his memory. His nephew, Capt. Matthew Somers, carried his
uncle's body to England in the old cedar pinnace. Owing to Captain Somers'
representations a company was formed in England to colonise Bermudas, and
in 1612 the first party of settlers arrived under the charge of Governor
Eichard More. Since that time Bermudas has been a British colony, though
perhaps not a very successful one, and latterly an important naval and mili-
tary station.

The defences of these islands demonstrates the great importance attached
by the parent country to this colony as a place of refuge for merchant ships
iu time of war, a rallying point for our navy, a depot for provisions and
naval stores, and a sheltered security for refitting and repairing vessels of
almost any size. An enormous iron floating dry-dock was added by the
Government, in 1869, to the resources of the islands.

Approaching the islands the land appears low, rising nowhere to a height
greater than 260 ft., and by far the greater part forming gentle undulations
at a height of from 20 to 60 ft. above the sea level.

The composition of the islands being white granular limestone, it absorbs
the sea water, and if a well be sunk in almost any part of the islands it is
filled with water at once, but it is only the upper layer which is fresh. The
water at the bottom of the well is brackish, and is affected by the tide, and
the fresh water, which is merely the rain-catch of the surrounding ground,
lies on its surface. As there is always a certain amount of mixture, the
wells do not yield good drinking water, and the people trust greatly to their
rain-water tanks. It has become an almost universal custom to roof the
houses with thin slabs of white limestone, and, further, to whitewash both
roof and walls. The rain-water collected on the roof, and kept clean and
fresh by the constantly renewed whitewash, is carefully led into a tank, and
forms the only supply of pure water.

Productions. — Thei-e is little live stock on the islands ; cattle and sheep do
not thrive well, probably mainly owing to the want of a plentiful supply of
good water. Butcher meat is almost all imported from America. Horses
are not very numerous, and only tolerably good. There are a few mules and
asses. The principal crops raised are early vegetables for the New York
and other markets, which cause a brisk business in the months of April,
May, and June. Arrowroot — the starch of Maranta arundinacea — is excel-
lent, and fetches a much higher price than the "West Indian arrowroot, which
is driving it out of the market. Bermudas was famous for its oranges, but
about the year 1854 a minute insect of the family Coccidce appeared on tho
orange-trees, and multiplied infinitely. The leaves, covered with scales,
and glutinous with a viscid excretion from the animal, became yellow and
fell off, the fruit dropped before ripening, and finally many of the trees died.
Bermudas has never recovered from this plague, and now there is scarcely

K. A. 0. Sfi

734 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

an orange grown on the islands. Fruit is by no means abundant. The
smaller English fruits — gooseberry, raspberry, currant, &c. — run to wood,
and do not bear. Strawberries fruit fairly. Bananas are very generally
cultivated, and are good, thongh the varieties are not so carefully selected
as they are in Madeira. The value of the agricultural exports, in 1866, was
£17,960; in 1872, £64,030, a surprising increase.

The civil population of Bermudas in 1876 was estimated to number 5,092
white, and 8,326 coloured people. Seamen and marines numbered about
900. The coloured element in Bermudas is by no means entirely African.
In the earlier days of the settlement many labourers and slaves were brought
from Virginia and other parts of North America ; and one may often recog-
nise the aquiline noso and characteristic features of the North American
Indian, now, however, except in one or two families, very much marked by
negro intermixture.

The depth of water increases round the islands with extreme rapidity. Seven
miles to the North there is a sounding of 1,375 fathoms, and about 2 miles
farther off one of 1,775 fathoms. To the N.E. there is water of 1,500 fa-
thoms at a distance of 10 miles, to the N.W. of 2,100 fathoms at a
distance of 7 miles, and to the southward of 2,250 fathoms at 10 miles.
The only direction in which there would seem to be a series of banks
is along an extension of the axis of the reef to the S.W. H.M.S. Chal-
lenger anchored for a night in 30 fathoms water on this line about 20
miles from the edge of the reef, and a shoal is mentioned at a still greater
distance in the same direction ; about 300 miles farther on, however, a
sounding is given of 2,950 fathoms The abruptness and isolation of this
peak, which runs up a solitary cone to a height about equal to that of
Mont Blanc, is certainly unusual ; probably the most reasonable hypothesis
may be that the kernel is a volcanic mountain comparable in character with
Pico in the Azores, or the Peak of Tenerife.

The Climate of Bermudas is very genial ; the mean annual temperature is
70° F., while that of Madeira, in almost exactly the same latitude, is 65° F.
This difference of 5° is due partly to the prevalence at Bermudas of S.W.
winds blowing directly over the super-heated reflux of the equatorial cur-
rent, and partly to the position of the islands within the region of the banked-
down warm water of the Gulf Stream. The temperature of the coldest
month (63° F.) is, however, somewhat lower at Bermudas than at Madeira
(64° F.), while that of the warmest month is considerably higher (79 3 to
72° F.). This greater summer heat telling upon the flowering and the
ripening of the seeds of plants gives the flora of Bermudas a more tro-
pical character than that of Madeira.

Judging from General Lefroy's careful statistics, Bermudas cannot be re-
garded as an essentially unhealthy place, or as one possessing a climate
unfavourable to the life of Europeans. The death-rate among the whito
population is about twenty-two in a thousand — nearly the same as the
general death-rate of England, and the number of people of advanced age
is large.

Hurricane* and tempests are very frequent, as is to be expected from the
proximity of the isles to the variable limit of the Trade and other prevailing
winds. Few autumns pass without hurricanes of more or less violence.

BERMUDAS OK SOMEKS ISLANDS.

735

The Bermuda Squalls are sudden and violent tempests, occurring particu-
larly in the winter season. As the day closes, the whole horizon becomes
obscured by dark and heavy clouds, and the thunder and lightning which
precede the first squall, give notice of its approach. After the commence-
ment, the wind, continually shifting,
blows in tremendous gusts at inter-
vals of every 20 or 30 minutes, a dead
calm intervening; and the sea, rising
in confused and breaking waves, ren-
ders the situation of a vessel, parti-
cularly a small one, very dangerous.

The conduct pursued by seamen,
and which appears to be the most
advisable under such circumstances,
is to furl the ship's sails, and endea-
vour to get before the wind; by which
means she may ultimately run clear
of these local squalls into a steady
breeze. It is an observation mado
by seamen who are familiar with the
Bermuda Islands, that the various
winds which blow meet there and
contend for superiority ; and the in-
habitants themselves remark, that the
currents about their rocks are as vari-
able as the winds, and numerous as
their islets.

LIGHTHOUSE.— The most useful
mark to mariners is the iron lighthouse
on Gibbs' Hill, on the South side of
the island, in lat. 32° 15' 0" N., and
long. 64° 51' 40" W., which shows a
revolving light, visible every minute.
It is elevated 362 ft. above the level
of the sea ; and in clear weather may
be seen 21 miles off. It is higher
than the adjoining land, and in day
time the circular iron tower (which
is 106 ft. high, and painted white),
will appear like a sail. The light is
obscured to the north-eastward by
high land, between N.E. by E. £ E.
and N.E. J E. ; but a small ray of
light is visible in a N.E. direction
over Mills' Breaker.

Bermuda is always approached
with more safety from the southward ; and in running for it at night, or in
thick weather, care should bo taken not to got to tho northward of lat. 32° 8'
before seeing the light or the land.

736 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

In coming from the S.E. the light should not be brought to the south-
ward of W. by S., or approached nearer than 6 or 7 miles during the night.
Coming from the westward, it should not be approached nearer than 10 or
12 miles, until it bears to the northward of N.E. by E. With the light be-
tween N.E. and West, the coast is free from danger, and may be safely
approached within 3 miles. Any vessel getting sight of the light from the
northward had better haul off immediately, as the reefs extend all round
from the S.W. to the North and N.E. from 15 to 16 miles.

The light will show a bright flash, continuing 6 or 8 seconds, and repeated
once in every minute.

The situation of the lighthouse has been objected to by some, inasmuch
as it is not visible at the chief entrance of St. George's. To remedy this a
new lighthouse is now constructing at St. David's Head.

Signal Stations. — There are four signal stations on the islands. One on
Fort George, at St. George's ; central at Mount Langton, near the
governor's house, near Hamilton ; another on Gibb's Hill, near the light-
house ; and another at the dockyard, on Ireland Island. By means of these,
signals are transmitted from one part of the islands to another, and vessels
requiring pilots, &c, will be telegraphed to that effect.

The REEF. — This singular tract, extending 25 miles in length, N.E. byE.
and S.W. by W., with a breadth of 10 or 12 miles, forms at once an effectual
barrier against the fury of the Atlantic storms, and, with the exception of
the few narrow and intricate entrances, an impenetrable line of reefs and
breakers, over which no vessel can pass.

It is composed of whitish limestones and sandstones, in many parts as if
composed entirely of minutely pounded shells, and calcareous clay, resem-
bling pipe-clay. Upon this, coralline structures grew in innumerable patches,
and in every variety. It is to this circumstance that the great danger in
navigating within the reef consists.

The water on the reef is remarkably clear, so that even small objects are
readily distinguishable at considerable depths. A dollar may be discerned
at 16 or 18 ft. ; and the appearance of the bottom, in many parts, and in
clear weather, is very beautiful, from the varied growth and structure of the
coralline productions. To this circumstance of the transparency of the
water the pilots owe their talent of conducting vessels through the mazes
of the reef. Taking an elevated position in the ship, up the shrouds, in
the top, or on the forecastle, and by the appearance of the bottom, they
direct the course of the vessel. Brown or discoloured patches indicate coral
and reefs. And it must be insisted on, that only the practised eye of the
Bermudian pilots can be depended on for conducting a ship safely. The
central portion of the reef forms an imperfect lagoon, with an average
depth of 7 to 8 fathoms.

The outer border of the reef is shallower than the centre, many parts
having less than a fathom over them, and the others varying from 3 to 4
fathoms. Within this external and rocky barrier, which is about a mile in
breadth, the coral and rocks raise their heads in countless numbers, the
intervals having a depth of 5 to 10 fathoms. There are some large tracts
clear from shoals, as that to the North and West of Murray Anchorage ;
these have a nearly uniform depth of 7, 8, or 9 fathoms.

BEEMUDAS OE SOMEES ISLANDS. 787

Bound the West, N.W., and North sides, it is a continued and very dan-
gerous ledge of rocks, beginning at the Long Bar, the South part of which
lies 6 miles W. by N. from Gibbs' Hill; trending then N.E., it is called
the Chub Reads, which, off Wreck Hill, lies 9 miles from the shore ; the
ledge hence rounds to E.N.E., and joins the North Eock, which is always
above water, and lies N. § W. 12 miles from Crawl Point. From the North
Eock the reef rounds East and E.S.E., and ends in Milk* Breaker, which dries
at low water, and lies N.E. by E. northerly 14 miles from Gibbs' Hill Light-
house, and N.E. by N. £ N. from St. David's Head. On the south-eastern
side of the island the reef bordering the group does not extend more than a
quarter of a mile off shore. The outer edge is one continued line of breakers,
many of which are dry at low water. Within the external and narrow border
of rocks, on this face, the water increases considerably in depth nearly to the
shore. At the S.W. corner of the reef, and on its outer edge, is a spot that
always breaks, called the South-west Breaker. It lies H mile off shore, and
is nearly South, true, from Wreck Hill, and S.W. from Gibbs' Hill. Eound
the outer edge of the ledge is a margin of soundings, of from 1 to 2 miles
broad, having from 9 to 14 fathoms on it; there are, likewise, soundings for
2 miles from the shore round the N.E., East, and S.E. sides of the island ;
but, as the water here is deeper, it would be prudent for those who suspect
themselves near the longitude of Bermudas in the night, or in thick weather
to keep a lead constantly going, being assured that, at 14 fathoms, they will
strike the ground in time to avoid danger. The lead might be encased with
tallow, for the greater certainty of striking the ground ; this precaution
would prevent many of the wrecks that constantly happen here.

The Channels through the outer edge of the reef, commencing with
the Narrows at St. George's, at the eastern extremity, are as follows : —

The NARROWS is regularly buoyed with black buoys on the port side in
entering, and chequered black and white buoys on the starboard side. It
may be considered as the principal entrance to the interior of the reef. At
each end of the Narrows is a fairway buoy. At the East end, a black buoy
with staff and globe. Within the reef, at the West end of the Narrows, a
red conical buoy is placed, which lies in 9£ fathoms water, a mile N.W. of
St. Catherine's Point, and should be left well to port by vessels proceeding
to sea.

On the South side of the Narrows is the channel over the Bar to St.
George's Harbour, hereafter described.

Boiler Channel. — There is another channel running East and West to St.
George's called the Boiler Channel, passing North of, and close to, Jenkin's
Boiler Shoal, with a depth of 12 to 18 ft. It is entered with the old battery
below Fort Cunningham, bearing about West. At a cable eastward of the
old battery is a white can buoy, whence the channel trends more southerly
into St. George's Harbour.

Still farther South is an entrance sometimes used by small vessels running
under St. David's Head, but it has not more than 9 feet at low water. This
leads in a N.W. direction.

Mills' Breaker Channel, the next channel northward, has its entrance half
a mile North of the Mills' Breaker. Its direction inwards is S.W. towards
the Narrows, and is only used by Bermudian vessels in and out. Mills'

738 DESCRIPTIONS OF TnE ISLANDS.

Breaker, in 1875, had a buoy placed near it, N.N.E. f E. 2£ miles from St.
David's Head.

Continuing in the same direction, the north-eastern face of the reef pre-
sents an impenetrable and continuous reef, often breaking, until we come to
the North Rock Channels, having a southerly direction.

There are two channels on either side of the North Rock. They are known
only to a few of the pilots, and from that cause but seldom used, although it
is said that the eastern channel is one of the best through the edge of the
reef. It is narrow and intricate at its entrance ; the general depth is 6, 7,
and 8 fathoms, but in one spot only 5. At 5J miles in the direct line from
the entrance, toward Murray Anchorage, there lies a cluster of rocks, which
render a circuit to the westward advisable. The mark for clearing the West
end of these, the Three Hill Shoals, is Painter's Hill, over a hill on the
western side of the Perry at St. George's Island, bearing S.S.E. There is
also a channel through the shoals, which is more direct ; the mark for which
is Painter's Hill, in the hollow or saddle of Two Hills (hence their name),
at the "West end of St. George's Island, bearing S. i E. As soon as the
shoals are cleared in either case, which will be when 3 J miles from the shore,
you can bear round to the S.E. to Murray Anchorage, this part of the reef
being clear.

West Blue Cut, on the western side of the reef, can be used only by small
vessels. It is exceedingly narrow and intricate, and has only 8 ft. water in
places. Its direction is to the East of South.

The Chub Cut is the next channel southward; this is also narrow and dan-
gerous. It leads southerly to Wreck Hill, or first southerly and then east-
erly to Ireland Island.

Hog Fish Cut lies at the south-western angle of the islands. For half a
mile in a north-easterly direction it lies through numerous rocky shoals, and
then turns to the N.W. It leads to Ireland Island and to Ellis Harbour.

The Hog Fish Cut, which has recently been examined with a view to its
improvement, is the most convenient at the West end of the islands, par-
ticularly in the winter season, when the winds prevail at N.W., and the
danger of being at sea and about the islands is the greatest.

The Hog Fish Cut, though not far from the land, is an entrance from the
ocean, through the outer barrier of rocks. Before arriving at the Cut, thero
are the Bream Shoals, to be carefully avoided, and this will be done by keep-
ing the two beacons erected on the West part of Bermuda Island in line,
N.E. i N., until Gibb's Hill Lighthouse bears E. | S., when the channel
turns to the N.N.W., following parallel with the shore at a distance of 3 or
4 cables. The course through what are called the Chops of the Cut is nearly
at a right angle ; the turn is very sudden and sharp, and the greatest nicety
must be observed by the pilots in navigating it. The passage is so narrow
that it does not afford sufficient space for vessels to tack in, and when a pas-
sage through them shall be attempted, it must be without a change of tack.
These difficulties are felt more especially in the winter season, when tho
winds are generally unfavourable for passing the Kitchen Shoals. To remedy
this evil, the committee for the purpose (August, 1846) recommended tho
removal of the centre Kitchen Shoal, of coral (8 ft. on it at high water), by
the same means employed at St. George's Harbour, when a passago suffi-

BEKMUDAS OE SOMERS ISLANDS. 739

ciently capacious would be opened, and vessels now often compelled to re-
main at sea, or make the circuit of the islands in search of shelter, would find
an easy and ready access to port.

The various channels here mentioned, having different directions, are
available according to the wind, that which is fair for one being the reverse
for others ; but they must not be attempted without a pilot, who will imme-
diately come off from St. David's Head, upon a signal being given to that
effect; and a vessel in the offing requiring a pilot, it is telegraphed from one
part of the islands to the other by the chain of signals established thereon.
They will be best understood by referring to the chart.*

The south-eastern face of the reef forms nearly a continuous line of
breakers, about 2 cables' lengths from the shore, and has no entrance or
shelter till we come to Castle Harbour, hereafter described, the entrance to
which, past the King's Castle, is in a N.W. direction. There is no other
opening through the reef between this and the channel under St. David's
Head, before described.

The South-western Banks. — There is a rocky fishing bank, now named
Challenger Bank, lying from S.S.W. to S.W. from Gibbs' Hill (or S.W. part
of Bermudas), from 4 to 5 leagues distant, and having 22 to 40 fathoms.
These banks were surveyed in 1829 by the officers of H.M. sloop Columbine,
according to whom the northern extremity of the Inner Bank lies in 32° 6' N.
and 64° 53' W. ; the S.W. in 32° N. and 65° W. The least water found is
22 fathoms, corally and rocky bottom. On the edges are 40 fathoms. To
the S.W. of this bank is another, called the Outer Ban 1 ,:, the N.E. end of
which is in lat. 31° 59*', long. 65° 2i' ; the S.W. end in 31° 57', and 65° 5'.
The least water found on this bank was from 33 to 47 fathoms, rocks and
coral. From this Outer Bank the land is distant 32 miles, and consequently
not visible.

The ISLANDS.— Ireland Island is the north-westernmost of the group.
Its North point is in lat. 31° 19' 45" N., long. 64° 51' 30" W. The flagstaff,
which is the highest point of the fortification, and stands above the break-
water, is one of the four telegraphic signal stations established on the island.
The site of the Eoyal Dockyard and Naval Establishment is on the North
extremity of the island, from the rest of which it is separated by a deep dry
ditch.

Ireland Island is about 1 mile in length, and perhaps a quarter of a mile
broad, and is nearly all occupied by the buildings required for the officers,
artisans, and for storehouses. The hospital is situated on the highest part
of the island, and is very large and commdious. The officers' residences are
built in the English style, and are very comfortable. The most important
work is the breakwater, similar to that at Plymouth. Several hundred con-
victs are employed on it. The dockyard is kept in fine order.

Between Ireland and Somerset Islands there are several smaller ones, the
chief of which is Boaz's Island. These are united by a roadway.

* A Chart of the Bermudas or Soniers' Islanus, with l'laus of the Narrows and Giassy
Bay with Ireland Island, published by E. II. Laurie, May 1st, 1878, accompanied by n
Description of the Islands, and Sailing Directions.

740 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

Somerset Island is the next in order. Its western point is Daniel's Head,
off which is a small island.

Ellis or Elies Harbour lies between its southern extremity and Wreck
Hill. This small harbour may be reached from the Hog Fish Cut, from
Ireland Point, or by the Chub Cut. Between Somerset Island and the N.W.
side of the reef the ground is all rocky, so that the channels to the harbours
are very circuitous, and no directions can be given for them.

GREAT BERMUDA ISLAND.— This, the chief of the group, is about 12
or 13 miles in length. About the centre of it is the town of Hamilton, stand-
ing on the North side of the harbour, an inlet of the island. It is a free
port, and the seat of the legislature. North of the town, which consists
principally of one street 1£ mile long, parallel with the shore in an East and
West direction, and about midway between the ferry at the West end of the
island and the dockyard, is one of the houses appropriated to the Governor
for the time being.

"Hamilton is a quaint, rather pretty little town of about 2,000 inhabi-
tants. A half-street of regular houses and stores with green verandas faces
the harbour, with a commodious line of wharves and sheds along the shore.
The better houses are scattered and a little inland, and some very pretty
villas, the residences of the leading merchants and some of the Government
officials, occupy pleasant situations round the head of the bay. The suburbs
of Hamilton show well the peculiarity of the contrast between the white-
roofed houses and the dark junipers. Nearly the best examples of these
so-called 'cedars' form a fine avenue just behind the town." — Sir Wyville
Thomson.

Hamilton is scarcely seen from the water ; but near it is a hill called
Mount Langton, laid out as pleasure grounds, and on which is a flagstaff, by
means of which communication is kept up between St. George, Somerset, and
the dockyard. A few miles beyond this is the residence of the admiral,
King's Hill or Clarence Lodge. Between this and Ireland Island is Grassy
Bag, the anchoring place of men-of-war.

The greatest extent and diversity of land is in Long Island, between
Hamilton and the shore of Harrington Sound. The country is undulating
and well wooded, with here and there extensive brackish water marshes,
cumbered with a luxuriant vegetation. It is intersected by good roads, and
dotted with white-roofed houses, churches, and school-houses.

From Sjianish Point to Ireland Island a ledge of rocks divides the Great
Sound from Grassy Bay. There are two passages through this — one called
the Stag Channel, near Sober Island, the North entrance ; and one nearer to
Spanish Point. Through these is the channel to Hamilton Harbour. There
is also another line of reefs running between the North point of Somerset
Island and the chain of islets South of Hamilton Harbour. This reef has
also to be passed to enter the Great Sound, South of which is Port Royal
Bay.

The eastern end of Bermuda Island is occupied by the Little, or, as it is
more commonly called, Harrington Sound, a sheet of water only communi-
cating with the sea by a narrow channel, called the Sound's Mouth, over
which is a bridge at Flatts Village. Through this passage the tide ebbs and

THE BEEMUDAS, OK SOMERS ISLANDS.

741

flows with great velocity, but does not pass in sufficient quantity to sensibly
affect the level of the water within.

The southern shore of Bermuda is the boldest among the islands, and
vessels may come in some places within half a gun-shot of the shore.

East of Mount Langton is Brackish
Point, near which is "The Wells," a
government establishment for supplying
water to the navy, should there be no
water at the naval tanks on St. George's
Island.

(The following description of the coasts
is principally by Lieutenant John Evans,
R.N., commencing with the West.)

The westernmost projecting headland
is Wreck Hill: it stands insulated on its
base, is cone-shaped, and very dark-
coloured. When seen from the S.W. it
appears flattened at its summit, but from
the South as peaked. It is the land looked
for, and first seen, when approaching the
isles from the West.

On the western shores of Bermuda the
sea is slowly hollowing out the low sand-
stone cliffs, and on the South the gales
of winter cause the sand to encroach on
the cultivated land. It is said that much
has been lost from the selfish policy of
felling the large cedar trees which once
formed a barrier around this part of the
island.

Gibbs' Hill. — The next particular guide
is Gibbs' Hill, which is the highest and
most conspicuous eminence observable
near the S.W. part of the coast. It is a
smooth mount, entirely clear of trees,
with the lighthouse (previously described)
and a telegraphic post on its summit. To
the westward, and contiguous to it, is a
table-land, crowned with a grove of dark
tall cedars.

Between Gibbs' Hill and Castle Island,
to the E.N.E., there are several sandy
mounts, having the appearance of white
cliffs, and at moonlight may be mis-
taken for breakers. These are very re-
markable, and are called the Sand
Hills. One of these is much more conspicuous than the others, being
of greater extent, and without any verdure upon the summit, At 2 miles
N. A. o. S 9

742 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

East of tho great sand hill is Castle Harbour, in the entrance to which are
several islets and rocks ; on the largest of these is an old castle, which gives
name to the harbour. These islets are remarkable for the colour of the cliffs
and the dark verdure of the turf which covers them.

Tho coast here presents a very picturesque appearance of land and water ;
Telegraphic Hill over St. George's is a pleasing object in the perspective.
This may be termed the S.E. face of the islands, and is considered as the
best parallel to make them in from the eastward.

In the winter, with the wind from the N.E., there is a strong set of the
water to the S.W. on the South side, and it is very tedious and unpleasant
to turn to windward, the wind blowing in heavy squalls at intervals. I have,
however, known South and S.W. winds to prevail during most part of the
winter months.

Castle Harbour. — In Castle Harbour there is good anchorage, but it is
not used by men-of-war. A frigate, many years ago, was wrecked in her
endeavour to get out. The southern channel to the harbour is narrow and
intricate : the mark to lead across the outer edge of the reef is Minor's Hill,
on the North side of St. George's Island, midway between Castle Island and
Southampton Island. As soon as this is crossed, bear to the eastward, and
steer close to the eastern side of Castle Island, which is steep-to, and then
pass between the banks which border the channel for about one-third of a
mile North of Castle Island ; then bear round to the eastward, and anchor
in 5 J fathoms, one-quarter of a mile North of Nonsuch Island.

In working from the S.W. end of Castle Harbour, ships may stand with-
in a mile of the shore ; and small craft until the bottom is seen. There are
some small reefs and ledges along the line of shore, but they are very near
the beach.

St. David's Head, near which a lighthouse is constructing on Mount Hill,'"-'
is next seen, in the form of a round bluff, covered with foliage, and, when
the land is opened to the northward, a large cave will appear to view beneath
the head. A reef extends from this bluff, about half a mile off shore ; the
sea generally breaks over it.

Vessels waiting for pilots may run in to the N.E. of the bluff, and heave-
to with their head off shore ; the bottom is hereabouts visible, but no danger
may be apprehended on that account.

The pilots are the most expert I ever met with. A good look-out is kept
by the artillerymen stationed at the Telegraph Hill, and delay seldom takes
place.

Beyond St. David's Head the land trends to the N.W. St. George's Har-
bour (the best among the islands) is formed by several islands, and a curve
in the larger island of the same name ; its entrance b'es between Port Paget
and a small kay to the eastward. The harbour is landlocked, well sheltered
from the stormy West and N.W. winds, with a good depth of water over a

* There is in this neighbourhood a zone of fully 5 miles in width (measured at a safe
distance outride the reefs), within which the light on Gibb's Hill is intercepted by high
land. It is needless to say how greatly the security oi vessels making the East end of the
island at night or in thick weather will be promoted by a lighthouse in this quarter.

THE BERMUDAS, OR SOMERS ISLANDS.

7-13

bottom of stiff pipe-clay. The vicinity to the open sea alone gives it a de-
cided superiority to the anchorage of Grassy Bay, if there were nothing else
to recommend it.

ST. GEORGE'S ISLAND is " the military station of the colony, and
formerly the seat of government ; is
about 3 miles long, and at no part
exceeding half a mile broad ; it lies
at the entrance of the only channel
for ships of burthen. The Harbour
of St. George, when once entered,
is said to be one of the finest in the
world, and capable of containing
the whole British navy. It is com-
pletely landlocked. The entrance to
the harbour is narrow, and is pro-
tected by Cunningham Fort. After
passing this entrance, the town pre-
sents one of the most beautiful land
scapts the eye ever rested upon."

" The town of St. George's is the
second on the islands, even more
prettily situated than Hamilton, and
having likewise a good harbour for
vessels of moderate size, and a good
line of wharves. The streets of the
town are, however, close and narrow,
and the drainage is bad ; so that St.
George's, one of the principal mili-
tary stations, is by no means healthy.
St. David's Island, Cooper Island,
and many smaller islets, form a
broken barrier, closing in Castle
Harbour to the southward." — Sir
Wyville Thomson.

The roadstead, from whence ships
proceed to St. George's Harbour, is
called the Five Fathom or Outer Sole ;
within this is the Inner Hole. Two
buoys lie on the North side of Five
Fathom Hole, about a mile N. by W.
from St. David's Head. They are
the first buoys marking the eastern
entrance to the Narrows, and lie
East and West of each other, a
cable apart. Having passed be-
tween them, proceed to the N.W.,
leaving chequered buoys to star-
board, and black buoys to port.

744 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

The Five Fathom or Outer Hole, where ships wait with winds not fair for
going to Murray Anchorage, has from 5 to 10 fathoms. The mark for an-
choring is the Cherrystone or Sugarloaf Hill (at the head of Mullet Bay)
open of the old battery on the point of St. George's Island, bearing West by
compass ; St. Catherine's Point about W.N.W., and the rocks off Cooper's
Island open to St. Davids's Head, S. h W. ; but in letting go your anchor,
look out for a clear spot.

The passage over the bar to St. George's Harbour is marked by two white
buoys on its western side, and two black buoj's on its eastern side. The bar
marks are " a stone pillar and a white stake in a line, bearing about
S. 20£° W. by compass ;" they lie on the slope on the North side of St. Da-
vid's Island. Carry on this course until Smith's Fort on Governor's Island,
which forms the South side of the entrance, bears S. W. by W. £ W., and
then steer for it, and when nearly up to it, bear round between it and the
point, when the town will open on the starboard bow ; whence you may pro-
ceed to the anchorage, keeping the N,W. shore on board. The passage over
the bar is between two poles on the North side, and two on the South side.
Four other poles mark the channel S. W. of this.

The depth on the bar is 16 to 18 ft. ; within it, and in the channel, 4 and
5 fathoms. Several rocks have been removed which formerly existed in the
entrance of the harbour.

The Marino Slip at St. George's is used by an average of about fifteen
vessels every year ; the largest vessel it has taken up was one of 904 tons in
1873. The capacity of the slip is for vessels of 1,200 tons.

High water, full and change, at St. George's, 8£ h . Common tides rise to
about 4 ft., but springs, or in gales of wind, they frequently rise 6 or 7 ft.
The floods in the offing set to the N.E., and ebb to the S.W., but near the
shore they run in various directions.

" St. Catherine's Bluff 'is the north-eastern extremity of St. George's Island
and of the isles in general. There is a fort upon it and a battery. Beyond
this head, to the westward, is Murray Anchorage, one of the most unpleasant
places in the world to ride in during the winter season. I have been for
several weeks riding out aN.W. gale in a frigate here, pitching bows under;
and the Driver, a sloop-of-war, is said to have carried away her bowsprit,
in consequence of its getting under the cable, when she was in the act of
plunging during a gale. The North Bock, at about 8 miles in the offing,
appears from this anchorage through a telescope like a ship's boat with
three lug sails. There is a passage of egress for largo ships through the
reefs near the rock, but it cannot be attempted without a fixed leading wind ;
boats are then placed on either side of the channel to guide the pilot." —
Lieutenant Evans

Murray Anchorage " lies on the S.W. side of Catherine Point, extending
from Tobacco Bay to the Ferry, between St. George's and the Great Ber-
muda; whence, after going through a passage to the westward, there is
secure anchorage from abreast Brackish Pond, across the entry of the Great
Sound, to Ireland Island. The common entry into Murray anchorage is
through an intricate and narrow passage round Catherine Point, called the
Narrows ; for the particulars of which see the Chart, as no description can
be given hero that will be of any use to a stranger. The ground in the

THE BERMUDAS OR SOMERS ISLANDS.

745

entry, as well as over the anchorage, consists of stone, of the soft, dripstone
kind, ground as fine as flour, mixed with a shelly substance and a chalky
clay ; it is very heavy, therefore the anchors do not sink deep in it, and they
loosen immediately when a-peak ; but it is rarely that ships drive in it.

St. George's Island and Signal Station, from Murray Anchorage.

Ships bound for Murray Anchorage will generally get a pilot off Castle
Harbour, or they may run as far as St. David's Head. When to the east-
ward of St. David's Head stand no farther to the northward than to bring
the Head N.W. ; 3 r ou will see a white sandy bay to the southward of the
Head, between it and Castle Harbour. In standing to the northward, care
must be taken to shut no part of this bay in behind St. David's Head. The
West land of Bermudas will be shut in behind the land, over this bay, before
this mark comes on. — Mr. Murdo Boionie.

A patch of coral rock on which H.M.S. Ariadne touched in 1872 lies
between the Fairway and inner chequered buoy of the channel of the Narrows.
It had 22 feet water on it, but this has been deepened by blasting to 24 feet
at low water. From the shoal the Fairway buoy bears N.W. \ W., 4
cables; inner chequered buoy, E. by S. \ S., 3£ cables; and the West
extreme of Catherine Point, S.S.E. £ E., 7 cables.

The naval tanks lie abreast of Murray Anchorage, just above Tobacco Bay,
wherein is the landing-place. There is not a spring in the isles, but ducks
are abundant.

From the anchorage of Grassy Bay sailing ships, unless they happen to be
favoured with a leading wind, are generally one day working up to Murray
Anchorage, a distance of 9 miles ; and there they must wait until the wind
proves fair before they can get to sea round St. Catherine's Bluff, and
through the intricate channel which leads to St. David's Head. Even with
a fair wind to or from Ireland Island (on which the dockyard is situated)
ships are liable to strike upon the heads of the rocks everywhere scattered
about. — Lieut. Evans.

Directions foe, making the Bermudas, by Mr. Murdo Downie.
Vessels, in hazy weather or in the night, must be very cautious in ap-

746 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

proaching, lest the winds or currents should set them on the reefs, or into
some inextricable channel. Be particularly cautious in coming from the
S.W., as upon the rocks off this end of the island, from S.W. to W.N.W.,
many ships have been lost. No stranger should attempt any of the
anchorages without a pilot, many of whom are always on the look-out, and
put to sea when a vessel heaves in sight. Their boats may be readily
known, being of a peculiar construction and rig; of a light draught of
water forward, with a long heel or deep sternpost ; rigged with one mast
and bowsprit, carrying a triangular mainsail, a foresail, and jib, and, occa-
sionally, a gaff topsail and squaresail

The prevailing winds with fine weather in these seas being from between
the South and West, vessels from the West Indies and America generally
make these islands by running on their latitude from the westward. The
best latitude for that purpose is 32° 8', always having regard to a small
probable current in the direction the wind blows ; steering East, you will
first see the land a little on the port bow, being two small sand-hills, close
together, having a white house on the top one, and cedar wood on the other
(these are called Gibbs' Hills, distinguished by the lighthouse before men-
tioned) ; as you near the land, you will see Wreck Hill farther to the
northward, appearing peaked, and joined by low land to that first seen ;
steer to bring Gibbs' Hill to bear E.N.E., and, when within G miles of the'
land, take care it is not to the eastward of that bearing, because of the rocks
called the Long Bar. Then steer so as to pass within 2 miles of the S.E.
land; and, when Wreck Hill shuts in behind the South land, you are
clear of the S.W. breaker, and may steer along the S.E. side of the island,
at a mile distant from the shore, until abreast of St. David's Head, there
being nothing to hurt a ship but what is in sight.

hi running for Bermudas from the eastward, the best parallel is between
latitudes 32° 10' and 32° 20'; in which a ship may run boldly, as there are
no rocks at any distance from the land.

When running down a parallel for Bermudas, with a large wind, and not
making the land toward night, but expecting to be near it, no vessel in this
situation, ought to lie-to, but should rather turn to windward, under an easy
sail, until daylight, because of a probable current, as before mentioned,
which has deceived many by bringing them unexpectedly among the rocks.
The land not being high (Gibbs' Hill, on which is the lighthouse, is the
highest land in the islands), it cannot be seen at any great distance from a
small vessel ; added to this, the thick haze that frequently prevails here,
particularly in fine weather, renders making the land somewhat difficult,
and at times precarious, unless the latitude be accurately ascertained ; for
instances have happened of vessels missing the islands, and after a fruitless
search steering for the American coast in order to take a fresh departure for
running down the latitude again.

Instructions for Sailing to Bkhmudas Islands, ly Admiral Murray.

Within the Gulf Stream steer well to the southward, perhaps as much as
S.S.E., until you get within 3 or 4 miles of the latitude of Cape Hatteras;
and then steer S.E. by E. until you get into the latitude of 32° 5'. Thus

THE BERMUDAS OR SOMERS ISLANDS. 747

you will avoid crossing the Gulf Stream where it is very broad, and its
direction far to the eastward, passing it where it affects your latitude more
than your longitude ; and, of course, be of less consequence to the ship's
reckoning; by steering thence so far to the southward as S.E. by E., you
will fall into the latitude of the Bermudas at 4 or 5 degrees of longitude to
the westward.

You should by no means run for these islands unless sure of your
latitude ; and always make them from the S. W. if possible, looking out in
time for the land, as, owing to the set of the Gulf Stream, and the general
tendency of the currents to the eastward, ships from the coast of America
will almost always be far ahead of their reckoning.

Having ascertained your latitude, and being well to the westward, get
into the parallel of 32° 5', and steer due East ; this course will bring you to
the islands, passing about 4 miles clear of the South end of Chub Heads, a
very dangerous shoal, lying across the West end, about 8 miles from the
land, with not more than 12 feet on it at low water; as well as the S.W.
breakers, which lie about U mile S.S.W. from the southernmost land,
being the shoalest part of a ledge of rocks of considerable length, lying
parallel with the shore. Should the wind in the night incline to the north-
ward, keep in 32° 7' N. ; but if to the southward, in 32' 2'.

The soundings do not extend more thau 1£ mile from the shore on the
South side ; therefore you have only a strict look-out to depend on for
safety ; and as for the East, West, and North sides, the breakers lie from
3 to 4 and 5 leagues off. You must avoid by all means running in the
night, without having a good observation the preceding day, and being
pretty sure of your longitude. Follow these directions, and you will
first make Wreck Hill (which is high land on the western extreme of the
islands), the land trending from it to the S.E. Having passed the S.W.
breakers, the land lies about E.N.E. and W.S.W., having danger no more
than half a mile off, and that generally visible ; you may run safely along
shore at a mile, until you pass Castle Harboui*, which is easily known by
the castle on an island on the starboard hand. You should bring- to off the
eastern point of this harbour, and wait for a pilot, who will soon come off,
and carry you into St. George's Harbour. But should you be pressed for
time, or the pilot not come off, you may haul round by the breakers, after
having passed the islands which form the South part of Castle Harbour,
into St. George's Road, bringing on the following marks: —

A high island next to the N.E. part of the small ones off Castle Harbour,
has at its eastern extremity a bluff rocky point, called St. David's Head,
having breakers off it about half a mile ; the northernmost land in sight,
after you haul round St. David's Head, is called St. Catherine's Point ;
bring this point to bear W.N.W., and St. David's Head S. £ W., and you
will be in as good a berth as any in the road, with 7 or 8 fathoms of water ;
but in every part of these roads you must be guided by the eye where to
drop your anchor clear of foul ground, which is everywhere easily seen,
owing to the clearness of the water and whiteness of the sand where the
anchorage is safe.

In case you have been driven to the eastward of the islands (a situation
however, which you are to avoid with the utmost care), you may run for

748 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

them in lat. 32° 14' N., which will bring you to them 5 or 6 milea to the
southward of St. David's Head, for which you may haul up upon making
the land ; but you are not to run till you are far enough to the S.W. to
follow the directions before given for coming from the westward, should you
make sail for Bermudas from any part of the Gulf Stream or without it.

I recommend you to make great allowance for your being to the eastward
of your reckoning, and try to fall into the parallel of latitude above men-
tioned, in longitude 70 3 or 71° W.

High water at St. George's, full and change, 8£ h . Spring tides rise about
6 ft. ; common, 4 ft. The tides are various, both in height and time, at
different parts of the islands. The Bermudas bear from Cape Henry
S. 63° 35' E., distant 210 leagues.

Eemarks on the Bermudas, and Passages to and from, by Commander
Dunsterville, E.N., 1830-31.

In July, 1830, from the Maternillo Bank, on the N.W. of the Bahamas,
to the Bermudas, the winds prevailed from the S.E. to S.W. Light breezes
and cloudy, with heavy rains at times. Found no current.

The Bermudas from the S.W., at 5 leagues distant, appear as an assem-
blage of detached high islets, on the South part of which the signal-post on
Gibbs' Hill is seen, being erected on the highest land in the islands. Hence
we ran along shore, at H to 2 miles off.

During our stay at these islands the winds prevailed for seven weeks from
S.S.E. to S.W., which is invariably the case here during the summer months.
Eise of spring tides about 3 ft. 6 inches. High water at 6 h .

When a signal for a pilot is made from ships in the offing, it is telegraphed
by the signal-posts throughout the island.

To lay through the Narrows, near St. George's, it is requisite to steer
from N.W. to W.N.W., and from St. Catherine's Point (the N.W. point of
St. George) S.W. by S. and S.W., till Ireland Island bears about W. by N.,
whence haul to that course. In every course avoid all brown or dark
patches, which are corally rocks, with little water on them. In the channel
are from 6 to 7 fathoms. The buoys invariably point out all the rocky
heads, which in some parts are numerous. In the latter end of September
fine North and N.E. winds ; the thermometer at 74°, which had been for
the last two months from 80 u to 84°. The Banger anchored at Murray An-
chorage in 10 fathoms, chalky bottom. St. Catherine's Point, E. -JN. about

mile.

The Banger sailed for Bermudas from Jamaica on the 5th of October.
Winds prevailing from the N.N.E. Fresh breezes and fine weather.

Winds light from the eastward until we arrived at Bermuda, when it blew
strongly from the southward and westward for a fortnight. On the 11th of
April anchored off Ireland Island. Vertical rise of spring tides here about
5 ft. ; neaps, 2 or 3 ft. High water at 8 h .

Going through the Narrows at Bermuda. — The channel is marked out by
chequered buoys, and at each end a fairway buoy is placed ; the westward or
inner ono being red, and the outer one black with staff and ball. The red

THE BERMUDAS, OR SOMERS ISLANDS. 749

buoy lies in 9£ fathoms about a mile N.W. -h W. of St. Catherine's Point.
Vessels should keep well to the southward of it in entering. The courses
through are from W-N.W. to N.N.W. J W. The best anchorage at Murray
Anchorage is in 9i fathoms, off St. Catherine's Point, with the East signal-
staff in St. George's S. by E. \ E., off shore one-quarter of a mile. Between
St. Catherine's Point and Mount Langton (the governor's house) keep the
shore well on board ; say one-quarter of a mile or less. In clear weather
the dangers show themselves.

With the remarks on the islands by Mr. Dunstervillo, the following, since
made, may be included : —

" The land generally of these islands is low ; yet there are many parts, as
Gills' Hill, Mount Langton, the North part of St. George's and St. David's,
that may be seen in clear weather 5 leagues off. The isles, as shown here-
after, are surrounded by most dangerous reefs, the S.E. side excepted, which
may be approached within a mile, until abreast of the N.E. point, called St.
DavioVs Head. Off this head pilots are readily obtained by displaying the
usual signal. The government pilots may be known by a narrow blue burgee,
with a broad arrow in white therein.

There is anchorage without the Narrows on a spot called Five-fathom Hole,
with St. Catherine's Point about W.N,W., and St. David's Head S. £ W. ;
but in letting go the anchor look out for a clear spot.

In proceeding for the Narrows the first buoy seen, which is black, is the
leading buoy for the fairway. In the Narrows are 6 and 7 fathoms of
water.

If you intend anchoring in Murray Anchorage, bring St. Catherine's
Point to bear East ; the signal-staff at St. George's, S. by E. £ E., in 91
fathoms, chalk bottom, at a quarter of a mile off shore. From this anchor-
age to Ireland Island, where the men-of-war lie, is about S.W. by S. to
abreast of Mount Langton, the governor's country residence, keeping the
shore about one-quarter of a mile distant. When Ireland bears about
W. by N., you then haul tor the island, passing between two corally spots,
nearly abreast the Admiral's house. In clear weather all the reefs are
readily discerned, and may be avoided with a common degree of care. From
Murray Anchorage to Ireland you have in the channel 7 and 6 fathoms.

During the summer months, from April to September, the winds prevail
from S.S.E. to S.W. Thermometer, 80° to 84°. About the latter end of Sep-
tember the northerly winds set in, when the thermometer falls to 70° and
74° ; quite a bracer for the constitution. The rise of tides at springs is
about 5 ft., neaps 2 or 3 ft. High water at Ireland Island, full and change,
at 8 o'clock. The tide at the Narrows sets from 1 to 2 miles in the hour.

The height of Gibbs' Hill signal-station is about 200 ft. ; of Wreck Hill
about 150 ft. On the S.E. side is a large space of sand, called Sand Hills,
which is very remarkable. The North Rock is about 16 ft. high, 20 ft. long,
and 6 ft. wide ; here the currents are strong and very variable, but mostly
to the eastward in the offing.

A bi'anch pilot has 3s. per day, with allrivrance of provision, and 1 dollar
per foot for any government ship.

n. A. o. 5 D

750 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

Directions for Sailing near the Bee mud as, on coming from the

Westward.

" On coming from the westward, the S.W. points of the land ought to
bear E.N.E. before you come within 4 leagues of the land, when you may
steer directly for it without danger. The breakers on the South side always
show themselves ; so that a ship may safely approach within gun-shot from
the S.W. end to the S.E., and when getting to the eastward of the castle,
round into St. George's. Do not go farther to the northward than to keep
Cooper's Island open within St. David's Head till you take a pilot ; and the
subscriber engages no ship will ever strike if this be attended to." — Thomas
Lean, 1808.

On the Winds and Navigation of the Bermudas, by His Excellency the
late Colonel (Sir W.) Beid, Governor of Bermuda.

The first half of a revolving gale is a fair wind from Bermuda to New
York, because in it the wind blows from the East ; but the last half is a fair
wind from New York to Bermuda.

During the winter season most of the gales which pass along the coast of
North America are revolving gales. Vessels from Bermuda bound to New
York should put to sea when the N.W. wind, which is the conclusion of a
passing gale, is becoming moderate, and the barometer is rising to its usual
level. The probability is, more particularly in the winter season, that after
a short calm the next succeeding wind will be easterly, the first part of a
fresh revolving wind coming up from the S.W. quarter.

A ship at Bermuda, bound to New York or the Chesapeake, might sail
whilst the wind is still West and blowing hard, providing the barometer in-
dicates that this West wind is owing to a revolving gale, which will veer to
the northward. But as the usual track which gales follow in this hemisphere
is northerly or north-easterly, such a ship should be steered to the southward.
As the wind at West veers towards N. W. and N. the vessel would come up,
and at last make a course to the westward, ready to take advantage of the
East wind at the setting in of the next revolving gale.

A vessel at New York, and bound to Bermuda at the time when a revolv-
ing wind is passing along the North American coast, should not wait in port
for the westerly wind, but sail as soon as the first portion of the gale has
passed by, and the N.E. wind is veering towards the North; provided it
should not blow too hard. For the North wind will veer to the westward,
and become every hour fairer tor the voyage to Bermuda.

A great number of gales pass along the coasts of North America, follow-
ing nearly similar tracks, and in the winter season make the voyage between
Bermuda and Halifax very boisterous. These gales, by revolving as ex-
tended whirlwinds,* give a northerly wind along the shore of the American
continent, and a southerly wind on the whirlwind's opposite side far out in
the Atlantic. In sailing from Halifax to Bermuda it is desirable for this
reason to keep to the westward, as affording a better chance of having a
wind blowing at North, instead of one at South ; as well as because the cur-
rent of the Gulf Stream sets to the eastward.

THE BERMUDAS, OE SOMERS ISLANDS. 751

When vessels from Barbados, or its neighbouring West India Islands,
sail to Bermuda on a direct course, they sometimes fall to the eastward of it,
and find it very difficult to make Bermuda when westerly winds prevail.

They should therefore take advantage of the trade wind to make the 68°
or 70° of West longitude, before they leave the 25° latitude.

On a ship leaving England for Bermuda, instead of steering a direct course
for the destined port, or following the usual practice of seeking for the trade
winds, it may be found a better course, on the setting of an easterly wind, to
steer West, and if this wind should veer by the South towards the West, to
continue on the port-tack until, by changing, the ship could lie in its course.
If the wind should continue to veer to North, and as it does sometimes even
to the eastward of North, a ship upon the starboard tack might be allowed to
come up with her head to the westward of her direct course. On both tacks
she would have sailed on curved lines, the object of which would be to carry
her to the westward against the prevailing wind and currents. There is
reason for believing that many of the revolving winds of the winter season
originate within the tropics ; and that ships seeking for the steady trade
winds, even farther South than the tropic, at that period of the year, will
frequently be disappointed. How near to the equator the revolving winds
originate in the winter season, is an important point not yet sufficiently ob-
served. The quickest voyage from England to Bermuda, therefore, may
perhaps be made by sailing on a course composed of many curved lines,
which cannot be previously laid down, but which must be determined by
the winds met with on the voyage. This principle of taking advantage of
changes of revolving winds, by sailing on curved lines, is applicable to high
latitudes on both hemispheres, when ships are sailing westerly. — Government
House, Bermuda, 2\st March, 1846.

9.— ROCKALL, OR ROKOL

This is a large and high rock, of a conical or sugarloaf shape, the summit
or upper part of which is perfectly white, from an im-
mense quantity of birds' dung, with which it is covered.
The rock had been seen many times, but its true situa-
tion was unknown till the year 1810, when it was
ascertained by Mr. T. Harvey, master of the Endy-
mion frigate. In Captain Vidal's survey of the western
banks it is represented in 57° 36' N., and 13° 41' W.

There appear to be dangers both to the N.E. and to the Eok ° 1 ' 2 , mi li s d l s J ant > as
o itt «xi t taken by Mr. Harvey.

b. Yv . ol the rock.

It was more particularly examined in August, 1862, in H.M.S. Porcupine,
commanded by R. Hoskyn, Esq., R.N., when surveying the bank of deep
soundings West of Ireland, and during which survey the Porcupine Bank
was discovered. The following is Mr. Hoskyn's account of it : —

lioclcall is in lat. 57" 35' 52" N. by meridian altitude of sun ; long. 13° 42
21" W., mean of a.m. and p.m. sights, four chronometers, sea horizon. The

752 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

rock has an elevation of 70 ft. abovo the sea, is about 250 ft. in circumference
at its base, and is composed of a coarse granite.

The summit of the rock, sharp-pointed and whitened by birds, can only
be gained from its N.E. side, and landing is at all times difficult, for it is
steep on all sides. On the N.E. side, however, is a small detached rock,
called Haslewood Rock, uncovered at half-tide, with 30 fathoms of water
between it and Rockall, from which it bears N.E. by N. a cable and a half
distant.

N.E. Dangers. — With the rock bearing N. by W., broken water appeared
to the N.E. of it ; and on approaching nearer, a rock, on which the water
broke, appeared just at the water's edge, When due South of Rokol, the
breakers were in a line with the eastern part of it. The sunken rock bears
N. 73° E., from it, at least 1 J mile distant. This rock may be named the
Helen Bock, as it is probably that on which the vessel was wrecked as
recorded below, unless there exists another rock farther off in the same
direction.

On the N.E. rock just mentioned, until then unknown, and lying about 2
leagues, or less, E.N.E. £ E. (by compass) from Rokol, the brigantine Helen,
Captain Erskine, of and from Dundee, struck fatally, on the 19th of April,
1824.

It appears from Captain Erskino's narrative, that he estimated Rokol to
lie in 13° 40' W. That the vessel struck twice on a clump of rocks, appa-
rently not much bigger than a ship's length, and on which the sea broke
occasionally. No other breakers were in sight at the time. Rokol at this
time bore, by compass, W.S.W. £ W., he thinks about 6 miles distant ; but,
as the weather was hazy, probably something less.

Captain Hoskyn, R.N., says : — Helen Reef, bearing S. 79° E. 2 miles
from Rockall, has about 6 feet water over it at low water. It is very
dangerous, and the situation of it is generally shown by its breakers, but
towards high water, and in very fine weather it only breaks at long inter-
vals. From being small and steep-to, there is then nothing to indicate the
approach to it. To avoid it keep Rockall clear of a W. by N. bearing.
There is a safe passage between it and the rock.

The lowest estimate that was formed of the range of the tide (judging
from the appearance of the rock) was 6 ft. ; but this seems large for a tide-
wave in mid-ocean.

The Rokol Bank was surveyed by Captain Vidal, R.N. The edge of the
bank of soundings, comprehending less depth than 100 fathoms, is 20 miles
to the northward, and 35 miles to the southward of the rock ; and the least
depth expressed, which is on the S.W. of the rock, is 54 fathoms. The whole
extent of soundings from N.E. to S.W., within the depth of 200 fathoms, is
55 leagues.

The greatest breadth, which is on the parallel of 57° 30', is 18 leagues.
The North end of the bank, with 163 fathoms of water, is in lat. 58° 19',
long. 13° 40' ; and the S.W. end, with 180 fathoms, is in lat. 56° 3', long.
15° 59'.

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS. 753

10.- SABLE ISLAND, OFF NOVA SCOTIA.

In a former page, 430, there are some remarks on this singular and
dangerous island, lying in the strength of the Gulf Stream, and apparently
formed by conflicting currents. The lighthouses on its eastern and western
ends are described in the Table of Lighthouses. Each of the towers answers
the purpose of a lighthouse, a house of refuge, a day beacon, a signal sta-
tion, and a lookout house. Every means, including lifeboats, rockets, &c,
are in readiness for rendering assistance to vessels which are in distress.
The Humane Establishment and the lighthouses are maintained by the
Canadian and British Governments.

The island is formed of two nearly parallel ridges of sand, shaped like a
bow, concave to the northward, and meeting in a point at either end. Its
whole length, following the curve, and including the dry parts of the bars,
is 22 miles ; or E. I S. 20 j miles, in a direct line across the curve ; its greatest
breadth is exactly 1 mile. In some parts it is wholly or partially covered
with grass ; in others, scooped out by the winds into crater-shaped hollows,
or thrown up into sand-hills, not exceeding the height of 75 ft. above high
water. Between these ridges a large pond, named Saltwater lake, said to
be gradually filling with blown sand, but still in some parts 12 ft. deep,
extends from the West end to the distance of 1 1 miles ; and a low valley
continues from it 6i miles more to the N.E. of the island. The entrances to
this pond have been for some time closed, the sea flowing in over the low
sandy beach on the South side, and at the West end only in high tides and
heavy gales.

Fresh water is to be had almost everywhere, by digging down a few feet
into the sand.

Sable Island and its submerged bars form a crescent concave towards the
North, and extend over more than 50 miles of sea. Vessels should be careful
not to be caught within this crescent in a strong gale from the northward,
when the accelerated ebb-tide, setting directly towards and over the bars,
would render her situation extremely dangerous. Both these bars are ex-
tremely steep on the North side, the East bar especially so, having 30
fathoms water close to it. To the southward, on the contrary, the water
deepens gradually out for so many miles as to render it difficult to account
for the greater number of shipwrecks having occurred on that side of the
island and its bars, excepting by a neglect of the lead.

In approaching the anchorage off Sable Island from the northward at
night, or in thick weather, the lead should be kept constantly going, and
after passing the Middle Ground, distant abo-it 25 miles to the northward of
the island, great caution should be used, f.nd tie vessel should be certain of
her position ; for the East end of the island and the East bar are very steep
on that side.

Vessels seldom anchor off the South side of the island, because of the
prevailing heavy swell from the southward ; but they may safely approach
by the lead on that side, taking care not to become becalmed in the heavy
swell, and in the strong and uncertain tides and currents near the bars.

The landing is in general practicable on the South side, excepting after a

754 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

long continuance of northerly winds ; and on the North side boats can land
only in southerly winds and fine weather ; but there are surf boats at the
establishment, which can land when ordinary boats would swamp instantly.
The positions of the various points are given in the Table on p. 57.

11.— PENEDO DE ST. PEDEO, OR ST. PAUL'S ISLETS.

A cluster of five steep, craggy rocks, without verdure, covered wkh birds'
dung, and having no place for anchoring, or convenience for landing. They
are about a quarter of a mile in extent each way, and the highest part is
about 100 feet above the sea. With a line of 100 fathoms, no bottom was
found within 2 miles of the islets. The appearance annexed has been com-
municated by the intelligent master of a merchant ship.

The rocks change materially in their appearance, according to their
bearing. The Tellicherry, East Indiaman, passed in sight in 1802, and
found that the appearance, between N. 30° W. and N. 37° W., 6 or 7 miles
distant, was that of a heap of rugged rocks, with low gaps between some of
them. The northernmost, a small pyramidal rock, rather lower than the
rest.

Penedo de St. Pedro, West, as taken by Captain Monteath.

Commodore Brou, of the Erench frigate Hermione in 1825, describes
Peliedo de San Pedro as a mile in extent, in a N.E. and S.W. direction ;
seen in fine weather 4 or 5 leagues off; when- bearing N.W. appearing in
the form of three pinnacles of sharp naked rocks of a remarkable shape.
The S.W. pinnacle separated a short distance from the others. The latter
appears safe to approach, and no breakers were seen, to indicate sunken
rocks. The Hermione sailed round on the eastern side at the distance of 5
miles ; did not try for soundings, but from the colour of the water it was
presumed that bottom would not be found.

The Equatorial Current set the ship to the westward at the mean rate of
18 miles, and to the North 6 miles, in the twenty-four hours between the
parallel of 8° N. and the equator, and the meridians of 28° and 30° W. At
the islets the direction of the current changed, and set more to the north-
ward, at three-quarters of a mile in the hour.

The best description of this isle is that of Captain Amasa Delano, who, in
the American ship Perseverance, from Boston toward Cape Horn, 23rd De-
cember, 1799, at two p.m. saw three small islands bearing W. by S., 2 or 3

PENEDO DE ST. PEDRO, OE ST. PAUL'S ISLETS. 755

leagues distant. The vessel bore away, and at three p.m. was abreast of
thorn. Hoisted the small boat out, went on shore, and found them to be
nothing more than a cluster of craggy rocks, about one-fourth of a mile in
extent from North to South, and nearly as much from East to "West. No
sort of vegetation existed upon them. The rocks were found to be five in
number, but only two of any considerable magnitude. Their extent was
from N.N.E. to S.S.W. The two largest nearly connect with each other,
and form a kind of harbour, or place of shelter for a boat, on the N.W. side.
Here they managed to land, but obtained nothing except a number of boo-
bies. On shore the aspect was most dreary, the sea roaring and surging on
all sides. Two smaller rocks were lying off to the S.S.W. of the large ones,
and one very small to the N.E. When on the highest part, which was at
least 100 ft. above the surface of the sea, no dangers could be seen but what
showed themselves above water, nor could any be discovered from the ship.
Plenty of fish were caught in the harbour or basin. At six p.m. returned
on board. Sharks were numerous about the ship, but in attempting to take
them a number of hooks and lines were lost, and several pairs of graines
broken. On sounding within 2 miles of the islet, no ground could be found
with a line of 200 fathoms.

Captain Delano states that the islets may be seen at the distance of 4
leagues, and always make like three sail when first seen. They are very
dangerous if fallen in with by night. The current near them sets N.W. by N.,
true, 1 mile an hour. The parts above the reach of the surf are covered with
birds' dung. The birds were hatching their young at the time. The month
of November would be the season for procuring eggs at this place, as they
may be obtained at that time in abundance ; but being the eggs of oceanic
birds, they are rather fishy than sweet. We have seen a different latitude
assigned to the rocks, but consider it is incorrect.

Admiral FitzRoy, from his observations, places the summit of the Penedo
in lat. 0° 55' 30", long. 29 3 22'. The rocks were seen on the horizon at
sunset of the 15th. They appeared extremely small at about 8 miles dis-
tant. At daylight next morning two boats were sent to land upon and
examine them, while the Beagle sailed round, sounding and taking angles.
Good observations were made during the day, as the sky was clear and the
water smooth.

" From the highest point of the rocks, which is 64 ft. above the sea, no
discoloured water, nor any breaking of the sea could be discerned, apart
from the place itself ; and from the soundings taken in the boats, as well as
on board the ship, I conclude that it is unconnected with any shoal, being
merely the summit of a steep-sided mountain rising from the bottom of the
ocean. A slight current was setting to the westward, not amounting to a
mile an hour." — (FitzRoy, vol. ii. p. 56.)

They were also visited by Sir James Ross, with the Erebus and Terror, in
his Antarctic expedition, on November 28th, 1839. He has given a small
chart of them, and the following : —

" We found the steep north-eastern side of the cove the most practicable
point for landing, and near it obtained our observations. The remarkable
rocks, which lie in lat. 0° 56' N., long. 29° 20' W., and more than 500 miles
distant from any continent, appear to have been raised by volcanic agency,

758 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLANDS.

and not in any part exceeding 70 ft. above the surface, present the form of
an oblong crater, the larger axis tying in a N.E. and S.W. direction."

Dr. M'Cormick, the talented surgeon and naturalist to the expedition,
gives also the following remarks : —

" They consist of a group of rocks, scai'cely extending half a mile in cir-
cumference. The four largest form a kind of bay on the N.W. side, in
which there is a considerable swell. The highest rock is on the N.E. side
of the bay, rather sharply peaked, 70 ft. above the sea. The next in height,
and the most remarkable, from its uniform white colour, is 61 ft., and is on
the S.W. or opposite side. This rock is a very hard kind of hornstone,
covered with a thin layer of calcareous matter, evidently formed by the ex-
crement of birds. Variation, Nov. 28th, 1839, 13° 20' W. ; in 1872, 15° 50'
West ; dip, 27° 8' N.

12.— THE ROCAS, ETC.

Although this dangerous spot is not strictly within the North Atlantic
Ocean, yet it has of late assumed a much greater importance in respect to
navigation, since Captain Maury's western route across the equator has been
advocated and followed ; this importance will be increased if the idea is
carried out of erecting a lighthouse on the reef to the memory of Captain
Maury. It is also the more necessary to allude to the reef here, as a singula?
error in its position had been perpetuated till of late years, and which
must have led to much embarrassment, and probably loss and danger. Yet
the apathy of the seaman is exemplified in this, that among the thousands
who must have passed it, and suspected the error, not one should have
thought it worth while to question the accuracy.

This very dangerous group was examined, and their position accurately
ascertained, by M. Lartigue, under the Baron Roussin, in 1825. Yet from
an erroneous estimate in Horsburgh's Directory, the first edition, in 1809,
they are placed in long. 33° 31' W., or from fifteen to eighteen miles too far
Hast. This error was continued in all the editions of Horsburgh down to
that of 1855, and has doubtless misled many.

It was first pointed out by Lieutenant Lee, U.S.N., who visited it in the
Dolphin, in April, 1852. He gives the following description of them.

The centre of this low and dangerous reef is in lat. 3° 51' 27" S., long.
33° 48' 57", and is 84 miles due West of the peak of Fernando Noronha.
The reef extends about 1£ mile in latitude, and nearly If mile in longitude,
and is covered at high water, with the exception of Grass and Sand Islands
on the West, and the scattered rocks on the South and East sides. These
objects are from 15 to 10 ft. above the reef, which is formed of coral, gene-
rally level, though with many holes in it. In case of a vessel striking on the
weather side of it (S.E.), the chance of saving life would be but small.
When about 10 miles off, the breakers were first seen from aloft. Then the
two low islands and the black rock soon appear. Sea birds abound, but
ihero is no guano owing to the rains. The eggs of the gulls were plentiful

THE EOCAS, ETC. ' r 757

and good (March, 1851). There is no wood, nor fresh water. There is bad
anchorage from 1 or 2 miles N.W. of Sand Island, in from 15 to 18 fathoms
coral bottom. We found coral bottom at 15 fathoms, 6 miles East of tho
reef, but no bottom at 30 fathoms 2| miles N.N.E., nor at 70 fathoms 4
miles S.E. of it.

The tide rises about 5 ft. The lagoon, in which we saw many turtle, has
from 1 to 4 ft. water at low tide, and shows white from the mast-head at 4
or 5 miles distance. The anchors and cable on the S.W. part of the reef,
and the remains of a wrecked vessel on the N.E. side of Grass Island, ap-
pear to have been on the reef for a long time. A lighthouse on tho reef
would be very useful to vessels.

The current in the vicinity of this reef sets from between S.E. by East,
and East by North, at the rate of from % to 1| mile per hour, as found by
the patent log. The surface current found by trials on four different days,
sets from between S.E. and East by Nonh, from £ to If mile per hour.
At the anchorage under the lee of Sandy Island, the tide ran from i to |
knot per hour, setting from between S.S.E. and East by North toward tho
northward and westward.

They were again partially surveyed by Lieut. J. E. Parish, in H.M.S.
Sharpshooter, in March, 1856. He gives the position of the centre of tho
South Sand Island as 3° 51' 25'' S., long. 33° 46' 23" W., or about 2 miles
further East of Lieut. Lee's. Capt. Lartigue's longitude agrees with that
of Lieut. Lee, and should therefore be preferred.

Lieut. Lee saw the remains of many wrecks on various parts of the banks,
and a hut on the western edge ; numerous cotton bales lie scattered about.
A bank carrying 14 or 15 fathoms affords anchorage as far as 5 miles to the
N.E. of the banks. Lieut. Lee planted some cocoa-nut trees on the eastern
sand-bank, which would afford a useful mark if they gi-ow. In 1870, tho
Mercurius was wrecked here, and the survivors state that there was only one
of tho trees remaining.

Captain Dumaresq, of the lnnisfail, from Bahia, reports as follows : —
"October 9th, 1872, sighted the Eocas Eeef, passed very close on the West
side. Observed by bearings, in coming from the southward, that the reef
is longer from East to West than reported in the Sailing Directions. It ap-
peared at least about 3 J miles, and from North to South about 2 miles.
Saw white bottom at about half a mile off the West end, but no breakers.
A few trees were growing on the South islet, about 10 ft. high, and were
distinguished from aloft before the hut on the northern islet could bo seen
about 10 miles off. I am of opinion that nothing of the reef could be seen
on a fine night at a mile off, unless from the whiteness of the water on tho
reef and lagoon."

Fernando JVoronha and the adjacent coast of Brazil are described in our
Directory for the South Atlantic Ocean.

The current between the Eocas and the main sets generally from the

southward and eastward, from 1 to l-£ knot, until near the flats, where wo

experienced indications of a counter current or tide. Learned at Para that

their coasting vessels were generally four weeks going from there to Per-

N. a. o. 5 E

758 DESCEIPTION OF THE COASTS.

nambuco. It is more from the failing of the wind there than from the
current, that it is so difficult to double Capo San Eoque.

CAPE SAN EOQUE, in lat. 5° 28' 20" S., long. 35° 16' 18" W., is consi-
dered as the turning point of the Brasilian coast. The Shoals of San Eoque
extend between the Cape and Toiro or Touro Point, 23 miles to the N.W.,
at a distance of from 6 to 8 miles off shore, the outer edge being in some
places awash. The N.W. point is 9 miles N.N.E. from Point Toiro, and the
S.E. end 4% miles E. by N. from San Eoque. There are several channels
through this outer line of reefs, and within it is a channel of 3£ to 5 fathoms
throughout, except a bar of 13 to 14 ft. midway between Cape San Eoque
and Point Toiro, The charts will show the peculiarities of this important
point,

13.— THE COASTS AND ISLANDS OF AMERICA, IN GENEEAL.

For a complete and direct description of the Coasts of Newfoundland, of
the Gulf and Eiver of St. Lawrence, the Coast of Nova Scotia, &c, to Cape
Cod, the reader is referred to the "British American Navigator," pub-
lished by the proprietor of the present work. The navigation thence
to the southward, including the whole of the West Indies and Mexican Sea,
is described in "The Columbian Navigator."

The American navigation, in general, requires details so minute, and ex-
planations so copious, as to render it impracticable to do justice to the
subject in an abridgement. It will, therefore, not be attempted. A few
remarks on the principal ports only will be added.

In the preceding pages the various phenomena which control the passages
across the Atlantic are recited, and with those remarks are many concerning
the proper mode of approaching any port. In connection, therefore, with
what follows, these previous directions may be incorporated.

The NEWFOUNDLAND BANKS, which have been in their fisheries the
source of all the opulence in the island, are vast submarine elevations, of
various depths and very unequal figures. The depths on the Great Bank
vary from 15 to 80 fathoms. The quality of the bottom varies considerably,
but it generally consists of sand, or sand mixed with shells and gravel,
rarely with stones. The eastern face of the bank is clear sand, white or
whitish, and often sparkling. In the gullies and deeps which separate the
bank, and more particularly in the Whale Deep or Trou de la Baleine, the
bottom is found to consist of mud or oaze with a foetid smell, and abounds
with different sorts of fish, but more particularly with cod, which is incon-
ceivably numerous; for, although from 200 to 400 vessels have been annu-
ally freighted with this article of commerce for nearly two centuries, there
appears to be no sonsible decrease of the former plenty. A great swell and
thick fog usually indicate the place of the bank.

There are, generally, in the spring, within 125 or 130 leagues of the land,
and between the Outer and Grand Banks, numerous icebergs, or ice-islands,
that float down with the current from the north-westward, and which,
during the foggy weather, are very dangerous. Even in the months of

BRITISH AMERICA. 759

June, July, and August, there are frequently a number of them ; some of
which may be seen aground, in 40 or 50 fathoms of water. In thick weather,
the place of these may commonly be distinguished by the ice-blink, a bright-
ness of the sky above them ; or by the breaking of the sea against them,
which may also be heard at a considerable distance ; or by the decrease of
the temperature of the water, as shown on page 432.

On approaching toward Cape Race (the S.E. point of Newfoundland), be
careful to avoid the Virgin Rocks, a dangerous reef, lying 20 leagues S.E. £
E. (E. by S.) from that cape. In gales of wind a heavy sea breaks over
them; and a strong current, which sets about them, often increases the
danger.

The bank, on which the shoal is, extends E. by N. and W. by S. 4| miles;
its broadest part is about 2J miles. The soundings are regular from 28 to
30 fathoms, but deepen suddenly on the outer edge to 39 and 43.

The rocks themselves are in 46° 26' 30" N., and 50° 51' 30" W. They
extend in an irregular chain, S.W. by W. and N.E. by E. 800 yards, vary-
ing from 200 to 300 yards in breadth. The least depth of water is on a
white rock, in 4 J fathoms, with 5 to 6J fathoms all round it ; the bottom
distinctly visible. Toward the extremities of the shoal are several detached
rocks of from 7 to 9 fathoms, with deep water between, and with a current
setting over them W.S.W. 1 mile an hour, and with also a very confused
heavy swell.

It is said that " A shoal, with only 21 feet water upon it, was discovered
by Jesse Ryder, master of the fishing schooner Bethel, on the Grand Bank
of Newfoundland, in lat. 46° 30', a rock of about 100 or 200 feet surface,
about 50 miles East of the Virgin Rocks. Shoal bears from the Nine Fa-
thom Bank S. by W. by compass about 1 J mile ; discovered it accidentally,
while searching for the Nine Fathom Bank, to fish on. I afterwards saw
the Virgin Rocks."

Another shoal, breaking at times, was reported in 1859 by Captain Kewley,
of Glasgow, to lie 4 or 5 miles S.W. of the Virgin Rocks.

Ships bound to St. John's are, therefore, recommended to keep on the
parallel of 46°, or a degree and a half to the southward of the parallel of
that port, and until they approach the outer edge of the Great Bank ; and,
when they obtain soundings, to steer directly to the south-westward for
Cape Spear, the position of which is given as 47° 31' N. and 50° 36^' W. }
but see also pages 516 et seq.

The HARBOUR OF ST. JOHN'S, which is the principal harbour of
Newfoundland, is an excellent one. It was surveyed by Captain Orlebar,
R.N., in 1862. The entrance is through the "Narrows," a strait running
in a N.W. by W. direction about half a mile long, and 220 yards across in
the narrowest part, with rocky precipitous heights of 500 feet on each side.
There are from 9 to 16 fathoms of water in the middle of the channel, with
tolerably good anchorage ground. The harbour then opens by a turn at
right angles, and runs in a S.W. direction for a mile and a quarter, and in
front the city of St. John's appears climbing up a hill, from Fort William
to Fort Townsend, now dismantled. In close proximity to this fort is seen
the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the English Cathedral, and the churches of
the Kirk and Free Kirk of Scotland, the Wesleyan and Congregational

760 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

Chapels. The ridge of hills on the S.E. side of the harbour is 740 ft. high,
and on the opposite side of the Narrows is a continuation of the same ridge,
called Signal Hill, 520 ft. high, to which place all vessels are telegraphed
from Cape Spear on their first appearance off that place. At two-thirds the
distance from the entrance to the harbour itself, is a rock, on the North side,
called the Chain Rock, which with Pancake Island on the opposite shore, con-
tracts the entrance at this part ; and between them a chain used to be stretched
to prevent the entrance of any hostile fleet. There are batteries on the
more prominent points of the Narrows, Fort Amherst on the South Head,
and Frederick's Battery, 2 cables' lengths to the westward. Opposite to
the latter, on the North shore, is the Queen's Battery, on the hill, 390 feet
above the sea; and on the point adjacent to the Chain and Roby Rocks is
another battery.

Lights. — On Fort Amherst, on the South side of the entrance, a bright
fixed light is shown, at an elevation of 114 ft., visible 16 miles off. It is
from a 4th order lens apparatus. A fog signal-gun is fired every hour during
daylight in thick weather.

Tyro fixed red lights, one placed on the roof of the Custom-house, at 50 ft.
above the sea, the other near the Congregational Chapel in front of tho
Cathedral, 225 ft. above the sea. They are 2 cables distant from each other,
and when in line bearing N.~W. \ W., lead through the Narrows.

A Fog-trumpet is established at Cape Spear lighthouse station, to the
southward of the entrance of St. John's Harbour, which, during thick
weather, will give blasts of 7 seconds duration once in every minute.

The City of St. John's is the principal settlement, and the only consider-
able town in the island. It is the seat of government and the bishopric, and
the chief harbour for the British vessels.

The entrance to the harbour, as above stated, lies N.W. by W., and within
will be found to narrow ; as, in the inner part, there is a rock on each side,
but above water. Here the breadth of the channel is only 95 fathoms, and
the depth 9. When past these rocks you may run on boldly without an}'
fear of danger, only avoiding a rock on tho South side, called Prosser's Rock,
on which there are only 9 ft. of water.

About 20 fathoms to the southward of the Chain Bock, which is always
above water, is the Roby or Salisbury Pock, on which the U.S. steam-frigate
Niagara struck after landing the electric cable in Trinity Bay. It is to be
(or is) deepened. The same with the Merlin Pock inside the entrance, which
has been blasted to 27 ft. least water.

Within the harbour you may anchor in any depth from 4 to 12 or 14
fathoms, land-locked from all winds, as the harbour within the Narrows lies
W.S.W. It is however to be noticed that there is no possibility of sailing
in, unless with the wind from S.W. by Si. to East. The wind from S.W. to
N.E by N. blows out of the Narrows. Here ships must then anchor and
warp in, for which purpose there are rings in the rocks on both sides.

The city extends along the western shore to the head of the harl our, and
has an extent of more than a mile of water frontage, which is chiefly
remarkable for its fishing stages. The head of the harbour to the S.W. is a
shallow lake, on the eastern side of which is the Admiralty yard, &c. Lower
down tho harbour is a floating dock.

BEITISH AMERICA. 761

The entrance of St. John's Harbour is readily known by the block-house
and Signal-station on Signal Hill on the Noith Head, and Amherst Fort with
its light on the South Head. There is a sunken rock, called the Vestal, 50
fathoms without South Head, with only 12 ft. of water on it. This rock is
about 10 fathoms long ajid 7 broad; the marks for it are, Fort William
(which stands within the harbour on the North side) open of South Head,
bearing N. 39° W. ; and the outer Wash-ball Rock open with Cuckold's Head,
bearing N. 47° E. The Wash-ball Bocks join the North Head; they are all
above water and steep-to, therefore not dangerous. A mark for approaching
the Narrows is the South Head touching the Chain Rock battery, bearing
N.N.W. £ W. The course in the Narrows is N.W. by distance 370 fathoms
to Chain Rock on the North, and the Pancake on the South side. Both
these rocks are above water, and steep-to. Sixty-five fathoms within the
Pancake Rock, on the South shore, lies the Little Pancake, a rocky shoal,
dry at low water ; and 80 fathoms within the latter lies a sunken rock,
called Prosser's Rock, running off 30 fathoms from a rock above water, in
the form of a saddle, with 1 1 ft. of water in the hollow, and only 5 ft. on
the outside. It is steep-to, with 5 fathoms close to it. After you have
passed Prosser's Rock you may stand to either shore, as they are clear and
steep-to. You may anchor in what water you please from 8 to 4 fathoms,
muddy bottom.

The tide of St. John's sometimes rises 7 or 8 ft. ; it is not regular, but
greatly influenced by the wind.

At half a mile S.E. \ S. from Fort Amherst is the centre of a narrow
bank, having 14 fathoms over it, and which breaks in rough weather. It
extends nearly a quarter of a mile N.E. and S.W., and has on it, near each
end, a depth of 20 fathoms.

Is is high water in the harbour, on the full and change, at 7 h 30 m . Spring
tides rise 6 ft.., neaps 4 ft.

Be very cautious, if unacquainted with the coast, that you mistake not the
place called Quidi Vidi (or Kitty Vittij), a mile to the northward, for the
harbour of St. John's, as it shows an opening like a good harbour, but it is
fit only for boats, and not safe even for these at low water. Fort Amherst,
which stands on the South head of St. John's, appears white, and the flag-
staffs on the hill, over the North Head, will point to the Harbour of St.
John's. Besides these, the course from Cape Spear is N.N.W., and the
distance about 4 miles. The position of Fort Amherst is lat. 47° 33J' N.,
long. 52° 40' W.

CAPE RACE LIGHTHOUSE is 40 ft. high, and is striped red and white
vertically on the S.E. face. The light is a revolving bright light, with a flash
every minute at 180 ft., visible 19 miles off. It is visible to seaward from
E.N.E. round southward to W.S.W.

A conical beacon stands 50 yards South from the lighthouse, and a tele-
graph statio)i North 240 yards from the lighthouse. This telegraph will
communicate with passing vessels.

The land about Cape Race is comparatively low, and bare of wood, with
a steep cliff of about 50 ft. in height. As a landfall it is somewhat dan-
gerous on account of the fogs to tho eastward, and in the season of ice-drifts
the bergs and fields are frequently very numerous about it. A southerly

702 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

course may therefore- be preferable. On this topic the following remarks by
Captain Orlebar, R.N., are important: —

" Although the current between the Grand Bank and Newfoundland com-
monly sets to the W.S.W., sometimes at a rate of nearly 1 mile per hour,
it is not always so, and near the shore in moderate weather it even changes
with the tide. At these times during the flood it runs to the S.W., and
during the ebb to the N.E., the former being the stronger. Westward of
Cape Race it must also be remembered that the current so frequently set-
ting to the N.W., 1 milo per hour in the offing, is not invariable in
strength or direction, but is affected greatly by the prevailing wind. It is
observed generally to run in upon the eastern side of the great bays indent-
ing the South coast of Newfoundland, and out on their western side. In
the offing it is influenced by the winds, and near the shore it is also altered
and influenced by the tides ; so that during spring tides the stream of ebb
runs weakly to the S.E., and the stream of flood to the N.W, the latter
sometimes 2 miles per hour round the headlands.

" Vessels coming from the eastward in thick weather, if sounding care-
fully, will probably strike the Ballard Bank, which is parallel to the shore
and about 15 miles long, varying from 1 to 5 miles across. A careful
comparison of the soundings thus obtained with those on the chart, will show
the position of the vessel with sufficient accuracy to enable the navigator tf
round Cape. Race without danger.

" For instance, if after sounding in about 80 fathoms, and one cast of
comparatively shoal water, that is from 30 to 40 fathoms should be obtained,
and afterwards the depth increases to 40, it may be concluded that the vessel
has passed over the narrow part of the Ballard Bank, and is to the north-
ward of the cape, and the course should be changed accordingly.

"But if shoal water under 30 fathoms continue for 5 miles, and then
deepens slightly, and again becomes shoal, the vessel may be safely con-
cluded to be on the southern part of the bank, and therefore South of Cape
Race, and her course to the westward may be continued with confidence.

"A vessel from the westward in thick weather may round Cape Pine and
Cape Race with perfect safety, if only attention be given to the lead. The
water shoals gradually to the shore, and at the distance of 10 miles there
is not more than 40 fathoms, so that maintaining a depth of more than 30
fathoms no risk can be incurred.

" It is to be regretted that there is no well-marked difference in the nature
of the soundings off these headlands that would show the position of a vessel,
the bottom being generally rock, with shells of the sea-egg, gray sand and
small stones predominating." *

Cape Pine, with its iron lighthouse and fixed light, stands as is shown in
the table, in lat. 46° 37', long. 53° 31' 45", and at a short distance westward
of it is the famous (in former times) St. Shot's Bay, alluded to in the account
of the wrecks in (318), page 429.

The currents hereabouts are described on pages 429 — 432; the tana's on
pages 256-7 ; and tho tides, on pages 301, 309.

A general description of the passages towards Newfoundland and into the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, are given on pages 51G— 523.

The distinctive features of the coast eastward of Halifax are often not

BRITISH AMERICA. 763

perceived in the usual weather, at the distance which the outlying dangers
render it prudent for a vessel to be kept from the shore. The lighthouses,
however, which are fully described in the tables, afford great assistance to a
stranger in ascertaining his position when first making the land.

The principal banks lying off the S.E. coast of Nova Scotia are the Ban-
quereau and Salle Island Banks, which are each about 150 miles in length, and
extend to an equal distance from the coast.

Sable Island and its Banks have been described on page 753.

HALIFAX HARBOUR, one of the finest in the world, affords space and
depth of water sufficient for any number of the largest ships with safety ;
and although the dangers off its entrance are such as to render great caution
necessary, especially in the fogs which usually accompany all winds from the
eea, it is yet easier of access and egress than any other large harbour on
the coast. It is 5£ miles wide at its entrance, from Chebucto Head on the
S.W. to Devil Island on the N.E., and it continues inland 15 miles, in a
northerly direction, to the head of Bedford Basin. The City of Halifax,
the capital of Nova Scotia, containing not less than 25,000 inhabitants,
stands on the declivity of a peninsu^ on the western side of the harbour,
and 8 miles above Chebucto Head. The citadel, immediately in rear of the
city, is elevated 227 ft. above the sea at high wc^Br, and with its flagstaff
forms a leading mark easily recognis^J from a vessel off the entrance of the
harbour.

Lights. — Three lighthouses denote the entrance to Halifax Harbour. One
on the western side, placed on Chebucto Head, shows a revolving light, the
purpose of which is to guide vessels clear of the dangerous Duncan Reef and
Bell Rock, lying southward of Chebucto Head. On the eastern side of the
entrance two fixed bright lights are shown on Devil Island, which, when in
one bearing E. £ N, lead southward of the dangerous Thrum Cap Shoal,
which shoal is also cleared to the westward by keeping George Island lights
(two bright lights, vertical, 20 ft. apart) open westward of Maugher Beach
light (fixed bright). Care must be taken not to mistake two lights shown on
the citadel, at an elevation of 240 ft., for George Island lights, the highest
of which is only elevated 50 ft. More particulars of the above lights will bo
found in the Table of Lighthouses, or in the Sailing Directions which accom-
pany the chart of the Coasts of British America, published by the proprietor
of this present work.

Fog Signals. — During thick weather the entrance to Halifax Harbour is
well denoted by the steam fog-whistle on Sambro Island to the southward,
and also by two automatic whistle buoys,* one of which, painted" black, lies
well outside the entrance to the harbour. It is surmounted by a 10-inch
whistle, and moored in 36 fathoms water, with Sambro Island lighthouse
W. £ N., distant 8 \ miles, and Chebucto Head lighthouse N.W. by W., 6 J
miles. Position, lat. 44° 28' 25" N., long. 63° 22' 10" W.

* The whistles of these buoys are sounded by the exit of compressed air from a 20 or 30-
inch tube, 20 or 30 ft. in length, attached to the buoys. The air is compressed by means
of the motion of the buoy, so that in a very smooth sea not much dependence is to be placed

on them.

764 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

Having passed this outer buoy when bound into Halifax, a N.W. £ N.
course for G miles will load to the inner automatic buoy, which is painted
red, and moored in 21 fathoms water, with Chebucto Head bearing S.W.
iW., distant If mile, and Sandwich Point N. by W., 4 miles. After pass-
ing westward of the inner signal buoy at the distance of about half a cable,
aN.| W. course will lead up the harbour, eastward of Neverfail Shoal, and
westward of Maugher Beach lighthouse. When approaching Maugher
Beach, a good look-out should be kept for the fog-bell on the lighthouse,
which is sounded (by machinery) seven times every minute.

On nearing the automatic buoys in thick or foggy weather, the lead will
verify the vessel's position.

Pilots are stationed on Devil Island, and several families reside there.

Directions. — The bank off Sambro Island, terminating in a point, and at
the depth of SO fathoms, 5 miles South of the Sambro Ledges, offers con-
siderable assistance to vessels approaching Halifax from the westward in
thick fogs, which so frequently prevail. Prom the eastward the approach i?
rendered comparatively easy, by the absence of outlying dangers after
passing Shut-in Island, and by the soundings deepening out with tolerable
regularity to 30 fathoms, at distances varying from 4 to 6 miles from the
shore, until within 2 miles of Chebucto and White Heads, where the depth
exceeds 30 fathoms, until within one-third of a mile from the shore. Attention
to these soundings, combined with the fog-signals above described, may
enable steamers at times to enter the harbour notwithstanding the fog, but
it is seldom prudent for a large sailing vessel to attempt it under such cir-
cumstances.

Captain Dunstervilie writes thus: — "In approaching the land of Nova
Scotia, do not come into less than 50 fathoms, for though there may be a dense
fog in the offing, yet near and over the land it is frequently clear, there-
fore by sounding frequently, you may, even in a fog, approach the coast;
and if you suppose yourself near Sambro' lighthouse, by firing a gun, a pilot
will very soon offer. The lighthouse is remarkable, and may be seen,
from seaward at 3 or 4 leagues off. The land about Halifax is of moderate
height, and may be seen at about 6 leagues. Citadel Hill, over the town,
may probably be seen much further ; this is where the signal is made for
alt vessels in the offing. The light on Maugher's Beach kept between
N. by E. and North, will lead you clear to the westward of Thrumcap,
which is a most dangerous shoal. Chebucto Head lighthouse, bearing N.W.,
clears all the dangers lying to the S.W. It is worthy of observation, that,
in approaching the land near Halifax, in thick weather, when it is just per-
ceptible, the colour of the cliffs eastward of the harbour is red, and to the
westward white."

From the Westward at night. — In approaching Halifax Harbour from the
westward at night, shape a course to pass not less than 3 miles to the south-
ward of the Sambro Island light, steering E.N.E., and in not less than 30
fathoms water, until the light bears North ; when, if not more than 6 miles
from it, the vessel will have arrived at the southern prolongation of the
Sambro Bank. Having crossed the bank into deep watex*, haul up N.N.E ,
until the light on Maugher Beach opens out East of Chebucto Head, bearing
N. by E., when steer for it, keeping well outside the black buoy marking

HALIFAX HARBOUR SHOAL. 765

Bell Eock, or so as to pass within a mile ov less from Chebucto Head, which
is quite bold. Having done so, keep the light bearing between North and
N. by E., as the vessel runs towards it, and all the dangers will bo avoided
except the Neverfail Shoal, on which there is not less than 4J fathoms.

Having arrived abreast the Thrumcap, or brought Devil Island lights in
line E. £ N., the western side of Thrumcap shoal will be cleared by keeping
George Island lights open westward of Maugher Beach light as before de-
scribed. Alter course, as may be necessary, to avoid the Lighthouse Bank;
and as soon as the light on Maugher Beach bears East, steer N. by E. for
Ives Point (or N.N.E., if necessary, to avoid the Middle Ground, on which,
however, there are not less than 4h fathoms), until the light bears S. by E. ;
then a N. by W. course, keeping the light astern, will lead between the Plea-
sant Shoal and Eeed Rock black buoys on the one side, and Ives Knoll red buoy
on the other into the harbour. Having passed Ives Knoll, the vessel may
proceed in on either side of George Island, or may anchor in the stream of
Macnab Island until daylight, according to circumstances. The light on
Maugher Beach disappears behind Ives Point, as a vessel runs in to the
eastward of George Island, which is the wider and preferable channel in a
dark night. Within George Island there is nothing in the way, excepting
the Dockyard Shoal, and the shallow water off Dartmouth.

By Lay. — Approaching from the westward in the daytime, pass Sambro
Island Lighthouse at the distance of 3 or 4 miles, and when Sandwich Point
opens out East of Chebucto Head, stand in N. by E. or N.N.E., according
to the wind, until the citadel flag-staff opens East of Sandwich Point, bear-
ing N. £ W. Keep the citadel flag-staff only just open, running towards it,
and it will lead between the Lichfield (marked by a black buoy) and Never-
fail Shoals, and up to Mars Eock black buoy, which leave to the westward.
Having passed Sandwich Point, from which the shallow water does not
extend beyond a cable's length, steer towards George Island, keeping
Chebucto Head only just in sight East of Sandwich Point until the vessel
has passed close to the westward of the Middle Ground ; then open out the
head more, so as to leave the Pleasant Shoal and Eeed Eock black buoys to
the westward, in running towards George Island ; or, if it be preferred,
the steeple at Dartmouth in one with the eastern side of George Island,
bearing North, will lead to the eastward of the Middle Ground. Either
of the marks just given will lead clear up to George Island, on either side
of which the vessel may pass into the harbour, leaving the Belleisle and
Leopard buoys to the westward, if she passes between them and the
island, and choosing her anchorage off the wharves of the city, or off
the Dockyard, where the Commissioner's Buoy will point out the Dockyard
Shoal.

From the Eastwakd by night. — Approaching from the eastward by night,
and being to the westward of the Jedore Ledges, run along the land in a
depth not less than 30 fathoms, until the lights on Devil Island are seen;
then, if it be intended to pass to the southward of the Eock Head and Por-
tuguese Shoal (the former marked by a black and white striped buoy, and
the latter by a red and black banded buoy), steer for Chebucto Head until
near the Whistle buoy (remembering that to clear the Eock Head, the light

S, A. O. 5 F

7C6 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

on Sambro Island must be kept wide open to the S.E. of White Head,
bearing nothing to the southward of S.W. by W. ; and the lights on Devil
Island nothing to the eastward of N.E. by N.), until the light on Maugher
Beach bears North ; when steer for it, keeping it bearing between North
and N. by E., and proceeding as already directed.

By day steer for Chebucto Head until the citadel flagstaff is only just
open East of Sandwich Point, N. £ W. ; then steer for it, and proceed as
before.

Between the lioclc Head and Thrumcap. — If a N.E. wind, or other circum-
stances, should render the passage preferable between the Rook Head and
Thrumcap Shoals, proceed as follows: —

By night. — Having passed Shut-in Island, steer so as to pass not less than
half a mile, or more than one mile, to the southward of Devil Island.
Having passed Devil Island, the high light on the South end of that island,
bearing E. by N. and open southward of the low light, will clear Thrumcap
Shoals. From a position a mile southward of Devil Island, steer to the
westward, until the light on Maugher Beach bears North, when proceed a3
before directed. A large vessel should not use this channel at night.

From Halifax, westward, to Margaret Bay, the country appears, from the
offing, very rocky and broken ; the shore is steep-to, and bounded with
white rocky cliff's. The high lands of Aspotogen, on the eastern side of
Mahone Bay, are most remarkable ; the summit is very conspicuous ; it is
483 ft. high, and may be seen at the distance of 7 or 8 leagues. Proceeding
westward from Mahone Bay, the rocks which surround the shore are black,
with some banks of red earth. Cape le Rave is an abrupt cliff, 107 ft. high
above the sea ; it is bald on the top, with a red bank under it, facing the
south-westward. Between this cape and Port Metway there are some hum-
mocks within land, about which the country appears low and level from the
sea ; and on the shore, white rocks and stony beaches, with several low bald
points ; hence to Shelburn Harbour the land is woody. About the entrance
of Port Latour, and within land, are several barren spots, which, from the
offing, are easily discerned ; thence, to Cape Sable, the land appears level
and low, and on the shore are some cliffs of exceedingly white sand, parti-
cularly in the entrance of Port Latour, and on Cape Sable, where they are
very conspicuous from the sea.

From Sambro' Lighthouse to Cape Sable extremity, the bearing and dis-
tance are W. by S. § S. 112 miles.

Cape Sable is the cliff of a sandy islet distinct from Cape Baccaro ; it is
white, broken, evidently diminishing, and may be seen at the distance of 5
leagues. The lighthouse, which is white, and 50 ft. high, shows a revolving
light, and has a Fog-ichistle, as described in the Table of Lighthouses. From
the islet ledges extend outward, both to the East and West ; the eastern
ledge, called the Horse-shoe, extends 2| miles S.E. by S. ; the western,
or Cape Ledge, extends 3 miles to the S.W. The tide, both ebb and flood,
sets directly across these ledges, the flood westward. The ebb, setting with
rapidity to the N.E., causes a strong break to a considerable distance from
shore. This coast should not be approached without a commanding breeze
and clear weather. Here the tide runs at the rate of 3, and sometimes 4,
knots j and when the wind blows fiesh, a rippling extends from the breaker^

BOSTON. 767

soutnerly to th9 distance of nearly 3 leagues, and shifts its direction with the
tide; with the flood it is more westerly, and inclines to the eastward with the
ebb. This ripple may be dangerous to pass through in a gale, as it has the
appearance of high breakers, although there is no less than 8, 10, 12, and
20 fathoms of water, rocky ground. At the Cape, the tide, on full and
change, flows at 8 h , and rises 9 ft.

Brasil Rock is a flat rock, covering an area of about 10 yards, and having
11 ft. over it at low water, in calm weather ; within a hundred yards from
its base are from 6 to 8 fathoms water ; to the southward, at about a mile
from the rock, the depths are from 18 to 20 fathoms, but toward the shore
the soundings are regular, 15 to 19 and 20 fathoms. The tide, by running
strongly over the shoal ground, causes a great ripple, and makes the rock
appear larger than it really is. From Cape Negro the bearing and distance
to the rock are S.W. J S. 10 miles; Cape Baccaro Light, 8. £ W. 5J
miles ; and, from the rock, Cape Sable Lighthouse bears N.W. by W. 8
miles. Its given position is, lat. 43° 21' 50", long. 65° 27'.

Seal Island. — The southernmost point bears from Cape Sable nearly
W.N.W. A W., 17 miles. The lighthouse stands half a mile from the South
end, showing a fixed light at 98 ft.

At about 3J miles S. \ E. from the lighthouse on Seal Island lies the
Blonde, a rock uncovered at low water. Close around it are from 7 to 10
fathoms. Within a mile westward from the Blonde are heavy and dan-
gerous overfalls, which present an alarming aspect. At 4| miles North
from these is a bed of shoal ground, of 16 ft. causing a violent ripple.

Off the West side of Seal Island is the rocky islet called the Devil's Limb,
which may at all times be seen.

The navigation of the Bay of Fundi/, with its furious tides, requires ex-
traordinary caution, and any space we could afford here would be of little
eervice in explaining its nature.

The Coast of Maine, also, is so intricate, its inlets so numerous, and fronted
by almost innumerable rocks and islets, that a lengthened description would
only suffice to explain its character. The lighthouses on the outlying rocks
of Mount Desert and Matinicus, Manheigan Island, &c, will show the outer
limit of this labyrinth, and further description will be found in the Direc-
tions for the chart of the coasts of British America.

BOSTON.— From Seal Island Lighthouse to the entrance of Boston Har-
bour, the direction and distance are W. i S. 220 miles, but it should be re-
membered that the dangerous rock on Cashe's Ledge is just to the northward
of this course.

The lighthouses of Capo Anne, and those on the Cape Cod Peninsula,
described in the list, are the most prominent points in approaching Boston.

From the Egg Rock Lighthouse off Nahant Peninsula to Minot's Ledge
Lighthouse, on one of the Cohasset Rocks, the bearing and distance is
S.S.E. 12 miles, and in this interval are the various entrances to the exten-
sive series of channels and bays which collectively form the harbour of
Boston.

The assistance of a pilot is always necessary, and this cannot be too
strongly insisted on, for, notwithstanding that the principal dangers are
beaconed and buoyed, and the points of approach well lighted, yet it

7G8 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

should never be attempted without either nn exact knowledge or with the
aid of a competent pilot.

Boston Lighthouse. —The principal lighthouse is on Little Brewster Island ',
on the North side of the principal entrance, in lat. 42° 19' 39" N., and long.
70° 53' 5' W. It is a white circular tower 80 ft. in total height, showing a
brilliant revolving light every half minute, elevated 111 ft., visible at 16
miles off. A Fog-trumpet is sounded in foggy weather, giving blasts of 7
seconds at intervals of 43 seconds.

Minot Ledge Lighthouse is 6| miles S.E. \ E. from the Little Brewster
Island Lighthouse, aud stands on the outermost of the Cohasset Rocks.
It was originally an iron pile structure, which disappeared during a heavy
storm, and was succeeded by the present dark grey granite tower, 100 ft. in
total height, and showing a brilliant fixed light at 92 ft. above the sea,
visible 15 miles off. A Fog-bell is sounded when necessary.

The Narrows Light, on the West end of the Brewster Spit or Bar, abreast
the Narrows, is a red fixed light, exhibited from a screw pile lighthouse, and may
be seen 7 miles off. It bears westward 1| mile from the Boston Lighthouse.

Long Island Lighthouse is a white iron tower 22 ft. high, on the N.E. end of
Long Island, on the South side of President Road. The light is fixed, ele-
vated 80 ft., visible 15 miles off.

DANGERS. — The Graves are a parcel of dry rocks which appear white,
lying to the northward and eastward of Boston Light. On the N.E. ledge
is an iron lell-loat, in 10 fathoms water, Long Island Light bearing W.S.W.
£ W., 4f miles distant, and Boston Light S.W. f S., 2| miles distant.

Thieves Ledge, of 4£ fathoms, lies E. £ S. of Boston Light, distant 3 miles.

Harding Ledge is dry at low water, and on the drying part a shaft is
raised, having on its summit, which is 31 £ ft. above low water, a cast-iron
ring, set horizontally, with twelve wooden pendants attached to the rim.
This beacon is entirely black, and from it Boston Lighthouse bears N.W. 2£
miles; Martin's Ledge, North, 2h miles; and Minot's Ledge Lighthouse,
S.E. I E., 4J miles. A black bell-boat lies off the N.E. side of the ledge.

Martin Ledge lies nearly midway botween Thieves Ledge and the Graves,
and has on it 13 ft. at low water. Outside the ledge, in 6 fathoms, there is
a red nun buoy.

Directions.— Coming from the vicinity of Cape Cod, you should keep to
the northward of the direct course, if the wind is N.E. ; and to the westward
if it is S.W., making allowance for the tide. With a leading wind a direct
course maybe made good on the flood; but the ebb sots toward Minot's
Ledge Light.

If from the vicinity of Cape Ann, no particular precautions are necessary.

Should you iall in with the Scituate land, in a depth of 10 or 12 fathoms,
without having seen the light on the Cohassets Bocks during the night or
thick weather, run North into 17 or 18 fathoms, and steer W.N.W. for
Boston Light. From the lighthouse on the Cohassets Rocks, Boston Light-
house bears N.W. A W., distant 7 miles. David's Ledge lie3 E. by S. \ S.
from Cohasset's Lighthouse, and has a buoy placed to the N.E. of it to mark
the danger.

AVken near the land, and approaching Minot's Ledge, bring the point of
Scituate to bear South, and 6teir North, which will clear Davis's Ledge,

BOSTON. 769

three-quarters of a mile to the eastward ; and when you get the lighthouse
on the Cohassets Bocks to bear West, steer N.W. by W. for Boston Light-
house, which will lead to the N.E. of the bell-boat on Harding's Ledge;
but in thick weather it is more prudent to steer N.W. until up with the bell-
boat, bearing West, then W.N.W., allowing for wind and tide. From off
Nahant Head, and bound for the main ship channel, bring the light on the
Egg Rock to bear N.N.W., and steer S.S.E. to pass the Graves, at half a
mile to the eastward of the bell-boat riding on them, and when it bears N.W.
by W. £ W., steer S.S.W. until up with the bearing for entering the chan-
nel. Vessels may pass inside the Graves, keeping 1 cable's length from the
S.W. point.

Vessels working to windward in Boston Bay up the harbour, may, in the
daytime, stretch safely anywhere between Minot's Ledge and Nahant Head
until up with the Graves on one side and Harding's Ledge on the other. Do
not come nearer the N.E. part of the Graves than half a mile, but the Har-
dings may be approached pretty near to the bell boat. Inside of the line
from the Graves to the Hardings you may stand to the southward to within
half a mile of the shore, and to the northward to within three-quarters of a
mile of the East end of the Outer Brewster, or the East end of the Shag
or Egg Rocks.

When up with the Egg Eocks, you must stand no farther to the northward
than to bring Boston and Long Island Lights in range, and in passing Point
Allerton be careful not to go inside the buoy. A vessel, not having a pilot,
even if a stranger, may beat up to the anchorage inside the lighthouse, in
the daytime, by making short boards, and keeping 2 cables' lengths from
Lighthouse Island, but should wait there for a commissioned pilot. If you
are working up for Boston Harbour in the night, you will avoid the Cohas-
sets and Harding's Ledge by not standing farther to the southward than to
bring Boston Light to bear W.N.W. When within 2 miles of the light, go
no nearer than to bring it to bear West, and when near Egg Rocks you
must not pass to the North of Boston and Long Island Lights in range.

Main Ship Channel. — When abreast of the lighthouse, bearing North, and
in mid-channel, a W. \ N. course made good leads to the pilo lighthouse on
the spit; but if the tide is ebb, or you arc on the North side of the channel,
steer West or West-southerly, so as to avoid getting on the False Spit. Leave
the lighthouse on the starboard hand, and steer N.W. A W. past George's
Island. In this course you will have Nix's Mate Beacon and the middle of
Bunker Hill Monument in range until up with the eastern end of Gallop
Island. From this point the course through the Narrows is N.W. by N.,
keeping in mid-channel and steering for the high land on Deer Island until
up with Nix's Mate, which leave on the port hand.

When you are passing Nix's Mate you should have Deer Island Beacon
on the N.E. end of Apple Island for a light ship, and off the South part of
Apple Island for a vessel of heavy draught. By observing either of these
marks, you will avoid the shoal ground about Nix's Mate. A W. i N. course
leads from Nix's Mate through President Roads, until the new beacon on
the high part of Long Island is just clear of the N.E. bank of Spectacle
Island, when the course is N.W., keeping the marks astern in range until
abreast of the beacon on the S.E. part of Bird Island.

770 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

In steering this latter range, it will lead safely past the Lower Middle,
Castle Island Rocks, Governor's Island Point, the Upper Middle, and in the
best water over the shoal ground above the Upper Middle. When up with
the beacon on Bird Island, steer N.W. by W. h W. towards the State House,
until abreast of the buoy on the Slate Ledge, and then N.W. by N. for the
anchorage.

Hypocrite Channel is between the Outer Brewster on the South, and the
Sunken Rocks to the northward, thence between the Green and Little Calf
Islands to Ram Head, where it joins the Broad Sound Channel. This
channel is intricate, and only fit for those acquainted with it, and therefore
not to be attempted without a pilot.

Black Bock Channel leads from the main ship channel at the pile lighthouse
into the Hypocrite Channel, and is never used by large vessels except in the
winter time, to avoid the ice in the Narrows. This channel, too, is narrow
and dangerous, and not fit for strangers to attempt.

Broad Sound Channels. — The South : Vessels intending to enter by the
South Channel may stand in anywhere between Nahant Head and the
Graves, and steering to the South of West, until they bring Nix's Mate
Beacon to bear S.W. by W. £ W., may run for it.

The mark for this channel is Nix's Mate, in tho middle of the northern
and highest of the Blue Hills. This channel is short and straight ; its range
is perfect, and is safe at half or three-quarters flood for the largest ships ;
especially for vessels outward bound. Vessels going out this way will leavo
Ram Head, Aldridge's Ledge, and Devil's Back Buoys on the starboard
hand, and the Little Faun and Great Faun Beacon on tho port hand ; and
in running out of Broad Sound will keep Egg Rock open with Nahant
Head.

The North Channel passes nearer Deer Island, and is separated from the
South Channel by a middle ground. The buoys are passed in the same way
as in the latter. The range for this channel is the North head of Long Is-
land (on which the lighthouse stands), in line with the second bluff on the
West side. This channel cannot be recommended, and should not be at-
tempted in bad weather, even by small vessels.

There is another channel out, used by vessels in light winds on the ebb,
to prevent being sot into the Sound at Nix's Mate, or the East end of Lovel's
Island. This is to the southward of President Roads, Spectaclo Island, and
Long Island, and through Nantasket Roads to the main ship channel South
of Boston Light, and is termed the Back or Western Way.

Vessels waiting for a pilot may anchor in the main ship channel anywhere
between the lighthouse and Nantasket Beach.

To vessels outward bound from Boston Lighthouse, who would wish to
fall in with Cape Cod, the course is S.E. by E. A- E., distant 11 leagues,
thence 3 leagues to the lighthouse; and when it bears S.W., 2 leagues dis-
tant, you may then steer S.S.E., which will carry you out of the South
Channel.

Vessels in Boston Bay, which bear away for Cape Cod Harbour, must en-
deavour to fall in with Race Point Lighthouse, which shows a flashing light,
and run for it till within half a mile ; when it bears E.N.E. haul up E.S.E.,
or as near as tho wind will permit, and anchor in from 10 to 4 fathoms, ia

NANTUCKET SHOALS. 771

Herring Cove, where there is good shelter with the wind from N.N.E. to
S.E. by E. Should the wind shift to the N.W., Provincetown Harbour is
under the lee to which wo refer; should you first make Cape Cod Light,
bring it to bear E. by N., and run for it until you have soundings in 14 or
15 fathoms; then steer N.E. until the light bears E. by S.; then run inN.W.
for the harbour.

Between Cape Ann and Cape Cod there are from 50 to 17 fathoms; the
latter 4h miles N. by E. from the Eace light, with 55 fathoms inside. S.E.
by E. J E. from Boston light to the Eace light there is a ridge of rocks and
sand of 7 to 23 fathoms water, with a small gully of 37 fathoms, 20 miles
from Boston light. To the North of this ridge the bottom is generally
muddy, and the depth from 40 to 50 fathoms.

It is high water, full and change, off Eace Point, at 10 h 45 m . Vessels
leaving Cape Cod, bound to Boston, should calculate the tide, as the flood
sets strongly to the S.W. off Cape Cod, from the Eace to Chatham ; flood
sets to the South, ebb to the North ; southern tide 9 hours, northern tide 3
hours.

Boston City, the capital of New England, and the second place, in point of
commerce, in the United States, consists of three parts — Old, South, and
East Boston ; and its harbour is one of the best in the United States. The
Eastern Railroad commences at East Boston. The Lowell Eailway runs on
the bridge over Charles Eiver, and the Worcester and Providence Eailroads
run from the South side of the city. By means of these communications this
city has become the focus of much commerce.

Nantucket Shoals. — These very dangerous shoals, lying immediately in
the lino of traffic of the coasting trade of the United States, have been but
very little known till within a few years ; and then their limits were first
more exactly defined at the expense of a private individual, Mr. L. M. Blunt,
of New York. These " Goodwin Sands " of the United States now, however,
appear tolerably well examined, though still some doubt has been expressed
as to whether their entire extent has been ascertained, by the United States
Coast Survey, chiefly by Lieutenant Charles H. Davis, United States Navy.
The danger of these formidable shoals is much reduced by the lighthouse
on Sankaty Head. This tower is 65 feet high, painted in three horizontal
rings, shows a flash of 10 seconds in every minute, at an elevation of 150 ft.

The Old South Shoal has from 6 to 18 ft. water on it, and is 2£ miles in
extent. From its centre Sankaty Head bears N. J W., distant 12J miles.

From the middle of the New, or Davis 1 South Shoal, with 8 to 18 ft., 1£
miles in extent, the middle of the Old South Shoal bears N. by E., distant
6£ miles. No part of Nantucket Island is visible from it in the clearest
weather, but the Sankaty light may be seen.

The Lightvessel, which lies nearly 2 miles to the South of Davis' South
Shoal, marks the limit of dangers in this direction. She lies in 14 fathoms,
in lat. 40° 56' 0" N., long. 69° 51' 50" W. A bell and fog-horn are used in
foggy weather. The shoal soundings, however, do not cease here, for a spit
with 8 to 10 fathoms extends for about 7 miles farther South.

Within the Old South Shoal there are many dangerous patches, which
can be best described in the chart, but to the eastward of Nantucket Island,
in 1849, six shoals, of small extent, but not the less dangerous, haviDg from

772 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

9 to 14 ft. were discovered, and placed by Lieutenant-Comm. M'Blair to the
northward of these. They lie geuerally about E. hj 8. from tho Great
Point Light of Nantucket Island, at distances varying from 13 to 15 miles
off. Thej' are sharp, abrupt ridges of fine white sand, which are readily
discovered by tho rip of the tides at all times, except at slack water, but by
daylight they exhibit the usual discoloration.

To the southwai*d of M'Blair Shoals, a line of breakers and shoal patches,
called the Great Itij), extends to lat. 41° 2'. To the East of the southern-
most of these patches, with 9 ft. water, a buoy-boat is moored. At 2 J miles
East of this is another long shoal, Davit? Bank, on which there are only 3£, 4,
and 5 fathoms for 5 miles. From the N.E. end of Davis' Bank shoal patches
of from 2J to 10 fathoms extend 10 miles to the south-westward and join the
East end of the outermost shoal known as the Fishing Rip, a line of shoal
patches, with 4 to 9 fathoms on it, between 41° and 41° 10'.

It would seem as if this labyrinth of shoals would scarcely ever be known,
for in 1860 the Asia discovered a line of 10-fathom patches 15 miles S.S.E.
of tho tail of the Fishing Pip, where the water was supposed to be deep.

The main body of the flood tide runs to the eastward, the ebb to the
westward. The currents always run across tho line of directions of the
shoals, and are much more rapid during their passage. This makes a near
approach particularly dangerous on the side toward which the tidal current
is setting.

The current is never still. During what is called slack water, the velocity
is rarely less than half, sometimes more than 1 mile. A careful attention to
currents is important in this vicinity.

It is high water, full and change, at XII 1 ' 4 m ; mean rise and fall 3 feet 2
inches.

From the South Shoal Lightship to Montauk Point Lighthouse, at the East
point of Long Island, the bearing and distance are W. by N. J N. 91 miles.
From Montauk Point the South coast of Long Island trends W. by S. | S.
for 33 miles, to Shinnecock Bay, in the rear of which is a high lighthouse,
150 ft. high, showing a fixed light. From hence to the Fire Island inlet, at
which there is another high lighthouse, with revolving light, is W. by S. £ S.
34 miles, and from hence to Sandy Hook is W. J S. 37 miles.

NEW YORK. — The lighthouses and lightvessel which indicate the en-
trance to New York Harbour, are described in the table. The chart of the
approaches is the best guide, both for the depth and quality of bottom,* and
Lieutenant Murray has founded an elaborate description on its indications
which cannot be quoted here. The water shoalens gradually towards Long
Island, but is deepest at tho East end, where 20 fathoms is found at 9 mile?
off, while at its West end this depth is only to be got at 25 miles off. This
circumstance is a good guide. There is another singular feature which may
mislead if not known. There are about seven deep holes lying in a south-
east direction from Sandy Hook, which have from 10 to 15 fathoms more

* See plan on tho chort of the Coasts of the United States published by the proprietor of
this work. Fuller directions are given in the Book of Directions which accompanies that
chart.

NEW YORK. 773

water tlian immediately around, thorn ; but the outermost is in lat. 39° 37' N.,
long. 72° 25', and lias Mo fathoms, nearly 100 fathoms more than surrounds
it, and 15 miles within the 100 fathom line. The others are known as tho
38, 37, 37, 32, 21, and 23 fathom holes. This range of holes with the light-
vessel at one end, and the 38 fathom hole at tho other, is 55 miles long and
1 1 miles broad, at tho outer end, and 2 miles at the inner end. This will,
by careful attention, afford a good guide.

When Block Island bears N., distant 4 or 5 leagues, you cannot see any
land to the northward or oastward ; but as you approach the island, you see
Montauk Point to the westward, making a low point to the eastward, on
which is a lighthouse. In sailing W.S.AV., you will make no remarkablo
land on Long Island, from the eastward of the said island to the westward,
its broken land appearing at a distance like islands ; but may discover Fire
Island lighthouse, which shows a revolving light. From Fire Island light a
shoal extends South three-fourths of a mile, on which the flood tide sets very
strong. It is not safe to approach the shore nearer than 2 miles when the
light bears to the E. of N. To the eastward of tho light the shore is bold.
When Fire Island light bears North in 10 fathoms water, you may steer
W. by S., which will carry you up with Sandy Hook light. The quality of
the bottom is various, viz., yellow, red, brown, blue, and gray sand, within
short distances. About South from Fire Island, 33 miles distant, and 40
miles S.E. by E. from the Highlands, lies a bank extending from N.E. by E.
to S.W. by W., having on it from 10 to 14 fathoms, pebbles. Within this a
short distance, you will get 20 fathoms, when it shoals into 10 fathoms, gray
sand, which depth you will carry till you get into what is called the Mud
Hole, where are from 20 to 36 fathoms water, marl or green oaze, and some-
times pebbles, the deepest part of which bears East from the northernmost
part of tho Woodland, 10 miles ; and S.E. ^ S., 15 miles from Sandy Hook
light. From the Mud Hole to the bar of Sandy Hook the water shoals
gradually, as laid down on the chart.

You will have 20 or 22 fathoms water out of sight of the land, sandy
bottom in some, and clay in other places. Before you come in sight of sandy
nook lighthouse, you see the Highlands of Navesink, with its lighthouses,
which lie W.S.W. from Sandy Hook, and is the most remarkable land on
that shore.

If you fall in to the southward, and make Cape May, it would be prudent
to keep about 3 leagues off, to avoid Five Fathom Bank, which lies from 5
to 6 leagues eastward from the cape, and is marked by Cape May lightvessel
to the eastward. Hereford Inlet, 10 miles north-eastward of Cape May, is
frequented by the Delaware pilots, having no other harbour to the northward
until they reach Egg Harbour. After passing Cape May lightvessel you
may steer N.E. when in 10 fathoms water, taking care that tho flood tide,
which sets very strong into the inlet, does not draw you too close ; this
course continued will carry you up with Egg Harbour ; you will then have
fino whito and black sand, intermixed with small broken shells ; by con-
tinuing the same course, you will deepen your water, and so continue till
you draw near Barnegat Inlet. In running along tho shore, do not steer
to the northward of N.E., if in 10 fathoms water or less, as you will be apt
». a. o. 5 a

774 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

to got on Absecom Shoals, or Egg Harbour Bar. Off Barnegat Inlet you
will got bright coarse yellow gravel. The shoal off Barnegat does not
extend beyond 2 miles from the beach, and is steep-to ; you may turn this
shoal in 6 fathoms water, within pistol-shot of the outer breaker. It would
always be prudent to keep in 9 or 10 fathoms water during the night, and
not steer to the North of N.E., unless certain of being to the North of the
shoal.

The soundings are so much to be depended on, that the moment you lose
the above soundings you are past the shoal, when you will have fine black
and white sand, and very hard bottom ; you may then haul in for the land
N. by E., which course will bring you along shore in from 15 to 17 fathoms
water, but if the wind and weather permit, I would recommend hauling in
N.N.W., which will bring you in with the southernmost part of the Wood-
lands, which is very remarkable, having no other such land in the distance
from Cape May up to the Highlands, and can be distinguished by its being
very near the beach, and extending to Long Branch.

In passing from Barnegat to Sandy Hook, when to the southward of the
lights on the Highlands, you must not open the northern light to the west-
ward of the southern light, as that will bring you too near the Jersey shore.

As a number of vessels have been lost, bound into New York, from
heaving-to with their head on shore, we cannot too strongly urge on the
shipmaster the necessity, if he is in doubt of his position, of heaving-to with the
head off shore.

Directions for proceeding onwards into New York Bay must be left for
more extended works and to the assistance of pilots.

Sandy Hook to the Delaware.— To the valley at the foot of the High-
lands of Navesink succeeds a tract of low table land, and southward of this
is a considerable and remarkable tract of "Woodland, which terminates at 6
leagues S. by W. from the Navesink lighthouses ; next follows an extensive
lagoon, named Barnegat Sound, which is fronted by a narrow strip of low
land. The coast from the highlands of Navesink to the elbow of an island,
called Barnegat Long Beach, trends nearly S. by W. \ W. 38 miles, and the
soundings regularly decrease toward shore from 12 to 7 and 5 fathoms.

In the parallel of 39° 47' is the Inlet of Barnegat, or the entrance of
Barnegat Sound. On the South side of it is a red and white lighthouse,
160 ft. high, with a revolving light. A shoal bar extends outward from this
place to the distance of 2 miles, and the bottom is an admixture of mud,
shells, and gravel. The outer edge of the shoal is steep-to, and you may
pass it in 6 fathoms within a short distance from the outer breaker ; but,
during night, keep at least in 9 or 13 fathoms. The soundings more to the
northward in these depths are fine white sand, with very hard bottom.

Barnegat may be readily known in the day, even when the breakers are
not seen, as there is a long grove of wood, back in the country, apparently
3 or 4 milos long, directly within the inlet, and commonly called the Little
Swamp. "With the North end of this land directly abreast, you will bo to
the northward of Barnegat.

Between the elbow of Barnegat Long Beach and Cape May, at the mouth
of the Dolaware, the coast forms a gentle concavity, but its general trend is
nearly S.W. £ S. and the distance 18 leagues. The land is generally low

DELAWAKE BAY. 775

and broken, forming several islets and inlets. The soundings are regular,
commonly 8 to 10 fathoms at 2 leagues from shore ; but there is a sand bar
at every inlet, several of which extend off to a considerable distance.

Little Egg Harbour, in the parallel of 39° 28', long. 74° 19', is a small
harbour formed by low isles or beaches on the East, and by salt marshes on
the West. It is known as the port of Tucherton. To a stranger this harbour
cannot be recommended, unless as a retreat in case of emergency, several
shoals about the entrance being dangerous ; yet it has frequently served as
a place of shelter in the winter, when violent N.W. winds have prevented
vessels from entering the Delaware or New York Harbour. The lighthouse
which is white, stands on the South side of the entrance, and shows a fixed
and flashing light.

Absecum Inlet, at the distance of 6 miles S.W. from Little Egg Harbour,
is another harbour which affords shelter to vessels of easy draught. A lofty
tower, 150 ft. high, on the South side, shows a bright fixed light.

The shoal water extends at least 2 miles off shore at Absecum Inlet, and
at 2} miles E.S.E. of the lighthouse is a 3-fathom shoal. The Round Shoal,
with 11 ft. water, lies S.E. £ E. If mile from the lighthouse.

In sailing between New York and the Capes, if the wind should be in the
N.W. quarter, with which, in general, is clear weather, keep no further
off than to 10 fathoms; the nearer in-shore the stronger the current, which
sets about one mile in an hour. The tide of flood runs W. by S., and the
ebb E. by N., but you will have no tide till further off than in 8 or 9
fathoms.

If you are turning, with the wind to the westward, stand off no further
than to 18 or 20 fathoms of water. You may venture to stand in-shore into
6 fathoms, until you advance towards Hereford Creek, or about 2 leagues
to the northward of Cape May.

The greatest danger to a ship cruising hereabout is the shoal called the
Five Fathom, or Cape May Bank, and lying at the distance of 4 or 5 leagues
East to E.S.E. from Cape May. Much of the danger is averted by the
lightvessel, showing fixed lights, which is moored in 12 fathoms outside of
it. She carries a steam fog-ivhistle.

DELAWARE BAY.— Cape May and Cape Henlopen, the two extremities
of the estuary called the Delaivare Ewer, bear from each other S.W. by S.
and N.E. by N., 10 miles distant. Each is distinguished by lights at night,
A great tract of overfalls and broken ground, southward of Cape May, is
2 leagues in extent ; the depths over them are from 5 to 15 ft. These
shoals form the two channels into the river, of which the chief, between the
shoals and Cape Henlopen, is nearly 5 miles in breadth.

Cape May Lighthouse is on the extreme S.W. point of the cape. It shows
a revolving light, and bears N.E. by N. about 11 miles from Cape Henlopen
light.

Cape Henlopen Lighthouse is of an octagonal form, handsomely built of
stone, 82 ft. high; the light infixed, and may be seen at 20 miles off, if the
weather be clear. At the distance of three-quarters of a mile from the Cape
Henlopen high light, and near the sea, is a fixed beacon light, of small power,
45 ft high. The two lights in range is the leading mark for carrying vessels
into the Eoads, within the cape.

770 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

Tlio steam Fog-trumpet on Cape Henlopon gives a G-second blast in every
three-quarters of a minute.

To enter the Channel by Cape Henlopen, the course in the fairway between
Capo May and the lightvessel, which has been described, is S.W. until the
lighthouse on Cape Henlopen bears West. Then steer for it in the latter
direction, and within 2 miles from it you will have 14 or 15 fathoms of
water; having passed it, you may steer W.N.W. until you bring it to bear
E.S.E., when you may anchor in Oldlciln Road, in 3 or 4 fathoms.

The Beacon Light on Cape Henlopen, already noticed, exhibits a brilliant
light, that can be seen at 3 leagues off. It stands on the extreme North
end of ^the cape, very near the beach, three-quarters of a mile from the
high light. Vessels running in for Oldkiln Roads, may, when the beacon
light and high light are in one, bearing N. £ W., approach the former
within a cable's length, then steer "W.N.W. until the high light bears S.E.,
and anchor in 4 fathoms, good holding ground.

The estuary of the Delaware for 70 miles from the sea had no safe
natural harbour, and to remedy this defect the General Government of the
United States constructed a breakwater within Cape Henlopen, forming a
safe harbour. On the N.W. end of the breakwater there is a lighthouse,
showing a flashing light.

In approaching from sea, and going in by the South passage, give the
beacon light on the pitch of the cape a berth of from 400 to 500 yards, and
when you bring the West end of the breakwater to bear N.W., steer for
it, and anchor in a line between it and the government house on the beach,
as close to the works as you can with, safety ; the light on the West end
bearing about N. or N. by W. There is no difficulty, with common atten-
tion, in running into the anchorage to the South of the breakwater, even
in a gale of wind, either between the two works, or by the passage to tho
S.E. of both.

A course of S.S.E. i E., 23 miles from off Cape Henlopen, will clear tho
Cap, and lead well to the eastward of the Fenwick Shoal, and when you get
the bell-boat, riding off that shoal, to bear about West, you may alter your
course to S.S.W. This course for about 30 miles will bring your nearly
abreast of Winter Quarter Shoal, about the parallel of 38° ; then a long
course of 60 miles S.W. by S., if your vessel will lie well up, will bring
you abreast of Smith's Island Shoal, with Smith's Island light bearing
W. by N. ; from hence a S.W. by W. course for 18 miles will take you to
Capo Henry.

In pursuing the course of the land from Cape Henlopen southward, you
will see an opening at the distance of 1 1 miles ; this is Indian River Inlet,
fit only for vessels drawing not more than 6 ft. water.

In proceeding along these coasts during easterly winds, great caution is
requisite ; as with such winds the weather is generally hazy, and the coast
obscured. The current will generally be found setting to the S.S.W., in the
direction of the shore.

The Coast of Delaware, South of Cape Henlopen, is nearly a straight lino
running due South, true, for 11 miles, to Indian River Inlet, and 10 miles
further to tho boundary between Delaware and Maryland. It is very low,

COAST OF DELAWARE. 777

broken into long narrow islands, with off-lying shoals to the distance of 1 to
1J mile.

Fenwick Island Lighthouse, which stands on the state boundary, shows
a bright fixed and flashing light, from a white brick tower.

South of the parallel of 38° the shores appear in numerous islets, swamps
and inlets, and so it continues to Cape Charles, at the mouth of the Chesa-
peake. In all this extent the only distinguishing marks useful to a stranger
are the lighthouses of Assateague, Ilog Island, and Capo Charles lighthouse,
on Smith's Island. These are fully described in the table.

Matomkin and Machi-Pongo are very dangerous harbours in a gale of wind ;
but you may ride along shore with the wind from N.W. to S.W. When the
wind blows hard at N.E. or E.N.E., and you are in sight of Chincoteague
Shoals, your only chance for safety is to stand to the southward, for you can-
not clear the land to the northward.

The Coast of Maryland, as far as Chincoteague Inlet, in lat. 37° 54', is still
a low, straight coast, curving towards the West, and off it are some dangerous
thoals.

Fenwick' 's Island Shoal— The centre of this shoal is in lat. 38° 27' 30" N.,
long. 74° 56' 9" W. It is about 2 miles long, running from S..W. to N.E.
The least water on it is 15 ft. It bears S.E. by S., distant 11 miles from
Indian River Inlet, and E. $ N. from Fenwick's Island lighthouse. On
the seaward side the soundings change suddenly from 10 to 2i fathoms,
and there are 19 fathoms about 2 miles West of this shoal, which appears
to be extending on the West side and towards the North. An iron bell-
boat marks its N.E. side. Between it and tho shore are several 3^-fathoms
patches.

Isle of Wight Shoal, on which there are but 3 fathoms water, lies 4 miles
S. £ E. from the centre of Fenwick's Island Shoal. It is nearly 6k miles
East of the beach, and bears East from Isle of Wight woods. There are 10
fathoms water within a mile on either side of this shoal.

Midway between these two shoals there is a spot with 3| fathoms water
on it.

At 9 and 11 miles South of the lighthouse are two shoals, Little and Great
Gull Banks, with 12 and 18 ft. water over them, lying 2 and 5 miles off
shore. South of the latter 10 miles, and 8 miles offshore, is a small patch
of 21 ft. At 30 miles southward of Fenwick's lighthouse is Winter Quarter
Shoal.

Winter Quarter Shoal is 1§ mile long, and one-third of a mile wide, run-
ning in a direction E. by N. £ N. and W. by S. £ S. (E.N.E. and W.S.W.)
with not over 3£ fathoms water upon it. The least water is 12 ft. in several
places at low tide. On the seaward side the soundings change suddenly
from 9 to 4, and then to 2 fathoms. It is 61 miles distant from the nearest
land, with 10 fathoms water between it and the shore. In clear weather
the lantern of Assateague lighthouse is just visible from it. The centre of
the shoal bears from Assateague light E. by N. (E. by N. f N.) distant Ha-
ndles.

At 3 miles E. by S. from it is a patch of 3 fathoms, and between it and
the Gull Banks are several spots of 3£ to 5 fathoms, which will be best
understood by referring to'tho chart.

778 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

A Lightvessel is moorod in 11 fathoms water, S.E. by E. -J E., 2 miles
from the centre of Winter Quarter Shoal. She is painted rod, carries two
masts, and shows a. fixed bright light at an elevation of 15 ft. aboye the level
of the sea.

Black Fish Batiks form a long narrow bank or ridge, running in a direction
N.E. £ E. and SW. £ W., 4f miles long, and distant from 4J to 6 miles
from the shore, with from 3 J to 5 fathoms water upon it. The North end
bears E. by S. £ S., distant 7£ miles, and its South end S.E. by S., distant
5| miles from Assateague lighthouse.

Chincotcagiie Shoals are the outer shoals off Assateague lighthouse, and
bearing from it from S. -J W. (South) to S.E. by E. (E.S.E.) comprising six
points of the compass, and at a distance from it of from 3f to 4 \ miles. They
have from 9 to 17 ft. water upon them.

Within a semi-circle of 15 miles from Assateague lighthouse the bottom
is very uneven and broken. The general direction of the current is to the
southward and westward.

The CHESAPEAKE, one of the finest estuaries on the globe, being 163
miles in extent from North to South, is the recipient of many important
rivers, which fall into it on all sides, but especially on the North and West.
At its head is the Susquehanna, which pervades Pennsylvania ; on the N.W.
the Patapsco, falling from Baltimore ; at a degree further South is the
Patuxent ; then the Potomac, which passes the City of Washington ; the
Rappahanock, running downward from Predericsburg ; York River, on which
are situated York Town and Gloucester ; James River, on which stands the
City of Richmond; and, in the South, Elizabeth River, the harbours of Nor-
folk, &c.

Its entrance lies between Cape Charles on the North and Cape Henry on
the South, being about 10 miles in width, but owing, as it appears, to the
southward drift, the northern side of the entrance, like the Delaware, ia
embarrassed by shoals.

Cape Charles Lighthouse, which stands on Smith Island, or above 4
miles eastward of Cape Charles itself, marks the northern side. It is 150
feet high, and shows a fixed light, varied by a bright flash every 45 seconds,
visible 19 miles off.

Cape Henry Lighthouse marks the southern entrance, and shows & fixed
light, elevated 129 ft.

A lightvessel on the tail of the Horse-shoe Shoal lies immediately in front
of the entrance of the Main Channel. She has a fog-bell and horn, and lies
with Cape Henry light, bearing S.E. by S. \ S.

Ships falling in with the land to the northward of the entrance should
not stand inwards to a less depth than 7 fathoms. In coming along shore
from the southward, 7 fathoms will -be a proper depth to keep in, until up
with Cape Henry ; whence falling into 8 or 9 fathoms, with a stiff or sticky
bottom, you will be in the channel way.

When you come in towards the land, to the southward of Cape Henry,
you will have deeper water than when you are in the latitude thereof; as
2 1 fathoms, reddish sand, and pretty large ; 9 leagues off it there are 35
and 10 fathoms, fine gray sand.

The land is low and sandy ; you oannot see it above 7 leagues off. Cape

THE CHESAPEAKE. 779

Henry is low, but bluff, with a few trees to the seaside, and at a little
distance from the water, It is moderately steep-to, excepting that a small
shoal stretches out 2 cables' lengths from the shore East of the lighthouse,
and there is nothing to hinder a ship from passing into Lynnhaven Bay,
where there is soft ground, and from 4 to 6 fathoms of water. The bank,
called the Middle Ground, is about 4 miles from the cape.

When coming from sea, in the latitude of Cape Henry, 36° 56', you will
meet with soundings, as above described. You may readily ascertain when
in soundings by the muddy colour of the water. In clear weather the land
of Cape Henry may be seen from the depth of 10 or 11 fathoms, regular
soundings, which extend 5 or 6 leagues to the southward of the cape ; more
to the northward the soundings are irregular and coarser, as above de-
scribed.

In coming in for the Chesapeake* you may advance to Cape Henry, but
cautiously avoiding the Middle Ground, which occupies so large a portion of
the entrance, and which may be still increasing. With a northerly wind you
may approach this bank to the depth of 5 fathoms. To the southward of it
you find 12 and 13 fathoms, as well as in the channel between it and Cape
Henry. This channel has a depth of 8 fathoms close to the cape.

With a fair wind you may run in with the lighthouse bearing W. by N. ;
and, with a turning wind, you may stand to the southward until it bears
N.W. by N., and to the northward until it bears West.

If requisite, you may run in with the lighthouse bearing West, as this
course will lead to the channel way, in from 7 to 10 fathoms, sticky bottom,
as before mentioned. It is then proper to take soundings towards the
southern shore ; and, in order to do this, steer West, until you have ad-
vanced to a short distance from the lighthouse ; then, rounding the point,
you may haul into Lynn Haven Roads, and anchor in from 7 to 4 fathoms.

From Cape Henry, in lat. 36° 55', to Cape Hatteras, in 35° 15', the coast
forms a concavity in the greater part of its length, to the lat. of 35° 40',
trending nearly S.S.E. ; and the rest inclines a little to the westward of
South to the extremity of the cape, in long. 75° 30' W. It is all low and
bordered with narrow islets, at the back of which are Currituck Sound, Al-
bemarle Sound, Pamplico Sound, &c. The lighthouses established on Currituck
Beach and Bodies Island, at the North side of Oregon Inlet, are described
in the Table. Bodies Island is S. by E. £ E., 70 miles from Cape Henry
light.

The Wimble Shoals lie between the latitudes of 35° 30' and 35° 34'. They
extend 2 leagues out from the shore, but there is a passage between them
and the land. The sea always breaks over them in a gale.

To the southward of the Wimble Shoals there is a large mussel-bank, in-
termixed with cockles and small pebbles, having 5, 4±, and 4 fathoms of
water ; its outer ledge is about 4 miles from land, and there is a depth of 9
fathoms between it and the shore.

Cape Hatteras, although not conspicuous for its elevation, being only a
low sandy spit, gradually extending to the southward, is very remarkable
as being a turning point in the coast of the United States. The shores on
either side are purely diluvial, formed and extended by the action of the
currents which drift past them. Lying upon the line of junction between

780 DESCRIPTION OE THE COASTS.

the two wind and current systems, where tho East and West tendencies
divide, we here meet tho first evidence of the conflict betweon them in the
singular line of shoals which project at right angles to the line of coast — an
evidence of tho conflict between the Gulf Stream and the southerly current
coming from high northern latitudes.

The Lighthouse on Cape Hattera?, painted red and white, stands 2 miles
North ofthe point it was built to indicate. It shows a bright flashing light
every 10 seconds, at 185 ft. Near the extremity of tho point a fixed beacon
light is shown, which bears S. \ W. from tho high light.

The Katteras Shoals are most dangerous. The outer shoals, Z\ miles in
extent, have from 9 to 15 ft. water. Between them and the Diamond Shoals
is a 6-fathom channel, 2^ miles wide. These shoals have 12 ft. least water.
A spit runs off for lAmile S.S.E. of the beacon light.

A Whistle Buoy (automatic, see note, page 763) is placed in 12 fathoms
water about 2} miles south-eastward of the outer shoals, with Cape Hatteras
lighthouse bearing N.W. by N. 11£ miles distant.

To clear the Outer Shoals, in approaching them from the northward and
eastward, bring the lighthouse to bear West in 12 to 10 fathoms water,
when run South, keeping in not less than 10 fathoms water, until the light-
house bears N.W. § N., when any course South of West may be steered
with safety.

In coming from the southward and westward, keep in not less than 10
fathoms water, until the lighthouse bears N.W., when any course eastward
of North may be steered. The beacon light and the high light in one clears
all to westward.

In bad weather, and especially at night, do not approach tho Outer Shoals
nearer than 15 fathoms water from the northward and eastward, and 12 to
11 fathoms from the southward and westward.

It is necessary to watch the bearings of the lighthouse, and keep the lead
going in beating round or between the shoals. In approaching the shoals
at night, or in bad weather, if the lights have not been seen before night, it
will not be prudent to run in for it.

As 10 or 11 fathoms water may bo found to the westward of the shoals^
in going outside Of them from the southward and westward do not approach
the land to the southward of the cape nearer than 8^ to 10 miles.

Between Cape Hatteras and Capo Lookout, the next projecting point, a
long sweep of narrow banks which separate the ocean from Pamplico Sound,
extend in a curve for 04 miles.

The narrow beachy isles which form the coast between the two capes, form
an inlet into Pamplico Sound, named Ocracoke Inlet, the shoal bar of which
(extending 2 miles seaward) is 9 leagues S.W. by W. £ W. from the light-
house on Cape Hatteras, and 13 leagues N.E. £ E. from Cape Lookout. On
the eastern side of the inlet is a lighthouse, exhibiting & fixed light, which bears
from the middle of tho bar, in 13 ft. water, N. $ E. 3 J miles, whence the
course in is N.W. by N. * N.

The soundings all along, between the shoala extending from tho two
rapes, are regular, gialually diminishing from 14 and 15 fathoms to 5 and G
fathoms near shore, all sandy ground.

CAPE LOOKOUT— CAPE FEAR. 781

CAPE LOOKOUT is marked by a red tower 150 ft. high, showing a fixed
light. It stands 2k miles N.N.E. of the point of the cape.

The light may be seen from the outer end of Cape Lookout Shoals ; but
vessels passing are recommended rather to trust to the lead than to making
the light.

From Capo Lookout the shoals extend, nearly in a S.S.E. direction, to the
distance of 3 leagues from the lighthouse. The broken ground extends to
latitude 34° 28' ; in this parallel are 10 fathoms of water, and thence to the
edge of the Gulf Stream the soundings gradually increase to 25 fathoms.
From Cape Hatteras lighthouse the outer part of Cape Lookout Shoals bears
S.W. 22A leagues; and from the outer part of Capo Hatteras Shoals S.W. f W.
at the same distance.

A shoal, having only 14 ft. water on it, lies S. by E. £ E., distant 10| miles
from Cape Lookout lighthouse, and about 2 \ miles to the southward of the
extreme South point of the 3-fathom edge of the shoal that extends 7 mile3
to the South of Cape Lookout.

A Whistle Buoy (see note, page 763) is moored south-eastward of Capo
Lookout Shoals in 1 1 fathoms water, with Cape Lookout lighthouse bearing
N. by W., distant 17 miles. Lat. 34° 20' N., long. 76° 26' W.

From the lighthouse the coast trends to the northward of West, but the
low epit stretches out, as above said, for 2£ miles to the S.S.E. of this
direction.

Beaufort Harbour is about 8£ miles N.W. from the South spit of Cape
Lookout, and affords shelter from all winds, and is easy of access, carrying
17 ft. over the bar at low water. It can be entered with all winds except
between N. and W.

CAPE FEAR is the south-western extremity of another of those long
beaches which characterise this portion of the American coast. Its extremity
bears S.W. by W. J W. from the spit of Cape Lookout, distant 84 miles,
but the shore recedes 18 miles from the direct line.

The low sandy point known by the name of Cape Fear, is the S.E. extremity
of a marshy island called Smith'' s Island, which forms the two entrances of
Cape Fear River and the Port of Wilmington.

Federal Point Lighthouse, upon the North side of the New Inlet, at 3
leagues North from the extremity of the cape, is a white tower, showing a
fixed light, visible 12 miles off.

The Frying Pan Shoals, a very remarkable line of reefs, run in a S.S.E.
direction 16 miles from Cape Fear. They are not more than half a mile in
breadth, and at their outer end there is a Hghtvessel, showing two lights.

In passing Frying Pan Shoals, sailing vessels of heavy draft should keep in
from 15 to 18 fathoms, especially in threatening weather, and under no cir-
cumstance run into less than 10 fathoms. Steamers in good weather may
cross the outer end of the shoals in 10 fathoms. The Hghtvessel marks their
outer end, as above said.

There are two shoal spots with 16 to 18 ft. water on them bearing S.S.E. & E.
to S.E. by S., distant 16 to 17£ miles from Bald Head, the western cape of
Smith Island.

From Capo Fear the coast again forms a sweep of curved beach, called tho
n. a. o. 5 u

782 DESCRIPTION OF THE COASTS.

Long Bay, and at 8H miles S.W. y W. from its extremity is Capo Roman,
or Romain, Lighthouse.

CAPE ROMAN is very improperly so called, it being a very low land,
without either tree or bush, and appears at a distance like a sand left dry
by the tide. To the W.S.W., about 2 miles from this cape, on the isle
called the Great Raccoon Kay, there is a red brick lighthouse, 150 ft. high,
which exhibits a bright revolving light every minute, visible 23 miles
off. The old tower, which stands near, is painted in horizontal 6tripes, alter-
nately red and white. With the light bearing from N.AV. by N. to N.E.
by N. there is good anchorage on the flats, in 3 fathoms, to the East of the
mouth of the inlet called Bull's Ray.

Cape Roman Shoals extend for 5J miles E.S.E. from tbe lighthouse, or 3£
miles from the South spit of the Cape Island. A striped nun luoy was for-
merly moored in the Slue Channel, to be passed on either side.

Vessels of heavy draft should not approach Cape Roman within 8 fathoms
water, there being a 5-fathom bank outside of the shoals.

Vessels of light draft coming from the southward, and intending to run
inside the shoals, will, when in 4f fathoms water, bring Cape Roman Old
Lighthouse and the old mill in rauge, the South point of Capo Island bearing
N. by E., then steer N.E., passing directly through the slue.

These shoals are of a dangerous character, lying directly in the track of
coasters, 6 miles distant from the lighthouse ; they are about 1 mile in ex-
tent, and have but 6 ft. water upon them, and shoal very rapidly from 6
fathoms to 3 ft. "With moderate winds from N.E. or We3t, the sea does
not break upon them, but with winds from S."W. around by South to the
East, they are shown by the breakers on the seaward side.

Inside the shoals there is a good 15 ft. channel, nearly 2 miles in width,
and a 6 ft. channel extends from the S.W., leading to the harbour inside the
cape. There is good anchorage during northerly winds S.W. of the light-
house, with not less than 3 fathoms water.

A lighthouse, which marks the entrance of Charleston Harbour, bears
S.W. £ W. 35 miles from that of Cape Roman. The land between is alluvial,
and forms numerous low islands — an extension of the famous Sea Islands —
the principal of which are named Bull's, Capers, Devies, Long, and Sullivan's
Islands. Flats extend from all these isles, along which the soundings ar
regular. Bull's Island appears very bluff, with red sand-hills, and a spit
from the outer end of it extends eastward, about 5 h miles. On it is a brick
light-tower, 35 ft. high.

A spit called the Rattlesnake also extends to the distance of 5 miles E. by S.
from Sullivan's Island, which forms the North side of the entrance to
Charleston, and you will be on the edge of it in 5 \ fathoms. Its outer ex-
tremity is marked by the liyhtvessel in 6 fathoms, and showing two lights.

When Charleston churches are seen to the northward of Sullivan's Island,
you will be on the edge of the Rattlesnake; and when the churches are open
to the southward of Sullivan's Island, you are clear of that shoal, or Fort
Moultrie bearing W. £ N. clears them to the southward. You should ap-
proach no nearer to this bank than in 5 fathoms of water.

CHARLESTON is the principal seaport and town of South Carolina. It
is on a low tongue of land at the confluence of the Wando, Cooper, and

CHAELESTON, ?83

Ashley Eivers,* about 6 miles up the harbour, which is entered between
Sullivan's Island on the North, and Morris Island on the South, the open-
ing between them being 1£ mile wide. The banks, across which are the
entrance channels, are 3 miles broad outside the line of coast. Nearly in
the middle of the entrance is the famous Fort Sumter.

Operations are now being carried on for the improvement of Charleston
Harbour. Mons. Maillefert, the engineer, who began the work in 1872,
had at the end of 1874 removed twenty-three vessels, sunk during the
American war, all of which, impeded the navigation.

Charleston Kain Light, on the South end of Morris Island, is a hand-
some tower, 150 ft. high, painted in black and white bands. From it is
shown a. fixed bright light, elevated 152 ft. above the sea, and visible 18
miles off.

On the South end of Morris Island, at nearly half a mile southward of the
Main Light, stand two range beacons, the front one being a pyramidal
wooden tower, 15 ft. high, painted red; the rear one, a black framework,
35 ft. high. From these, two red lights are shown, at 20 ft. elevation, from the
front beacon, and 40 ft. from the rear. Kept in line "W. by N. h N., they
lead through the Pumpkin Hill Channel until Sullivan Island lights are
in line.

On. Sullivan Island two fixed red lights are shown, the rear light elevated
57 ft., and the front light 34 ft. They show in full brilliancy down the
Main Ship Channel, from S. by E. to S. The beacons from which these
lights are shown are coloured white, the front one situated on the N.E.
angle of Fort Moultrie, and the rear beacon 600 yards to the northward.

At Fort Sumter, on the opposite side of the channel, and W.S. W. of Fort
Moultrie, a. fixed light is shown from a brown wooden frame on the N.W.
face of the fort, elevated 57 ft., visible 12 miles off.

At Castle Pinchiey, a red light is shown from a yellow tower, elevated
41 ft.

Buoys. — Eed buoys mark the starboard side of the channels entering, and
black the port. Black and red in horizontal stripes are danger buoys.
Black and white vertical striped are channel buoys.

The Channels are constantly shifting. In the survey, published by the
U.S. Hydrographic Office, in 1871, four channels are shown as leading into
the Main Channel from the eastward. The northernmost of these is called
the Beach Channel, which passes close along the South side of Sullivan's
Island. By the recent removal of Bowman's Jetty, formerly extending from
Sullivan's Island into the channel, there is now a depth of 17 ft. through.
From the buoy at its eastern end the distance is 1 J mile to its junction with
the Main Ship Channel off Fort Moultrie, the narrowest part, where the
channel is not a cable wide. Two buoys mark its eastern end.

* In a letter addressed to the Board of Trade, and published in the " Mercantile Marino
Magazine," December, 1870, pages 3G7-8, shipmasters are warnerl against going up these
rivers for the phosphate rock, and especially against spencliug a night there, from June 1st
to the end of November, because of the danger of an almost certain attack of malarial
fever.

784 DESCRIPTION OF TIIE COASTS.

Stvash Channel. — The outer buoy of the Swash Channel is 2 miles S.S.W.
from the outer buoy of Beach Channel. It has a least depth of 12.V ft. at
its western end, and is marked by a striped mid-channel buoy at its eastern
end. After passing this buoy, with Fort Sumter bearing about W.N.W., you
leave first a black buoy close on the port hand, and then two red buoys on
your starboard hand ; the last of them is on the eastern side of the Main
Ship Channel.

Pumpkin Hill Channel. — The principal entrance lies 3i miles southward
of the Swash Channel. It is to be kept dredged to a depth of 20 ft. Early
in 1875, Mons. Maillefert reported that a depth of 18 ft. already existed, tho
operations only having been begun in October, 1874.

To enter by this channel, get the lights on Morris Island, before described,
in range when you are in 5 fathoms water, and steer for them, passing sea
buoy (black and white perpendicular stripes) and outer bar buoy (black and
white perpendicular stripes) on either hand, and leaving middle buoy (No. 1
black) and inner or junction buoy (black and white perpendicular stripes) on
the port hand, soon after passing which the beacon lighthouses on Sullivan
Island are in line N. \ W. ; with these in line, proceed through the Main
Ship Channel until Fort Sumter beacon bears West, when a N.W. h W.
course will lead into Rebellion Road ; and a W. £ N. course will lead through
the South channel, keeping the buoys that mark the South side of the shoals
off Fort Ripley on the starboard hand, "when Castle Pinckney bears N.N.E.
steer for the wharves.

Another channel, ■with 13 ft. least water, lies S.W. 1 mile from Pumpkin
Hill Channel. The leading mark in is with the front Morris Island beacon
bearing N.W. \ N.

Good holding ground in 5 fathoms, at mean low water, with a soft, sticky
bottom, will be found outside the bar, with the leading lighthouses on Morris
Island in line.

It is high water, on full and change, at the city, at 7 h 24 m . Springs rise
6 ft., neaps 5 ft.

Strong or long-continued westerly winds reduce the water on the bar from
1 to 2 ft. The flood and ebb set across the sailing line over the bar, and
should be allowed for. Large vessels should cross tho bar during the last
quarter of flood, and should not ic ait for high water.

Complete Directions are given for Charleston Harbour in tho book which
accompanies the chart of the Coasts of the United States, recently published
by the author of this work.

Directions for the ports of the United States South of this are given in
the " Colombian Navigator," vol. i., and for the Islands and Coasts of the
West Indies in vols. ii. and iii. Instructions for the navigation of the West
Indies generally are given in pp. 493 — 51G. To these the reader is referred
for further information.

( 735 ;

SECTION V.

ACCOUNT OF THE BOOKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS,* IN THE
NOETH ATLANTIC.

The present section is in many respects a very unsatisfactory portion of
our work. To deal with the conflicting and imperfect accounts which often
arose of the discovery of new shoals and dangers is most perplexing. But
of late these doubts have been dispelled, in most or in very many instances
by tho direct test of the deep sounding machine, and the testimony thus
afforded as to the non-existence (at least, in the assigned position) of many
of the formidable reefs described, in perfect good faith, ha3 led many to
doubt the authenticity of the whole range of reported rocks. And this dis-
belief is unquestionably a growing one, but the subject cannot be dismissed
until a satisfactory and systematic examination of the whole bed of the ocean,
now so readily done, is made.

In a subsequent section, the subject of deep sea soundings will be discussed.
Its great importance in relation to the present topic, of doubtful rocks and
shoals, is manifest, as it is almost the only test which is conclusive.

But while we may dismiss those dangers which have been absolutely dis-
proved, we may also have some doubts on the correctness of some of the
soundings which have been cited to show that great depths exist in their
neighbourhood. In the earlier experiments which were made with small
line, quite incapable of bringing back the lead, it is evident that at times
the indication of them having reached the bottom by tho line ceasing to run,
is not altogether satisfactory.

The chief expedition which has been undertaken to disprove these nume-
rous dangers in the North Atlantic, is that sent out by the United States
Government in 1851-2, in the brig Dolphin, Lieut. Commander Lee, whose
labours will be quoted hereafter.

It is gratifying to us to find that a former edition of this work, the " At-
lantic Memoir," of 1845, was made the basis of these experiments, and we
give with pleasure the disproof of many of the shoals and rocks which had
been announced in this work, shown to have been given from erroneous in-
formation, or imperfect observation.

* Vigia. is a Spanish word, literally signifying Watch, or Look-out. It is generally in
the charts attached to spots Supposed to be dangerous, and which should, therefore, ho
approached with caution.

786 DESCEIPTIONS OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

But until a perfect and systematic survey of the depth of the sea is made,
we cannot pronounce absolutely that it is free from isolated dangers. The
enumeration of them, therefore, will be continued for the present, not with
the idea of inducing too much caution, but as a reference to show that they
have not been overlooked.

An isolated rock is a very difficult matter to detect ; and even the most
laborious surveys have failed sometimes to detect such. Many examples
might be cited of this. Thus the dangerous rock in the entrance of Milford
Haven occupies what was supposed to be deep water, till accident made it
known. A similar very dangerous pinnacle, the Pin Rock, was discovered
in the entrance of Dartmouth Harbour ; another, the Lee Eock, lies
off the South end of Lundy Island, in the anchorage. A man-of-war was
very nearly wrecked on an unknown rock in the centre of Braye Eoads,
Alderney, where our Government expended enormous sums in making
shelter. The ship in which the Prince of Wales visited Canada struck out-
side a buoy in the St. Lawrence. Another rock was overlooked in the survey
of Tenerife, at its East end. Several most dangerous rocks were found
after the survey in the entrance of Port Phillip, South Australia. The same
in the entrance to San Francisco. All these, and many others, show the
difficulty of pronouncing absolutely, on the non-existence of an isolated
shoal, if a pinnacle of rock may not be seen with very close search, and pass
quite unnoticed in a channel way.

The accounts frequently given are very vague and ambiguous, and in
some cases evidently refer to floating objects, such as trees which have in
several cases been seen floating about with barnacles attached to their
branches.

"It is, moreover, possiblo that navigators, at a certain distance, may have
mistaken whales. M. de Chabert, in his voyage to America, in 1741, for the
purpose of making astronomical observations, being at the distance of 70
leagues from Corvo, one of the Azores, descried a dusky body, over which
hovered a number of gulls, a bird seldom seen at such a distance from land ;
at first he imagined it to be a rock, but on coming near, in order to observe
it, he found it to be the carcase of a whale of monstrous bulk. Besides,
some of these vigias may have ceased to exist, after having apneared for
some time ; as, for instance, the island which rose out of the sea in the year
1720, to tho westward of St. Michael's, of the Azores, and which dis-
appeared again on the 17th of November, 1723 "

As a monition against too hastily forming conclusions from mere appear-
ances, we hero add, that an old friend of ours, in crossing the Atlantic, was
once alarmed by the sight of breakers at no great distance. Instead of
coming home with an imperfect report, he very properly sent out a boat to
examine them, and found that they were caused by a floating body, thickly
covered with barnacles, &c, to which a hatchet was applied, and soon dis-
closed a cask of wine, which proved to be excellent burgundy. It had, no
doubt, been floating many years, and during the time had probably been
the prolific parent of a number of vigias, &c. On the 4th of August, 1822,
Captain Hamlin, in the brig Recovery, likewise picked up a hogshead of
claret wine, that had been a long time in the water, and worm-eaten nearly
through, lat. 34° 51', long. 24° 51'.

DESCRIPTIONS OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC. 787

We have shown in another work how easily an animated as well as a life-
less being may be mistaken for a rock. In 1818, the Northampton, Captain 1
Tebbut, on her passage to India, had passed the meridian of the Cape. On
the 1st of August, at noon, the ship was in lat. 40° 45' S., and long. 24° 3',
E. On the next day an object appeared right ahead, like a boat ; on near-
ing it looked like the wreck of a vessel, two parts being above water, at two
ships' lengths from the lee-bow. The barnacles could be distinguished by
the naked eye; but, when abeam, 'the creature went clown. It proved to be
a thrasher. Captain Tebbut says, " Being forward at the time we came up
with the animal, the two parts above water seemed to be like a wreck, bottom
upward. When I first saw the barnacles, the part covered with them looked
rugged, and I was firmly of opinion that it was a rock above water ; so
much so, that I looked over the lee-bow to see that we were clear of it,
ordering the man to starboard the helm."

A similar instance has been recorded in the " Journal of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society." "A frigate was one day running into the Rio de la
Plata, with her studding sails set, when the look-out man at the mast-head
reported breakers on the bow. The captain, believing that such a danger
could not have escaped the notice of the Spaniards, and having also a toler-
able chart of the river, suspected it must be some floating object, and ordered
the ship to be steered directly for it. The officers were on the alert; glasses
were frequently directed to the 6pot, and all concurred in representing it as
a rock a little above water. Anxious looks were directed to the captain,
whom they now considered as unnecessarily running into danger ; but that
officer kept carefully watching his approach, and, as the studding-sail boom
was just over it, the cetaceous monster (for such it was) hastily made off;
and, rising again to blow, finally disappeared. It was observed to have an
excrescence on its back, covered with shell-fish. The sea broke gently on
its weather side, and appeared becalmed to leeward ; and so perfectly did it
resemble a rock, that, had the vessel passed at a distance without disturbing
it, there can be little doubt but it would now have had a place upon the list
of vigias.

" It is to be observed, in this case, that there was only a little ripple about
the body, but no breakers ; and this circumstance had not escaped the in-
telligent eye of the commander."

The dead carcase of a whale may even approach nearer in appearance to
a permanent danger than a living one. Captain Vidal, in H.M.S. Styx,
while passing from Terceira to St. Michael's, on July 20th, 1844, the mast-
head man reported the appearance of breakers on the starboard bow ; the
wind was West, and there was a little swell. " I have no hesitation in
stating that this object (a dead whale) so much resembled a sand-bank, or a
tide-rock at low water, that had I left it unexamined I should certainly have
reported the probability of its being either one or the other, and in so doing
I should have added another vigia to those which disfigure the charts of the
North Atlantic Ocean."

A similar instance has been forwarded to us by Capt. T. Smith, command-
ing the Liverpool : —

" On June 8th, 1870, at 5.30 p.m., in lat. 40° 48' N., long. 41° 26' W., the
chief mate reported an ice-floe on the lee bow; on going on deck I perceived

788 DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

about a quarter of a mile to leeward, what appeared to be a mass of ice,
with some dark-coloured substance on the centre of it; but, taking my tele-
scope, I perceived it to be a dead carcase, probably that of a whale, with
numerous birds swarming about it, the upper portion being dry, was pro-
bably dark coloured from exposure to the sun, as the blubber appeared to
be off, and the colour dark brown, but all that was awash was perfectly
white, with several undotached fragments floating around it, the whole mass
heaving and undulating with the swell of the sea, which was washing
against it, but not breaking ; the white portion, however, might easily hav9
been mistaken for broken water at a greater distance, and the dark portion
for a rock awash. I doubt not but many of the reported dangers mentioned
in your valuable 'North Atlantic Memoir,' and other Directories, have no
other foundation ; the visible portion might be about 40 feet by 20 feet in
extent."

In 4° N., 24° W., a captain remarks (July, 1870), in his log : — "Passed
through a shoal of Bonitos ; there must have been thousands, and so closely
were they packed that they tore the water into a white sheet of foam. At
a distance they might have been mistaken for a reef flush with the water,
having an area of about 100 square yards."

The following, also, at a distance, might deceive. In 6° N., 31° W. (Sep-
tember, 1864), a captain remarks — "Some potyoises, cutting extraordinary
antics like acrobats." It is probable they were throwing themselves a great
height out of the water, and allowing themselves to fall (as it were lifeless)
on their sides, making a great splash. At any rate this is not an uncommon
sight, and it is supposed by some that it is their way to rid themselves of
parasites.

In every event, however, it is always the safer course, in matters of this
nature, to err rather by marking too many than too few, especially when
we make known, as we have done, the authority that we rely on for the
existence of each. Every one, of course, is free to act according to his own
judgment.

But on all future announcements of the discovery of rocks or shoals, it is
absolutely necessary that they should be tested by the sounding lead. With-
out this they will not be considered as authentic.

In the first instance we give an account of those shoals which are well
known, and also of those which are not absolutely disproved, though in
many cases the question of their existence rests on the most slender grounds,
yet it is just possible that some may be better authenticated hereafter.

1.— TO THE NORTHWARD OF LATITUDE 40°.
NUN ROCK, off CArE Wrath, in lat. 58' 5 2 J', long. 4° 56' W.
This rock, with the adjacent bank, was survej'ed, under an Admiralty
order, by Captain Ramage, in the Cherokee sloop of war, 1817. It is a very
dangerous isolated shoal, bearing N.E. by N. mag., or N. 5° E. true, from
Capo Wrath, the N.W. part of Scotland, 15 miles distant. It is of small
extent, not half a mile in diameter, with deep water all around it, and with
3£, or, as some say, not more than 2£ fathoms ovov it. It has been seen to
break very high at half tide.

NORTH OF LATITUDE 40°. 789

NORTH SHOAL, West of Orkney, lat. 59° 13' 23", long. 3° 34' W.

One of the most dangerous shoals around the British Isles, as it is singu-
larly isolated. It has but 7 ft. least water, is not larger than half the size
of a boat, and with 30 to 40 fathoms around it. It bears from Noup Head,
Westra, W. £N. 17 miles; Brough of Birsa, N.N.W. 9 miles; the Old Man
of Hoy, N. by E, | K, 2f miles.

Roche Bonne and the Banche Verte in the Bay of Biscay.

These are two reefs, lying within a short distance of each other, East of
the Isle of Re. Their position will be found already noticed, in the descrip-
tion of the coasts, &c.

Jones Bank, lat. 51° 23' N., long. 14° 25' W.

Notwithstanding the pains taken to ascertain the exact limits and character
of the western edge of the bank of soundings off Ireland, it does not appear
to have been definitely determined. For we have been favoured by Mr.
Baharie, of Sunderland, with the particulars of a shoal cast of 30 fathoms,
about 180 miles West of Cape Clear, lat. 51° 23' North, long. 14° 25' West.
This is on the S.W. verge of the bank, with 470 fathoms 18 miles to the
S.W. of it.

Jones' Bank, as this may be called, was found by Captain David Jones, of
the barque Achilles, on August 18th, 1864. The vessel was becalmed, and
the lead was hove, and showed 30 fathoms most unexpectedly, as above
stated. He plumbed several times, and held on to the line, and found the
lead at the bottom to drag over the uneven parts of the rock, and brought
up a stone sticking to the lead.

Now when the nature of the adjacent coast is considered, it may be quite
possible that this is an isolated hill of trap rock, like the lofty Skelligs, and
may have a much less depth on some of its peaks. It is possible that the
reported Brasil Rock, whose existence in the assigned position was disproved
by Captain Hoskyn finding 2,350 fathoms may have some connexion with
this.

PORCUPINE BANK, to the westward of Ireland.

During the examination of the sea-bed to the westward of Ireland for
the purpose of finding the best locality for laying down the Atlantic tele-
graph cable, in H.M.S. Porcupine, Commander R. Hoskyn, the tail of a
detached bank was unexpectedly crossed, August 8th 1862. " Carrying out
a line of soundings on the parallel of Slyne Head, at the distance of 120
miles to the westward of it, we crosse'd the tail of a bank of 82 fathoms,
coarse gravel. This being entirely new I have named it the Porcupine Bank.
It will be of use to vessels bound to Galway from the westward as a means
of ascertaining their position by the lead. The bottom, both to the north-
ward and southward, is deeper, being composed of fine dark sand, while
the bank is composed of gravel and coarse sand."

N. A. O. 5l

790 ' DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

Dvina Rock (?), off Cape Finisterre, lat. 44° 45' N., long. 9° 40' W. {Doubtful)

This announcement we received from Captain Grote, of the llussian Imp. Navy,
when in command of the Dvina, the vessel which was hardly chased by our men-of-
war in the Pacific during the last Russian war.

" On Jan. 14 — 26, 1853, the foretop look-out descried breakers right ahead, and
we discovered it to be a rock. It is on a level with the water. Our observations
gave us lat. 44° 43' 6', and long. 9° 37' 23" W. The sea was perfectly white with
foam lor about 200 fathoms." Captain Bessarabski made it to be in lat. 44" 48',
long. 9° 43'.

We have nothing to disprove the existence of this, and it is very improbable, but
the position is remarkable. It must be left for future test.

The charts of Van Keulen, of the last century, showed a rock in 44 J 43' N., and
11° 22' W. ; but it has long been omitted as not authentic.

Midgley Shoal, in lat. 44° 9' 30', long. 22° 57' 45". {Doubtful)

This shoal was discovered, or discoloured water was seen, by Captain Thomas
Midgley in 1838, who describes it as follows :— " On the 14th of June, 1838, at 2.40
p.m., on my passage from Africa to Liverpool, I suddenly fell in with a large patch
or belt of discoloured water, of a dirty gray appearance, much resembling river water,
and rippling very much, as if upon a shoal bank. No rock or danger could be seen
from the mast-head, but the water appeared very much discoloured for more than
half a mile in breadth, as far as the eye could reach, in a direction N.W. and S.E. by
compass. Position as above.

The late Captain Midgley was a man of perfect veracity, but the appearance might
have arisen from other causes. At present we have nothing to contradict it.

Gough's or Harrison's Rocks, in lat. 40° 28', long. 30° 0'. {Doubtful)

These rocks appeared in the chart of M. Rochette, 1778, with the words " Rocks
seen by Captains Gough and Birch." Van Keulen and Bellin have indicated several
dangers in the vicinity to the N.E., but their existence has been denied by the pilots
of the Azores.

Captain Livingston says : — " Captain Beaufort, of the brig Concord, of North Yar-
mouth, told me at Malaga, in 1820, that he twice saw Cough's and Birch's Rocks,
when bound from Newfoundland to Lisbon ; that one of them is about 12, and the
other 3 ft. above water ; and that they lie nearly in the longitude originally a-signed
them in the charts, and 5' more to the northward."

Another report states that Gough's Rocks were seen by Captain Harrison, in the
brig Hope, from the Sierra Leone to Cork, 17th April, 1830. lat. 40' 16', long. 33'.
At 11 a.m. two rocks appeared close under the lee-quarter. In smooth water these
rocks would be even with the water's edge, and in the hollow of the sea Captain
Harrison could distinctly see them 6 or 8 ft. down in the water.

Mr. Keen, of Liverpool, forwarded to us the account of their having been sighted
by Captain Robertson, of the Hugh Block, in 1862, making it 10 miles farther
North than the assigned position, or lat. 40' 38' N., long. 30° 2' 45", the latter deter-
mined the day after sighting Flores. He says it would not be seen in smooth water,
but as there was a low swell, it showed a surface of about 10 ft. covered with long
rock weed.

Mr. E. S. .Roberts, of London, also kindly forwarded to us, in 1874, the
following extract from a letter he received from Capt. Hugh Mac Nulty : —

" In 1854 I was in command of and part owner of the ship Frederick, from Cal-
cutta bound for Liverpool. In October of that year I was North of the Island of
Corvo, one of the Azores ; the breeze was moderate from E.N.E. I tacked ship to

NORTH OF LATITUDE 40°. 791

the S.E., and afterwards saw Gough's Rocks, and passed within a cable's length oi
them, lat. 40° 30' N., and about long. 31° 10' W. They are flat rocks, about 250 ft.
long and about 250 broad, and about 2 ft. above water ; they bear from each other
S.E. and N.W. by compass, E.S.E. and AV.N.W. true; distance about 1 mile. I
see by the 'North Atlantic Memoir' that these rocks have been seen at different
times by Gough, Harrison, Birch, Robertson ; and I find that they are left out of the
new Admiralty Charts. They are very dangerous, being so far from land, and so
much in the way of shipping thoroughfare. The Azores pilots might know some-
thing of them if they were close to land."

Nothwithstanding the non-verification of these reports by the sounding
lead, which ought to invalidate them, and from the circumstance of the
Azores pilots not knowing of them, there appears to be some reason for
retaining them.

The bottom is not so deep here as elsewhere, for 830 fathoms only was found 20
miles to the North of Gough's, or 10 miles to the North of Captain Robertson's
position.

Mossman Rock, lat. 43° 41' N., long. 28° 51' W. {Doubtful.)

The harbour master of Hartlepool announced the discovery of a rock a few feet
above water, by his brother, Captain Robert Mossman, in command of the Edward
Kenny, April 22nd, 1854, in the above position. It was confidently believed to be a
rock, but no means are stated to have been tried to test it.

The repeated announcements of rocks in this neighbourhood, as is shown, although
they do not hardly in any case appear to be seen again in the positions claimed for
them, and the evidence of the deep soundings is against several of them, yet this
repetition of discovery leads to the inference that some such rock as Mr. Mossman
describes may lurk hidden here, and has given rise to these reports.

SAINTHILL or MILNE BANK, lat. 42° 37', long. 41° 45'.

We have in this a very singular fact in hydrography. On two occasions
very satisfactory soundings were obtained near the same spot, by British Naval
officers, and yet both positions were unsuccessfully sought for by a third, as
will be seen by the following : —

Lieut. A. Sainthill, E.N., commander of the ship Beaufort, on returning
from Jamaica, August 3rd, 1832, when in lat. 42° 37', long. 41° 45', observed
the water to be discoloured ; in consequence of which he twice tried for
soundings, and found rocky ground at the depth of 100 fathoms. But Com-
mander Dayman found no bottom with 3,000 fathoms up and down in 42°
7' N. and 41° 28' W., about 32 miles off in September, 1858.

Notwithstanding that Commander Dayman's sounding of 3,000 fathoms
so near Lieut. Sainthill's position (of which, however, he is not confident
to half a degree of longitude), would apparently disprove its existence, yet
Lieut. Sainthill has repeated his statement : "I can only tell you that I am
perfectly convinced that we touched bottom, which Captain Dayman would
call an excellent up and down cast. The arming of the lead showed sharp
rocky bottom of fine blueish ashes, and my opinion is that we were over a
submarine volcano in a state of eruption." — (" Naut. Mag." 1861, p. 209.)

They were in appearance satisfactorily reconciled in 1864 by Admiral
Sir Alex. Milne, in H.M.S. Nile, who found less water in the vicinity. In

792 DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

cur previous editions the paragraphs stood as above, and the name of Beau-
fort Bank applied to the position. But as a discoverer has every right to the
credit of his announcement, we retained the name, instead of applying that
of Milne Bank, as has been proposed. The following is Admiral Sir A.
Milne's account : —

On the 28th of March, 1864, in lat. 43° 35' N., long. 38° 50' W., during
the passage from Bermuda to England, the sea assumed a dark, dull lead
colour, and soundings were obtained in 92 and 81 fathoms, and 12 miles
E.N.E. 100 fathoms, fine sand and oaze.

I am inclined to think that a bank of some considerable extent exists in
this locality, as the water for many hours previous to sounding was of the
same peculiar tint, indicating soundings, and this appearance continued to
the E.N.E. until the night of the 29th instant. This morning we regained
blue water, and with reference to notices on the chart of 100 fathoms water
(Sainthill, 1851), it strikes me as probable that this bank extends from long.
42° W. to 35° W., and from the lats. of 42° to 45° N.

This would appear to be quite decisive, yet the following extracts from
the report of Commander W. Chimmo, R.N., who examined the vicinity
in H.M.S. Gannet, in July, 1868, will show that its true position has not yot
been found : —

We now sailed East for the spot where Lieut. Sainthill, in lat. 42° 37' N.,
and long. 41° 45' W., obtained, in 1832, 100 fathoms on the sharp rocky
bottom, bringing up on the arming of the lead " fine bluish ashes ;" and he
was under the impression that he was over a submarine volcano in a state of
eruption. At 2 p.m. on the 12th of July we reached this position, and with
a heavy weight 4,300 fathoms of line ran out, and no bottom !

It was somewhat remarkable that about this place, within a radius of some
few miles, many indications of shoal water had been from time to time seen
and reported, one having as little as 35 fathoms on it. To one of these,
called the Milne Bank, with only 80 fathoms on it, we were now steering. It
had been found by H.M.S. Nile, in 1864, on her homeward-bound voyage ;
and, under most favourable circumstances, soundings of 89, 90, and 100
fathoms, " fine sand and oaze " brought up.

Lat. 43° 30' N., long. 38° 50' W.— At 4 p.m., on the 15th of July, we
were on the 80 fathoms ! The rod and weight of 230 lbs. let go, and as each
100 fathoms ran off the reel it caused some excitement, as at each fathom
it was hoped the bank would be struck. 2,280 fathoms, 13,680 ft. ran out.
There was no bank there. The rod brought up "oaze" abounding in
animal, vegetable, and mineral !

Sept., 1868. — Another cast of the lead on the position of the Sainthill
volcano quite disproved the existence of this vigia within a radius of many
miles.

We were approaching for the second time the Milne Bank, of 80 fathoms ;
and although 2,300 fathoms was obtained on it a short time since, yet there
was still a hope that the second attempt would be more successful, particu-
larly as a telegram had reached me from England to the effect that " there
was no doubt of the Milne Bank, as bottom was brought up three times ;"
and indeed so it would appear. But on the 3rd of September (lat. 43° 40' N.,

NOETH OF LATITUDE 40°. 793

long. 38° 50' W.) the lead was again let go and 2,700 fathoms obtained, the
rod bringing up a small but precious particle of Foraminifera.

Near the supposed position of this bank we sounded at short distances
for some days with more than 1,000 fathoms of line; but in no case was
there any indication of this bank. The last effort to sound in 1,000 fathoms
North of this supposed bank will not easily be forgotten ; it was obtained
under many and great difficulties. The sea had risen to a fearful height in
a very short time, which threatened to roll all the boats from the davits.
My steam-cutter Torch did start. There was scarcely any standing on the
deck. All the thirty-five men on the starboard side, while hauling the line
in, lay down, or rather were thrown down on the line.

Lat. 43° 30' N. ; long. 38° 5' W. — Sounded again with heavy weights in
2,000 fathoms, bringing up Foraniiniferse in various stages of growth ;
what gave interest and value to this sounding, was the fact that icebergs had
reached these limits, proved by the presence of a piece of stone, three-
quarters of an inch in size, deposited undoubtedly there by a berg, and
brought up in the valve.

Lat. 30° 43' N. ; long. 37° 47' W.— On the 5th of September a sounding
was taken at 1,930 fathoms; the rod came up with its spring broken, but
retaining sufficient of the bottom to show that it was down. Foraminiferse,
the usual deep-sea characteristic, appeared, mostly young and small, with
transparent cells: about 6 per cent, of all these free from fracture, all the
remainder fragments.

Before leaving the vicinity of the supposed bank, the temperatures here
obtained with new and delicate thermometers at 2,000 fathoms was 42° —
rathor a higher temperature than expected. The air was 68°; the sea-
surface 69°; while at 100 fathoms it had fallen 10°, and at 400 20°! At
1,000 fathoms it was 43°, after which it fell but 1° in 1,000 fathoms *

The VIRGIN ROCKS, to the E. by S. of Cape Race ; lat. 46° 26' 30",

long. 50° 55' 20".

These rocks form a dangerous reef, lying about 30 leagues JE. hj S. true,
from Cape Race ; in gales of wind a heavy sea breaks over them, and a
strong current, which sets about them, often increases the danger. f

These rocks, together with the surrounding dangers, including the Eyder
Shoal to the eastward, are described in page 759.

CASHE'S LEDGE (Ammen's Rock), lat. 42° 56' N. long. 68° 51' 30' W.

" This is a dangerous reef, about half a mile in extent each way. Its
soundings are very irregular, having from 10 to 4 fathoms in the length of
a boat. There are 17 fathoms within a cables' length of it, deepening a
short distance to 90 fathoms, on the western side. On approaching the shoal
you may find 60 to 35 fathoms, brown sand, with black stones and broken

* See Proceedings Royal Geog. Soc., vol. xiii. 1869, pp. 93-9S.

t It has been stated (1859) by Captain Kevvley, of Galway, that a sboal which breaks at
times lies i or 5 miles to the S.W. of the Virgin Rocks. Perhaps it may be a shoaler
patch on the bank on which the rocks rest.

794 DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

shells; then 30 fathoms, where it becomes rocky. The currents on the
ledge are exceedingly rapid and devious. On the shoalest part there are
said to be only 12 feet at low water. By observations made, on four suc-
cessive days, by the master of H.M. sloop Beaver, the latitude is 43° 1' 0".
The longitude has been deduced from that of Cape Anne as from 69' 6° to
69° 12'."

The latitude of the rock, deduced from the two day's observations, June
5th and 6th, 1849, is 42° 56'; the longitude 68° 51J' W. The least water
on the rock is 26 feet ; a less depth has been reported by the fishermen,
but they sound with their fishing lines, perhaps not accurately marked, and
with a lead insufficient to press down or pass through the thick kelp that
covers the rock. The extent, having less than 10 fathoms, is about half a
mile in a N.W. by W. and S.E. by E. direction, and very narrow. It is
surrounded by deep water at a short distance, particularly on the S.E. side,
where the depth increases suddenly to 60 fathoms.

GEOEGE'S BANK.

These shoals were formerly described under the respective names of
Browns Bank and the Malabar Shoal, by neither of which names they are
now recognised. A copy of the report of an actual survey of them, made
under the orders of Commodore Isaac Hull, by Mr. Feich, of the U.S. navy,
and Mr. Edmund Blunt, jun., is contained in the " Colombian Navigator,"
vol. i. p. 56. From this report it appears that there are, properly, four
shoals on the bank, the whole of them included between latitudes 41° 34' N.,
and 41° 53' 30" N., and longitudes 67° 18' W., and 67° 59' W. The largest,
which is toward the S.W., is also the most dangerous. Between the shoals
are from 15 to 35 fathoms of water.

But these shoals have been accurately surveyed by Lieut. Charles Wilkes,
of the U.S. navy, and the officers under his direction.

It appears by this survey that the general direction of the shoal ground
is N.W. by N., and S.E. by S., and it extends 13 miles in length, and
from 1 to 2 miles in width ; the depth of water within this space being 10
fathoms and less, but very irregular. The two shoalest places are between
41° 40' 13" and 41° 40' 33" N., and 67° 44' 10", and 67° 40' 30" W. and are
knolls of hard sand, having upon them, at low tide, 15 feet of water. With
the exception of these two places, the shoal may be crossed in any part
by an ordinary-sized vessel without danger. There is a rip usually the
whole length of the shoal, and, at times, heavy breakers in the shoalest
places.

Some other shoal patches of 5 fathoms lie at 28 miles to the S.W. by S.,
and 44 miles S.W. by W. of the shoalest spot, and are called the Little
George Bank.

NANTUCKET SHOALS.

These very dangerous shoals, lying immediately in the line of traffic of
the coasting trade of the United States, have been but very little known till
within a very few years ; and then their limits wero more exactly defined
at the expense of a private individual, Mr. E. M. Blunt, of New York.

NOKTH OF LATITUDE 40°. 795

These "Goodwin Sands" of the United States now, however, appear to bo
tolerably well examined, though still some doubt has been expressed as to
whether their entire extent has been ascertained.

They have been surveyed by Lieut. Charles H. Davis, U.S. navy, super-
intending the hydrographic parts of this portion of the coast survey. The
danger of these formidable shoals are reduced by the lighthouse on Sankaty
Head, and also by the Liyhtvessel, described on page 771.

BETWEEN THE EQUATOK AND LATITUDE 40°.

Dccdalus Hock, off Cate St. Vincent, in about 36° 30' N., and 9' 16' W.

( Very doubtful.)

The old charts of the Atlantic indicated a danger at the distance of 12 or 15 leagues
to the S.W. of Cape St. Vincent. This danger was omitted in the French chart of
1786, and subsequently in other charts, from the supposition that, if it really existed,
it must have received some modern confirmation. But it seems, from information
communicated by Captain Taylor, of the brig Laurel, of Whitby, that, in about 1813,
the Dadalus, transport, struck on this rock, and received so much damage as ren-
dered necessary for her to put into Lisbon for repairs. Captain Tayler was in the
fleet when the Dcedalus struck.

Added to this the brig Briton, Captain Stokes, was lost, in consequence of striking
upon the rock, in December, 1821. After she struck she swung off, and then imme-
diately tried for soundings, but got none. On finding the vessel sinking, the people
took to the boat, and were picked up by another vessel. Captain Stokes had not seen
Cape St. Vincent, but supposed it at the time to bear N.N.E. J E. 28 or 30 miles.
This information has been communicated by Captain Livingston, who says, " This
information was given to me in Malaga in September, 1822, by Captain T. Tankersly,
of the schooner Lord Mulgrave, of London. Captain Tankersly added, that he had
met with another master (name forgotton), who said he had observed the sea- weed
on this rock ; got out of his boat, and held on by some of the weed. He supposed
the rock to be about 50 yards in circumference."

The preceding information is from Captain Livingston, who also says, " I was some
years since informed by an old man of colour, a native of Goa, who was steward of a
vessel I then commanded, that while he was cabin-steward to Sir Edward Pellew,
while captain of H.M S. Lndefatiga hie, she struck on a rock off Cape Finisterre. This,
I understand, has been denied, and it appears true ; for I have now information on
which I can rely, from a very respectable naval officer, whose name I do not consider
myself at liberty to mention, that the Lndefatigable, when commanded by Sir Edward
Pellew, actually struck on the rock, or a rock, off Cape St. Vincent, and received
some damage. I had no doubt before that she had struck somewhere, as I had per-
fect confidence in my old steward's veracity ; the error was in memory only." —
(Letter, 2Sth October, 1822.)

The existence of this rock was affirmed on the 6th of March, 1839, by Mr. John
Aves, commander of the schooner Tantivy, of Plymouth. At 9 h 30 m p.m., this vessel,
on her voyage from Zante, passed close to the eastward of it ; it was not seen till
close aboard and not avoided without difficulty. There was a swell from the N.W.
breaking over it, and a sheet of foam, about 20 to 25 fathoms in circumference. The
Tantivy stood in N.N.E. on the port tack, till 7 next morning, then tacked to the
southward, passing the cape at the distance of about 2 miles, The rock ^aa ,tkuf

796 DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

estimated to lie considerably to the eastward of its position, as shown by chart, and
to bear about S.S.W., true, 37 or 40 miles from the cape.

That this rock does not not exist in the position usually assigned to it in modern
charts is proved by the following, which we translate from the Annales Hydrogra-
phiques, part 3, 1875, page 473 : — "The Nautilus, during her passage from Lisbon to
Gibraltar, searched for the Dredalus Hock over its reported position, 30 or 35 miles
S.W. of Cape St. Vincent, lat. 36* 30' N. 9' 16' W. Having previously determined
the position of the ship by bearings of the land, she was steered direct for the N.E.
portion of the area to be searched, and then cruised East and West 315 miles con-
tinuallv sounding. Of the 11 soundings tried, only one reached the bottom in about
350 fathoms, the others found no bottom between 90 and 130 fathoms. The weather
was beautiful, with bright sunshine, the water of a deep blue, and the swell from the
S.E. sufficient to indicate a danger by breaking over it. In the rigging 4 men were
placed on the look-out for anything to indicate the danger, such as weeds, eddy, or
breakers. But nothing was seen of the danger, and it was concluded, that it did not
exist, or at any rate not in its assigned position."

H.MS. Challenger obtained a sounding of 1,000 fathoms 30 miles N. by W. of
the position assigned to this danger, and another of 2,500 fathoms at 50 miles to the

w.s.w.

We must leave this for the present. It is a blot on the charts ; but still a rock
may exist hereabout similar in character to Gettysburg Bank. Its existence ought
to have been set at rest many years since.

GORRINGE or GETTYSBURG BANK.

Gorringe or Gettysburg Bank, lying between the Madeira Isles and Cape St.
Vincent, at about two-thirds of the distance from the former, was first discovered by
Commander Gorringe of the U.S. steam-sloop Getti/sburff, in December, 1S76, while
engaged in carrying a line of deep sea soundings between Gibraltar and the Azores
for telegraphic purposes. The bank was examined by Commander Egerton in
H.M.S. Salami's, in March, 1877, this latter examination extending over four days.

The area of the Gorringe Bank, comprised within the depth of 100 fathoms, is
nearly circular in shape, has an average diameter of 5 miles, and is included between
the parallels of 36° 29f and 36° 34*' N., and long. 11° 32' and IT 38' W.

The shoalest part, within the depth of 35 to 30 fathoms, appears to be a narrow
ridge 2 miles in extent, running nearly East and West; the least depth of 30 fathoms
being confined to a small patch in lat. 36' 31 1 N., and long. 11° 35^ W.

The nature of the bottom at depths under 50 fathoms was found to consist of rock
and coralline matter ; in depths exceeding 53 fathoms, pebbles, coralline substanceSj
shells, and sand.

Beyond the depth of 100 fathoms the soundings increase rapidly. The depth of
1,000 fathoms from the shoal ground being about 5 miles in a northerly direction.
6 miles in a southerly; 13 miles to the westward; and 11 miles to the eastward.
At 20 miles distant in a north-westerly direction, 2,750 fathoms were found, and in
a north-easterly direction, 1,640.

The tide was observed in H.M.S. Salami's, when at anchor on the shoal ground, on
4th March (spring tides), to set regularly N.E. and S.W., with a maximum velocity
of about lj knot.

Eish in abundance were caught on the bank.

EALCON ROCKS, to the Northward of Porto Santo.

The situation of these rocks has been already given in the description of the
Madeiras, p. 6S7. They had previously been vaguely and erroneously described as a

BETWEEN THE EQUATOK AND LATITUDE 40°. 797

bank, on which Francis Doublet, of Honfleur, grounded to the N.E. of Porto Santo ;
and as a ledge on which a Dutch ship was lost. It is most probable that it is the same
shoal as the Eight Stones, which has been so frequently announced and unsuccess-
fully sought for, and now fully disproved,

Constante Beef, lat. 37° 56' 20", long. 33 a 4' 8" ; and Ferreira Reef,
lat. 38° 26' 44", long. 30 3 25' 10" W. (Doubtful).

These two reefs were officially announced in October, 1840 : —

" Manoel Mariano Ferreira, pilot, while navigating from Paraiba to Lisbon on
board the Brazilian brig Constante, at 10 a.m., on the 26th of August, 1840, saw
breakers to windward at the distance of 1 or 2 miles. The vessel remained in the
same position for six hours, and in sight of the breakers. At noon, it being then
higher water at that place, the surf had nearly disappeared ; at 2 p.m. it again
became perceptible, and at 6 p.m. a group of rocks was clearly visible above the
water. By the latitude I had observed at noon, and the longitude given by a good
chronometer, and the rock being about 1^ miles distant from me, I compute their
situation to be in lat. 37° 56' 20" N., long. 33° 4' 8" West of Greenwich.

" On the 31st of August I passed near another sunken rock, which is marked in
the chart as having been seen by Captain Robson to the northward of Fayal. At
8 a.m. I saw some rocks above water, over which the sea broke, and which I passed
to leeward at the distance of 1 to 2 miles, in lat. 38° 26' 44", long. 30° 25' 10" W. of
Greenwich.— Lisbon, 6th October, 1840."

The first of these reefs has been named the Constante Reef, and the second Fer-
reira Reef; they have been previously noticed, together with the Pronk Rocks,
(Rhoon Rocks, in the " Nautical Magazine "), on page 683.

A shcal off Flores was originally copied from Van Keulen into Bellin's chart of
1742. Its position has varied from time to time. It cannot be authentic. By some
it is called Martyr s Shoal, by the Portuguese Viyia dos Azores.

Near to the asserted position of the Constante Reef, Captain J. Keyzer, of the
Dutch ship Bato, on May 5th, 1845, saw a white patch about 130 ft. in diameter.
The sea smooth at the time. Lat. 37 D 42', long. 32' 57'.

We leave these shoals for future investigation.

Against their authenticity we have the authority of Captain T. D. Sickens, of the
Dutch Marine, who passed over the spot with a good look out from the rigging, with-
out seeing anything, and then steered N.W. by N. over Constante Reef, &c, with
the same result.

Again a volcanic shock was felt, March 13, 1853, lat. 3S° 9' N., long. 31' od'.* Near
to this, however, the sea is 2,000 fathoms deep.

At all events much circumspection is necessary in sailing through these parts.

* The repeated accounts which have been given of earthquake phenomena hereabout
ought to induce caution. Their range appears to be wide, for on November 25th, 1857,
W. Cook, of the Estremadura, bound for Fayal, when in lat. 39° 57', long. 25° 50', saw
abaft the beam what was thought to be a squall, but which turned out to be a kind of mist
or warm steam, which lasted half an hour; wind N.E. The waves then changed to a kind
of boil, or topping sea, as if surged up from beneath, but it returned to its former state,
when the mist was passed. — (Lloyd's List, Jan. 11, 185S.)

Again in 1858, Nov. 11th, at 7.45 a.m., the Venus, when 30 miles N.N.W. from Cape
St. Vincent, Portugal, was seized with a violent trembling, as if caused by some volcanic
eruption; the shock was felt by all the crew, and lasted about 15 seconds; the noise re-
sembled the rumbling of thunder.

N. A. O. I ic

798 DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

Keus, or Europa Rock, lat. 38° 15' N., long. 22" 14' W. (Doubtful.)

Capt. D. Keus, of the Dutch ship Europa, stated, in a letter to II. E., the Minister
of Marine, that on the morning of December 10th, 1853, he saw a " black mass," to
the S.W. by W., steering N.E. by compass ; at day-break he saw that it was a rock
or reef, and passed it about 2 miles distant. Its height was about 15 or 20 ft., and it
is about 200 ells in length. Capt. Keus places this rock in lat. 3S° 15' N., long.
22° 14' W. Its existence is very doubtful.

St. Mary's Bank, to the South of the Azores, in about 35° 53' N., and 27° 19' W.

( Very doubtful.)

" On our passage, in 1819, from Havana to Barcelona, we passed over white water,
apparently a shoal, to the southward and westward of St. Mary's. The captain
would not allow the vessel to heave-to in order to sound ; but I have no doubt in my
mind of its being a very extensive bank of soundings ; and I have little doubt that
1 have ascertained its position, tolerably accurate, from lunars, prior and subsequent.
I should not be surprised if it turned out that the bank we passed over was connected
with the Kutusoff Bank, marked, in the last edition of Admiral Espinosa's chart, as
having been seen in 1816, and which lies to the S.W. of the one we passed over, at
the distance of about a degree. We were some hours crossing the bank.

" The bank lies in lat. 35° 53' N., as calculated by account between the observations
of the noon before and noon following; long. 27° 19' W. I have heard a gentleman,
a lieutenant de vaisseau, mention what I suppose to be the same, at the table d'hote,
at St. Michael's, in October, 1818." — A. Livingston. This is all we still know, but it
is not absolutely disproved.

Chantereau's Skoal, in lat. 38° 27', long. 38' 0'. (Doubtful.)

This shoal, described as a white rock, was said to have been seen by Captain Chan-
tereau, of the ship L'Auguste, in lat. 38° 24', long. 41° 35', in coming from Martinique,
September 6th, 1721, when the sea broke on it very much. It was again announced
by Lieutenant Edm. Scott, commanding the Princess Elizabeth packet, 24th April,
1828. Lat. 39° 14', long. 39° 49' W.

According to a notice inserted in the official copies of the Derrotero de las Antillas
and dated Madrid, July 4th, 1816, a shoal or vigia was discovered at 3 p.m., May
21st, 1846, in fine weather, by D. Gabriel Perez, captain of the Spanish merchant
ship Leontina, in lat. 38° 27' N., long. 37° 57' 10" West of Greenwich, according to
observations made shortly before seeing the rock, and confirmed by chronometer in
making Graciosa (Azores) soon after.

Here we have three announcements of dangers of similar character in close
proximity. If it exists, they are probably the same. We have no further evidence
in its favour or to contradict it. But at 74 miles eastward of it, the Dolphin found
2,675 fathoms.

Marsala Bank.

Captain G. B. Fasce, of the Italian ship Marsala, reports : — On April 19th, 1877,
being in lat. 33° 42' N., long. 31° 25' W., observed a discolouration of the water, and
on reaching the spot, in lat. 33° 55' N., long. 34° 17' W., sounded in 82 fathoms, hard
bottom. A second cast, in lat. 34° 1' N., long. 34° 9' W., no bottom at 123 fathoms.
The water resumed its blue colour after sailing a few miles.

BETWEEN THE EQUATOR AND LATITUDE 40°. 799

Challenger Bank, S.W. of Bermudas.

This bank was examined by H. M.S. Challenger, in April, 1873, and Sir Wyville
Thomson,* after speaking of the soundings at about 2,000 fathoms between the bank
and Bermudas Island, says: — " In the evening we sounded in 32 fathoms, about 13
miles to the S.W. of Bermudas ; this is a bank well known to the Bermudas fisher-
men, and is said to have been discovered from the large number of fish swimming
near the surface. We anchored on the bank, and the fishing lines were soon out,
but we were very unfortunate, for only one or two 'snappers' were taken. ,
The bank, which seems to be about 5 miles across, consists mainly of large rounded
pebbles of the substance of the Bermudas' Serpuline reef. There is an abundant
growth all over the pebbles of the pretty little branching corals Madracis asperula

and M. hellena, and other invertibrates were abundant As the weather

did not look by any means promising, we weighed anchor, and proceeded on our
course to the N.W."

Deep Soundings S.E. of Bermuda. {Doubtful.)

The " New Bedford Mercury " relates an account of some soundings which were
supposed to be obtained in the ship Chaucer, in April, 1850, but which were falla-
cious, as follows :— " Here, in lat. 27° 10' N., long. 62° 45' W., on the 20th of April,
1850, the nearest land being Bermudas, bearing N.W. by N., and distant 345 miles,
water blue, with much gulf-weed, weather calm, no current, the boat was lowered;
let run the lead, and got bottom in 774 fathoms. April 15th, lat. 27° 31' N, long.
60° 3' W., Bermudas N.W. by N. 300 miles, sounded and got bottom in 366 fathoms.
April 29th, lat. 29° 20' N, long. 64° 11' W., Bermudas N. by W. 160 miles, sounded
and got bottom in 620 fathoms.

The time occupied in running out the line varied from twenty to thirty minutes.
The line was constructed thus : first 100 fathoms, five parts of shoe thread; second,
four parts ; third, three parts ; fourth, two parts ; remainder, single. The lead
weighed about five pounds ; the whole wound upon a light reel, and held by hand.
In this process of obtaining soundings the lead is not to be hauled up." — " Daily
News," August 28th, 1850.

There is no doubt but that the imperfect means deceived the commander as to find-
ing bottom ; for Captain Lee, U.S.S. Dolphin, got a good sounding of 3,828 fathoms,
the deepest obtained in the cruize a degree to the South of that reported, of 3G'J
fathoms, and no bottom with 1,000 fathoms near that of 620 fathoms, and 3,080
fathoms have been got near that of 754 fathoms.

Aylen, or Porgas Bank, East of the Cape Verde Islands. [Very doubtful.)

The following is from the log of H.M.S. Hydra. " August 1st, 1868. UV 17' N.,
19° 43' W. Sounded on the eastern edge of the alleged Porgas Bank, obtaining
1,880 fathoms oaze ; noon, crossed the alleged position of Porgas Bank ; no indication
of shallow water. In 16° 46' N., 19° 45' W., sounded on a patch marked 86 fathoms
Birkenhead, obtaining 1,850 fathoms, brown sand and mud."

. This latter sounding is about 20 miles S.E. of the position of the 82 fathoms
sounding of the Birkenhead. Below we give the description as it appeared in pre-
vious editions of this work.

In the early charts of the Atlantic this bank has always been shown, as extending

Voyigeof the Challenger, the Atlantic, vol. i., pp. 359— 3G1.

800

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIGIAS, ETC.

50 leagues in length N. and S., with a breadth of 5 leagues. Nothing more than this
appeared to be known of it except the statement that it was all deep water, and not
dangerous to shipping. — {Oriental Navigator, p, 27.) It was unsuccessfully sought
for by the Leven in 1819. In some later charts it had been omitted for want of some
confirmation, but this seems to be revived by a cast of the lead taken in the Birke7i-
hcad steamer, in her voyage to Ascension, under the command of Mr. J. B. Aylen
R.N., on November 1 1th, 1850.

The position, carefully deduced from chronometer and observation, is 17° 0' N.,
long. 20° 3' 15" W., and the depth 80 fathoms. The bottom appeared to consist of
pieces of shells and sand, or small particles of coral. Mr. Aylen says, that " I did
not like heaving the ship to, to take another cast, particularly as I considered myself
on the edge of the bank only, and that at noon, when on its centre, I would again
try, which I did without success with 90 fathoms of line. — Nautical Magazine, 1851,
page 155.

The following is an extract from a log examined at the Meteorological Office : —
" Here is the position of the Porgas Bank, according to the old charts. Birkenhead
in 1850 got 86 fathoms close to this position ; we sounded at noon in 17° 10' N., and
20° 32' W., with 150 fathoms ; got no bottom.

Besides this sounding hereabout, another of 164 fathoms was obtained, in 1819, by
Captain Freminville, to the N.W. of the cast of Mr. Aylen, in lat. 11° 35', and long.
21° 40'.

This concludes the description of every shoal about which it is thought
there can be any possibility of identification hereafter, but, as before stated,
it is barely possible that several do exist.

The next list, in a tabular form, enumerates those which are still more
open to doubt. The particulars of each announcement are given in full in
old editions of this work.

TABLE A.

ROCKS, ETC., WHOSE EXISTENCE IS VERY DOUBTFUL.

Name.

Reported by

Date.

Lat. N.

Long.W.

Particulars.

Amplimont Rocks -

Guichardi . .

1735

42 30

21 5

30 ft. high.

Mills

1829

42 30

24 5

_______ .

Aldorson ....

1842

42 51

24 15

8 or 10 ft. high.

Duff

1S46

42 56

24 30

Awash.

Birkenhead, 82 fathoms -

1850

23 3

1,850 fathoms near.

Chantereau's Shoal

Chuntereau. .

1721

38 24

39 25

________ _____ _

Scott

1828

38 16

38 49

(Or Princess Eliza-

- .

1816

38 27

37 57

beth Shoal.)

Columbine Shoal -

Robertson .,

1844

35 25

49 1

Not sounded.

Constante Reef

Ferreira ....

1840

37 56

33 4

(Martyrs, or

Aeore's Reef) -

Keyzer ....

1845

37 42

32 57

A white patch. Posi-
tion doubtful.

Daedalus Rock

1813

,, ,,

....

1821

TABLE OF DOUBTFUL ROCKS.

801

Name.

Reported by

Date.
1839

Lat. N.
36 30

Long.W.
9 16

Particulars.

Daedalus Rock

Position doubtful.

Delaware Shoal

1839

10 37

60 3

5 fathoms. Doubtful.

Devil's Rock

Brignon ....

1737

46 55

Thomas ....

1764

46 24

13 10

1818

46 35

13 7

Henderson..

1829

46 33

13 2

Livingston . .

1826

46 9

12 50

2,350 and 2,190 fa-

Swainson . .

1829

46 35

13 8

thoms found near.

Dvina Rock -

1853

44 43

6 37

Not sounded, nor seen
since.

Ferreira's Reef

Ferreira ....

1840

38 26f

30 25

Awash.

Gough's Rocks

Gough ....

1778

40 28

830 fathoms near it.

.. .

Beaufort ....

1820

Harrison ....

1830

40 16

___ _^_

1862
1845

40 38
39 18

30 3
35 50

Just awash.

Hilton Rocks

Hilton

Nearly awash.

Keus Rock -

1853

38 15

22 14

A black mass, 20 feet
high.

Kutusoff Bank

1816

28 30

Perhaps St. Mary's
Bank.

Martyr's Shoal. <&;eCon-

stante.

Mossman Rock

Mossman . .

1854

43 41

28 51

Above water.

Midgley Shoal

Midgley ....

1838

44 9$

22 57|

Discoloured water.
Not sounded on.

Munn's Reef-

1827

64 20

20 fms. white s;tnd.
Position undcterm.

Neva Rocks - - -

1856

31 10

34 40

4 feet above water.

Perez. See Chantereau.

Princess Elizabeth Shoal.

See Chantereau -

Scott.

Rockall- -

Harvey, &c.

1810

&c.

....

Surveyed by Captains
Vidal and Hoskyn.

Ryder Shoal *

1845

46 30

49 35

21 ft. water. Position
doubtful.

St. Mary's Bank -

Livingston ..

1819

35 53

27 19

White water.

Westenenk Shoal -

Westenenk . .

1840

31 58

40 28±

Breakers.

The second list shows those rocks, &c, which may be safely considered as
absolutely disproved, and in most cases are not shown on the chart ; when
they are placed there, they have (??) attached to them.

TABLE B.

ROCKS, ETC., REPORTED BUT DO NOT EXIST.

Name.

Reported by.

Date.

1740
1793

1826
1852

1846

Lat. N.

Long.W.

11 14

9 53

10 40

9*56

16 40
63 50

Particulars.

Aitkin's Rock

Ship Nestor . .

55 18
55 19
55 15
55 17
55 15

60 57
40 20

Not found in search
of 1824, 27, 29, and
30.

Akett. A&eDaraiih
Alof Kramer's Bank -
America Rock

Craig

Kramer ....
Ship America

Not found, 1818.
Probably a wreck.

802

DESCRIPTION OF SHOALS, VIOIAS, ETC.

Name.

Anna Rock
Anfitrito Shoal

Ashton Rock
Atila Rock
Barencthy Rock -
Beazlcy Shoal

Spanish Shoal

Ditto -

Bell Rocks -
Betsey's Rock
Blaesdale's Reef ]-
Bom Felix Shoal -
Bonetta. See Emily -
Bouvet's Sandy Island
Brasil Rock

Breton's Rock

Bus, Sunken Land of -
Caesar Breakers -
Candler's Rock -
Chaderton Rock -
Chapelle Rock

Chaucer Bank, 36G fms.

Clark. See Mayda.

Cleveland Reef -

Clowes Reef

Coral Shoal

Corsair. See Akett, Da-

raith, &c.
Courier Rock -

Daraith's Rock. See
Akett, Hamilton, and
Watson -

Desmaires' Rock

Druid's Reef

Dubreuil's Vigia -

Dyet Rock -
Eight Stones
Emily, or Bonetta Rock
England. See Mayda.
Esmeralda Rock -
Falconer Rock
False Bermudas -
Fields' Vigia

Five Heads -
French Shoal

Galissioniere's Rock, or
Fonseca Island

Reported by.

Carmelich . .
Ship Anjit rite

Guy

Ship Atila . .

Beazley ....

Wahlstein ..
Bell

Blaesdale , ,
Dultra.

Brouage and
Laisne.

Breton

Ship Tiger . .

Candler ....
Chaderton ..

Houel

Ship Favorite
Tasker ....
Vaillant .'...
Ship Chaucer

Cleveland . .

Thompson . .

Daraith ....

Desmaires ,.

Treadwell ..
Spanish Chart
Dubreuil., .,

Dyet

Vobonne.. ..

Ship Emily . .

ShipEsmeralda
Falconer ....

Duhal

Fields

Van Keulen
Spanish Chart
French Chart
Log in Met.
Office ....

Galissioniere

Date.

Lat. N.

1841

39 30

1846

35 50

1824

33 49

1856

36 31

....

45 33

1841

40 45

1769

40 26

1857

40 26

33 45

1808

18 7

1819

....

19 20

1761

• • • •

1742

51 10

1791

• • •

■ • • •

39 45

1816

39 40

1730

39 47

1858

44 56

1764

....

1822

47 37

1842

47 43

1857

47 30

1850

27 31

1765

30 45

1817

10 17

1822

1849

27 51

1700

40 50

1683

1831

41 19

1803

41 24

1753

14 50

1845

32 46

1732

34 37

1845

16 59

1856

45 13

1847

38 40

32 10

1853

37 31

1757

44 15

1796

4 5

....

4 15

....

4 4

....

12 20

Lonsr.W.

50 30
66 4

71 41

32 24
37 25
36 47

36 5
36 10
55 25
50
41 6
20 37

19 10
16
41 25
41 40

33
22 18

34 29
32 51

8**2

8 4J
8 5
60 3

10 20

65 50
29 35

78 31

54 53

41 10

41 25
41 20
29 40

60 6
16 40

21 30

16 48
29 8
58 10
65

19 25

20 34
19 20

22 25
54 49

Particulars.

Probably an iceberg.
No bottom at 1,000

fathoms.
Very improbable.
Sunken.
Not found.
Almost awash ; (2,75 3

fathoms near.)
5 fathoms.
Sea broke over ship.
Not found.
2,370 fathoms near.
2,980 fathoms found.
Not found, 1838.

Not found, 1838.

Not found.
Not found.
2,675 fathoms near.

Not seen, 1856.
Incredible.
Awash. 1,500 fms. nr.
Not since seen.
Broke. „

Sunk 4 ft. „

Sunk 2 or 3 ft. „
3,825 fathoms near.

Very doubtful.

Not found.

See Mossman Rock.

Part of
Reef.

Maternillo

2,710

Probably ice.

fathoms found.
See Druid's Reef; per-
haps ice.
Perhaps ice.
Ditto.
See Tregarthen and

India Shoal.
550 fathoms on it.
Perhaps disappeared.
1,580 fathoms near.

2,200 fathoms near.

Improbable.

Same as Dyet Rock.

No bottom at 1,175

fathoms.
Not since found.
2,670 fathoms near.

2,570 fathoms found ;
perhaps volcanic.

TABLE OF REPORTED ROCKS.

803

Name.

Reported by. Date

Lai. N.

Long.W.

Particulars.

Galleon's Bank «

Gandaria Rocks -
Cartas, Baxo das

Gilchrist Rock

Gombaud's Rock-
Green Rock, or I. Verte
Greeve's Ledge -
Guigou's Bank -

Hamilton -
Hannah's Breakers
Hannah's Coral Shoal -

Henderson Bank,48fms.
Hervagault Breakers -

Huntley's Rock -
India Shoal

Inglefield Bank »

Jaquet Island

Jean Hamon's Rock

Job Rock ...

Josyna Rock

Laidman Rock

Lean Shoal -

Longchamps Rock, or
Solis Island

Lourp. See Hervagault

Maalstrom -

Maria's Rock

Marinero Rock -

Marquand. See Herva-
gault.

Martin's Reef

Mourand's Bank -
Mayda. See Five Heads
ditto

Negre's Rocks

Orion Rock
Patty's Overfall -
Perseus Shoal
Porgas -

Potomac Soundings, 90
fathoms -

Prince Shoal
Pronk Rock
Pryce Shoal
Ramigeau's Vigia
Roallon's. See Three
Chimnies.

Longuoville

Gandaria . .

Louv. e Pinho
Gilchrist. . . .

Gombaud . .
Le Boccage .
Greeve ....
Guigou ....
Whipple. . ..
Hamilton ..

Fanning ....

Henderson . .
Hervagault (&
Max.), 1823

Lourp

Marquand ,
Huntly . . ,

Inglefield . ,

Le Gros
Hamon
Job

Josyna lost . ,
Laidmm
Lean

Van Keulen
Sch. Maria. .
Swinton . . . ,

Martin
Ship Cecilia
Newbold. . . ,
Mourand. . . ,
P. Nau

Biden

Clark

England . . . ,

Ne^rc

Bauve

Luytjas

Ship Perseus
Old Charts..

Smith . .

Thomas
Pronk . .
Pryec . .

1730

1842

1848
1848

1764
1742
1745
1688
1733
1S51
1791
1824

1850

1723
1816
1855
1833

1810

1836
1733
1858
1697

1854

1813
1831

1742
1816
1823
1842
1773
1705
1738
1842
1840
1722

1845

1813

1838

1853
1844

184G

15 56

25 30
13
12 30
32

23 15
44 52

44 15

20 50

40 25
20
10 7

42 45

41 2
41 6
40 27

30 49

15 45

29 42

46 55
36 54
46 25

31 40
46

45 32

9 47

19 45

16 44
16 42
24 34
46 48
46 10

45 40

46 36
48 8
48 7
34 51
11
41 3
16 17

38 10

38 32

3 7

42 42

49 40

37 45
29 60

28 56

24 48

32 25

26 25

25 5

66 45
54 28
63 50

27 32

49 23

49 57
49 50
78 27
27 20

80 17

39 30

19 49
35 40
23 45

26
11 57

20 50
30

58 50

59 6
65 10
19 50
19 40
19 17

19 30

20 30

21 21
72 28
24 30

22 30
19 43

67 26

26 50
33 16
24 14
37 30

Probably volcanic
shock.

1,720 fathoms found.

Very doubtful.

Ditto.

Not sounded. Sec Jo-
syna Rock.

2,200 fathoms found.

1,850 fathoms near.

2,960 fathoms near.
Probably ice.

No bottom at 2,000

fathoms.
1,210 fathoms found.

Probably ice.

Ditto.

Improbable.

Very doubtful. See

Tregarthcn Rock.
Edge of bank of

soundings.
Probably an iceberg.
Not since seen.
Probably ice.
See Gilchrist Rock.
Probably vole, shock.
Heavy breakers.

Not seen 1851.

Notfd.inl799orl869.
No bottom at 300 fms.
1,760 fathoms near.

3,200 fathoms found.

3,500 fathoms found.

Improbable.
Not found 1838.
Net since seen.
1,880 fms. near, see
page 799.

No bottom, with 4,200

fathoms near it.
Volcanic shock.
1,500 fathoms near.
See Csesar Breakers.

804

VOLCANIC REGION.

Name.

Reported by.

Date.

Lat.N.

Long.W.

Particulars.

St. Esprit Reef -

Sh. St. Esprit

1817

14 37

53 59

Not found in 1833-4.

Ld. W. Paget

1833

• • • •

....

Perhaps volcanic

Smith or Wallace Bank

1856

49 36

16 17

Improbable.

Spanish Shoal. See

Beazley -
Spanish -
Sprigg Rock

1769
1798
1842

40 26

46 12

36 5
15 3$

Steeng round

Bellin, &c. . .

....

32 20

20 50

Not foutid.

Texeiro's Shoal -

Texeiro ....

1810

33 28

Breakers.

Heron ....

1824

1842

47 37

28 51

Three Chimnies -

De CI. Fernel

1729

47 54

29 40

Probably ice ; 1,900
fathoms found.

Tregarthen Rock

Tregarthen ..

1856

14 29

26 30

Sec Dubreuil's Vigia
or India Shoal.

Tulloch Reef

Tulloch

1808

37 27

24 45

Volcanic ; may have
disappeared.

Tulloch Overfalls

Tulloch ....

1819

24 11

61 44

3,450 fathoms.

"Verte Isle. See Green

Rock

LeBoccage. .

....

44 52

26 25

Vigia -

1798

37 50
43 30

34 IS
37 35

Spanish Chart

Probably ice.

....

French Chart

1746

55 24

24 40

de Five Palmas

or Hinman's Shoal -

1857

12
40 26

27 20

36 10

Wahlstein Breakers

Wahlstein . .

See Beazley.

Walker Shoal -

Maury's Charts

....

4 14

27 36

2,100 fathoms near.

Warley's Shoal -

t~>hip Warletj

1813

5 4

21 25

Not found in 1838.

Watson's Rock -

Watson ....

1824

40 18

53 40

Probably ice. SeeDa-
raith, Akett, Ha-
milton.

Whale Rock

Gradun ....

1809

38 46

24 47

Woodall's Rock -

Woodall

1829

43 20

25 10

1,850 fathoms near.

Vigia -

Surgeac ....

1750

40 53

Probably ice.

Shoal -

Spanish Chart

1798

"We have thus concluded the catalogue of dangers and presumed dangers
which have been stated to exist to the embarrassment of navigation, and
■which have for so many years " disfigured our charts." As will be seen,
the direct test of the sounding lead has caused the disappearance of most of
them ; and, as was at first stated, they are only retained to show the reasons
upon which they may be ignored.

The chart illustrating the depths of the North Atlantic, given hereafter,
further shows the improbability of the existence of these dangers.

VOLCANIC REGION.

In the neighbourhood of the Equator, and between longitudes 1 8° and
23° W., is a space which has been very fertile in former years in the pro-
duction of supposed rocks and sand-banks. The nature of this space is now
better understood, and we have now only the frequent announcement of
volcanic shocks having been felt. They are indeed very numerous, and in

VOLCANIC REGION. 805

our South Atlantic Memoir, 8th edition, pp. 208 — 214, we have given a serieg
of these occurrences. They need not, therefore, be repeated here.

It is now well known that the effects of an earthquake or tremor a at sea
has exactly the same effect on vessels as if they had rubbed over a reef of
rocks, or the heavy cable had suddenly run out. We have many instances
of this, and such effects may be looked for in crossing the Equator within
these limits. It may perhaps extend as far to the West as the volcanic
islets of Peiiedo de San Pedro.

To the list given before, as above stated, we may add, by way of example
here, the following : —

Capt. Ballaird, of the ship Rambler, from Calcutta, on October 30th, 1850,
in lat. 16° 30' N., long. 54° 30' W., and Capt. Potter, of the barque Millwood,
last from Eio, half an hour later on the same day, when in lat. 23° 30' N.,
long. 58° W., each felt a volcanic shock. These vessels were about 520 miles
apart. Supposing them to be in the direct line in which the earthquake was
travelling, its rate will appear to be about 1 mile in 5 seconds, which is only
a little slower than sound travels through the air.

The U.S. sloop Vandal ia, December loth, 1859, near midnight, in lat.
17° 34' N.,' long. 55° 49', experienced the shock of an earthquake, which
lasted 5 seconds, and was accompanied by a low rumbling noise, and strong
vibration throughout the ship. The wind, which was N.E., immediately
veered to East, and decreased.

The Russian ship Dallas, W. Wikander, commander, March 20th, 1861,
at 7 p.m., lat. 0° 27' N., long. 20° 30' W., the ship apparently went over the
ground ; the ship's masts and yards were shaken. Pound afterwards that
the false keel had gone.

At the same moment another ship, the Melbourne, of Dundee, C. Cowie,
master, in lat. 0° 20' N., long., 20° 35' W. (that is 8£ miles distant from tho
Russian ship, in company), was startled by hearing a loud rumbling noise,
and at the same time felt the ship tremble from stem to stern, which lasted
4 or 5 minutes.

The ship Florence Nightingale, January 25th, 1859 (1 p.m.), having the
St. Paul Rock, or Pefiedo de San Pedro, bearing N.W. by N. 10 miles,
experienced a severe shock. It commenced with a rumbling noise like
distant thunder, and lasted about 40 seconds. During the first part (? of the
day), there was a small confused sea, but after the earthquake a heavy swell
from N.N.E. I am perfectly familiar with earthquakes, having experienced
many on the West coast of America, but I never felt one so severe as this.
Glasses and plates that were on the table jingled to a great extent ; several
articles were shaken off the after hatch, and the ship felt as if grinding
heavily on a reef of rocks, which idea found general belief, for the cry of
"The ship's ashore!" burst simultaneously from the lips of all on board,
and the watch below came tumbling up in great haste. I must confess that
I was very much startled, and ran to the side to look for bottom, but soon
remembered what it was, and allayed the panic by explaining that 'was only
an earthquake."

The following must refer to the same shock, as it occurred within half an
hour of the time of the preceding.

N. a. o. 5l

806 VOLCANIC EEGION.

In about 0° 6' N. and 30° 28' W. (0 h 30 m p.m.), about N.E. by E. 84 miles
from the position of the last-named ship Florence Nightingale, 25th January,
1859: — " Experienced a shock on board, the vessel trembling and heeling
over, the sensation being something similar to that of a vessel dragging her
anchor in a tideway. The shock lasted about 1£ minute ; it was evidently
the effect of some volcanic agency. It was so distinctly felt as to alarm all
hands. There was nothing peculiar in the appearance of sea or air. The
weather was squally with showers of rain."

Captain Whitmore, of the Sea Serpent, December 29th, 1859, struck, as he
supposed, oh a coral reef, in lat. 0° 29' N., long. 28 a 30' W., in consequence
of which he put into Rio. He sounded immediately, and found no bottom,
but found afterwards his false keel and copper injured.

The Eussian sloop of war Passodnik struck, as was supposed, on the same
shoal, about twenty-four hours before the Sea Serpent, but this proves the
nature of the occurrence.

The Prince, of Scilly, James Thomas, commander, December 11th, 1853,
in lat. 0° 5-1' N., long. 26° 50' W., smooth water, suddenly felt a grinding
tremour go through the vessel, as if dragging over something rough and
yielding. . It continued for about a ship's length, but did not stop her way
through the water. The ship did not strike.

The ship Maid of Judah felt a slight shock September 15th, 1855, in lat.
1° 30' N., long. 25£° W. Strong swell from the southward.

The barque Eleanor, Captain Gr. A. Findlay, March 26th, 1861 (10 a.m.),
felt a shock as if something very heavy wa9 being rolled about the decks,
or as if the ship had gone over some rough ground ; it made the vessel
tremble only for a few seconds. A rumbling noise heard like distant heavy
thunder. Weather remarkably fine ; lat. 0° 44' N., long. 21° 19' W. Great
quantities offish and sharks around the ship.

These instances, with the others, will afford ample evidence of the general
nature and locality of these volcanic shocks.

We have lirrited the instances here to this particular area on the Equator;
but there appears to be either an extension of this action far to the north-
ward, or else there is a separate area, for volcanic shocks have been felt as
far North as 23° 30' N., and long. 58° 0' W. ; and from the almost continuous
line of discoloured and peculiar water that extends from the Equator to
this position, as will be presently stated, we are led to infer that there is a
line of volcanic action trending parallel to the range of the Antilles.

The depth, however, is very great, and there is not now any reason for
supposing that an}' shoal exists. Lieutenant Lee and others have found
depths exceeding 2,000 fathoms over most of the region in question ; and
this is another wonderful evidence of the force of these shocks which can
be transmitted through a stratum of water 12,000 feet and upwards in
thickness.

( 807 )

DISCOLOURED WATER.

At 3 p.m. on the 15th of July, 1792, Don Cosine de Churruca, then on his
passage to the "West Indies, discovered a boiling and breaking of the sea,
so very extraordinary, that it appeared to be breakers ; but they found no
bottom at 150 fathoms. This phenomenon, which appeared to be in conse-
quence of a current setting against the wind, accounts for the differences
between the observations and dead reckoning.

On the 16th, at 10 a.m., they were in lat. 13° 56', long. 54° 7' West of
Greenwich, and observed that the colour of the water changed, looking like
muddy river water, or as if they were on a bank. They were 128 leagues
to the eastward of the middle of St. Lucia, and 150 leagues to the N.E. of
Orinoco. They continued their course without alteration ; sounded at night
and found no bottom at 120 fathoms. The Captain, Churruca, says that the
colour is always the same in that part of the ocean, always appearing as if
on soundings in that latitude and longitude, and that it never varies the
position of its limits ; and, in addition to his own remarks, he had assured
himself of the fact by information collected from various sources ; and that,
also, the English Sailing Directions for the year 1782, entitled the "Com-
plete Pilot for the Leeward Islands," in the account of Barbados, mentions
that this phenomenon is found at the distance of 70 or 80 leagues to the
eastward of that island, and that there are no soundings, though the water
seems as if there were.*

The passage above quoted, from the old Book of Directions, is as fol-
lows : —

" In the latitude of Barbados, about 70 or 80 leagues to the eastward,
you will find the water discoloured and prodigiously thick, as if there were
soundings, but there are none, and you may depend on being at the distance
aforesaid from the island." f

" In alluding to Mr. Luccock's remarks about the patches of water which
exhibit a brown and dirty appearance, and also to the note from Captain
Kotzebue in the ' Sailing Directory for the Ethiopic,' p. 42, 1 should question
with all deference, whether the depth of water in such places was tried to a
sufficient degree of certainty.

" On our passage from the "West Indies to Europe in July, 1837, at about
four in the afternoon of the 7th, a streak was observed on the surface of tho
sea, exactly in the same manner as Captain Kotzebue describes, and at the
moment we passed over it the lead was hove in a very proper manner with-
out finding bottom ; but, having lowered the boat, soundings were found to

* It seems that the appearance of soundings described above occurs in the same plaoa
Where Captain Tulloch toll me a bank exi>ted, which some Americans were in the habit of
making as a fresh point of departure when bound to Surinam, &c. — A. L. But Lieut. Lee,
in the Dolphin, found depths of 2,o00 fathoms. See cruise ot the Dolphin, pp. 101-2.

f In 1813, at the distance of 197 miles to the eastward ot Barbados, we found the water
discoloured ; the thermometer here rose 1°. The current (Equatorial) inclines to the north-
ward here ; which, as well as the discoloured water, may be attributed to the stream dis-
ch»rsed by tbA great river Orinoco, &c. — I-kut. Evans.

808 DISCOLOUKED WATER.

exist, although in more than 30 fathoms of water. The latitude computed
from observations tnken at noon, was '21° 12' N., and long, by chronometer,
58° I'/ W.—A. U. liisschop Greeveliuk." (Lieut. Lee found 2,8U0 fathoms
here.)

Off the const of Gitai/ana, in the morning of the 17th of September, 1835,
on the trat-k of the Echo from Antijua towards Surinam, there appeared at
about 7 o'clock, in every direction upon the surface of the ocean, several
large spots of discoloured water, more or less thickly mingled as it seemed
with mud. It was a fine morning; the sun rose in all its splendour, and
not a single cloud was there to throw its shade upon the water, which was
uncommonly smooth, although the ahip ran 6 miles an hour ; besides the
water in some of the spots was so thick as to make the blue waves curl
against their edges. Having, says M. Greevelink, the watch at the time, I
gave warning of this strange occurrence to our captain (the late and much
lamented W. H. van Yoss), who came on deck and ordered me to keep — not
to alter — our course, by which we passed through one of those spots, yet we
did not heave the lead, as it was the first day in which we gained a breeze
after fourteen days struggling with horrible calm and rainy weather, and
two-thirds of our crew confined to their hammocks.

While in the midst of these spots I observed the latitude by the moon,
then passing the meridian 11° 47', and the longitude by chronometers, and
at the same time by lunar distances, three excellent sets, 53° 47'. In about
three-quarters of an hour we were clear of them, and the sea resumed its
former clearness. The current, equatorial, for several days remained
northerly, yet was not very strong. (Lieut. Lee found no bottom at 2,780
fathoms.)

That we had not been in soundings we felt nearly convinced by existing
circumstances ; yet how came this muddy water here ? The common dis-
coloured water of Barbados it was not, as the latter is a large extent of water
of a different but somewhat lighter hue than that of the ocean, at least so
far as we have seen it. As for my humble opinion, I seek for a cause of
this appearance only in the force with which the Maranon rushes downward,
but without sufficient power to strengthen the equatorial current. This may
seem contradictory, but I think it may be found reconcileable iu the manner
following : —

This river impetuously pours forth its waters in a mass over a bed of some
declivity, which steepens more and more towards its issue till it becomes a
precipice, so as to form a cataract, whereby a part of its stream may divo
beneath the stratum of undulations of the ocean, and afterward rise to the
surface by its lesser specific gravity ; where, driven still further off by the
northerly current, it may easily remain for some days in the above-mentioned
manner, especially in those months wherein continual calms prevail, and
the water is rarely disturbed by the wind. (This may be the case, but it may
also be attributed to a volcanic origin, as stated above.)

The commander of H.M. (Netherlands) brig Koerier informed Capt. Stort
that in the month of May, 1854, when between lats. 16° and 17° N., and in
long. 54° W., he sailed for a whole day in dark coloured water. This was
particularly remarked, inasmuch as similarly coloured sea is met with in

DISCOLOURED WATER. 809

about 10° and more easterly. Purely, in his "Atlantic Memoir," mentions
that in lat. 10° N. white-coloured water has been observed. 5 *

With this knowledge and the announcements before given oftho Betsy's
Rock, Galissioniere's Rock, Martin's Reef, St. Esprit Reef, and the singular
phenomena related by Churruca, Greevelink, and Nockells, it may be in-
ferred that a large extent of ocean, running parallel with the range of the
Windward Islands, covers either a range of submarine volcanoes, or that
the bed is in a state of action from the same cause.

Lieut. Lee, in the U.S. brig Dolphin, also met with discoloured water in
lat. 12° 22' N., long, 54- to 5.5° W., but found no bottom at the East end of
this with 1,000 fathoms, and a depth of 2,570 fathoms at its West end.

He again came into discoloured water in lat. 14" 10' to 14° 50' N., long.
54° 30' to 55° 0'.

The whaler Sheffield, Captain Green, April 26th, 1859, in lat. 29° 55' N.,
long. 60° 10', experienced three severe shocks of an earthquake, between
4 h 25 m and 6 h 10 m a.m. The officer on duty reported that the sea for some
time previously had presented the appearance of a tide rip ; the noise might
be compared to that of a heavily loaded cart or waggon, drawn rapidly over
a plank road.

Captain Nockells, in the ship Brightman, of London, 5th of May, 1835,
observing that the sea appeared of a dirty dark green, in lat. 41 c , long.
39° 19', by chronometer, tried for soundings, but found no bottom at 240
fathoms.

Captain Nockells, in two previous voyages, found the water in the same
place very much discoloured, which he supposed might originate from the
melting of the ice in the northern latitudes.

A remarkable change in the colour of the sea was observed by M. Dupetit
Thouars, on board the French frigate La Venus, in lat. 2 1° 50', long. 19° 34' W.,
in the same spot which Fraisier had already pointed out. The officers thought
it was a bank, but no bottom was found with 550 fathoms..f

In the region (10° S. to 20° N. and 10° to 40° W.) for which the logs have
been examined in acquiring a knowledge of the Best Route across the
Equator by the Meteorological Office, the following information has been
gained. It may be remarked that the logs were chiefly collected by the late
Admiral FitzRoy, between the years 1855 and 1870.

Between 10° and 20" JV. (squares 38, 39, 40, see diagram, page 466). — June.
17° 30' N., 25° 30' W., N.W. of Cape Verdes, "Passed through several
streams of small particles of a deep red colour, apparently whale food."

September. 16° N. 21° W., 100 miles East of Cape Verde Islands (1865),
"A long, continuous straw-coloured streak of matter in the water. When
seen under the microscope it looked like bundles of fibres stuck together
with some glutinous matter, which released its hold after they had been
kept some time in a tumbler, and allowed the fibres to fall apart." Another
remarks (1856), 10° N. 27° W., "Much yelloio matter on the surface of the

* Verhand. en 13eria;ten, Amsterdam, 18.54, p. oSJ.
f Voyage de la Veuus, vol. iii., p. 446.

810 DISCOLOUEED WATER.

water, parts of which, when seen through the microscope, looked like lon-
gitudinal cells or tubes of vegetable matter placed side by side, as in the
Pandean Pipes. They were transparent, and rounded off at their ends."

October (1870). In 12° N. 26° W., " Sea covered with stuff looking like
Cowhage. "When viewed through a magnifying glas3 it appeared very
much like a fid, sharp-pointed at one end, rounded off at the butt, and of
various sizes, the largest about 1 - 16th. of an inch."

December (1851). In 19° 57' N. 19° 19' W., "Light N.N.E. breeze;
water still discoloured. Have seen two cuttle-fish to-day, and much weed,
not unlike grass, in the water. On examination it looked like grass which
grows in fresh water, and has been attached at the root to rock or soil, from
which it appears to have been broken very recently. Current South, 20
miles daily for the last three days." (1855.) Eastward of Cape Verdes,
" Quantities of fish spaivn on the surface of the sea, of a brown colour."
(I860.) In 20° N. 34° W., "The sea is covered with a yellow substance,
apparently like dust. Cannot see its extent North and South. It is about
7 or 8 miles S.W. and N.E. Many dolphins and a few flying fish seen.
Wind S.S.E., force 2.

Gulf weed. — Numerous instances of gulf weed observations are recorded,
especially between 30° and 40° W- and 18= to 20° N. It was also observed,
less frequently, between 15° and 18° N. and 20° to 30° W. In July (1 obs.)
and November (1 obs.) in 12° N. 25° W. In January (1 obs.) and April
(1 obs.), 150 miles S.W. of Cape Verde, in which position it must have been
placed by the Noith African Current, as must also the following: — 8° N.
16° W. (1862), " A quantity of weed floating about; it proved to be fucus
nutans, covered with a green weed."

Between the Equator and 10° N. (squares 2, 3, and 4) all fish (and their
food\ excepting Bonitos and Flying Fish, were very much confined to the
part of the squares where the two trades meet.

March (1858). In 1° N. 20° W., " Passed patches of spawn? 8°N. 30° W.,
"Passed close to an immense turtle? 4° N. 20° W., " Patches of spawn,
having the appearance of white froth."* In 3° N. 24° W., " Caught a
number of small creatures of remarkable beauty in colour."

April. In the area of warmest water, about midway between St. Paul's
Rocks and Cape Verde, numerous reports of Medusae and jelly fish. In 4° N.
24° W., " The surface of the sea covered with a brownish dust, the specks
being from 1 -20th to l-30th of an inch long;" in 3° N. 20° W., "Much
fish spawn (?) in the last twenty-four hours." In 1° N. 21° W., "Water
very dirty, with substance like blanket hairs ; when looked at thi-ough a
microscope it appeared like fine seaweed, covered with coral excrescences;
also a kind of minute burr, which, when magnified, was star-shaped, the
radii being extremely fine.

May. Medusae were seen between 5 3 and 8° N. and about 19° to 22° W.
Animalcules, 3' N. 31° W., and in 5° N. 35° W. In square 3, numerous
observations of jelly fish, &c.

* The iloat of the lanthina presents the appearance alluded to in the above remark, as
its shell is not seen from a shiu's Ueck.

DISCOLOUEED WATER 811

June. In 6° N. 26° W., " Passed a long line of foam and brown matter,
about 2 ft. wide and at least 2 miles long, in which were many 'Portuguese
men-of-war.' " In this month numerous Mollushs were seen in square 3,
between 6° and 7° N., and a school of Blaehfish, perhaps feeding on them.

Tuly. In square 3, and in 6° N. 18° W., many luminous animalcules seen.
In 6° N. 17° W., midnight, 8th, to 4 a.m., 9th June, 1870, "Water
full of phosphorescence; drew a bucket, and found it full of bag-like
jelly-fish, each about the size of a man's thumb, and covered with
small points; from the end of each point the light seemed to be emitted, the
largest head or point being at the closed end of the bag, and about the size
and appearance of a large pearl. Preserved some in oil." In 2° N. 31° W.
(1858), " Passed patches of seaweed, of a light broivn colour."

August (1855.) In 3° N. 16° W., "Passed through great quantities of
animalcules, in layers, from 40 to 50 yards distant ; the water was luminous
all round." (1864.) In 1° N. 23° W., "Large quantities of Medusae seen
this afternoon; water exceedingly luminous after sunset." In square 3,
Medusae effulgens and other gelatinous creatures seen.

September. In 5° N. 18° W., " Numerous jelly fish floating about." In
lat. 3° to 6° N., long. 23° to 26° W., Sailed through a batch of " Portuguese
men-of-war ;" they were in a riftpling which extended in a line East and
West. No more than twenty or thirty were seen before or after. They
were unusually large, bright coloured, pink and blue. This was just after
we had sailed from South and S.W. winds into different weather, and just
after a heavy shower of rain (ship going North). In 3° N. 23° W.,
some Portuguese men-of-war, large and blue, with pink- edged sails. I
have never found them in the easterly currents hereabout, only in the
westerly." In 6° N. 28° W., " Water appears to be full of animalcules of
all sorts." In square 3, numerous notices of animalcules; and in 6° N.
24" W., " a quantity of yelloivish matter, resembling fish spawn."

November (1856 and 1860). In the parallel a little North of Sierra Leone,
vegetable matter (evidently from some of the rivers) was observed floating on
the water as far West as 19° W. ; seaweed was also seen (several large
pieces, 1863), in 7° N. 14° W. In square 3, birds, fish, and their food, seem
to have abounded between 4° and 5° N., where the easterly and westerly
currents meet.

December. In V N. 22° W., "several pieces of greenish seaweed." In
6° N. 21° W., noon, "Passed a large tree, evidently torn up by the roots.
It appeared about 40 ft. in length." In 3° N. 22° W., a large stream of
something like dirty oil or grease floating on the water. In 8° N. 27° W.,
"Numerous mollusks floating past, in shape and size like a mushroom."

Between the Equator and 10° S. (squares 301, 302, 303, see diagram, p. 466).
January (1858.) In 4° S., 31° W., a strong smell of seaweed, as on a sea-
beach, with plenty of weed at low water. In 6° S. 32° W., the captain says
the smell came from a substance on the water resembling oil. (1868.) In
5° S. 33° W., a captain remarks the curious circumstance, which, although
not directly referring to our subject, is still worth quoting. "From the
observations of many others, as well as from personal experience, I mention
that the birda in the vicinity of the Eocas and St. Paul's Eocks are invaria»

812 DISCOLOURED WATER.

Lly to the eastward of them, only stray ones to leeward." Off Pernambuco
(1857), "Passed over a large quantity of whale-dung."

March. In 4° S. 19° W., Medusae and animalcules reported. On the
Equator, in 20° W. (1860), " Passed a small piece of seaweed like sargasso."
In 9°S. 33° W., off Pernambuco, "Passed through a narrow belt of water,
having its surface covered with a thick deposit of vegetable matter.

April. Jelly fish and medusae have been seen (1866) in 1° S. 21° W. ;
(1868) in 2° S. 22° W. ; and (1857) in 3° S. 27° W. Off Pernambuco to the
S.E. (1866), " Water quite thick with the seed of seaweed (microscopical).

July. In 2° S. 15° W., Medusae (phosphorescent). In 5° N. 18° W., "A
great number of jelly fish floating about in large patches."

August. In 5° S. 29° W., many snake-like gelatinous creatures seen. In
10° S. 31° W., " Water full of animalcules." In 9° S. 34° W. (1860), " Much
seaicced about, leaf oblong, with prickly point like holly, yellow colour
berries upon it single, not in clusters. Little crabs and fish amongst it in
great abundance." A sketch is given in the log, which resembles Sargasso
weed) also sketches of the crabs, &c.

September. In 4° S. 15° W., "A mass of scum travelling with the wind,'
it had a brownish appearance." Similar colouring matter was noticed in
6° S. W W. over a quarter of a mile of the sea, in streaks, at 6hort distances
apart.

December. On the Equator, 20° W. (1860), "Passed through a long
streak of foam, extending N. W. and S.E. as far as the eye could reach."

DEPTH, TEMPER ATUEE, ETC., OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC

OCEAN.

Sounding. — It was formerly considered that the lower bed of ocean-water
was, from the pressure and weight of the incumbent masses, so dense as to
be rather of the nature of solid matter than the natural fluid. However, a
few facts will serve to dispel such a notion. The descent of the deep-sea
lead is quite as rapid at a depth when the upper weight must be enormous,
as at less distance from the surface, and no tendency to obstruct its down-
ward passage can be observed at the greatest depth yet attained, except
that which is due to the friction of the sounding-line. Again, the whale
fishers frequently find their prey to descend perpendicularly to such an enor-
mous depth, that the idea of an impenetrable density, or even of any consU
derable increase of it, cannot be for a moment entertained.

It is true that the pressure increases with the depth, to the amount of
15 lbs. upon the square inch for every 34 ft. in depth; but the density is not
thereby sensibly increased, owing to the incompressibility of water ; so that
neither the buoyant force, nor the resistance to the motion of any body, are
materially increased from the surface to the bottom. At the depth of 3,000
fathoms, for instance, the pressure upon a square inch is nearly 8,000 lbs.,
but the column of water of 18,000 ft. is only shortened about 160 ft.

DEEP SEA EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS. 813

At 2£ miles depth the increase of density is not equal to the difference in
the density between fresh and salt water. The late Dr. W. A. Miller cal-
culated it would be at that depth equal to one-forty-seventh of its volume,
while sea-water, at the mean specific gravity of 1-027, is one-thirty-seventh
heavier than fresh water. There is, therefore, not the slightest difficulty in
understanding that the sounding-lead or telegraph-cable should sink uni-
formly from the surface to the greatest depths, and not only such heavy
weights, but even that the delicate organisms and remains of microscopic
animals which have lived on the surface, may quietly sink to the bottom,
and there add to the immense deposits which are now shown to exist every-
where over the sea-bed.

Among the earliest experiments, perhaps the first, of these deep-sea
soundings, is that recorded by Captain (now General) Edward Sabine, who,
on November 13th, 1822, when about midway between the Caymans and
Cape Antonio, in the Caribbean Sea, sunk a cylinder and obtained the tem-
perature at a depth exceeding 1,000 fathoms. This was followed by Captain
Wauchope, in H.M.S. Hurt/dice, who gained water from a depth of about
1,300 fathoms. After that, Captain (afterward Admiral Sir Francis) Beau-
fort thought that he attained a depth nearly the same in the Strait of
Gibraltar ; but his sounding is shown to be fallacious.

After this many experiments were tried with more or less success, but
there can be little doubt but that many of the early results are not trust-
worthy, and are greatly in excess of the truth. At first it was not always
tried to recover the lead, and the line employed was of very inferior cha-
racter; and it was thought that at very great depths the friction of the
water on these great lengths was sufficient entirely to arrest the descent of
the weight.

On August 8th, 1848, Capt. Barnett, R.N., when between the Azores and
Newfoundland, tried a line of iron wire, varying in size from Nos. 1 to 5,
4,000 fathoms in length, wound on a small reel, the smallest part first, with
a weight attached of 61 lbs., but a hand-lead would have been better. It
broke at 2,000 fathoms, which ran out in 20' 53". This experiment was sug-
gested by Lieutenant Mooney.

But the greatest length of wire line sent down is that effected by Lieut.
J. C. Walsh, in the U.S. schooner Taney, on November 15th, 1849, to a
depth of more than 5,700 fathoms (34,200 ft., or more than 6 statute miles),
without finding bottom, as was supposed, in lat. 31° 59' N., long. 58° 43' W.
The wire broke at this length, 5,700 fathoms, at the reel, and was lost. It
preserved the exact plumb-line throughout the sounding ; there was a steady,
uniform increase of weight and tension ; no check whatever any instant of
its descent. This experiment, however, is of a negative character ; for it
is evident that the wire would be carried down and run out by its own
weight.

One of the earliest specimens of bottom obtained at great depths was by
Comm. C. H. Davis, U.S.N., in October, 1845, when greenish mud was
brought up in the Stellwagen cup from a depth of 1,350 fathoms in the Gulf
Stream.

The possibility of obtaining a knowledge of the great depth of the ocean
N. A. o. 5 m

814 DEPTH, TEMPERATURE, ETC., OF THE OCEAN.

being established, the Government of the United States first commenced
utilising this knowledge, on a more extended scale, by the expedition of the
brig Dolphin, in her well-known cruise, under the command of Lieutenant-
commanding Lee, U.S.N. The result of this voyage was the disproof of
many of those shoals and dangers which had long held a place on our charts,
to the continual annoyance and embarrassment of navigation. These have
been reciied in the previous pages. This cruise of the Dolphin was confined
to the North Atlantic, except a portion in South latitude about Fernando
Noronha, and the Rocas. The Dolphin was again sent out under the com-
mand of Lieut. 0. H. Berryman, with the same object.

The soundings taken in the Dolphin, most of which will be given pre-
sently, were taken with the thin sounding line, seven-hundredths of an inch
in diameter, and one or two 32 lb. shot. It has been questioned, and it
certainly seems with reason, whether the evidence upon which the deeper
soundings rest is quite valid, as has been before alluded to.

There are two methods of estimating the true depth obtained, the one by
the rate of descent of the line, which has been carefully estimated from the
numerous experiments made, but which estimate, of course, is liable to
the vitiating influence of under-currents. In sounding with a line of seven-
hundredths of an inch in diameter, the velocities of the descent diminish,
with one 32 lb. shot, from 8-83 feet per second at 50 fathoms, to 2-84 feet
at 1,000, and 2-09 ft. at 2,000 fathoms; and with two 32 lb. shot, from
12-5 feet per second at 50 fathoms, to 3-48 feet at 1,000, or 2-99 feet at
2,000 fathoms; but these figures have been much modified by later expe-
rience.

Another very important consideration is — what effect would under-cur-
rents have on the line in passing through it ?

It is certain that a current must act upon the light of the sounding line
after the weight has passed through it, and it may operate in swerving the
weight itself from its perpendicular descent at great depths. Again, the
force exerted by a current against the light of the sounding line will have
the effect of taking the twine off the reel at nearly double its own velocity.

From these considerations it was supposed that the depths stated, even
when it is certain that the bottom has been reached, are in excess, and this,
too, in an uncertain degree. But this source of error was much over esti-
mated. At that time there was no experience by which a knowledge would
be acquired as to the movements of the water at any considerable depth.
But it is now well ascertained that any movement which would greatly affect
the registered depth ceases at a comparatively short depth below the surface,
and that, although the lower strata of ocean waters must have some circula-
tory movement, this motion is so slow as to be inappreciable by any means
hitherto applied to estimate it on the open ocean. In laying the various
telegraph cables across the Atlantic the strain it exerts is most carefully and
continuously watched by its action on a dynamometer, and the angle it makes
with the surface of the sea also well looked at, and these evidences accord
so nearly with the calculations that would be made for water in a quiescent
Btate that it is now beyond controversy, that rapid motion is confined to the
upper strata.

DEEP SEA EXPLOEING EXPEDITIONS. 815

To obviate these sources of error or doubt, a line of fine sewing silk has
been proposed, but we have not heard of any trial with this.

Previous to the deep-sea soundings obtained during the cruise of H. M.S.
Challenger, the most important, and probably the most accurate, sound-
ings that had yet been taken, were those which originated in the question of
connecting Europe with America by the submarine electric telegraph. The
first of these series was obtained by Lieutenant-Commanding 0. H. Berry-
man, in the U.S. steamer Arctic, in August, 1856. The line of deep sea
soundings, 24 in number, being on the great circle joining Valentia, Ire-
land, with St. John's, Newfoundland. The depths were estimated by a
machine, Massey's Sounding Machine, and a similar one by M. Lecointre,
and the line was wound in by a small engine on the deck.

The same round was gone over with the same object, by Lieutenant-
Commanding James Dayman, E.N., in H.M.S. Cyclops, in June and July,
1857, and 34 soundings were obtained, the depths being estimated by the
length of line and by the machine as heretofore. The sinker employed was
self-detaching upon touching the bottom, and in a quill attached to the
support, bottom was brought up in almost every instance in small quantities.
The nature of this bottom is alluded to hereafter, and the very interesting
features it first brought to light are there related.

The first failure of the Atlantic Cable having suggested the necessity of
shorter sea sections of the cable, Commander Dayman was despatched in
H.M.S. Gorgon, in September and October, 1858, and obtained soundings
between Newfoundland, the Azores, and England, gaining much experience
as to the best methods of sounding, and also of estimating the depths.

Another project for the telegraph cable, to pursue a more northern route,
having arisen, in July, 1860, H.M.S. Bulldog started under the command of
Captain Sir Leopold M'Clintock, of Arctic celebrity, and obtained the depths
between the Fseroe Islands and Iceland, and thence to Greenland and
Labrador, with most satisfactory results.

The apparatus used in ascertaining the depth and obtaining specimens of
the bottom has been gradually modified to obviate the difficulties that have
been encountered. These chiefly refer to the means of detaching the sound-
ing weights and in the form of the apparatus which secures a portion of the
bottom when it is attained. At first a peculiar pair of clams or hooks, the
invention of Mr. Bonnici, were used. The weight or spherical shot was sus-
pended to these hooks, and when it touched the bottom these hooks detached
themselves and let the weight free. This in various forms was used in the
earlier experiments. But when the Bulldog was equipped, another description
of sinker and scoop were used.

The soundings were obtained generally by cod-line, with an iron sinker of
118 lbs., the line and sinker being lost at each sounding. The depth being
thus obtained, a machine for bringing up the bottom was next sent down by
a stronger line, and a self-detaching tubular weight or sinker of 100 lbs.
The apparatus which brought up specimens of the bott m was a double
scoop, 5 inches in diameter, kept open so long as the weight is dependent on
it, but forcibly closed by means of a vulcanised india-rubber band the
moment it is detached by touching the bottom. This brought up specimens

816 DEPTH, TEMPEEATUEE, ETC., OF THE OCEAN.

in large quantities. It was contrived by Dr. Wallich and Mr. Steil, the
assibtant engineer, and has been called the Bulldog Machine.*

The subject of the Atlantic Telegraph being still of great importance, and
it being desirable that the apparent sudden dip from 550 to 1,750 fathoms
on the parallel of 52 u 15' N., at about 170 miles West of Valentia found by
Captain Dayman in 1857, should be avoided, H.M.S. Porcupine was despatched
in June, 1862, to make a further examination. Mr. Hoskyn, E.N., has
made a very careful examination of the edge of the bank of soundings
between the parallels of 51° and 54°, as well as of that between Iceland and
Eockall. It will be needless to recapitulate this work — the charts are by far
the best guide ; but it may be said that no such sudden dip or abrupt preci-
pice was found, the steepest incline being a difference of level of 3,060 ft. in
2 J miles, or about 19 it. in 100 ft.

One important result of this expedition was the discovery of the unsus-
pected bank, least depth found S2 fathoms, which lies 120 miles West of
Galway Bay, and has been named the Porcupine Bank. This bank is about
40 miles in extent, with 150 to 180 fathoms to the eastward of it, while to
the westward it deepens rapidly to 300, 500, and 1,500 fathoms.

Several other expeditions were afterwards organised with a view to
obtaining an exact knowledge of the nature of the sea-bed and of the depth
of the ocean. The voyage of H.M.S. Hydra, Capt. P. E. Shortland, E.N.,
and that of the Lightning,] in 1868, under Dr. Carpenter and Dr. Wyville
Thompson, may be cited as the most prominent.

In 1869, H.M.S. Porcupine was sent out to continue these interesting
researches, and under the masterly seamanship of her Commander Captain
Calver, E.N., the apparatus used was brought much more nearly to
perfection.

As it was considered advisable by Capt. Calver that provision should be
made for carrying on sounding and dredging at either end of the ship, a
" derrick" with an " accumulator "J was rigged out both at the bow and the
stern.

An ample supply of sounding-line was provided, specially manufactured
for the purpose ; this line, made of the best Italian hemp, although no nioro
than - 8 inch in circumference, bears a strain of 12 cwt.

* Ths full particulars of this machine, and of the whole subject of deep-sea sounding,
is to be found in Dr. "Wallich's excellent work on the Atlantic Sea Bed.

f Dr. Carpenter says H.M.S. Lightning has a fuither historical interest, as one of the
first two steam-vessels built in 1825 for the Royal Navy.

+ The accumulator is composed of a number of strong vulcanized india-rubber springs
combined at their extremitias ; and its use is two-fold,—; first, to indicate by its elongation
any excessive strain upon the sounding or dredging line, which passes through the block;
and second, to ease off the suddenness of such strain, and give time for the action by which
it may be relieved. This is specially valuable in deep-sea sounding and dredging when
the vessel is pitching ; for the friction of two or three miles of immersed line is so great as
to prevent its yielding to any sudden jerk, such as that given to its attached extremity by
a vertical motion of a few feet when the vessel rises to a sea. And it is absolutely needful
when dredging ia carried on from a vessel as large as the Porcupine ; since, whenever the
dredge fouls, the momentum of such a vessel, however slowly it might be moving through
the water, would cause the dredge-line to part, if the strain were suddm instead of gradual.

DEEP SEA EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS. 817

For the deeper soundings, the Hydra Apparatus was employed. The
essential principle of this is the same with that of all the other forms of
deep-sea sounding apparatus now in use; the weights or sinkers being so
attached as to be let go by a mechanical contrivance when it touches the
bottom, so that the line is relieved from the duty of raising them to the
surface, — the rod or tube alone, with the water-bottle and thermometers,
being brought up by it. For soundings at depths of from 1,000 to 1,500
fathoms, two sinkers, each of 112 lbs., were employed; and for yet deeper
soundings three were used. The peculiarity of the Hydra Apparatus consists
partly in the mechanical contrivance for the detachment of the sinkers ; and
partly in the construction of the red which carries them, this being a strong
tube furnished with valves that open upwards, so as to allow the water to
stream through it freely in its descent, whilst they enclose the mud or sand
into which the tube is forced on striking the bottom before the sinker is
detached.

The important results of this expedition in the seas N.W. of the British
Isles will be briefly alluded to presently, but the topic is too wide for full
notice here.*

The most extensive deep-sea exploring expedition was conducted on
board H.M.S. Challenger, between December, 1872, and May, 1876, a period
of three years and five months, three years of which time was spent between
40° N. and 40° S. of the equator. Elaborate investigations were made in
each of the great oceans of the globe, and it may be interesting to record
that during this lengthened voyage the ship sailed and steamed over up-
wards of 68,000 miles, that nearly 400 deep soundings were taken, of which
two were over 4,000 fathoms, nine between 3,000 and 4,000 fathoms, 168
between 2,000 and 3,000, 124 between 1,000 and 2,000, the remainder being
under 1,000 fathoms. There were 360 observing stations established, at
each of which, as far as circumstances would permit, the exact depth was
determined ; samples of the bottom from 1 oz. to 1 lb. were obtained ; samples
of water from the bottom and from various depths were procured for physical
and chemical examination ; the bottom and intermediate temperatures were
determined ; at most stations a fair sample of the bottom fauna, and of that
of intermediate depths was obtained by the dredge or trawl variously ad-
justed ; atmospheric and meteorological observations were made ; the direc-
tion and rate of the surface (and in one or two cases of sub-surface) currents
were determined. For deep-sea sounding a modification of the Hydra machine
was used, the invention of Lieut. O.W. Baillie, R.N. ; many improvements
in the means of obtaining water for analysis from great depths were also
brought into use, including the " slip water bottle " and Buchanan's " Stop-
cock water bottle " (named after J. Y. Buchanan, M.A., the chemist
of the scientific staff). Some results of the expedition will be given
hereafter relating to the North Atlantic, in which 1 30 soundings were taken
and other observations made (Dec. 30th, 1872, to Aug. 30th, 1873), between
Portsmouth and Tenerife, Tenerife and St. Thomas in the Caribbees, St.
Thomas and Bermudas, Bermudas and Halifax, having crossed the Gulf

* See Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xviii., No. 181, for a full report of the
voyage.

818 DEPTH, TEMPERATURE, ETC., OF THE OCEAN.

Stream in a north-westerly direction, Halifax and Bermudas, Bermudas and
Madeira, Madeira and Bahia, crossing the eastern portion of the Guinea
current in a Southerly direction. On the return voyage in 1876, crossing the
Equator in about 14° 25' W., on April 7th, Spithead was reached on 24th
of May. The work of Sir Wyville Thomson* will supply further par-
ticulars.

Depth. — For a comprehensive view of this subject we must refer the reader
to the illustrative diagram, as a verbal account of the depths obtained in
these and other voyages would convey but little intelligible information.

The form of the sea-bed of the Atlantic Ocean (North and South) is
thus described by Sir Wyville Thomson :f —

" Combining our own observations with reliable data which have been
previously or subsequently acquired, we find that the mean depth of the
Atlantic is a little over 2,000 fathoms. An elevated ridge, rising to an
average height of about 1,900 fathoms below the surface, traverses the
basins of the North and South Atlantic in a meridional direction from Cape
Farewell, probably as far South at least as Gough Island, following roughly
the outlines of the coasts of the Old and New Worlds.

A branch of this elevation strikes off to the south-westward about the
parallel of 10° N., and connects it with the coast of South America at Cape
Orange, and another branch crosses the eastern trough, joining the conti-
nent of Africa probably about the parallel of 25° S. The Atlantic Ocean is
thus divided by the axial ridge and its branches into three basins : an eastern,
which extends from the West of Ireland nearly to the Cape of Good Hope,
with an average depth along the middle line of 2,500 fathoms; a north-
western basin, occupying the great eastern bight of the American conti-
nent, with an average depth of 3,000 fathoms; and a gulf running up the
coast of South America as far as Cape Orange, and open to the southward,
with a mean depth of 3,000 fathoms."

Of course the question does not affect navigation, however interesting it
may be to the physical geographer, and therefore we give the principal re-
sults of the earlier soundings in a tabular form, premising that many of them
are now open to much doubt, since more improved methods of obtaining the
depth have shown some formerly unsuspected fallacies. Still they cannot
be cast on one side, and therefore they are here repeated.

* Voyage of the Challenger. — The Atlantic. — 2 vols. Macmillan, 1877.
t Voyage of the Challenger, vol. ii., pp. 200 — 291;

( 819 )
SOUNDINGS.

BETWEEN LATITUDES 40° AND 50° N.

Lat. N.

Long. W.

Depth.

Lat. N.

Long. W.

Depth.

o /

Fathoms.

47 i2

2525 a

45 58

29 35

1900 d

46 42

13 5

• 1500 b

49 59

17 35

2700 ..

46 12

13 3

1800 ..

49 57

13 16

1580 ..

40 24

25 25

1200 c

47 38

9 »

1800 ..

41 4

24 31

2000 ..

46 32 •

12 42

2190 ..

4i 50

23 4°

1900 ..

44 5

13 29

2560 ..

42 16

22 32

1885 ..

42 7

15 29

2500 ..

43 17

21 20

1800 ..

40 20

17 48

2650 ..

44 5

2100 ..

42 10

42 4

1850 ..

44 34

18 47

2374 ..

4 6 53

37 46

2000 ..

45 "

17 26

2100 ..

48 16

35 22

2100 ..

45 53

16 7

2300 ..

49 53

3 1 34

1900 ..

4 6 33

14 39

2405 ..

43 10

46 56

2760 e

47 6

12 57

2350 ..

42 24

43 19

2725 ..

47 48

11 12

2275 ..

42 7

41 28

• 3000 ..

46 48

21 42

2165 d

40 10

35 2

2775 ..

44 4 2

24 35

1500 ..

4° 34

58 30

2750 d

44 43

24 35

1370 ..

4i 7

54 37

2710 ..

43 47

24 24

1850 ..

41 43

51 3i

3130 ..

45 7

26 8

1500 ..

42 22

1650 ..

46 26

26 55

1400 ..

41 9

43 4°

1975 ..

45 i3

27 38

1320 ..

40 50

64 44

2200 ..

42 44

28 20

1210 ..

41 12

62 38

2200 ..

40 49

1080 ..

41 4°

59 23

2600 ..

40 48

30 2

830 ..

41 4°

56 1

2595 ..

4° 35

31 56

1230 ..

40 36

54 18

3450 ..

42 40

31 11

1680 ..

41 7

49 23

4580 ..

44 52

3° 38

1560 ..

43 4°

42 55

2700 ..

46 15

3° 4

1760 ..

44 41

40 16

1800 ..

BETWEEN LATITUDES 30° AND 40° N.

3.3 «

16 10

• 2950 d

39 4°

33 34

1925

34 18

16 45

2298 ..

39 12

32 32

1075 ..

3 6 59

19 58

2500 ..

38 54

31 2

925 ..

3 6 49

19 54

2750 ..

38 33

29 33

960 ..

30 49

27 25

• 1100 ..

38 23

28 50

409 ..

3° 49

27 25

• 2200 ..

38 51

28 27

766 ..

39 i4

19 1

2820 ..

39 i7

27 46

805 ..

34 23

20 57

2150 ..

39 4i

26 37

1425 ..

31 46

22 3

2850 ..

38 54

33 3°

1500 d

37 5°

32 7

2000 e

3i 17

33 8

2400 ..

27 20

• 4000 ..

39 3 6

41 6

2675 ..

35 6

26 50

• 4000 ..

33 35

38 32

1800 /

• No Bottom.

a Soundings taken by Commander Dayman, in H.M.S. Cyclops.

Captain Pullen, in H.M.S. Cyclops, 1858.
,, Commander Dayman, in H.M.S. Gorgon, 1858.
„ Lieutenant O. H. Berryman, U.S. brig Dolphin.
taken in U.S.S. Jamestown.
„ U.S.S. Susquehanna.

( 820 )
BETWEEN LATITUDES 30° AND 40° N,— {Continued.)

BETWEEN LATITUDES 20° AND 30° N.

LAT. N.

Long. W.

Depth.

Lat. N.

Long. W.

Depth.

Fathoms.

• ,

Fathoms.

36 16

4 6 5*

• 5070 g

32 46

59 56

• 800 ..

34 11

43 21

2800 h

32 10

59 9

O 300 .,

38 i5

45 33

2000 e

31 17

53 22

• 500 ..

38 50

43 49

1600?

38 38

66 31

• 1625 k •

31 16

43 28

2080 d

33 34

61 38

• 1950 ..

32 1

44 2i

2250 ..

30 5

58 52

• 1000 ..

32 29

47 2

• 1950 ..

37 24

68 52

2920 d

32 55

47 58

• 6600 ..

38 3

67 1 4

• 4920 ..

33 3

48 36

3550 ..

3 6 43

O 1500 s

3 2 47

3250 ..

36 33

• 1900 ..

33 5°

52 34

2600 i

37 6

68 2

2000 ..

32 6

44 47

5500?..

38 13

62 32

3700 ..

31 »

44 3i

2300 ..

39 39

70 30

• 1000 (I

35 7

25 43

1040 ..

3° 38

70 10

• 600 J

37 28

56 22

5000? A

33 3

72 14

• 345 ..

37 26

65 48

• 1175 j

34 2

73 6

• 700 ..

35 52

65 56

• 1000 ..

3 6 4

73 59

• 1460 ..

18 32

49 48

2370 ..

29 12

22 50

2810 d

21 26

5 1 3i

2300 ..

23 58

24 20

2700 ..

22 27

53 *5

2390 ..

21 6

24 38 ■

2625 ..

21 45

55 46

2800 ..

27 30

2000 I

12 9

55 '7

2435 n

4 16

21 42

2700 ..

20 51

58 26

2800 d

2 20

28 44

1080 ..

20 2

61 2

2810 ..

27 5

21 21

1700 d

21 19

66 27

2960 .

27 2

30 48

2580 ..

23 42

67 37

2940 .

20 2

3i 6

2560 ..

29 26

56 42

1480 .

21 48

32 3 6

7020?..

28 20

59 44

2900 .

20 29

34 18

2850 ..

28 4

61 44

3080 .

26 43

38 39

• 800 j

28 23

64 17

2518 .

25 30

37 44

1720 ..

26 49

66 54

2710 .

25 30

37 42

• 1560 ..

28 14

69 24

2950 .

25 4

3<5 13

• 1000 ..

20 12

59 39

• 1200 j

23 43

32 39

• 2180 ..

22 39

59 26

• 800 .

23 4i

32 39

• 2200 ..

23 1

59 2<5

• 358 .

23 15

32 24

• 2200 ..

23 3 6

59 25

• 600 .

21 19

38 10

4700 m

24 37

59 49

• 534 .

28 55

41 21

• 1880 d

25 11

• 520 .

29 14

35 49

2270 ..

25 45

60 7

• 556 .

21 6

42 9

2370 ..

26 32

60 7

3825 .

23 6

1760 ..

24 11

61 44

3450 .

21 18

46 14

1875 ..

24 27

62 55

• 450 .

• No Bottom.

d Soundings taken by Lieutenant O. II. Berryman, U.S. brig Dolphin.

9 »

in IT.S.S. St. Louis.

U.S.S. Plymouth.

John Adams.
bv Lieut Lee in U.S. brig Dolphin.

Capt. Piatt, U.S. Albany.
■ Captain Pullen, in H.M.S. Cyclopi.
in U.S.S. Portsmouth.

U.S.S. Steamer Saranae.

( 821 )
BETWEEN LATITUDES 20° AND 30= N.— {continued).

Lat. N.

Long. W.

Depth.

Lat. N.

Long. W.

Depth.

o >

(

Fathoms.

° .'

Fathoms.

24 28

63 3°

9 1000 J

27 10

I 6 59

1180 h

24 34

6 5 32

9 1000 ..

27 10

75 6

1806 ..

24 37

65 12

O 3560 ..

26 31

74 10

1590 ..

25 '4

66 57

• 2350 ..

26 28.

73 50

1773 ..

26 33

67 33

• 1000 ..

25 30

72 7

4100 ..

27 21

68 6

e 1000 ..

24 48

70 22

1893 ..

28 56

69 4

• 1000 ..

24 48

69 J9

3600 ?

27 19

77 18

690 k

22 42

2762 ..

BETWEEN THE EQUATOR AND 20* N.

18 41

O 2000 j

17 2

28 8

18 5 i

O 1900 ..

18 44

29 18

18 29

2680 ,.

18 49

3b 16

2 17

15 45

19 23

40 23

3 *

18 36

2725 ..

38 44

2 36

19 22

2780 ..

41 6

2 10

*9 57

2750 ..

1 7

42 58

2690 ..

1 7

43 44

8 43

20 52

2270 ..

44 5 2

7 17

20 7

2050 ..

45 1

1940 ..

1 10

44 '»

5 37

J 9 35

9 2019 ..

43 36

4 27

19 21

2540 ?

41 21

4 5

19 '5

2125 ?

7 58

47 5'

4 14

19 20

2670 ..

10 38

47 40

3 42

19 6

2760 ..

11 12

47 37

3 5i

19 6

2760 ..

48 58

18 39

25 24

1970 ..

15 56

49 34

18 19

25 5

1675 ..

15 52

49 34

18 11

23 48

1612 ..

1556

49 39

17 35

22 50

1370 ..

'5 6

5o 34

16 30

20 58

1941 ..

14 21

5i 24

16 34

20 47

1875 ..

13 28

52 26

» 6 59

21 38

1580 ..

12 47

52 58

15 24

2 1 47

1220 ..

11 47

53 49

15 9

22 29

1380 ..

12 20

54 49

15 8

22 57

1120 ..

'5 25

55 1

»5 3

23 13

790 ..

15 54

56 45

14 48

23 50

O 900 ..

16 43

58 6

13 1

22 59

• 580 ..

1 6 43

58 55

11 7

21 57

1160 ..

16 42

59 6

1120 ..

19 2

59 33

18 10

24 51

2080 d

19 41

6 5 7

2460 d

2520 ..

2820 ..

2580 .,

9 1000 J

2980 ..

9 1000 ..

• 2000 .,

e 1000 ..
e 1000 ..

9 500 ..

O 500 ..

640 ..

1970 ..
9 500 ..
9 1S55 ..
9 250 .,
9 500 ..
9 540 ..
9 500 ..
9 500 ..
9 564 ..
9 I960 ,.

2710 .„
o 1000 ..

2570 ..

3020 ..
9 1000 ..
9 345 ..
9 3200 ..
9 1000 ..

3300 ..

3875 I

9 Ko Bottom.

d Soundings taken by Lieutenant O. H. Berryman, U.S. brig Dolphin.
j n 11 by Lieutenant Lee, in U.S. brig Dolphin.

& » n ^y Captain Piatt, U.S. Albany.

I „ ,, by II.M.S. Challenger, March 26th, 1873. Deepest Sounding yc*

obtained in Atlantic.

N. A. O. 5 17

822 DEPTH, TEMPERATURE, ETC., OF THE OCEAN.

Temperature. —Up to the latter part of 1869, all enquiries into deep sea
temperatures appear to have been alike deceptive and unsatisfactory, as the
indications obtained, even by the most careful observers, and best of instru-
ments, were utterly at variance with any theory that could associate tem-
perature as a leading cause of the circulation of the waters of the ocean.
Thus, temperatures that reason would expect to find — say 30° Fahrenheit — at
great depths, were made to appear to be 42° or 43°, the disparity being less
as depth diminished.*

This was caused by the elasticity of the glass bulbs yielding to the pressure
of the water, though they recovered their normal condition on reaching the
surface, so that the effect of this pressure still remained unknown.

It may be said that about this time most of the leading Governments had
determined, if possible, to ascertain the real temperatures of the sea The
efforts of the American, Russian, and German Governments in this direction
are well known, whilst the authorities of our Hydrographic Office applied to
the Royal Society on the subject, and at their desire, towards the end of
1869, an hydraulic machine was constructed in which to test the effect of
pressure on the thermometers employed. A standard registering thermo-
meter, shielded in a stout glass cylinder, was therefore placed in the water
together with one of the deep sea thermometers, and the water was com-
pressed to an extent equal in pressure to about 3 miles of depth in the sea.
All previous suspicion of errors were now fully confirmed, as the pressure on
the bulb was found to cause an error of 12° to 13° Fahrenheit at this depth.

To remedy this defect, a glass shield was suggested by Dr. W. A. Miller,
then Vice-President of the Royal Society, as a protection to the bulb, and
from which the well-known Miller-Casella thermometer has been named. f

* Mr. Prestwich has collected these series of observations with a view to the geological
bearing of the subject, and they will form a valuable supplement to those collected since
1868. See " Tables of Temperatures of the Sea at Various Depths below the Surface, taken
between 1749 and 1868." Collated and reduced with notes and sections, by Joseph Prest-
wich, F.R.S., F.G-.S. (from the Proceedings of the Royal Society, No. 154, 1874.)

t The following, from the proceedings of the Royal Society, No. 113, 1869, will further
explain the interesting result : —

Self-Registering Thermometers adapted to Deep Sea Soundings. — "Several of
these thermometers have been prepared for the purpose with unusual care by Mr. Casella,
who has determined the conditions of strength in the spring and diameter of tube most
favourable to accuracy. He has also himself had an hydraulic press constructed expressly
with the view of testing these instruments, By means of this press the experiments here-
after to be described were made,

" The expedient adopted (as suggested by Dr. Miller) for protecting tho thermometers
from the effects of pressure, consisted simply in enclosing the bulb of such a Six's thermo-
meter in a second or outer glass tube, which was fused upon the stem of the instrument in
the manner shown in the illustration on page 854. This outer tube was nearly filled
with alcohol, leaving a little space to allow of variation in bulk due to expansion. The
spirit was heated to displace part of tho air by means of its vapour, and the outer tube and
its contents were sealed hermetically.

" In this way, variations in oxternal pressure are prevented from affecting the bulb of tho
thermometer within, whilst changes of temperature in the surrounding medium are speedily
transmitted through the thin stratum of interposed alcohol.

" Notwithstanding tho great pressure to which these instruments had been subjected, all
of them, without exception, recovered their original scale-readings as soon as the pressure
was removed."

TEMPER ATUEE OF THE OCEAN. 823

More full details regarding this interesting question will bo found in the
writings of Dr. Carpenter.*

Surface Temperature.— Speaking roughly, the mean annual surface tem-
perature of the Atlantic, is about 75° Fahrenheit at the Equator (between
10° N. and 10° S.). Between 10° N. and 38° N. it is 70°. Northward of 38° N.
the Summer Isotherms (lines passing through places of equal mean tempera-
tures) of 54|°, 50°, and Ah\°, turn sharply northwards to the east of the
Banks of Newfoundland : diverging one from another and from the summer
Isotherms of 60° at intervals which are pretty nearly equal almost as far to
the East as the meridian of 30° W. ; but then again trending strongly to
the North, so that the summer Isotherm of 54£° crosses the parallel of 60° N.
before (by a slight trend to the South) it passes through the Pentland Firth.
Thence, crossing the North Sea, this Isotherm passes along the coast
of Norway as far as Tromso (very near the parallel of 70°), and then
turns southwards along the land, keeping within the coast-line of Russian
Lapland, and passing across the narrow throat of the White Sea. Still
further North we find the summer Isotherms of 41° and 36 J° showing a
nearly W. to E. direction until they have passed the meridian of 10° W.,
and then suddenly turning northwards ; the line of 36£° passing up to the
West of Spitzbergen as far as 82° N., and also extending itself irregularly
eastwards along the parallel of 75° as far as Nova Sembla.

The course of the Winter Isotherms of 45£°, 41, 36J, and 32°, as shown
in Dr. Petermann's chart, is no less significant ; for they all turn sharply to
the North on the eastern side of the Banks of Newfoundland, cross the
entrance of Baffin's Bay, and then keep a course of general parallelism to
the coast of Greenland, crossing the meridian of 30° W. at almost equal
intervals. The Winter Isotherm of 45 J° follows almost exactly the course of
the Summer Isotherm of 54£° as far as the Shetland Islands ; but it then,
turns back on itself so as to form a loop, passing southwards along the
Western Hebrides towards Belfast. Finally, the Winter Isotherm of 32°
proceeds along a similar course from the Bank of Newfoundland to the
northernmost point of Iceland, and then onwards towards Jan Mayen,
beyond which it has not been traced.

In the above, it will be remarked that the surface temperature North of
40° N. is much greater on the eastern than on the western side of the
Atlantic, both in summer and winter ; this is due in a great measure to the
prevalent south-westerly winds, blowing the warmer water in a north-
easterly direction, and also, as will be hereafter explained, to the general
oceanic circulation,

It is beyond the scope of this work to enter more into detail as to the

In sea-water of specific gravity 1.027, the pressure in descending increases at the rate of
280 lbs. upon the square inch for every 100 fathoms, or exactly one ton for every 800
fathoms.

* " Further Enquiries on Oceanic Circulation." By William B. Carpenter, M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S., &c, &c— (Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xviii., No. iv., 1874).

" On the Temperature of the Deep-Sea Bottom, and the Conditions by which it is Deter-
mined." By Dr. Carpenter, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., &c. — (Proceedings of the Royal
Geographical Society, vol. xxi., No. iv., 1877).

824 DEPTII, TEMPERATXJEE, ETC., OP THE OCEAN.

power of the various surface currents is distributing heat over the ocean ;
but that this heated water does not extend to any great depth will be
understood from the following remarks on sub-surface temperatures. We
must also refer the reader to the earlier portion of this book, where in
the description of the Currents, some particulars of the depth to which their
warm water extends is generally given.

Subsurface Temperature. — Taking a general view or mean for the year
of the water in Mid-Atlantic, in a section taken nearly North and South
wo find the temperatures as follows : —

Temperature Section {North and South) of Mid- Atlantic in deg. Fahrenheit.

«5

CO
C3

60
50
49
48
45
40

800
fms.

57
56
63
50
46
38
37

1500
fms.

63
62
55
51

47
38
36

2000
fms.

70
65
64
52
45
37
36
35

2700
fms.

70
70
69
55
44
38
35
35

2700
fms.

75
75
70
48
39
38
34
32

2500
fms.

70
69
65
45
38
36
33
33

2200
fms.

100 „

500

33
2200

fms.

It may now be confidently stated as a general fact (1) that over not
only the Temperate but also the Intertropical portions of the oceanic
area, a bottom-temperature prevails of between 32° and 35°.5 Fahr. ;
whilst within the Polar areas this temperature falls to 28°. Further, it may
be asserted (2) that this vast oceanic basin, whose average depth may be
estimated at about two miles and a half, is occupied to within 400 fathoms
of its surface (save in the exceptional case iu the Gulf Stream region), by
water whose temperature is below 40 1 Fahr., — this cold water actually
coming up nearer to the surface in the Equatorial Atlantic*(as several of the
older observers had noticed) than it does beneath the Tropics.

Were the bottom of the Atlantic a perfect basin, the bottom tempera-
tures might hold good across its whole breadth, but, as described in page
818, and shown in the diagram, the Atlantic sea-bed is divided by ridges
into several baeins. Now, it has been found that, however deep a basin or
depression of the sea-bed may be, yet that the temperature of its water at
the bottom will not be less than that which can pass across its ridge, from
outside sources. This was observed by Captain Chimmo in the Sulu Sea,
a striking example, where at and below a depth of about 300 fathoms (the
depth of the enclosing barrier) to the bottom, at 1,778 fathoms, the tempera-
ture remained uniform at about 50° Fahr., whereas in the China Sea the
flow from the polar to the equatorial regions of cold water reduced the tem-
perature, at a depth of 416 fathoms, to 41°, and at the bottom (1,546
fathoms to 37° Fahr.) 13" Fahr. less temperature than at the deeper station
of tho Sulu Sea. The same system holds good in such large areas of

TEMPERATUEE OF THE OCEAN. 825

depressed sea-bed as those in the North Atlantic, and it has been found that
the bottom temperature is never below 35.3° Fahr. in the eastern basin,
however deep the water may be ; nor below 34.6° Fahr. in the north-
western. The only place on the Atlantic sea-bed where the water has been
found below 32° (freezing point of fresh water) in the Temperate or Tropical
regions, is in the depression between the coast of South America and
the central ridge to the South of the Equator. In conclusion, it may be
remarked, that these deep-sea temperature soundings have been of great
practical utility to telegraph engineers in regulating the size of the wire,
&c, in deep-sea cables, and they will be alluded to presently as affecting
the question of Circulation.

Saltness and Density. — A very interesting essay on the first of these
topics was laid before the Eoyal Society in 1865, by Professor Georgo
Forchhammer, of the University, and Director of the Polytechnic Institute,
at Copenhagen.* "We can only make a few extracts from it.

" The elements which occur in the greatest quantity in sea- water have
been long known, and chlorine, sulphuric acid, soda, magnesia, and lime,
have, for more than a century past, been considered as its essential parts.
In our century, iodine, bromine, potash, silica, phosphoric acid, and iron,
have been discovered in sea-water, and the latest enquiries, my own included,
have brought the number of elements occurring in sea-water up to twenty-
seven.

" They are : 1, oxygen ; 2, hydrogen; 3, chlorine; 4, bromine; 5, iodine;
C, fluorine; 7, sulphur; 8, phosphorus; 9, nitrogen; 10, carbon; 11, sili-
cium; 12, boron; 13, silver; 14, copper; 15, lead; 16, zinc; 17, cobalt;
18, nickle; 19, iron; 20, manganese ; 21, aluminium; 22, magnesium; 23,
calcium; 24, strontium; 25, baryta; 26, sodium; 27, potassium.

"The next question to be considered refers to the proportion between all
the salts together and the water ; or, to express it in one word, I may allow
myself to call it the salinity of the sea-water, and in connection with this
salinity or strength, the proportion of the different solid constituent parts
among themselves. On comparing the older chemical analyses of sea-water
we should be led to suppose that the water in the different seas had, besides
its salinity, its own peculiar character expressed by the different proportions
of its most prevalent acids and bases, but the following researches will show
that this difference is very trifling in the ocean, and has a more [decided
character only near the shores, in the bays of the sea, and at the mouth of
great rivers, wherever the influence of the land is prevailing.

I have always calculated the single substances and the whole quantity of
salt for 1,000 parts of sea-water ; but besides this I have calculated the pro-
portion between the different substances determined, referred to chlorine
zz 100, and of all the salts likewise referred to chlorine. This last number
is found, if we divide the sum of all the salts found in 1,000 parts of any
sea-water, by the quantity of chlorine found in it, and I call it the co-
efficient of that sample of sea-water. The following remarks will show that
there is a very small difference in tho co-efficient of the different parts of

* On the Composition of Sea-water on different parts of the Ocean. — "Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society ol London," 1S65, part 1, pp. 203 ci uq.

826

DEPTH, TEMPERATURE, ETC., OF THE OCEAN.

the ocean, but that the differences become striking in the neighbourhood of
the shores.

Without pursuing the subject into the details given by Professor For-
chammer, we extract the following as the general results of his investiga-
tions : —

If we excepth the North Sea, the Kattegat, Sound, and Baltic, the Medi-
terranean and Black Seas, the Caribbean and the Red Seas, which have all
the characters of bays of the great ocean, the mean numbers are the fol-
lowing : —

Sea water.

1.000
Equivalents

Chlorine.

18.999
100.
429.

Sulphuric acid.

2.258
11.88
45.

Lime.

0.556
2.93
16.

Magnesia.

2.096
11.03
82.

All salts.
34.404

Co-efficient.
1.812

Thus it is evident that sea-water in its totality is as little a chemical com-
pound as the atmospheric air ; that it is composed of solutions of different
chemical compounds ; that it is neutral, because it everywhere in the atmos-
phere finds carbonic acid to neutralize its bases, and everywhere on its
bottom and shores finds carbonate of lime to neutralize any prevailing strong
acid; that, lastly, the great stability of its composition depends upon its
enormous mass and its constant motion, which occasions that any local varia-
tion is evanescent compared to the whole quantity of salt.

If we take the mean numbers for the five regions of the Atlantic between
the southernmost point of Greenland and that of South America, we find
the mean quantity of salt for the whole Atlantic 35.833, while the sea be-
tween Africa and the East Indies has only 33.850 ; the sea between the East
Indies and the Aleutic Islands, 33,569; and the South Sea, between the
Aleutic Islands and the Society Islands, 35,219 per 1,000 salt. The Atlantic
is thus that part of the ocean which contains the greatest proportion of salt,
which result is rather surprising if we consider the vast quantity of fresh
water which the rivers of Africa, America, and Europe pour in : of Africa
four-fifths are drained into the Atlantic either directly or through the Medi-
terranean ; it is most probably nine-tenths of America which is drained into
the Atlantic, since the Cordilleras run close to the western shore of the con-
tinent ; and of Europe, also, about nine-tenths of its surface sends its super-
fluous water to the Atlantic. This greater quantity of fresh water from
the land, and the greater quantities of salts in the corresponding sea, seem to
contradict each other, but can be explained by a higher temperature, and,
as the result of this higher temperature, a greater evaporation.

Some of the large bays of the ocean have in the tropical or sub-tropical
zone a greater mean than the Atlantic. Such are the Mediterranean, with
37.936 per 1,000 salt (mean of eleven observations); the Caribbean Sea,
with 36,104 per 1,000 (one observation); the Red Sea, 43,067 per 1,000
(mean of two but little differing observations), which is the greatest salinity
of the sea I know of.

In approaching the shores the sea-water becomes less rich in salts, a fact

SALTNESS AND DENSITY OF THE OCEAN. 827

which finds its explanation in the more or less great quantity of fresh water
which runs into the sea. On such shores, where only small rivers flow out,
the effect produced is but very trifling, as, for instance, on the western shores
of South America. The effect of large rivers in diluting the sea-water is
much greater than is generally supposed ; thus, the effect of the La Plata
River, whose mouth lies in about 30° of South latitude, was still observable
in a sample of sea-water taken at 50° 31' S. latitude, at a distance of 15° of
latitude, or 900 English miles from the mouth of the river ; at about the
same distance the water of the North Atlantic Sea suffered a considerable
depression in salinity, probably owing to the water of the St. Lawrence.
This influence is of a double kind, partly in diluting the sea-water, partly in
mixing it up with organic substances that will occasion its decomposition by
putrefaction.

As the result of the Challenger Expedition, we quote the following, by J. Y.
Buchanan, M.A. (the chemist of the expedition), from a paper read before
the Royal Geographical Society in 1877 : —

The source of saltness in sea-water is rock-substance, which has been dis-
integrated and decomposed by atmospheric influences.

The specific gravity"' of the water from the surface was determined (at a
temperature of 39' Fahrenheit) every day during the cruise when at sea,
and from the bottom and intermediate depths as often as opportunity
offered.

As far as the surface is concerned, the general results were as follows.
The concentration of the waters of the Atlantic is greater than that of either
the Pacific or the Southern Ocean, and it is greater in the North Atlantic
than in the South Atlantic, although the actual maximum may be slightly
higher in the South Atlantic. In the North Atlantic the maximum (1.0275)
was observed in 22" N. latitude, and 40° W. longitude, from which point it
diminishes in all directions. (On the South Coast of Iceland it was 1.0260.)

If we consider the water below the surface, as shown in the vertical sec-
tions, we find, in the Atlantic, that in the concentration-areas the specific
gravity diminishes until a minimum (1.0260) is reached at a depth of about
800 or 1,000 fathoms, after which it increases slightly down to the bottom.
In investigating the causes of the variations in specific gravity tn the ocean,
we find that they depend on the means available for removing or supplying
water. Thus the areas of greatest concentration coincide with those where
the dry trade-winds are constantly blowing, taking their rise in the lower
Temperate latitudes, and proceeding in their course always from colder to
warmer regions, so that, for the first part of their journey, at least, although
they are continually taking up moisture, their capacity for doing so is con-
tinually increasing. Hence the great concentration of the water in the
steady Trades of the Atlantic.

The observations make it probable that in the Atlantic the water from the

* According to Erman's elaborate investigations, the weight of salt in 1,000 parts of
water of different specific gravities is—

Specific gravity 1.025 1.02(5 1.027 1.028

Salts per 1,000 33.765 35.049 36,343 37.637

828 DEPTH, TEMPEEATUEE, ETC., OF THE OCEAN.

surface, down to a depth of 1,000 fathoms, has on the whole a flow inwards.,
or from South to North, and below that depth and down to the bottom it
appears to have an opposite flow, thus providing for the removal of the salt
which otherwise would accumulate in the North Atlantic. The Atlantic thus
presents on a larger scale what is observed in the Mediterranean, where the
mean drying power of the atmosphere is higher than even in the North
Atlantic. In the Pacific, owing to its form and general climate, these con-
ditions' are not so evident.

The Gulf Stream was very clearly indicated simply by the specific gravity,
or rather the edge of it, where the warm and dense water of the Gulf
Stream met what was called the "cold wall" of the Labrador Current.
The Equatorial Currents, also, were very marked, being fresh. The Agulhas
Current of South Africa showed similar variations in density.

Circulation. — That there is interchange between all the water in the
oceans is shown in (168), page 314. Of the means by which this interchange
is produced, numerous theories have been advanced, and it is only in recent
years that any really reliable data has existed to elucidate the subject. At
the present time, Physicists are pretty well agreed that the great cause of
the circulation of the water is its varying specific gravity. This specific
gravity, or density (see above), is regulated chiefly by temperature, but
also by the amount of salt contained in the water. Without going into
further details, the simple theory which recent investigations have strength-
ened is that a cold under flow of water is continually kept up from the polar
to the equatorial regions.* This theory Professor Lenz, of St. Petersburg,
advanced as an inevitable deduction from the facts ascertained by the remark-
able series of observations on the Temperature and Specific Gravity of
Oceanic Water at various depths, which he had made in the second voyage
of Kotzebue, during the yoars 1823-6. He drew from theso results the
very conclusions which now derive remarkable confirmation from the tem-
perature soundings and specific gravity observations of the Challenger, viz. :
1. The doctrine of a deep under-flow of glacial water from each Pole to the
Equator. 2. The ascent of polar water towards the surface under the
Equator, as evidenced by the rise of the bathymetrical isotherms, by the
keeping down of the surface temperature, and by the low (polar) salinity of
equatorial surface water. 3. The movement of the upper stratum ofoceanio
water from the equatorial region towards each Pole, as the necessary com-
plement of the deep polar under-flow. 4. The dependence of this double
movement upon the disturbance of hydrostatic equilibrium constantly niain-

* That tindtr-currents do actually exist is well-known. (See pp. 401-2.) H.M.S.
Challenger several times tested the rate and direction of the under-current by means of a
wooden framework, covered with canvas, lowered hy a rope to the depth at which the current
was to he tested ; the upper end of the rope being attached to a buoy which floated on the
surface ; and, after allowing for the effect of the surface-current, showed by its progress the
direction of the current at the depth where the framework was floating. This same process
was used by Dr. Carpenter in testing the flow of cold water from the Atlantic into tho
Mediterranean through the Straits of Gibraltar. It is, of course, possible that these under-
currents may in places be so near tho surface as to affect tho course of a ship deep in the
water.

CIRCULATION OF THE OCEAN. 829

tained by polar cold and equatorial heat. The opposition which has been
raised to this doctrine of a thermal circulation has mainly rested on one or
both of two pre-conceptions : — 1. The origination of all oceanic movements
in the surface- action of wind. 2. The sufficiency of the Gulf Stream to
produce that amelioration of the climate of north-western Europe.

"We conclude this portion of our subject with some remarks by Sir Wyville
Thomson :* —

" All the facts of temperature distribution in the Atlantic appear to favour
the view that the entire mass of Atlantic water is supplied by an indraught
from the Southern Sea, moving slowly northward, and interrupted at dif-
ferent heights by the continuous barriers which limit its different basins; but
this involves the remarkable phenomenon of a vast body of water constantly
flowing into a cul de sac from which there is no exit. When I suggested this
view some years ago, I was asked, very naturally, how it was possible that
more water could flow into the Atlantic than flowed out of it, and at that
time I could 6ee no answer to the question, although I felt sure that a solu-
tion must come some day. Now it seems simple enough ; but in order to
understand the conditions fully, I would ask my readers to recall the appear-
ance of the Atlantic, and of the Pacific also, which is under exactly the same
conditions. On the globe one sees much more clearly than on a map that the
Atlantic is a mere tongue as it were of the great ocean of the water hemi-
sphere stretching up into the land. The Arctic Ocean, with which it is in
connection, is again a very limited sea, and nearly land-locked. The North
Pacific is another gulf from this ' water-hemisphere,' but one vastly wider
and of greater extent ; while the South Pacific is included within the ' water
hemisphere.'

" Although from the meridional extension of the continents to the south-
ward, the water of the Atlantic is, as I have shown, directly continuous,
layer for layer, with the water of the Antarctic basin, it must be looked upon
not as being in connection with that basin only, but as being a portion of the
great ocean of the water hemisphere ; and over the central part of the water
hemisphere precipitation is certainly greatly in excess of evaporation, while
the reverse is the case in its extensions to the northward. The water is
therefore carried off by evaporation from the northern portions of the At-
lantic and of the Pacific, and this vapour is hurried down towards the great
zone of low barometric pressure in the southern hemisphere ; the heavy, cold
water welling up from the southward into the deepest parts of the north-
ward extending troughs to which it has free access, to replace it. It is
unfortunate that we have, as yet, scarcely sufficient data to estimate the
relative amount of rain and snow in the northern and southern hemispheres,
but the broad fact that there is very much more in the southern is so patent
as scarcely to require proof. This excess becomes still more apparent when
we include, as we must do, in this source of supply of water to the North,
the tropical region of the South Pacific, which forms part of the great
ocean."

* Voyage of the Challenger, vol. ii., pp. 324—326.
IT. A. O. 5

830 DEPTH, TEMPERATURE, ETC. OP THE OCEAN.

Animal Life in the deep sea is so intimately related to the tempera-
ture of the bottom, as obviously to be determined by that condition in a
much greater degree than by its depth. This was very strongly im-
pressed on Sir Wyville Thomson and myself in our early investigations.
For in the deep trough lying N.E. and S.W. between Shetland and the
Parce Islands, which, as having been our cruising ground in 1868, I have
ventured to call the "Lightning Channel," we found at corresponding
depths of between 500 and 600 fathoms, and sometimes within a few miles
of each other, two area3 whose temperatures differed by more than 13°
Fahr. ; the bottom temperature of the " warm area" being about 43°, whilst
that of the " cold area " was somewhat below 30°. The Paunce of these two
areas showed the most marked diversities. And I was thus led in my report
for 1869 to express my entire concurrence in the speculation thrown out
some years previously by Professor Loven, that "there exists* in the great
Atlantic depression, perhaps in all the abysses of our globe, and continued
from pole to pole, a fauna of the same general character, thriving under
severe conditions, and approaching the surface where none but such exists,
— in the coldest seas."* This expectation has been most remarkably con-
firmed by the Challenger researches ; one of the most important of the
general results of that expedition being the recognition of an abyssal Fauna
essentially the same over the whole oceanic area that is reached by the glacial
underflow, without any relation whatever to the terrestrial climate of the
locality, and scarcely showing any difference according to its Arctic or Ant-
arctic derivation. Thus we see that, even at the present time, the essential
conditions of a "glacial epoch" prevail upon the Deep Sea bed from each
Pole to the Equator ; so that the presence of Arctic types of animal life in
any marine deposit of temperate or even tropical zones, affords not the least
evidence, per se, of the former extension of glacial action over the land of
these localities. — Br. Carpenter.

" The most prominent and remarkable biological result of the most recent
investigations is the final establishment of the fact that the distribution of
living beings has no depth limit ; but that animals of all the marine inver-
tebrate classes, and probably fishes also, exist over the whole of the floor of
the ocean. My present impression is, that, although life is thus universally
extended, the number of species and of individuals diminishes after a certain
depth is reached, and that at the same time their size usually decreases.

"Using all precautions and with ample power and the most complete
appliances,! it is extremely difficult to work either with the Dredge or with

* "Proceedings of the Royal Society," Nov. 18, 1869, p. 475. The similarity of Ant-
arctic to Arctic forms of Marine life had, indeed, been previously noticed by Sir James
Ross ; and had been attributed by him to the prevalence of a " similar temperature " over
the whole intervening Sea bed. This temperature, however, he erroneously supposed to be
39-5° Fahr.

t In the examination of the Animal Life three forms of apparatus were used by H.M.S.
Challenger, 1. A dredge, consisting of a dredge bag attached to an iron frame 4|ft. long by
l£ ft, broad. To the bottom of the frame was attached a bar, bearing tangles of rope yarn
(the invention of Captain Calver) in order to entrap various animals while passing over the
bottom. The dredge bag usually came up from the bottom at great depths, full of mud
{globigerinae oaze, §c), but on one occasion a huge block of syenite was brought up in the

DUST IN THE ATLANTIC. 831

the Trawl at depths approaching or exceeding 3,000 fathoms. A single
dredging operation in such depths takes a long time ; the dredge is put over
at daybreak (the ship being kept as nearly as possible stationai'y), and it is
usually dark before it is recovered, so that the number of such operations
must be comparatively small. We must therefore bear in mind that only an
infinitesimally small portion of the floor of the ocean at depths over 2,500
fathoms has yet been explored.

" As we had previously anticipated, the fauna at great depths was found
to be remarkably uniform. Species nearly allied to those found in shallow
water of many familiar genera were taken in the deepest hauls, so that it
would seem that the enormous pressure, the utter darkness, and the differ-
ences in the chemical and physical conditions of the water, and in the pro*
portions of its contained gases depending upon such extreme conditions, do
not influence animal life to any great extent.

" The geographical extension of any animal species, whether on land or
in the sea, appears to depend mainly upon the maintenance of a tolerably
uniform temperature, and the presence of an adequate supply of suitable
food.

" There is every reason to believe that the fauna of deep water is confined
principally to two belts, one at and near the surface, and the other on and
near the bottom ; leaving an intermediate zone in which the larger animal
forms, vertibrate and invertibrate, are nearly or entirely absent." — Sir Wy~
ville Thomson. (Voyage of the Challenger, vol. ii.)

AN ACCOUNT OF THE FINE DUST WHICH OFTEN FALLS ON
VESSELS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.

By Charles Darwin, Esq., F.R.S., F.S.S.

Many scattered accounts have appeared concerning the dust which has
fallen in considerable quantities on vessels on the African side of the Atlantic
Ocean. It has appeared to me desirable to collect these accounts, more espe-
cially since Professor Ehrenberg's remarkable discovery that the dust consists
in considerable part, of Infusoria and Phytolitharia. I have found fifteen
distinct statements of dust having fallen ; and several of these refer to a

mouth of the dredge from a depth of 1,310 fathoms, about 1-50 miles southward of Cape
Sable in the North Atlantic. 2. The Deep-sea Trawl, a conical bag 30 ft. in length, weighted
at its bottom end, and suspended by one side of its mouth to abeam of wood; the other side
of the mouth, which drags along the sea-bottom, hangs loose, and in order that the bag may
keep open is weighted with some pieces of lead. The mouth of the Trawl-bag is fitted with
a netted funnel arrangement which prevents the escape of animals after their capture*
3. An ordinary trawl-net, kept open at its mouth by an iron ring, was dragged behind the
vessel at small depths. The accumulators (p. 816), to which the dredge ropes were attached
were slung from the mainyard arm of the Challenger, and the hauling in of the dredges
was effected by a donkey engine.

832 DUST IN THE ATLANTIC.

period of more than one day, and some to a considerably longer time.
Other less distinct accounts have also appeared. At the end of this paper
I will give the particular cases, and will here only refer to the more striking
ones, and make a few general remarks.

The phenomenon has been most frequently observed in the neighbour-
hood of the Cape Verde Archipelago. The most southern point at which
dust is recorded to have fallen is noticed by Captain Hayward,* on whose
vessel it fell whilst sailing from lat. 10° N. to 2° 56' N. ; the distance from
the nearest of the Cape Verde Islands being between 450 and 850 miles.
[Respecting the northern limit, the water for a great distance on both
sides of Cape Noon (in lat. 38° 45') is discoloured, owing in part, according
to Lieutenant Arlett.f to the quantities of falling dust. Hence the pheno-
menon has been observed ovor a space of at least 1,600 miles of latitude.
This dust has several times fallen on vessels when between 300 and 600
miles from the coast of Africa: it fell, in May, 1840, on the Princess
Louise J (in lat. 14° 21' N., long. 35° 24' W.) when 1,030 miles from Cape
Verde, the nearest point of the continent, and therefore halfway between
Cayenne in South America and the dry country North of the Senegal in
Africa.

On the 16th of January, 1833, when the Beagle was 10 miles off the N.W.
end of St. Jago, some very fine dust was found adhering to the under side
of the horizontal wind-vane at the mast-head ; it appeared to have been
filtered by the gauze from the air, as the ship lay inclined to the wind. The
wind had been for twenty-four hours previously E.N.E., and hence, from
the position of the ship, the dust probably came from the coast of Africa.
The atmosphere was so hazy, that the visible horizon was only I mile dis-
tant. During our stay of three weeks at St. Jago (to February 8th), the
wind was N.E., as is always the case during this time of the year; the at-
mosphere was often hazy, and very fine dust was almost constantly falling,
so that the astronomical instruments were roughened, and a little injured.
The dust collected on the Beagle was excessively fine-grained, and of a red-
dish-brown colour ; it does not effervesce with acids ; it easily fuses under
the blow-pipe into a black or grey bead.

In 1838, from the 7th to the 10th of March, whilst Lieut. James, in H.M.S.
Spey, was sailing, at the distance of from 330 to 380 miles from the conti-
nent, between lat. 21° 10' N., long. 22° 14' W., and lat. 17° 43' N., long.
25° 54' W., considerable quantities of dust fell on his vessel, four packets of
which, together with a written communication, I owe to the kindness of
Mr. Lyell. The dust which fell on the first day (or the 7th) was preceded
by a thick haze, and it is coarser than that which fell on the succeeding days.
It contains numerous irregular, transparent, variously-coloured particles of
stone about the l-100Cth of an inch square, with some few a little larger,
and much fine matter. The fact of particles of this size having been brought
at least 330 miles from the land is interesting, as bearing on the distribution
of the sporules of cryptogamic plants and the ovules of infusoria. The dust

* Nautical Magazine, 1839, p. 3G4. t Geographical Journal, vol. vii p. 29(3,

$ Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, Vol. xsxii, p. 134.

DUST IN THE ATLANTIC. 833

which fell on the three succeeding days resembles in appearance and in its
action under the blow-pipe, that collected by myself off St. Jago, and is so
excessively fine, that Lieut. James was obliged to collect it with a sponge
moistened with fresh water. As the wind continued nearly in the same di-
rection during tho four above-mentioned days, and the distance from the
land was only a little increased after the first day, it would appear probable
that the coarser dust was raised by a squall with which the breezes on this
coast so often begin blowing.

With respect to the direction of the wind during the falls of dust, in every
instance where recorded it has been between N.E. and S.E. ; generally be-
tween N.E. and E. In the case, however, given by the Eev. W. Clarke,*
a hazy wind which had blown for some time from E. and S.E., first fell calm,
and was succeeded for a few hours by a S.W. wind, and then returned
strongly to the East ; during this whole time dust fell. With respect to the
time of year, the falls have always occurred in the months of January,
February, March, and April ; but in the case of the Princess Louise in 1840,
as late as the 9th of May. In the one year of 1839, it has chanced that
dust has been recorded as having fallen in the Atlantic (as may be seen in
the references) on the 14th and 15th of January, and on the 2nd, 4th, 9th,
10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th of February. I may add, that Baron Eoussin,f
during his survey of the north-western African coast, found that, whilst the
wind keeps parallel to the shore, the haze and dust extend seaward only a
short distance ; but when during the above four specified months, the har-
rnattan blows from the N.E. and E.N.E., accompanied by tornadoes, the
dust is blown far out, and is raised on high, so that stars and all other ob-
jects within 30° of the horizon are hidden.

Another account is given by Mr. George Peacock, as having occurred on
board H.M.S. Winchester, in February, 1829 :— " Shortly after leaving
Teneriffe, when in about lat. 25° 30' N., and some 2.50 miles from the coast
of the Great Desert of Sahara, the weather became very hazy and sultry,
and one morning, at daylight, the lays of the lower rigging were observed
to be filled with fine, reddish-brown dust, and the decks, whilst being
washed, were in as muddy a state as the pavement of a street after a shower,
This hazy unpleasant weather continued all day, and quite obscured the
horizon ; rendering it difficult to observe even the crest of the waves beyond
a few cables' lengths, and the sun appeared as viewed through the red shade
glass of a sextant. Towards evening it grew worse, the wind became light,
and the haze was almost as dense as a London November fog, the air full of
fine red dust, which made it difficult to breathe. So thick was it that a
young man having fallen overboard, the boats which were lowered in search
of him could neither find him nor scarcely find the ship for some time after-
wards, and this though guns were fired."

From the several recorded accounts,:}: it appears that the quantity of dust

* Proceedings of the' Geographical Society, voh iv, p. lio>
t Nautical Magazine, 1838, p. 824.

% Nautical Magazine, 1837, p. 291 ; Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol, vii. p. 402
Howard Malcolm's Travels, vol. ii. p. 200.

834 1)UST IN THE ATLANTIC.

which falls on vessels in the open Atlantic is considerable, and that the
atmosphere is often rendered quite hazy ; but nearer to the African coast the
quantity is still more considerable. Vessels have several times run on shore
owing to the haziness of the air ; and Horsburgh * recommends all vessels,
for this reason, to avoid the passage between the Cape Vercle Archipelago
and the main land. Roussin, also, during his survey, was thus much im-
peded. Lieut. Arlett found the water so discoloured, f that the track left by
his ship was visible for a long time ; and he attributes this, in part, to the
fine sand blown from the deserts, " with which everything on board soon
becomes perfectly caked." J

Professor Ehrenberg has examined the dust collected by Lieut. James
and myself; and he finds that it is in considerable part composed ot Infu-
soria, including no less than sixty- seven different forms. These consist of
thirty-two species of silicious-shielded Polygastrica ; of thirty-four forms of
Phytolitharia, or the silicious tissues of plants ; and of one Pulythalamia.
The little packet of dust collected by myself would not have filled a quarter
of a teaspoon, yet it contains seventeen forms. Professor Ehrenberg remarks
that, as thirty-seven species are common to several of the packets, the dust
collected by myself, and on four successive days by Lieut. James, must cer-
tainly have come from the same quarter ; yet mine was brought by an
E.N.E. wind, and Lieut. James' by a S.E. and E.S.E. wind. The Infusoria
are all old known species, excepting one allied to a Hungarian fossil ; and
they are of fresh-water origin, with the exception of (Grammatophora oceanica
and Textilarea globulosa), which are certainly marine. Professor Ehrenberg
could not detect any of the soft parts of the Infusoria, as if they had been
quickly dried up, and hence it would appear that they must have been caught
up by the wind some time after having been dead. The greater number of
the species are of wide or mundane distribution ; four species are common
to Senegambia and South America, and two are peculiar to the latter coun-
try ; moreover, it is a very singular fact, that out of the many forms known
to Professor Ehrenberg as characteristic of Africa, and more especially of
the Sahara and Senegambia regions, none were found in the dust. From
these facts one might at first doubt whether the dust came from Africa ; but
considering that it has invariably fallen with the wind between N.E. and
S.E., that is, directly from the coast of Africa ; that the first commencement
of the haze has been seen to come on with these winds ; that coarser par-
ticles have first fallen ; that the dust and hazy atmosphere are more com-
mon near the African coast than farther in the Atlantic ; and, lastly, that
the months during which it falls coincide with those when the harmattan
blows from the continent, and when it is known that clouds of dust and
sand are raised by it, I think that there can be no doubt that the dust
which falls in the Atlantic does come from Africa. How to explain the
enigma of the absence of characteristic African forms and of the presence
of two species from South America, I will not pretend to conjecture. Fi-
nally, I may remark that the circumstance of such quantities of dust being

* HorsburgVs East India Directory, p. 11.

t In Tuckey's Narrative of the Congo Expedition, p. 10 s

% Nautical Magazine, 1847, p. 354,

ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 835

periodically blown, year after year, over so immense an area in the Atlantic
Ocean, is interesting, as showing by how apparently inefficient a cause a
widely-extended deposit may bo in process of formation ; and this deposit,
it appears from the researches of Professor Ehrenberg, will in chief part
consist of fresh-water Polygastrica and Phytolitharia.
This concludes Professor Darwin's remarks.

The following further information on this subject is derived from 59 ob-
servations of red dust recorded in the log-books examined at the Meteorolo-
gical Office, in the study of the region between 10° S. and 20° N. from 10°
to 40° W. Of these 59 observations only one occurs in square 38 ; 24 in
square 39, and 14 in square 40 ; 13 in the northern half of square 3, and 7
in the northern half of square 4 (see diagram, page 466). In the different
months the numbers are as follows : — January 12, February 5, March 6,
April 12, May 1, June 5, July 3, August 0, September 0, October 3, Novem-
ber 0, December 12.

The most westerly observations are— lat. 17° 30' N., long. 38° 30' W., 10.0
a.m., 13th April, 1859. Red dust still falling ; wind N.E. by E., force 4. Ship
from the southward. In lat. 14° 30' N., long. 37° 30' W., 10 a.m., 12th April,
1859. Eed dust still falling in large quantities; wind N.E. by E. force 4.
Ship from the southward. In lat. 12° 30' N., long. 38 °30' W., 4 p.m., 29th
December, 1865. Sails tinted with " cloud" dust ; wind E. by N., force 6.
Ship from the southward. At 6 a.m. the clouds were said to be tinted brick
dust colour. At noon, indications of "cloud" dust. The most southerly
observation is in lat. 4° 30' N., long. 24° 30' W., January 15th, 1866. Our
sails quite coloured red with African dust ; wind N.E. Ship from southward

Land-birds and insects have been frequently seen far out at sea; and in the
region we are now treating of, the ships' logs record many instances, by far
the most numerous naturally occurring between longitudes 20° W. and 30°
W., or in the tracks of vessels to the Equator. The latitude however points
to West Africa as the origin of these remarkable wanderers ; between 3° N.
and 10° N. (long. 20° to 30° W.) about 75 observations are recorded, while
between 3° N. and 10° S. only 9 reports. It would clear up many doubts,
if the species of the various strays was known ; doubtless many of the insects
were shipped in the caterpillar or chrysalis state, and emerged as perfect
insects during the voyage. Some of the land-birds too, no doubt, had escaped
from passing vessels.

IV.— ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

Concerning the history of the magnetic needle, we have many and vague
notices of its high antiquity. It is mentioned by Homer and Aristotle and
by many subsequent classical writers ; the first account we have of this is,
that it was known, in Europe, at the time of the crusades, in about a.d.
1150, and it is very probable that the knowledge was derived from the
Arabians, during those expeditions. But the Chinese were acquainted with
it many years before this. We are told by the Jesuit missionary, Du Halde,
that the Chinese Emperor, Hoang ti, possessed an instrument which pointed
to the South, so early as the year 2634 B.C., or 4,500 years ago ; the same

835 ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

author gives subsequent notices of the compass in China, proving its very
great antiquity among that people.

It has usually been considered that Columbus, in his voyage from Por-
tugal, on the discovery of America, first observed the Variation of the needle
from the true North. But it is not improbable that the Variation was dis-
covered nearly 200 years before Columbus made this change known, as it is
mentioned in one of the earliest treatises on magnetism by Peter Adsiger,
in 1269 ; the authenticity of this, however, is doubted by some. The won-
derful property of the Dip of the needle was first observed by our country-
man, Robert Norman, a maker of compasses, in 1576.

Magnetism is a principle which is evidently allied to, if it is not identical
with, electricity and galvanism. For, in the causing any or either of these
principles to become evident to our senses, we produce, at the same time, the
others ; and it may be here stated, that five apparently dissimilar effects are
inevitably caused in the production of either; these are — light, heat, chemical
action, electricitj', and magnetism. By the production of light we cause heat
and chemical affinity, and these will also produce electricity, and will cause
the magnetic needle to swerve from the meridian. By the electric fluid we
produce light, heat, and the other phenomena ; and the magnetic needle is
a measurer, by its deflections, of the most minute portions of galvanism.
From the magnet a spark can be produced, absolutely similar in appearance
and offect, to that of electricity and galvanism ; and there is a positive and
negative, or North and South, pole to the magnet, and these attract or repel
each other.

There is one phenomenon connected with these sciences of very great im-
portance in practice, and that is, that of induction ; a substance electrified
positively will induce a state of negative electricity, or will cause a body to be
negatively electrified, that is within its influence ; the North pole of a mag-
net will iduce an opposite pole in that of another piece of iron, in certain
positions with respect to the magnetic, meridian and itself. Thus, the iron
employed in the construction of a ship, or contained in its cargo, may all
become, by induction, temporary magnets, and have a most marked and im-
portant effect upon the compass by which it is steered ; and it is this cause
which is too frequently overlooked — that of the Local Deviation— which has
caused enormous errors in reckoning, and consequently the loss of many
vessels. As scientific detail is out of our province, we must refer the reader
to those works more expressly treating on the subject.

Terrestrial Magnetism. — The magnetism of the earth, by which the direc-
tion, the dip, and the intensity of the force of the magnetic needle is con-
trolled, is still involved in some obscurity, and no perfectly satisfactory
system or theory has hitherto been framed to account for the multifarious
changes and phenomena of the compass needle. Among the more modern
enquirers into the source of this most wonderful principle are Professor
Hansteen, Mr. Bain, Mr. Barlow, Mr. Christie, Sir Edward Sabine, Captain
Johnston, Mr. Archibald Smith, Capt. Evans, E.N., and many others. From
their labours we have arrived at a tolerably correct notion of the general
effects of magnetic phenomena ; and from these the laws by which they are
governed have, in some measure, been deduced.

Now the most reasonable supposition is, that the earth itself is a magnet.

ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 837

or that magnetic currents exist on its surface in certain directions, causing
the various deflexions of the needle ; whether this magnetism is induced from
the sun, or other source, or whether the earth is in a positive and perma-
nently magnetic state, does not affect the present question. From certain
changes in the compass, perhaps it might be inferred, that the magnetism is
induced by temperature (heat) from the sun ; or that the ferruginous portions
which enter so largely into the composition of the earth, have received an
inductive magnetism from the same source.

In 1863 Dr. Edmund Halley published a theory of magnetism, in which
occur the following ideas : — that the earth's magnetism was caused by four
piles or points of attraction, two of them near each pole of the equator; and
that in those parts of the world which lie nearly adjacent to any one of
those magnetic poles, the needle is governed thereby, the nearest pole being
always predominant over that more remote. This view of the earths's mag-
netism has been supported by the results of the labours of Professor Han-
steen, one of the chief promoters of the science. From his most valuable
work (Magnetismus der Erde, Christiania, 1817), his views maybe learned.
Having collected all the observations of value that had been made on the
Variation of the needle, ho proved that there were faur points of convergence
among the lines of Variation ; viz., a weaker and a stronger point, in tho
vicinity of each pole of tho globe. This, combined with the result of Sir
D. Brewster's inquiries, will certainly lead to the view of the connexion
between the heat of the earth and its magnetism. Professor Hansteen
considers that the strongest poles, N.S., lie almost diametrically opposite to
each other, and the same is true of the weaker poles n.s. These four poles
he found to have a regular motion obliquely; the two northern ones N.« M
from West to East, and the two southern ones S.s., from East to West.
The following he found to be their periods of revolution, and their positions
in 1830:—

Time of revolution round
Long, from Greenwich. each pole of the earth.
Pole N. 69° 30' N. 87° 19' W. 1,740 years.

Pole S. 68° 40' S. 131° 47' E. 4,609 —

Pole n. 85° 6' N. 141° 17' E. 860 —

Pole 3. 78° 29' S. 137' 45' W. 1,304 —

From calculations based upon subsequent observations he slightly varied
these positions and periods ; but he has shown very clearly that the changes
in the Variation and Dip of the needle, in both hemispheres, may be well
explained by their motion.

These four magnetic poles or points on the earth's surface, over which tho
dipping-needle would stand vertical, are separated by a magnetic equator,
which is not coincident with the earth's Equator, but is an irregular circle,
which crosses it in three points, according to M. Duperrey, or in four points,
according to M. Bio'i, and Professor Hansteen ; on this circle, of course, tho
dipping-needle stands horizontal.

Respecting the North Atlantic Ocean, we may here state that the magnetic
crosses the terrestrial Equator in about long. 20° E. (in the Bight of Biafra),
and proceeds westerly across tho Atlantic to the coast of Brasil, which it

N. A. O. 5 P

838 ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

touches in lat. 16° S. The line of equal Dip, at 70°, runs from the Bristol
Channel, curving S.W. and W., to about Charleston, U.S. ; between these
lines the lines of equal Dip (or Isoclinal lines) form regular divisions.

The mariners' compass, as generally used, exhibits the direction of the
magnetic meridian only ; but in treating of the magnetic needle, three points
are to be inquired into — these are, the Variation, or declination ; the Dip, or
inclination; and the intensity of the magnetic force ; and to the elucidation
of these the philosphers in all quarters of the globe are at present engaged.

The Declination, or Variation.— With this branch of the subject every sailor
is perfectly familiar, and any comment on its actual state is therefore un-
necessary. But this Variation is not constant. There are several elements
of change in this part of the magnetic force, for it undergoes secular, annual,
mensual, diurnal, and also irregular changes. The secular change is a pro-
gressive alteration observed in the direction of the magnetic needle during a
series of years. Thus, in 1576, Robert Norman found the compass at London
to point 11° 15' East of North ; in 1658, it pointed true North ; it was on the
increase in 1819, when it was 24° 41' West of North ; and since then it has
been retrograding, and in December, 1870, was 19° 20' 56".

The mensual change is according to the season of the year. It was first
noticed by Mr. Canton about the year 1756. It amounted, in January, to
7' 8"; in March, 11' 17"; in June, 13' 21"; in September, 11' 43"; and in
December, 6' 58". These are the diurnal changes, which vary in amount in
different parts of the year.

The diurnal change is thus given from the recent observations of Professor
Lloyd : — " The mean daily curve of the changes of Declination for the entire
year exhibits a small easterly movement of the North end of the magnet
during the morning hours, which reaches its maximum about 7 a.m. After
that hour the North end moves rapidly westward, and it reaches its extreme
westerly position at 1.10 p.m. It then returns to the eastward, but less
rapidly, the easterly deviation becoming a maximum about 10 p.m. ; the
mean daily range equals 9.3'."

The irregular changes or magnetic storms, as they have been termed, occur
without any previous notice, and are of very great extent ; some of them
almost throughout the globe. At times this deviation amounts to 2°.

The ascertained Variation of the compass in various parts of the Atlantio
are attached to Tables of Positions in the former part of this work, and are
also given on the Chart facing page 442.

The Dip, or Inclination. — The Dip of the needle, as we have already had
occasion to observe, is the angle which a well-balanced needle forms with
the horizon after it is rendered magnetic, and when it has the power of free
motion in the plane of the magnetic meridian. As before stated, this angle
varies in different parts of the globe, being at zero on the magnetic Equator,
and 90° on the magnetic poles. The Dip, like the Variation, undergoes a
continual change, increasing in some parts of the world and diminishing
in others. Thus at Paris, in 1761, it was 75°; in 1829, only 67° 41'. At
London, in 1576, it was 71° 50'; in 1837, it was 69° 20'; in 1861, it was
68° 25'. The Dip is a very important element in magnetic consideration,
and is too much overlooked by the sailor. The instruments for its measure-
ment, however, are expensive and delicate, and require great nicety in

ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

83<)

their management; for these reasons it is comparatively neglected ; but as
it is in some degree a measurement of the intensity of the magnetic force
and also greatly modifies the directive power of the compass, it is very im-
portant to the mariner. When the needle is perpendicular, as it is over
the magnetic pole, of course its directive force vanishes, although at that
time the intensity of the magnetism is greatest. The diurnal change in the
Dip amounts to 3' or 4', and is also about 15' greater in summer than in
winter.

The following table is extracted from one by Major (now Gen. Sir Edward)
Sabine, in the " Phil. Trans." 1840, p. 135 :—

Place.

ip.

Observer.

Year.

Place.

Dip.

Observer.

Year.

Montreal

19*

Estcourt . . .

1839

Curaeoa ....

Zarhtman

. 1833

Halifax

74 45

Estcourt . . .

1838

Caraccas ....

1836

Worcester . . .

Loomis , . ,

1839

St. J. de Ni-

Cambridge . . .

Loomis . . .

, 1S39

, 1839

Springfield . . .

Bache

1834

Demerara ....

1837

Providence . . . ,

Loomis ...

1839

Chagres ....

. 1834

Loomis . , ,

1839

. 1835

New Haven .

Loomis . . .

1839

Madeira ....

. 1847

New York . . .

Loomis . . .

1839

Bahia, Brasil

. 1S39

Washington .

Loomis ...

1839

Rio Janeiro . .

Sulivan

. 1839

Bermuda . . .

Home

1837

25*

Mag. Survey

. 1859

Barnett . . .

1839

Terceira ....

FitzRoy . . .

. 18:16

Contoy Island

. 49

Barnett . . .

. 1838

River Tagus..

Lamont . . ,

IS58

St. Thomas. . .

Zarhtman .

. 1834

. 1835

Home

1835

Tenerife ....

57 47

Wickham . . .

. 1837

AltaVela ...

, 47

Home

1835

Port Praya . .

FitzRoy ...

. 1836

Jair.aica .....

Barnett . . .

1834

Egga, on the

Bardados . . .

Home

1835

. 1833

Cape Gracias

Fernando Po .

1833

Barnett . . .

1835

Ilhas das Rolas

1833

The Intensity. — The intensity of the magnetism of the earth varies also
with time and place. It is the power of the earth to bring an oscillating
needle to a state of rest ; and it is in proportion to the squares of the
number of vibrations per second. The lines of equal intensity would at first
seem to coincide with those of equal dip, but, in consequence of the double
magnetic polar axes, they differ in their relation, though they still form
regular and symmetrical curves. As the magnetic latitude increases so does
the intensity, but not the directive force ; for, when a needle is on the mag-
netic equator, it naturally preserves its horizontality, and, consequently, the
whole of its magnetism is employed in directing the needle towards the
poles. But, in high magnetic latitudes, where the Dip is great, the means
employed to keep it parallel with the horizon of course reduce very con-
siderably its power of keeping in a North and South direction ; and in the
circum-polar regions the ordinary compass becomes so sluggish as to be of
but little value to steer by.

Having thus very briefly sketched the general phenomena of terrestial
magnetism, the reader will understand the general principles laid down by

* North end.

t South end.

840 ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

Dr. Halley and Professor Hansteen, that in the northern hemisphere the two
points of convergence of the magnetic Variation or Declination by revolving
around the polo of the earth will cause a local change in the Variation of all
places lying in North magnetic latitude, and which, in the case of London,
has amounted to 35i° in 455 years. The Dip, on the other hand, has changed
but little, or 2£° in 260 years ; this is obvious, because the two magnetic
axes, while they change their terrestrial longitude in a considerable degree,
do not vary much in latitude, and, consequently, will not greatly affect the
Dip in places at some distance from them.

The points then interesting to the navigator are, first, the influence of tho
earth's magnetism upon his compasses, and the influence the ship and her
iron has upon it in neutralising or modifying the first ; the second, namely,
the local Deviation, is a subject which has become magnified into vast and
vital importance since tho introduction of so much iron into the fabric of
wooden ships, and the daily increasing number of iron ships.

The North Atlantic Ocean has this peculiarity, in a magnetic sense, that
it has over nearly all its ai*ea but one kind of magnetism — westerly Declina-
tion (or Variation) and northerly Inclination (or Dip). The magnetic Equator
passes, as before said, obliquely across the terrestrial Equator from Africa to
Brasil, the line of No Dip being to the South of this. The line of No Varia-
tion will be seen by the chart.

Now, as will be seen presently, as the force of the ship's magnetism
diminishes, so does that of the earth increase in its influence on the compass,
so that a ship's corrected compass does not hold the same relative position
with respect to both with the same correction into a different magnetic
latitude. Thus, a vessel with a large original error in England will find
that error reduced perhaps to one-half on reaching the Equator; and if
sailing northwards a very different relation will bo found.

This is especially to bo noticed on sailing into the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
or anywhere in a N.W. direction towards America. Frequently a ship may
be standing on one course to the southward of "West across the Atlantic,
and then suddenly bears up to N.W. ; and then passing rapidly towards the
magnetic pole, the relation between the earth's magnetism and that of the
t-hip upon her compass undergoes a rapid and important change, which,
unattended to, has doubtless been the cause of many embarrassments and
accidents.

Tlxe Local Deviation of the Compass is its variation from the magnetic meri-
dian, which may be caused, as already noticed, from a peculiar state of the
atmosphere, Aurora Borealis, lightning, or the local attraction of the ship,
iron, &c. This is a subject of inquiry, which was first explained by Capt.
Flinders in the description of his surveys of the Australian coast. To this
subject his attention was directed, not only by some anomalous differences
which he found in the compasses that he used, but by others recorded by
Mr. "Wales, who had accompanied Captain Cook in the capacity of astro-
nomer, and his deductions referring as they do to wooden vessels, are still
held to be correct.

But the problem of local deviation in iron ships is a widely different one,
and includes a large range of phenomena and considerations which have

ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 841

hitherto been but little understood, and even now may not be established on
a firm basis in all its particulars.

This important discussion upon the magnetism of iron ships began by
Professor Airy's experiments recorded in the " Philosophical Transactions "
for 1839. His conclusions were somewhat opposed by Dr. Scoresby in 1854,
which was replied to in the "Mercantile Marine Magazine," in 1854 and
1855. To further investigate the still obscured principles involved in this
very important topic, Dr. Scoresby undertook his well-known voyage to
Australia and back in the Royal Charter, between February and August in
1856.

The attention of the shipping interest to this question was strongly callod
at the meeting of the British Association at Liverpool, in 1854, and the
result was the formation of the Liverpool Compass Committee, who reported
to the Government in 1855 and 1856, and the valuable series of observa-
tions they had collected were discussed by their able secretary, Mr. Pundell,
and by Mr. Archibald Smith, Mr. Towson, and others, in 1857. One im-
portant conclusion since arrived at is stated by Mr. Archibald Smith as
follows : —

" Whenever differences of opinion may be entertained as to applying cor-
rections to the steering compasses of iron ships, it can hardly admit of
question that every iron ship should have at least one compass removed as
much as possible from the influence of iron and not corrected by magnets, and
should be swung at the beginning and end of every voyage of any length,
and the Deviation of the uncorrected and corrected compasses (if any) ob-
served. No man is competent to command an iron ship who is not com-
petent to make these observations."*

The more refined calculations which can be entered into for determining
the relation between a ship and her compass are given in a pamphlet by
Archibald Smith, Esq., " Instructions for the Computation of a Table of tho
Deviations cf a Ship's Compass," 1848, as a supplement to the "Practical
Pules for ascertaining the Deviations, &c," 1854.

Dr. Scoresby gives the following summary of leading deductions on the
Character and Distribution and liability to change of the Magnetism of Iron
Ships:—

(1.) As to the sources of the intense magnetism of iron ships. — Ships built of
iron must not only be strongly magnetic, because of the vast body of this
metal which is subjected to the action of terrestrial induction, but by reason
of the elaborate system of hammering, as well as from the bending of the
plates and bars during the progress of construction, there must be an
extremely high development of the quality of retentive magnetism.

(2.) Effect of the position of a ship when building. — Each iron ship must have
a special individuality of the magnetic distribution, depending essentially on
position of the keel and head whilst building, such distribution having, in
each individual case, a polar axis and equatorial plane conformable to those
of the earth at the place where the ship is built.

(3.) Magnetic lines of the inductive and retentive magnetism the same.— Whilst

• Introduction to Dr. Scoreaby's "Journal of a Voyage to Australia," by Archibald
Smith, Esq., M.A., p. 48.

842 ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

the spontaneous influence of simple induction must be to develop a transient
magnetic condition, having in each individual case a polar axis and equa-
torial plane conformable to those of the earth at the place where the ship is
built ; so also the retentive, magnetism developed during the building must
have corresponding polar direction and distribution.

(4.) Liability of original magnetic distribution to change. — The original dis-
tribution of the magnetism, or casting of the magnetic lines, must be liable
to change after the launching under any violent mechanical action on the
ship, when lying with her head in a new direction, or sailing in remote
regions of the globe, having very different directions of the earth's magnetic
force.

(5.) Sympathy of the compass toith a ship's magnetic changes. — All changes
in a ship's magnetic condition must tend to produce disturbance in the action
of compasses on or about the deck. And the effect must be, in however
minute or insensible quantity in some particular cases, to change the amount
of the original deviations.*

The proposition No. 4, above recited, was forfeited by the example of the
loss of the Tayleur, a new iron ship about 2,000 tons, whose steering com-
pass had originally a maximum deviation of 60°, which was corrected by
a magnet. She met with severe weather, after leaving Liverpool, going
down Channel ; and if, as Dr. Scoresby supposed, the effect was to "shake
out " the magnetism of building, and give a new magetism, this would
leave the corrected magnets to produce a deviation which threw her on the
Irish Coast.

It was this argument on the "retentive" condition of the magnetism of
the ship induced by her building, that led to the controversy between Dr.
Scoresby and Professor Airy, and caused the former undertaking, at his
advanced years, the voyage to Australia, from the effects of which he may
be said to have fallen a martyr to science.

Dr. Scoresby, in his letter to the Underwriters' Association of Liverpool,
in 1854, draws up the following propositions, in addition to those he laid
down in his later work of the "Voyage of the Royal Charter."—

Examples.

3. That the original magnetism and compass deviation are specially liable
to change in new ships, when meeting with heavy weather on their first
going to sea.

4. That a change of course, after long steering in one direction, is liable to
produce a change in the compass.

5. That adjusted compasses are specially liable to change in the direction
of over-compensation, and may dangerously mislead the navigator.

6. That a stroke of the sea may produce a sudden change in the compass.

7. That a stroke of lightning may change a ship's magnetism and com-
pass deviation.

8. That a hot sun, shining partially on an iron ship, might change her
magnetism.

* "Journal of a Voyage for Magnetical Research," 1S59, pp. 71, 72.

ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 843

9. That permanent magnets applied for the adjustment of compass devia-
tions must, with rare exceptions, tend to aggravate the error in ships going
far into another hemisphere.

10. That a compass aloft affords an easy, practical, and, if duly elevated
and prepared for, an effectual remedy for the ship's disturbing influence.*

The experience gained by the voyage of the Royal Charter showed that
the blows and strains that she had experienced in her voyage out to Australia
diminished, or, so to speak, shook out the inequalities in her compasses,
which were observed before her sailing, to such an extent that the standard
compass, which had originally a deviation of 20° to the port side when the
ship's head was North, had this deviation reduced to 3° 22' on her return to
Liverpool; while the steering compass, which originally had been rather
over-corrected, having an error of 1° 43' returned with it 22° 25' ; while the
companion compass, having an error of 1° 43' returned with it 17° 35'. This
change was one which had evidently taken place in the retentive magnetism
of the ship. The change shows the complete failure in such a voyage by
fixed magnets.

In 1843, when the Compass Department of the Admiralty was established^
the science and the instruments were in an equally bad condition. The
labours of Capt. E. J. Johnson, E.N., F.E.S., however, soon put a new face
on the matter, and much was done in his time towards developing the ap-
plication of the principles enunciated. But the vast increase of iron ship-
ping has caused greater requirements, as has been stated, and the sailor is
very largely indebted to Capt. Fred. J. Evans, E.N., the present Hydro-
grapher, who has produced an excellent series of Variation Charts (from
which our diagram on page 442 has been taken) ; and also has devoted
much talent to the investigation of the problem of the magnetism in iron
ships. From his Eeport to the Hydrographer on the Deviation in the Iron
Ships of the Eoj'al Navy, April 18, 1860, we extract the following : —

On the nature of the magnetism in iron-built ships. — The magnetic influence
of steam machinery having been reviewed, the nature of the magnetism of
iron-built ships can be entered on free, to a certain extent, of conditions
arising from this extraneous source of compass error, and those examples
fairly elimininated where it tends to embarrass the discussion.

The investigation of the disturbance arising from the horizontal induction
of the soft iron in the ship, or the co-efficient D, offers several novel and
suggestive points of inquiry ; the chief characteristics are —

1. That it has invariably a, positive sign, causing an easterly deviation in
the N.E. and S.W. quadrants, and a westerly deviation in the S.E. and
N.W. quadrants.

2. That its amount does not appear to depend on the size or mass of the
vessel, or direction when building, or on the iron beams.

3. That a gradual decrease in amount has occurred, when examined over
a number of years, in nearly every vessel that has been reviewed.

* " The Compass in Iron Ships," &c, by the Iter, W. Scoresby, D.D., pp. 67, 68.

844 ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

4. That the value remains unchanged in sign and amount, on changes of
geographic position, confirming theoretical deductions.

5. That a value for this coefficient, not exceeding 4°, and ranging between
that amount and 2°, may be assumed to roprescnt the average or normal
amount in vessels of all sizes.

The opinion has been long entertained, that the original magnetism of an
iron-built ship, or that acquired in the process of building, undergoes a
rapid change after launching, and that from this cause accidents have oc-
curred to recently launched and hastily equipped vessels. The records of
ships of the Royal Navy do not illustrate this subject.

I have alluded to the importance of the conclusions to be derived from a
review of the examples and cases given in this report ; for although varying
compass disturbances exist, and the inference is irresistible that they arise
from the nature of the iron employed in the construction of the hull of the
ship, there is no doubt that, by attention to a few leading principles in the
building and equipment of iron ships, that larger and uncertain sources of
error may be modified and reduced within limits both of fluctuation and
amount, that will not seriously compromise the safety of the ship in the
hands of an ordinarily prudent seaman.

The points of practical import to which I would invite attention are —

1st. The best direction, with reference to the magnetic meridian, for the
keel and head of an iron ship to be placed for building, to ensure the least
compass disturbance.

2nd. The best position and arrangement for a compass, to ensure small
deviations, and permancy on changes of geographic position.

3rd. The changes to which the compass is liable from various causes when
the foregoing conditions are fulfilled.

On the best Direction for Building an Iron Ship.

In those built head N.E., East, West, and N.W., strong South polarity
(or an attractive force on the North end of the compass needle) obtains on
one side of the ship adjoining the compass as usually placed between the
middle section and the stern ; the resulting disturbance is not lessened as
the compass is moved in a fore-and-aft line within these limits.

In vessels built head S.E. and S.W., North polarity obtains under the
same conditions.

In vessels built head North or South, the conditions arise, that in the
former the attraction is toward the stern (the topsides in their action being
neutral to a compass in the middle line of the deck), and diminishes in force
as the compass is moved towards the bow. In the latter the law is reversed
and small compass deviations are obtained as the stern is approached.

In an iron sailing ship, built head to South, there will be an attraction of
the North point of the compass to the head ; and if built head to North, a
like attraction to the ship's stein ; and so far there would seem to be no
advantage in one direction over the other. But in the first case the topsides
near the compass have weak magnetism ; in the socond case they are
strongly magnetic j the first position seems, thereforo, proferable.

ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 845

In an iron steamship, built head to the South, the attraction due to ma-
chinery is added to that of tire hull ; whereas in one built head to the North,
the attractive forces of hull and machinery are, in the northern hemisphere,
antagonistic, and a position of small or no " semi-circular" deviation for the
compass may generally be obtained. In iron steam-vessels engaged on the
home or foreign trades in the northern hemisphere, this direction of build is
therefore to be preferred.

On the Position and Arrangement of the Compass.

The position of the compass, whether standard or steering, must depend,
as will have been observed from the foregoing conclusions, on the direction
of the ship's build ; that is, in those built head North, the compass must bo
as far removed from the stern as circumstances will permit ; in those built
South, placed as near to the stern as convenient, without approaching so
close to the rudder-head or iron taffrail as to cause the ship's general mag-
netism to be overpowered by the magnetic influence of those masses.

In ships built East or "West, there is little choice of position, except to
avoid, as a general rule, proximity to vertical masses of iron : in vessels
built with their heads on the intercardinal point, a position approximating
to the bow or stern respectively, where the action from the topsides (to be
determined experimentally) is at a minimum, is to be preferred.

Ample elevation above the deck, and to be strictly confined to the middle
line of the ship, are the primary conditions of position for every compass in
an iron ship, and no compass, whether steering or standard, should be nearer
the iron deck beams than 4 ft. ; for the steering compass this arrangement
could be met by the use of a vertical card for the helmsman.

The standard compass, which as a rule I should recommend to be unva-
riably uncompensated, requires an elevation of at least 5 or 6 ft. from the
deck, and to be fitted on a separated and permanent pillar or stand ; it is by
this superior elevation that the strong magnetic power of the iron beams
and adjoining topsides are correspondingly lessened.

As every piece of iron not composing a part of, and hammered in the
fabrication of the hull — such as the rudder, funnel, boiler3, and machinery,
tanks, cooking galleys, fastenings of deck houses, &c. — are all of a mag-
netic character differing from the hull of a ship, their proximity should bo
avoided, and, so far as possible, the compass should be placed so that they
may act as correctors of the general magnetism of the hull.

A compass placed out of the middle lino of the deck is affected by the
nearest topside, and its deviations must necessarily be much iacreased if
that topside has the dominant polarity, as in the ships built East or West.

Experience has proved that the practical value of mast or elevated com-
passes has in some cases been overrated ; they are, in fact, affected by the
Bhip's magnetism to an amount depending on their elevation and the direc-
tion of the ship's build ; thus in ships built North and South, but especially
the latter — the compass being on the mizen-mast — the deviations will be
large comparatively. In ships built East or West, the deviations will bo
comparatively small, from the topside, which would affect a deck compass,
n. a. o. ' r > Q

846 ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

being more directly under the mast compass ; they may therefore be useful
in the latter cases, and valueless in a ship built head to the South. The
wear and tear on the pivots and agate caps of mast-compasses, from the in-
creased motion due to their eleyation, require constant attention when they
are employed.

3. On various Sources of Error affecting a Compass placed under favourable

Conditions.

Errors arising from changes of geographic position, as also incidental
causes of error due to anomalous rather than general conditions, have been
brought under review in the general progress of this report. There is,
however, one source of compass-error (that arising from the heeling of the
ship) which has not been alluded to, as the ship in all the points hereto re-
viewed is assumed to be on an even keel.

The few experiments made in ships of the Royal Navy will be found in
Table I., and they tend to prove, as also does the test of experience, that
when the original compass deviations are small, the errors from heeling are
generally small in proportion ; and conversely, the exaggerated errors from
heeling are the consequence of exaggerated errors while on an even keel.
Ample elevation from the deck, in order to raise the compass above the
level of the topsides and adjacent deck-beams, is one of the chief conditions
for reducing this source of error.

With head built North, on heeling, the North end of compass needle will

be attracted to the weather or nearest side
from its South polarity.
,, N.E. ,, „ the same.

,, East ,, ,, the same.

,, S.E. „ the North end of needle will have but

little error from the balanced conditions
of North and South polarity of topsides.
„ South „ the North end of needle will be repelled

to the lee side by the North polarity of
nearest or weather topside.
„ S.W. „ the North end of needle will have but

little error, as at S.E.
,, West tf the North end of needle will be attracted

to the weather or nearest side.
,, N.W. ,, ,, the same.

These laws only hold good as long as the topsides in the immediate
vicinity of the compass retain their dominant polarity due to their original
direction of build in great Britain. If in South magnetic latitudes a change
of polarity takes place, the conditions of heeling correspond to such change.

The maximum disturbance on heeling in all these vessels is when their
heads are (by disturbed compass) magnetic North or South, and this dis-
turbance vanishes when the head is East or West. This law of disturbance
may be thus explained : when the vessel's head is North or South on an
even keel (by disturbed compass), the needle lies parallel to the topsides by

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS. 847

their combined action, which neutralize each other ; on heeling 1 , the nearest
topside exercises its then dominant polarity at right angles to the direction
of the needle, and hence the maximum error. With the ship's head East
or "West, whether on an even keel or heeling, either pole of the compass
needle points directly to the topsides, and is consequently unaffected except
in a vertical plane.

As the amount of disturbance on heeling varies under the various condi-
tions of direction of build, height of compass, and breadth of ship or distance
of topsides, added to the prevailing permanent or inductive magnetic con-
dition of the latter and the deck-beams, each ship must have an individual
character, to be determined only by experiment or observation at sea.
There are, however, strong grounds for inferring that by a judicious posi-
tion of the compass, so as to ensure small errors while on an even keel, the
errors arising from a ship's heel will be so proportionally reduced as not
practically to affect the navigation of the ship in the hands of a prudent
seaman.*

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CL0TJD9.

Since the discovery of Buys Ballot's Law (p. 184), and of the cyclonic
and anti-cyclonic gales of .extra-tropical latitudes the study of the clouds has
assumed a new importance. To the remarks of the Hon. Ralph Aber-
cromby (266), we may add the following notes made at a lecture delivered
in November, 1878, by the Bev. W. Clement Ley, M.A., F.M.S., who has
for many years devoted his spare time to the study of this subject. In the
first place it requires a practiced eye for cloud observations, and this no
person has a better chance of acquiring than the seaman. There is at pre-
sent not enough known of the subject to lay down any very reliable rules,
but in the case of storms which pass over the British Isles it is observed that
the advancing half of the storm first shows a band of cirrus stratus around
its semi-diameter ; this is followed by a bank of nimbus or rain cloud ; cumu-
lus, accompanied by showers, follows with the succeeding half of the storm,
and behind this, cirrus and stratus. Outside the area of high wind, on the
left side of the advancing storm, the weather is dry and hazy. Another
remarkable feature is the direction taken by the higher clouds, for instance,
with the wind in one of these storms blowing on the observer's back, the
clouds high in the atmosphere indicate that the direction of the wind is
from left to right of the observer, which would seem to show a rising of the
wind in a spiral form.

" The researches of Mohn, Hildebrandsson, Buchan, Clement, Ley, and
others, seem to prove that in all cases which they have investigated by
means of wind direction and the motion of cirri, the air flows spirally into
an area of low pressure at the surface of the earth, and to some extent out

* " Reduction and Discussion of the Deviations of the Compass," by Fred. J. Evans,
Esc-., E.N. Philos. Trans. 1860, part ii., pp. 334—358.

848 CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS.

from it in the upper regions of the air ; whilst the order is reversed with
areas of high pressure, the lower air flowing out from, and the upper air in
towards, their centres. It remains to be proved whether the same law holds
good with regard to the area of high pressure in the centre of the Atlantic.
. . . It must be remembered that there are upper currents of air which
(owing to the absence of moisture) do not carry clouds along with them, and
that they need some other means than cloud motion to detect them." — Cap-
tain Henry Toy nice.

Mr. Ley also considers that the classification of the late Mr. Luke
Howard, which has been in use for sixty years, is not suitable for pre-
sent state of weather knowledge. Without materially altering the old
nomenclature, Mr. Ley is of opinion that the clouds may be divided into
Upper and Lower clouds, or those high in the atmosphere, such as cirrus,
cirro-cumulus, and cirro-stratus, and those nearer the earth's surface, includ-
ing Stratus, Cumulus, Cumulo-stratus, and Nimitts.*

Clouds are seen at all levels between tho highest cirrus and the lowest
strattis, so that it is often difficult to determine whether a particular sheet or
layer of cloud belongs to the upper or the lower system. In such cases tho
observer will be greatly assisted by remembering how the clouds have be-
come formed, whether by the gradual subsidence of the highost forms, or
by the ascent of the lower clouds.

In the Trade Wind region, by observing the direction of tho upper clouds,
it would appear that an opinion may be formed of the probable direction of
the squalls in unsettled weather, as remarked (p. 285) by Capt. Toynbee.

The Upper Clouds are considered a good authority to bo composed of
particles of ice, inasmuch as the phenomena of halos, &c, are produced by
them, and these can only be explained by the refraction of the rays of light
through ice crystals.

The Cirrus is often seen after a continuance of fine light weather, as a fine
whitish line of cloud, stretched across the sky at a great height, the ends
seeming lost in the horizon. This is often the first indication of a change
to wet weather ; to this line of Cirrus others are added laterally, and at
times clouds of the same sort seem to proceed from the sides of the line,
and are sent off in an oblique or transverse direction, so that tho whole may
have the appearance of net- work.

At other times the lines of Cirrus become denser, descend lower in the
atmosphere, and, by uniting or conjoining with others below, produce rain.
The line alluded to above is called the Linear Cirrus, and the transverse
lines produce the Reticulated or Curl Cloud.

The Comoid or Hairy Cirrus, commonly called Mare's Tail, is the proper
Cirrus ; it resembles, in appearance, a long lock of white hair, or a bunch
of wool pulled out into fine pointed ends. The appearance of Cirrus in tho
atmosphere often indicates wind and rain ; and when the fine tails have a
constant direction toward any one point of the compass, it has been fre-

* In abbreviating these names the following system is used by the Meteorological Office,
as others have been found to mislead : — Cir. ; Cir. c. ; Cir. 8. ; Str. ; Cum. ; Cum. s. ; Nim.
The amount of cloud is registered from " Blue sky ;" to 10 " Entirely overcast."

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS. 849

quently observed that the gale has sprung up from that quarter to which
they previously pointed. It is often difficult to ascertain the direction of the
Cirrus, owing to its slowness of motion, but as indicating the difference be-
tween the direction of the wind at the earth's surface, and that of the higher
regions, it is very important.

The Lower Clouds are usually composed of particles of condensed vapour
or " bubble-steam," i.e., of water, not of ice, when they are interposed bo-
tween the sun and the moon, they dim or intercept the light entirely, with-
out giving rise to halos or coronae. They may be described as follows : —

The Cirro-cwmdus (cirrus and cumulus) is an assemblage of nubeeulec, or
small roundish clouds, either detached form, or in contact with, each other,
and frequently reaching, to appearance, into the azure sky, commonly
attended by an increased temperature, and found to accord with a rising
barometer. The most striking feature is observed in summer, before or
about the time of thunder-storms. The component nubecula) are then very
dense, round in form, and in closer apposition than usual. This kind of
cloud is so commonly a forerunner of storms, that it has been assumed by
some as a tempestuous prognostic. In rainy and variable weather another
variety of this cloud appears, contrasted very strikingly with that above
mentioned, being of a light fleecy texture, without any regular form in its
nubecula). Sometimes the latter are so small as scarcely to be discernible,
but the sky seems speckled with innumerable little white transparent spots.

The Cirro-cumulus of fair summer weather is of a medium nature, not so
dense as the stormy variety, nor so light as the variable one. Its nubecula?
vary in size and proximity. In fine dry weather, tho light gales of North
and easterly winds, small detachments rapidly form and subside again,
generally in an horizontal arrangement.

When the Cirro-cumulus prevails, we may anticipate an increase of
temperature in summer ; and in winter the breaking up of a frost, or warmer
and wet weather. In the summer time, extensive beds of this cloud, viewed
by moonlight, have a very beautiful appearance, which has been compared
to a flock of sheep at rest. The Cirro-cumulus subsides either slowly, as if
by evaporation, or changes into some other modification.

The Cirro-stratus (cirrus and stratus) or Wane Cloud, is composed of hori-
zontal or slightly inclined masses of small clouds, attenuated toward a part
or the whole of their exterior, bent downward or undulated, separate or in
groups, and generally with a sinking barometer, indicating a decrease in
temperature, with wind and rain or snow.

The Cirro-stratus is characterised by great hoiizontal extent in proportion
to vertical breadth ; so that when any other cloud begins to assume that
form, it generally ends in Cirro-stratus. The Cirrus more commonly
becomes a Cirro-stratus than any other cloud ; the Cirro-cumulus next ; and
then the Cumulus. The Cirri-stratus, once formed, sometimes resumes tho
modification from which it originated, but more frequently it gradually
evaporates or conjoins with some other modification. It seldom remains
long in one form, but seems to be constantly declining, and hence the term
of Wane Cloud. It is sometimes composed of wavy bars or streaks, con-
nected in the centre and confused, but the streaks more defined at the edges ;
this is common in variable weather in summer. The Mackerel Sky, as it is

850 CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS.

termed, is a variety of this ; another variety consists of one long and plain
streak, thick in the middle, and wasting away at its edges ; and a third,
consisting of small rows of little clouds, curved in a peculiar manner, and a
sure indication of stormy weather ; this is more or less regularly formed, and
the irregular formation is often produced when a large Cumulus passes
under a long line of Cirro-stratus, and is also a sign of stormy weather.

The last variety of Cirro-stratus is a large shallow veil of cloud, which
extensively overspreads the sky, particularly in the evening and during the
night, and through which the sun and moon appear dimly. It is in this
cloud that those peculiar refractions of light, of the sun and moon, called
halos, mock suns, &c, usually appear, and which is a tolerably certain prog-
nostic of rain or snow. There are minor varieties which may frequently be
observed.

The Cirro-stratus usually terminates in forming an intimate union with
some other cloud, to produce rain ; but at times it evaporates or changes into
some other modification.

The Stratus comprehends fogs and all those creeping mists which in sum-
mer evenings fill the valleys, but disappear in the mornings. The best
time for observing its formation is on a fine evening, after a hot summer's
day ; we shall then observe that, as the Cumuli of the day decrease, a white
mist forms near the ground ; this cloud, as the Cumuli evaporate, by degrees
arrives at its density. In autumn it remains longer in the morning. In
winter it often puts on a still denser appearance, and remains during the
day, and even for many clays successively.

The Nimbus always precedes a fall of snow, rain, or hail ; and has re-
ceived its name from a notion of the ancients, who distinguished between
the Imber, or shower, and the Nimbus, or cloud, from which the rain comes.

The Cumulus (plural, Cumuli). The progressive formation of the Cumulus
is seen in fine settled weather. If we then observe the sky soon after sun-
rise, we shall see smali clouds here and there in the atmoshere, which
appear to be the result of small gatherings, or concentrated parts of the
evening mist, which, rising in the morning, grow into small masses of
cloud, and the atmosphere becomes clear. As the sun rises, these clouds
become larger, by adjacent ones coalescing, and at length a large cloud is
formed, assuming a cumulated irregular hemispherical shape ; this usually
subsides in the evening as it is formed in the morning, breaking into small
masses, then fragments, and evaporating, when it is succeeded by the
Stratus, to the formation of which it may have contributed. In fine weather
these clouds form soon after sun-rise, increase during the day, and subside
with more regularity, and have a more hemispherical form than in change-
able weather. When well-formed Cumuli prevail for three or four days,
the weather is settled. These Cumuli reflect a strong silvery light when
opposed to the sun, like Alpine mountains covered with snow.

The cumulus sometimes take a cylindrical shape, forming itself into long
horizontal rolls, between which gleams of light are seen, but which are
often so closely packed as to hide the blue sky. These are called Roll'
cumuhcs. This variety of cumulus is an addition to Howard's nomenclature.
It is inserted owing to the frequency of this appearance at sea. It is neces-
sary to observe that the effect is simply one of perspective.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS. 851

The Cumulo-stratus designates the Cirro-stratus blended with the Cumulus,
and either appearing intermixed with the heaps of the latter, or super-
adding a wide structure to its base. The Cumulo-stratus is most frequent
during a mean or changeable state of the barometer, when the wind blows
from the West, with occasional deviations from the North and South.

This cloud may be always regarded as a preliminary to the production of
rain; and it frequently forms in the following manner: — the Cumulus,
which in common passes along in the current of the wind, seems retarded in
its progress, increases its density, spreads out laterally, and at length over-
hangs the base, in dark and irregular protuberances. The change to the
Cumulo-stratus often takes place at once in all the Camuli which are near
to each other ; and their bases uniting, the superstructure rises up with
mountain-like or rocky summits. The change from Cumulus to Cumulo-
stratus is often preceded by Cirro-stratus.

Cumulo-strata vary in appearance ; those in which hail showers and
thunder storms form look extremely black before the change to rain, and
have a menacing aspect, as they are seen coming slowly up with the wind.
The Cumulo-stratus sometimes evaporates or changes again into cumulus ;
but in general it ends in the Nimbus and fall of rain or snow. Sometimes
only one part forms a Nimbus, the other remaining a Cumulo-stratus.

General Remarks on the Nimbus. — Any of the modifications above de-
scribed may increase so much as to obscure the sky, without ending in rain ;
before which the peculiar characteristic of the rain-cloud may always be
distinguished. In order to get a clear idea of its formation, you may
observe a distinct shower in profile, from its formation to its fall in rain,
You may then observe the Cumulus first arrested, then the Cirro-stratus or
Cirrus may appear to alight on its top ; the change to Cumulo-stratus then
goes on rapidly, and this cloud, increasing in density, assumes that black
and threatening appearance known as an indication of rain : presently this
blackness is changed to a grey obscurity, and this is the criterion of the
actual formation of water, which now begins to fall, and constitutes the
• cloud a Nimbus, while a Cirriform crown of fibres extends from the upper
part of the clouds, and small Cumuli enter into the lower part. After the
shower has spent itself, the cloud resumes its title of Cumulo-stratus, and
thence probably changes into a different modification ; and if Cumulo-strati
appear again, they indicate a return to rain.

As connected with this subject, the indications of a change of weather,
we annex a description of Squalls, from the work of the distinguished
navigator to whom we are indebted for the leading paragraphs of the
present section.

"Squalls are generally of three kinds: that called the Arched Squall
is frequently experienced, and usually rises from the horizon in the form of
an arcli ; but sometimes it assumes the appearance of a dense dark cloud,
particularly when highly charged with rain, or electric matter. From the
time that the arch or cloud is first seen above the horizon, its motion ia

852 SQUALLS.

sometimes very quick to the zenith, the interval being scarcely sufficient to
allow a ship to reduce the necessary sail before the wind reaches her, which
happens when the cloud has approached the zenith. At other times the
motion of the cloud is very slow, and not unfrequently it disappears, or is
dispersed, the impulse of the wind being not then sufficient to reach a ship.
As a general rule, it may be observed, that if there be rain in these squalls
preceding the wind, the latter will probably follow the rain in sudden severe
gusts ; whereas if the wind precedes the rain, the squalls are seldom so
furious, and terminate in moderate showers of rain. The general rule, how-
ever, is often interrupted by the operation of local causes.

"The Descending Squall is not so easily discerned as the former, because
it issues from clouds which are formed in the lower parts of the atmosphere,
near the observer ; and when clouds are thus formed, they generally produce
showers of rain, and successive squalls of wind.*

"The White Squall is not often experienced; but it sometimes happens
near to, or within, the tropics, particularly in the vicinity of mountainous
land. This squall generally blows very violently for a short time ; and, as
it is liable to happen when the weather is clear, without any appearance in
the atmosphere to indicate its approach, it is consequently very dangerous.
The only mark that accompanies it is the wind.

Captain FitzRoy says : — "Undoubtedly the worst wind, next to a hurri-
cane, which a vessel can encounter, is a violent White Squall, so called
because it is accompanied by no cloud or peculiar appearance in the sky,
and because of. its tearing up the surface of the sea, and sweeping it along
so as to make a white sheet of foam. By squalls of this description, fre-
quent in the West Indies, and occasionally felt in other parts of the world,
no notice will be given much above the horizon ; but, by consulting a good
barometer or simpiesometer, and frequently watching the surface of the sea
itself, even a white squall may be guarded against in sufficient time.

" Dark clouds, hard mixed with soft, and inky fragments in rapid motion
beneath them, accompanied, perhaps, by lightning and distant thunder, are
the forerunners of a heavy squall. Soft shapeless elouds, in which it is
impossible to point out a definite edge, usually bring rain, but not wind ;
and, generally speaking, the more distinctly defined the edges of the clouds
are, the more wind they foretell. A little attention to these simple obser-
vations, so familar to persons who have been some time at sea, may save
young officers unnecessary anxiety in one case, and prompt them to shorten
sail at a proper time in the other." — ("Voyage of the Beagle," vol. ii.
p. 49.)

Some further remarks on White Squalls are given in page 285.

* In the Mexican Sea heavy and very sudden descending squalls come up at times from
very small clouds. These are scarcely felt until the cloud is almost right over the ship's
masts.— A. L.

( 853 )

MARINE THERMOMETERS.

Deep Sea Thermometers. — The following is from the pen of Dr. J. J. Wild,
Member of the Scientific Staff of H.M.S. Challenger, and appears in his valu-
able work "Thalassa," an Essay on the Depth, Temperature, and Currents
of the Ocean : — " The want of an efficient deep-sea thermometer, which more
or less vitiates all the observations of earlier explorers, was especially expe-
rienced during the cruise of H.M.S. Lightning in 1868, the first expedition
fitted out for sounding and dredging purposes by the joint co-operation of the
Royal Society and the Admiralty of England. Of the thermometers used on
this occasion, several returned to the surface broken by the pressure to which
they had been exposed, and the indications given by the rest varied so much
as to render the discovery of a thermometer free from this error a matter of
paramount importance for the success of future deep-sea exploration. By
a happy coincidence, the desired improvement was effected at the moment
when a second expedition was being prepared. In April, 1869, previous to
the departure of H.M.S. Porcupine on her first cruise, at a meeting of the
Deep-sea Committee of the Royal Society of London, Dr. W. A. Miller,
V.P.R.S., suggested a simple expedient for protecting thermometers from
the effects of pressure, which, ably carried out by Mr. L. P. Casella, F.R.A.S.,
the eminent scientific instrument maker to the Admiralty, resulted in the
construction of an almost perfect instrument for recording the temperature
at great depths. One of the essential qualities of an instrument intended for
use on long voyages is that it should be portable — a quality especially
realised by Mr. Casella in the construction of his thermometer. By con-
tracting the bore of the glass tube as much as possible, the quantity of the
liquids, particularly of the mercury, has been reduced to a minimum ; and
the liability to accident, almost inseparable from instruments containing
large quantities of this heavy substance, has thus been greatly reduced.

" The cruise of H.M.S. Challenger afforded ample opportunities for testing
the capabilities of the Miller-Casella thermometer. It resisted all the pres-
sures to which it was exposed down to a depth of about 4,000 fathoms, when
some of the instruments were found to give way under a pressure of four
tons to the square inch ; but as depths of from 4 to 5 miles are exceptional,
such accidents will be of rare occurrence. Under a pressure of three tons,
equivalent to a depth of 3 miles, the error amounts to less than 1° C, whilst
that of the unprotected thermometers previously in use sometimes exceeded
10° C for the same depth; and a comparison of the data furnished by the
Miller-Casella thermometer with the corresponding temperature curves shows
that the mean error of all the deep-sea observations made on board H.M.S.
Challenger, not much under 10,000, is probably less than 0-5° C. The ther-
mometers, before being sent out, are subjected to pressures varying from one
to four tons to the square inch in a hydraulic press especially designed for
this purpose by Mr. Casella, and the amount of error ascertained for each
instrument. When in actual use, they are enclosed in a copper cylinder per-
forated at both ends to allow free ingress and egress of the water. Several
thermometers may be attached to the same sounding-line whilst it is being
paid out, at distances of 5, 10, 25, 50, or 100 fathoms as required ; and it ia
found that an immersion of from five to ten minutes is sufficient to secure the
desired record of temperature. Since all the observations made on board
H.M.S. Challenger, during her cruise round the world, were obtained, and
N. a. o. 5k

MARINE THERMOMETERS.

the true temperature of tlie sea been determined by means of this instrument,
now known as the Miller-Casella thermometer, a description of it in these
pages may not be out of place.

"Tee Miller-Casella Thermometer. — It will be seen from the accom-

companying figure that this thermometer
is designed to register the maximum and
minimum temperature of the water to
which it is exposed during its descent from
the surface of the sea to the bottom. For
| this purpose the glass tube is bent in the

shape of U, each arm of
J the tube terminating in
a bulb. The larger bulb,
_1| A, is surrounded by an-
other bulb, B, and about
three-fourths of the
space between the two
bulbs is filled with alco-
hol. It is by the addi-
tion of this outer bulb,
B, that the protection
of the instrument from
the effects of pressure is
secured. On immersion,
the outer bulb receives
the pressure of the water,
and forces the enclosed
alcohol into the portion
of the intervening space
previously not occupied
by this liquid, thus re-
lieving the inner bulb,
A. The latter is com-
pletely filled with a mix-
ture of creosote and alcohol, which rests upon the mercury contained in the
bend of the tube, and also fills up the other arm and part of the bulb C. The
upper part of bulb C is occupied by air, introduced, with the help of a freezing
mixture, at a very low temperature, in order to increase its elastic force. It
thus acts as a sort of elastic spring or cushion intended to overcome the weight
and friction of the mercury in the tube, and to assist the mercury in
following the mixture when contracting under the influence of cold. The in-
dications of the thermometer depend upon the expansion by heat and con-
traction by cold of the mixture contained in bulb A. "When expanding, the
mercury is forced down in the arm attached to this bulb and rises in the other
arm towards bulb C; when contracting, the mercury falls on the side of bulb
C, and rises towards bulb A. Two steel indices, a a, covered with glass, niaik
the maximum height which the mercury has reached in either arm, and a hair
attached to each index produces the friction necessary to retain them at the
level to which they have been raised. Before the thermometer is lowered
into the sea, the indices are brought down upon the mercury by passing a
magnet along the tube.

Miller- Casella

Thermometer,

in case.

MARINE THERMOMETERS.

855

The following illustration has appeared in many previous editions of this
work, and, although the instrument is old-fashioned, its principle is good
for small depth observations, such as those required by fishermen.

Capt. Livingston says': — " In my thermometric experiments I had several
thermometers broken, and I have heard objections made to the experiments,

that, in the manner they were made,
the thermometer was not immersed
far enough to enter into water suffi-
ciently uninfluenced by the heat of
the solar rays ; but it will be seen,
by comparing the day and night ob-
servations, that this is a futile objec-
tion. However, to avoid it, to secure
my thermometers from being broken,
and to enable me to have a column
of water round the thermometer, suf-
ficient to retain its original tempera-
ture till such time as the degree in-
dicated by the thermometer scale
could be read off, keeping at the
same time the bulb of the thermo-
meter immersed in the water. I pre-
vailed on an ingenious mechanic to
attempt the structure of such a case
as I wanted, in which he has most
happily succeeded."

The person here alluded to is Mr.
Robert Jamieson, of Glasgow, who
was honoured with the large silver
medal of the Society for the encou-
ragement of Arts.

Description. — The first figure,
hereto annexed, represents the case,
a tube of copper, which encloses a
thermometer ; the second figure re-
presents a thermometer, so enclosed.
The length of the whole tube, in-
cluding the lid, is about 18 inches, and its external diameter 2 inches. The
lid, which has a check to fit the tube, is about 2 inches deep, and has a
conical or puppet valve in it, which rises upward. At the lower end of the
tube is another valve of the same description, which also rises upward ; and
these two valves permit the water to pass freely through the tube while it
descends into the water ; but so soon as it stops, the valves shut, and the
water, admitted at the greatest depth to which the machine is sunk, remains
in the tube, around the thermometer.

Fig. I. is a back view of the case ready for use. In fig. II. a a represents a ring, or
collar, on which the thermometer-plate rests, to keep it clear of the lower valve ; b b, the
upper valve and valve-tube cover ; c c, a bridge on which the neck rod, or journal, of the
valve works, through a hole in a swell in the centre of the bridge ; d d, lower part of the
journal, with a screw-head, which keeps it from rising through the hole in the bridge ;
4 e, ends of the journals.

( 856 )

REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER.

By the late Admiral FitzRoy, F.R.S.*

The words on scales of barometers should not be so much regarded for
weather indications, as the rising or falling of the mercury ; for if it stand
at Changeable, and then rise towards Fair, it presages a change of wind or
weather, though not so great as if the mercury had risen higher ; and, on
the contrary, if the mercury stand above Fair and then fall, it presages a
change, though not to so great a degree as if it had stood lower; besides which,
the direction and force of wind are not in any way noticed. It is not from
the point at which the mercury may stand that we are alone to form a
judgment of the state of the weather, but from its rising or falling ; and from
the movements of immediately preceding days as well as hours, keeping in
mind effects of change of direction, and dryness, or moisture, as well as
alteration of force or strength of wind.

In western Europe, towards the higher latitudes, the quicksilver ranges,
or rises and falls, nearly three inches — namely, between about thirty inches
and eight-tenths (30-8), and less than twenty-eight inches (28*0) on extra-
ordinary occasions ; but the usual range is from about thirty inches and a
half (305) to about twenty-nine inches. Near the Line, or in equatorial
places, the range is but a few tenths, except in storms, when it sometimes
falls to twenty-seven inches.

The sliding-scale (vernier) divides the tenths into ten parts each, or
hundredths of an inch. The number of divisions on the vernier exceeds
that in an equal space of the fixed scale by one.

If the barometer has been about its ordinary height, say near thirty
inches, at the sea level, f and is steady, or rising — while the thermometer
fall, and dampness becomes less — north-westerly, northerly, or north-easterly
wind — or less wind— may be expected.

On the contrary, if a fall takes place, with a rising thermometer and
increased dampness, wind and rain (or snow) may be expected from the
south-eastward, southward, or south-westward.

Exceptions to these rules occur when a north-easterly wind, with wet (rain
or snow) is impending, before which the barometer often rises (on account
of the direction of the coming wind alone), and deceives persons who, from
that sign only, expect fair weather.

When the barometer is rather below its ordinary height, say, near twenty-
nine inches and a half (at the sea level only), a rise foretells less wind, or a
change in its direction toward the northward — or less wet ; but when the

* It must be remembered that these remarks were written previous to the discovery of
tho cyclonic and anti-cyclonic systems of storms (p. 249), which cross our islands. They
are, however, quite in agreement with the newly-discovered systems.

f It stands lower, about a tenth of an inch for each hundred feet of height direetly up-
wards, or vertically, above the sea, where its average height, in England, is 29-94 inches
(at 32° F.).

REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER. 85?

mercury*' has been low, say near twenty-nine inches — the first rising usually
precedes and foretells, strong wind — (at times heavy squalls) — from the
north-westward — northward — or north-eastward — after which violence a
rising glass foretells impi*oving weather, if the thermometer falls. But, if
the warmth continue, probably the wind will back (shift against the sun's
course), and more southerly, or south-westerly wind will follow.

The most dangerous shifts of wind, and the heaviest northerly! gales,
happen after the mercury first rises from a very low point.

Indications of approaching changes of weather, and the direction and
force of winds, are shown less by the height of mercury in the tube, than
by its falling or rising. Nevertheless, a height of about thirty inches (at
the level of the sea) is indicative of fine weather and moderate winds.

The barometer is said to be falling when the mercury in the tube is
sinking, at which time its upper surface is sometimes concave or hollow. The
barometer is rising when the mercurial column is lengthening ; its upper
surface being then, as usual, convex or rounded. J

A rapid rise of the barometer indicates unsettled weater. A slow rise,
or steadiness, with dryness, shows fair weather.

A considerable and rapid fall is a sign of stormy weather and rain. Al-
ternate rising and sinking show very unsettled weather.

The greatest depressions of the barometer are with gales from the S.E.,
southward, or S.W. ; the greatest elevations, with winds from the N.W.,
northward, or N.E.

Although the barometer generally falls with a southerly and rises with a
northerly wind, the contrary sometimes occurs ; in which cases the southerly
wind is dry and the weather fine ; or the northerly wind is wet and violent.

When the barometer sinks considerably, high wind, rain, or snow will
follow ; the wind will be from the northward, if the thermometer is low (for
the season) — from the southward if the thermometer is high.

Sudden falls of the barometer, with a westerly wind, are sometimes fol-
lowed by violent storms from N.W. or North.

If a gale sets in from the eastward or S.E., and the wind veers by the
South, the barometer will continue falling until the wind becomes S.W.
when a comparative lull may occur, after which the gale will be renewed ;
and the shifting of the wind towards the N.W. will be indicated by a fall of
the thermometer as well as a rise of the barometer.

Three things appear to affect the mercury in a barometer : —

1. The direction of the wind — the north-east wind tending to raise it most
— the south-west to lower it the most, and wind from points of the compass
between them proportionally as they are nearer one or the other extreme
point.

N.E. and S.W. may therefore be called the wind's extreme bearing.

The range, or difference of height of the mercury, due to change of direc-

* In an Aneroid, a metallic, or a wheel barometer, the hands' motion should correspond
to that of the mercury in an independent instrument,
t Southerly in South latitude.
% In the best columns, those of standards for example, no concavity is seen at any tiuie s

858 REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER. .

tion only, from one of these bearings to the other (supposing strength or
force, and moisture, to remain the same) amounts in these latitudes to about
half an inch (shown by the barometer a* read off).

2. The amount, taken by itself, of vapour, moisture, wet, rain, or snow,
in the wind or current of air (direction and strength remaining the same),
seems to cause a change amounting, in an extreme case, to about half an
inch.

3. The strength or force alone of wind from any quarter (moisture and
direction being unchanged) is preceded or foretold by a fall or rise, accord-
ing as the strength will be greater or less, ranging in extreme cases to more
than two inches.

Hence, supposing the three causes to act together — in extreme cases — the
mercury might range from about 31 (30 - 8) inches to near 27 (27- 1) inches,
which has happened occasionally.

Generally, however, as the three act much less strongly, and are less in
accord, ordinary varieties of weather (the wind varying between S.W. and
N.W., with more or less cloudiness or rain) occur much more frequently than
extreme changes.

Another general rule requires attention ; which is, that the wind usually
veers, shifts, or goes round with the sun (right-handed in the northern places,
left-handed in the southern parts of the world), and that, when it does not
do so, or backs, more wind or bad weather may be expected instead of im-
provement.

In a barometer the mercury begins to rise occasionally before the con-
clusion of a gale, sometimes even at its commencement, as the equilibrium
of the atmosphere begins to be restored. Although the mercury falls lowest
before high winds, it frequently sinks considerably before heavy rain. The
barometer falls, but not always, on the approach of thunder and lightning,
or when the atmosphere is highly charged with electricity.* Before and
during the earlier part of serene and settled weather, the mercury commonly
stands high, and is stationary.

Instances of fine weather, with a low glass, occur exceptionally, but they
are always preludes to a duration of wind or rain, if not both.

After very warm and calm weather, rain or a storm is likely to occur ; or
at any time when the atmosphere has been heated much above the usual tem-
perature of the season.

Allowance should invariably be made for the previous state of the column
during some days, as well as hours, because its indications may be affected
by remote causes, or by changes close at hand. Some of these changes may
occur at a greater or less distance, influencing neighbouring regions, but not
visible to each observer whose barometer feels their effect.

There may be heavy rains or violent winds beyond the horizon, and the
view of an observer, by which his instruments may be affected considerably,
though no particular change of weather occurs in his immediate vicinity.

* Thunder clouds sometimes rise and spread against the wind (lower current). It is
probable that there is a meeting, if not a conflict of air currents, electrically different,
whenever lightning is seen. Their meeting, when the new one advances from the polar
region, docs not affect the barometer, except in oscillation, which is very remarkable at
the time.

REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER. 859

It may be repeated, that the longer a change of wind or weather is fore-
told by the barometer before it takes place, the longer the presaged weather
will last ; and, conversely, the shorter the warning, the less time, whatever
causes the warning, whether wind or a fall of rain or snow, will continue.

Sometimes severe weather from an equatorial direction, not lasting long,
may cause no great fall of the barometer, because followed by a duration of
wind from polar regions ; and at times it may fall considerably with polar
winds and fine weather, apparently against these rules, because a continuance
of equatorial wind is about to follow. By such changes as these one may
be misled, and calamity may be the consequence if not thus forewarned.

This ends Admiral Fitzroy's remarks: what follows is taken chiefly from
"Instructions in the use of Meteorological Instruments" issued by the
Meteorological Office.

Further Remarks. — The barometer now recommended by the Meteoro-
logical Office for use at sea, is known as the Kew Marine Barometer. Each
of these instruments is tested at the Kew Observatory, and the scales cor-
rectly marked, the errors due to the capacity of the cisterns, varying size of
the tube, &c, having been allowed for. By means of the Vernier, the height
of the mercurial columns may be read to a thousandth of an inch. For
the prevention of pumping or oscillation of the column of mercury the lower
part of the tube has a contracted bore down to the cistern, and the upper
part as far as the scale portion is, of even a finer bore. In the larger bore,
between these two fine bores, there is inserted a pipette, or funnel, spout
downwards, the object of this being to intercept any air which, creeping up
the sides of the tube, would, by getting into the vacuum at the top of the
tube, completely upset the working of the instrument. The best test for
moisture or for particles of air between the column of mercury, and the side
of the glass tube is the magnifying glass by means of which the existence of
such matter is easily detected.

Sometimes, though very rarely, a particle of dirt, or a bubble of air
lodges in the very fine contraction of the tube of a marine barometer, and
completely stops the action of the instrument. Whenever, therefore, a
marine barometer becomes stationary or inactive when it evidently ought to
be moving under the influence of atmospheric changes, there being no
evidence of fracture of the glass, the cause may be surmised to be of this
nature. It should then be taken down, the mercury allowed to fill the
tube, and the instrument put aside, in an inverted position, for a few hours.
On replacing it, the cause of the stoppage will generally be found to have
been removed to a part of the tube where it can do no harm.

Barometers when in use at sea are slung in gimbals, and suspended from
arms at least a foot long, so as to be perfectly free to assume the veitical
position under every movement of the ship, and at the same time to keep
clear of the bulkhead against which the arm is fastened.

Care should be taken that no readings from a barometer which is not hanging truly
vertically should ever be recorded. Such readings will always be too high in
proportion to the degree of obliquity.

At Kew, all Marine Baromettrs are rejected of which the index error at
the ordinary pressure is greater than 0"015 inch, or the capacity error

8G0

REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER.

greater than 0-004 inch, or for which the mercury takes less than 3, or more
than 6, minutes to fall from the height of 1-5 inches, to that of 0-5 inch
above the present pressure. This latter condition is to ensure the efficiency
of the contraction as a provision against "pumping," as well as to prevent
the danger of the barometer being too sluggish from over contraction.

Correction for Temperature, or reduction to 32° Fahr. — When the barometer is
at a temperature below 32°, the correction is ( + ), i.e. to be added, and when
it is above 32° it is ( — ), i.e. to be subtracted. Thus supposing the mercury
in the barometer tube to stand at 28.5 inches, and the attached thermometer
registers the temperature of the tube and case (not of the surrounding air) as
50°, the corrections, according to the following scale, of -055 inch, must be
subtracted from 28 - 5 inches, to reduce the reading to the standard tempera-
ture of 32°. Brass is considered the most suitable metal for barometer cases.

Correction to he applied to Barometers with Brass Scales, extending from the
Cistern to the top of the Mercurial Column, to reduce the observation to 32°
Fahrenheit.

INCHES.

240

24-5

25-0

25-5

26-0

26-5

27-0

27-5

28-0

28-5

29-0

29-5

30-0

30-5

310

•061

•063

•064

•065

067

•068

•069

•071

•072

073

•074

■076

•077

•078

•080

040

•041

•042

04 5

.044

•045

•046

•047

•048

•049

•050

•051

•052

.018

019

•019

•020

•021

•022

•023

023

•023

•024

.003

003

•003

•004

004

•004

004

•02,5

•025

•026

•027

•028

.028

•029

■030

•030

•031

032

/SO

•046

.047

•048

•049

•050

•051

052

•053

•054

•055

■056

•057

•058

•059

•060

•068

.069

•070

•072

•073

•075

•076

•077

•079

•oso

•082

083

■085

086

•087

•089

091

093

•095

■096

•098

•100

•102

•104

•106

•108

•109

111

•113

115

•110

•113

•115

•117

119

•122

•124

126

•129

•131

133

•136

■138

•140

•143

.131

•134

•137

140

•142

.145

•148

151

•153

•156

159

•162

•164

•165

•17C

100

153

.156

•159

•162

•165

•169

•172

•175

•178

•181

•184

•188

•191

194

•197

100

The Aneroid is an instrument which has come into extensive use, owing
to its convenient size and portability. In the aneroid, atmospherical pressure
is measured by its effect in altering the shape of a small, hermetically
sealed, metallic box, from which almost all the air has been withdrawn,
and which is kept from collapsing by a spring. The top of the box is cor-
rugated.

When the atmospherical pressure rises above the amount which was
recorded when the instrument was made, the top is forced inwards, and
vice versa, when pressure falls below that amount, the top is pulled outwards
by the spring. These motions are transferred by a system of levers and
springs to a hand which moves on a dial like that of a wheel barometer.

A most serious objection to the scientific utility of these instruments is
their liability to injury, owing to rust or to the alteration of force in the
springs used in their construction. However, for the reasons above stated,
the aneroid is especially suitable for fishermen, pilots, or seafaring persons
employed in boats or small coasting vessels, in which there is not space to
suspend a barometer.

INDEX.

Abacou Point, 512

Abajo Islet, 678

Abercromby, Hon. R„ on
Hurricanes, 266

Absecum Inlet, 775

Acores Islmds, 650

Adelaide, Tides, 294

Adou Coast, Winds, 225

Adour River, 571

Aferni, Ras, 588

African Current See

Guinea Current

African Knoll, 613-14

African Monsoons, 221 —
229, (63) Cause. (64)
Dampier's Theory. 65)
Maury on their Limits.
(67) Captain Midgley on
the African Seasons. (68)
Cape Blanco to the Gam-
bia and Windward Coast.
(69) The Harmattan. (70)
Baron Roussin on the
Seasons, Cape Bojador to
the Isles de Los. (71) Re-
marks on the Harmattan,
by the same. (72) Capt.
Boteler on the Harmat-
tan.

African Rock, 575

Africa, Positions of Places,
31—38

, Tides, 309

, Tracks to, 484

, West Coast, De-
scriptive Remarks and
Sailing Directions for the
Navigation to, and of,
486—492

-, West Coast of, 577

—649

-, W. Coast, Season,

221 — 229, 488—490
Agadi, 582
Agadir, 588-9
Agalha, Ponta d', 688
Agassiz, Professor Gulf

Stream, 390, 408
Age of the Tide, 295
Agoa das Furnas Crater,

C54

de Pao Crater, 654

Aguia, Penha d', 699
Aguluh, Cape, 589

N. A. O.

Aime — Ocean Temperature,

822
Airey, Professor — Magnetic

Variation, 443

, , Magnetism

of Iron Ships, 841
Aix Island, 569
Akassa River, 590
Alabama, Positions of Places

65
Alagoa de los Sette Cidades,

654

Grande, 654

Albemarle Sound, 779
Albernas, Ponta, 682
Albradar, 613
Albreda, 602
Albrida, 613, 615
Albufeira Point, 660
Alcatraz Bank and Island,

626
Aldea Point, 707
Alderney, 567
Alderman Rock, 562
Alexander, Capt. — Peak of

Tenerife, 208
Ali Bey— Positions, 31, 37
Al Khos River, 579
Allegranza Isle, 700, 704
Allerton Point, 769
Alligator Point, 634
Almadie Point and Light,

607
Almadies Rocks, 607
Almadronis, 579
Abright Island, 55
Alta Vela, 511
Aha Garaone Mountain,

713
Alternation of Sea & Land

Breezes, 181
Alto Pico, 662
Ambleteuse Koad, 564
Amboroo Bank, 610
America, Coasts and Islands

of, 758—784
, of Ships bound to

and from the Northern

Ports of, 516—521

-, Steam Tracks to

and from, 526 — 533
, Tracks to and

from, 516
, Winds, 256—258

Amherst Fort Light, 760

Island, 55

Ammen's Rock, 793

Amsterdam, 23

Anaga, Punta de, 709

Anagas Rocks, 709

Ancoras Islands, 618

Andrau, Lieut., 401

Tempera-
ture of the Gulf Stream,
414

Anegada Islands — Currents
361

Angel Bank and Hillocks,
602

Angra, 669-70

de Cintra, 596

dos Kuivos, 595

Animal Life in the Deep
Sea, 830

Anne, Cape, 767

Antelope Islands, 603

Anticosti, Positious of Places
&c, 50, 55-6

Antigua, Currents, 375

Antioche Rocks, 569

Antiquerra, Punta de, 711

Anti-trades or Passage
Winds, 231—258. (79)
Definition. (80) Esti-
mates. (82) Predomi-
nance. (84) Winds be-
tween 55° and 40° N.,
with tables of frequency
for the eight points of the
compass, &c— A. Distri-
bution across the ocean ;
B. Withrefeience to lon-
gitude ; C. According to
latitude and longitude.
(85) Captain Toynbce's
examinations of logo Nos.
I. to VIII., kept byCapt.
J. A. Martyn. (86) Capt.
Toynbce's remarks, (87)
Captain R. Inglis on the
Winds between Groat
Britain and New York.
(88) Westerly limit of
S.W. Winds. (90), (91)
Storms crossing the At-
lantic. (92) Storms visit-
ing the British Isles. (93)
Liverpool Observ's. (94)

5 s

862

INDEX.

Anti-trades, §e. — continued.

Motion, Sen sons, and Di-
rections. (95) (i)6) Inter-
ference. (97) (98) Winds
in the English Channel.
(98) Winds in the open
Ocean (Maury). (99)
"Westerly predominance.
(100) Bayof Biscay. (101)
North Coast of Spain.
(102) Winds of North
American Coast.

Antonio, Cape, Currents,
372

Apple Island, 769

Arago — Ocean Temperature
822

Areas Island, 620, 623

Arco, Ponta do, 698

Arctic or Labrador Cur-
rent, 424-432. (310)
Definition and Extent.
(311) (312) Around Cape
Farewell. (313) Up Da-
vis Strait, &c. (314) Down
the Coast of Labrador.
(315) Drifting Ice. (316)
Arguments by Mr. Red-
field. (317) Velocity.

(318) Past Newfoundland.

(319) Into Gulf of St.
Lawrence. (320) Around
Sable Island. (321) Along
the Coast of the United
States. (322) Intermin-
gling cold veins and cold
■wall {See Ice).

Arecife, 702
Arethusa Reef, 633
Argand Lamps, 91
Arguin Bank and Island,

591, 600-1
Arklow Bank, 456
Arlett, Lieut. W.— Coast of

Africa, 578,590; Dust in

the Atlantic Ocean, 832,

834; Fueitaventura, 705;

Lanzarote, 702; Positions,

32
Arnel Point & Lighthouse,

661
Arriero, Pico, 689
Arrife, Ponta de, 674
Arzilla, 578
Asati, 585
Asfee Bay, 584
Ashley River, 783
Aspotogen, 766
Assateague Lighthouse, 778
Assinee, Winds, 225
Atalaya Point, 692
Atila Rock, 683
Atlantic Isles, Winds, 207—

217
Atlas Mount, 586

Mountains, 588

Atmosphere— See Motions

and Pressure of the

Atmospheric Circulation,

173 178
Aurigny, 567
Austin, Lieut. — Positions,

33
Aveiro, 575
Aves, Mr. J. Da3dalus

Rock, 795
Aylen Bank, 799
Azamor, 583

A.zores Islands, 650 — 685
, Positions of Places,

38-9
, Vigia dos, 797

Babague Island, 604
Baccaro, Cape, 766
Baccow, 612
Bache, Lieut. — On the Gr.lf

Stream, 403
, Professor A. D. —

Positions, 60—68
Bad^eley, Lieut. — Sherboro

Inlet, 64/
Bagroo River, 646
Bahama Banks, Positions of

PI ices, 70-1
Islands, Currents,

374

, Winds, 210

, Tides, 311

Bailies' Prong Bank, 557
Bain, Mr.— Magnetism, 836
Baixo Island, 687
Bajo de la Mancha, 709

S.co, 513

Bald Cape, 615

Baleira, Villa, 686

Ballard Bank, 762

Bal laird, Capt. — Volcanic

Shock, 805
Ballycottin Bay, 558
Banak Island, 624
Bananas Islands, 645
Banche Verte, 570
Banquereau Bank, 763
Bantry Bay, 563
Banyan Shoal, 613
Barbados, 503
, Discoloured Water

near, 807

, On making the, 503

Barbary Point, 604
Barbas'Cape, 597
Barel Point, 624
Barfleur, 564
Barlovento Point, 713
Barlow, Mr. — Magnetism,

836
Barnard, Commander T. L.

— Santa Cruz, Tenerife,

712
Barnegat Inlet, 774
Barnett, Captain E. — Posi-
tions, 68 — 72; Soundings,

813
Barnier, 610

Barnstaple Bay, Tides, 306

Barometer, Indications of
the, 183, 264 ; Gradient*,
188-195: Waves, 186-
188 ; Remarks on the, by
Admiral FitzRoy, 855 —
858

Barossa Rock, 509

Barraconda Falls, 612
Barra Point, 612

Barrels, The, 556

Bartholomew, Captain— St.
Lucia, Cape Verde Ids.,
728

Bartlett, Mr. R. —Santa
Cruz, Tenerife, 711

Bashaw Islands, 646

Basque Roids, 569

Basse Vieille Rock, 568

Bassi River, 618

Bathurst, 612—13

Batten Mount, 547

Battery Point, 544

Baxio, Ponta del, 6 SI

Baxios, Ponta de la, 674

Bayadere Breaker, 617

Shoal, 600

Bayamo Bight, W T inds, 210,
211

Bayfield, Admiral — On the
Winds of the St. Law-
rence, 256 ; Positions, 45
—48, 50-59

Bay of Biscay, 567 — 575

Bay of the Seine, 564

Bayonne, 571-2

Beacon Hill, 544

Bearhaven, 563-4

Bear's Tail Rock, 544

Beata Island, 512

Beaufort Bank, 792

Harbour, 781

Notation, 179

Beaufort, Sir F.— On Cape
Clear as a starting place,
462; Soundings, 813

Beaumaris, 454

Beaupre, M. Beautemps—
Positions, 25

Becher, Capt. A. B.— Cur-
rent Bottles, 313

Beechey, Admiral — Current
Canary Ids., 709 ; Ocean
Temperature, 822 ; on the
Tides, 304

Belair Cape, 610

Belcher, Captain Sir E. —
Campoone River, 630 ;
Gambia, 613-14; Ocean
Temperature, 822 ; On
Crossing the Equator, 477;
Positions, 29, 32-3 ; Pul-
lam Tree, 625; Tides,
&c, Cape Blanco, 599

Belgium, Positions of Places
23-4

Bellangsang Point, 639

Belle He and Lights, 569

Belle Isle Strait, 521

INDEX.

8G3

Bell Rock, 763
BeDcer Point, 627
Bengal Rocks, 646
Beni Hassan Tower, 582
Benin, Bight of, Currents,

488, 492
Bentee Point, 639
Berbice Light vessel, 515
Bergantin Islet, 509
Bermeja Shoal, 714
Bermudas Islands, 732 — 751
Challenger Bank,

799
— — , Positions of

Places, 69

Surveys, 69

— — , Deep Soundings,

S.E. of, 799

Seasons, 230

Squalls, 231, 735

Bernardo de Orta, on the

Winds of Vera Cruz, 212

Berrin, 616

Berry, Capt. W. C. On the
Currents of the Bahama
Islands, &c, 374

Berry Head, 543

Berryman, Lieut. O. H.,
Cruise of the Dolphin,
814

Bessessema, 624

Betancuria, 705

Biafra, Bight of, Currents,
491

Bighuda, Ponta, 725

Big Island, 628

Bijooga Islands, 617

■ , Positions of

Places, 33

Bilbao, 572-3

Biot, M., Magnetism, 837'

Birch's Rocks, 790

Bird Island, Boston, 769

Bird Isle, Cape Verde Is-
lands, 718, 730

Bird Islets, Magdalen Is-
lands, 55

Birds' Islands, Africa, 611

Birt, Mr. W. R., On Baro-
metric Waves, 187. On
Hurricanes, 264. On
Weather Charts, 193

Birvideaux Bank, 569

Biscay, Bay of, 567 — 575

- Positious of

Places, 25 — 27

Tides, 309

Winds, 254-5

Bishop and Clerks Rocks,

552
Bishop Rock Litho., 552
Bissagos Islands, 617
Bissao, 621
Bissao Channel, 617
Black Fish Banks, 778
— — Rock and Beacon, 549

Channel, 770

Blackstone, The, 544
Blanca Point, 679

Blanca, Ponta, 678
Blanco, Cape, 598 - 600

Winds, 224

North Cape, 584

Block Island, 773
Blonde Rook, 767
Blue Cut Channel, 738
Blunt. Mr. L. M., Nan-
tucket Shoals, 771, 794

, junr., Mr. Edmund,

George's Bank, 794

Board of Trade Current
Chart, 312, 317

Boa Ventura, Rocha de, 698

Boavista Inland, 718

Boaz Island, 739

Bocayna Strait, 704

Bode", Ponta, 699

Bodies Island, 779

Boiler Channel, 737

Bojador Cape, 593

Currents, 337

Winds, 228

Bolola Channel, 623
Bonacca, Currents, 373
Bonanza Road, 576
Bonavista Cape, 49

Island, 718—721

Currents, 487

Bonetta Rock, 719

Bonn Island, 620
Bonny River, Seasons, 488
Boolam Island, 623-4
Boom Kittam River, 647
Boone Mount, 545
Boonyadoo Creek, 615
Boqueirao, Ponta de, 688
Borda, Chevalier de, Posi-
tions, 32, 37
Borden, Mr. S., Positions,

66
Born, Capt., Positions, 43
Bossessame, 624
Boston Lighthouse, 767 —

771
Boteler, Capt. T., Positions,
31, 33, 35

on the Harmattan, 229
Botof Sandhills, 586
Bottles Current. See Cmi-

KENTS.

Boulogne, 564
Bouree Rocks, 577
Bowditch, Dr., Positions,

lie

Boyador Cape, 593

Brackish Point, 741

Brady, Lieut. W. H., Na-
vigation of the W. Indies,
494

Braithwaite Kay, 719

Branca, Ponta, 687

Branco Island, 728

Brasil, Monte. 670-1

■ Rock, 767, 789

Brava, 726

Braye and Lights, 567

Bray Head, .jo4

Brazen Head, 092
Brea Head, 564

Bream Shoals, 738

Breaute, M. Nell de. On
the Winds of the
English Channel, 252

Bredos, Ponta dos, 681

Breem Rock, 5 61

Breezes, Alternation of Sea
and Land, 181

, Season of the, 214

Brewster, Sir D., Mag-
netism, 837

Brewster Spit Narrows Lt.,
768

Brighton, 542

Brisbane, General Sir T.,
Positions, 40

Bristol Channel, 450, 553

Tides. 306

British Isles, Winds, 249

Brito, Lieut. J. C de On
the Force of the Wind,
196

Brixham, 544

Broad Sound Channels, 770

Brown' 8 Bank, 794

Brownston Head, 458

Bron, Commodore, Benedo
de San Pedro, 754

Broyal Mt., 719

Brussels, 23

Buchan, Mr. A. On the
Pressure of the Atmos-
phere, 244. On the Tem-
perature of the Sea on
the Coast of Scotland,
422. On the Winds of
the N. Atlantic, 242

Buena Esperanza Bight,
Winds, 210-11

Bufardo Rock, 575

Bngio Island, 688

Bulama Island, 623-4

B alien Fort, 612

Bull Island, 782

Bullock, Capt. F., Posi-
tions, 45

Bullock, Mr. W., Positions,
46

Bullom Shore, Sierra Ltone,
643

Bull's Bay, 782

Bulman Rock, 561

Bunker Hill Monument, 769

Bu Regreb River, 581

Busto Cape, 574

Buys Ballot, Dr. C, Law
of Winds, 184

Byjol's Islets, 615

Byron Island, 55

Cabeira Point, 680

Cabo Garajo, 692

Cabras, 705

Cabras Islets, 670

Cabrito, 509

Cacheo, 617

C'acheo Cape & Banks, 616

864

INDEX.

Cadiz, 31

Caernarvon Bay, 5.56
Caimada, Poiita la, 078
Caimado, Mt., G7 ; ">
Caldeira Crater, 083
Caldera Mt.. 713
Caldwell, 619
Caleta Point, 678
Calheta, Arco da, 696

, Pontade. 674-687

Calms. See Equatorial

Calms.
of Cancer. See

Winds and Calms on the

Tropic, 229—231.

-, Canary Ids., 715-6

and Winds, Equa-
torial, 217—221

and Winds on the

Tropic, 229-231
Calver, Captain. — Cruise of

the Porcupine, 816
Camarinns Pay, 574
Camarinhas Peak, 660
Cambridge Observatory, 66
Cameleon Cape, 625
Camera de Lobos, 696
Campanaris, 696
Canal, Capt. Bissao, 621
Canaria Island, 706- 708
Canary Islands, 699 — 716

Currents, 333

, Positions of

Places, 40-1

-, Winds, 207
Cancer, Calms of, 182, 229
Canical Point, 692
Canons, Point des, 569
Cansado, Porto, 591
Cantin, Cape, 578, 584
Canton, Mr. — Compass, 838
Cap Breton, 572
Cape Bay, 642

Blanco, North, 584

■ Breton Island, Posi-
tions of Places, 54

Clear, 457

Ledge, 766

May Bank, 775

Mount, 648

Mount, Winds, 224

Race, 761

Verde & Lighthouse,

606-7

Islands, 476,

716—732

rents, 333

in the neighbourhood of
the, 832

tions of Places, 42-3

East or West of, 196, 476
, Winds

200, 225
Capelinos Islets, 676
Capellas Port, 661

Capers Island, 782
Capes, Capt. — On the Cur-
rents of the West Indies,
373
Caliper, Colonel — On the

Law of Storms, 271/
Carabane, 616
Caraccas, Winds, 211
Carapacho Point, 678
Carasche Bank and Island,

619-20
Cardigan Bay, 556
Cardinals Rocks, 569
Caribbean Sea, General Re-
marks on the Navigation
of the, from Leeward to
Windward, 507-8

, Currents, 364

— 381

, Winds, 200

, Passages, 501

502
Carn Base Rock, 550
Carnsore Point, 557

Carpenter, Dr. Animal

Life in the Deep Sea, 830 ;
On the Temperature of
the Ocean, 822 ; Cruises
of the Shearwater & Por-
cupine, 822 ; of the Light-
ning, 816
Carpenter Rock, 641
Cartagena, Currents, 372,

376
Casa Blanca, 582-3
Casamance River, 616
Casamanza River, 616
Casa, Ponta de, 683-4
Casella, Mr. L. P. -Ther-
mometer, 853
Cashe's Ledge, 767, 793
Casi, 648

Casrouge Cape, 510
Cassasez, 628
Castanhas Peak, 699
Castanheira Cove, 688
Castello, Pico de, 686

, Ponta do, 663,

699
Castelo Bianca Point, 676
Castle Harbour and Island,
742

Ledge and Buoy, 544

Pinckney, 783

Catarinas, l'onta de, 681
Catoptric System, 93-4
Cavalho Island, 623
Cavallos, Puerto de, 703
Caviota Point, 713
Caycos Islands, Positions of

Places, 72

Cayo Island an Bank, 619

Cedeira, 574

Cedros, Ponta dos, Of 3

Chagres, Currents, 372

Chain Rock, 760

Challenger, H.M.S. — Ani-
mal Life in the Deep Sea,
830 ; Arctic or Labrador

Challenger, H.M.S. — con-
tinued.
Current, 428 ; Bermudas,
732; Currents, &c, Sar-
gasso Sea, 350; Diudalus
Rock, 796 ; Deep Sea
Soundings, 815 ; the Gulf
Stream, 393; North r qua-
torial Current, 356; South
Equatorial Current, 360 ;
Guinea Current, 342-3;
Ocean Circulation, 829 ;
Specific Gravity, &c, of
the Atlantic Water, 827,
828 ; Summary of the
Cruise of the, 817-18;
Temperatures, &c, of the
Eastern Extension of the
Gult Stream, 411-12

Challenger Bank, 799

Chanctonherry Ring, 542

Chan- el Islands, 566

Chantereau Shoal, 798

Chao Islet, 687

Chaon Island, 728

Chapel Rock, 555

Chapman Rock, 675

Charles Cape, 778

Charleston, 67, 782-784

Charlottetown, 56

Chassiron, Tour de, 569

Chaussee du Sein, 568

Chavagnac Fort, 566

Chebucto Head, 763

Checkstone, The, 515

Cherbourg and Lights, 565,
566

Chesapeake Bay, 778-9

, Positions

of Places, 63

Chesil Beach, 543

Chevalier de Borda, Posi-
tions, 32, 37

Cheveley, Capt. G. — Direc-
tions for proceeding tc
Demerara from the N.E.,
514; Route to the Wesi
Indies, 493

Chevre Point. 568

Chicabacoa Point, 514

Chieeya Island, 624

Chilegua Mountain, 705

Chilling Cape, 644

Chimmo, Commander W.—
Arctic Current, 44 ; Posi-
tions, 45; Sainthill oj
Milne Bank, 792

Chincoteague Shoals, 778

Chocolateros, Winds, 213

Christian, Cape, 49

Christie, Mr.— On Magne-
tism, 836

Chub Heads and Cut, 737

Church, Lieutenant— Sauti
Cruz, Tenerife, 711

Churruca, Don C. D. — Dis
coloured Water, 807

Cima, Ilheo de, 686

Cintra Bay, 596

INDEX.

865

Cintra, Downs of, 597
Circulation of the Ocean,

828
Cisargas islands and Light-
house, 574
Clara, 704

Clarence Lod?e, 740
Clark, Rev. W.— Dust in

the Atlantic Ocean, 833
Clear, Cape, 457, 562

, As a Starting

Place, 462
Cloud Ring, 220
Clouds, Classification of the,
847 ; Observed, during
Gales, note, 266
Coacoacho Bay, 521
Coal Rock, 454, 459
Coast, Extent of, in the

North Atlantic, 5
Cochrane, Capt. C. S. — On
the Currents of the West
Indies, 365
Cod, Cape, 770
Code, Capt. W.— On the

Maranon Current, 368
Coffin Island, 55
Coffin, Prof.— On Winds,

181
Cohasset Rocks, 768
Colby, General— Positions

of Places, 7
Collins, Lieut. — Positions

of Places, 55
Colombian Sea, Currents,

364—381
Combe Point and Rocks,

545
Compass, 835 — 846; Local
Deviation, 840; in Ir-n
Ships, 840—844; on the
Positions and Arrange-
ment of the, 845 ; Various
Sources of Error, S46
Compoonee River, 846
Composition of Sea Water,

823
Conflict Reef, 626
Coningbeg Lightvessel, 458
Connecticut, Positions of

Places, 62
Constante Reef, 683, 797
Continendos, Ponta do las,

671
Cook, Capt. Jas. — Positions,
47-8 ; Surveys by, 3 ;
Ocean Temperature, 822
Cooper, Capt. — On Rennell's

Current, 320
Cooper River, 782
Coppatches River, 630
Coral Isle, 633

Point, 719

Corbelle Island, 620
Cordouan Tower, 570
Corett Island, 624
Cork Harbour, 559-60
Corn well, Cape, 551
Corobana, 509

Corrected Establishment,

294
Cortada, Ponta, 698
Corteemo Island, 640
Coruna, 574
Corvoeiro, Cape, 598
Corvo Island, 683—685
Cossencey Bar, 631
Coubre, Point de la, 570
Counter Currents, 376
Courtmacsherry Bay, 560
Cow and Calf Rocks, 559
Cowbay Point, 510
Cowie, Captain — Volcanic

Shock, 805
Cow Rock, 457
Craby Harbour, 567
Craven, Commander — Gulf
Stream, 381 ; Soundings
in the Gulf Stream, 389,
392
Crawford Island, 633
Credan Head, 558
Croll, Mr. J.— On the Heat-
bearing Properties of the
Gulf Stream, 415
Crooked Islands, Positions

of Places, 71-2
Crookhaven, 562-3
Crossing the Equator,
460—484; Routes from
Europe, 460—465 ; Ap-
proaching and Crossing,
465 ; Besl Monthly Routes
out and home, by Capt.
Toynbee, 467— 475; East
or West of Cape Verdes,
476 ; Westerly Crossing
of the Equator, 478; Re-
marks by M. D'Apres de
Mannevillette, 482 ; On
the Return Voyage, 484;
From the United States,
537,
Cross Island, 55
Crozier, Capt. — Gulf Stream

382
Cruce Island, 703
Cruz, Monte de, 695

, Ponta da, 692

, Porto da, 699

Cuba, 498

, South Coast, Winds,

211
Culebra, 509
Culebrito, 509
Cumana, Winds, 211
Cumplida Point and Light,

713
Curral, The, 689, 691
Currents, 312—441

(159) General Remarks.
(160j Estimation of. (161)
Authorities. ^161) Board
of Trade Charts. (162-3)
Mr. Strachan's Notes.
(164-5) Estimate by dead
reckoning, &c. (166)
Drift of Bottles. (167)

Ourren ^s— continued.
Surface Currents. (168)
Depth of Currents and
Specific Gravity of Sea
Water. (169) Depth of
the Ocean. (170) Tem-
perature. (171) Origin.
(172) Depth of Move-
ment. (173) Definitions.
(174) General Circula-
tion. (174) Enumeration
of Currents, see 1. Ren-
nell's Current. 2. East-
erly and S.E. Drift to
Europe and Africa. 3.
Guinea Current. 4. Sar-
gasso Sea. 5. Equatorial
Currents. 6. West India
Currents. 7. Gulf Stream,
8. N.E. Set to Europe,
&c. 9. Arctic or Labra-
dor Current, which see.
Currents, Anegada, 361

Antillas, 363

Antonio, Cape,

372

Arguin Bank, 601

Arzilla, 592

Bahama Islands,

374, 511

Bermuda, 747

— — Bissagos Islands,

636

Blanco, Cape, 599

— — Cape Verde ids.,

717

Caribbean Sea,

364—381

Colombian Coast,

364

— Florida Reefs,

404

Guatemala, 376

Gulf of Mexico,

364—381

Hayti, 374, 511

Honduras, 376

■ Juby Cape, 591

Levrier Bay, 699

Madeira, 694

Mo-ador, 587

Mona Passage,

375

Morant Kays, 37"

Mosquito Coast,

365

. Mount, Cape, 648

Porto Rico, 364

Race, Cape, 762

Rocas, 757

Sable Island, 4 30

Senegal, 605-6

Spartel, C;.pe,

328

Trinidad, 508

Virgin Islands,

375

West Indies, 361

381, 505

866

INDEX.

Currents, Yucatan, 376,

379
Currituck Sound, 779
Cyclones, See Hurricanes
Cyclonic ami Anti-Cyclonic
Storms, 249 ; see also Ro-
tary Gales

Dfedalus Rock, 795
D'Agalha, Ponta, 688
Dakar, 609-10
Dalton, Mr. — On Aqueous

Vapours, 177
Dampier— Gulf Stream, 384

On the African Monsoons,

222
Daniel Head, 740
Daniell, Professor, 188
Darby, Mr. — Currents, &c,

of Sable Island, 430
Dartmouth, 544-5
Dar el Beida, 582-3
D'Arfet. Anna, 688
Darwin, Mr. C— Dust in

the Atlantic, 831—835
D'Aubert, Lieut. — Surveys

by, 19
Daunt' s Pock and Light*

vessel, 559
Daussy, M.— On the Tides

at Brest, 296
David's Ledge, 768
Davis Bank, 772

, Commander C. H. —

Soundings, 813 ; Gulf

Stream, 403 ; Nantucket

Shoals, 771, 795

, South Shoal, 771

Davy, Mr. H.— Winds at

Bermudas, 231
Dayman, Commander

Sainthill or Milne Bank,

791
Dayman, Lieut. J. — Sound-
ings, 815
Debrika River, 634
Debucko, 628
Declination of the Needle

838
Deer Island, 769
Dehesa, Ponta de la, 714
Delano, Capt. A. — Penedo

de San Pedro, 754
Delaware Bay, 775-6
■ , Positions of

Places, 62
Delgada, Ponta, Allcgranza,

704

, Floras, 680

, Madeira, 698

De Los, Isles, 632
Dembia River, 632, 634
Demerara, 506, 5(i8
, Directions for

Procoeding to, from the

NE, 514-516; from the

West Indies, 506

Demerara and Tobago,
Steam Navigation be-
tween, 508
Denmark, Positions of

Places, 20-1
Density of Ocean Water,

813, 825-828
Depth, Temperature, &c,
of the North Atlantic
Ocean, 812—831
Derrotero, The, 211
Des Barres, M. — Positions,

59
Doserta Grande Island, 687
Desertas Islets, 687-8
Dessiou, M. — On London

Tides, 296
Deviation of the Compass,

840
Devies Island, 782
Devil Island, 763
Devil's Limb Island, 767
Diamond Point, 73
Dioptric System, 93, 96
Dinas Head, 457
Dip of the Needle, 838
Directions, Bermudas Ids.,
745—751

, Boston, 768-771

, Canary Islands,

715

, Cape Roxo to the

Isles de Los, 635-6

, Halifax Harbour,

764-766
Diriks, Mr.— Positions, 19
Discoloured Water, &c,

807—812
Diurnal Change of the Com-
pass, 838
Dobson, M.— On the Har-

mattan, 226
Dog Island, 728
Dog Island Point, 615
Dog's Nose Point, 559
Doherty, Colonel — Sierra

Leone, 643
Doldrums, The, 182, 198,

217
Dollabarrat's Shoal, 665-6
Dominica, Currents, 375
Don Juan Badia y Leblich,

Positions, 31-2, 37
Douarnenez Bay and Lt.-

house, 568
Doubtful Rocks, Tables of,

800-804
D'Oueste, Ponta, 683
Douro River Survey, 31
Dove, Professor, 259 ; Law
of Gyration, 181, 187
Dover, Tides, 304-5
Downie, Mr. Murdo, De-
scription of a Waterspout,
286 ; Directions for
making the Bermudas
745.
Drago Point, 710
Draystone Rock, 547

Dredging, 830

Drift Current, 316

Dry Season, African Coast,
229

Dublin, 15

Duksal, Cape, 584

Durnai'esq, Captain — The
Rocas, 757

Duncan Reef, 763

Dungeness, 540

- East and West

Roads, 541

Dunmore, 558

Dunsterville, Commander —
Remarks on the Bermu-
das, and Passages to and
from, 748 ; St. Iago, Cape
Verde Islands, 723; Po-
sitions, 72 ; Jamaica to
the Bar of Maracaybo,
April and May, 512 ; Ap-
proaching Halifax, 764 ;
Currents, West In lies,
378

Duperrey, M. — Magnetism,
837

Du Petit-Thouars — Ocean
Temperature, 822

D'Urville — Ocean Tempe-
rature, 822

Dust in the Atlantic Ocean,
831—835

Dutch Kay, 719

Dvina Rock, 790

Eagles Rock, 699
East Rock, 704
Echelle Point, 569
Eddystone Lightho., 546
Eder, 584
Edinburgh, 12
E^gersund, 19
Egg Harbour, 773
Egg Rocks, 769
Egerton, Commander —

Gettysburg or Gorringe

Bank, 796
Ehrenberg, Professor— Dust

in the Atlantic Ocean,

175, 831, 834
Eight Stones Shoal, 797
Ekersund, 19
El Araiche, 579, 580
Elbe and Weser Rivers

Surveys, 23
El Cumbre Peak, /08
Electric Light, 92
Elies Harbour, 740
Elizabeth River, 778
Ellis Cove, Anticosti, 56
Ellis Harbour, 740
El Mansoria, 582
Elphick Tree Shoal, 541
Engano, Cape, 509
England and Wales, Posi-
tions of places, 7 — 10
English Channel, Coasts,

&c, 540

INDEX.

807

English Channel, Directions
for leaving the, 462

■ , Passages

to and from the, 448-452

, Tides, 304

,Winds,252,

449

English Islet, 604

Road. 719, 720, 722

Entroza Ribeira, 698

Entry Island, 55

Equator, Approaching and
Crossing the, 460, 484

■ , Routes from the

United States to the, 537
—539

Equatorial Calms and
Winds, 198, 217—221.
(58) Definition of the Dol-
drums. (59) Remarks by
Commander Maury, and
Table of Extent*. (60)
Crossing the Calm Belt.
(61) Barometric Indica-
tions. (62) Cloud-ring
and the Rains.

Equatorial Counter Current.
See Guinea Current.

Equatorial Currents, 355
—364

North Equatorial Current,
35/5—359. (216) Area and
Causes. (217) Velocity,
&c, noticed by H.M.S.
Challenger. (218) Westerly
Dritt. (219) Monthly
Rates and Limits. (220)
Captain Toynbee's Re-
marks. (221) Examples
and Estimate of Mean
Velocity. (222) Drift of
Bottles and List of them
from Captain Beecher.
(223) Other Examples of
Bottle Drifts. (224) Di-
vision between North and
South.

South Equatorial Current,
359. (225) Causes. (226)
Western Limits. (227)
Observations on board
H.M.S. Challenger. (228)
Rates & Direction. (229)
Remarks by .Sir R.Schom-
burgb. (230) Exceptions ;
Rollers, or Heavy Ground
Swell.

Erskine, Captain Rockall,
752

Escolar Shoal, 682

Espalamaca Point, 675

Espy, Mr., Law of Storms,
259, 260

Essequibo River, 508

E?taldishment of the Port,
294

Estaca, Cape, 574

Estanqnes, Punta de los,
512

Europa Rock, 798

Europe and New York,
Tracks, 522—526

Evans, Captain F. J., Com-
pass, 843 ; Magnetism,
836 ; Magnetic Variation,
443

Evans, Lieut. John, Disco-
loured Water, 807 ; on
Bayamos, 211; Ice in the
North Atlantic, 439 ; De-
scription of a North, 213 ;
Bermudas, 741 ; Gulf
Stream, 406 ; on Gulf
Weed in the Sargasso and
Mexican Seas, 353 ; on
Hurricanes, 265 — 274

Evans, Mr. T. J., Coast of
Afiica, 478

Fachio Peak, 686

Factory Island, 6 33

Faarce Island, Positions of
Places. 43

Faithfull, Capt. H., Deme-
rara, 515

Fajao d'Ovelha Point, 697

Falcon Rock, 6S?

Rocks, 796

Falmouth, 548—550

False Cape, Sierra Leone,
644

Falulo Breakers, 616, 619

Fanaes, 681

Farewell, Cape, 49

Farmer Ledge, 561

Farran Point, 644

Fasce, Captain G. B., Mar-
sala Bank, 798

Fas Peak, 579

Fastnet Rock and Light-
house, 457, 562

Fayal Island, 674—677

-, Ponta de, 698

Fear, Cape and Shoals, 781

Federal Point Lighthouse,
781

Feich, Mr., George's Bank,
794

Feiteira, Ponta de la, 663

Ft-nwick Island Lighthouse
and Shoal, 777

Fernando Po, Positions of
Places, 36

Ferraria Point, 660

Fern ira, M. M., Constante
Reef, 797

Ferreira Reef, 683, 797

Ferro, 714

, Uheo de, 687

Ferrol, 574

Feteira Cove, 676

Fidallah, 532

Figueral, 664

Findlay, Capt. G. A., Vol-
canic Shock, 806

Finisterre, Cape and Light-
house, 463, 575, 790, 795

, Nave of, 575

Finlaison, Mr.. St. Vin-
cent's, 731 ; Winds at
the Cape Verde Ids., 717

Fire Island Inlet, 772

Firestone Hill, 717

Fisgard Bay, 457

Fisherman's Cliff, 596

Fishing Rip, 772

FitzRoy, Admiral, 189; Dis-
coloured Water, 809 ;
Funchal, 694 ; Gulf
Stream, 39 1 ; Madeira,
690 ; Ocean Temperature,
822 ; Penedo de San Pe-
dro, 755 , Tracks for
Steamers, 530 ; Winds,
St. Iago, Cape Veide Ids.,
724

Five Fathom Bank or Cape
May Bank, 775

Five Fathom Hole, Bermu-
das 749

Flamingos Islands, 650

Flatts Village, 740

Flemish Islands, 650

Fleurieu, M , on a Chart of
Atlantic Ocean, drawn up
from Observations by, 2

Fleurieu, M., Porto Praya,
Terceira, 661

Flinders, Capt., Local De-
viation of the Compass,
840 ; Positions, 40, 41

Flores Island, 679—683

Florez, Captain, 27

Florida, Cape, 68

■, Positions of Places,

Strait, 498-501
-, Winds, 217

Stream. See Gulp

Stream.
Tides, 311

Fogo Island, Cape Verdes,

725, 726
Fogs, St. Lawrence, 55
Folgo Point, 679
Fonte, 588

, Uheo de, 687

Footabar Island, 633

Fora Island & Lighthouse,

691-2
Forbes, Mr. R. B., Tracks

for Steamers, 526
Force and Velocity of the

Wind, 178—180, 196 ;

East and West of the

Cape Verdes, 197
Forchhammer, Dr. G., on

Ocean Circulation, 420
, Professor G.,

on the Saltness of the

Ocean, 825
Forecarreah River, 638
Foretelling of the Weather,

184, note

8G8

INDEX.

Formigas Bank and Rocks,

664-5
, The, 510

Formosa, Cape, 488
Fortunate Islands, 699
Foul Channel, 728
Fouras, 657
Fozzo de Porco, Ponta de,

679
Frades, Ponta dos, 686
France, Coast of, 564—571

, Positions of Places,

24—27
Franklin, Dr., on Whirl-
winds and Waterspouts,
285; Gulf Stream, 382,
384 ; Ocean Temperature,
822 ; the Thermometer,
an Indicator of the vici-
nity of Ice, 439
Franzini, Major, Positions,

27
Frayle Point, 679
Frayles Islet, 670, 672

Rocks, 511-12

Fredericsburg, 778
Freeden, Mr. H. W. von, on
the Winds of the North
Atlantic, 232 ; Normal
Tracks for Steamers, 531
—533
Freetown, 642
Frenchman's Island, 723
French Mountain, 632
Freshwater Bay, 726
Fresnel's Revolving Light,

94
Friar's Islet, 672
Froward Points, 544
Frying Pan Shoals, 781
Fuego Island, 725
Fuertaventura, 704-6
Funchal, 41, 689, 692—695
Fundy, Bay of, 767

, Tides, 310

Furada, Ponta, 692
Furna Bay, 726
Furrilhao Kocks, 687

Gada, Ponta del, 680
Galea Point and Light, 572
Galera, Ponta, C96
Gulerna, The, 255
Gales. See Rotary Gales.
Gales, Captain J., 186
Galhao Reef, 721
Galicia, Currents off Coast,

337
Galinha Island, 623
Galinhas River, 647
Gallani, 612
Gallantry Bower, 553
Gallendy Bower, 553
Gallinas River, 647
Gallop Island, 769
Gall, Pedra de, 697
Galton, Mr. Francis, Me-

teorographica, 185
Galveston, Winds, 214

Gambia River, 612-615
, Positions of

Places, 33
, Routes to and from,

484—486

River, Winds, 224

Gando, 707
Garajo, Cape, 692
Garaone, Alta, 713
Garnet Bay, 594-5
Gattandar, 604
Gatta, Pray a da, 731
Geer, Cape, 37, 588
Geiger, Captain, on the

Gulf Stream, 405
General Murray's Tree, 509

Remarks on the

Currents, 312—317

Remarks on the

Winds, 173-182

Remarks, Passages,

445 — 448
General Turner's Peninsula,

647
George Fort, Bermudas, 736

Island, 763

Town, 508

George's Bank, 794
Georgia, Positions of Places,

64
Germany, Positions of

Place, 21, 23
Gettysburg Bank, 576, 796
Ghindamar, 647
Ghir, Cape, 588
Gibbs' Hill and Lighthouse,

735, 741
Gibraltar, 31

Strait, Tides, 309

Giles, Captain, Velocity of

the Gulf Stream, 398
Gilkicker Point, 542
Girao, Cape, 696
Gironde, River, 570-1
Givry, M., Positions, 32
Glaisher Notation, 179
Glas, Capt., Directions for
sailing among the Canary
Islands, 715 ; on the
calms of the Canary
Islands, 716
Glensariff, 563
Goats Islets. 670, 672
Gold Coast, Winds, 225
G-.ld River, 595
Gomera, 713-14
Gordo, Monte, 726—728
Goree & Island, 485, 608-9
Gorgulho Rock, 695
Gorringe Bank, 576, 796
Gouyh's Rocks, 790-1
Goulfar, 5G9

Graah, Capt. — Arctic or
Labrador Current, 425 ;
Positions, 48-9
Gracias a Dios Cape, Cur-
rents, 377
Graciosa Island, 678-9, 703,
704

Gradients, Barometric, 188

—195
Graham, Dr. — Madeira, 691
Grain Coast, Winds, 225
Grand Banks, 520, 527

Bay, Anticosti, 56

Canary, 706—708

Cayman, Currents,

372

Sestros, Kroumen,

487
Trigonometrical Sur-
vey, Positions, 7
Grange Ruck, 521

, The, 510

Grass Island, Rocas, 756

Grassy Bay, 740

Grattan, Mr.— Port Dues at

the Canary Islands, 700
Grave, Passe de, 571
Graves Rocks, 768
Gravois, Cape, 512
Great Bermuda Island, 740
Great Circle Courses,
445 ; to America from
Europe, 516 ; to the
Equator, 461 ; from the
United States, 516
Great Newton Head, 458

Piton, 701

Raccoon Kay, 782

Rip, 772

Rock, 594

Scarcies River, 640

Sound, 740

Green Bank, 520

Green, Capt. — Volcanic

Shock, 809
Greenland, Positions of

Places, 44, 48-9
Greevelink, Lieut, — Dis-
coloured Water, 807-8 ;
General Remarks on the
Navigation of the Carib-
bean Sea, from Leeward
to Windward, 507 ; On
the Currents of the West
Indies, 366, 369
Grenada and Jamaica, Na-
vigation between, 511-12

, Currents, 375

Greyhound Baj r , 599

Griego Bank, 706

Griel Wood Island, 603

Grindstone Island, 55

Grosse Island, 55

Grote, Capt. — Dvina Rock,

790
Grove, Capt. C. F.— Sur-
veys bv, 19

Point, 543

Guadaloupe, Currents, 375
Guadaya Peak, 686
Guayana, 507

Discoloured Watei

off, S08

Winds, 21 1

Guatemala Bay, Currents,
376

INDEX.

869

Gueder, 590
Guia, 675

Guindante, Pcrata, 692
Guinea. Current, 339 —
347. (190) Djfined. (191)
(192) Examples from
Maury, (193) By Mr. J.
Mann. (194) Westerly
crossing of the Equator.
(195) Velocity and Di-
rection. (196) Tempera-
ture. (197) Observations
by H.M.S. Challenger.

(198) Near Cape Palmas.

(199) Near Cape Mount.

(200) Monthly rate and
limits. (201) Captain
Toynbee's remarks for
each month of the year.

Gulf Stream, 381—416.
(253) Introductory. (254)
Erroneous Estimates.

(255) How they arose.

(256) Extension of the
Stream. (257) Origin.

(258) History, earliest.

(259) By Dampier and
Franklin. (260) Causes.
(261) Denned. (262-3)
Character. (264) Cha-
racteristics. (265) Ex
tent. (266) Its N.W.
Margin. (267) Depth &
Account of Surveys.
(268) Sand Kay— Havana
Section. (269) Sombrero
—Kay Sal Section. (270)
Carysfort — Bahama Bank
Section. (271) Narrows.

(272) Description of Sec-
tions.

(273) Sections to North-
ward. (274) East of Cape
Hatteras. (275) Breadth.

(276) Velocity.

(277) Monthly Extent and
Velocity of Gulf Stream
from Board of Trade
Chart. (278) In the
Strait of Florida. (279)
Remarks by Captain
Livingstone. (280) By
General Sabine.

(281) Temperature. (282)
Fallacies. (283) Maury's
and Andrau's Charts.

(284) Variations in He^it.

(285) Warm Bands. (286)
Sub-surface tempera-
tures. (287) The Cold

Wall. (288) Counter
Current. (289) Along
Florida Reefs. (290)
Capt. Geiger's Remarks.

(291) On Cuba side.

(292) To North and N.E.
of the Bahamas. (293)
Roof-shape of the Stream.

N. A. O.

Gulf Stream — Continued.
(295) The Channel of the
Gulf Stream.

(296) Recapitulation of
its Features. (297) Be-
yond Nantucket. (298)
Obs.by H.M.S. Challenger.
(299) Dr. Petertnann's
Remarks. (300) Termina-
tion of the Gulf Stream
East of the Great Banks.
(301) Conclusion.

Gulf Stream, Navigation
in, 497—500

Weed, 349—355, 810

Gull Banks, 777

Rock, 550

Gum Trade, History, 604

Gunnlaugsson, Mr. Bjorn.
— Positions, 43

Gurnard Bay, 595

Hadley, George. — Theory
of the Trade Winds and
Monsoons, 174
ILedic Island and Light-
house, 569
Huffa el Beida Cliff, 579
Hagerup, Lieut. — Surveys

by, 19
Hales. — Ocean Tempera-
ture, 822
Halifax Harbour, 59, 763—

766
Halley, Dr. Edmund. —
Magnetism, 837, 840;
Theory of the Trade
Winds & Monsoons, 174
Halton Harbour, 49
Hamilton, 740
Han, 609
Hand Deeps, 546
Hangman Point, 561
Hansteen, Professor. — Mag-
netism, 836-7, 840
Harbour Rock, 555, 559
Harding Ledge, 768
Harding, Lt.— Positions, 58
Hare, Capt. — Routes to and
from North America, 517

519

Harmattan, The, 225-6,

228-9
Harrington Sound, 740
Hirrison's Rocks, 790-1
Harris, Sir W. Snow.— On
the Force and Velocity of
the Wind, 179
Hartland Point and Light-
house, 553
Hartnup, Mr.— On Winds

at Liverpool, 251
Hartwell Reefs, 718—720
Harvey, Mr. T.— Rockall,

751
Haslewood Rock, 752
Hassler, Mr. F. R.— Posi-

tions, 65
Hats, The, 556

Hatteras, Cape and Shoals,
779, 780

Havana, Routes to, 498

Have, Cape Le, 766

Hawks, Isles of, 650

Hayes, Capt.— Positions, 35

Hay, Mr. E. W. D.— Cau-
tion — Coast of Marocco,
577

Hayti, 512

, N. Coast, Currents,

374

Haytien, Cape, 510

Haywood, Capt. — Dust in
the Atlantic Ocean, 832

, Mr. Funchal, 693

Hebrides, Surveys, 13

Height of Mean Water, 295

Helen Rock, 752

Hell Rock, 704

Henderson, Capt. J.— Tul-
lock Rocks, 666

Henlopen, Cape, 775

Henry Cape, 778

Henry, Don. — Azores, 650

Hercules, Tower of, 574

Hereford Inlet, 773

Herschel, Sir John. — On
Barometric Waves, 18(j;
On the Cause of the Gulf
Stream, 385 ; On tho
Origin of Storms, 175;
Ocean Temperature, 822

Hierro, 714

Hob's Nose, 543

Ho? Fish Cut, 738

Island Lighthouse, 777

Islands, 623-4

Holbrook, Mr. George. —
Positions, 46

Holland. — Positions of
Places, 21, 23

, Mr. S. —Posi-
tions, 59

II )lophotal System, 96

H -lyhead, 458

II ime, Dr. M.— On Hurri-
canes, 261

Holmestone, The, 544

Honduras Bay, Currents,
376

, Winds, 211-12

Honey Island, 623

Hook Head and Light, 558

Point, 458

Hopkins, Mr. — On the
Trade Winds, 176

Hormigon Rock, 664

Horner. — Ocean Tempera-
ture, 822

Horsburgh. — Dust in tho
Atlantic Ocean, 834 ; On
Trade Winds, 199

Horse Latitudes, 229

of Willingdon Shoal,

541

Horseshoe Bank, 614

Ledare, 766

Shoal, 778

b X

870

INDEX.

ITorta, 674

Hoskyn, Commander R.,
Porcupine Bank, 789,
816; Rockall, 751, 752

Hnddart, Capt. — Surveys
bv, 13

Hudik, Cape, 584

Humboldt, Baron.— Canary
Islands, 700 ; On the Cur-
rents of the West Indies,
36o, 369 ; Peak of Tene-
rife, 708-9 : Ocean Tem-
perature, 822

Hunt, Capt. E. B. — Gulf
Stream, 390, 405

Hunt, Mr.— Capellas Port,
661

, Mr. T. C. — Earth-
quakes at the Azores,
668; Hurricanes and
Winds at the Azores, 651
653; St. Mary's, 662-3;
Terceira, 669

nurd, Capt. Thos.— Posi-
tions, 69

Hurricanes, 259 — 285.
(103) Discussions enume-
rated. (104) Law of
Storms. (105) Captain
Jinman's Views. (106)
Dr. Milne Home's Re-
marks on the Spiral
Theory. (107) Conclu-
sions. (108) (110) SirW.
Reid's "Pule." (Ill)
Irregularities. (112) Sea-
sons. (113) Barometer
Indications. (114) Pre-
cautions Necessary. (115)
Prognostics. (116) Move-
ment of Cyclone. (117)
Rule. (118) Lt. J. Evans'
(Stormy Jack's) Storm
Card. (119) Use of it.
(120) Veering of the
Wind. (121) N.E. Qua-
drant. (122) S.E. Qua-
drant. (123) S.W. Qua-
drant. (124) N.W. Qua-
drant. (125) Capt. Leigh-
ton's Remarks. (1-6)
Examples given on Chart.

(127) Hurricane of 1780.

(128) Trinidad Hurri-
cane. (129) Barbadoos
Hurricane. (130) Hurri-
cane of 1830. (131) On
the United States' Coast.
(132) A S.E. Storm in
September. (133) Cy-
clone of August, 1870.
(134) On making use of
Hurricanes.

Hurricanes, "Law," 183
Hutchinson, Mr. — On the

Trade of Senegal, 604
Hydrography, 3
Hypocrite Channel, 770

Icebergs &c, 432-411
Ice, 432—441. (323) Re-
marks. (324) Formation
of Icebergs. (325) Di-
mensions. (326) How
formed. (327) Where
formed. (328) Seasons.
(329) Description of Ice-
bergs. (330) Mr. Red-
field's Views. (311) Ex-
amples of Icedrifts into
Lower Latitudes. (332)
The same, from Mr. Red-
field. (333) The Ships
on the Ice. perhaps Sir
John Franklin's. (334)
Remarks by Lieut. Evans ;
Cautions and Indication.
(335) A Warning— Lieu-
tenant J. Steele Park.
Iceland, Positions of Places,

43
Idantenan, Heights of, 588
Idolos, Uhas dos, 632-636
Una, Ponta de la, 674
Ilhas das Idolos, 632—636
Ilheo, Porto do, 660
Ilheos Aqua Caliente, Ponta

de los, 681
Inagua Islands, Positions of

Places, 72
Incao, Ponta de, 686
Inclination of the Needle,

838
Indian River Inlet, 776
Infierno Rock, 704
Inglis, Captain R.— On the
W» sterly Winds of the
Atlantic, 239.
Inalis Pahboyeah River,

640
Inguiagher, 603
Inoon River, 590
Intensity of the Magnetic

Force", 839
Introduction, 1
Ireland, Positions of Places,
13-16

, S. Coast, 557—564

Id., Bermudas, 739

Irish Channel, Tides, 307,

308
Irminger, Admiral — Arctic
or Labrador Cuirent, 4 24
426; Temperatuie of the
Gulf Stream, 420
Iron Mountains, 586

Ships, Compasses of,

840-844
Irregular Changes of the

Compass, 838
Isabella, Cape, 510
Isle of Wight Shoal, 777
Isles de Los, 632—636
Isb'ta Point and Lightho.,

706
Isletas, Puerto de las, 707
Iso^aric Curves, 184, 190
Isoclinal Lines, 838

Isotherms, Summer and

Winter, 822-3
Ivory Coast, Winds, 225

Jackson, Mr. J. G.— On
N.W. Africa, 334

Jacmel, 512

1 — to Jamaica, 511

Jahncke, Mr. F. A.— On the
White Squalls of the
West Indies, 285

Jamaica Point, 646

and Grenada, Na-
vigation between, 511-12
Currents, 373, 376,

377

Navigation to,

509—511

Winds, 209-10

to the Bar of Ma-

racaybo, 512 — 514
James, Colonel Sir Henry,
177 ; Positions, 7

Fort, 615

, Lieut.— Dust in the
Atlantic Ocean, 832, 834
River, 778

Jandia Point and Liffhtho.,

706

, Monte, 705

Janellas Rocks, 697

Janubio Cove, 702

J anuria Cove, 702

Jardin, Ponta, 696

Jatt River, 618

Jeba Channel, 617-18, 622

Jenkin's Village, 646

Jeremia Roadstead, 579

Jewry's Gap, 541

Jibel Habib Mountains.

579

Hadid Mountains,

586

Hasan Peak, 579

Jillifree, 613, 615

Jinman, Capt. George — On

Hurricanes, 260
Joal, 611
Joao Bom Bay, 661

de Moira Point, 683

Diaz Point, 675

Joar, 612

JohnLeton's Rock, 721
Johnson, Capt. E. J.— Com-
pass, 843 ; Magnetic Va-
riation, 443 ; Magnetism,
836
Jones Bank, 789
Jorge Gomez Point, 679

Lourenzo Point, 676

Josef Ferrer Point, 679
Juan Fernandez Mt., 719
Juby, Cape, 591
Jukarda Creek, 615
Julianeshaab, 49
Juno, Promontory of, 577
Jupiter River, Anticosti, 56

Kakongkah Island, 640

INDEX.

S71

Kakoondee River, 626

Kakulima Mountain, 634

Kakundv River, 626

Kamtz, Winds, 182

Kanabac Island, 624

Kanyabac or Kanayabac
Island, 623-625

Kay West, Winds, 215

Keilor, Mr. Bonavista,

720; Fayal, 675

Kellett, Admiral — Bulama,
624

Kellett, Lieut. H.— Const
of Africa, 578 ; Positions,
32

Kell, Capt. — Positions, 35,
36

Kelly, Mr. — On Rennell's
Current, 319

Kent Town, 644

Kerdonis, Point de, 569

Kerhallet, Capt. C. P. de-
positions, 31

Kerr, Staff-Commander J.
H.— Positions, 46-7

Keuchenius, Capt. — Posi-
tions, 21

Keus Rock, 798

Kewley, Captain — Virgin
Rocks, 793

Keyzer, Capt. J. — Constante
Reef, 797

Khaolah, 611

King, Captain P. P.— Posi-
tions, 42

King's Hill, 740

Isle, 620

Kings wear Point and Lt.-
house, 544-5

Kinsale, 560-1

Kinsman Nab Shoal, 541

Kitcher Shoals, 738

Kitty Vitty, 761

Klein, Capt. F. H., 184

Klint, Admiral Charts

issued under, 19

Knap Shoal, 547

Kortrigbt, Lieut. — Posi-
tions, 58

Krayenhoff, Baron — Posi-
tions, 21

Kroumen, 487

Krusenstern, M. — Ocean
Temperature, 822

Kuleihat, 588

Labrador Current, 424 —
441; see also Arctic Cur-
rent

Labrador, Positions of
Places, 44-5, 49, 51

La Cidade, 725

— Digue, 565

Lady's Gulf, 195

Lagens, 674

Point, 680

Lagoinhas, Ponta das, 663

La Magdalena, 674

Lampoul, 567

Land and Sea Breezes, 181
Land's End, 551
Lanp, Mr. W.— Fayal, 675
Lanes to and from America,

528
Langton, Mount, 740

Lanir, Sir A. Madeira,

689
Lanzarote, 702—704
Lapa, Ilheo de, 696
Laraiche, 579 — 80
Latour, Port, 766
Lauuhton, Professor— On
Atmospheric Circulation,
177
La Vela Cape, Winds, 211
Law of Storms, 259
Lean, Mr. T, — Bermudas,

750
Lee, Lieut. — Discoloured
Water, 809; Gulf Stream,
403 ; Cruise of the Dol-
phin, 785, 814 ; The Bo-
cas, 756 ; Volcanic Re-
gion, 806
Lpfroy, General— Bermu-
das 734
Le Have, Cape, 766
Leiden, 23

Leiejhton, Capt. R. — On the
Approaches to the Eng-
lish Channel, 450 ; on
Hurricanes, 274-5
Lemaine Point, 615
Lemon Point, 615

Lenz, Professor Ocean

Circulation, 828 ; Ocean
Temperature, 822
Leon Islet, 728
Leopard Island, 643
Leps, Capt.— On the Sar-
gasso Sea, 348
L'Este, Ponta de, 683
Leste Wind, The, 690
Leton Rock, 721
Levrier Bay, 598
Lewis Rock, 554
Liali Season, Mogador, 586
Lightn-'ng Channel, 830
Lighthouses and their Il-
lumination, 91—98; List
of Lighthouses, British
Isles, 99—116; Western
Europe, 117—138; At-
lantic Isles, 139 ; Africa,
West Coast, 140; North
America, 141—167; West
Indies, 168— 172. See&teo
Table of Contents.
Lion Mountains, 641
Lion's Head, 718
Lisbon, 31, 575
Litchfield Bank, 515
Little Brewster Island, 768
— — Egg Harbour, 775

Paps Hills, 606

— — Swamp, 774
Liverpool, 453
Pilots, 459

Liverpool, Winds, 250

Livingston, Captain A.

Cause of the Gulf Stream,
385 ; Currents of the
West Indies, 370, 372,
378-9 ; Dredalus Rock,
795 ; Directions for Sail-
in? to and from the West
Indies and North Ameri-
ca, 497 ; Formicas, 665 ;
Gough's or Harrison's
Rocks, 790 ; Gulf Stroam,
398, 406 ; on Gulf Wood
in the Sargasso Sea, 351 ;
Nunez River, 627 ; Porto
do Ilheo, 660; on the
Tides of the Bristol
Channel, 306 ; Remarks
on Ttrceira, 672; St.
Mary's, 662; St. Mary'a
Bank, 7^8.

Lizard and Lighthouses,
550

to tho Line, Table

of Passages, 462, 476

Lloyd, Dr., 184
Loadstone, Tho, 543
Lobeira Rock, 660
Lobos Island and Light,

705
Local Deviation of the Corn*

pass, 840
Lomba Grande Mountains,

689
Long Bar, 737

Island, Bermuda, 740

, North Ameri-
ca, 782

Lightho,, 768

■ — Sound, 562

Longships Rocks and Lt.-

house, 551
Long Shoal, 541
Longy, Port, 567
Lookout, Cape, 781
Loo Hock, 693
Lope Bas Point, 681
Los Frayles Rocks, 670

, Isles de, 632—636

, , Positions of

Places, 33

, , Winds, 228

London, Captain G ulf

Stream, 406
Louisiana, Positions of

Places, 65
Lowlee Rock, 550
Lubbock, Sir John— On the

Tides, 290, 296
Luccock, Mr.— On the Gulf

Weed in the Sargasso

Sea, 354
Lundy Island, Tides, 306
Luquillos Mountains, 511
Luz, Puerta de, 707
Luzuero Point, 572
Lynas Point, 454, 459

872

INDEX.

Lynnhaven Bay, 779

M'Carthy's Island, 612

Macfarlane, Lieut. On

Making Use of Hurri-
canes, 284
Machichaco, Cape and Lt.-

house, 572
Machico Bay, 692
Machim, Robert, 688
Machi Pongo, 777
Mackellar, Capt.— Current
between Jamaica and the
Coast of Colombia, 376
Mackenzie, Capt. Murdoch.,

Surveys by, 3, 13
Maclean, Geo. — Positions,

35
Maclear, Sir T., 186
M'Clintock, Capt. Sir L.—

Soundings, 815
M'Cormick, Dr. — Penedode

San Pedro, 756
Madame Island, Positions

of Places, 54
Madden, Dr. — Bissao, 622 ;

Sierra Leone, 643
Madeira, 688—9

, Passage to, 463

—465

, Positions of Places
40
Madeline Reef, 719
Maffa, Pico de, 661
MagdaLna, 696
Magdalen Islands, 55, 521

Isles, Africa, 608

Magnetic Variation, 442

—445
Magnetism and the Com-
pass, 835
Magnetism of Iron Ships,

841, 843
Mahedia, 580-1
Mahediyeh, 581
Mahneah River, 637
Mahone Bay, 766
Maine, Coast of, 767

, Positious of Places,

59, 60
Main Ship Channel, 784
Maio, 721

Makia Kaconda, 616
Malabar Bank, 668

Shoal, 794

Malabata Point, 578
Malandar Light, 576
Malbusca Point, 664
Malmeranda, Point, 672
Malte-Brun, Description of
Waterspouts, 286 ; on the
Tides, 290
Mamora, 580
Manacle Rocks, 549
Mancha Blancha Rock, 709
Manderson, Captain, Cause
of the Gulf Stream, 385 ;
Currents W. Indies, 378
Munel Port, 624

Man Mountain, 719
Manna River, 648
Mannevillette, M. D'Apres

de, Crossing the Equator,

460, 482—484
Mann, Mr. John A., on the

Guinea Current, 341
Manuel, Cape & Lighthouse,
'608

Point, 718

Maracaybo, Jamaica to the

Bar of, 512—514
Marais, Lieutenant du, Rio

Channel, Canary Islands,

703
Maranon River, 367 ; Cause

of Discoloured Water,

808
Marbao, Ponta da, 664
Margaret Bay, 766
Maria Gadella Islet, 682
Marigot of Mosquitos, 603
MarineThermometers,853-4
Markland, Capt. J. D. For-

migas, 665
Marocco, 36, 37

Surveys, 36

Coast, Caution,

577

River of, 585

Marsala Bank, 798

Martha's Vineyard, Tides,
310-11

MartiDez Peak, 717

Martinique, Currents, 375

Martin Ledge, 768

Martins, Ocean Tempera-
ture, 822

Martyn, J. A., Logs kept
by, 238 ; Temperature
and Specific Gravity of
the Water of the Atlantic,
242

Martyrs Shoal, 797

Massachusetts, Positions of
Places, 60-1

Martinicus Rock, 767

Matocong Island, 636, 638

Matogos Point, 660

Matomkin, 777

Matos, Ponta dos, 663

Maugher Beach, 763

Maury, Commander M. F.,
on Crossing the Equator,
460, 464, 478 ; Currents
of the Bahama Islands,
&c, 374 ; Directions for
the Calm Belts, 484 ; Be-
tween Europe and New
York, 523, 525, 530, 534,
553 ; Gulf Stream, 386,
407 ; Ocean Meteorology,
173 ; Routes from the
United States to the
Equator, 537 ; Tracks for
Steamers across the At-
lantic, 526—530 ; on the
Trade Winds, 195 ; on
Equatorial Calms, 217 ;

on the Currents between
the Canary and Cape
Verde Islands, 333 ; Cur-
rents of the Mexican
Gulf, 380 ; on the Guinea
Current, 339 ; Trade
Winds, 175, 195, 202;
Winds of the Sargasso
Sea, 349

Maxwell, Mr. George, De-
scription of Waterspouts,
287

, Staff Commander,

Positions, 45, 47, 48

May, Cape, 775

, Mr. E., Fanaes, 681

Mayne, Mr. de, Positions,
73

Mayo Island, 721

Mayor, Cape & Lighthouse,
573

Maysi, Cape, 76

Mazagan, 583-4

Mazighan, 583

Mecher Road, Gironde, 570

Meldrum, Professor, Law of
Storms ; 259-60 ; on the
Pressure of the Atmo-
sphere, 248

Mellacoree River, 639

Menor, Cape, 573

Mensual Change of the
Compass, 838

Mercer, Mr. S.M., Positions,
33

Mer de Varec'h. See Sar-
gasso Sea.

Merlin Rock, 760

Messa River, 589

Mesurado, Cape and Light,
649

Met eorological Office Charts,
312

Metway, Port, 766

Mewstone Rocks, 546

, The, 544

Mexican Gulf, Currents, 364
381

, Winds, 212, 217

, Positions, 88

Mid-Channel Rock. 554
Middle Ground Bank, Gam-
bia River, 613
Midgley, Captain, St. Anne
Shoals, 647 ; on the Afri-
can Monsoons, 223 ; on
the Gulf Weed of the Sar-
gasso Sea, 353 ; Direc-
tions for proceeding to
and from the St. George's
Channel, 452—459; De-
scriptive Remarks and
Sailing Directions for the
Navigation to and of
Western Africa, 486 —
492 ; St. Mary's, 663 ;
Distant View of St. Mi-
chael's, 661
Midgley Shoal, 790

INDEX.

873

Miles, Capt. H., Currents

West Indies, 378
Milford Haven, 554
Miller-Casella Thermome-
ter, 823, 853
Miller, Dr. W. A., Density

of Sea Water, 813
Mills' Breaker and Channel,

737
Milne Bank, 791—793
Minho Point, 661
Minor's Hill, 742
Minot Ledge Lighthouse,

768
Miraporvos Bank, 72
Mirik, Cape, 601
Misery, Mount, 502
Mississippi, Positions of

Places, 65, 89
Mitchell, Mr. H., Gulf

Stream, 390
Mobile, 68

Bay, Winds, 215

Mogador, 586-587

Mona Passage, Currents,

375
Monchique Islet, 681
Money Point, 561
Moniz, Ponta, 697
Monks Rocks, 512
Monrovia, 649
Monsoons. See African

Monsoons.
Monsoons, Theory of the,

174—176
Montalvan, 509
Montana Blanca, 702
Montauk Point Lighthouse,

772
Monteath, Capt., upon the

Current between the

Grand Cayman and Cape

Antonio, 372
Monte Christi Shoals, 510
Monteros, Ponta de los, 678
Montreal, 56
Montserrat, Currents, 375

, Positions, 83

Moota Point, 615

Morant Kays, Currents, 377

Point, 510

Morbega River, 583
Mordeira Bay, 718
Morebiah River, 637
Moro Castle, 509
Morris Island, 783
Morro Grande, 678
Mosquito Coast, Positions,

: Winds, 212-12

Mosquitos Lagoon, 603

Mossman Rock, 791

Mosteiros Bay, 659

Motions and Pressure of
the Atmosphere, 183 —
195. (21—23) Barometer
Indications. (24) Red-
field's Cyclone Theory.
(24, 25) Buys Ballot's

Motions atid Press/ire of the
Atmosphere— continued.
Law. (26) Capt. Henry
Toynbee, on Buys Bal-
lot's Law. (27) Barome-
tric Waves. (28) Mr. W. I
R. Birt, on Barometric
Waves. (30) Barometric
Gradients. (31) Weather
Predictions. (32) Mr. W.
R. Birt, on Weather
Charts.

Moultrie, Fort, 783

Mount, Cape, 648

Cape, Winds, 224

— — — Desert Rock, Tides,
310

Mount's Bay, 550

Mouro Island and Light,
573

Mouse Rocks, 459

Mudge, Captain W., Posi-
tions, 13, 41, 42

Mudo, Monte, 705

Muelle de Manana, 674

Muley Bu Silhain Tomb,
580

Mulha Rock, 663

Mulher, Ilheo de, 684

Murdoch, Mr., Chart of At-
lantic Ocean, 2

Murray Anchorage, 738, 744

, Admiral, Instruc-
tions for Sailing to Ber-
mudas Islands, 746

Murray, Lieut., New York,
773

Musquito Shoals, Currents,
377

Naga Point, 708

Nahant Head, 769

Nantucket Shoals, 771-2,
794

, Tides, 310-11

Naos, 714

, Puerta de, 702-3

Napier, Hon, Capt. — De-
scription of a Waterspout,
289

Narrows Channel, 737

Nash, Mr. — Positions, 67

Nave of Finisterre Moun-
tain, 575

Navesink, Highlands of,
773-4

Navidad, Baio de, 74

Navio, Rocha do, 698

Naze, Cape, 608

Negra, Point, 679

Nennortalic, 49

Nesquin Point, 674

Neverfail Shoal, 764

Nevis, 502

New Brunswick, Positions
of Places, 52-3, 58

Newby, Capt. R. H.— On
the Currents between the
English Channel and the
Canary Islands, 336

New Calabar River, Sea-
sons, 488

Newfoundland Banks, 758

, Positions of

Places, 45 — 49

-, Tides, 309

New Granada, 84

Hampshire, Positions

of Places, 60

Newhaven, 542
New Jersey, Positions of
Places, 62

Orleans, 68

Rock, 547

York, 772

, Positions of

Places, 6?, 67

, Routes between

Europe and, 5^2-3

, to Equator, 537

Nicaragua Bay, Winds, 211

Nive River, 571

Nix's Mate Beacon, 769

Nockells, Captain — Disco-
loured Water, 809

Nonsuch Island, 742

Noon and Cape, 590-1

Norfolk, U.S., 778

Norman, Mr. R. — Compass,
838

Norris, Mr. — On the Har-
mattan, 226

Norte de Marea, Wind, 713

Grand, Ponta del,

677

, Ponta de, 683-4

, Rio del, 86

Nortes del Hueso Colorado,
Winds, 213

North African Current,
327. (180) Origin and
Definition. (181) Esti-
mates. (182) Rates. (183)
Monthly Rates & Limits.

(184) Examples of Drift,
on the Coa3t of Portugal.

(185) Examples from
Maury. (186) Examples
from Mr. Jackson. (187)
Alexander Scott's Ac-
count. (188) Major Ren-
nell's Remarks on the
Current ; Remarks on
Currents off the Coast of
Spain, page 337, (189)
Roussin on West Coast
of Africa ; off Cape Verde,
p. 338

N.E. Trade Wind.- See

Trade Wind.
North Equatorial Current.—

See Equatorial Current.
North-Easterly Current to

the Coast of Europe, fte.,

416—423. (302) East of

874

INDEX.

North - Easterly Cur r en t —
continued.

the Newfoundland Banks.
(303) Influence on Cli-
mates. (304) Drift of
Bottles. (305) Evidences
of N.E. Set. (306) Iso-
thermal Lines. (307) Dr.
Petermann's Remarks.
(308) Effect on Climate of
Western Europe. (309)
M. A. Buchan's Remarks.
North Carolina, Position

of Places, 63, 67
North-East Rock, 687
North Rock and Channels,

738, 744
Shoal, West of Ork-
ney, 789
Norths, The, 212-13
Norway, Surveys, 19
■ and Sweden, Posi-
tions of Places, 16—20
Nossa Senhora da Luz, 726
Nova Scotia, Positions of
Places, 57—59

■ , Surveys, 59

, Winds, 258

Nuevo, Baxo, 77
Nuna Tristao River, 626
Nunez, Rio, 626-629
Nun Rock, 788
Nymph Bank, 458

Ocean Circulation, 82S

Ochel, Mount, 719

O'Conner, Governor— Bes-
sessema, 624; Bissao, 621

Ocracoke Inlet, 780

Oil Pi vers, 488

Old Head of Kinsale and
Lighthouse, 560

Oldkiln Road, 776

Old Mamora, 580

Pongo River, 635

— — South Shoal, 771

Oleron Island and Lightho.,
569

Oliva, 705

Oliveira, Ponta, 692

Oliver, Commander W. B.
—West Africa, 492

Oporto, 575

Orango Island, 623, 625

Ordnance Survey, Posi-
tions, 7

Oregon Inlet, 779

Orestone, The, 543

Orinoco River, Cause of
Discoloured Water, 807

Orkney Islands, Surveys,
13

Orlehar, Captain New-
foundland Banks, 762 ;
St. John's, Newfound-
land, 759 ; Positions, 46,
48, 54, 58

Ormes Heads, 454

Orotava, 712

Orontes Bank, 730

Orrio <le Tapia, 574

Ortegal, Cape, 574

Oruba, 83, 512

Osier, Mr. A. F.— Anemo-
meter, 250

Onessant, 567

Oueste, Ponta d', 684

Ouro, Rio do, 595-6

Oven Bay, 726

Owen, Admiral W. F. —
Madeira, 691 ; Positions,
32 — 37,40-1

Owen, Capt. R. — Positions,
33, 70, 72, 74 ; Survey of
the Gambia, 615 ; Sierra
Leone, 645

Owers, 542

Oyster Creek, 613

Painter's Hill, 738

Palma, 712-13

Palmarin Point, 611

Palmas, 707

Palmas, Cape, Winds, 225

Palmyra Bay, 718

PaludaD, Lieut. — Surveys
by, 19

Pamplico Sound, 779-80

Panama, Positions, 86

Pancake Island, 760

Pan de Azucar Island, 680

Panther Shoal, 547

Papakawa Island, 620

Paps Hills, Pongo River,
631

Parga, Ponta, 697

Pargo, Ponta, 699

Paris, 26

Parish, Lieut. J. E.— The
Rocas, 757

Park, Lieut. J. S.— Ice-
bergs, 440-41

Parroquet Island, 620

Parry Ocean Tempera-
ture, 822

Passage Islands, Positions
of Places, 71

Passages —

1. General Remarks on,
445. (343) Great Circle
Sailing. (344) Examples.
(345) Remarks on. (346)
Application of Foregoing
Descriptions. (347) Ves-
sels under Steam. (348)
Tracks governed by the
Wind Systems.

2. English Channel, to and
from, 448—452

Outward Voyasre, 44 8 ;
Table of Winds at
London, 450 ; Home-
ward, 450, 452.

3. St. George's Channel, to
and from, 452 — 459

Liverpool to Holyhead,
453; by the North
Channel, 454 ; by

Passages— continued.

the South Channel,
455 ; South of Ire-
land to Liverpool,
457

4. Of Ships Bound Across
the Equator, 460 — 484 :
General Remarks, 460 ;
Leaving the Channel,
462; Passage to Madeira,
463 ; Approaching an<l
Crossing the Equator,
465 ; Best Monthly Routes
across the Equator, by
Captain Toynbee, 467 —
476; East or West of
Cape Verdes, 476 ; Mau-
ry's Remarks on Crossing
the Equator, 478; Capt.
Toynbee's Remarks on a
Westerly Crossing, 480 —
482 ; the Old Directions
for Crossing the Equator,
by M. D'Apres de Man-
nevillette, 482—484; On
the Return towards Eng-
land, 484 ; From the
United States to the
Equator, 537—539

5. The Senegal and Gambia,
to and from, 484

Cape Roxo to the Isles
de Los, by Baron
Roussin, 635

6. Remarks and Directions
for Western Africa, 486 ;
Seasons, 488 ; Current,
490

Directions, Homeward,

491
Biafra to Sierra Leone,

by Capt. Oliver, 492

7. West Indies, to and from,
493

Toward Jamaica, &c,
493

West Indies to English
Channel, 495

To and from the West
Indies and North
America, from the
" Derrotero," 497 —
501

To the Caribhee or
Windward Islands,
501

Navigation of the Wind-
ward Islands, 503

On the Navigation of
the Caribbean Sea,
by Lieut. Greevelink
507

Steam Navigation be-
tween Toba«o and
Demerara, 508

To Jamaica, via St.
Juan, Porto Rico,
Cape Haytien, & St.
Iago, 509

INDEX.

875

Passages— continued.

Between Grenada and
Jamaica, 511

Jamaica to Maracaibo,
bv Captain Dunster-
ville, 512

The Channels of Pro-
vidence, 514

To Demerara from the
N.E., 514

8. Northern Ports of Ame-
rica, to and from the, 516
—521

Great Circle Courses,
516 ; Captain Charles
Hare's Instructions,
517-520; to the
Gulf of St. Law-
rence, 520 ; by the
Strait of Belle-isle,
521

9. Europe and New York,
between, 522—523

General Remarks, 522 ;
Tables of Crossings
and Time from Eng-
land to New York,
from Maury, 524 —
525 ; Times, 526

10. Steam Tracks (or Lanes)
to and from America, 526
— 533

Maury's Remarks, 526
528; Distances, 528 ;
Courses of the Lanes,
and Tables, 529 ;
Adm. FitzRoy's Re-
marks, 530

Tables ot Normal
Tracks for Steamers,
bv Herr von Freeden
531-533

Outward, 532; Home-
ward, 533

11. Between Northern Eu-
rope and the United
Mates, 534—537

12. United States to the

Equator, 537—539

Maury's Remarks on

the Old and New

Routes, 537, 538 ;

Time Table of the

Different Routes, 538

Passages, Bermudas, 745 —

751

, Boston, 768—771

, Canary Islands,

715

— — , Chesapeake, 779

, General Remarks

445-448

■ , Hatteras, Cape,

780

, Nova Scotia, 764

—766
Passage of S'orms across
the Noith Atlantic,
243

Passage Winds. — See Anti-
trades.
Passe du Nurd, 570
Patapsco River, 778
Patton, Professor.— On At-
mospheric Circulation,
177
Patuxent River, 778
Paul do Mar, 696
Pavilion River, Anticosti, 56
Peacock, Mr. George. —
Dust in the Atlantic
Ocean, 833
Peak of Fas, 579

■ of Tenerife, 708-9

Peartree Head and Rocks,

545
Pechiguera Point, 704
Pedra da Gall, 597
Pedregal, Ponta de, 687
Pedrera Point, 664
Pedro Shoals, Currents, 377
Pelee Island Bank, 565
Pellew, Sir E. — Dasdalus

Rock, 795
Ptnas, Cape, 574
Pendennis Point, 548
Penedo de St. Pedro, 754 —

756
de San Pedro (Vol-
cano near), 805
Penha d' Aguia Mountain,
699

Grande Cliff, 594

Penlee Point, 546

Penra de Laranjeira Shoal,
682

Penzance, 550

Pepper Coast, Winds, 225

Perez, Don G. — Chan-
tereaux Shoal, 798

Peron, M. — Ocean Tem-
perature, 822

Pesqueiro-alto, Ponta de,
683

Petermann, Dr. A.— Gulf
Stream, 382, 413—419

Phipps, Mr.— Ocean Tem-
perature, t)22

Picard, M. — Positions, 24

Pico de Vara, 054

Pico Island, 673-4

Picolet Rock, 510

Pico Negro, Ponta de, 679

Ruivo, 689

Piddington, Mr., 183, 259
, Mr. — On making

use of Hurricanes, 284
Piedade, Ponta de, 692
Pirn, Port, 675
Pine Cape, 762
Pines, I»le of, 77
Pin Rock, 544
Pipas, Puerto de, 671
Pirate's Bay, 642
Pisanea, 615
Piton Islands, 701
Plaintain IsIhs, 645
Platform Hill, 719

Platters Rocks, 454

Playa Blanca, Rio de, 590

Pleasant Bay, 521

Plymouth Sound and Chan-
nels, 546—548

Pollard Rock, 553

Pomp Island, 62-5

Pongo, Rio, 631-2

Ponta de Boqueirao, 688

Ponta Delgada, 657—659

Poole Bay, 542

Porcupine Bank, 789

Porgas Bank, 799

Pornton, Capt. — Arctic Cur-
rent, 427

Portandic, 37, 602-3

Portland and Lights, 543

Rock, 77

Porto Bello, Currents, 371

Cansado, 591

do Uheo, 6f9, 660

Grande, 729

Novo, 692

Prava, 42-3, 722

Rico, 79, 510

, On making,

510

Santo Island, 685—

687

Port Royal, 77, 510

Bay, 740

Portudal, 610-11

Portugal, Coast of, 575 —
577

, Currents, 331

, Positions, 29

Portugalete, 572

Portuguese Road, 720

Positions, Tables of. See
Contents.

Potomac River, 778

Putter, Capt. — Volcanic
Shock, 805

Pouillet. — Ocean Tempera-
ture, 822

Pow Grands, 646

Praima, Puerto, 674

Praya, 669

Branca, 728

da Gatta, 731

Formosa, 696

, Isle of, 679

, Porto, 671

Preguizo Bay, 726
Prehaun Point, 561
Prestwich, Mr. J. — On the

Temperature of the
Ocean, 822

Prince Edward Island, Po-
sitions, 53-4, 56

Prior Cape, 574

Priorino Cape, 574

Prognostics of Hurricanes,
266

Prunk Rocks, 797

1'rosser's Rock, 760

Providence, Channels of,
514

Puerto Point, 573

876

INDEX.

Pullam Island, C23, 625
Pumpkin Hill Channel, 784
Purchas, Capt. — Positions,

32, 35-6
Purdy, Mr. John— Currents,

319; Chart of Atlantic

Ocean, 2
Pyramid Rock, 660

Quail Island and Lights,

723
Quaqua Coast, Winds, 225
Quebec, Positions, 52, 56
Queenstown, 560
Queimada, Ponta, 692
Queler Island, 568
Querqueville Fort, 566
Quiberon Bay, 569
Quidi Vidi, 761
Quorra River, 38

Rabacal, Rochas de, 697

Rabat, 581-2

Race, Cape and Lighthouse,
759—761

Race Point, 770

Rains, The, 221

Rainy Season, West Coast
of Africa, 227

Ramage, Capt. — Nun Rock,
788

Rame Head, 547

Ram Head, 770

Range, The, Dartmouth,
544

Raphael Cape, 509

Rappahannock River, 778

Ras Aferni, 588

Ras al Hudik, 584

Ras Tagrifelt, 587

Rattan, Currents, 373

— Shoal, 541

Rattlesnake Spit, 782

Ray Cape, 521

Raza Island, 727

Read, Mr. — Breakwater at
Fayal, 676; Ponto Del-
gada Breakwater, 658

Rebellion Road, 784

Rebucko. 628

Red Bank, 611, 614

Cape, 610

Redfield, Mr. W. C, 183;
On the Arctic or Labra-
dor Current, 427 ; Ice in
the North Atlantic, 435 ;
On Hurricanes, 263 ; On
the Hurricanes of the N.
Amfrican Coast, 259, 260

Red Hill, 723

Redonda Island, 728

Mount, 509

Reef, The ; Bermuda, 736

Reguala, 590

Reid, Colonel Sir W., 183 ;
On the Law of Storms,
259, 260 ; On the Winds
and Navigation of the
Bermudas, 750 ; Making

use of Hurricanes, 284 ;
Rule for laying Ships to
in Hurricanes, 263

Re Island, 569

Rennell's Current, 318 —
327. (175; (176) Charac-
ter, Definition, and Ex-
amples. (177) Major Ren-
nell's Remarks. (178)
Drift of Bottles. (179)
Daily Rates estimated.

Rennell, Major. — On the
African Monsoons, 222 ;
On Currents, 313 ; On the
Currents between Cape
Finisterre and the Ca-
nary Islands, 334 ; Gulf
Stream, 382 ; On Routes
from the West Indies,
496; On the Sargasso
Sea, 348

Renny Rocks, 547

Reshee Peak, 719

Revolving Storms. See
Hurricanes and Rotary
Gales.

Rhode Island, Positions of
Places, 61-2

Rhoon Rocks, 683

Ribeira Barca, 725

Grande, 659, 725

Prata, 725

Richards, Mr. — Positions,

Richardson, Capt. — On the
Gulf Stream, 405

Richmond, 778

Rink, Dr. — On the Forma-
tion of Icebergs, 432

Rio Channel, Canary Is-
lands, 703

— de Playa Blanca, 590

— do Ouro, 595

— Grande Channel, 617,
623

— Nunez, 626—629

— Pongo, 631-2

Risco de Taretai Cliffs, 714

Rissing Bar, 631

Riveirina Point, 676

Roancarrig Island and Lt.»
house, 563

Robinson, Rear-Admiral H.
— Salvages, 702

Roby Rock, 760

Roca Alta Point, 680

Rocas, The, 756 — 758

Roche Bonne Shoal and
Lightvessel, 570

Point and Light-
house, 559

Rocheite, M. de la. — Chart
of Atlantic Ocean, 2

Rockall, 751 — 752

Rocket Signals, &?>o

Rock -Island and Light-
house, 562-3

Roc-Manna River, 648

Rokol, 751-2

Roman Cape and Shoals,
782

Rombos Islands, 726

Romes Islands, 726

Romme, M.— On the Law
of Storms, 259

Rooma Island, 633

Roque Bermejo Point and
Lighthouse, 710

Roques, Los, 84

Rosales, Ponta del, 677

Ross, Sir James. — Punedo
de San Pedro, 755

, Mr. James. — Ocean

Temperature, 822

Rosto, Ponta, 699

Rotary Gales. — Sir John
Herschel on Origin of,
175, note ; Dove's Law of
Gyration, 181 ; Baro-
meter, 183 ; Buys Ballot's
Law, 184; Barometric
Waves, 186-7; Gradients,
188, 195 ; Table showing
excess of N.-ly, W.-ly,
and S. W.-ly Winds be-
tween 55° N. and 40° N.,
233 ; Courses of Gales,
241, 250; Rate of Pro-
gress across Atlantic* 243;
Origin, 244 ; Undulations
of Barometric Pressure,
247; In British Jsles,
249; Dr. Milne Holmes'
Remarks, 261 ; Prognos-
tics, note, 267 ; Clouds,
266, 847; Off Bermudas
and American Coast, 750

Rouban Island, 624

Round Shoal, 775

Roussin, M. le Baron, Posi-
tions, 32, 33; Dust in the
Atlantic Ocean, 833 ; Di-
rections for sailing from
Cape Roxo to the Isles de
Los, 635 ; Coast of Africa,
593, 598 ; on the African
Monsoons, 227 ; Cape
Verga, 631 ; Remarks on
the Currents between
Cape Bojador and the
Isles de Los, 337 ; Re-
marks on the Harmattan,
228 , Routes to and from
Senegal and Gambia, 4 j4
—486.

Routes. See Passages.

Roxo, Cape, 616

Royal Geographical Society,
Limits of the Oceans, 1

Royal, Port, 77

Sovereign Shoals &

Lightvessel, 541

Royan, 571

Rudge, Captain C. T., Cur-
rents W. Coast of Africa,
636

Rufisk, 610

Ruiva, Ponta, 680

INDEX.

877

Ruivo, Pico, 689

Rule for Course of Hurri-
canes, 267

Rum Kay, 73

Rundlestone Rock, 551

Rundell, Mr., Magnetism of
Iron Ships, 841

Ryder Shoal, 759, 793

Ryk, Admiral, Positions, 21

Saba, 502

Sabine, General Sir E., Ta-
ble, Dip of the Needle,
839 ; Observations on the
Gulf Stream, 399 ; on
Currents, 319 ; Magne-
tism, 836 ; Soundings,
813 ; Ocean Temperature,
822

Sable, Cape. 766

Island, 58, 430, 753

• Banks, 763

Winds, 258

Sabrina Island, 655
Saffe, 585

San, 585

Sahara Desert, 592

Sail Rock, 687

Sainthill Bank, 791—793

Saints' Bridge, 568

St. Adrian, Cape, 574

— Agnes Island and Light-
house, 552

— Alban's Head, 543

— Adres, 713

— Anne Bank, 615

— , Cape and Bank,

646-7

— Anne's Shoals, 487

— Head and Light-
house, 554

— Anthony Point & Light-
house, 548

— Antonio Island, 731
Point, 661

— Barbe, Point, 572

— Bartholomew's,Tomake,
501

— Catherine's Bluff, 744

— Christopher, 82, 501

— Cyprian Bay, 597

— David's Head, 736, 742

— Domingo Kay, 73

— , Positions, 78,

— Eustatius, 501

— George Island, Azores,
677-8
- George's Bay, 642

— , St. Nico-
las, 727

— Channel, 556

sages to and from, 452,

459
— — — — , Tides,

307-8
— Harbour and

Island, 742-3

N. A. O.

St. Iago Island, C. Verdes,
722—725

— Iago de Cuba, 76, 498.
510

— James Island, 612

— Jean de Luz Bay, 572

— John River, 602

— John's, Harbour of, 759
— 761

— Joseph, Fort, 612

— Juan, 511

— Just Pool, 549

— Lawrence, Gulf of, and
River, 520-1

— — , Winds,

256

tion of the, 55

-, Naviga-

-, Posi-
tions, 50 — 55

— from Europe,

520

— River, Tides,

309, 310

— Louis Island, 603-4

— Lourenzo, Point and
Lighthouse, 691

— Lucia Island, 83, 728

— , Currents, 375

— Marie Island, 723

— Martin Point, 620

— Martin's, 82, 501

— Mary, Cape, Anticosti,
56

and Island,

611 — 613
, Isle of, 662-

-664

— Mary's Bank, 798

— Mawes, 550

— Michael's Island, 653 —
662

Mount, 550

— Nicolas Island, 726-7

— Paul Island, 55, 521

— Paul's Islets, 754—756

— Paul, River of, 649

— Rock, "Volcano

near, 305

— Pedro, Penedo de, 754

— Pierre Bank, 520

— Sebastian, 713

— Shot's Bay, 429, 762

— Thomas's Island, Posi-
tions, 36

— , Tracks, 492

— Vincent, Cape & Light,
575, 795

Island, 83, 728

-731

— Vincent's, Currents, 375
Bali, 581-2

Sal, Ilhade, 717
Salisbury Rock, 760
Sallahtook Point, 638
Salmone Point, 714
Saltee Islets, 458
Saltees Lightvessel, 557
Salt Lake Bay, Anticosti,
56

Saltness of the Ocean, 82J

—828
Saltpond Hill, 717
Sal urn River, 611
Salvages Islands & Rocka,

701
Samana, Cape, 509
Sambro Island, 764
San Antonio Peak, 722
, Ponta de, 399

Bias Cape, Winds, 211

Domingo, Rio, 616

— — Jorge, Arco de, 693

Bay, 727

, Ponta de, 598

Juan Harbour, 509

Lourenzo, Port and

Island, 663

Lucar, 576

Pedro Bay, 731

Roque, Cape & Shoals,

460, 758

Vicente Island, 723 —

731

Vincente, 69S

Smrillo Mountain, 708
Sand Island, Rocas, 756
Sandkinsal Rocks, 627
Sandy Hook, 774

Island, 627

San^aree River and Moun-
tains, 632, 634
Sangatook Factory, 639
Sangomar, 611
Sankaty Head, 771
Sanlander, 573-4

, Winds, 256

Saxta Anna Mountain, 513

Point, 698

• Catalina, Ponta de,

674, 676

Catarina, Ponta de,

692

Cruz, W. Coast of
Africa, 588-89

Cruz,Azores Islands,

679

•13

de la Palma,

Madeira, 699
St. Antonio
Island, 731

, W.. Indies, 80

, Tenerife, 710

—712

Santiago, 725

Saona, Isle of, 512

Sardinero Bay, 573

Sargasso Sea, 347 — 355.
(202) Area. (203) Li-
mits. (204) Major Ren-
nell's Remarks. (205-6)
Explanation of its Cha-
racter. (207-8) Sargasso
Weed. (209) Origin and
Remarks on it. (210)
H.M.S. Challenger, and
Remarks by Sir Wyville
Thomson. (2111 Remarks

5 u

878

INDEX.

by Captain Livingstone.

(212) By Mr. Turner.

(213) By Bourke and
Evans. (214) The Weed
seen on the African Coast,
(21.5) Mr. Luccoek's Re-
marks on the Sargasso
Sea.

Saitorius, Capt. — Malabar
Bank, 668

Saulnier de Vauhello, M.,
Positions, 27

Saiissure. Ocean Tepera-
ture, 822

Scarries River, 640

Schomburgk, Sir R. — Of
the Currents of the Virgin
Islands and Anegada,
361 ; on the Rollers or
Heavy Ground Swell of
the Antillas, 363

Sohie, Lieut., Positions, 19

Scilly Islands, 552

, To approach,

451

Scituate, 768

Scoresby, Dr., on Icebergs,
432

Scoresby, Mr., Ocean Tem-
perature, 822 ; Magnetic
Variation, 443 ; Magne-
tism of Iron Ships, 841 —
843

Scotland, Positions of Places,
10—13

Scott, Lieut. E., Chantereau
Shoal, 798

Scott, Mr. R. H., 1S9 ;
Gulf Stream, 394 ; Wea-
ther Charts and Storm
Warnings, 249

S aford Head and Road,
542

S3a Islands, 782

Seal Island and Light, 705

Seal Island, Nova Scotia,
59, 767

Seasons, W. Coast Africa,
488-490

, Bermudas, 230-1

, Change of, 208

, Gambia, 614

, Isles de Los, 633

Seaton Station, 67

S^a-water, Composition of,
825

Sebou River, 580

Seed Bom Noire, 589

Se'n, Chaussee du, 568

, Bay of the, 564

Sejeu, 616

Selsea Bill, 542

Sem, Cape, 587

Semi-monthly Inequalitv,
294

Senegal River, 603-606

■ Routes to and from

the, 484—486

to Cape Verde, 60G

Serante's Hill, 573
Serene Cape, 610
Serranilla, 78, 89
Serreta, Pico de la, 669
Sette Cidades Crater, 654
Seven Capes, 595

Stones Rocks and Lt.-

vessel, 552-3

Wells, 589

Seville, 576
Shag-tone Rock, 546
Shallop Creek, Anticosti, 56
Shambles Shoal and Light-
vessel, 543

Sharp's Nose, 553

Sheep Rock, 554-5

Shelburn Harbour, 766

Sherboro Inlet, 646

SI innecock Bay, 772

Shleema River, 590

Shooter Rock, 544

Shortland, Commander. —
Positions, 58 ; Cruise of
the Hydra, 816

Shut-in Island, 764

Siboure, 572

Sickens, Cntst. T. D.— Con-
st ante Reef, 797

Sidrao, Pico, 689

Siecal, 697

Sierra Leone, 37-8, 640—
644

, Cape and

Lighthouse, 642

, Winds, 225

Signal Rockets, 555

Silver Kay Bank, 74

SkelligB, 457

Skerrie3 Bank, 546

Rocks, 454, 459

Skokham, 556
Skomer, 556

Sla, 581-2

Slate Ledge, 770

Slievnr.man Mountain, 558

Small Island, 719

Smalls Rocks and Light-
house, 458, 555-6

Smith, Admiral W. H.— On
Waterspouts, &c, Coast
of Sicily, 289

, Lieut. — Positions,

31-2, 70-72

, Mr. A. — Magne-
tism, 836 ; Masnetic Va-
riation, 443; Magnetism
of Iron Ships, 841

Smith's Island, 778, 781

Smyth, Capt. W. H, 27

, Professor Piazzi. —

Positions, 13

Wind, 232 ; lenerife, 709

Sober Island, 740

Socoa, 572

Socorridos River, 696

Sol, Ponta do, 696

Soman Riv> r, 610

Sombrero, 82

Somerset Island, 740

Somers Islands, 732—751
Soiners, Sir Georgj, 732
Soomoa Mountains, 634
Sounding, 812 — 817
Soundings, Tables of, 819 —

821
Southampton Island, 742
Southampton, Tides, 305
South Carolina, Positions of

Places, 63-4

, Winds, 258

Smith Deserta Island, 688
S.E. Drift. — See North

African Current.
South-East Trade Wind,

195—207
South Equatorial Current.

— SeeEquutorial Current.
Southern Head Shoal, 541
South Rock, 557
Southern Castle, 542
South Stack Rock, 458
South- West Breaker, 737
Spain, Coast of, 572 — 575

Winds, 256

Spain, Currents on the West

Coast, 337
, Positions of Places,

27—31
Spani.-h Point, 740
Spartel Cape and Light

house, 36, 578
Specific Gravity of Ocean

Waters, 242, 314, 828
Spectacle Island, 769
Spence, Gra3me, 3, 4
Spike Island, 560
Spithead, 542
Squalls, 285, 851-2
Stack, South, Lighthouse,

458
Stag Channel, 740
Stags Rocks, 559
Start Point and Lighthouse,

545-6
Steam Tracks to and from

America, 526 — 533
Stephenson Shoal, 541
Stevenson, Mr. Thomas —

On Barometric Gradients,

188
Stewart, Mr. Alexander. —

Description of a Water-
spout, 288
Storms.— See Rotary Gales.
Stormy Jack's Hurricane

Card, 268
Strachan, Mr. R. — On the

North African Current,

328; On Currents, 312,

317 ; On the South Equa-
torial Current, 361; Gulf

Stream, 394
Strookaun Point, 561
Styx Bank, 687
Submarine Currents, 401-2,

828
Suerrah, 586
Sugarloaf Mountain, 731

INDEX.

87 <J

Sugarloaf Rock, 6S0, 684
Sngury River, 048
Suirta, 5S6

Sullivan Island, 782-3
Summer Islands, 732
Sumter Fort, 783
Susan Bay, 642
Suae River, 589
Susquehanna River, 778
Suzos Mount, 632
Sweden and Norway, Posi-
tions of Places, 16—20

Tabourg River, 635

Temperature of the Ocean,
315, 822—825

Tenerife and Peake, 41, 70S
-712

Teno Point, 712

Terceira Island, 668—673

Terrafal Bay, 727, 731

Texas, Positions of Places,
65

Tevde, Peak of, 708

Thames River, Tides, 304

Thermometer, 822 (note),
853-4

Thomson, Sir Wyville. —
Animal Life in the Deep
Sea, 830; Arctic or La
brador Current, 428 ; Ber
mudas, 732, 740, 743
Challenger Bank, 799
Depth of the Oct an, 818
Gulf Stream, 411; Oi
Ocean Circulation, 829
Sargasso Sea, 351 ; On
the Temperature of tl
Guinea Current, 343.

Three Hill Shoals, 738

Thrum Cap Shoal, 763

Tiburon, 512

Tid, 584

Tide North Wind, 213

Tides, 290—312

(141j General Theory of
(142) Action of th.
Moon. (143) Action o-
the Sun. (144) Equi-
noxes, (145) (146) Lub-
bock and Whewell's Ob-
servations. (147 — 140)
The Tidal Wave. (150)
Establishment of the Port,
and Corrected Establish-
ment. (151) Semi-
monthly Inequality.

(152) Age of the Tide.

(153) Difference of two
Diurnal Tides. (154)
Height of Mean Water.
(155) Atmosphere affects
Tides. (156) Currents
foimid by the Tides.
(157) Observations made
in 1834. (158) On thfl
Tide Table.

Tide Table, 298 — 303 ;
Remarks on, 304—312

Tides, Bissagos Islands,
622-3, 626

, Blanco Cape, 599

, Gironde River, 571

, Nunez River, 629

, Rio Grande Rock, W.

Coast of Africa, 626

, Sable, Cape, 766

, Sieira Leone, 644

Tidsi River, 588

Tikit-chin Point, 634

Tin<*ia, 577

Tinker Shoal, 547

Tobacco Bay, 745

Tobago, Positions, 83, 508

Todos, Isla, 513

Tob'no, Don Vicente. — Po-
sitions, 27 ; Formigas,
664-5 ; St. Georae,
A.zores, 677 ; St. Mi-
chael's, 660, Villa
Franca, 660

Toiro Point, 758

Tol-Peden-Penwith, 551

Tomie Wells, 589

Tonqui Rocks, 615

Topo, Ponta del, 677

Tori ay, 543-4

Torinana, Cape, 575

Tornadoes, 229 ; and see
Hukricanes.

Torquay, 544

Torrinhas Peaks, 689

Tory Island, 455

Tour de Chassiron Light-
house, 569

Tour de Cordouan Light-
house, 570

Touro Point, 758

Tower of Hercules Light-
house, 574

Towson, Mr. — Magnetism
of Iron Ships, 841

Toynbee, Capt. H. — On
Barometric Gradients,
1-9; On Buys-Ballot's
Law, 184 ; Examination
of Eight Log> relating to
the Winds, See, experi-
enced between England
and North America, 238 ;
Of Ships bound across
the Equator, 460-1 ; Best
Monthly Routes across
the Equator, 467—475
Wly. crossing of Equator,
478—482: Between Eu
rope and New York, 522
On Equatorial Calms,
217 ; Guinea Current,
344 1 Remarks on the
Trade Winds, 203-206;
Santa Cruz, Flores, 682

Tracks. See Passages.

Trade Wind, The, 195.
(33) Definition. (34) Sta-
tistics. (35) N.E. Trade
Wind, Direction and Du-
ration. (36) Force of the

Tkade Wind— continued.
Wind. (37) N.E. Trade
Tracks. (38) Change of
N.E. Trades. (39) Ex-
tent ; Northern Limit ;
Variation in Limits. (40)
Southern Edge, with Ta-
ble. (41) Direction. (42)
Diagrams described and
(43) Analysis of the Di-
rection in Different Lati-
tudes. (44) Inferences.
(45) Seasons. (46) Sum-
mary of the Wind by
Captain Maury.

Trade, Peak of, 726

Trafalgar Cape and Light-
house, 577

Trinidad, 83, 508

, Currents, 375-6

Tristan Island, 568

Tristao, Ponta, 697

Trondhjem, 19

Trou do la Baleine, 758

Tuckerton, 775

Tulloch Reefs, 666

Tumba Island, 632-636

Turk's Islands, Positions,
72

Tuskar Rock and Light-
house, 458,557

Typhoons. See Hurricanes

Urrateo Point, 720
Ushant, 567

Valentia, 15, 16, 564
Variation of the Compass,

442, 838
Venezuela, Positions, 86
Vera Cruz, Positions, 90

, Winds, 212

Verde Cape and Light-
house, 606-7

, Currents, 338

Virgin Islands, Currents,
361

— — — , Positions,

79
Virgin Rocks, 759, 793
Volcanic Region, 804—806

Shocks, 797

Volcanoes between Terceira

and St. Michael's, 667-8
Volta River, Winds, 225

Wad Messa River, 589
Wud-oom-er-begh River,

5S3
Wad Tamareet River, 588
Wad Tansift River, 585
Wales, Positions of Places,

7—10
Walkeria, 628-9
Wallich, Dr., Gulf Stream,

420
Walsh, Lieut. J. C, Sound-
ings, 813
Wando, River, 7S2

880

INDEX.

Washball Rocks, 761

Washington, 67

, Captain, Posi-
tions, 31, 32, 37; Sla or
Sali, 581

Waterford Harbour, 458,
557

"Waterspouts, 285 — 290.
(136) Definitions. (137)
Description by Malte-
Brun. (138) Description
of one by Mr. Murdo
"Qownie. (139) Descrip-
tion by Mr. George Max-
well. (140) Description
by the Hon. Captain Na-
pier.

Waves, Barometric, 186 —
188

Weather, Daily Reports. 189

Wed el Ayasha River, 579

Wedinoon, 591

Weedy Sea, 347. See Sar-
gasso Sea.

Weser River, 23

Western Islands, 650—685

West Hoyle Sands, 454

West India ;Currents,
364 — 381. (231 — 233)
Currents on the Colom-
bian Coast. (234) Equa-
torial Current to the An-
tillas. (235) Off the Coast
of Guayana, by Lieut.
Greevelink. (236) East-
ward Currents South of
Jamaica. (237) In the
West part of the Carib-
bean Sea. (238) South of
Cuba. (239) Drift of Bot-
tles. (240) North Coast
of Hayti, &c. (241) Ba-
hama Islands. (242) Be-
tween the Caribbean
Islands. (243) Counter
Currents. (244) The Bays
of Honduras and Guate-
mala. (245) South of Cape
Antonio. (246) Example.

(247) South side of Cuba.

(248) Channel of Yuca-
tan. (249) Gulf of Mex-
ico. (250) Temperature,
Colour, &c. (251) Re-
marks by Maury. (252)
North of the Yucatan
Channel.

West Indies, of Ships bound
to and from, with Instruc-
tions for navigating there-
in, 493 — 516; see also
Passages.

West Indies, Winds, 208

White Squalls, 285

Wilmington, 781

Wimble Shoals, 779

Winds in General, 170 —
182—

(1) General Remarks. (2)
Circulation of the' At-
mosphere. (3) Halley's
and Hadley's Theories.
(4) Wind Systems. (5)
Anti-trades. (6-8) Equa-
torial Calms. (9) Aque-
ous Vapour. (10) Height
of the Atmosphere. (11)
Winds of Each Hemi-
sphere. (12 — 14)Forceof
the Wind at Sea and on
Land, B"aufort & Glai-
sher's Notation of. (15)
Actual Force and Velo-
city, with Table. (16)
Land & Sea Breezes. (17)
Dove's Law of Gyration.
(18, 19) Area of the Wind
Zones. (20) Cyclonic Area
See Motions & Pressure
of the Atmosphere,
Trade Wind, Anti-
trade Wind, Equa-
torial Calms, &c.

Winds and Calms on the
Tropic, 229—231. (73)
Definition. (74) Causes.
(75) Extent. (76) Range.
(77) Calms Westward of
50° W. (78) Bermuda-
Calms and Seasons.

Winds, Adou Coast, 225

Africa. See African

Monsoons.

Agulhas Bank, 241

Anticosti, 256

— — — Atlantic Isles, 207
—217

•— — Azores Islands, 651
—653

Bahama Islmds, 210

Bayamo, 210, 211

Bermudas, 231, 734,

746, 750

Bissagos Islands,

622, 625

Buena Esperanza,

210, 211

Cumana, 211

Canary Islands, 207,

715

Cape Verde Islands,

196, 197, 200—202, 222

Caraccas, 211

Cuba, 211

English Channel,

252-3, 449

Florida Strait, 209,

217

Winds, Fort Morgan, 215,

216

Galve-ton, 215, 216

Gold Coast, 225

Grain Coast, 225

Guinea Coast, 221

Gulf of Mexico, 212,

214

Gulf Stream, 519

Guyana, 208, 211

Hayti, 209

Honduras, 211-12

Isles de Los, 634

Ivory Coast. 225

Jamaic-i, 209-10

Kay West, 215

Kingston, 209

Liverpool, 250

• London, 450

Madeira, 207, 690

Mexican Seas, 208,

212

Mobile Bay, 215-16

Mosquito Coast, 2 11,

212

Mount, Cape, 224

Nicaragua, 211

Nova Scotia, 258

Palmas, Cape, 225

Pepper Coast, 225

Quaqua, 225

Sable Island, 258

St. Domingo, 210

St. Iago, 724

St. Lawrence Gulf

and River, 55, 256

Senegal, 605

Sierra Leone, 225

South Carolina, 258

Spain, 256

Tahles between 55"

and 40 8 N., 233 — 238

Teeth Coast, 225

Texas, 214

Vera Cruz, 212, 214

Verga, Cape, 224

W. Indies in Gene-
ral, 20S

Windward Coast,

225

Yucatan, 211, 212

Windward Channel, 493
Coast, Winds,

225
Islands Passages

501-6
Wolf Rock Lighthouse, 551
Yucatan Channel, Currents,

376, 379
East Coast, Winds,

211, 212
Positions, 90

Zinghicor, 616