[All Eights Reserved-I EOYAL GARDENS, KEW. BULLETIN OF MISCELLANEOUS INPOPiMATIOl ADDITIONAL SEPJES, II. SELECTED PAPERS FKOM THE KEW BULLETIN. I.— VEGETABLE FIBRES. LONDON: PRINTED FOR HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE, BY EYRE AND SPOTTISWOODE, rniXTERS TO THE QUEES'S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY. And to be purchased, oitlior directly or through any Hooksellor, from T'iTRE AXD SPOTTISWOODE, East Harding Strekt, Fleet Stkeet, EC. ; or JOHN MEXZIES & Co.. 12, Haxover Stkeet. Kdinburoh, and 90, West Nile Street, Glasgow; or HODGES, FIGGIS, & Co., Limited, lOt, Grafton Street, DrBLi.v, 1W8. JPrice Three Shillings and Sir pence. 100960 K^ TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. II. HI. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XL xir. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXX VI II XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLI II. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XLVII. XLVIII. XLIX. L. LI. LII. Lin. LIV. U 7 Buaze fibre - - - - Okro fibre - - _ _ Kanaff or Deccau hemp Cotton ill West Africa - - . Cotton ill West Africa {continued) - Gambia pajj^ns or native cloths Cotton io India ... Cotton in British Central Africa - Cultivation of cotton in Egypt Egyptian cotton in Sierra Leone - Kapok .... Fibre from Lagos ... Jute from the Gambia ... Siberian perennial flax The Spanish broom as a fibre plant Bark cloth of Uganda Kendir fibre ... Streblus paper .... Canada nettle fibre ... Urera fibre - _ . . Ramie . - - - . Ramie {continued) - - - Ramie {continued) ... Ramie {continued) - - - Ramie {continued) ... Ramie as food for silkworms Paris ramie trials, 1891 Ramie or rhea in Ireland - - Ramie machine trials at New Orleans - China grass. 1891 onwards Manila hemp - _ _ Manila hemp in British North Borneo - Plantain and Banana fibre Plantain and Banana fibre {continued) Manila hemp plants Manila hemp in British North Borneo - Pine-apple fibre . . - . Caraguata fibre . . . Bowstring hemp ... Sansexieria fibre from Somali-land - Saiiscvieria fibre from Bechuanaland - Sisal hemp - _ . . . fibre industry at the Bahamas Fibre industry at the Bahamas {continued) - Fibre industry at the Bahamas {continued) Fibre productions in the Caicos Islands Sisal hemp at the Turks and Caicos Islands Bahamas industries - - - . Sisal hemp industries Sisal hemp in the Bahamas - Sisal cultivation in the JJahamas Sisal hemp industry in Yucatan Poliug in Agave jilants Weicher's fibre extracting machine 7 8 9 II 16 l!l 21 23 24 26 27 30 32 33 37- 42 44 46 50 50 52 55 63 65 75 78 78 C9 79 81 95 97 97 101 106 106 109 110 114 124 127 130 135 139 140 144 149 149 151 170 171 172 178 184 (554. 500.— 10/98. Wt. 7594. A 2 LV. The Pritto fibre-extracting machiue - LVI. , Sisal heuip in the Hahamas - LVII. Sisal henij) in the Baliauias (cuntinucd) LVIII. Sisal fiiltivation in the Turks and Caicos islands LIX. False Sisal of Florida LX. Roniliav Aloe fibre _ . - . LXI. Bombay Aloe fibre (continued) LXII. Mauila"Aloe fibre - - - - LXIII. Mt'xiL-au fibre or Istle ... LXlV. Mexican fi1)re or Istle (continued) LXV. Mauritius hemp . . _ . LXVI. Mauritius hemp machines ... LXVII. Agavc-s and arborescent Liliaceic on th? Riviera LXVI II. Madagascar Piassava ... LXIX. West African bass fibre ... LXX. West African bass fibre (continued) LXXI. Rafia from West Africa ... LXX II. Rafia from West Africa (continued) LXXTII. Palmvra bass fibre - ' - LXX IV. Oil palm tibie .... LXXV. Cocoa-nut coir from Lagos ... LXX VI. Bahia Piassava - " - LXXVII. Bhabur grass ... LXXVIII. Bhabur grass (co«//7H/e(7) LXXIX. Broom root or Mexican whisk LXXX. Broom root or ^lexican whisk (continued) 186 188 190 192 193 194 )99 200 202 204 208 211 217 227 228 232 232 236 238 240 245 248 253 256 257 258 LXXXI. LXXXII. LXXXIII. LXXXIV. LXXXV. LXXXVJ. LXXXVII. LXXXMII. LXXXI X. Chinese fibres --.--.. Economic plants of Madagascar - . . - Notes on articles contributed to the Museums of the Royal Gardens, Kew, from the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886. Botanical enterprise in the West Indies, 1890-91 Cultural industries in West Africa - - . - Indigenous plants of Yorubalaud - - - - Botanical Station, St. Vincent ... Fibres of India - - - . . Fibre plants of Formosa - - - - 258 270 273 275 277 278 278 279 279 PREFACE. The volumes of the Keiv Bulletin (1887-98) contain articles which more or less cover the whole field of commercial enterprise as applied to the Vegetable Kingdom. These articles are necessarily printed in a disconnected form, in accordance with the principle laid down by the Government that information of public interest should be published as speedily as possible. It will, therefore, be convenient to bring together occasionally the whole of the papers relating to one particular subject. The trouble of following these through a series of annual volumes would otherwise in great measure defeat the object in view. The present volume, which may from time to time be followed by similar collections, deals with the subjects of Fibres. It is one which is of first-rate importance to manufacturers at home aiul also to our Planting Colonies. In the pages of the Bulletin, as in other official publications emanating from Kew, it has not been customary, wheie all members of the staff in some degree co-operate, to assign ths authorship of any particular piece of work -to any individual person. But in this particular line of inquiry it would be only just to state that the mass of useful and interesting information which is now presented to the public is in great measure due to the experience and research of the late Assistant Director, Mr. D. Morris, D.Sc, C.M.G. I cannot but take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude to the numerous eminent connnei'cial firms in this country who have always, in the most courteous manner assisted this estab- lishment in its inquiries. W. T. THISELTON-DYER, Director, Royal Gardens, Kew, September 1898. SELECTED PAPERS from the " KEW BULLETIN." VEGETABLE FIBRES. I.— BUAZE FIBRE. {Securidaca longipedimculata, Fres.) [K. B., 1889, pp. 222-225.] Securidaca longipedimculata, Fres., is a, much branched divaricate shrub, sometimes groNving to a height of 8 to 10 feet, belonging to the natural order Polygalece, and distril)uted through Upper and Lower Guinea, Nile land, Mozambique district, &c. Two kinds of libre appear to be furnished by the plant ; one from the bark of the twigs is very strong and dui'able, and would seem to be the fibre from which the nets are made, known in Zambesilaiid as Buaze fibre ; the other from the stem, cross sectic»ns of which show layers of fibrous bark between layers of wood. Buaze fibre seems to have been first introduced to notice by Dr. Livingstone in 1857. In his Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, pid)lished in that year, he says (p. 645) that he submitted a small quantity of the fibre to Messrs. Pye Brothers, of London, who reported from 80, Lombard Street, under date 20th INIarch 1857 : — " The '' Buaze evidentlv possesses a very strong and fine fibre, assimilating " to flax in its character, but Ave bcdieve when treated in quantity by our *' process it would show both a stronger and finer fibre than flax ; but, f being unable to apply the rolling or pressing processes with efficiency *' to so very small a quantity, the gums are not yet so perfectly extracted *' as they would l)e, nor the fibre opened out to so fine a (piality as it ^' would then exhibit." The opinion obtained by INIessrs. Pye Brothers from Messrs. Marshall, of Leeds, was as follows : — "The lUiaze fibre appears to resemble flax, " and as pre[)ared by you Avill be equal to flax worth 50/. or 60/. per *' tdii, but we could hardly speak positively to the value unless we bad " one cwt. or two cwt. to try on our machinery. However, we think " the result is promising, and we hope further inqtiiry will be made as ^' to the probable supply of the material." Dr. Livingstone adds that the plant is stated to grow in large quantities in the " Maravi country, north of the Zambesi, but it is not cultivated, '- and that the only known use it has been put to is in making threads ^' on wdiich the natives string their beads. Elsewhere the split tendons *' of animals are employed for this purpose. This seems to be of equal " strength, for a firm thread of it feels like catgut in the hand, and *' would rather cut the fingers than break." Dr. Livingstone's original fragmentary specimen of the Buaze jilant, which consisting merely of foliage, was indeterminable at the time, exists in the Kevv Herbarium. The botanical identification is due to Sir John 8 Kirk, G.C.M.G., K.C'.B., late Political Agent at Zanzibar, who during his attachment to the Livinj^stonc South African Expedition in 1859, and to the Zanihesi Expedition in IHGl, obtained an excellent series of specimens both in flosver and fruit. The Buaze plant is well ficurod by Richard in his Tcntamen Flora Alnssinic.T, t. 10, under the name of Lophostylis augustifolia, and by Klotzsch in Peters's Mozambique, t. 22, as Lopho- stylis jxdlida. Both names now give way to that at the head of this article. Notwillistanding the comparatively favourable report en this fibre, received so far back as 1857, notliing has since been done to further its utilization in this country. Note added 1894 : — In the article on Buaze fibre in the Kero Bulletin, 1889, pp. 222-225, there was given an account of a fibre used for making fish nets forwarded to Kew by the Foreign Office from Mafeking ou Lake Ngami. This h:d been collected by Mr. James Xicolls. Further specimens, with fiesh leaves of the plant yielding the fibre, showed that tlio Lake Ngami fibre was yielded by Sansevieria sulcata. (Art. XLL) II.— OKRO FIBRE. {/libisci's csculc/iius, L.) [K. B., 1890, pp. 229-230.] The plant variously known as okro, okra, goI)bo, gombo, and quim- boiiibo, is widely cultivjited in the tropics for its horu-like pod.«, or seed vessels, which are used as a table vegetable. They are exceedingly mucilaginous, and are made into soups and sauces. The ripe seeds are sometimes parched and used as a substitute for coffee. The plant is an annual herb, with a stout hairy stem from 2 to 5 feet in height. The leaves are large, three- to fivedobud, coarsely toothed, with petioles about 6 inches in length, more or less bristly. The fiowers are yellow, with a brown or crimson centre. Tiie fiuit is pyramidal-oblong. 6 to 10 inches long, and about i to 1 inch in diameter, with five prominent ribs and smiioth. The spherical seeds are grey or greenish, obovate, and covered with fine hairs. The Okro (Ifi/jiscus cscufcnlus, L.), Abelmoschus escidcntus, 1V.S)- A., is probably a native of India, but it is now natnrahsed or cultivated in all tropical countries. A'ilmorin distinguishes two varieties in culti- vation : the long-fruited green okro, and the round-fruited okro. In the latter the fruits are short and comparatively thick, being about 2 inches long and nearly 2 inches in diameter, and blunt at the ends rather than foiutL'd. There is said to be a sub-variety of the long-fruited green okro with pendulous pods. The okro has long been known in India and elsewhere to yield a long silky fibre, the breaking strain of whicii, according to Roxburgh, is 79 pounds dry, and 95 pounds wet. Specimens of Indian okro fibre in the Kew Museums resemble hemp in colour and texture. It is evidently well adajjted for making ropes, twine, and sacking, while the residual portions could be utilised for paper-making. Recently the preparation and use of okro fibre has been revived in both the Southern United States, where the plant is largely grown during the summer mouths, and also in Cuba. In the Report of Mr. Consul Ramsden on the Trade, Commerce, and Agriculture of the- Province of St. lago de Cuba for the year 1889 [F. O. Annual Series, No. 779], the following information is furnished respecting the fibre oF the okro plant, known in Cuba as the quimbombo : — " The fruit of the quimbombo {Hibiscus esculentus) is well known in the English West Indies under the name of ' ckra,' and is used as a Tegetable, but although Richardo, in his ' Diccionario de Voces Cubanas^,' mentions the plant as being ' applicable to rope making,' I am unaware that it has been used as a fibre, and, therefore, refer to it here. Last year Messrs. Bosch and Company, of this city, made an experiment with some, and sent 400 pounds of the dried fibre to London, where they say it was much liked, and found to be Avorth 40/. per ton. Three crops are obtained in the year, and its preparation by maceration gave very little trouble. The stem produces a fibre of fine quality, and about 4 feet in length, and apparently strong. Further trials will probably bo made here. I send a sample of it. with this report." The sample of fibre above mentioned was forwarded to Kcw by the Foreign Office, and is now in the Museum of Economic Botany. With regard to the commercial value of this Cuban fibre, Messrs. Ide and Christie, of 72, Mark Lane, E.G., to Avhom it was referred, reix)rt as follows : — , - " Hibiscus esculentus. The sample ^ttqws the fibre to be only- moderately stronger than Jute, imperfectly cleaned, and very yellow in- colour. We value it at 18/. to 20/. per ton to-day in London. It is possible that the colour could be greatly improved by more careful preparation, and that in that case its value might be increased by 4.1. or 5/. per ton. We cannot imagine it possible that fibre of this type coul(i have been found worth 40/. per ton last year in London as stated to the Consul and mentioned in his Report." III.— KANAFF OR DECCAN HEMP. {Hibiscus cannabinus, L.) [K. B., 1891, pp. 204-20G.] Recently an announcement has been made of the discovery of a new te\tile plant on the shores of the Caspian. The plant known as KanafT by tlie natives is said to yield a soft elastic and silky fibre, callable of being readily bleached or dyed in every shade of colour. From a report which appeared in a Tifiis journal, it is suppo.-^ed that Kanaff fibre, from its abundance and consequent cheapness, and its extraordinary durability, will successfully compete with any other textile for sacking, ropes, and pack-thread. The fibre is said to have a greater resistance than hemp, and its specific gravity is less. The chief source of information respecting the plant yielding this fibre is contained in an article entitled Note sur le Sunn, le Vucca, et qnelques (lutrcs plantcs textiles, by MM. Jules Grisard et Max. Yanden-Berghe, in the Revue des Sciences Natitrcllcs apptiquees, 1890, pp. 992-993. According to these authors, KanafF or Kanap was at one time supposed to be A'pocynum sibiricvm. It is, however, now identified as Hibiscus cannabitius, L., a well-known fibre plant in India, also found in a cultivated state in Persia, and other places westward. In a note in 10 Boissier's Flora Orientalis, vol. i., p. 840, it is stated that Hibiscus cantiabifius, L., is cultivated in the province of Ghilan in Persia, and that cords and ropes are prepared from its fibre. Specimens of Kanaff fibre have recently been received at Kew, but no authentic specimens of the plant pioduciiig it have so far been seen. There is every proba- bilitv, however, that tiie plant is one of the many varieties of Hibiscus canttubiuHs, and the utilisation of its fibre on the shores of the Caspian is a fiict of some interest. 'J'he information so far furnished is as follows : — " The French Revue des Colonies reports the discovery of a new textile on the shores of the Caspian. This plant, called Kanaff by the natives, grows in the summer, and attains a height of 10 feet, with a diameter varying from two to three centimetres. By careful cultivation and manipulation, M. O. Blakenljourg, a chemi'it and engineer, who has made a special study of Kanaff", has obtained an admirable textile matter ; it is soft, elastic, and silky, gives a thread, which is very tough, and can be chemically bleached without losing its value. The stuffs manufactured out of Kanaff", and then bleached, can be successfully dyed in every shade of colour, and would compete with any of the furnishing materials now in use. But it is particularly for making sacks, tarpaulin, ropes, &.C., that this new textile, from its cheapness and its extraordinary resisting power, might defy all competition. Its specific weight is much less, but its resistance much greater than those of hemp. Tims a cord of 8"2o mm. diameter, woven Avith the hand out of three threads of Kanaff, requires a weight of 180 kilogrammes to break it. A cord half an inch thick, manufactured at Moscow, did not break till the weight of 625 kilogrammes Avas reached. AVhen it is considered that Russia annually consumes more than 150,000,000 of .s:tcks, a third of which is imported, it may easily be seen that the appearance of this new textile on the Russian market is an event of no slight importance." {Board of Trade Journal.) The following more recent information respecting Kanaft' has been communicated to this establishment by the Foreign Office : — (Copy.) Foreign Office to Royal Gardens, Kew. Sir, Foreign Office, July 6, 1891. I AM directed by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to transmit to yon, to be laid before the Director of the Royal Grardens, the accompanying despatch, reporting on tlie cultivation of cotton in the Caspian district, and transmitting some fibre of a newly discovered plant. I am, etc. The Assistant Director, (Signed) James Fergusson. Royal Gardens, Kew. (f^xtract.) Mr. Vice-Consul ^iLjtHAY to Foreign Office. :Mv Lord, Batoum, June 24, l-^Ol. * * * * * Anewlydiscover.nl plant has been exciting great interest amongst Russian traders, as it is hoprd that it will prove a strong rival to the Jute plant. 11 It is known as the Kanaff (Kanube or Kana&pe), and is a textile plant found in large (luantities on the Persian shores of the Caspian sea, all the production and sale being in the hands of Persians, who do not know Avhat value to put on it, and therefore ask absurd prices, sometimes too high and sometimes too low. The quality of the flax, it appears^, is excellent, and it is only fair to suppose that this will develop into a large industry when the prices settle. At the present time the price is about the same as that of Indian jute, which, Avhen the high cost of local transport is added, practically puts it out of the market. The present price is from l§f7. to 2d. per pound. I have the honour to enclose a sample of the fibre of this plant. I have, &c. The Eight Hon. (Signed) Alex. Murray, The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G,, Lieutenant and Acting Consul. &c. &c. &c. A full account of Deccan or Amba.ii hemp obtained in India from Hibiscus caiDtabiniis is given in the Dictionary of the Econcmic Products of India, vol. iv., pp. 231-23B. The plant is a herljaceous shrub apparently wild in some partn ease of the Xorthern Ghfits but largely cultivated for its fibre throughout India. The produce is chiefly u.sed by the agricultural classes locally. Dr. Watt, C.I.E., states that the fibre is soft, white, and silky and eminently suitable for the coarser textile purposes to which jute is applied. Were a demand to be created for this fibre as distinct from that of Sunn-hemp or other fibres the cultivation of the plant might l)e indefinitely extended, and with profit to many needy cultivators who are unal)le to produce either jute or cotton. The leaves of Hibiscus caiinabinus are used as a pot herb Avhile the seeds are sometimes exported from India to England as an oil-seed. IV.— COTTON IN WEST AFRICi^. [K. B., 1890, pp. 130-140.] It is Avell known that Cotton is widely distributed in Vv'est Africa, but iBTeceives little or no cultural attention, and the produce is chiefly used for making native cloths. The export of Cotton has only lately begun to receive attention. The samples of West African Cotton received in this country have^ however, l)een favourably received, and it is evident that much could be done to extend th(3 cultivation by judicious action on the part of the local authorities and by the intro- duction and distribution of seed of good and suitable varieties of the Cotton plant. If once the cultivation could be generally taken up l)y the native population, and especially in districts where the industry is more or loss familiar to the people, there are good grounds for believing that West African Cotton would eventually become an important article of export. In the following eorres[)ondence attention is drawn to the subject of Cotton growing generally in West Africa; and an account is given of an attempt which has lately 1)een made to inti-oduce and cultivate experimentally the best forms of Egyptian Cotton. This 12 latter may or niav not be suitable to the circumstances of West Africa. Tlu- value i«?, liowever, so high that it has been thought desirable to attempt its cultivation in West Africa, and the results of the experi- ment, as also indeed of the general effort made to introduce West African Cotton to commerce, will be watched with interest. RovAL Gardens, Kew, to Colonial Office. [Extract.] Royal Gardens, Kew, SiK 22nd October 1889. ' * # * * * * As regards a supply of seed of Egyptian Cotton for West Africa, as none is obtainable in this country at the present time, the best course would be to apply through the Foreign Office for the assistance of the Agent and Cousul-General at Cairo in the matter. The cultivation of Egyptian Cotton in West Africa was suggested in the first instance in connection with Lagos, and I enclose a copy of the correspondence addressed to Kew by Mr. Alvau Millson, in Avhich the advantages of cultivating Egyptian Cotton in West Africa are fully stated. In apply- ing to the Foreign Office for a supply of Egyptian Cotton seed it would be well to ask for abo\it 40 pounds by weight in order that some of the seed might be supplied to Lagos and to other Colonies disposed to trv it. ****** I am, &c. (Signed) D. Morris. The Hon. R. H. Meade, C.B. Mr. Alvan Millson to Royal Gardens, Kew. Hotel Windsor, Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W., Dear Sir, 8th June 1889. I EN(XOsE a letter from a friend of mine who has made a special study of Egyptian Cotton in its application to ring and ordinary spinning. From his remarks it would appear that the flood lands of the Niger basin and coast lagoons of AVest Africa offer suitable conditions for the extension of the sui)ply of this valuable article of commerce, the .scarcity and high price of which render its cultivation an exceedingly lucrative occupation. Believe me, &c. (Signed) Alvan Millson. D. Morris, Es(i , M.A., F.L.S. [Enclosure.] Messrs. Samiel Whitley & Co. to Mr. Alvan Millson. Hansom Lane Cotton Mill, Halifax, Dear Sir, 7ih June 1889. We venture to call your attention to the desirability of extend- ing the growth of that class of Cotton now only produced in Egypt, This Cotton has many advantages in length, strength, and finen^s of 13 fibre over that grown iu America, and commands a much higher price ; at present its production is limited to the Nile valley, where there is no room for extension to meet the increasing demand, and where the crop is at times almost ruined by a " low Nile," causing a large advance in price and its consequent derangement of trade. The price obtained, which varies from 6d. to 10c?. per pound for ordinary qualities, must give a large return to the planters, for Indian Cottons are grown, ginned, shipped, and sold for Sd. per pound. The requirements of the crop appear to be, an alluvial soil; a regular supply of water to the roots and bright weather tluring ripening ; careful picking to prevent the mixture of leaf Avith the fibre. The writer has carefully noted the conditions in Egj^pt, and cannot see why this crop should not be extended to other parts of Africa. We are, &c. (Sign(jd) S. Whitley & Co. Mr. Alvau Millson. Colonial Office to Royal Garpexs, Kew. Sir, Downing Street, 1st November 18S0. With reference to your letter of the 22nd ultimo, I am directed by Lord Knutsford to acquaint you that the Foreign Office have been requested to instruct Her Majesty's Agent and Consul-General at Cairo to obtain 40 lbs. of Egyptian Cotton seed for transmission to the West African Colonies. Lord Knutsford has desired that the seed should be forwarded to you, and he will be much obliged if you will undertake its apportion- ment among the various Colonies in such amounts as you may think most desirable. I am further to request that you will state the exact amounts sent to each Colony, so that the total cost may be properly divided by the Crown Agents. I am, &c. (Signe.1) R. PI. Meade. The Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. Royal Gardens, Kew, to Colonial Office. Sir, Royal Gardens, Kew, January 22, 1890. With reference to your letter of 1st November on the subject of obtaining a supply of Egyptian Cotton seed for transmission to certain Colonies, I am desired by Mr. Thisel ton -Dyer to inform you that he has recently received, at the request of Sir Evelyn Baring, a supply of Cotton see«l from the British Commissioner of the Egyptian State Domains. 2. This seed has been divided into six lots, and apportioned as follows: — To Gambia and Lagos, one-fourth each; to Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Windward Islands, and Leeward Islands, one-eighth each, 3. The small portion of seed .selected for the West Indian Colonies is likely to prove of great service in such islands as Carriacou, Antigua, and the Virgin Islands. 4. It would be desirable to furnish the Governors of all the Colonies to which seed is sent with a copy of the correspondence enclosed in my letter of the 22nd October last, ia order that tliey nv^y have before 14 them the special importance attached to this ^gyntian Cotton seed. The time for sowing the seed and the treatment of the crop, in the absence of instructions to the contrary, should follow those which obtain locally for ordinary Cotton. 5. The seed for Lagos was taken out by Sir Alfred Moloney on Saturday last. The remaininjif portion of the seed, contained in five small boxes addressed to the Governors of the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Leeward and "Windward Islands, will be forwarded to the Crown Agents for transmi-;sion to their destination with the least possible delay. 1 am, &c. (Signed) D. Morris. This Egyptian Cotton seed consists of two varieties, A. '' Ashmouni," B. '• Bahmieh,''a portion of each variety is included in the consignments mentioned above. The Hon. R. H. Meade, C.B. Colonial Office to Royal Gardens, Kew. Sir, Downing Street, March 19, 1890. I AM directed by Lord Knutsford to transmit to you a copy of a Despatch from the Governor of Sierra Leone, forwarding a sample of Cotton collcf ted at Mafweh, on the Bum River, and to state that his Lordship would be much obliged if you would be good enough to obtain the opinion of an expert as to its commercial value. I am, (tc. (Signed) R. H. Meade. The Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. [Enclosure.] Mr. Ali.dkidge to the Governor of Sierra Leone. Sir, Sulymah, February 6, 1890. In accordance with your Excellency's instructions to me of the loth ultimo. No. .31, I have now the honour to forward to the Hon. the Colonial St;cretary a sanijdc bag of Cotton. This particular sample was obtained at Mafweh by me. I find that this class of Cotton is not the Avild or bush Cotton, but that it is j)lantcd by the natives (usually between Cassada) for the manu- facture of country cloths; it is not, however, cultivated as an article of ti'atiite ? ] am informed by a gentleman who used to bring this description to England that lie could not get it ginned in Africa, because the natives were either not sulficiently intelligent or too superstitious to use a ginning machine, although this is of the simplest description, resembling very closely an ordinary hay-cutter. It is to be feared that if this difficulty still exists it will constitute a formidable, if not an insurmountable, obstacle ta the export of this Cotton from the Gold Coast. Yours, &c. (Signed) Elijah Helm, Secretary. Colonial Okfick to Royal Gardens, Kew. Sir, Downing Street, December 16, 1890. I am directed by Lord Knutsford to transmit to you some speci- mens of Egyptian Cotton, cleaned of seeds and uncleaned, grown on the Castle Farm, Christiansborg, Accra, which have been sent home by the Governor of the Gold Coast Colony. He states that the seed was planted at the end of June, and the Cotton picked between the 5th and 14th Novenil)er. Lord Knutsford would be much obliged if you could furnish him with a report on the commercial value of these specimens. I am, &c. The Director, (Signed) R. H. Meade. Roval Gardens, Kew. Royal Gardens, Kew, to Colonial Office. Sir, Royal Gardens, Kew, February 9, 1891. I HAVE the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of December Hi, transmitting a report on a sample of Egyptian Cotton, grown on the Castle Farm, Christiansborg, Accra, and sent hdne by the Governor of the Gold Coast Colony. 2. In accordance with Lord Knutsford's wish the enclosed report upon the samjde has been obtained from the Manchester Chamber ot Commerce, which has very obligingly assisted this establishment on this and other occasions. 3. From the correspondence published in the Kcic Bulletin for June 1890, you will observe that the production of this type of Cotton if successful in West Africa may be made the basis of a very profitable 19 industry. You will, therefore, no doubt nlso observe with satisfactioa that the present pample is reported upon in very favourable ternriB. The estimated value is the highest which has been put upon any sample of cotton yet received from West Africa. I am, &c. (Signed) W. T. Thiselton-Dykr. The Hon. 11. H. Meade, C.B. Chamber of Commerce, Manchester, to Royal Gardens, Kew. Chamber of Commerce, Manchester, Dear Sir, February -i, 1891. I HAVE pleasure in reporting to you upon the sample of Egyptian Cotton, ginned and unginned, grown at Castle Farm, Christiansborg, Accra, forwarded by you on the 19th December. It has been sub- mitted to the judgment of experts, members of this Chamber, and is described as good, clean, and very dcrirable cotton, worth to-day about 6|c?. i^er pound in Liverpool. Can yon inform me whether the sample was ginned in Africa or in this coniitry ? Yours, &c. (Signed) Elijah FIelm, Secretary. VI.— GAMBIA PAGNS OR NATIVE CLOTHS. [K. B., 1891, pp. 191-192.] Next to the cultivation of the ground nut (Anichis hypogcea, L.), shipped to Europe for the manufacture of oil, the most important industry of the settlement of the Gambia on the West Coast of Africa is the cultivation and mannfacture of cotton. From this cotton is made the native " pagns " or country cloths which are in great request in that pare of the world. Sir Alfred Moloney {Forestry of West Africa, p. 142) states that in addition to supplying cloths for home consump- tion the " pagn " industry of the Gambia exported cloths of the value of 480/. in 1883 and of 2,742/. in 1884. " Pagns " are also made at LagOi., and some of (hem are exported even to Brazil for the use of the West African negroes who have emigrated to that country. The whole industry is a singularly interesting one. The cotton is gathered, ginned, and spun into thread by the native women entirely by hand. The loom for weaving the cloth is a very crude contrivance. "This " primitive hand-loom," says Sir Alfred Moloney, " in use amongst the " natives is what has come down through centuries to them from their " ancestors, and, it is needless to add, it is capable of improvement to " their advantage. It certainly deserves attention." Each frame weaves a strip of cotton only G inches broad. These strips are then sewn into long broad pieces to which the name of " pagn " is applied. The native " pagns " are regarded as extremely durable, and they are in greater request than any similar article of European manufacture. At the request of Kew, his Honour R B. Llewelyn, C.M.G., Adminifs- trator of the Gambia, was good enough to forward, in January last, the B 2 20 subjoined report on the native cotton industry, prepared by Mr. J. H. Ozanne, the Travelling Commissioner on the north bank of the River Gambia : — CULTIVATIOX OF COTTON. XORTH BaNK, GaMBIA. Seed is planted as soon as the rains begin. It is planted in rows from 3 to 6 feet apart ; the plants are from 2 to 5 feet from one another. Great care is taken in selecting the seed, as it is liable to be attacked by small worms. Corn is planted between the rows, which is reaped in August. By November the cotton plant is 3 feet liigh, and picking commences and continues until the end of April. There are two sorts of cotton grown in the district, one giving a perfectly white thread, the other a brownish colour like faded ink. The quality of both seems to be the same, but the white cotton yields more. The flower and leaf of both appear exactly the same. The cotton that is grown is not of the best, and would hardly staml the te^t required by an English cotton-spinner, but the plant has the advantage of being able to stand the dry weather, and the clothes made from this cotton are strong and durable. The cotton industry is almost as important as the ground nuts, and the people engaged in it work hard. In every town one comes across a row of cotton-spinners' sheds, each containing a machine. There are generally half-a-dozen of these at work in each town, and the creaking of the machine is heard from morning till night,, sometimes even late at night. The cotton is picked by the women clear of seeds, and is beautifully white and clean. The women then take a bundle, mix a little lime or chalk and water on the fingers of the left hand through which the cotton passes, and spin the cotton out on to threads on a spindle which they work with the finger and thumb of the right hand. They do this very ([uickly, and it looks very easy^ but it is not, for when I tried to do it, the threads broke. When they have spun a sufBcient quantity of thread, the men choose a flat spot, and place forked sticks about 3 feet high, 40 feet apart, forming three sides of a square, each side being about 150 feet long ; the threads are then run from one end to the other, and returned, until there are sufficient rows of thread to be woven into a strip of cotton 6 inches broad. These rolls of thread, 150 feet in length, are now handed over to the owner of the little machine, who so arranges them on two little frames, each about 6 inches wide, that every alternate thread is fastened to a •wire of one or the other of the frames. These frames are then set in motion by the workman's foot, and either raise or lower every alternate thread at every stroke. The workman then tosses his shuttle of thread from one hand to the other between the rows of thread. I'ly these means the cross tlireads are interwoven amongst the long ones, and to press them tightly together, a third little frame, with wiies separating the long threads, is jiressed against the cross threads. It is difficult to describe this native machine, which should be seen to be appreciated. The.=e strips of cotton are then sewn into long broad pieces which are called *' pagns." J. H. Ozanne. 21 VII.— COTTON IN INDIA. [K. B., 1894, pp. 318-321.] Extract from Mejioraxdum by Dr. George Watt, C.T.E, Little more than a century ago it was felt in England that the time might arrive when India would have to be regarded, from political reasons, as the chief source of supply for cotton. A Polish botanist [Dr. Anthony Pantaleon Hove, employed as a collector for Ken- in the last century], was sent out by the then British Government to study the indigenous cotton plants of India. His report, though not published until many years after his death, is full of interest. It shows that the crops grown in Western India a century ago were very different froni those of the present day, and that the systems of cultivation pursued, even on the l)lack soils of Guzerat, were in some important respects dissimilar from those now followed. During the first few decades of this century the Honouralde the East India Company entertained the somewhat unfortunate opinion that the true way to enable India to par- ticipate in the greatly expanding British traffic in raw cotton would be to acclimatise the most highly prized forms of America. Large sums of money were accordingly spent in Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, that might (as we now learn) have been used to better advantage in an effort to improve and develop the indigenous crops. Year by year America steadily improved the quality and increased the length of her staple, and the demand for Indian cotton accordingly declined. Ultimately, how- ever, India succeeded in producing New Orleans cotton at Dharwar — a staple of a far superior quality to the Indian. The high price paid for this, unfortunately induced adulteration instead of encouraging greater effort. In July 1863 a law had accordingly to be passed to repress the "fi'auds perpetrated, but this, while being wholly ineffectual in its main object, very frequently punished the wrong persons, and accordingly did great harm to the industry. It was in consequence repealed, and the Indian cotton trade was thus left to take care of itself The effort to participate in the British traffic had practically to be abandoned, and not because India had been proved incapable of producing a staple of the kind required. But this is not all. The reputation of India for its once famous indigenous cottons had at the same time been completely destroyed, and its American crop having fallen into disfavour, rapidly degenerated in quality, until at the present day it might almost be described us inferior to many of the indigenous cottons. Unskilled and impecunious cultivators were in India left to compete against the enlightened agriculture of America — unskilled because ignorant of the principles by which they might have developed the produce to meet the best market, instead of being content to allow it to drift into an inferior position. As matters stand, they may now bo said to glory in that they are able to dispose of a Avorthless staple at remunerative rates. That improvement towards a higher and better-paid standard is possible may be accepted as fully demonstrated by past experience and by the fact of superior races of cotton being found where attention is given to the crop, and still more so l)y the further fact that within the regions of superior production the cultivators are fully aware that degeneration occurs with neglect and with the [)rolonged continuance of cultivation of any particular form on tlie same soil. .Selection of seed and the cultivation of specially selected plants for the production 22 of seed might easily improve the Indian crop of any district by 50 per cent. For many years past the Indian cotton trade has been drifting into a restricted groove. Our produce goes to mills that do not wish for a superior or long staple, but only a pure one (that is, not a mixture of several lengths of staple), so that it may fairly be said many of our largest buyers discourage improvement. The dangers of a one-sided tra(le of this nature neeil scarcely be mentioned. India is thus destroyed as a Dossible country of sup))ly ibr the English mills. The Indian mills arc at the same time compelled to look to foreign countries for their present or future supplies of superior staples, and are thus more or less confined in their operations to one class of goods. It might almost be said that progression is deliberately stultified, the labours of centuries rutlilessly thrown away, and a large and iniportaut industry practically cornered or restricted in its possible develoi^ment l)y iutei'ested parties, Avho advance the plausible axiom that demand is the controlling power of production. Hence improvement of the staple may be emphatically affirmed as the rational direction in which an extension of our produc- tion of cotton should be looked for, since the existing traffic is aimed at the destruction of all the good features or the indigenous fibre, if not of the morality of both grower and trader. It is essentially a retrogi'ade traffic, as at present constituted, and one in which the aims and objects of most of those concerned are directed towards the attainment of a high yield of a worthless staple. What is true of cotton is, however, equally applicable to sugar, wheat, wool — in fact, to almost all the articles o\' Indian trade. Little or no effort has been put forward towards developing, on scientific principles, the quality of the articles of Indian commerce. Past endeavours have for the most part been concerned with acclimatising the products of other countries, with the result, as already shown, that India has obtained many of her most widely grown crops from foreign sources. The cottons of India may be referred approximately to two great sections, the early and ihe late crops. The former comes into market from October to March, the major portion from October to January. The latter d(>es not commence to come into market nnich before February, and is, as a rule, over by April, though exceptional crops are not ripe before June. The early crops are repre.sentcd by the " Bengals " (such as the cottons of the Punjab, the North- West Provinces, Oudh, and Bengal), the " Oomras " (the chief cottons of Khande.sh, Bei'ar, &c.), the " Ifiuganghats " (of the Central Provinces, <^c.), and many of the Sind cottons. The late crops are represented by the " Dholeras " (important crops of KathiaAvar, Kutch, and Guzcrat), by the "Broach and Surats," by the " Coomptas "' (indigenous cottons of Dharwar, Bijapnr, Belgaum, &c.), and by the " Tccondas " and " Tinnevellys." This purposely leaves out of consider.ation the American cottons, such as "the saw-ghinned Dharwar," " Verawal," " Salems," and " Coimbatores," which are also, however, all late crops. While we have tlius a comjiarativcly easy classification according to season, this is at once revealed as more or less the expression of meteorological conditions, since within almost any of the regions of these crops Avidely different forms are separately classed in the trade under the names of the districts where produced. These when examined botanically are often found to be afforded by distinct races, varieties, or species. Nothing could convey an idea of the complexity of the Indian cotton traffic more forcibly than a tour through Guzerat during the months of January, February, and March. At Surat aud Broach (more especially iu the latter district) a high cultivation on a rich black cotton soil is found to yield one of the finest of all Indian long-staple cottons. During the months mentioned, however, the soil is split into great blocks, the cracks penetrating to such a depth as to render perennial crops an impossibility. As the result, trees are very rare and hedges all but unknown, A few miles off", the lighter soils of large portions of Baroda are able to support perennial cottons, trees become frequent, and hedges universal. Here, then, are two cotton crops of the late series growing side by side, but which practically cannot be interchanged from district to district, aud in which the systems of cultivation pui'sucd and the quality of the staples afforded are as different as the two plants are from each other. They are botanically, agriculturally, and commercially different things, and have to be treated as such, whether the object desired be to extend the area of cultivation or improve the quality of the staple. A little to the north of Barotla (in Wadhwan and other districts) another change is met with, viz,, the occurrence of close-podded forms of Dholera cotton. These are far more dissimilar from Surat, Broach, and certain Baroda cottons than are the Dholeras of the southern division of Isathiawar. Indeed one of tbe chief forms of Broach has undoubtedly been derived from Kathiawar, so that the trade distinction of " Dlioleras" from " Broach and Surats " cannot be upheld botanically. AYhat is more curious, the once famous Laberkhuva cotton of Mongrel was found on inquiry to be Broach cotton raised from seed imported fresh every fourth or fifth year. And these illustratioDS of Guzerat aud KathiaAvar cottons are more or less true of the whole of India. There are often very narrow limits indeed within which an extension of the area of cultivation can be carried without destroying completely all the special properties of the crop. The total area in cultivation under cotton in British India in 1892-93 was nearly 9,000,000 acres. The largest areas were in Madras, Berar, Bombay, and the North -West Provinces. The highest export of cotton during the last five years took place in 1889-90, wdien cotton to the value of Rs. 187,000,000 was shipped from India. The export in 1892-93 was slightly less, being of the value of lis. 127,000,000. Besides cotton, there was exported from India cotton seed in 18S8-89 to the value of Rs. 301,577 ; in 1892-93 this had fallen to a value of Es. 61,708. VIII.— COTTON IN BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA. [K. B., 1890, pp. 118-119.] Cotton has long been cultivated in Central Africa. Ou the Zambesi and elsewhere it is now semi-Avild, The following correspondence relates to a sample of the produce sent to Kew by Her Majesty's Commissioner in British Central Africa : — Her Majesty's Commissioner asd Consul-General, Bjmtisii Centrai> Africa, to Royal Gardens, Kew. Zomba, British Central Africa, Dear Thiselton-Dver, October 19, 189o. I SEND you by this post in a small canvas bag a specimen of the half-wild cotton of this country. It is cultivated by the natives iu an 2-1. inilifforent manner since some 15 yenrs ago, when the}' ceased weaving any cloth from their own cotton, preferring to buy the European manufactured goods. This cotton is sent to me by a planter in the vicinity who states that he believes it to be of very good quality. Could you have it reported on, and let me know \\hcther it really is a cotton which would fetch a high price? Opinions are divided as to whether it is or it is not worth our while to cultivate cotton. It grows half wild about the country, but it is said that the transport to the coast, which would cost about an average of 6/. a ton, would have little or no profit to the planter. Believe me, &c. (Signed) H. H. Johnston, Her Majesty's Commissioner and Consul-General. Secretary, Manchester Chamber of Commerce, to Koval Gardens, Kew. Chamber of Commerce, Manchester, Dear Sir, January 9, 1896. 1 have obtained au expert opinion upon the sample of Central African cotton referred to in your letter of the 6th instant, and have pleasure in reporting thereupon. The fibre is of a woolly character, but it is clean and bright, though a good (leal discoloured l>y what appear to be insect stains. The length of the staple is 1^ inch to If^ inch, varying considei-ably in strength, but it is mostly very tender. It could probably be sold here at about 4|rf. per lb. at the present time. Faithfully your?, (Signed) Elijah Helm, John R. Jackson, Esq., Secretary. Kew Museum, Kew. IX.— CULTIVATION OF COTTON IN EGYPT. {Gossypium harhadense, L.) [K.B., 1897, pp. 102-104.] Next to the United States and India, Egypt is one of the important cotton-producing countries of the world. The quantify of Egyptian cotton received in this country is about 2,000,000 cvvts. annually. The quality is usually exceptionally good, and ranks next to the celebrated Sea-island cotton of America, The following sketch of the history of cotton cultivation in Egypt lately appeared in Journal of the Society of Arts (December 25th, 1896, pp. 98, 99) : " Some interesting information is given in a recent issue of the Bulletin dn Ministere de rAf/ricidinre respecting the different descriptions of cotton which have been successively cultivated in Egypt. The fibre cotton cultivated in the delta of the Nile was called J^w/ne/, 25 after the name of llie person who introduced its cultivation, in the reign of Mehemet Ali, in 1820. M. Jumel, who was a Frenchman, had remarked in the garden of one of his friends Hving near Cairo, certaia cotton plants, of which the seeds had l)een imported from the Soudan. He succeeded in cultivating the plant from seeds which he obtained, and presented certain of them to Mehemet Ali, who, foreseeing the sources of wealth that the cotton might assure to the country, placed at the disposal of Jumel vast extents of territory, and gave him every facility in his enterprise. This cotton was also known by the name of Maho^ after a Bey in whose gardens Jumel had originally found the first seeds. Jumel, or 3Iako, was for many years the only cotton cul- tivated, but for a time it was replaced by a new variety called Ashmouni. This Ashmouni degenerated after 20 years of cultivation, and was abandoned for Mit AJifi, which at the present time is most largely cultivated in Egypt. Mit AJifi is a very strong variety of cotton, easy to grow, and does not require any very excessive irrigation. The colour is slightly yellow and is much appreciated by spinners. Another kind of cotton called Bahmieh* is grown to a limited extent, and this is a delicate variety requiring a stronger soil. It yields a whitish cotton, which is particularly used for certain articles of hosiery. It enjoys a great leputution in the United States, while France and Germany consume small quantities of it. The cultivation of the varieties called ' white cotton ' has very considerably fallen off. Their total annual production hardly exceeds from 60,000 to 70,000 quintals. Many other varieties, such as Zafivi, Abbassi, &c., have been experimented with by many growers, but up to the present the results have not been sufficiently advanced to enable an accurate opinion to be formed as to their merits. Egyptian cotton, whatever its variety, j)reserves its essential qualities, which causes it to be much sought after by European and American manufacturers. As a matter of fact, no cotton, Avith the exception perhaps of Sea Island, the production of which is to some extent restricted, and the price too high to admit of its general and universal consumption, has the fineness, the strength, and the brilliancy necessary for the manufacture under good conditions of a large number of special articles. Egyptian cottons are used in making threads of the numbers GO to 150, while Indian cotton makes threads of numbers 5 to 18, and American cotton threads from 20 to 50. The qualities of Egyptian cotton are such that it finds a ready outlet on European markets, no matter what may be the production and prices of cotton of other origins." The following further information respecting Egyptian cotton is taken from the Journal of tht Royal Agricultural Society, vii. 627, and contains notes on the use of manures for increasing cotton crops in the Nile Valley : " It is to the cotton crop of the Delta that Egypt owes its present financial prosperity. It covers between a third and a lialf of the area, the remainder being uncropped in the summer, but cropped with maize in flood-time. During the winter the country is an uninterrupted expanse of wheat, barley, and clover. The cotton is sown in March, and is on the ground till the end of October, receiving about 14 waterings, of which nine are given during the hot weather by lift with bullock-wheel or steam -pump. Its produce is at least eight times that * An account of Bahmieh or Bamia Cotton is given in the Kew Report for 1877, pp. 26, 27. 26 of Indian cotton, giving an average of about 500 lb. of lint per acre. Clover or wheat follows. " The clover is sown amongst the cotton plants before they are cut, and gives five cuttings between XovemVjer and June, requiring eight waterings. Maize follows during the flood, and, after the maize, wheat. During the next flood maize is again sown, and is followed by clover, which, after two cuttings, is ploughed up to make way for cotton. Thus, in three yeai's the cultivator gets a crop of cotton, two crops of maifc, a crop of wheat, and seven cuttings of clover. In some i)laces cotton is grown every other year, the intermediate crops being wheat, maize, and clover. On the large estate which formed the ' Domains ' of Ismail Pasha, and is now managed by a board on behalf of his creditors, the maize crop])ing is generally omitted, and the land is given two fallows in flood-time in the course of three years. Maize is almost invariably manured. Cotton follows clover and is commonly unnianured. But the Domains administration has found that, by the use of manure, at least 200 lb. can be added to the produce per acre, and the practice of top-dressing is spreading. It may be safely concluded that two-thirds of the Delta — or one and three-quarters million acres — receive manure anniuillv." X.— EGYPTIAN COTTON IN SIERRA LEONE. [K. B., 1897, pp. 304-305.] [EXTRA< T.] Another promising economic plant in Sierra Leone is the native cotton, probably Goasi/jiiinn herbaceum, L. In order to supplement this an effort was made some years ago to introduce the cultivation of the Egyptian cotton in the colony. The following letter affords particulars on these points : — Royal Gardens, Kew, to Colonial Office. Royal Gardens, Kew, Sir, 21st January, 1893. I AM desired by Mr. Thiselton-Dyer to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 2nd instant forwarding a copy of a despatch from thR Grovernor of Sierra Leone regarding the experiments made in the colony to cultivate Egyptian cotton. 2. Mr. Thiselton-Dyer has noticed with regret that these experiments have not proved successful in Sierra Leone, and that the Governor does not consider that tiiere would be any good in forwarding more seeds to the colony. 3. It will be within your recollection that in 1890, at the request of the Government of Sierra Leone, Kew undertook to obtain a com- mercial valuation and report on samples of native cotton collected in Mafweh on the Bum river; and in my letter of the 9th May 1890, a copy of a very favourable report furnished by the Manchester Chamber of Commerce was enclosed. 27 4. The Sierra Leone cotton was stated to be of good quality, and valued at sixpence per pound in Liverpool. There was said to be a good demand for it, aud Lancashire buyers " would gladly welcome a " very much larger supply than is now available." A copy of the cor- respondence was afterwards published as a Government notice (Xo. 56, dated the 26th jNLay 1890), in the local gazette, aud the Governor, Sir James Hay, K.C.M.Gr., invited "the special attention of the public to " the importance of the subject." 5. It was evident that a very favourable opening existed in the Colony of Sierra Leone for extending a valuable industry. There are few West African products in the present day that offer a remunerative market. Hence this subject of cotton-growing was of peculiar importance. 6. It was thought desirable not only to encourage and extend the cul- tivation of the cotton already in the hands of the natives, but to introduce the more valuable Egyptian cotton, which is in great demand " for the " length, firmness, and strength of the staple." 7. If owing to local circumstances the cultivation of Egyptian cotton is not practicable in Sierra Leone, it may at least be possible to extend the growth and export of the ordinary cotton. If the colony could afford to support a small botanical station in the neighbourhood of Freetown, there is little doubt that many new industries could be started that are now believed impossible. The success attained at the two stations already established !n West Africa at Lagos and Aburi, shows that they fulfil a most useful mission in regard to developing local industries. I am, &c. (Signed) D. Morris. The Hon. R. H. Meade, C.B. Colonial Office. XI.— KAPOK. {Eriodendron anfractuosum, D. C.) [K. B., 1896, pp. 204-207.] Kapok is the Dutch name for the seed hairs of the white silk-cotton tree of the East Indies {Eriodendron avfractuosum) . The kapok of Java is regarded as the best. It is, however, too short in the staple, too smooth, aud too soft to be spun into yarn. Its chief use is for stuffing pillows, mattresses, and sofas, where its lightness, immunity from moth, softness, and elasticity, render it superior to all but the best qualities of feathers, wool, and iiair. Eriodendron anfractuosuin is a lofty forest tree with a large straight trunk covered with prickles when young. The branches are horizontal and arranged in whorls. The rather large flowers are white, and are followed by a dry, green capsule, in shape like a short cucumber, filled with black seeds embedded in silky hairs. The seeds arc sometimes eaten aud yield a l)land, fatty oil. The residual cake makes an excellent food for cattle. The tree occurs in the forest throughout the hotter parts of India and Ceylon and extends to Sumatra, Java, and the Philippine Islands. It is also distributed to South America, the West Indies and tropical Africa. The habit of the tree is a very striking 28 one. This is well shown in the representations of it in the Xortli Gallery, Nos. 129, 176, and G32. It is majestic in size, and generally towers above all other trees in the dry forests where it flourishes. It sends out large buttress -like expansions from the base, while its branches aflbrd a favourite resting place for numerous epiphytes. In fact the upper parts of aa old silk-cotton tree form a very interesting garden. The branches and forks are thickly covered with a large tufted growth of several species of Tillanthia, numerous ferns, arnids, orchids, and the seedlings of Ficiis and other trees whose seeds have been carried thither by birds. Next to the Cocoa-nut palm the silk-cotton tree affords one of the most characteristic features of tropical vegetation. It 'v.i regarded with superstition hy the negroes both in Africa and the West Indies, and they can with difficulty be induced to cut it down or handle it. In India the tree yields an almost opaque gum of a dark-red colour, which is said to be astringent, and to be employed medicinally in bowel complaints. The wood is soft and used in tanning leather. An inferior reddish fibre is sometimes prepared from the bark, which is used locally for making ropes and paper. It possesses, however, no commercial value ; and the barking of the ti-ee would not compensate for the injury done to it as a souice of floss. The young roots are also used medicinally in Bombay. They are dried in the shade, powdered and mixed witli the juice of the fresh bark and sugar. In Java the growing silk-cctton trees are commonly used as telegraph posts as the branches grow so conveniently at right angles to the trunk that they do not interfere with the wires. The kapok or floss from Eriodendron aiif/acii(osu/.'i is, according to present demand, a fibre of considerable merit. The modern trade in it was created l)y the Dutch merchants, vrho drew their chief supply from Java. It is said that its elasticity and harshness prevent its becoming matted as in some other flosses. The extending use of kapok seems to point to it as a flbre likely to increase in demand year by year. It is important, as pointed out by Dr. Wart, to guard against an error "made by many writers of viewing kapok as a generic trade name for all the silk- cotton — including that of the simal^ the ^osi^ of Jiomba.r malabaricnm. When the demand for kapok first started, Indian exporters placed in the market a quantity of very dirty simal, having a large percentage of dust as welt as seed. Tdis was at once condemned and fetched a price that would not cover the transport charges. India thus fell into an inferior position, which might have been avoided if carefully cleaned fibre had been sent to Europe." In the Annual Report of the Director of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, for the year 1884, p. 48, the following particulars were given respecting kapok or silk cotton : — " The silk-cotton tree is a very familiar object in the Jamaica landscape, especially on the north side, where it attains an enormous size. The wood was formerly (and sometimes is now) utilised for the purpose of making canoes ; but for all practical purposes the tree is accounted of little value in the West Indies. " The chief supply of kapok for the Dutch market is obtained from the Kast Indies, and during the years 1877-82 the following quantities were imported, viz. : 1877, 11,093 bales; 1878,10,519 bales; 1879,12,050 bales; 1880, ()479 bales; 1881, 9991 bales, and 1882, 28,032 bales. The average price paid in English money ^\as Id. per lb. nearly. " A great difficulty found in the importation of silk-cotton was due to its great bulk and the heavy cost of transport. The difficulty has now 29 been overcome by a silk-cotton press constructed by Stork and Co. at Henglo. '• It now only remains for some enterprising firm to initiate the collec- tion of silk-cotton in Jamaica and ship it in well-packed bales for the European market. If each cotton tree yielded at the rate of about 100 lbs. weight of clean floss there might be exported from Jamaica every year about 3000 bales of silk- cotton of the value of 9000/." In Ceylon, according to the Ti-opical Agriculturist (1884, p. 153), kapok was collected throughout the villages in the interior, principally in the Matura and Tangalla districts and in the Central Province. The season commences in May, and only one crop can be obtained in the year. The trees do not attain maturity until the fifth year. It is not uncommon to gather 1000 to 1500 pods from one tree. In preparing the article for export the chief difiiculty was experienced in freeing it from the seeds. The improved Patent Saw Cotton Gin imported in 1884 was very satisfactory. The industry in Ceylon was started in consequence of letters written from the Melbourne Exhibition by the late Mr. A. M. Ferguson, C.M.Gr. Kapok had already attracted considerable attention in Australia. Messrs. Buchanan, of Melbourne, in their Motithly Register dated 21st June 1886, gave the following account of it : — " It is now 15 years since the first shipment of Java kapok came to this market . . . . but so firmly did it establish itself .... that when supplies were not regularly forthcoming a substitute was sought for. In proof of tl(e lasting qualities of kapok, a non-commissioned officer engaged in the^Mahratta war of 1843 has a pillow-case in constant use ever since \A^ich still retains its elasticity and fulness, and who assures us he hasi<)und nothing so cool or healthful to sleep on in warm climates, It is/uiflicult to obtain reliable statistics concerning the trade .... W^find it entered at the local Customs under all manner of names, "such as ' vegetable fibre,' ' vegetable wool,' ' silk cotton,' ' tree cotton,' ' raw cotton,' and ' Simoul cotton.' There were imported into Melbourne during the year 1886 a total of 8845 bales of the value of 26,850/. A Jaale of Java knpok weighs about 80 lbs., a bale of Ceylon about 200 lbs., and a bale of India about 400 lbs." Serious complaint is made in Australia and elsewhere of the quality of the kapok shipped from India. " Even at the low price of India " kapok it is found better to pay 8^f7. and higher per lb. for Japan than " 3<7. for Indian. The Indian is frequently received in such a filthy " condition as to be almost unsaleable." It is stated that hydraulic or steam -press packing of kapok tends to destroy that peculiar elasticity to which it owes its value, " for without its springy nature it is *' unsuitable as a stuffing material." Moreover, by hard packing, when the seeds are left attached to the fibre, a dark-coloured oil is expresssed which is suffused over the kapok, "hence a noticeable difference in colour between the Indian and the beautifully white Java products." "At .lava the trade has assumed a uniform practice. No unclean stuff" is shipped, but the different grades of cleaning denote standards of quality ; the first, ' extra cleaned,' being cleaned by machinery, and the first picking of the crop; the second, denoted as 'best cleaned picked,' being all hand-picked and free from seeds, except an odd one here and there ; the third is simply designated ' cleaned.' It contains a few seeds, together with the 'slubs,' or little knotty, curly lumps, which are cast aside from the higher grades. The quality of any one class is found most uniform throughout the bales. Packing is all done in straw mats, and never tightly pressed ; the first quality, ' extra 30 cleaned,' weighing about 65 lbs. ; the second and third from 75 lbs. to 90 lbs. Bales over 90 lbs. to 95 lbs., on account of having to be dumped by machinery, destroying the elasticity of the fibre, are reckoned not to be worth within ^d. to 1^. per lb. in value bales of lesser weight. *' In fact, it is a peculiar feature of the Java trade that weight of bales form an essential condition of price — the lighter the highest, and I'ice versa." The following paragraph appeared in the British North Borneo Herald for August 1,^1 S96 :— " Kapok, the down which envelops the seeds of the silk-cotton tree, is, says the Produce TVorld, receiving much attention. The cultiva- tion of the trees is even said to be ousting coffee in the province of Burmah ; they grow to a height of 80 leet to 100 feet, the wood is soft and worthless; the fibre, kapok, is extensively used for stuffing mattresses, pillows, cushions, seats of railway carriages, &c. The lack of proper machinery for cleaning the fibre stood in the way of its development, but that obstacle has been removed, and the stuff as it conies to market is in excellent condition for the purposes Ave have named." Kapok has not been received in this country on a very large scale. It is not, however, quite unknown here. The following particulars have been received from a well-kno\\n firm in the Citv : — Messrs. Ide and Christie to Roval Gardens, KE^v^ 72, Mark Lane, London, E.G., Sir, September 28, 1896. In reply to your letter of the 24th instant. Kapok is coming here regularly to the extent of 100 bales a month from India and Ceylon. To-day's vfilue is 2.^7. to Ad. per lb. The trade is not large, but may grow. Yours, &c. Dr. Morris, C.M.Ct., (Signed) Ide and Christie. Assistant Director, Eoyal Gardens, Kew. XII.— FIBRE FROM LAGOS. {Honche7iya Jicifolia, Willd.) [K. B., 1889, pp. 15-10.] Botanical specimens as well as a specimen of fibre were recently re- ceived at Kew through the Colonial Office from the Governor of Lagos. These specimens have proved interesting as bringing under notice, apparently for the first time, a valuable fibre plant on the AVest Coast of Africa. The plant has been determined as Honchenya ficifoUa, Willd. (Clappertonia ficifolia, Decaisne), a memljer of the natural order Tiliaceo'. It is fully described in Oliver, Flora of Tropical Africa, Vol. i. p. 260. Below will be found the official correspondence bearing 31 on the subject, including a report of Messrs. Ide and Christie on the commercial value of the fibre : — Colonial Office to Eoyal Gardens, Kew. Sir, Downing Street, 1 2th December 1888. I AM directed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to transmit to you, for your observations, a despatch from the Governor of Lagos, enclosing a correspondence with Mr. Alvan Millson respecting a local fibre-yielding plant known as "Bolobolo" or " Agbonrin Ilassa." I am, &c. (Signed) Kobekt G. W. Herbert. The Director, Eoyal Gardens, Kew. [Enclosure.] Government House, Lagos, Mt Lord, 1st N'ovember 1888. I BEG to trouble your Lordship Avith a copy of the corres- pondence with reference to a local fibre-yielding plant known in the Popo vernacular as " Bolobolo " and in Yoruba as " Agbonrin Ilassa," which has been supplied by Mr. Millson, the Commissioner of the Western District. The correspondence covers herbarium specimens and a sample of the fibre on which this Government would be obliged to be favoured with an expression of opinion by the Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. I have, &c. (Signed) C. A. Moloney, The Right Hon. Lord Knutsford, G.C.M.G., Governor. &c. &c. &c. Messrs. Ide and Christie to Royal Gardens, Kew. 72, Mark Lane, London, E.G., Dear Sir, 17th December 1888. We have your favour of the 15th instant, Avith specimen of " Bolobolo " fibre from Lagos. We consider this a Aery valuable fibre of the jute class, but distinctly superior to the latter in many respects, and more particularly in strength. It is of good length and Avell cleaned. If this fibre is capable of being produced in large quantities there is a very wide field open to it commercially. Its market A'alue would be regulated by that of jute, but in our opinion it would always command a higher price. At to-day's currencies it Avould sell at 16/. per ton in London. We do not think the minimum price Avould ever full below 12/., and if the jute market made a further advance, this "Bolobolo" fibre might realise 20/. If this fibre could be prepared of a Avhiter colour it Avould prove still more acceptable; but even as it is, we should be very glad to see large quantities placed on tins market, Avhere they would sell readily. We are, etc. (Signed "> Ide and Christie. D. Morris, Esq., M.A., F.L.S., Royal Gardens, Kcav. S2 XIII.— JUTE FROM THE GAMBIA. {Corchorus alitor ius, L.) [K. B., 1898, pp. 38-40.] [Extract]. Jute {Corchorus oli tortus). — The seed of this pknt was again sown and better results were gained than on the previous occabion. The ground was prepared and seed sown on the north side of the station, in a rather swampj situation. It was started this year two months earlier. The fibre produced was a very fair sample for a first trial. "We shall be able to produce a much larser and finer crop next season. The plant to be successful here must be sown at the commencement of the rains, say the first week in July. It must have all the rain it can get while it is growing, and the seed must be sown thinly, or the plants will fail through not having sufficient room to grow. The following notes were taken on the crop which produced the sample of fibre submitted to the Dundee Jute Growers' Association. The area of the land sown was about a quarter of an acre. The seed was sown on June 13. Cutting the plants was begun on October 11. Retting the stems took twenty days. The number of plants cut from the area sown was 2800. These weighed when dried 22 lbs., and the amount of cleaned fibre obtained was 8 lbs. The following report has been received from the Dundee Jute Growers' Association on a sample of jute grown and prepared at this station : — Dear Sir, Dundee, December 21, 1897. I HAVE now to advise that the sample of jute from the Gambia Colonv which was returned to you yesterday may be said to have been seen by the whole trade here, by whom it has been examined with much interest. The sample does not have the high colour of the best jute from India, but it is similar in that respect to jute which is received in large quantity from that country. The fibre is good, jmssessing strengdi and good spiuning quality. It has been very well prepared, is free from " blacks " (small pieces of bark sometimes left adhering to the fibre from want of thoroughness in preparing) and it has a good glossy fibre. The sample may be classed as medium (juality of jute and quite merchantable. The root end has not been cut otl", nor what is known as " crop " at the other end been removed, no doubt in order to show the full extent of the growth as far as possible, Jute of the quality of this sample when ])repared for market should be free fiom root and crop. It will be seen that if so treated the sani; le would not yie\l more than two feet length of fibre. Exce[>t lor the short length, there is no fault to find with the sample in comparison with jute from India of the quality with which it would be classed. It is understood that the shoi't length of the sample is owing to late planting and an exceptionally dry season. Taking these circumstances into consideration, the sample gives great promise that jute-growing in the Gambia Colony will prove a practical success. It may be men- tioned that the jute crop of this season now arriving from India is a 33 Tery large oue, and fhat the prices are exceptionally low , but if with favourable conditions jute of the quality of the sample from Gambia can be produced, with length of fibre nearly equal to the Indian growth, there is a large futiire before it. Taking one year with another, the values realised for the Indian crop have been sufficient to induce a constantly extending cultivation in that country. You would receive along with the sample a small portion taken from a bale of InJian jute which has been sent to show the length of jute of this season's crop. Apart from the fact that a better price per ton is realised for jute of a long growth, the bulk of produce from the land is materially affected thereby — a most important factor in the result to the })roducer. It may be hoped that the trials now being made will prove that jute •growing in Africa will fulfil all the conditions of commercial success. Yours truly, (Signed) Geo. C. Keiller, Secretary. XIV.— SIBERIAN PERENNIAL FLAX. {Linum perenne, L.) [K. B., 1890, pp. 10-4-107.] The common flax {Linum usitatissimuni) indigenous iu the South of Europe and in the East, has been in cultivation from the earliest times. It is now largely grown throughout the northern hemisphere, and extends to 54 degrees N". lat. It is one of the most useful members of the vegetable kingdom, and the tenacity and lustre of its cortical fibres places it at the iiead of textile plants. The testa cf the seed (linseed) contains an abundant mucilage, and the embryo a fi.Kcd emollient oil which is very drying, and hence largely used by painters. What may possibly be regarded as a drawback to the ordinary flax is the fact that it is an annual, and requires to be raised from seed year by year. The discovery of a perennial flax possessing the properties of the ordinary fax would natui-idly excite keen interest amongst flax growers. The subject appears to have cropped up from time to time during the last 50 years, but the results so far attained do not hold out the hope of a perennial flax taking the place of the present annual species. There is, it is true, a Linum perenne, L., which is a native of the British Islands. It is also found iu Middle and Southern Europe, in AYestern Asia, and in India. This plant has numerous wiry, slender stems about 1 to 2 feet high. The flowers are about 1 inch broad, bright blue. IMany attempts have been made to utilize this plant for yielding fibre or oil, and attention has been drawn to the fact that in some parts of the world «uch as Siberia, flax has at one time been prepared from it. At the present time it is doubtful whether flax on a commercial scale is obtained from any other than the common flax, Linum usitatissimuni. The following correspondence will serve to show what is at present known respecting perennial flax, and it may lead to a further elucidxition of the subject. U 77554. n 34 Royal Gaudens, Kew, to Foreign Office. Sir, lloyal Gardens, Kew, 16 November 1889. I HAVE the honour to inform you that Mr. Thiselton-Dyer lias received an inquiry in regard to Siberian flax, described as a perennial, much taller than the ordinary flax (\vhich is an annual) and capable of yielding a succession of stalks from the same root for many years. 2. The only information on the subject so far attainable is given in the enclosed extract taken from Dr. Carpenter's " Vegetable Physiology " (London 1850) jmragraph 517. It appears that the subject is more fully dealt with in a much older publication, but no copy of this exists at Kew. — " Voni peiennirenden sibirischen Leine und dessen audi bey *' uns mit Nutzen einzufuehreuden Bane liandelt vorgaenzig, etc." D. Gottlieb Schrader, Halle, 1751. 3. If this perennial flax is still cultivated' in Siberia und yields some of the flax exported from the Russian Empire, the fact would possess considerable interest to flax growers in the North of Ireland. At present the museums of the Royal Gardens possess no specimens of perennial Siberian flax, and beyond the meagre and somewhat obsolete information already cited, nothing is known of it in this country. 4. Mr. Thiselton-Dyer would therefore express the hope that the Secretary of State will approve of the kind offices of Her Majesty's Ambassador at St. Petersburg being invited to obtain particulars of the different kinds of flax cultivated in Siberia. If a perennial flax is known there answering to the description given by Dr. Carpenter, it ■would be desirable to obtain for the Kew Museums specimens of the stems in various stages of preparation, and of the flax yarn as usually expoited. It would also be desirable to obtain two or three pounds of seed of this perennial flax, in order that it may be experimentally cultivated in this country ; in this connexion any information as to its cultural treatment would be serviceable. 5. I am to add that any moderate expenses incurred in this sfjrvice will be defrayed by this establishment in usual course. I am, &c. Sir Villieis Lister, K.C.M.G. (Signed) D. Moekis. [Enclosure.] Extract from "Vegetable Physiology," by Dr. Carpenter (para. 517), London, 1850. The only other species of this order, which is cultivated for the same purpose, is the Siberian perennial flax. This is a much taller plant, having coarser flbres ; these are found to be veiy strong, but not so •white or fine as those obtained from common flax. They serve very well, hov/ever, for the manufacture of coarse fabrics ; and there is this advantage attending the cultivation of them, — that from the same root, a succession of stalks will be developed for many years ; so that they require no further attention, than to be kept free from weeds. Sir Robert B. D. Morier, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., &c., to the Marquis of Salisbury, K.G., &c. Mx Lord, St. Petersburg, 20 March 1890. In reply to your Lordship's Despatch, No. 83 of this series, and of the 21st November last, I have the honour to transmit to your Lord- ship herewith a copy of a letter, togethei- with its enclosure, which I 35 have received from Mr. E. F. G. Law, giving the result of his inquiries respecting Siberian flax. I have, &c. (Signed) R. B. D. Morier. The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G. &c. &c. &c. [Enclosure No. 1.] Mr. E. F. G. Laav to Sir Robert B. D. Morier, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., &c. SiE, Constantinople, I March 1890. In accordance with your insiructions I have mado inquiries respecting the Siberian flax referred to in the Marquis of Salisbuiy's Despatch, No. 83, Commercial, of November 21, 1889. This flax is at present quite unknown in the St. Petersburg market, in which it would be most likely to be found. A local English merchant has kindly undertaken to endeavour to procure samples for me, but these had not been received when I left St, Petersburg. Meanwhile, through the kindness of the Vice-Director of the Depart- ment of Trade and Manufactures, I have received some information on the subject, emanating from the Director of the Technological Institute, and from Professor Batalin of the St. Petersburg University. I append translations of the communications of these gentlemen. I have, &c, (Signed) E. F. G. Law, His Excellency Commercial Attache. Sir Robert B. D. Morier, G.C.B., G.CM.G., &c. &c. &c. [Enx'Losure No. 2.] The Director of the Technological Institute writes : — " Siberian flax {Linum perenne) is certainly different from the flax which is generally used in Europe. The difference is, that like i^ei'en- nial plants, it is cut and not pulled up by the roots, and therefore it is not annually sown like the ordinary blue-flowered flax (Linum vulgare) or the American flax with white flowers. The Siberian flax gives a short tow as the stems are short. The stems do not grow erect, but are bent, and even lie on the ground. The industrial use of this flax is unknown in Europe, -where it has never been grown with the intention of using it. Wliether it is used in Siberia or not I cannot say, but at a time when I interested myself in this subject I learnt that the Siberian flax was sold in St. Ptiersburg warehouses, and was distinguished by its proper name, and by its whiteness and softness, and bj^ its freedom from ' Kostra ' (Scutch ?), and it is more expensive. The traders collect it in the Governments of Viatka and Vologda, on the banks of the Kama." Professor Batalin writes : — Perennial flax (Linum jyerenne) is a quite distinct plant, distinguish- able from ordinary flax by many peculiarities. One of the chief distinc- tions is the colour, and also the thickness of the stem. The seed is dark brown, almost black, and quite flat, so that it is quite useless for the extraction of oil. The pod has little of the soft part which is found in ordinary flax. Thirty or 40 years ago experiments were made in C 2 36 Germanv to grow porenL'ial flax for tlie known to yield a fibre. It has long been regarded as the material of cordage, nets, bags, and even of sails, which were in nse by the Greeks, Romans, and Carthaginians. Owing to the more abundant and chea|)er materials prepared from cotton and hemp, the use of the Spanish Broom as a fibre plant has in recent times become confined to remote parts of France and Italy, and even there the industry is gradually becoming extinct. The plant thrives in the most sterile soils and in localities where few other kinds of vegetation are able to survive. It will grow equally well either in poor sandy soils or in those of a rocky and arid character. The young shoots are used as a winter fodder for sheep and goats. The flowers contain a large amount of honey and are attractive to bees. They also yield a dye. In France the plant is known as Genet (VEspagne. An allied plant, the common English Broom, Ci/tisus scopa- rjM*, Link. (Spartium scoparium, L.), kuowna^ Genet a balaisov le grand Genet, is also occasionally used in France for fibre purposes, but its value in this respect is small compared with that of the Spanish Broom. In regard to the latter, Loudon discusses its economic uses as follows : — " In Italy and the .south of France a very good cloth is manufactured from the fibres of this plant, Spartium Junceum. The shoots are cut over in the course of the month of August, and alter having been made up into little bundles, are dried in the sun. These are afterwards beaten with a mallet, and then steeped in water for three or four hours ; after this they are steeped in a ditch, among water and mud, for eight or nine days, and then taken out and washed, which operation has the eftect of s(;parating the parenchyma from the fibres. The bundles are then opened, and thinly spread out to dry, after which they are combed in the manner of flax ; and the better part is laid aside for being spun, and Avoven into sheets, table linen, or shirts; the remaining jiart being used for sacking or for stufling mattresses. In various parts of France, Italy, or Spain, v^here neither hemp nor flax is grown, owing to the poverty of the soil, Spartium junceum is found an excellent substitute. In Italy, about Monte Cassiano, advantage is taken of a hot .'spring, by alternately in)mersing the shoots in it, and drying them in the sun, instead ot the more tedious process of immersing them in cold water : when thus treated the parenchyma is rendered fit for separation, and A c\ (\ n i:* A 38 the fibres for combing, in three or four days. The pvocesa is said by Rosier to be also performed with tlie Cytisus scoparius ; thougli, according to Desfoutaiues, this is doubtful. In Languedoc sheep and goats are fed with the branches of Spartium juncenm during wintei-, not because it is an excellent fodder, but because there is a general deficiency of forage at that season. Both in Spain and France, the shoots are used for forming baskets, and for tying up vines and other fruit trees. The bees are said to be very fond of the flowers, and the seeds are eaten with great avidity by poultry, partridges, &c. Medi- cinally, the flowers and leaves, in infusion, act as an emetic, or in a larger quantity, as an aperient." In the Paper Makers' Mo)d]dy Journal, 1883, p. 414, it is stated that genista fibre " is stronger than hemp and has the advantage ** that I'opes made therefrom acquire greater strength when exposed to *' moifiturc . . . Besides the filue, the refuse or woody part can be " used for making cellulose that is adapted, owing to its strong texture, " for the manufacture of strong paper." An inventor in the United States (quoted above) recommends the following treatment for extracting genista fibre : — " The plants are, preferably in small bunches, placed in a tank or vessel filled with water, which is raised to a boiling heat. To this water is ailded, either before or during the boiling, lye in proportion of about 30 to GO pounds to 800 pounds of the plants. The lye may be added to the water as such, already prepared, or caustic alkaline earths, in combination with carbonates of alkalies, may be employed, which form the lye in the water containing the plants. Carbonate of lime and carbonate of soda, in proportion of about 30 to 40 pounds of lime and 8 to 12 pounds of soda for 800 pounds of plants, are preferably employed. In the he the plants are boiled for about five or six hours, after which they are left to cool, and are then removed from the tank or boiler. The plants are then ready to undergo the same treatment as flax and hemp, viz., they may be steeped, dried, broken, and combed, to b« subsequently employed for spinning, weaving, making cordage, yarn, and for other purjooses to be used in place of hemp, flax, jute, or similar plants." In a recent number of the Revue des Sciences Naturelles AppUquces (5 April 1891) a short notice appeared respecting the use of the fibre of Spanish Broom amongst the peasants in the neighbourhood of Lodeve, and in the remote hamlets in the mountains of Languedoc. The following correspondence shows that the industry at the present day is greatly reduced in some places, whilst in others it has become quite extinct. The efforts made by Kcw to obtain specimens of articles made from the Spanish Broom for the Museums of Economic Botany are also detailed. EoYAL Gardens, Kew, to Foreign Office. Sir, Royal Gardens, Kew, 24 April 1891. I AM desired by Mr. Thiselton-Dyer to enclose, for the informa- tion of the Secretary of State, an extract from the lievue des Sciences NaUtrelles Appliquees, April 1891, p. 555, on the subject of a fibre obtained from Spartium {(jemsitC) junceimi, L. 2. This fibre, although said to be used on the continent, is not so far represented in our collections in the Museums of Economic Botany at Kew. Mr. Thiseltou-Dver would therefore esteem it a favour, if the 39 assistance of Hei- Majesty's Ambassador at Paris is sought to obtain specimens of the fibre, and of articles made from it, for the use of this establishment. 3. I am to add that any reasonable expenses incurred in procuring the specimens will be defrayed by this establisliment in usual couise. I am, &c. Sir Villiers Lister, K.C.M.Gr,, (Signed) D. Moerts. Foreign Office, S.W. The Secretary of Embassy, Paris, to Foreign Office. My Lord, Paris, July 16th, 1891. In receipt of your Lordship's despatch, No. yi, of the 28th of April last, asking me to endeavour to procure for the Kew Gardens specimens of the fibre of the Genista juncea, and of articles manufactured from it, I addressed myself to the President of the Societe d'Acclima- tatiou to obtain the same. He answered me that he was sorry to say that the Society did not possess specimens of the fibre and products ■woven from it ; but he had written to a correspondent to obtain them, and hoped shortly to be able to send them. This he has not yet done, although his letter was dated the 5th of May I have, &c. (Signed) E. H. Egerton, The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G., for the Ambassador. &c. &c. &c. The Secretary of Embassy, Paris, to Foreign Office. My Lord, Paris, August 8, 1891. With reference to the Earl of Lytton's despatch, No. 295, of the 16th ultimo, and to your Lordship's, No. 81, of the 28th of April, trans- mitting the expression of the wish of the Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew to be furnished with products fi'om the Genista juncea, I have the honour to enclose herewitli copy of a letter from the " Museum d'Histoire Naturelle," to Monsieur Tisserand, of the Ministry of Agri- culture, to whom I had applied for information. This letter says that the textile said to be derived from this " genista " is unknown in the competent departments, and that there has probably been a confusion on this subject in the publication of the Societe d'Ac- climatation. It might be well, the latter adds, to submit to experiment the rind of the Genista juncea, though this rind does not appear to possess the elements of strong or abundant textile fibre. I have, &c. (Signed) Edw. H. Egerton. The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G-., &c. &c. &c. Royal Gardens, Kew, to Foreign Office. Sir, Royal Gardens, Kew, August 12, 1891. I HAVE the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of August 10, transmitting a despatch from Paris (herewitli returned) relative to a fibre stated to be extracted in France from Genista juncea. 2. The matter is not perhaps of first I'ate importance. But it is the business of this establishment to study local industries based on the use of vegetable materials, as sooner or later they are sure to be the subject of public inquiry. 40 3. M. Cormi, in liis letter, speaks of the information published by the Societe Nationalc d'Aeclimatation de France as being an old afFair (il y a deja lougtemps). But, as a matter of a fact, it is contained in the nund)er of the Hevtic for April of the present year. 4. The statements are extremely specific or I Avould not have ventured to trouble the Foreign Oilice in the matter. Thus it is stated : — " Dans " les villages panvres dn Bas-Languedoc, il est peu de maisons ou Ton " ne trouve du linge fabrique en toile de Genet." Again : — " Dans les " Cevennes, on le commerce de ce textile se trouve localise, ou " I'emploie egalement pour faire des cordes, &c." 5. M. Cornu suggests that there is a confusion with Crotahtria, the Sunn TTemjj of India. This, if really the case, Avould be very curious. 6. Uidess the information issued by the Societe d'Aeclimatation is purely imaginary, which, as it is a society of standing and repute, is improbable, there is a local industry in France of which nothing is authentically known. Perhaps Her Majesty's Consul at Marseilles could find out what the nature of it really is. 7. In any case J must beg to express my thanks for the trouble that has been taken in the matter. I am, &c. fSigned) W. T. Thiselton-Dyek, Sir T. Villiers Lister, K.C.M.G., Foreign Office, S.W. Foreign Office to Royal Gardens, Kew. Sir, Foreign Office, January 28, 1892. I AM directed by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to transmit to you, to be laid before the Director of the Eoyal Gardens, a despatch from Her Majesty's Minister in Paris sending specimens of fibres of the Genista juncea referred to in the letter from this office of July 17 last. I am, &c. (Signed) T. V. Lister. The Assistant Director, Royal (lardens, Kew. [Enclosure.] The Secretary of Emba.ssy, Parts, to Foreign Office. My Lord, Paris, January 27, 1892. With reference to your Lordship's despatch of this Series, Number 81, of the 28th of April, and to my despatch, "Number 295, of the IGth of July last, I have the honour to transmit herewith specimens of the fibre of the Genista juncea, L., and of articles manufactured therefrom as requested by Mr. Thiselton-Dyer. These specimens have just been forwarded to me by Monsieur Geoffroy St. Hilaire, President of the Societe Nationale d'Aeclimatation dc France, who informs me that he has had some difficulty in obtaining the specimens, their place of manufacture being limited to a few remote villages in the Cevennes. I have, &c. (Signed) Edw, H. Egerton. The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G., Ac. &c. &c. 41 Hkr Majesty's Consul, Marseilles, to Foreign Oifice, My Lord, Marseilles, January 27, 1892. Referring to the Foreign Office despatch, No. 1, Commercial, of the 17th of last August, and its enclosures, which I return herewith, I have the honour to inform your Lord.. tenacissima), and its cultivation has been recommended in Southern France, Algiers, Egypt, &c. Fortunately, the plant on arrival at Kew was in excellent condition and in flower. Upon examination it was found to be not a species of Bcchmeria, but a well-known new- world species, Laportea canadensis, extending from Canada to Florida and Mexico, and westward to the Rocky Mountains. The fibre yielded by this plant was at one time largely used ; latterly it has been almost entirely forgotten. In Hooker's Flora Boreali- a/nericana, Vol. II. (1840), p. 142, it is stated, "the fll)re of the stem " is copious and strong, and Mr. Whitlaw endeavoured to recommend " it to this country as an article of commerce." Later, in 1865, the Abbe Provancher refers to it in his Flore Canadienne, p. olG, under the name of Ortie du Canada, or Canada jSTettle, and adds : — " Sa '* culture a ete tentee en Europe pour sa fibre, mais ses avantages reels " sont encore doules." It is well known that many members of the nettle order ai'o capable of yielding fibre. Even the common English stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) is a very ancient fibre plant, its inner bark affording a tough fibre suitable for many purposes, and used for cordage and coarse cloth. A lace parasol cover partly made from this fibre is in Museum I., Case 102. A series of yarns prepared from the same plant, and variously coloured, were brought to Kew by Mr. B. Gray, of Glenanne, Ireland. In the Descriptive Catalocjue of Useful Fibre Plants of the World, by Mr. C. Eichards Dodge, recently issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, the following note (p. 213) appears respecting iMportea canadensis : — " The fibre of this species, before •' the introduction of cotton, had an application more extensive than at " present in Europe, where, particularly in Germany and in more " northern countries, they manufactured the cloth called o?Y/ca (German, " nesseltuch), or nettle cloth." It may, therefore, be safely assumed that the Canada nettle possesses no special meiit as a fibre plant compared with China -grass or ramie. Further, as it possesses stinging hairs, it is difficult to handle. XX.—URERA FIBRE. {Urera tcnax, N.E. Br.) [K. B., 1888, pp. 84-85.] The ribres exhibited in the Natal Court at the late Colonial and Indian Exhibition attracted a good deal of attention. Unfoi'tunately the labels had become misplaced in transit, and consequently the collec- tion did not offer such facilities as could be desired for detailed inves- tigation. It is now clearly estabhshed, however, that a fibre marked 51 *' Hibiscus" which attracted chief attention, was really Avhat is known in Natal as native hemp, possibly a local form of Cannabis sativa. In the Official Reports, p. 378, it is stated by Mr. C. F. Cross, " that the " yarn prepared from this fibre was of a greyish colour, bleaching easily " under the ordinary treatment to a full white. It was remarkably '' soft to the touch, more nearly resembling an Angola yarn than flax " or cotton. This fibre has been submitted to flax spinners of expe- *' rience, and from inspection, together with the results of laboratory '' investigation, they have formed a high estimate of its value." Mr. J. Medley Wood, A.L.S., the indefatigable Curator of the Botanic Gardens at Durban, to whose zeal and co-opera; ion we are indebted for the elucidation of many problems connected with the flora of Natal, mentions that this native hemp grows vigorously to a height of six feet or more, and that it lends itself readily to the exigencie.s of culture. The next most interesting fibre exhibited in the Natal Court appears to hare been forwarded by Mr. J. Kirkham, of Umzinto. It was stated by Mr. Wood to belong to the natural order Urlicaccee, but he had at that time being unable to obtain either fruit or flowers, and it was unrepresented in the herbarium at Durban. Of the nettle family in Natal he states : — "There are several indigenous species, some of which attain a " height of over 20 feet, with a pithy semi-herbaceous stem eight ^' inches in diameter. Others are more or less dwarfiish, being but half ** an inch thick and four to five feet high. The barks of all are highly " prized by the natives on account of the strong cord or thread they " make, in their own rude manner, from the fibre contained therein. It ^' is known to them by the name ^^imbogo sempi." In a letter dated 23rd A^ugust 1887, Mr. Wood writes :— " By this post I send flowers of my No. 3,837, which appears to be a " Urera. It is a shrub about 8 to 10 feet high oi' more, and is, I " think, the plant producing the fibre Avhich was said to be the second " best fibre shown at the late Colonial and Indian Exhibition. " The plant is not uncommon in the midland districts, but thia is " the first time that I have seen the flowers. " It will be important I think, to ascertain whether its fibre is *' really of value ; it grows readily from cuttings, and could be grown *' in quantity if found to be payable." Again on the 23rd November : — " I have collected a quantity of seed for distribution, also staminal " flowers, of my No. 3,837, Urera sp., but I am afraid that they are " scarcely recognisable. A specimen of bark shall be sent by next " week's post. I should like to have sent a larger quantity, but the " messenger I sent said that the trees hail been stripped by the natives, " who use the bark for making their sleeping mats. I am having the " plant propagated here, in case it may be in demand." On investigation at Kcav, the plant sent by Mr. Wood proved to be a new specie?:-, which has been described and figured in the Icones Plantaru))i as Urera tenax, N.E. Br. The bark, as sent here, appears to resemble in many respects that of uncleaned Ramie or Rhea {Boehmeria nivea). The fibre is, however, more brittle and not so lustrous as the best specimens of China grass. Unforliuiately the sample hitherto received does not admit of this new fibre being treated in an exhaustive manner. It is quite possible that D 2 o2 an indigenous plant of this clmracter may be better suited to the cir- cumstances of Natal than the China grass. On receipt of a larger sample, it will then be possible to investigate its merits in an exhaustive manner. XXI.— RAMIE. (Boehmeria nivea, Hk. & Arn.) [K. B., 1888, pp. 140-149.] The plant known under the several names of China Grass, Ramie, or Rhea, belongs to the natural order, Urticacere, and hence it is not a grass at all, but a species of nettle, somewhat resembling, in appearance and habit of growth, the common nettle of Europe. The China Grass plant, first known and long cultivated by the Chinese under the name of Tchou ]Ma, is the Boehmeria nivea of botanists. The specific name, nivea, was given to it on account of the white appearance on the under-side of the leaves. A. plant called in Assam, Rheea, and in the JNIalay Islands, Ramie, was believed by Roxburgh to be distinct from the Tchou Ma of the Chinese, and it was named by this botanist Boehmeria {Urtica) tenacissima. In this plant there is an absence of the white felted appearance on the under-side of the leaves, so characteristic of the China Grass plant, but in all other respects the two plants arc identical in their botanical characters. For purposes of classification, the Tchou Ma, or China Grass plant, Boehmeiia nivea, may be accepted [as the typical species, and the Rhea or Ramie, retained as a geographical variety of it, under the name of Boehmeria nivea var, tenacissima . This latter is sometimes known as the Green-leaved China Grass, a name which may be conveniently retained for it. The fibre yielded by these plants has been long recognised as pre-eminent amongst vegetable fibres for strength, tinoness, and lustre. Hence numerous attempts have been made to cultivate them, and to prepare the fil)re in large quantities for commercial purposes. The plants arc exceedingly easy of cultivation, and thrive in all ."soils, but preference should be given to those of a light loamy character. It is essential that the climate be moist and .stimulating, in order to produce abundant and frequent crops of stems. The plants may be raised from seed, but the more ready method is by root or stem cuttings. The roots being perennial, the stools become stronger and more vigorous every year, and from these fresh sets are easily obtained for extending the cultivation. Numerous attempts have been made during the last 10 years to extract the valuable filn-e which exists in this plant. The experimental processes hitherto employed m.'iy be briefly classed as either mechanical or chemical. In the first, it has been sought to extract the fibre from the green stems by means of rapidly revolving beaters aitaciicd to a drum driven by steam power. In some cases, water is u^ed to wash the fibre while under the beaters. The chief diflSculty experienced in this method is the small (luantily of fibi-e cleaned per day. This has enhanced the cost to such an extent as to render the process practically 53 unremunerative. In the chemical processes, tl\e Eamie sterna are treated green or dry. The object sought is to treat the stems either under great pressure with steam or with chemicals, so as to dissolve the gum in which the individual fibres are immersed. After being thus treated, the fibres are easily detached from the stems by hand or hy machinery, and ai'e sent to market in the form of ribbons. The question of cost is here also very important, and it is felt, under present circum- stances, that China Grass can only be satisfactorily grown and prepared where there is an abundance of cheap labour. It is a fact universally known, that the fibre of the China Grass is one of the finest and strongest known. If a process could be devised that would extract and clean the fibre at a cheap rale, the results would prove of the greatest possible interest to all our tropical colonies. The Cliina Grass plant can be grown as easily as the sugar cane, but in spite of many years of continuous effort, the problem how to prepare the fibre on a large scale, and place it in the market at remunerative rates, ii> apparently still un.solved. We gather from the numerous applications made to Kew for infor- mation, that intei'est is still maintained in the utilisation of China Grass or Ramie, and under these circumstances it is felt to be desirable to place on record the latest facts that have been gleaned respecting the present position of the industry. KoYAL Gardeiss, Kew, to Foreign Office. Sir, Royal Gardens, Kew, April 16, 1888. I AM desired by Mr. Thiselton-Dyer to inform you that con- siderable interest is being taken in British Colonies in the culture of the Ramie plant, known as Rhea and China Grass {Boehmeria nivea). 2. Hitherto the industry has not assumed large proportions anywhei'e, owing to the want of a thoroughly suitable machine to prepare the fibre. 3. In the Foreign Office Report, for the year 1887, on the agriculture of the Barcelona district [Xo. 275, Annual Series, 1888], Mr. Consul Wooldridge states, that in the province of Cataluna, " Machines are " already in use, capable of decorticating the [Ramie] fibre on a *' profitable scale." 4. Mr. Thiselton-Dyer is of opinion that it is very desirable to obtain from Mr. Wooldridge the names of the makers of the machines which appear to have successfully solved the problem of decorticating Ramie 8*^ems. Any particulars ho could add as regards the cost of the machines, the power necessary to drive them, and the out-turn of clean fibre per day, would prove of the gicatest possible interest to planters in our tropical Colonics. I have, &c. Sir T. Villiers Lister, K.C.M.G. (Signed) D. Morris. Mr. Consul Wooldridge to the Marquis of Salisbury. Mt Lord Marquis, Barcelona, April 25, 1888. I HAVE the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Sir James Fergusson's despatch, of the 19th instant, on the subject of the machines used in Catahiiia for decorticating the stalks of the Ramie plant ; and I am directed to report to your Lordship the names of the makers of the machines, and to give any further particulais which might prove of interest to planters in British tropical colonies. 54 Although the Ramie plant lias been cultivated for many years in the north of Catnlunn, it is only within the last two years that, through the invention of a (lecorticatin<: machine by Monsieur Farier, member of the " Societe La Ramie Fran^-aise," it has been brought before the public. M. Favier has a factory, called the *' Fabrica Favier," at Torroella cle Montgri, in Gcrona, in the vicinity of the Ramie plantations, Avhere his decorticating machines are at work. These machines arc used to decorticate the stalks in a dry etate^ after having been cut and exposed to the powerful rays of the sun for 48 hours, as experiments and practice show that the operation on the green Ramie is impracticable. It appears that IM. Favier ha8 been tke first to solve the problem of decorticating Ramie with success ; and, accoi-ding to Professor Obiols, his machine leaves nothing to be desired ; and of this invention the " Centralblatt," of IJerlin, in its number of January 23, 1883, says : — " Although the use of the Ramie, as a textile plant, dates from time " immemorial, the separation of the fibre from the stalk has been found " hitherto so surrounded with difficulties that no hope existed of any " considerable extension in its use ; however, since M. Favier has dis- " covered a machine for the purpose of separating the fibre, a real " revolution has been pioduceil in the industrial world, and the " cultivation of the Ramie plant has taken extraordinary proportions." Another decorticating machine, similar to the Favier one, has, however, been invented by a Monsieur Billion, of Marseilles, who obtained a patent for it in Spain, but, being considered by M. Favier as a piracy, the latter prosecuted M. Billion, who eventually came out triumjjhant ; and, although this machine has not been used in Spain^ some persons consider it to be superior to the Favier one. Full descriptions are given of these machines in Professor Obiol's pamphlet (in Spanish), and can be purchased for a few pesetas. The Billion machine can produce 300 kilogrammes of fibre a day, showing an advantage over the Favier one. The Favier machine is not for sale to the public, the inventor preferring to establish factories near the plantations and purchasing the produce from the agriculturalists, and decorticate and manufacture threads, &c., himself, as the "Societe La Ramie Fran^^aise" is doing at Torroella. Neither, I believe, is the Billion machine to be acquired for money. There is anotlier machine, known as the "Agramadera (flax-dresser) Kaulek," invented by M. Kaulek, of Paris. Its size is a cubit metre, and it requires half a horse-power to put it in motion, and can be worked by the arm, by a windmill, or by steam. It is portable, weighs 350 kilos., and its price is 2,000 fr. (80/.). It has been known to produce 175 kilos of commercial Ramie, in ribbons, in 10 hours. Another machine has been invented in Barcelona by Don Demetrio Prieto for extracting fibre from textile plants, and many of his machines are in use, with success, in Mexico. The inventor is about to introduce certain modifications in this machine, in order to adapt it to the decor- tication of the Ramie plant. {See Art LV. later.) The personnel required to work the Favier machin©, and the cost per diem (in Catalufia), are as follows: — Pesetas c. Two men to separate the extremities of the stalks One man to introduce the stalks - One man to receive the fibre One man to Bupply the stalks to the introducer 5 25 75 1 50 1 50 75 55 or about 4*. per day for each machine; and for, saj, a 1,000 kilos, of dry stalks the proportional out-turn would be as follows : — 50 kilos, of extremities, or 5 per cent, of the Avhole weight. 190 kilos, of fibre, or 20 per cent, of the whole weight. 570 kilos, of wood, 100 kilos, of pellicles, and 90 kilos, of loss. Yet the wood, extremities, and pellicles may all be utilized. Taking the working of 20 of Favicr's macliines, which would require about 10 horse-power of steam, the expenses and profits result as follows : — Cost of installation, 120,000 pesetas, or francs, each machine costing 6,000 fr., with the necessary capital of 60,000 fr. Actual cost of stalks of Ramie (in Spain), 100 pesetas per 1,000 kilos; each machine decorticates 216 kilos, per day. Expenses. Pesetas c. 4,320 kilos. of stalks - - - - 432 00 Labour - - - - 108 00 Incidental e xpenses Total - _ . 122 00 662 00 Products. 5 per cent. of extremities - - 10 80 20 per cent. of decorticated stalks. or 864 kilos of fibre . « - . 864 00 67 per cent . of wood - - - 61 50 10 per cent. of pellicles - - - 17 20 9 per cent. of loss. Total 953 50 Total products - • 953 50 Total esp enses - - - Clear profit - per day 662 00 291 50 or 117,150 pesetas per annum of 300 days of labour, which represent approximately 48 per cent, of the capital. The Favier machine has the advantage of extracting the fibre and Tiaking the threads clear of gum, for in the raw Ramie which comes from China and India there is so much gum that it is most difficult to cleanse. These machines, as I said before, are not yet within the reach of agriculturalists, that of M. Favier being used by the inventor, and that of M. Billion having ceased to work in Spain. I have. Sic. (Signed) Frank Wooldridgb. XXII. — RAMIE — {continued). [K. B., 1888, pp. 273-280.] The subject of the utilisation of the Ramie plant {Boehmeria nivea, Hk. & Am.) is one which has been closely followed at Kew for many 56 years. The importauce of the subject in ludia and the Colonies has led to considerable correspondence being addressed to this establishment. Specimens of Kamie stems, grown at Kew, have been supplied, as far as practicable, for experimental purposes in this country, and the Bw/Zf-^/H for Juno 1888 (pp. 145-149) gave a summary of information on the subject. Kecently the French Government undertook a series of trials of methods for preparing Ramie fibre, and on behalf of the India Office, Mr. 1). Morris, P.L.S., the Assistant Director, was appointed to attend these trials and prepare a report of the results. This repoi't, with the permission of the India Office, is reproduced below : — Kew, October 24, 1888. l!i the French Journal Officiel of the 13th of April last there appeared a ministerial order approving an International Competition of Methods (mechanical and chemical) for preparing the fibre of the Ramie plant. The order Avas based on the fact that considerable interest was taken in the cultivation of the Ramie plant in Algeria and French Colonies generally, and that it was a matter of national importance to solve the problem of preparing Ramie fibre so us to bring it within the reach of commercial enterprise. The competition Avas, in the first instance, fixed for the loth August, but it was afterwaids postponed to the 2oth September on account of the uufavoural)le season which had been experienced for the growth of the Ramie plant intended to be used in the trials. Impoutance of the Ramie Question. It is well known that the production of the fibre of Ramie in com- mercial quantities, and in an economical and remunerative manner, has constituted one of the most important industrial problems of the present day. It has been keenly followed in ncarlj' every part of the world ; but the chief efforts hitherto made have been confined to India, to the West Indian Colonies, to the United States, and more recently to France and her Colonies. The Government of India, nearly 20 years ago, was led to ofifer a reward of 5,000/. for the best method for preparing Ramie fibre and presenting it in a suitable condition for textile purposes. It was led to this step by tlio conviction that the only obstacle to the development in India of an extensive trade in Ramie fibre was the want of suitable means for decorticating the plant. This was the third time that Ramie had become the subject of official action. The first effort for utilisino- this plant was in 1803, when F)r. Roxburgh started the question ; the second was in 1840, when attention was directed to it by Colonel Jenkins. The offer of 5,000/. in 1869 induced many competitors to enter their names, but it was found that no machine fully fulfilled the conditions laid doivn by the Government, and therefore the full prize was not awarded. Other unsuccessful attempts were subsequently made, and eventually the offer of 5,000/. Avas withdrawn. Since that time many thousands of pounds have been spent upon the Ramie plant, and the aid has been invoked of both mechanical and chemical science to solve the ))robIem connected with decorticatin"- the fibre. Many i)rocesses have been brought for^ ard from time to time, and it was claimed for each of them that they had fully realised the hopes of their in\entors. But promising as some of these proces.tem is now in course of being practically tested on a large scale. In the coliiiims of the Times there recently appeared an account of a machine invented by ]Mr. John Orr Wallace, and placed on view at the Irish Exhibition. This was termed a " patent scutching machine ** for cleaning ramie, flax, hemp, &c." The apparatus is about 6 feet high by 4 feet wide, and 5 feet long. It consists of an upper feed (able 36 inches wide, on which the stems are fed to three pairs of fluted rollers, which deliver the stems downwards between five paiis of pinning tools, alternaling with six pairs of guide rollers. The piiming tools somewhat reseml)le hand-hackles, and nuiy be popularly descrilied as very coarse wire brushes. They are attached to two vertical frames, to which a horizontal lo-and-fro motion is imparted, and the pins interlace as the two sides approach. The fibrous material is drawn down- wards by rollers which have an intermittent motion, and at each momentary pause, the pricking pins enter the nuiterial and are rapidly withdrawn from it. By degrees this curtain is delivered on to a sloping receiving table at the bottom of the machine, over which table the woody substance has previously passed to a receiver in a crushed and semi-pulveri.'^ed condition, and perfectly free from fibre. This 62 mncliine, it may be uientioned, was not constructed for the special treat- ment of Ramie. In sjiite of this, however, it has cleaned R;unie in a fairly satisfactory manner, and the inventor claims that, with a few necessary alterations in detail, he -will he able to treat the stems either gieen or dry, and produce clean fibre at the rate of 1 cwt. per houi\ The machine can be driven by a two-horse power engine, and it requires two persons to feed and tend it. Small (juantities of Ramie stems grown at Kew have been successfully passed through the machine. It is proposed by the inventor, when he has completed the alterations, to submit this machine to a public test similar to that atlopted at the Paris trials. For this purpose he states that a large supply of Ramie stems will be obtained from France. There are some special advantages connected with this machine which deserve to be mentioned. In the first place the feed table is .so large that at least 40 stems can be fed to the rollers at once. When the stems have been fully grasped by the rollers, the operator need not retain his hold upon them any longer. They pass on uninterruptedly through the machine, and they can be followed immediately by a fresh lot without the return action, which is an essential part of the treatment by the Death and the do Landtsheer machines. There is here a con- siderable saving in time, and there is also a complete ab.sence of the rough usage to which the fibre is subjected in nearly all the purely mechanical proces.ses which have hitherto come under my notice. Personally, I am unable to express an opinion upon the Wallace machine. To say that it is more promising than any machine exhibited at the Paris trials is merely to affirm that it is not altogether a failure. When the machine is fairly tested on its merits, and it is worked con- tinuously on large quantities of Ramie stems, the results will speak for themselves. Until this is done it is obviously tindesiral)le to do more than draw attention to a machine which possesses considerable merit and which, with further improvements, may be rendered of service in the production of marketable fibre. General Coxclu.sions. An eminent firm of brokers recently informed me : '• There is no *' doubt that Ramie is exciting great interest in many parts of the world, '* ami many people are experimenting with various processes for " extracting the fibre cheaply and quickly. We cannot say that any " results submitted to us up to the present time are quite satisfactory. " The fibre is either imperfectly freed from gummy matter, or the " process breaks down in the matter of cost or owing to the local condi- " tious under which it must be carried on. We consider that no " sy.stem of preparation which cannot produce the clean, unbleached " fibre under ^0/. per ton is likely to succeed in establishing this " article firmly in the estimation of English textile manufacturers." This opinion expresses very briefly and clearly the conclusion at which I have arrived in connexion with the preparation of Ramie fibre. It is quite possible that some machine or process will eventually solve the problem, but at present the exploitation of Ramie, in spite of years of labour and the expenditure of large sums of money upon it, cannot be said to have yet emerged from the experimental stage. D. Morris. i 63 XXIII.— RAMIE— (continued). (Boehmeria nivea, Hk. & Arn.) [K. B., 1888, pp. 297-298.] The difficulties attending the development of the Ramie industry- appear to be not confined alone to preparing the fibre as detailed in the preceding pages. It is also found that those who have in a measure been successful in preparing the fibre in commercial quantities are disappointed with the reception this fibre has received at the hands of spinners and manufacturers. In a word, it is found that Ramie fibre Tvhen produced is practically unsaleable in the London market at the present time. A correspondent interested in Ramie estates wrote to Kew a short time ago : — " We have spent much capital on Ramie, but as yet cannot see our " way to commercial success. We ha\-e produced excellent filasse, but " the cost has been far too great, and the chief difficulty seems to rest " not in the production of filasse, many systems [if the question of cost " is set aside] have accomplished this, but in the spinning of the filasse " into yarn. No British manufacturing firm appears willing to take up *' this business except on terms that would practically give them the " monopoly ; they also require a guaranteed minimum of raw material " which we cannot give." In a subsequent letter the same correspondent states : — " I am beginning to think that the only Avay to succeed Avith Ramie " is to follow M. Favier's system described in the Kew Bulletin, p. 148, " namely, to grow and treat it for a special purpose, and carry it right " on to manufacture. Then it will pay right well. At present the •' filasse that would suit one manufiicturer would be useless to nine *' others, who would want it prepared differently." Another correspondent, in a letter dated the 14lh November, from a different point of view, appears to confirm the experience detailed above : — " In the Kew Bulletin for June last there is an article ujDon Rnmie " or Rhea fibre. Have you had any applications from, or can you put " me in communication svith, any manufacturers who may be disposed " to take up this fibre as a s])eciality ? I am interested in a works and " process for the preparation of Ramie filasse in the form similar to the " enclosed sample. With our present appliances we could undertake to " deliver it at from ten to twenty cwts. weekly. So far we have not " been able to find any manufacturers here so inclined, and the prepared " material has been sent a])ro.id. If you can render me any assistance " it will be esteemed a favour." Since the receipt of these letters Kew has been favoured by Messrs. Ide and Christie, the well-known firm of fil)re brokers in the City, witha copy of their monthly circular dated the loth November. In this circular, under the head of China Grass and Ramie, it is stated : — " On the 31st ulto. a large parcel, consisting of about 130 tons " ribbons and 20 tons Ramie or Rhea in various stages of preparation " were put up foi- public sale, practically without reserve, and after " being widely announced. The prices realised, viz., 8/. to 9/. per ton *' for the ribbons, and 20/. to 25/. for the filasse, were moct disappointing, " and testified to the languid intereft which this material possessets for 64 " the manufacturers of Europe. Considering the attention -srith which " planters in various parts of the world regard this material, and the " numberless processes and machines Avhich inventors have set forth " for its manipulation, the result of this sale must be viewed as dis- " tinctly discouraging. It would almost appear as if no true demand " exists for this interesting fibre, and that, in the present attitude of " the manufacturing interest, the application of skill either to cultiva- " tion of the plant or extraction of the ' filasse,' is premature and " misplaced." In order to understand the present condition of the Eamie industry it would be useful to adopt some kind of classification of the details con- nected with it. In the first place Ave have the mere business of cultivating the Ramie plant, and of producing stems with the fibre in the best possible condition. This is purely the work of the planter. Secondly, we have the process or processes necessary to separate the fibre from the stem in the form of ribbons and filasse. It is necessary for manv reasons that this should be done either by the planter on the spot, or by a central factory close at hand. Thirdly, we have the purely technical and manufacturing process in which Ramie filasse is taken up by the spinners and utilized in the same manner as cotton, flax, and silk are utilized for the purpose of being made into fabrics. For our present purpose we may take it for granted that the cultiva- tion of the Ramie plant presents no insuperable difficulty. Also that if a suitable selection of soil is made, and the locality possesses the neces- sary climatic conditions as regards heat and moisture, there is no reason to doubt that Ramie could be grown to greater or less extent in most of our tropical possessions. As regards the second stage — in which is involved the decortication of the Ramie stems — the difficulty, as shown above, is by no means completely solved. On this really hangs the whole problem. The third stage is dis- appointing and unsatisfactory, because the second stage is still uncertain; and being thus uncertain the fibre is necessarily produced in small and irregular ([iiantitics, and only comes into the market by fits and starts. It would appear that Ramie fibre differs so essentially from cotton and flax that it can only be manipulated and worked into fabrics by means of machinery specially constructed to deal with it. Owing to the com- paratively limited supply of Ramie fibre hitherto in the market, no large firms of manufacturers have thought it worth while to alter the present or put up new machinery to work up Ramie fibre. If appliances, or processes for decorticating Ramie in the colonies were already devised, and the fibre came into the market regularly, and in large quantities — say hundreds of tons at a time — there is no doubt manufacturers Avould be fully prepared to deal with it. At present the industry is practic;illy blocked l)y the absence of any I'eally succes.sful means of separating the fibre from the stems, and preparing it cheaply and eUcctively. This, after all, is the problem which has baflied solution for the last 50 vears. 65 XXIv^.—HAMIE— (continued). {Bochmeria nivea, Hk. & Arn.) [K. B., 1889, pp. 268-278.] Readers of the Keio Bidletin will have noticed that considerable attention has been devoted in its pages to the subject of the present note. The previons history of llaniie or Rhea, and of the various efforts that have been made in recent years to render its valuable fibre r.vailable for commercial enterprise, have been already fully summarised. During the present year interest in Ramie appears to have become more and more general, and judging by the correspondence addressetl to this establishment the subject is foilo'^ed with keen interest at home as well as in India and the Colonies. In connexion with the Paris jE.rjwsition Universelle, 1889, a special scries of trials was held of machines and processes for decorticating Ramie (Exposition Universelle : Essais speciaux dc machines et Rppareils pour la decortication de la Ramie), and at the request of the India Office, and in continuation of similar action taken last year, j\Ir. 1). Morris, F.L.S., the Assistant Director, was appointed to repre- sent this country and to prepare a report of the results. This report, Avith the permission of the Secretary of State for India, is reproduced below: — Royal Gardens, Kew, October 26, 1889. A series of interesting trials of machines and processes designed for the decortication of Ramie was held by the French Minister of Agri- Cidture at Paris in 1888, and a report on the subject, which I had the honour to prei)are for the information of the Secretary of State for India in Council, was published in the Kew Bvlletin. The trials werQ resumed this year as an integral pait of the Conconrs spt'ciaux des instruments agricoles of the Exposition Uni- verselle, and opened on the 23rd September last. The jury consisted for the most part of the members of the Commission of 1888. The attendance of foi'cign representatives was considerably larger than in 1888, and the greatest interest was manifested in the proceedings by a large concourse of visitors. The machines and processes this year were confined to those which bad been ^hown a? a regular part of the general exhibition. As will be seen later, all the competitors were French, and this in spite of the fact that more than a dozen machines and processes have lately been designed in this country, which are now in coui'se of being carefully tested. In my previous report it was pointed out that amongst the French there Avas attached an importance beyond their value to machines for cleaning Ramie in the dry state. I Acntured to express the opinion, that as regards India and our own Colonies it Avas essential that Ramie machines and processes should be competent to deal success- fully Avith the green stems and not the dry ; and that until this end was gained Ramie fibre Avould, I feared, continue to remain unavailable for commercial enterprise. At the recent trials this was all changed. It was a noticeable feature throughout the proceedings this year that no importance wliatever Avas attached to the decortication of dry Ramie stems. The trials Avere entirely confined to results obtainable AN'ith U 77654. E ) 66 green stems, and in order to make them still more applicable to field operations some of the stems were supplied freshly cut with leaves and some -without leaves. The following six machines and one process Avere submitted to the jury :— 1. E. Armand — Paul Barbier, 46, Boulevard liichard-Lenoir, Pans. 2. P. A. Favier — Societe la Ramie Francaise — 14, Rue Saint-Fiacre, Paris [for treatment of dry and green Ramie stems]. 3. P. A. Favier — Societe la Ramie Fran^-aise — 14, Rue Saint-Fiacre, Paris [for treatment of green Ramie stems]. 4. Norbert de Landtsheer, 2, Place des Batignolles, Paris [large machine]. 5. Norbert de Landtsheer, 2, Place des Batignolles, Paris [small machine]. G. Felicieu Michotte, 43, Rue de Saintonge, Paris. 7. Ch. Crozat de Fleury et A. Moriceau, Yilliers-le-Bel, Seine-et- Oise [process for the treatment of green Ramie stems in the field]. Barrier Machine. The machine of M. E. Armand, constructed by M. Barbier, and more generally known as the Barbier machine, was in every respect the same as that tried in 1888, and described in my previous report. It is con- structed to be worked by hand or by steam power. It weighs 625 kilos., and the price is 48/. The construction of the machine is comparatively simple, and consists of a number of cylinders and beaters with a revei'se action attached. This latter allows the stalks to be withdrawn when about five-sevenths cleaned, and of the othei' ends being put in to com- plete the operation. The disadvantage of this method, as regards time and output of ribbons, is more fully discussed below under the de Landtsheer (small) machine. During the trials this machine caused a considerable loss of fibre, carried awaj' with the pith and wood. In the first trials 10 kilos, of green stems without leaves were passed through the machine in six minutes. The result Avas 1'30U kilos, of wet ribbons of fair quality. This would be at the rate of 1 30 kilos, of wet ribbons per day of 10 hours : or of 96 pounds (avoir.; of dry ribbons for the same period. In the second trials 24 kilos, of stems with leaves were put through the machine in 10^ minutes. The result was 1'200 kilos, of wet ribbons of moderate quality. This would be at the rate of 68500 kilos, of Avet ribbons per day of 10 hours ; or of 50 pounds (avoir.) of dry ribbons for the same period. Taking into consideration the cost of this machine and the power necessary to drive it, the out-turn of ribbons is much too small to prove remunerative, and the machine in its prest-nt form is useless. Better results than these have been obtained l^y decorticating Ramie by hand. Favier Machine. Two machines were shown by M. P. A. Favier, whose name is well known in connexion with the Ramie industry. Machine No. 1 was designed for the decortication of green Ramie stems, while Machine No. 3 Avas designed for the treatment of dry stems. In this report the remarks ap>ply only to Machine No. 1. This machine was 2 m. long, 80 cm. broad, and weighed 800 kilos. The price Avas not stated. It C7 required three-quarter horse power to drive it, and two persons to feed and receive the ribbons. The machine is adapted to be worked by four i^ersons, but at the (rials, owing to want of space, it was worked with oiil}' two persons. M. Favier stated that it was designed to produce ribbons entirely free from wood and pith, ready to be converted by a chemical process, also by the same iuventor, into the finest filasse ready for weaving. In outward appearance the machine was a long narrow iron box furnished AvJth numerous small cylindrical ci'ushers and beaters. These Avere entirely covered by a number of moveable iron sheets, which both protected the intricate system of cylindei's and prevented the escape of dust and debris. The feeding apparatus con- sisted of a long narrow trough, in which the stems were arranged in lots of four to six and fed to the machine at two apertures leading to the rollers. The first pair of rcllers was furnished with fine corruga- tions to grasp the stems and pass them on to a somewduit complicated system of crushers and beaters. The ribbons passed continuously through the machine, and were ultimately delivered into the hands of a workman at the other end perfectly fi-ce from wood and pith. In the first sei'ics of trials !0 kilos of green stems without leaves were passed through the machine, in 4^ minutes. Once or twice some of the ribbons were caught in the rollers and the machine had to be stopped. The time occupied in these stoppages was not counted. The wet ribbons yielded by 10 kilos, of stems weighed 2*820 kilos. This would be at the rate of 37(5 kilos, of wet ribbons per day of 10 hours ; or 276 pounds (avoir.) of (\vj ribbons for the same period. In the second series stems, more or less with leaves, weighing 60-3o0 kilos, were passed through the machine in 18 minutes. They yielded 18-100 kilos, of wet ribbons. This would be at the rate of 603 kilos, of wet ribbons per day of 10 hours ; or 443 pounds (avoir.) of dry ribbons for the same period. The ribbons in both cases were well cleaned. There appeared to be no waste. The debris under the machine consisted almost entirely of wood and pith. These results I regard on the whole as satisfactory. The somewhat intricate character of the various parts of this machine would be against its general use by planters in the Colonies, but there can be but little doubt it is a great advance on most other Kamie machines now available. It might, however, be adapted for use in central factories or usincs where skilled labour would be obtainable, aud for this and similar purposes the Favier machine may be I'ecommended. MiCHOTTE Machine. The Michotte Machine, called " La Fran^aise," at first glance re- sembled the Barbier and de Iiandtsheer (small) machines. It was driven by steam-power, and consisted of a pair of large rollers, each furnished with helicoidal grooves running their whole length. The large rollers first crushed the green stems and then passed them on to beaters with moveable bars intended to get rid of the wood and pith. In the first trials, 7 kilos, of green stems were passed through the machine in 11 minutes, yielding 1 kilo, of badly cleaned ribbons. In the second trial, 17'400 kilos. Avere passed through in 2^ minutes, yielding 6 kilos, of similar ribbons. In both cases the ribbons were jnixed Avith crushed and mangled stems, full of Avood and pith. The fibres Avere also cut transversely (probably by the helicoidal grooves) and rendered useless. E 2 68 This machine in its present state possesses no merit whatever. It is difficult to realise under what circumstances it could have been entered' for trial. DE Landtsheer Machines. M. de Landtsheer exhibited two machines. The small machine was very similar to that exhibited by him in 1888, but meanwhile it had received some slight modifications intended to accelerate its movements. It was driven by steam power and required two men to attend to it. It had a horizontal feed plate and consisted of a series of rollers and beaters Avhich received eight or ten stems at a time. These were cleaned for about five-sevenths of their length, and by a reverse action (operated by .1 long handle pushed by the workman) they were then withdrawn and the other ends put in and cleaned. It will be noticed that each lot c/f stems, under this arrangement, had to be presented twice to the machine before they were cleaned. This involved a considerable loss of time and reduced the daily out-turn of ribbons. In the Favier machine, as also in the de Landtsheer large machine, this difRculty has in a great measure been overcome. The de Landtsheer small machine was used for green stems in the second trials only. In these 24 '100 kilos, of steins, with leaves, were passed through the machine in 10 minutes. The yield was G'oOO kilos, of wet ribbons of good quality. Tliis would be at the rate of 390 kilos, of wet ribbons per day of 10 hours; or 286 pounds (avoir.) of dry ribbons for the same period. In the fiist trials this machine was used by de Landtsheer to complete the cleaning of ribbons previously passed through the large machine. In this instance 15 kilos, of partially cleaned and wet ribbons were passed through the machine in 6f minutes. The yield was 10 '500 kilos, of excellent fibre worth, according to the opinion of experts, about 70 to 80 centimes per kilo. The large machine of M. de Landtsheer, like the Favier machines, had a continuous movement by means of which the stalks passed through the machine, without withdrawal, and the ribbons were delivered at the other end ready for drying. This is an important point gained. Indeed, this was the principal improvement noticed in the machines presented at the Paris trials of 1889, and in all in which it had't)een adopted there was a marked increase in the out-turn of ribbons. M. de Landtsheer's large machine consists of two pairs of cylinders. The fii'st pair is furnished with grooves opposite one another, Avhile the second have the grooves alternate. Beyond these are two sets of beaters {batteurs a ailettes) which break and get rid of the wood and pith and deliver the ribbons on a revolving stage placed beneath, whence they are quickly picked up by a workman and laid on one side. The particulars of weight and price of this new machine Avere not oV)tainable. It was driven by a two-horse power engine, and required two men to feed it and remove the ribbons. In the first trial, ;3() kilos, of stems without leaves were passed through the machine in 2^ minutes. They yielded 10 kilos, of wet ribbons, but these ribbons had a considerable quantity of pith and wood lightly adhering to them, .•>,nd in one in.stance the amount of wood and pith probably reached 20 to 25 per cent, of the gross weight. Taking the yield of wet ribbons as they left tiie machine, the 10 kilos, above mentioned would be at the rate of 2,100 kilos, of ribbons per day of 10 hours; or of 1,7G3 ])Ounds (avoir.) of dry ribbons for the same pei'iod. Even allowing for the presence of pith and wood, which when dry, might be removed by a light shaking or scutching, it is 09 evident that this machine will prepare more than half a ton of dry ribbons per day. It is not at all improbable that M. de Landtsheer Avill be able to effect some further impiovemeut in this machine. In any ca^e the machine is worthy the attention of planters, who with a single instrument could work oft' about 50 tons of green stems per Aveek. This is an exceptionally good result, and it serves to show what progress has now been made in perfecting machines for treating the Eamie jjlant on a commercial scale. in the second trials 46 kilos, of stems with leaves were put through the machine in IH minutes. The result was 15 kilos, of wet ribbons (with particles of wood and pith adhering to them as before). This would be at the rate of 783 kilos, of wet ribbons per day of 10 hours ; or of 575 pounds (avoir.) of dry ribbons in the same period. There is a considerable difference between the results obtained by this machine in the first and second trials. This was also noticeable in the Barbier machine. The construction of these machines evidently does not erable them to cope with stems with leaves attached. On the other hand the Favier machine did better with stems with leaves than those without leaves. This, however, is not a matter of great importance. In the field the leaves could be easily detached during the cutting; and if not removed then, they would fall off" of their own accord after lying in a lieap (inducing a slight fermentation) for a few hours. Fleury-Mokiceau Process. Only one process Avas shown. This was singularlj^ simple, and con- sisted of steeping the fresh (or dry) &tems for a short period in boiling- water and i"emoving the ribbons by hand. An open galvanised tank about 6 feet long, 2 feet wide, and about 4 feet deep, filled with water, was raised on bricks (or stones) about 18 inches from the ground over an open fire. When the water had reached boiling point a crate containing 50 to 100 fresh stems was lowered into it (and depending on their age and character) left in it for 5 or 15 minutes. At the end of that time the crate was lifted out, the stems left to drain while another lot was put in. The stems already steeped were then taken up by a couple of workmen and quickly and etfectually cleaned by hand. The action of the boiling water had apparently thoroughly loosened the attachment of the cortex to the wood, and ribbons Avere produced perfectly clean and regular, and apparently Avithout any loss of fibre. This method Avas tested in the first trials only. The operation began by placing 18 kilos, of fresh stems in boiling A\ater and alloAving them to remain there for 10 minutes. In 36 minutes (or in 46 minutes incl'iding the time o ^ in immersing the stems) the workmen, apparently not specially ■ I in the Avox'k, produced 5*600 kilos, of excellent ribbons. This Avould be at the rate of 73 kilos, of wet ribbons per day of 10 hours ; or of 161 pounds (avoir.) of dry ribbons for the 5ame period. This process, it Avill be noticed, is of the simplest possible description. The only apparatus necessary is a tank. This tank could easily be moved from place to place in the field, and the Avood of the stems after the ribbons are removed Avould probably furnish most of the fuel necessary. The process can, hoAVCA er, only be utilised in a few special countries where labour is very cheap. M. Crozat de Fleury states that ribbons produced by this process can be dried, baled, and delivered ready for shipment at a cost not exceeding 8 to 10 centimes per kilo, (about 85 shilli)vgs per ton). In Tonkin it could be done for even less than this. 70 It will be noticed that tlie Fleury-Moriceau process follows somewhat on similar lines that of the Favier process of 1882. In this latter the stems were steamed for some time in a close fitting cylinder. The former is, however, much simpler, and requires absolutely no skilled labour, [no chemicals], nor any plant except an open tank, large or small, according to the circumstances of the grower. The inventors of the Fleury-]\Ioriceaii process are evidently of opinion that wherever cheap labour is obtainable it is in every way preferable, in the production of Ramie ribbons, to the best machine. After all, placing the Eamie stems in boiling water is only a modiiication of the old retting process practised so long by the Chinese, and by means of which probably the China grass of commerce is still produced. In any case the Fleury-Moriceau process deserves to be carefully con- sidered, and especially in its applicability to the circumstances of India. There the ryots might grow Ramie in small areas, jirepare the ribbons and sell them to merchants for export, or to a neighbouring factory or usine. The steaming process of M. Favier, designed for^use under similar circumstances, foiled no doubt on account of the restrictions placed on the use of the patent, and the uncertainity of the demand for ribbons. The Fbury-Moriceau process re-opens the question under circum- stances much more favourable, and the subject is one which deserves careful consideration wherever labour is sufficiently abundant to permit of ribbons being produced at a price that will compete with machine- cleaned ribbons. The relative value of the several machines, and of the Fleury- INIoriceau process, tried at Paris in 1889, may be gathered from the following tables : — Table 1. — First Series of Trials. Green stems, without leaves. Machine. No. of Hands employed. Weight of Green Stems. (Kilos.) Time employed. Quantity of Wet Ribbons produced. (Kilos.) Estimated Quantity of Dry Eibbons producible in a day of 10 hours (pounds Avoir.),* Armand-Barbier Favier (No. 1 ) Michotte de Landtsheer (large machine.) Fleury-Moriceau pro- cess. 2 2 2 2 2 10 10 7 36 18 6 m. lim. 2im. 46 m. 1-300 2-820 1-000 10-000 5 -COO 96 276 ],763t 161 * In preparing this estimate the wet ribbons are calculated to yield one-third of their weiffht of dry ribbons, and the kilo, is taken as equivalent to 2 '204 pounds avoii . ■f This large yield of ribbons must be reduced by about 20 ])er cent, on account of the pith and wood lichtly adhering to them. 71 Table 2. — Second Series of Trials. Green stemf?, with leaves. JMacliine. No. of Hands employed. Weight of Green Stems. (Kilos.) Time employed. Quantity of Wet Ribbons produced. (Kilos.) Estimated Quantity of Dry Ribbons producible in a day of 10 hours (pounds Avoir.). Armand-Barbier Favier (No. 1) Michotte de Landtsheer : (rt.) Large machine (/;.) Small machine 2 2 2 2 1 26 60- 350 17-400 46 24-400 10| m. 18 m. 2i m. lU m. 10 m. 1-200 18-100 6-000 15-000 6-500 50 443 575 287 Awards of the Jury. As was the case last year, the official report of the jury will probably not be published till the appearance of the December number of the Bulletin de V Agriculture. In the meantime it may be mentioned that the jury, following the rules applicable to the other exhibits at the Exposition Universelle, awarded a gold medal to M. Favier ; a gold medal to M. de Landtsheer ; and a silver medal to MM. Fleury- Moriceau. These awards, it Avill be noticed, follow closely the results already detailed above, and they may be accepted as aifordiug a clear indication of the relative value of the several machines and processes submitted to the jury. To those generally interested in Ramie culture it may be mentioned that the trials of 1889 have proved much more favourable than those of 1888, and the subject is evidently ripening for solution in many directions not thought of before. This can be best shown by a comparison of the results as follows : — Table 3. — Results obtained in 1889 compared with those obtained in 1888. Machine. Quantit)- of Dry Ribbons producible in a day of 10 hours (pounds Avoir.) working on Green Stems. 1888. 1889. de Landtsheer : Large machine Small machine - - - _ Barhier - - - . Favier (No. 1) - Fleury-iloriceau . - - 120 71 1,763* 287 96 443 161 * See note in Table 1. 72 It will be noticed that tlie best results obtained in 1888 were at the rate of 120 pounds of dry ribbons per day of 10 hours. This was with the de Landtsheer small machine. In 1889 this machine, with improve- nients, produced at the rate of 287 poiuids of dry ribbons (more than double the quantity) for the same period. With the large machine (make due allowance for the pith and wood lightly adhering to the wet ribbons) the returns of dry ribbons Avoidd be at the rate of over half a ton per day. Othkr Machines and Pkocesses. Before closing this report it is desirable to pass under review a few of the machines and processes not represented at Paris which have recently come into notice in this country and elsewhere. In the absence of carefully arranged public trials under the control of men thoroughly conversant with the subject, it must be understood that it is impossible to express an authoritative opinion as to the merits of such machines and proce-^.ses. They are noticed here solely for the purpose of furnish- ing a more or less complete record of Ramie experiments which have been undertaken during the present year, and of afibrding information that otherwise would not be available to persons interested in the subject in India and the Colonies. The Doty System. A system brought forward by Captain Doty (inventor of the Doty light) is based on the assumption that no decorticating machine, how- ever meritoi'ious, will fully meet the requirements of Ramie planters. Avho are obliged, with the aid of unskilled labour, to deal with a large quantity of green Ramie stems within a short time. Captain Doty is of opinion that where labour is cheap, women and children might be employed to sti-ip the fibre from the freshly cut stems by hand, and leave 80 per cent, of the weight of the crop (the wuod) on the field. Under such circumstances the ribbons alone would be carried away, either to be dried for exportation or to be treated at central factories or usincs, lirstlv by a process of fermentation, and subsequently by chemical cleaning and washing to i)roduce filasse ready for spinning. " Notwithstanding," says Captain Doty, "the failures of all previous " attempts to deal with this fibre l)y fermentation it is almost self " evident that a fermentive treatment is only the possible solution of " the problem. No mechanical process that can be devised will ever " eliminate the gum by which the fibres are cemented together, and " without the elimination of the gum the division and sub-division of " the fibres necessary to produce a delicate filasse can never be " obtained." A trial of the Doty system recently took place near Rome, and a report tliercon was prepared by Signor G. Trombelta, Secretary to the Italian Miuistry of Agriculture, and published in the Bolletino di Notizic Commrrciale, Sept. 1st, 1889, pp. GS9-GC0. In this report it is stated that the system is based on the disintegration to which the gummy substance in the liamie ribbons is exposed by an acid fermenta- tion. The ribbons are first of all tied up in bundles and placed in fermenting vats, where they remain for about a week. They are then taken out and washed Afterwards they are boiled with certain chemical ingredients for two hours, washed in cold water, and dried and combed. The report concludes by stating that the fibre was in some cases of une(iual character as regards colour and quality, due to the provisional nature of the appliances used ; but the results obtained on a 73 small scab gave hopes that with larger quantities and suitable boiling vessels, properly closed, and with proper machinery to agitate the mass, the fibre would be obtained in a more satisfactory condition. The Till Machine. As far as can be gathered from a description privately communicated by the inventor (Mr. C. G. Till), this is a large machine, weighing nearly two tons, driven by steam-power, and costing about 150/. It is I'urnished with rollers and beatei-s, about 3 feet long ; it has a con- tinuous action, similar to the Favier and de Landtsheer (large) machine, and takes about 3G stems of green or dry Kamie at a time. It has not yet been fully tested for the out-turn of ribbons, but the inventor estimates that it will clean between half a ton and a ton per day. Papleux System. In consequence of letters which appeared in the Melbourne Argus at the time of the Centennial Exposition held at Melbourne, inquiries were addressed to Kcw respecting the Papleux system for cleaning l?amie. This system was at one time in operation by Messrs. W. H. Spencer & Co., of Hitchin, Herts, but is now abandoned. Recent experiments have been carried on with a formula invented by Messrs. Spencer them- selves, and by means of this they have been successful in preparing small samples of fibre of excellent quality. It is probable that Messrs. W. H. Spencer & Co. will eventually be able to treat Ramie ribbons on a large scale and convert them by mechanical and chemical means into filasse or finished yarns. It is understood, however, that at present the process is not available to the public. Plaisier Machine. A machine, the invention of a Dutch engineer named Plaisier, is the subject of an extended notice in cie Indiche Mercur of the 19th January 1889, by Van Gorkhom. This machine, driven by an engine of 1| horsepower, has been successfully worked at Deli, in Sumati-a, for some months, and it is stated to treat 5,000 kilos of green stems per day, yielding 125 to 150 kilos of ribbons. Geneeal Remarks. In the Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Series 1889 (p. 37), there is given an account of an experimental planting of Ramie at a colony In the Province of Santa Catharina, Brazil. This colony obtained the first prize for a collection of Ramie fibres at the Antwerp Exhibition. In the same Reports, No. 525, on the trade of Hankow, attention is drawn to the facilities which exist there for procuring and manipulating Rhea fibre on a large scale. The Con.sul adds, " it would give me much " pleasure to know that a good business in this article could be started " here. But until machinery for preparing it is perfected, exports " would be premature." On the 23rd August last a despatch was forwarded by the Foreign Office from the Acting Consul at Canicas, dated the 25th July 1889, giving an account of the formation of an Italo- Venezuelan Company to plant Ramie on a large scale. Experimental plantations had already proved so successful that machinery had been imported to begin the operation of preparing the fibre. 74 As descrilted in the Kew Bulletin, 1888, pp. 14o-119, n Kamie factory establislietl in Spain, at Torroella de Montgri, Gerona, in the neighbourhood of large Ramie plantations, appear to have proved suc- cessful. This factory employed the Favier decorticating machines. In a letter dated the 19th October 1889, Mr. Wooldridge, Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Barcelona, informs ns that " Ramie is still being " cultivated with important results near Torroella, and that they con- " tinne to use the Favier machines, which are believed to be the most " perfect machines of their kind." It may be mentioned that these factories are being worked privately, and probably the methods and machinery are not aA'ailablo to ihe public, except under a special arrangement with ]\I. Favier. The fibre prepared is utilised in Fi-ance, and does not come into general commerce. In British tropical possessions, both in the East and West Indies, Ramie is being grown experimentally, in the hope that some machine or process will eventually be produced to enable the fibre to enter into commerce and become a regular article of trade. The results of the Paris trials last year naturally discouraged Ramie growers, and little if any extension of Ramie planting has taken place since that time. The results of the recent trials will no doubt be closely scanned by those interested in the subject. The first aim of planters should be to produce ribbons of good quality at the lowest possible cost. In other words, planters have to solve the question how to produce Ramie ribbons, that is, to secure the complete removal of the cortex (which contains the fibre) from the green stems, at such a cost as will prove remunerative to themselves and at the same time allow sufticient margin for the cost of converting these ribbons into filasse ready for the suinners. Hitherto the want of success in the production of ribbons has apparently been the only obstacle to the development of a Ramie industry. And probably on this account the Paris trials were wholly devoted to the production of ribbons and not of fila-sse. The conversion of ribbons into filasse is a su1)ject belie\ed to be more easily dealt with. In fact there are several systems exclusively devoted to this department which appear to accomplish it. Some machines, it is true, have attempted to produce filasse by a single process from ihe green stems. The result has not been satisfactory, and it is very uidikely that this can be done with a plant like Ramie, in which the individual fibres ai-e so completely immersed in gummy matter. Hence the subject has been divided in two parts. The first is concerned alone in the removal of the fibre in the form of ribbons from the green stems, either in the fields or in their immediate neighbourhood. The second is devoted to the treat- ment of these ribbons and in their conversion by chemical and other processes into filasse, or fine white silky fibres ready for the spinner. The first process will naturally take place where the plants are grown in the colonies or elsewhere, and machines like those of Favier and de Landtsheer, or processes like that of Fleury-Moriceau, may be adopted according to the special circumstances of the planter. Sufiicient pro- gress has now been made in the working of these machines and proce.sses to justify careful trials being undertaken with them both in India and the colonies. If these machines or any others that may be forthcoming prove entirely satisfactory, and ribbons can be produced at a low initial cost, the question of their conversion into filasse is one which will naturally come into prominence. The conversion of ribbons into filasse will very probably, at first, at least, take place in Europe, where chemicals and skilled labour are the more readily available. In some countries it may be found advisable later on to establish central factories or usines on the spot (to save freight charges on the ribbons), and ship only the filasse 75 to Europe. In any case, once a Hamie industry is well started, there can be no doubt numerous countries will seek a share in it, and only those possessing special advantages for the growth of the plant, a supply of cheap labour, and good facilities for transport and shipment, can hope to make it a success. The best market for Ramie at present appears to be France. What little is imported into this country, in the form of China Grass, or Rhea, is bought up for the French market. In the Monthly Circular of Messrs. Ide and Christie for the loth October 1889, China Grass is quoted "quiet" at 31s. to 35s. per cwt. ; and Rhea, "no business," at 145. ro 105. per cwt. AYith regard to what is known in commerce as " China Grass,'' this is hand-cleaned fibre shipped usually from Chinese ports. It arrives in this country in small parcels, tho yearly importation being only about 100 tons. It is nearly all taken up by Continental buyers. Rhea is the term applied to machine- cleaned fibre, generally in the form of ribbons or half-cleaned stuff. The price is much less than China Gi-ass, and iu case of large shipments would probably not exceed about 71. or 8/. per ton. It fs important therefore for Ramie planters to aim at the j^roduc- tiou of ribbons at a cosit not exceeding about 41. or 5/. at the port of shipment. Important elements in such production would be to plant Ramie only in places where the soil and climate will allow of three or four crops being reaped per annum ; where labour is very cheap and abundant, and where good facilities exist for transport and shipment. D. Morris. XXV.— RAMIE -(continued). (^Boehmeria nivea, Hk. & Arn.) [K. B., 1889, pp. 284-287.] The report on the results of the trials of machines and methods for decorticating Ramie stems, held at Paris on the 23rd September 1889, is given in the preceding pages. It is evident from this report that considerable progress has been made towards a solution of the problems involved in the treatment of Ramie fi^bre, and it remains for those interested in the subject in India and the Colonies, to initiate locally such further experimental trials of machines and methods as Avill determine, with an abundance of green stems at hand, whether Ramie fibre can now be made available for commercial enterprise. The Foreign Office has communicated the following letter addressed to Lord Lytton, Her Majesty's Ambassador at Paris, by Mr. J. A. Crowe, C.B., Commercial Attache for Europe, respecting the results of the trials of Ramie fibre machines : — My Lord, Paris, October 29th, 1889. With reference to Lord Salisbury's Despatch (No. 124 of the 23rd instant), on the subject of the awards and official reports in the matter of Rhea fibre-cleaning machines at the Universal Exhibition, I have the honour to enclose copies of the general list of awards which has just been made public, to which I have added a list of the special awards for decortication of Ramie fibre. 76 The [official] reports wliicli have been asked for will probably not appear, so I hear from Mr. Beiger, till some time next year. I have, &c. (Signed) J. A. Crowe. [Enclosure.] Exposition Univehseli.e, 1889. Concoius de Decortiqueurs pour la Kamie. I-'irst Prizes. P. A. Favier, Societe la Ramie Fran^aise, 14, Rue Saiut-Fiacre, Paris [for machines lor treating Ramie stems.] Norbert de Landtsheer, 2, Place des Batignolles, Paris [for machine for treating Ramie stems]. Second Prize. Ch. Crozat de Fleury et A. Moriceau, Yilliers-le-Bel, Seine-et-Oise [for process for the treatment of green Ramie stems in the field,] In regard to M. Favier's machines, which were awarded a first prize for cleaning green Ramie stems, this gentleman, well known as having devoted daring the last 10 years much time and attention to the develop- ment of Ramie industry in France, Spain, and other countries, has forwarded further particulars of his machines to supplement those already given in ]Mr. ^Morris's Report : — M. Favier to Royal Gardens, Kew. Paris, 14, Rue Saint-Fiacre, Sir, 1 1th November 1889. I have duly received a copy of the Kew Bulletin of miscel- laneous information, which you have been good enough to send me, and I beg to thank you for the compliment. Since the trials upon which you have reported I have added some improvements to my machine, to prevent the ribbons from being en- tangled in the rollers, and on the 23rd October I carried out further experiments in the presence of numerous people interested in the subject. 1 passed through my machine, with two workmen, 100 kilos, of green ptems, more or less with leaves, in 12 minutes. This is equivalent to 0,000 kilos, of green stems (and assuming the rate of yield at 5 percent, of dry ribbons) to a1)out 550 pounds (avoir,) of dry ribbons per day of 10 hours. With the full complement of four workmen, necessary to do justice to the machine, it will work off 7,500 kilos, of green stems, and give a return equivalent to 775 pounds (avoir.) of dry ribbons per day of 10 hours. The ribbons, as you saw at Paris, are perfectly free from pith and wood. The intricate nature of my machines to which you allude is only apparent. They consist really of i-epetitions of similar parts of crushers and rollers, weighing 10 or 12 kilos, each, so arranged that they can be easily taken in and out. The work of putting up these machines is very simple, and they can be easily regulated by anyone. 77 The little power required to drive my machines (three-quarter-horse power) clearly indicates that the several parts are not heavy to move, and that there is really nothing in them cumbersome or involving strain on the fibre as iu other Ramie machines hitherto produced. The cost of my machine (for treating green Ramie stems) will probably be 80/. to 100/., with a royalty, Avhich is not yet fixed. I have, &c. (Signed) P. A. Favier, Directeur de la Societe " La D. Morris, Esq. Ramie Fran^aise." At tiie date of the publication of Mr. Morris's report, the demand for Ramie ribbons in the London market was so slight that the prices quoted may possibly have ofiered little inducement for embarking in Ramie growing in the Colonies. The information received from Messrs. Ide and Christie, in a letter dated 29th October 1889, Avas as follows:— ''There is very little inquiry for ribbons at present, and we do not " think they would fetch more than 8/. to 10/. per ton. We may " confii-m our circular report by simply saying 'Nothing doing.' "There are some parcels of highly prepared Ramie in London just " now, some of Indian and some of English manufacture, the values of " which range from 28/. to 50/. nominally. Those are on sale, but tlio " demand is almost nil.'" Since that time, however, it appears that a considerable improvement has taken place in the price of Ramie ribbons, and Messrs. Ide and Christie, in a letter dated the 5th November last, were able to report as follows : — . . " Dm-ing the past week some considerable investment " has taken place in Ramie ; the Avhole stock in London of ribbons has '* been sold at prices ranging from 14/. to 16/. per ton, and a good " deal of this was out of condition ajid somewhat perished. We believe " that this stock has gone into consumption by English manufacturers. " There is an inquiry for further parcels, and we are now disposed to " think that the bases of a real trade in the article are in process of " formation. At least we feel sure there are buyers in the market of " 100 tons of ribbons up to 12/. per ton, and we could not perhaps " have said this a few months ago." In Messrs. Ide and Christie's monthly circular, dated 15th November, it is stated : — " China Grass. — Improved inquiry, and a large turn over has occurred " from ZOs. to 34*. [per cwt.]. ^^ Rhea. — Stocks of raw ribbons cleared out up to IGs. [per cwt.]. " Market bare, with plenty of inquiry." It maybe mentioned that the remarks on the Papleux system, which appeared at p. 276, may be supplemented by the information that Messrs. W. H. Spencer & Co. are associated with the Boehmeria Company, Limited, at Hitchin, Herts, formed for the purpose of converting Ramie and other textiles into varus. 78 XXVI.— RAMIE AS FOOD FOR SILKWORMS. (Boekmeria nivea, Hk. & Arn.) [K. B., 1890, pp. 174-175.] The Ramie or Rhea plant (Boehmeria nivea) is being experimentally cultivated iu numerous parts of the world as a fibre plant. Particulars in regard to the niunorous attempts that have been made to prepare the fibre of the liamie on a commercial scale have already been given in these pages. It now appears that the leaves of the Ramie plant may be used as a food for silkworms, iu the same way as those of the mulberry and Osage orange {Madura anrantiaca). All three plants belong to the same natural order Urticacece, and there should be no reason why they ishoukl not be found equally suitable. The follow- ing account of the use oP Ramie leaves for feeding silkworms in the United States Avas communicated to the Foreign Oflice b^' Mr. A. de G. de Fonblanque, H.B.M.'s Consul at New Orleans: — " A discovery has Ijeen made by a lady in Columbia, S.C, that may have a marked effect upon two great industries. For a number of seasons this lady has amused herself by feeding silkworms and sending a few pounds of cocoons to the AVomen's Society for the Encouragement of the Silk Industry in Philadelphia, The extraordinary warmth of this winter caused the eggs to hatch far in advance of the season, and as the young leaves of the mulberry and the Osage orange liad not put forth, our amateur was at a loss what to do. An account adds : " * Seeing that the foliage of the Ramie in a. neighbouring field was putting out, she gathered some and put the worms upon it. They fed ravenouslv, and she kept up the supply until the Osage orange leaves appeared. Then she divided lier worms equally, feeding one set with Ramie, the other with Osage orange. She kept the cocoons separate and sent them to Philadelphia. The experts there were astonished at the size of those s^un by the Ramie eaters, and wi-ote to the lady to know what she had done to secure them. They were not only larger, but the silk was finer.' " If further ex))eriment3 should prove that Ramie leaves can be depended upon fcr silkworms' food, then a great impetus will be given to the production of this valuable article in the South, while it will add to the profits of these who raise that plant for its fibre." Note added, 1894. — With regard to the above statement, Professor Eiley, Entomologist to tlie U.S. Department of Agriculture, remarks in Insect Life, vol. iii., p. 301 : — " We should be glad to receive an authoritative account of such " an experiment, as the discovery is a valuable one, if true. AVe have endeavoured " to secure au authentication, but have not succeeded as yet. In spite of the fact " that Ramie is closely related to the mulberry, botanically speaking, we rather " incline to the opinion that the published statement is a canard. The editor of the " American Dnvjijist (where it lirst appeared) writes us that the item must have " been fiublished in his advertising pages, and that he cannot Touch for the " reliability of the statement." XXVII.— PARIS RAMIE TRIALS, 1891. [K. B., 1891, pp. 277-278.] The subject of Ramie has once more been brought forward in France, and a trial of" methods and appliances for decorticating and preparing Ramie was held at Paris under the auspices of The Socicte dcs Afjfri- culteurs de France on the 25th to the 30th September last. It will be ■9 recollected by tliose who take an interest in this subject thcat previous trials were held at Paris in 1888 and 1889, and owing to the importance of Kamie as a possible industrial plant for India the Secretary of State for India in Council sanctioned an arraugment whereby the Assistant Director of Kew was enabled to attend the trials and prepare reports embodying the results for the information of the India Office. A summary of these reports was afterwards published in the Kew Bulletin for November and December 1888, and November and December 1889. At the trials in September last the Director of Kew was able to be present as representative for India. The trials took place at Gennevilliers, a suburb of Paris, in a field where Ramie (the white- leaved sort) had been grown specially for the purpose. After the trial of the decorticators had been completed the ribbons were afterwards passed on to be treated by the chemical processes so as to test exactly th(! amount of filasse (or marketable fibre ready for spinning) produced by each system. The chemical processes have necessarily occupied some time, but as the report by the jury and the awards have been officially made known there will be sufficieni; evidence forthcoming to enable a toleral)!/ clear (Estimate being formed of the advance which has been made towards solving the difficulties hitherto connected with the Ramie question. XXVIII.— EAMIE OR, EHEA IN IRELAND. [K. B., 1892, p. 251.] What little interest is being taken at present in extracting Ramie Fibre I'rom Boehineria nivea appears to be centred at Belfast. Xumei"Ous applications have been received at Kew for Ramie stems for experimental purposes, but owing to the unfavourable conditions of last winter the plants at Kew have yielded a poor crc>p of stems. It may be useful to state that investigators of Ramie in Ireland could very well obtain stems either from the Royal Botanical Gardens at Glasnevin, or from growers of the plant in the mild climate of the South of Ireland. Mr. F. VV. Moore, Keeper of the Glasnevin Gardens, writes that the plant is " quite hardy " with him, and he would be pleased to semi specimens, as far as his resources allow, to those who apply to him for them. XXIX.— EAMIE MACHINE TEIALS AT NEW OELEANS. [K. B., 1892, pp. 301-306.] The latest information connected with the extraction of fibre from Ramie (Boeltmeria nivea, Hk. & Arn., and Boe/uneria nivea var. tenacissima, Gaud.) is contained in a Report on the recent trials of Ramie decorti- cating machines held under the authority of the U.S. Department of Agriculture at New Orleans. The trials took place on the 30th September last, and the Report of the Board of Expert.s, acting as jury, has just been published.* * The United States Department of Acrriculture. Division of Statistics. New Series: Keporl No. 99, September and October 1892. Washington Government Printing Otiice, pp. 347-3.54. 80 The results of the New Orleans trials do not appear to carry us any neai-er to the solution of the problem that has been so long under con- sideration in regard to the extraction of Kaniie fibre. The machines presented do not appear to possess any advantages over those tried at Paris in 1888 and 1889, and fully discussed in these pages, while they are apparently inferior to the machines tried also at Paris under the auspices of the Socicte des Agricidteiirs de France in September 1891. The following extracts are taken from the United States Report : — Machines Entered. " The official trials of Kamie machines, under the auspices of the office of fibre investigations of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, set for the last week in September at Audubon Park, New Orleans, came off ou the 30th of September, and included trials upon jute stalks as Avell as upon stulks of Ramie. " Three machines were entered for (rial as foUow^s : — The Kauffman machine, I13' the Kauffman Fibre Company' of New Orleans, La. ; the Felix Fremerey Decorticator, by the Feiix Fremerey Decorticator Com- pany, of Galveston, Texas ; the Fibre Deliguating machine (known as the J. J. Green machine) of the United States Fibre Company of Versailles, Ky. " The Kauffman machine. — According to the entry of this machine it requires 15-horse power; it works upon green stalks stripped of leaves and upon dried stalks. Four attendants are required to run it; floor space occupied 6 by 14 feet. The machine is termed a decorticator for Ramie, jute and hemp " The Fremerey machine. — In the entry of this machine about 5-horse power is stated. The machine is arranged to work upon green stalks, either stripped or with the leaves and upon dry stalks. It occupies a floor space of about 5 by 18 feet. The machine requires five attendants, three of whom may be boys " The J. J. Green inachine. — Ten-horse power is named as the power i-equired to drive this machine. The entry states that it works upon dried stalks (but it is also expected to work green stalks with or with- out leaves). Five attendants are required for full capacity, three cf whom may be boys ; it occupies a floor space of 8 by 12 feet." Trials on Green Stripped Ramie. " The first trial was with the Kauffman machine, 500 pounds of green stripped stalks having been weighed out for the test. Of this amount 332 pounds of stalks were run through the machine in 42 minutes, Avhen the machine clogged. The result in wet ribbons was 88 pounds, and 1G8 pounds of stalks remained unworked, owing to the inability of the machine to proceed further. '• The second trial was with the J. J. Green machine, 500 pounds of green strii)ped Ramie stalks having been weighed out for the test. Of this quantity 225 pounds of stalks had been delignated in 1 hour and 35 minutes, producing 57^ wet ribbons, 275 pounds of green stalks rem.aining unworked, owing to the inability of tlie machine to proceed furthet. *' Mr. Fremery declined to enter this trial after 500 pounds of green stripped Ramie stalks had been weighed out, claiming that the stalks were too uneven in size, the construction of his machine requiring medium stalks." SI CONCLUSICNS. In a review of the results of these trials, Mr. Charles Ricliartls Dodge, special ageni in charge of fibre investigations, reports as follows : — " While the figures for a day's work, based on the results of short running, are wholly misleading, it is interesting to note that the output of the ivauffman machine, during the 42 minutes of continuous woi'k before it clogged, represents 4,743 pounds of green stalks in 10 hours of continuous action, or a little over 2 tons, with an output of 1,257 pounds of wet ribbons, etpial to about 420 pounds of dry ribbons, which weight would be considerably reduced after the loose hurds and woody matter remaining in the ribbons produced by this machine had been eliminated. " In like manner, were the J. J. Green machine to run continuously for 10 hours, turning out ribbons at the rate of speed shoAvn when in actual operation (that is, deducting the 67 minutes spent in cleaning and re-adjustment) the output would have shown a capacity of 4,821 pounds of stalks and 1,232 pounds of wet ribbons, equal to about 410 pounds of dry ribbons. But, as shown, both machinea were unable to finish the 500 pounds of stalks weighed out to each for the trial. " The results of the New Orleans trials are satisfactory as far as thej have demonstrated the status of the machines entered, and established an American record that gives a starting point for future comparison, as the results of other trials are made known. It is to be regretted, how- ever, that a larger number of machines was not represented. In this report comparisons cannot be made with the best foreign machines, though I shall endeavour to cover the whole ground in a special report, Bulletin No. 5, Fibre Investigations, to be issued at an early date." The trials with Jute stems were very similar in their results to those noted in the case of Eamie stems. There was no conclusive evidence either way. The best residts with Jute stalks as far as they went, were given by the Kauffman machine. This cleaned 100 pound of stalks in 20 minutes, yielding 32 pounds of wet ribbons. The ribbons were described " as well delignated with a very small per-centage of woody waste. The fibre occasionally was somewhat broken." XXX.— CHINA GRASS. 1891 ONWARDS. [K. B., 189S, pp. 209-224.] In former articles in the Kew Bulletin, the names China grass, Ra.nie, and Rhea, have been applied, as had been customary, indis- criminately to the products of Bcehmeria nivea and i>. tenacissima. It is now generally agreed to employ them with more precision. China Grass is obtained from Bcehmcria nivea, easily recognised by the white under side of the leaves, which yields an annual crop of stems in the open air, even in England. Ramie or Rhea is obtained from B. tenacissima, which has the mature leaves green underneath, and in this country can only be grown under glass. Paris Trials. Trials of machines for the preparation of China grass were held at Paris in the years 1888, 1889, and 1891. The first were under the direction of the French Government ; the residts were given in the Kew Bulletin for 1888 (pp. 273-280). The U 77554. J, 82 second were iu connexion with the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1889 ; the results were also published in the Keio Bulletin (1889, pp. 268- 278 ; 284-2S7). The third was not a Government competition, but was held under the auspices of the Societe des Agriculteurs de France. A brief notice is given in the Kew Bulletin (1891, pp. 277, 278). It was attended bv the Director on behalf of the India Office. The trials of l(-i91 took place at Qennevilliers, near Paris, on the Kamie plantation belonging to the Societe Agiicole de la Ramie. The plant cultivated was China grass (Btehmeria nivca), and it was under- stood that its cultivation had the advantage of a supply of Paris sewage. The growth of the crop was extremely vigorous and in that respect left nothing to desire. The stems succumb to the first fro.st, which, however, does not appear to injure the roots. Six machines were submitted for competition ; of these only the four wliich received rewards require notice. Faure MacJmie. This received a gold medal. It admitted of being worked by hand, but the most satisfactory results were obtained when driven by a steam motor. It exhibited great mechanical ingenuity in the details. The leafy stems of China grass as cut from the plantation were fed on to a table from which they were drawn in leaf-end foremost by two revolving rollers. Ijehind these was the decorticating apparatus. This consisted of a drum carrying tvrelve beaters which appeared to be made of simple T iron. The bed against which these beaters worked was a quarter of a cylinder, the radius of which Avas smaller than that of the drum carrying the beaters. The space between these and the surface of the bed therefore varied. The beaters first strike the stems, and, without injuring the fibrous cortex, break uj) the woody core into segments about an inch long. As the stem passes on into the wider space the beaters operate with a scraping action which dislodges the core-segments from the cortex. This, now converted into a ribbon, is again seized by the beaters as it leaves the bed, and when released is blown on to an endless cord which catches each ribbon in ^the middle and carries it to dry at any distance from the machine that may be desirable. The leaves, which it was thought would be available for fodder, and the fragments of the core are driven away by the centrifugal force of the drum. The Faure machine in this form produced clean ribbons without ap])arontly bruising ihe fibre, but did not remove the epidermis. It had the advantage of working continuously, but did not always disengage the core from the butt-end of the stems. It required the attention of three men ; two to feed and one to remove the ribbons. The result of one trial was to obtain from 1 cwt. of fresh stems 4 lbs. (when dried) of ribbons in six minutes (or 4U0 lbs. of dry ribbons for a day of ten hours) ; these ril)l)ons after degumming yielded 1^ lbs. of filasse, or 2*6 per cent. The Faure machine of this type has, however, been apparently abandoned by its inventor. The foim at present in use will be described subsequently. De Landtsheer Machine. This was not materially ditlerent in principle from that exhibited at previous competitions. It is described in the Kcu: Bulletin for 1888 (pp. 275-270) and 1889 (pp 271-272). It received a gold medal partly on the ground of the long .services of the inventor to the solution of the problem. 83 Barbie r 3Iachinc. This also did not appreciably differ from that shown at previous trials. It has already been described in the Kew Bulletin (1888, p. 276 ; 1889, p. 2G9.) Subra Machine. This resembled in some respects the two preceding machines. But the beaters woi'k continuously Avithout revei'se action. There was an arrangement by which the workman in charge could elevate the upper feeding cylinder and so release the stems which were then reversed by hand. Th.e jury was, however, of opinion that the Subra machine, except in the hands of exceptionally skilled Avorkmen, would probably lead to serious accidents. It had, however, the advantage of removing the epidermis in great part as well as the woody core from the ribbons. Like the Faure, the Subra machine in the form now described has also been abandoned. Since 1891 the problem of treating the fresh stems of China grass by mechanical methods has engaged incessantly the attention of inventors. The results up to the present time are reviewed in the following pages. For convenience a general summary is given in the first place of the facts relating to the raw material. Source of IMaterial. Perhaps the most important advance has been in the complete abandonment of the attempts hitherto made to treat the dry stems. This has been definitely acknowledged to have been a mistake, ex- perience having proved that to obtain the full advantage of the many valuable qualities of the fibre the stems must be treated in the green state. The original China grass so long cultivated by the Chinese under the name of Tchou Ma is Bcehmeria nivea, Hk. & Arn. The leaves in this are white-felted beneath. The plant is moderately hardy in tem- perate countries, and it grows well during the summer months in the South of England. During 1895 an exceptionally good crop was harvested in Kew from a small plot that had been established in the open ground for more than five jears. An equally large crop is being produced this year (189S). The plants are, however, regularly cut down by the first frosts in October and do not sprout again until the middle or end of May. Thus only one crop is capable of being produced yearly. Bcehmeria nivea is the plant chieHy cultivated in the South of France, Algiers, the United States, and many parts of India. The plant is more readily propagated by division of the rhizome or rootstock than from seed. Ramie or Rhea is probably only a geographical variety of China grass, but from an economic point of view the ditferences between them are so important that the two plants should be kept quite distinct. The Ramie or Rhea (/i. tenacissima, Gaud.) is sometimes known as the green- leaved China grass. This name has been given it as the leaves are green on both surfaces. On this account it can be readily distinguished from ordinary China grass in the field. In habit the plant is more robust and the stems under favourable conditions are larger and more numerous. Ramie or Rhea is a native of Assam, the Malay Peninsula, and the neighbouring islands. Rhea is the Assam and Ramie 1-he Malay name for one and the same plant. The Malay name is the one F 2 84 generally u?cd in this country ; in India, Elica is chiefly used. This plant thrives only in tropical countries and it is useless to attempt to cultivate it elsewhere. At Kew it will only grow well Avhen kept under glass all the year round. Both plants require good deep ^oil such as is found in alluvial deposits- in trojMcal countries. The climate should be warm and humid and without a prolonged dry season. In tl;e systematic treatment which China grass receives at the hands of the Chinese it is abundantly supplied Avith moisture and manure, and by these means several crops are pro- duced in one season. Hence poor soil and rather dry situations are (lulte imsuitable for growing tliese planls. The relative yield of China grass and Eamie over large areas has not yet been definitely determined. This is a matter that deserves careful investigation, as also the relative quality of the fibres and their suitability for various textile purposes. The two plants are kept distinct in Jamaica. Mr. AV. Faweett, F.L.S., Director of the Botanical Department in Jamaica, states: — "The green-leaved " Hamie (Bcc/imcria tcnacissima) is evidently the best for low elevations, " while China grass with the white under-surface {Bcehmeria nivea) is " the best for the hills. At Cinchona (4,800 feet, with a mean tempera- " tnre of 61-4° F.) the latter is grooving 10 to 12 feet high." As regards difference in growth, Mr. W. Cradwick at the Hope Gardens (elevation 600 feet, mean temp. 7o-4" F.). finds that the " green variety pro- " duces with similar treatment about double the number of canes per " root." In the Agricultural Ledger (1894, Xo. G, p. 4), issued by the Government of India, Dr. Watt draws attention to tlie ditJerent requirements as regards climate between China grass and Ramie in the following words : — " It would obviously be a mistake to attempt the cultivation of the temperate-loving plant {B. nivea) in the tropical plains of India. But so far as can be ascertained this is actually Avhat has been done in the majority of experiments hitherto conducted in India. From time to time fresh supplies have been imported from China and distributed all over this country, so that India may fairly be chaiacterised as having fully attempted the acclimatisation of China grass, but done little or nothing towards endeavouring to extend the production of Ramio {B. fenacissiiiia) which, for the sake of convenience of expression, we may characterise as its indigenous stock." As regards other points of difference between China grass and Ramie the following opinion was expressed in a letter addressed by Kew to the India Office, dated the Sth May, 1890 : — " Whether the fibre of Ramie is at its best really as good as the best China grass (Bce/nneria nivea) is a point that appears not to have been definitely settled. It may turn out to be simply a question of soil and climate. China grass may give a larger and l)etter supply of fibre under cool conditions, whereas Ramie or Rhea may do equally -well under essentially tropical conditions. The question as regards India may easily W settled by cultivating under various conditions of climate and soil authentic specimens of each plant, and by instituting, as suggested by Dr. ^^'att, a careful chemical aiul microscopic analysis of the fibres yielded by Indian-grown plants of both Bcehmeria nivea and li. tenacissima." In the I'uiied States, with a comparatively temperate climate, except in the extreme south, the plant so far cultivated is China grass {Bcehmeria nivea). In a '* Report (Xo. 7) on the Cultivation of Ramie in the United States," by Mr. Chas. Richards l^odge. issued by the I 85 •U.S. Depai'tment of Agriculture (Washington, 1895), the distinctions between China grass and Ramie are not so clearly kept in view as could be wished. Practically the former only is dealt with. But the name Kamie or Rhea is unfortunately applied to it. It is probable that China grass (BcpJimeria niveci) is the more common plant under cultivation at the present time, but it is possible also that, whci-e Ramie or Rhea {Bcehmeria tenacissima) is grown, sufficient emphasis is not laid on the fact that it is not the ordinary China grass of commerce. As pointed out by M. Charles Roux in Notice sur la Ramie, "this error has crept *' into many publications and has been extremely prejudicial to the *' development of this culture. It has been represented that Ramie *' (Bos/uneria tenacissima) is successfully grown in France, but well " organised experiments have proved that this is a mistake. Ramie is *' essentially a plant of warm countries." The plant chiefly culti\ated in France, and possibly in Algiers also, is China grass {Bcehmeria nivea). The fibre at present known in commerce as China grass is the produce of B. nivea, prepared entirely by hand labour in China. The stems are first .'^tripped and the epidermis removed by scraping and washing, but a good ileal of the gum is still left in contact with the. fibre. This has subsequently to be removed by chemical means in Europe. The quantity of this China grass fibre available is somewhat limited. Tt forms, howe\er, the chief source of the raw material used for China grass fabrics hitherto produced in this country and the Continent. Ramie in commerce is a term applied indifferently to the produce of cither B. nivea or B. tenacissima. Its chief use in Trade Reports appears to be to distinguish between machine-prepared fibre ('• Ramie") and the hand-cleaned fibre of the Chinese (" China grass "). The machine-cleaned fibre in commerce consists of (1) ribbons or strips wliich are merely the cortical layer removed from the stems and dried ; or (2) the grey, brown, or whitish fibre in a more or less cleaned condition, freed from wood, and from tlie epidermis and gummy matters. The use of the term China grass applied to the hand-cleaned fi.bre shipped from China is free from objection. It is really the produce of B. nivea, and no confusiou is likely to arise. The term should, liowever, be applied to all fibres, whether cleaned by hand or by machine, if originally derived from B. ?iivea. The latter might be called " machine-cleaned China graBS." On the other hand the term Ramie should be strictly limited to the produce of B. tenacissinia. A /classification of the hand- and machine-cleaned fibres a})pearing in commerce (showing also their origin) might be adopted as follows : — 1. Commercial China grass ~] (hand-cleaned in China). I t> i i /> ^^ m ■ n r-^ ■ -11 r ■- Froduced from tiic China 2. China grass ribbons or Iciiicres [ ^ ^ n , ■ n ? 1 • 1 i\ r grass plant, Boelnneria (hand- or machine-cleaned). f " • ^ ' o /-11 • /•! nivea. 0. Chma grass raw fibre | (machine-cleaned). J 1. Ramie or Rhea ribbons or /r/««7';T5 "l i, i ^ e .^ -r> • ., , 1 • 1 i\ I'roducod from the Ramie (hand- or machine-cleaned). ^, -, . i, 7 o -r, • 1.1 £1 y or Rhea iJiant, La7iwje;v« 2. Ramie or Rhea raw fibre f ^ . '^ ' / , . , IX tcnactf-.tuiia. (machine-cleaned). J The completely cleaned and bleached fibre or y/Vc/.s'.sr could be easily distingui.-hed as China grass filas.<;e or Ramio or Rhea filasse, according to the plant from which it was originally obtained. During the last five years more interest appears to have been taken in these fibres in the new world thtin in the old. The United States Department of Agriculture lias organised a systematic series of experiments in different sections of the country, and these are likely to produce very interesting results, Mr. Richards Dodge's Report (No. 7) already mentioned contains a large mass of very useful information. In fact, it may be regarded as containing, from the American point of view, all that is known practically of the cultivation and treatment of China grass. Planting. The following is extracted from the Foreign Office Report., Annual Series, 1897, l^o. 2017, p. 8 ,— " The cultivation of the Ramie plant [probably China grass], the fibre of which is superior to flax, on the lands owned by (he Imperial domains at Chakva, near Batoum, is attracting a good deal of attention just at present. The climate and soil of the low-lying land in that locality appears to suit this plant extremely well, and within two years it has developed to so great an extent that the Administration of the Imperial domain lands is able to furnish a considerable quantity of the dried stalks to the Government Paper Mills at St. Petersburg, where it is to be used in the manufacture of the paper from which rouble notes and stamped bill of exchange forms are made." As already stated, both China grass and Ramie have been grown experimentally in Jamaica, and a very useful Memorandum has been published by Mr. W. Fawcett, F.L.S., in the Bidlelin of the Botanical Department (1894, pp. 33-34). This contains, also, a Report of the Jamaica Committee Avith reference to a prospective trial of the Allison Fibre Machine. The following extracts give the cultui'al results obtained in Jamaica {Report of the Director, 1894-95, pp. 221-224): — " From experience I think there is little reason to doubt that the best part of the plant to propagate from is the bottom of the ripe stem. If a field is l)eing reaped, and it is desired to increase the area, then the canes should be reaped, cutting them to within two inches of the ground. Some one shoidd then follow and grub out the remainder of the stalk, going low enough, if possible, to secure a little root on it. This will generally give a piece about 4 inches long, and if inserted into the ground with about half an inch left above the surface will make a strong plant in an incredibly short space of time. The old plants will be all the better for the removal of the stems for propagating. In the event of not wishing to propagate, care should be taken to cut the stems as low as possible, as the plants grow much stronger than when the old stumps are left .5 or 6 inches above ground. "The best distance to plant is 12 inches apart, with 18 inches between the rows on fair land, but on strong land 18 inches to 2 feet would be quite clo.se enough. If planted 9 inches apart they have to be hand-weeded when young, which is very expensive, Avhereas at 18 inches or 2 feet they can be hoed through. If the land is fairly rich and they are kept clean Avhile they are young, they will grow so thickly, even at 2 feet, that very little weeding is required, exce])t, perhaps, after cutting. The piece which was planted 3 feet apart is now so thick as almost to prevent any weeds growing, except when the crop is reaped." For a long period Rhea has been grown in small quantities by the natives of Assam. A note on its cultivation wa.s issued by the Agricultural Department, Assam, in April, 1897. This was prepared by Mr. F. J. Monahan, Officiating Director of Lands Records and Agricultr.re. He stales that the Rhea of Assam at the present day is Ba:liineria nivea. 87 A useful memorandum on the cultivation of Bcehmeria nivea in Mysore was issued in 1807 by Mr. J. Cameron, F.L.S., Superintendent of the Lai Bagh Gardens at Bangalore. This contains an excellent, almost life-size illustration of the plant in flower and fruit. A note on the same subject was published by INIr. Kidley in the Agricultural Bulletin of the Malay Peninsula for June, 1897. A very interesting correspondence relating to the introduction of Ramie cultivation into Perak appeared in Perak Museum Notes (Vol. ii. pt. 2, pp. 103-124.) Yield of Stems and Fibre. More accurate observation has shown the probable yield that may be obtained both in stems anil fibre from a given area. From a small patch of China grass (Bfe/imeria nivea), five years old, growing in the ©pen air at Kew, it has been found that 4 square yards yield 100 stems. The weight of these, without leave?, was 24 lbs. This gives a yield at the rate of 29,000 lbs. (say 13 tons) per acre. In Algiers, Hardy found that an acre yielded 27,000 lbs. of similar stems without leaves. De Mas, at Padua, found that Ramie {Bcehmeria tenacissimci) yielded in the .second year stems, without leaves, at the rate of 26,300 lbs. per acre ; in the third year t\\ o crops yielded at the rate of 32,360 lbs. per acre. The weight of raw fibre (ribbons ?) per acre obtained by De Mas from 32,000 lbs. of green stalks, without leaves, was 1,280 lbs. or exactly 4 per cent. Favier gives somewhat similar results. His actual yield ^vas 1,285 lbs. per acre. In California Hilyard gives it at 1,935 lbs. per acre. It is probable that the yield of clean ribbons per acre on a large area, with two or three cuttings, will average about 900 to 1,000 lbs. per acre, Mr. ( 'harles Richards Dodge, of the United States Department of Agriculture, is of opinion " that two " cuttings of second year's growth, when properly cultivated, will produce " 20 tons of green stalks Avith their leaves." Further, "as each ton of " green stalks, with leaves, will yield AQ\ lb?, of clean, dry ribbons or raw *• fibre, giving 25 lbs. of degummed fibre," we have, therefore, a return per acre fron) two cuttings equal to 930 lbs. of clean ribbons and 500 lbs. of degummed fibre or filasse. No returns of the actual fibre have, however, been made continuously on a sufllciently large scale to justify absolute confidence in them. At Wenchow, China, it has been found that an acre, in one cutting, yields 80,000 stems, giving 312^ lbs. of fibre. This Avould probably be the ordinary ungummed China grass as received in this counlry. Three crops would, therefore, yield at the rate of 93 7| lbs. per acre. Machines. In this country many machines and appliances have been brought into notice, but owing to the a])sence of a suitable supply of green stems no exhaustive trials have been held. Such trials are only possible when a large area specially cultivated for the purpose is available. As already shown, the conditions in this country, except in specially mihl situations, are not favourable for the cultivation of Cliina grass. The stems grown at Kew have, however, been placed at the disposal of persons making application for thera. Au experiment with these stems i Bcehmeria nivea) was niade with a Subra machine in October, 1895. It must be nnderstood that the results here given represent a single trial only, and no opinion is intended to be 88 expressed as to llie capabiltties of the n^achir.e working contii)uous«h' on a large scale. The stems were divided into two series as follows : — Series A. — Green stems: selected. Series. Condition. ■KT f Weight Weight of Wet r.^' ^ in 1 Ribbons delivered Stems. ' 1 t • , grammes. by machine. Wet Ribbons after shaking by hand. 1 ' I. 1 Stems with 27 i 1,361 i 454 1 leaves at- i tached. ! 318 II. Stems with- out leaves. 29 1,134 1 567 319 Series B. — Green stems : rather woodj. Series. Condition. No. of Stems. Weight 1 Weight of Wet in 1 Ribbons delivered Grammes, i by Machine. I Wet Ribbons after shaking by Hand. III. Stems with 21 leaves. | 1 2,722 907 ' 459 IV. Stems without i 22 leaves. ; 1 1 2,268 1,021 599 i The Subra machine (in its present form) weighs about 3 to 4 cwts., and has the appearance of an ordinary chalf-cutter. The stems, 12 to 20 in number, are fed at one end, and pass quickly through a series of crushers and rollers, and are delivered on a revolving" apron, from which they are taken l)y hand and well shaken. The latter treatment gets rid of most of the adhering Avood. The ribbons are then readv to be hung up to dry. TJie machine requires one-half horse power, but was worked during the trial entirely by hand. The stems can be treated either with or without the leaves. There is no reverse action as in most maeliines, and hence the whole of the stems pass rapidly through, and are at once delivered on the apron ready for shaking and drying. It is impossible to speak conclusively of a single trial, and witli such a very limited nmnber of stems. The following reports on the trial, furnished to the Subra Company l)y Messrs. Cross & Jievan, give, however, the results actually attained : — Xo. ] . Messrs. Cross and Bevan to the Subra Company, Ltd. Laboratory, 4. Xew Court, Lincoln's Inn, AV.C, Dear Sirs, " ' October 16, 1895. IIavixg been present at your request at a trial of tlie workiuo- of your Decorticating Machine (Subra, Eng. Pat. 23,042/94) we now beg to report as follows : — China Grass Stems (f/reen). —The stems were supplied from Kew. The results obtained on the machine were quite satisfactory. The 89 ribbons prove on examination to be intact, and are, therefore, stri[)ped without injury to the filasse. The wool was quite free from fibre, and on the other hand the ribbons retained only a fractional percentage of wood. We, of course, had no opportunity of making a continuous run with a large weight of stems, and can therefore only form an estimate of the behaviour and output of the machine under ordinary conditions of work. Our estimate is favourable. We were not able to see any weak point in construction or operation calculated to interfere witlx continuous working and steady efficiency. Yours faithfully, (Signed) Cross & Bevan. Messrs. The Subra Fibre Co., Ltd. K'o. 2. Messrs. Cross and Bkvax to the Subra Company, Ltd. Laboratorv, 4, Xew Court, Lincoln's Inn, W.C., Dear Sirs, ' October 21, 1895. We beg to hand you the further results of our examination of the samples of China grass ribbons referred to in your favour of the 9th instant. Each sample was received sealed. The following: are the results : — Weight as received by us, in grammes 318 319 459 .'599 Weight when air-dried - 72 68 129 148 Weight of adhering wood - - 4-0 2-0 2-0 3-8 Percentage of adhering wood - 1-4 •c •43 •6 Weight of filasse - - . . — — 76 — Percentage of filasse on green ribbons - — — 16-5 — Percentage of filasse on dry ribbons . — 58 — Percentage of cellulose iu filasse - — — 8-0 — Messrs. The Subra Fibre Co., Ltd. Yours faithfully, (Signed) Cross & Bevan. The result of the investigation in regard to Sample 3 — mature stems with leaves — may be summarized as follows : — The green stems with leaves weighed 2,722 grams., and yielded air-dry ribbons weighing 129 grams. This is at the rate of 4-7 per cent. The same dry ribbons yielded filasse weighing 7G grams. This is at the rate of 58 per cent, on the dry ribbons, and at the rate of 1G*5 per cent, on the wet ribbons. On the other hand the percentage of filas.se obtained from the green stalks with leaves is 2 "3 per cent. According to this, 100 tons of green stems with leaves (of B. ftivea) will yield 4*7 tons of air-dried ribbons, and 2"8 tons of pure fine filasse. While the yield of air-dried ribbons closely agrees with the Paris trials, the yield of filasse is nearly double. 90 The following report was male by Messrs. Ide and Christie on a sample of China grass ribbons prepared by the Subra machine from green stems grown at Kew : — Messrs. Tde and Christie to Royal Gardens, Kew. 72, Mark Lane, E C. Sir, 2nd October 1895. Your favour of the 29th instant, with the sample of China grass ribbons, is duly to hand. The latter appear to be fairly well done, but we notice many bits of the wood still adhering to them. This should not be, as it is a fatal objection with many. We value them at 10/. to 12/. ])or ton, but would require a few tons for distribution before being al)]e to say definitely whether in this state they would be iDreferable or otlierwise to the ordinary cleaned China grass. Yours faithfully, (Signed) Ide axd Christie. D. Morris, Esq., C.M.G., D.Sc. Faure^s Decorticator. The Faure machine, as already stated, has taken a new form since the Paris trials of 1891. Tlie improved machine was under trial at Limoges in July ot 1897. In the consti'uction, the inventor has aimed at the production, in one operation, not of ribbons or strips, but of fibre "free " from woody matter, from skin, and with the least amount of 'juice ' in " it." He claims that the prouuct is equivalent to commercial " China grass," but in a more uniform condition, and free from the possibility of adulteration. The new Faure machine "is fed by two men, working " alternately, each holding in his hand about 10 stems. The stems are " treated green in the same condition as cut, with the leaves attached. " The operation of feeding is as follows : — The stems are passed twice. " They enter the machine leaf end first, and alter being treated about " two-thirds of their length they are withdrawn, an operation easily " carried out, and fed in a .second time, the thick end first, so as to " complete the operation . . . The machine is simple in construction. " Practical experience shows that two men working at one machine can " treat 360 pounds of fresh green stems per hour, or about 35 cwts. per " day of ten hours. The amount of dry fibre produced depends on the " nature and growth of the stems . . . On a 5 per cent, basis, the " net production of dry fibre by each machine per day is 180 pounds. "... Under ordinary circumstances, a production varying from " 160 to 200 pounds of dry libre in ten hours per machine may be *' expected." This is the inventor's own account of the capabilities of the machine. The first point that will occur to tiiose acquainted with the numerous efforts to extract the fibre by mechanical means is the necessity that still exists, even in this improved m:icliine, to pass the stems twice into it. About two-thirds of tiic stem are fir.st cleaned and withdrawn, they are then reversed, and fed ia a second time to complete the operation. This practically reduces the capabilities of the machine almost by one-half. Experience in the cleaning of Agave leaves (a problem now happily solved) has shown that the only effective way is for the raw material to be presented onoe only to the machine and it should pass through without further handling. When this is the case a boy of 15 can do 91 the work of two men, and feed a machine yielding half a ton of dry- fibre per day. It is to be noted that the prepared fibre from the Faure machine is claimed to be "equivalent to commercial China grass." The latter is hand-cleaned fibre with an average value in the London market of about 30/. per ton. With a possible maximum yield of 2 cwts. of dry fibre per day from the Faure machine the gross value would be 3/. This would be the approximate value of fibre " produced on a 5 per " cent, basis from a ton of green stalks with leaves." The most complete and recent account of the Faure machine is given in the report of a lecture delivered before the Indian Section of the Society of Arts by Mr. Thomas Barraclough on the 25th March 1897. This is published in the Journal Soc. Arts. (Vol. xlv., April 2, 1897, pp. 424-440) ; see also British Trade Journal (May 1, 1898). *' The machine, which weighs 11 cwt., is very strong and not liable to get out of order. It consists mainly of the framework and driving- gear, the decorticating drum carrying beaters and the feed-bed. This latter is the important feature of the machine, by reason of its special contour Avhich varies at different parts to suit the various descriptions of work which the machine has to perform. The first part of the bed is curved outwards, the s3Corid is straight, and the third is curved inwards. The stems are fed into the machine over the first part of the bc^d, where the woody portion becomes immediately broken and partly removed ; the strip passes on to the second part, and as the speed of the beaters is considerably greater than that Vit which the stems are fed into the machine, a scraping effect is produced on the strips, seeing that the distance between the beaters and the surface of the bed is less than the thickness of the .strip. This scraping action effects a double pui'pose; it attacks the outer skin and also all matters extraneous to the fibre. The strips then pass down vertically into the machine, and the separated matters, viz., most of the woody parts, the skin, and gummy substances, are thrown out to a distance by the centrifugal force of the beater drum. When the stems have entered to within a short distance of their end, the return movement is effected and they are withdrawn. During the withdrawal the following action takes place : At the inward curve or third part of the bed, the filaments are slightly and gradually grazed by the beater blades, which throw out the coarser of the debris still adhering. The operation is performed with great delicacy ; the fibres assume the position of the chord of the curve, and are constantly agitated by the beaters. When the fibres arrive at the second part of the bed, as the space between it and the beaters is infinitely reduced, the entire removal of matters still adhering to the fibres is effected, and these latter leave the machine white, parallel, and free from woody n-atter, from skin, and from the major portion of the juice. The concave bed or breast is mounted in such a way that its position to the action of the beaters is easily regulated. The brackets which carry the bed arc supported by spiral spring cushions and flexible legs, the object being to obtain a rubbing action between the beaters and the fibre, having for its special object the loosening and removal of the skin . The elastic bed gives way or vibrates an enormous number of times per minute, and this produces the desired rubbing or 'knuckle-joint' action between the beaters and the fibres on the bed. The shape of the feed- bed causes it to remain clean and free from extraneous matter through the action of the beaters. Choking is thus rendered impossible. AH abnormal strains are avoided, and the machine can be kept at work from morning till night without stoppages for cleaning. The refuse falls 92 underneath the naacbiue, and is removed from time to time. In the case of a number of macliines working together, an endless band or conveyer, passing under the machines, removes the refuse continually, and so keeps the neighbourhood of the machines perfectly free from it." McDonald- Boyle Decorticalor. This machine, also constructed on the plan of a revolving drum and "beaters with a reversing process, has been carefully tried in Trinidad and Jamaica, and appeals to be under trial at the present time in the Malay Peninsula. The result of the operations in Trinidad are given in the Proceedings of the Ayricnltural Society (1897, pp. 149-153). The following is an extract : — " The McDonald machine the committee saw at work simply pro- duced ' Ramie ribbons ' by breaking up and detaching the woody core of the stems, which it did far more expeditiously and cheaply than could be done by the cheapest hand labour, and the operation is so easy that the machine cannot get clogged or out of order, and requires no skilled labour. The machine was under the disadvantage of being run by a steam engine not under proper control, but in ten minutes we saw- it decorticate 18 lbs. of stem, giving 2^ lbs. of green fibre, which woidd equal 1 lb. of dry. Working under proper conditions, we are of opinion the machine with one trained man would be able to treat about one ton of stems in 12 hours, yielding one cwt. of ribbons, which is estimated to give let per cent., or 84 lbs. of ' filasse ' or cleaned fibre, after undergoing the degumming process. '* The Boyle process deguras the ribbons by treating them with certain simple and inexpensive chemicals, and we saw the process carried out on a small scale." The results in Jamaica are published in the Journcd of the Jamaica Agricultural Society (Vol. 1, 1897, pp. 271-272). " The summary of " five tests was as follows : Weight of green stems passed through the ** machine, 99 lbs. 14 ozs. ; time occupied in treatment, 81 minutes; " weight of wet ribbons produced, 18 lbs." The Committee added," We *' think the whole process can only be operated successfully on a large " scale by the central factory sy.'Stem." In a Report issued by the Foreign Office (Xo. 2,139, Annual Series, 1898) on the trade of Guatemala, Mr. Consul Trayner states that experimental trials have been conducted by a wealthy inhabitant of that country who claims that, with a machine prepared locally, " the Ramie " can not only be decorticated, but also dcgummed without damaging *' the fibre." It is impossible to oiFer an opinion on the merits of this machine with our present information, but, if it realises the expectations of the iuveutor, we shall doubtless hear more about it. Degumming. No machine can do more than decorticate the stems of China grass, and more or less clean the fibre. There is still the further task of con- verting this into filasse fit for manufacture. One intricate element in the problem is the doveUiiling of the two processes, one mechanical, the other chemical. It was at first supposed that the degumming processes could effectually deal with ribbons, from which they would remove everything except the filasse. But there is some risk of injuring this by the prolonged action of chemicals, the treatment with which it is desirable to reduce to a raimimum. Hence mere conversion into ribbons 93 was thought to be no longer sufficient ; the epidermis must be got rid of, and the fibre as far as possible mechanically separated. But at present the tendency appears to be to fall back on ribbons, and this implies the existence of methods which will produce filasse uninjured by the chemical treatment. Great hopes have been entertained of the Favier process, which still seems to hold the Held in great measure. The United States Consul at S. Etieune in u report quoted in the Journal of the Society of Arts (Nov. IG, 1894, p. 946), describes this as " a chemical pi'ocess of which M. Favier keeps the secret, but which is " supposed to consist of a weak alkaline solution in which the fibics are " boiled." Mr. Barraclough, in the lecture already quoted, says (p. 131) : " Manufacturers use a variety of processes and apparatus. As a rule, " the most successful of them keep their processes of degumming and " bleaching to themselves, and do not patent them." Boyle Process. The following information respecting this process is taken from the Glasgow Herald (Aug. 13, 1895) :— " The Midland Spinning Company of Long Eaton claims that for the past twelve months it has * been engaged in treating and degumming ' Ramie, and spinning the result into yarns which are being sold in the ' open market at very remunerative prices.' The process is the inven- tion of Mr. H. H. Boyle, and is patented. The China grass or Ramie arrives at the works in the form of ribbons or kaiieres. It is passed through a series of tanks, or chemical baths, which remove the gum and subsequently soften and bleach the fibre. The Ramie is drawn slowly through these, clasped between two endless chains kept moving by suitable gearing. At the feeding end the chains are kept about one foot apart one above the other, but as they near the first tank they approach until they firmly grasp the bundles of Ramie placed between them. As the fibre passes fi'om one tank to another the chains again sejiarate and allow the Ramie to pass between rollers, which are fluted breaking cylinders in the first stage and wringing rollers in the latter part of the process. The gum is dissolved in the first tank, and when the Ramie has passed the rollers the fibre is sufficiently loosened to be pulled out free from the Avoody part of the bark. VVhen the Ramie finally emerges at the end of the apparatus it is a pure white filasse, and after drying in a heated room is made into ' sliver.' The time occupied is a little over five hours. The sliver is gradually reduced to yarn by the usual roving and spinning frames, which are exactly similar to those for spinning silk and long-staple wools. Thus there can be no difficulty in working the Ramie-sliver in other spinning mills Avith their ordinary machinery. Twines, fishing-lines, and sail-cloth are also iranufactnred." Gomess' Process. A chemical process, the invention of Mr. A. F. B. Gomess, for the treatment of China grass or Ramie ribbons, has been much discussed during the last three years. It is not intended to deal witli hand- cleaned commercial China grass, but with '' Black Rhea," by which is probably meant the stiff brown ribbons obtained by drying the bark when removed from the stems without any preparation beyond getting rid of the moisture in it. The ribbons may be stripped either by hand or by machine. From these dry hard ribbons it is claimed that by chemical means all woody particles, the epidermis and gum are removed, 94 and that the fibre is delivered in the form 'of filasse ready for being combed and spun into yarn. This is practically all the information so far obtainable in this country. It appears, however, that an effort is being made to grow the China grass plant {Bcehmeria nivea), and the Ramie or Rhea i)lant {B. tenacissima) in India in order to supply the raw article in a suitable condition to be treated by this process. The following particulars are taken from the Madias Weekly Mail (July ], li;>96) : *• The owners of theGomess process, who are represented in England by the Rhea Fibre Treatment Company, Limited, 17, Shaftesl)ury Avenue, London, W., and in this country by the Indian Rhea Fibre Parent Company, Limited, Bombay, are prepared to contract for the purchase of large quantities of dried ribbons of bark, and in regard to this the London Company report : — " (a.) That they require the raw material in the shape of ribbons ; that is, the whole bark hand-stripped from the stem, thoroughly dried, and packed in bales. " (b.) That they prefer the species Bcehmeria nivea, but that they can also use the Bcehmeria tenacissima and Bau-rhea ( Villebrunea integrifolia). /*' (c.) That the quantities required by the London Company would be continuous and very large; that it would Ije difficult to give exact figures, but that they could do with 10,000 tons to commence with. " (d.) That they are at present prepared to contract at prices equivalent to from 10/. to 11/. per ton, delivered in London, or at 11. a ton at port of shipment in India." Further particidars may be obtained from a publication entitled " Rhea, its Cultivation, Decortication, and Baling, and the subsequent '• treatment of the Ribbons by the Gomess Process," issued by the Rhea Fibre Treatment Company, 17, Shaftesbury Avenue, W. Summary. Few practical problems have consumed so much time and energy as the attempt to bring China grass and Ramie into use for manufaotiiring purposes. Notwithstanding all the expenditure of mechanical skill and inventive ability, the conclusion cannot be evaded that we are still as far off as ever from being able to place upon the market a finished product which will eftectually compete with silk, fiax, and the better qualities of cotton. The plants can be grown with the greatest ease. But Avhen the problem of treatment is solved, the supply of the raw material will be limited to warm countries. The cultivation of China grass in temperate regions will never be able to comi)ete successfully with that of Ramie (or perhaps of China grass) in the tropics. It is known that when ribbons can be produced sufficiently cheaply, these can be degummed and turned into filasse at a small cost. The whole question then still turns, as in 1888, on the production of ribbons. We are still waiting for a decorticator which will not merely turn out ribbons fit for further manufacturing processes — that has been accomplished — but will turn out, sav, half a ton a day at a small cost. Till this has been found, the planter cannot profitably deal with his crop, and the degumming pro- cesses now almost entirely dependent on hand-cleaned fibre from China are paralysed for want of a supply which will allow the fiiii-shed product to compete with other fibres. 95 The ribbons must be susceptible of being delivered to tiie degumming factories at a cost not exceeding 7/. to 9/. [wv ton. This would pay the planter if he had a decoriicator Avhich would enable him to prepare the ribbons at a cost which would leave a profit. At present he cannot produce ribbons under 12/. to 15/. a ton. Then the degumming processes should turn out lilasse at a total cost of 36/. to 40/. per ton. At this price the demand would be considerable and a large and prosperous industry would result. To put the position in other words, filasse must be put upon the market at about 4:d. a lb. To use the words of one of the speakers in the discussion at the Society of Arts, " unless it could be brought down to something like the price of " cotton or flax, it was impossible to make any profit out of it." XXXI.— MANILA HEMP. (Musa text His, Nee.) [K. B., 1887, April, pp. 1-3.] This is one of the most important of cordage fibres, and the whole supply comes from the Philippine Islands. The imports of Manila hemp to Great Britain amount to about 170,000 bales, and to the United States about 160,000 bales, eejual to about 50,000 tons per annum. The fi^bre is yielded by a member of the banana or plan- tain family known locally as Abaca (Musa text His), the apparent stem of which is made up of sheathing leafstalks. The habit of growth and treatment of the plant under cultivation are identical with those so well known in the case of the common banana. The fruit of Musa textilis is green and hard and useless as food. From a report by Consul Honey, dated Manila, lOtli April 1870, we gather that this plant thrives best in soils largely composed of decayed vegetable matter. Hence, freshly cleared forest land is essential. Hilly land, about 200 feet to 500 feet elevation, is considered more suitable than low-lying land, probably on account of drainage. The Manila hemp plantations are situated where there is a rich volcanic soil, and where the climate is hot and humid with a heavy rainfall. The plants suffer severely during drought. Although seed is produced plantations are usually established by means of suckers put out when about 3 foet high, and about 8 to 9 feet apart. These form a root-stock, from which numerous stems are successively produced. The land is cleaned of weeds about twice a year. The first crop is reaped at the end of the second year after planting ; a full crop is not obtained until the fourth year. The yield is then continued for 15 to 20 years, after which the plantation is exhausted. The stems are fit to be treated for fibre just before they begin to flower. In stems that have been allowed to flower the fibre is said to be weaker and of less value. They are cut about a foot from the ground and the leaves removed. Each stem is then stripped or resolved into its component layers, and these are again divided into strips or ribbons about 3 inches wide. Usually each layer or leaf-sheath is divided into three strips. The outer layers contain a coarser and stronger fibre than the inner, while fi.bre from near the middle is of a fine silky texture, and capable of being utilised for purposes of spinning or weaving and made into articles of di-ess and ornament. The method of preparing the fibie is very simple but effective. Each strip, in a fresh succulent condition, is taken up by hand and drawn 96 deftly "between a blunt knife and a hard smooth bonrd," which are attached (o a light portable frame. This process, repeated several times if necessary, removes all the watery particles and pulp, and there remains in the Lands of the operator a beautifully Avhite and lustrous fibre. The fibre is thoroughly dried in the suii and afterwards packed in bales for shipment. Hemp not properly dried, or exposed to rain, becomes discoloured and loses strength. On the other hand, hemp from the outer layer of the stem is of a reddish colour, but is quite sound. It is a charaoleristic of Manila hemp that it readily absorbs moisture, and in an ordinary dry condition it contains 12 per cent, of Avater. Tn a damp climate it has been known to contain not less than 40 per cent, of water. Cordage, ropes, and indeed everything made from Manila hemp can be easily converted into paper of excellent quality. The cost of establishing a jNIanila hemp plantation in the Philippines, including cutting down forest, cleaning and planting, is about 5/. to 8/. per acre. This does not include the cost of the land. After this the yearly expense of weeding and maintaining the plantation in full bearing is at the rate of 305. to 35*. per acre. The yield during the fourth and subsequent years is at the rate of 400 to 700 pounds of dry hemp per acre. " A labourer working under pressure can clean nearly " 20 pounds of hemp per diem; but as a rule the quantity cleaned by " one man working steadily, day by day, averages about 12 pounds." Usually two men work together, one cutting down the stems and splitting them while the other cleans the fibre. " At the current 'value of hemp in 1879 one labourer's earnings were 7\d. to 8c?. *' per diem." Several attempts have been made to introduce machi- nery, but so far nothing has been so successful as the primitive method above described. It is essential that any machinery introduced should be of a light and portable character, and that it should clean the fibre at a cheap rate, without breaking it. From these particulars it will be seen that the Manila hemp industry is, to a large extent, supported by special circumstances which happen to be favourably combined in the Philippines, and hence there is produced an exceptional article in large demand at a comparatively cheap rate. The conditions of soil and climate may possibly be found elsewhere, but, as a necessary adjunct to these, there must be an abundant and cheap supply of labour adapted to a rural industry. A plant of iNIanila hemp {Musa textilis) may be seen in the Palm House at Kew. For the purpose of illustrating the industry there are very complete sets of exhibits in the Kew Museum, No. 2. These include the raw fibre, cables, ropes, twine, fine muslin fabrics, " half stuff,"' and paper of all kinds, the latter being made from old Manila ropes. The valuable character of the fibre yielded by Musa textilis has naturally drawn attention to it as a valuable industrial plant, and during the last 60 years it has been introduced to India and elsewhere for experimental culture. Plants of Musa textilis were cultivated at Calcutta in 1822; specimens were introduced to the Madras Presi- dency direct from th? Philippines in ] 8o8 ; while at the Andaman Islands this fibre plant has been thoroughly established. Experiments in India so far have shown that plants of Musa textilis can be successfully grown in many districts ; Imt it is not yet clearly shown that the fibre can be cleaned so expeditiously and eo cheaply as to compete successfully Avith fibre from the Philippines. 97 After a systematic series of trials made by the Glenrock Company at Madras in 1885, it is stated that plants put out in 1864 grew well and yielded numerous shoots. 179 stems, weighing about 60 pounds each, were cut down for experimental purposes and passed through Death and Ellwood machines. These produced 159 pounds of clean fibre, or r49 per cent, of the green stem. The cost of cleaning the fibre was at the rate of 6/. per ton, while the fibre itself, described as " poor, weak, and flaggy, with some clean fibre of good colour," was valued in London at 10/. per ton ; the best alone \vas valued at 25/. per ton. The minute upon this of the Government of Madras is that " unless much improvement both in the method and cost of production of " this fibre can be made, the cultivation cannot be made remunerative." Manila hemp plants have been introduced from Kew to Jamaica, and to other portions of the AVest Indies. In favourable situations they grow well ; but not so readily as the ordinary bananas and plantains. As the fruit is valueless they can only be grown for the sake of the fibre and this alone does not appear to offer sufficient inducement to plant up large areas. Usually the return from a fruiting stem of the common banana or plantain would be from 6d. to 2s., depending upon the size of the bunch. The return from the Manila hemp plant would according to experience in the Philippines be about one pound of fibre, the local value of which would be only 2d. to 3d. XXXII.— MAmLA HEMP IN BRITISH NORTH BORNEO. [K. B., 1892, p. 243.] The following note on Manila hemp in British North Borneo is taken from Mr, Consular Agent Prver's Keport. published by the Foreign Office [1892, Annual Series, No. 1,111] :— " Manila hemp is the fibre of the stem of a sort of banana, Musa textilis, which hitherto has been grown only in the Philippine Islands, where it is a source of great wealth to the growers, the Government, and all concerned, and is the means of affording freight to a large number of vessels. The soil and climate of North Borneo have also been proved, owing to a series of experiments conducted during several years past, to be particularly favourable to the proper growth of the plant; satisfactory samples have been sent home, and tlie cultivation is now being considerably extended. Owing to the heavy taxes, &c. in the Philippines, it is claimed that North Borneo can put its hemp on board the export ship :it a lower price than the Philippines can, and the first ste])s of North Borneo to rival the Philippines in this production are being watched wtli much interest, as once started this industry may become of veiy large proportions in the future." XXXIII.— PLANTAIN AND BANANA FIBRE. (^Musa sajneutum, II. Br.) [IC B., 18^7, April, pp. 5-8.] In connection with Manila hemp some reference may be made to fibres produced by otlier species of tlie genus Musa. Mr. Morris, the late U 77o54. a 98 director of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, discusses the subject as follows : — " It would appear that the fibre of the ordinary plantain and of the " banana is valued at about 121. or 15/. per ton. This it will be noticed *' is only one-third the value of the best qualities of Manila hemp. There " are in both the East Indies and West Indies numerous wild species of " Musa which might yield good fibre, but so far none appears to have " been found equal to the plant yielding Manila hemp. The following " facts have been elicited by recent experiments. A banana stem just " after fruiting, cut as is usual with the country people, about 2 feet '* above ground, and denuded of its foliage, weighed 108 pounds ; this " being divided into three lengths of 2^ feet each and split longitudi- " nally into several pieces was prepared by beating and washing by " hand, and yielded 25 ounces of clean marketable fibre, which is at the " rate of 1 • -44 per cent, of tlie gross weight. The fibre of the lower '' portion of the stem, as also the fibre in the petioles of the leaves was '' not extracted. " A smaller banana, cut under similar circumstances, that is, 2 feet '• from the ground, and denuded of its foliage, weighed 41 pounds. " This was divided into two lengths of 2^ feet each, and after being " split longitudinally into several pieces was prepared by hand, and " yielded 6| ounce? of good clean fibre or at the rate of 1'02 per cent. " on the gross weight. " At the Hope Plantation similar experiments were conducted with *' banana stems which yielded very much the same results. Two banana " stems cut after fruiting, at two feet from the ground, and denuded of " their leaves, weighed 147 pounds. These yielded 33 ounces of clean " fibre, or at the rate of 1 "44 per cent, on the gross weight. *' From ordinary stems of banana, cut after fruiting at about 1| to '' 2 feet above ground, a settler might easily prepare about H pounds '' of clear fibre, but if the stems are large, and if the whole length is " used as well as the petioles of the leaves, the amount of fibre might " -be increased to 2^ pounds if not 3 pounds per stem. " With plantain stems* the results are more satisfactory than with " the banana, both as regards the yield and the quality of the fibre. *' At the Castleton Gardens, a plantain stem weighing, when cut and " dressed, 25 pounds, was prepared in exactly the same manner as the " banana stems above described and yielded 7^ ounces of clean fibre or " at the rate of 1'81 per cent, on the gross weight. At the Hope '' Plantation a planrain stem weighing exactly the same, viz., 25 pounds, " yielded 9 ounces of clean fil^re or at the rate of 2*25 per cent, on the '• gross weight. The plantain fibre is whiter and finer than the banana '• fibre, and it approaches more nearly to the fine glossy character of the " fibre of the Manila plantain. " For purposes of comparison I had the fibre of a small stem of the " Manila plantain, which, cut at 6 inches above ground and trimmed, *• weighed 10 pounds, prepared in the same manner as the banana and " plantain fibre, and the lesult was 3 ounces of a beautifully fine and " glos.sy fibre. This is at the rate of 1 ' 87 per cent, on the gross ^' weight. " In Jamaica another plantain is kno"\vn as the Abyssinian plantain, " Musa Ensete, which is the largest species of this genus. It was * It is to be understood that in tlicse notes the plantain is what is used as a vege- table, while the banana is the soft sweet fruit seen on tables for dessert. In India the name plantain appears to be applied indifferently in both of these. 99 " discovered by the traveller Bruce in Abyssinia, and is remarkable as *• being represented on ancient Egyptian sculptures. Specimens of this "• plantain growing at the Government Cinchona Plantations at 5,000 " feet have often leaves 20 feet long, the stem is about 8 feet in circum- " ference at the base, rises to a height of 25 feet and weighs probably " about a quarter of a ton. '' Specimens of fibre prepared from this plantain are of excellent " quality. Taking a portion of the central stem about 4 feet long and " weighing 73 pounds, clean fibre, weighing 13 ounces, was obtained " by beating and washing by hand. This is at the rate of 1 • 16 per *' cent, on the gross weight. "This plant might be grown extensively for its fibre, and it should " prove valuable, but of course not equal to 31. tcviilis, which is un- " approachable as a fibre plant." It may be mentioned that samples of all the banana and plantain fibres noticed above are to be seen in the Kew Museum, No. 2. From the same source we find that about 2,000,000 banana stems, after the fruit is gathered, are cut down every year in Jamaica, which are allowed to rot on the land without any attempt being made to utilise the fibre they contain. It is suggested by Mr. Morris that the merchants who purchase the fruit from the negroes should offer a small sum for clean and well-dried fibre, and take it in small lots as it comes to hand. The merchant might afterwards sort and pack the fibre and put it up in tightly compressed bales for shipment. Some such plan as this, suited to local circumstances, evidently offers the best means of starting a banana-fibre industry in the West Indies. In the course of the energetic efforts made by Govei'nor Sir William Eobinson, K.C.M.G., to develop Avhat are called " minor industries" at Trinidad, attention has naturally been directed to the utilisation of fibre from both the cultivatfed and wild species of Miisa. A " red banana," verj' commordy cultivated as a shade and fruit plant, and the supply of which is said to be almost inexhaustible, has been brought forward as a possible source of commercial fibre. A sample of fibre prepared from this red banana was recently sent to Kew, and the opinion of Messrs. Ide and Christie obtained upon it. Their report, dated 29th October 1886, is as follows : — " We think highly of this fibre, for which we consider there might " be a considerable demand, provided it could be produced of a better " colour. We are inclined to think its dull hue is probably the result " of inexperience in it-s treatment, either by allovving it to steep too " long in rather foul water or from the leaves being too old and " discoloured before treatment. The attention of planters should be " directed to the production of a fibre of the bright natural colour of " the enclosed specimen of INlanila hemp, and were quantities of the " new fibre produced of this appearance we think they would command " 21/. or 25/. per ton, to-day, in the London market. Colour is of great " consequence when fibres are used for ihe production of ' wiiite hemp ' " ropes. Of course, in the manufacture of tarred rope colour is of no " moment, but the white ' hemp,' from Manila, Yucatan, and New Zealand " are seldom tarred." It is quite possible that, in spile of many years of ex2:)orimental trial, the fibres of the banana and plantain may not assume great commercial importance. In that case attention might be turned in another direction, and they might be [)artly prepared on the spot and utilised for jjiiper- making. But to compete successfully with esparto and wood-pulp the fibre or " half-stuff"" of banana and plantain should be delivered in G 2 100 Europe at a cost not exceeding 1/. to 6/. ptir ton, depending on con- dition. For paper-making it might be sufficient to cut the stems into short pieces, and then divide them longitudinally into numerous narrow strips. These, after being passed between rollers to get rid of the water and mucilage, might be dried in the sun, and after>vard9 put up in Compressed bales for shipmeni. The whole subject resolves itself into a question of cost, and it can only be practically solved in countries like Demerara, Trinidad, and Jamaica, where several thousand acres are occupied by banana planta- tions, and where sufficient material lies close at hand to maintain a moderately large industry. For some years considerable interest has been taken by the Govern- ment of Pengal in the subject of the utilisation of plantain stems for the manufacture of paper. In a Report presented by Dr. King, Superintendent of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Calcutta, he mentions : — " Since receiving these papers I have gone into the whole " matter with some care, and I now give you the resuJts, Before " proceeding further, I wish to explain that in the following remarks " the term plantain fibre is used to designate the fibres of the various " kinds of plantain found wild and cultivated within the Indian " Empire, but does not include the fibre of the Manila plantain (Musa " textilis), which is a fib.re of an altogether exceptional kind. The *' fibre of the Manila plantain, usually known &s Manila hemp, is one *' of the most valuable fibres known, and is worth in London from " 30/. to 40/. a ton, a price that takes it quite out of the range of rav/ " materials for paper. "I have ascertained by reference to a large English paper-maker, *' that if it can be delivered cheap enough, plantain fibre would be " readily bought in England for paper-making. Quotations as to the *' exact value of the fibre can hardly be given until a trial shipment " has been put on the home market. Esparto is the fibre against " which plantain fibre would be pitted as a raw material for the paper- " maker, and the price of the best Spanish esparto now (1S83) stands " in London at about 10/. per ton. It is not likely that plantain fibre " would be so valuable as esparto, but it might bring as much as 7/. to " 8/. per ton."* It api)ears that the Bally Mills Company, nenr Calcutta, has for some time utilised the stem of the cultivated plantain for paper-making, and the results are said to be satisfactory. The company purchase the roughly dried stems from contractors who collect them from villages in the neighbourhood. Tlie price paid by the mill is 3^. Qd. to 4*. per cwt., according to quality. In this instance the preparation of the fibre is very simple. The plantain stem is cut down after fruiting, and the outer sheathing portions are cut into strips and thoroughly dried in the sun. The leaves and central core being useless, only about two pounds of rough filtre are obtained from each stem. By this rough mode of preparation the fibre is not freed from the cellular tissue, and although it can be utilised on the spot it is doubtful whetiier it could be exported in this state. An attempt was made in the latter part of 1883 to utilise the thousands of acres of wild plantains gi-o\ving in the Chittagong Hill tracts, which it Ava.? thought might yield large quantities of fibre at cheap rates. It was found, however, that any attempt at crushing the * Spanish ani Algerian espartos are quoted in London (Dec. 1886) at 70s. to 110s. per ton. The cstimitccl value of plantain fibre must therefore be reduced to one half of the above. I 101 stems in a fiesli state entailed heavier machinery than could be easily moved from place to place, and the idea was ultimately abandoned without any practical results being achieA-ed. In spite of this, however Dr. King is of opinion that plantain stems in India will eventually become available as paper material, and considering the immense number grown for shelter, shade, and food purposes, tlie subject is of considerable importance, both to the people of India, and to paper- makers. XXXIV.— PLANTAIN AND BANANA FIBRE— (continued). [K. B., 1891, pp. 289-293.] [Extract.] The fibre produced by the stems of various sorts of Musas has received attention from the earliest times. Dampier noticed that at Mindanao, in 1G86, " the ordinary sort of people wear cloth made of plantain-tree which they call Saggen, by which name tliey call the plantain." To prepare this cloth they cut the plantain stem into four quarters, "which, put into the sun, the moistnre exhales; they then take hold of the threads at the ends, and draw them out ; they are as big as brown thread ; of this they make cloth, which is stubborn when new, wears out soon, and when wet it is slimy." About the beginning of this century the Government of Jamaica offered rewards of 200/. " for the best specimens of plantain hemp produced in each county of " Jamaica." Dr. Stewart West, then acting-botanist in charge of the Bath Garden, gained the premium for the best specimen produced in the county of Surrey. The particulars are given by Lunan, vol. ii., pp. 75-76, The fibre was cleaned by being passed through a " cramp " fixed in the ground, and hung up to dry as soon as possible. It was pointed out that " the goodness of the fil)re depends upon completely evaporating the sap, otherwise the least fermentation greatly impairs its strength ; it cannot therefore be too thoroughly dried before it is packed for use or exportation." A nine-thread rope, 1 inch diameter, of plantain fibre made at the Dockyard, Port Royal, bi-oke with a weight of 728 pounds ; v/hilst a similar rope, known as " the King's nine-thread inch rope," broke by a weight of 71-1 pounds. The most valuable Mnsa fibre is undoubtedly that yielded by Mnsa textilis, known in commerce as Manila hemp. There are about 12 different varieties under cultivation all diftering in habit and in quality of the fibre yielded by them. They thrive best in fresh clearings of jungle on low hills, and under shade of trees left standing at distances of about GO feet. They do not do so well in open plains, and in swampy lands not at all, Manila hemp takes the chief place as a material for making white ropes for rigging and other purposes, and old ropes made of Manila hemp make excellent paper material. The magnitude of the industry connected with the Abaca or ^Manila hemp plant may be gathered from the ftict that about 50,000 tons of fibre are annually exported from the Philippine Islands, of the value of about three millions sterling. This subject is more fully discui-sod in Kcw Bulletin, 1887, April, pp. 1-3. The fruit of the Abaca is green and hard and unfit for food. It is important to bear in mind that the Manila hemp plant is exclusively produced in the south-eastern part of the Philippines, All attempts to successfully cultivate it in the western and northern parts have hitherto proved abortive. The plants grew barely 2 feet high, 102 and the produce never covered the outlay. The cause of these failures in the Philippines (as possibly in other countries Avhere experiments have been made) is attributed to the dry season which continues for several mouths, while in the eastern provinces there are copious rains all the year round. Evidently the plant will only thrive under the latter condition, and it would be useless to attempt to grow it in countries Musa tc.rtilis, Xce. 1. Pistillate flower. 2. Staminate flower. 3. Fruit. 4. Section of fruit showing seeds. 103 where the rainfall is not large and well distributed all through the year. There is a very complete set of specimens illustrating the Manila hemp industry in the Kew Museum. Various qualities of the raw fibre are shown from the Chatham Dockyard. In 1864 good fibre was stated to be worth 4GI. per ton. A sample of " Quilot," one of the two specially selected qualities of Manila hemps, was received in 1S90 from Messrs." Ide and Christie. It sells usually about 20/. per ton higher than ordinary Manila hemp. A sample of Manila hemp prepared at British Guiana in 1892 was valued at the time at 29/. per ton. A " two-inch " Manila rope from the Chatham Dockyard is shown side by side with similar ropes made at Calcutta and Madras. The Chatham rope had a breaking strain of 3,ri49 lbs. (avoir.). Tlie manufactured articles from Manila hemp consist of mats, cords, hats, plaited work, lace handkerchiefs of the finest texture, and various qualities of paper. The best qualities of stout packing and other similar papers in the United States are made from old jNIanila ropes. One of the latest applications of Manila hemp is the manufacture of lace and materials for ladies' hats and bonnets. The seat of the industry is at present at "Wohlen in Switzerland. The lace for millinery purposes is made irom pure Manila (Lupiz) hemp. It is used plain and dyed. The fancy hats and bonnets are woven from similar fibre stiffened and made into various pattei'ns. Some of the hats are made of Manila hemp with a border woven from Sisal hemp. Hats are also made from a straw prepared from several strands of Manila hemp arranged side ly side, immersed in gum and pressed. This straw is smooth, polished, and very pliable, exactly resembling the finest wheat straw. The stems of many of the fruit-yielding bananas and plantains also yield fibre but not of so good a quality. Such fibre has long been used by the natives of India for cordage purposes, for mats, and to a smaller extent for making coarse paper. Dr. Royle devoteil a considerable amount of attention to the subject. His conclusion, after numerous experiments, was as follows : " It is evident that plantain fibre possesses sufiicient tenacity to be applicable to many at least of the ordinary purposes of cordage. The outer fibres may also be converted into a useful kind of coarse canvas as has been done by Dr. Hunter ; and the more delicate inner fibres most probably into finer fabrics as is the case Avith thos(^ of 31. te.vtilis when equal care has been taken in the preparation and separation of the fibres, and there is some experience in weaving them." In Jamaica a series of experiments, undertaken by Mr. Morris in 1884, showed that plantain fibre {Musa sapientum var. jjaradisiaca) was whiter and finer than ordinary banana fibre and that it approached more nearly to the fine glossy character of Manila hemp. A banana stem weighing 108 lbs. yielded 25 ounces of cleaned fibre, or at the rate of 1*44 per cent, of the gross weight. A plantain stem weighing 25 lbs. yielded 7^ ounces of cleaned fibre. This was at the rate of 1*81 per cent, on the gross Aveight. A sample of fibre prepared from a red banana at Trinidad in 1886 was valued in London at 21/. to 25/. per ton. Usually, however, banana fibres are not worth more than 12/. to 15/. per ton. They would oidy fetch even these prices when there is a high demand for " white-hemp fibres " and there happens to be a short supply of iNIanih and Sisal hemps. {Kew Bulletin, 1887, April, pp. 5-8, with woodcut.) In the catalogue of contributions from British Guiana to the Paris Exhibition of 1867 the followinensated for by the better quality of the hemp obtained. Within three or four months of the lirst shoot showing, a careful man should go over the entire place to destroy any plants that have come up Gerotei instead of Lantit. The same process should be repeated later on, as several which looked like true Lamit at first will ultimately be found to have developed into Gerotei. Once a stool is well established as Lanut it always remains so. At the age of 12 months when the main stem will be nearly fully grown, thoutch not fully matured, two or three others will be of con- siderable size and some four or five small suckers will be coming on. lu time the ground will be pretty well covered. As the older stems are cut down the young suckers grow up and take their place. "When it has arrived at this state a Manila hemp plantation requires scarcely any attention as long as the workers do not open it up too freely by catling over many stems, or alkiw the jungle plants to encroach too much. As an instance of the longevity of Musa tex'tilis, I may mention one stool twenty years old that has not cost a cent, but has yielded stem after stem for treatment at frequent intervals during that period. The above remarks are based upon Manila hemp in North Borneo. In the Philippines it Avouhl seem to take (if there is not some mistake in the observation) nearly double the time to mature. The " stem " of the plant is compo.sed of overlapping layers of the leaf stalks, somewhat similar to a stick of celery, but firmly bound together. The fibre is found just below the surface on the outer side of these stalks. A stem weighs from 50 to 80 lbs. No machine that I am acquainted with has yet been discovered that will extract it to pay. The native method is simple and cheap. The stem is cut down and each leaf stalk detached from the others. After this the operator sits down with Ihe end of a stalk in his lap, he then makes a slight incision just beneath the fibre at the end, and giving a smart twitch, brings away a strip or ribbon of the cuticle with the fibre in it, from the whole length of the stalk, much in the same way that the fibrous part of a rhubarb stalk is taken off Avhen preparing it for cooking. This operation is best performed on the plantation itself, as the discarded portions of the stem remain as manure, ^yhen a sufficient number of ribbons are obtained they are carried to a hut lor treatment. The appliances used for the actual extraction of the fibre are of the most primitive and inexpensive character. A blunt knife is obtained and a hole is made in the front end of it, through which a string is passed and to which a couple of bricks or stones are tied. The knife is then attached to a block of softish wood, the blade of it pressing on the wood against which it is held by the weight of the tied-on stones. Another piece of thin rope or string is tied througli the same hole in the knife, running over a bit of wood above it, to a treadle worked by tlie foot. All is now complete The operator twists the end of one of the ribbons round a small piece of wood so as to get a firmer hold, and slipping it under the knife allows the blade to descend upon it ; a steady pull drags the fibre underneath the knife, which holds back all the pith, weak fibre and other useless matter. As the strain is heavy it constitutes a guarantee that all the fibre that is not broken is of proper strength, and the result is pure strong fibre. A boy can clean in a similar way the few inches of the 109 end which was wrapped round the piece of wood, and the fibre is then hung over a pole to dry. This is soon done if it is a fine day, and the hemp is then ready for market. These operations are quite simple and can be performed by anyone; but some force is required to pull the fibre under the knife, and the particular nir.scles brought into play soon tire if the operator is new to the woik. j\len who have been brought up to hemp pulling can go on for hours without any discomfort. Some men claim to be able to make half a picul (66 lbs.) of hemp in a day ; but the most I have ever seen produced by one man in a day was 37 catties (a shade less than 50 lbs.). With the fibre at §6 a picul this quantity would sell for 3224, a high rate of pay in a country where wages are normally 32 cents a day. It is needless to add that it would not be advisable to employ men on day wages to prepare Manila hemp, as so much depends upon the amount of force put into the work and consequently the quantity of hemp produced. Yf. B. Pryek. XXXVII. —PINE- APPLE FIBRE. (Ananas sativus, Baker.) [K. B., 1887, April, p. 8.] A note may be added here on the fibre yielded by the leaves of the pine-apple plant. Although not at present in commercial use, this fibre has a future of con.siderable importance before it. It is finer and stronger than that yielded by any other plant and in the Philippines, where the West Indian Ananas has become thoroughly naturalized, a beautiful fabric known as " pina cloth" is made from it. A rope of pine-apple fibre Z\ inches in circumference bore a strain, at Calcutta, of 57 cwt. There are several samples of fibre of a wild pine-apple {Bromelia sylvestris, Willd.) from the West Indies and Central America at Ivew, but there is no record of their commercial value. A sample supposed to be from this plant was lately sent from Trinidad, upon which the brokers reported as follows : — " Xoi yet in commercial use, but destined, '• we think, to a successful future; fine, soft, supple fibre, -tiong and " good colour, ample length ; say 30/. per ton and upwards." The fibre of the Jamaica pinquin {Bromelia Pinr/itin L.) would appear not to be of high value. The plant covers hundreds of acres in the plains and lowlands of Jamaica, and an eftbrt was made some time ago to prepare the fibre for commercial purposes. The report of brokers upon a snmple of 90 pounds was as follows: — "A long towzelled weak " fibre, of bad colour, coarse, no strength, and only fit foi- breaking up. " Similar to St. Helena hemp tow, but not so good. We should think " 12/. to 10/. per ton the utmost value." Several .'lamples of this pinguin fibre from Jamaica and elsewhere, cleaned both by hand and by machine, are to be seen in the Kew Museum, No. 2. If the leaves of this phmt were cut up, roughly dried, and placed in compressed bales, they might prove of value for paper-making. To establish this point it Avould be necessary to forward to England about half a ton of dried leaves in conqjresscd l)alcs, in order that paper- makers might be able to test them on a sufficiently large scale. no XXXVIII.— CAEAGUATA FIBRE. (Bromelia argentina, Baker.) [K. B., 1892, pp. 191-190.] Under the name of Caraguata the late Mr. Thomas Routledge forwarded to Kew, in 1877, for determination, " tlie leaves of a plant " from the Argentine Republic, with the remark, that the * fibre when " abstracted no doubt will make good paper.' After some trouble, we " arrived at the conclu.sion that the leaves belonged to one of the '* singular South American species of Eryngium, which have before " flowering quite a Bromeliaceous habit." [Kew Report, 1877, p. 37]. A few years later Mr. Edwin H. Egerton, C.B., then Her Majesty's Charge d' Affaires at Buenos Ayres, referred to tbe Caraguata plant in a report forwarded to the Foreign Office, dated 31st July 1881, as follows : — " But by far the best fibre of the country is that of the " Caraguata ibera, a Bromeliad which is something like the Pine-apple " plant, and which is very abundant in Paraguay, the Misiones, and the " Chaco. It is very long and silky, and has long been used by the " Indians, and much money has already been spent in endeavours to " find some practical machine for the economical preparing of this " fibre. I am assured that the desired result has now at length, after a *' long series of experiments, been attained by a French machine " invented for the purpose which has just been set up not very far " from Asuncion, the process being a simple one without previous " maceration. " Should this invention prove a success (and I am promised further " particulars from the persons undertaking this work) the caraguata " fibre will become an extremely important article of export, and if half " I hear of it be true, should compete with advantage against jute. "I am assured, but I cannot vouch for the assertion, that there is *' immense superiority in the quality of the Paraguayan fibre over that " of the Chaco and Misiones caraguata." In 1884, Mr. F. E. Harman, who had undertaken a mission to the Plate River for the Santa Fe Land Company, brought with him numerous species of Argentine grasses, which were determined at Kew, and also some living plants of what were believed to be Caraguata from the Gran Chaco. With these plants, Mr. Harman brought a dried specimen of an inflorescence. The plants have iirown at Kew, and are now in a flourishing condition in the Temperate House. As will be shown later, they are not true Caraguata, and they possess no merit as fibrous plants. On the other hand, the dried inflorescence, brought at the same time, belonged to the fibre-producing species. It is probable that the name Caraguata is used in a generic sense in the Argentine and neighbouring countries ; and, as already shown, it is applied indis- criminately to plants of a very widely different character. There is, however, a plant known as Caraguata or Caraguata Ibera, which yields a very valuable fibre. It has been frequently noticed in works of travel, and its valuable properties have been highly extolled. The difficulty was to obtain authentic specimens of the true fibre-yielding plant, and find out exactly what it was. Under these circumstances a further, and as it proved a successful, effort was made to obtain specimens as shown in the following correspondence: — Royal Gardens, Kew, to Foreign Office. Royal Gardens, Kew, Sir, November 20, 1889. I AM desired by Mr. Thiselton-Dyer to inform you that in the year 1877 the late Mr. Thomas Routledge forwarded, for determination, Ill to Kew some fibre and leaves of a plant from the Argentine Republic known locally as Caraguata. The leaves were broken and in an im- perfect condition. Moreover, it was considered doubtful whether they belonged at all to the plant which yielded the fibre. The leaves, as far as could be ascertained from the scraps sent, belonged to a species of Eryngium. (Kew Report, 1877, p. 37.) 2. At the recent Exposition Universelle held at Paris in 1889, I noticed in the Paraguayan Court some leaves and fibre called Caraguata said to be derived from Bromelia Caraguata. There is no plant known to European botanists under this name. The Caraguata of Paraguay is a plant which it is very desirable to investigate, and specimens of it in a living and dried state Avould be vei'y acceptable for the collections at Kew. 3. Mr. Thiselton-Dyer ventures to express the hope that the Secretary of State will approve of the kind offices of the Minister at Buenos Ayres being invited to procure information respecting the Caraguata plant, its distribution, and local uses, and also small specimens of living plants, packed in a dry box, and seeds for this establishment. For a botanical determination of the plant, it is desirable to obtain dried specimens of the leaves, flowers, and fruit. These latter might be forwarded by post between sheets of paper protected by cardboard. 4. Any reasonable expense, incurred on account of this service, will be defrayed in usual course. I have, &c. (Signed) D. Mokris. Sir Villiers Lister, K.C.M.G., Foreign Office. The Hon. Francis J. Pakenham to Foreign Office. My Lord, Buenos Ayres, February 3, 1890„ On the receipt of your Lordship's despatch of this series, No. 39, of the 25th of November last, instructing me to procure specimens of the Caraguata plant for the Royal Gardens at Kew, I communicated its contents to Dr. Stewart, Her Majesty's Consul at Asuncion, from whom I have received the reply of Avhich copy is enclosed. The box containing the specimens in question reached me a few days ago, and I have the honour to transmit it to your Lordship herewith, unopened, as it arrived. I have, &c. (Signed) F. Pakenham. The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G. [Enclosure.] Sir, Asuncion, January 12, 1890. I BEG to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 27th ultimo, and enclosed copy of a letter, dated 20th November, Royal Gardens, Kew. By the steamer " Saturuo," of the Platen se Company, I have the pleasure to send to you this day a box containing samples of the 112 Cara'J'uatji plant, and of its fruit and inflorescence, which I hope will prove satisfactory for the purpose of determining its scientific classification. I have, &c. (Signed) William Stewart, M.D. The Hon. F. J. Pakenham. The material obtained through the Foreign OflSce, as shown above, aiul that obtained upon a subsequent occasion from Dr. Stewart direct, were submitted to Mr. J. G. Baker, F.ll.S., Keeper of the Herbarium at KeAv, who has furnished the following account Jind description of the Caiaguata plant as now known to us : — We have now received for the first time, through the Foreign Ofiice full material for the botanical determination of this plant, procured for us by Dr. W. Stewart, H.B.M. Consul at Asuncion. It proves to be a true Bromelia, nearly allied to Bromelia Pinynia. In the monograph of the Brazilian Bromeliaceae just published by Dr. Mez, which forms part of the great " Flora Brasiliensis " of Endlicher and Martius, two species which are nearly allied to it are described for the first time, viz., B. BalanscE, jNIez, from Paraguay, and B. Regiiellii, Mez, from Central Brazil. The latter, which comes nearest to it of the three species, is figured on Plate 53. The description of Rhodo- stavhys argent nia in my Handbook of the Bromeliacece, p. 29, so far as regards the inflorescence in a state of fruit, relates to the present plant ; but now that we have the flowers, they show that the plant is not a lihodostachys, but a Bromelia, and that the leaves that were originally sent witii it do not really belong to the same species as the flowers. We are therefore very much indebted to Dr. Stewart for enabling us to clear the matter up, and I give now a full description of the plant under the name of Bromelia argent ina, drawn up entirely from his latest specimens, received Feb. 10, 1892. Bromelia argentina, Baiter^ n. sp. Leaves like those of B. Pin- guin, eiisiforin, rigidly coriaceous, 5 feet long, \'^ inches broad ex- clusive of the prickles above the dilated base, tapering very gradually to the point ; prickles large, deltoid cuspidate, uncinate, brown and horny in the upper half, about an inch apart in the centre of the leaf. Peduncle stout, nearly a foot long, covered by the closely imbricated ovate-lanceolate scariose bract-leaves, the lower of which are about 3 inches long, and the upper 2 inches long. Inflorescence a dense oblong head, which is half a foot long in the flowering stage ; lower bracts ovate, toothed at the top, with a bright red lanceolate point ; flowers many in each cluster, subtended by a large ovate bract ; flowcr-bracfs oblong, acutely keeled, l^ inches long ; ovary in the flowering state oblong, trigonous, tomentose, an inch long, \ inch diam. Sepals oblong, obtuse, an inch long. Petals red, lingulate, a little longer than the sepals. Stamens and style shorter than the petals. Fruit oblong, coriaceous, 1-^ inches long when dried. It will be" noticed that Mr. Baker considers the Caraguata plant to be nearly allied to the Pinguin {Bromelia Pinguin, h) of ih9 West Indies and Central A.merica. It has also some resend>lance, as regards leaf character alone, to Karatas Plumieri. The latter is a well-known and valuable fibre jfiant. It is said to be used by Indians in making the finest hammocks in Central America, Guiana, and Brazil. The fibre of the Pinguin, as already stated, was carefully investigated by the Botanical Department in Jamaica in 1884. The plant covers hundreds of acres in the ifland, and it would readily support a large industry. Great difficulty 113 Avas, however, expei'ienced in extracting tlie fibre by machinery, without maceration, and the results wore by no means satisfactory. Several samples Avere forwarded to London and New York for the opinion of biokers, and the London reports were as follows: — " Poor dull fibre, " njumruy, fair strength, value about 20/." — "Almost unsaleable in tie " form sent, not well dressed, not good coloui-, and in some parts ratlic r " tender." — "If this was better dressed, it might have a sale here, l)iit '• in the present form, when so gummy, it is difficult to form an estimate " of it. It comes from one of those plants that suggest the effect of an " alkali upon it for melting away the gum, to see if a better product " could not be produced," It is possible that the Caraguata may yitld fibre more closely resembling that obtained from Karatas than from Pinguin. There are specimens of leaves and fibre of all three plants shown in Museum No, il. nt thu Royal Gardens, and some samples of Pinguin fibre in this collection cleaned by hand are of better quality than those prepared by machinery in Jamaica. The fibres obtainable from species of Bromeliaccrt', includ- ing those from the common pine-apple (Jiicoias sativus). as well as from Karatas, Pinguin, and the Caraguata now under consideration, are all of commercial importance; but, like many others, they require suitable appliances for their extraction, and until these are forthcoming tiioy will remain unavailable for any but the most limited purposes. In regard to the local utilisation of Caraguata fibre, the following extract is taken from a recent Report by Mr. Arthur Herbert [Foreign Office, 1S92. Annual Series, No. 1,006. Diplomatic and Consular Reports on Trade and Finance, Paraguay] : — '•The textile plant called Caraguata abounds and grows naturally in every part of the Paraguayan Republic, "In the year 1879 ]\Iessrs, Branlio Artecona and Louis L. Lengua.s made expei'iments with machinery that they establiithed in the depart- ment of Arroyos y Esterios, having obtained from the Government a concession for the working of this product freely for the space of 15 years in all fiscal lands, and to export the same when manufactured free of duty. " This industry did not give satisfactory results, owing to the inex- perience of those in charge and the imperfection of the machinery. After several fruitless attempts they retired, and their concession lapsed. "In 1889-90 Mr. Artecona again organised the same industry with modern machinery, and took a contract from the company ' Tejitlora,' of Buenos A.yres, for all he could remit. He remitted altogether 400 tons, and the result of the sale might have been remunerative if he had not committed the fault of employing inexpert hands and spsnt his capital in useless experiments, and he again suspended operations, "Attending to sundry requests from Europe, certain commercial men have lately remitted samples that ari'ived in perfect condition, from which a profitable result was obtained ; but when they remitted large quantities in the year 1890 it fermented on the voyage, and ai'rived in Europe in an unacceptable condition. "The ibera is a sort of Caraguata, and its fibre is of a iiner quality than that of its congener, but neither of them has obtained any importance in commerce, owing to the cost of cleaning and separating the fibre from the leaves. Several attempts as above mentioned have been made, but so far without any great success. From the interest Avhich has been awakened in this product iw European market?, it would seem to deserve a more serious [study, and the opinion seems to prevail that with U 77554, H 114 improved machinery and more Gkiiled administratiou more profitable results might be obtained. " The flowers have ber n sent to Kew with n view to determining the exact species, which I believe is still nndefmed." [Note added, 1892. — The Cara^iatii has now been determined, as shown above, and a plate of it -with descrij ticn under Bromelia argentina, Baker, has been published in Hooker's Icones Phmtarum, pi. 2258. Specimens of living plants of this, the true Caraguatd ibcra, are mueh desired for the Kew collections, whcr«, so far, it does not exist.] XXXIX.— BOWSTRING HEMP. [K. B., 1887, May, pp. 1-11.] At present, Bowstring hemp is not an article in commercial use ; but attention may well be directed to the capabilities of numerous species of Sansevieria for producing fibre of great value. Plants of Sansevieria, of which there are 10 or 12 species, are very abundant on both the east and west coa:-jts of tropical Africa, which, indeed, may be looked upon as the head-quarters of the genus. One well-known species (S. zeylanica) is indigenous to Ceylon ; and this and others are found along the Bay of Bengal, extending thence to Java and to the coasts of China. The leaves of these plants are more or less succulent and abound in a very valuable fibre, remarkable alike for fineness, elasticity, and for strength. Usually the leaves are not more than \]; to 2 feet long ; in soma species, such as 5. guineensis and >S'. ci/linchica, the leaves attain a length of 3 or 4 fieet : while in one species, native of tropical Africa [since described as S. Kirhii, Baker], the leaves under favourable circumstances attain a length of 9 feet. In this species, for particulars of which and for samples of its fibre we are indebted to Sir John Kirk, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., late Consul-General at Zanzibar, the quality of the fibre is exceptionally good. We have doubtless here a new fibre plant of great value. in the treatment of the leaves of Sansevieria by machinery the great drawback hitherto experienced bus been their comparatively small size, and the difficulty of cleaning the fibre contained in them in an expedi- tious and remunerative manner. These circumstances would not obtain in the case of the plant brought into notice by Sir John Kirk. Indeed, for moist troi)ical climates, as opposed to the dry, hot, and arid districts of Yucatan where the Sisal Hemp is grov.n, this and S. lonc/ijiora if they are really distinct would be likely to prove of exceptional value as fibre plants. It may be mentioned that all species oi' Sansevieria prefer a rich moist soil and a comparatively humid climate. They are essentially tropical plants and do not thrive in a tem[)erature le.ely resemble iliose of the pine-app!e ; they ai'c said to take dyes very readily; and the tow is mentioned by Royle to have been converted into good paper at Trichinopoly. Plants of Sansevieria are already abundant in a wild or semi- cul- tivated state in most tropical countries. They are capable of being propagated very readily. Usmdly the underground stem or rhizome is divided and planted ; but plants may also be raised from seed, or from the leaves, which latter, planted whole or cut into small pieces, readily take root in moist situations, A full botanical description of the several species cf Sansevieria may be found in a monograph of the Asparagace.i:, in the fourteenth volume of the Jonr)ial of the Linncan Society (pp. 546-550), by Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S. The description given in the following notes is con- tributed by Mr. Baker. The species are restricted to those which are now under cuUiv.ition at Kew, and of which specimens of fibre have been prepared and examined. The plants may be seen in the "West Transept of the Palm House at Kew ; Avhile the specimens of fibre are in Kew Museum, No. 2. The species, or well-marked sub-species, of Sansevieria* of which we have living plants at Kew, are seven in number, and they may be readily classified according to their leaves in three groups, as follows : — I. Leaves comparatively thin and flat : — 1. »S'. giiineensis. 2. S. longiflora. 3. S. Kirkii. 4. >S'. thyrsi flora. II. Leaves semicircular in transverse section at the middle, deeply hollowed down the face : — 5. *S'. zeylanica. III. Leaves club-shaped, more like stems than proper leaves : — 6. »S'. cylindricd. 7. S. sulcata. 1. Sansevieria guineensis, Willd., is one of the two oldest and best known species. It was first figured :uid described, long before the days of Linnteus, in the year 1701, by Commelin\is in his " Ilorti Medici Amstelodamensis Rariorum Plantarum Descriptio" (tab. 20), under the name of " Aloe guineensis radice geniculata foliis ex viridi et atro " undulalim variegatis." Linnseus classified it under the genus Aletris, and so did Jacquin, Avho figured and carefully described it in 1770 in his Hortus Vindobonensis (vol. I., p. 67, t. Hi). It has horny, erect, lanceolate leaves, 3 or 4 feet long, 3 inches broiul at the middle, narrowed gradually to an acute apex, not distinctly bordered with red, copiously mottled on both surfaces with broad irregular bands of white. The flowers are in a lax, simple spike, which rises to the samo height as the leaves, in clusters of three to six, with a whitish perianth about 2 inches long, of which the six segments are about Jis long as the cylindrical tube. Jt is a native of Guinea, from which we have wild specimens gathered by Barter and others. We have it also from Central Africa, collected by Schweinfurth and Grant, and Abyssinia by Beccari, and what is most likely the same from the Zambesi country, gathered by Sir John Kirk in 1860 ; the latter accompanied it by a sketch made on the spot, when he was botanist to the Livingstone expedition. On the Zambesi S. guineensis appears to be called "Konje," and Sir John Kirk speaks of it as "yielding a valuable fibre similar to * As regards the spelliug, following the Genera Plantaruvi, we have adopted Sansevieria, instead of Sanseviera, as being the oldest name. Thunbcrg had it Sanievieria; Willdenov altortd it to Sanseviera, and Kuntb followed. Bentham iu Genera Plantarum reverted to Sansevieria. H 2 IIG Manila Herrp." It is doscvibed as *' gi'owing in great abundance in many places, ktepiug to tlie shade oF woods." Mr. Hornc, Director of (lie Royal Botanic Gardens, Famplemousses mentions that — "This plant thrives well in Manrilius in damp marshy places in the *' lowlands. I have no doubt that it would thrive Avell in the wet " uplands." It is widely distributed in the West Indies, and has been grown experimentally for the sake of its fibre at St. Thomas, Jamaica, and Trinidad. As regards cultural treatment, the following information is taken from notes prepared by Mr. Morris when Director of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, on this and S. zeyianica : — " In the first instance plants may be put out at 3 feet by 3 feet, " which, allowing for roads and paths, would gire about 3,000 to the *' acre. If the soil is kept well broken and moist these plants, by the " extension of root suckers, will spread in all directions, so that ulti- ** niately the whole ground, with the exception of certain peths, which " should be kept permanently open, will be covered with pbmts. As " regards the time which must elapse between planting out and the " first yield of leaves suitable for fibre, there would appear to be a groat " difference of opinion. Plants which I saw at St. Thomas at three " 3 ears old were oidy just ready to be cut; and Baron Eggers, who '* had planted them and kept them under close observation during the " whole of that time, was of opinion that Sansevieria plants could not " be depended upon to yield a crop before three or three and a half " years. '* My own experience coincides Avith this, but necessarily much must ** depend upon the nature of the plants when first put out, the character " of the .soil, the amount of moisture received, as well as on the system " of cultivation pursued. " From actual trial tests in India, where one-third of an acre was " cultivated with Sansevieria zeyianica, it appears that full gi'own " leaves of three to three and a half feet long (their actual age is not " mentioned) yielded about 1 lb. of clean fibre t"or every 40 lbs. of " fresh leaves. That is, the weight of clean dry fibre was at the rate " of 2\ per cent, of the fresh leaves. Dr. Roxburgh calculated that " one acre would yield 1,613 pounds of clean fibre at a gathering, two " of which may be reckoued on yearly 'in a good soil and a favourable " * season, after the plants are of a proper aze.' " This woidd l)e at the rate of 1^ tons of fibre per acre per annum at '* the end of thiee or three and a half years, of the gross value (at the " rate of 30/. per ton) of 45/. Whether this return can be depended " upon for the West Indies on an extensive area I am unable to say." In an experimental trial carried on at Jamaica, 1,185 pounds of green leaves of aS'. guineensis yielded 29 pounds 10 ounces of dry fibre. This was cleaned by machine. The reports of brokers were as follows : — (a.) " Value, 18/. per ton, mixed fibre partly uncleaned ;" (6.) "Poorly " cleaned, a good deal of mixture in it, not so strong, value about 251. " per ton ;" (r.) "No good in the state sent ; it has a lot of bark in it, " and requires more dressing; both ends are clean, but the centre is " dirty. Price, if dressed pro2)erly, would be as good as S. zeyianica, " viz., 30/. per ton." In September last. His Excellency Sir William Robinson, Governor of Trinidad, forwarded to Kew samples of fibre of this specie?, which he stated had been prepared "at the convict depot at Chaguanas without 117 *' the aid of machinery of any kind." The report of Mes.^rs. Ide and Christie on the Trinidad sarajde was as follows : — " In point of cleanliness and softness of fibre it seems well prepared ; " but to compete successfully with Manila hemp it would retiuire to be *' of a better colour and of equal if not superior strength. We value it ** for rope-making purposes at 20/. per ton in London. The small piece of •** Manila fibre which we enclose has a value to-day (Sept. 24, 1886) of ^« 31/. per ton." A few leaves taken from plants grown at Kew were recently passed through Death's fibre machine, but the result, owing to the smallness of the quantity and the necessity of adju:jting the machine to the size of each leaf, was not satisfactory, but it is not devoid of interest. The report of Messrs. Ide and Christie on the sample of fibre submitted to them was as follows : — " Short and only moderate strength. Value 23/. per *' ton. We reported on fibre from this plant from Trinidad in September " last, when we valued the sample at 20/. per Ion. The difference now " is due solely to the advance in the price of Sisal hemp." Of samples of fibre of S. (/uiitee)isis, the l\.ew Museums contain one specimen machine-cleaned from Jamaica, sent by Mr. D. ^lorris, 1884, with the following note: — "Leaves 3^ to 4 feet long, broader than S. *' zei/lanica, mottled, unarmed, common and easily propagated." A specimen from Trinidad, cleaned by hand, forwarded by Governor Sir William Robinson, and valued by Messrs. Ide and Christie at 20/. per ton. Also a leaf, rope, and fibre from S.E. Africa, sent by Mr. T. Baines A specimen of leaf and fibre from Sir John Kirk appears under the following label, " Maculated Sansevicria, called ' Kouje,' near Lupata, 1860." This is probably identical with S. guineensis. 2. Sansevieria longiflora, Sims, a native of equatorial Africa, was first figured and described by Dr. Sims in 182() at tab. 2,^34 of the P.otanical Mauazine. Tiie leaves are very like those of H. guineensis, but as grown with us, they are larger, flatter, not so firm in texture, and not invariablv blotched with green. The best character by which it may be known from S. guineensis is the flower, which is 3^ or 4 inches long, instead of 2 inches. We have specimens in the Herbarium with flowers as large as this from Guinea gathered by Barter and Mann ; from the Congo by Prof. C. Smith ; from the Zambesi country by Mr. Buchanan ; from Angola by the late Mr. Monteiro ; from Niam- niam Land by Dr. Schweinfurth. Whether all these are the same species it is impossible to say at present. There is also a large (loweied species, called Sansevieria bracfeata, which was gathered by Dr. Welwitsch ia AngDla.* Several plants believed to be this species are growing in the Palm House at Kew, from which it would appear that it is a very free growing and robust species. Some leaves from these plants were lately ttsted for fibre by means of Death's fibre machine, which yielded at the rate of 1 "09 per c«}nt. of clean dry fibre. The repoit of Messrs. Ide and Christie on specimens thus prepared was as follows: — " A very bright, clean, strong ** fibre, and in every way a most desirable commercial article. It would ** compete with the best Sisal hemp for rope-making purposes. Value " 30/. per ton." * " In the highlands of Zoniba the Siinsp.vi=ria longtjlora species grovs .-ibun- " dantlj- and Likanga fibre is obtained from it. " At lower elevatTons, .-such as Lake Shirwa and Livingstonia, another species is " found. The fibre is obtained from the leaf, and it might be used for coarse " manufactures ; but to properly crush the leaves, heavy rollers would be required." (Foreign Office Report, 230, 1887, p. 4.) 118 3. Of SansevieriPv B.irkii, Baker, in 1887 we knew the leaves only. It was sent to Kew by Sir John Kirk, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., in October 1881, as a native of the East Coast of Africa. We have had it in cultivation at Kew since that time. The leaf is oblanceolate in shape, and very horny in texture. We have only grown it to a length of 2 feet, with a breadth in the middle of 3 inches. The leaf is dull green, with a distinct brown edge, and is much mottled on both sides. The base is much thicker, and its edges are more incurved than in either of the three other comparatively flat-leaved kinds, and down the back of the lower part of a leaf run about five distinct grooves, a character which distinguishes it readily from S. r/niiieensis and iS^. longijiora. In 1879 Sir John Kirk forwarded through the Foreign Office a specimen of fibre from the leaf of a species of Sansevieria found grow- ing on the mainland opposite the island of Zanzibar. The specimen sent was the produce of a single leaf, the length of which was 9 feet. The report of Messrs, Noble on this specimen was as follows : — " We " have carefully examined the fibre from East Africa ; it is worth as a " hemp 22/. per ton at the present time" (1879). Recently Sir .Tohn Kirk has been good enough to furnish more detailed information as regards the plant yielding this fibre. In a letter dated 2nd Dec. 1886 he mentions: — " It grows abundantly near Pangane on the mainlanre prepared from S.Kirhii, yielded at the rate of 1'69 per cent, by weight of the green leaf. They were described by Messrs. Lie and Christie as follows — " Rather stout, but very clean and good " colour : the strength fair. Value 27/. per ton." 4. Sansevieria thyrsiflora, Thnnb., is the species on which the genus Sansevieria Avas first constituted by Tluinberg, in the year 1791. The leaf is nearly flat and does not reach above a foot or a foot and a half in length, and is an inch and a half or two inches broad at the middle, with abundant mottling and a distinct red edge. The flowe" does not differ from that of ^S". guincensis. It is a native of the eastern parts of Cape Colony. Zeyher gives the place of growth as " Uitenhage, in woods of " Zwartkops and many other places in the east of the colony ; Kei of *' the Hottentots ; a decoction of the root used for dysentery." 119 The leaves of ibis species, growing at Ivew, were to:) small to be tested for fibre. 5. Sansevieria zeylanica, Willd., is a very well known and well- marked plant. It is a native of Ceylon, and, long before Linnaeus, was fignred and descril)cd by Royen, Commelinus, and PInkenet. There are 8 or 10 leaves in a tuft and tliey are semi-circular in transverse section, 1 or 2 feet long, rounded on the back, deeply channelled down the face, 3^ or ^ inch thick in the middle, in colour dull green, copiously banded with white, with a distinct red margin. The peduncle and flower spike are each about a foot long, the flowers being rather smaller than in S. guineensis, but quite similar in structure. It is wellflgured in Bedoutc's Liliaceae tab. 290, and in the Botanical Register, tab. 160, in the year 1816. In Ceylon this species is known under the Singhalese name of Neyanda. It is indigenous to the hotter parts of the island, and the fibre yielded by it is used in numerous ways, such as strings, ropes, mats, and a coarse kind of doth. In India the plant is known as 3foorra, Moorga, or Mai'ool. .Sir William Jones, in the Asiatic Re- seai'ches, Vol. IV., p. 271, mentions S. zeylanica under its ancient Sanscrit name of Moorva, and he says that : " From the leaves of this " plant the ancient Hindoos obtained a very tough elastic thread called *' Maurvi, of which they made bowstrings ; and which for that reason, " was ordained by Menu to form the sacrificial zone of the military " class." Dr. Roxburgh describes the plant as common on the jungly salt soils along the coasts, growing under the bushes, and easily propa- gated on almost every soil, from the slips which issue in great abun- dance from the roots, requiring little or no care, and not re(iuiring to be renewed often, if at all, as the plant is perennial. The leaves, when thus cultivated, are from 3 to 4 feet long. Mr. Home makes the following note on this plant at Mauritius : — " Several species of Sansevieria are common here in waste lands, near " the sites of old gardens, and by the road sides. They are not so " readily nor so cheaply established on land as the aloes vert. But they " yield a good fibre, which is used for cordage, ivc. It has the reputa- " tion of being one of the strongest of fibres. It is known by the name " of Bowstring hemp and Moorva '^ Generally in Ceylon and India the natives prepare fibre from this plant by retting or l)y simple beating and scraping. Full grown leaves yield at the rate of 7*87 per cent, by weight of the green leaves. Owing to the srafilhiess of the individual leaves they are difficult to clean by muchiueiy, but if it were possible to separate the fibre by a chemical process, tliis plant would become of great commercial value. Of sam[)les of Ir. Morris at Mr. Llewelyn's request. They have certainly thriven marvellously, though, as far better results are obtained from the Pita, it is unlikely that we shall l)e able to put them to much practical use. 11. Our schooner having returned from Grand Turk, Mr. Leslie and I left on Thursday morning tor West Caicos, the waste lauds on which liave been recently leased in accordance with the permission contained in your letter, No. /269/G302, of tl>e 28th ultimo. My visit was only for the purpose of forming an opinion as to the best means of surveying these lands at the least expense to the lessees, as T am most anxious to afford every possible encouragement to the new industry. Otherwise I should not undertake this work, as repeated ab.sences from Grand Turk arc '.ery inconveoient where the wijolc of the executive work is centred on the Commissioner, as it is since ihe abolition of the office of Crown Surveyor (Colcni.il Engineer), just before my arrival in 1885. Besides, the work of si:rveying over such very rough country, through thick bush, i.s most trying at this season, but there is no officer whom I can send, and to obtain the services of a surveyor from abroad would entail an expenditure which the lessees of the laud are not prepared to meet. As the work is necessary for the success of the new industry, I have promised to do it, and propose to return there early next mouth. 12. Thiit this island of West Caicos is suitable for the fibre cultiva- tion is jirovcd by the fact that in cutting the bush from the small portion of land which the company has been able to clear, since they were allowed to go to work a fortnight ago, several Pita plants in good condition, and growing strongly, were found, which were before hidden in the bush, which is so thick as to be absolutely impassable. I found that the manager of the company had his house half built, and had some 30 acres of land in an advanced state of preparation, and he hopes to begin early in October to set out the plants, of Avhich they have already upwards of 200,000. The labour for this property is drawn from JProvidence Caicos (Blue Hills), the poorest Settlement in these islands, and one in which it has hitherto been necessary to distribute provisions to the aged and infirm almost annually, a necessity which abundance of labour will entirely remove. 13. Having laid out the directions of the lines to be cleared for the survey, I left West Caicos in the night for Grand Turk, a beat dead to windward of 80 miles, much of it through very heavy seas. It took between three and four days to do, very weary and uncomfortable work in a small schooner, reeking of stale fruit and molasses, and swarming with cockroaches and other in.sects, and yet by far the best vessel obtainable here, and indeed the only safe one in heavy weather. In conclusion, I may say that the result of my visit has been a conviction that the future of the fibre industry in the Caicos Islands is assured, if no useless obstacles or unnecessary restrictions be allowed to harass the companies now commencing operations. The land is in every way suitable, and the management of the companies possess energy, ability, and capital to direct them. The directors and share- holders are not speculators, but men whose fortunes are involved in the undertaking. Far beyond the success to individuals, however, is the improvement to the condition of the outlying Settlements, hitherto I 149 the home of want and distress. With ample, steady, well paid, and con- genial labour, always to be had for men, women, and children, for the nature of the industry provides occupation for all, a sufficient livelihood at least will be within reach of all who care to work, and it is not too much to hope that the near fiiluro may see a prosperous and contented community replace tlie halt' starved and not much more than half civilized " wreckers " whose names have been " a by-word and a fear " to many an unfortunate shipmaster whose vessel has been swept by the strong and uncertain currents on to the reefs surrounding these cays. I have, «fcc. (Signed) H. Jackson, Commissioner. XLVII.— SISAL HEMP AT THE TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS. [K. B., 1892, pp. 217-218.] The progress made in a Sis.^l Hkmp industry at the Turks and Caicos Islands is discussed as follows in the Blue Book Report (Jamaica) for 1891 : — The cultivation of tlie Pita (Sisal) plant has made fair pro- gress, especially in the Caicos Islands, and the repoits from the planta- tions, towards the close of the year, were satisfactory. Two companies, the West Caicos Fibre Companv, Limited, at West Caicos, and the East Caicos Company, Limited, at Breezy Point, formed for the purpose of raising pita plants and extracting the fibre, registered under the com- panies ordinance, and there are several private plantations. A small shipment of fibre was made to ^NTew York within the year from one of the latter, and the first quality fetched a cent a pound more than the second quality — an equal price to the best from Yucatan. This speaks well for the quality of the fibre which can be produced iu these isliiuds, and proinisijs a bright future for the local iilire industry. XLVIII.— BAHAMAS INDUSTRIES. I ^P [K. B., 1891, pp. 1 75- 177. J One of the most interesting circumstances connected with the economic development of the Baliantas Islands is the great attention devoted n ithin the last fev/ year^ to the planting of Sisal hemp {Agave rigida WW. sisalana). In a recent report in the Blue Book for the year 1890, Sir Ambro.se Shea, K.C.M.G., the Governor of the Bahamas, supi)lies the following particulars respecting this industry: — Fibre Cultivation. Steady progress continues to be made in this industry, v/ith increasing faith in its value and permanence. A leport of the cultivation to the present time has been prepared by order of the Government, which, though strictly accurate, Avould not convey true impressions to those at a distance. 150 The report speaks of 4,100 acres being already planted with 2,500,000 of plants, but it states that there are also 1,300,000 plants in nurseries, -which, being in course of growth, adds 50 per cent, to the active cultivation, making an aggregate of over 6,000 acres. Plants are now kept much longer in nurseries to lessen the cost of weeding, which is an expensive operation, and annually attended to after the plants are set out in the fields. There has been some question as to the time to bring the plantings to maturity, but four years is now the accepted period, while plants retained in the nurseries, as above stated, will matiu'e in threft years. There is but little to add to former reports on this enterprise, which has passed out of th'3 experimentnl stage and will not probably present any new features of interest until exports of tibre begin, which will be, on a moderate scale, in 1892, then developing annually into proportions of increasing importance. The value of the fibre, like that of other products, Avill, of course, be subject to market conditions from time to time, but in the natural order of things it will ever be the main export, and, regarding all the sur- rounding circumstances, it is difficilt to see how it can fail to pay present investors handsomely and to be, to them, a source of income less liable to fiuotuations than is tli? case with most commercial adven- tures. The time is now approaching when the machines for separating the fibre from the leaf will acquire practical importance; of those now in use none seem to meet all the requirements. Some of them clean the fibre well ; Init the process is wasteful, and the correction of this defect is the object to be accomplished. With so great an interest at stake, we must suppose inventive genius will be found equal to the occasion. Professor Edison has directed his attention to the matter and he hopes he has found an effective method which avoids waste. The treatment is by a solution of crude petroleum, and this Government are now in communication with the Profes.sor. If the results meet our requirements, a most important end will be attained, which will have the further advantage of enabling .small cultivators to dress their own leaves instead of being compelled to sell them at a loss to a large ucighbotiring planter, who is able to procure a machin(\ The process is applicable to other and most valuable interests in this colony. Many thousands of tons of pine-apple leaves are now annually left to waste. Tiie fibre commands a high price, from 60/. to 80/. a ton, for use in fine textiles. The small quantity now produced is roughlv and expensively prepared for want of a machine sufficiently delicate to extract the tender fil)re without injury. Tlie proposed mode would seem to meet this difficulty, as all strain or friction is avoided, and the result of pending in(iuiries is looked for with great interest. The immediate effect of successful experiment would be to turn a wasted product into an article of much value, adding sul)stautially to the returns of pine- apple cultivation, and this process may be aj)plied to the growing crop. It is understood that the same solution may be used many times, and, if present hopes aie reahsed, the petroleum will be admitted free of the duty now imposed. 151 XLIX.— SISAL HGMP II^DUSTEIES. {Agave rigida, Mill.) [K. B., 1892, pp. 21-40.] A re malleable development of the cultivation of Sisal hemp in the Bahamas has taken place iltirinj; the last three years. Tlie Governor, Sir Ambroso Sheii, K.C 3I.G., ha:? enlistetl such widespread interest, it might be termed enthusiasm, in the subject, that hemp-growing has becomCj for the nioincut, one of the most prominent of the new industries of the tropics. Frequejit inquiry has been made at Kew in regard to the plant yielding the best qualities of Sisal hemp, and information has been sought by official and other bodies to enable them to judge of the suitability of the plant for cultivation in other countries. Tlie position taken by Kew in this matter is a very simple one. The various varieties and forms of Agave rigida, Mill., the species from which the several sub-species and varieties yielding Sisal hemp are supposed to have sprung, have been carefully .«tudied, and living specimens have been added to the collections in the Boyal Gardens. In this respect, the collections of fibre plants at Kew, at the present time, are probably as complete as any in the wo)'ld. Further than this, an effort has been made to furnish from time to time in the Kew Bullet hi such information as could be obtained respecting the methods o'.' cultivation and the incidental conditions of the industry likelv to be of general interest. The Bahamas are fortunate in possessing a soil and climate very favourable to the pro- duction of excellent fibre. They also have the great advantage of possessing, on the spot, immense quantities of plants of the best variety known to yield Sisal hemp. This variety (botanically known as Agave rigida var. sisahnui) is of rapid growth, and is easily handled. It has no side teetii to obstruct or retard the process of harvesting, and the people generally appear to have supported the action of the Governor to such an extent that the establishment of the industry is now within measurable distance of being accomplished. The only drawback, so far, is the want of a machine tliat will enable the planters to extract the fibre in an eflective and economical manner. As a last resort there is ihe someivhat crude and clumsy machine long used in Yucatan, but it is probable that before any lengthened period has elapsed a machine of a more suitable character will be forth- coming. In the meantime, efforts are Ixing made to establish a fibre industry in Florida, where, more than 50 years ago, plants of Sisal hemp were introduced and paitially established by Dr. Perrine. A special Reporfc prepared by Mr. Charles Richards Dodge of the Department of Agri- culture at Washington [Fibre Investigations, Report No. 3, 1891], has lately been issued on the subject. In this Report an account is given of the distribution of Sisal hemp plants in Florida and the adjoin- ing Keys, and it is recommended to utilise these as the starting point of a regidar industry. Mr. Dod^re says " what can be done in the Bahamas " I have reason to l)elieve can bo accomplished in this country [Florida] *'.... We have the soil, the climate, and the plants. The com- " bination of capital and inventive genius with these conditions must " work out the problem, if, indeed, the question is not already practically *' solved." A further account of the efforts made to establish Sisal hemp plantations in Florida is given later. 152 A small but promising effort is being made to grow fibre at some of the Turks and Caioos Islands, and plants obtained from this source and from Florida have been introduced into most of the West Indian Colonies. A short account has been prepared mentioning most of the localities where plants of Sisal hemp are now found, and this account will afford useful material for enabling those who may wish to do so to decide as to the wisdom or otherwise of embarking in a fibre industry at the present time. At the close of the article, a statement is given of the average price per ton obtained for Sisal hemp in this country during the last l? years. YUCATAN. Information respecting the Sisal Hemp industry in Yucatan has already been given in the Kew Bullet hi for INIarch 1887. Since that time an effort has been made to obtain direct from Yucatan a repre- sentative collection of the various Agaves cultivated in that country for fibre purposes. Through the kind offices of the late Mr. Augustus Baker, Her Majesty's Consu? at Vera Cruz, a large plant with a tall stem and flowering panicle was received at Kew in May 1890. The plant was dead on arrival, but it has since been prepare! as a museum specimen, and is now deposited in Museum III. The dimensions of this plant are as follows : length of stem (below the leaves) 4 ft. ; circumference of stem 36 in.: number of leaves on stem, 50; length of leaves about 4 ft. ; breadth of leaves 3^ in. ; length of peduncle 14 ft. The branched panicle Avas received in an incomplete condition, but the total height of the plant as now existing is about 24 ft. The weight of the Avholc plant in a green state was probably not less than 2.^ to 3 cwt. The leaves have the characteristic black terminal spine, and they are furnished throughout with small black teeth about 1 inch apart. This plant belongs probably to the \ ariety clongata {Agave rigida, var. elongata). It is evident that in Yucatan the plants cultivated for fibre are largely composed of this variety. We learn, for instance, that in harvesting the leaves the Indian who cuts off the leaves is followed by an Indian woman, " who with a knife cuts off the spike or thorn- " tipped end and the thorny side of the leaf ready for the machine." In the case of leaves without teeth, such as are borne by plants of the variety sisalana, it would be only necessary to cut off the terminal spine. Hence, while the latter variety yields fibre of equal if not better quality than the variety elongata, its leaves are more easily handled, and require less treatment during the process of harvesting. In addition to the large plant received from Yucatan, there were received tv,'o lots of small plants. The first of these was received on the 31st ^lay 1890, and represented apparently about five distinct kinds. The greater part consisted of plants ol' typical A. rigida, and a good number of -/. rigida, var. sisalana. The others rejiresented forms not easily determinable in a small state. A set, with the exception of the above, has been retained at Kew, and the plants will be determined later. The others were all distributed to the Botanical Gardens at SiDga])ore, and to the Botanical Stations at Fiji and Antigua. The second lot of small plants from Yucatan arrived at Kew on December 16, 1890. On arrival there were 30 plants dead and 11 alive. The latter were, however, so small and sickly that, weakened by the cold to which they had been exposed, it Avas impossible to save them. This attempt to introduce a representative collection of Agaves from Yucatan, in 153 spite of a coasiJerablu sum paiil for expense^!, was singularly un- fortunate. It may be mentioned, however, that Merida, the hend- quaiters of the hemp industry in Yucatan, possesses only an unpaid Vice-Consul, who is but partially under the control of Her Majesty's Consul at Vera Cruz. It is due to the latter to state tliat he endeavoured to the utmost of his power to assist this establishment ; and if he had nut been so remotely phiced the result wjuld have been far more satisfactory. Very little additional information, not hitherto published, has beea received respecting the Sisal Hemp (Henequen) industry in Yucatan. The subject has already been very fully treated in the Kew Bnlletin^ and it is only necessary to add a description (with woodcut) of the method adopted for harvesting the leaves quoted n\ the Report of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, p. 25. " This is doue by the Indians, who are almost nude, with a stroke of the knife, or machete, at the rate of, for one hand, 2,000 to 2,500 leaves per day. Following the Indian Avho cuts otf the leaves is an Indian woman, who, with a knife, cuts off the spike or thorn-tipped end and the thorny side of the leaf, ready for the machine. One foreman ■was understood to say that it costs about 38 cents per 1,000 leaves to cut, prepare, and get the leaves to the cleaning machines. On all the large haciendas visited were little railways into the iields, upon -which on cars, drawn by mules or oxen, the heuequen was taken to the mill, and the waste was taken away." A Sisal Hemp Plantation in Yucatan. A«« will be seen from the above wood-cut, a Sisal Hemp plantation should be systematically laid out, and to work it economically it is desirable it should consist of a tolerably large area. It has been insisted in regard to fibre plantations in Florida " that small plantations . . " . . will not pay. A large tract is necessary for the economical " production of fibre, so that the work of cutting the leaves and 154. " shipping the fil)re may be systematically continued for the greater " part of the year." As the weight of the green leaves i3 so large in proportion to the yield of fibre, their conveyance from distant parts of the plantation to the factory must involve considerable labour and expense. For instance, if every 100 tons of green leaves Avill yield only about 2| to 3i tons of dry marketable fibre, it is evident that an immense quantity of useless jjulp has to be conveyed to the factory and disposed of as conveniently as the circumstances will admit. Fibre estates should therefore be established on moderately level ground Avhere light portable railways could be laid, or on moilerately sloping ground converging on a single point where wire ropes could be used for sliding the leaves in portable bundles to the factory. The experience gained on sugar estates in cultivating large areas in the tropics and in conveying heavy perishable material to a central point would appear to be generally applicable also to Sisal Hemp estates. As in sugar, so in Sisal Hemp, the advantage will ultimately rest with such estates as are able to leduce their working expenses to the lowest point, and comjiete successfully witii the produce of countries like Yucatan and the Philippines. The South American Journal says that " the bulk of the hencquen " grown in Yucatan is sent to Xew York, and that the export has '' grown enormou.sly. In 1878 the total value of the export from " Yucatan, as .shown Ijy the Custom House returns, did not exceed " 710,124 dols., since which period it began to attract greater attention, '' and in 1878 the figure alm<>st doubled. The following shows the " export of henequen in each year from 1878 to 1889 : — " 1878, 1,166,504 dols. ; 1879, l,287,37o dols. ; 1880, 7,49.5,467 dols.; *■' 1881, 2,284,389 dols. ; 1882, 2,672,107 dols. ; 1883, 3,311,663 dols. ; '• 1884, 4,165,020 dols. ; loSo, 3,98s,791 dols. ; 1886, 2,929,1 16 dols. ; " 1887, 3,901,628 dols. ; 1888, 6,229,460 dols. ; 1889, 6,872,593 dols." It is mentioned as a curious circumstance that the market price of the fibre in New York increased almost ^:>aW/;«M« with the increase of exports. From Messrs. Crocker's American Statistics (quoted in Messrs. Ide and Christie's Monthly Circular, dated loth January, 1892) we find that the total importations of Sisal Hemp into the United States during the years 1889-1891 were as follows :— 1889, 237,736 bales; 1890, 230.800 bales ; 1891,280,700 bales. Of the.se latter we find 10,006 bales were re-shipped to the United Kingdom. The total importations into the United Kingdom (Loudon and Liverpool), according to Messrs. Ide and Christie, were 20,296 bales. It is evident from this that the English market in regard to Sisal Hemp is comparatively small. As regards [Manihi hemp, the result is very much the same, although in the first iiistaiio«^ the bulk of ilie shipments are received in the United Kingdom. For instance, during the year 1891 there were received in the United Kingdom a total of 448,0()0 bales of Manila hemp. Of these there were re-shipped to the United States 175,919 bales, leaving 272,081 bales for consumption on this side. The total receipts of Manila hemp in the United States for 1891 (direct and via Europe) were 316,697 bales. Taking the combined consumption of Sisal and Manila hemps (known generally as " white hemps ") we find the relative quantities taken on both sides of the Atlantic to be approximatelv as follows : — • United Slates, 693,391 bales; United Kingdom, 292,377 bales. 155 Florida. It is well kuown that plants of Sisal hemp were introduced to Florida from Yucatan by Dr. Perrine in the years 183G and 1837. It is to this introduction that Florida and the adjoining Keys owe their present supply of this valuable fibre plant. In a recent Report on Fibre Investigations (No. 3, 1891) issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, Mr. Charles R. Dodge gives a detailed account of the distribution of Sisal Hemp plants in Florida, and he supplies some new and interesting facts respecting their original introduction. In illustration we quote the following paragraphs : — " Mrs. Walker informs me that the first introduction of the plant from Yucatan occurred in the years 183G and 1837, a few plants having been sent to the Royal Botanical Gardens of Cuba at the same time. Of the plants brought to Florida, part were taken to Indian Key and the others Avere planted upon ' the Indian hunting ground,' on the borders of Biscayne Bay. It is also stated that when these plants had multiplied to some extent the officers at Fort Dallas, at the mouth of the Miami River, 12 miles from this locality, were in the habit of gathering the young ones to send to greeidiouses in the north, and also to other posts, where they were grown as ornamental plants. One of the results of this practice was to intro(hice the plant into many new localities in Florida, where it soon obtained a foothold. The plants set out on Indian Key multiplied very fast, and a few years after the destruction of the enterprise, and the death of Dr. Perrine at the time of the Indian massacre, a schooner load of the young plants were gathered and taken away, though it is not stated where they went. * * * " From this first introduction of the Agave ric/ida var. sisalana into Florida the plants spread rapidly, especially on the mainland, being commonly transplanted to the gardens of the early settlers of south Florida, chiefly for the sake of ornament. * * * •' These fiacts are considered worthy of mention, as showing that while evfry other evidence of former cultivation has long since dis- appeared, the Sisal Hemp, regardless of forest fires, weeds, and neglect, stid holds its own and spreads year by year. * * * " In the remarks of Dr. Engelmann, in Appendix A., the ' Ynxci' form Ayave riyida, var. sisalana, is so fully described that there can be no doubt as to the plant that is meant. The late Dr. Parry, at one time botanist of the Department of Agriculture, found it in full bloom in February 1871, at Key West, and on the adjacent islands, and describes the leaves as 'pale green but not glaucous, 4 to 6 feet long, and 1 to ' G inches wide, generally smooth-edged, but here and there having a ' few unequal, sometimes very stout and sharp teeth.' This is the plant introduced into Floiida by Dr. Perrine, for fibre culture, and considered by Dr. Engelmann to be * the most valuable of the fibre- producing Agaves.' "This is the form that I found growing along the entire southern coast of Florida, on my recent survey, from Cape Canaveral on the easfc side, around to Charlotte Harbour on tlie west or Cnlf coast, and including many of the Keys. * * * " The most interesting tract visited along this portion of the coast was found on the point perhaps a mile below (he railroad station and wharf at Jupiter. Here I found a thicket of these Agaves, both the smooth and spined varieties, many of the plants having trhot up their 'poles' or flower stalks, which were covered with blossoms and young plants. * * * At Juno, about 10 miles farther soutli, at th" iiead of Lake 156 Worth, I found another fine nursery of perhaps 100,000 plants, the property of Mr. A. ^I. Fields, wlio ;s quite entliusiastic on the subject. i^uJly 50 per cent, of his plants are not Agave sisalana, however, but a species which was subsequently met with at many points along the east and west coast, as well as on the Keys, doubtless Agave mexkana [since determined as A, deciple/is]. At Addison's Landing, near Cutter, I found myself on the Perrine grant, though I\Tr. Addison informed me that the plants were chiefly growing on his own section. He estimates the number of old plants at about 15,000, growing without cultivation, and states that these liave de^cendeil from the comparatively few plants which were on the place 25 years ago when he first occupied the land. " The original planting, he states, was done by Mr. Charles Howe, who was associated with Dr. Perrine. He has both the spined and the smooth-leaved varieties, but makes the interesting statement that the latter ' spreads ' much faster than the former. As a matter of fact, I found plants of the spined form at this place exceedingly few and far between. * * * From this point I sailed southward, but found nothing of particular interest until Upper Metecombe Key was reached where some of the most superb plants observed on the trip were seen. In one thicket, to which it was almost imijossible to obtain access save at the expense of torn clothing and lacerated flesh, magnificent plants were .seen, where the tips of the leaves were two feet above a man's head. *• Indian Key, where Dr. Pen ine lost his life, lies just below, and beyond it is Lower Metecombe. Other Keys of the group are Lignum Yitae, Shell Key, and some lesser ones, upon all of Avliich the true Sisal Hemp ])lants are found in abundance. A very rough estimate of the old plants in this group of Keys would be a hundred thousand, though in making the estimate I have relied largely upon the statements of the intelligent Bahamians living upon them. ^ * * Superb plants Avere examined by me at Fort Myers, on the C'aloosahatchie River, and at other points, though there were no such thickets as seen on the Keys.'' Bahamas. The progress made in extending the cultivation of Sisal Hemp in the Bahamas has been already duly noticed in the Kew Bulletin. In a recent report published by Mr. James M. Kae. and quoted in the Bulletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, \o. 24, Ocrober 1891, it is stated that 12 months ago there were 4,199 acres of land in the Bahamas planted with Sisal Hemp, and the aggregate number of plants actually put out was over two millions and a half. In addition to this it was ettimaled that there were over one million and a quarter plants in nursery beds ; and from root suckers and bulbils (called pole plants) there would be available during the ensuing six months about two million plants more. According to this estimate the total number of Sisal plants actually existing in the Bahamas at the close of the year 1891 woidd not be far short of.^ix millions. The disti-ibution of the various Sisal Hemp plantations, and the methods of oultivation pursued in the Bahamas are described in the following extracts : — "The people of Abaco, Harbour Island, Long Island, Bum Cay, Exuma, and (irand Bahama, where the largest number of Sisal jjlauts are met with, have for m^ny years p.ist been in the habit of making a small quantity of rope for home use, from the fibre they extracted from 157 the leaf of the Sisal by the primitive method of bruising and macera- tion. " In Abaco are the * headquarters ' of the Sisal industry ; for it is on this island, and some of its adjacent cays that the largest cultivations in the colony exist. Beginning at Hole- in-the-'\Y all, Mr. J. S. Johnson, * * * has 200 acres planted with 130,000 plants, some of which, planted two years ago, have leaves over 3 feet long. Mr. Johnson has also two other cultivations on Abaco, namely, one at East Creek, Little Harbour, of 25 acres, with 21,000 plants, and another at Witch Point of 60 acres, with 31,200 plants. Cotton is being planted between the rows of Sisal. *' The Bahama Fibre Co., Limited, of which Mr. Abbot is the manager, has a field of 150 acres at Broad Creek with 73,000 plants, and another field of 108 acres at Joe Creek, with 62,000 plants. Tiiese two fields also contain 264,000 nursery plants. In addition to these the company has purchased a cu'tivatiou at Sweeting's Village, and another at Great Guano Cay, both of which were planted some years ago, and are yielding thousands of pole plants (bulbils) as well as a large number of suckers. "Cherokee Sound has confined itself mostly to nursery planting, and I saw several thousands of such plants growing about this settlement. *' The Munro Fibre Company, managed by Mr. T. Trumble, com- menced planting in August 1889, and now have 1,100 acres planted at Cocoa Plum Creek, with 654,000 plants, and 10 acres at Black Sound, with 7,000 plants. In addition to the field plants, there are also about 300,000 plants in nurseries. " The company intend to plant their fields with cotton between the Sisal, and I understood Mr. Trumble to say that seed for this purjjose had already been received from one of the southern States of America. The company has also a factory at Black Sound, in which there are five of Death & Ellwood's machines worked by a 15 horse-power steam engine. These have been employed in cleaning Sisal leaves pui'chased from persons who have full-grown plants. The yield of cleaned fibre was ascertained to be about 4 per cent., but I could not help being struck w ith the large proportion of fibre that was wasted in the process. There can be no doubt that, with the improved machinery which the demand must necessarily cause to be produced, the per-centage of cleaned fibre will be largely augmented. *' At Marsh Harbour * # * is the handsomest Sisal field I have seen. This was planted by Mr. Benjamin E. Roberts two years ago, and contains 140 acres, with 107,000 plants. * * * There were at least 25,000 suckers then in the field, and Mr. Roberts assured me that he had already removed 47,000 suckers. This field was being planted with dwarf cotton between the Sisal. " At Hope Town, Mr. Thomas Russell, * * * has about 2(/,000 plants, some of which have been growing half a dozen years, and from these he expects to gather 100,100 pole plants (bulbils) this year, in addition to a large number of suckers. *' Another gentleman of the same name, now residing in Nassau, has a very fine nursery at Black Sound, containing many thousands of young plants. * * * '''^Propagation. — The plant is propagated in two ways, namely, from the young plants furnished by the pole (bulbils), and the suckers which are thrown out from the roots. On the plant reaching maturity, a pole 15 to 20 feet in height grows out from its centre, ou which a number of blossoms appear borne on arms which extend laterally from the 158 upper part of the pole. In about six months after the appearance of the pole, bulbils that develop into young plants appear, varying in length from 2 to 4 inches, and in number from 1,000 to 2,500, and occasionally more. They are then gathered and set out 8 or 9 inches apart each way in nursery beds. In six months they will attain a growth of 8 to 12 inches, and thoy may then be transferred to the field. " Suckers are plants which grow out from the roots of the parent plant, and in congenial soil are produced in 12 to ] 8 months. From this time, on to the third or fourth year, they appear in great numbers, many plants producing as many as 20 to 30 suckers during that period ; after this they begin to decrease, untill they finally cease to appear. " With respect to the taking up and planting of suckers, I think it well, having regard to the speedy production of new plants, to call attention to a method which I have seen practised with very satisfactory lesults, viz., in removing a sucker from the parent plant, instead of cutting or bi'eaking off the sucker only, to ujiroot entirely the white shoot at the end of which it is growing, and cut that ofP as near the parent trunk as possil'le. This shoot will be found to be jointed like a sugar cane. Atter the removal of the sucker, the shoot is cut up into lengths of two or three joints. Tlie?e bits are then planted in nursery beds, and ia a short tiiiu- each bit will proocM>«e»^, 30, dated Washington, March 12th, 1838 ; and in the Jieport of the Agri- cultural Department at Washington for the year 1869. We gather further particulars from Mr. Charles E. Dodge's Report on Fibre Investigations, No. 3, 1891, recently issued by the same Department. Mrs. Walker, Dr. Perrine's surviving daughter, states that the general planting of the Perrine grant (in accordance with the conditions imposed by the Government) occurred in 1846. For this purpose 36 families of Bahamas people were to be brought over to Florida " to go upon *' the land to fulfil the condition of a settler upon each section. The " men came over to build their hou.-es and plant their gardens prepara- *' tory to bringing over their families, when they were driven or " frightened aAvay by the Indians, and could not be induced to return. " It was about this time that the Agave was planted upon each section." After the death of Dr. Perrine and the practical abandonment of the plantations, the Agave plants spread rapidly^ and they were transplanted GA'erywhere in gardens by the early settlers for the sake of ornament, and possibly also to make hedges. It is also mentioned by Mrs. Walker that a schooner load of young plants was gathered and taken away but it is not stated where they went. The natural inference is that they Avere taken somewhere to the south, as it Avas found that they would not grow much further north than the spot originally intended by Dr. Perrine. In 1871, the late Dr. Parry found the Agaves in Florida, and he describes them as having " pale-green but not glaucous leaves, 4 to 6 feet " long, 4 to 6 inches wide, generally smooth-edged, but here and thei'e I(i0 ** having a few unequal, sometimes very stout and sharp teeth." This description exactly agrees with that of Agave rig Ida, var. sisalana, Perriiie. The plants were then widely distributed at Key AVest and the adjacent coast. They have lately (1891) been carefully examined again by Mr. Charles Dodgo, with the result already given. As the islands of the Bahamas are adjacent to southern Florida, and there was regular intercourse between the two places about the time of the introduction of the Agave plants, it was only natural to assume that the Agave now so abundant in the Bahamas had l)een originally introduced from Florida. They had found in the southern islands a warmer aiid more equable climate and had spread rapidly throughout the Archipelago. This view has, however, been strongly contested by Sir William Hobinson, K.C M.G.. formerly Governor of the Bahamas, in the Agricultural Record of Trinidad, January 1891, p. 6. According to his Excellency's view, the Sisal Hemp plant was introduced to the Bahamas by the late Mr. C. Ncsbitt, a former Colonial Secretary, who *' forty-five years ago, viz., in 1845, procured from Sisal, Yucatan, a " few hundred plants of this Agave and had them set out at his country " residence three miles from Nassau." Further " Mr. Nesbitt was " much struck with the vigour of the plants when grown in New " Providence ... In 1851 he reduced a great number of the *' leaves of this plant into fibre and placed samples of them in the " Nassau Museum. At the same time he sent specimens of them to '* England, and received very favourable replies in regard to their value " from London." Whether the whole of the Sisal plants now growing in the Bahamas have been derived from those first introduced by Mi". Nesbitt it is now impossible to say. It is evident, however, that this gentleman was fully aware of their economic value, and he deserves great credit for the steps he took to bring them iato notice. The date of Mr. Nesbitt's introduction of Sisal plants into the Bahamas is given by ^ir William Robinson as 1845. This would be about eight years after their first introduction into Florida by Dr. Perrine and about the time the Bahamians were engage:! upon the Perrine grant to establish regular plantations. This latter fact may or may not have a bearing upon the question. There is, however, another point worthy of consideration, and it is this : the chief variety of Agave rigida cultivated for fibre in Yucatan is apparently not the Florida and Bahamas plant, but one with glaucous leaves and armed with teeth. This is the form nearly always described as glowing on Sisal plantations in Yucatan, and plants of this are almost invariably brought from Y^ucatan as the true thing. The plant, with smootii leaves and of a pale green colour, was specially selected by Dr. Perrine from his personal acquaintance with it, Mhile Consul for many years at Campeachy. If Mr. Nesbitt also obtained this particular variety for the Bahamas tlirect from Y'ucatan without the special knowledge of its occurrence there, possessed by Dr. Perrine, the circumstance is a singular coin- cidence. In the meantime, however, while we accept the claims so ably put forth by Sir William Robinson on behalf of ^Ir. Nesbitt, and trust that further investigation will confirm the fiict that these islands owe to a Bahamas man the introduction of a plant which is calculated to produce so great an infiuence upon their future prosperity, the probability is that the plants now in the Bahamas were originally obtained both from Florida as well as through the intelligent efforts of Mr. Nesbitt. 161 Turks and Caicos Islands, These islands were once included under the Bahamas, to which group they geographically belong. At present they are under the Government of Jamaica. in the report of a visit made by tlie Commissioner of Turks Island to Lorimers on Middle or Grand Caicos in July 1889, he states : — " Shortly after sunrise on the morning of the 10th instant I started to walk to Bonrbarra, about four miles distant, and on the Avay there I visited the Pita plantations which have been established by Mr. Alfred Stubbs, of Cockburn Harbour. This gentleman, whose grandfather was the last slave-owner on the Caicos, who.se hou.se still stands, OAvns not less than seven to eight thousand acres on this Lsland (Grrand Caicos) alone, and he is by slow degrees bringing portions of this under cultivation in fibre plants. His system has been to lease his land to the ' farmers ' (or ' planters ' as they call themselves) at the rate of about two dollars per acre per annum, under the condition of their planting so many Pita plants each year. As the land they hold gets gradually taken up by the plants, the planters move further afield. " By these means he has succeeded in getting not less than 300 acres planted out, about half of which is now fit for cutting. His plants are placed too close to each other, and have not been kept clean, but they are strong and in good condition, and would furnish leaves from 3 to 4 feet long. Some plants that I saw in the village enclosures, which had received proper attention, were much finer, the leaves being stout and well-coloured and not less than 4^ feet long. " The fibre plants planted out by Mr. Stubbs are, I believe, the true '' pita' [Specimens have since been received at Kew, and they are undoubtedly Agave rigicla, var. sisalanaV\ They are exactly similar to those found in Florida and the Bahamas. They have but one thorn, and that at the end of the leaf. They have all been grown from imported plants. * * * " The people are most anxious to start fibre cultivation on their own account, but I could not advise them to do so, until I can see my way to ensuring a sale for their leaves, as of course they could not buy machinery for tliem.selves. Although the Government have but little land in that district fit for provision farms, they have about 2,000 acres fit for Pita, most of which is in excellent position for affording water carriage. This land I shall carefully preserve for the Lorimers' people, in case 1 am able to induce some persons here to form a company and import the necessary machinery." The further development of a fibre industry at the Caicos Islands has been already fully described. It appears that at West Caicos Pita plants in good condition were found growing in the bush. The manager of a fibre company (lately formed) had land in an advanced state of preparation for planting purposes, and he hoped in October (1890) to set out plants of which upwards of 200,000 were already in hand. At East Caicos (Breezy Point) there were 15,000 to 20,000 acres suitable for Pita cultivation, and some 200 acres have been already cleared. Jamaica. As might be naturally expected, there has been considerable effort made to introduce plants of Sisal hemp for experimental trial in Jamaica. The Governor of Jamaica, Sir Henry Blake, has taken a deep interest in the matter, and land has been established with fibre plants adjoining the Hope Gardens. The plants, numbering over U 77554. I, 162 20,000, have made good progress, and the Director of the Botanical Department is in a position to siqjply suckers on a large scale to those anxious to start a fibre industry. There are large tracts of level and accessible lands in the plains of Jamaica suitable for growing Sisal hemp, and if the people had taken note of these circumstances some 8 or 10 years ago, they would have been aide to take advantage of the recent high prices for white rope fibres, and have realised some share of the fortunes which have fallen to the people of Yucatan. At the present time the circumstances have greatly altered, and the advice given by Mr. Fawcett in regard to caution being necessary before em- barking, at this late hour, upon a Sisal Hemp industry on a large scale is probably correct. In two or three years' time the extensive plantations in tlie Bahamas will be sending their produce to the market, and this, in conjunotiou with the expected increased returns from Yucatan, must tend to lower prices, unless something very unexpected occurs to create a greatly increased demand for Sisal Hemp. The steps taken to obtain Sisal Hemp plants for Jamaica are detailed in the following exti-act from the Annual Report of the Botaijical Department for the year 1889 : — " Sisal Hemp, — There is considerable demand in the island for plants of Sisal Hemp. Three years ago I tried to obtain a supply of plants from Yucatan, but the planters there are so anxious to have a monopoly of a trade which brings them large fortunes that only through a special request from the Colonial Secretary to the British Vice-Consul at Progrcso was I enabled to secure one dozen plants of the kind under ordinary cultivation {Agave rigida, var. elongata). " Another variety {Agave rigida, var. sisalana), which is without the teeth on the edges of the leaves, has for some years been growing in the Bahamas, where it was probably introduced from Florida. A specimen of the fil)re was shown at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition (1886) by his Excellency Sir Henry Blake, then Governor of the Bahamas. From a test that was made in the railway workshop by Mr. L. Mackinnon on this fibre extracted by Kennedy's machine, it appeared that it is at least as valuable as any fibre previously tested, and moreover, the leaves being without spines on the edges, are cheaper to work np. The Government of the Bahamas had forbidden the export of this plant (called ' Pita ') for a period of three years, l)ut fortunately it has been found possible to get more than 20,000 plants from Turks Island, and a plantation has been formed at Hope Garden. Mr. Stoddart has superintended the planting. It is ex- pected that it will be found possiljle to import a considerable number of this variety of the plant, and several applications have 1)een received from planters for supplies of suckers. Considering that the price of Sisal Ileraphas (recently) fallen from 53/. per ton to 271., caution should be exorcised in the investment of capital in the enterprise. I should hesitate to recommend its cultivation in any soil which is not suitable to it, and at the same time worthless for other cultivation." A later account of the Sisal Hemp plants at Jamaica is given in the Bulletin of the Botanical Department for October 1891, p. 15 : — " In order to encourage the planting of Sisal in Jamaica, the Govern- ment has imported lately from Florida 25,000 plants of the same variety as grows in the Bahamas. This is in addition to over 51,000 ah-eady supplied to planters, and to over 20,000 planted in the Hope Gardens. * * It is thus possible for any one to obtain a few plants for experiment at a very small expense, or in large quantities for laying the foundation of future fibre farms. * * * " 163 British Honduras. As might he expected from the close contiguity of this colony to Yucatan — the two countries being, in fact, only separated from each other by the River Hondo — plants of the hcncquen, or Sisal Hemp, are fairly common in British Honduras. Some experimental plantations have already been established in the northern parts of the colony, in the neighbourhood of Corosal, where the climate very closely resembles that of Yucatan. Quite recently Sir Alfred Moloney, with that enterprising spirit Avhich has always characterised him in dealing with the resources of any colony with which he is ofBcially connected, has forAvarded to Kew specimens of leaves of two sorts of henequen, and of the fibre locally prepared from them. The specimens were labelled respectively "Yaxci or Henequen verde (green henequen) ; " and " Sacci (Sacqui) or Henequen bianco (white henequen)." Both sortH were a^jpareutly varieties of Agave rigida, and referable to what is known at Kew as Agave rigida, var. elongata. The fibre prepared from these leaves arrived in a somewhat soiled and damp condition owing to the fact that it had been packed Avith the green leaves, which had fermented in transit. The report made on this fibre by Messrs. Ide and Christie, dated 17th December 1891, is nevertheless of a satisfactory character : — " AYe have been favoured with your note of the loth instant with regard to the specimens of henequen fibre from British Honduras. We do not make much diilerence, commercially, between the white and green sorts. Both are very good style of fibre, quite of the Sisal Hemp character, and they would be readily saleable todaj'^ in London at 20/. to 21/. per ton. "SYe think it should be possible to prepare them of a better colour, and with this accomplished a somewhat higher price might be obtainable. As we have mentioned in previous communica- tions, colour is of importance in all so-called ' white hemps.' Although up to the pi'esent only small lots of Bahamas Sisal have come to this market, the colour and preparation have, as a rule, been excellent, and producers in British Honduras should likewise give them every attention." Trinidad. The following account of the introduction of Sisal Hemp plants to Trinidad is given in the Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Trinidad, for the year 1891, p. 14. " Fibres. — Agave rigida, var. sisalana. — During the year we obtained from Messrs. Reasoner Bros., of Manatee, Florida, 10,000 bulbils of this plant, and 2,000 from another source. Of this number 7,700 have been distributed to various applicants. The remainder, deducting usual losses, are still at the gardens. " One thousand plants requisitioned by Tobago, and two thousand sent to the Convict Depot, are included in the above numbers. *' The plants arrived in splendid order in the form of small bulbils, i.e., small plants without roots. They were placed in beds close together for convenience of culture, and as soon as properly rooted were trans- planted at a wider distance, whore they have thriven remarkably well. This is the plant which (it would appear from all accounts) is now being cultivated so largely in the Bahamas, and from which such ' great expectations ' arise." WiNDAVAKD ISLAKDS. A good deal of interest has been shown by the Governor-in-Chief, Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson, in the introduction of plants of Sisal Hemp to the Windward Islands. L 2 164 At the Grenada Botanical Station, the Curator, in a Bulletin (No. 9, September 1891), states that "there are in cultivation about 2 acres of Sisal Hemp. These were planted out accordinj; to Stoddart's method, viz., 12 feet between rows, and 10 feet in the rows, on a rocky hill- side facing the west, and therefore fully exposed to the i'uu. For the sake of experiment, to half of this cultivation light shade has been given by jilanting a row of corn between the rows of Sisal Hemp, and it is worthy of notice that the plants so shaded have made far Greater progress than those Avithont shade. It would seem, therefore, ..hat although the Sisal Hemp plant maybe extiemely hardy, and require no shade in its native habitat, or in those islands where it has fairly become naturalized, yet in introducing its cultivation lo these islands it is rather an advantage to give the plant alight shade, at any 'rate during the first few months of its growth." In the Report of he Curator of the Botanical Station at St, Vincent, dated the 1st Augu.st 1890, it is stated that " two thousand plants of " Sisal Hemp (presumably Agave rigida, var. sisalana) have been " received from Florida. One hundred and thirty of these were found " on arrival to be perfectly useless, and 1,600 were distributed. The '• remaining 270 were retained for the Botanic Gardens, where tiie " largest plants were placed in the most suitable ground at my disposal, " the rest being planted in nui'sery beds, whence later on they "will be *' transplanted." In connexion with introduction of plants of Sisal hemp to St. "Vincent, it may be mentioned that in August 1890, Mr. J. H. Hart, F.L.S., Superintendent of the Botanical Gardens, Trinidad, drew attention to the existence of an Agave in St. Vincent, in the neighbour- hood of Calliaqua, very similar to what may be regarded as the wild state of Agave rigida. It was furnished with teeth and it yielded very good fibre. Specimens of this plant are now under cultivation at Kew. It is evidently closely allied to the Sisal Hemp plants, but the leaves are short, and seldom exceed H to 2 feet in length. The habit of the plant closely resembles that of A. c.vcelsa, Jacobi. On account of the shortness of the leaves, and the occurrence of teeth, this plant is not likely to be in large demand as a fibre plant in any locality where the very long leaved and unarmed /j^Yrt of the Bahamas and Florida (Agave rigida, var. sisala)ia) is obtainable. The St. Vincent Agave has also been noticed at Barbados, and probably it will be found in others of the West Indian islands. In the Keport of the Curator of the Botanical Station at St. Lucia for the year 1890, it is stated that " with the view of forwarding the *' establishment of a fibre industry in the island, the Government " undertook the importation of 5,000 plants of Sisal Hemp {Agave ** rigida,yav. sisalajia) from Florida. They arrived in good condition, " and were at once planted in nursery beds to gain strength before the " final planting out. Of tliese plants about 700 have been already sold, " find ordei's have been booked for immediate execution ; one for 1,000 " plants and the other for 600 plauts." South Europe. Various varieties of yi/7«t"e n'y/V7« are found in tlie south of Europe and especially in the gardens of the Kiviera. They are grown chiefly as ornamental plants, but large quantities of suckers and bulbils would no doubt be available if they were required for distribution to other countries. These plants have recently been studied on the spot by Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., keeper of the herbarium and library at Kew, 165 and a note upon them was given in the Kew Bulletin for January 1892, p. 4, which is reproduced below : — *' Agave rigida. Miller. This is the most valuable and most variable of all the Agaves, It is common and quite at home in the Riviera gardens and flowering freely. I had an opportunity of studying its character and range of variation far better than I had ever done before, and of seeing several forms with which I was not previously acquainted. The commonest forms on the Riviera show the characteristic small distant nearly black teeth, and agree very well with what have been described and figured as A. Ixtli and A. Lrtlioides (Bot. Mag. t. 5893). In Dr. Hern's garden, situated just on the French side of the boundary gorge at St. Louis, I saw a form with leaves much thicker than usual (1-^ in. thick at the base) and forming a less dense ro.sette. The plants called A. CanUda and A. Rumphii in the Riviera gardens are forms of A. rigida. Mr. Hanbury has just flowered a spineless form that agrees very well with the variety sisalana of Yucatan and Florida. I am quite satisfied now that A. Houlletii, Jacobi, is nothing more than undeveloped sisalana, and the same holds good with a plant called A. Icevis. One panicle of this species atLaMortola was producing copious bulbils. The peduncle, including the rhomboid panicle, does not reach a greater height than 12-15 feet. The bract leaves, like those of Agave americana, are small and distant as compared with those of A. atrovirens." Mr. Baker expresses the opinion that Agave Icevis, Todaro (not brevis as given in the Handbook of Amaryllidece), a plant of Avhich he found under that name at La Mortola is probably typical Agave rigida, var. sisalana. A fine photograph of this was recently sent to Kew by Dr. Todaro which is now in the Kew Herbarium. Agave Candela- brum, 'J'oduro, may on further acquaintance prove to be Agave rigida, var. elongatu. West Africa. In April 1890, there were received, through the Colonial Ollice, specimens of leaves of an Agave from Sherbro in the colony of Sierra Leone, West Africa, known locally by the rather singular name of " Wild Sarsaparilla." The leaves were evidently those of one of the numerous forms of Agave rigida. They had small, distant, black teeth, and the terminal spine so characl eristic of the species. The leaves were thin and rigid in texture and of a glaucous green colour. It is evident from this that Sisal Hemp planis have already been introduced into some parts of West Africa. The local name Wild Sarsapai-illa cannot easily be accounted for. The thin long roots of some Aroidese, somewhat resembling those of Sniilax, have been exported from the West Indies as Sarsaparilla, but this is the first time that the name has been associated witli any species of Agave. It is possible that introduced plants of Agave rigida may be found in other West African Colonies if they were specially looked for. Their presence so far is interesting as showing how widely difl'used many new world plants have become even in the less accessible parts of the old. East Indies. The species oi Agave hitherto yielding commercial fibre in the East Indies have proved to be either A. americana or A. vivipara. Investi- gations undertaken by Kew during the last three years have shown that the Bombay (Aloe) fibre, of which an account is given later, is prepared from Agave vivipara, L. (A. Cantula, Roxb.) This fibre is almost unsaleable at the present time, and is quoted (January 15th, 1 892) at 4*. to 11*. per ton. The stock at Liverpool is given at 5,136 bales. 1G6 Plants of the species above-meutioued, received through the India Office, are now growing in the Kew collections. jNIanila aloe fibre (to be dis- tinguished from the Avell-known Manila hemp prepared from Musa text'dis) is also a])parently prepared from Agave v/vijjara. This is quoted (January 15th, 1892) at lis, to \6s. per ton. Specimens of leaves of the plant yielding this iibre were lately received from Mr. Alexander Gollan, Her Majesty's Consul at Manila, and the above determination was confirmed. Fibre from Agave americana is prepared for local use both in India and elsewhere in the East Indies. It is probable that Agave rigida exists only here and there as garden specimens, and we are not aware of the occurrence of the unarmed Sisal plant Agave rigida, var. sisalu)ia anywhere in the east. Plants of this have lately been distributed in small quantities from Kew to the Botanical Gardens at Calcutta^ Madras, Singapore, Ceylon, and Mauritius. Recently about 1,000 plants were forwarded frouj Kew to the Botanical Gardens at Calcutta, and the Government of India has since taken steps to obtain a larger quantity for experimental trial in difi'crent parts of India. Fiji. At the request of the Governor, Sir John Thurston, who is keenly interested in the development of new industries in this remote British possession, plants of the various species of Agave yielding fibre have been forwarded for cultivation at the Botanical Station at Suva. In spite of the long time necessarily occupied in transit by way of Sydney, the plants have arrived in good order, and the reports received of their growth is very satisfactory. Fibre Machines. Until very recently the only inachine in use in Yucatan was a clumsy affair stated to be a native invention, called a " raspador." Rude as this piece of mechanism is, it is said that a native will clean 20 leaves a minute with it, though with a considerable per-centage of Avaste of fibre. Whilst the raspador ia said to have been superseded on spme plantation?, it is more or less generally used at the present time for extracting the immense quantities of Sisal Hemp exported. The average work of one machine is claimed to be 7,000 leaves per day with two feeders or operatives. i Yucatan " Raspador" Fibre Machine. 167 The above is a representation of one of the Yucatan machines taken from tlie Report of the Department of Agriculture, U.S.A. ['No. 3, 1891.] The following description of it is quoted by Mr. Charles Richard Dodge : — " It is simply a wheel, like a 4-foot pulley, 6-incli face, with pieces of brass an inch square, and 6 indies long, running across the face about a foot apart. This wheel runs in a heavy wooden case. When working well it makes about 110 revolutions a minute. The leafisputin through a small hole in the case, and being held by a strong clamp, is allowed to whip downward as the wheel moves around. A heavy block, like the brake of a car-wheel is, by lever, brought to bear on the leaf, pressing it again=t the revolving wheel. In a second the pulp is crushed and thrown into a pit under tlie wheel, and the fibre is drawn back, one half of the leaf being cleaned quicker than one can follow the motions. The leaf is reversed, and the other end cleaned in the same manner." In the Bidletin of the Botanical Department, Jamaica, July 1891, a report is published of the results of experiments with the Weicher fibre machine at Jamaica. The machine was driven by steam power, and it required four persons to feed it and remove the fibre. Amongst the leaves cleaned were those of the Sisal Homp plants, Agave riyida, var. elongata and Agave rigida, var. sisahina. The results may be briefly summarised as follows : 115 leaves (weighing 185 pounds) were cleaned in 17 minutes. These yielded wet fibre weighing 20| pounds, and dry fibi*e weighing 8j pounds. The out-turn of dry fibre per day of 10 hours would thus be about 291 pounds. At the Bahamas an American machine known as the iUbee Smith fibre-cleaning machine Avas lately tried. An account given by the United States Consul at Kassau, dated July 10th, 1891, states that: — " Considerable difficulty was experienced in getting the machine to run properly, owing to the fact that the steam plant used was defective, aud the pulley and belts were not of the proper size, width, &c. But, despite these drawbacks, the operation of the machine was said to be decidedly satisfactory, and nearly all present were of opinion that, under proper conditions, the machine would very easily do all that was claimed for it, and that it was a most valuable improvement over all other machines in use in the colony. The new machine is entirely automatic. It grips the leaves continuously as fast as the operators can supply them, holds them firmly during the operation of cleaning, and delivers the fibre completely and beautifully cleaned at the further side. No reversing of the leaves or any part of the machinery is re- quired. The operator simply supplies the leaves, and the machine does the rest. It is said to be capable of cleaning 50,000 leaves a day, extracting therefrom 3,000 lbs. of fibre." It will be noticed that the exact returns are not here given. Those claimed for the machine by the makers are evidently purely conjectural, and, having regard to the tested results of other fibre machines, it is impossil)le to attach any importance to them. Numerous other fibre machines have been brought before the public during I'ecent years. Some of these are of undoubted merit, but it is evident that the expectations of cultivators of Agave plants have not yet been fully met. The conditions existing in Yucatan, where clumsy and wasteful machines have hitherto been adopted with apparent success, are of a peculiar character. Labour there is so cheap that cultivators can afford to carry on the industry under circumstances entirely unsuited to other parts of the world. Numerous improvements have, 168 however, beeu lately made in English and American machines, and: there are good grounds for believing that the problem will be ultimately solved. The point requiring special attention is to ensure continuous action in feeding the leaves to the machine, and so save the time and trouble of reversing the leaves before the whole length can be cleaned. The automatic feeding attached to some machines whereby the leaves are presented sideways may accomplish this, but so far such an arrange- ment has not been tested for a sufficient time to judge of its practic- ability. The urgent demand which will soon be felt in the Bahamas for a satisfactory means of utilising the extensive fibre plantations established in those islands will call forth strenuous efforts on the part of those iuttirested in the subject. At Zvlauritius a machine for extracting the fibre cf Furcrcea gigantea has been in use for some years, and it appears to give satisfactory results. This is fully described later. The labour in Mauritius is chiefly supplied by Indian coolies. Market Value of Sisal Hemp. In view of the largely increased production of Sisal Hemp in. Yucatan, and the extensive planting which is taking place in the Bahamas, Turks Islands, Florida, and other places, it may be useful to review the prices which have been realised by Sisal Hemp of good quality in this country during the last 10 or 15 years. By the courtesy of Messrs. Ide and Christie, fibre brokers, of 72, Mincing Lane, E.G., we are in a position to place on record the average prices per ton of Sisal Hemp in the London and Liverpool markets for every month during the last 13 years from 1879 to 1891, both inclusive. The table attached speaks for itself. It may, however, be useful to point out that the price per ton has T)een as low as 17/. lo*. (in January 1886), and in March 1891 it rose as high as 56/. 10*. These are the minimum and maximum prices respectively during a period of 13 years. The average prices for each of the 13 years, beginning with 1879, are as follows :— 24/. ; 27/.; 28/.; 28/.; 27/.; 21/.; 19/.: 21/.; 33/.; 37/. 50/. ; 30/. ; 26/. The average price for the whole period is 28/. 10*. nearly. Prices ruled highest during the year 1889, when the average price was 50/. per ton. During the year 1891 the average price was 26/. per ton, or nearly one half of what it was two years previously in 1889. The last return issued by Messrs. Ide and Christie, dated the 15th January 1892, quotes Sisal Hemp, spot value, at 23/. 15*. per ton. The market report is, " Sisal has again fluctuated, but closes at the " top, and 2/. per ton higher than when we last noticed." It is evident that the market value of Si.sal Hemp has shown considerable fluctuation of late years. It has already been shown that the bulk of the Sisal Hemp produced in Yucatan is shipped to the United vStates. The price paid for Sisal Hemp in the New York market during the last 13 years is therefore necessary before we can take a complete view of the Sisal Hemp industry for that period. So far we can only give returns of prices in the United States, published on the 31st December 1891, for the last three years as follows : — 1889, 8| cents per pound (40/. per ton) ; 1890, 6 cents to 6\ cents (nominal) (28/. to 29/. per ton); 1891, 4^ cents to 4| cents (20/. to 20/. 10*. per ton). In the meantime the complete returns kindly placed at our disposal in regard to Sisal Hemp in this country cannot fail to be of service : — . 169 00 O oi 00 m C3 o H O < *; 05 tfl 00 «+l 00 l> 00 00 «o 09 t~ CO CI CI I.H CI CI " ^ c^ N CI CI CI CI CI CI CI CI CI CI »n d I-H o» 00 =rt 5 00 CI 00 «o to lO t^ CO CI OT CO " CO CO Oi CI CI CI CI CI CI CO CI «■ <=> C' oi oc 00 srt <=> N to CO CO CTl 10 IC ^ >X5 "TJ lO ■*! •0 iO lO -^ -f »; oo' 00 l^ 00 =*{ <^ CO t^ 00 CI c« en o» lO CO *"* ro CO CO CO CO CO CI •0 CO CO -o< -* c,- t-I 00 CO 00 =4J t- 00 00 r~i CI CO 1:^ C5 CO " 00 CI ^ CI CI w CI C5 CI CI CI CI CO CI CI «; 00 00 00 «rt 00 t^ 05 OS a> t^ to CO l> 00 CI N CI CI CI CI CI d CI CI CI CI CI «; ^ 6 r-t f— * t— " r-i »-H 00 at CjJ (M CI 05 OS to CO CO ■<*< lO iO »f5 CI '^ CO CO CI c< CI CI CI CI CI CI CI CI ^ c ^ oi r- t^ •*! 00 «rt " CO CI i-H »-H CI CI M< CO »o 05 Cl CI *"* ^ C) CI CI CI CI CI CI CI CI CI CO 1 ' ' 1 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 1 "«S 1 ■ . . 1 1 . 1 . 1 ' . 1 « U) be ,5 eS ^ v 1 (» s p-^ t? t-, h a < R CS ►-5 5 c« 33 a 3 3 SB 3 a a; 72 u a 4) 170 L.— SISAL HEMP IN THE BAHAMAS. [K. B., 1892, pp. 141-143.] The following interesting account of the fibre industry in the Bahamas has been recently communicated to Kew by his Excellency Sir Ambrose Shea, K.C.M.G., Governor of the Bahamas : — Sir Ambrose Shea, K.C.M.G., to Royal Gardens, Ke"w. Govei-nment House, Bahamas, Dear Sir, April 11, 1892. I HAVE asked the Crown Agents to order in the meantime six copies of the Kew Bulletin for this Government, and T have notified parties Avishing to become subscribers that I will have their orders forwarded. I notice you give a good deal of attention to our fibre cultivation. It is really a most promising enterprise and I believe will financially realise all reasonable expectations. It will not become what is called a boom, for the pi'oduction is necessarily a gradual movement, but as far as the future of the industry can be inferred from experience and existing facts, the calculations of its progress and value may be made with an unusual degree of certainty, so stable are its general conditions. The growth of the plant is unfailing, it being proof against drought uud evexy known adverse influence. It matures fully in four years and then yields 10 or 12 annual crops without further cultivation. The fibre is of unsurpassed excellence, and a recent experiment shows that it takes a dye readily, and eminent fibre merchants in London have informed me that they only desire to be assured that they can depend on a supply. Such a state of facts is full of promise for the future prosperity of the colony. The export is now beginning, and the whole for the year will be from 150 to 200 tons. There will be an increasing quantity in the succeeding years, and a careful estimate places the output at 14,000 tons in 1900. At the low price of 20/. a ton this would give an ex]>ort of 280,000/. which, added to the normal export of the colony (130,000/.), makes 410,000/. eight years hence (to which the intervening years will be a steady approach), and we thus have in view a production more than three times of any in the experience of the colony. But there is no reason why it should rest here, and it can be predicted with as much safety as can belong to any forecasts into the future that in ten years of the new century the industry will have reached a result of 50,000 tons, the value of which can be readily seen. In thess estimates I have taken due account of the competition which this colony has stimulated by its entei'prise, and the price I have named will .satisfy dealers in the article that I am urder the influence of all necessary restraint in this respect. I do not think many cf our imitators Avill be succ-es.sful, for it requires special combined conditions of soil and climate to produce such a fibre as ours, and in a spirit of self defence, the Legislature has extended for five years an Act now three years in existence, which prohibits the export of fibre plants from the colony. This must affect the competition Avhich has been spoken of, for some of the places in question had been relying on supplies of plants from our growers when the first prohibitory law should have expired. The cultivation in Florida has been proposed, but this is not seriously considered by us. The plant is inferior, wages much more than double what is paid here, and there is a well-known liability to frost, which is 171 fatal to fibre growth. As far as the best informed judgmeut can at present be a guide, we have no grounds for apprehension that our position can be seriously disturbed, or tliat in any conceivable conditions in the future the fibre cultivation in this colony will be placed below the limits of profitable adventure. The Government have restricted for ten years the amount of Crown allotments to 100,000 acres, which embraces the maximum product of 50,000 tons I have referred to. These allot- ments have been w'idely distributed to secure for the largest possible number of the people the advantage of employment, and a disturbance of the labour market is also guarded against. One of the many attractions of this remarkable industry is in the fact that strikes are all but im- possible, for they will have no plausible basis. The crop may remain unharvested for months without injuiy, and the good sense of the people may be safely relied on to recognise this fact, and also to make them feel, as they now do, that men of means coming to the colony to engage in its fortunes are its best benefactors, and this is being brought home to them by the improvement in their condition arising from the operations in which capitalists have ah-eady engaged. I am, &c. (Signed) A. Suea. LI.— SISAL CULTIVATION IN THE SAHAMAS. [K. B., 1892, pp. 189-190.] The following further information respecting the Sisal Hemp or Pita cultivation in the Bahamas is given in the Governor's Report on the Blue Book for the year 1891 (Colonial Reports, No. 44, 1892) :— " Fibre cultivation makes very satisfactory progress, and there are now about 8,000 acres planted out. At least 6,000 acres will be added to this area in 1892. A larger addition would be made but that the supply of plants of the requisite growth is yet limited. It is now ascertained that it is not advisable to transplant from the nurseries until they are at least one year old, and have attained to a length of 12 or 15 inches. The nurseries, hosvever, are in full operation, and I believe that after the present year the supply of plants will be equal to any supposable demand. The adoption of the limit which restricts Crown allotments for 10 yerrs to 100,000 acres, assures present investors against risk of over-i)roduction in the near future at least. I'he export from early plantings has now begun, and will be about 150 to 200 tons in 1892, and this will thereafter be an increasing quantity, but a careful estimate shoAvs that it Avill not reach beyond 14,000 to 15,000 tons up to the year 1900. The subsequent advance will be much more rapid, but in no reasonable view of the circumstances can the expoit from the colony have a marked effect on the market for many years to come. It is now ascertained that, with plants of fair growth, four years is the longest time for the maturing of the plant, and it then yields an annual crop, without further care, for 12 or 14 yeiirs. 1 do not approve of forcing the crop, and immature cuttings are to be .specially depi-ecated. The fibre is at its best after due time has been given for its growth, and unwise methods will be carefully dealt with by the Government in the highest interests of the colony. There is much yet to be learned in connexion with this enterprise, but it h. satisfactory to know that, with our present imperfect knowledge, no serious mistakes have been fallen 172 into. Experience will no doubt lead to a lessened expense of cultiva- tion, especially in the matter of weeding, that has hitherto been a large item, but in which it now appears a reduction may be made. The highly important question of labour is well guarded, and the whole quantity of one hundred tliousand acres may be brought into cultiva- tion Avithout strain on our present resources. The plant, being con- fessedly the best of any known growth, a demand from abroad has set in, and, though there are well considered doubts of its successful growth in some places where an attempt to cultivate the plant is being made, there seems no reason why any amount of competitive industry should "be encouraged, and for this and other reasons the Act passed three years ago, to prohibit the export of plants, has now been extended for five years more. The available supply at present is not more than is required for the operations in the colony, which would be hampered by outside demand, and the progress of the colony be consequently retarded. It would be ditficult to assign a limit to the future advance of the colony from the growth of this remarkable industry. Though the land provisionally assigned to fibre cultivation (one hundred thousand acresj will in time yield 50,000 tons, there seems no reason why even this great result should bar the extension of the area of production, if the markets of the time shall admit of its profitable disposal. It is generally thought that, from the excellence of the fibre, it will find its way into other fields for its use besides rope-making, and recent experi- ments prove that it takes a dye readily, indicating its adaptability to certain fabrics, and to some extensicm of demand on this account. There is the further ground for the probably strong place for Bahamas hemp in the future, that it can be produced more cheaply than any known fibre of equal value, and it may be inferred that it will hold its own at least against the influence of any probable competilion with which it may have to contend." LII.— SISAL HEMP INDUSTRY IN YUCATAN, [K. B., 1892, pp. 272-277.] A general review of the Sisal Hemp industry in various parts of the ■world is given in the preceding pages. A later account of the fibre industry in the Bahamas was communicated to Kew by his Excellency Sir Ambrose Shea, K.C.M.Gr., and reproduced in the two preceding articles. What seems to have been required to supplement and complete these accounts was some precise and detailed information respecting the various machines in use in Yucatan for extracting the fibre. It was felt that the success of the whole industry dejiended in a great measure upon this one point. At the rec|uertt of Sir Ambrose Shea, Captain E. Jerome Stuart, the Resident Justice of Long Island, was deputed to proceed to Yucatan with instructions to study the whole subject of fibre cultivation and production in that country, and draw a comparison between the circum- stances of Yucatan and Bahamas as regards .soil, climate, and the general healthiness of the plants. Captain Jerome Stuart gave par- ticular attention to the character of the machinery used for extracting the fibre, and he gives the results obtained from each machine. This part of his report will be read with interest. There are apparently no insuperable difficulties met with in Y''ncatan in extracting the fibre from Agave leaves. The total exports of fibre from Yucatan are of the 173 annual vahie of more than a million and a half sterling, and if, as is shown by Captain Jerome Stuart, this large and valuable industry is capable of being continuously carried on by means of machines in regular use, there should be no difficulty in selecting one or more of these machines for use elsewhere. The only advantage possessed by Yucatan is apparently that of cheap labour. The rate of pay of the Indians on fibre estates is much below that of negroes in the West Indian islands; but if the higher value of the Bahamas fibre is maintained, Yucatan would appear to possess no advantages not shared by other countries. Report on the Fibre Industry of Iucatan addressed to Sir Ambrose Shea, K.C.M.Gr., Governor of the Bahamas, by Captain E, Jero.me Stuart. In accordance with instructions received from your Excellency on the 15th ultimo, I sailed on that date for Yucatan, for the purpose of comparing the soil of tiie Bahamas and its adaptability to the fibre uidufctry, with the soil of that State : to find out the different species of Agaves planted, and their liability to disease : the character of the machinery used for extracting the Henequen fibre, and the cultivation and general management of the crops. When in Yucatan I visited 28 Henequen estates, and after careful inquiry I have the honour to submit the following report : — The Soil of Yucatan compared with that of the Bahamas. The soil in the " fibre producing district " of Yucatan is gravellv and stony, and varies in colour, being black, brown, and red. There are large tracts of land in the district, similar to that on most of our islands, and known as '•' mixed land." The soil has an average depth of 8 inches, and is underlaid by soft limestone rock, similar to that of our "Pine Barren " lands. The largest fibre fields in the State are to be found on this shallow etony soil, and the yield of fibre is greater than on the deeper soil 30 miles further inland. I could not, when looking at the fibre fields of Yucatan, doubt for a moment that the fibre fields of this colony are equally good; and if the growth of plants is any guarantee of the virtue contained in the soil in Avhich they grow, I do not hesitate in saying that the soil of the Bahamas is equally as good as the soil of Yucatan. Any one who will look over the grounds of Fort Charlotte will see the soil, trees, and weeds of the fibre fields of Yucatan, with this dif- ference, that the soil there is more stony. The Different Sorts of Agaves. There oxe several species of Agaves to be found in Yucatan, but as two only are of chief commercial value, I confine my report to those two. The Henequen. — The kind of fibre plant growing in Yucatan, and. known as the Sacqui or Henequen, is a different and distinct Agave from that of the Bahama Hemp. The plant is hardy, and has, when cultivated, an average life of 18 years ; and propagates itself by sending out "suckers" from its roots. This Henequen [Affave rigida, var. elongata] requires from five to eight years' growth to produce a marketable length (3 feet) of fibre. 174 TJie leaf from which the fibre is extracted has a thorn at the point, and spines on its edges, and averages 3^ feet in length. The fibre of the plant is white, but being inferior to that of the Bahama Hemp, is rated in the market at from 6/. to 8/. per ton lower.* The Bahama Hemp. — The Bahama Hemp plant \^Agav€rigida, rar. sisalaiia] differs from the Henequen inasmuch as the leaves are without spines on iheir edges ; and the fibre is superior in texture. The plant matures from two to three years earlier than the Henequen, and has an average life of 12 years. Like the Henequen, it propagates itself from suckers, but is also capable of producing over 2,000 plants from the pole that grows from the centre of the plant. The Bahama Hemp is found both in Yucatan, where it is known as the Yaxciui, and in Cuba, but it is not largely cultivated, as it requires a more congenial climate than these countries afford. In this colony the plant luxuriates, the length of leaf being 4^ feet to 5 feet, weighing 1^ to 2 lbs. In Yucatan a leaf of the Y'axqui from a plant of the same age would measure S^ feet, and weigh 1 1 ounces only. The Plant's Tenacity of Life. The Henequen and Bahama Hemp are the hardiest of all the Agaves. Their power to withstand drought is almost incredible. I have known plants of the Bahama Hemp to lie on the ground for three months, exposed to the rays of the sun, and when planted to grow with the greatest vigour. It has never been known for these plants to be troubled witli any disease. No fungus or insect can apparently damage or affect them ; and in 1883, when the locust devastated the State of Yucatan, the cattle and birds died of starvation, and men were on the eve of despair, the only green living plants to be seen were the different species of Agaves, and they are now looked upon as the salvation of the Sfate. Although not apparently subjected to disease, and capable of resisting a drought of 11 months in 12, the plant is not altogether free from the effects of sudden changes of heat and cold, and is liable to be damaged by floods of rain immediately after a long drought, if accompanied by a sudden fall of temperature. This happened in Yucatan in 1888, when, after a severe drought, the rains came on suddenly, with hail and a heavy wind from the north-west, with a fall of temperature from 89 deg. to 57 deg., and within one night about 90 per cent, of the plants were damaged or blasted on the ends of the leaves, about an average of three leaves to the plant being affected, causing a loss of 3 per cent, to 5 per cent, of leaf. A similar change after a protracted drought happened in this colony in March last, when a few of our farms were affected; Init after cutting off the ends of the injured leaves there was nothing more seen of the trouble, and tlic plants remained healthy and strong. I am told that this fre- quently happens in Florida, as the atmosphere is more changeable than in the Bahamas; but as this colony is protected by the Gulf stream, there is no probability of its happening here with frequency, and in Yucatan it has happened once only in 30 years. The blast is caused by a sudden atmospheric change over which we have, and can have, no control, and may happen at any time ; but the loss of leaf, 3 per cent, to 4 per cent., even 5 per cent., would be so slight that it may be looked upon with unconcern. * At date of 20th June 1892, rated at 6/. lower. . 175 I walked through hundreds of acres of the irenequen, but beyond noticing that a leaf here and there had a few inches dried on its end, similar to what is seen in this colony and Cuba, the plants were per- fectly healthy and free from disease. Kind of Machinery used. There are several kinds of machinery used for extracting the fibre on the different estates. Those cleaning less than 75,000 leaves per day use the large common wheels, llaspador and Barraclongh ; and those cleaning from 80,000 to 120,000 per day use the larger and more complicated machines, the Prieto, A''illamore, Weicher, Death and Ellwood, &c. The planters, if using one of the large machines, keep several of the Easpadors in reserve for use in case of accidents ; for should the large machine break down or get out of order, leaving 70,000 or 80,000 leaves on hand, and there be no means of cleaning them, it would involve a loss of over 4,000 lbs. of fibre. Cleaning Machines. — The Easpador is a 54-inch " wheel," said to be invented and manufactured in Mexico. It requires a two horse-power engine to run it at a steady rate of 200 revolutions per minute, at which speed the best results are obtained. Capacity 500 lbs. dry fibre per day of 10 hours ; -requires the services of two men. The Barraclouyh, constructed by T. Barraclough & Co., Man- chester, England, is similar to the Easpador, but of superior make. Capacity 500 to 600 lbs. dry fibre daily. The Prieto machine is manufactured by Ping and Negre, Barcelona, Spain; requires a 16-horse power engine and the services of two men and a boy. Capacity 7,000 lbs. dry fibre per day of 10 hours. Cost 4,500 dollars. The Villamore machine, made by Krajewski and Pesant, 35, Broad- way, Xew York ; requires a 15-horse power engine and the services of two men and a boy. Capacity 6,000 lbs. fibre per day of 10 hours. Frame made of wood. Cost 500 dollars. The Weicher machine, constructed by J. J. Weicher, 108, Liberty Street, New York, is fitted with a service pipe for throwing a stream of water on the fibre as it is being cleaned, and is claimed by the inventor to lose but 1-^ per cent, only, as the leaves are fed into the machine endwise. Eecpiires 12-horse power engine and services of three men. Capacity 2,500 lbs. dry fibre per day of 10 hours. The Death and ElUcood machine, constructed by W. E. Death, of Brixton, England, recpiires a 3-horse power engine to drive it at a velocity of 400 revolutions per minute, and washes the fibre when cleaning. Like the '^ Weicher," the leaves are fed into the machine endwise. Capacity 250 lbs. of dry fibre per day of 10 hours. With the exception of the Easpador and Barraclough, all the other machines are automatic ; they rasp the pulp from the fibre on the same principle as the Eas[)ador. Their wheels being smaller, ixniuire a velocity of 500 revolutions to the minute to give good results. Beyond cleaning a greater number of leaves, they do not appear to do better work, as the per-centage of loss is as great in the one as the other, aiul the fibre is equally as clean. Enyiues and Boilers. — The engines used were from 6 to 80 horse power, manufactured by Marshal and Sou, London ; Ap[)Ieby Bros., London ; Fawcett and Preston, Liverpool ; Watts, Campbell & Co., Newark, N.J, ; H. M. Sciple, Corner 3rd and Arch Street, Philadelphi;?. 176 The estates running 60 to 80 horse-power engines have two boilers, using them alternately every 15 days. Press. — Most of the small estates use small screw presses, baling from 3 to 8 bales daily. The large estates, baling 16 to 30 bales daily, use hydraulic presses, constructed by Appleby Bros., London, and Fawcett and Preston, Liverpool, Locomotive, Tramway Rails, SfC. — The locomotive cars are made of wood, 20 feet by 4 feet. The rails are of iron with gauge 3 feet, and sleepers of wood 2 feet apart. Tramway trucks are of iron or wood ; they are 12 feet by 3 iee\. Kails and sleepers of iron with gauge 2 feet 4 inches, and sleepers 2 feet apart. Locomotives and tram cars with rails are manufactured by Charles Wood, Trees Iron Works, Middlesbrough, England. Cultivation of the Agaves. The Estates. — There are 200 Henequen estates in Yucatan, varying from 500 to 28,000 acres in extent, having a total number of 105,000 acres under cultivation, employing 12,000 Indian labourers. The largest and best estates are on the rocky gravelly lands, and they are valued from 100,000 dollars to 500,000 dollars each. Each estate is managed by three principal men — the attorney, the manager, and assistant manager. The largest of them employ locomotives for hauling in the crop from the fields, others using tramway trucks or carts drawn by mules or oxen. Estates with less than 800 acres under cultivation erect one Raspador for every 100 acres. Those of 1,000 acres use the large automatic machines. Preparing the Fields. — The size of the cultivations on the estates range from 250 to 3,500 acres. They are laid out in fields or sections of 50 to 200 acres, and contain from 600 to 900 plants to the acre. When preparing the fields the land is cut during the dry season, is then alloAved to spring up, after which it is " sprig weeded," and burnt after the first fall of rain. The stumps are cut close to the ground, so as to be out of the way of the leaves of the plants, and to facilitate the running of the line for planting and getting the rows straight. Planting. — The plants are "set out" on the different estates at various distances, being 6 ft. by 11 ft., 5 ft. by 11 ft., 4 ft. by 11 ft., 6 ft. by 10 ft., 5 ft. by 10 ft., 4 ft. by 10 ft., 6 ft. by 9 ft., 5 ft. by 9 ft., 4 ft. by 9 ft., 6 ft. by 8 ft. The rows are kept perfectly straight, for if they be otherwise there would be the greatest difficulty in getting through the fields. When planting, the labourers have a small line with the distances at which the plants are to be ".set out" knotted on it, and a pole cut to the length that the rows are to be apart. A man and a boy are employed at each line. The boy drops the plants along the row at the distance marked on the line, and then removes the line to the next row, dropping the plants as before. The man does the planting, and is responsible for the rows being straight. When coming to a rock the planter does not turn aside, but goes on, and places the plant in the row a little beyond. The row s^ystem facilitates weeding, admits a free current of air and sunlight, which is necessary to harden and give strength and texture to the fibre ; allows the labourer to cut and bring out the leaf with despatch ; and, what is of the greatest importance, gives room for replanting the 177 field when the life of the old plants is about to terminate, which cannot be done if the plants are growing over the field irregularly. Plants of less than 15 inches are not planted. Managemknt of the Crop. Cutting. — In Yucatan the Henequen matures in five to eight years. In the Bahamas the Bahama Hemp matures in three to five years. To neglect cutting the leaves after the plant is matured retards its growth, which causes it to "pole," at the appearance of which the life of the plant is ended, and the planter, after reaping a few leaves only, must then plant his fields afresh. On the other hand, when the cutting is regularly attended to, the life of the plant is prolonged, the plant will produce a greater number of leaves, and fibre of a greater length and superior quality. The plant is cut every three months, when seven to nine leaves are gathered. The leaf is taken from the plant with a "clean cut," making the cut down and inward at an angle of 45 deg. Cleaning. — As soon as the leaves are cut they are taken to the machine for cleaning. The cleaning is so arranged that oue-half of the leaves to be cleaned is taken from the cuttings of the day previous, and the other half from the cuttings of the same day, as in this manner the work can he commenced early in the morning, and steadily carried on without waiting for leaves to be brought in from the field. The leaves are not allowed to accumulate beyond half a day's cleaning, for if left to di-y beyond the second day they become hard, and the fibre, Avhen extracted, will be dark. "When the Raspador is used for extracting the fibre two operators are required ; one stands to the left of the wheel and the other to the right. The operator on the left taking a leaf fastens the small end with a lever to prevent the whole of it being drawn into the machine ; the larger end is inserted and cleaned ; the other opei'ator then hauls out and reverses the leaf, putting in the uncleaned end, at the same time taking a turn with the cleaned end of the leaf around a brass cleat which is fitted to the machine for the purpose, and managing a brake that regulates the pressure required for cleaning the leaf, finally drawing out the clean fibre. In this manner 14 leaves per minute, or 8,400 leaves, are cleaned for a day's work. When cleaning with the Villamore, Prieto, or other automatic machines, all that is necessary is to lay the bundles of leaves on a plat- form fitted for the purpose, when an endless chain draws them into the machine, the mechanism of which is so arranged that one wheel cleans one-half of the leaf, the chain taking it along, where another wheel cleans the other half, and then throws out the clean fibre at the opposite end. Two men and a boy are employed at the machine, one man to see that the leaves enter the machine on their length, and that they do not ride one on the other ; one to attend to and regulate the machine, and the boy to receive the fibre as it is brought out by the endless chain. As soon as the fibre is extracted it is dried, for if allowed to remain without being exposed to the sun immediately after cleaning it becomes dark and spotted. Yield per Acre. — The yield of fibre from an acre of Henequen is from 1,000 lbs. to 1,470 lbs. per annum. The number of plants usually set out in an acre is 650, giving an average of 33 leaves from each plant, and from 50 to 70 lbs. of clean fibre to the 1,000 leaves. Making an average calculation of 650 plants to the acre, 33 leaves from each U 77554. j^ 178 plant, yielding 60 lbs. of fibre to the 1,000 leaves, the return would be as follows :— 33 X G50 = 21,450 leaves yielding 60 x 21 i^^^V = 1»287 lbs. clean fibre per annum. The planters never speak doubtfully of their returns, as experience s^hows them that their crops can be relied on with almost complete certainty. Cost of JVorJiing and Profits. — The planter estimates his crop to cost for cultivating, cutting, cleaning, baling and marketing from 2^ cents to 3 cents per lb. At the present price of fibre 5 cents per lb. taking 3 cents as the cost of production, an acre yielding 1,287 lbs. would give a net profit of 25 dollars. After comparing the soil and plants of the Bahamas with that of Yucatan, I assure your Excellency that the one compares most favourably with the other ; and that we have in this colony every re- quirement for the development of the enterprise, and I am most sanguine as to the ultimate result of the Bahama Hemp industry. (Signed) E. Jerome Stuart. LIII.— POLING IN AGAVE PLANTS. [K. B., 1893, pp. 315-321.] The progress of the fibre industiy in the Bahamas has been fully noticed during the last four years in the pages of the Keic Bulletin. At the present time the earlier plantations are approaching maturity, and it is anticipated by those interested in the subject that the export of fibre on a commercial scale will probably begin next year. In the meantime a question of some importance has arisen in regard to the dui'ation of life of the particular sort of Agave cultivated for fibre purposes in. the Bahamas. This is botanically known as Agave rigida, var. sisalana. It is a dark green, smooth-leaved sort (with no marginal teeth) originally introduced, either directly or indirectly, from Yucatan. There it is known under the aboriginal name of Y'^axei. The plant more generally cultivated for fibre in Yucatan is a glaucous- leaved sort, armed with small, black, marginal teeth {Agave rigida, var. elongata), known locally as Sacqui. The Bahamas plant, the Yaxci, is still also found in Y'^ncatan, but apparently it is not specially selected for general cultivation. Of Agave plants, a familiar example, groAvn in green-houses in this country, and sometimes put out for decorative purposes during the summer months on lawns and terraces, is that commonly called the American aloe (Agave americana). Sucli plants produce nothing but leaves for the greater part of their life. In this state they may last fi^r many years. In some species there are also occasionally produced root suckers, which afford a ready means of increasing the plant. This, however, is a purely vegetative reproduction. The exact life-period of Agaves in northern latitudes may vary from 10 to, possibly, 50 years or more. On account of this exceptional longevity amongst succulent plants they ai-e sometimes called Century plants. In the tropics, grown iinder natural conditions, these plants seldom last longer than seven to 12 or 15 years. Sooner or later, however, within the periods above mentioned, and depending on the conditions under which they are placed, they throw up a "pole" or flowering stem. Ou this will successively appear the flowers, the capsules bearing seed, and possibly 179 also numerous bulbils. In some species there are produced abundant seeds, but no bulbils ; in others there aire produced bulbils only and no seed. The ripening of the seed or production of bulbils, whichever may be the normal habit, brings the life of the plant to a close. After that the whole plant withers and dies. The question raised in the Bahamas, and respecting which the aid of Kew has been sought, has reference to the exact length of time the Yaxci {Agave rigida, var. sisalana) may be expected to last in the leaf state. In other words, how long can the plant be made available to the planter for the production of fibre ? The matter is naturally one of great interest to the Bahamas people, for on it hangs the success of their plantations. The result of the inquiry at Kew is given in the following correspondence. It is so far satisfactory that, with care and judgment on the part of those directly in charge of the plantations, there need be no greater cause of anxiety in the Bahamas than has been felt during the last 30 years in Yucatan, for plants that have poled might easily be replaced from time to time by strong healthy "supplies" from nurseries, and the work of the plantations need not at any time be seriously interrupted. Mr. Neville Chamberlain to Koyal Gardens, Kew. [Memorandum.] July 26, 1893. Information has been received from the Bahamas of a somewhat serious nature in reference to the Sisal industry. It will be remembered that in the wild state these plants pole when about seven years old, but it was supposed that the cutting of their leaves when cultivated would delay the poling and prolong the life of the plant, as is said to be the case with the Yucatan variety. It is said, however, from observation of old plants in the Bahamas, that cutting makes no difference to the life of the plants, which seldom exceeds seven years. As four years at least are needed for the growth of the plants before they are fit for cutting, this only leaves between two and three years of cropping, in which the planter must recover all the capital expended in their cultivation. Any sug- gestions by which the life of the plants might be prolonged and poling prevented are invited, as the early poling will gravely affect the success of the industry. N. C. The Monro Fibre Co., Limited, to Royal Gardens, Kew. Dear Sir, Abaco, Bahamas, July 20, 1893. The interest shewn by your department in the fibre industry of this Colony, and the valuable information you have already afforded in connexion with the plant, have prompted me to submit the following questions, which deal Avith points of prime importance to those engaged in its cultivation. In fact I do not know to whom else to apply, for our plant is undoubtedly difierent from that commonly grown in Yucatan, and no one in the Bahamas seems able to speak with certainty upon the subject under review. Our plant, or " Bahamas Hemp "as it is now termed, is an Agave ■with dark green leaves, which are spineless except for a thorn at the tip. From all accounts it is identical with tiie " Yaxci" of Mexico. 1. The life of the " Sacqui," which is that generally grown in Yucatan, is said to be from eight to 16 years after cutting has been begun. Can you tell me whether our variety enjoys as long a life or not ? M 2 180 2. Do Agaves put out during their life a certain fixed number of leaves, the normal quantity varying but little between plants of the same species, or is there no regular limitation in this respect ? 3. If the output of leaves on a plant is variable, would cutting them as they mature bo likely to increase it, and, judging from analogy or otherwise, ought the cutting to be made several times a year or at any particular seasons ? Also, would cutting the leaves have the effect of prolonging the life of the plant by retarding its poling ? It may seem strange to ask for such information when we have the plant here growing under our eyes, but it is only now reaching the cutting stage on most of the plantations, and where it has been longer established there unfortunately does not seem to have been much obser- vation bestowed upon its nature or the circumstances of its growth. You can easily perceive the necessity we are under of obtaining a clear understanding on the points raised in this letter, as, for instance, when it will be advisable to reset the fields with young plants so as to be ready to take the place of the old ones as the latter die oflF, and also how to prolong the life and increase the yield as much as possible. 1 need not say how thankfully any assistance you may kindly give in this direction will be received. Yours very obediently, The Director, (Signed) J. Gurdon. Royal Gardens, Kew. Royal Gardens, Kew, to Mr. Austen Chamberlain, M.P, Royal Gardens, Kew. Dear Mr. Chamberlain, Axigust 18, 1893. "When your brother was last at Kew he left with me a memo- randum respecting the age at which plants of the Yaxci of Yucatan, now known as the "Bahamas Pita" or Sisal, reach their maturity. He also asked whether anything could be doue by processes of cultiva- tion to retard the poling or the appearance of the flowering panicle, which, it is well known, marks the duration of the life of the i)laut. 2. There is apparently very little reliable information obtainable in regard to the age at which these plants flower. In fact in the whole of the literature of the subject the references are very few and the language is vague and inconclusive. In the enclosed memorandum I have given a brief summary of what has been recently published, aud it may be possible to draw some general conclusions from the facts therein stated. 3. The observations in regard to the Sacqui of Yucatan do not, it is true, bear directly upon the subject. But as the Yaxci or Bahamas Pita is only a variety of the same si)ecies it is improbable it should differ in any marked degree from that plant. The length of time that elapses previous to flowering in Agave plants may in some degree be affected by soil and climate, but as a general process of growth and with plants cultivated normally over a large area the experience in Yucatan may not be far from Avhat will ultimately obtain in the Bahamas. 4. The latest information from Yucatan is furnished l>y Mr. Pierce, the Vice-Consul at Merida. He states that "a Hemp plantation in " Yucatan lasts for some 15 years." This is not conclusive as regards the age of the individual plants. It merely shows that while some of the original plants may pole at one age and some at another, their places are so filled up from time to time by new plants that the whole undertaking receives no serious check up to about the fifteenth year. 181 5. It appears to be recognised in Yucatan as the result of experience (without apparently any reference to the determining causes) that poling is encouraged amongst these plants if the leaves are left uncut for any length of time after tliey have arrived at maturity. There is little or no scientific basis for this opinion, and experience at the Bahamas should be carefully recorded if tending in that direction. 6. They also believe in Yucatan that if the root-suckers which are abundantly thrown out around the base are allowed to remain attached for a long period they tend to exhaust the parent plant and accelerate the period of poling. Such suckers no doubt divert the strength of the parent plant, and if allowed to remain too long either of two things must happen — the parent plant will produce fewer and smaller leaves or its period of maturity will be hastened. The practical outcome of this is the suggestion that such suckers as are necessary for supplying the plantation should be removed when large enough into nurseries and all others not required should be removed periodically and thrown away. 7. Mr. Stoddart, it is noticed, records that the Y''ucatan people are very particular when cutting the leaves to cut them as close as possible to the stem of the plant. In other words, they consider it undesirable to leave any portion of the base of the leaf to form what is called in tree-pruning a " snag " on the parent plant. A certain degree of " snag " is inevitable. This, however, afterwards falls off, when dry, leaving the central stem of the plant eventually quite clean. I am not prepared to attach much importance to this matter in relation to poling. It is undesirable as a matter of economy in fibre, and it may also have some effect on the general health of the plant. It certainly would produce an untidy appearance in the up-keep of the plantation, and altogether the practice of close cutting the leaves should be systemati- cally carried out. 8. Coming now to the Sisal plant as known in Florida and the Bahamas, it is evident that an impression prevails both in Florida and the Bahamas that some of these plants have flowered at about the seventh year after planting. The instances recorded are given in the accompanying memorandum. They are, however, not conclusive. The exact history of the suckers before they were put out, and the treatment they afterwards received in regard to cutting the leaves and allowing the suckers to remain on indefinitely, are not given. All these are important factors to be considered before an opinion can be formed. The result of further and wider experience will probably show that some plants may pole at seven years, others at a later period. It is unlikely, if properly treated, that they will all pole over a large plantation at the same time. If the plantation is carefully watched, and fresh plants are put in immediately 1 he fact is realised, or at the first sign of poling, there need be little interference with the work of the plantation. 9. It is essential that fresh plants in large numbers be grown on in nurseries with the view of supplying any vacancies caused by poling. Also the pole should be cut out as soon as it appears above the leaves in order that the leaves already formed should be ripened before the plant dies. This practically means that the plant would be kept available for yielding fibre for nearly a yesu- later than it otherwise would be. 10. There is another point to be briefly noticed. While it is important that all the mature leaves be cut when they have attained full develop- ment, great care should be taken that the immature leaves are not also cut. The regular cutting of the fully maturi^d leaves might possibly tend, as mentioned above, to prolong the vegetative life of the plant 182 and retard poling. Theoretically, however, there is no ground for such a supposition. On the other hand the cutting of innnature leaves would cer- tainly have a contrary effect. The plant would he likely to be weakened by the process, and the subsequent leaves borne by it would be smaller and weaker. The exact period when the leaves are to be cut should be carefully studied. As a genei'al rule the leaves are ripening when they are gradually falling from the erect into the horizontal position on the plant. Also there may be some indication in the colour of the leaves. These are, however, matters to be decided on the spot by careful and skilful people. It is only necessary here to draw attention to them, and to state that both the life of the plants and the cpiality of the fibre, in other words, the success of the whole undertaking, may not improbably depend upon them. T am, &c. (Signed) D. Morris. J. Austen Chamberlain, Esq., M.P., 40, Prince's Gardens, S.W. [Memorandum.] The Life of Sis.\l Hemp Plants. There are numerous species of Agave (popularly called Aloes) belonging to the natural order AmaryUidefP. They are almost all monocarpic perennials. That is, they grow on for a nnml)er of years producing leaves only ; finally they flower, and this they do but once in their life, and that period is apparently determined by the nature of their environment. Usually Agaves under cultivation in this country live to a great age. On this account they are sometimes called century plants. In their native country they live for seven to lo years. When once the monocarpic species have flowered and produced seeds or bulbils (pole plants) they die. The following notes refer to the Sacqui {Agave rigida var. elongata) and to the Yaxci or Bahamas Pita {Agave rigida var. sisalana) : — (a.) Mr. Stoddart says, " the i)lant (the Sacqui of Yucatan) lasts "... for at least 25 years in a cutting state, depending on the soil " and treatment." To renew a plantation after the original plants have become exhausted, " it is usual to plant at proper distances, by the sides " of the old plants or between them, young shoots which three years " afterwards (and upon the failure of the old ones) will be fit for cutting." A new field will thus "be kept up without any loss of time or suspension of work." {Sisal Hemp, its adaptation to Jamaica, p. 4.) (6.) INIr. Stoddart describes the poling as follows : " This hajipens when the plant has arrived at cutting age aud the plants are not cut." . . . " When the pole begins to come out and gains a length of about " three or four feet, it is customary to cut it off close without injuring " the leaves. These leaves will then mature and be fit to be taken off " before the plant dies." (i.e. p. 7.) (c.) Poling appears to be accelerated (1) by the leaves not being cut " when they have arrived at maturity, (2) by the plants being exhausted by numerous suckers allowed to remain around their base, (3) by care- less catting of the leaves. Stoddart, on this latter point, says : "If the " stump \^or base) of the leaf be left of any length on the trunk it I 183 " seriously injures the plant, spoils its vigour, and makes its existence a " shart one."" (I.e. p. 7.) {d.) Mr. Pierce says : " A hemp plantation in Yucatan lasts for some ^' 15 years ... on good land the crop commences in four years " or earlier, whilst on rock}- ground from six years O]- more." (F. O. Eeport, 1892, p. 2.) (e.) Mr. Dodge, discussing the Pita or Yaxci plant of Florida and Bahamas, remarks that in one instance, on very poor soil, he noticed that " a long row of plants set out 10 years ago to form a boundary " line had hardly made any gi'owth." (Report of C. R. Dodge on " Fibre Investigation in the United States." Washington, 1893, p. 21.) Mr. C. T. McCarty of Ankona, Florida, says : "AVith us Agave sisa- " lana sends up its pole at seven years on our best lands. ... So " far as the plant is concerned the ' poor land ' theory has no foundation " in this locality. Our strongest and finest plants are on our best land." (Dodge, I.e. p. 15.) (/.) Mr. Merrick Shaw, Polk County, Florida, describes a Sisal Hemp plant under his observation as follows : " The original plant growing on " the soil, of which a sample was sent, poled at seven years old. Twenty " layers of leaves had been cut from this plant, and the lowest of those " remaining measured 5 feet 9 inches in length by 5 inches in width at " the broadest part. About 100 suckers had been removed from (the " base of) this plant and planted elsewhere." (Dodge, I.e. p. 17.) {g.) Mr. Dodge figures and describes a plant with leaves barely a foot " long, which had thrown up a slender pole to a height of 8 feet or *' more." He adds : " I was informed by residents on Indian Key " that this premature blossoming of a young plant or sucker tohile " 7/et attached to the parent root is not of uncommon occurrence." (Dodge, I.e. p. 18.) Kew, August 16, 1893. D. M. \_Note added. — The plant cultivated in Mauritius, and yielding what is known as Mauritius Hemp is the Green or Foetid Aloe {FurcrcBa gigantea). The value of the exports is about 50,000/. annually. This plant is similar to an Agave, both in appearance and habit, and it also produces numerous bulbils or pole-plants after flower- ing. The experience in Mauritius with regard to poling of the Furcrcea has a striking resemblance to what has been observed in regard to the Agave in Yucatan. M. de Chazal, who has written an account of '' Le fibre d' Aloes" (Mauritius, 1882) states (p. 21) "that " the plants generally pole at the age of seven or eight years ; they can, *' therefore, be cut four or five times before poling and before it is " necessary to replace them." On the same subject Mr. John Home, F.L.S., late Director of Gardens and Forests in Mauritius, writes under date of 4th September 1893, as follows: "The life oi Furcrcea gigantea " in Mauritius is from seven to 10 years ... as many of the plants " flower three to four years earlier than others, the leaves of the seedlings " (or pole-plants) from these are fit for cutting when the late flowering *' plants are dying out, so cutting once begun on a plantation may be said " to be continuous Supplying amongst old plants should be " done in time so that as the old ones die out cutting from the young ones " should begin. Over-cutting the leaves is common in Mauritius. This " is generally held to be injurious to the plants, weakening their growth " and causing them to flower and die prematurely. People in Mauritius 184 " say that by cutting only the mature leaves the growth of the plants is " not weakened, and thus large fine leaves are obtained, yielding long fibre " of the finest quality. But I have never heard the idea expressed that *♦ such a manner of cutting prolonged the life of the plant beyond what *' I might call the natui-al limits. It is said in Mauritius that over-cutting " weakens the plants and causes them to flower and die prematurely, so " it may be also said in Yucatan that cutting only the mature leaves pro- " longs the life of the plants to its natural limits. It comes to this, that " what is said not to shorten the life of the plants in Mauritius is said to- '♦ lengthen it in Yucatan — a case of arriving at the same place from " opposite directions."] LIV.— WEIGHER'S FIBRE EXTRACTING MACHINE. [K. B., 1893, pp. 141-14-1.] This fibre-extracting machine is constructed by J. J. Weicher, 108, Liberty Street, New York. It is now on trial in this country under Mr. Weicher's supervision at the Carlton Works, Printing House Yard, Hackney Koad, London, N.E. The chief interest at the present moment attached to fibre machines is based on their capability to clean leaves of the Sisal Hemp plant, so largely planted at the Bahamas and elsewhere. This brief report is therefore almost entirely confined to the treatment of leaves of this sort. Kecently, accompanied by Sir jUfred Moloney, Governor of British Honduras, I accepted an invitation to see the Weicher machine at work on Agave leaves obtained from the Eiviera. The leaves were those of Agave aniericana. They had been cut about a fortnight, and hence they were not in the best possible condition for being experimented upon. The Machine. — The machine consists of a drum fitted with beaters, and a feeding table mounted on an iron frame about 14^ feet long and 2^ feet wide. The whole structure is of iron, fitted with beaters composed of a mixture of copper, aluminium and iron attached to the drum where it comes in contact with the juice of the leaves. The general principle of the machine is similar to the " Gratte " in use in Mauritius, and the " Raspador" of Yucatan. The leaves, as in these machines, are presented endwise, and are cleaned by the beaters attached to the drum. About one half of each leaf is cleaned at one lime. It is necessary to change the position of the leaf before the other half can be cleaned. There is, however, no reverse action, and in this respect the Weicher machine possesses an advantage over other machines of the same type. The Feed Table. — The feed table consists of an endless band composed of flat iron laths fastened across two iron chains. The band is fitted with iron clamps for holding the leaves in position and presenting them to the beaters in such a position that at first about one half of their length is cleaned. After this the leaf is carried continuously l)ack on the underside of the band, and brought out so that it can be seized by the operator and its position changed. When it is next presented to the beaters, the uncleaned part is treated and the whole of the fibre is then carried out and removed from the machine. The feed table is therefore automatic, and it will carry at one time about 185 four or five leaves. These may be any length up to about eight feet, and the quickness of the cleaning depends very much upon the activity and aptness of the operators. Serving the 3Iachine. — For regular working a man and two boys are required. The man and one boy attend to the feeding and the changing of the leaves, while the other boy takes out the cleaned fibre and hangs it up to dry. The Trial. — The machine was worked recently at intervals for about an hour. It readily cleaned Agave leaves of various sizes, some only half an inch thick and others between two and three inches thick. There is an arrangement of levers to allow for yielding in case of very thick leaves, and the machine was not clogged or stopped during any portion of the trial. This is an important consideration. The quality of the fibre produced was on the whole good. There was but little waste, and none of the strands was damaged or broken. Th^ samples cleaned are now at Kew. Nothing has been done to them since they left the machine. Washing the Fibre. — "Where there is an abundant supply of fresh water, an arrangement could be made whereby the fibre might be washed while passing under the beaters. This, however, is not an essential part of the cleaning. It may be adopted or not according to local circumstances. Particulars of the Machine. — The following particulars were obtained from Mr. Weicher. The total weight is 3,100 pounds (avoir- dupois). The space occupied by the machine with feed table extended is 14^ feet long by 2^ ieet wide. The power required is 10 horse- power, giving 500 revolutions per minute. The inventor has worked the machine in Yucatan for a period extending over nearly three months. One machine is still in Yucatsn. Yield of Fibre. — Mr. Weicher claims the machine will treat 10 to 12 tons of green leaves in a day of 10 hours. Allowing the leaves to yield 3 per cent, of fibre (in a prepared dry condition), this would be at the rate of 672 poiuuls per day as the lowest return, with a possible return (at 4 per cent.) of 896 pounds per day. As far as could be judged from the recent trial these returns are not improbable. It is, however, impossible to off"er a definite opinion on the subject. The actual capacity of the machine can only be iletermined by continuous working on a Sisal Hemp plantation, and with operators who have become thoroughly accustomed to it. In a Report on the Sisal Hemp industry of Yucatan, prepared for the Grovernment of the Bahamas by Captain E. Jerome Stuart [Keio Bulletin, 1892, p. 275], it is stated that the Weicher machine "requires 12 horse-power engine and the services of " three men. Capacity, 2,500 lbs. dry fibre per day of 10 hours." Mr. Weicher judiciously disclaims all responsibility for the capacity here given. He prefers to indicate it by saying that the machine will treat at the rate of 10 to 12 tons of green leaves per day. The actual yield in dry fibre will therefore depend upon the quality of the leaves. Mr. Weicher hopes to obtain as high as 5 per cent, of dry fibre from good leaves, and he thus estimates the out-turn per day of 10 hours at 1,120 to 1,310 lbs. These figures, it is needless to add, are given entirely on his authority. For comparison from actual working it may be mentioned that the Yucatan Kaspador (with two men) acting on leaves of Sisal Hemp will clean about 400 pounds of dry fibre ])er day. On the other hand, the Mauritius machine (also with two men) acting on leaves of the Green Aloe {Furcrtea gigantea) will turn out only about 214 pounds of dry 186 fibre per day. llie difference in these returns niaj bo due to the different qualities of the leaves, but it is evident that, so far, neither of these machines working on a commercial scale is able to turn out more than 4U0 pounds of dry fibre per day. The conjectuial figures given by Mr. Weicher i-equire therefore to be received with due reserve until the performances of the machine have been fully tested. Sum/nan/. — I may add that I have seen most fibre machines that have been brought forward aud tested during the last 12 years. I am not yet in a position to say that any machine has fulfilled all the conditions necessary in cleaning Sisal Hemp fibre. The whole of the Mauritius hemp (from FurcrcEd (j'ujdnteci) exported from that island is cleaned by the Gratte, locally made and costing about 30Z. \_Keiv Bulletin, 1890, p. 98]. This has to be fed with one or two leaves at a time, and there is considerable waste. There is also some risk to the workpeople, who have to hold the leaves in their hands while they are being cleaned. The Yucatan fibre is chiefly, if not entirely, cleaned by the rough contrivance known as the Raspador, also a local machine \_Kew Bulletin, 1892, p. 37, with woodcut]. The working of this is slow and wasteful, but with vei'y cheap labour the industry is apparently very remunerative when prices are high. There is probably little or no inducement, owing to cheap labour, to introduce improvements in fibre cleaning in Yucatan. In the Bahamas the circumstances are entirely different, and a satisfactory machine is indispensable. The various macliines that have hitherto sought to supplant the G-ratte aud Kaspador, such as the " Death machine," the '* Barraclough machine," and others, have all turned out better qualities of fibre, it is true, but the total yield has been small and disappointing. In fact, taking into account the great efforts made fco introduce and popularise these machines, their extended use on a conmierciul scale has made little or no progress of late years. The Weicher machine possesses distinct merit, and it is more promising than any (so far as I have observed ) witli an automatic feed table. It may be said against it that it is somewhat heavy and intricate, and its price (not yet fixed) must be higher than either the Gratte or Ilaspador. It de- serves, however, to be tried under suitable circumstances, and those interested in the fibre industry of the Bahamas, for instance, cannot do better than carefully test it on the spot. The inventor would then have an opportunity of showing its capabilities in the presence of an unlimited supply of leaves. It is impossible to do more in this country than form an approximate idea of its merits. It may be julded that it is claimed for the machine that it will clean the leaves of Bow-string hemp (Sanscvieria), Banana (Musa sapicfttum), and possibly also pine- apple and Ramie. None of these, unfortunately, were available at the recent trial. D. M. LV.— THE PRIETO FIBRE EXTRACTING MACHINE. [K. B., 1893, pp. 329-330.] In Captain Jerome Stuart's report on the fibre industry of Yucatan, already reproduced, mention was made of certain machines that were being tried for the purpose of extracting fibre from the leaves of 187 the Sisal Hemp plant or Henequen. An account of one of these machines, known as the Weicher Fibre Extracting Machine, now on trial in this country, is given in the last article. Another machine mentioned was the Prieto machine. Of this Captain Jerome Stuart gave the following brief particulai-s : — "The Frieto machine is manu- '• factured by Puig and Negre, Barcelona, Spain. It requires 16 horse- " power engine and the services of two men and a boy. Capacity, " 7,000 pounds of dry fibre per day of 10 hours. Cost, 4,500 dollars." As the value of a machine depends so entirely on its capacity, it was desirable to obtain more precise information on this point. In the following letter received from the maiiers of this machine, it will be noticed that they claim that the machine will clean 100,000 leaves, and turn out from 5,833 to 5,960 pounds of dry fibre per day. These estimates of capacity prove hoAV untrustworthy any figures must be that are not based on actual trial. In fact, it is impossible to attach any value whatever to such figures unless they are checked by some one having a thorough knowledge of the subject and perfectly unbiassed in his judgment: — [Translation.] Senor Roman Romano to Royal Gardens, Kew. Calle Fontanella 10, Barcelona, Dear Sir, November 12, 1892. Messrs. Puig and Negre have sent us the printed report by Captain E. Jerome Stuart, of the Bahamas, as well as your favour of the 2nd instant. These gentlemen were the first makers of our machines for extracting fibre of Sisal and Henequen, but afterwards we set up iu this city our works for making them, having already sent about 40 machines, " Prieto Hermanos" system, to the State of Merida de Yucatan (Mexico), where they are woi^king perfectly with favourable results for the farmers who purchased them. We have no photographs or drawings to send to you, but we forward an account of the work it does compared to the old grating wheels, power required, and price of the machine here for cash. Hoping that this information will be useful to you for the Henequen plantations in the Bahamas, I remain, &c. (for Romano Noriega y Preto) D. Morris, Esq., F.L.S. Roman Romaxo. Comparative State."\ient of the difference between 12 of the present Scraping Wheels (Raspadoras) and the La Vencedora Machine, system " Prieto Hekmanos." People employed in 10 hours' work. La Vencedora. 12 Raspadoras. 1 for the feeder. 20 scrapers (men). 2 „ carrying leaves. 7 carriers of leaves. 1 „ receiving the fibre. 2 ,, carrying it to drying room. 4 peoi^le to carry to drying room. 2 „ collecting the waste. 7 „ to collect waste. 8 total people employed. 38 total people employed. The difference in favour of the La Vencedora machine is therefore somen. 188 JProduction of Fibre. La Vencedora. 12 Raspadoras. 100,000 leaves scraped in the 100,000 leaves scraped in 12 machine give from 230 to 235 raspadoras give from 165 to 170 arrobas (5,833 to 5,960 lbs.). arrobas (4,185 to 4,311 lbs.). Difference in favour of the La Vencedora machine equals 65 arrobas (1,648 lbs.) increase per day. Cash price for machine in Barcelona, 4,500 Spanish dollars (928/. 2^. Gd.). Power, 12 to 16 horse-power (steam). Water is not required to wash the leaves. Total weight of the machine, 9,500 kilogrammes (9 tons 7 cwts.). (Signed) Roman Romano, Barcelona. LVI.— SISAL HEMP IN THE BAHAMAS. [K. B., 1894, pp. 189-190.] The following information respecting a machine for extracting the fibre from leaves of Agave rigida var. sisalana, grown in the Bahamas, will prove of considerable interest. The machines hitherto tried to extract this fibre have not realised expectations, and some anxiety has in consequence been felt in regard to the future of this important fibre industry. The plantations established in the Bahamas are now arriving at such a stage that a successful machine to extract the fibre is a matter of the greatest importance. The information supplied to the Colonial Office by His Excellency the Governor, would appear to show that the " Todd " machine has, so far, proved so satisfactory that it is likely to be universally adopted in the Colony : — Colonial Office to Royal Gardens, Kew. Sir, Downing Street, May 10, 1894. With reference to your letter of the 7th Jidy 1893, 1 am directed by the Marquis of Ripon to transmit to you a copy of a despatch from the Governor of the Bahamas reporting upon a fil^re-extracting machine which is now in successful operation in that Colony. Lord Ripon proposes to forward a copy of Sir Ambrose Shea'.s despatch to the Governor of Fiji, and his Lordship would be glad if you would be good enough to add any observations which would be likely to be of assistance to Sir John Thurston. I am, <^c. The Director, (Signed) I^dward Wingfield. Royal Gardens, Kew. Governor of the Bahamas to Colonial Office. Government House, Nassau, N.P., My Lord, 24th April 1894. With reference to communications, verbal and otherwise, that 1 have received from the Colonial OfBce during the past three years, on the subject of machines for the extraction of fibre, on which information was desired for the Fiji Government, I have now the honour to acquaint I 189 your Lordship that I am at length in a position to speak definitely of a machine that is now in successful operation in this Colony. 2. The machine in question is one manufactured by a Mr. Todd, of New York (address, J. C. Todd, Patterson, New Jersey, U.S.A.), and during my late visit to the Munro plantation in Abaco, I witnessed its performance, and have no doubt it will be universally adopted here. It dresses the fibre perfectly and with a minimum amount of waste, and though half a ton is all that a single machine will yield in a day's work, the principle is so sound that all that is necessary is to increase the number to meet any required need. 3. I may observe, however, it does not necessarily follow that the " Todd" machine will be suitable where the conditions of the plant are not similar to ours. I am not informed of the nature of the plant at Fiji, but it may be instructive to know that the leaves of the Bahama plant which hold the fibre are from four to six feet long, that they are free from gum, and the threads separate without combing. Little washing is needed, and the whole process of extracting, washing, and drying is the work of one day. I have, &c. The Most Honourable (Signed) A. Shea, The Marquess of Ripon, K.Gr., Governor. &c., &c., «&c. An account, with an illustration of the "Todd" fibre extractino- machine, is given by Mr. Charles Richards Dodge in Report No. 5, *' On the Leaf Fibres of the United States," issued by the Department of Agriculture in 1893, pp. 25-2G. Mr. Dodge states : — " The only new machine for cleaning Sisal hemp leaves that has been brought to my attention, since the publicatioa of my previous report, is the device patented in 1892 by J. L. Acosta, and manufactured by Joseph C. Todd, Patterson, N.J. " The claims of the inventor are set forth as follows : — " ' In Fig. 3 is shown clearly the arrangement of the machine for cleaning henequen leaves without the use of crushing cylinders. The operator seats himself Ijefore the table and lays the leaves on the feedino- chains. Care should be takeu to lay the thick ends of the leaves to the right side, with something more than half of the lengtli of the leaf hanging down. The chains will then carry the leaves to the holdino- belts, by which they will be presented to the first scraping wheel. The leaves having been cleaned for the greater part of their length by the first wheel, a device placed between the two scraping wheels transfers the clean portion of the fibre to the second holding belt, and the remainder is cleaned by the second wheel, leaving no uucleaned or partially cleaned portions in the middle, as is usual in other machines. The leaves of the Pita plant need to be crushed by finely corrugated cylinders in order to separate the fine fibres of the back of a leaf. They should be crushed and scraped while still green and fresh, so that the cleaning may be assisted by the juices of the leaves. Knives or scrapers and brushes in alternation around the wheels are indispensable. It is also desirable to have a pump to furnish water to two small tanks fixed al)0\ e the upper belts of both wheels. The water flows from these tanks to spread the leaves on the surface of the slioes and to clean and wash the fibres. Otherwise the fibres may be cleaned and washed after being scraped, if it is desirable to avoid the expense of the pump and tanks. AVith a single man to put the leaves on the feeding chain, and a 190 boy to take away the clean fibre from the end of the machine, it is capable of cleaning thoroughly 50,000 to 60,000 leaves in a day.* " Mr. Dodge adds : — " I have not seen this machine running on Sisal hemp leaves, but ■witnessed its work on the leaves of bear-grass (Vticca filamentosa) furnished by the Department, the cleaning being accomplished in a thorough manner." LVII,- SISAL HEMP IN THE BAHAMAS. [K.B., 1894, pp. 412-4U.] The gradual development of the Sisal hemp industry in the Bahamas continues to be watched with a good deal of interest. It is now in a position when exports of prepared fibre have begun to be made and its value quoted as a regular article of commerce. An important statement on the subject (in continuation of that in Keio Bulletin, 1894, p. 189) is contained in the following extract from the Annual Report on the Bahamas for 1893, submitted by the Governor, Sir Ambrose Shea, to the Secretary of State for the Colonies [Colonial Reports, Annual, No. 110, 1894.] The export of Bahama hemp amounted in 1893 to 1,200/. as against 692/. in 1892. The area of Crown land now disposed of is 85,000 ao'es, while about 15,000 acres of private land are also in course of cultivation. The quantity planted at the end of 1893 was 17,000 acres and an annual increase of about 6,000 acres will be the rate of progress. The history of the origin and growth of this industry has so often l)een Avritten that but little remains to be said in that regard. It will, hereafter, be a record of increasing development and social advancement which results now appear to be as assured as is possible in the course of human events. As far as the welfare of the Colony is concerned there seems to be the minimum of uncertainty, for it is. not conceivable that the value of the fibre can go below the cost of produc- tion, though the profit, aa in the case of all commercial enterprises, must ever be an uncertain and varying quantity. The export of 1893 was far below the expectations, though not from want of an ample supply of the raw material. The shortcoming was due to several causes. In the first place the most advanced plantation, in which an American syndicate is interested, was almost entirely neglected owing to the financial troubles in the United States, and the low price of the fibre, consequent in a great degree on the money stringency which lessened the desire to prepare the product for market. The business was also much delayed by disappoint- ment in the matter of the scutching machines, which in many cases proved useless. It is highly satisfactory to know that this difficulty is now over, for a machine manufactured by the Todd Company of New York has been at length found to work admirably, the fibre being cleaned perfectly, at the smalle.st possible amount of waste {Kew Bulletin, 1894, p. 189). There can be but little doubt that this machine will be universally adopted, as, besides its efiiciency, it is cheaply operated — a woman to feed the machine with leaves, another to remove the finished fibre, being all the labour attendant on this process. It has been for some time a subject of much thought as to how the small cultivators were to utilise their labour where, as in the great majority of 3 91 cases, they were too poor and their plantings too limited to admit of the cost of a machine. A satisfactory solution, however, has now l)een found which will be a great boon to this class and will bring the blessings of the industry home to the humblest peasant in the Colony. The process is as simple as it is available to all, and consists of a slit being made in the thick end of the leaf, when it is torn asunder, leaving the inner part exposed, and by then soaking it in salt water, which is never far to reach, in about a week the pulp may be removed by hand and the fibre preserved. No waste whatever is found in this method; and it is under- stood that a man or woman, or grown boys or girls, may turn out from 50 to 60 pounds of fibre as the result of a day's work. The plan is being adopted throughout the Colony, and what was for some time deemed a missing link is thus effectively supplied. There has always been a certain amount of speculation as to the effects of hurricanes on the fibre fields, and though the plants are so hardy, the idea was in some degree a disturbing one. The question has now been satisfactorily tested. In August last, as well as in October, the Bahama Islands were visited with hurricanes which did considerable damage to various kinds of property. In one or two cases fibre fields, by unusual rising of the tides, were laid under water, and it was sup- posed that in these instances much injury had been done to the plants. In all other fields, though exposed to the force of the storm, the plants escaped without any injury, and their power of resistance was thus established. But even in the submerged fields, the damage pi"oved eventually to be trifling. The leaves were much knocked about, but they finally recovered to a great extent, and they are now being dressed, producing a fibre not much inferior to the best, but classed as No. 2, because of some small spots being discoloured which detracts from the appearance, though not, it is believed, from the strength of the article. Labour continues in good supply and is not likely to be a cause of ditticulty for many years. Railways are being laid down in the principal estates, and this will be found a most profitable investment, in saving- labour on the carriage of the leaves to the dressing establishment, 100 pounds of leaf yielding not more than four or five pounds of fibre. Of the large plantations one has over 5,000 acres under cultiva- tion, one about 3,000, one 2,000, and two others 1,000 acres each. The smaller farms are from 200 to about 700 acres. Now that a standard scutching machine has been accepted exports should go forward moderately in 189t, but on a large and increasing scale in the following and future years. The generally accepted standard of 600 plants to the acre is now in many cases being changed to 800 and in some instances to 1,000. If this increased number be not found to impede harvesting by the inconvenient crowding of the plants, the yield per acre should, of course, be largely augmented. The estimated annual yield of a single plant is two pounds of fibre, and thus, instead of a return of 1,200 lbs. from the earlier planting of 600 suckers, assuming that the results are not modified by want of room for the full development of the plants, 2,0'viO lbs. will be the expected yield where 1,000 plants are given to the acre. (Signed) A, Shea. [Note added, Aug. 31, 1898. — The latest information in regard to Sisal hemp in the Bahamas is contained in the Sisal industry, by D. Morris, (".M.G., D.Sc, 1896, Colonial Reports, Miscellaneous, No. 5, Bahamas. Since that time the price 192 of the fibre lias steadily risen. During the present year it has reached 33/. per ton. It should be borne in mind by all interested in the industry that the market for this fibre is liable to considerable fluctuation. Hence the cost of production must be kept within the narrowest possible limits. It is believed that under very favourable instances and the exercise of {jreat economy Sisal fibre could be produced in the Bahamas at a cost of about 6/. per ton. If this were accomplished there would always be a profit on the lowest prices yet reached.] LVIII.— SISAL CULTIVATION IN THE TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS. [K. B., 1896, p. 119.] The steps taken to establish a fibre industry in these islands were described in the Kew Bulletin, 1890, pp. 273-278. The plants under cultivation were determined at Kew to be identical with those grown in the ]}ahamas {Agave sisaland). A further account of the industry was given in the Keio Bulletin, 1892, pp. 31 and 32. In the following extract from a letter addressed to the Commissioner, Turks Islands, the Assistant Commissioner reports that the plants are in excellent health, and the only difficulty is the want of sufficient machines to clean the leaves as they arrive at maturity. Since this report was written it is stated that machines have been introduced, and tlie export of fibre is likely to be greatly increased : — Extract from a letter from the Assistant- Commissioner, Cockburn Harbour, to Commissioner, Turks Islands, dated 31st December, 1895 :- *• Of the Sisal industry I cannot say much. At West Caicos it would seem, if output be the criterion, much is not being done : what is, would appear to be directed to weeding, clearing and systematic culti- vation, rather than to shipment of the clean baled products. A limited number of the Blue Hills or Providence Cays people here get employment. " In my recent visit to the scene of the wreck of the steamship * Dorian ' I travelled day after day for a week through these great stretches under cultivation by the East Caicos Fil)re Company, a succession of legular well-ordered tracts of some 1,200 acres in all. The growth and stages of maturity clearly enough mark the different yearly plantings with ample roads and plant space. " The crop is far the finest I have ever seen in the Bahamas. I visited the cleaning sheds ; the machinery is not equal to a third of the work to be done. There are very many leaves fit for cutting that lie untouched, and there are more plants poling than one would wish to see. I suppose that the condition of the market governs the business, but certainly there are scores of acres that require cutting. " The l:il)our afforded at .Jacksonville in this hard year helped very considerably to alleviate the prevailing distress of the out-islanders." In th(: Colonial Office Keports, No. 171, of 1896, it is slated that: — "The export of sisal or Bahama hemp from the Turks and Caicos Islands is gradually on the increase, the value declared for 189.5 being 620/. With the additional and improved machinery recently put up by each of the two companies engaged in this business, the output will pi'obably be much larger." 193 LIX.— FALSE SISAL OF FLORIDA. (^Agave decijiiens, Baker.) [K. B., 1892, pp. 183-184.] In the Kew Btdletin a jjeneral account was given of the Sisal Hemp industry, and particnhirs of tlie distribution of Sisal Hemp plants in nearly every part of the world. In the description of the plants found in Florida it was pointed out that the bulk of these consisted of the best sort for fibre {Agave rigida, var. sisalana), in every respect similar to the plants now so largely planted in the Bahamas, Turks Islands, Jamaica, and elsewhere. Amongst the Florida plants Mi-. Charles Richards Dodge, of the United States Department of Agriculture, found here and there some plants which were evidently not true Sisal. For instance, " at Juno, about " ten miles further south (fiom Jupiter), at the head of Lake Worth, " I found another fine luir.sery of perhaps a hundred thousand plants, the " property of Mr. A. M. Fields, Avho is quite enthusiastic on the subject. " Fully fifty per cent, of his plants are not Agave sisalana, however, " but a species Avhich was subsequently met with at many points along " the east and west coasts as well as on the Keys — doubtless Agave " mexicana."* At the time this was quoted in the Ji^eiv Bulletin it was stated that probably this determination would require to be verified. Since that time iibundant material has been received at Kew from Florida from Mr. Richards Dodge, and there is no doubt that the plant Avhich he had provisionally taken to be Agave mexicana, and mentioned in his report under the name of " False Sisal," was an entirely new species. In a letter dated April 27, 1892, forwarding specimens, Mr. Richards Dodge states : — " Department of Agriculture, Washington, April 27, 1892. *' I have just received from Biscayne Bay, Southern Florida, some blossoms of uiy so onlled ' False Sisal,' accompanied by mature leaves taken from the same plant. One of these I send you by mail to-day, the others being in a semi-decayed condition and unfit to send. This is the normal length of the leaves found throughout the Biscayne Bay region and along the line of Keys. Those at Lake Worth, which is very near to Jupiter, I found with leaves at least a foot longer, in rare instances two feet longer, though preserving the same characteristics. I send you with this a few blossoms, together with a sample of true Sisal Hemp, and another of false Sisal for comparison with it. As you will see, one is a strong, good fibre, the other is not more than half as strong, and of different appearance." These and other specimens have enabled Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., the Keeper of the Herbarium at Kew, to draw up the following ilescription of the plant : — Agave (Euagave) decipiens, Baker. Caudice demum 3-4-pedali, foliis dense rosulatis ensiformibus rigidis deraum 4-pedalibu3 utrinque levissimis viridibus infra medium ad apieem sensim angustatis, facie saepissime concavis, spina terminali pungente breviter decurrente, aculeis marginalibus parvis atro-castaneis * Sisal Hemp Culture iu the United States. Fibre Investigations. Report No. 3. 1891, p. 41. U 77554. jf 194 deltoideo-cuspidatis, floiibus in paniculam amplam thyrsoideam dispo- sitis, ovario oblongo, poriauthii tubo brevi late infuiidibulari, lobis tubo duplo longioribus, staminibus longe exscrtis, stylo staminibus demum £equilongo. Hab. Florida, Biscayne 33ay, and Lake Worth. For all the material from which the ])lant is described we are indebted to C. R. Dodge, Esq., the special agent for fibre investigations of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. It is the plant " supposed to be A. mexicana," figured on plates 7 and 8 of his report, Xo. 3, issued May 1891. Candex reaching a length of 3-4 feet, whilst ^-J. */*«/«»«, over the same area, remains nearly acaulescent. Leaves densely rosulate, very rigid, ensiform, reaching a length of 4 feet, broadest a little below the middle, where they reach 3^-4 inches, narrowed very gradually to Ihe horny brown pungent ])oint, which is ^-| in. long, and decurrent as a narrow brown-black line along the edge of the leaf for 3-4 inches, narrowed also to a point above the dilated base, where they are 2^ in. broad, very smooth and apple green on both surfaces, not distinctly glaucous even when young, usually very courravo all down the face and convex on the back, rarely flat; marginal prickles moderately close, deltoid, cuspidate, browia-black, not more than a line long. Peduncle with panicle about five times as long as the leaves. Panicle 8-10 feet long, with a rather flexuose axis, and usually single dense clusters of flowers terminating the laxly-disposed simple arcuate branches. Floioers arranged in dense clusters. Ovary oblong, finally 2 in. long, f in. diam. Perianth greeni.sh-yellow, an inch long ; tube broadly funnel- shaped ; lobes complicate lanceolate from a dilated l)ase, twice as long as the tube. Stamens 18-21 lines long, inserted at the middle of the perianth tube ; anthers linear, \ in. long. Style finally reaching to the top of the stamens. Belongs to the section Ric/ida: and nearly allied to A. rigida var. elongatUy Jacobi, from which it differs by its longer caudex and concave-faced leaves, which are very smooth on both sides, and not at all glaucous even when young, broadest below the middle, and nar- rowed very gradually to the hard point, which is decurrent for a short distance as a narrow bruwn-black border. The fibre which it yields is very inferior in tenacity to that of -4. sisalana. I cannot make out any material diflerence between the flowers of the two species. The name decipiens refers to the plant being confused so easily with the forms of .^. rigida, of which the fibre is so much more valuable that it would lead to loss and disappointment if it were cultivated for economic use. J. G. Baker. LX.— BOMBAY ALOE FIBRE. i {Agave vivipara, L.) ' [K. B,, 1890, pp. 50-54.] The high prices lately obtained for white rope fibres have stimulated their production in nearly every part of the world. The chief supplies of these fibres have hitherto been obtained from the Philippines under the name of Manila hemp (yielded by Miisa textilis), Kew Bulletin, 1887, 105 April, p. 1, and from Yucalan unclrr the name of Sisal hemp (yielded by one cr move A-arieties oi Agava ric/ida), Kcio Bulletin, 1887, March, p. 3. Quito recently a fibre of a somewhat similar c-haractcr made its appearance in this coiimry under tlie name of "Bombay Aloe fibre." This was very imperfectly prepared, and the price obtained for it "svas exceptionally low In fVct, had it not been for the relatively large demand fur white rope fil)res during tlie last two years this Bombay Aloe fibre would be unsa'cable at a price that would hardly cover the cost of freight. A specimen of Bombay Aloe fibre Avas presented to the ^luseunis of Economic Botany at Kew by Messrs. Ide and Christie in 18S!^, and this led to an inquiry respecting tiie plant yielding it. xVpplication was made to the India Office to obtain S2)ecimens of the growing plants and for information respecting the methods adopted for pre|)aring the fibre. By the action of the Secretary of State for India in Council, the plants and full particulars respecting the preparation of the fibre have now been received at Kew. It apjjears that Bombay Aloe fibre is prepared from the leaves of Agave viv/'para, L., in a crude manner by natives, and so far no attempt bas been made to establish regular plantations. Agave vivipara, L. (Wight Icones, t. 2024 ; A. Cantula, Roxburgh, Flora of India, vol. ii., p. 107;, the " Bastard Aloe " of India, is a native of tropical America, but now found \videly spread through various parts of the Old World. It is said to be commoner in Up[)er than in Lower India, and especially in the North-West Provinces. \\ is almost unknown in Bengal (Watt, Diet. vol. i. p. 143). Although resembling A. anie- ricana somewhat in habit, it is more closely allied to A. lurida. The dull green leaves are from 4 to 5 feet long, rather narrow ^nd concave, thin but firm in texture, ending in a brown spine about half an inch long. The teeth are sub-distant, brown and hooked, i to 1 inch long. The flowers, borne upon a tall branched flowering stem, about 20 feet or more in height, are greenish yellow. The specific name of the plant is derived from the fact that t!ie flowers are often changed into bulbillae ; these grow into plants with leaves fi'om G to 9 inches long before they fall and take root, " Koyle states that on a rich soil the plant is vivi- " parous, Avhile on a poor stony soil, ana under ii dry climate, seeds " alone are produced." The utilisation of Agave vivipara as a fibre plant on a large scale is apparently of a very recent date. Ur. Watt, in a notic(; of the species, does not refer to it as the origin of Boml>ay Aloe fibre, and apparently he was unacquainted with flic fact. The only reference to the fibre is as follows: — " Tiic Oiidh Gazetteer ?ays it is chiefly grown as a hedge " (p'ant) to keep back ciltle, but in the jails good fibre is jirepared «' from its leaves." Diet. Ecnn Prod. India, vol. i., p. 143 (1HH7). As already mentioned, the Bombay Aloe fibre received in this country is so badly prepared that it is practically unsaleable. About 200 tons were received in 1H89, and Ave are informed by Messrs. Ide and Christie that the stocks of former shipments have noAV accumulated to the extent of 1,000 tons. The prices quoted are, good 12/., common 5/. per ton. As the result of iii^citigations detailed in the following correspondence, it appears that the fibre oi' Agave vivipara, though perhaps not so good in all respects as that deri\-ed th, fine colour (which, however, may change somewhat under continued exposure to the air), nnd were it three times as long would be worth 30/. per ton to-day in London ; if ttvice as long 211. ; and, as it is, it may l^e valued at 2bl. The ordinary " Bombay Aloe " of commerce presents a very different appearance to your specimen, as, perhaps, samples in your Museum may show. Its value to-day is, c/ood 12/., coinmon 51. per ton. Yours, &c. D. Morris. Esq., IM.A., F.L.S. (.Signed) Ide and Giiristie. LXI.— BOMBAY ALOE FIB SE— (continued). (Agave vivipara, L.) [K. B., 1892, p. 2S3.] In the previous article, an account is given of a fibre known in commerce as Bonil,>ay Aloe Fibre prepared from Agave vivipara. It appears that there is a variegated form of tiiis plant ia India, and recently through the kindness of Mr. G. Marshall Woodrow, Lecturer on Botany at the Coilege of Science, Poona, several living specimens were obtained for the Kew collections. In forwarding the specimens Mr. "Woodrow supplied the following interesting informa- tion : — Mr. G. Marshall Woodrow to Royal Gardens, Kew. College of Science, Poona, Dear Sir, May 19, 1892. In feply to your letter of the 23rd April, I have the pleasure of intimating despatch by parcel post of a box containing nine Agave vivipara variegata phmts, with ft mature leaf, and a branch with flowers of the typical plant of this variety. There are two distinct forms of Agave vivipara, one has leaves attaining 4^ feet in length by 2^ inches in breadth at the broadest part, which is near the centre; the other attains 2j feet in length, but is generally much shorter, it is of the same breadth as the other variety but somewhat thicker. The flowers are the same in both. The Marathee name is Gnial. 200 The plant you refer to as having been received from the Bombay Government in 1890 is of the long-leaved variety ; the one I send novr is a variegated form of the short- leaved variety, it is a very ornamental plant. I will be glad to send you a large number if you can make use of them, and can give a small plant of the Sisal Hemp in exchange; such plants thrive in this climate. I have lately received two very small offsets of a plant said lo be Sisal Hemp, but I am doubtful of their identification. The two varieties of Agave vivipara are grown as fences occasionally throughout South India, but are not found in forest lands or grown as field crops, I made experiments in growing the loug-leavetl variety as a field crop some years ago, but found that at the then price of the fibre it would be very unprofitable to grow this crop where Sunn {Crotalaria juncea) or Ambadee {Hibiscus cannabinus) would thrive. I am much interested in your statement that Agave vivipara is the Bombay Hemp. That name is not known here, I presume it is the London market name. I had not learned it, as the Ketv Bulletin does not reach me, except the part that gives the list of seeds available for distribution. Yours, &c. The Director, (Signed) G. Marshall Woodrow. Royal Gardens, Kew. LXII.— MANILA ALOE FIBRE. {Agave vivipara, L.) [K. B., 1893, pp. 78-80.] This is the commercial name given to a fibre exported from Manila in moderate quantities, but quite distinct in its character and origin from the Manila hemp of commerce. This latter is, as is well known, obtained from a wild banana of the Philippines Musa texlilis. The origin of the Aloe fibre was apparently unknown. It was, however, regularly met ^vith in commerce, although the price realised for it Avas always much below that paid for various sorts of Manila hemp. Royal Gardens, Kew, to Foreign Office. Royal Gardens, Kew,. Sir, October 8, 1890. I AM desired by Mr. Thiselton-Dycr to inform you that a sample of *' Manila Aloe Fibre " has recently been presented to the Museums of Economic Botany at Kew, and a portion of this sample is enclosed herewith. This Aloe fibre comes regularly into the London market, and is quoted as worth about 14/. to 16/. per ton. 2. The plant yielding this fibre does not appear to be known in this country. It is evidently quite distinct from Musa textilis, yielding ordinary Manila hemp. Probably it is a species of Agave, allied ta that yielding the Sisal hemp of commerce. 3. In order to determine the plant exactly, Mr. Thiselton- Dyer would be glad if the Secretary of State would approve of a reference being made on the subject to Her INIajesty's Consul at ^fanila, with a request tliat one 201 or two moderately large leaves of the plant be forwarded iti a dry box to this establishment. In the case of Agave leaves, it may be mentioned that they travel very well if packed in a perfectly dry state without soil or any other material. If the box is pierced with holes to afford ventilation all the better. It would add to the interest of the specimens if the Consul could add a few words in regard to the methods employed in preparing the fibre. 1 have, &c. Sir Villiers Lister, K.C.M.G., (Signed) D. Morris, Foreign Office. Foreign Office to Royal Gardens, Ke rr. Sir, Foreign Office, July 7, 1501. With reference to your letter of the 8th of October last, I am directed by the Marquis of Salisbury to request you to inform Mr. Thiselton-Dyer that Her Majesty's Consul at Manila reports that he has forwarded to Kew Gardens, under the charge of Captain Wilson, of the s.s. " Barden Tower," a small box containing a few leaves of the Manila Aloe plant (Maguay). I am, &c. The Assistant Director, (Signed) James Ferguson. Royal Gardens, Kew. Mr. Consul Gollan to Roital Gardens, Kew. British Consulate, Manila, Sir, May 20, 1891. I BEG to inform you that, under directions from the Foreign Office, I, this day, forward to you a small box containing four leaves of the Manila Aloe (Maguay), which I trust may arrive in good condition and answer the purpose you have in view. I enclose a few notes from Mr. Osmond, a gentleman who is a considerable expert in such matters, as ta the preparation of the fibre. I send, in the same box, a small specimen of rope of great strength and durability made from another fibre called " Cabo Negro."* I am, 8fc. (Signed) Alex. Gollan, Her Majesty's Consul. W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, Esq., C.M.G., F.R.S., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. [Enclosure.] Preparation of Maguay Fibre. The leaf is first soaked in water until it becomes quite soft and pulpy, which takes place in about a fortnight. It is then drawn between the thumb and fingers, which easily presses off the pulp, leaving a clean fibre. This is afterwards dried in the sun. If required for immediate use, the leaf is first pared down on each of its flat sides, and afterwards drawn between two pieces of cane lightly * The fibre sent as " Cabo Negro" was the produce of the sugar palra of the East Indies, Arenga saccharifera. 202 pressed together, nothing but the fibres passing through. But this method is a very -.vasteful one, as many fibres are Ijroken, Among.-t tlie many uses to whicli maguay is applied may l)e mentioned that of violin strings, for which it is much appreciated by the natives. (Signed) J. H. Osmoxd. Manila, May 1891. The specimens kindly obtained for Kew through the good offices of Mr. Alexander Gollan, Her Majesty's Consul at ^Manila, Avere received in good order. They consisted of fresh leaves of an Agave in different stages of growth, and there Avas little difliculty in recognising them as belonging to Agave rivipara, L. (^A. Canttda, Roxb.), the plant which (according to Keic Bulletin, 1890, p. 50) yields also Bombay Aloe iilire. The distriliution of this plant so far eastward as the Philippine Islands does not appear to have been specially noticed before. It is originally an American plant, and it owes its spread iu India, at least, to its use as a hedge plant to keep back cattle. The local name Magvay, given to it at Manila, is a generic tei'm applied l)y Spanish-speaking people lo niunerous species of Agaves. For instance, in the south of Europe it is often applied to Agave aviericana, although this plant in South America is distinguished as Maguay dc vocuyza. In some parts of ISIexico Agave rivipara is known as Theo-mctl . The method of preparing the fibre at Manila, described by Mr. Osmond, is very crude, and the result is necessarily unsatisfactory. The process of maceration is not at ail well adapted for extracting the fibres from leaves of raonocotyledonous plants. The fibres arc discoloured by long immersion in Avater, and during the process of fernnnitiition, ex- tending ever a fortnight, the strength of the ultimate fibres is greatly weakened. It may, therefore, Ije readily understood the A'alue of Manila Aloe fibre is comparatiAcly small, audit can only be profitable to produce it Avhen the price of white-rope fibres is excejDtionally high. In the last Mont Illy Circular (dated the IGth March 1893), issued l)y Messrs. Ide and Christie, of Mark Lane, Manila Aloe Filjre is dismissed with a few Avords, — " nothing doing, 17*." [per cwt.]. In the same circular Bombay Aloe Fibre is described as "dull at 8*. to 135." [per cwt.]. LXIII.— MEXICAN FIBRE OR ISTLE. {Agave hetei-acantha, Zucc.) [K. B., 1887, December, pp. 5-7.] Under the name of Mexican fibre or Istle, a short and somewhat harsh and stiff fibre comes into the London market, Avhich is used in the manufacture of cheap nail and scrubbing brushes, and for various purposes Avhere a substitute for animal bristles is desired. Messrs. Ide and Christie mention "that this fibre is pretty largely imported for " brush-making purposes, and its value in London [15th October 1887] " is 2G/. per ton. The range of A-aluc of late years has been from 221. " per ton to 50/. per ton. The fibre is quite unique as a vegetable " substitute for animal bristles, and is used iu the manufacture of cheap " brushes of all sorts.' The origin of this Mexican fibre or Istle has been iuA'oh'ed in a good deal of doubt, but Ave believe that aa'C have been able to trace its origin 203 by means of material collected many years ago, and now available at this establishment. Some specimens of a stiff fibre and brushes in the Kew museums were received from Dr. Parry in 1570, and said to be derived from Ar/ave Lcchuyuilla. Dr. Parry wrote the introduction to Torrey's Botany of the Mcxicaa Boundary, which was published in 1858, and he states on page 11, speaking of the vegetation of the cretaceous ibrmation, " Upon the rocky ledges a small species of Agave " grows in abundance. The low leaves, which are pointed with sliarp " spines, are very troublesome to the foot traveller; they are, however, " of some use to the Mexicans, who employ the strong fibres they " contain in making coarse ropes. The plant is known to the people " of the country as ' Lechaguia.' " According to Torrey, in Botany of Mexican Boundary Survey, p. 213, it appears there is a distinct species of Agave of this name [Ayaic Li'c/iuyuilla, Torrey], and "the fibres of the leaves are used " for making coarse rope, bagging, &c." This species by Baker, in (rardeuers Chronic/e, Vol. VIl. (new sei'ies), p. 527, is ydaced under Agave Poselgerii, Salmdyck. Engelmann, on the other hand, looked upon A. Poselc/erii and A. Lechugiiilla as identical with Agave heteraeautha, Zucc, and described them under that name. Hence we may look upon Agave Lechuguilla, Torrey, A. Poselgerii, Salmdyck, 11(1 A. heferacant/ia, Zucc, as synonymous names representing one i!;d the same plant; and of these Agave heteraeautha, Zucc, has priority as regards date, being published nearly fifty years ago.* It would appear, therefoi'e, that Parry's specimens of fibre and samples of brushes made from it were derived from Agave heteraeautha, Zucc, the local name of which is Lechuguilla. Tliis j:ame is, however, by no means restricted to this species. Sereno Watson (Proceedings of the Anierica?i Academy, Vol. XL, p. 16) mentions " Lecliuguilla " or " Lechigilh\ " as the native name of Agave guttata v.iid A. va> if gata. Tliese latter are species belonging to quite another groiij), and as different as possible fi-om A. heteraca)itha. It is \ery proljable, there- fore, that the name Lechuguilla, like Kerrato in the West Indies, has a wide stretcli of usage in certain parts of Mexico and the United States, and that it is applied indisci'iminately to various species of Agave. There is at Kew a very large collection of living Agaves, in which are represented most of the species here conc(.'rned. By the courtesy of Messrs. Death and EUwood, Engineers, Leicester, we have been enabled to extract fibre from the leaves of Agave heteraeautha, Zucc; A. .vylacantha, Salmdyck ; A. horrida, Lemaire ; A. Kerchovei, Lemaire; A. lophantha, Schiede ; A. nniviffata, Haworth ; and A. 7)iultilineata, Haker. All these yield a coarse and somewhat rigid fibre, but the fibre of A. heteraeautha, allowing for the age of the plant, comes nearest to the commercial fibre known in London as Mexican fibre or Istle. All these species, it may be mentioned, belong to a distinct set of Agaves, the leaves of which are characterized bv a continuous horny margin, and hence placed together by Baker under the group Mar- ginatae, of which the distinctive characters are, — " edge of the leaf " furnished all the way down from the top to the bottom with a " distinct horny border, of the same texture as the teeth.'" * It may be mentioned hore that what Baker described as Agare lieteracantha, Zucc. (?), in Gardener's Chronicle, Vol. YII. (new scries), p. 3GU, has been proved to be a new species, and it is proposed by him to de.^crib: it un Ur thj name of Agave multilineata. 204 The species o^ Agave wl'.ich yield Sisal lieinp and fibres suitable for rope making and weaving, are discussed fully in the previous pages. Such fibres are ordinarily 3 feet, and often o and 6 feet in length. They are soft and pliable, not so stout as the Mexican fibre or Tstle, and would scarcely answer the same purpose. This latter is generally only about a foot or a foot and a half in length, and is stout and rigid. There is little doubt, therefore, that Mexican fibre or Istle is derived from a group of Agaves with short leaves, and from the material avail- able at Kew, the evidence is strongly in favour of Agave hcteracantha, Zucc, being the species chiefly concerned. Indeed the specimens con- tributed by Dr. Parry to Kew in 1879, afford direct proof on this point. Since the above remarks were written we have been favoured by Dr. Xewberry with a reprint of an aiticle of his in the Papular Science Monthly for November 1887, entitled " Food and Fibre Plants of the " Xorth American Indians." At [lage 10 we find he identifies the •' lechuguilla" of the Indians with Agave heteracantha, and attention is particularly drawn to the size of the leaves, about a foot to 18 inches in length, and to the very strong character of the fibre contained in them. Dr. Xewbcrry's observations are: — " Another less known but scarcely less valuable plant belonging to the same genus {Agave) is the ' lechuguilla ' {Agave heteracantha) of Chihuahua and the suiTOunding country. Of this, the leaves are from a foot to 18 inches in length, and grow in a tuft like those of the century plant {Agave americana). 'Lhough separated with some difBculty from the pnrenchyma in which they are enveloped, the fibres that traverse the leaves are numerous and very strong, and are largely used by the Mexicans for the manufacture of ropes, sacking, &c." In the Kew museums there are specimens of Mexican fibre as fol- lows : — Prepared Mexican or Istle fil)re, from Mr. A. Rowbottom ; fibre used by the Indians for making ropes and coarse sacking, from Dr. Parry, 1879; a piece of cordage and ^Mexican hair-brush, made from Mexican fibre, contributed ,'dso by Dr. Parry ; and Mexican fibre or Istle as sold in London (value 26/. per ton), received from Messrs. Ide and Christie, loth October 1887. LXIV.— MEXICAN FIBRE OR ISTLE— (continued). [K. B., 1890, pp. 220-224.] The source of Mexican Fibre or I>tle is discussed in the last article. The fibre is prepared from one or more species of Agave, but, ns already stated, it is probable that the \i\\\nt known as Lechuguilla {Agave heteracantha, Zuoe., Agave Lechuguilla, Torrey) yields the best qnnlities of Mexican Fibre or Istle used in the fnited States and in iMirope. ^ye are indebted to Mr. W. S. Booth, Belle Vue House, Gloucester, for the following further account of this fibre, prepared from his own observations while travelling in Mexico, a few months ago: — Mexican Fibre or Istle. This fibre is classed in England not according to the plant from which it is extracted, but in refereni-e solelv to the district from which 2'j5 it is supposed to come. Thus the district of Jaumave is understood to send long, clean, fine fibre, and gives its name to what is considered to be the best quality ; Tula, a shorter and coarser fibre ; and lastlv. Matamoras, a short and soft fibre, somewhat " woolly " and " ofi" colour " (i.e., brownish). Each of these three qualities varies considerdbly Tvithin its own limit. Until lately little has been definitely known about the plants from which this fibre is extracted. According to tlie Kew authorities the fibre is yielded by Agave heteracantha and clusely allif d species. The fibre known in England as Jaumave is doubtless extracted from the ]-echuguilla {Agave hetcracanilia). That known as Tula may bo either from the Lechuguilla or the Pahia loca {Agave striata), the inferior qualities coming from the latter plant. That known as Mata- moras fibre may be either from the Palma loca or from various forms of the Espadillo, or again from varieties of Yucca, known to the natives as palma bareta or palma real. These palmas and espadillos are often picked and decorticated indiscriminately and mixed as they come to hand. The various plants from which Istle is extracted are found at present chiefly on the plains and rugged mountain slopes of the States of Coahuila, Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, and San Luis Potosi. The central towns for the trade in the several States are : Coahuila, Saltillo; Xuevo Leon, Monterey ; Tamaulipas, Jaumave, Tula, Tampico, and formerly Matamoras ; for San Luis Potosi, San Luis Potosi. The trade is carried on in these States owing to the exporting con- veniences, but the plants exist all over the Republic. San Luis Potosi does by far the largest business in fibre, exporting by sea from Tampico, and also from the different points on the railroad en route to the United States. The heights at which these plants grow, lie approximately within the tierras teiiipladas and the lower regions of the terras frias ; the former comprising "all the higher terraces 9nd the central plateaux themselves between about 3,000 and 8,000 feet, with a mean tempera- " ture of from 62° to 70° Fahr., and oscillating between such niod(»rate " extremes as 50° and 86° ; " the latter " all the highlands from about « 8,000 feet and upwards." The soil of the mountain slopes and wide plains where the plants are found, is of the barest description, hardly covering in many cases, on the hillsides, the rocks beneath. Generally speaking it is a detritus of hard whitish limestone, and the traveller's smarting eyes will soon force on his notice the fact that the fine dust of many of the broad pan-shaped valleys is heavily impregnated with lime. The Lechuguilla {Agave heteracantha^ is found associated with five or six sorts of Cactus, Maquey {Agave americana), Huapilla, Zacate, Zamandogue, and palmas; forming a sparse vegetation about 6 feet high, with a long wiry grass so poor as to leave the grey dusty soil exjjosed underneath. Almost the only use to which this kind of land is put is that of corn raising, and that only in small patches where irrigation is possible. The grazing of goats, sheep, cattle, anil horses is also attempted, these endeavouring to glean a meagre subsistence from the Nopal (Cactus), scrub, and grass. On the rugged barren mountain sides and slopes of naked stones and boulders, the same plants are found, only in a more stunted and dwarfed condition, and yielding a shorter and coarser fibre. Nearly all the accessible country is owned by Haciendados, most of whom live in the towns, leaving their estates in the hands of an agent. With the exception of a few native Indian tribes who live in the more inaccessible parts of the mountains, the rural population is composed of christianised Indians and half breeds, both called peons. 20G These build round the hacienda their villages of mud, sticks raid it.nhn- leaf thatch hovels fenced in with cactus and niaquey hedges and mud •walls, and aie quiet and docile, but lacking utterly any spark of iotelli- gent ambition. The hands who are not regularly employed on the work of the hacienda wander out over the valleys and mountains with mules and donkeys to gather the raw leaves of fibre plants. The greatest quantity is gathered naturally at the end of the year when the harvest is taken in. The central mass of heart leaves (cogolho) in the plant is alone gathered, leaving tlie outside leaves {penea), or say about 70 per cent, to waste, as the flesh of these outer leaves is found to be too hard to work. Although a fresli crop of leaves springs up from the terminal bud which was previously protected, this process prevents the plant from floAveriug, thcrel)y causing its decrease, as it dies after about four years of this treatment. Ha\ing got his load of cogolhos, the peon makes his Avay back to the h-icienda, where he sets about extracting the fibre, for which when finished and dried he gets from 2o to 50 cents* per arroba (25 pounds) either in money, or as is almost universal, in credit at the ranch store. The price he receives depends largely on the distance from which the cogolhos have been brought. Under the rude shade of palm-leaf thatch or in the shade, of the Mesquit trees the peons are to be seen iiri'paMna: the fibre. With a bundle of raw Lechu-' guilla cogolhos at his left, li.e man sits Avitli lus legs stretched out on either side of a wooden peg, about 8 inches high and 3 inches in diameter, driven firmly into the ground with a slant to the left. Fixed to this is another piece of wood about 3 inches square, about an inch above and parallel with the ground. About half an inch above this table the peg has a hole in it to receive the point of the talladcr^ a blunt-edged ironscraper in a wooden handle which the man lakes in his right hand. The simple imjjlemeuts used are shown in the Avood-cut' beloAv. Tearing a cogolho to pieces, taking a leaf and dexterously stripping the thorny margin from its sides, he places a corn-cob in the hollow of-' the base end of the leaf to make a handle, then Avith the simultaneous- action of both hands the point of the tallador is placed in the peg hole' and pressed on the leaf halfway from its point. The leaf is then pulled' through, once for one side, once for another, and a third time to giA'e a finishing scrape. Then Avith a rapid motion the pulp is tapped from thOi tallador and the end of the prepared fibre is tAvisted round the cob-* (which the operator holds as if it Avere a spade handle), and the procesa' is repeated for the other end (the base) of the leaf. When the pile of' fibre has grown enough to Avarrant movement it is carefully spread out in the sun to dry. One cause of discoloration is a Aveak aim, Avliich causes some of the pulp to remain on the fibre and give it a green tings' * Mex. dollar worth ZB\d. 207 owing to lack of pressure ; another is leaving it too long in the sun or air, ■which gives it a brownish tinge. When a Lechuguilla has been once pulled it is called lechtiguilla capoiia, and all succeeding growths of heart leaves will have withered burnt-looking ends, owing to the delicate points of the young sprouting leaves being scorched by the sun. This accounts for the rusty ends seen on Istle fibre in this country. After each pulling, too, the hbre of succeeding leaves naturally becomes more stunted and coarse. The Haciendados generally bale the fibre in rough Istie sacking in 200 lb. bales, and when sufticient quantity is on hand it is sent to the nearest central town or railroad depot by trains of ox teams wiiich carry about two tons apiece, or on mule trains which take a bale per pannier. These trains often travel 170 miles from point to point, and are fre- (iuently on the road from 15 to 20 days, allowing for breakages. Tula and Jauma\e are about this distance from Tampico, San Luis Potosi, or Vauegas. The roads are rough tracks along the bottoms of valleys and over mountain jwsses. In the valleys a team can be seen at a great distance by the cloud of white dust rising lazily around it. This dust is so fine and light that it hides the mules from the occupants of a buggy running before the wind. The mountain tracks ai-e of the roughest description. They are full of boulders and deep hollows torn out by the mountain torrents, and broken Avagons are as common a siofht as vultures whirling over a dead mule. The fibre from plants gathered in the mountains is, as a rule, coarser and shorter than that of those gathered in the valleys. The greater average length of the Jaumave istle is possibly accounted for by the lower altitude and greater fertility of the district. The quantity of fibre obtained from the Lechuguillas and Palmas is about 5 per cent, of the green leaves handled. Little, if any, fibre is lost in the manual process. The maquey leaves {Agave americana'), owing to the huge size, go through a much more laborious process, and yield only from 2 to 3 per cent, of a long, wavy, fine fibre, used largely for twine, saddle pads, and fine matting. The cogolhos of the palma loca, palma bareta, and palma real go through exactly the same process as the Lechuguilla, with the exception that, having much harder flesh, they have to be boiled before the fibi'e can be drawn. This boiling or steaming, which goes on until the leaves are completely soft, turns the fibre a brownish colour, and at the same time makes it very soft by dissolving the stiffening gum in the flesh. Many men have invented machines which were to have revo- lutionised this hand process, but all, up till now, have failed — not in the quality of the fibre produced, for the results have been good in this respect —but in the cost of working. In the treeless deserts of Mexico there is no fuel and no water. Macliines have hitherto required both ; water, especially, for washing the fibre — an operation that is not required in the hand process. Also witli the best machine there is more effort and systeni required, to say nothing of the services of an intelligent mechanic. A fortune is no doubt awaiting the man who can bring a machine to bear successfully on the millions of acres of closely growing agaves and yuccas of Mexico, whose fibres, besides their use in brush- making, mats, and sacking, are available also for paper when proj^erly treated. Paper is already made from the maquey fibre in works outside Saltillo (Coahuila). The stems of the palmas, too, are a spongy mass of fibre ready for crushing and pulping. The bulk of the fibre exported from Mexico now goes to the United States, whore it is used for brush-making and for twine for reapers and binders. A failure in the harvest in America will, therefore, have an appreciable effect on its price. England and Germany take large 208 quantities for brush-making, but our imports come largely through New York. Such things as trade statistics are dithcult to obtain in Mexico. The only figures I have are unreliable. There are no export duties, but as a rule it costs about 320 (Mexican) for every shipment crossing the borders. This is made up of fees to Customs authorities on both sides, passing entries, and commission to agent undertaking to see it through. There is a tax of ^ per cent, on all transactions in the Republic, but many large firms contract themselves out of this tax, -which is called Renta Interior, and is payable by the buyers. The present (1890) price of the finest Lechuguilla fibre (Jaumave) is from 30/. to Sol. per ton; that of shorter and coarser Lechuguilla (Tula), 28/. to 28/. 10^.; and of inferior Lechuguillas and Palma (Matamoras), about 22/. per ton. Before closing I may perhaps say that the Agave and Yucca fibre industry is at present in its infancy. If intelligently followed it might become a very prosperous enterprise in many of our tropical possessions where cheap labour and poor soils prevail. It might become still more prosperous by the use of economical machinery and intelligently managed plantations. In the Kew Bulletin for March and October 1889 the interesting accounts of the development of the fibre industry in the Bahamas will show what can be done by intelligent and systematic action. (Signed) W. S. Booth. LXV.— MAURITIUS HEMP. {Ftircrcea giffantea, Vent.) [K. B., 1887, March, pp. 8-10.] A hemp industry was started at the Mauritius to utilize the large number of plants o^ Furcrcea gigantea, Vent., Avhi(;h had spontaneously established themselves on low-lying lands near the sea coast. This is one of the oldest and best known species of Fiu-crcea, and is now universally spread throughout tropical America, and also in India, Ceylon, Mauritius, and St. Helena. The trunk below the rosette of leaves reaches a height of 2 to 4 feet. The leaves are 4 to 7 feet long, 4 to 6 inches broad at the middle, unarmed, bright green and channelled down the face. The scape or terminal flowering stem reaches a height of 20 to 30 feet. Like all the other Furcrajas this species produces copious oblong bulbillai in place of or in addition to flowers, which falling take root and reproduce the plant. It has often flowered under cultivation in England, the last time at Kew being the autumn of 1874. A full account, with description, of the various species of Furcrcea is given by Mr. J. G. Baker in Gardeners' Chronicle {1^79, pp. 623, 624). Furcrmi giganteu is figured in the Botanical Magazine, t. 2250 : Wight Ic, tab. 2025 : Decandolle, Plantes Grasses, t. 126. Although Furcrcea gigantea, known locally as Aloes vert, is the chief fibre plant in Mauritius, there is evidence that Furcrcea cuhensis is also found there, as well as species of Agaves such as A. americana and others. Bojer (Hortus Mauritianus, p. 353) mentions i\ie Aloes vert {Furcraa gigantea) as common in 1837, and states "Croit sur la Montague *' Langue dans les endroits vides et les basilagcs des habitations dans 209 " tous les quartiers d'ile." He does not mention Furcrcea cubetisis at all, so the latter must be a later importation. Plants of both species liave been received at Kew from the Mauritius Botanic Gardens. FuTcrcBQ gigantea is supposed to have been introduced from South America to Mauritius about 1790. It has evidently found a congenial home thei'e, for without any effort on the part of man it has covered waste lands and abandoned sugar estates to such an extent as to lay the fouiulation of a considerable fibre industry. The leaves are often 8 feet in length and from 6 to 7 inches iii breadth. The pulp of the leaves when crushed gives off a strong pungent odour, and hence this species is sometimes called the foetid aloe. The juice is strongly corrosive and soon acts upon wrought iron ; it is said to produce less ettect on cast iron, while it is practically inoperative on brass and copper. The plant grows in all soils and up to an elevation of 1,800 feet above the level of the sea. It has, however, more generally disseminated itself on the lowlands near the coast, and on a few of the abandoned sugar estates that have become too dry for cane cultivation. A fibre industry was started at Mauritius about 12 years ago, when the wet or retting system was tried. The cut leaves were first passed through the rcUers of a sugar mill and steeped in water for some days. The fibre was then washed and beaten out by hand in running water. This process was soon found unsuitable, as the fibre was discoloured and rendered Aveak; consequently it obtained comparatively low prices. Attention was then directed to extraction by means of a gratteuse or scutching machine. Many machines have since been tried, and apparently the pui-cly mechanical difficulties connected with cleaning the fibre have been for the most part overcome. The amount of fibre obtained from leaves of the Aloes vert was at the rate of 3 per cent, by weight of green leaves. The yield of fibre was at the rate of about \\ tons per acre. A set of six machines, driven by a steam engine of 8 horse- poAver (nomiufd), cleaned 1,155 pounds of fibre per day, which is at the rate of 197 pounds for each machine per day. At one time there were eight fibre or hemp companies formed, with a total capital of Rs. 1,182,500. The total (juantity of fibre exported in 1872 was 214 tons, of the value of 4,934/., which would be at the rate of 21/. 13^. per ton. In 1880 it had increased to G62 tons, which sold in England at 28/. to 32/. per ton. Some samples in 1882 sold as high as 38/. per ton. Since that time low prices have ruled, and this, added to the fact that the cost of production was considerably increased, tended to discourage the industry. It is evident the industry was first started to Avork ofE the leaves of self-grown plants which were ready at hand in great abundance. When these leaves were exhausted it remained either to wait until the plants were regrown or to procure supplies of leaves at increased cost from the surrounding country. This latter course being adopted at a time Avhen the market value of fibre was low, rendered the enterprise, for a period at least, unremunerative. In the returns of 1885 we find that Mauritius hemp imported to this country amounted to 255 tons, of the value of 39/. per ton. In Messrs. Ide and Christie's monthly circular, Dec. 1886, INluuritins hemp is quoted " in good demand " at 28/. per ton. The following extracts taken from Mr. Home's Report on the Agri- cultural Resources of iSIauritius will sxitticiently explain the circum- stances under which the fibre industry avus started and the causes Avhich haA-e operated to produce the present depression, Avhieh in the interest of the island it is hoped will be only of a temporary character : — " The industry of extracting fibres from the leaves oi" the aloes vert is " by no means exhausted. There is ground for believing that it has U 77554. O 210 " yet a future in Mtniritiiis. The full in the price of this fibre in the " European niarkets Ijroke several local companies that Avere formed " for the working of the aloe estates. There was far too much money *' invested in them to pay." # * # * # " On many of the estates self-sown plants abounded in great numbers. " It wa.s from the leaves of these that the companies made money and " paid large dividends when the price of the tibre was good. The " plants had grown naturally on the land, and their presence on it had " not cost a cent. In such cases results materially difler from those of " reaping the crops of regularly laid out plantations with low prices for " the produce. The soil and climate of the localities referred to favour ** the growth of the plants in such a degree that little expense need be " incurred in introducing it to new grounds. The plant produces " plantlets in great abundance in this colony. These plantlets grow *' viviparously on the parent plant, and adhere to it till they have " developed into almost perfectly formed plants. AVhen the young " plantlets drop from their parent they are perfectly fitted to stand by *• themselves. Excepting the want of roots they are perfect. The *' roots are emitted as soon as the plantlets come in contact with the " moist soil, even wdien they are lying on the surface of the ground. " It seems, therefore, that to increase this plant rapidly and cheaply " over a given area, due advantage should be taken of its peculiarities *' and the facilities Avhich it naturally afPords for propagation and ** increase." At St. Helena Furcrcpct gigantea has been for some time under cultivation as an introduced plant. Experiments on a small scale have been carried on, and samples of fibre have appeared in the English market. (Report by Mr. D. Morris, F.L.S., on the Kesources of the Island of St. Helena, Colonial Office, African No. 275, 1884.) Messrs. Collyer and Co, reported in 1883 on fibre from St. Helena aa follows : — "Aloe fibre (Furcrcea gigantea) St. Helena. Good length, full " strength, rather dull colour, generally well cleaned but with some •' runners untouched, and barky. Value 28/. to 30/. per ton. This '* sample is very different in appearance from the Furcrcra gigantea " of Mauritius, owing probably to differences of both growth and treat- " ment." Silk Grass (Furcrcea cubensis, Haw.). While on the subject of fibre from Furcrcea gigantea, it may not be inappropriate to say a few words as regards the Uicrits of another species, Furcrcea cttbensis. This, as already pointed out, is possibly one of the plants under the name of Cajiin from wdiich some of the Yucatan fibre is obtained. It differs from F. gigantea in that it has no distinct trunk, or a very short one, below the rosette of leaves. The latter are 3 to 5 ft. long, about 5 inches broad at the middle, bright green, rigid in texture, and armed with regular, hooked, brown prickles. It is a native of tropical America and cultivated in most tropical countries. A variety of this plant — F. cubensis, var. inernii.s — is figured and described in Bot. Mag., t. Go 13. In addition to flowers it produces bulbils on the flowering scape, from which the plant is readily increased. The plant is common in Jamaica, and it is said that there " would be no difficulty in establishing there a " large area under cultivation." The fibre is white, strong, and bright 211 looking. It yields at tho rate of 2-05 to 3- 15 per cent, by weight of green leaf. From experiments carried on at Jamaica nudcr a committee appointed by Grovernment, it was found that leaves oi Furcrcea r/fbensis weighing 366| pounds yielded 2S pounds of green fibre, whicli when perfectly dry weighed 7^ pounds. This was at th3 rate of 2-05 per cent, by weight of green leaf. In the Report of the Committej this plant and its fibre are described as follows : — ^' Silk grass (Fur ci-fPa cubevsis). Leaves 5 to 6 feet long, generally " armed with strong prickles, but sometimes unarmed or Avith i'ew " prickles. Common in Jamaica, and might be largely proptigated at " once. Value of fibre — (a) 28/. good quality, but might be whiter ; ** (6) fairly clean, fair colour, value about 28/. per ton ; (r) superior " to Sisal, and worth 27/. per ton, A good fibre, not quite sufficiently ** white in the centre." It may' be mentioned here that many Agaves yield fibre, but the fibre may, as in the case of the Jamaica Keratto, pi'ove unsuitable for indus- trial purposes. The Brokers' Report on Keratto fibre was — " little ** strength: not an even (but a curly) fil^re : towy : value 12^. to 14/. " per ton." D. M. LXVI.— MAURITIUS HEMP MACHINES. [K. B., 1890, pp. 98-101.] The subject of Mauritius hemp has been already discussed. Con- siderable interest has been taken in India and tlie Colonies in the production of fibres suitable for rope and twine making, for which of late years there has Ijeen a considerable demand. In connexion with this interest numerous inquiries have been addressed to Kew respecting the best machines for cleaning the leaves and stems of plants yielding such fibres. The plants in most cases have been vaiious species of Agavey Furcrcea, Sansevieria, Karatas, BromeUa, and other monocotyledonous plants whose fibre bundles yield the particular kind of fibre in demand. It is well known that certain fil)re machines, more or less efiective, are in use in Yucatan in the production of Sisal hemp, yielded by one or more varieties of Agave rigida. It is very probable that some of these machines could be successfully introduced into other countries where Agave plants are grown for fil)re. in the case of Mauritius hemp we learn (hat the fibre machines, locally known as grattes or scrapers, Avhich have been generally in use in that island for many years, are manufactured in the Colony. These ara exclusively engaged in extracting fibre from tho leaves of the Aloes vert or fajtid Aloe {Furcrmi gigunlca). The leaves of this plant are very similar in size and character to those o^ Agave rigid'}, var. msalana, lately received at Kew from the Bahamas. There is little doubt that the grattes or fil)re machines as now used in Mauritius, or with some slight modifications, could also be used in the treatment of Agavo leaves. In any case it was very desirable to obtain exact particulars of tlie con- struction and capal)ilitie5 of the Mauritius machines. They a[)pear, so far, to meet the requirements of the jMauritius planters, and, more- over, they have been adopted after careful trial with other machines which have been ultimately discarded. Tlie particulars desired in regard to the machines in use have now been furnished in an <\liausli\'e manner by the Government of Mauritius, and they arc publifehed in the O 2 212 Kcif Bulletin Avith the view of placing the information within reach of a large class of people interested in the subject. RovAL Gardens, Kew, to Colonial Office. Sir, Royal Gardens, Kew, November 6, 1889. I AM desired by Mr. Thiselton-Dyer to inform you that the high prices now ruling for white rope fibres have stimulated inquiries in regard to their origin and production, and numerous applications have been made to Kew on the subject. 2. As you are aware, a considerable industry has arisen in Mauritius during the last six or seven years in extracting fibre from the leaves of t\\Q AXo'esvQvi {Ftircrcea gigantea). This fibre is known in commerce as Mauritius hemp, and it is regularly quoted in London prices current. 3. The success of the industry in Mauritius indicates that a tolerably successful machine has been found capable of preparing the fibre on a commercial scale. Information as regards the nature and working of such a machine is just now a matter of considerable interest. 4. ]Mr. Thiselton-Dyer Avould be glad if the Secretary of State would approve of an application being made to the Government of Mauritius for such inlbrmation ; and it would be convenient if the information, for a comparison of the results obtained in different countries, could be supplied in the form of replies to the questions given in the enclosed schedule. I am, &,c. (Signed) D. Morris, The Hon. R. H. Meade, C.B. [Enclosure.] Machin'es in Usii at Mauritius for ExtractiiNO Fibres from Leaves of FurcrcEa gir/antea. 1. Name and description of machine (with address of maker) } 2. Weight and cost (not including power) ? 3. How long in use ? 4. Whether worked by hand, horse, or steam power ? 5. If by steam, what is the registered horse-power necessary to drive one machine ? 6. No. of men required to feed and remove fibre (not including carriers or other persons employed in bringing in leaves or in drying the fibre) ? 7. Average out-turn of wet fibre for each machine ])er hour? 8. Average out-turn of dry fibre for each macliine per day of — hours ? 9. Average cost in lal)our, fuel, &c., in cleaning a ton of dry fibre ? 10. Please add any other information respecting the character and working of the machine not included in the above intpiiries. Sir C. C. Lees to Lord Knutsford. Government House, Mauritius, ]My Lord, February 20, 1890. I HAVE the honour to transmit to your Lordship a copy of a report by the Acting Surveyor-General, Mr. Vandermeersch, forward- ing replies to tlie questions annexed to Mr. Morris' letter of the 6th 213 November 1889, which was enclosed in your .Despatch No. 369 of the 8th November as well as four other documents regarding the extraction of fibre, and the machiiies now employed in the Mauritius. I am, &c. (Signed) C. C. Lees, Governor. The Right Hon. Lord Knutsford, G.C.M.G. [Enclosure.] Report by Acting SuavEYOR-GENEUAL, No. A/66, February 17, 1890. T HAVE delayed reporting upon this subject because I had to procure reliable information. I now forward formal replies to the queries of Mr. Thiselton-Dyer. To these replies I have added the following documents, which I hope, will make the information as complete as possible : — 1st. A very detailed and interesting memorandum on the subject kindly supplied at my request by Mr. Regis de Chazal, C.E. (Engineer to the Forges et Fonderies de Maurice), to which I have appended some supplemental notes by mycelf. 2nd. A plan of an installation for two " grattes " and a tracing (full size) of the " servante " to accompany Mr. de Chazal's memorandum.* 3rd. A pamphlet on Aloe fibre by Mr. Evenor de Chazal.* 4th. A statement of the actual results obtained at St. Antoine Hemp Factory during 60 days' work. (Signed) A. Vanderiieeuscii, Acting Surveyor-General. February 17, 1890. [Enclosure No. 2.] Answers to queries respecting machines in use at i\rauritin3 for extracting fibres from leaves of Furcrcca gigantea. 1. The machine in general use in this Colony is a drum of 2 feet in diameter by 1 foot in width, upon which are bolted blades in 2-inch L steel, and which revolves at a great speed, the blades passing close to a. guide in brass ("servante"). The machine is called a ("gratte "; scraper. It is manufactured in the Colony by all engineers' shops, but chiefly by the " Forges and Fonderies de Maurice." 2. The weight of the drum is about 4 cwt., the cost, including the driving pulley and bolts (exclusive of framework, masonry, and setting), is about Rs. 250 per " gratte." 3. This gratte has been in general use in Mauritius for the last six years. 4. The machine is worked by steam or by water power. 5. The registered horse-power to drive one gratte is 3 h.p. 6. One gratte is served by two men who stand on each side of the gratte, and who work alternately. One of them must be left- handed. One carrier will bring in sullicient leaves from the yard to the gratte, and another man will suffice to remove the wet fibre produced by two grattes aud to carry this fibre to the weighing machine and thence to the cleaning pits. * Not reproduced. 214 7. The out-turn of wet fibre for each machine per hour is, on an average, 'i2^ kilog., that is taking eight liours' work per day, which is as much as the men can do, the work being very fatiguing. 8. Tlie out-turn per day of eight hours is per machine (gratte) 340 kil. wet supplying on an average 97 kil. of dry fibre (or 28i °;'o of the wet libre). 9. The average cost in labour, fuel, &c., in cleaning a ton of dry fibre, packing, and transporting to the place of Us. shipment is - - - - - 150 If to the above we add other charges, viz., collecting leaves, carting, mill management, interest on capital, &c., say about ------ 75 The total average cost of one ton of fibre ready for shipment is . - _ - . Es. 225 (Signed) A. Vandermeersch, February 17, 1890. Acting Surveyor-General. Summary of a Note on tue Fibre Machines generally in use AT Mauritius for Cleaning Aloe Fibre, by M. Regis de Chazal. 1. Description of Machine. The machine generally in use in Mauritius for extracting fibre from the leaves of the green Aloe {Furcrcea gigantea) is known under the name of gratte. This gratte consists of a drum about 2 feet in diameter and I foot wide. On the circumference of this are bolted 2-iuch L-shaped blades parallel to the axis. These blades are generally of iron, but steel is preferi'ed. They are firmly fixed to the drum by means of bolts and nuts. The drum is mounted upon an axle and made to revolve w-ith great rapidity close to and against the front or edge of a feed table {servcmfe). The feed table is adjusted by means of screws so as to approach the revolving drum within a distance of quarter inch to an inch, an required. It is composed of a stout brass plate and lip fitted firmly to a piece of hard wood by means of a bolt. The plate and wood are themselves fixed to two wooden bars, 6 inches by 6 inches, which serve as guides in the movement of the feed table backwards and forwards. The most difficult task in connection with working the gratte is the exact adjustment of this feed table. It is most neceasary that the blades on the drum and the edge of the feed table are so adjusted that they work freely and evenly and at the same time bring every fibre in the leaf in contact with the beaters. The proper adjustment of the feed table in regard to the beaters is stated to be the secret of the success of the gratte as a fibre machine. This adjustment should be performed with the utmost care before the machine is started. When once adjusted it is important to maintain the feed table in its proper position and prevent any displacement during the process of working. The drum should be turned at an average rate of 700 revolutions per minute; while a higher I'ate of speed may be maintained without injury, it is found not desiralde under any circumstances to fall below 620 revolutions per minute. The best and most economical work is tUat done at 700 revolutions per minute. 215 Method of fVorking. The Aloe leaf is presented tip first aloiif;; the feeil tiible, and is drawn down between the latter and the drum. It is thoroughly beaten by the grattes to about three-fourths of its length. By these means the pulp Is, removed and the fibre is left. The leaf is then withdrawn and the other end presented to the beaters until the whole is cleaned. Two men usually work at each machine. They stand one on each side of the feed table and work alternately. It is desirable for rapid "work that one of the men should be left-handed. Each man in turn presents his leaf to the machine and withdraws it as soon as possible. In a regular and efficient working of the machine it is arranged that one man or the other should always have a leaf in the machine in course of being cleaned. To avoid accidr-nts the feed table is now provided Avith a wooden guard. This guard prevents the hands of the work- people from being caught by tlie beiiters. iMoioifhif/ the Machims. The machines arc generally mounted in pairs, both working on the same axle, and driven by steam or water power. The driving wheel, fixed midway on the axle between the two machines, should have a minimum diameter of 18 inches, wdth a strap 6 inches wide. A single adjustment of the feed table should last from eight to lo days. At the end of that time it is generally found necessary to readjust the parts to ensure good results. The framework of the machine is securely attaclicd to substantial masonry work by large bolts about 5 feet long. The machines must be thus firmly secured or the vibration dui-ing the process of working would soon cause them to become detached. The arrangement of the machines in pairs on tlie same axle could be extended in the same line indefinitely, provided the necessary distance is preserved between the centre of each machine. One of the largest fibre factories in Mauritius contains 12 machines, that i.s, six pairs arranged as already described. Out-turn of Fibre. As already stated, each machine is served by two men standing on each side of the feed table. One carrier supplies them with fresh leaves while another is engaged in receiving and removing the wet fibre. The task of a man, which can be easily accomplished in six to eight hours, is i!50 lbs. (or 125 kilos) of wet fibre. The wage paid for this is one rupee. Sometimes, however, by extra work (for which the workman is paid at the rate of 50 cents per 100 lbs.) as much as 800 to 900 lbs. of wet fibre have been produced in a single day. This amount, however, is quite exceptional. The proportion of dry fibre to the wet fibre as it leaves the macliine varies from 22 to 30 per cent. The yield of dry fibre in relation to tlie weight of green leaves varies according to the age of leaves and the characteristics of the season. The riper the leaves the lai'ger the yield of fibre; a wet season pi'o- ducing leaves charged with moisture will also alFect the result. To produce a ton of dry fibre ready for shipment requires from 80,000 to 150,000 leaves, varying according to the size and age of the leaves and character of the season. The cutting of the leaves costs from 50 cents to one rupee the 100 bundles of 25 leaves each. The higher price is paid Avhen labour is scarce, or when the ground is rough ;^.nd dilficult 216 to traverse. The baling of the dry fibre costs from 40 to 50 cents the bale of 150 kilos. It may be assumed that a set of 10 to 12 fibre machines projjcrly installed and attended by men accustomed to the work will turn out on an average about 1,200 kilos (2,64.5 lbs. avoir.) of dry fil)re per day. Difficulty is sometimes experienced in obtaining pairs of riglit-lianded and left-handed men for each machine. Right-handed men are, as may be expecteJ, in excess. As already shown, it is necessary for economical working to have a right-handed and a left-handed man to attend to each machine. Treatment of the Fibre. VV^hen the fibre first leaves the scraping machine it is covered with mucilage possessing corrosive properties which dries on exposure to the air. The tendency of this mucilage, if left on the fibre, is to turn it of a yellow colour, and even sometimes of a reddish colour. To prepare the fibre with a bright attractive appearance the best plan is to place it, as soon as it leaves the machine (or as soon as it has been weighed, to check the amount produced by each man), in warm water of a tempera- ture of 60° to 80^ Cent. (140° to 176° Fah.), and leave it there for about two hours. It should then be washed in two waters, and finally exposed to the sun to be dried. A treatment recently employed consists in washing the fibre in cold water only. In the first washing soap is used at the rate of 2 to 3 per cent, of the wet fi.bre. After being thoroughly washed with soap the fibre is passed through pure water until all the soap has disappeared, then exposed to the sun and dried. By these means a beautifully white fibre IB obtained. When thoroughly dried the fibre is afterwards scutched, to get rid of pith and dust. This process is usually performed by a machine constructed on the plan of an ordinary gratte, but fitted with four blades instead of 12. These also turn away from the feed table instead of towards it. The fibre is inserted at an opening about 6 inches higher than the centre of the axle. It is carried away by the movement of the beaters, and remains on the top of the drum, where, exposed to the repeated blows of the beaters, it is. cleaned of all dust and impurities. It may be mentioned that, owing to the corrosive nature of the juice of the Aloe leaves, the workpeople are compelled to wear strong leather gloves. The gloves are fastened to the wrist by leather bands. As the gloves are provided by the proprietor, and they wear out very quickly, they constitute quite an appreciable item in the cost of working a fibre factory. (Signed) Regis de Chazal. Addenda. The upper half of the gratte is covered with a semicircular wooden cover, to prevent the " pulpe " from being splashed about the place ; this " pulpe," which is semi-liquid, falls on an inclined plane standing about 1 foot below the gratte, and upon which it slides into troughs, wherefrom it is gradually removed and .spread to dry. There is a considerable quantity of this " pulpe" produced for one ton of diy fibre (about 20 tons), and large areas are required to stack it. The smell from the decomposing " pulpe " is anything but agreeable. During the fiist years of Aloe fibre manufacture in Mauritius no use was made of the residue (" pulpe "), as it was found to burn the planta- tions ^^■hen used as manure. Of late, however, it has been extensively 217 employed by mixing it with other manure, and it has given good results in the cane fields. (Signed) A. Vandermeeesch, February 17, 1890. Acting Surveyor-General. Statement of Work executed at St. Antoine Hemp Factort in District of Eiver du Rempart, Mauritius. Year 1889. February - - 15 days' work witli 9 grattes March - - 18 „ H „ May- - - 20 „ H „ June- - - 7 ,, 11 ,, 60 days. Equivalent to 630 days' work of one gratte. The produce has been 213,371 kilos, of wet fibre, Avhich have given — 401 bales of dry fibre, 1st quality. 6 „ coarse fibre, inferior quality. 407 bales, weighing 61,050 kilos. Mean day's work=10,175 kilos. Proportion of dry fibre to wet fibre=28'61 °/o A true copy of note supplied by Manager. (Signed) A. Vandermeersch, February 17, 1890. Acting Surveyor- General. LXVII.— AGAVES AND ARBORESCENT LILIACE^ ON THE RIVIERA. [K. B., 1892, pp. 1-10.] At the close of November 1891, Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., keeper of the herbarium and library, paid a short visit to the gardens of the Riviera for the purpose of studying the plants of Agave and allied genera, and the plants of such Arborescent Liliaceae as had been successfully introduced into cultivation in that part of the world. The following notes, prepared by Mr. Baker, deal with the plants of a few groups only. The principal object of a visit which I made in November-December 1891, at the instigation of the Director, to the gardens of the Riviera, was to see the Agaveae and arborescent Liliaceae growing there in quanti- ties in the open air. I have for some vime devoted special attention to these two groups of plants, and have written papers upon them in which I have endeavoured to work out and characterise the species and varieties. In these large plants very little help can be obtained from herbarium materials, and the species have been mostly described and their range of variation studied from a small number of specimens grown in the conservatories of England, France, Germany, and Belgium. It is quite obvious that the range of specific variation is often far 218 greater than was supposed when they were first named and characterised, and that often the descriptions have been made from plants in a state of very imperfect development. Very few botanists have attended much to these plants, so that it has often been very difficult for cultivators to obtain names for their specimens. I also wished to get any further light I could upon the diS'erences in the climatic reijuirements of the species. I was kindly invited by Mr. Thomas Hanbury, F.L.S., of the Palazzo Orengo, La Mortola, who has the largest collection of these plants on the Riviera, to pay him a visit. I stayed at liis house more than a week, and had therefore full opportunity of studying all the forms contained in his collection in a leisurely manner ; and he kindly also took me to a number of other gardens at Mentone, Monte Carlo, Bordighera, and San Remo. I also went with him to Genoa to see the magnificent botanical institute which he has recently founded there, and had the opportunity of going Avith Professor Peuzig through the Genoa botanic garden. I worked for a day making notes upon the collection in the Jardiu d'Acclimatation at Hyeres, which, next to that of Mr. Hanbury, contains the largest series of forms on the Riviera. In the following paper I propose to give a complete list of the species which I saw growing in the open air, which appeared to be fully adapted to the soil and climate of the Riviera, with a summary of the notes which I made upon any points about their characters and develop- ment Avhich are not already known and placed on record. Besides studying the plants, I took note of all the names I saw, and these names were often wrongly applied. These corrections will be a great help to us at Kew in the interchange or purchase of farther specimens for our collection, but it is needless, in the present paper, to enter into full details on this part of the subject. For the nomenclature and classi- fication of the AgavefB I follow my " Handbook of the AmaryllidecPy^ published in 1888, and for the Aloiners and YnccoidefB, my papef in the 18th volume of the " Journal of Linnean Society," published in 1880. Order Amaryli.ide,^, Genus Agave, Linn. Group FlLIFER.D. A. Jilifera, Salmdyck. Grown abundantly all along the Riviera, from Hyeres to Genoa, in a great variety of forms, flowering freely. It does not differ materially from tlie plant of English conservatories. It is quite clear that A. Jilamentosa^ vSalmdyck, is a mere form of the same species. A. schidigera, Lemaire. La Mortola. This is just the plant of English conservatories. It is very doubtful whether this is more than a variety of the last. Group Marginatje. A. lophantha, Schiede. Seen in various forms, both the type and A. cfsmlescens, Salmdyck, under a great variety of names, but not in flower. What is grown as " stenophylla " is not the plant described under that name by Jacobi, but a form of this species. I do not think lophantha is really distinct specifically from A. imivittata^ Haworth, which has long green leaves, with a pale band down the middle. A. a-ylonacantha, Salmdyck. The true plant is grown at La Mortola, not differing materially from that of English conservatories ; but I saw a great many others so called, which were wrongly determined. 210 A. Kerchovei, Lemaire. Grown spainngly both at La Mortola aud Hyeres, at the latter garden as "^. Beaucarnei, Lemaire," not differing materially from the plant of English conservatoires. A very curious plant grown at La Mortola, under the name of " A. Villce, Pirotti," is, I think, a very dwarf, spineless form of this species, identical with what has been called in England " A. Kerchovei inennis." A. VictoricB-reginfe, Moore. Seen at La Mortola, not differing mate- rially from the plant of English conservatories. Has not flowered. A. Gheisbreghtii, Lemaire. Seen at La Mortola, not differing materially from the plant of English conservatories. A. Hanhurii, Baker, n. sp, A new species allied to^. Gheisbreghtii^ seen in the Mortola collection, under the name oi A. heteracantha^ It has a sessile rosette, 8-9 inches in diameter, oblong rigid very glaucous leaves 4-5 inches long, 2^ inches diameter at the middle, with a very concave face, a pungent brown -black end-spine, a narrow con- tinuous brown border, and close spreading colourless deltoid teeth, \ inch long. Flowers not seen, A. horrida, Lemaire. Seen at La Mortola, not differing materially from the plant of English conservatories. Group SUBMARGINAT.I. A Deserti, Engelm. Seen only in an undeveloped state at La Mortola. A. Shaicii, Engelm. Seen only in an undeveloped state at Hyeres. A. applauata, Lemaire. A most striking species, which I saw all along the Riviera, from Hyeres to Genoa, reaching a much fuller state of development than we ever get in England. Leaves 30-40 in an acaulesccni rosette, very rigid, oblong, very glaucous, reaching a length of 4-5 feet, and a breadth of 4-6 inches at the middle ; base very convex, 1^ inches thick; end- spine very large and pungent, decurrent along tlie margin a third or half way down ; teeth distant, deltoid-cuspidate, dark brown, \-^ inch long. It flowers freely at La Mortola and elsewhere, with a peduncle 10 or 12 feet long. A. spectabilis, Todaro Hort. Bot. Panorm. II. t. 25, is probably the same species. A. Hookeri, Jacobi. A fine plant from Mexico, Avithout a name, which had just flowered at Hyeres, 1 referred here. It had 30-40 very thick, rigid, bright green, oblong leaves, 3-4 feet long, Q-'S inches broad, at the middle, a decurrent large pungent end-spine, very broad deltoid- cuspidate teeth, and a stout peduncle, 20 feet long, with largo crowded lanceolate bract-leaves, imbricating like those of ^4. atrovirens. It flowered at Kevv^ in 1889, and was figured in the Botanical Magazine, tab. 6589. A. Franzonini, Hort. Hanbury. This, which is one of the most striking plants in Mr. Ilanbury's garden, was one of the things which I was desirous to see, and I find that it is an undescribed species of this" afiinity, which I have never seen in any English collection. It has an aeaulescent rosette of 30-40 oblong-spathulate leaves, which are as thoroughly aud persistently glaucous as those of A. appUinata,Yeac\img a length of 8-9 feet and a breadth of a foot at the middle, very rigid in texture, with a very pungent end-spine decurrent for about half a foot, and distant dull brown-black deltoid-cuspidate hooked or straight teeth, i-^ inch long. It was not in flower at the time of my visit, but its huge Eiiagave panicle Avas produced a year ago, with a stout peduncle 40 feet long, and was deso'ibed fully iu a paper by Philip Sewell in Gard. Chron., 1889, Vol. II. p. 639. Mr. Hanbury tells me it was introduced to La Mortola in 1878, and probably named in honour of Francesco Franzosini, proprietor of the Villa Franzosini and a rich 220 garden at Intra on the Lago Maggiore, which was rented for some years by the late Sir G. Macleay. [Note added, 1894. — Agave FraHzos/w/flowered again in the autumn of 1892, and it was fully described and figured in the Gardeners^ Chronicle, 1892, vol. ii., p. 177, fig. 31.] A. atrovirens, Karw. Next to americana and rigida, this is the most abundant Agave of the Eiviera gardens, attaining a much greater development than it ever reaches at home. It may be recognised through all its wide range of variation by its large oblong-spathulate dull green leaves, large decurrent end-spine, large distant deltoid-cuspidate mar- ginal teeth, stout peduncle with crowded ascending imbricating lanceo- late bract-leaves, the lower a foot or a foot and a half long, and very stout comparatively short panicle branches. I saw it in flower at Hyeres, La Mortola, and San Remo. The leaves reach a length of six or eight feet, and a breadth of 1 5-- 16 inches. On the Riviera it is usually called yi. salmiana, but I believe that quite a dozen plants named or inaintained as species by Jacobi must range here as forms. Group American^e. A. seemanynana, Jacobi. This I saw at Hyeres just coming into flower, not differing very materially from the plant of English con- servatories. A.fero.v, K. Koch. This species, grown in the open air at La Mortola, is developed much better than any I have seen at home. It has slightly glaucous oblong-spathulate leaves, 3 feet long, 9-10 inches broad at the middle, a large pungent non-decurrent end-spine, and very large irregular deltoid-cuspidate marginal teeth, with the edge hollowed out between them. I did not see it in flower. A, Scoli/7nus, Karw. Not grown commonly in the Riviera gardens, but I saw it at Hyeres, La Mortola, and Monte Carlo, in flower at the last locality. A. Verschaffeltii, Lemaire, and several other plants which have been described as species, must clearly bo placed here. A. potatorum, Zucc. What was called by this name at La Mortola, and it may be named correctly, was clearly conspecific with A. atrovirens {salmiana^. A. coccinea, Roezl. Grown at La Mortola, not differing materially from the plant of English conservatories. A. mexicana, Lam. The plant grown under this name at Hyeres is no doubt named correctly, but I do not think in any broad sense it is more than a variety oi americana. A. americana, L. Everywhere abundant along the Riviera, not in gardens only, but by roadsides, and along the sea margin, flowering very freely. Besides the type, two varieties, one of which is called Icetevirens and Milleri, with very glaucous leaves, approximating towards mexicana, and another called ornata and picta, with green leaves with great stripes of yellow, I saw one plant of the latter with leaves 8-9 feet long and nearly a foot broad at the middle. Group RiGiD.E, A. rigida, Miller. This, the most valuable and most variable of all the Agaves, is common and quite at home in the Riviera gardens, flowering freely ; and I had an opportunity of studying its characters and range of variation far better than I had ever done before, and of seeing several forms with which I was not previously acquainted. The 221 commonest forms in the Riviera show the characteristic small distant, nearly black teeth, and agree very well with what has been doscribt-d and figured as LvtU and LvtUoides (Bot. Mag. t. 5,893). In Dr. Hern's garden, situated just on the French side of the boundary gor"-e at St. Louis, I saw a form Avith leaves much thicker than usual (1^ inches thick at the base) and forming a less dense rosette. The plants called Cantnla and Rumphii in the Riviera gardens are forms of rigidci. Mr. Hanbury has just flowered a spineless form that agrees very well with the sisalana of Vucatan and Florida. I am quite satisfied now that A. HouUetU, Jacobi, is nothing more than unde- veloped sisalana, and the same holds good with a plant called Icevis. One panicle of this species at La Mortola was producing copious bulbillae. The peduncle, including the rhomboid panicle, does not reach a greater height than 12-15 feet. The bract-leaves, like those of a/nei-icana, are small and distant as compared with those o^ atrovirens. A. DacUIoni, Baker, n. sp. This is a new species, intermediate between rigida and polyacantlia, which I saw for the first time in the Jardiu d'Accliraatation at Hyeres. It is acaulescent, with a rosette of about 30 rigid ensifoim leaves, which reach a length of 3-4 feet and a breadth of 4 inches at the middle. They are moderately glaucous when mature, tinged with red when young, very concave on the face towards the tip, with a non-decurrent pungent point and close minute deltoid chestnut-brown marginal teeth. The peduncle was about 20 feet long, and the panicle 6 feet long and broad. The bract-leaves and flowers are like those of A. rigida. A. litrida, Miller. Seen only at Hyeres, not differing materially from the plant of English conservatories. A. troubetskoijana, Hort. Hyeres. A very fine plant, allied to A. lurida, which I saw, under this name, in the Jardin d'Acclimatation at Hyeres, is quite distinct from anything I have seen at home. It is acaulescent, with about 30 lanceolate very glaucous leaves, 9-10 feet long, 6-7 inches broad above the middle, very thick and rigid in texture, with a large pungent non-decurrent end-spine, and small di.stant nearly black deltoid marginal teeth. I was informed that it had been received from De Smet of Ghent, and named in honour of Prince Troubetskoy, who some years ago had a very fine garden on the Lago Majjofiore near Pallanza. A. miradorensis, Jacobi. A plant which I saw under this name at Hyeres, diiFers considerably from what we have at home, but is probably a variety of the same species. It has very glaucous lanceolate rigid leaves, 2 feet long, 4-5 inches broad at the middle, a small pungent black non-decurrent end-spine, and indistinct very small marginal teeth. A. i)olyacantha,^&\\oyt\\. Seen both at La Mortola and Hyere.s under a great vaiiety of forms and in different stages of growth. Whci fully developed it has an acaulescent rosette of about 40 lanceolate huvcs of liiin texture, measuring about 3 feet long by 4 inches broad at the middle, green, with a slight glaucous tinge, a small non-decur- rent pungent red-brown end-spine, and copious close minute red-brown deltoid marginal teeth. The peduncle is about 5 feet long, with many small scariose bract-leaves, which are linear from a broad base, and the dense spike is about as long as the peduncle. In a young state the red-brown horny l)order is quite continuous, so that it is probable that this may be A. Keratto, Miller, received by him from the island of St. Kitts. A curious form seen at Hyeres has more ensiform leaves than in the type, curved forward in the plane of the face, like a sickle. 222 Plants which 1 saw hibelled ,valapensi's, c/iiajiciisis, densa, and cubeiisis •were aW jxtli/acanf/ia forms. A. ilensifiora, Hook. After seeing the wild range of pohjaccintha forms just described, 1 cannot now separate dena'ijiora as a species. Group Striat.e. A. striata, Zucc. Frequent in the Riviera, Avith a range of variation similar to what we know already at liome. Here belong the plants called Bonapartea rigida, B. striata, and B. hystrix ; but what are called Bonapartea gracilis and B. gracilis glauca really belong to the genus Dasylirion. A. dasglirioides, Jacohi. Had just flowered at La Mortola. A. deal- bata, Lemaire, is substantially identical with Jacobi's plant. Group Integrifolije. A. Houlletii, Jacobi. As already stated this cannot remain in this group, but is A. rigida, var. sisalana, in an imperfect state of develop- ment. Group Geminiflor.i:. A. geminiflora, Gawl. Is growfi at La Mortola under the nam© of Littfea gemiiiijiora. This does not differ materially from the plant of English conservatories. Group AtuOidje. A. celsiana. Hook. Seen at Hyeres only, just like the form grown at Kew. A. initis, Salmdyck. Gets better developed at La Mortola than any I have seen iu England. Shortly caulescent ; leaves lanceolate, 2 feet long, 4 inches broad at the middle, green, with a slight glaucous tinge ; tip small not pungent ; teeth very minute, coloured brown in the sun, remaining gi-een when in the shade. A. albicans, Jacobi. Seen at La Mortola only. I do not think it can stand as more than a glaucous-leaved variety of A. micracantha. A. cJdorocantha, Salmdyck. Seen at La. Mortola in a young state. Group Attenuate. A. elevieetiana, Jacobi. A plant seen at La Mortola, agreeing well with what we have at Kew. A. attenuata, Salmdyck. Has lately flowered at La Mortola, with a cernuous spike 8-9 feet long, and a peduncle about half as long. Group Yucc.t:foli.t:. A. 1/uccepfolia, DC. Seen both at Hyeres and La Mortola, flowft-ing freely and better developed than we get it in England. Leaves linear, 3 feet long, H inches broad at the middle, tapering gradually to a long point not pungent at the apex, obscurely seriuJate on the margin. Peduncle wand-like, 4-5 feet long, with only a few distant small scariose bract-leaves, liuear from a broad base. Spike dense, 3 feet long. Capsules very small, turbinate. A. spicafa, Cav. One of the things that interested me most at La Mortola, was to tind growing in full perfection an Agave which cannot be anything else than this species, which was described by Cavanilleo 223 in 1802 from a plant from Cuba, •which flowered in the Botanic Garden at Madrid, and has not been heard of since. It is a very distinct species, nearly allied to A. yucccpfolia, with about 20 oblong-lanceolate leaves in an acaulescent tuft, which are bright green, 2 feet long, nearly 3 inches broad at the middle, with a small non-pungent end-spine and very close minute greenish-white marginal teeth. In the La Mortola plant the peduncle and bracts were just like those of i/ucccefotia, the spike 3-4 feet long, and the oblong capsule an inch long, dehiscing loculicidally to the base. Genus Furcr.ea, Vent. F. gigantea, Vent. The typical form is quite at home at La Mortola in the open air, with bright-green glossy rigid ensiform leaves 4-5 feet long, with all the inner leaves of the rosette entire, but the outer with a few irregular teeth about the middle of the blade. I did not see F. cubensis or any of its allies anywhere on the Riviera, except young plants just received at La Mortola from Kew. F. liubescens, Todaro. Seen at La Mortola in a young state, F. Bedinghausii, K. Koch. Frequent in the Riviera gardens from Hyeres to Genoa. The caudex is always short, the leaves reach a length of 4 feet, and are persistently very glaucous and scabrous on the under surface. I saw it in flower in two gardens at Mentone, producing copious bulbillse. At Hyeres it was labelled Jloezlia regia. I do not think F. Roezlii, Andre, can be a distinct species. Genus Doryanthes, Correa. D. exceha, Correa. Is grown at La Mortola and elsewhere in the open air, but I do not think it has ever flowered. Genus Beschorneria, Kunth. B. viridijlora, Hort. Hanbury. Leaves oblong-Janceolate, 3 feet long, 3-4 inches broad at the middle, glaucous green, scabrous on the under surface. Peduncle about 2 feet long; panicle 3-4 feet long, central branches nearly a foot long, each branch bearing at its apex a few corymbose flowers; bracts large ovate; pedicels 1^-2 inches long. Capsule oblong-trigonous, H inches long, dehiscing loculicidally to tho base. This is probably B. yuccoides (Hook, in Bot. Mag. t. 5,203) in a state of full development. Order Liliace^. Genus Yucca, Linn. 1'. aloifolia, Linn. Common all along the Riviera, flowering and fruiting freely. The typical form has stems 6 or 8 feet long, green vvnd ensiform leaves, 1^ feet long, 1^ inches broad at the middle, with a pungent point, a channelled face and a very scabrous margin, a short peduncle, a rhomboid panicle 1.^-2 feet long, and glossy bright red- brown indehiscent oblong fleshy fruits, 2^-3 inches long, 1^ inches diameter. V. f/uateinalensis, Baker. This is one of the commonest species along the whole Riviera, in a great variety of forms, and I had the opportunity of studying it far more fully than I had been able to do before. It is usually called V. Draconis, but is not the plant of Linna-us, which is founded upon a figure in the " Hortus Elthamensis " of Dillenius. It gets up to a height of 15 or 20 feet, sometimes branching from low 224 down. I saw a tall one at Genoa with 15-20 branches, each ending in a great tuft of leaves. The leaves arc always bright green, and reach a leno-th of 3-4 feet. Y. Gheisbreghtii recedes from the type in the direction of aloifolia by its rigid scabrous leaves. V. Mazelli and Y. Icnneana, on the other hand, have less firm recurving leaves, and the maro-inal toothing is sometimes very obscure, and there is a trace of a brown border. Y. conspicua, of the Riviera gardens, is also a form of this species, and I have very little doubt now that Y. (jicjantea, Lemaire, which I know from description only, must also range here. It produces flowers copiously on the Riviera, but never ripens its fruit. I", dcsmetiana, Baker. This is evidently a distinct species, which attains a greater size on the Riviera than with us at home, but has not been known to flower. The finest plant I saw was in the garden of the Baroness von Iluttner at San Remo, 5-6 feet high, the branching stems 3 inches in diameter, the recurving leaves a foot and half long, 1^ inch broad. Y. Peacochii, Baker. Grown at La Mortola, but has not yet flowered. Y. gloriosa, L. Not common in the Riviera, but I saw several forms at Hveres. Y. pendula, Siebold, is substantially the same as our recurvifolia. Y, brasiliensis, is a form with much recurved very glaucous leaves. Y. glaucescens, Carriere, is a form of gloriosa, and quite different from Haworth's plant so called. Y. macrocarpa, Engelm. This I saw alive for the first time at La Mortola. It was acaulescen^, with a great tuft of very rigid glaucous ensiform leaves, 2 feet long, 1 inch broad at the middle, Avith a very puno-cnt apex and a narrow brown margin without any threads. It has not yet flowered. Y. trcculcana, Carriere. This is grown along the whole Riviera, reaching a development far beyond anything which we have at home. In a plant at Genoa, planted 37 years ago, branching into several heads, the stem was 30 feet long, 4 yards in circumference at the dilated base, and a foot and a half in diameter some distance above the base. I feel quite satisfied that canaliculata and cornuta are forms of the same species. Y.^filamentosa, L. This is represented at La Mortola by a form which quite agrees with Haworth's glaucescens. Y. albospica, Hort. Grown both at La Mortola and ITyeres, in fine condition at the latter garden under the name of I', elata. It is the plant described in my monograph under the name of Y. constricta. Y. Hanburii, Baker, n. sp. A new species, allied to albospica and fragilifolia, the seeds of which were sent to La Mortola many years ago liy Mr. Sampson Ilanbury from the Rocky Mountains. It is acaulescent, with a dense tuft of about 100 very rigid glaucous-green leaves 1^ feet long, under half an inch broad at the middle, smooth on the face, subseabrous on the back, with a pungent point, and a margin edsjed with brown with a white streak beyond the brown, from which n very few slender threads split away. It was not in flower at the time of my visit. Y. baccata, Torrey. What is commonly grown as baccata on the Riviera is Y. filifera, C'habaud, which forms a trunk and inhabits ISIexico, whilst the true baccata is acaulescent and inhabits California. I saw nothing in situ to equal the grand trunk which has just been presented to Ivew, and now in the Temperate House, from his garden at Cannes, by M. de Falbe. I saw at Hyeres a curious plant called 225 baccata glaiica, acaulescent, with very glaucous rigid ensiforin leaves with very copious stout spreading filae. Y. JVTiippleii, Torrey. A fine plant, which has been drawn by Mrs. Thiselton-Dyer, has just flowered and died at La Mortola. I saw another which had lately flowered at Hyeres, Avhere it is grown under Lemaire's name of Yucca californica. I now think this had better be kept as a genus distinct from Yucca, under Engelmann's name Ilesperoy ticca. Genus Dastlirion, Zucc. All along the Riviera Dasylirions are a prominent feature in the gardens, and the soil and climate appear to suit them admirably. D. acrotrichum, Zucc. Grown everywhere and flowers freely. Easily recognised by the leaves breaking into a tuft of threads at the top. D. glaucophyUiun, Hook. Like the last, grown all along the Riviera and flowers freely. Bonapartea gracilis glauca and Dasylirion gracile glaucescens both represent ths typical form. Bonapartea gracilis, of the Ilyeres garden, differs by its bright green leaves. It may be a distinct species, but I did not see it in flower. A plant grown at La Mortola as Dasylirion hybridum may be the same. What I saw called D. quadrangulatum was all glaucophyllum. In a plant seen in flower at Genoa the peduncle with the panicle reached a length of 20 feet. D.juncifolium, Hort. Hanbury. This I was very pleased to see iu flower in a state of full perfection at Monte Carlo and again at Genoa. It has a great tuft of 200-300 recurving rigid linear leaves, 3-6 feet long, not more than a quarter of an inch broad at the middle, vertically striated, slightly glaucous and convex on both faces, scabrous on the margin, not splitting up into threads at the top. The peduncle is 15-20 feet long, bearing, in its upper half, dense spikes of minute whitish flowers iu the axils of great scariose serrated lanceolate white bracts. Mr. Watson sent home specimens in fruit of the same plant two years ago from Hyeres. It may be D. qiuulrangidatnm, S. Wats,, in a state of full development, Genus Nolina, Michx. N. longifolia, Hemsley. Grown commonly all along the Riviera under the name of Dasylirion longifolinm. I saw it in flower at Genoa. N. recurvata, Hemsley. Not unfrequent in the Riviera gardens ; under the names Pincenictitia glauca and P. tubercidata. The finest plant I saw was in the gai'den of the Baroness von Huttner at San Remo, with a trunk 6 feet in circumference at the base. Genus Dracaena, L. The only true Dracsena grown is D. Draco. I did not see any old trunks. Genus Cordyline, Com. The universal Cordyline of the Riviera gardens is the New Zealand C. australis, Hook, fil., with leaves varying greatly in breadth and rigidity. I did not see any ti'unks taller than those which we have in U 77554. p 226 the Temperate house at Kew. All the plants I saw labelled indivisa ■were forms of austi-alis. At La Mortola I saw also plants of the Australian C. stricta, EncUich. Tribe Alotne^. The Aloes were not in flower at the time of my visit, with the ex- ception of A. ciliaris, Haw., which grows luxuriantly in the open air. The commoner large caulescent Aloes of the gardens at La jNIortola, Mentono, and Monte Carlo were not, as 1 expected, the Mediterranean A. vera, Linn., but the Cape A. africana, A. suprajcpvis, and A. arhor- escens and its y&x\Q\,j frutescens. A. striata, Haw. (^A. albocincta, Haw.), and its variety A. ha7}hurijana, Naudin, are also frequent. I saw also at La Mortola A. jmrpicrascens, the typical A. ferox, A. Bainesii (young stems only), and A. j^licatilis. Of the smaller species A. aristata is much finer than we get it in England, and this is also the case with A. heteracantha. Baker, which is not yet known in flower. A caulescent species, grown at Mortola, allied to A. arhorescois, with a dense tuft of lanceolate leaves 7-9 inches long, margined with minute teeth, at the top of a long slender erect stem, is probably new and undeseribed. [This has since been described in Gardeners* Chronicle, 1892, vol. i., p. 780, under the name oi Aloe aurantiaca, Baker.] Dr. Penzig has lately introduced from Abyssinia to the gardens at La Mortola and Genoa, A. abyssinica, A. conumitatOy and three other species. Mr. Hanbury also grows A. variegata, and has some curious varieties of mitriformis and hiimilis, which are different from anything I have seen at home. He grows many Apicras, Haworthias, and Gasterias, none of which seemed materially difterent from what we have at Kew. A Gasteria, called multipunctata, with glossy lorate leaves 1-H feet long, with obscure immersed greenish- white blotches, is probably an undeseribed species. Order Bromeliace^. The species which are hardy on the Riviera are TiUandsia .riphioides, Puya yigas, Hechtia GheishregJitii, Dyckia brevifolia (grown under the name of D. Mazelii), and D. rarijlora (grown under the name of D. remotijlora). It is quite evident that the climate and soil of the Riviera are ad- mirably fitted for the growth of a large proportion of these plants. As might be expected, there is a general tendency in the leaves to be more glaucous than at home. A great many species reach their full develo])- ment on the Riviera which we get at home only in an undeveloped condition. The principal groups of Agavese, which are not represented and are but little represented on the Riviera, are the AloidecE and Viviparce, and Furcrfeas of the cubensis group. It is probable that these require more moisture, and perhaps more heat, than they get in the Riviera climate. My best thanks are due to Mr. Hanbury for his kindness and the trouble which he took to help me in every way; and to his principal gardeners, MM. Cronemeyer and Villa, to whom, during my stay, I was constantly applying for information. J. G. Baker. Herbarium, Kew, December 17, 1891. 227 LXVIII.— MADAGASCAR PIASSAVA. {Dictyosperma fibrosum, Wright.) [K. B., 1894, lip. 358-359.] I'or nearly twenty years a fibre closely resembling Brazilian Piassava (described in Keio Bulletin. 1889, pp. 237-242) has been obtained from the island of Madagascar. It was moderately long, of a rich brown colour, and evidently obtained from the stem of a palm as ordinary Piassava. The quantity produced was never very large, and in the early stages of the enterprise the fibre was shipped in a very rough, uncombed state. Latterly the quality has much improved, and during the period when this class of fibre commanded specially high prices the shipments were probably remunerative. Owing, however, to the discovery of West African Piassava or " bass fibre " obtained from Bajihia vinifera (described in Kexv Bulletin 1891, pp. 1-5), tlie prices obtained for Madagascar Piassava have apparently fallen almost as low as the cost of production, hence little of it has appealed lately in the London market. For the first specimen of Madagascar Piassava, now in the Kew Museum (No. ii.) we are indebted to Messrs. J. Puddy & Co., of Mincing Lane. This was received in 1890. At that time the plant yielding it was not known. The more common palms of Madagascar such as species of HyphcBne, Dypsis, Raphia and BismarcMa, were believed not to yield this fibre. Hence it was inferred that there existed in the island a palm not yet described. This eventually proved to be the case. Through the efforts of Messrs. Proctor Brothers, of East India Avenue, E.G., Kew obtained in 1890 specimens of the complete plant known locally as Vonitra, with stem and leaves showing exactly the manner in which the fibre was produced. Each plant had a slender stem about 5 feet high and 2\ inches in diam. This was sur- mounted by a crown of graceful pinnate leaves 5-6 feet long. The whole stem, to the base, was thickly invested by a dense mass of fibres formed from the inner sheaths and the edges of the petioles. The individual fibres were finer and more flexible than Brazilian Piassava and also slightly shorter ; in other respects they resembled it very closely. As to the commercial position of the fibre, Messrs. Ide and Christie are good enough to inform us : " Of late, Madaga.scar Piassava " has been well combed, straight, and clean, and in this state it is worth " fi'om 30/. to 37/. per ton ; but as the quantities sent home, even at these " rates, are small, we are led to conclude the preparation as now done is ** costly." Tiie shipments are made from Tamatave and some of tlie ports to the south. In Scptemljcr 1894, Madagascar Piassava Avas reported to be "in demand," and the price had risen to 46/. per ton. Fresh seeds were obtained from Messrs. Proctor Brothers, and from these numerous plants, now about 2 feet in height, have been raised at Kew. They are nearest to Dictyoaperma album, a well-known ornamental palm from Mauritius and Bourbon, but are easily distinguished both from this and other species. Many of the plants raised at Kew have been distributed to botanical establishments in the Colonies. Very soon the species will probably be well represented under cultivation. As a new species, the following description of this palm has been prepared from such material as is now available. No flowers have yet been received. Dictyosperiaa fibrosum, C. II. Wright ; arbor, caule erecto fibris ex petiolis obsoletis vestito, foliis juvenilibus bifidis adultis a^qualiter pinnatis, P 2 228 petiolis elongatis supra leviter concavis subtus convexis (i.e., sectione transversali lunata) leviter fuifuraceis, foliolis lanceolatis acutis basi contractis glabris, nerviis centralibus promineiitibus lateralibus 3-4 minus conspicuis transversalibus paucis conjunctis, floribus iguotis, fructu sub- globoso pericarpio fibrose stigmate terminali, semine embryone sub- basilari, albumine ruminato. Folia 5 ped. longa ; ji^tiolus 2 ped. longus ; foliola \\ ped. longa, 1 poll. lata. Fructus 8 lin. diam. Habitat : Madagascar. Norn. vnlg. : Vonitra. This species differs from D. album, H. AYendl., in having the trunk covered with a dense mass of brownish fibres, about 18 inches long, Avhich furnish the " Madagascar Piassava " of commerce. Specimens of this from Messrs. Proctor Brothers are deposited in the Museum of the Royal Gardens, Kew. The lateral ner\es of the leaflets are also more conspicuous than in D. album, and the fruit is subglobose. LXIX.— WEST AFRICAN BASS FIBRE. (Haphia vinifera, Beauv.) [K. B., 1891, pp. 1-5.] This palm is described in the Flore d'Oicare et de Benin, vol. i. p. 76 (tab. 44, fig. T. et tt. 45 and 46), from which the following notes have been extracted. It is very abundant on the borders of rivers, intersecting the countries near the sea in the kingdoms of Oware and Benin. The tree is of medium height, having leaves of from 6 to 7 feet or more in length with spiny leaflets. The fruiting spadix is very large, about 4 feet long, and forms a heavy load for one man to carry. What this irce lacks in height is compensated for by the beauty of its form, the brightness of its colour, and its imbricated shining fruits. The stems are used to form the framework of native dwellings, and the leaves, bound Avith lianes, are used for thatch- ing. Huts so built are substantial, and afford a good protection from the rain and heat of the sun, but at the same time serve as a haunt for Tipers, rats, and other vermin. From the trunk an intoxicating bever- age of a whitish colour is obtained, and is called by the natives " Bourdon " ; it is not quite so sweet as ordinary palm wine, but is more vinous, and appears to contain a larger quantity of spirit. The fruits of this palm, which are collected all the year round, are likewise said to afford a beverage of a second quality which will keep for a considerable time. The Board of Trade Journal [November 1890, p. 596] quotes from the Lagos Weekli/ Times an account of the fiVire, and states that it " promises to become an important and valuable addition to the ex- " ports from Lagos." It will probably be found a useful substitute for Piassava, an account of which will be given later. The foll.jwing correspondence has taken place between this estab- lishment and the Colonial Office on the subject of West African Bass fibre : — 229 Colonial Office to Koyal Gardens, Kew. Sir, Downing Street, October 3, 1890. I AM directed by Lord Knutsford to transmit to yoii a copy of a despatch from the Governor of Lagos, reporting that he had forwarded to you for analysis and report, a box containing 20 lbs. of bass fibre obtained from the Raphia vinifcra. Lord Knutstord will be glad to be infonned of the result of your examination of the parcel in question. I am, &c. (Signed) Edward Wingfield. The Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. Sir A. Moloney to Colonial Office. Government House, Lagos, My Lord, August 20, 1890. I have the honour to report that there will go forward by the next mail steamer, addressed to the Eoyal Gardens, Kew, a box con- taining 20 lbs. of a bass fibre obtained from the Raphia vinifera or wine palm of West Tropical Africa. 2. The sample I had hurriedly prepared during my last visit to the eastern district. 3. On its " find," area of supply, local pi-eparation and uses, as also on its prospects as an export, for which I anticipate a bright and profit- able future, I have drawn up a minute with a view to its adveitisement. 4. May I ask your Lordship to let the Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, who takes such deep interest and gives such encourage- ment to the development of the ecoJiomic botany of our colonies, have a copy of this despatch, and to allow of the circulation of the minute among the various Chambers of Commerce. 5. I attach a copy of the notice that has locally appeared inviting the attention of the public to this fibre. I have, &c. (Signed) Alfred Moloney, The Right Hon. Governor. Lord Knutsford, G.C.M.G., &c. Extract of Minute by the Governor of Lagos on the Bass fibre of the Bamboo palm {Raphia vinijera). In a letter received by me, shortly after my arrival in Lagos in February last, from a well-known Manchester firm, a sample of a fibi-e known as " African Bass " was forwarded, with the following remarks :— " If this can be found and shipped in quantity I could sell large quantities. It should be kept straight, tied" up first in small bundles, thickness of a man's wrist, and these made up into bales of about half a hundredweight each. It must be kept straight, whatever the length, as the bends spoil the fibre and make it difficult to work." * * * * " Please note the brown fully mature fibre is preferable to the light red colour; present value 30/. to 32/. per ton." In the " African Bass " of which the sample was sent to me I was surprised to recognise one of the commonest of the native fibres of this colony, used, I may say, by every fisherman in the manufacture of his 230 lines, and prepared from one of the most plentiful of the palm trees of the colony, the Jiaphia vinifera, or " Bamljoo " palm. The " African Bass " is in appearance a stiff and wiry fibre, varying in colour from dark brown to light red, dependent for its shades on duration of soaking. It is most readily obtained in lengths of from 3 feet to 4 feet, beyond which length it is inconvenient to pack and difficult to procure without injury to the tree. In diameter it varies from j^jv to j'o of an inch, the latter of which may be accepted as the limit of fineness to be admitted in a commercial sample for the European market. It is used, I believe, mainly in the manufacture of hard brushes for various tlomestic and manufacturing purposes. The demand appears to be very large, and the price, as shown above, is exceedingly satisfactory. The source of its supply in this colony alone may be said to be prac- tically inexhaustible, as will I'eadily be acknowledged when its origin is explained. The "Bamboo" palm, or Jiaphia vinifera, is perhaps the commonest tree in the swamps and low lands which line the Avaterways of the colony. Dense thickets of these palms, traversed only by the palm wine gatherer or the bamboo cutter, push their way into the lagoons, and extend over the flood grounds, and even to a distance of from 15 to 20 miles up the river valleys into tlie interior. The area occupied by these Raphia forests it would be impossible to calcidate, but it may be accepted without doubt that they extend throughout the length of the colony, and to a distance of at least 15 miles from the sea coast, and that over this area of about 5,000 square miles they form a considerable proportion of the vegetation, next only in numbers to the oil palm {E/fpis giiiiieensis) and the Mangrove {Bliizojj/iora miicronata). The fact that one can steam for miles, as I have frequently done, wondering to what commercial advantage they could be put, through uninterrupted Raphia groves on either hand in the Eastern waters, impresses one with the extent of the acreage which must be overrun by this graceful palm. Everybody in the colony is aware of the manifold uses of the Raphia palm ; how from its leaves hats, cloth, and cordage are made; from its leaf-stems rafters, fences, and walls ; and from its crown or bud of unopened leaves palm wine of excellent quality. Of one part only the use seems not generally known, and it would appear that this particular portion of the tree, though hitherto treated as useless, is in reality of more value commercially than all the rest. When the " Bamboo " cutter clears away the leaves from the lower stem of the palnis the trees present a very ragged and uneven appearance, owing to the practice of leaving a portion of the leaf-stalk adhering to the parent stem. These base-stalks partially encase the bole of the tree and project upward and outwards, foiming the scaly covering which gives so strange an appearance to a grove of Raphia palms. From these stumps of the leaf-stalks the native fishing lines are made. The fibre is extracted by a process of soaking and scraping, whic-h is exceed- ingly simple and is fully understood by every bamboo cutter and line maker. It is tliis fibre which is known in the European market as " African Bass," and there is no apparent reason wh}'^, with a pojjulation who are in the habit of preparing it, and a source of supply which may be regarded as practically unlimited, we should not l)e able to compete on even terms with the sources of supply which at present monopolise the market. # * * * 231 In the Yoruba language the Raphia vinifera is known as Igi-ogiii'o, Eriko and Akpako, the Bass fibre as lyo, and tlie fishing line lyo-oguro or lyo-agbe. Along the inland waters or lagoons from Popo to Mahin the natives use this fibre for fishing lines, and as twine and rope. Messrs. Ide and Chbistie to Eoyal Gardens, Kew. 72, Mark Lane, London, E.C., Dear Sir, October 10, 1890. We duly received your letter of 8th instant, and to-day brings us the sample of fibrous material found at the base of the leaves of the ''Bamboo" palm of West Africa {Raphia vinifera). We have seen this material before, and the small importations that were made (some years ago) were not at all well received by consumers, who found that the expense of cleaning and the ultimate result were most unsatisfactory when compared with the price and results of South American Piassava. During the past year or two, however, the market values of the latter have undergone a great change, Bahia Piassava having largely risen in price. We think, therefore, that it might be well worthy of producers' attention were they to select only these fibres of which we return you specimens herewith, and clean them effectively from all the adherent small fibre. Only the strong healthy fibres should be selected and prepared, and the various lengths should be bundled separately. The material being somewhat of a novelty, it might be well for shippers to confine their first shipment to, say, 10 to 20 tons, so as to try the market adequately. If properly selected and cleaned, we estimate that it would sell at 25/. per ton to-day in Loudon, a figure that, in our opinion, should leave a handsome profit to the producer. Yours, &c. (Signed) Ide and Christie. D. Morris, Esq., M.A., F.L.S. Messrs. Ide and Christie to Eoyal Gardens, Kew. 72, Mark Lane, E.G., Dear Sir, October 24, 1890. We have your favour of Ihe 23rd instant, and duly note the contents of enclosed extract from Minute of Governor of Lagos on the fibre of Raphia vinifera. Since we last wrote to you on this subject, a few bales of " African Bass" recently imported have been sold, and reached the extreme price of 42/. The lil)re had been carefully selected and remarkably Avell cleaned, hence the excellent market it met with. We scarcely expect this price would be maintained for substantial quantities, but for iibre of equal merit the immediate outlook would seem to indicate that 3o/. to 40/. might be the range of value. Yours, &c. (Signed) Ide and Christie. D. Morris, Esq., M.A., F.L.S. 232 LXX.— WEST AFRICAN BASS FIBRE— (continued), {Raphia vinifera^ Beauv.) [K. B., 1892, pp. 299-300.] Tlie following extract from a letter from Mr. W Crowther, Curator of the Botanical Station at Aburi, Gold Coast, refers to the shipment of West African Bass from Appam, a port between Accra and Cape Coast Castle in the Colony of the Gold Coast : — On my way to Cape Coast I noticed a small quantity of the Bass fibre being shipped from Appam. This valuable fibi*e is obtained from the palm which is so common and plentiful in this part of the colony, namely RapJiia vinifera. It is a very important product, being worth from 25/. to GO/, per ton, according to quality. Great interest is at present shown in England in the discovery of similar fibres to this, and there is a good market for them, but the supply is very small, owing chiefly, I think, to the difficulty experienced in extracting and cleaning the fibre. It is chiefly used for brushmaking. I will make inquiries and endeavour to obtain information respecting suitable machinery for cleaning and preparing this fibre, which information, if I am able lo procure it, shall be published in my next report. LXXI.— RAFIA FROM WEST AFRICA. {Raphia vinifera, Beauv.) [K. B., 1895, pp. 88-92.] In the Kew Bulletin for 1891, pp. 1-5, an account is given of West African bass fibre, prepared from the base of the leaves of the Bamboo palm {Raphia vinifera). Since that time African bass has l)ecome a recognised article of commerce. The price at first was about 42/. per ton ; it rose to 56/. per ton, but latterly, in competition with similar fibre froni the Palmyra palm, the Kitool, and the original bass produced in Brazil, known as Para and Bahia ))iassaba, it has been quoted at 20/. to 30/. per ton. Even at the latter price it supports a considerable industry in West Africa. It appeal's probable that the Bamboo palm may be made available also for other uses. A strong, useful material known as Raphia or Rafia is shipped to this country from Madagascar. According to the Rev. Richard Baron, F.L.S. {Keiv Bulletin, 1890, p. 211), it is obtained "from the young imopened leaves of the Raphia palm." Raphia Rvffia, Mart. Hist. Nat. Paha, iii., p. 217 {R.pedunculata, Beauv.) is confined to Madagascar. It is widely spread in the island, chiefly in valleys, up to an elevation of 4,000 feet. It is also found abundantly along the coast. The pinnate leaves are 20 to 30 feet in length, with numerous narrow leaflets, v;irying from 2^ to 5 feet long. Rafia is prepared by peeling off" the cuticle (Avith some of the underlying fibro- vascular bundles) on one or both sides of the leaf. It is used locally for delicate plaited and woven frabrics, cloths, and hats, as well as for mats for covering floors and wrapping up goods. More recently it has been woven into superior matting, tastefully coloured, and xised instead of tapestry for covering walls in London houses. The loose strips of Rafia are in demand in this country and elsewhere in place of Russian or Cuban bast as tie-bands by gardeners and nurserymen. For the latter purpose 233 the strips are usually loosely plaited iu hanks 1^ to 3 pouuds in weight, made up into bales weighing 1| to o^ cwt. Each strip is a straw- coioured flat band about 4 feet long, and about | to | inch wide, but capable of sub-division into fine threads. Owing to tb.e French expedition to Madagascar, Rafia has already ehown an advance in price. It was sold recently at 55*. per cwt. Apart from this, however, there is apparently a steady demand and a good price for Eiifia fibre. Raphia Biijfia is closely allied to the Bamboo palm of tropical Africa. If the supply of Rafia from Madagascar were greatly reduced or cut off, it is very probable that Avithin a short time it would be possible to obtain an almost identical article from West Africa. One of the first notices of a Rafia from this part of Africa is contained in the Report by Mr. C. F. Cross, F.I.C., on the Miscellaneous Fibres shown at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition 1886. Mr. Cross mentioned that this was so closely similar to Rafia '* as to be applicable to precisely the same uses." The following particulars Avere given : — " Grass (epidermal strips of Raphia vinifera). Exhibited by Mr. A. Sibthorpe in the Sierra Leone Section, with specimens of straAv plait illustrating its more usual application by the natives. This specimen also proved itself on analysis to be Avorth the attention of paper makers. The following determinations Avere made : Moisture .... 9-8 per cent. Ash ... • 2-7 „ Cellulose - - - - 60-8 „ Ultimate fibres. Length - - - 1"5 to 2-o mm. " It is needless to say that the raAv material is particularly clean ; in length of fd)re, but more especially in yield of cellulose, it is superior to Esparto ; it only remains, therefore, to determine the cost of production, and if Avithin the limit, to introduce this raw material into European commerce. A further examination of thLs substance comparatiAcly Avith Rafia, Avhich still commands a high price amongst gardeners and nurserymen, showed that it Avas so closely similar as to be applicable to precisely the same uses, and such an application AA-ould, of course, take precedence of that above indicated. This fibrous material is aa'cU worthy of further attention. " I have received from Messrs Joynson satisfactory reports upon the papers made from the Rafia strips exhil)ited in the West African Section. They were treated by the (basic) sulphite process, and bleached to a good colour. The paper was repoi-tetl to be of exceptional strength." [ Colonial and Indian Exhibition Reports, pp. 379, 385.] Small shipments of West African Rafia have already been made to this country. It was, hoAvever, badly prepared, and the results Avere not satisfactory. The strips were too short, and they reached their destina- tion curled up so as to resemble very fine tAvine. It is necessary the strips should be very strong, of good length, and dried perfectly flat. Some of the best Afadagascar Rafia is about 3^ to 4 ft. long. Very exceptionally it is 5 ft. long. This shows that the long leaflets in the middle of the frond are chiefly used and the shorter ones discarded. West African Rafia, to replace the Madagascar fibre, must be as long as possible, Avith a Avidth of about ^ to | in., but none less than \ iu. If the Bamboo palm {Raphia vinifera) does not afford the best material for Rafia strips, it is possible some other species may do so. The West Africa Raphias so far known are as folloAVS : — Raphia vinifera, Beauv. — Bamboo palm. Abundant in West Africa, extending also to central tropical Africa, where it was found by 234 SchweinfurUi. Its distribution in Lagcs is thus described by Sir Alfred Moloney {Kew Bulletin, 1891, p. 3) : — "The ' Bamboo ' palm {Raphia vinifera), is perhaps the commonest tree in the swamps and low lands whieh line the waterways of the colony. Dense tlnckets of these palms, traveised only by the palm- wine gatherer or the bamboo cutter, push their way into the lagoons, and extend over the flood grounds, and even to a distance of from 15 to 20 miles up the river-valleys into the interior. The area occupiefl by these Raphia forests it would be impossible to calculate, but it may be accepted, without doubt, that they extend throughout the length of the colony, and to a distance of at least 15 miles from the sea coast. Over this area, of about 5,000 square miles, they form a considerable proportion of the vegetation, next only in numbers to the Oil palm (^ElcBis guineensis) and the Mangrove {Rhizophora inucro- nata). The fact that one can steam for miles, as I have frequently done, through uninterrupted Raphia groves, impresses one with the extent of the acreage which must be overrun by this graceful palm." Raphia Hooheri, Mann and Wendl. — The Ukot of Old Calabar, whei'e it is cultivated as a wine palm. Tlie natives also manufacture cloth from the epidermis of tha leaflets. On the Sherboro, in Sierra Leone, they make hammocks from it, as well as all sorts of basket work, mats, he. This is one of the largest of the Eaphias, the whole plant often attaining a height of 70 feet. The fronds are 40 feet long, with leaflets 4 to 5 feet long. If in other respects suitable, this should yield Raiia fibre as long as the best from Madagascar. Raphia Gcertneri, M. and W. — Apparently confined to the Spanish Island of Fernando Po, in the Grull" of Guinea. It grows from the shore up to 500 feet above the level of the sea. Raphia loncjijiora, M. and W. — The only locality given by Maun for this species is the island of Corisco, off the French Colony of Gaboon. This palm is 40 to 50 feet high, Avith fronds 33 feet long. The leaflets are 5 to 5^ feet long and 2 to 2\ inches wide. A figure, showing the natural habit, is given in Trans. Linn. Soc, xxiv., t. 30. Raphia JVelwitschi, Wendl. — A new species, collected by Dr. Wel- witsch, in Angola. It grows in humid places on the rivers in the in- terior, and especially in the district of Galungo. The epidermis of the leaflets is used by the natives in the manufacture of cloths, &c. R. textilis, Welw. Apont., 584, n. 2, yielding also textile filaments, is apparently a closely allied plant. Epidermal strips, somewhat similar to Rafia, are available from many species of palms, notably the Cocoa-nut palm and the Palmyra palm. Specimens of these are in the Kew Museum. A variety of the Palmyra palm, known in various districts under the native names of Morintshi, Kelingaos, Run, and Sibboo, is well known to be abundant in "Wt'st Tropical Africa. The epidermal strii)s from the segments of its fan-shaped leaves could, no doubt, be produced quite as long as those of the ^Madagascar Rafia. While suggesting these other sources, it would be well, however, to confine attention at first to the Rafia palms, and especially in view of the fact that they form, as in the colony of Lagos, the prevailing vegetation over immense tracts of country. The commercial position with regard to Rafia fibre is given below by Messrs. Ide and Christie. It will be noticed that particular attention is draAvn to the fact that previous shipments of West African Rafia have faiJed because the strips were too short, and not presented in the flat broad condition characteristic of the Madagascar fibre. Too much reliance should not be placed on the exceptionally high price of Rafia at 235 the present time. It would be safer to count only on the more normal price of the fibre, and this during the last few years has been about 30/. per ton : — Messes. Ide and Christie to Koyal Gardens, Kew. 72, Mark Lane, London, E.G., Dear Sir, March i, 1895. Yours of the 2nd instant, with sample of West African Rafia, to hand. This we have seen once or twice before, and sold with diffi- culty, being very inferior to the Madagascar. The former is very short and hairy, not long and broad like the latter, and would appear to be peeled from much smaller leaves. We return your specimen along with a piece of the usual Madagascar. Whilst the latter is available the tirade would only look at the West African at about half the price. Yours faithfully, (Signed) Ide and Christie. The following account of the production of Eafia fibre has been published in the United States' Consular Reports for April 1894. It was prepared by Mr. Edw. Telfair Wetter, the United States Consul at Tamatave : — Rafia Palm Fibre. This fibre is the product of the Rafia palm {Raphia Rnffia), one of the most useful of the palm family. The tree is a native of Madagascar, growing profusely along its entire coast line near fresh water rivers, lagoons, and marshes, and the very best quality actually in the water. It is practically indigenous in the valleys all over the island. The natives cut the new leaves from the tree after they have obtained a height of some seven feet, and have just commenced to spread or open. Two new leaves always sprout out simultaneously from each tree and from the same sheath. In appearance and gracefulness, a fully opened Rafia palm leaf is midway between the leaf of the cocoa-nut palm and the plume of the ostrich. After removal from the tree the leaves are separated, the leaf spears or feathers being cut away from the heavy leaf stalk or large centre rib and their tips cut off or not, according to the whim or needs of each worker. The inhabitanis of the fishing villages are the main producers of Rafia fibre, because they are the main consumers of the by- products, making their finer fish nets from the small centre rib or spine that runs down the middle of each leaf spear. The entire native [)opu- lation use the leaf stalk or large centre rib iu all their building and portage operations. The first process of manufacture, iu turning these leaf spears into the Rafia of commerce, consists in the removal, with a very small sharp knife, of the centre ribs of the spears. These ribs divide each spear in half. Each of these l»alves of leaf flesh are then stripped of their under covering, Avhich, in the closed condition of the spear is, for the moment, the outside. This removal is readily accomplished by making a small cut across the leafy flesh above mentioned, about one inch from the base. The fibre, which exists in the shape of a vegetable film or covering on the under side of the leaf spear, is pressed up and loosened with the knife, and, being caught between the thumb and said point, is ripped off at one pull. The same thing is done with the other half of the spear flesh by merely reversing the same in the other hand and 236 repeating the operation. Practice makes the process a simple, perfect, and rapid one, and a woman can readily strip, per day, what will yield some 5 lbs. of Rafia. It must be understood that the men cut the Rafia leaves and carry them to their homes ; the women do the rest. They, however, rarely strip more than what would yield 2 lbs. of Rafia, because the curing of the fibre is partly accomplished the afternoon of the same day that it is stripped from the spear flesh. The strips of whitish fibre thus secured, ranging from 2 to 4 feet and over in length, are si^^^ad out upon mats in the sun to dry in loose bunches. When partly dry, they are knotted into 1 lb. bunches and spread, usually upon the roof edges of small sheds or outhouses, to finish curing, and are most carefully guarded against rain or dew. In three days of good sun drying the Rafia is ready for market. I regret to say that, owing to the cupidity of the natives and traders, much the larger portion is marketed after only one day's curing. The greener the fibre the heavier the weight; hence the temptation. There is no particular time for preparing, cutting, or curing Rafia. The crop is a constant one, harvested to suit the wants or appetites of the natives, being received in the seaport towns at all times and seasons, weather permitting its transport, and shipped as shortly after receipt as possible. ... It may be roughly stated that fully 50 per cent, of the young Rafia palm trees are annually destroyed in this way, and but for its remarkable hardiness, ready growth, and the ease with which it is propagated, this fact alone would mean its speedy and total ex- tinction. W^ithin four years, local Malagasy laws have been promul- gated forbidding this terrible destruction. Yet it still exists, but in a surreptitious manner ; or whenever they crave rum, cloth, or vazaha, finery, for which Rafia fibre alone can be bartered. . . . . Rafia is one of the most staple of Madagascar products, finding an even more ready market than rubber or caoutchouc. The price in Tamatave, or we might say free on board, as the cost of putting on board in quantity is a very nominal one, ranges from 5 to 9 cents for A 1 Rafia, while red Rafia usually brings about 2 cents per lb. less than the A 1 white. . . . Practically, every one doing business in Madagascar buys Rafia either for speculation, in barter for goods, on commission, or as agents. LXXIL— RAFIA FROM WEST AFRICA— (continued). iliuphia vlnifera, Beauv.) [K. B., 1805, pp. 287-238.] A brief account was given in the Keto Bulletin, 1895 (pp. 88-02), of the production of the material known as Rafia, from species of palms in West Africa. This fibre has hitherto been exclusively obtained fx-om Madagascar. It is used for tie bands ]»y gardeners, as well as for making mats and decorative articles. A sample of West African Rafia, obtained from the leaflets of Raphia vinifera, locally known as the Bamboo palm, was brought to Kew by Mr. Henry Millen, Curator of the Botanic Station at Lagos, in August last. The following reports were obtained on this sample : — Messrs. Ide and Christie to Royal Gtakdens, Keav. 72, Mark Lane, London, E.G., Dear Sir, September 4, 1895. Your favour of yesterday and samples to hand. The latter show just as we formerly experienced, bad colour {i.e., brown in lieu 237 of creamy white), very short (one sample was longer), all stringy, not flat-open. The trade, unless in famine, would not entertain it ; appear- ance goes a long way nowadays, although for some tying purposes, this West Coast product should do as well as the Madagascar. If asked for a value, we would hazard 20/. per ton. Yours faithfully, (Signed) Ide and Christie. D. Morris, Esq., C.M.G., D.Sc, Eoyal Gardens, Kew. Messrs. J. A. Noble & Co. to Royal Gardens, Kew. 136, Fenchurch Street, London, E.G., Dear Sir, September 6, 1895. We are favoured with your letter of the 3rd instant, with sample of Lagos llafia. We are desirous of showing this to the consumers as well as to the dealers. With the latter there will be difficulty in getting them to put it forward in the place of the Madagascar Rafia, as it is not so sightly and the smaller buyers will prefer the broader and lighter colour. Our own opinion is that with moi'e care in the preparation it will come into use with those who do not look to colour so much as strength. We see no reason why it may not be broader, as it has simply been allowed to curl up in the preparation, and is consequently harsh, with a tendency to cut in the using. It is certainly the strongest we have seen from the West Coast ; what wo have seen before has been soft and good colour, but very tender and unsaleable. We will write you again after we have given the consumers an opportunity of testing it and have received their opinion upon it. In the meantime, Mr. Millen should continue his experiments, and we feel no doubt he Avill be able to improve considerably on this sample. There is very little doing at the present time, and prices have fallen back from 48/. per ton to 32/. nominal. We consider this should sell at about 20/. per ton on the basis of 32/. for the Madagascar. Yours truly, (Signed) J. A. Noble & Co. D. Morris, Esq., C.M.G., D.Sc, Royal Gardens, Kew. As already mentioned, small shipments of West African Rafia have been made, from time to time, for many years, but no commerce has arisen in it owing to its unfavourable character as compared with Madagascar Rafia. The natives all along the coast manufjicture cloths, mats, baskets, and hammocks from Rafia, and samples are in the Kew Museums from the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, and Old Calabar. Further specimens of Rafia from West Africa were brought to Kew recently by Mr. Walter Haydon, Curator of the Botanic Station at the Gambia The plant yielding these has not yet been determined. It is evidently a species of Raphia, but diflPerent in the fruit from any Raphia so far represented at Kew. Mr. Haydon's specimens of Rafia were soft in texture and of good colour, but rather short. They were, however, superior to any specimens previously received from West Africa. The following Report shows also, that they were valued commercially at a higher price than any former specimens : — 238 Mkssrs. Ide and Chkistie to Royal Gardens, Kew. 72, Mark Lane, London, E.G. Dear Sir, November 14, 1895. Regardin© the sample and letter dated 13th from the Royal Gardens duly to hand, we beg to say that for colour and texture, this is the best Rafia we have seen from the West Coast of Africa, and in these respects equal to the Madagascar product. The uncut ends, shortness and fine points all are against ihe sale and would interfere both with sale and value. As it is, we put it about 20/. to 251. per ton. A small shipment of the usual West Coast we sold a few days ago at 251. Yours faithfully, (Signed) Ide and Christie. D. Morris, Esq., C M.G., D.Sc., Royal Gardens, Kew. LXXIII.— PALMYRA BASS FIBRE. {Borassus Jlahelliformis, L.) [K. B., 1892, pp. 148-150.] Owing to the scarcity of the Bass fibres hitherto obtained from two Brazilian palms, Attalea funifera and Leopoldinia Piassaba, in([uiry has been made in most tropical countries for palms likely to yield fibres of a similar character. A bass fibre has been obtained in Madagascar from a species of Dictyosperma (probably D. fibrosum, Wendl.), and more recently Lagos or West African bass has been obtained from Raphia vmifera, just described. A fibre almost identical has still more recently been prepared in Ceylon from the Palmyra palm {Borassus fiabelliformis). The following information has been obtained on the subject. Director of Navy Contracts to Royal Gardens, Kew. Admiralty, Whitehall, S.W., Sir, June 1, 1892. T shall be much obliged if you Avill be good enough to inform the Department whether anything is known of a material called *' Bassine," said to be grown in India and dressed for the English market at Colombo, as to its value as a substitute for Brazilian Bass, and whether it is likely to displace bass on account of its quality or price. I am, &.C. The Director, (Signed) C. M. Heath, Royal Gardens, Kew. For Director of Navy Contracts. Royal Gardens, Kew, to Director of Navy Contracts. Royal Gardens, Kew, Sir, June 8, 1892. I AM desired by Mr. Thiselton-Dyer to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 1st instant on the subject of fibre prepared from the Palmyra palm as a substitute for Brazilian Bass. 239 As shown in the enclosed extract from the Report of the Director of the Botanical Gardens, Ceylon, the fibre from the Palmyra palm is being prepared in small quantities in the north of the island. The quantity available is evidently limited, and as the palm ifs an important source of food supply to the people it would be impossible to develop the industry to any very large extent without affecting that supply. As regards the value of the fibre in European markets, it may be useful to communicate to you a c6py of a letter received from Messrs. Ide and Christie, a firm of fibre brokers in the City, giving particulars of the prices recently obtained for the fibre. A small (quantity of the fibre as received to-day is forwarded to your address in a separate parcel. This fibre is apparently not so good as the AVest African Bass (Kew BuUetin, 1891, p. 1), and it is decidedly inferior in length and flexibility to the Bahia Piassava {Keic Bulletin, 1889, p. 237). Its chief use would probably be to adulterate these fibres, and not to be used alone. I am, 8cc. The Director of Navy Contracts, , (Signed) D. Moeris. Admiralty, Whitehall, S.W. ExTKACT from the Report of the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, 1891, p. 15. Palmyra Fibre. — The sheathing leaf-stalks of the palmyra, as of many other palms, contain a stiff thick fibre, and a new industry in the collection of this has sprung up, under the auspices of a Colombo firm, in the north of the island. These fibres or bristles are much like the " Piassaba " so largely exported from Brazil (the produce of the palmf^Atfaleafunifera and Leopoldinia Piassaba) for brush-making, and are doubtless exported hence for the same purpose. Immense numbers of the palmyra exist in the Jaffna peninsula and the islands near, and it is in the latter especially that the business of collecting the leaf-stalks for sale has been carried on by the inhabitants. In Elavailivu the value thus collected in six months was about Rs. 3,000, a great addition to the means of the people. Unfortunately, in their eagerness for this easy method of money getting, they have treated the trees so badly that it is reported that in that island alone 1,000 young palmyras have been destroyed. As this palm is the principal permanent source of food in the country, and is besides of immense utility for timber, fences, 8cc., it became obviously necessary to put a stop to this reckless destruction, and I understand that steps have been taken to regulate the fibre industry, which, properly conducted, should become a valuable addition to the means of living for the inhabitants. Messrs. Ide and Christie to Royal Gardens, Kew. 72, Mark Lane, London, E,C., Sir, Jtinc 7, 1S92. We duly received your favour of the 2n(l instant, and have pleasure in sending you a sample of Palmyra iibre as offered on this market. This is of average quality and valued to-day at 28/. per ton in London. 240 Tlie first arrivals of this fibre took place about a year ago, the scarcity and high values of Brazilian Piassava having induced the production and shipment of substitutes. The early imports realized from 36/. to 42/. per ton, against West Coast African Piassava 55/ to Go/., but Avith fuller supplies of these brush-making fibres (including sjjlit bamboo) market values have receded, and Palmyra ranges to-day from 221, to 33/. The chief objection to Palmyra by manufacturers is that it lacks straightness, but experiments are being made in this country to overcome this defect, and should they prove successful, it is claimed by importers and dressers that l*ivlmyra should, for wear, then, be found equal to the best Brazilian. We are, &c. (Signed) ]de and Christie. D. Morris, Esq., M.A., F.L.S., Eoyal Gardens, Kew. LXXIV.-OIL PALM FIBRE. {El(eis guineensis. Jacq.) [K. B., 1892, pp. 62-67.] The African oil palm is probably the most valuable of the indigenous plants of W^est Africa. From the pericarp of the fruits the well-known palm oil is prepared, while from the kernel of the nuts another kind of oil is extracted, scarcely less extensively used. According to Sir Alfred Moloney {Forestry of West Africa, p. 57), "although the palm oil " industry has existed since 1790, if not before, the valuable palm kernels " on the Gold Coast did not attract attention until 18-12 or 1843, when also "■ the ground-nut industry, at least in the Gambia, had its birth." The palm oil received in this country during the year 1885 amounted to 872,342 cwts., of the value of 1,172,862/. The palm kei-nels received during the same period amounted to 34,507 tons, of the value of 406,856/. We have therefore two important products from the African oil palm, tlie value of the quantity reaching the United Kingdom amounting to about one million and a half sterling yearly. To these we have now to add a third industry connected with the production of fibre from the leaves. It may, however, be mentioned that the immediate prospects of this new industry are not very hopeful. The fibre is extracted in a laborious manner by the natives, and it is not, as yet, produced in commercial quantities. Its extensive use locally for fishing lines and other purposes requiring great strength shows that it is one of the most valuable and lasting of tropical fibres. Very little, if anything, has hitherto been published respecting this fibre. Kew is indebted for the first .'-pecimcns received for the Museums of Economic Botany to Mr. George Arbuthnot Moore, Managing Director of the Palma Trading Company, Liverpool. These were received in June 1891. Since that time a very complete series of specimens illustrating the method of extracting the fibre, Avith samples of twine and fishing lines, have been received from the Government of Lagos. A small specimen was received from Mr. Scott- Elliot from Sierra Leone, January 1892. 2-il Messrs. Ide and Christie to Eoyal Gardens, Keav. 72, Mark Lane, London, E.G., Dear Sir, June 23, 1891. We have your favour of yesterday's date with specimen of fibre said to be prepared from the pinna) of leaves of the African oil palm EltBis guineensis. This fibre has been known to us for the last 15 years at least, but only from small samples such as you send us. It has never been received in merchantable q'lautity, to our knou'ledge, and hence no practical experiments liave ever been made with it. Some spinners to whom it was shown, n'hen the first f.pecimens came to hand, stated their opinion that it was ton hard and gritty to spin readily, but Ave are inclined to think this view might have been modified had they had the opportunity of testing it practically. It has great strength and fineness, and if really spinnable we would value it at 50/. to 60/. per ton to-day in London. We should be pleased to learn there is a prospect of this fibre being prepared and sent home in quantity, so that its actual value might be ascertained, the small samples, mere handfuls, hitherto received having, as we have said, afforded no means of arriving at this. We desire to thank you for sending us also some fresh pinnae oi Elceis guineensis, and it will afford the writer much pleasure if his examina- tion of them should lead to his arriving at any further opinion of the fibre worth communicating to you. Yours faithfully, D. Morris, Esq., ]M.xV., F.L.S., (Signed) Ide and Christie. &c. (tc. &c. Royal Gardens, Kew. Royal Gardens, Kew, to Colonial Office. Royal Gardens, Kew, gjjj September 4, 1891. G. Another snbject on which information might be obtained from the Government of Lagos is the extraction of fibre from the leaves of the oil palm. A specimen of fibre, said to have been obtained from the flat blades or pinna; of the leaves of the oil palm, was lately presented to the Museums of Economic Botany at Kew by Mr. G. A. Moore, of the Palma Trading Co., Liverpool. This fibre was of good quality, and was described by ^Messrs. Ide and Christie as worth from 50/. to 60/. per ton. No previous specimens of this fibre exi-sted in the Kew Mnseums, and hitherto it has only reached this country in small and inconsiderable quantities. It is very desirable to obtain as much information as po:=siblo respecting the method adopted by the natives for the extraction of the fibre, and the special purposes to which it is locally applied. It would also be desirable to obtain leaves in different statues of preparation, a good (luantity of the raw fibre, and any articles snch as cords, fishing lines, nets, or cloth made from the fibre, for the use of this establishu;ent. I have, &c. (Signed) D. Morris, The Hon. R. II. Moade, C.B., Assistant Director. Colonial Office, S.W. U 77554. Q 242 Messrs. Ide and Christie to Royal Gardens, Kew. 72, Mark Lane, E.G. Dear Sir, January 21, 1892. We are to-day favoured with the specimens of fibre and cord from the leaf of the oil palm (Elceis guineensis) , for Avhich accept our thanks. We should be glad to know if 3'our correspondents at Lagos led you to suppose that this material is, or could be, produced in merchant- able quantity for export to this country. As we informed you in a previous letter (23r(l June last) nothing but small samples have ever been seen here, and, until a quantity of, say, 5 to 10 tons comes home, no true estimate of the value can be arrived at. Permit us to point out that the fibre should be sent untwisted and unplaited. We fear the per-centage of fibre in the pinnse is small, and that the extraction must be attended with considerable dilRculty. "We are, &c. T>. Morris, Esq., M.A., F.L.S., (Signed) Ide and Chr[STIe. &c. &c. &c., Royal Gardens, Kew. In reply to the request for information respecting the methods pur- sued in extracting fibre from the leaves of the oil palm, a report was received through the Colonial Office from the Government of Lagos. It was prepared by Mr. Alvan Millson, the Assistant Colonial Secretary, and contains much interesting information on the subject. The fibre is extracted from the young leaves only. The process is identical with that used by natives in many parts of the world, and notably, as men- tioned by Mr. Millson, by the Caribs of St. Vincent, and of the main- land of tropical America. Some Caribs who were attached to the St. Vincent's Court, at the Jamaica Exhibition, 1891, illustrated the pro- cess at the request of the Assistant Director of Kew, during his late ■visit to Jamaica. There were several excellent specimens of similar palm fibre shown amongst the St. Vincent exhibits. Notes on the preparation of fibre from the pinnas of the Oil Palm {Elms guineensis). The inner side of the leaflets of the oil palm contains a fibre almost as fine and tenacious as human hair. This fibre is called Awshawn by the Yorubas, Poaifi by the Kroos, and N'K'aw by the Accras. It is used all along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea for making fishing lines. Its u.se is very similar to that of the Supa or Gri-gri palm (Astrocar- yum) fibre with which the Caribs of the island of St. Vincent and the reef-fringed Honduras coast make their deep sea lines. In the preparation of this fibre a considerable amount of skill is shown. The pinna3 of the young leaves which have not been hardened by exposure are the only ones that can be made use of. If too old, the fibre cannot be separated from the tissue, and if gathered before the leaves have opened it has not sufficient strength to stand the rough handling which it has to undergo while in process of manufacture. If gathered at the right age the stripping of the fibre offers no difficulties, although the process is both tedious and wasteful. 243 The mid -rib of the leaflet to be worked is separated with the thumb nail for about six inches of its length, as shown iu the accompanying series of specimens (Specimen A.).* The pinna is then laid flat on the left hand with the smooth face upwards as shown in specimen B. and in the following sketch. First stage in preparation of oilpalm leaf for fibre. It is next taken by the cleft end in the right hand, is laid over the worker's left thigh, and held below the fold in the left hand. The lower part of the folded part is firmly pressed against the leg with the side of the left thumb, the mid-rib being turned back under the same hand. The two loose ends are then pulled separately by the right hand, stripping the tissue from the fibre for the length of the fold, i.e., about an inch (Specimen C). The leaflet is now drawn from left to right by the two loose ends across the thigh, against which it is held by the flattened left palm, while the thumb of the same hand is inserted between the flap of tissue and the fibre, and is used to help in separating them by raising the remaining tissue with an upward and backward motion as it is pulled across the leg (Specimen D,). Fig. 2. Splitting of palm leaf to obtain the fibre. The latter is shown below the thumb in sketch. * These specimens are mcunted for reference in Museum ii., Case 61. Q 2 244 The loose ends of the divided leaflet are then taken between the right finger and thumb with the fibre hanging over the first finger. The ends of the remaining tags of tissue are patted with the left fore- finger for about half an inch of their length above where they join the fibre. This bruised portion is twisted round between the thumb nail and finger so as to separate it from the remaining tissue, and is pulled forcibly through the loose fibre, cleaning it thoroughly as it passes. The tags with the fibre attached (Specimen E.) are now held in the right hand, and rolled on the thigh in pairs by the left palm so as to twist the fibre into double stranded twine. This primitive method of string making I liave noticed also in Central America and among the peasantry in Scotland. Three of these double strands are next made into a cord, and holding the loose green tags of tissue one at a time between the thumb and fcrefinger of the left hand, the remaining fibre is drawn out (Specimen F.) and rolled up on the thigh so as to complete the cord (Specimen CI.). The cords are plaited into pigtails, and are hung up in the shade to dry (Specimen H.). After they are thoroughly dried the short lengths are made into lines by rolling on the leg and inserting ncAV lengths from time to time (Specimen I.). Fig. 3. Sketch illustrating method of preparing fine cord and fishing oil-palm fibre. lines from The method of insertion, as roughly shown in the above sketch, is unusually clumsy, but has the advantage of strength. In the finer lines the inserted pieces are frayed out at the end, and worked into the material in the usual manner. So far as can be ascertained the only use to which this fibre is put is the making of fishing lines and fine cords, Jt would appear to be too costly for native cloth, net, or bag makino,. The following results of actual experiments will serve to show the tedious and expensive nature of the process which has just been described. A day's hard work is counted well spent on the production of six ounces of fibre from 3G pounds of the raw material. Estimating the value of labour to the native at not more than 3(1. a day, and leaving out of considei'ation the time expended in collecting and sorting the leaves in the forest, tlie actual cost of this material to the producer cannot be calculated at less than 751. a ton. It is therefore clear that it would be impossible to develop an export trade in this article at the present I'ate of European prices. (Signed) Alv.v.\ Mili.son', Assistant Colonial Secretary. 245 LXXV. -COCOA-NUT COIR FROM LAGOS. {Cocos nucifcra, L.) [K. B., 1889, pp. 129-132.] As may be gathered from the reports publisiied in the Kew Bulletin (1888, p. 149, and 1889, p. 69), Governor Moloney lias organised very extensive nurseries in different parts of the Colony of Lagos for the purpose of extending the cultivation of tlie cocoa-nut palm. Plantations consisting of 30,000 trees have ah-eady been established by the Govern- ment, whilst seedlings in large quantities are supplied at low rates to private persons with the view of making the industry as general as possible. In this work the recently established Botanic Station is actively engaged, as also the Government organisations attached to the Commissionerships of the Eastern and Western Districts, and of Palma. With the view of utilising to the best advantage the produce of these cocoa-nut plantations, when in full bearing, Governor ^lolouey has I'eceutly prepared experimentally some samples of cocoa-nut fibre so that an opinion might be obtained as to its value in this country. This West African coir was sent to Kew, and very interesting particulars respecting it are contained in the following correspondence : — CoLO'iAL Office to Royal Gardens, Kew. Sir, Downing Street, February 2, 1889. I AM directed by Lord Kuutsford to transmit to you a copy of a despatch which he has received from the Governor of Lagos reporting that he had despatched a bale of [cocoa-nut] coir to Kew. 2. His Lordship will be much obliged if you Avill kindly furnish him with your opinion on the specimen forwarded. I am, &c. (Signed) E. H. Meade. The Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. [Enclosure.] GovEKNOR Moloney to Lokd Knutsford. Government House, Lagos, My Lord, December 23, 1888. At the Colonial Exhibition of 1886 I was given to understand that the natural colour of Lagos coir had, in the opinion of brush and mat manufacturers (I may m('iiti(m Messrs. Treloar, of Ludgaie Hill), a special advantage which should command for it a ready demand and a comparatively high price, if it could be put regidarly and in sulHcieut quantity on the English markets. 2. Accordingly, and in anticipation of the later development of a local manufacture for export of cocoa-nut oil, for which I entertain the opinion that the present annual crop of fruit offers a sullicient encouragement, I have had prepared by prison labour in the gaol of Lagos, a bale of coir weighing 42 lbs. 3. This return represents the yield of 400 cocoa-nuts, the average present price of which is at the rate ol' 2s. Gel. per hundred. 4. The bale has been addressed to the Royal Gardens, Kew, and sent through the Crown Agents for the Colonies. 246 5. It is now my duty to request that youv Lordship Tvill be good enough to invite the co-operation of the Director of the Royal Gardens and obtain an authoritative opinion on the specimen forwarded. I have, &c. (Signed) Alfred Moloney. The Right Hon. Lord Knutsford, G.C.M.G. &c. &c, &c. Royal Gardens, Kew, to Colonial Office. Royal Gardens, Kew, Sin, February 21, 1889. I AM desired hy Mr. Thiselton-Dyer to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 2nd instant, forwarding a copy of a despatch from the Governor of Lagos on the subject of a specimen of cocoa-nut coir which he had forwarded to Kew for an opinion as to its merits. 2. The specimen, consisting of a bale weighing 42 pounds, was duly received from the Crown Agents on the 11th ultimo. Samples were prepared and submitted to respectable brokers and dealers in the city, with a request that they would report upon the value of Lagos coir as compared with other coirs now in the London market. 3. The result of the inquiry is contained in the accompanying papers. It would appear in the iirst place that it is necessary to separate coir 6bre, as yielded by the cocoa-nut, into two classes, namely, " bristle " fibre and " mat " fibre. The tbrmor is usually sold at about 'AOL per ton, and the latter at about 10/. per ton. 4. The sample from Lagos contained these two fibres mixed together, and hence it was not presented in a state suitable for sale in this country. It is evident that Lagos fibre possesses no particular merit on account of its colour, but, on the other hand, in Messrs. Harrison and Johnson's Report, it is stated to be " of very good length, which increases its value." 5. yUthough these reports are not so encouraging as Governor Moloney ■was led to suppose from the specimens exhilnted at the late Colonial and Indian Exhibition, they furnish useful hints as regards tlie character of coir fibre necessary to command ready sale in this country. 6. With the view of further assisting in this direction, Mr. Thiselton- Dyer has caused the specimens of Ceylon "bristle" and Ceylon "mat," forwarded by Messrs. Ido and Christie, to be sent direct to Governor Moloney as samples of coir fibres which are acceptable to the London buyers. Other samples of fibre are enclosed in the parcel for Governor Moloney, including "brush" fibre, "mat" fibre, and "rough stufiing " fibre, prepared by Messrs. Toye and Bromley from the crude Lagos coir. I am, &c. (Signed) D. Morris, The Hon. R. H. Meade, C.B. [Enclosure No. 1.] Messrs. Ide and Christie to Royal Gardens, Kew. 72, Mark Lane, London, E.C., Sir, February 7, 1889. We are duly favoured with Mr. Jackson's letter of the 5th inst., and samples of coir from Lagos. These contain soft, half-prepared " bristle " fibre, used in the manufacture of brushes, mixed with short or "mat" fibre. Such a mixture is unfortunate, and detracts from the value of the samples, as the two kinds, being used for different purposes, have to be 247 separated. In the Ceylon coir they are always kept apart, and for your guidance we send you specimens of Ceylon bristle, value 30/. per ton, and Ceylon mat, value 10/. There is nothing eitlier in the colour or other diameter of the Lao-os fibre -which would justify the expectation of its commanding u ready demand and higli price, as the Governor of Liigos has been apparently led to believe. On the contrary, we value the " bristle " portion of your samples at 15/., and the " mat " portion at 9/. to 10/. i^er ton. We are, &c. (Signed) Ioe and Christie. D. Mcrris, Esq., M.A., F.L.S. [Enclosure No. 2.] « Messrs. Harrison and Johnson to Royal Gardens, Kew. 4, Catherine Court, Trinity Square, London, E.G., Sir, February 7, 1889. We are in receipt of your favour of the 5th instant, and also the sample. The coir fibre you send is mixed half prepared brush and mat fibre. The former, if separated, would no doubt find buyers at about 15/. per ton, and the mat fibre would sell freely at 9/. to 10/. per ton. There is one sample consisting entirely of mat fibre ; this is clean and long, and would sell well at about 11/. to 12/. per ton. If the brush fibre were properly combed out like sample we have sent you by post, it would readily fetch 28/. to 32/. per ton present market value. The samples of fibre you send are of very good length, which increases the value. We would suggest that a small sample shiijment be made ; you would then get a good idea of the value. It would be no use sending any fibre unless the mat and brush were kept separate. If in future we can be of any help to you or to the Governor of Lagos in bringing this article before the trade we should be pleased if you would make use of us. We are, lOO Freight to Bahia - - - . 260 Commission and Insurance Oo/° on 2,500 - 12/5 Eeis 2,4G8 " Taking a milreis as Avorth Tid. this gives os. Id. in Bahia." LXXVII.- -BHABUR GRASS. {Ischcemum angustifolium, Hackel.) [K. B., 1888, pp. 157-160.J This grass, which closely approaches esparto in habit and in the possession of the technical qualities necessary for paper manufacture, was first brought into notice by Dr. King in the Annual Report of the Royal Borauic Garden, Calcutta, for the year 1877-78. Tc was there confounded with an entirely distinct plant, Eriophoruin comosum, a species of Cyperacece, with which it often grows intermixed, and from which, as' it rarely flowers, it is hard to distinguish. This? error appears to have originated with Royle, who (Illustrations, p. 415) identities Bhabar with Eriophorum cotnosum var. cannabiiium . It Avas referred to in the Kew Report for 1878, p. 45, as follows :- - " Erio[>Jioriim comosum. — Tliis jjlunt is well known in iSTorth- Western " India, whore, under the name of Bhabar-ghas, it is largely used as a *' material for ropes. It was submitted by Dr. King to Mr. Rcutledge " (of the Ford Works, Sunderland), who writes to us : — ' A small " ' quantity of bleach brings it up to a good colour. The ultimate " ' fibre is very fine and delicate, rather more so than esparto, and of " * about the same strength ; the yield, however, is 42 per cent., some- " ' what less. I think I may venture to say that it will make a quality '* ' of paper e([ual to esparto.' " In the fuilowiuL; year Mr. Duthie, Superintendent of the Government Botanical Gardens, Saliarunpur, sent a specimen to Kew for identifi- cation. He wrote, Msiy 2, 1879: — " I am sending a speciuiea of a Cyperaccous-looking plant, which I " have been asked to identify. It is a native of the Nepal Terai, and " in the district of Gorakhpur, at the extreme ea^t of these provinces. " Its native name is Bankns, and it is largely used in making ropes, " &Q. It has been sent to me three times, but on each occasion " Avithout flowers. It is said to flower oidy once in three years." This recalled a grass which, under the name of /?««A»*s appears, from the Bengal Catalogue of Indian products, to have been sho-.va at the 254 London Exhibition of 1862 (section 1, pp. 137, 168), us used iu N,W. India for making ropes. Mr. Duthie's specimens, though extremely imperfect, were submitted to the late General Munro, C.B., F.R..S., iu the hope that his incom- parable knowledge of grasses might enable him lo ascertain what it was. He succeeded in identifying it with Spodiopogon angustifolins (Trinius in Act. Petrop. vi., ii., p. 300; Sjjec. Gram., t. 336). He added: — "It is Andropogon involutus, Steudel, and A. Notopogon, " Nees and Steudel. It is mentioned by name only as Spodiopogon " laniger in Royle's Illustrations (p. 416). It is very common in all " parts of the Lower Himalayas, and I have seen it from Afghanistan, " collected by Griffith." Mr. Duthie subsequently informed us that it was also known under the name of Bhaib grass, and that it was used for the manufacture of string matting and a variety of other articles, of which a fine collection was sent by him to the Kew Museum in 1880 {see Kew Report, 1880, p. 60). We were indebted to Sir Dietrich Brandis, K.C.I.E., late Inspector- General of Forests to the Government of India, for pointing out that the grasses variously known as Bhabar, Bhaib, and Bank as were all identical. The following note upon the subject is contained iu a paper entitled " Suggestion regarding Forest Administration in the " N.W. Provinces and Oudh " (Calcutta, 1882, pp. 7, 8) :— " The export of the grass known as Bhabar, Bhaib, Bankas " {Andropogon involidns, not as has often been erroneously stated, " Enophoriim comosion), from the Siwalik Hills, and from tracks of " broken raviny ground outside the Hills, is very considerable. . " The grass grows abundantly on dry bare slopes, and no apprehension " regarding the sufficiency of the supply need at present be entertained. " It is used chiefly for rope-making, and it is by no means impossible '* that the establishment of paper-mills in North India will eventually " lead to the employment of this grass for the manufacture of paper." Early in 1883 the India Office furnished us with a copy of a report by Mr. C. E. Edwards, the manager of the Lucknow Paper Mills, to the Director of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce of the North-West Provinces and Oudh, which contained the following obser- vations with respect to the use of Bhaib for paper making : — " This grass we have used here, but not to any great extent, owing •' to the price being too high, besides the out-turn is not so great as *• with jute. I found it not to yield more than about 35 per cent, of *' paper. This is to a great extent owing to the top part of the " plant being somewhat perished, I presume owing to the toj^s being " more exposed to the atmosphere, as this part appears to get ripe " much earlier than the bottom. In the process of I)oiling the perished *' or top part gets destroyed before the bottom part of the stem gets •' sufficiently reduced to a pulp. This accounts for the great loss in the " manufacture, but this could be obviated by having the top parts cut " off before despatching it to the paper mills, and if it could be had at " the same price with the tops otfj I have no hesitation in saying it " would be a good and cheap enough fibre for paper-making purposes." Dr. King, in his annual report for 1882-3, summed up its prospects as follows : — "In several formei- reports I have referred to the leaves known by " the vernacular riame hhabur as the produce of Erioplwrum comosnm. " I have now satisfied m3self that the bulk of the hhabur used by " natives for rope-making is not derived from Eriophorum, as I have 255 " supposed, but from Andropogon involutus. This grass, I Hud from " inquiry locally made, abounds in the hill parts of Behar and Chota " Nagpore, where it is known as Sabai. From these regions it can be " obtained in quite considerable enough quantity to make its utilisation " as a paper material a feasible project, and the people who actually " collect it sell it a reasonable enough rate. But in order to fct it " brought to Calcutta in sufficient quantity for local manufacture, or " for shipment to Europe, middlemen have to be employed, whose ideas " of profit are pitched so high that, until they become modified, the *' utilisation of bhabiir must remain in abeyance. This is only in accord " with the common experience in the Mofussil, that competition in " trade is not sufficiently keen to have much eflTect in keeping down " prices, but that, on the contrary, traders still form guilds "banded *' together to enhance prices, even at the risk of choking ofl" demand." On December 1, 1883, the late Mr. Thomas Routledge, Avho was always ready to assist us, by making experiments on new paper materials, privately reported, as the final result of his trials of Bhabur grass : — " I believe it will make a fair sheet of paper, much the same as fine " esparto; in fact, in many respects, as a natural product, it closely " resembles esparto, but does not contain so much glutinous and " amylaceous matters, nor so much silica. The sample sent, you will " remark, was cut, and not pulled from the roots as esparto is. Like " esparto, 171 situ it is worth very little, and is used for similar purposes, " roping, matting, baskets, &c. The cost of esparto consists in " collection, carriage to port of shipment, and, latterly, baling charges, " freight to England, &c. Whether from India, with long and " probably costly inland carriage, with heavy freight added, it can " come into competition with esparto, is doubtful, and I do not think it *' would pay to convert it into stock." The prospect of utilizing the grass would be no doubt improved if it could be cultivated. From the following account by the Rev. H. P. Boerresen, of Rampore Hat (printed in the Proceedings of the Agricul- tural and Horticultural Society of India for October, 1887) it appears that this is readily practicable. " (1.) The Sabai or Babui grass yields two crops in the year, one in '' September, and the other at the end of October or early in November, " without any n-rigation, as the rainy season is then prevalent. It *' might yield a third cutting if irrigated, but I cannot say anything on " this head, never having made the experiment, nor have I seen it " attempted by others. •' (2.) I believe it will grow anywhere, as we have transplanted it " from here to all our other out-stations in the SanthalPnrganas, and it " thrives in them all. The Santhal Christians have also taken some of " it to our Christian Colony in Gnraa Duar, Assam, where it also *' grows well. " (3.) I have never attempted to propagate it by seed, but always by " roots. When a clump or tuft is dug out, it may be divided into as " many small divisions of roots as one pleases, and those are put down " again in rows, about three feet from one anotlier, and the same " interval between each root planted. It will yield a very trifiin"' " return the first two years, but by the third or fourth year, when the " roots have spread and multiplied, it gives a good crop. The plot on " Avhich it is planted must be kept fi*ee from other grass. When it is " seven or eight years old, the roots should be beaten down with *' wooden mallets or a plough should be run through them m every 25G " direction, and fresh earth thrown over the whole increases the yield. " If not treated in this way, it Avill cease yielding any crop. When " grown too old, it must be taken up entirely, re-divided in small " bunches of roots, and transjilanted to a fresh locality. " (-4.) We bought the grass always in local hats for roofing purposes " {as rope) before we grew our own, and nowhere in our neighbourhood " am I awai'e of its being cultivated in any but very small patches by a " solitary man here or there. It is not cultivated as a source of income *' or trade, so that I am unable to say whether the roots may be bought, " or at what price. We got a small quantity of the roots originally " from a Hindu village, but by fostering and .spreading their cultivation ** have now a considerable quantity. It should be planted in a dry " spot, where no Avater lodges, as experience has shown in one of our " stations, where the water oozed up from below and rotted the roots, " that it would not grow there. A sloping site is proljably the best. " When -we first started the mission here we had to pay Rs. 4 a " maund in the hats for the grass, in order to twist it into rope or " string, and it was the having to pay so much that led me to try and " cultivate it ourselves. The grass runs to seed in the hot months, shortly " before the rainy season, but these must be cut off and removed, or the " crop will deteriorate." Besides a great variety of native names, Bhubur grass has, from the difficulty of exactly ascertaining its affinities, received an almost equal number of botanical ones. Under the name of Pollinia eriopoda, it is discussed in the Journal of the Linnean Society (vol. xx., pp. 409, 410), and it is figured and described in Hooker's Icones Plantariun (tab. 1773) as IschcEmum an gusti folium, the name finally assigned to it by Hackel, the most recent monographer of Grasses. [NoTK ADDED, 1894 : — An exhaustive account of " Bhahur Grass and the trade in it," bj' J. S. Gamble, F.L.S., Conservator of Forests, School Circle, N.W. Provinces and Oudh, is given iu the Appendix Series of the Indian Forester, December, 1893.] LXXVIII.—BHABUR GRASS— (continued). {IschcEmum angustifolium, Hackel.) [K. B., 1894, p. 367.] A note on Bhabur grass (with a plate) was published in the Kew Bulletin, 1888, pp. 157-160. This grass is a native of India, and it is remarkable as possessing the technical (jualities, similar to Esparto, necessary for paper manufacture. Its merits Avere first brought into notice by Dr. (Tccrge King, C.I.E., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Koyal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, in 1877-78. Suice that time the grass has become more largely used in India, and at the present time it aftords the chief raw material for paper-making in the neighbourhood of Calcutta and other ])arts of British India. The following additional information respectincr it is given in the recently published Annual Report of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, for the year J 893-94, p. 2 : — " Seed of the grass, known variously as bhabar, babui, and sabai, was iGsued to a few applicants outside of India. This grass (of which tlic botanical name is now Ischcemum angnstifoiium) first attracted my 257 notice as a possible raw material for paper twenty-five years ago, while I was in the Forest Department in the North-west Provinces. It is very common in the Siwalik range, and in the Bhabar forests of the Gharwal and Kumaon Himalaya. Samples of it sent home by me in 1873 (o a paper-maker in Scotland, were favourably reported upon ; and again in 1877 a sample sent by me to the India Office, having been submitted to the late JMr. Routledge, of the Ford Paper Mills (then a leading authority on paper-making), was declared by him to be little inferior to Esparto as a raw material for paper. A year or two subsequently to this it was discovered, by the help of Mr. J. S. Gamble, of the Forest Department, that this grass is common in the forests of Chota Nagpur. Samples of it were accordingly sect by me to the Bally Paper Mill, then the only one near Calcutta. The sample was approved of at Bally, and since then the use of this grass has so increased that it now forms the chief raAV material of an industry which, in this country, is yet ])robably only in its infancy. As seed of Bhabur grass is now being applied for from abroad, it is possible that, before long, it may be cultivated in other tropical countries." LXXIX.— BROOM ROOT OR MEXICAN WHISK. {Epicampcs macroura, Benth.) [K. B., 1887, December, p. 9.] In the Rei)ort of Her Majesty's Con.sul at Vera Cruz for the year 1886, Mr. Baker draws attention to a comparatively new industry connected with the preparation and export of what is called " Broom Eoot." This root was exported from the port of Vera Cruz last jear to the aggregate value of 58,632/. The bulk appears to have been shi[)ped to Germany and France, while the quantity shipped to England was comparatively small. The Curator of the Museum [Gardoicrs' Chronicle, Vol. II. (third series), p. 10 J] has established the fact that the broom root exported from V^era Cruz is known in Europe as Mexican or French Whisk. It is used by the Germans and French to mix Avith Venetian whisk, derived from the roots of Chri/so- pogon GrijUus, for the manufacture of dandy brushes, clothes brushes, carpet brushes, and velvet Inrushes, Avhich are shi])ped to this country at exceedingly low prices. The broom root, tlierefore, appears to be a cheap substitute for Venetian whisk, and it is said that Avhen made into brushes and thoroughly dry it is apt to become brittle and break off. For this reason it has never found mnch favour in England. As the botanical origin of liroom root was unknown, efforts were made through the Foreign Office to obtain specimen's of the plants Yielding it. These specimens were obligingly forwarded to Kew by Mr. Consul Baker, and received on the 3rd October. It appears that the plant yi(;lding the so-culled broom root is a gra.ss whose local njune is " Zacaton." This is a plant with coarye tufted leaves, found widely distributed over the highlands of Mexico, and attaining a height of six or seven feet. Ihe roots, in the condition in whic-h they are exi)orted, are called " Raiz de Zacaton," These roots are about nine inches to a foot lono-, possessing a wavy character, and al)Out one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. They have evidently undergone some cleansing and U 775.54. R 2o8 bleachinfT process, Avliich gives tliem a bright appearance and a pale yellow colour. Among the specimens sent by Jslr. Baker to Kew there were two species of grasses, both of which evidently belonged to the genus Fpicamiyes. One was Epicampes macroiwa, Benth., [Cinna macroura, Ktnith.'], and the other a closely allied species which could not be determined without flowers. There can be little doubt, therefore, that the broom root is deri\ed from one or more species of grasses belonging to the genus Epicampes. Sereno Watson, Botany of California, Vol. II., p. 277, mentions the distribution of one species of this genus, viz., Epicampes rigens, Benth, (Cinna macroura, Thurh.), as San Diego County, California, and also in Mexico and eastward in New Mexico and Western Texas. It is known as " Wood Eeed-grass." It is described as a tall-growing, very rigid, Aviry grass, of f. pale yellowish green colour, growing in sub- alkaline localities, and apparently in tufts. The rigid stems are used by the Indians for making baskets. LXXX.~BROOM ROOT OR MEXICAN WHISK— (continued). (^Epicampes macroura, Benth.) [K. B., 1897, p. 172.] An account of Broom root or Mexican whisk obtained from one or more species of grasses belonging to the genus Epicampes was given in the Kcw Bulletin for December 1887 (p. 9). The roots in the con- dition in which they are exported are known as " Raiz de Zacaton." During some 3'ears very little has been exported, but latterly increased interest has been taken in them as a cheap substitute for the well-known Venetian whisk, derived from the roots of Chrysopogon Gryllus. The most recent information respecting Broom root is contained in the following "Report for the year 1895 on the Trade of Mexico" (F.O., 1896, Annual Series, No. 1827) :— *' Fi'om the roots of a coarse tufty gi'ass, known as ' Zacaton,' which is found growing wild all over the highlands of Mexico, a fibre is extracted called • Kaiz de Zacaton,' which has found a market abroad for the manufacture of certain kinds of brushes and whisks. It is collected by hand, and is subjected to very little treatment before being baled, beyond being soaked in water and bleached in the sun. The principal market for this fibre is Hamburg, but the United States and France both take a certain amount. It has never obtained a foothold in the English market. The export in 1895 was valued at 67,599/. The price, according to the New York quotations, ranged in the year under question from 6c, to 14c. per lb., according to quality." LXXXI.— CHINESE FIBRES. [K. B., 1891, pp. 217-259.] Under the name of jute or hemp there are included a number of commercial fibres in China yielded by very diflTerent plants. There are 259 diftei-ent fibres beaiiug the same name, and (ho same product often bears different names at different ports. The fault is probably due to the fact that European tradeis have used the terms jute and licmp in a generic sense rather than a specific one. There is probably also a fiscal element concerned, as the duty on "jute" is only " 2 mace per picul/' Avhereas " hemps " pay 3^ mace. Au inquiry made by Kew less than a year ago in regard to the origin of Chinese jute, as quoted in the London trade lists, has brought out very forcibly the contusion which exists in regard to the origin and classification of couimercial fibres at Chinese ports. It has been shown that Chinese jute, identical in all respects with Indian jute, and yielded by the same plant, Corchorus capsulavis; L., is grown and prepared in the neighbourhood of the town of" Weuchow ■while th