THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE GIFT OF Col. Arnold W. Shutter / OUTLINES OF THE WORLD'S HISTORY. WITH SPECIAL RELATION TO THB HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION AND THE PROGRESS OF MANKIND. Fof use in the Higher Classes in Public Schools, and in High Schools, Academies, Seminaries, etc. By WILLIAM SWINTON, ft.utlior of Condensed History of tne United States. Campaigns of the Army ol llie Potomac, Word-Analysis, Word-Book, etc. NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI :• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Copyright, 1874, by IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, & CO. Copyright, 1902, by JEAN SWINTON. e-P 6 In preparing the following Outlines of the World's His- tory the author has assumed that the proper aim of such historical study as can be pursued in high schools and academies should be to give the learner a general vie7u of human progress, — to furnish, for example, brief but explicit answers to such questions as these : 1. What 7uere the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Hebrews, Latins, Spaniards, English, etc. ? What did each of these nations contribute to the common stock of civilization ? 2. In what forms did the mind of the race express itself : in religion, war, law-making, political organization, litera- ture, art ? 3. What was the actual life of the people themselves, — their condition as regards political freedom, education, physical well-being, food, dress, trade, society, etc. ? What were their ways of thinking, and how did these show them- selves in the manners, customs, and social usages of the time ? 4. What have been the great steps in human progress, — the discoveries, social and political changes, advances in thought and skill, that have carried forward civilization and the " betterment of man's estate " (Bacon) ; and what TV PREFACE. is the series of events that has brought the world up to its present standard of enlightenment and knowledge? These are questions that we have learned to ask only in comparatively recent times. The asking of them and the answering of them have given us history in its modern sense ; that is to say, history as a showing forth of the life of nations, in place of history as the mere biography of kings, or the record of battles and sieges, of dynasties and courts. The theory of this book may be stated in a single sen- tence : it is, to bring to the treatment of history for elemen- tary instruction the same method that has proved fruitful and interesting in the larger classic works. Such treat- ment is in marked contrast with that of the compendiums in ordinary use, which consist mainly of catalogues of facts and of chronologic data. The author believes, however, that the judgment of progressive teachers will fully coincide with his own in this : that far more valuable and more lasting results can be secured by giving scholars a vivid general view of the institutions and civilization of the greater nations than by cramming the memory with ever so imposing an array of isolated facts and dates. This book has grov/n out of a great deal of experiment- ing with classes, — testing of what pupils can take in and assimilate, of what becomes fruitful in their minds, and of what, on the other hand, is retained with difficulty or for- gotten with ease. Care has been taken to cast the para- graphs into such a form that the subject-matter of each -aiay be easily grasped by the pupil and the same readily elicited by means of the marginal notes, — a device which jeems to be better suited to a work of this grade than mere literal questions would be. It is scarcely necessary to PREFACE. ▼ call attention to the maps : they have been drawn with great care by Mr. Jacob Wells, and will be found both accurate and ample. The engraving-work, which is exceptionally excellent, is by Mr. John Karst. In addition to these features there are two salient points to which notice is called : i. This manual is made from modern material, and presents the fruit of those researches that have so essentially modified and so greatly enlarged our views both of antiquity and of more recent times. 2. It is written in the spirit of the modern method, — that method which deals with the broad, vital facts, rather than with the pedantries of history. As, by the courses of study in our public schools, general history is not taken up until after several years' work on the history of our own country, it would have been quite superfluous to insert her'; an imperfect compendium of what has already been gone over in detail ; hence in this book the history of the United States is treated only in so far as it touches that of other nations. The author is deeply impressed with the conviction that history, studied in the right manner, is of fundamental im- portance in the growth of the mental and moral nature. And he believes that such study is of especial moment in our own country, as a preparation for citizenship in a free, self-governing nation : for how can we appreciate what we enjoy, unless we know how it cajne to be? In the sincere hope that this survey of the providential ordainment of human affairs may prove helpful, both to intellectual growth and the formation of character, it is commended to the judgment of the teaching profession. WILLIAM SWINTON. Cambridge, Aug., 1874. NOTE TO REVISED EDITION. In the present edition the Outlines of HistOiy has undergone a careful revision in the light of valuable suggestions from teachers who have had the work in use in the class-room. To such teachers the author takes pleasure in expressing his heart}^ thanks. He has also to acknowledge in a very particular manner his obligations to Prof. C. K. Adams, of the University of Michigan, who kindly went through the whole book and commu- nicated to the author his scholarly annotations. The pres- ent edition contains such modification of the text as were necessitated by these suggestions. It is proper to add that the textual differences are not such as to interfere with the simultaneous use of both old and new editions in the class. INTRODUCTION PAGE I SECTION I. THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. tHAF-TER I. Geographical Sketch 8 II. Egypt 12 1. Historical Outline 12 2. Egyptian Civilization ...... 20 III. The Assyrians and Babylonians .... 27 1. Introduction 27 2. Early Babylonian, or Chaldsean, Kingdom . 29 3. Assyria ......... 32 4. Later Babylonian Kingdom • • • • 35 IV. The Hebrews 38 V. The Phcenicians .43 VI. The Hindoos ........ 50 VII. The Persian Empire 55 1. Historical Outline 55 2. Persian Civilization 60 VIII. Commerce of the Ancients 64 via CONTENTS. SECTION II. HISTORY OF GREECE. I. General Sketch 73 II. History of the First Period : From the Dorian Migration to the beginning of the Persian Wars, 1100-500 B. C 81 1. Beginnings of Greek History .... 81 2. Growth of Sparta and Athens .... 85 III. History of the Second Period : From the beginning of the .Persian War to the Victory of Philip of Macedon at Ch^eronea, B. C. 500-338 ... 91 I. The Persian Invasions 91 8. The Age of Pericles q8 3. The Peloponnesian War lOO 4. Period of Spartan and Theban Supremacy . . 10: IV. History of the Third Pekiod : From the Victory of Philip to the Absorption of Greece by the Romans 103 I, Supremacy of Macedon, — Philip .... 103 3. Career of Alexander the Great .... 104 3. Alexander's Successors 108 4. Later History of Macedon and Greece , . 105 V. Grecian Civilization . . . . . . .114 I. Political Ideas ....... 114 a Religion JJ^4 3. Grecian Festivals ...... 117 4. Greek Literature and Philosophy » . . 119 5. Grecian Art I25 6. Greek Life, Manners, etc. . , . - , 138 CONTENTS. IX SECTION III. HISTORY OF ROME. CMAPTBR I. Geography and Races II. Primeval Rome.— Period of the Kings III. The Roman Republic . . . • 1. Epoch of the Struggle for Existence . Great Names of Early Rome 2. Epoch of the Roman Conquest of Italy 3. Epoch of Foreign Conquest . 4. Epoch of Civil Strife .... IV. Rome as an Empire .... 1. Age of Augustus .... 2. Political History .... 3. Spread of Christianity . . . 4. Roman Life, Manners, Customs, etc. J. Last Days of Rome .... MGB 130 136 136 137 143 182 182 igi 194 201 207 SECTION IV. MEDIiEVAL HISTORY. Introduction .... .... 212 I. The New Races . , .... 213 II. Three Centuries of History ..... 221 1. The Byzantine Empire ..... 221 2. Italy down to Charlemagne ..... 222 3. Beginnings of France . . • . < 224 4. Beginnings of England 225 5. Rise of the Saracens 227 CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE III. Empire of Charlemagne 234 IV. The Feudal System 240 V. Growth of the Papal Power . . . • . 247 VI. The Crusades 253 1. Introduction , . 253 2. The First Crusade 256 3. The Second Crusade 261 4. The Third Crusade 262 5. The Later Crusades 264 6. Results of the Crusades . . , . . 265 VII. Chivalry, — its Rise and Decay .... 267 VIII. Civilization in the Middle Ages ... 272 1. The Dark Ages 272 2. The Age of Revival. — Cities and Commerce . 276 IX. Political Outline : From Charlemagne to the Close of the Middle Ages 285 1. The German Empire 285 2. France 287 3. England 291 4. Italy 295 5. Spain 808 SECTION V. modern history. \. Transition to Modern History . . . .30? 1. Introduction 305 2. Fall of the Eastern Empire 306 3. Maritime Discoveries 308 4. The Revival of Learning 312 5. Decline of Feudalism 314 6. Rise of Great Monarchies 315 CONTENTS. x\ II. Great Events of the Sixteenth Century 1. Age of Charles V. .... 2. England under Henry VIII. . . , 3. Rise of the Dutch Republic 4. Civil and Religious Wars of France 5. Age of Queen Elizabeth Great Names of the Sixteenth Centi ry IIL Great Events of tke Seventeenth Century 1. England under the Stuarts 2. The Thirty Years' War 3. The Age of Louis XIV 4. Progress of Civilization Great Names of the Seventeenth Century . IV. Great Events of the Eighteenth Century 1. England under the Georges 2. Prussia and Frederick the Great 3. The Rise of Russia 4. The French Revolution ... 5. Progress of Civilization .... Great Names of the Eighteenth Century V. Great Events of the Nineteenth Century 1. The Consulate and the Empire . 2. Modern English Politics 3. Revolutions in French Politics . 4. The Unification of Italy .... 5. The German Empire Restored . Great Names of the Nineteenth Century INDEX . o . Ancient Oriental Monarchies. {Double page.) Historic Era at the Beginning of Records Egypt at the Time of Persian Conquest . Dominion of Solomon .... Phcenicia and her Colonies . Persian Empire. {Double page.) Routes of Ancient Commerce Greece and her Colonies. {Double page.) Greece before Dorian Migration . Greek Races after Dorian Migration Persian Invasions of Greece . Vicinity of Marathon and Athens . Thermopyl^ Races of Ancient Italy Latium, or Primeval Ro.me The Punic Wars Mithridatic Wars ..... Campaigns of C/esar .... Roman Empire. {Doiible page.) . Plan of Ancient Rome. Europe, Close of 6th Century Original Home of the English Europe, a. d. 800. Map of the Crusades .... Iberian Peninsula, 1491 .... Europe, i6th Century. {Double page!) Globular View ok Geographic Discoveries Europe, Time of Napoleon. {Double page !^ Page 8 II 13 39 44 54 65 72 77 83 92 93 96 131 133 I4i 161 167 182 186 220 226 233 252 298 304 308 440 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. 1. History may be defined, in a general way, as the rec ord of the life of mankind. In a more special History de- view, it is the narrative of the rise and progress ^"^'^• of those famous peoples whose doings constitute the history of civilization. 2. In this its proper and highest sense history presup- poses the races advanced beyond the natural its relation to or primitive state, and gathered in political "^*'°"s- communities, or nations ; and it confines itself to those nations whose achievements have influenced the general current of the world's affairs, and made the condition of the world what we now see it. 3. Respecting mankind outside of nations, there is much interesting and valuable knowledge, supplied Aids to by various sciences. Among these are, — history. Ethnol'ogy, or the science of the several races, or types of mankind. ARCHiEOL'oGY, or the science of the ancient works d man. Philol'ogy, or the science of language. By the aid of these sciences much is now known regard- ing humanity in its lower stages of progress. In our own times a vast amount of inquiry has been made into the con- dition of the primeval races ; interesting studies have been made also on the customs, manners, arts, languages, and religions of savage tribes. f OUTLINES OF GENERAL hlSTORY. 4. These researches belong to Anthropol'ogy, which Difference be- dcals with man in natural history, rather than poTy^a^nd"^"' to HlSTORY proper, which deals with nations, History. ^j^^t is to Say, with man in civilization. 5. Viewing history as confined to the series of leading The real his- civilizcd nations, we observe that it has to do tone race. \;\\}ci but one grand division of the human fam- ily, namely, with the Caucasian, or white race. To this division belonged the people of all the elder nations, — the Eg}'ptians, Assyr'ians and Babylo'nians, the Hebrews and the Phoeni'cians, the Hin'doos, the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans. Of course, the modern European na- tions, as also the states founded by European colonists, all belong to this ethnological division. Thus we see that his- tory proper concerns itself with but one highly developed type of mankind ; for though the great bulk of the popu- lation of the globe has, during the whole recorded period, belonged, and does still belong, to other types of mankind, yet the Caucasians form the only truly historical race. Hence we may say that civilization is the product of the brain of this race. Of the peoples outside of the Caucasian race that have made some figure in civilization, the Chinese, Mexicans, and Peruvians stand alone. But though those races rose considerably above the savage state, their civilization was stationary, and they had no marked influence on the general current of the world's progress. 6. Modem scholars divide this historical stock — the Its three di- Caucasian race — into three main branches : visions. J 'pj^g A'ryan, or Indo-European branch; H. The Semit'ic branch ; III. The Hamit'ic branch. This classification is a linguistic one, — that is to say, it is a division based on the nature of the languages spoken by the three families of nations, — but at the same time it represents three distinct civilizations. INTRODUCTION. 7. The Aryan branch is that division to which we our- selves belong: : it includes nearly all the pres- ^ , ° . - T- ^u /". 1 ^^* Aryans. ent and past nations of Europe, — the Greeks, Latins, Germans or Teu'tons, Celts, and Slavo'nians, — to- gether with two ancient Asiatic peoples, namely, the Hin doos and the Persians. 8. The evidence of language shows that the Celtic, Ger* man, Slavonian, Greek, and Latin tongues all Their unity, bear a remarkable family likeness, and that ^°^ proved, they share this likeness with the Sanscrit, which was the ancient language of India, and with the Zend, the ancient language of Persia. It is quite certain that the forefathers of the Persians and of the Hindoos and the forefathers of all the European nations were once one people, and lived together somewhere in Western Asia. This was at a time long before the beginning of recorded history (for we know nothing of the Greeks, Latins, Germans, Celts, etc., as such, until we find them in Europe) ; but still it is proved by the evidence of language that their original home and native seat was Asia. 9. The Semitic branch includes the ancient inhabitants of Syria, Arabia, and the Tigris and Euphrates g^^^^j^^g countries. The leading historical representa- tives of the Semitic branch are the Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, and Arabs. 10. The Hamitic branch has but one prominent repre- sentative, — the Egyptians. It is probable, ^^^. however, that the ancient Chalds'ans also be- longed to this race. 11. The history of the civilized world is the history ol the Aryan, Semitic, and Hamitic races. It is comparison of of interest to know that the race to which we ^^^ races, belong, the Aryan, has always played the leading part in the great drama of the world's progress. The Hamitic nations, the Egyptians and Chaldaeans, though they devel- OUTLINES O^ GENERAL HISTORY. oped a peculiar type of civilization, yet grew up and re mained in a great degree apart from the rest of the worlo. having no considerable influence on the main current c* history. As to the Semites, there is one respect in which they have the greatest place in the story of mankind, namely, in religious development ; for the three religions that have taught men that there is but one God — namely, the Jewish, the Christian, and the Mahom'etan — have all come from among them. But, aside from this, the Semites do not make nearly so important or so conspicuous a figure in history as do the Aryans, or Indo-Europeans. They have never been greatly progressive. They have generally shown a conservative disposition that has, in the main, kept them fixed to theiv native seat, in the small tract of country betvveen the Tigris, the Mediterranean, and the Red Sea. Thus they have not, like the Aryans, been the planters of new nations ; and they have never attained a high intellectual development, or that progress in political freedom, in science, art, and literature, which is the glory of the Aryan nations. 12. If we trace back the present civilization of the ad- The Aryans in vanced nations of the world, — our own civil- history, ization, and that of England, Germany, France, Italy, etc., — we shall find that much of it is connected by direct and unbroken line with the Roman. The Romans, in turn, were heirs of the Greeks. Now, all this is Aryan ; and when we go back to the primitive age of the undivided Aryans in Asia, we see that this race must even then have been placed far above the condition of mere savages, and that they had made good beginnings in government, and social life, and religion, and the simple mechanical arts. Thus we are fully authorized to say that the Aryans are peculiarly the race of progress ; and a very large part of the history of the world must be taken up with an account of the contributions which the Aryan nations have made to the common stock of civilization. INTRODUCTION. 5 13. In these Outlines of the world's history we shall \ake up : Divisions of I. The groups of ancient Oriental nations, *^'^ ''°°''- including, i. The Egyptians ; 2. The Assyro-Babylonians ; 3. The Hebrews; 4. The Phoenicians; 5. The Hindoos; 6. The Persians. II. The history of Greece. III. The history of the Roman Dominion. IV. The history of the Middle Ages. V. The history of the modern European states and na- tions. 14. The entire historical period, commencing with the early Empires of the East, and coming down chronologic to our own times, is usually divided into dis- pe"ods. tinct portions, sometimes two and sometimes three ; that is to say, some historians make a double division, into Ancient history and Modern history ; and others a triple division, into Ancient, Mediceval, and Modern history. In either case Ancient history ends with the breaking up of the Dominion of Rome, in the fifth century A. D. (fall of the Western Roman Empire, 476 a. d.). Then, if we make the doiihle division, Modern history will begin with the downfall of Rome ; but if the triple division, the interval from the fifth to the fifteenth century will be regarded as a period by itself, called Mediaeval history, or the history of the Middle Ages ; while Modern history, according to this method, will be confined to the centuries between the fifteenth and the present time. 15. Such divisions of the historic period into portions are merely arbitrary, seeing that history forms Nature of th« in reality an unbroken whole. We shall adopt divisions, the triple division for practical convenience, though per- haps the double division is the more philosophical ; for while we think of the ages as forming a continuous stream, the Roman Dominion may still be regarded as a reservoir 6 OUTLINES OF GENERAL HISTORY. into which all the currents of history from the anterior ages were gathered, and from which, in turn, the ampler currents of Modern history have flowed. It was out of the breaking up of the great Dominion of Rome in the fifth century a. d. (when the Western Roman Empire fell, under the attacks of the Gothic invaders, and of other new races loosely called "Northern barbarians") that the modern states of Europe — that is, Italy, Spain, France, England, Germany, etc. — gradually took their rise. l6. In the largest sense, however, history is a unit: its . epochs form but acts in one grand Provi- History a unit. , . , , , , - ° , . , dential drama ; one thread of progress bmds nation to nation ; and, looking at humanity as a whole, we see that Through the ages one increasing purpose runs, And the thoughts of men are widened with the process ob THE suns. Tennyson. ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 1 Definition of History. (IT i.) Anthropology, ) how distinguished. (If 4.) History proper, J II. Aids to History. Ethnology, \ Archeology, [ how defined. (IT 3.) Philology, ) III. Divisions of the Caucasian Race. 'Hindoos, Aryan (Indo-European) Branch. (H 7.) Persians, Greeks, Latins, Germans, Celts, ^Slavonians. INTRODUCTION. IV. V. Semitic Branch. (IF 9.) Hebrews, Phcenicians, Assyrians, Arabs. Hamitic Branch. (1[ 10.) j Egyptians, \ ChALD/EANS. Divisions of History. (TT 13.) 1. Oriental Nations. 2. Greece. 3. Rome. 4. The Middle Ages. 5. Modern History. Chronologic Periods. (^ 14.) Ancient History, from the earliest period to the fall of the Western Roman Empire, 476 A. D. Medieval History, from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the close of the 15th century. Modern History, from the close of the 15th century to the present time. 8 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. SECTION I. THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 1. The ancient Oriental civilizations to be treated of in Oriental na- this section Comprise the monarchies of Egypt, *'°"®- Assyr'ia and Babylo'nia, Judce'a, PhcEni'cia, India, and Persia. 2. With the single exception of Egypt, the seat of all the ancient Oriental nations was in Asia. And of Historic area. , . , ,. . . . , , , . . , this grand division of the globe it is to be observed that only a small part has any connection with history proper. Historical Asia is in reality Southwestern Asia. 3. All that part of Asia north of the Altai range is a com- ., ^. . . paratively barren waste. It was almost wholly Northern Asia. .■'... ■' unknown m antiquity. 4. Central Asia, extending between the 50th and the 40th Central Asia pai'^Hels of north latitude, — known to ancient writers as Scyt/i'ia, — is a region of vast pla- teaus. Being destitute of arable land, it is a mere country of pasture. It has always supported a great population; but a population of nomads without fixed habitations or cities, and with no other form of political association than patriarchal government. Accordingly, the races of this re- gion have played no part in history, except that the Mongo- lian or Tartar races, inhabiting the great steppes, have at times poured down upon and conquered the civilized coun- tries. JBast I^mi/it GEOGRAPHICAL SKE'JcH. 9 5. The real theater of Asiatic histor}% namely, South- western Asia, may be subdivided into three Division of regions: i. that west of the Euphra'tes ; 2. the Western Asia, valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris ; 3. the region be- tween the Zagros Mountains and the In'dus basin inclusive. 6. West of the Euphrates we have : i. The peninsula of Asia Minor, the seat of several nationalities (of , . , , e -r If 1 • \ First region. which that of Lyd'ia was the most important) nnd of various Grecian colonies ; their history is, however, connected as much with Europe as with Asia. 2. Syr'ia, bordering on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, and comprising three distinct parts: (i) Syria proper; (2) Phoenicia, including the narrow strip of coast between Leb'anon and the sea ; (3) Palestine, south of Phoenicia. 3. The peninsula of Arabia, stretching southeastward. This last is of comparatively little importance in ancient history. 7. In the basins of the Tigris and the Euphrates were several distinct territorial divisions: i. Arme'- , , . , , 1 . , «•■.»• Secondregion. ma, or the highland region between Asia Minor and the Caspian Sea. 2. Assyria proper, which lay east of the Tigris River and west of the Zagros Mountains. 3. Babylonia, comprising the great alluvial plain between the lower course of the Tigris and of the Euphrates, and stretching westward to the Syrian Desert. 4. Chaldae'a, the country at the head of the Persian Gulf, stretching west- ward from the lower waters of the Euphrates to the Syrian Desert. 5. Mesopota'mia, or the district between the two great rivers. 6. Susia'na, including the country lying along the Tigris east of Babylonia. 8. It must not be supposed that these territories were jeverally the seat of distinct nations. We may Nations in ■ay that three great monarchies ruled in the ^^"=°"'^ region, valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, down to the time when :hese territories were absorbed in Persia (6th century b. c). These were the Chaldaean, Babylonian, and Assyrian king- 10 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. doms ; and of these the last, at the height of its power, held sway over nearly the entire region between the Zagros Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. 9. The table-land of ancient Iran (Persia) lay to the east Eastern di- of the Zagros chain of mountains, which sep- vision. arated it from the Tigris and Euphrates ba- sins. In the north, toward the Caspian Sea, was Media ; to the south, and reaching to the Persian Gulf, was ancient Persia proper. Farther eastward, and stretching to the south, was the peninsula of India, forming the eastern limit of ancient Asiatic civilization. 10. The earliest nations recorded in history arose in the Civilization three alluvial plains of the Nile, of the Tigris and geography. ^^^ Euphrates, and of the Indus. This fact was wholly due to physical causes. In a primitive state of society, population can gather into nations only in regions where a fertile soil produces abundant food. Now the three alluvial basins just named are distinguished for their ex- traordinary fertility. Here nature spontaneously produces certain important articles of food, such as dates, rice, etc., which, being easily cultivated and yielding immense re- turns, made a large population possible. Accordingly, we find that in these countries men had adopted fixed habita- tions (a great advance on the pastoral or nomad state) and formed themselves into political associations at a time long antedating recorded history. 11. As the physical conditions that favor the formation of human society are, so far as the Old World goes, found only in the alluvial plains of Southwest Asia (taking in Cradle of na- Egypt), as the earliest nations appear in these tions. regions, and as philology proves that all the European races came from Western Asia, — we may safely consider that here was, if not the cradle of the human race, at least the cradle of civilization. 12. We shall begin with these earliest nations of civilized CEGCRAPHTCAL SKETCH. IS man. With the origin of the human race, its . first seats and earliest distribution, history * ' ** '"^"" proper does not undertake to deal. History commences when historical records commence. Hence we must leave to revelation and to science the consideration of primitive humanity, and take up our studies with those ancient Ori- ental nations that appear on the stage of human affairs when historic records begin. 13. When the curtain goes up on antiquity, — say in the 23d century B. c, — we have disclosed to view Earliest his- the venerable figures of two civilizations : that *°"'^ theater, in the Nile Valley and that in Chaldasa. And beyond this narrow region the fore-world is to us shrouded in impene- trable darkness. 12 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. CHAPTER II. EGYPT. 1. HISTORICAL OUTLINE. The Great Pyramids. 14. Egypt is the country in which we first find a gov- Antiquity of emment and political institutions established. Egypt- Egypt itself may not have been the oldest nation^ but Eg}'ptian history is certainly the oldest history. Its monuments, records, and literature surpass in antiquit)' those of Chaldffia and India, the two next oldest nations. 15. It is natural to suppose that the banks of the Nile must have been one of the primitive seats of human soci- ety, for the condition already mentioned as favoring the first formation of nations — namely, cheap and abundant food — was here present in a remarkable degree. Why old. EGYPT. 13 16. Egypt itself has been called t,/\ £ D I T £ R R A A/ £ S £ A ^ /V at the time of THE PersianConqu Cambyses from the earliest antiq- uity " the Physical ge- Giftofthe °graphy. Nile." This mighty river, flowing from the highlands of Abyssinia and the great lakes cf equatorial Africa, forms in Eg}'pt a strip of fertility in the midst of the desert waste. In its annual overflow (due to the immense rainfalls in the Abys- sinian mountains), the Nile, by its mud de- posits, renews every year the soil of this strip, so that all the people had to do was to plant, and nature produced. 17. In Egypt the date-palm ^ ^ , ^ Food-plants. grew spon- taneously, and fur- nished the people with a cheap and abun- MAP STUDY. Ancient Egypt comprised three divisions, — Lower Egypt, or the Delta ; Middle Egypt, or the Heptanomis ; Upper Egypt, or the Thebais. I. In which division was Memphis.'' 2. On which bank of the Nile was Memphis ? 3. In which division was Thebes ? 4. Near which city are the Great Pyramids .'' 5. What seaport at the mouth of the eastern branch of the Nile ? 6. Where was the land of Goshen? 7. W^hat sea north of Egypt .'* 8. What is the general course of the Nile .■' 9. What sea east of Egypt } 10. What celebrated mountain in this vicinity ? 14 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. dant article of food. The fertility of the soil also yielded, \vith slight labor, large crops of cereals (especially dhourra, a sort of maize), and the " granaries of Egypt " were the storehouse whence all the peoples of the Mediterranean were wont to draw supplies in seasons of scarcity, 18. The cheapness of living in Egypt led to a great mul- Effect on the tiplication of the population. A Greek writer, people. Diodo'rus Sic'ulus, who traveled there nineteen centuries ago, says that to bring up a child to manhood did not cost more than twenty drachmas (less than four dollars of our money), — and he notices this fact as a cause of the populousness of Egypt. 19. Information in regard to ancient Egypt was, until the Old sources of present century, derived chiefly from the nar- information. j-ativcs of the Greek historians, and especially from that of Herod'otus,* who traveled in Egypt in the 5th century B. c, and from some fragments of a history written in Greek by Man'etho, an Egyptian priest, in the 3d century b. c. 20. But in modern times our knowledge of the ancient The new land has been greatly extended by the discov- sources. ^^ q£ ^^ ^^^ q£ j-g^ding the inscriptions which the Egyptians of old with great lavishness carved on their buildings and monuments, especially their obelisks, painted on the frescoed interiors of their tombs, and indeed placed on almost every object of use or art. These writings were in the character called hieroglyphics, which is a Greek term meaning sacred carvings, or priestly writing. Now, the knowledge of the reading of these died out with the decline of Egypt, and " hierogl}'phics " became a synonym for every- thing that is mysterious. 21. It was an interesting accident that led to the unveil- Deciphering of ing of this mystcry. During the expedition of id. ^^^°^ ^^ ' the French to Egypt, under Napoleon, at the * Herodotus, called the father of histor}'. was bom at Halicamassus, a Greek colony in Caria (Asia Minor), B. c. 484- EGYPT. 15 close of the last century, an engineer in digging the foun- dation of a fort near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile found a stone tablet about three feet long, on which was an in- scription in three different characters. This was the famous " Rosetta stone." One of the three texts (the lower one) was Greek, and of course was readily translated ; the text at the head was in the mystic hieroglyphic character ; the interme- diate text was in a character since called demotic {demos, the people), that is, the writing of the common people. This in- scription was copied and circulated among scholars, and after long and ingenious efforts the alphabet of the hieroglyphics was made out ; so that now these carvings are read with ease and certainty, and a new flood of light has been thrown on the history of ancient Egypt. Note on the Rosetta Stone. — The Greek text, when translated, showed that the inscription was an ordinance of the priests decreeing cer- tain honors to Ptol'emy Epiph'anes on the occasion of his coronation, 196 B. c. (Ptolemy Epiphanes was one of a line of Greek sovereigns who ruled over Egypt from the time of its conquest by Alexander, 4th century, to the ist century B. c.) It contains a command that the de- cree should be inscribed in the sacred letters (hieroglyphics), the letters of the country (demotic), and Greek letters, — and this for the conven- ience of the mixed population of Egypt under its Greek rulers. It was natural to conclude that the three texts were the same in substance, and accordingly earnest efforts were made to decipher the hieroglyphics by aid of the Greek. The first clew was obtained by noticing that certain groups of the hieroglyphic characters were inclosed in oval rings, and that these groups corresponded in relative position with certain proper names, such as Ptolemy, etc., in the Greek text. The following line presents a few of the characters with a group in the oval ring. (The words and groups of words are read from right to left.) mm\tm mf\^, (Ptolemy eternal beloved of Phtab} of Egypt king of statue l6 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIE-^. It was by comparison of the group judged on strong grounds to be the name Ptolemy, with another group (found on another stone) supposed to stand for the name Cleopatra, that the first great advance was made. The groups were as follows : — Supposed to be Ptolemy. 9] Supposed to be Cleopatra. In Greek Ptolemy is Ptolemaios, and Cleopatra is Kleopatra. If now the hieroglyphic characters were /t^/^r-signs, the characters i, 2, 3, 4, in Ptolemaios should correspond respectively with 5, 7, 4, 2, in Kleopatra {\ht. first letter in Ptolemaios being i\\t fifth in Kleopatra, etc.). In this way several letters were discovered ; by means of other groups the whole alphabet was made out, and finally it was proved that by this phonetic alphabet the characters and groups could be resolved into the Coptic language of Egj'pt, which was already understood by scholars. It should not be forgotten that the great work of deciphering was mainly effected by the French savant, Champollion. 22. The Eg)'ptians were not Africans, as we understand that term. They belonged to the Caucasian Egyptian race. r- -n 1 race. Still, they were neither Aryans nor Sem- ites, and hence scholars call them by a special designation, namely, ffamites, or Khamites* They bore a greater re- semblance to the ancient Chaldaeans than to any other Asiatic people ; both peoples showed a wonderful building instinct, and the Egj^tian language seems to be a sort of primitive Semitic. Hence some scholars believe that the Egyptians were originally immigrants into the Nile Valley from the alluvial plain at the head of the Persian Gulf ; but if this was the case, the Egyptians must have left ♦ Khatni (literally the Black Land) was the native name of Egypt EGYPT, ?7 Asia at a period before there was that sharp division of Semites and Aryans which we find in historical times. 23. I'he origin of Egyptian civilization is hidden in the darkness of antiquity ; but by the aid of cer- tain ascertained facts we may establish at Egyp't^s'ws^ least an approximate starting-point. Thus, it *°'^^' is known that Abraham visited Egypt in the 20th century B. c, and that he then found a flourishing monarchy exist- ing. Now at this remote period the Great Pyramids were standing, and modern scholars are agreed that these struc- tures were reared by kings of the fourth dynasty, — at a time not later than the middle of the 25th century b. c. It is evident from the monuments that the civilization of Egypt at this early date was in many respects of an advanced order, and hence we must seek its origin still farther back. But how far back? According to the native historian Manetho, twenty-six dynasties of kings ruled the country from Me'nes, the first king of the first dynasty, down to the conquest of Eg}TDt by the Persians in the 6th century b. c. The accession of Menes is placed by some scholars (as Bunsen) at 3906 ; others bring it down as late as 2700. Later than that date we cannot bring it, and it would doubt- j less be quite correct to say that Eg^'pt was a civilized coun-l try three thousand years before the Christian era. ' 24. The history of Egypt from the first dynasty (2700 B. c.) down to the destruction of Egyptian in- The three pe- dependence by the Persians (525 B. c.) maybe "°<*^* divided into three periods, namely • — I. First Period (or period of the old empire), from the earliest times (say 2700 B. c.) to 2080. II. Second Period (or period of the Hyk'sos rule), from 20S0 to 1527. III. Third Period (or period of the new empire), from 1527 to 525. 25. The First Period begins with the first dynasty (2700 l8 AN-CIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. B.C.), and lasts for 620 years; but it cannot be said that First Period authentic Eg}'ptian history commences until characterized. ^^ fourth dynast}^, about the middle of the 25th century B. c. And indeed the epoch of the fourth d}Tiasty is the most notable during the whole of this First Period ; for this was the era of the pyramid-builders. Man- stho ascribes the building of the Great Pyramid at Gizeh \^ee'ze}i\ near Mem'phis to Suphis (the Chdops of Herodo- tus) ; and it is an interesting fact that in the interior of this structure has been found a hieroglyphic royal name which scholars agree in reading Shufii* The center of the Egyp- tian power was then at Memphis, in Lower Egypt, where a centralized monarchy ruled the whole country; and it is apparent that at this epoch the Egyptians had made very considerable progress in the arts of life. Before the close of the First Period, however, Egypt was broken up into really separate kingdoms, the monarchy which ruled at Thebes in Upper Egy'pt being the most powerful. This left the country in so feeble a condition that it was invaded by a foreign enemy, namely the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. And with their conquest of Egypt (2080 B. c.) closes the First Period, or Old Empire. 26. The Second Period is the era covered by the rule o£ the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, and lasts for Second Period. ^ , r • f r, \ rr^i about five centuries (2080— 1525 B.C.). The Hyksos are believed to have been a nomadic race from either Syria or Arabia. Entering Lower Egypt, they de- stroyed the native monarchy at Memphis, and afterwards conquered the Theban Kingdom of Upper Egypt The complete establishment of their dominion was about 1900 B. c, and after this follows the darkest period of Egyptian history.t * For a representation of the signet-ring of Cheops, or Shufu, see pic« hire of the Pyramids at the head of the chapter. + it was during the rule of one of the dynasties of Shepherd Kingt EGYPT. 1 9 27. The revival of Eg5^tian independence by the expul- sion of the " Shepherds " introduces us to the Third Period, or that of the New Empire. This continues for about one thousand years (1525-525 B. c.) ; but it should be divided into two ages, — the grand age and the age of decay. 28. The expulsion of the Hyksos was due to the valor of a Theban prince, who headed a great na- tional uprising, and who received as his reward ^ ^^^^ ^^^' the supreme authority over the whole country, — a right which was inherited by his successors. Egypt now became one great centralized power, with Thebes for its capital. The most splendid period of Egyptian history was from the eighteenth to the twentieth dynasties, — about three centuries (1525 -1200 B. c.).* Egyptian art attained its highest per- fection, and the great temple-palaces of Thebes were built The Egyptians even undertook foreign expeditions: Ethi- opia, Arabia, and Syria were invaded ; the Euphrates was crossed, and a portion of Mesopotamia was added to the Egyptian Empire. The chief of these warlike kings was Ram'eses II., the Sesos'tris of the Greek writers. 29. From the twentieth dynasty onwards Egypt declined for six centuries, till finally it was conquered by the Persians under Camby'ses, 525 B.C. ^° ° '^ ^' In 332 Egypt fell under the dominion of Alexander the Great, who founded on its shore the new capital and literary and commercial center called Alexandria. One of his gen- erals, named Ptolemy, received Egypt as his fragment of that Abraham visited Egypt, — said to be 1920 B. c, — and they were still reigning when Jacob and his sons settled in the country, 1 706 B. C. * At the head of the eighteenth dynasty is supposed to have been that Pharaoh " who knew not Joseph." The exodus of the Israelites from Egypt is believed to have taken place 1320 B. c, during the reign of Meneptha, the fourth king of the nineteenth dynasty, — the Pharaoij whose heart was hardened, and whq was drowned in the Red Sea. 20 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. the divided empire of Alexander, 323 B. c. Thenceforward for three centuries the Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies ruled on the banks of the Nile till Queen Cleopa'tra, the last of the line, being overcome by the Romans, died by her own hand ; and the venerable land became a Roman province in B. c. 30. (See under the history of Rome, p. 178.) 2. EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION. 30. In government, Egypt was a hereditary monarchy, but the kingflv rule took a peculiar form, owing to Government. , T r ..i. • \i i the extraordinary power of the priestly class. Unlike the sovereigns of the East, an Egyptian Pharaoh was far from being the unquestioned master of his own ac- tions : his public duties and his daily habits of life were pre- scribed by religious rule ; so that the priestly class formed the " power behind the throne." In another respect an Egyptian king differed from an Eastern despot : his power over the lives and property of his subjects was strictly lim- ited by law, and nothing left to caprice and passion. The right to enact new laws, however, resided with the sovereign. 31. The station in life of every man was fixed by an in- stitution named caste. By the system of caste, each individual, instead of being able to make his own place and fortune in the world, had his lot marked out by his birth : he had to be what his father was. Of these castes, or ranks, there were three broad divisions, — the priests, the soldiers, and the lower orders. 32. The priests were the richest, most powerful, and most influential order. It must not be supposed, however, that the modern word " priest " gives the true idea of this caste. Its members were not limited to religious offices ; they formed an order comprising ma7iy occupations and professions. They were distributed all over the country, possessing exclusively the means of reading EGYPT. 21 and writing, and the whole stock of medical and scientific knowledge. Their ascendency, both direct and indirect, over the minds of the people was immense, for they pre- scribed that minute religious ritual under which the life of every Egyptian, not excepting the king himself, was passed. 33. Next in importance to the sacerdotal or priestly or der was tlie military caste, numbering about „ rr-, . r 1 • 11- Warriors. 400,000. To each man of this soldier-caste was assigned a portion of land (=6^ acres) free fr*cm any tax ; but he could not engage in any art or trade. The lands of the priests and soldiers were regarded as privileged property ; while the rest of the soil was considered as the property of the king, who rented it to cultivators, receiving from them one fifth of the produce. 34. Widely separated from the priests and warriors were the various unprivileged castes. These were , Lower csstcs the husbandmen, the artificers, and the herdsmen, each caste including many different crafts and occupations. The lowest caste was that of the herdsmen, and the low- est members of this caste were the swineherds, who were not permitted to enter the temples. All the castes below the priests and soldiers agreed, however, in this, that they had no political rights, and could not hold land. 35. The effect of the caste-system was evil. It was one of the main causes of the decline of the nation. It discouraged progress and improvement ; it ^*^ ° *^^* *' crushed out personal ambition ; it produced dull uniformity. 36. The population of ancient Egypt is known to have been at least five millions, and it may have been much more. As food was cheap and °^" abundant, owing to its being easily obtained, the race in- creased very rapidly ; hence there was a large part of the people whose labor could be used in any way the rulers wished. This fact accounts for the ease with which great public works — vv'orks that, like the pyramids, were useless t2 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. Cities. but yet required the labor of hundreds of thousands of men ^or years — were constructed, 37. Herodotus relates that Eg)'pt contained 20,000 in- habited towns. The two most famous cities were Memphis and Thebes. Memphis was ibout twelve miles above the apex of the Delta. Scarcely a vestige of the place now remains ; but its great burial place at Gizeh is still seen. Here are the great Pyramids, the colossal Sphinx, and miles on miles of rock-hewn tombs. Thebes was the metropolis of Upper Egypt, and the most splendid city of the Nile. The traveler who now Views its ruins at Kar'nak and Lux'or beholds pillared temples and statues of a size so colossal as to seem like 'Jie work of giant hands. 38. In some branches of art, especially in architecture, the Eg}'ptians made great advances. The race seems indeed to have had a wonderful buiiu- Ing instinct. The dis- _.- — - -. — . Architecture. tinguishing feature of Egyptian architecture is its vastness and sub- limit}'. Avenues of colossal sphinxes and lines of obelisks led to stupendous palaces and temples, elaborate- ly sculptured, and con- taining halls of solemn and gloomy grandeur, in which our largest cathedrals might stand. 39. The pyramids were de- Pyramids. . , signed as the sepulchers of kings. Rums OF KasnaK EGYPT. 23 The three great pyramids of Gizeh are the most celebrated ; but as many as seventy st; nd on the left bank of the Nile, just beyond the cultivated ground, in the vicinity of Mem- phis. The largest of the three great pyramids is 450 feet high; it has a square base of 764 feet, and it covers an area of more than 13 acres, — twice the extent of any other building in the world. The second pyramid is but little less ; the third about half the size. In the construction of these works no degree of labor for any length of time seems to have intimidated the Egyptians. The huge blocks of stone, sometimes weighing 1600 tons each, were dragged for hundreds of miles on sledges ; in one case which is known, 2000 men were employed three years in bringing a single stone from the quarry to the structure in which it was to be placed. 40. In sculpture the Egyptian artists aimed at the colos- sal, and never attained the beautiful. A re- , , , ... - T- • 1 • Sculpture. markable peculiarity of Egyptian sculpture is, that, though the earliest monuments reveal a considerable degree of artistic skill, this skill never advanced. The ex- planation of this is found in the connection of Egyptian art with Egyptian religion. The artists were fettered by strict rules, and were forbidden to indulge their inventive genius. 41. Egyptian painting did not reach true excellence. The best specimens, as seen in the frescos in the ^ . . interiors of the sepulchers, display brilliancy of coloring, and frequently great spirit and vivacity; but the drawing is very inaccurate, displaying no observance of perspective or even the simplest laws of vision. It should oe stated that in this branch of art, too, religion interfered to limit the taste and fancy of the painter, certain colors being positively prescribed in representing the bodies and draper- ies of the gods. 42. The art of writing was practiced more extensively by ^he Egj'^ptians than by any contemporary nation. The 24 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. p)Tamids and monuments of even the earliest period bear inscriptions : and it was the custom to mark Art of Writing. u- / J *• l f every object and article of use or ornament. For manuscripts an excellent writing material was made from the leaves of the. pa-py' ms plant, — whence our word ''paper." Fragments of manuscripts on papyrus exist of the earliest Theban dynasties, — 2000 b. c. 43. The translation of the sacred books of the Egyptians shows that their religion embodied some grand Religion. . ° , ^ r ^ ■ conceptions, — among others that of the immor- tality of the soul, and that of the existence of an invisible God. The several attributes and manifestations of the Deity were, however, represented in various forms, and, though by the priests and other learned men these were regarded as mere symbols, they became to the ignorant separate divinities and objects of worship. In this way the religious system of the Egyptians was very complicated, the number of gods being so great that every day of the year was consecrated to one. The worship of Osi'ris and I'sis was that most generally diffused. 44. One of the most striking peculiarities of the Egyp- Worship of tian religion was the honor paid to brutes. animals. 'j-j^g ^^^^ ^j^g ^^^.^ .j^g jl^j^^ ^^^ ^j^g hzwVi Were held in reverence throughout the whole land, — other ani- mals were worshiped only in special nomes^ or districts. The highest honors were paid to the bull Apis at Mem- phis, and to the calf Mne'vis at Heliop'olis. The sacred animals were kept in the temples, ministered to with the greatest _ care, and when they died they were embalmed. If a person killed an ibis or a hawk, whether intention- ally or unintentionally, he was immediately put to death. Animal worship received its extraordinary extension in Egypt owing to the overwhelming influence of the priestly caste. Ultimately it was a main cause of the mental de- basement of the people. EGYPT. 25 Embalming. 45. The practice of embalming dead bodies was con- nected with the pecuHar rehgious ideas of the Egyptians. The original reason of embalming was the belief that at the day of judgment the soul would reunite with the body : hence the care taken to preserve the corpse from corruption, and hence also the great pains taken to ornament the interiors of their stone-hewn sepulchers, since, even while lying in the tomb, the body was be- lieved to be not wholly uncon- scious. 46, The Eg}^ptians were adepts in the finer kinds of Arts and man- mechanical art. In "f^^tures. the polishing and engraving of precious stones, in glass manu- facture, porcelain-making, and in embalming and dyeing, they had attained great skill. They raised flax, out of which they made fine linen (linen being their usual article of dress) ; they worked in metals from the earliest recorded period; their walls and ceilings they painted in beautiful patterns, which we still imitate ; and in the production of articles of use and ornament they had reached a perfection that modern art has not been able to surpass. 47. It is known that the Eg^'ptians had some acquaint- ance with certain sciences, especially geome- try, arithmetic, astronomy, and medicine. But their knowledge can hardly be called science, in the modern sense : they knew truths more as matters of fact and obser- vation than as determined by law. For example, the Greek philosopher Pythag'oras learned from the Egj'ptian priests Egyptian Mummy. Science. 26 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. ikv^fact that " the square of the hypothenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two other sides " ; but it was the Greek mathematician himself who discovered the demotistra- tion of this principle. In accuracy of astronomical obser- vations the Egyptians were surpassed by the Chaldasans. Their geometry was little more than land-surveying. 48. The great characteristic of Egyptian institutions was their taichangeableness. This stationary char- // Summing up. . . _, . •II acter is seen in Egyptian government, society^/' religion, art, and learning, Egypt herself was a inutmny. i[ . / CHRONOLOGIC SUMMARY. First Period, or Old Empire. Second Period, or Middle Empire. Third Period, or New Empire. Later events. B. c. Beginning of Egyptian history with first djmasty of Manetho 2700 Fourth dynasty, or period of the Pyramid-build- ers 2450 Close of the Old Empire by the Hyksos inva- sion . 2080 Hyksos conquest of Ix)wer Egypt . . . 2080 Complete subjugation of the whole country . 1900 Abraham's visit to Egypt .... 1920 Settlement in Egj'pt of Jacob and his sons . 1706 Expulsion of the Hyksos .... 1525 ' Revival of Egyptian independence under a The- ban dynasty 1525 Three most brilliant centuries of Egyptian his- tory 1500- 1200 Exodus of the Israelites .... 132c Egypt conquered by the Persians under Cam- byses 5^5 'Eg)rpt conquered by the Greeks under Alex- ander 332 Beginning of the rule of the Ptolemies (or Greek kings of Eg>'pt) after the partition of Alex- ander's Empire 3^3 Egypt becomes a Roman province after the death of Cleopatra 30 ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 27 CHAPTER III. THE ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. I. INTRODUCTION. 49. To Egypt has been accorded the precedence of possessing: the earliest secular historic records, Antiquity of t^ o Chaldaean civ- but an actual antiquity hardly later than that iiization. of Egypt may be claimed for the civilization which arose in the Tigro - Eu- phrates basin. There is a posi- tive date in Chaldaean his- tory going back to the 23d cen- tury B. c. (2234 B. c. See H 57, p. 30), while authentic Egyp- tian history an- tedates this by only two centuries (epoch of the Pyramid-builders, fourth dynasty, b. c. 2450). MAP STUDY. See map of Ancient Oriental Monarchies, opposite p. 8. I. In what country do the Tigris and the Euphrates rise? 2. Where is Mount Ararat? 3. What mountain chain between the Tigro-Euphrates basin and the plateau of Media and Persia ? 4. Describe the course of the Tigris. 5. Of the Euphrates. 6. Where do they unite? 7. Into what gulf do they empty ? 8. Locate Nineveh ; Babylon ; Ur. Chald.ean Temple. 28 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. 50. If, however, leaving profane records we take the guid- The Scripture ance of the Hebrew Scriptures, this region will record, claim an even greater antiquity. The Bible places the commencement of the history of mankind in the Tigro-Euphrates basin, " And it came to pass," says the Book of Genesis, " as they journeyed from the east, that they tound a plain in the land of Shi'nar ;* and they dwelt there." There the Scriptures place the building of Babel, the first great city founded after the Deluge, and there occurred the confusion of tongues and the dispersion of races. It is an interesting fact that the record of this event is preserved in the Babylonian tradition, as well as in the Mosaic narra- tive. 51. Two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, take Sketch of geog- their rise in the highlands of Armenia, and raphy. unite near the head of the Persian Gulf, which receives their waters after the Euphrates has flowed about 1780 miles and the Tigris about 1150. The valleys of these streams interpose as a belt of fertility in the midst of the great desert zone that extends from the western coast of Africa almost to the northeastern shores of Asia. 52. The Tigro-Euphrates basin comprises a number of Geographical territorial and political divisions which it is divisions. j^p^ always easy to mark by definite lines. The region between the tAvo great rivers was called by the Greeks Mesopotamia, and by the Hebrews Shinar. Chaldaea was the name applied to the region south of the lower course of the Euphrates, and to the head of the Persian Gulf. These we may call territorial divisions ; but Babylonia, on the other hand, was a political division which took in the alluvial plain between the lower waters of the Tigris and Euphra- tes (Southern Mesopotamia or Shinar), and also Chaldaea southw^ard to the Arabian desert. Again, the territorial di- * Shinar, that is, Mesopotamia. See Map of Ancient Oriental Mon* archies, opposite p. 8. ASSYRIA ATS AND BABYLONIANS 29 vision of Assyria Proper lay east of the Tigris and west of the Zagros Mountains, and must not be confounded witli Assyria as a political power, that is, the Assyrian Empire, which varied in extent, and the name of which was often applied to the whole territory between the Mediterranean Sea and the table-land of Media and Persia. Susiana lay along the Tigris, southeast of Assyria, and was a territorial, not a national, designation. 53. The Tigro-Euphrates basin was the seat of three successive kingdoms: — i. The early Babylo- The three na- nian, or Chaldasan, Kingdom; 2. The Assyrian ^'°"^' Empire ; 3. The later Babylonian Kingdom. 54. As in the case of Egypt, our knowledge of the an' cient history of these countries has been very Modem re- greatly enlarged through modern research. ^^^'■'=^- By the industry of explorers, beginning with Layard thirty years ago, Nineveh and Babylon and the buried cities of the plain have been unearthed ; their palaces and temples have been exposed to view ; the mysterious inscriptions in the wedge-shaped or cn-ne'i-form character, which were found covering the slabs that lined the interiors of the palaces and temples, have, by a triumph of modern schol- arship, been translated ; and thus a flood of light has been cast on the darkness of the primeval world. a. EARLY BABYLONIAN, OR CHALDiEAN, KINGDOM. 55. The earliest of the three kingdoms was the Chaldaean, or Early Babylonian, which arose in the lower Physical de- ' part of the rich alluvial plain lying above the scription. Persian Gulf. Chaldsea by its natural fertility was calcu- lated to be one of the first seats of human society. It is the only country in which wheat is known to be indi- genous. Other cereals grew plentifully; groves of the magnificent date-palm fringed the banks of the rivers ; the 30 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. vine and other fruits abounded, while the rivers teemed with fish. 56. Authentic history in the Tigro-Euphrates basin, as Earliest his- in the Nile Valley, commences only with the *°''y" formation in Chaldaea and Babylonia of one nnited kingdom, including previously disunited tribes under its authority. The Hebrew records name Nimrod, the son of Cush, as the founder of this kingdom ; and the Book of Genesis also reveals to us the existence of a Tetrapolis, or confederation of four cities, that ruled over the Empire established by Nimrod ; namely, i. Babylon; 2. E'rech ; 3. Ac'cad ; 4. Cal'neh, — all of which places have been iden- tified in modern times. 57. The primitive Chaldeans practiced the worship of the heavenly bodies. Their religion, combined with the facilities afforded by their climate and their level horizon, led them from the earliest times to the study of astronomy, in which they made very consider- able progress. When Alexander the Great took possession of Babylon, 331 b. c, he found a series of astronomical ob- servations taken by the Chaldaeans for an unbroken period of 1903 years. These observations would therefore date from 2234 B. c. (331 -H 1903). 58. The Chaldeans showed from the first an architect- ural tendency. The attempt to build a towers "which should reach to heaven," made here (Genesis xi. 4), was in accordance with the general spirit of the people. Out of such simple and rude material as brick and bitumen vast edifices, the ruins of which have re- cently been found, were constructed, pyramidal in design, but built in steps or stages of considerable altitude. 59. Other arts also flourished. Letters in the cuneiform, or wedge-shaped, characters were in use ; and the baked bricks employed by the royal build- ers had commonly a legend stamped in their center. Gems ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 31 were cut, polished, and engraved. Metals of many kinds were worked and fashioned into arms, ornaments, and im- l^CJ^^H^fflKH^ ■P4^^fS-iii-'-^ Babylonian Brick. plements. Delicate fabrics were manufactured by their looms. Commerce was carried on with other countries, and the " ships of Ur " traded along the shores of the Persian Gulf. 60. The site of Ur is believed to have been identified with certain mounds and ruins on the banks of the lower Euphrates. This place is interesting in connection with Abraham, who was born at " Ur of the Chaldees." The period of Abraham is usually put at about two thousand years before the Christian era. The belief is that Chaldaea contained at this time a Semitic population which professed a pure form of religion, in the midst of the idolatrous Chaldasans ; and hence Abraham, who was a Semite, emigrated with his family and flocks and herds to the land of Canaan. 61. The Chaldasan monarchy continued for several cen- turies ; but about the 13th century b. c. it took Decline of a secondary position, and the newly arisen As- Chaidaea. S3T:ian nation became the dominant power of Mesopotamia. 32 ANCIENT OB^ENTAL MONARCHIES. 3. ASSYRIA. 62. The Assyrians are believed to have been a Semitic population who ori-. 1 1 , i .1 , , the Greek alphabet with some changes; the Roman alphabet is the basis of our modern alphabets. The Greeks themselves were ignorant of precisely how they obtained the alphabet from the Phoenicians. The account they gave is that " Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phoenicia into Greece, to which Palame'des, in the time of the Trojan war, added four more, and Simon'ides afterwards added four."* Modern scholars have proved that Cadffiiis is a mere fabled name signifying "the East." However, it is quite certain that the Greeks did derive their alphabet from Phoenicia. The transition from the Phoenician to the Greek may be readily perceived by examining the table on the opposite page. 98. The origin of the Phoenician nation is lost in the Origin of the darkness that shrouds primitive history. It Phcenicians. j^ j^^own that, like the Hebrews, they were pure Semites. There is reason to believe that they were emigrants from Chaldaea, and as it is recorded in the He- brew Scriptures that Abraham came out of " Ur of the Chaldees," we may infer that Southern Mesopotamia was the native seat of the Semites. When the Phoenician branch of the Semites reached their new home on the shores of the Mediterranean, they found an aboriginal population of Ca'naanites, whom they subdued, just as the Jews did in Judffia. We also know that the Phoenician and Jewish rulers and peoples were connected by ties of friendship. Hiram, King of Tyre, was the friend both of David and of Solomon. 99. Phoenicia consisted of several independent states, Nature of the cach city, in fact, being a separate state, under nation. j^g ^^^ j^jj^g . ^^^ ^^jy -^^ times of danger did they occasionally unite under the leadership of the most ♦ Pliny. r^^ PHCENICIANS 47 HEBREW PH/EN/C/AN ANCIENT GREEK Z>17^f« GA?ffK ENGLISH ^ ^Xr ^/l/\A^ A A A n ^ ^ iS^ B B : A \ A^^C r G ^ A ^ ^/i.vp A D T| ^ \^^^^ E e E ^ 1 A /^ F T z X 2 ^ z Z n H B ^ H tD ^ 0(8>® ^Q © Th s --v z ^ t 1 I :d >1 >l >i H K K K ^ < 1- AVJ^ A T, D ^ 1 "y/^/A M M :) ii ^M"\ A N N W f > .Z- X V o o o o n o «^ 1 n r n p i> "^ Q Q 1 ^^1 4S?/^A/> P R m y^'+fN^/v M^r^> 2 C S r^ Tr/ -p ^' T T ®\j r \ OM/TTED A/OT e£/A^S /« C«££K n 48 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. powerful. The chief cities of Phoenicia proper were Sidon and Tyre. Of these Sidon was the more ancient ; and pre- vious to about 1050 B. c, when Tyre became predominant, it was the most flourishing of all the Phoenician commu- nities. About 1050 there was a transfer of power to Tyre. 100. The commerce of Tyre is de- scribed as very extensive at this time. Her ships sailed to Tarshish (the south of Spain), and sought the gold of Ophir, along the east coast of Af- rica. Phoenicia grew rich Cotnmerce of Tyre. Tyre, and Phcenician Galley. also by exports, of which the chief were the embroidery and glass of Sidon and the Tyrian purple, a dye yielded by two shell-fish, which gave a high value to the stuffs woven in the Tyrian looms. The Phoenicians were also skillful in metallurgy ; and their bronzes, their gold and silver ves- sels, and other works in metal, had a high repute. 101. Phoenicia was successively subject to Assyria, in the Revolution of Qth ccntury ; to the Babylonians, under Nebu- pohtics. chadnezzar, at the close of the 7th century ; to the Persians, under Cambyses, towards the close ot the 6th century ; and to the Greeks, under Alexander the Great, in the 4th century B. c. Still later it was absorbed in the universal dominion of Rome, 63 b. c. 102. The greatest period of Phoenician history was dur- Generai sur- ing the five hundred years from the nth to the ^^y- 6th century b. c. As Greece rose to power, and as Carthage increased in importance, the sea-trade of Phoe- nicia was to a considerable degree checked. However, she THE rUCENICIANS. 49 continued to preserve a great caravan-trade with the interior of Asia via Babylon. The foundation of Alexandria as a seaport must have damaged the commerce of Phoenicia. Still, it was not undl the Middle Ages that her light went ■>ut, and she became a " place for the drying of nets." 103. The Phoenicians deserve to be commemorated in history by the side of the Greek and the Latin Part played by nations, as the only one of the Asiatic peoples cialis. '^"'" that became a diffuser of civilization. We should note, how- ever, that their development was very one-sided. Thus their religious conceptions were rude and uncouth, and this is a remarkable fact, when we consider their kinship with the Hebrews. In learning and in artistic productions they were far behind the Babylonians ; so that in intellectual matters they appear to have been adaptors rather than originators. Again, unlike the Greeks and Latins, the Phoenicians seem to have been devoid of genuine political instinct : liberty had no charm for them, and they aspired not after dominion. " Careless they dwelt," says the Book of Judges, " after the manner of the Sidonians, quiet and secure." 104. The Phoenicians were a race essentially material- istic and commercial. They were the earliest Their civiUza- merchants, carriers, and colonizers. It is true *'°"* that, incidejitally, they were the means of diffusing intel- lectual wares that were more valuable than all the products of the Sidonian shops or the fabrics of the Tyrian looms : they spread the alphabet, and they gave to the Aryan races on the shores of the Mediterranean ideas of learning, sci- ence, and art which they themselves had borrowed from the East ; but these ideas were scattered by them " more after the fashion of a bird dropping grains than of the husbandman sowing his seed."* * Mommsen, History of Roine> 3> 50 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. CHAPTER VI. THE HINDOOS. 105. The Oriental nations of which we have thus fai learned have been either Semites or Hamites. ' We are now to inquire into the history of the two Asiatic representatives of the great Aryan race, — the Hindoos and the Persians. 106. We have already seen that the forefathers of all the First seat of great European peoples came originally from the Aryans. Western Asia, where they dwelt side by side with the ancestors of the Persians and Hindoos. But the original seat of the undivided Aryan family was not Persia or India. Tae Persians were immigrants into Persia, and the Hindoos /nto India, just as the Greeks, Latins, Teutons, Celts, and Slavonians were immigrants into Europe. Th"^ original seat of the undivided Aryan stock is fixed by schol- ars to the northeast of Persia, in the region of the Oxus and Jax-ar'tes rivers. 107. The primitive Hindoos, leaving their native seat, Hindoo migra- first Settled in the northwestern part of India. *'°"' It seems to have been about the year 3000 B. c. * that they crossed the Indus and established them- selves between that river and the Jumna, since known among themselves as Ar'ya Var'ta. Some time afterwards we find them occupying all the country north of the Vindya range. 108. At this time the peninsula of India was occupied Amaigama- by native dark races. These were speedily "°"' subdued by the fair-skinned Aryans, who eventually overspread the entire country. In process of * According to Sanscrit scholars, 3101 B. c. THE HINDOOS. 5 I time these lost much of their purity of blood by intermix- ing with the native tribes, many of whose customs and ideas they adopted, and in the end they almost wholly lost their identity. This fact explains much that is peculiar in the civilization of the Hindoos. The Aryans in general are a progressive and practical race ; but the Hindoos, after making considerable advances in literature and philoso- phy, became stationary, and had very little influence on the great current of the world's history. We shall see that their kinsmen the Persians, being left unmixed, developed far more of those characteristics that marked the Euro- pean members of the Aryan stock, — the Greeks, Latins, Teutons, etc. 109. The first historical notice that we have of India in relation with Europe is at that great epoch Alexander's in its history, its invasion by Alexander the ^'^'^■ Great (326 b. c), in the course of his world-conquering expe- dition. The Macedonian leader merely looked into India, fought a few engagements with the native princes, and then returned ; but the historians who accompanied the expe- dition left a description of Indian society, — and it corre- sponds almost exactly with what may be seen at the present day. 110. At the time of Alexander Indian society was firmly fixed in castes, similar to the state of things Castes. we found in Egypt ; and the same system both prevails to the present day and has prevailed from time immemorial. The Hindoos made four divisions of society: i. The Brahmins, whose proper business was re- ligion and philosophy; 2. The Kshatriyas, who attended to war and government ; 3. The Vaisyas, who were the mer- chants and farmers ; 4. The Sudras, or artisans and laborers. Below even the lowest of these classes were the Fa'riahs, or outcasts, who performed the meanest of all labors. As a general thing, every person was required to follow the pro- 52 AiXCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. fession of the caste to which he belonged, and the regula- tions about intermarriage were very rigidly prescribed. 111. The division into castes probably arose from the desire of the conquering Arvans to keep up a Origin of caste. ,. . . , ^ , ^ / , . .. distmction between themselves and the infe- rior tribes about them ; and the Hindoo word for caste varna, is said to mean color. 112. The language of the ancient Hindoos was the San- Sanscrit scnt ; it is uot now spoken, and is understood speech. ^j^jy ^y |.|^g Brahmins and by scholars who have studied it. It was the opening up of this tongue to the knowledge of European scholars, at the close of the last century, that led to the grouping of all the languages of Europe along with the Sanscrit as the Indo-Eiiropeafi (Aryan) family of tongues. It was found that Sanscrit, both in its words and grammar, bore a remarkable likeness to the Greek, Latin, German, Celtic, and Slavonic languages ; and though Sanscrit is not now regarded as the. parent of these dialects, it is looked upon as the language the nearest to the original speech of the undivided Aryans. 113. In this highly developed language the learned men Hindoo liter- of ancicnt Hindostau recorded a vast body of ^^"'■^- literature, much of which has been preserved to the present day. Among the oldest of these writings are the Vedas, which are believed to be as old as 2000 b. c. They form part of the sacred books of the Brahminic re- ligion. 114. The Vedas distinctly set forth the doctrine that there is " one unknown true Being, all-present all-powerful, the creator, preserver, and de- stroyer of the universe." This Supreme Being " is not con ceivable by vision or by any other of the organs of sense.' But the prevailing theology which runs through them is what is called pantheism, or that system which speaks 0/ God as the soul of the universe, or as the universe itself THE HINDOOS. 53 ** In him the whole world is absorbed ; from him it issues ; he is entwined and interwoven with all creation." " All that exists is God ; whatever we smell, or taste, or see, or hear, or feel, is the Supreme Being." The Invisible Su- preme Being, according to the Hindoos, manifests himself in three forms, — as Brahma the creator, Vishnu the pre- server, and Siva the destroyer. 115. The central point of the Hindoo theology was the doctrine of transmigration of souls. Accord- Doctrine of , . , .11 1 • • • 1 transmigra- mg to this doctrme the human soul is joined tion. to earthly bodies only for the purpose of punishment, and its aim and effort are to reunite itself with the Divine Spirit of the universe. The Hindoo, therefore, regards ex- istence in this world as a time of trial and punishment, to be abridged by prayer and sacrifice, by penance and purifi- cation. If a man neglects these, his soul after death will be joined to the body of an inferior animal, and will have to commence its wanderings afresh. 116. In addition to the Vedas, the Hindoos possess a very extensive literature, both prose and po- • 1 » -1 11 1 ri 1 Other writings. etical. A considerable number of these works have been translated by modern scholars. They are ex- ceedingly curious, and of the highest worth as illustrative of the mental state of this peculiar ancient representative of our own Aryan stock ; but the absence of artistic form prevents their being appreciated by general readers, and hence lessens their literary value. 117. There are in India copious remains of ancient art. Among the most remarkable of the monuments , , , , . Architecture. are the rock-hewn temples and grottos, espe- cially those found at Ello'ra, in the middle of Lower India, and at the Island of Elephan'ta, in the Bay of Bombay. These are elaborately sculptured and inscribed, and must have required the labor of thousands of hands for ages. 118. In the 6th century b. c. there arose in India a new 54 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. system of religion called Buddhism. Its founder was an Indian prince named Gautauma. It grew Buddhism. . ^ . . .... . ° out of a social and religious reaction from the abuses of the old Brahminism ; and it was no doubt in many respects an important reform. It spread rapidly, and is still the religion of one third of the human race. 119. Though during the whole period of antiquity India remained shut out from what was then the civ- ilized world, it nevertheless had an important influence on ancient commerce. The abundance of the pro- ductions of nature and art — pearls, precious stones, ivory, spice, frankincense, and silks — made that region from an early period the center of a great maritime and caravan trade. The Phoenicians, as we have seen, were engaged in the car- rying-trade of India both by land and sea. The same busi- ness was inherited by the Italian republics during the Middle Ages ; and the " pearl and gold " of India found their way through Arabia and the Red Sea to the Mediter- ranean, till Vasco da Gama, in the time of Columbus, round- ed the Cape of Good Hope. KucK Tkmplb of India. \ V : THE ^'^erro^^^'^ - V '^ 'v. , iSi/ene THE TV^OKLD ^ . , WHICH j-^,- ^ ALEXANDER CONQUERED The numi from ],..„. II a,/,n,u, THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 55 CHAPTER VII. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. I. HISTORICAL OUTLINE. 120. It will be convenient to connect the history of the Medes with that of the Persians for two rea- connection of sons: I. The people of both countries be- Persia.^ longed to the same race; 2. Although Media and Persia were for a time separate governments, yet very soon Media was absorbed in Persia. 121. On the plateau east of the chain of Zagros — the plain of ancient Iraji — dwelt a hardy race, the origin of the Medes, and a kindred stock, the Persians. '■^'=*®- They were both pure Aryans. They were immigrants from the northeasterly native seat of the Aryan stock. By vari- ous successive movements, which were not completed till the 8th century b. c, they established themselves in the highlands of Media and Persia. 122. The Medes first come to notice in connection with the Assyrians. About b. c. 710 Sargon, an ^ , ^ . ■' ' ° Early Medes. Assyrian monarch, conquered some Median territory, and planted it with colonies, in which he placed MAP STUDY. See map of the Persian Empire, opposite this pago. I. What sea formed the western boundary of the Persian Empire? 2. What countries to the east .' 3. What sea south ? 4. What two gulfs south ? 5. What three seas to the north ? 6. What country in .Africa was inclosed in the Persian Empire.' 7. What satrapies in the Tigro-Euphrates basin? 8. What is the situation of Persia Proper (Persis)? 9. Into what sea do the Oxus and Jaxartes empty? ID. What mountain chain to the east of the Tigro-Euphrates basin? II, Where were Persepolis ; Susa; Ecbatana; Maracanda.? 56 AXCJENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. the Israelites from the cities of Samaria who had been led into captivity by the Assyrians. 123. But the Assyrians could not hold in subjection the Medes, who grew in power and established a Rise and fall. . -»»^ i- 1 1 /". /■ great Median monarchy under Cyaxares, 633 B. c. He was r. conquering king : invading Assyria, he destroyed Nineveh in 625 b. c, and pushed the Median arms westward into Asia Minor. This king, the founder of the Median monarchy, was succeeded by his son Asty'- ages, under whom the brief dominion of Media gave place to the rule of Persia under Cyrus the Great. 124. During this early period of the Median monarchy, the Persians also had established a kingdom ar y ersians. ^.^ Pej-gis, or ancicnt Persia proper) ; but it was in a measure subject to Media. While Astyages was king of the Medes Cambyses was king of the Persians, but Cambyses acknowledged Astv'ages as his suzerain, and paid him tribute. The daughter of the Median monarch Asty- ages was married to the Persian prince Cambyses, and to them a son was born named Cyrus. C}tus lived as a sort of hosrage at the court of his grandfather Astyages, and could not leave it without permission. 125. Thus much in the life of C}Tus is true history ; but Legend of whcu wc go much further, we are immediately ^y''"^- plunged into fable. Both Herodotus and Xen'- ophon* exalted Cyrus to the rank of a hero of romance. The following is the current story of his early life. Asty- ages having dreamed that his daughter's son should con- quer all Asia, intrusted to a courtier, Har'pagus, the task of killing the little Cyrus. Harpagus gave the child to a herdsman, who promised to expose it on the mountains. * Xenophon, a Greek historian, was born about 444 B. c, and was a disciple and friend of Socrates. He ■svrote a work on Cyrus called CyropcEdia (literally, Education of Cyrus) ; but it is rather a political romance than an authentic history. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 57 But the herdsman was led to substitute his own dead baby for the living prince, who grew up in a humble station. The secret was disclosed, when Cyrus began to lord it over his playfellows and beat them. A noble's son complained to the king, and the royal boy was recognized. Astyages took a barbarous revenge on Harpagus, by cooking the courtier's son and serving up the flesh for the father to partake of. Cyrus was sent to his father, and Harpagus bided his time for revenge. When the time was ripe, he sent a secret message to Cyrus, who invaded Media, was welcomed by crowds of deserting troops, and by their aid overturned the Median throne, 558 b. c. We need not at- tempt to discover what basis of truth, if any, there may be in this legend. One fact is certain, that under Cyrus the Persians became the ruling power. 126. Commencing his reign in 558 b. c, Cyrus first sub- dued all the northern and western provinces conquests of of the old Median kingdom. On the western '-y"®- frontier the most formidable enemy he encountered was Croesus, King of Lydia, in Asia Minor. Croesus, taking the offensive, led his army from Sardis, his capital, across the river Ha'lys (which formed the boundary between the Per- sian and the Lydian territory), and an indecisive action was fought near Sino'pe. But Cyrus followed up, and by the overthrow of Crcesus and capture of Sardis added all Asia Minor west of the Halys to the dominion of Persia, 554 b. c* Next, most of the Greek cities and colonies on the coast of Asia Minor and the adjoining islands were subdued. The remote East now claimed the attention of Cyrus, and be tween the years 553 — 540 b. c. he was employed in the sub- jugation of the various tribes in the region between Persia and the Indus, — Parthia, Bactriana, Sogdiana, etc.f The * This is the date of the fall of Crcesus, according to Rawlinson ; most other chronologers place it at 546 B. C. + See Map of Persian Empire, opposite p. 55. 58 ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. greater glory of reducing the mighty power of Babylonia now remained : this was accomplished by the capture of Babylon (538 b. c), as already described. (See page 36.) 127. During his career of twenty-nine years, Cyrus ex- Extent of his tended the Persian dominion from the Indus to empire. ^^ Hellespont, from the Jaxartes to the Syrian shore ; and indeed he left to his successors only the com- pletion and consolidation of his work, for by his own efforts he had made Persia the great imperial power of Asia. 128. Of the whole line of Persian monarchs Cyrus was the greatest, and his character is far more worthy of re- spect than that of any of his successors. He was a great Character of conqucror without being a cruel ruler, and to Cyrus. remarkable ability as a soldier he added many noble traits as a man. 129. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses. To another son, named Stnerdis, Cyrus had griven Cambyses. .... . ' -^ ? the dommion over some important provmces. This arrangement cost Smerdis his life, by rousing the jeal- ousy of his brother, who very early in his reign caused him to be put to death secretly. The chief event of Cambyses's reign was his conquest of Egypt in 525 b. c. In Egypt Cambyses behaved with great w^antonness and cruelty. He forced the Egyptian king Psammen'itus to drink poison ; he shocked the Egyptians by stabbing a calf which they regard- ed as sacred ; and on one occasion, when a courtier told him at his own request that popular rumor blamed him for drink- ing to excess, he proved the steadiness of his hand and eye by piercing the heart of that courtier's son with an arrow. 130. The absence of Cambyses brought about a revolution at the Persian capital. A Marian, named Go- Revolution. \ . , , •, , o mates, personated the murdered brother Smer- dis, and headed a conspiracy that raised him to the throne. When Cambyses heard the news, he hastened towards Per- sia, but while on the way he died, — some say by suicide, THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 59 Others from an accidental wound from his own dagger, — 522 B. c, after having reigned less than eight years. The reign of the false Smerdis was brief. Dari'us, the son of Hystas'pes, governor of one of the Persian provinces, and himself belonging to the royal family, headed an insurrec- tion, and the impostor was slain after he had reigned eight months. 131. Darius I. (Darius Hystaspes), who ascended the throne 521 b. c, was, next to Cyrus, the great- Reign of Da- est of the Persian monarchs. He completed ""^- 1 the work that Cyrus began. Cyrus by his conquests >««^.?^' the empire ; Darius organized it. To him belongs the credit of having given to the Persian Empire that peculiar politi- cal system and arrangement that maintained it in a fairly flourishing condition for nearly two centuries. 132. Darius divided the whole empire into twenty " satra- pies," or provinces ; the native tributary kings Persian gov- being swept away, and each province governed ^•'""'^'^ • by a Persian official called a satrap. A fixed rate of tribute took the place of arbitrary exactions. " Royal roads " were established, and a system of posts arranged, whereby the court received rapid intelligence of all that occurred in 5he provinces. The great centers of Persian power were fixed at Susa, the spring residence of the king ; Ecbat'ana, his summer abode ; and Babylon, the winter-quarters. 133. The most interesting event in the reign of Darius is the commencement of the Persian invasions Relations with of Greece. Some of the Greek cities of Ionia *^''^^'=*- in Asia Minor, which had been brought under Persian do- minion by Cyrus, revolted ; the Athenians encouraged them in this revolt, and this brought Persia and Greece into col- lision on the plains of Marathon, 490 b. c. [As nearly all that is striking in the after history of Persia interweaves itself with the affairs of Greece, the narrative will best be given in connection with Grecian history.] 6o ANCIENT ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. a. PERSIAN CIVILIZATION. 134. The Persians belonged to the same stock as the Peraian char- Medes, but they seem to have been even more **=**■■• purely Aryan, — and the terra 'Aryan' is itself a Persian word signifying twble. When we first meet them in history, they are a race of hardy mountaineers, brave in war, rude in manners, simple in their habits, abstaining from wine, and despising all the luxuries of food and dress. Though not highly intellectual, the Persians were keen- witted, vivacious, an self-governing states. The history of the Orient is the his- tory of dynasties ; the history of Greece and Rome is the history of the people ; and accordingly the latter is far more interesting, more instructive, and more valuable. 2. The Greeks were a branch of the mighty Aryan, or Indo-European, stock, — the stock that includes Greek race. ^ ' ' all the historic races of Europe, together with the Persians and Hindoos of Asia. As Ar}^ans, they were closely related to the Romans ; and, in fact, the forefa- thers of the Greeks and of the Italians formed originally one swarm, which at a very early period in prehistoric times (not later than 2000 B. c.) left the native hive of the Aryans, in Asia, and moved into Europe. The evidence of language shows that this stock must have kept together for a considerable period after they had parted company from the other members of the Aryan family, and before they settled, the one branch in the eastern and the other in the central of the three Mediterranean peninsulas, where they MAP STUDY. [See Map opposite p. 73.] I. What were the boundaries of Continental Greece ? 2. What sea between Greece and Italy.' 3. What isthmus connects the Pelopon- nesus with the mainland.'' 4. What gulfs on opposite sides of this? 5. What is the situation of the Pindus range ? 6. They divided what states .' 7. Tell the situation of the Qita Mountains, of Olympus, of Parnassus. 8. What was the situation of Macedon, of Attica, of Laco- nia? 9. Where was the state of Bceotia? 10. Was Attica a seaboard or an inland state ? 11. Was Lacedasmon an inland or a seaboard state } 12. What rivers are named on the map ? 13. What large island off the east coast? 14. Where were the Cyclades and Sporades? 15. Where were the Chersonesus (map opp. p. 1^3), CyrenaJca, Hellespont, Thrace, Asia Minor ? 16. W^here were Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Argos, Delphi, Corinth, Plataea, Marathon, Miletus, Sardis, the Pass of Thermopylae ? GENERAL SKETCH. 75 subsequently appeared in history, the first branch as Greeks, the second as Romans. 3. Greece was a name almost unknown by the people whom we call Greeks, and was never used by „ ,, ' - •' Hellas. them to describe their country. It was first adopted by the Romans, from whom it has descended to us. The name by which the Greeks always called their country is Hel'las. This term, however, included more than is now covered by the term Greece ; for it comprised not only the adjacent islands, but also numerous patches of settlement, around the Mediterranean Sea. Hellas, in fact, denoted wherever the Helk'nes, or Greeks, were settled. 4. In the geography of Greece there are two important facts to be noticed : i. That Hellas is a land Physical fea- of islands and peninsulas, deeply perforated ^"■■^^• by bays and inlets of the Mediterranean. This fact is one of the main reasons why the Greeks were the earliest civil- ized people of Europe, since their situation on the sea-coast brought them into contact with those older civilizations whose seats were on the eastern shores of the Mediter- ranean, and especially with Egypt and Phoenicia. 2. That the surface of the country is ridged by numerous mountains, which divided Greece into a multitude of small, isolated regions. This fact favored the establishment of numerous separate and independent states or communities ; and it was in these little states that, for the first time in the history of the world, political freedom was attained by man. 5. Greece proper is a peninsula about 250 miles lonj and 180 miles across in its widest part. It -^^^^^^ has an area about the same as that of the State of Maine. 6. The natural division of Greece is into Northern, Cen- tral, and Southern. Northern Greece extends ^. . . . Divisions. from the north boundary line to the point where the eastern and western shores are respectively in- >](> HISTORY OF GREECE. dented by the Gulfs of Ma'lis and Ambra'cia, or Ac'tium. Central Greece reaches from this point to the Isthmus of Corinth. Southern Greece is identical with the Pelopon- ne'sus, called in modern geography the More'a. 7. Northern Greece contained in ancient times two prin- Northern di- cipal countrics, Thcs'saly and Epi'rus. To the vision. north of these was Macedo'nia, which, though ruled by kings of Hellenic blood, was never counted to be part of Greece till quite late times. 8. Central Greece contained eleven states.* The most important of these was Attica, which is the Central states. -,, ., . . ^ t-.- foreland or penmsula projecting from Boeotia to the southeast. Its length was 70 miles, its greatest width 30 miles. The general character of this region was moun- tainous and infertile. In Attica was Athens, the foremost city of all Greece. 9. Southern Greece, or the Peloponnesus, contained seven principal states.* The most important Peloponnesus. r i i t • of the southern states was Laconia, sometimes called Lacedae'mon, of which the capital and most im- portant city was Sparta. 10. The " isles of Greece " formed a very considerable and noted part of ancient Hellas. The largest The isles. , , . , i t- i , -i of the coast islands was Euboe'a, 100 miles long. Off the west coast was the important island of Cor cy'ra. Off the southern coast was Crete, 150 miles in length. The ^gae'an sea was studded with numerous islands, of which the two groups of the Cyc'lades and Spor'ades ex- tended in a continuous series, like a set of stepping-stones, across from Greece to Asia. 11. It is probable that various tribes of the Aryan stock had penetrated into the Greek peninsula as * "^" early as 2000 b. c. In the ante-Hellenic pe- • Name these states from the map, opposite page 72. GENERAL SKETCH. 71 riod, that is, in the prehistoric age, we hear of the Pelas'gi, who seem to have been an Aryan race. They were civilized enough to till the earth and to build walled cities. To them are attributed the remains of certain ancient monu- ments known as Pelasgic, or Cyclopean, remains. These consist of tombs and of walls composed of enormous rude masses of stone joined to one another without cement. 12. At a period long before the beginning of recorded history the Pelasgi were overwhelmed by an invasion of a more vigorous and warlike race, the Hellenes, who, descending from Thessaly, entirely over- spread the peninsula and gave their name to the whole country. There were four chief divisions of the Hellenes, — the Do'rians, ^o'lians, Achte'ans, and lo'nians. yS HISTORY OF GREECE. The ^olians were spread over Northern Greece and the western coast of the Peloponnesus ; the Achaeans held the southern and eastern part of the Peloponnesus (the Arcadians, a remnant of the older Pelasgic race, occupying the center) ; the lonians were confined to a narrow strip of country along the northern coast of the Peloponnesus and eastward into Attica; the Dorians were to the north, and occupied the southern slope of Mount CEta. Such appears to have been the distribution of the races in the age represented by the Homeric poems. 13. The Greeks of this age have no history, in the proper sense of the word. The place of this they " supplied by a mass of beautiful legends, called by themselves myths. These recount the exploits of various heroes, and hence this period is called the Heroic Age. It is vain to attempt to separate the thread of historic truth which there may be in the body of Greek legends : to do so is only to " spoil a good poem without making a good his- tory." 14. The last and greatest enterprise of the heroic age ,„ was the Siesre of Troy. This was immortalized Siege of Troy. '' ■' by the genius of Homer in his Iliad (from Ilium, or Troy) ; and recent explorations on the site of Troy give reason to believe that the narrative of Homer rests on a basis of actual fact. The outline of the story is as follows : Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, abused the hospitality of Menela'us, king of Sparta, by carrying off his wife Helen, the most beautiful woman of the age. At the call of Mene- laus all the Grecian princes assembled in arms, elected his brother Agamem'non leader of the expedition, and sailed across the yEgasan to recover the faithless fair one. Nearly all Asia Minor was leagued with Troy, and the most valiant Trojan leader was Hector, son of Priam. It was not till the tenth year that Troy yielded, and it is with the even'-s of this year that the Iliad deals. 15. Achil'les, the bravest and most redoubtable of the Greeks, offended by Agamemnon, abstains from the war ; and in his absence the Greeks GENERAL SKETCH. 79 are no match for Hector. The Trojans drive them back into their camp, and are already setting fire to tlieir ships when Achilles gives his armor to his friend Patro'clus, and allows him to charge at the head of the Myrmidons. Patro- clus repulses the Trojans from the ships, but the god Apollo is against him, and he falls under the spear of Hector. This causes Achilles to return into the Grecian camp, and he slays Hector in single combat ; but is himself killed by an arrow directed by Apollo. Finally, the noblest combatants on both sides having fallen, the city is taken by the Greeks, through the stratagem of a wooden horse, devised by the crafty Ulys'ses. Troy is delivered over to the sword, and its glory sinks in ashes.* 16. The most faithful reflex of the springtime of the Hel- lenic world is preserved to us in the Homeric Homeric poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Among the Greece, noticeable features of society, as there depicted, are : i. The universality of kingly government. 2. The predominance of the tribe or nation over the city, whereas in the historical period the city is the state. 3. The existence of a hereditary nobility, who form the king's council. 4. The existence of an assembly which is convened by the king to receive com- munications and witness trials, but not either to advise or judge. 5. The absence of polygamy, and the high regard in which women are held. 6. Slavery everywhere estab- lished and considered to be right. 7. Perpetual wars be- tween the various tribes and nations, and the preference of the military virtues over all others. 8. Strong religious feeling ; belief in polytheism and in fate ; respect for the priestly character ; peculiar sanctity of temples and festival seasons. 17. According to the traditions of the Greeks, some \mr portznt foreign elements were received into the Foreign influx nation during this first period. It is said that *"'^®- * See note, end of this chapter. So HISTORY OF GREECE. both Phoenician and Egyptian settlements were made in Greece. Scholars now doubt that any such settlements were made ; but it is quite certain that the early Greeks, when they began to spread over the Grecian isles, came in con- tact with the Phoenicians, who were at this period the most commercial and progressive nation inhabiting the shores of the Mediterranean. From the Phoenicians the Greeks received the alphabet. It is probable, also, that the early Greeks drew from the fountains of antique Egyptian lore, and that they gained from the Egyptians their first knowl- edge of some of the arts and sciences ; while the influence of the Eg}'ptian religious system can be plainly traced in the Greek mythology. l8. But, on the whole, Hellenic civilization was of home Greek civiiiza- growth. Evcn what thcv took they stamped tion original. ^^,j^|^ ^|^gjj. ^^^^ character. Hence the Greek people must be considered to have developed for themselves that form of civilization, and those ideas on the subject of art, politics, morals, and religion, that have given them their peculiar reputation. Note on Troy. — In the revolutions of time the city of Troy has so completely disappeared that many scholars have been disposed to doubt even the existence of such a place. But in recent times fresh light seems to have been thrown on the subject by the researches of Dr. Schliemann, a German savtmt, who in the years 1869-73 made a series of explorations in the Troad, or " plain of windy Troy." He identifies the city of Ilium, or Troy, with the modern place called Hissarlik. Many interesting archseologic remains were discovered by the explorer, who also states his belief that he could identify in the ruins the " house of Priam," the Scsean gate, and various other points mentioned by Homer. Many scholars are not prepared to accept all the conclusions of Dr. Schlie- mann ; but all agree that his discoveries are of great interest, and furnish new illustrations of the " tale of Troy divine." BEGINNINGS OF GREEK HISTORY. 8l CHAPTER II. HISTORY OF THE FIRST PERIOD. ftROM THE DORIAN MIGRA TION TO THE BEGINNING OF THE PERSIAN tVAKit 1100 soo B. C. I. BEGINNINGS OF GREEK HISTORY. 19. Grecian history may be divided into three periods : 1. From the Dorian migration to the begin- Periods of ning of the Persian Wars (1100-500 B.C.). G^-^^k history. 2. From the beginning of the Persian Wars to the subju- gation of Greece by Philip of Macedon (500-338 b. c). 3. From the subjugation of Greece by PhiHp to the Roman conquest (338- 146 b. c). 20. Leaving the dim twilight of legendary Greece, we come to a period when there took place those period of set- movements of tribes that finally resulted in Element, settling the Hellenes in those parts of Hellas in which we find them during the times of authentic history. Thus there seems to be no doubt that about the year 11 00 b. c. the Dorians, who originally had been an unimportant tribe in the small patch of northern territory on the southern slope of Mount CEta, began to make a great figure in Greek affairs; for moving southward they conquered the Achaean kingdoms in the Peloponnesus, took possession of Laconia, or Lacedcemon, and gradually subdued most of the neigh- boring states. 21. Out of the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus re- sulted other great changes in the Hellenic other move- world. The Achaeans, expelled from the south "'^"^s. and east of the peninsula, fell back upon the northern coast, driving out the lonians. The latter found refuge with their brethren of the same race in Attica, and the lonians became 4* F 82 HISTORY OF GREECE. not only the dominant race in Central Greece, but also spread themselves over most of the Cyclades Islands in the -^gaean Sea. 22. The planting of Greek colonies in Asia Minor was Colonies in another important event of this early period, Asia Minor. connected with the general unsettlement result- ing from the Dorian conquest. These colonies were made by the three races, the Cohans, lonians, and Dorians. The ^olians established themselves along the coast of Mysia and in the Island of Les'bos, where they formed a confedera- tion of twelve cities (^'olis). The lonians established themselves on the shores of Lydia, and on the islands of Chi'os and Sa'mos (lo'nia), and grew into a very powerful confederation. The Dorian colonies were planted in the southwestern corner of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands (Do'ris) ; but they were of less importance than the ^olian, and especially the Ionian, settlements, which became of great note in Grecian histor}\ 23. Other settlements were made by the Greeks, of which Other settle- the most notable were those on the coasts of ments. Thrace and Macedonia, on the islands west of Greece, in Sicily, in Lower Italy (hence called Mag'na Grae'cia, or Great Greece),* and in the territory of Cyre'ne, or the Cyrenaica, along the northern coast of Africa. Some outposts of Hellenic settlement were planted as far east as the shores of the Euxine Sea, and one colony arose in the extreme western part of the Mediterranean at Massilia, now Marseilles. 24. The establishment of so many colonies in countries Effect of coio- pre-eminently favored by nature in productions "'^^- and climate, and so situated as to prompt the inhabitants to navigation and commerce, gave a great im- pulse to the civilization of the Hellenic race, and may be regarded as the main cause of its rapid progress. * See map opposite page 72. BEGINNINGS OF GREEK HISTORY. 83 25. The accompanying map represents the distribution of the several representatives of the Hellenic race, at the time when the great movements of population just spoken of had been accomplished (say about 1000 B. c). 26. At this time the two leading races of Greece were the lonians and the Dorians. These were dis- „^ Character of tmguished from each other by striking charac- the two lead- teristics, and the difference between them '"^'^**^^^' forms a chief feature of Grecian politics ; it runs through their entire history, and was the principal cause of the deep- rooted antagonism between Athens, the representative of the Ionian race, and Sparta, the leading Doric state. The lonians were remarkable for their democratic spirit ; they {$4 HISTORY OF GREECE. were vivacious, fickle, given to commerce, fond of refined enjoyments, and devoted to the fine arts. The Dorian race was noted for the severe simplicity of its manners ; it pre- ferred an aristocratic form of government, and maintained slaveiy in its worst form. 27. The authentic history of Greece commences with the Beginnings of cpoch Icnown as the First Olym'piad, B. c. 776. real history. 'pj^jg gj-g^ jg ^^ commencement of that consec- utive chronology, which the Greeks reckoned by the series of victors in the foot-race at the four-yearly festival of Olympian Jupiter near E'lis. The First Olympiad began in the midsummer of 776 b. c. ; the Second Olympiad in mid- summer of 772 B. c, etc., — the Olympiads recurring every four years. 28. Looking at Greece at this period, — say the middle of Political the 8th century b. c, — we find that an impor- change. ^^^^ change in the nature of the government had taken place. During the heroic age, in that " youth of the world " which Homer paints, the various Grecian tribes were under kings ; but now the government had become republican, and we find the people gathered together in little free states. (Sparta was the only state that held to even the name of king.) Each city, in fact, formed an independent commonwealth with its own little territory ; and there is no doubt that this parceling out of a small country was a main cause of the rapid development of political science in Greece. 29. Divided as the Greeks were politically, they were, nevertheless, united by a certain national feel- Hellenic unity. . _,, ^ , • i ing. The root of this was the consciousness that they were all Hellenes ; and this sentiment was fostered by the possession of a common language, literature, and re- ligion, and of rites, temples, and festivals that were equally open to all. Still, the first feeling of every Greek was for his city, and there was scarcely even the sentiment of patri- SPARTA AND ATHENS. 85 otism for Greece as a land. We shall soon see how imper- fect was the union even against the pressing danger of subjugation by Persia, and what a long series of sectional contests was carried on between the leading states. The Greeks in the end discovered the great principle of Federal Union ; but this was not till near the close of their history,, when it was too late. 2. GROWTH OF SPARTA AND ATHENS. 30. In this section we shall glance at the history of the two most important Grecian states, namely, subject Sparta and Athens; and we shall trace their "eated. history down to the period when all Greece united against the Persians, about 500 b. c. 31. At the commencement of authentic Grecian history we find the Spartans the dominant power in the Peloponnesus. They were a part of that great Dorian wave that about 11 00 b. c. had overflowed the southern peninsula of Greece : the Dorians established and settled three states, Argos, Messenia, and Laconia, or Lace- daemon ; but in time the Spartans, that is, the people of Laconia, or Lacedsemon, gained supremacy over the other states. 32. The ascendency which Sparta acquired over the oth- er states of the Peloponnesus was mainly ow- ing to her peculiar institutions, which tradition y'^"'"^"^- ascribes to a legislator named Lycur'gus. Of this person- age nothing is known whatever, and some have even denied his existence. It is probable, however, that Lycurgus did exist somewhere about 850 b. c, that is, about a century before the beginning of reliable history, and that he more clearly defined and fixed already existing usages and regulations. 33. But the peculiar constitution of the Spartans arose aecessarilv out of the circumstances in which they lived. 86 HISTORY OF GREECE. In other parts of the Peloponnesus the Dorian conquerors gradually fused with the native Achaeans, but ta*n"%ecuiiari- in Lacedaemon the separation was maintained. *'*^*' Such of the Ach^ans as readily submitted were allowed to retain their personal freedom, though without any political rights ; but the greater part were reduced to servitude, and were known as Helots. The citizens of Sparta were thus a small class of lords (estimated at 9,000 in the time of Lycurgus) among a tenfold number of slaves and subjects ; and to keep these in subjection their whole training was military. 34. The chief object of the legislation that goes by the Object of Ly- name of Lycurgan was to create and maintain curgus's laws. ^ yigorous and uncorrupted race of men : hence it concerned itself less with political arrangements than with the regulation of private life and with physical education. 35. By this system weakly children were exposed to per- Spartanedu- ish, while of those who were allowed to live ^^'''°"- the males were at the age of seven separated from their homes and trained by state educators. The whole time of the Spartans was spent in public. They took their frugal meals at public tables in messes or com- panies, to which each contributed so much from the prod- uce of his land. Great attention was devoted to gym- nastic exercises and military drill ; for the education of a Spartan, beginning with his seventh year, was not relaxed till his sixtieth. He was inured to hunger and thirst and to the extremes of heat and cold, and was taught to endure the keenest bodily torture without complaint. To teach him strategy and secrecy, there were licensed expeditions for thieving, and severe punishment was inflicted on him who allowed himself to be detected in it. Every one has heard of the Spartan youth who hid the stolen fox under his coat, and allowed it to tear out his vitals rather than SPARTA AND ATHENS. ^J expose it to view. Girls were trained in athletic exercise3 nearly similar to those of the boys, but separately. This reared a race of vigorous women, the influence of whose pa- triotism in sustaining that of the men is matter of historic celebrity. " Return either with your shield or on it ! " was the exhortation of a Spartan mother to her son on his de- parture for the field of battle. 36. Spartan education produced warriors, but naught else : that people contributed nothing to the Its results. literature and the arts for which the world is indebted to Greece. Oratory was held in special contempt, and philosophy was superseded by those " wise saws," the brevity of which we still describe as laconic. Commerce was forbidden to the Spartan citizens, and iron money alone was allowed for their few trading transactions. The fine arts were discouraged as leading to effeminacy. The labors of agriculture were carried on exclusively by the Helots. Thus the Spartans resided in the city, where they passed their lives according to the Lycurgan discipline, while all the ordinary pursuits of civilized life were left to their de- pendents. This discipline no doubt made them intrepid soldiers, but as a people they were stolid, ungenerous, and cruel, even for those cruel times. 37. The constitution of Sparta was peculiar. At the head of the state were two joint-kings, who constitution commanded the armies and performed the of Sparta, public sacrifices. Bu': their power was often merely nom- inal, and was always restricted by the Senate and by the Assembly of all the Spartans. The Assembly annually elected five officers called Ephors, who as a general thing exercised all power ; so that Sparta was really an oligarchic Republic, under the guise of a monarchy. 38. Sparta under the Lycurgan system became an ag- gressive military state : she conquered the Mes- spartan con- senians (in two wars, 743-724 and 685-668 i"^^*^- 88 HISTORY OF GREECE. B. c), humbled her powerful rival, the Argives (547 B. c), and thus raised herself to the leadership of the Dorian Commonwealths. Having become the controlling power of the Peloponnesus, Sparta in the 6th century b. c. began to assume the right of interference in the internal affairs of the Grecian states beyond the Peloponnesus, and it is prob- able that she would have eventually brought all the states under her sway (for they were then in no condition to dis- pute her pre-eminence), had it not been that, at the time at which we have arrived, all the states were called upon to unite their arms against the aggressions of the Persians. 39. Parallel with the rise of Sparta was the growth of another state that was destined not only to push democratic freedom farther than any other Grecian state, but also to assert an intellectual supremacy over all Greece. This was Athens : — " Athens, the eye of Greece, mother of arts And eloquence, native to famous wits." 40. It is known that the Athenians belonged to the ^ , ^. Ionian race, of which indeed they were the Early history, n • flower. The founding of Athens runs back into the mythic period. At first the Athenians, like the other Hellenes, were under kings, but by the time that reli- able Athenian history begins, we find that Athens had ceased to be under regal rule, Codrus being the last of the kings. 41. Athenian affairs, however, were not at this time Nature of the Hianagcd by all the people, but only by a government, privileged class of nobles. Thus, though a republic, Athens was not at this time a democracy. The kingly power had given place to the office of archon : this was at first limited to the royal family and held for life ; then it was held for ten years, and finally thrown open to the whole body of the nobles, the number of archons in- SPARTA AND ATHENS. 89 creased to nine, and the period of office reduced to one year. There was also a Senate, afterwards called the Areopagus, but it was made up exclusively of the nobles. Thus we see that the great mass of the people had no share whatever in the government; and it happened at Athens, as generally happens where power is confined to one class, that the oligarchy abused their privileges. 42. The discontent of the people at length became so serious that a statesman named Dra'co was ap- , . . , . , Laws of Draco. pomted m 624 b. c. to draw up a written code of laws. They were marked by e.xtreme severity; for he affixed the penalty of death to all crimes alike, — to petty thefts no less than to sacrilege and murder. Hence Dra- co's laws were said to have been written, not in ink, but in blood ; and we are told that he justified this extreme hard- ship by saying " that small offenses deserved death, and that he knew no severer punishment for great ones." * 43. The legislation of Draco failed to calm the prevail- ing discontent, the overbearing: conduct of the r , ' , , , , , Revolution. aristocracy led to popular outbreaks, and there came a state of anarchy, from which, at the beginning of the 6th century b. c, Athens was rescued by Solon. Solon had been chosen one of the archons, and was commissioned to remodel the Constitution of Athens, 594 B. c. The success- ful manner in which he performed this work laid the founda- tion of the happiness of his native country. 44. The main object of the constitution of Solon was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy and to sub- - . , , . , Laws of Solon. stitute for it a moderate government, which should admit all Athenian citizens to a share of power but give a preponderating influence to the higher orders. Solon's legislation was marked by great political sagacityi and unde»" it Athens made rapid progress in prosperity; * Smith's History of Greece. 90 HISTORY OF GREECE. but it was far from satisfying his contemporaries. Like most moderate politicians, he was accused by one side of going too far and by the other of not being radical enough. 45. The result was a struggle of parties, which ended in the seizure of power by a leader named Pisis'- Pisistratus. if, \ 11 • • e tratus, who (560 b. c.) assumed the position of Dictator, or, as the Greeks called it, Tyrant, — a term which, however, denoted merely one who usu?-ped power, not necessarily one who abused power. There is no reason to believe that the constitution of Solon was abolished under Pisistratus. Athens continued to enjoy its republican gov- ernment, though under a dictator. Pisistratus ruled mildly, encouraged the arts and edited Homer, and even succeeded in transmitting his power to his sons; but after half a century of this mild tyranny, the family of the Pisistrat'idae were banished, 510 B. c. 46. A noble named Clis'thenes now rose into power. He Reforms of cspoused the cause of the people, gave the ciisthenes. suffrage to all free inhabitants, and introduced into the constitution political reforms to which very much of Athenian greatness is attributable. Under the new con- stitution the state was a pure democracy, and the establish- ment of liberty and equality gave a great impulse to the spirit of patriotism. The result was that Athens soon rose to be the leading state of Central Greece. 47. At the period at which we have now arrived, — the The new beginning of the 5th century b. c, — Greece epoch. had put on the shape which she was to wear during the greatest times of her history. At this time a new era in Hellenic history begins. The Greeks had to bear the trial of a great foreign invasion. Europe, em- bodied in Greece, was to meet old Asia, represented by Persia, and the sons of Hellas were to come out of the struggle strong and ennobled. PERSIAN INVASIONS. 9 1 CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF THE SECOND PERIOD. $K.OM THB BEGINNING OF THE PERSIAN l^AR TO THE VICTORY OF PHIUP OF MACEDON AT CHyERONEA, £. C. ^00-338. I. THE PERSIAN INVASIONS. 48. We have already seen how the great Eastern Mon- archy, founded by Cyrus and extended by Relations with Cambyses, was consoUdated by Darius, who Persia, became king of Persia in 521 B. c. Among the conquests of Cyrus was the kingdom of Lydia, in Asia Minor. Now, just before the Persian conquest of Lydia, the king of that country, Croesus, had succeeded in reducing under his own dominion the Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor; so that now they, too, became subject to Persia. 49. The Ionian cities did not submit without a struggle, and after a certain time there ensued a general . ° , Ionian revolt, revolt of these cities, 500 b. c. The Athenians, to help their kinsfolk in Ionia, sent twenty ships with a small force. A landing was made on the coast of Asia Minor, and Sardis, the capital of Lydia, was captured and accidentally burnt, 499 b. c. 50. This sally had only the effect of drawing down the wrath of Darius on the Ionian cities, and the Effect on Da- revolt was soon quelled (494 B. c). The Per- '■*"^- sian monarch then resolved to chastise the Athenians. When the news of the burning of Sardis was brought to Darius, he called for his bow, and shot an arrow towards the sky, with a prayer to Auramazda for help to revenge himself on the Athenians. Then he bade one of his ser- vants repeat to him thrice daily, as he sat down to dinner, \he words, " Master, remember the Athenians 1 " 92 HISTORY OF GREECE. 51. In execution of his purpose, Darius instructed his First hostile son-in-law, Mardo'nius, to march an army movement. against the Athenians. The force advanced through Thrace into Macedonia, which was speedily subju- gated, but it was able to go no farther; and a fleet which had been sent to co-operate was shattered by a great storm off the peninsula of Mount A'thos, so that Mardonius re- turned to Asia Minor in disgrace, 492 b. c. 52. This failure only added fury to the resolution of New prepara- Darius. While pushing forward his prepara- tions, tions for the invasion of Greece, he sent r^und heralds to the chief Grecian cities to demand the tribute of earth and water as signs of his being their rightful lord. The island states generally made tlieir submission, as did /?OUT£ OF X£ffX£S^ARMY ^^^^ ' Cou/Tscs or y£-/?x£S' ^i£rr.-.. ^ COL'FSSS CFT/^£GP£rK FL££r.... PERSIAN INVASIONS. 93 also many of the continental states, and it seemed that the voung civilization of the West was to be overwliehned by Eastern despotism. But the genius of Hellas found noble champions in two of the states ; for Athens and Sparta indignantly rejected the demand, and their conjunction drew after them most of the lesser states in a defensive league. 53. It was time for Greece to be united, for in the spring of 490 B. c. the preparations of Darius were invasion of complete. A vast force, under a commander Greece, named Datis, sailed in 600 triremes from Samos across the .^gsean, reducing the Cyclades islands on the way, and after capturing Eretria in the island of Eubcea, made a landing in the bay of Marathon, on the east coast of Attica. The Persians now prepared to advance on Athens. 54. But this was not to be without a struggle, and the plain of Marathon was the scene of the con- n. /• 1 • 1 Marathon. fiict, one of the most important and momen- tous in history. There, be- tween the mountains and the sea, the little Athenian force of 10,000 men, unaided save by 600 men from Platae'a, but led by the genius of Mil- ti'ades and inspired by high patriotic daring, met a Per- number, and defeated it, — ■v\c\ywv^ oy The sequel. sian army of ten times its September, 490 b. c. 55. The Persian monarch was not able immediately to renew hostilities with the Greeks, for other afifairs engaged his attention ; and when Darius finally found himself free to resume his purpose, he was cut off by death, 485 B. c. His son Xerxes succeeded to the throne, and promptly took up the task. The result was another and far more formidable invasion, made ten years after the battle of Marathon. 94 HISTORY OF GREECE. 56. During this interval of ten years the Athenians wert Affairs at Ath- "ot idle. At this time the leading men at ens. Athens were Themis'tocles and Aristi'des. Aristides was a pure patriot, but he was considered stub- born and impracticable. Themistocles, on the other hand, was a sagacious statesman: he urged that the Athenians should bend their energies to preparing against a renewal of the invasion by the Persians, and especially that a navy should be created; Aristides opposed this policy. Be- tween these two leaders there was a long rivalry; but finally Aristides was ostracized.* Under the vigorous coun- sels of Themistocles, the Athenians bent their energies to preparing for the impending conflict, and especially to building a great fleet of triremes. Then, as the note of preparation for the invasion sounded throughout all Asia, a general congress of the Grecian states summoned by Athens and Sparta was held at the Isthmus of Corinth. Though several of the states stayed away through fear, yet this was a truly national meeting; and it was re- solved that Sparta should be the head of the league against Persia. * The institution of ostracism was a method which the Athenians had devised for the purpose of getting rid of obnoxious public men, and was in some respects a very good plan, as it stopped interminable quar- rels between rival politicians. It derived its name from the fact that the citizens, in voting for its infliction, wrote the name of the objection- able person on a shell (ostreon), and if there was a majority of votes for his banishment, he was exiled for ten years. The conflict between Aristides and Themistocles became at last so sharp that the Athenians finally voted to ostracize Aristides. Among those who voted were many, no doubt, whose hostility had been aroused by the stern probity of Aris- tides, who was known as " the Just." The story is true to nature, that when the vote of ostracism was being taken, an unlettered citizen, not knowing Aristides, asked him to write for him on the shell. " And what name shall I write ? " " Aristides." " And, pray, what wrong has Aristides done you ? " " O, none ; but I am tired of always hearing him called the Just." PERSIAN INVASIONS. 95 57. From every part of his wide dominion Xerxes collect- ed at Sardis an army such as had never been Beginning of , . _-, . . . „ Xerxes's iDva- seen before, for transportmg it mto Europe sion. he caused a double bridge of boats to be built across the Hellespont, where it is a mile wide ; and in 480 b. c. the vast host (Herodotus puts it at 2,500,000 fighting men and ships' crews) crossed the bridge in two columns, taking seven days and nights to make the passage. A great fleet consisting of 1200 triremes (each manned by 200 rowers and 30 fighting men) and many smaller vessels pursued its course northward to the Hellespont, and then steered west- ward, keeping close to the coast so as to be in constant communication with the army. Meanwhile the prodigious array, having entered Europe, advanced westward through Thrace and Macedonia, and then turning southward through Thessaly, poured itself in a mighty deluge over the north- ern states of Greece and moved towards Attica. 58. The Greeks resolved to take their stand in a narrow mountain-gorge lying between the precipitous ° ° •' ° re Continuation. mountains of Qilta and a marsh forming the edge of the Gulf of Mails. [See large map, p. 73.] This is the celebrated Pass of Thermop'ylae.* It was, however, only a small force that was sent to the defense of Thermopylae, When the arrival of Xerxes in Northern Greece became known, the Greeks were upon the point of celebrating one of their religious festivals, and not wishing to give up the solemnity, they resolved to send merely men enough to hold the pass till the festival was over, when they would be able to march in full force. The defense of the po- sition was intrusted to the Spartan king, Leonidas, with about 7,000 troops, the flower of which consisted of 300 Spartans. * Literally, gates of the hot springs: the pass contains several hot springs, and the/_y/<^, or gates, are the two openings of the pass. 96 HISTORY OF GREECE. 59. When the Persian host reached Thermopylae and Battle of Ther- sought to force the pass, the Grecian guard mopyix. made a stout defense, and for two days kept the enemy at bay ; but on the third day a traitor pointed out to the Persian king how, by taking a mountain-path, the position of the Greeks might be "turned." When this movement became known, most of the Greek officers wished to withdraw, since the position was no longer tenable. But Leonidas refused to retreat. As a Spartan he was bound by the laws to conquer or to die in the post assigned to him. His three hundred Spartans were moved by the same feeling, and seven hundred Thespians resolved to share their fate. The rest of the allies were allowed to retire. This being done, Leonidas and his comrades determined to sell their lives as dearly as possible: so they advanced into the open space in front of the pass and charged the Persians with desperate valor. But this heroism was in vain ; for their spears were erelong broken, and the enemy, pouring in from front and rear, surrounded the Greeks on all sides. Leonidas fell, and the heroic band were killed to a man. The date of the battle was August, 480 b. c. 60. The Greek fleet, as we have seen, had taken position off the northern coast of the Island of Euboea. Here a brisk naval action was fought, which, though indecisive, helped to raise the courage of the Greeks. It seemed, too, as though the gods were on their side, for in two great storms nearly half the Persian fleet was shattered. When, however, it became known to Themistocles, the com- mander of the Grecian fleet, that the Pass of Thermopylae had been carried and that the enemy was advancing on Naval affairs. I'ERSTAN- INVASIONS. 97 Athens, he withdrew the fleet southward to the Bay of Sal'amis, near Athens. 61. The news of the approach of Xerxes created great consternation at Athens ; but the oracle told Matters at the Athenians that they must seek safety in Athens, their "wooden walls." This was interpreted to mean their ships. Accordingly the whole population was removed from the city, and the Persians took possession of Athens and reduced it to ashes. 62. The fate of Greece was to be decided by a glorious naval combat. In the Bay of Salamis the Battle of saia- Greeks had assembled their whole fleet of 366 ""®- ships. Though the Persians had lost heavily by storm, they had still about 1000 vessels, and two months after the battle of Thermopyte the opposing fleets were arrayed for the fight. The Persian army was drawn up along the shore, and the Eastern monarch, anticipating a brilliant victory, took his seat on a lofty throne, on a promontory overlooking the scene. *' A king sat on the rocky brow Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis; And ships by thousands lay below, And men in nations, — all were his. He counted them at break of day, And when the sun set, where were they?" 63. Salamis was a complete victory for the Greeks ; the Persians lost over 200 ships, and Xerxes, struck with cowardice, beat a retreat into his ^"""' own dominions by the route on which he came, October, 480 B. c. 64. When Xerxes retired he left behind a force of 300,000 under one of his generals, named Mar- piataea and donius. The following year a decisive combat, ^ycaie. in which the Greeks were completely sut:essful, was fought at PlatEea between this force and a Greek army of 70,00c S G 98 HISTORY OF GREECE. men under the Spartan leader Pausanias and the Athenian leader Aristides, September 25, 479. On the same day a battle at Myc'ale (in Asia Minor) effected the destruction of the remnant of the Persian fleet. 65. These three battles, Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale, de- cided the war, and the Persians never again dared to invade Greece itself. The struggle, it is true, went on for several years longer before the Per- sians were dislodged from the various posts which they held north of the .^gasan ; but at last they were driven wholly out of Europe. Thus it was that the liberties of Greece v/ere secured, and it must be remembered that the preser- vation of Grecian independence meant the preservation of the civilization of Europe. 2. THE AGE OF PERICLES. 66. The half-century following the battle of Salamis Period of Peri- (480-430 B. c.) forms the most brilliant period '^'*'^- of Athenian history, and one of the most illus- trious eras in the history of the world. It is usually called the " age of Pericles," its duration nearly coinciding with the public life of that statesman who for forty years, though merely a private citizen, held a controlling influence over the politics of Athens. 67. The main cause of the ascendency which Athens now Policy of Ath- assumcd was the brilliant part played by that ^"^- state in the Persian wars. To preserve the freedom of the now liberated Greek cities on the islands and coasts of the ^g^an, a league was formed of which Athens, from her naval power, became naturally the leader. The inland states meanwhile clung to Sparta. It soon came about that the maritime cities were brought into a sort of subjection to Athens ; the Athenians denied the right of the States to secede from the confederation, caused the separate AGE OF PERICLES. 99 treasury of the league to be merged in that of Athens, and employed the ships and money of the allies in prosecuting their own aggrandizement. If this was short-sighted pol. icy, it at least put the Athenians in an almost imperial po- sition for the time being, and carried forward the little democracy to a wonderful degree of power and splendor. 68. It was during this period, when the Athenian intel- lect was stimulated by a proud sense of na- sketch of the tional greatness, that Grecian genius put forth Period. its richest blossoms of literature and art. This was the age of grand dramatic composition, and of the greatest works of architecture and sculpture. Oratory, which is so power- ful an instrument in a free state, was now cultivated assidu- ously, and the Athenians became accustomed to hearing the purest lessons of patriotism put forth in the loftiest forms of eloquence. In fine, the Athenian commonwealth under the exertions of Pericles attained such an exalted state of cultivation that it is recorded that the citizens were almost all equally qualified to fill offices or discharge business ; so that the regulation, that the greater part of the public offices should be filled by lot, rarely resulted in the choice of any but able and well-qualified men. 69. It was in this age that, on the other hand, the seeds were sown of that terrible civil strife that rent Beginning of the glory of Greece ; for Pericles himself lived strife. to see the outbreak of that direful conflict known as the Peloponnesian War. 70. This great man, one of the very ablest statesmen that ever lived, fell a victim to a pestilence . ' '■ Pencles. that raged m Athens m 429 B. c. His death- bed was surrounded by his friends and admirers, who recit- ed the many illustrious exploits of his glorious life. " You forget," said the dying patriot, — " you forget the only valua- ble part of my character : none of my fellow-citizens was ever compelled by any action of mine to assume a mouni- ing robe." 100 HISTORY OF GREECE. 3. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 71. The Peloponnesian war was a conflict between Duration of Athens and her allies, on the one hand, and the war. Sparta and her allies, on the other. It began in 431 B. c, lasted twenty-seven years, and ended in weak- ening Greece generally, and in completely destroying the Athenian ascendency. 72. This war was occasioned by the jealousy which the Cause of the great power of Athens stirred up among many ^^'■- other of the Greek cities ; but it had in reality a deeper cause : it was the outbreak of an " irrepressible conflict " between lonians and Dorians, between democracy and oligarchy, — Athens being the chief of the Ionian and democratic states, and Sparta the chief of the Dorian and aristocratic states. 73. The immediate occasion of the war was a conflict between Corinth and one of her colonies. First ten years. ^ , ^. ,. . , , , . , Corcy'ra. Sidmg with the latter, Athens ex- cited the wrath of the Dorian Confederacy ; and a Spartan army invaded Attica, 431 B.C. During the first ten years of the war, down to 421, the two parties contended with nearly equal success, the Athenians being much the stronger by sea, and the Spartans and their allies by land. A peace J^was then concluded, called the " Peace of Nicias " (421 b. c.\ which was to last for fifty years ; but as many of the confederates were dissatisfied w'ith its terms, it was not likely to be of such long duration, and indeed hostilities were renewed almost immediately. 74. The renewal of the war was precipitated through .,.,.. ^ the political influence of Alcibi'ades, a hand- Alcibiades. i- i ■,• some, dissolute young disciple of Socrates : he possessed brilliant talent, but he was ambitious, and he was- eager to renew the war, as affording him an opportunity' of personal distinction. SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACY. lOI 75. Alcibiades brought forward a scheme of conquering Syracuse, a city in Sicily. It was a bold syracusan ex- sclieme, and its successful execution would P^ti'tion- have given a great preponderance to Athens over Sparta. 'I'he Athenians adopted the plan, and in B. c. 415 sent a fieet and force against the Syracusans. Sparta sent aid to the Syracusans, and thus the Peloponnesian war was renewed. In the midst of the enterprise Alcibiades was recalled to Athens on a charge of impiety ; but he managed to escape, and went over to Sparta. The Syracusan expe- dition proved a total failure (413 b. c), and greatly damaged the power of Athens. 76. During the last eight years the Peloponnesian war was carried on mainly at sea, off the coast of Asia. Sparta allied herself with Persia, and °^'"^ y^^t^. it was Persian gold that afforded Sparta the means to continue the contest against Athens. Athens, however, made a bold front, and under the lead of Alcibiades (who had meanwhile been recalled to the command) kept up the contest with wonderful vigor. But a fatal blow fell when the Spartan admiral, Lysander, surprised the beached galleys of the Athenians at ^gos Pot'amos in the Hellespont, B. c, 405. The siege and surrender of Athens in the following year brought the great Peloponnesian contest to an end. 77. The result of the Peloponnesian war left Sparta the greatest power of Greece. Athens sank into Result of the the background as a second-rate state ; still, ^^'■• while she lost her political supremacy, she became more and more the leader in literature, art, and philosophy. 4. PERIOD OF SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACY. 78. After the decline of Athens Sparta stood without a rival in Greece, and for thirty-four years (from spartan sp- the victory at ^gos Potamos to the defeat of premacy. I02 HISTORY OF GREECE. Leuctra, 405-371 B.C.) the Lacedaemonians exercised an undisputed sway in Greece. The Spartan dominion was extremely despotic, and the Greek states that at the begin- ning of the Peloponnesian war had sided with Sparta as a " liberator " from Athenian rule now found the Spartan yoke much more galling than the Athenian had been. 79. Meantime in Thebes a new power was arising that was to curb her pride. The greatness of Rise of Thebes. ™, , , , , ° „ • Ihebes was the work of two men, — Epami- non'das and Pelop'idas, — who knew how to inspire their fellow-citizens with their own heroic spirit. To revenge themselves for the insults of Sparta, the Thebans, under these leaders, began a long and heroic struggle. The de- cisive combat of this war was fought at Leuctra, where Epaminondas utterly defeated the Spartans, 371 b. c. In consequence of this defeat Sparta fell suddenly and forever from her high estate. 80. Thebes now rose to be the leading state of Greece, Theban su- ^"^ this position she held as long as her great premacy. chieftain, Epaminondas, lived. But in the bat- tle of Mantine'a (362 b. c), waged against the Spartans and Athenians, the Theban chieftain died in the arms of victory. With the fall of Epaminondas Thebes herself fell, for there was no one to take his place. 81. The struggle between Sparta and Thebes, following Effect of the ^s it did the great Peloponnesian war, — in '*^^"- both of which nearly all the Hellenic states were engaged, — resulted in the general exhaustion ot Greece. What strength remained was expended in mere intestine broils, and soon after this Greece fell an easy prey to Philip of Macedon. SUPREMACY OF MACEDOR. IO3 CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF THE THIRD PERIOD. ?ROM THE VICTORY OF PHILIP TO THE ABSORPTION OF GREECE BV THl ROMANS. I. SUPREMACY OF MACEDON. — PHILIP. 82. The Macedonians, though closely allied by race to the Greeks, had remained in obscurity while Early Mace- their southern kinsmen were pursuing their '^°"- stirring career. But in the middle of the 4th century B. c. they came under a bold and energetic chief. This was Philip, son of Amyntas II. 83. Philip assumed the government of Macedonia in ■?e;q b. c. He was well acquainted with Grecian "'•',. . , . . , , Philip's plans. politics, having as a young man resided at Thebes in the character of a hostage, and when he became king he set on foot a plan for the elevation of Macedonia. This was not by any means to conquer Greece, but to have Macedonia recognized as a Greek state, and then to make it the leading state of Hellas, — just as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes had successively been. 84. Philip commenced by craftily mixing himself up with Greek affairs ; and he managed with such skill Doings of that at last he was acknowledged as a member p^^'^'p- of the Amphic'tyonic Council, the great religious assembly of Hellas, — a concession equivalent to the recognition of Macedon as a Greek state. Step by step his ambition grew, till he began to think of a grand scheme of conquest. 85. This plan the great Athenian orator Demosthenes clearly perceived, and he commenced uttering •' , . , . . . . , Demosthenes. the thunder of his voice in warnings ; but the Athenians had lost much of their patriotic ardor, so they took these warnings but tardily. I04 HISTORY OF GREECE. 86. The direct aggressions of Philip on Athens com- Career of mcnced about 358 B. c, and for twenty years he ^'^'''P- continued a mixed poHcy of war and intrigue, which at length made him master of Greece. In 338 b. c, at Chaerone'a (in Boeotia), he won a decisive victory over the Athenians and Thebans ; this crushed the liberty of Greece, and made it in reality a province of Macedonia. 87. The main causes of Philip's wonderful success were Causes of his twofold, — I . His admirable military organiza- success. jJq^ . ^j-jg Macedonian phalanx, invincible until it came to be opposed to the Romans, was his creation. 2. His political finesse: taking advantage of the divided condition of Greece and of the general prevalence of cor- ruption, he played off state against state, politician against politician, promising, cajoling, bribing, threatening, so that he won even more by diplomacy than by force. 88. Philip now announced his intention of uniting all „. , , the forces of Hellas to make war on Persia, His after plans. i i i ■ and avenge the old mvasions of Greece by Darius and Xerxes. This was a very skillful stroke of policy on the part of Philip ; it diverted the minds of the Greeks from the thought of the loss of their independence, by filling their imaginations with the glorious vision of a great na- tional enterprise of the Hellenes against the barbarians. 89. The design, however, was not executed ; for in the „. ^ , midst of the preparations Philip was assassi- His death. , , r ■> • , . , , nated by one of his own subjects {T^-^d B. c), at the age of forty-six, after a reign of twenty-three years. 2. CAREER OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT, 90. Philip was succeeded by his son Alexander, known as Alexander the Great. At the age of twent}' he became heir to his father's power, and of far more than his father's military genius. He was imme- ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 105 diately acknowledged generalissimo of Greece against the Persians, as his father had been. In the year 334 he set out on his great expedition, and as he never returned to Macedonia or Greece, we must now turn our eyes away from Greek history proper, and follow the marvelous ca-' reer of the youthful conqueror. 91. Alexander crossed the Hellespont with a small army of 35.000 iTien, and advanced to the Grani'cus His first vie- (in Asia Minor). Here a Persian army some- *°"es- what larger than his own was met and defeated, B. c. 334. He then passed victoriously through the Persian provinces of Asia Minor, and entered Syria. At Issus, near the borders of Cilicia and Syria, a vast Persian army under Darius Codoman'nus was met. The nature of the ground was such that the Persian superiority in numbers did not tell ; Alex- ander here won a signal victory (333 b. c), and Darius fled, leaving his mother and his wife captives. 92. Alexander did not immediately follow up the Per- sians, but proceeded from Issus against Tyre, His next op- Gaza, and Egypt, at this time under the domin- oration. ion of Persia. Twenty months sufBced for the reduction of these places. The foundation of the great seaport Al- exandria, — an act of far-sighted policy on the part of Alex- ander, — was a result of his sojourn in Egypt. 93. Having possessed himself of all the maritime prov- inces of Persia, Alexander, in b. c. 331, pro- Battle of ceeded to seek his enemy in the heart of his Arbeia. empire. The final conflict took place at Arbe'la in Assyria.* Here Darius had chosen his ground and arrayed the full force of his empire. But the Asiatic soldier was inferior to the European, and the invading force was led by a con- summate military genius. The result was the complete overthrow of a Persian force of a million men by less than * Though the action bears the name of Arbela, it was in reality fought at Gaugame'la, a village 20 miles distant. I06 HISTORY OF GREECE. 50,000 Greeks (b. c. 331). So decisive was the victory, that the three capitals of the empire, Babylon, Susa, and Per- sep'olis, surrendered almost without resistance ; and the Persian monarch became a fugitive, and was erelong assas- sinated. 94. Thus at the age of t\venty-five Alexander saw him- Aiexander's self lord of Western Asia. But the most re- ambition, markable part of the conqueror's career was now to begin. Instead of settling down in the luxurious capital of the East, he was urged by an irresistible impulse to press on, so long as there were lands or men to conquer. 95. To the east of Persia lay a new and unknown Expedition to world, believed to be one of immense wealth, ^"'^'^- and he resolved to penetrate it. Half explor- ing, half conquering, he pushed his way into the mysterious Orient as far as the river Hyph'asis (the modern Sutlej) in Northern India (326 b. c.).* He subdued the princes that were found reigning here, and then desired to press east- ward and complete the subjugation of the continent, which was believed to terminate at no great distance. 96. His soldiers, however, refused to go any farther than the Hyphasis ; so he had to prepare to return home- wards. It is a proof of his inventive genius, that in place * See the route of Alexander on the map opposite page 55. From Persep'olis he went to Ecbat'ana, thence eastward through Media, Hyr- cania, Parthia, and Aria, Tounding in the latter a city of Alexandria (modern Herat) ; then southward through Drangia'na ; then (late in 330) northeastward through Aracho'sia, founding there Alexandrop'olis (mod- ern Candahar' ? ) ; then northward across the range of the Paropami'sus or Hindoo Koosh, across the Oxus River, and (early in 329) traversing Bactria'na and Sogdia'na to the capital of the latter, Maracanda (modern Samarcand) ; then northward to the Jaxartes River, where he founded Alexandria Eschate (i. e. the last or fa7-tkest) ; then back again, scouring Sogdiana and Bactriana in various directions ; then, in 327, southeast- ward from Bactriana to the Indus, which he crossed at Tax'ila; then eastward to the Hydas'pes, founding Buceph ala and Nicae'a, and finally to the Hyph'asis. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. \oy of retracing his steps he went back by an entirely new path. He built a fleet to sail down the Hydas'pes Return froi and the Indus, while the bulk of his army ^"'^'*' marched down their banks. Reaching the Indian Ocean, Alexander sent his admiral, Near'chus, with the fleet, round to the Euphrates ; he himself led his army overland through the desert region of Gedro'sia (Beloochistan) and Carma'nia into Persia. Though his army suffered terribly in the des- ert, yet Alexander brought back the greater part of his force to Persepolis (324 b. c), and began to prepare for new en- terprises. 97. The plans of Alexander were brought to an end bj' the sudden death of their projector, at Baby- , ^^, ri.i/ \ His death. Ion, at the age of thirty-three (b. c. 323). Thus cut off in the vigor of early manhood, he left no inheritor either of his power or of his projects. When asked on his death-bed to whom he left the empire, he said, "To the strongest." But there was none strong enough. Thus the vast dominion broke into fragments soon after his death. Com OF Alexander. ^^^ j^j^ ^^j.^^^ schemeS of policy and conquest were buried in his grave. 98. Though the great empire of Alexander broke in , pieces almost at once, yet the effects of his Result of his career have remained to all time. One great conquests. ^ result was the Hellenizing of the conquered lands, that is, i| their assimilation to Greek ideas and Greek civilization. "The Greek language became the tongue of all govern- ment and literature throughout many countries where the people were not Greek by birth. It was thus at the very v moment that Greece began to lose her political freedom |J that she made, as it were, an intellectual conquest of a I large part of the world." I08 HISTORY OF GREECE. 3. ALEXANDER'S SUCCESSORS. 99. The great empire of Alexander, as has been said, Division of fell to picces after his death, and the generals the empire. .^j^q y^^^ fought under him contended fiercely during twenty years for the fragments. In the year 301 a decisive action took place at Ipsus in Phrygia, the result of which gave Syria and the East to Seleucus, Egypt to Ptol- emy, Thrace to Lysim'achus, and Macedonia to Cassander. Of the various kingdoms founded by these men, two are of special interest, — the kingdom of the Ptolemies in Eg}-pt and the kingdom of the Seleu'cidas in the East. 100. Egypt fell to the lot of Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, known as Ptolemy Soter. He was an energetic monarch, and during a long reign (323-283 B.C.) ruled Eg}^pt, on the whole, well. The Greeks and the Macedonians whom he carried with him or who emigrated to Egypt were the ruling race ; but the Egyp- tians were not oppressed, for many of the civil rulers were natives, and particular respect was paid to the old Egyptian religion. 101. Ptolemy I. was followed by a series of monarchs also called Ptolemies down to the time of o emies. q^^^^^ Cleopatra, the last of the line of the Ptolemies. On her death (30 B. c.) Egypt became a Roman province. 102. The history of Egypt during the three centuries of Alexandrine Ptolcmaic rulc is mainly the history of Alexan civilization. jj-j^^ which was made the capital, and which soon became a great and flourishing city. Literature, phi- losophy, and the arts were assiduously cultivated ; the great Alexandrian Library was swelled to 500,000 volumes, and a novel and peculiar culture and civilization — a mingling of Greek, Egyptian, and Jewish — arose on the Nile banks, under the paternal despotism of the Ptolemies. MAC EDO N AND GREECE. IO9 103. The kingdom of the Seleucidae was founded (312 B. C.) by Seleucus, another of Alexander's gen- Kingdom of erals. At first the kingdom consisted merely Seieucus. of Babylonia and the adjacent regions, Susiana, Media, and Persia ; but Seleucus afterwards made himself master of all the countries lying between the Indus and Euphrates on the one hand, and the Jaxartes and the Indian Ocean on the other. A still further addition was soon made in nearly all of Asia Minor. Seleucus now removed his capital from Babylonia to the newly founded Greek city of Antioch in Syria. 104. Seleucus, who died by assassination in 280, was fol- lowed by a succession of kings known as the ^ -' •11 Later history. Seleucidae, who for about two centuries ruled over the kingdom he had founded. This portion of history, however, is not specially instructive, and the kingdom of the Seleucidae was of no considerable importance in the history of civilization. The two centuries are filled with the stories of wars and revolts, in the midst of which the kingdom grad- ually lost its huge proportions ; its remnant was finally con- quered by Pompey and absorbed into the Roman Empire in the year 65 b. c. 4. LATER HISTORY OF MACEDON AND GREECE. 105. We now return to what took place in Macedon and Greece subsequently to the death of Alexander Greece resists the Great in b. c. 323. On the death of Alex- Macedon. ander, the Greeks were inspired by high hopes of bursting the chains which bound Hellas to the footstool of the Macedonian kings. Athens, under Demosthenes and Hy- per'ides, took the lead : they formed a confederacy of the Greek states, and entered on what was called the " Lamian war "(323-321 B. c). But the confederates were unsuccess- ful, and the yoke of Macedonia was riveted on them more firmly than ever. no HISTORY OF GREECE. 106. The last days of Grecian history, before the coun- Later Greek try Came altogether under the power of the politics. Romans, are distinguished in several ways from the times which went before them. The chief powers of Greece now were Macedonia, Achaea, .^tolia, and Sparta % Macedonia, for reasons that will readily be known ; Achaes and ^tolia, from a new fact in the politics of Greece^ namely, the formation of Federal Leagues of States. 107. The nature of these leagues was similar to the Grecian federal union of the States of Switzerland and leagues. q£ Q^J. q^^j^ Republic ; that is, there was an agreement on the part of several states to give up part of their power, and especially their control of questions of peace and war, to a general government in which all had a share. These leagues now came to be of special weight in Greek politics, since it was found that as long as the cities stood one by one they had no chance of keeping their free- dom against the Macedonian kings. The most important of these federal unions were the Achaean (formed in 280 B. c.) and the ^tolian Leagues. Besides these two great federations, there were smaller unions ; so that, with the exception of Sparta at one end and Macedonia at the other, the greater part of Greece was parted out among the differ ent leagues. 108. These confederations of the Greek States subserved a useful purpose, as they enabled them to pre Their effect. £^ ^ ' . , -^ , . ^ -.^ serve a front of independence against Mace don. Under Ara'tus and Philopoe'men, — two patriots oi the kind that Hellas had produced in her glorious times, — the States of the Achaean League rose to a considerable eminence (245-213 b. c.) ; but the jealous selfishness oi Sparta once more led to discord and strife, and the Mace donian king, being called in as umpire, was once more master. 109. But Macedon itself was about to be swallowed up b\ ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. Ill a yet greater power, — by Rome. It was at this time, as we shall presently see, that the Romans, having Macedon and broken the power of Carthage, turned their Ro">e. ambition eastward. After a long conflict (200- 1 68 b. c.) the Macedonian kingdom was overtlirown at the battle of Pydna, 168 b. c, and Perseus, the last of the Macedonian kings, adorned as a captive the triumph of a Roman general. 110. After this event the Greek republics were for a short time left independent ; but, quarreling Last days of once more among themselves, they were finally Greece. (146 B. c.) reduced to a Roman province under the name of Achaia. 111. The intellectual history of later Greece was of a different character from that of its glorious Decline of period. There was more of scholarship, but Delias. less of creative genius. We have seen that the Oriental conquests of Alexander and the Greek rule in the new king- doms of the East tended to Hellenize Asia ; but there was a reflex influence of Asia on Hellas herself. The Oriental habits of servility and adulation superseded the old free- spoken independence and manliness ; patriotism and public spirit waned ; literature lost its vigor 3 art deteriorated, and the people sank into a nation of pedants, parasites, and adventurers. " 'T was Greece, but living Greece no more 1 " ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. First Authentic Period, — from the Dorian migra. tions to the beginning of the Persian Wars, B. C. 1 100- 500. Second Period, — from the beginning of the Persian Greek "history 1 ^^""^ *° *^^ victory of Philip of Macedon at Chaero- 1 nea, B. c. 500-338. I Third Period, — from the victory of Philip to the 1. absorption of Greece by the Romans, B. c. 338- 146. Three Periods of 112 HISTORY OF GREECE. First Period, B.C. 1100-500. The Heroic Age ended with a general migration of the tribes of Greece, the settlement of the Do- rians in the Peloponnesus, and the establishment of colonies on the shores of Asia Minor and else- where. In the succeeding three or four centuries the Spartans, under the form of government established by Lycurgus, became General J the leading state of the Pelopon- Summary. I nesus, conquering the Messenians and others. Athens meantime had become an oligarchy. A more moderate government was estab- lished by Solon ; however, con- tentions were frequent, and Pi- sistratus seized power, which remained with his sons, till the Pisistratidae were expelled, and Athens became a pure democracy. Second Period, B. C. 500-338. The Ionian Greeks in Asia Minor revolted from Persia, and Athens lent them aid. Accord- ingly Darius sent Mardonius against Greece ; but he advanced no farther than Macedonia, his fleet being destroyed by a storm. Then Darius sent a vast force under Datis, but it was defeated in the battle of Marathon. Da- rius having died, his son Xerxes moved on Greece with an im- mense army and fleet: he was successful at Thermopylae, and took Athens ; but was defeated at Salamis, and the remaining force at Platasa and Mycale, — which caused the Persian scheme wholly General Summary. LEADING DATES. B.C. Dorian migration 1100 Colonies founded in Asia Minor (about) 1000 Period of Lycur- gus (about 850 Beginning of first Messenian war.. 743 Beginning of sec- ond 685 Solon's constitu- tion 594 Pisistratus be- came dictator... 560 Banishment of the Pisistratidae 510 Revolt of the Ioni- an Greeks against Persia 500 Expedition of Mar- donius 49a Battle of Mara- thon -. 490 Battle of Ther- mopylae 48c Battlr of Salamis. 480 Battle of Plataea.. 479 Battle of Mycale.. 479 ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. 113 to fail. The half-century follow- ing the battle of Salamis was the most brilliant period of Athenian history (age of Pericles) ; but the greatness of Athens led to the Peloponnesian war. This was in- terrupted by the Peace of Nicias ; but, being renewed, the Athenians were beaten in various engage- ments, and finally defeated at ^gos Potamos : so the result of this war was the ascendency of Sparta. Sparta continued prom- inent till her defeat at Leuctra. Thebes now became for a while the leading state ; but Greece, rent by dissensions, was soon sub- jugated by Philip of Macedon, in the battle of Chaeronea. Beginning of Pelo- ponnesian 'War.. Peace of Nicias... 431 421 Battle of .Sgos Potamos 405 Battle of Leuctra. 371 Battle of Chsro- nea 338 General Summary. " Third Period, B. C. 338 - 146. Philip of Macedon by war and intrigues made himself master of Greece, and was then appointed general-in-chief against Persia ; but he died, and his son Alexan- der took up the task. He marched against the Persians in Asia Mi- nor, defeating them at the Granicus and at Issus ; then into Egypt and Assyria, defeating them in the de- cisive battle of Arbela. He after- wards marched eastward to beyond the Indus, and thence returned to Babylon, where he died. After Alexander's death his generals disputed, and the empire was di- vided. Greece, meanwhile, fell into a state of intestine war, and at last became a Roman province. Death of Philip of Macedon 336 Battle of the Gran- icus 334 Battle of Issus... 333 Battle of Arbela.. 331 Death of Alexan- der 323 Greece made a Ro- man province... 146 u 114 HISTORY OF GREECE. CHAPTER V. GRECIAN CIVILIZATION. I. POLITICAL IDEAS. 112. The history of Greece, though the history of but a , . small part of the world for a brief period (the Part played m , ..... , , , ,, history by grand age IS limited to the century and a half between the battle of Marathon, 490 b. c, and the triumph of Philip of Macedon, 338 b. c), is of permanent interest, for the reason that the Greeks were the first people to show the world what real freedom and real civilization are. It has been said that in the Grecian commonwealths " the political and intellectual life of the world began." 113. The great contribution given by Greece to the Political free- world's civilization was the practical example ^°'"- of free, self-governing states. In the Oriental nations the only government was despotism : there was an absolute lord, and there was a mass of subjects or slaves, but no people in a political sense. It was left for the Greek states to give an illustration of democracy, — " the govern- ment of the people, for the people, by the people." This was a great fact : it is only in an atmosphere of freedom that the human mind can expand and that progress is pos- sible, for political liberty means intellectual liberty; sc that, without this, the germs of Hellenic genius would prob- ably never have borne their rich fruitage of literature and art 3. RELIGION. 114. Though the Greeks never rose to the exalted He- brew conception of one God, yet their religion was much religion: 115 in advance of the dark and often cruel superstitions of most of the ancient nations. They were poly- „ , . , , , , 1 , 1 Greek and theists, but, as they looked on the gods as other pagan, their personal friends, their paganism was a religion of love, whereas Asiatic paganism was a religion of fear. 115. The religion of the Greeks received its peculiar form from the beautiful fictions of the poets, us poetic especially of Homer and He'siod. Thus their character, mythology was an inexhaustible treasury of highly ideal con- ceptions which the chisel and the pen of artists and poets embodied in forms of immortal grandeur and loveliness. 116. In the Grecian theogony, or history of the gods, the earliest events that are described are the pro- Greek theog- ceedings of certain gigantic agents, — the col- °"y- lision of certain terrific forces, which were ultimately reduced under the more orderly government of Zeus, or Jupiter, with whom begins a new dynasty, and a different order of beings. 117. Zeus divided the sovereignty with his two brothers, — Posei'don (Neptune) and Hades (Pluto). Dynasty of He retained for himself the ether and the at- ^^"®- mosphere, together with the general presiding function. Poseidon obtained the sea, while Hades ruled the world of shades. These deities, with their sisters and divine progeny, comprehended the gods worshiped by the early Greeks. Twelve were especially called the great Olympian gods, being supposed to dwell on the heights of Mount Olympus and to form the divine ag'ora, or council of the gods, which was held there. The student will here find the names and chief attributes of the Olym- pian divinities, together with the Latin names, by which they are more generally known I. Zeus, or yupiter, the chief and father of the gods. He is always represented as seated on a throne with the thunderbolts in his right band, and an eagle by his side. Il6 HISTORY OF GREECE. 2- Po-sei'don, or Neptune, the earth-shaker and ruler of the sea: his symbol is a trident. 3. A-pol'16n, or Apollo (called also Phoebus Apollo), the divinity of poetical inspiration, of song and music. He was figured as the beau ;d'/a/ of manly beauty. (Statue of Apollo Belvedere discovered in 1503.) 4. Ar'te-mis, or Diana, the huntress among the immortals, the divin- ity of flocks and of the chase. As twin-sister of Apollo, she was the divinity of the moon. 5. He-phais'tos, or Vulcan, the god of terrestrial fire : he is repre- sented as a blacksmith. 6. Her'mes, or Mercury, the messenger of the gods ; the god of elo- quence, and the protector of trade : he is marked by his winged san- dals, and by his caduceus, or wand. 7. A'res, or Mars, the god of war, delighted in the din of battle, the slaughter of men, and the destruction of towns. 8. He'ra, or Juno, the wife of Jupiter, a beautiful but unamiable god- dess. 9. A-the'na, or Minerva (also Pallas), the goddess of wisdom and war 10. Hes'tia, or Vesta, the goddess of the hearth. 11. De-me'ter, or Ce'res, the goddess of agriculture. 12. Aph-ro-di'te, or Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, is gener- ally represented with her son E'ros, or Cupid. The legend runs that she rose from the sea-foam and landed on the island of Cyprus. The Odyssey represents her as the wife of Vulcan. Venus was of course a favorite subject with the Greek sculptors. The two finest remain- ing statues of this goddess are the Venus de Medici and the lovely but imperfect statue known as the Venus of Milo. 118. Besides the twelve dii majores, or greater gods of Other divini- Olympus, there was an indefinite number of *'^^- others, some of whom were little inferior in power and dignit}-. Such were He'Iios, or Sol (the Sun) ; Bac- chus, whom the Greeks called Diony'sos, to whom the goat- herds and vine-dressers paid especial honor ; the Muses ; the Nere'ides, or sea-nymphs ; the Graces, etc. There were also monsters, — the progeny of the gods, — as the Harpies, the Gorgons, Cer'berus, the Centaurs, the Dragon of the Hesper'ides, etc. 119. By the Greeks all nature was imaged as moving and working through a number of personal agents ; and GRECIAN FESTIVALS. II J tViough many of the legends concerning these personages appear to us silly, and some quite shocking, yet the early Greek religion was, to say the of Greek re- least, composed of many beautiful and poetic '*^*°"' conceptions. It was not until later that the Greeks adopted from Egypt, Asia Minor, and Thrace the grosser supersti tions practiced in their orgies and Eleusinian mysteries. 120. The popular worship of the gods consisted princi- pally in sacrifices, which were either offerings of prayer and thanksgiving, or sin-offerings: these were celebrated by the priests either in the open air, on the tops of mountains, in forests and groves, or in tem- ples, especially on the occasion of the celebration of the great national festivals. The offerings were either animals — sometimes single, sometimes in great numbers (heca- tombs) — or inanimate objects, as fruits, wine, honey, milk, frankincense, etc. Other modes of honoring the gods were by short forms of prayer uttered standing and with out- stretched arms, by votive offerings, solemn processions, and religious dances. 121. The Greeks believed that they obtained revelations of the divine will from the oracles, of which ^ , Oracles. the most renowned were those of Zeus at Do- do'na, and of Apollo at Delphi. 3. GRECIAN FESTIVALS. 122. One of the most striking features of Grecian life were the congresses of the people of all the xhe four fes- states and colonies at the four great national t'^^'s. festivals, — the Olympic, Pyth'ian, Isth'mian, and Ne mean Games. The Olympic Festival was celebrated in honor of Jupiter in the plain of Olympia, in E'lis, every four years ; the Pythian was held in the third year of each Olympiad, near Delphi, in honor of Apollo ; the Isthmian, in honor oi Il8 HISTORY OF GREECE. Neptune, was so called from its being celebrated on me Isthmus of Corinth ; the Nemean, in honor of Nemean Ju- piter, at the town of Ne'mea in the Peloponnesus. 123. The great feature of all these festivals were those ^ " Games," or, as the Greeks called them, " Con- Thsir nature. ,,.,.,. . , , tests, in which prizes were awarded to the victors in athletic exercises, in foot and horse and chariot races, in music and poetry. The prizes were of no value by themselves, — a mere garland of olive, laurel, etc., placed on the victor's head. But this chaplet carried with it death- less fame. The name of the victor was proclaimed before assembled Hellas, his statue was erected in the sacred grove, and his praises were sung by poets. He returned in triumphal procession to his home, where distinguished honors and substantial rewards awaited him. 124. These festivals lasted for several days, and drew together an immense multitude from all parts ciai and liter- of Greece. They thus afforded the best pos- '^^^' sible means for commercial, social, and literary intercourse. " In the booths around the plain of Olympia, merchants exchanged the rude wares they had brought from the banks of the Tanais and the Rhone against the rich products of Asia and Africa ; the social and political condi- tion of the various states of the mother country, of her far- thest colonies, and of the barbarian nations around them, might be compared. Teachers of philosophy discussed the theories which sprang up in Athens and Italian Greece ] sculptors and painters took occasion to exhibit the finest productions of chisel and brush ; while poets and historians read aloud, in all their freshness, those immortal works which we only half admire for want of such a hearing. Such intercourse must have powerfully tended to maintain thai intellectual sjTnpathy which, in the absence of any political union, was the strongest bond of nationality among the sons of Hellas."* * Philip Smith. History of the World. GREEK LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY. II9 4. GREEK LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY. 125. Leaving aside the Sacred Scriptures, the literature of Greece is incomparably the most valuable of comparisou oi all the literatures of antiquity. It is far richer, '"t^ratures. grander, and more original than that of Rome, — and in- deed the Latins were avowedly imitators of the Greeks. Of the literature of the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phoeni- cians we have only fragments, and these are far from show- ing a high tone of thought or sentiment. The ancient Persians have left us but one important work the Zend- Avesta, and this is rude and primitive in its structure. The great body of Hindoo writings (the Vedas, etc.) is, from its lack of form, curious rather than valuable. With the Greeks, for the first time, came noble intellectual conceptions em- bodied in forms of literary art. 126. In Greek literature poetry precedes prose. The oldest Greek poems that remain to us are the „ ^ . V , Homer. two immortal epics (1. e. narrative poems) that go by the name of Homer, — namely, the Iliad and the Odyssey. These are considered the finest epics ever writ- ten : they breathe the freshness and charm of the poetic springtime of the world. It is a noticeable fact that these earliest monuments of Grecian literature do not belong to continental but to colonial Hellas. It was in the Ionian and vEolian cities on the coast of Asia Minor that the lit- erature of Greece originated ; for whether the Iliad and the Odyssey are to be looked on as the work of one individual or of many bards, scholars are agreed that they must be regarded as the composition of Asiatic Greeks. 127. By the Greeks Homer was regarded as a real in- dividual ; Herod'otus places him four hundred Homer among years before himself, which would fix his pe- ^^'^ Greeks, riod at about 880 b. c. These poems were for centuries lodged only in the memory of bards, who sang or recited i:iO HISTORY OF GREECE. them to assembled companies and at festivals. They were not committed to writing till the period of Pisistratus at Athens (b. c. 560). On the subject of the authorship of the Homeric poems, read Chajv ter XXI. of Grote's Greece, Vol. II. The most celebrated English trans- lations of Homer are those of Chapman (time of Shakespeare), Pope and Cowper (last century), Lord Derby and our American poet, William Callen Bryant. 128. The next development of epic poetry was in Bceo'- tia, in the works of Hesiod, who is thought to have lived in the 8th century, that is, about a century after Homer. The two most famous books of He- siod are the Theogony and the Works and Days. These were looked up to by the Greeks as of great authority in theological and philosophical matters; but they do not possess the same interest for us as the Homeric poems. 129. The epic was the only kind of poetry during the Epic and kingly period. The epics usually related the elegy. exploits of the heroes of the mythical ages, and hence were very acceptable to princes who claimed descent from those heroes. When, however, regal rule gave place to democracy, poets arose who were stimulated to a freer expression of live feelings. The new style of poetry is called the Elegy, — but the word has a wider meaning than with us, and denoted all emotional poetry. One of the most famous writers of the elegy was Tyrtae'us (born in the latter part of the 8th century b. c). He is said to have been a lame schoolmaster at Athens, sent to Sparta in de- rision by the Athenians, to whom the Spartans had applied for a leader in the Messenian war: it is added that his stirring songs had a great influence on the campaign. Simon'ides of Ceos, who belongs to the 5th century, is also named as a writer of noble elegies. 130. The next step in the progress of Greek poetical GREEK LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY. 121 literature was the growth of lyric poetry. The chief feature of this style was its connection with music, ^ . ,, . IT- Lync poetry. vocal as well as instrumental. Lyric poems were sung, accompanied with music and often with the fnovements of the dance. The most famous names in Greek lyric poetry are Sappho, Alcas'us, Anac'reon, and Pin- dar. Sappho, who wrote in the 6th century b. c, was a Les- bian ; she sang of love, and Alcaeus, who also was a Lesbian and her contemporary, calls her the " violet-crowned, pure, sweetly smiling Sappho." Pindar (born 522 b. c.) was a native of Boeotia ; he was the most celebrated of the Doric school of lyrists, and was thought by the Greeks the most sublime of their poets. 131. The highest form of Greek literature, the drama, arose in Athens in the age of Pericles, 5th cen- ^ ° . Drama. tury B. c. Tragedy attained its full develop- ment at the hands of ^s'chylus (born 525 b. c), Soph'ocles (born 495 b. c), and Eurip'ides (born 480 b. c). The fertil- ity and excellence of Greek dramatic poetry at the flood tide of national greatness were most remarkable. The festivals of Bacchus (Dionysos), celebrated at Athens every spring, were the principal occasions on which new pieces were brought out, and always in competition for the prize and under the direction of the chief magistrates. 132. Greek tragedy as exhibited in the masterpieces of .^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides was very Cornpanson different from our drama, and especially from speare. the plays of Shakespeare. The Shakespearian tragedy deals with human life and passion ; Greek tragedy with the gods and mythical heroes. In regard to treatment, the Greek dramatist was bound to obey the rules of " unity of time and place " ; that is, the plot must be confined to one place and to an interval of time not much exceeding that which was occupied in the representation. All that could not be sup^ posed to happen in the presence of the chorus, and within 122 HISTORY OF GREECE. the compass of a few hours, had to be narrated, and could not be acted. Shakespeare wholly disregarded the limitations of time and space. Had such a subject as Ki7ig Lear been treated by Sophocles, all that precedes the fifth act would have been narrated, and the fifth alone acted. 133. Athenian comedy derived its origin from the revels and gibes of the comus, or Bacchic procession. Comedy. _ ^ a • , , /, Its greatest master was Aristoplranes (born at Athens 444 b. c). Among the most famous of his comedies that have come down to us are The Clouds, The Wasps, 2716 Birds, and The Frogs. They satirize Athenian society in a very pungent and amusing manner. 134. We now turn to prose literature. In history the first great name is that of Herodotus, called Herodotus. . . the " Father of History." He was an Ionian Greek of Halicarnas'sus in Asia Minor, and was born in 484 B. c, between the first and second Persian wars. The subject chosen by Herodotus was the History of the Per- sian Wars ; but it took a wider scope, and was really a sort of universal history up to his time. He had traveled exten- sively in Egypt and in Asia, and presents us with a vivid and most interesting picture of society and life among the na- tions of antiquity at his time. The style of Herodotus is that of a charming story-teller, and his work is still read with pleasure. Many translations of Herodotus have been made. The best is that of Rawlinson, in four volumes. The notes and essays appended to the text of Herodotus in this admirable work contain the results of the latest scholarship regarding the history of each country treated. 135. The most philosophic historian produced by Greece _^ ^.^ is Thucyd'ides (born at Athens 471 b. c). Thucydides. ,■'. ^ t i / The subject chosen by Thucydides was the Peloponnesian War. His history is distinguished for the GREEK LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY. 1 23 loftiness of its style, and for the profound insight it dis- plays into the actions and motives of men. It is the ear- liest example of the philosophy of history, and as such it is what Thucydides himself proudly called it, a " possession forever." 136. Among other historians may be named Xenophon, a contemporary of Thucydides, distinguished other histo- for his easy and graceful style of narrative ; Po- "»"*. lyb'ius, who belongs to the 2d century b. c. ; and Diodo'rus, who belongs to the ist century. Plutarch, whose Lives has been called the " Bible of heroisms," * lived in the 2d cen- tury A. D, 137. In connection with prose literature should be men- tioned eloquence, or oratory. It was first cul- ^ 1 . , , • , Oratory. tivated as an art at Athens durmg the great period of the democracy. Pericles himself was master of a style of oratory so sublime as to gain for him the epithet of " the Olympian." Political oratory was exhibited in its fullest development in the contest between ^s'chines (393 - 317 B. c), the advocate of Macedonian interests, and his greater adversary Demosthenes (385-332 B.C.), who, in exposing and opposing the plans of Philip, " shook the arsenal And fulmined over Greece." 138. Philosophy was first cultivated in the Grecian col- onies of Asia Minor and Lower Italy : in the Early phiios- former by Tha'les, who lived in the 6th century, °phers. and was the founder of the Ionic school ; in the latter by Pythag'oras, who belonged to the same century, and was the head of the Pythagore'an school. Thales, Pythagoras, and the other early sages of Greece chiefly occupied themselves with natural philosophy ; but in the 5th century they were succeeded by the Sophists and Rhetors, who taught the arts * R. W. Emerson. 124 HISTORY OF GREECE. Socrate»- of dialectics and rlietoric, and were the paid instructors of the Athenian youth. 139. Soc'rates, one of the wisest and greatest of the hu- man race, belongs to the epoch immediately succeeding the age of Pericles (469-399 b. c). He did not teach any positive system of philosophy ; his special work was to break down prejudices, to show people their ignorance, to expose fallacies, and to assert the exist- ence of great necessary truths, — of the good, the true, and the beautiful, — and this he did by a meth- od of search- mg mquiry called, after him, the So- cratic. He Socrates. Plato. ■(;vas ungainly of person and ascetic in his habits ; he taught without pay in the porticoes, the market-place, and the street, addressing all who chose to listen, in a homely but most pointed and telling style. Notwithstanding his pure and noble life, and his efforts to promote the welfare of mankind, his doctrines made him many enemies : he was charged before the Athe- nian magistrates with not believing in the gods, and with being a corrupter of youth. Being condemned on these charges, he was sentenced to drink a cup of hemlock. He met his death calmly, surrounded by his beloved and weep- ing disciples, to whom in his last hours he discoursed on the Immortality of the Soul. 140. Plato (429 — 347 B. c), one of the disciples of Soc- rates, was the founder of the Academic school, so called from the groves of Acade'mus, near Athens, where the philosopher gave his lectures. The works of Plato remain in the form of his Dialogues, In these Plato. GRECIAN ART. 125 Socrates is represented as the principal speaker; but the philosophy of Plato was really his own. It is distinguished for its lofty ideal character. The Platonic doctrines have had a powerful influence on the human mind, and are the high-water mark of spirituality in the ancient world. 141. Aristot'le (384-322 b. c), the founder of the Peri- patet'ic school (at the Lyceum at Athens), was the most logical and systematic of the philoso- phers and scientists of Greece. He first gave form to what is called the deductive system of reasoning. His philosophy predominated over the minds of men for two thousand years, — lasting, in fact, until it was displaced by the Induc- tive system, with which the name of Bacon is associated. Induction arrives at truth by reasoning up from facts to general laws ; deduction begins with abstract principles and seeks to arrive at truth by reasoning downwards, as in ge- ometry. Aristotle was the teacher of Alexander the Great. S. GRECIAN ART. 142. The four fine arts are architecture, sculpture, paint- ing, and music. The artistic instincts of the Forms of Greeks expressed themselves in the first two Greek art. forms (for painting and music belong properly to the Mid- dle Ages and to Christianity) ; and in these a degree of per- fection was attained that was never before seen and that has never since been surpassed. 143. The most important architectural works of Greece are the temples of the gods : in these we find the development of the Grecian column in the ^'"^ ^^' three classic forms, — the Doric, the Ionic, and the Cor- inthian. It is probable that all the principal cities of Greece had temples commensurate with their dignity before the Persian wars ; but many were destroyed during that struggle, and in the grand period of national life that 126 mSTORY OF GREECE. followed the contest with Persia the people pulled down and rebuilt the old structures in a more magnificent style. The consequence is that nearly all the great temples now found in Greece were built in the forty or fifty years which succeeded the defeat of the Persians at Salamis. Ionic order. Doric. Ionic. Corinthian. Three Orders of Greek Architecture. 144. The graceful Ionic order of architecture had its origin in the Greek cities of Ionia in Asia Minor. The most celebrated example of this order was the temple of Diana at Ephesus, burnt on the birthnight of Alexander the Great (b. c. 356) by Heros'tratus, and rebuilt in still more splendid style in the Roman age. This temple was 425 feet long by 220 feet wide. Its whole foundation has been laid bare by English explorations. 145. The Corinthian was the highest and most richly ornamented of the Grecian orders. The an- Corinthian. . , , . . , , ,. , cients employed it m temples dedicated to Venus, Flora, and the nymphs of fountains, because the flowers and foliage with which it is adorned seemed well GRECIAN ART. \2J adapted to the delicacy and elegance of such deities. It dates from the latter part of the 5 th century B. c. 146. The most famous of the Doric temples of Greece is the Parthenon, — the "House of the Virgin," p^^^^^„^„_ dedicated to Athena (Minerva) : it was built of pure white marble, and crowned the Aciopolis at Athens. Of this structure a great authority says : " In its own class it is undoubtedly the most beautiful building in the world. It is true it has neither the dimensions nor the wondrous expression of power and eternity inherent in Egyptian tem- ples, nor has it the variety and poetry of the Gothic cathe- dral ; but for intellectual beauty, for perfection of proportion, for beauty of detail, and for the exquisite perception of the highest and most recondite principles of art ever applied to architecture, it stands utterly and entirely alone and unri- valed, — the glory of Greece, and the shame of the rest of the world." * 147. It is acknowledged that in sculpture the Greeks attained absolute perfection. The finest speci- , ^ . , , . Sculpture. mens of Grecian sculpture that remain to us are the figures that adorned the pediments and friezes of the Parthenon. Most of these were taken by Lord Elgin from Athens to England, and are now in the British Mu- seum. Many of the figures are, unfortunately, in a mutilat- ed state, but they nevertheless embody the very perfection of loveliness, majesty, and power. These works were ex- ecuted by a school of artists under the direction of the illus- trious Phid'ias, who belonged to the grand period following the Persian wars. This was the heroic age of Grecian sculp- ture : later artists produced forms that the uninstructed re gard as more bemitiful., but they lack the perfect purity and repose of these immortal works. * Ferguson's History of Architecture, Vol. I. p. 221. See cut of the Parthenon, p. 73 of the present book. 128 HISTORY OF GREECE. 6. GREEK LIFE, MANNERS, ETC. 148. The mode of life and the manners and customs of tlie Greeks, as gleaned from their writings and the relics they have left us, form a deeply interesting subject, — which, however, can merely b^ touched on here. 149. The dress of the Greeks was simple, without un- necessary coverings or useless display of orna- ments. Between the sexes there was little difference of attire. The garments were commonly of wool, linen, and later of cotton. The women wore no head-cov- erings ; all the men, too, were hatless, except travelers and certain kinds of workmen. In-doors the Greeks used no foot-covering ; abroad they wore sandals, shoes, sometimes boots. 150. The Greeks ate three daily meals, reclining on couches, and using neither table-cloth nor nap- kins. In primitive fashion, they used their fin- gers for knives and forks ; but spoons were common. They washed the hands (no wonder !) before and after meals. Among the common people dried fish and barley bread, witK dates, were the staple food. Among the well-to-do all sorts, of luxuries were of course indulged in. After dinner came the symposium, when host and guests drained goblets of wine mixed with hot or cold water, being governed by the " master of the feast," who was chosen by lot. This drinking-bout was enlivened by varied conversation, music, dancing, and all sorts of games and amusements. 151. Though the state did not support schools, yet daily school-going was quite general; the boys alone went to school, however. The whole education of a Greek youth was divided into three parts, — grammar, music, and gymnastics. The schoolmaster was called the gra?nmatis'ies, or grammarian ; but with the Greeks GREEK LIFE, MANNERS, ETC. 1 29 ''grammar" included most of the rudimentary branches of education, while under the term " music " came all intel- lectual accomplishments. The gymnasium, where the body was rendered supple and strong by wrestling, running, box- ing, and kindred pursuits, was part and parcel of Greek education, and was much frequented both for pastime and exercise. There the contestants trained for the celebrated Olympic Games. 152. Women seem in the Homeric age to have held a higher position in the household than in later Position of times. In the historic period, the husband w°"^^"- treated his wife as a faithful slave, " something better than his dog, a little dearer than his horse." The principle on which the education of women rested was, that just so much mental culture was expedient for women as would enable them to manage the household, provide for the bodily wants of the children, and overlook the female slaves. Secluded in the gytieccE'um, or female apartment, both before and after marriage, they led a secluded and narrow life ; so that we must think of Greek society as destitute of the refining and ennobling influence of cultured mothers, sisters, and 'vives ; and this fact resulted in some distincdy traceable defects in the products of Grecian genius. We shall here- after see that it is to Christianity that we are indebted foi the elevation of woman to her true place in society. -^ A Procession of Suppliants 130 HISTORY OF ROME. SECTION III. HISTORY OF ROME, CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHY AND RACES. 1. The histon^ of the Romans, the last and greatest people of antiquity, is now to engage our at- tention. We shall see how this people comes first to notice as a village community in the 8th century B. c, — how it develops into a vigorous republic and sub- dues all the other races of the peninsula, — how it push- es its conquests beyond the bounds of Italy, — and how, finally, about the time of the birth of Christ, it stands forth a great imperial and world- ruling power. It is a won- derful and most instructive story. 2. Italy is the central one of the three great peninsulas Geographical which project from the South of Europe into features. ^^ Mediterranean Sea. It has an extreme length of 700 miles, is bounded on the north by the chain of the Alps, and is surrounded on other sides by the sea. It may be divided into tw'O parts, — the northern consisting of the great plain drained by the river Padus, or Fo, with its tributaries, and the southern being a long tongue of land with the Apennines as a backbone traversing it from GEOGRAPHY AND RACES. 132 north to south. It should be noticed, however, that, till the time of the Empire, the Romans never in- cluded the plain of the Po in Italy. To this sec- tion they gave the name of Gallia Cisalpi'na, or Gaul on this (the Roman) side of the Alps. Both the northern aiid southern sections of It- aly comprised many distinct territorial di- visions, the names of whick will best be learned from the map. 3. Italy was inhabited, at the earliest period to which our knowledge carries us back, by four principal races, the Gauls, Etruscans, lapyg'ians, and Italians proper ; but the first three are of minor importance compared with the fourth, the Italians proper. 4. The Gauls inhabited the greater part of Northern Italy (Gallia Cisalpina) ; they were a branch pirst three of the same race that inhabited Gaul to the '■*^^®- north of the Alps (France), and hence were Aryans. The Etruscans inhabited Etruria, a district between the Arno and the Tiber. Their origin is involved in great obscurity, hut it is believed that this people belonged to the Aryan stock. Certain it is that, long before Rome appears as a village on the Tiber, the Etruscans had developed a pe- culiar civilization : they were great builders, and skilled in Races. U2 HISTORY OF ROME. many of the arts ; they delighted in auguries, and had a strange and gloomy religion. In Apulia and the heel of Italy dwelt the lapygians : this people seems to have been a primitive race, quite distinct from the Italians proper. In addition to these races, we should also notice the Greeks in Italy, for this people had early planted so many colonies on the southern coast that they gave to that dis- trict the name of Magna Grcecia, or Great Greece. 5. The fourth of the races of Italy is the one with which we shall be mainly concerned in Roman his- Italians. ,-r^, . . , "^ _ ,. ... tory. ihis is the Italiati race proper, which occupied almost the whole of Central Italy. It was origi- nally a pure Aryan stock, nearly related to the Hellenic race, — a kinship which is strikingly attested by the agree- ment of Greek and Latin in many words that relate to agriculture and the primitive facts and phases of life. 6. The Italians proper were divided into two branches, the Latins and the Umbro-Sabelliatis, the latter including various tribes : — I Latins, T 1 TT u ( Umbrians, Italians. < Umbro- ) c v J c u 1T \ Sabmes, / Sabellians. > „ V \ bamnites, eta Now it is with the first branch that we shall be specially concerned in the beginnings of Roman history, — namely, with the Latin branch of the Italian race ; for it was by men of this stock that were laid the foundations of the might}' Roman state. 7. The seat of the Latins was Latium, a small district Seat of the o" the wcstem coast of Central Italy, betAveen Latins. ^j^e Tiber and the Liris. Its limits are repre sented in the map on the opposite page. Italians. PRIMEVAL ROME. 133 CHAPTER II. PRIMEVAL ROME. — PERIOD OF THE KINGS. 8. The early history of Rome is given in an unbrokeis narrative by the Roman writers, who detail Legends of the marvels of Rome's descent from wide- ^^'''^ R""^*- famed Troy, the landing of JEne'as in Latium, the love of the god Mars for the vestal Rhea, her bear- ing twins by the god, their exposure in the Tiber, theirbeingsaved and suckled by a she- wolf and fed by a wood- pecker till found by the shepherd Faus'tulus, their finally restoring their grandfather to the throne of Alba Longa, and then their collect- ing their fellow-shep- herds and founding a town named Rome (from Romulus, the el- der of the twins), on the hill where they had been miraculously saved and educated. 9. These romantic legends were received by the Romans themselves with unquestioning simplicity ; but criticism on they can no longer be regarded as a narrative *^^^^- of real events. The records of the early days of Rome are known to have been destroyed when the city was burned by the Gauls (b. c. 390) ; and Livy, the earliest writer on Latiu Dominion of ^ PRIMEVAL Rome SCmL£ or Miles 134 HISTORY OF ROME. Roman affairs whose works have come down to us, wrote about 750 years after the foundation of the city. 10. At a very early period the Latins in the district of Latium formed a confederacy of thirty cities, Real begin- , , i r 1 • 1 1 <■ a n nings of at the head of which was the city of Alba °"*' Longa. Now it is believed that Rome was founded by a colony that went out from Alba Longa with the view of establishing there an outpost of defense against the Sabines and Etruscans, whose territory adjoined Latium at that point. And, indeed, according to modern scholars, the very name Roma, in place of having any relation to the fabled " Romulus," means a march, or border. 11. The founding of Rome is placed in the year 753 b. c. Earliest his- And, Setting aside the impossible fables of the '""■y- Roman historians, we may say there is good reason to believe that as early as the middle of the 8tli century before the Christian era there stood on a height on the Tiber, called the Palatine Mount, a little village named Roma, the center of a small township, consisting probably of 5000 or 6000 inhabitants, all of them husband- men or shepherds. A chain of events which history can- not now trace, but which is indicated in a poetic manner by a number of early Roman legends, led to the incorpora- tion of Rome with two neighboring towns, — a small Etrus- can settlement on the Caelian Hill, supposed to have been called Lu'cerum, another a Sabine village on the Quirinal Hill, called Quirium. The Sabines were received on a foot- ing of equality, but the Etruscans on a subordinate footing. The settlement thus consisted of three tribes, — the Ramnes^ or Romans, the Tities, or Sabines of Quirium, and the Lu- ceres, or Etruscans of Lucerum. 12. Tradition hands down the names of seven kings who ruled Rome during the regal period (753- 509 B.C.); but great obscurity hangs around the greater part of this epoch. PRIMEVAL ROME. 1 35 13. The Roman citizens were from the earliest times divided into two classes, — Patricians and Pie- organization beians, a distinction of great importance in °^ society. Roman history. To the Patricians belonged all magisterial offices, all the higher degrees of the priesthood, the owner- ship of the public lands, and the privilege of using a family- name. In fact, during the early ages the Patricians alone constituted the Popidus, or people, in a political sense; for not only was the senate chosen from their ranks, but the sole popular assembly was the assembly of Patricians, called the Comi'tia Curia'ta. The Plebeians at this time, though freemen and personally independent, were wholly destitute of political importance. 14. During the reign of the sixth king of Rome, Ser'vius TuUius, called the " King of the Commons," an change of important change was made in the constitution constitution, of the Roman state. Servius gave the Plebeians a share in the government by establishing a new national assembly called the Comitia Ceninria'ia, or Assembly of the Hundreds, in which both Plebeians and Patricians voted alike. It was so arranged that in the new national assembly the old families and the wealthy class should have most voice. However, notwithstanding these restrictions, the new con- stitution was a great concession to the people, as it virtu- ally admitted every free individual within the Roman ter- ritory to a share in the government. 15. An attempt on the part of the seventh and last king, Tarquin'ius Super'bus, to undo these reforms End of the and to establish what the ancients called a ^'"2^. tyranny, led to the expulsion of him and his family, and to flie abolition of the kingly form of government at Rome, 509 B. c. Ever after this the Romans hated the very name of king. 136 HISTORY OF ROME. CHAPTER III. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 1, EPOCH OF THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE (509-390 B. C). 16. The history of Rome as a republic covers a period Extent of his- of 482 vears, — from the termination of kingly *°''y- rule, 509 B. c, to the termination of republican rule by the establishment of the empire under Augustus, 27 B. c. 17. This period naturally divides itself into four Epochs. Its four I- Epoch of the Struggle for Existence, be- epochs. gjj^j^jj^g w'x'Cn. the establishment of the repub- lic and ending with the Gaulish invasion of Italy, 509-390 B. c. II. Epoch of the Roman Conquest of Italy, from the Gaul- ish invasion to the complete subjugation of the peninsula, after the repulse of Pyrrhus, 390-266 b. c. III. Epoch of Foreign Conquest, including the Punic and Macedonian wars down to the beginning of civil strife un- der the Gracchi, 266-133 b. c. IV. Epoch of Civil Strife, from the Gracchi to the estab- lishment of the Empire under Augustus, 133 — 27 b. c. 18. When, at the close of the 6th century (509 b. c). Nature of the Romc ceascd to be under kingly rule, it be- government. came a republic. Instead of a king, two mag- istrates called Consuls were elected every year. In other respects the constitution remained as before. The first consuls were Brutus and Collati'nus. 19. Rome had attained a high degree of power under Territory un- ^cr kings. By a treaty made in the second der the kings, ygg^^ of the republic with the Carthaginians (508 b. c), a treaty which has fortunately been preserved, it THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 1 37 appears that she was mistress of the whole coast from Ostia to Terracina, and traded with Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. 20. The state of things under the republic was for a long time much less fortunate. The Romans wars of the became engaged in contests with their neigh- ""eputiiic. bors, and soon after the change of government they lost a considerable part of their dominion. There were : i. Wars with the Etruscans ; 2. Wars witli the Sabines, Volscians, and yEquians ; 3. Wars with the ^quians and Volscians j 4. Wars with the ^quians and Veientines ; till finally, after over a century of strife, Rome was overwhelmed by the Gauls, 390 B. c. It is needless to enter into any account of these contests, and the more so, that almost the whole history of this epoch is of a legendary character. 21. Leaving aside the details, however, we can readily see that this century or more of desperate character of struggle for existence was in many respects a ^^^ penod. great era, and behind the veil of legend we plainly descry grand human figures, — the figures of those stern old pa- triots who gave to the name Roman its lofty significance. The old Roman character was indeed a hard character, — it was stern, unfeeling, in many respects cruel ; for we must remember that Christianity had not yet come to humanize men by the consciousness of universal brotherhood. But at the same time it had some noble virtues ; it was of heroic mold, and, for the work then required, was doubt- less just what was needed. Below will be found brief sketches of a few of the great men of the first epoch. GREAT NAMES OF EARLY ROME. Brutus (Lucius Junius), known as the " Elder Brutus," was one of the first two consuls. During his term of office the Roman state was threatened both from without and within. The exiled king, Tarquin, had retired to Etruria, where he began to intrigue for a return to Rome. In this he was aided by a conspiracy of a number of the 138 HISTORY OF ROME. young nobility, and among the conspirators were found the two sons of Brutus himself. The plot being discovered, the consul would not pardon his guilty children, and ordered the lictors* to put them to death with the other traitors, — a memorable example of inflexible justice. Soon after, the Etruscans espoused the cause of Tarquin and marched against Rome. When Aruns, a son of Tarquin, saw Brutus at the head of the Roman cavalry, he spurred his horse to the charge, and both fell from their horses mortally wounded. Boratius (Codes) is celebrated for his heroic "defense of tke bridge." The circumstances are these. Porsena, lars or lord of Clusium in Etruria, had taken up the cause of the exiled Tarquin, and in 508 B. c. advanced with a large army to the Mount Janiculum, just across the Tiber from Rome. That city was now in the greatest danger, and the Etruscans could have entered it by the Sublician bridge, had not Horatius Codes, with two comrades, kept the whole Etruscan army at bay while the Romans broke down the bridge behind him. When it was giving way he sent back his two companions, and withstood alone the attacks of the foes till the cracking of the falling timbers told him that the bridge was destroyed. Then praying, " O Father Tiber, take me into thy charge and bear me up ! " he plunged into the stream and swam across in safety amid the arrows of the enemy. The state raised a statue in his honor, and allowed him as much land as he could plow round in one day. Few legends are more celebrated in Roman history than this gallant deed of Horatius, and Roman writers loved to tell " How well Horatius kept the bridge In the brave days of old." Coriolanus (488 b. c). Caius Marcius, surnamed Coriolanus, from his valor at the capture of the Latin town of Corioli, was a brave but haughty Patrician. He was hated by the Plebeians, who refused him the consulship. This inflamed him with anger, and accordingly when the city was suffering from famine, and a present of corn came from Sicily, Coriolanus advised the senate not to distribute it among the Plebeians, unless they gave up their tribunes. Such insolence enraged the Plebeians, who would have torn him to pieces on the spot had not the tribunes summoned him before the Comitia of the Tribes. Corio- lanus himself breathed nothing but defiance ; and his kinsmen and friends interceded for him in vain. He was condemned to exile. Ac- cordingly he went over to the Volscians, the enemies of his country- • The I.tctnrt were public officers who attended upon the Roman magistrate •Xach consul had twelve lictors. They carried upon their shoulders/- pointed to the command of the Carthaginian Hannibal's army in Spain, he carried the Carthaginian campaign, line up to the Ebro and besieged Sagun'tum, an ally of Rome. The city fell, and Rome immediately declared hostilities. The result was the second Punic War, which began in the year 218 b. c. Before the Roman army was ready to take the field, Hannibal, who was one of the greatest military geniuses that ever lived, had crossed the Pyrenees on his way to Italy. He then proceeded to perform one of the most famous exploits on record : with his army he climbed over the Alps (218 B.C.), losing above 30,000 men, burst into the plain of Italy, and defeated the Romans in four battles, the greatest of which was Cannae, fought in 216 b. c. 57. In Italy the career of Hannibal was most extraor- dinary: for fifteen years (217-202 b. c.) he operations m maintained himself in the peninsula, moving ^'^^'^y- hither and thither, keeping seven or eight Roman generals, and among them the wary Fa'bius and the bold Marcellus, continually employed, scattering the Romans like chaff wherever he appeared, exhausting the finances of the state, and detaching the Italian nationalities from their allegiance. 58. It is probable that Hannibal might have maintained himself in Italy for an indefinite time, and Roman strat- finally have shattered the commonwealth in ^^^^ pieces, had it not been that the Romans assumed the offensive against Carthage. A vigorous young soldier, Pub'lius Scipio, was sent into Spain, which he reduced to the condition of a Roman province, thus closing the main f52 HISTORY OF ROME. avenue by which the Carthaginians could send reinforce- ments to Hannibal (216-205 B- c.)- Hannibal's brother, Hasdrubal, managed, indeed, to march from Spain across the Alps into Italy (207 b. c.) ; but his force was met and defeated, — and the first intimation Hannibal received of his brother's arrival in Italy was the sight of that brother's bloody head tossed contemptuously into his camp. 59. In spite of the cutting of his communications, Han- ciose of the nibal could readily have maintained himself in ^^'■- Italy ; but now Scipio passed over into Africa, and having defeated the Carthaginians in several battles, so terrified the authorities at Carthage that they recalled Han- nibal from Italy. The final battle of the war was fought on the plain of Zama in Africa, in the year 202 b. c. The vic- tory was with the Romans, and the Carthaginians in conse- quence were obliged to agree to a peace on very severe terms. Scipio — henceforward known as Scipio Africanus — returned home and was honored with the most magnifi- cent triumph that had yet been exhibited in the Roman capital. 60. Several years after this time Hannibal had to flee Anecdote of from his country, and he spent the last years Hannibal. ^f j^jg jj£g jj^ Syria and Bith}Ti'ia. By a strange coincidence of fortune, his victor, Scipio, had also to go into exile, and resided for a while at Ephesus, where Hanni- bal was at the time. Many friendly conversations passed between them, and in one of these the Roman is said to have asked the Carthaginian " whom he thought the greatest general." Hannibal immediately replied, " Alexander; be- cause that, with a small body of men, he had defeated very numerous armies, and had overrun a great part of the world." " And who do you think deserves the next place ? " continued the Roman. " Pyrrhus," replied the other ; " he first taught the method of forming a camp to the best advantage." "And whom do you place next to FOREIGN CONQUEST 1 53 those ? " said Scipio. " Myself," said Hannibal ; at which Scipio asked, with a smile, " Where, then, would you have placed yourself if you had conquered me ? " " Above Al- exander," replied the Carthaginian, " above Pyrrhus, and above all other generals." 61. An interval of fifty years separates the second from the third and last war with Carthage, and sev- Third Punic eral important events that we shall have to re- '^^^^ late happened in the interim ; but it will give us a clearer view if we close here the whole history of Rome's dealings with Carthage. 62. The third Punic war was, on the part of Rome, utterly causeless. The second had made Blame of the Carthage a dependent ally of Rome, but still ^^'■• left it free in its internal government. Now, a consid- erable party at Rome were bent on reducing Carthage to a position of complete subjugation. At the head of this party was Porcius Cato, the censor, who then swayed the decisions of the Roman senate. So bitterly hostile was he to Carthage, that for years he closed every speech he made — no matter on what subject — with the words, Delen'da est Carthago, " Carthage must be destroyed ! " 63. The humbled Carthaginians made every submission, yielding up their arms, their ships, and their Roman harsh- munitions of war, and they even offered to "^^^* give up their own government and become subjects of Rome. When, however, Rome proposed to raze their sea- side city, and send them to live inland, a wail of indigna- tion and despair went up from Carthage, and the inhabitant? determined to sacrifice their lives rather than submit to the savage mandate. 64. The third Punic War began in 149 b. c. The " Siege of Carthage " which lasted four years, siege of Car- and was conducted on the part of the Romans ^^age. by the younger Scipio, known as Scipio .^milia'nus, was the 154 HISTORY OF ROME. one event of this final struggle. Carthage was withouC ships, without allies, almost without arms ; yet she main- tained the contest with the courage of despair : the women gave their tresses to make bowstrings, and the men poured out their blood most lavishly. But it was all in vain. The city was taken, and, being set on fire, the flames continued to rage for seventeen days. Thus was Carthage with its walls and buildings, the habitations of 700,000 people, razed to its foundations. The Carthaginian territory was then made into the ^orc^zn Province of Africa, under a proconsul, and the seat of government was fixed at Utica (b. c. 146). 65. It is related that when Scipio beheld Carthage in Anecdote of flames his soul was softened by reflections on Scipio. fj^g instability of fortune, and he could not help anticipating a time when Rome herself should expe- rience the same calamities as those which had befallen her unfortunate competitor. He vented his feelings by quoting from Homer the lines in which Hector predicts the fall of Troy : — " Yet come it will, the day decreed by fates ; (How my heart trembles, while my tongue relates!) The day when thou, imperial Troy, must bend, And see thy warriors fall, thy glories end." 66. Meantime the Roman dominion had been enlarged Subjugation bv the annexation of Macedonia and Greece. of Macedon ^ , . i ^ r and Greece. While the late war was going on, the ruler of Macedon, King Philip V., became embroiled with Rome, owing to his having made a treaty with Hannibal. The Romans made a campaign against Philip, and in this con- test some of the Greek states sided with Macedon and some with Rome. The result was that in the battle of Cynos- ceph'alag, in Thessaly, 197 B. c, the power of Macedon was broken and Philip had to become a dependent ally of Rome. A little later the Macedonians were completely crushed at Pydna (168 B. c), and came still more under the power of FOREIGN CONQUEST. 1 55 Rome. In the year 146 b. c. (same year as the destruc- tion of Carthage) Corinth was captured and burned. No further resistance was offered to the victorious Romans, and Greece was made into a Roman province under the name of Achaia. 67. At the commencement of the period of conquesi (266 — 11^ B. c), the Roman dominion was con- Review of 11 • 1 r T 1 -1 • Rome's con- fined to the penmsula of Italy ; at its close it quests. extended over the whole of Southern Europe from the shores of the Atlantic to the straits of Constantinople, over the chief Mediterranean islands, and over a portion of North Africa, while farther east, in Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria, her influence was paramount. At the commencement of the period Rome was merely one of the " Great Powers " of the world as it then was, — that is, she ranked with Car- thage, Macedonia, and the kingdom of the Seleucidae ; at its close she was clearly the sole Great Power left. 68. The Roman dominion now became a duality, — it was " Italy and the Provinces." The politi- Rule of the cal state of Italy was that described in the last P'-°vinces. section ; but the addition of the conquered countries result ed in the new feature of Roman rule called Provincial gov- ernment. Retaining their native habits, religion, laws, etc., the inhabitants of every province were governed by a mili- tary president, sent from Rome, with a staff of officials. The provincials were required to pay taxes in money and kind ; and these taxes were farmed out by the censors tc Roman citizens, who, under the name of Publicans, settled irj the various districts of the provinces. ThuSj like a net- work proceeding from a center, the political system of the Romans pervaded the mass of millions of human beings in- habiting the shores of the Mediterranean ; and a vast popu- lation of various races and languages were all bound to- gether by the cohesive power of Roman rule. 69. The luster of the Roman power and the glory of the 156 HISTORY OF ROME. Roman name were now at their height. The eyes of all Grandeur of the woHd Were HOW On Italy, the young re- Rome. pubHc of the West. Into Rome all talents, all riches, flowed. What a grand thing in those days to be a Roman citizen ; so that, wherever one walked, — in Spain, in Africa, even in once proud Athens, — he was followed, feasted, flattered ! What a career was opened to those who wished for wealth or aspired to fame ! But in the very sun- burst of Rome's glor)', the germs of decay were ripening. 70. On the Romans themselves the effect of their foreign Effect of con- conqucsts was both good and bad ; but per- quests. haps the evil outweighed the good. Let us glance at both sides of the shield. 71. The wealth poured into Rome by the conquest of Carthage, of Greece, and the East, and the con- Public works. ° siderable revenue derived from the permanent taxation of the provinces, enabled the Romans to carry out a great system of public works. Throughout Italy splendid military roads which remain to this day Avere built, the provinces were traversed by imperial highways, and fine stone bridges were thrown across the Tiber. In Rome splendid public buildings were erected, the city was sewered, the streets were paved (174 B. c), two new aqueducts (the Marcian, built in 144 b. c, at a cost of % 10,000,000) were constructed ; and it may be noted that the Consul P. Scipic Nasi'ca, in 159 B. c, set up in Rome a public dep'sydra, or water-clock, the citizens having for six centuries gone on without any accurate means of knowing the time by night as well as day. 72. The effect on Rome of the conquest of Greece and Influence of the Hellenized East was very marked. Greek Greece. rhctoricians, scholars, tragedians, flute-players, and philosophers in large numbers took up their abode in Rome. The city swarmed with Greek schoolmasters. Greek tutors and philosophers, who, even if they were not FOREIGN CONQUEST. 15? slaves, were as a rule accounted as servants, were now per- manent inmates in the palaces of Rome ; people speculated in them, and there is a statement that the sum of 200,000 sesterces ($ 10,000) was paid for a Greek literary slave of the first class. 73. The stimulus of Greek literary culture led to native production, and in the 2d century B. c. we pirst ntera. have the beginning of that Latin literature '^"'^^• which we still read. Though the great period of Roman letters did not come till a century after this time (age of Augustus), yet there arose a number of writers of no ordi- nary power. Among these should be mentioned Ennius, the father of Roman poetry ; Plautus, his contemporary, a man of rich poetic genius ; the elder Cato, the first prose writer of note ; and Terence, the most famous of the comic poets. 74. While the Romans were in some respects benefited by contact with the superior though decaying culture of Greece, they also learned a great deal that was debasing. They became effeminate, luxurious, and corrupt in morals ; marriage was not respected ; the old Roman faith waned, and it was said that two augurs could not meet in the street without laughing in each other's face. 75- The political system of Rome now began to lead to a dreadful state of public corruption. The Political cor- Roman government was devised for the rule of """P^ion- a city : all power was in the hands of the civic voters, and when there came to be great prizes, in the way of great offices at home and abroad, the voters began to find that their votes were worth something, and unblushing bribery and corruption became common. 76. The demands of the large planters and merchants led to a great extension of the slave-trade. Growth of All lands and all nations were laid under con- 'la^ery. I5» mSTORY OF ROME. tribution for slaves, but the places where they were chiefly r:»])tuic(l were Syii;i aiul llie interior of Asia Minor. It is proh.iMc that at the; |)(!rio(l at whicii we have now arrived (middle- of the 2(1 ccnlMry ii. c.) there were twelve million slaves a[;ainst live million free inhabitants in the Italian peninsula, — a most lamentable state of things! 77. In ailclition (o the slaves, Jtaly became lillcd up witi Corruption of '^ uiolley parasitic population from Asia and '''°'"*- Africa and all the conquered lands, — and the result of this intermixture soon appeared in a marked dcf^en eracy in the Roman nice itself. 78. I'he decay of old Roman virtue became at the same time apparent in a jrreat increase of lu.xury, Ltuxurv. This displayed itself in houses, villas, pleasure- gardens, fish-ponds, dress, food, and drink. Extravagant prices — as much as 100,000 sesterces (jjl 5000) — were paid for an ex(|uisite cook. Costly foreign delicacies and wines were afrectcul, and the Romans in their banquets vied with one another in displaying their hosts of slaves ministering to luxury, their bands of musicians, their dancing-girls, their purpli! hangings, their carpets glittering witli gold or picto- rially embioidi-rcd, and their rich silver plate. 79. In the midst of the system there were not wanting some noble patterns of the old Roman type, among whom should be named (^ato,* who kept up .1 constant protest all his life against the growing luxury of his coimtrymen, atul dii'd declaring that they were a degenerate race. Such men were, however, rare exceptions ; and we shall hereafter see that the evil system already operative in the 2d century went on increasing, till finally, a century afterwards, it resulted in the total subversion of the republic. • Porciiis Cato, fuqiiontly siirnamcd Calo the Censor, was born 11. c 234. Me distinguished himself in the Tunic wars and in various public services, but he was still more noted for his pure morality and strict virtue. Me died in 149 B. c, at the age of eighty-tlve. CIl^TL STRIFE. 1 59 4. EPOCH OF CIVIL STRIFE (133-27 B.C.). 80. The picture just given of the state of Roman society in the last half of the 2d century b. c. prepares Bad state of us for the period of civil strife on which we now s°"ety. enter. A number of causes had resulted in the growth of an aristocracy founded purely on wealth ; the old division of society into patricians and plebeians had ceased, and there arose a still worse division into classes, — the rich and the poor. The old peasant proprietors of Italy had become practically extinct, and their place was supplied by hordes of slaves. The cities, and especially Rome, were filled by vast masses of people, not living, as the traders, artisans, and laborers of our cities do, by honest Industry, but subsisting in noisy idleness upon the price of their votes. Roman society, in fact, had ceased to have finy middle class, and was divided between two extremes, — grandees and paupers. 81. The cause of the poor against the rich was taken up by a noble young tribune of the people named Tiberius Gracchus. Tiberius and his after- wards distinguished younger brother Caius (the two being known in history as the Gracchi) were sons of a noble Ro- man matron, Cornelia, daughter of the great Scipio Afri- canus. 82. Tiberius Gracchus proposed a land-law (agrarian law), which was practically a revival of the r . ■ . , .,..,, , ... Agrarian law. .Licinia7i la7u : it limited the amount of public land that could be held by any one individual to 500 jugera, and provided for the distribution of the rest in small home- steads. The aristocracy immediately raised a storm, and induced another tribune to veto the measure. Now, accord- ing to the Roman code, no proposal could become law unless all the tribunes were unanimous. Gracchus then secured a popular vote expelling his colleague from the l60 HISTORY OF ROME. tribuneship, and the land-law was passed by the people, B. c. 133. In the mean time, however, Gracchus's year of office expired, and he came up for re-election. The nobles resolved to prevent this by violence. 83. Gracchus, learning this, bade his friends arm them- selves with staves ; and when the people began to inquire the cause of this, he put his hand to his head, intimating that his life was in danger. Some of his enemies ran to the senate and reported that Tiberius openly demanded a crown. A body of the aristocrats with their clients and dependents then rushed among the unarmed crowd, and murdered Gracchus with 300 of his adherents, — 133 b. c. 84. Tiberius Gracchus was dead, but his work remained j Agrarian that is to Say, the measure which he had pro- struggie. posed was law, and the commissioners intrusted with the task of allotting the lands prosecuted their labors for two or three years. The nobles, however, obstructed the work as much as possible, so that between them and the champions of the people there was a continuous struggle. 85. This struggle became still more fierce when Caius The younger Gracchus, ten years after the death of his Gracchus. brother, claimed and obtained the tribuneship^ and then took up that brother's work. The agitation fo^ the agrarian law was renewed, an enactment was made for a monthly distribution of corn to the city poor, and vari- ous other reforms were proposed by him. After holding the tribuneship for two years, however, he lost the office through the intrigues of his opponents. The nobles were determined to crush Gracchus ; accordingly, at one of the public assemblies they attacked the partisans of the popular leader, and there ensued a bloody combat (121 b. c.) in which 3000 of his adherents were slain. Gracchus himself fled into a wood across the Tiber ; but, being pursued, he chose to die by the hands of a faithful slave rather than lall into the power of his enemies. CIVIL STRIFE. I6l 86. The ill-will between the nobles and the people con- tinued just as bitter after the death of Grac- RiseofMarius chus ; and matters finally shaped themselves in ^""^ Suiia. such a way that the nobles, or senatorial party, came to be represented by a leader named Sulla, and the democracy, or Commons, by another called Marius. These men came to prominence in the course of two or three wars in which Rome was engaged for twenty-five or thirty years after the time of which we have been speaking ; and finally they ac- quired such power as to bring on a civil strife that deluged Italy with blood. 87. The wars just referred to were : the Jugurthine war (ill -106 B. c), the war against the Cimbri wars of the (113-101 B.C.), and the Social war (90-89 Period. B. c), with the details of which we need not concern our- selves ; but the fourth contest vi^as of more moment, and needs notice here. This was the Mithridatic war. 1 62 HISTORY OF ROME. 88. Mithrida'tes, King of Pontus, a bold and able sol- Design of dier, formed the design of uniting the Asiatic Mithndates. states and Greece in a vast confederacy against the Roman dominion. He began by causing about 80,000 Romans who dwelt in the cities of Asia Minor to be massa- cred in one day (88 b. c). He then invaded Greece. 89. The command in this important war was eagerly Mithridatic sought by both Marius and Sulla. Sulla pre- ^^''- vailed ; he was elected consul and put in com- mand. Marius, being chagrined at this, succeeded in having the popular party set aside Sulla. But the aristo- cratic general marched to Rome and compelled Marius to flee into Africa. Sulla then set out for Greece, all of which submitted to him, the army of Mithridates being defeated (86-84 B. c). 90. During the absence of Sulla, Marius returned to Italy. Marian mas- Entering Rome in 86 b. c. he filled the entire sacres. ^^jjy yf;\\^ slaughter, and in particular he caused the murder of the leading senators that had supported his rival. Marius then caused himself to be proclaimed con- sul without going through an election ; but a fortnight later he died. 91. Notwithstanding the death of Marius, the Marian Sulla's mas- part}' Still Continued in power. Sulla, hearing sacres. ^f ^j^gir succcsscs, hastily concluded a peace with Mithridates, and hurried to Italy (83 b. c). After a severe struggle, Sulla utterly overthrew the Marians. The blood of massacre then flowed a second time, — in a yet greater stream. Lists of proscribed persons, embracing all who belonged to the people's part}', were published evefy day, and the porch of Sulla's house was full of heads. 92. Having put down all his enemies, Sulla caused him.- Suiia's career self to be proclaimed dictator for an unlimited and death. ^jj^g ^gj -^ (-. ") jje then proceeded to re-or- ganize the government wholly in the interest of the aristo CIVIL STRIFE. 163 cratic party ; but to the great surprise of every one he three years afterwards resigned his power and retired to privat« life. Sulla died in 78 b. c. ; he was honored with a mag- nificent funeral, and a monument with the following epitaph written by himself : " I am Sulla the Fortunate, who in the course of my life have surpassed both friends and ene- mies ; the former by the good, the latter by the evil, I have done them." In the civil wars carried on between Marius and Sulla 150,000 Roman citizens, including 200 senators, perished. 93. We have now arrived at a period in Roman history when all the interest centers in the struggles of struggle of a few ambitious men for supreme power. The ^^^^^°'^^- grand days of the republic were over, and a war of factions had begun. This could end only in anarchy, and when a republic falls into anarchy, a supreme ruler is soon wel- comed as a deliverer from its horrors. The only question now was who in Rome was to be that ruler. 94. After the death of Sulla, the most prominent figure among all the men of the aristocratic party ^jse of Pom- was Cneius Pompey, who had distinguished p^^- himself as a lieutenant of Sulla, and afterwards won renown by his management of several important matters in which Rome was engaged, — especially in the suppression of a formidable revolution in Spain under a very able leader named Serto'rius (77-72 b. c), and in stamping out a fire of revolt kindled by Spar'tacus, the leader of a band of gladiators, who, joined by a large force of discontented spirits, kept Italy in alarm for two or three years (73-71 B. c). These exploits made Pompey a popular favorite, and in the year 70 B. c. he was rewarded by being made consul along with a rich senator named Crassus. 95. At the expiration of his year of office he retired to private life, but was soon called upon to His doings in suppress a formidable combination of pirates *^* ^^^*- 1 64 HISTORY OF ROME. who infested the Mediterranean Sea and had their head- quarters in Cilicia (in Asia Minor). This task he accom- plished in three months. These triumphs, aided by his political influence, enabled Pompey to procure the command in the war against Mithridates, who had renewed his scheme of conquering the Eastern Roman provinces. He was given powers such as never had been delegated to any Roman general. This war lasted for two years (66-64 B. c), and was marked by a series of brilliant triumphs for Pompey. He utterly crushed Mithridates (who died by self-administered poison), as well as his son-in-law Tigra'nes, subdued Phoenicia, made Syria a Roman province, and too k Jer usalem . Thus with the glory of having subjugated and settlea tne East he returned to Rome (62 b. c), where a magnificent triumph awaited him. He was in a position to make himself military sovereign of the Roman world, if he chose to avail himself of his opportunity. We must now see what had been passing in Rome in the mean while. 96. There seem to have grown up, after the death of The four fac- Sulla, four factions in Rome : the " oligarchi- *'°"^- cal faction," consisting of the small number of families the chiefs of which directed the senate, and in fact governed the republic ; the " aristocratic faction," com- prising the mass of the senators anxious to obtain the power usurped by a few of their colleagues ; the " Marian party," including all those whose families had been prosecuted by Sulla, and who now began to rally, and aspire to power ; the " military faction," embracing a crowd of old officers of Sulla, who, having squandered the fortunes they had gained under him, were eager for some revolution that might give them the opportunity to improve their condition. 97. At the head of the oligarchical faction was Pom- Leader of the P^y j t)ut during his absence in Asia its rep- oiigarchy. rcscntative was Marcus Tul'lius Cicero (bom 106 B. c), who had established his reputation as the first CIVIL STRIFE. 165 orator in Rome. He had risen through various offices to the praetorship, and at the time Pompey left for the East aspired to be consul. He did not himself belong to a noble family, but still he made himself the champion of the oligarchy. Though vain and boastful, he was a virtuous and patriotic man. 98. The leader of the aristocratic faction was Crassus, formerly the colleague of Pompey in the con- ©f the aris- sulship, now his personal rival. He was a toc^acy- man of no great ability, but his position and his immense wealth made him influential. (After prodigious expendi- tures, he died worth % 10,000,000.) 99. The leader of the third, or Marian party, was a man six years younger than Pompey or Cicero, who, distinguished in youth for his accomplishments and his extravagance, rose in the year 65 b. c. to the office of edile. This was Caius Julius Caesar, — a man of pre- eminent ability, one of the greatest that ever lived. He was the nephew of Marius, and now stood forward as the leader of the Marian party. He was of an old patrician family, and took up the cause of the people to serve his own ends. 100. The leader of the military faction was Catiline, who had been one of the ablest and most ferocious conspiracy o< of Sulla's officers. He had a large following Catiime. of debauched young patricians and ruined military men, who thought they would better their fortunes by making Catiline consul. Cicero was his rival, and, receiving the support of the senators, was elected. Enraged at his defeat, Catiline formed a conspiracy of which the murder of Cicero and the burning of Rome were parts. A woman betrayed the plot to Cicero, who denounced Catiline with such fiery eloquence that he had to flee from Rome. With a band of confederates he attempted to reach Gaul ; but he was overtaken in Etruria and slain, 62 b. c. 1 66 HISTORY OF ROME. 101. If Pompey had been really a great and clear-sighted man, he could, on his return from the East, have easily put Position of himsclf at the head of affairs. But he was Pompey. fjQj- really such. He was, in fact, rather a lucky general than a great statesman. The oligarchic party began to distrust him, and as the senate under the lead of Cato refused to ratify his measures in Asia, he threw himself into opposition and went over to the popular party. This brought him into close connection with Cagsar. 102. Caesar and Pompey, finding that they agreed in First trium- many of their views, resolved to unite their virate. forccs. To ccmcnt their union more closely, Caesar gave his only daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey. For various reasons it was found desirable to admit Crassus to their political partnership, and thus was formed (60 B. c.) that famous coalition known in Roman history as the " First Triumvirate." The object of Cassar and Pompey was to thwart the senatorial party in every way, and wield all power themselves. 103. The formation of the triumvirate was followed by Elevation of the election of Caesar to the consulship (59 b. c.) j Ceesar. ^^^ when his year of office expired he ob- tained for himself the government of Gaul for five years, and then for another five. This was probably the great ob- ject of Caesar's desires. No doubt he was already brooding over the design of making himself master of Rome ; and for this purpose he would need an army. 104. During the years 58-50 E. c. Caesar made eight His Gallic Campaigns in Gaul, forming the remarkable campaigns. series of Operations which he afterwards de- scribed with such pointed style in his Commentaries. The prominent points in these campaigns are : He arrests the emi- gration of the Helvetii ; expels the Germans under Ariovistus (58 B. a) ; completes the conquest of Gaul by subduing the Belgae (57 B. c), and the Aquita'ni (56 B. c.) ; invades Britain twice (in 55 and 54 B.C.); CTVIL STRIFE. 167 1 68 HISTORY OF ROME. penetrates into Germany ; overthrows the Gauls, who revolt repeatedly ; conquers Vercingetorix, and entirely subdues the country (53-51 B. c). 105. The result of his eight years' campaigning was that, Position of ii^ the Spring of 50 B. c, Csesar was able to Caesar. ^^j-g ^p j^jg residence in Cisalpine Gaul, leav- ing the 300 tribes beyond the Alps, which he had conquered by such bloody means, not only pacified, but even attached to himself personally. His army, which included many Gauls and Germans, was so devoted to him that it would have marched to the end of the world in his service. 106. Let us now inquire as to the other two members Pompey and of the triumvirate. During Caesar's absence, Crassus. Pompcy and Crassus were elected consuls for the year 55 b. c. ; and when their own year of office had ex- pired both obtained important commands : Pompey received the government of Spain, as proconsul, for five years, and Crassus a similar appointment over the East. Soon after this, Crassus was murdered in Parthia ; so that the tri- umvirate became a duumvirate, or league of hvo men, — Caesar and Pompey. 107. Now between these two men there had for some Rivalry of time been a growing coldness. It was said Ceesar and , ^ , ,111 Pompey. that Caesar was a man who could brook no equal, and Pompey a man who could suffer no superior. A feeling of rivalr}'' having once arisen, naturally grew till , Caesar and Pompey became the bitterest enemies. Pompey went over to the aristocratic party to which he had origi- C nally belonged, and having been made sole consul for the f' year 52 b. c, he began to exert his great influence against v^- Ceesar. In this he was supported by the nobles, who' i\ dreaded Caesar's immense power. 108. As the period of Csesar's command would expire in New compii- the year 49 B. c, he had determined to obtain cations. |.jjg consulship for the year 48 b. c, since other- wise he would become a private citizen. Accordingly he CIVIL STRIFE. l6g demanded, though absent, to be permitted to put himself in the lists for the consulate. But it was proposed, through the influence of Pompey, that Caesar should lay- down his command by the 13th of November, 50 b. c. This was an unreasonable demand ; for his term of government over Gaul had another year to run, and if he had gone to Rome as a private man to sue for the consulship, ther^ can be no doubt that his life would have been sacrificed. Caesar, still anxious to keep the peace, offered, at the be- ginning of the year 49 b. c, to lay down his command if Pornpey would do the same ; but this the senate refused to accede to, and a motion was passed that Caesar should disband his army by a certain day, and that if he did not do so, he should be regarded as an enemy of the state. 109. Caesar promptly took his resolve : he would appeal to the arbitrament of arms. He had the en- thusiastic devotion of his soldiers, the great mass of whom, being provincials or foreigners, cared very little for the country whose name they bore. Accordingly, in January, 49 B. c, he advanced from his headquarters at Ravenna to the little stream, the Ru'bicon, which separated his own province and command from Italy. The crossing of this river was in reality a declaration of war against the republic ; and it is related that, upon arriving at the Ru- bicon, Cassar long hesitated whether he should take this irrevocable step. After pondering many hours he at length exclaimed, " The die is cast ! " and plunged into the river. 110. Pompey concluded not to attempt to defend Italy,, but to retire upon the East, where he would Retreat of gather a great army and then return to over- Pompey- whelm the "usurper." Accordingly he retreated to Greece. 111. In sixty days Cassar made himself master of all Italy. Then marching to Rome he had him- caesar master self appointed dictator and consul for the year ^'^ '*^'y- 48 B. c. He showed masterly statesmanship, and soon I/O HISTORY OF ROME. brought the general current of opinion completely over to his side. 112. Meantime, Pompey had gathered a powerful army Battle of ii'i Thessaly, and thither Caesar with his legions Pharsaiia. proceeded against him. The decisive battle between the two might}^ rivals was fought at Pharsa'lia, in 48 B. c. It resulted in the utter defeat of Pompey ; and as it left Caesar the foremost man in the Roman world, it must be regarded as one of the great decisive battles of history. 113. Pompey, after his defeat, sought refuge in Eg}^pt; Fate of but he was assassinated by the orders of Ptol- Pompey. cmy, whcu Seeking to land on the coast of that country. Csesar, who followed in pursuit, did not hear of his death until his arrival in Alexandria, where messengers from Ptolemy brought him Pompey's head. Caesar, who was both a generous man and a compassionate foe, turned with horror from the spectacle, and with tears in his e^es gave orders that the head should be consumed with the costliest spices. 114. At Alexandria Csesar became bewitched by Cleopa- Caesar in the tra, the young, bcautiful, and fascinating queen East. Qf Eg}pt. He even mixed himself up with a quarrel that was going on between her and her younger brother Ptolemy, to whom, according to the custom of the country, she was married, and with whom she shared the throne. This intermeddling led Caesar, who had but a small force with him, into conflict with the troops of the king. A fierce battle was fought in the city. Caesar suc- ceeded in firing the Egyptian fleet ; but unfortunately the flames extended to the celebrated Library of the city of Alexandria, and the greater part of the magnificent collec- tion of manuscripts was burnt. Caesar was finally success- ful : Ptolemy was killed, and Cleopatra was made queen of Egypt. From Alexandria Caesar marched into Pontus to attack Pharna'ces, son of Mithpdates, whom he subdued sr^ CIVIL STRIFE. 171 quickly that he described the campaign in the most laconic despatch ever penned : Veni, vidi, vici, — "I came, I saw, I conquered." 115. The Pompeian forces that escaped from PharsaUa had estabUshed themselves in the Roman caesar's final province of Africa. They were commanded victory. by Scipio and Cato. Caesar having settled matters in the East now proceeded against this force, which he utterly destroyed at Thapsus, early in the year 46 b. c. Scipio and Cato killed themselves. One more rally the Pompeians made in Spain, but they were defeated by Cassar in the decisive battle of Munda (March, 45 b. c). 116. Caesar returned to Rome after the battle of Thapsus, the master of the Roman dominion. The caesar and republic went out when Cato fell upon his *^^ ^*^*^- sword at Utica ; the monarchy came, in with the triumphal entry of Caesar into Rome in the summer of 46 b. c. It is true Caesar was not king (rex) in natne, but he was so in sub- stance. His position as chief of the state was this : he was in- vested with the dictatorship for ten years, — an arrangement changed soon afterwards to perpetual dictator, — and was hailed with the title of Imperator for life. The latter title, Imperator (meaning Commander), was one which belonged under the republic to the victorious general ; but it was a temporary title, always laid aside with the surrender of mili- tary command. Caesar was allowed to use it in a special way and permanently, and in his case it had much the mean< ing of the term Emperor^ — a word which is simply Imperator cut short. 117. Julius Cassar was a strong, clear-sighted man, who plainly perceived that the old political system His views and of Rome had hopelessly broken down. He character, believed that peace and prosperity could come only under the firm and just rule of one man. He obtained power by overriding the laws, but he designed to use this power to the 172 HISTORY OF ROME. best ends. " I will not," he said in one of his speeches, " renew the massacres of Sulla and Marius, the very remem- brance of which is shocking to me. Now that my enemies are subdued, I will lay aside the sword, and endeavor sole- ly by my good offices to gain over those who continue to hate me." 118. Faithful to this promise, he pardoned all who had The work he bornc arms against him, and, by making no ^^^- distinction of parties, labored, and with suc- cess, to bring about an " era of good feeling." He instituted a vigorous and honest administration of the provinces ; he encouraged trade and agriculture ; embellished Rome with temples, theaters, and public places ; undertook to drain the Pontine marshes and to dig a new bed for the Tiber ; reformed the calendar; and projected a gigantic series of designs for improving and extending the empire he had acquired. Considering that from the time of his return to Rome down to his death there was but a brief interval of two years, it is wonderful what he accomplished. 119. There can be no doubt that the Romans were well Feelings of the Satisfied to be under the rule of Caesar. The Romans. republic was a mere name, for liberty had ex- pired when the Gracchi were murdered, and subsequent dissensions were merely contests for power between differ- ent factions. Hence the Roman people, weary of revolu- tion, were quite content to find peace under the just though absolute rule of one master. 120. It is important to recognize this as the real state Real cause of of public feeling, because we shall now have sination.^^^ ^' to scc that Cagsar fell a victim to assassination,, and it might be thought that his overthrow was the people's revolt from monarchical rule. But in truth it was the act of a small knot of conspirators who, with the cry of " Liberty and the Republic " in their mouths, did away with the Im perator to serve their own ends. CIVIL STRIFE. 173 121. The chiefs of the conspiracy were Caius Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus. Both had received xhe conspir- great favors from Caesar ; but they thought they ^'^y- had not been honored enough, and they were intensely jealous of the dictator's greatness. These were joined by other malcontents, and the plotters swelled their ranks by representing that Cassar designed to assume the diadem and the title of king; so that the conspiracy finally in- cluded about sixty senators. 122. It is not certainly known whether or not Caesar thought of taking the name of king. It is caesar-s am- known, however, that the consul, Mark An- •"^'O"- tony, at the feast of the Luperca'lia in the year 45 b. c, offered a regal crown to the dictator : he refused it, — it is said because he saw the people showed displeasure, — and Antony had it entered in the public acts, "that by the command of the people, he, as consul, had offered the name of king to Caesar, perpetual dictator ; and that Caesar would not accept of it." 123. The plot ripened into a determination to assassinate Caesar, and the conspirators fixed on the Ides His assassi- (i. e. 15th) of March as the time of putting the "at'°"- design into execution. Rumors of the plot got abroad, and Caesar was strongly urged not to attend the senate. But he disregarded the warnings which were given him. As soon as Caesar had taken his place, he was surrounded by the senatorial conspirators, one of whom, pretending to urge some request, seized his toga with both hands and pulled it violently over his arms. Then Casca, who was behind, drew a weapon and grazed his shoulder with an ill-directed stroke. Caesar disengaged one hand and snatched at the hilt, exclaiming, " Cursed Casca, what means this ?" " Ife// 1 " cried Casca, and at the same moment the conspirators aimed each his dagger at the victim. Caesar for an instant defended himself ; but when he perceived the steel flashing 174 HISTORY OF ROME. Person of Caesar. C^SAR. in the hand of Brutus (Marcus Junius), he exclaimed, " What! thou too, Brutus!^' {Ei tu, Bni'te ! ) and drawing his robe over his face he made no further resistance. The assassins stabbed him through and through ; and, pierced with twenty-three wounds, Caesar fell dead at the foot of the statue of his great rival, Pom- pey. 124. Julius Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year, when, on the 15th of March, b. c. 44, he was stricken down. His personal appearance was noble and command- ing ; he was tall in stature, of a fair complexion, and with black eyes full of expression. He never wore a beard ; in the latter part of his life his head was bald ; but being quite mindful of his personal appearance, he was in the habit of covering the defect with a laurel chaplet. 125. Intellectually he was distinguished by the most ex- traordinary genius in the most diversified pur- suits. He was at once a general, a statesman, a lawgiver, an orator, a historian, a mathematician, and an architect, — and as he was pre-eminent in all, he would seem His mind. truly to deserve the name which Shakespeare gives him, — " The foremost man of all the world." 126. Caesar was upwards of forty years of age before he Review of his became prominent in public affairs. In the career. xvQ.:^^ fourteen years he subdued Gaul, with its swarms of warlike nations ; carried the Roman eagles into Britain and beyond the Rhine ; twice conquered Spain ; marched through Italy at the head of the legions he had trained ; overthrew the armies of Pompey ; reduced Egypt to obedience , conquered Phamaces ; and won his final CIVIL STRIFE. 175 triumph at Thapsus and Munda, — a series of campaigns that comprised fifty battles, and in which over one million of men fell. 127. Yet his warlike career was but preliminary to his career as a statesman, when, ceasing to de- , , TT- • ^^'s plans. stroy, he began to create. His aim was vast and beneficent, — nothing less than the political, social, in- tellectual, and moral regeneration of the decayed Roman nation. He accomplished only a small part of his plan, yet the work he did still lives after wellnigh two thousand years, and what of it was wise and good remains a part of the per- manent possession of civilization. 128. It is said that "revolutions never go backwards." Brutus and his fellow-conspirators struck down Effect of cae- Cassar in the name of liberty ; but the blow ^^""'^ death, diat leveled the master of Rome did not bring back the republic, — it only insured the appearance of new claimants for supreme power, and consequently new civil wars. 129. On the occasion of Caesar's funeral the consul, Mark Antony, delivered an oration over the dicta- tor's body, and to such a height did the feeling of the Romans against the plotters rise, that Brutus and Cas- sius were obliged to escape forthwith from the city to avoid destruction. 130. The condition of affairs left Mark Antony in some respect the representative of Caesarean princi- ^ Octavius. pies ; but a more direct claimant to the suc- cession appeared in Caesar's great-nephew, Caius Octavius, then a youth nineteen years old. The dictator had adopt- ed Octavius as his son ; so his name became Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus. Octavius had all the old soldiers on his side, and raised the standard of Caesar's vengeance. 131. At first Antony and Octavius were at strife ; but finally they became reconciled, and associating second trium- with them Lep'idus, the " master of the horse," '^"''ate- 176 HISTORY OF ROME. the three formed the Second Triumvirate (43 B. c), and con- certed a plan to divide among themselves the supreme authority. In order to do this it was necessary utterly to crush both their personal enemies and the forces of the republic. 132. To accomplish the first object, they began a system Their proscrip- of proscription more ruthless and bloody than *'°"- that of Marius and Sulla. It is recorded that 300 senators, 2000 knights, and many thousands of citizens were sacrificed. The most illustrious of the victims was the famous orator Cicero, whose severe invectives against Antony had procured him the relentless hatred of the tri- umvir. The aged patriot, while escaping from Rome in a litter, was assassinated. 133. The second object was the destruction of the re- Battie of Phi- publican forces. Now Brutus and Cassius, ''PP' finding their position in Italy to be desperate, had retired to the East, where in Thrace they gathered an army of about 100,000 men. Antony and Octavius pursued them with a still larger force, and the two armies met at Philippi. The republican army was totally defeated (No- vember, 42 B. c.) ; both Brutus and Cassius killed them- selves. 134. The victors now divided the Roman world among Quarrels of themsclves, — Antony taking the East, Octa- the three. ^j^g ^j^^ Wcst, and Lcpidus the province of Africa. But the Roman world was scarcely theirs before they began to quarrel over it. The feeble Lepidus never possessed much influence, and was soon robbed of his share. After this it was quite certain that a contest between An- tony and Octavius could not long be delayed, and each be- gan to intrigue against the other. 135. Antony made the headquarters of his half of the Conduct of Roman dominion at Alexandria. Here he Antony. came under the fascinations of Cleopatra, and CIVIL STRIFE. 177 he lost all regard to his character or his interests in hei company. He even went so far as to divorce his wife Oc- tavia, the sister of Octavius, and, having married the volup- tuous Egyptian queen, he bestowed Roman provinces on her. 136. This conduct was treasonable, and furnished Octa- vius with a decent pretext for declaring war. Battle of The young Caesar had been gaining great pop- Actmm. ularity in Italy ; he had consolidated his power and had his legions in fine training. The fleets and armies of the rivals assembled at the opposite sides of the Gulf of Ambracia. After considerable delay, Antony, instigated by Cleopatra, who was present with her Egyptian fleet, determined to de- cide the contest by a naval battle. The contest took place off the promontory of Ac'tium (on the west coast of Greece), while the hostile armies, drawn up on the shore, were sim- ple spectators. In the midst of the conflict Cleopatra tacked about, and with the Egyptian squadron of sixty sail drew out of the fight. Antony, regardless of his honor, followed after her, and the pair fled to Alexandria. Both the fleet and the force of Antony surrendered to Octavius, 31 B. c. 137. Some months afterwards Octavius advanced to be- siege Alexandria. Antony attempted to de- End of An- fend it ; but he was abandoned by his troops. *°"y- Cleopatra retired to a monument she had erected, and caused a report to be spread of her death. Upon this news Antony attempted to commit suicide, and inflicted on himself a mortal wound : hearing, however, in the midst of his ago- nies, that Cleopatra still lived, he caused himself to be carried to her monument, and expired in her presence (30 B. c). 138. The end of Cleopatra was even more tragic. The Egyptian queen seems at first to have thought that she would be able to bewitch the young ^°^^ '*" Caesar; but having in vain essayed her arts on the cold, 8* .:. 178 HISTORY OF ROME. calculating Octavius, she, sooner tiian be led in chains to adorn the triumph of the victor, and glut the eyes of the populace of Rome with the sight of the daughter and last of the Ptolemies preceding the chariot of the adopted son of him who had done homage to her charms, gave herself voluntary death by the bite of an asp, or the scratch of a poisoned needle. Egypt now became a Roman province (30 B. c). 139. There was now no one left to withstand Octavius Triumph of Csesar, who thus remained sole master of the Octavius. great dominion which the mighty Julius had prepared for him. The senate, in fact, was ready to concede to him the entire authority. He indeed went through the farce, soon after his return to Rome, of resigning the im- peratorship ; but he was prevailed on to resume it for ten years, and every ten years after to re-resume it. Gradually all the great offices were united in his person, and he be- came in fact Emperor of the Roman world. We may count the Roman Empire as beginning with the year b. c. 27, when Octavius was saluted with the new and peculiar title of Augustus. ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. I. Rome under the kings. Rome is believed to have been founded as a frontier post by the Latins of Alba Longa ; but it was from the first almost independent, then wholly so, and finally ac- General J quired an ascendency over all Statement. 1 the other Latin cities. The num- ber of kings is said to have been seven ; but their history is almost wholly fabulous. Regal rule was ended by the banishment of Tar- jj^quin. LEADING DATES. Founding of Rome 753 End of kingly rule 509 ANALYTIC SYNOFSIS. 179 First Epoch, Roman Republic (509-390). General Statement. r The first epoch of 119 years I from the establishment of the re- public was a period of struggle external and internal. The Ro- mans had to contend, for their mere existence, with the various neighboring states, and during this epoch they went rather back- wards than forwards, as regards the extent of their territory. There was also a struggle of classes, owing to the oppression of the Plebeians by the Patri- cians ; but finally the Plebs were allowed to elect magistrates called tribunes. Soon after, the unwritten Roman law was em- bodied in the Twelve Tables. Various changes were made in the administration of the govern- ment, decemvirs taking the place of consuls, and military tribunes the place of decemvirs. In this unsettled state of affairs Rome fell a prey to the Gauls, who burned the city. Establishment of the Republic... 500 Secession of the Plebeians 493 Laws of the Twelve Tables.. 451 Military tribunes appointed 444 Rome captured by the Gauls 390 Licinian passed. Second Epoch, Roman Republic (390-266). The Plebeians were again griev- ously oppressed by the Patricians, and troubles ensued, but a set- tlement was made by the Licin- ian constitution, which remedied abuses. With the cessation of internal troubles the Romans be- gan a career of conquest. First, there were the " Samnite " wars and the "Latin" wars These General wars ended in the complete sub- Statement, \ jugation of these nations and the law3 367 Beginning of Sam- nite wars 343 Beginning of Latin wars 340 End of Samnite wars sgo i.6o HISTORY OF ROME. mastery of Rome over all Cen- tral Italy. The Romans now turned their attention to Southern or Grecian Italy, where they had to meet Pyrrhus in several bat- tles. At first defeated, they were finally successful ; Pyrrhus was compelled to abandon his project, and the southern part of Italy was conquered, thus giving the Romans mastery over the whole Italian peninsula. Battle cf Pandosia Battle of Asculutn 27g Battle of Beneven- tum 2^l Romans masters of all Italy 366 General Statement. Third Epoch, Roman Republic (266-133). The era of foreign conquest lasted 133 years (266-133). First the Romans attacked the Cartha- ginians, their great rivals. This mighty contest ran through three wars known as the three Punic wars. In the first, lasting 23 years, the Carthaginians were unsuccessful. The Romans after this conquered Cisalpine Gaul. Hamilcar now became general-in- chief of the Carthaginians, and on his death his greater son Hannibal came into command. Hannibal took the aggressive in Spain, and thus began the second Punic War He won brilliant victories, and maintained himself fifteen years in Italy ; but finally was recalled to Carthage and was defeated by the Romans at Zama. Soon after the second Punic War the Romans conquered Macedon and Greece, and made them Roman provinces. The third Punic War i was marked by the siege of Car- thage, and resulted in the utter ! apnihilation of the Carthaginian I powei. Beginning of first Punic War 264 End of first Punic War 341 Conquest of Cisal- pine Gaul 333 Beginning ot sec= ond Punic War. 3iS Battle of Zama, and end of second Punic War soi Battle of Pydna... 168 Greece made a Ro- man province — I146 Burning of Car- thage, and end of Punic wars... Lcf. ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. i8i General Statement. Fourth Epoch, Roman Republic (133-27). r The long civil strife which fol- lowed Rome's foreign wars re- sulted from the desperate poverty of the Plebeian class. This class found two champions in the Grac- chi, but both were victims to the rage of the aristocracy. The first Mithridatic war now ensued, but was successfully ended by Sulla. Then came the bloody days of Marius and Sulla. Subsequently Pompey rose to power. He had been the leader of the aristocracy, but went over to the people's party, he, Julius Caesar, and Cras- sus forming the First Triumvi- rate. Caesar went into Gaul, where he prosecuted his cam- paigns for eight years ; but Pom- pey intrigued against him ; so he crossed the Rubicon and made himself master of Italy. The de- cisive battle between Caesar and Pompey was fought at Pharsalia, Caesar being successful ; the remnant of the Pompeian forces was crushed at Thapsus. Cae- sar was now master ; but a con- spiracy was formed against him, and he was assassinated. After the death of Caesar his nephew Octavius formed with Antony and Lepidus the Second Triumvirate. Octavius led his forces against Brutus and Cassius, defeating them at Philippi. Antony and Octavius now quarreled, but the dispute was settled in favor of the latter by the battle of Actium, and soon after Octavius assumed the title of Augustus Caesar. Agrarian \acvt brought for- ward by T. Gracchus 133 Death of C. Grac- chus lax Outbreak of first Mithridatic war 86 Massacres by Ma- rius 86 Sulla's proscrip- tions 83 First Triumvirate 60 Caesar's Gallic campaign s8-50 Crossing of the Rubicon 49 Battle of Phar- salia 48 Battle of Thap- sus 4G Assassination of Caesar 44 Second Triumvi- rate 43 Battle of Philippi. 43 Battle of Actium.. 31 Octavius (Augus- tus) becomes Emperor vj t3a HISTORY OF ROME. CHAPTER IV. ROME AS AN EMPIRE. I. AGE OF AUGUSTUS. 140. When Augustus Caesar at the age of thirty-sii Nature of the became master of the Roman world, there was imperial rule, j^q open establishment of a monarchical gov- ernment. On the contrary, most of the old republican forms were kept up ; but they were mere forms. The senate still sat, but it did little more than vote what Augus- tus wished ; the people still met in their assemblies and elected consuls and magistrates, but only such persons were elected as had been proposed or recommended by the Emperor. Augustus, however, assumed nothing of the out- ward pomp of a monarch : he was satisfied with the sub- stance of supreme rule. The almost uninterrupted festivi- ties, games, and distributions of corn and the like kept the people out of politics ; and, what through degeneracy, and what through despair, they were willing to be out of politics ! 141. The boundaries of the Roman Empire as estab- Extent of the lishcd by Augustus may be stated in a general Empire. .^^y 3,3 foUows : On the north, the British Channel, the North Sea (Mare German'icum), the Rhine, the Danube (Ister), and the Black Sea (Pontus Euxi'nus) ; on the east, the Euphrates and the Desert of Syria ; on the south, the Sahara of Africa ; and on the west, the Atlantic Ocean. It extended from east to west a distance of fifty degrees, or about 2700 miles, and had an average breadth of about fifteen degrees, or above 1000 miles. 142. The Roman Empire took in the modern countries of Portugal, Spaip, France, Belgium, Western Holland, AGE OF AUGUSTUS. 1 83 Rhenish Prussia, parts of Baden and Wurtemberg, most of Bavaria, Switzerland, Italy, the Tyrol, Austria countries in- Proper, Western Hungary, Croa'tia, Slavo'nia, '='"'1=^. Servia, Turkey in Europe, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Idumae'a, Egypt, the Cyrena'ica, Tripoli, Tunis, A.lgeria, and most of Morocco. 143. The entire Empire, exclusive of Italy, vi^as divided into 27 " Provinces," which may be con- veniently grouped under three heads: i. The Western, or European ; 2. The Eastern, or Asiatic; 3. The Southern, or African. The Western provinces numbered 14; the Eastern, 8; the Southern, 5.* 144. Within the circuit of the Roman dominion there were what we may call three civilizations : The three civ- the Latin, the Greek, and the Oriental. Latin iii^ations. civilization took in the countries from the Atlantic Ocean to the Adriatic ; Greek civilization, from the Adriatic to Mount Taurus ; Oriental civilization, the lands beyond to the Euphrates. 145. The area of Latin civilization embraced the penin- sula of Italy (its native seat) and all Western Europe, where the Romans appeared not only as a conquering but also as a civilizing people. Thus in the three provinces of Spain (Hispania), in the four prov- inces of Transalpine Gaul (corresponding nearly with the modern France), as well as in the North African provinces, especially Carthage (which was restored by Caesar as a Roman colony), the Latin language took firm root, and the manners and customs, and indeed the whole civilization, of those lands became Roman. 146. Creek civilization was spread over Greece and all those parts of Europe and Asia that had been Hellenized by Grecian colonists or by the * Name these from the map opposite p. 182. 1 84 HISTORY OF ROME. Macedonian conquerors. In manners, customs, language, and culture these lands remained Greek, while politically they were Roman. 147. Oriental civilization was diffused over the East- ern provinces, especially Egypt and Syria. These countries had, under the rule of Alexan- der's successors, become to some degree Hellenized ; but this influence was on the whole superficial. The peoples of those Oriental lands had never given up their own languages or religious ideas or ways of thinking. Now these peoples, it should be said, did not become LatinizeA either, — they did not adopt the language and civilization of Rome. 148. Within the limits of the Roman Empire under Augustus there may have been in all one Government. ^ ■' , . -kt •> HUNDRED MILLIONS of human bemgs. NoL less than one half were in a condition of slavery ; and of the rest, only that small proportion who, under the envied name of Roman citizen {civis Rofnaiius), inhabited Italy, enjoyed political independence, or had the smallest share in the government. The various lands and peoples were under Roman legates (half of these appointed by Augustus and the other half by the Senate), who held supreme mili- tary command. To the provinces were left, however, their independent municipal constitutions and officers. In Rome and Italy the public peace was preserved by the pretorian cohorts, — bodies of soldiers of tried valor, to whom Augus- tus gave double pay. Throughout the provinces the people were kept in check by the regular troops, — numbering 350,000 men. 149. Of this vast Empire Rome was the metropolis, now a city of innumerable streets and buildings, The capital. ^^^ containing, it is calculated, a population of about two millions and a half. It was in this period that Rome became truly a splendid city. Augustus was able to boast that "he found the city brick and left it marble." AGE OF AUGUSTUS. 185 150. In the days of its greatest prosperity the circumfer- ence of Rome enclosed by walls was about , , , ■, Its extent. twenty miles ; but there were also very exten- sive suburbs. The walls were pierced by thirty gates. The most remarkable objects were the Coliseum, the Capitol with its temples, the Senate-House, and the Forum. 151. The great circus, or Circus Maximus, a place reserved for public games, races and shows, was one Circus and of the most magnificent structures of Rome. It Coliseum, was capable of containing 200,000 spectators. The Flavian Amphitheater, whose massive ruins are known as the Coli- seum, could seat from 80,000 to 100,000 persons. In the arena were exhibited the fights of gladiators, in which the Romans took such savage delight, together with races, com- bats of wild beasts, etc. Theaters, public baths, etc., were The Coliseum. erected by the emperors, who seemed anxious to compen- sate the people for their loss of liberty by the magnificence of their public shows and entertainments. i86 HISTORY OF ROME. Forum. 152. In the valley between the Palatine and Cap'itoline hills was the Forum, or place of public assem- bly, and the great market. It was surrounded with temples, halls for the administration of justice (called basil'icce), and public offices ; it was also adorned with statues erected in honor of eminent warriors and statesmen, and with various trophies from conquered nations. 153. In the Forum was the celebrated Temple of Janus, Temple of built entirely of bronze and dating back to the Janus. early kingly period. From some early circum- stance the custom was established of closing the gates of this temple during peace ; but so incessant were the wars of the Romans, that during eight centuries the gates of the Temple of Janus were closed only three times. ACE OF AUGUSTUS. 18/ 154. The elections of magistrates, reviews of troops, and the census or registration of citizens, were campus Mar- held in the Campus Martius, which was also ^'"^• the favorite exercise-ground of the young nobles. It was surrounded by several splendid edifices ; ornamental trees and shrubs were planted in different parts, and porticoes erected under which the citizens might continue their exercise in rainy weather. Hard by was the celebrated Pantheon, or Temple of All the Gods (erected in the reign of Augustus), the most perfect and splendid monument of ancient Rome that has survived the ravages of time. 155. The aqueducts were among the most remarkable Roman structures. Pure streams were sought ,. , 1 • 1 Aqueducts. at a great distance, and conveyed m these artificial channels, supported by arches, many of which were more than a hundred feet high. Under the emperors, not fewer than twenty of these stupendous and useful structures were raised \ and they brought such an abundant supply of water to the metropolis, that rivers seemed to flow through the streets and sewers. 156. Rome was inferior to Athens in architectural beauty, but it far surpassed the Grecian city in General de- works of public utility. To enumerate all the scnption. notable edifices would be impossible here ; but we may sum up the matter by saying that the " Eternal City " in the zenith of its glory contained four hundred and twenty temples, five regular theaters, two amphitheaters, and seven circuses of vast extent. There were sixteen public baths built of marble, and furnished with every convenience that could be desired. From the aqueducts a prodigious num- ber of fountains was supplied, many of which were remark- able for their architectural beauty. The palaces, public halls, columns, porticoes, and obelisks were without num- ber, and to these must be added the triumphal arches erected by the later emperors. 1 88 HISTORY OF ROME. 157' As the peace of the Roman world was maintained by the strong hand of power, it was at this time that many of those arts that grow best during seasons of national order and prosperity made their greatest progress. Thus many of the best-known Latin writers lived at this time. Augustus himself was a great patron of literary men and artists, and so was his minister, Caius Cilnius Masce'nas. They honored and rewarded eminent writers ; and though we must not forget that many of the distin- guished men whose writings add luster to the " Augustan age " had grown up under the republic, still Augustus de- serves credit for fostering letters. Nothing will make up for the loss of political freedom ; but it is something thatii in Rome, when liberty was lost, literature at least flourished. I\ 158. Among the distinguished writers of this age or the times immediately preceding it are ; — Virgil, the author of the epic poem the ^ne'id, a graceful, if not an original, writer. Horace, author of many poems, odes, satires, and epistles ; a witty, good-humored, and most vivacious song-writer. Sallust, the historian of the Jugurthine War and the Conspiracy of Catiline ; a very spirited writer. Lucre'tius, a writer of didactic poetry, containing passages of noble eloquence and philosophy, along with much that is characteristic of the low tone of thought prevalent in the pagan world. Catul'lus, author of lyrics that are among the sweetest and most truly poetic things in the Latin language. 159. These are the most distinguished names in the Ausoistan age, and they are among the most Later writers. „ ° • , j • ,1 t. t. Z a j distinguished in all Roman literature. And as we shall have no further occasion to recur to Roman literature, we may simply note here among subsequent writers, — Livy, the great historian of Rome ; Ovid, the poet ; Martial, the writer of epigrams ; Pliny, the writer oo natural history (killed 79 a. d. by the great eruption from Vesuvius, which buried the cities of Pompeii and Hercula'* AGE OF AUGUSTUS. 1 89 neum) ; Ju'venal, the bitter satirist ; and Tacitus, the philo- sophic historian of the declining glories of Rome. 160. The reign of Augustus is rendered memorable by the birth of Christ at the little village of Birth of Bethlehem, in Judsa, — the most momentous ^i^"^^- event in the spiritual history of the world. Reckoned in our common era, this event took place in the year 4 b. c* 161. Augustus died in 14 A. D. ; so that, counting from his formal accession to title, 27 b. c, he ruled Reign of over the Roman dominion for forty-one years. Augustus. 162. Augustus was succeeded by his step-son, Tibe'rius Clau'dius Nero. It must be remembered that , _ 111 His successor. the Roman government was not legally a monarchy ; hence Augustus's heir was not necessarily the heir of his power. But the Emperor had adopted Tiberius as his own son, and the subservient senate voted him all the honors Augustus had held. 163. In the note below t the scholar will find a reference * Our method of counting time was not introduced till the year 532 A. D. The calculation was erroneous, and it was found ten centuries afterward to be deficient four years of the true period ; but as the alter- ation of a system that had then been adopted by nearly all Europe would have made great confusion in civil and ecclesiastical affairs, the error was, by general consent, allowed to remain, and we continue to reckon from this era (A. D., anno dt^ni7ti, that is, " in the year of our Lord "), which, however, lacks four years and six days of the real Christian epoch. t The following table gives a list of the Roman Emperors, with the dates of their reigns : A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. Augustus 14 Tiberius 14- 37 Caligula 37- 41 Claudius 41 - 54 Nero 54- 68 Galba 68- 69 Otho 69 - 69 Vitellius 69 - 69 Vespasian 69- 79 Titus 79- 81 Domitian 81 - 96 Nerva 96- 98 Trajan 98-117 Hadrian 117 -138 Antoninus Pius 138-161 M. AureHus 161 -180 L. Verus 161 - 169 Commodus 180- 192 Pertinax 193 - 193 Julianus 193 - 193 190 HISTORY OF ROME. table of the Roman emperors, from Augustus to Augustu- Reference ^^s, 476 A. D. It is not the plan of this book '*'^^^- to make Roman history turn on the personal fortunes of the emperors or the intrigues of their courts, — insignificant details with which history has been entirely too much taken up. Hence it will be enough to refer to the table from time to time as we take up under separate heads the great events of the Roman world. Soptimius Severus 193- ( Caracal la 211- ( Geta 211- Macrinus 217- Elagabalus 218- Alexander Severus 222 - Maximinus 235 - j Gordianus I. | o ( Gordianus II. ) ^ ( Pupienus Maximus J Balbinus Gordianus III 238 Philippus 244 Decius 249 Trebonianus Gallus 251 iEmilianus 253 j Valerian 253 I Gallienus 253 Claudius II 268 Aurelian 270 Tacitus 275 Florianus 276 Probus 276 Carus 282 ( Carinus I Numerianus ! Diocletian 284 Maximian 286 Constantius 1 305 211 217 212 218 222 235 238 238-238 238-238 244 249 251 254 253 260 268 270 275 276 276 282 283 284 .283- 305 305 306 ( Galerius 305-311 < Constantinel.theGreat 306-337 ' Licinius 307-323 f Constantine II 337-34° \ Constantius II 337-3^1 ( Constans 1 337-35° Julian.... 361-363 Jovian 363-364 Valentinian 1 364-375 Gratian 375-3^3 Valentinian II 383-392 Theodosius 1 392 - 395 (Emperor of the West as well as of the East.) Honorius 395-423 Theodosius II 423-425 Valentinian III 425-455 Petronius Maximus. .. . 455-455 Avitus 455-456 Majorian 457-461 Libius Severus 461 -465 Anthemius 467 -472 Olybrius 472 - 472 Glycerins 473-474 Julius Nepos 474-475 Romulus Augustulus. . . 475-476 (Last Emperor of the West.) POLITICAL HISTORY. IQI 2. POLITICAL HISTORY. 164. During nearly three centuries after the death of Augustus, the empire remained, as far as Kind of gov- political arrangements were concerned, pretty ^rnment. nearly as he had left it. Though the senate still continued to sit, and consuls to be elected, yet the Roman world soon became thoroughly accustomed to the rule of one man. At first, the empire was inherited as a birthright by those who could claim descent from Augustus, or who had been adopted into the family. Nero was in reality the last emperor of the family of Augustus, though all who suc- ceeded to the empire still went on calling themselves Ccesar and Augustus to the last. 165. It soon came about that the real power behind the throne was the soldiery. The troops, and Pretorian especially the " Pretorian Guard," took it °"^'''*- upon themselves to dispose of the sovereignty as it pleased them, and it was rare that the senate ventured to refuse to register the decree of the soldiers. To raise favorite gen- erals to the purple, and then to murder them for the sake of the largesses which it was customary to receive in case of a new accession, was the favorite pastime of the troops ; and it sometimes happened that there were several em- perors at the same time, different armies throughout the empire having each appointed one. 166. Augustus bequeathed as a valuable legacy to his successors the advice of confining the empire Growth of the within those limits which nature seemed to ^n^P're. have placed as its permanent boundaries : on the west, the Atlantic Ocean ; the Rhine and the Danube on the north ; the Euphrates on the east ; and on the south the deserts of Africa and Arabia. The only accession which the Roman Empire received during the first century of the Christian era was the province of Britain. " After a war of about forty years, undertaken by the most stupid [Claudius], maintained 192 HISTORY OF ROME. by the most dissolute [Nero], and terminated by the most timid [Domi'tian] of all the emperors, the greater part of the island of Britain submitted to the Roman yoke."* The next addition to the Roman territory was made by Trajan in the early part of the 2d centur)\ I'his consisted of the province of Dacia, which was bounded by the Dnei'ster, the Theiss, the Lower Danube, and the Euxine Sea. 167. It has already been seen that the Roman Empire Roman citizen- Consisted of Italy and the Provinces, and that ^^'P- in point of government the two divisions were on a very different footing. The inhabitants of Italy were Roman citizens, whereas the provincials were under the military rule of Roman officials, — legates and proconsuls. But the same salutary maxims of government which had se- cured the peace and obedience of Italy were little by little extended to the countries outside of Italy. A nation of Romans was gradually formed in the provinces by the double expedient of introducing colonies and of admitting the most faithful and deserving of the provincials to the freedom of Rome. Finally, in the time of Caracal'la, in the early part of the 3d century a. d. (211 -217), the old distinction between Romans and provincials was wholly abolished. Roman citizenship was given to all the free in- habitants of the empire. 168. By this time the Latinizing of the Western provinces Latinizing of ^"^"^ Completely effected ; that is to say, in lan- the provinces, guagc, manners, and ideas, the inhabitants of Gaul, Spain, Northern Africa, and lUyria had become thor- ough Romans. A very interesting proof of this is furnished by the fact that many of the best and bravest of the later emperors were provincials, or barbarians, as they would be- fore this have been called. 169. When there ceased to be any distinction between Italy and the rest of the Roman Empire, the importance * Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. POLITICAL HISTORY. 1 93 of Rome as the center of the imperial dominion was very much diminished. This change is marked by Rome loses its the fact that, in later times, Rome was quite importance, forsaken by the emperors, who found it better to live near the frontiers, whence they could keep watch against outside foes ; and it is still more emphatically marked by a new order of things, which was begun by the Emperor Diocle'tian. 170. Diocletian (283-305 a. d.) was one of a series of able Illyrians that rose to the purple. Finding Division of the unwieldy mass too great for the adminis- po^^""- tration of a single individual, he took a general named Max- im'ian as his colleague : he divided the imperial power be- tween himself and Maximian, Diocletian retaining the East, while Maximian ruled over the Western, or Latin-speaking, peoples. Not content with this division, Diocletian took an assistant and made his colleague do the same. These sub-rulers were called Cczsars., and it was intended that they should afterwards succeed to the imperial power. This ar- rangement did not last long, and, after various struggles, the whole empire was reunited under Constantine the Great, in K. D. 323. 171. Constantine made a change which had a great effect upon the later history of the Roman world. ^ ^ . , r 1 • Constantine. He removed the capital of the empire to the old Greek city of Byzan'tium, on the Bos'phorus, which he greatly enlarged and called New Rome, but which has been better known ever since as Constantino'ple (Greek polls, a city, — the city of Constantine). Even before this, Rome had, as we have seen, ceased to be the usual dwelling-place of the emperors, who commonly lived at Milan, Nicome'dia (Bithyn'ia), and elsewhere ; but the transfer of the capital to a Greek cit\' is a proof of how completely the Empin had come to overshadow Rome and Italy. 172. Theodosius I. was the last Emperor ^^ ^ . who reigned over the whole Roman Empire. On 9 M 194 HISTORY OF ROME. his death, in a. d. 395, the vast dominion was divided be- tween his two sons, — Hono'rius ruling in the West, and Arca'dius in the East. 173. From that date the history of Rome divides itself Division of the ifto two distinct histories, — that of the West- empire, gj-j^ Qj. Latin Empire, and that of the Eastern, Greek, or Byzan'tine Empire. As to the Eastern Empire, we shall have to follov/ its history down through the Middle Ages, till its destruction by the Turks in the 15th century. But for the present, it is with the Western Empire alone that we are concerned, for with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ancient history ends. This downfall took place in the year 476 a. d. ; but we shall defer to a subse- quent section the narrative of the last days of Rome. 3. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. 174. While the political events about which we have just The new learned, and which filled up the five centuries power. q£ imperial Rome, were taking place, a change far more momentous than any political revolution was coming over the minds of men. This was the mighty moral transformation effected by Christianity. 175. In the time of Augustus the different peoples and State of the nations under the Roman sway had a great world at the . .... , ,, • , , • birth of Christ. Variety of religions, but all, with the exception of the Jews, were pagans and polytheists. While Augustus was ruling over a hundred millions of fellow-polytheists, there took place in an obscure corner of the Roman dominion an event the importance of which the wisest Roman could not have foreseen. This was the birth of Christ, the founder of a religion which was to overspread the polytheistic na- tions, dissolve the ancient creeds and philosophies, and renovate the faith, the thoughts, the whole life of the civil- ized vvorld. Now the diffusion of Christianity was power* SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. 1 95 fully aided by the/d-r/of the Roman Empire, — by the unity of government under the empire ; hence it has been truly said that " the Roman empire may be defined as a compul- sory assemblage of polytheistic nations in order that Chris» tianity might operate over a large surface at once of that polytheism which it was to supersede and destroy." 176. Jesus Christ was crucified in the nineteenth year of the reign of Tiberius. At Antioch, in Syria, pirst spread of where Barnabas and Saul taught the faith, the Christianity, disciples were first called " Christians." And then began those great missionary journeys of the apostles by which the gospel was carried through Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, and the capital of the empire early became the capital of Christendom. The Christian religion silently but surely spread itself ; first among the Jews, then among the Greeks, or eastern, and the Latin, or western, Gentiles. 177. The existence of Christianity in the Roman Empire is first signalized by the persecutions to which Nero's perse- the Christians were subjected. In the reign cutions. of the brutal Nero the first persecution took place, but it was confined to the city of Rome. A great fire, which con- sumed a large part of the city, took place. Men said that the emperor's own hand had kindled the flame, out of mere madness, and that, while the burning continued, he sat calmly looking on, singing verses to the music of his lyre. To divert suspicion from himself, Nero resolved to direct it upon the Christians. We shall tell the sequel in the lan- guage of Tacitus, the great Roman historian, who was born during the reign of Nero. The passage which we quote is of great interest, because it contains the earliest mention, by any profane writer, of the name of Christ. "With this view [that is, to divert suspicion], Nero inflicted the most exquisite tortures on those men who, under the vulgar appellation of Christians, were already branded with deserved infamy. They derived their name and origin from one Christ, who in the reign of Tiberius had 196' HISTORY OF ROME. suffered death by the sentence of the procurator Pontius Pilate. For a while this dire superstition was checked, but it again burst forth ; and not only spread itself over Judaea, the first seat of this mischievous sect, but was even introduced into Rome, the common asylum which receives and protects whatever is impure, whatever is atrocious. The confessions of those who were seized discovered a great multitude of their accom- plices, and they were all convicted, not so much for the crime of setting fire to the city, as for their hatred of human kind. Some were nailed or, crosses, others sewn up in the skins of wild beasts and exposed to the fury of dogs ; others, again, smeared over with combustible materials, were used as torches to illuminate the darkness of the night. The gar- dens of ^^ero were destined for the melancholy spectacle, which was accompanied with a horse-race, and honored with the presence of the emperor, who mingled with the populace in the dress and attitude of a charioteer. The guilt of the Christians deserved indeed the most ex- emplary punishment, but the public abhorrence was changed into com- miseration, from the opinion that those unhappy wretches were sacrificed, not so much to the public welfare, as to the cruelty of a jealous tyrant. "* 178. A question here arises : Why was it that many of Real causes of the emnerors who saw without concern a the persecu- .... , . . . tions. thousand forms of rehgion subsistmg m peace beneath their sway, singled out the sect of the Christians to make them the sole objects of persecution ? The answer to this question is found in several facts. And first, in the proselyting ardor of the Christians. The empire was tol- erant of all faiths ; but it was not tolerant of a faith which taught that the gods of Rome and of all other nations were alike false, and which strove to win over all mankind to that belief. Then the Roman mind, while it looked with respect on all national faiths, viewed with suspicion and dis- gust a creed that was not sanctioned by the belief of any nation, but was held only by a sect. Moreover, the early Christians were in the habit of holding their meetings secretly and at night ; this was regarded as illegal in prin- ciple, and as possibly dangerous in results. Summing up the several facts, we may say that the persecutions of the * Tacitus, Annals, XV. 44. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. 1 97 Christians were owing to political reasons rather than to religious intolerance. 179. A striking proof of this is found in the fact that the Christians suffered most under good and re- forming princes like Trajan and Marcus Au- relius, men of pure and humane character, while under the infamous emperors they were generally let alone. 180. In spite of persecution the Church constantly ad- vanced and made converts, and in the first Growth of half of the 3d century, which was a period of Christianity, calm, the Christians were permitted to erect and consecrate convenient edifices for the purpose of religious worship ; to purchase lands, even at Rome itself, for the use of the com- munity ; and to conduct the elections of their ecclesiastical ministers in a public manner. Notwithstanding severe per- secutions under Decius and Vale'rian, the doctrines of Chris- tianity continued to spread among all classes of people everywhere. Indeed, it almost seemed that these persecu- tions were needed for the sifting of the Church ; the gold was tested and refined in a fiery furnace, and, like a sturdy young oak, Christianity, amid all these great and frequent storms, only struck its roots the deeper into the soil. 181. At last it became plain that a deadly struggle be- tween the old faith and the new was inevitable, Diocletian's and this came in the reign of Diocletian and persecutions. Maximian, at the commencement of the 4th century a. d. Gale'rius, the son-in-law of Diocletian, and the Ccesar under him, was a special enemy of the Christians, and he per- suaded the emperor to issue an edict commanding all Chris- tian churches to be pulled down, all copies of the sacred Scriptures to be flung into the fire, and all Christians to be degraded from rank and honor. Scarcely was the proclama- tion posted up, when a Christian of noble rank tore it to pieces. For this he was roasted to death. A fire which broke out in the palace twice within a fortnight was made a pretext 198 HISTORY OF ROME. for very violent dealings with the Christians. Those who refused to burn incense to idols were tortured or slain. Over all the empire the persecution raged, except in Gaul, Britain, and Spain, where Constan'tius Chlo'rus ruled as Caesar under Diocletian's colleague, Maximian. When Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, and Galerius held supreme rule in the East, he indulged all his fury against the Christians. Says a historian : " With little rest for eight years, the whip and the rack, the tigers, the hooks of steel, and the red-hot beds continued to do their deadly work. And then, in a. d. 311, when life was fading from his dpng eye, Galerius published an edict permitting Chris- tians to worship God in their own way." 182. This was the turning-point in the great struggle: it was plain that the most violent efforts of despotism were unable to crush that which was by its very nature divine and deathless. 183. We come now to a remarkable epoch in the history of Christianity, namely, the reign of a Roman emperor who himself professed Christianity. Con'stantine was the son of Constantius Chlorus. On the death of his father in Britain Constantine was at once pro- claimed emperor by the soldiers there. He had immedi- ately to enter on a contest with no fewer than five rivals, and the circumstance attending his conversion is associated with an event that took place during this period of warfare. 184. In A. D. 312, while on the march to attack one of His conver- ^is rivals (Maxcn'tius), near Rome, Constan- ^'°"- tine is reported to have seen with his own eyes the luminous trophy of the cross in the sky, placed above the meridian sun, and inscribed with the following words : Bv THIS CONQUER [in Greek, En touto nika; in Latin, In hoc vince\. In the battle that followed Maxentius was complete- ly overthrown. It is said that this decided Constantine to be a Christian. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. '99 The Labarum. 185. The early church historians also add that the fol- lowing night Christ appeared to Constantine in a dream and commanded him to frame a similar standard, and under it to march with an assurance of victory against all his ene- mies. This is the origin of the celebrated Lab'arufn, or standard of the cross, displayed by the Christian emperors in all their military expeditions. The top of the Labarum was adorned with a mystic X, representing at once the cross and the initial of the Greek word for Christ. 186. The first fruit of Constantine's con- version appeared in a famous Christianity decree called the Edict of Milan, ligion. A. D. 313 : this restored peace to the Christian church. The establishment of Christianity The Labarum. j^g ^q religion of the state took place in 324, when the defeat of the last of his rivals made Constantine sole master of the Roman world. 187. He immediately, by circular letters, exhorted all his subjects to imitate the example of their constantine's sovereign by embracing the divine truth of P°i"=y- Christianity. It is calculated that in Constantine's time about a twentieth part of the whole population of the empire were professed Christians. The emperor did not forbid paganism, but chose rather to work by ridicule and neglect. With public money he repaired the old churches and built new ones, so that in every great city the Pagan temples were faced by Christian churches of rich and beautiful architecture. The Christian clergy were freed from taxes. Sunday was proclaimed a day of rest. And, to crown all, Constantine removed the seat of government to a new capital, — Constantinople, — which was essentially a Christian city. 200 HISTORY OF ROME. 188. Julian, known as Julian the Apostate, who became pao-anism for- empcror in A. D. 36 1, made a strong effort to bidden. restore the fallen gods ; but this effort was in vain, and the ruin of paganism was completed at the close of the 4th century. By this time the Christians were the great majority in most parts of the empire ; and Theodosius gave the final blow to the heathen faith by prohibiting under severe penalties the worship of the old gods. 189. In closing our review of the first spread of Chris- inteiiectuai tianity, we must note that the new faith, in influence. addition to its direct effect on the belief, the lives, and the conduct of men, had also important intellectual results. It gave the mind of the age great subjects to grapple with ; and as the despotism, of the imperial govern- ment crushed out all political speculation, the intellect and the enthusiasm of the nations freely turned to the grand problems of the " City of God." 190. There thus arose a series of theological writers ^^ ^ ^ both in Greek and Latin, who are known col- The Fathers. . ' lectively as the Christian Fathers, among whom the following are the most famous : — Tertul'lian. Born at Carthage in a. d. 160, — first of the Latin writers of the Church, — chief work, his " Apology for Christians," written about A. D. 198. Or'igen. Born in Egypt A. D. 185 or 186, — editor and commentator of the Scriptures, — wrote in Greek. Cyp'rian. Archbishop of Carthage in the middle of the 3d century, — chief work, "Unity of the Church," — martyred under Valerian. Am'brose. Born about A. D. 340 in Gaul, — Archbishop of Milan, — chief work, De Officiis, — vindicated the authority of the priesthood over even emperors and kings, by condemning Theodosius I. to a long and weary penance for his massacre of the Thessalonians. Athana'sius. Born in Alexandria, end of the 3d century, — Patriarch of Alexandria, — the great champion of Trinitarianism against Arius. Greg'ory Nazian'zen. Born early in the 4th century in Cappadociaj — for a while Patriarch of Constantinople, — noted as a writer of the- ology and religious poetry. ROMAN LIFE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, ETC. 201 Chrys'ostom. (Gold-mouth, from his eloquence.) Bom at Antioch, A. D. 354, — Patriarch of Constantinople, — his works are in Greek. Jerome. Born in A. D. 340 in Dalma'tia, — especially learned in He- brew, — founder of Monasticism, — chief work, a translation of the Bible into Latin (known as the Vulgate, a version for the common people, — vidgiis). Augus'tine. Born in Numid'ia, in Africa, A. D. 354, — Bishop of Hip- po (in Africa), — is known as the Father of Latis Theology, — ; man of powerful intellect and eloquence, — chief works, " On tht Grace of Christ," "Original Sin," the "City of God," and his "Con- fessions " (an autobiography). 4. ROMAN LIFE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, ETC.» 191. The most remarkable garment of the Romans was the to^a, made of pure white wool, and in . . Dress. shape resembling a segment of a circle ; nar- row at first, it was folded so that one arm rest- ed as in a sling; but in late days it was draped in broad, flowing folds round the breast and left arm, leaving the right nearly bare. Though its use in the streets was '^m, in later times ex- changed for a mantle of warm- colored cloth, called the pallium or lacerfia, yet it Roman Costumes. * Abridged from Collier's " Domestic Life in Imperial Rome." 202 HISTORY OF ROME. continued to be the Roman full dress ; and in the theater, when the emperor was present, all were expected to wear it. The Romans always kept the head uncovered, except on a journey, or when they wished to escape notice. Then they wore a dark-colored hood, which was fastened to the lacerna. In the house sokes were strapped to the bare feet j but abroad the calceus, nearly resembling our shoe, was commonly worn. On the ring-finger, the fourth of the left hand, every Roman of rank had a massive signet-ring. There were fops who loaded every finger with jewels ; and we are told of one poor fellow who was so far gone in foppery as to have a set of lighter rings for summer wear, when his delicate frame could not bear the weight of his winter jewels. 192. The dress of Roman ladies consisted of three parts, , — an inner tunic, the sioia, and the palla. The stola, which was the distinctive dress of Roman matrons, was a tunic with short sleeves, girt round the waist, and ending in a deep flounce which swept the instep. The palla, a gay-colored mantle, was worn out of doors. It was often sky-blue, sprinkled with golden stars. The brightest colors were chosen ; so that an assembly of Roman belles, in full dress, was a brilliant scene, sparkling with scarlet and yellow, purple and pale green. The hair, encircled with a garland of roses, was fastened with a gold pin, while pearls and gold adorned the neck and arms. 193. The early Romans lived chiefly on bread and pot herbs ; but when wealth was introduced by their conquests, luxury seized all ranks, and, as we have already seen, the imitation of Oriental customs completely sapped the abstemious virtues of the old Romans. To many, in the degenerate ages of Rome, the great ends of life were to eat the most delicious food, and to eat as much of it as possible. Roman meals were three, — jentaculicm, ^randium, and coma. Jentaculum, taken soon after rising, ROMAN LIFE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, ETC. 203 consisted of bread, dried grapes or olives, cheese, and per- haps milk and eggs. At prandium, the midday meal, the Romans partook of fish, eggs, and dishes cold, or warmed up from the last night's supper. Then, too, some wine was drunk. But coena was the principal meal, taken about the ninth hour, and on the whole corresponding to our dinner. It began with eggs, fish, and light vegetables, such as rad- ishes and lettuces, served up with tasty sauces, all being intended merely to whet the appetite for the more substan- tial dishes to follow. Then came the courses {fercula), of which, in all their wonderful variety, no just idea can be given here. Among fish, turbot, sturgeon, and red mullet were greatly prized ; among birds, the peacock, pheasant, woodcock, thrush, and fig-pecker. The favorite flesh-meat was young pork ; but venison was also in great demand. The courses were followed by a dessert of pastry and fruit. 194. While eating, the Romans reclined upon low couch- es, which were arranged in the form triclinium, making three sides of a square. The open ^^' space was left for the slaves to place or remove the dishes. The place of honor was on the middle bench. In later times round tables became common, and then semicircular couches were used. There were no table-cloths ; but the guests wore over the breast a linen napkin {mappa), which they brought with them. Instead of knives and forks two spoons were used, — one, cochlear, small and pointed at the end of the handle ; the other, lingiila, larger and of uncertain shape. The splendor of a Roman feast was greatly marred by the oil-lamps, the only light then used. The lamps them- ■ selves were exquisite in shape and material, as were all the' table utensils ; but the dripping oil soaked the table, while the thick smoke blackened the walls and ceiling, and rested in flakes of soot upon the dresses of the guests. 195. At feasts, instead of the toga, short dresses of red or other bright colors were worn. Before the drinking 204 HISTORY OF ROME. began, chaplets were handed round. For these roses, myrtle, violets, ivy, and even parsley were used. Before they were put on, slaves anointed the hair with nard and other sweet unguents. Wine was almost the only drink used. Before being brought to table it was sometimes strained through a metal sieve or linen bag filled with snow, and was called black and white according to its color, just as we talk of red and white wines. The tamous Falernian, celebrated by Horace, was of a bright amber tint. Besides pure wine they drank ?nulsum, a mix- ture of new wine with honey, and calda, made of warm water, wine, and spice. 196. The Romans spent much time in their splendid baths. The cold plunge in the Tiber, which had braced the iron muscles of their ancestors, gave place, under the empire, to a most luxurious and elab- orate system of tepid and vapor bathing, often repeated seven or eight times a day. At the baths the gossip of the day was exchanged. 197. The theater, with its tragedies and comedies, the circus, and the amphitheater supplied the Ro- Amusements. .,,.,.. ... ^ , mans with their chief public amusements. At the circus they betted on their favorite horses or charioteers ; at the amphitheater they reveled in the bloody combats of gladiators, — the most brutal of all the Roman pastimes. At the trumpet's sound throngs of wretched men — captives^ slaves, or convicted criminals — closed in deadly strife. The trodden sand soon grew red ; yet on they fought with parched lips and leaping hearts, for they knew that a brave fight might win for them their freedom. Erelong, hacked and bleeding limbs began to fail, and dim eyes turned to seek for mercy along the crowded seats. There were times when the dumb prayer was answered, and the down-turned thumbs of the spectators gave the signal for sparing life ; but too often mercy was sought in vain, and the sword com- ROMAN LIFE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, ETC. 205 pieted its work. Combats of gladiators with wild beasts often took place. Whole armies sometimes thronged the scene. When Trajan celebrated his triumph, after his victories in Dacia, 10,000 gladiators were exhibited at once. 198. Roman books were rolls of papyrus-bark, or parch- ment, written upon with a reed pen, dipped in lamp-black or sepia. The back of the sheet was often stained with saffron, and its edges were rubbed smooth and blackened, while the ends of the stick on which it was rolled (whence our word volume, " a roll ") were adorned with knobs of ivory or gilt wood. Letters were etched with a sharp iron instrument (stylus, whence our word style) upon thin wooden tablets coated with wax. These were then tied up with linen thread, the knot being sealed with wax and stamped with a ring. 199. The Romans had three forms of marriage, of which the highest was called confarreatio. The bride, dressed in a white robe with purple fringe, and covered with a bright yellow veil, was escorted by torch- light to her future home. A cake (far) was carried before her, and she bore a distaff and spindle with wool. Arrived at the flower-wreathed portal, she was lifted over the threshold lest — omen of evil — her foot might stumble upon it. Her husband then brought fire and water, which she touched ; and, seated on a sheepskin, she received the keys of the house. A marriage supper closed the ceremony. 200. The household work was done by slaves of various classes. In earlier times a few sufficed ; but Slaves. 'n the days of the empire it was thought a dis- grace not to have a slave for every separate kind of work. And so, besides those who managed the purse, the cedar, the bedrooms, and the kitchen, there were slaves to carry the litter, or to attend as their masters walked abroad. Some, of higher pretensions, were readers, secretaries, and physicians. Then, for amusement, there were musicians. 206 HISTORY OF ROME. dancers, buffoons, and even idiots. But all may be ranked under two heads, — bought slaves and born slaves. There vi^as a slave-market, in which the common sort were sold like cattle ; but the more beautiful or valuable were dis- posed of by private bargain in the taverns. Prices ranged from $ 20 to $ 4000, 201. The disinterment of the town of Pompeii, which was overwhelmed by an eruption of lava from Mount Vesuvius in a. d. 79, enables us to form a ver}' correct idea of what a first-class Roman house was. The principal apartments were on the ground- floor. Passing through the unroofed vestibule, often between rows of graceful statues, the visitor entered the house through a doorway ornamented with ivory, tortoise-shell, and gold. On the threshold, worked in mosaic marble, was the kind word Sal've (welcome). Then came the atrium, or great central reception-room, separated from its wings by lines of pillars. Here were placed the ancestral images ; and here, too, was the focus, or family fireplace dedicated to the La'res. Farther in lay a large saloon called the per'istyk. The floor was generally a mosaic of colored marble, tiles, or glass ; the walls were carved and painted ; gilt and colored stucco-work adorned the ceilings ; while the window-frames were filled with talc or glass. On the roofs were bright gardens. In houses like these might be found ivory bedsteads, with quilts of purple and gold ; tables of precious wood ; sideboards of gold and silver, loaded with plate, amber vases, beakers of Corinthian bronze, and glass vessels from Alexandria, whose tints rivaled the opal and the ruby. 202. Of course the scholar will understand that these descriptions apply exclusively to the wealthy. The common people lived as best they could, and we know very well that the richest were without a great many comforts and conveniences which even the poor now command. LAST DAYS OF ROME. 207 5. LAST DAYS OF ROME. 203. In the section on the political history of Rome we brought the story of the great empire down to . the time of its final dismemberment, in 476 a. d. We did not, however, narrate the circumstances attending the catastrophe ; accordingly we shall now briefly refer to these. 204. In the 5th century of our era many things por- tended the fall of Rome. Chief of these was „ Signs of decay. the fact that the Romans had really ceased to exist as a nation. The empire had absorbed the nation. We have already seen that the Roman race^ which conquered the world, was finally swallowed up by the world which it conquered. The blood itself was corrupted by alien admix- ture ; luxury further demoralized the people ; and the very fact that they were willing for the five hundred years of the empire to sit under an imperial despotism, shows that they were unfit to be free. 205. The removal of the capital by Constantine from Rome to Byzantium was a signal proof of the change of cap- fact that Italy had ceased to be the center of '**'• the Roman world. From this it was an easy step to the division of the empire, which took place under the sons of Theodosius, the last emperor who ruled over the whole of the Roman dominion. Thenceforward we may regard the Roman Empire as confined to Italy with the Western prov- inces, or Gaul, Spain, etc., while the Eastern empire, com- prising what we have called the Greek and the Oriental civilizations, pursued a career of its own. 206. In this state of facts the Western empire fell a prey to the new and vigorous Teutonic, or German, ■ 1 , r ■ 1 1 . 1 1 • 1 1 The Teutons. tribes that for centuries had inhabited the forests of the North. Ever since the time of Augustus the different German tribes had been most dangerous enemies 208 HISTORY OF ROME. of Rome, and many of the most valiant emperors had had much ado to defend the empire against them. One im- portant result of the contact of the " northern barbarians " with the Romans was that the Teutonic tribes became acquainted with Roman civilization and with Christianity ; so that most of them became Christians before they settled in the empire, or very soon afterwards. 207. The first great lodgement of the Teutons within the first settle- Hmits of the Roman Empire took place by per- ment of Goths, ^igsion of the Roman Emperor Valens, in the last half of the 4th century. The great Germanic family of the Goths at that time formed an extensive kingdom in the lands north of the Danube, — the lands we now call Mol- davia and Wallachia. This region had been Trajan's prov- ince of Dacia, but the Romans had withdrawn from it under Aurelian. The Goths were gradually becoming Christian3 of the Arian sect under the teaching of a bishop named Ulfilas, whose translation of the Scriptures into the Gothic tongue is the oldest Teutonic writing that we have. 208. Now, in the latter half of the 4th century the Goths Manner of set- found themselves pressed upon by an invasion tiement. of Huns, — Tartars, or Kalmucks, who had been driven out of Eastern Asia, and were at this time making their way into Europe. In their despair the Goths asked the Emperor Valens (who ruled over the East, while Valentinian was emperor of the West) to allow them to cross to the south side of the Danube, and thus put that stream between them and their hideous foes. Leave was granted, on condition that they should give up their children and their arms. The bargain was struck at once. Roman boats w^ere provided, and for many days and nights the broad river was torn into foam by the ceaseless splash oi oars. The fugitives, surrendering their children with little concern, gladly paid away all they had as bribes to the Roman officers for leave to keep their arms. In this way LAST DA YS OF ROME. 209 an immense body of fierce warriors (men, women, and slaves numbered nearly a million souls) settled, sword in hand, within one of the great natural frontiers of the empire, 376 A. D. 209. The Goths had humbly vowed that they would for- ever make it their grateful duty to guard the xheir behav- Roman borders. In spite of this they had *°''- hardly been allowed to settle south of the Danube when they turned their arms against Valens. It must be said, however, that for this they were not wholly without excuse ; the offi- cers of the emperor treated them in the most scandalous manner, and left them to starve. In this plight they resolved to help themselves ; they accordingly advanced towards Con- stantinople. The imperial army met them near Hadriano'ple, where a battle took place that was most disastrous to the Romans, and in which Valens lost his life, A. D. 378. The Goths, having now nothing to fear, spread themselves over the fertile country westward to the confines of Italy and the Adriatic Sea. 210. Under Theodosius the Great, who became emperor of the East in a. d. 379, the Goths were brought to capitulate, and settle down quietly, and large numbers took service in the Roman armies ; but this course was only preparing the inevitable result. When the two feeble sons of Theodosius divided between them the Roman world, the Visigoths (i. e. Western Goths) revolted, and, hoisting their chief, Alaric, upon their shields, according to their national mode of electing a king, precipitated them- selves upon Italy. Rome was captured and sacked (a. d. 410), and all Southern Italy was overrun. , 211. And now the great Western empire was fast dissolv- ing. In the early part of the 5th century three signs of dis- fragments broke off from the decaying trunk, solution. The province of Britain was evacuated by the Romans and was soon overran by the German tribes called Angles and N 2IO HISTORY OF ROME. Saxons. The various Teutonic tribes were pressing into Gaul, and from Gaul into Spain. Spain was conquered by Vandals, Sueves, and other German races ; while Gaul was filled with Franks and Burgundians and Goths, — all of whom belonged to the great Teutonic family. The province of Africa, too, was lost ; for a band of Vandals under Gen'- seric passed over from Spain to Carthage, which was con- quered in A. D. 439. 212. Meanwhile At'tila the Hun had gone forth from his log-house on the plain of Hungary, at the head of half a million savages, to conquer the world. Crossing the Rhine, he pierced to the center of Gaul ; but at Chalons he was defeated by the united power of the Ro- mans, Goths, and Franks, a. D. 451. In this memorable battle, Aryan civilization and Tartar despotism met in a life-and-death struggle, and the nobler triumphed. Being defeated in Gaul, Attila climbed the Alps and overran Italy, pillaging and destroying through all the northern prov- inces. It is a strange fact that it was through the persua- sion of the Pope, Leo I., that Attila was induced to return to Hungary. Here he soon afterwards broke a blood-vessel. So died one whose savage boast it was that grass never grew on a spot where his horse had trodden. His great empire immediately fell to pieces. 213. No sooner had Attila departed than Genseric, the Vandal chief of Africa, crossed over from Car- thage and anchored his ships at the mouth of the Tiber. This time the persuasion of Leo could not save the city. Rome was captured (a. d. 455), and for fourteen days Vandals and Moors wrecked and pillaged without mercy. Shiploads of treasure and crowds of captives were carried over the sea to Carthage. 214. During these events there were still emperors of Downfall of the West, and their names will be found in the Rome. 2ist. But they were mere nonentities, for the LAST DAYS OF ROME. 211 real power was in the hands of the barbarians. At last the Roman senate voted that one emperor was enough, and tliat the Eastern emperor, Zeno, should reign over the whole empire ; but at the same time Zeno was made to trust .the government of Italy to Odoa'cer, chief of the German Herulians, who took the title of Patrician of Italy. The last of the Western Roman emperors was Romulus Augustulus, a handsome but feeble youth. Him they pensioned off in A. D. 476. Then, " when Odoacer was proclaimed king of Italy, the phantom assembly that still called itself the Ro- man senate sent back to Constantinople the tiara and purple robe, in sign that the Western empire had passed away." * « White's " Eighteen Christian Centuries." Goths before Rome. 212 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. SECTION IV. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. 1. Modern history, in a comprehensive sense, begins Scope of mod- with the downfall of the Western Roman em history. Empire ; for with that event the volume of ancient history was closed : new actors then appeared on the stage, and a new civilization arose. It will, however, be convenient to consider the fourteen centuries that have elapsed since the breaking up of Rome as divided into two parts. The first part constitutes what is usually called the Middle Ages. This period embraces one thousand years ; that is, it extends from about the close of the 5th to the close of the 15th century of our era. From the close of the 15th century down to the present time is modem history in its narrower sense. 2. It was during the thousand years from the 5th to the Real nature of ^Sth century that the civilization of modem this period. Europe was ripening. In many respects this period seemed a relapse into barbarism, and the interval from the 5th to the nth centuiy is sometimes called specifically the Dark Ages. But in a juster view it was the germinating season : the seeds of modern civilization, cast into the soil, were quickening in new institutions and new nations ; so that when v/e see modern society in the 15th and 1 6th centuries assuming the fixed shape which it still wears, we must remember that it grew into that shaoe in the antecedent thousand years. THE NEW RACES. 213 CHAPTER I. THE NEW RACES. 3. The historical races of Europe comprise four grand divisions of tlie great Aryan stock, — the Historical Grffico-Latins, the Celts, the Teutons, and the Europe. Slaves, or Slavonians. 4. In the ancient history of Europe we have been occupied exclusively with one of these races, Grsco-Latins. — the Grasco-Latins. The three other races — the Celts, Teutons, and Slavonians — belong wholly to modern history. 5. It is known that the ancestors of these races came originally from Asia, where they formed one unity of family with the forefathers of the Hindoos ^'"y^^ races, and Persians, — the term Aryan, or Indo-European, being used to indicate their common lineage. The migration of these races into Europe was at a period that antedates recorded history (probably as far back as 2500 b. c). 6. The evidence of language goes to show that the first wave of migration brought the race which we order of designate as Celts. These established them- migration, selves in Central Europe. After a time, however, they were pressed upon by the Teutonic incomers, and the result was that the Celts were driven into Western Europe, while the Teutons possessed themselves of Central and Eastern Europe. Whether the forefathers of the Hellenic and Latin races appeared previous to or subsequent to the Teutons is mere matter of conjecture. At a subsequent date the Slavonic race made their appearance in Europe ; and the effect of this was that the Teutons were wedged into Central and Northwestern Europe, while the Slavo- nians overspread the whole of the great Eastern plain. 214 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 7. The original civilization of ancient Europe was con- Ancient Aryan fined to the two Mediterranean peninsulas, civilization. Greece and Italy, where a favored branch of the Ar}'an race attained to social organization and to a high development in culture, while their brethren, the Celts, Teutons, and Slaves, still remained in an undeveloped con- dition, without written language, or literature, or the useful or fine arts, or the varied appliances of civilization. Out- side of Greece and Italy the European world was a world of barbarians. 8. The Greeks had no influence whatever in civilizing Influence of the barbarians ; but it was different in the Rome on the ^,^ , i ,^ , Celts. case of Rome. Of the three races, the Celts first came in contact with the Romans. The Gauls of Cis- alpine Gaul were Celts, and we have seen that these were brought into subjection by the Romans under the republic, and that they received the Roman franchise at the hands of Julius Csesar. Under the same conqueror the vast popula- tion of Transalpine Gaul (France) was brought under the rule of Rome, and in the end Roman citizenship was extended to the whole mass. The same thing took place in the case of the Celt-Ibe'rians of Spain. The Celts of the British Islands, also, were received into the Roman family. The result of their contact with the Romans was that the Celtic populations of Gaul and Spain had become thorough- ly Latinized and Christianized before the breaking up of the Western empire. 9. The Teutons do not begin to affect the course of history till we come to the series of events eu ons. attending the downfall of Rome. It is now that the Germanic race commences its existence, now that it begins to play its mighty part. The history of the Middle Ages is the histor}' of the incorporation of Teutonic, or Germanic, barbarians with the Latin and Celtic elements ; modern society is the result of the blending of the two j and THE NEW RACES. 215 it derives ingredients from both, — from the barbarians the love of personal liberty and the sense of independence, from the Romans the forms of a long-estabHshed civilization. 10. In a general way, the terms Teutonic, Gothic, Ger- manic, are all used as synonymous, and are unity of employed indifferently to designate this mighty Teutons, central family of Europe. Its unity is evidenced by the kinship of the forms of Teutonic speech. And this individ- uality of speech, as we might suppose, accompanies an individuality of race, so that, in the analysis of the compo- nent elements of European civilization, that which is Teu- tonic is readily recognizable as a thing quite apart from that which is classic or Celtic or Slavonic. 11. The chief Germanic tribes were the Goths, the Franks, the Vandals, the Burgundians, the Lombards, the Saxons, the Angles, and the Scandinavians. 12. The earliest home of the Goths was Scandinavia, where we can still mark their dwelling-places by such words as Godoland, Godesconzia (Castle of the Goths), and, plainer still, Gothland. But the roving spirit natural to barbarism would not let them rest content with their native swamps and forests. They began to push southward about a. d. 200 ; and we soon find them in Central Europe in three great divisions, — Visi- goths (i. e. West Goths), Os'trogoths (i. e. East Goths), and Gep'idae {Lagganis).* The Goths were the first of the Teutons to come under the influence of Christianity. A considerable time before the downfall of the Western Empire they had been converted from paganism to the form of Christianity called Arianism. 13. Of some of the other Germanic tribes we have al- * The circumstances under which the Goths were admitted within the limits of the Roman Empire have already been told. See page 208. 2l6 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. ready caught a glimpse or two in the confused and shifting Movements of sccnes attending the breaking up of the West- ^'■'^^^- ern Empire. Thus pressed by the Gothic inva- sions, a mingled host of Vandals, Sueves, and Burgundians left the uplands between the springs of the Rhine and the Danube early in the 5th century. The Burgundians settled in Eastern Gaul, and have left their memorial in the name of the district of Burgundy. The Vandals and Sueves pushed on to Spain and founded a kingdom in the northwest corner of the peninsula. This was before the downfall of Rome. But the kingdom did not last long ; for the Visigoths, following soon after, defeated the Sueves and Vandals, and founded a Visigothic kingdom in Spain about A. D. 414. This may be called the first of the modern king- doms of Europe. Meantime the fierce Vandals, leaving be- hind them their name in " Andalu'sia " (once Vati'dalos), crossed to Africa, where they founded a state of which Car- thage was the center. It did not endure, being absorbed a century afterwards in the Eastern Empire. 14. The Franks (from an old German word signifying a battle-ax) we first find inhabiting what we now call Belgium and the lower courses of the Rhine ; but in the stormy period just before the downfall of Rome they pressed into Gaul. Under their leader, Clovis, they took iirm root in Gaul, conquered the Burgundians who were in the southeast and the Visigoths who were in the southwest, and thus, just about the time Rome fell, estab- lished that kingdom of the Franks which afterwards came to be called France (from Francia, the land of the Franks). 15. Of those particular German tribes that were directly Germans in conccmed in the downfall of Rome we have ^^'y- already seen something. First were the Visi- goths, who swarmed down on Italy. It will be remembered that Odoacer, chief of the Visigothic tribe of the Heruli, was made Patrician, or king of Italy, in a. d. 4.76. We shaU THE NEW RACES. ZIJ afterwards see that the Visigoths were succeeded first by the Ostrogoths and then by the Lombards. The original home of the Lombards was in Jutland ; but they afterwards moved to the banks of the Elbe ; then, passing southeast towards the Danube, they made it a starting-point for their march upon Italy, where, as we shall see, they displaced the Ostrogoths at the end of the 6th century, and where the name Lom'bardy still points out the scene of their greatest triumph. 16. The Saxons (knife-men, from Sachs) at first occupy- ing Holstein, soon spread over the basin of the Weser. Two kindred tribes — Angles and "^ ° Jutes — filled the peninsula of Denmark. The various tribes in the low countries along the North Sea are known as Low Germans, and their languages as the Low German type of the Teutonic speech. They had never come in con- tact with the Romans, and were still pagans when Rome fell. These tribes are of great interest to us, because it was rov- ing bands from among them that in the 5 th century crossed over to Britain and laid the foundations of England, the land of the Angles, and began the Saxon kingdom and the English language. 17. We have now named the chief Teutonic tribes with the exception of the Scandinavians. We shall , - , -n 1 1111 Scandinavians. not hear of them till about the 9th and loth centuries, when they appear as IVorsemen. 18. The fourth representative of the Aryan stock in Eu- rope are the Slavonians, or Slaves, of the great The siavoni- Eastern Plain. They do not begin to play any ^"^• important part in history till well on in the Middle Ages. The word " slave " (borrowed from the proper noun Slave) is sadly suggestive of the woes they suffered during the long wars of the Middle Ages. The Poles belonged to the Slavonian race ; but the foremost national representative of this stock are the Russians. Russia, however, was not a civilized country till comparatively modern times. 2l8 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 19. Europe is mainly possessed by Aryans, but not Non-Aryan wholly. In the centurics of confusion wild ^^'=-^^- Iiordes from the Ural Mountains swept down on the Danube. We have seen how the Tartar Huns under Attila overran Europe. They were defeated, but not entirely driven out of Europe. They all pressed upon one point, — modern Hungary, with its grain-growing vales and gem-producing hills. Lastly came the Mag'yars, who were also Mongols or Tartars, and who, settling down in the basin of the Danube, stayed there. They became Christianized and civilized about 1000 a. d., and gradually took shape as the noble Hungarian nation. The Turks, who captured Constantinople and overthrew the Byzantine Empire, were also Mongols, or Tartars, and they have re- tained a foothold in Europe (Turkey) up to the present time. 20. We must now glance at the languages of the new Rise of the Ro- nations that arose on the ruins of the Roman mance tongues. Empire. At the time the Teutonic tribes forced their way into Italy and the western provinces of the Roman Empire, Latin had become the common speech ot. Gaul and Spain, no less than of Italy. The old Celtic of Gaul and the Celt-Iberian of Spain, which Avere spoken be- fore the Roman conquest, lived on only in a few out-of-the way corners. Thus the language which the Teutonic set- tlers found prevailing was Latin, — not pure Latin, of course, but still Latin. As the Teutonic settlers were far outnum- bered by the native populations, they had to learn Latin in order to communicate with the people of the provinces ; but in learning the tongue they further changed and corrupted it to some extent. Accordingly the common language of Italy, Gaul, and Spain became a sort of corrupt Latin, which was called Rofnan, while classical Latin was still written by scholars. Gradually in these three countries differences of dialect arose, and the common Roman gradually developed uito the Italian, French, and Spanish : these languages are THE NEW RACES. 219 English. Still called the Romance tongues, to show their derivation from the speech of the Romans. 21. In Britain the Germanic invaders, as we shall find, did not mix with the Celtic-speaking Britons ; hence the language of Anglo-Saxon England was purely Teutonic, and it did not become affected by Romance influence until England was conquered in the nth century by the French-speaking Normans. 22. The new nations of purely Teutonic stock that arose in Germany and Scandinavia were in their speech wholly unaffected by Latin influence ; so that their languages were unmixed Teutonic. These are the German, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, etc. 23. The Slavonic people speak languages of their own. — languages which belong to the great Aryan stock of tongues, but which are quite distinct from the Romance tongues on the one hand and the Ger- manic tongues on the other. Romance (Italian, languages. ) French, ( Spanish. Germanic \ and V English. Romance. \ Germanic. Celtic. High German, or the tongues of Southern Germany, — the " German " of our day. Low German, the tongues spoken by the dwellers in Northern or sea-coast Germany, represented by the Dutch of our day. Scandinavian, including the Swedish, Danish, Nor- wegian, and Icelandic Gaelic Scotch, Erse of Ireland. Slavonian. I Jus^^^N' J Polish. 220 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. THE BYZANTINE EM FIRE. 22 » CHAPTER II. THREE CENTURIES OF HISTORY. I. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 24. When the feeble hand of Rome let go, in her decay, the Latin provinces of the empire, the tradi Eastern Em- tion, and in some respects the substance, of p'*"^- Roman dominion still continued in the East. The Western Empire, as we have seen, went all to ruin, and finally passed into the hands of the barbarians ; but the Eastern Empire was not involved in the universal wreck, and for a thousand years after the downfall of the Latin Empire, — during which time the new nationalities and the new civili- zation of Europe were coming into being, — the Eastern, Greek, or Byzantine Empire, as it is called, continued to subsist, though in a state of premature and perpetual decay. 25. The Byzantine Empire was in the meridian of its glory in the 6th century during the long reign Reign of jus- of Justin'ian, A. D. 527-565. Justinian was ^'"'a"- famous for his buildings, especially for the great church of St. Sophia at Constantinople ; but his name is still more honorably connected with the mighty work of putting the laws of Rome into the shape of a regular code. Nobody could know the law, for there were so many contradictory decrees and decisions. With the aid of a great jurist named Tribo'nian, and other learned men, that complete system of Roman law called the Civil Law, which has formed the groundwork of the law of most of the nations of Europe (England the most notable exception), was reduced into what are called the Code, the Ifistitutes, and the Pandects. 26. We shall not be greatly concerned with the affairs of the Eastern Empire, because progress lay not there, but in 222 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. the West. Byzantine civilization, with its poHsh and leam- NatureofBy- ing and culturc on the surface, was petrified tory. and dead at the core, while it was the so-called " barbarous " races of Western Europe that alone held the promise of the future. Still, it is necessary constantly to bear in mind the existence of the Eastern Empire, and also the fact that the emperors at Constantinople claimed to rule over all the dominion of their predecessors ; for this claim was put forth whenever there was any chance of making it good. 2. ITALY DOWN TO CHARLEMAGNE. 27. It has been seen that the Western Empire came to The Ostro- ^n end when the Visigothic chief, Odoacer, goths. became king of Italy. Odoacer went on gov- erning, professedly by authority derived from the Emperor of the East, but in reality giving very little heed to the Byzantine court. In the mean time the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, had established an Ostrogothic kingdom between the Black Sea and the Adriatic, which was ruled by their young hero-king Theod'oric, or Dietrich. They were partly allies, but quite as much enemies, of the Em- peror of the East ; so the Emperor Zeno gave Theodoric a commission to march into Italy and bring that country back to the empire. The march of Theodoric was the emigration of an entire people, — the soldiers being accom- panied by their wives, children, and aged parents, with all their effects in an immense number of wagons. After a three years' struggle Odoacer was compelled to capitulate (a. d. 493), and he was soon after assassinated by his rival at a solemn banquet. 28. Theodoric secured his conquest by distributing one Reign of The- third of the lands of Italy to his soldiers in odoric. military tenures. This partition was effected with very little violence to the ancient possessors, and the ITALY DOWN TO CHARLEMAGNE. 223 Goths were instructed to spare the people and to reverence the laws. Under Theodoric's wise rule Italy revived, and Romans and Ostrogoths lived in peace and plenty : the fair- haired Goths, still wearing their furs and brogues, carried the sword, while the Romans, wrapped in the flowing toga, held the pen and filled the schools. So passed three-and- thirty years, until Theodoric died, in a. d. 526, and then frightful scenes of blood were enacted over his fallen throne. 29. In the confusion that followed, the Byzantine gov- ernment took the opportunity to interfere. Reconquestby At this time the Emperor of the East was J^stmian. Justinian, the first able ruler that had sat on the throne of Constantinople since the downfall of the Western Empire. His general, Belisa'rius, a man of great military talent, now marched with the imperial forces into Italy, and captured Rome. Nar'ses, the successor of Belisarius, completed the overthrow of the Ostrogothic power in Italy, a. d. 553. Italy was thus reduced to a Byzantine province, and was governed by rulers appointed from Constantinople and called Exarchs of Raven'na. 30, Three years after the death of Justinian (a. d. 565), Italy, then a dependency of Constantinople Lombard in- and governed by an exarch residing at Raven- ^asion. na, was overwhelmed by the last of the three great Teuton- ic deluges. The Lombards (so called from their long bardi, or spears,) moved from Central Europe, crossed the Alps, and descended into the basin of the Po, settling in the extensive district known even yet as Lombardy. They took possession of this region, and made Pavi'a their capital, A. D. 568. The Lombards treated the Italians with great cruelty, and committed ravages on every side. Among the results of such oppression was the flight of various Roman families to the islands and lagoons at the head of the Adri- atic, where, a few years before, had been laid the founda- tions of the Venetian state. 224 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 31. While the Lombards overran the greater part of Italy, the Byzantine power still retained Ra- Later history. -r. xt 1 ^- r .1 venna, Rome, Naples, a portion or the coast- line, and most of the southern part. So we see that the Eastern Empire upheld its title in the peninsula, and for two hundred years the Lombard kings and the exarchs of Ravenna divided Italy between them. The last Lombard king was Deside'rius, who was made prisoner by Charle- magne in A. D. 774. This brings the history of Italy down to the time when it falls into the general history of the Em- pire of Charlemagne, and concerning this we are to learn fully hereafter. 3. BEGINNINGS OF FRANCE. 32. In the stormy period, when the Western Roman Empire was falling to pieces, various Teutonic tribes established themselves in Gaul. There were Visigoths and Burgundians and Franks, but in the end the Franks under Chlod'wig, or Clovis (which is the same as Ludwig, or Louis), got the upper hand ; so when Clovis fixed his capital at Paris (Lute'tia), in a. d. 507, we may say that the foundation of France was laid. When the Franks came into Gaul they were pagans, but they were soon converted to be Christians. 33. The Franks were too powerful and too far off for Relations to the Byzantine emperors to have much real Constantinople, authority over them ; so they were held to be friends of the empire, and from Constantinople a gold crown and purple robes were sent to Clovis. 34. On the death of Clovis, his dominions were divided Successors of ^mong his four sons. For over two centuries, Clovis. during the whole period of the first Frankish dynasty (called Merovin'gian, after Merowig, the supposed grandfather of Clovis), there is nothing to relate but a series of crimes and violences. Latterly the Frankish kings be- came mere imbeciles, and were too weak to be wicked even. BEGINNINGS OF ENGLAND. 22 5 35. In this state of aftairs a remarkable arrangement was made : the real power passed into the hands Mayors of the of a sort of prime minister styled the Mayor P^i^^^e. of the Palace, — an oft cer chosen by the nobles to be the guide and controller of the sovereign. As the Mayor of the Palace had the command of the army, he was the real king and carried on all the affairs of the nation, while the phantoms of royalty called the " sluggard kings " (rots fai- neants) combed the long yellow hair which they regarded as the sign of their kingship. 36. One of the most celebrated of the Mayors of the Palace was Karl, or Charles, Martel, who up- ,,,,„,., . , , Charles Martel. held the r rankish power most vigorously, and, what is more, by his defeat of the Saracens in a. d, 732, saved all Europe from being subjugated by Mohammedan rule. The Saracenic invasion will be related in a subsequent chapter. 37. The son of Charles Martel, Pepin, succeeded his father as Mayor of the Palace ; but under him this absurd arrangement was ended. He shut up the puppet-king in a convent, and was himself made king of the Franks and anointed such by the Pope a. d. 753. Thus the second, or Carlovin'gian, dynasty began. Now, Pepin's son and the inheritor of his crown was that very Karl, or Charles, who is known in history as Charlemagne ; and about him and his doings we shall learn more fully hereafter. 4. BEGINNINGS OF ENGLAND. 38. We must now look for a moment at another series of events happening in an obscure corner of the Angio-Saxon once great empire of the West, and see how the conquest, foundations of the nation that afterwards rose to be Eng- land were laid. The Roman troops had been withdrawn 226 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. from the province of Britain about half a century before the downfall of Rome, and the Britons, who belonged to the THEORIGIMALHOME OFTHE ENGLISH Celtic race, were left to shift for themselves. About the middle of the 5th century various Teutonic tribes belonging to the Low-German stock, and coming from the old Low- German lands by the Elbe and the Weser, invaded Britain and won for themselves new homes there. They knew nothing and cared nothing for the language or arts of Rome, and they did not, like the Franks and Goths, adopt the language and religion of the Romans. These swept everything before them, and the native Celtic Britons were killed, enslaved, or driven to the mountain regions of Wales and North Britain. 39. Among these Low-German invaders there were three The three main tribes, — the Angles, Saxons, and Ju^es, tribes. "Y\i^ name jfuie has left no memorial in Eng- land ; but the English people are still often spoken of as belonging to the Saxon race, while the speech which arose in the island from the intermixture of the various German dialects took the name of Anglo-Saxon, and Brit- ain changed its name to England, or the land of the Angles. RISE OF THE SARACENS. 227 40. The German immigrations to England went on from the middle of the 5th to the close of the 6th Growth of century ; so that in little more than a hundred England, years the greater part of that land which had been the Ro- man and Christian province of Britain had become the heathen land of the Angles and Saxons. In the course of the following century the Anglo-Saxons were Christianized by Roman missionaries. Various little kingdoms were formed, and wars were waged, — wars that, as Milton says, are of no more importance than " the battle of kites and crows," — till finally, early in the 9th century, under Egbert, who was a contemporary and friend of Charlemagne, the various petty dominions were united in the one kingdom of England. 5. RISE OF THE SARACENS. 41. We now come to a remarkable chapter in European history, — the invasion of Europe, the land of 1 » i_ o • • 1 r 11 Subject. the Aryans, by a Semitic race, the followers of the famous Moham'med. Con- nected with this is the rise of a new religion and of a vast dominion that played a great part in the history of the Middle Ages. 42. Ma'homet, or Mohammed, was born at the sacred city Mohammed's of Mecca, in Arabia, in ^^■''y "f=- the year 570 or 571. Till the age of forty he lived without exciting much remark, and was known only as an able, rich, and enterprising merchant, honorable in his dealings, and strictly truthful in all that he said. He could neither read nor write ; but his mer- cantile journeys to various parts of the peninsula, as well as Mahometan Emblems. 228 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. to Syria and Palestine, had enlarged his store of informa- tion. In his frequent retirements to a mountain cave for secret thought and study, he developed a religious system of his own. He one day, at a meeting of his kinsmen, made the startling announcement that he had received a Divine commission to reform the faith and practice of the whole Arabian nation. He taught that though both the Jewish and the Christian religions were sent from God, yet he had himself received a more perfect one than either. He now called upon all his friends and kinsmen to acknowledge his authority, forsake their idols, and worship the one only true God. 43. There can be no doubt that in his own country His system ; Mohammcd was a great reformer, that he gave its value. j^jg countr^'men a far more rational religion than they had been practicing, and that in the furnace blast of religious enthusiasm the scattered Arab tribes were fused into one nation. The doctrines of Mohammed, written down from time to time, received the name of the Korafi, — that is, the " Reading " ; and the religion itself v/as called Islam, — that is, " Salvation." 44. His wife and a few other immediate relatives were the prophet's first disciples, and these did not Hegira. . mcrease very rapidly. The people of Mecca denounced him as a madman or an impostor, and in a little time he was forced to flee from Mecca to save his life. He betook himself, with his disciples, to what is now Medi'na. The date of this flight, or Hegi'ra, as the Arabians call it, — July 15, 622 A. D., — has been adopted ever since as the chronological era in Mohammedan countries. At Medina he was receiv^ed with open arms, — his doctrines having already made a number of converts in that place ; and here he built his first mosque. 45. A complete change now came over Mohammed. — the dreamer became a red-handed soldier. " The sword " RISE OF THE SARACENS. 229 cned he, " is the key of heaven and hell " ; and by the sword Islam was to be forced upon all men. Koran and Tribe after tribe was subdued ; and before the ^'^°^^- lapse of ten years the whole peninsula acknowledged the sovereignty of Mohammed, and could boast of an unmixed population of Mos'lems, or True Believers, The prophet was preparing to carry the new religion beyond the bounds of Arabia, when he was cut off by a fever at Medina in A. D. 632. 46. Mohammed was succeeded in his power by rulers called his Ca'Iiphs, or Successors, the first of conquests of whom was his father-in-law, Abu-beker. They *^^ Caiiphs. were at once spiritual and temporal rulers. The proselyting spirit of Mohammed had been communicated to his suc- cessors, and they began a long series of invasions, wars, and conquests. They everywhere gave men the choice of three things, — Koran, tribute, or sword. By these means the re- ligion of Mohammed was spread over a large part of Asia and Africa, and we shall presently see that it made its way into Europe also. 47. The first countries assailed were the Oriental posses- sions of the Byzantine Empire. In the reign of Abu-beker, Syria and Mesopotamia were sub- dued by Arabian armies. Under the next caliph, Omar, Egypt was conquered and Northern Africa overrun. In the course of their Egyptian conquests the victorious Moslems are charged with having burned the great Alexandrian Library ; but recent writers say it must have been destroyed long before Mohammed's day. The Arabs, or Saracens, as they were also called, met with comparatively little resist- ance in the Oriental countries, the countries beyond Mount Tau'rus; and this may be accounted for by the fact that these were the parts of the Roman Empire in which both Roman law and Christianity had taken least hold. Thus the Eastern Empire was shorn of all its Oriental posses- 230 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. sions ; and even the farther East — Persia and the lands beyond, to India — was added to the Moslem dominion. 48. In the West, however, a stout resistance was en- countered. The Saracens besieged Constanti- In the West. , . , . , , • f nople, agamst which they carried on a siege of eight years (a. d. 668-675) ; but every assault was repelled by torrents of terrible Greek fire. A second siege, forty years afterwards, met a like result. In North Africa, too, they encountered long and obstinate resistance ; but finally the whole northern coast — Cyre'ne, Trip'oli, Carthage — was subdued; and in A. d. 710 a host of turbaned Arabs, with unsheathed scimitars, under Tarik-ben-Zaid, crossed the narrow strait into Spain, and landed on the rock which commemorates the name of their leader (" Gibral'tar," i. e. yebel Tarik, the Mountain of Tarik). 49. It will be remembered that a Visigothic kingdom had been established in Spain ; but Rod'erick, the " last of the Goths," was defeated on the field of Xeres, and the Saracens established themselves firmly in Spain. In the course of a few years they had pos- session of the whole peninsula, with the exception of the mountainous districts in the north, where the little Christian kingdom of the Astu'rias maintained itself. 50. The ambition of the Saracens now overleaped the Saracenic ag- Pyrenees. They obtained a lodgement in gression. Southem Gaul ; and after a time an able Sara- cenic commander, Abd-el-rahman, led a powerful Moham- medan army northward to subdue the land of the Franks. As far as the Loire ever^'thing fell before him, and it seemed that all Europe would come under Moslem sway. 51. It was in the hour of need that Charles Martel ap- peared as a champion for Christendom. Gath Their defeat. ^ . . , . , i n ering a powerful army, he met the Saracens between Tours and Poitiers \_ptva/-yea'\ A desperate bat- tle, which lasted for seven days, ensued ; but on the seventh RISE OF THE SARACENS. 23 1 day the Saracens were defeated with great slaughter, a. d. 732. This victory arrested forever the progress of the Mohammedan arms in Europe, and procured for Charles the expressive surname of " the Hammer " (Martel), by which he is known in history. 52. While the Saracens were stopped from pushing their conquests farther into Europe, they firmly Foothold in established themselves in Spain, where they ^pam. founded a kingdom that lasted for seven hundred years, — that is, till the very close of tlie Middle Ages. 53. For a short time the vast dominion which the Sara- cens had conquered held together, and a Division of 1 r I u J • c • A • Saracenic em- smgle caliph was obeyed in Spain and in pire. India. But soon disputes arose as to the right of succes- sion to the caliphate : wars and secessions took place, and in A. D. 755 the Saracenic empire was divided, — one caliph reigning in Spain and another in Bag'dad. 54. In the East, the most distinguished of the Saracenic rulers was Haroun-al-Raschid (Aaron the Events in the Just), who became caliph in A. D. 786, and ^^^*- was a contemporary of Charlemagne. In the Arabian Nights we find a vivid picture of the city he ruled and the life he led. After the death of Haroun, the Eastern dominion of the Saracens was rent by civil strife ; one province after another broke off from the caliphate, till in the nth and 12th centuries it fell a prey to the Turks. 55. In Spain, on the division of the Saracenic power^ the rule was in the hands of the Ommi'yad In the ^^est. line, and the capital was at Cor'dova. From this city the scepter of the Ommi'yades ruled during 283 years (from a. d. 755-1038); but in the nth century the supremacy of the Saracens gave place to the Moorish empire in Spain. 56. In the intellectual history of the MidJle Ages the Saracens played a remarkable part When Europe was 232 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. sunk in the grossest ignorance, this clever people were Saracenic actively engaged in the cultivation of science, learning. learning, and the arts. The schools of Cordova vied with those of Bagdad in the collection of books and the encouragement of science, and from them proceeded nearly all that was original in the medicine, physics, and metaphysics of Europe during the Middle Ages. For additional details see chapter on Ages," page 282. 'Civilization in the Middle Spain. ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. A Visigothic kingdom founded here just before the downfall of Rome, — first of the new kingdoms, — lasts for three centuries, till overthrown by the Saracens in . the first half of the 8th century. The Franks.. England , Italy The foundations of the Prankish kingdom laid by Clovis, beginning of the 6th century, — Merovingian dynasty continues for about a century, — superseded by Pepin, son of Charles Martel and father of Charle- magne, who becomes king of the Franks about the middle of the 8th century. Invasion of Celtic Britain by Low-German tribes, Angles, Saxons, etc., just before the downfall of Rome, — formation of various petty kingdoms, — all become practically united as England, in the early part of the 9th century, under Egbert. The first barbarian kingdom of the Visigoths under Odoacer established A. D. 476, — overthrown in less than twenty years by the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, — Ostrogothic kingdom lasts sixty years, — then over- thrown by the Eastern empire, and ruicd by a Byzantine Exarch, — the Lombards take possession of all North- ern Italy, — and the Lombard kings and the Byzantine .£xarcbs rule Italy till the time of Charlemagne. EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 233 r L A N T / 234 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. CHAPTER III EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE, 57. An interesting chapter in the history of the Middle Subject treated Agcs is HOW before US. We are to see how °^- the ruins of the dilapidated Western Empire were for a time rebuilt into an imposing structure by the genius of a great man, the grandest figure of the Middle Ages, — Charlemagne. 58. Charlemagne was the Charlemagne's SOn of Pepin, the '^'''■^- first of the Carlo- vingian monarchs, — that Pe- pin who shut up the imbecile puppet-king of the Merovin- gian line and assumed the sovereignty of the Franks. He was born about a. d. 742. The real name of this great man was Karl, that is, Charles. Though best known by his French name of Charlemagne (Charles the Great), we must remember that he was no Frenchman in our sense of the term, but a thorough Teuton in birth, instinct, speech, and residence. 59. The kingdom of the Franks, to which Charlemagne Prankish king- f^'^ ^^i^ OH the death of his father, formed an '^°™- extensive dominion comprising portions of the two countries we now call France and Germany, — for it must be remembered that the specific countries, France and Germany, did not yet exist at all. 60. At this time — the latter half of the 8th centur}' — Italy was divided between the Lombards and the Eastern EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 23:J emperors, England had come into existence, but only as a number of feeble and warring states, Spain was contemporary under the rule of the Moslems. events. 61. In the mean time the land of the Franks was lifting itself from out the surrounding barbarism of situation of the new races, and was the center of that ^*^^ Franks. Teutonic civilization which was struggling into existence. It is important to bear in mind the actual condition of the European world at the time Charlemagne came on the stage, for it will help us to understand the work he did, how far he succeeded and how far he failed. 62. The ruling idea of Charlemagne was the re-establish- ment of the Roman Empire, — the building up Charlemagne's on German soil of that Colossus which had «^esign. toppled over because it rested on the too narrow basis of Latin nationality. In executing this design he aimed to use all the elements of civilization that the times presented, and especially these two great elements, — the political ideas and instincts of the Teutons, and the adhesive power of the Christian Church. Hence we find him, throughout his whole career, carefully cherishing all those old German institutions upon which the mass of his people looked with deep reverence, while at the same time we behold him the protector of the Pope and the loyal and ardent champion of the Church. 63. It was in the effort to realize his grand idea that Charlemagne undertook the numerous wars object of his and expeditions that filled the forty-six years w^"- of his reign. We shall not enter into the details of these wars ; but it is needful to understand their object and their result. 64. The most important of Charlemagne's military en- terprises were directed against the fierce pagan nations of Germany and the wild Scythians in the outlying lands beyond. To appreciate the impor- 236 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. tance of these we must try to realize that the eastern fron- tier of the Frankish land, that is, the eastern boundary of Charlemagne's kingdom, on the German side of the Rhine, ran into and abutted on the extensive stretch of country in Middle Europe that was still in the hands of the various un- civilized tribes. As long as these nationalities remained in their warlike, savage, and pagan condition, they would press heavily on the struggling civilization of the Frankish king- dom, and would endanger, if not utterly destroy, its progress. Hence to subdue and especially to Christianize these tribes — to extend the domain of organized and law-governed so- ciety into the desert waste of Teutonic barbarism — was a main object with Charlemagne. 65. With the Saxon confederation, formed by various Wars with pagan tribes on the Weser and the Elbe (the the Saxons. same tribes from among which the Saxons and Angles, who conquered Britain three centuries before this, had gone forth), Charlemagne had the greatest trouble. He repeatedly marched into their country and subdued them ; but they constantly rose up again, and it was only after some terrible acts of vengeance, — for example, he one day had 4200 prisoners hanged, — that they at length sub- mitted to be baptized and to become peaceable subjects. 66. Soon after this the Bava'rians attempted to render Eastern con- thcmselves independent of the Frankish pow- quests. gj. ^y ^]^g assistance of the Avars, a Tartar race living in what we now call Hungar}^ (then Panne/ tiia). Char- lemagne overpowered the Bavarians, incorporating Bavaria with his German territory; and he then revenged himself on the Avars by conquering them, taking their treasures, and annexing Hungary to his dominion. The result of Charlemagne's conquests on the east side of the Rhine was that Germany was for the first time all united under one head, and on that side the Frankish kingdom was extended to the confluence of the Danube vidth the Theiss and the Save, EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 237 67. Against the Saracens in Spain Charlemagne made an important expedition. The capture of Sar- agos'sa laid Ar'agon and Navarre' at his feet, and he united the whole country as far as the Ebro to his own kingdom as a Spanish province. During his return the rear-guard, under Roland, suffered a defeat in the valley of Roncesval'les, in which the bravest champions of the Franks were destroyed. This somewhat tarnished the lau- rels Charlemagne had won in Spain, but did not undo the substantial results of the campaign. 68. We must now see what Charlemagne did in Italy. At this period the Lombards were very trouble- some to the Pope, and frequently assailed the ^ ^' Roman territory. Accordingly, when Pope Adrian I. called on Charlemagne for aid, the Prankish monarch crossed the Alps, defeated the Lombards, shut up their king in a mon- astery, and himself assuming the famous " iron crown " of Lombardy, united the whole of Upper Italy to the kingdom of the Franks (a. d. 773). At the same time he confirmed the gifts made by Pepin to the Pope. 69. The general result of all the wars and conquests which we have described was that by the year Extent of . . , / • Charlemagne s 800 Charlemagne, who had mherited from dominion. Pepin a kingdom scarcely equal to all Gaul, found himself lord of a dominion as large as the ancient Roman Empire of the West, and extending from the Ebro (in Spain) on the west to the Elbe in the northeast, the Theiss (Hungary) in the southeast, and including half of Italy, with Corsica, Sar- dinia, and the Bal'earic Isles. He fell heir to ^kingdom; he was now master of an empire. 70. The year a. d. 800 forms the climax of Charle- magne's reign. The sovereign had gone in crowned em- splendid state to visit Italy. On Christmas p^''°''- day Charlemagne and his court were attending divine ser- vice in the church of St Peter's, at Rome. Suddenly, while 2^8 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. the monarch was kneeling ^n the steps of the altar in prayer, the Pope, Leo III., placed a crown upon his head and solemnly saluted him as " Emperor of the West," with the title of Charles I., C^sar Augustus. 71. The latter years of Charlemagne's life were spent in Charieraagne's labors for the Consolidation of his empire and energy. j-j^g elcvation of his people. In activity, in a craving desire to be ever doing something, Charlemagne resembled Napoleon. From the affairs of his own house- hold to the state of the markets, and even to the mon- asteries in the most distant parts of his empire, he made himself acquainted with everything; and he wearied out all about him by his astonishing powers of invention and labor and the amount of work he exacted from them. 72. Charlemagne was a great patron of learning and learned men. He was himself a good Latin ip. g(,|-,Qi^j-^ ^j^(j j^e knew something of Greek. Wherever he was he was usually surrounded by learned churchmen, whom he drew to his court from all quarters, and with whom he delighted to hold conversations on liter- ary and other subjects. The emperor, his family, and all attached to his household formed what was called the " School of the Palace." Fond of literary pursuits, Charle- magne studied grammar, rhetoric, music, logic, astronomy, and natural history under his learned friends ; and even after he was considerably advanced in years he took the pains to acquire the art of writing, — an accomplishment then very unusual except among churchmen. 73. Nor was the emperor's interest in education confined Education of to his own houschold. Each of the numer- the people. q^^ monasteries that he endowed was bound to maintain a school. He had copies of the writings of the ancient Romans made and distributed among the convents, he formed a collection of old German heroic ballads, and under his patronage church music was greatly improved. EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 239 74. Physically Charlemagne was of heroic stature and majestic appearance. In his habits he was person and plain and unostentatious. He dined off four habits, dishes, and was very fond of roast venison, newly killed and served up to him on the spit. He hated drunkenness. At table, books of history and Augustine's " City of God " were often read aloud to him. His love for the national Prank- ish dress was so strong that he never, save on a few great occasions of state, exchanged it for the Roman garb. 75- Charlemagne's favorite place of residence was at Aix-la-Chapelle' (in German, Aa'cheii). He made this the northern capital of his empire, as Rome was the southern, and built a magnificent palace there. When his power was confirmed by his coronation as Emperor of the West, all the world hastened to pay him homage. The Saracenic caliph, the famous Haroun-al-Ras- chid, who ruled the Eastern dominion of the Saracens, at Bagdad, exchanged courtesies with his great brother of the West, sending him, among other presents, an ape, an ele- phant, and a curious clock which struck the hours. 76. Charlemagne died at the age of seventy-two, at Aix- la-Chapelle, in A. D. 814. The year before, he had caused his only living son, Louis, to assume the imperial End of his crown. But the vast structure that Charle- empire, magne had raised during his lifetime tottered and fell almost immediately after his death. Louis, known as the Gentle {li Debonnaire), was better fitted for the repose of a clois- ter than for the government of a warlike kingdom. His sons, among whom he divided the empire, turned their arms first against himself and then against one another. Finally, in A. D. 843, a treaty was made at Verdun', by which France, Germany, and Italy became separate and independent states ; so that, in less than thirty years after the death of Charlemagne, the history of the Franks came to an end, and the history of France and of Germany began. 240 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. CHAPTER IV. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 77. The aim of this chapter, and of the succeeding four Programme of chapters, is to present a general view of the topics. Middle Ages, — of those great historic facts common to all the nations of Europe during that epoch. Feudal Castle Thus, all the nations of Europe were under that peculiar form of society called feudalism (and this will be treated of in the present chapter) ; all bore certain relations to the Papal Power (the subject-matter of the next chapter) ; all participated in the Crusades and in the spirit of Chivalry (the subject-matter of Chapters VI. and VII.); and all passed through the period named the Dark Ages, and shared in the intellectual revival which marked the latter part of the Middle Ages (described in Chapter VIII.). THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 24I 78. The most marked feature of society in the Middle Ages was Feudalism, or the Feudal System. General state- This system sprang out of the peculiar relations '"^"'^• of man to man among the various Teutonic tribes who ob- tained possession of the countries that had formed the West- ern Empire; by the iitii century it had spread into all the lands to which the German conquests extended ; it con- tinued throughout the whole Middle Ages, and it passed away only with that extensive series of changes that marked the advent of modern history proper. 79. Every free German who had helped his chief in con- quering the country received as his share of the origin of the spoil a particular estate, which was called his system. allodium^ or freehold, — this estate being absolutely his own property. The chief or king, as a matter of course, received a very large domain as his share. Now, after a time, it be- came usual for him to grant portions of this his own domain to his followers and favorites, on condition of their being faithful to him and doing him service in war. The land so granted was called a feudum, or Jief, and land held in this way was said to be held by 7i feudal tenure. This " tenure," or way of holding, was totally unlike the property that was allodial, or allotted. The latter was a man's very own ; while land held by the feudal tenure was not the soldier's property by right, but was retained only during the pleasure of the real owner, and so long as the conditions agreed on were lived up to. The real owner was the lord, suzerain, or liege, while the person to whom he granted the land was called his vassal, liegeman, or retainer. 80. Just as the kings made these feudal grants to their favorites, so the holders of extensive allods Growth of the (that is, grants made to them from the first as system, absolutely their own) gave away portions of these to the less wealthy, to be held by feudal tenure, and thus obtained liegemen or vassals of their own. Bishops and abbots also II P 242 MED/AlVAL history. gave grants of extensive tracts received from the kings to knights, who held these lands as vassals of the bishops and abbots, — that is, they were bound to defend the monastery and supply a certain number of troops when the king made a general levy. 81. The usual tenure by which vassals held their fiefs Duties of a was that of military service and homage, — in hegeman. other words, the proprietors who held fiefs from the king were bound to attend his court on occasions of ceremony, and to assist him, in case of war, with a certain number of men ; and the smaller proprietors, who held fiefs under great lords, were in like manner bound to appear at the castles of their lords, when summoned, and to render them military service. The lord, on the other hand, was bound to protect his vassals. 82. It soon happened that the feudal tenure of property Feudalism prevailed over every other. The great nobles universal. were but too glad to become vassals of the kings, in return for the rich gifts which they had to bestow ; so also the holder of a small allod, or freehold, would often, of his own accord, give it up to a powerful lord in his neigh- borhood, whose protection he wished to secure, receiving it back from him as a fief. Gradually, therefore, almost the whole property of a country became a connected system of fiefs ; and society, from the king down to the poorest free- man, consisted of a chain of ranks, each retaining from that above it. Kings themselves were vassals of other kings for estates lying out of the boundaries of their own sovereignty. Thus William the Conqueror, monarch of England, was, as Duke of Normandy, a vassal of the king of France. 83. To understand the practical operation of the feudal Illustration systcm, it is best to fancy what took place in a from war. country about to undertake a war. The king summoned his vassals, or retainers, to appear in the field at a certain time, with a certain military retinue ; these vassals. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 243 generally the chief nobles of the kingdom, made a similar claim upon their retainers or liegemen, the smaller proprie- tors ; and they, in their turn, summoned the farmers and yeomen who stood to them in the relation of feudal obe- dience. The army thus consisted of bands of freemen, each armed at his own cost, or at the cost of his feudal superior, and each following the banner of his chief. 84. We have thus far been considering the holders of land ; but in feudal society the great mass of the people were not freeholders at all, but serfs. The serfs were not actual slaves ; that is to say, they could not be bought and sold man by man ; but they were bound to the land, and passed with it when // changed hands. In addition to the serfs there were also actual slaves, — those who became slaves by being made prisoners of war or by being condemned to slavery for some crime. 85. A fief consisted properly of two things, — the castle in which the lord, or proprietor, lived with his Nature of a family and men-at-arms ; and the village, or '^^'^• attached domain, inhabited by the tillers of the soil. These were either villains (inhabitants of the ville or village), who were freeborn men renting land or serving for wages, or serfs, who were the born thralls of the lord of the soil. 86. Feudalism had spread into all the lands conquered by the Teutonic tribes before it reached Eng- Th.; system land ; and it was first introduced there in its *" England, perfection by William of Normandy, when he conquered the country in a. d. 1066. He, as conqueror, claimed the right of giving estates to whomsoever he pleased, on condition of receiving in return military service and aids of money. 87. As the Normans, on going into England, entered a conquered country, their first thought was to Norman cas- build dwellings for safety ; and to insure this *'^^- they erected strong castles, and surrounded them with thick walls and a ditch. These buildings usually consisted of 244 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. three divisions, namely, the inner and outer courts, and the keep, which formed the baron's residence. The entrance to the castle was guarded by the barbacatt, which in most cases was a strong gateway in front of the main gate. The passage through the gateway could be closed, in addi' tion to the gates, by a spiked iron grating, called a port-^ cullis, which was let down from above, and the archway was pierced with holes, through which melted lead and boil- ing pitch could be poured upon an enemy. The gray ruins of many of these castles, found here and there throughout England, give a vivid idea of the massive strength of the homes of the nobility in the feudal times. \ 88. By many writers feudalism has been painted in ro- Eviis of feu- niantic colors ; but, in spite of this gilding, it daiism. jg plain that the system was a bad one. The mass of the people had no guaranteed rights, they were at the mercy of the lords ; and though we may believe that un- der good proprietors the condition of the people may not have been invariably or necessarily unhappy, yet that sys- tem is radically vicious which makes one man subject to the will and caprice of another. Indeed, it is certain that under this system there were monstrous abuses. The feudal bar- ons, withdrawn within their gloomy castles, and surrounded by a dependent and isolated village of serfs and tenants, grievously oppressed the people, who had no redress, seeing that the nobles were the magistrates of the fief. 89. At the same time the feudal government retarded Effect on the the growth of nationality. Everything tended nation. ^q isolation ; a kingdom was a cluster of con- federated powers under a common head ; but that head, the king or emperor, lacked real power, since, though the nobles and barons owed feudal allegiance to the suzerain, obedience, when refused, could be enforced only by war. In fact, the system was a reign, not of law, but of lattf lessness. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 245 "^ 90. The three influences that gradually undermined feu- ialism were : i. Royalty ; 2. The Municipalities ; Enemies of 3. The Clergy. A word regarding each. feudalism. 91. The increase of the power of royalty was directly opposed to feudalism ; for just in proportion influence of as the central, authority was strengthened, the ""oyaity- power of the nobles was weakened. At the outset, in the new Teutonic kingdoms of France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and England, the monarch was to the great nobles merely what these were to their vassals, — the head of a system of fiefs. But very soon the monarchs began to center power in themselves, and then they came into antagonism with feudalism. The reason of this was, that, being head of the whole, the kings were the first to be inspired with the idea of 7iatio7iality. They sought to pierce down through the intermediate ranks of barons, counts, etc., to the real people themselves. They thus to some extent put themselves on the side of the lower ranks. At the same time, by issuing decrees to be put in force over the whole kingdom, the throne became the fountain of law, as something distinct :^rom the mere will of the feudal chiefs. 92. The second influence mentioned is the rise of the mtmicipalities. Under the Roman system ill r ,, •' . Of the cities. there had been numerous free, self-governmg cities throughout the empire. Many of these survived the shock of the Teutonic invasions, and formed little republics or self-governing communities in the midst of the feudal society. Moreover, feudalism itself gradually created similar communities. In the turbulence of the times, popu- lation tended to crystallize around the castles of feudal chiefs. The lords, finding themselves greatly strengthened by this, began to see that it would be to their advantage to grant the inhabitants certain privileges. Hence arose towns, governed by officers — provosts and bailiffs — appointed by the lord, and the still more highly favored 246 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. boroughs, — that is, towns possessing regular charters which conceded them the right of governing themselves by magis- trates, such as mayors and aldermen, chosen by the burgh- ers, or free inhabitants. These towns and boroughs were oases of freedom amid the desert of feudal despotism. It was here that there arose that great power in European society, the Commons, or free middle class, that in the end not only overthrew feudalism, but tempered the despotism of kings, and brought about limited, represe7itative monarchy. 93. The Church, in its efforts to establish absolute dominion in matters spiritual, naturally sought to ally itself with a great centralized power. Hence we find that the clergy usually sided with the kings, and against the nobles. Moreover, the clergy owned more than one half of the entire landed property of most Euro- pean countries. Finally, the humane sentiments of Chris- tianity, the doctrine of the common brotherhood of man, became a powerful agency in checking the injustice and the arbitrary power of the feudal lords. 94. Among other influences that co-operated towards the Other influ- destruction of feudalism, were the Crusades, ences. ^j^g change of the mode of war following the invention of gunpowder, the extension of commerce, and in general the progress of knowledge. 95. It was a system that was not wholly bad : it must have been in some desree adapted to the Summing up. . ... , , i • 1 times, otherwise it could not have existed at all ; but it belonged to a state of society essentially barba- rous, and it was overthrown by that very civilization which ic could not keep from growing up in its very midst. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 247 CH AFTER V. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 96. The steps by which Christianity became the religion of the Roman Empire have already been subject traced. We must treated of. now see how that mighty or- ganization, the Latin or Cath- olic Church, arose, and how it became a great power above kings and emperors, holding for centuries a controlling in- fluence over the political affairs of Europe. Some knowledge of the history of the Papacy, as this dominion of the Latin .Church is called, is absolutely necessary to a comprehension of the Middle Ages. 97. On the overthrow of the Western Empire the Bishop of Rome, as the first personasre in what had Power of the ' . , . , ^ , ° ., Bishop of Deen the capital of the world, was naturally Rome, invested with great influence, and looked up to, not only in religious matters, but even in political affairs. Indeed, in the universal wreck, it was the Church alone that kept up the organization of society. The very barbarians who over- threw the Roman Empire were themselves brought under the sway of the Church ; for, barbarians though they were, the Teutons had a deep vein of earnestness in their char- acter. Again, the state of affairs in Italy had much to do with giving the Roman bishops great influence. When, under Justinian, the Ostrogoths were overthrown and Italy Papal Insignia. 248 MEDTMVAL HISTORY. came under the dominion of the Eastern Empire, the repre- sentatives of the Byzantine Emperor did not live at Rome, but at Ravenna. This caused the power of the bishops of Rome to grow greater and greater. The Roman bisliop, or pontiff,* was called Pater, or Papa, father (whence Eng- lish /'(?/^t), and he had avast moral influence, though as yet no temporal power. How temporal power was first ac- quired will now be told. 98. The Lombards, who in the 8th century had fully The Lombards established their kingdom in Northern Italy, and Pepin. \,qq\ every Opportunity to enlarge their terri- tory at the expense of the Eastern Empire. They made themselves masters of Ravenna, Rome, etc. But this was not a change that was at all agreeable either to the popes or to the Roman people ; hence the aid of Pepin, father of Charlemagne, was asked. Pepin came and saved Rome, and won from the Lombards the territory of the Exarchate of Ravenna. He then took a step that led to mighty re- sults : he bestowed this territory on the popes, and this was the beginning of the temporal power of the Catholic Church. When Charlemagne had overthrown the Lombard kingdom, and was crowned king of Italy and afterw^ards Emperor of the West (a. d. 800), he confirmed the grant which his father Pepin had made to the popes. 99. After the death of Charlemagne there was a long The popes and pcriod — nearly two centuries — of confusion, the emperors, u^der the Weak rule of the Carlovingian kings of France, Italy, and Germany. During all this time the Papal power grew, and exercised a great authority in politi- * The name "pontiff" is derived from the Potttifex maximus, the chief officer of the old pagan religion of Rome. t Till the time of Pope Gregory VII., the title of Pope was given to all bishops alike ; he, however, in 1076 decreed that thenceforth it should be applied only to the Roman "papa," or pontiff, prefixing at the same time the epithet sanctui, whence the modern style, " His Hohness the Pope." GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 249 cal matters. When, however, in the middle of the loth century, the sovereigns of Germany came to be Emperors of the West, a long and bitter struggle between the popes and the emperors began. The Italians did not like to be under German dominion, and the popes became naturally the center round which all the anti-German feeling gathered. Nl The popes, as temporal rulers of Rome, were vassals of the emperor ; but as the spiritual head of Christendom, they held a position of peculiar importance. 100. The struggle first broke out on the question of the election of the popes. The emperors claimed Narrative of that a ratification by them, of any one elected ^^^ quarrel, by the College of Cardinals to be Pope, was necessary to make the election valid. Of course, the emperors sought to have popes chosen who were favorable to their views. In the first part of the contest the emperors had things much their own way, and undertook to appoint German bishops to the pontificate, and to carry matters with a high hand. But they were to be humbled in a most remarkable manner, by the dauntless energies of one man, a humble monk of Soa'na, son of a poor carpenter of Tus'cany. This was Hil'debrand, afterwards known as Gregory VII., one of the most illustrious men of the Middle Ages. 101. Hildebrand was called to Rome, in a. d. 1049, by Pope Leo IX., to assist in the Papal councils as chancellor and cardinal. This office he held for twenty years, under five successive popes, over whom he exercised the ascendency of a great mind. It was dur- ing this time that he matured his plan for the complete emancipation of the Church. Believing that the Church supplied the only means by which the regeneration of Europe could be effected, he aimed to set that body above all merely earthly power, — a daring project ; but the dreadful evils of the period required a powerful remedy. 102. In 1073 Hildebrand rose to the Papal throne, with 250 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Gregory VII. the title of Gregory VII. His first measure was to strike What he did. ^ ^\°^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ t^^ " "ght of in- vestiture," claimed by the emperors. This was the right of bestowing on bishops and abbots the ring and staff that were the s}Tnbols of their office, — a form which declared their feudal vassalage to the em- peror. Now, Gregory caused it to be ordained by a council, that if any one should accept inves- titure from a layman, both the giver and the receiver should be excommunicated. 103. The Emperor Henry IV. set this decree at defi- Henry IV. and ^ncc. Upon this the Popc Solemnly excom- Hiidebrand. municated the emperor, and absolved his subjects in Gennatiy and Italy from their oath of allegiance I Enraged at this, Henry prepared for war. But soon there was brought home to him a vivid realization of the appalling power of that unseen dominion that had arisen to sway the minds of men. In ever}^ quarter of his empire monks and friars preached against him, insurrections arose on every hand, and Henry, who entered Italy with the vow of ven- geance, was forced to become a humble suitor for mercy at the hands of Gregor}^ On the 21st of January, 1077, the Emperor Henry proceeded to Canos'sa, where the Pope resided, to seek the pardon of his powerful foe. It was a wonderful scene. The most potent sovereign of Europe had to suffer the deepest humiliation ever brooked by mon- arch. It was only after the most abject confessions of his error, and standing for three days in an outer court of tlie castle, amid the cold of winter, barefoot, and clad only in a woolen shirt, that he was absolved, and the dread inter- dict removed. Henr}^, however, had his revenge ; he re- GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 2$! newed the war, and Gregory, forced to flee from Rome, died in exile at Saler'no (a. d. 1085). 104. The successors of Gregory steadily adhered to his policy, and as the Papacy remained un- Policy of changed while all Europe was shaken by revo- successors, lutions, every day brought fresh accessions to the Papal side. The kings of Portugal, Aragon, England, Scotland, Sardinia, the two Sicilies, and others became vassals to the Roman pontiffs. At length the German Emperor, Henry V., yielded, and by a treaty signed at Worms^(A. D. 1122) for- mally resigned all claim to investitures. 105. Innocent III. (1198-1216) vastly increased the Papal power. He forced the Imperial Prefect C ,, • , . TT Innocent III. at Rome to swear allegiance to him. He set on foot a Crusade that crushed the Al'bigenses of France. He humbled King John of England, and imposed a tribute upon him. In fact, he in many cases exercised the powers of Sovereign of Europe, — an earthly King of kings. 106. The narrative of how this power was maintained, and how, on the other hand, it was opposed, fills a large chapter in the history of the Middle Ages. The full recital cannot be given here. It is even hard to say which party won in the end. On this point a great authority observes : " We may perhaps say that the popes did succeed in overthrowing the power of the em perors, but that they had themselves to yield in the end tc the power of other temporal princes." / 252 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. THE CRUSADES. 253 CHAPTER VI. THE CRUSADES. X. INTRODUCTION. 1:07. During two hundred years, — comprising the whole of the 1 2th and the 13th centuries, — the most General state- important events of European history had "^e"^- relation to that series of extraordinary expeditions known Crusaders before Jerusalem. as the Crusades. This term is derived from the French word croisade (croix, the cross), which means war of the cross. The Crusades were undertaken by the Western nations of , Europe for the recovery of the Holy Land from the Sara- ^ cens and Turks. 254 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 108. It had been customary, from an early period in the history of Christianity, for believers from every Pilgrimages. r i ^i • • i i i -i • part of the Christian world to make pilgrim- ages to the Holy Land of Palestine. Whilst the Saracens remained masters of Palestine they encouraged and pro- tected visitors, whose arrival brought them considerable profit. But when the Selju'kian Turks, in the middle of the nth century, became masters of Asia Minor and Syria, the Christians, whether residents or pilgrims, were subjected to the most cruel treatment. Every day brought back to Europe weary palmers who had been scoffed at and spit upon by the Infidels, as the Mohammedans were called. 109. The news of the cruelties perpetrated by the Turks The feeling o^^ the Christians of Palestine produced a aroused. deep feeling of indignation throughout West- em Europe, and aroused a strong desire to arrest the progress of the hated religion of Mohammed, and recover the Holy Land from Moslem desecration. 110. This desire was roused into action by the enthu- Peter the Her- siasm of a monk called Peter the Hermit ™i*- This extraordinary man was a native of Am- iens, in France. He followed the wars in his youth, then became a monk, afterwards retired to absolute solitude, and finally made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. There wit- nessing the cruelties of the Turks, he became possessed with the idea that he was inspired by Heaven to deliver the Holy Sepulcher from their hands. 111. On his return to Europe Peter repaired to the Papal Court, and found in the Pope, Urban IS preac ing. ^^^ ^^ astonishcd but ready listener to his bold project. Encouraged by the Pope, he travelled over Italy and France, ever3Tvhere proclaiming the sacred duty of delivering the sepulcher of Christ from the hands of the Infidels. He is described as emaciated by self-iii'licted austerities and wayfaring toil, diminutive in stature, mean THE CRUSADES. 2$$ in appearance, and clad in tliose coarse weeds of a solitary from which he derived his surname of the Hermit. But he was fluent in speech, and the vehement sincerity of his feel- ings supplied him with the only eloquence that would have been intelligible to the popular passions of his times. 1 12. The chroniclers of the period exhaust language in describing the innumerable crowds of all ranks Effect of his which thronged cities and hamlets, churches Pleaching, and highways, at his voice ; the tears, the sighs, the indigna- tion excited in these multitudes by his picture of the wrongs of their Christian brethren, and the sacrilegious defilement of the Holy Sepulcher ; the shame and remorse which fol- lowed his reproaches at the g'lilty supineness that had abandoned the blessed scenes of redemption to the insults of Infidels ; the eager reception of his injunctions to every sinner to seek reconcilement with Heaven by devotion to its cause ; and the rapture which his denunciations of ven- geance against the Saracen enemies of God awakened in the stern hearts of congregated warriors. 113. The cause was now taken up openly by the Pope, and two councils were held on the subject in council of A. D. 1095. At the second, held at Clermont, ciermont. in France, the Pope addressed a great multitude assembled from all parts of Europe. As he proceeded the enthusiasm of the crowd found vent in cries of £>eus vult, and the slightly varied acclamations of Dieiix el volt and Deus lo volt* — "It is the will of God ! " At the instant when their cries resounded throughout the vast assembly, the figurative injunction of Scripture to the sinner, to take up the cross of Christ, suggested to Urban the idea that all who embraced the sacred enterprise should bear on their shoulder or breast that symbol of salvation. The proposal was eagerly adopted * Dieux el volt and Detis lo volt were the popular corruptions whick the pure Latin, Deus vult, had undergone in the two great Northern and Proven9al dialects of France. 256 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. and few there were who left the old market-place on that day without a red cross on the shoulder, to mark them as Croises, or soldiers of the cross. The following spring was appointed as the time for beginning the movement to the East 2. THE FIRST CRUSADE (A. D. 1096-1099). 114. Long before the season — August the 15th — fixed on by the Pope for the departure c>^ the Cru- First rush, ,11 . , , . . ^ , saders had expired, the impatience of the ruder multitudes of people grew too violent for restraint. Soon after the commencement of the new year an immense con- course of pilgrims, chiefly of the lowest classes, and consist- uig not of men alone, but also of women and children, had thronged around Peter the Hermit, on the eastern frontiers of France, and urged him, as the original preacher of the sacred enterprise, to assume its command. Apparently un- conscious of his utter unfitness for command, the fanatic rashly accepted the perilous charge ; and under his guid- ance, and that of a Burgundian knight named Walter the Penniless, the accumulating torrent began to sweep over Germany. 115. The several bands composing this vanguard of the . Crusades, amounting to more than 250,000. took the route through Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Thrace ; but being without organization or provision, they committed the most dreadful devastations in the countries through which they passed, and were mostly dispersed and exterminated by the enraged Hungarian peasantry. Remnants of the bands succeeded in crossing the Bosphorus at Constantinople, but these were soon cut to pieces by the Turks. Such was the disastrous beginning of the Crusade, — a quarter of a million of individuals swept out of existence, altogether without result. 116. Meanwhile the real chivalry of Europe had been THE FIRST CRUSADE. 257 mustering for the enterprise. None of the sovereigns took part in the movement ; but the feudal Main move- chiefs, each at the head of his own vassals, "^^n'^- ranged themselves under distinguished leaders, — Godfrey of Bouillon', Duke of Lower Lorraine' (in the modern kingdom of Belgium), Robert, Duke of Normandy, and others. Six separate armies were thus formed, which marched by different routes to Constantinople. 117. The appearance of this vast host — amounting to at least 600,000 men, exclusive of women and priests — alarmed the Greek Emperor with the fear that the Latin princes might seek to secure the mas- tery of the East for themselves, and not for hiiti. It was only by the threat of attacking Constantinople that he was made to withdraw his opposition, and further the transit of the Crusaders into Asia Minor. Here all the great divis- ions of the crusading levies made a junction, and their numbers were increased by the wretched remnants of the preceding mob, who, with Peter the Hermit himself, found their way from various places of refuge to the general muster. 118. The real nerve of the grand army consisted of the mailed cavalry, amounting to over 100,000 Description of men. This superb body of horse was com- *^* ^'"'"y- posed of the flower of the European chivalry: knights, esquires, and their attendant men-at-arms, completely equipped with the helmet and shield, the coat and boots of chain and scale armor, the lance and the sword, the battle- ax and the ponderous mace of iron. The crowd of foot- men fought principally with the long and cross bow ; but they formed a miserable contrast to the splendor of the chivalric array, which glittered in the blazonry of embroid- ered and ermined surcoats, shields and head-pieces inlaid with gems and gold, and banners and pennons distinguish- ing the princely and noble rank of chieftains and knights. 258 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 119. The first movement of the Crusaders was directed Advance against Nicc, or NicEe'a, in Asia Minor. Tliis through Asia , ' ^ ^ ^ r^ 1 T 1 • Minor. piacc was captured by the Crusaders, in their advance through Asia Minor, a march of 500 miles was still to be made before they could touch the confines of Syria, and the Sultan of Roum was prepared to offer a formidable resistance. With an immense cloud of cavalry — the num- ber is put at 300,000 horse — he hovered around the Cru- saders ; and at Doryte'um he suddenly fell upon one of the two main divisions while on the march. So sudden was the onset, that the victory was at first with the Turks j but rallying, and being reinforced by the other division, the Crusaders fell upon the enemy. In close combat, the supple dexterity of the Asiatics, armed with the curved scimitar and light javelin, could make but a feeble opposi- tion to the ponderous strokes of the European arm wield- ing the long pointed sword and gigantic lance. In a direct charge the Turkish cavalry was completely overpowered, and of the mighty host 30,000 were slain. This was prob- ably one of the most tremendous cavalry battles ever fought. 120. But what Sol'yman could not accomplish in the Sufferings on fi^'d he largely effected in another way. Ke the march. made the country through which the Cru- saders were to march a waste. Hundreds died, on every day's march, of want, of fatigue, of raging thirst or its fatal gratification. The horses in particular died in such num- bers that 30,000 men were dismounted on this march, and had to trudge along, fainting with the weight of their armor, under the burning sun. At last they s£;vv, set in the emer- ald meadows that line the Oron'tes, the fair turrets of the Syrian An'tioch. (See map, page 252.) 121. To lay siege to the capital of Syria was now the Siege of Anti- task of the Crusadcrs. But this task was "*='»• pursued amid great difficulties. For seven THE FIRST CRUSADE. 259 months the city held out, and during this time the besiegers had to suffer the horrors of famine and pestilence. Their horses were either starved, or killed for food, and erelong, of the 100,000 horses with which the march was begun, only 2000 remained. Finally, by tne treachery of a Syrian officer, the Crusaders were able one dark stormy night to surprise and capture the city, June, 1098. 122. No sooner was Antioch captured than the Cru- saders were in their turn besieged in that city Events in An- by an army of 200,000 Mohammedans, sent t'"'^*'- by the Persian sultan. A second and still more terrible famine was suffered. But finally the Crusaders, by a bold sally, completely overthrew the besieging host. The way was now open to Jerusalem, and thither the columns headed, — columns, however, that were sadly reduced ; for of the immense host, perhaps 600,000 men, which had origi- nally formed the siege of Nice, so enormous had been the losses by the sword and the climate, by famine and pes- tilence, desertion and conquest, that the total force which advanced from Antioch amounted to only 1500 cavalry and 20,000 foot-soldiers, with about an equal number of unarmed pilgrims and camp-followers. 123. From Antioch to Jaffa, 300 miles, the Crusaders moved along the sea-shore. Then they struck „ ... . ^ . To Jerusalem mto the mterior country, traversmg a region filled with places which hourly recalled some sacred associa- tion. At last the Holy City burst upon their enraptured gaze. In that glorious sight, the long-cherished object, promise and reward of their hopes, every toil was forgot- ten, every suffering repaid. The single mighty passion of a host suddenly broke forth in joyful exclamations and embraces ; and the whole armed multitude, as with one impulse, sinking on their knees, prostrated themselves, and poured out their tears over the consecrated soil. 124. The deliverance of the Holy City and Sepulcher 26o MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Still remained to be accomplished. At this time Jerusalem Siege of the was in the possession, not of the Turks, but •^'^y- of the Saracenic caliph of Egypt, who was head of an independent government, and had recently won Palestine from the Turks. The caliph was determined to make a stout resistance ; so a siege had to be begun. Under .1 sky of burning copper, with no water in the pools and brooks, the Crusaders fought for five long weeks before Godfrey and his stormers stood victorious within the walls, July, 1099. The massacre of 70,000 Moslems and the burn- ing of the Jews in their synagogue stained the glory of the conquerors. 125. Jerusalem was now erected into a Christian king- Kingdom of dom. The princely and noble chieftains of Jerusalem. j-]^g crusading host b^- their free vote pro- claimed Godfrey of Bouillon king of the Holy City, July 23, 1099, Godfrey, however, modestly refused a regal crown, nor would he assume any other title than that of Defender of the Tomb of Christ. Still, from tlie election of Godfrey of Bouillon may not the less be dated the foundation of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, after the Holy city had been four hundred and fifty years in the hands of the Mohammedans. The great design of the First Crusade was accomplished, 126. After this victory many of the actors in the great drama went home. Among these was Peter the Hermit who closed his days in a French monastery. The noble and chivalric Godfrey reigned five days less than a year, when he died at the age of forty. So just and paternal had been his rule, that he was regretted alike by Moslems and Christians. He was succeeded by his brother Baldwin, who transmitted the crown of Jerusa- lem to his kinsman, Baldwin du Bourg, whose posterity continued to reign in Palestine until the kingdom was over- thrown by Saladin in a. d. 1x87. THE SECOND CRUSADE. 26 1 3. SECOND CRUSADE (A. D. 1147-1149). 127. During a period of half a century the Christian do- minion in the East maintained itself against situation in the attacks of the surrounding Mohammedans. ^^^ ^*^*- But after the lapse of fifty years dangers began to arise threatening the very existence of the Christian kingdom. One of the Turkish emirs, or governors, took the Christian principality of Edes'sa (see map, page 252), and slaughtered the Christian inhabitants (a. d. 1145). 128. The news of the fall of Edessa startled the Chris- tian residents in Palestine, and led them to Effect in appeal to Europe for assistance. This appeal Europe. was received with a general enthusiasm almost equal to that which marked the First Crusade. The pure and devoted St. Bernard preached a new Crusade. Moreover, his elo- quence enlisted in the Second Crusade the two foremost sovereigns of the age, — Conrad III., Emperor of Germany, and Louis VII. of France. 129. The armies, numbering 300,000 choice troops, moved in a. d. 1147, and, following the path of the earlier Crusaders, advanced to Constan- tinople. The Emperor Conrad, preceding his ally, passed the Bosphorus, and marched into Asia Minor. But the Emperor of the East, Man'uel, being- an enemy of Conrad's, gave the sultan secret intelligence of the German line of march, and furnished Conrad with treacherous guides. The result was, that, after sustaining a glorious but unsuccessful combat on the banks of the Mean'der, the German army had to retreat to Nice. Nine tenths of the whole German host are said to have been destroyed by the shafts and scimi- tars of the Infidels, or to have perished of hunger and thirst. 130. The French, under Louis VII., had meanwhile moved to Nice, and thence, being joined by Advance to !iie remnant of troops under Conrad, the two Jerusalem. 262 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. bodies advanced together through Asia Minor. They suffered a severe check at Laodice'a; but still struggled on, storm-beaten and famine-worn, to Antioch, and finally reached Jerusalem, vi^ith a mere fraction of the chivalric army that had left Europe. 131. The first and only undertaking was the siege of Damascus. This was a miserable failure : and Result. the Second Crusade closed in gloom, with the return of the Crusaders to their own country. 4. THE THIRD CRUSADE (A. D. 1189-1192). 132. Forty years elapsed before the Third Crusade began. In the interval an important revolution had taken place in Mussulman politics. Sallah-a- deen, or Saladin, as he is generally called, a young Curdish chieftain, had united the Mussulman states, from the Nile to the Tigris, under his single empire. Meanwhile the Latin kingdom, through internal disorders, was fast falling into a state of weakness. Taking advantage of this fact, Saladin invaded Palestine, took town after town, and lastly Jerusalem, after a siege of fourteen days, a. d. 1187. The only place that remained to the Christians in Palestine was Tyre. 133. The news of the extinction of the kingdom of Events of Jerusalem called forth the Third Crusade. The Third Crusade, thj-gg great Wcstem princes took the cross, — Richard I. of England, known as Richard Coeur de Lion (Lion-hearted) ; Philip Augustus of France ; and Frederick Barbaros'sa (Red-beard), Emperor of Germany. A tax, called Saladin's tithe, was laid upon Christendom, to meet the expenses of the war. 134. WTiile the French and the English monarchs trans- Frederick's ported their armies to Palestine by sea, the column. high-souled Frederick marched overland with 60,000 cavalry and 100,000 infantry. Fine preparations had THE THIRD CRUSADE. 263 been made, so that the march through Europe and across the Hellespont into Asia Minor was a complete success. Unfor tunately, the emperor met his death while bathing in a little stream in Cili'cia. The expedition having thus lost its head^ everything fell into disorder, and before the CrusaderS reached the borders of Syria, their numbers had been re- duced to one tenth the original force. The remnant joined the French and English forces before A'cre. (Map, p. 252.) 135. The Christians in Syria had in the mean time rallied, and were laying siege to Acre. Now that the ,., rV-- ,--ii • Siege of Acre. chivalry of Europe came to their aid, the siege could be prosecuted with much vigor. In vain Saladin at- tempted to relieve Acre. Numerous battles were fought in the plains around, between the Crusaders and the Moslem myriads ; and after a siege of twenty-three months, Acre surrendered to the Christians, a. d. 1191. 136. The capture of Acre was hailed by the Christians as a glad omen of the recovery of the Holy „ , , -r^ , -1 • 1 1 111 Pnihp retires. Sepulcher. But these bright hopes were dashed by the retirement of the king of France from the Crusade. The cause of this secession is believed to have been disgust on the part of Philip Augustus at the reckless character and intolerable arrogance of the Lion-hearted, united, perhaps, with some jealousy of the superior glory won by Richard. 137. Richard remained, and continued the struggle for some time with various success ; but at last he ^, . 1 • 1 <-, 1 1- 1 r Closing events. agreed to a truce with Saladin, the terms 01 which were, on the whole, favorable to the Christians, and creditable to the liberality and tolerance of the Moham- medans.* * Richard took his departure from the East in October, A. D. 1192 ; but being detained on the way as a prisoner of the Austrian archduke at Vienna, he did not reach England for nearly two years afterwards. In the mean time Saladin, between whom and Richard there had been estab- lished a mutual admiration and regard, died in A. D. Il93t This evenf; gave a new turn to the history of the Holy Land. 264 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 5. THE LATER CRUSADES. 138. The three expeditions that have just been described Character of form what we may regard as the Greater Cru- later Crusades, sadcs. Several Subsequent Crusades — three or four — were undertaken ; but some of these were not di- rected towards the Holy Land at all, and the others failed of any great results. DETAILS OF THE LATER CRUSADES. Fourth Crusade. The chiefs of this Crusade were animated more by ambition and a spirit of military adventure than by religious zeal. They purchased the aid of a Venetian fleet by reducing, under the control of Venice, Zara, a Christian city in Dalma'tia (A. D. 1202), and finally, instead of sailing to Palestine, they directed their course to Constantinople, where they overthrew the Greek Empire (a. d. 1204), and established on its ruins a Latin kingdom that lasted till A. D. 1260. Fifth Crusade. Egypt was the scene of the Fifth Crusade (a. d. 1216-1220). Success attended the first operations of the Christian army; but finally matters were managed so badly that the army v.'as forced to surrender to the Egyptian sultan. There was what may be regarded as a continuation of this Crusade in A. D. 1228 by Frederick II., Emperor of Germany. He entered Jerusalem in triumph, and com- pelled the Sultan of Egypt to cede that city and several others to the Christians. But a few years afterwards all that had been gained was swept away. Sixth Crusade. This expedition, undertaken, in a. d. 1238, by the French under the King of Navarre and by the English chivalry under Richard, Earl of Cornwall, was terminated by negotiation, favorable terms being obtained for the Christians. But peace lasted for only two years, the Latin kingdom being overwhelmed by an invasion of the Turks of Khorasm, who acquired possession of most of Palestine. Seventh Crusade. This new disaster excited the zeal of the pious Louis IX. of France (known as Saint Louis), who headed the Seventh Crusade, a. d. 1249. It turned out to be utterly fruitless. The king was captured, and had to pay a large ransom for the redemption of himself and his force. Eighth Crusade. Twenty-one years afterwards (a. d. 1270) Saint Louis undertook what proved to be the Eighth and last Crusade. It RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 265 was totally without result. On his way the French king turned aside to besiege Tunis. A pestilential disease broke out in the army, and Louis himself died. Prince Edward of England, who joined with Louis in the Crusade, meanwhile advanced to Palestine ; but after a few unimportant operations he was compelled to return home. Soon after this. Acre, the last stronghold of the Christians, was captured, and the Holy Land fell completely into the power of the Mohamme- dans. . 6. RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 139. The Crusades utterly failed in their immediate ob- ject, — the recovery of the Holy Land from the Mohammedans. Still, the effects of these remarkable expeditions were very important in many ways. 140. We may note that the Western nations, having to act in concert, came to know one another , . , , . , . First effect. better, to mterchange chivalrous sentiments, to feel mutual sympathies, and to entertain more liberal ideas. 141. Next, it is to be observed that the Crusaders brought from the East the knowledge of many Effect products and processes tending to promote the arts and manufactures ; and it was during these expeditions that modern commerce was first developed. The Italian maritime states supplied the Crusaders with transports, and conveyed to them stores and munitions of war. This traffic led to a rapid increase in the commerce and navigation of the Mediterranean ; a taste for spices and other articles of Oriental luxury was gradually diffused throughout Europe ; and trading depots were formed by Venice, Genoa, and other Italian states, on the shores of the Levant and the coasts of the Greek Empire. 142. Another effect was to diminish the strength of the feudal aristocracy, by occasioning the breaking Effect on feu- ^ up and sale of many feudal properties. daiism. 143. Chivalry, though older than the Crusades, derived 12 on com- merce. 266 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. its chief influence and strength from these wars. The use Effect on chiv- of sumames, coats of arms, and distinctive ^'■■y- banners became necessary in armies composed of men collected at hazard from every Christian kingdom. 144. The Crusades sprang out of a spirit of fanaticism ; Intellectual t)ut their result, in the long run, was to quench effect. ^j^jg ygjy gpint^ Instcad of the mere feeling of blind abhorrence with which Mohammedans had been at first regarded, many of them had inspired the Christian knights with esteem and admiration. Contact with men of other nationalities had its effect in liberalizing the Euro- pean hosts ; men returned home with larger ideas and a wider horizon of thought, and we may say that from the time of the Crusades a great intellectual revival began throughout all Europe. Peter the Hermit Preaching the Crusades. CHIVALRY, — ITS RISE AND DECAY. 267 CHAPTER VII. CHIVALRY,— ITS RISE AND DECAY. 145. Chivalry sprang out of feudalism, and was its brightest flower; it grew into a great insti- General tution that for several centuries exercised a sketch, wonderful influence on the manners, habits, thoughts, and sentiments of men in all the nations of Western Europe ; it was brought to maturity and splendor by the Crusades ; it was pushed to fantastic extremes, and it ceased to exist when feudal society passed away. 146. Chivalry had its origin in two peculiarities in the customs and instincts of the Gothic races, — the great honor paid to the profession of arms, and the high regard and delicate gallantry of the Teutons towards the female sex. When feudalism had become a regular system, — say in the nth century, — it was the custom for the sons of the various vassals of a lord to form a little court, or school, in his castle, where they were edu- cated under his eye and along with the members of his family in military exercises and feudal etiquette. 147. From the age of seven to fourteen the name given to these boys was Page, or varlet, — in old English ballads, child. The page attended the ladies of the mansion, following them in their walks, or ac- companying them when they rode out hawking or hunting. •' He was thus taught obedience and courtesy, and in addition he was instructed in music, chess, the doctrines of religion, and the use of light weapons. Being constantly surrounded by noble ladies and valiant knights, his earliest impressions were those of gallantry, honor, love, and bravery. Usually each youth selected some accomplished young lady at 268 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. whose feet he displayed all his gallantry, and who under- took to polish his manners, " The love of God and the ladies," says Hallam, "was enjoined as a single duty. He who was faithful and true to his mistress was held sure of salvation, in the theology of the castle." 148. At the age of fourteen the page became a squire; and just as the page was the attendant of the quires. ladies, SO the squire served the men. The squire was employed in various subordinate offices about the castle ; but his great duty was to follow his lord to the battle or the tournament, leading the war-horse. When the hour of battle came, he arrayed his master in full armor ; he kept behind him in the fight, handed a fresh lance, led in a horse if his lord was dismounted, and dashed to the rescue if he saw him hard pressed. Such were a squire's duties till he reached the age of twenty-one, when he attained the goal of his ambition, — he became a knight {?niles). 149. The admission to knighthood was attended by an Ceremonial of imposing Ceremonial. Having fasted and knighthood. confessed all his sins, the candidate passed a night in prayer and watching. Then, having bathed, he was dressed in new robes, — an underkirtle, a silk or linen vest embroidered with gold, a collar of leather, and over all the coat of arms. Proceeding to the church, he had to pass an examination, and if he was judged worthy of admission to the order of knighthood, he received the sacrament and took the vows, — the vow that he would be a good, brave, loyal, just, generous, and gentle knight, that he would be a champion of the Church and clergy, that he would be a protector of ladies, that he would be a redresser of the wrongs of widows and orphans, etc. Then the bal- dric — a belt of white leather and gold — was slung round the candidate ; his golden spurs were buckled on, and the prince who was to confer the dignity, taking the aspirant's sword, completed the ceremony with a blow of its flat side on the neck. CHIVALRY, — ITS RISE AND DECAY. 269 150. The dress and equipment of the knight varied much at different periods. At the time of the Dress and first Crusade, the knights wore chain armor, ^'"'"o''- formed of interhnked hooks of steel ; a hauberk, or tunic of steel rings, hung to the knees ; the head was protected by a hood of chain-mail over which was worn a low flat cap of steel ; mittens covered the hands, and pointed shoes of mail the feet. The horses were at first unprotected ; but afterwards it becan^e customary to sheathe them in com- plete armor. During the 14th century the chain-mail of the early knights was exchanged for armor formed of over- lapping metal plates ; and in the heyday of chivalry the knight must have been truly a splendid and romantic figure, mounted on his richly caparisoned steed, glittering in his costly armor of steel, with plume and crest and vizored helmet, with lance and mace and battle-ax. 151. The characteristic amusement of the age of chiv- alry was the tournament, celebrated on occa- . , . T • • 1 1 ■ • Tourneys. sions of coronations, distmguished victories, royal marriages, etc. The tourne)'^s took place within what were called the lists, — a space roped or railed off in an oval form. The open spaces at each end were filled with stalls and galleries for the ladies and noble spectators. The tilting was generally with lances, on the points of which were fixed pieces of wood called " rockets " ; and the great object with each knight was to unhorse his an- tagonist. When the heralds cried, " Laissez aller" (Let them go), off they dashed from opposite ends of the lists and met in the center. When one of the knights had un- horsed his opponent he came forward, amid the blare of martial music, and the shouts of " Honor to the sons of the brave ! " from the lips of the minstrels, to receive the prize from his queen or his mistress. From the descriptions of these scenes that we read in the pages of Sir Walter Scott, or of the old chronicler Frois'sart, it is evident that the 270 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. tourney must have surpassed every scenic performance of modern times. 152. The question as to the influence of chivalry is one Good side of respecting which there have been conflicting chivalry. opinions. In many respects this influence must have been good and ennobling, for the ideal of chivalry was lofty and pure and generous. Valor, loyalty, courtesy, munificence, and a hatred of injustice formed collectively the character of an accomplished knight. If these virtues were active among men, they could not help bearing beau- tiful fruits. And there is no doubt they were active, and that some of the noblest characters of the Middle Ages were nursed by the ideas of chivalry. Those ideas soft- ened warfare in a barbarous age, by inculcating humanity and courtesy to enemies ; at a time when the obligations of honor were feebly felt, they taught a scrupulous adherence to one's word and to all engagements ; and they helped ele- vate woman to her proper place as the equal and companion of man, by making her the object of chivalrous attention. 153- Still, no institution can radically change human ^ ., .^ nature : and it is not to be doubted that there Evil side. ; , . , , were those who were not true knights, that gallantry often degenerated into licentiousness, that a per- nicious thirst for military renown was nourished by chiv- alry, and that the wholesome sense of honor finally degen- erated into mere punctilio and fantastic notions, the result of which long lingered in the practice of the duello. 154. The instituiion of chivalry declined with feudalism. Gunpowder, of which it was largely a product. The com- effect o:. plete change in the mode of warfare effected by the invention of gunpowder, put the knight at great dis- advantage. Armor of proof might be forged that would withstand the Swiss broadsword or the ell-long arrows of the English bowmen, but what coat of mail could resist the cannon-ball? Battles were now to be fought chiefly at a distance, no longer hand to hand. CHIVALRY, — ITS RISE AND DECAY. 271 155. Bayard, who fell in France in A. D. 1524, and was known as the chevalier " sans peur et sans Last of the reproche" (fearless and blameless), was almost •'^^ehts. the last of the knights of that knightly land. In England,v/ chivalry lasted till the time of Elizabeth, and we cannot help thinking of Sir Philip Sidney as a bright example of the noble knight. In Spain it went out at the same period, amid the inextinguishable laughter excited by Cervan'tes's burlesque of chivalry in the immortal romance of Don Quixote. 156. Still, it is certain that, while the institution perished, the spirit of chivalry, its finest essence, lived. Permanent From the knight of the Middle Ages grew the chivalry, gentleman of modern days, the elements of each remaining^ the same. This is a character new in history. Antiquity produced heroes, but not gentlemen ; so it may be said we owe the noblest human type the world has ever seen, — that type of man in which are richly blended a sense of personal honor, generosity, courtesy, and Christian tender- ness and helpfulness, — to the same influences which shaped chivalry in the period of the Middle Ages. Sis bonts are trust, 3^10 gooU stoorlJ rast: 3^is soul is toiti} tf)c saints fof trust. 272 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. CHAPTER VIII. CIVILIZATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES. I. THE DARK AGES. 157. Of the long period of a thousand years comprised in the limits of the Middle Ages, — from the Dark Ages close of the 5th to the close of the 15th cen- tury, — the first six centuries, from the close of the 5 th to the close of the nth century, are nearly barren of interest, and the term " Dark Ages " is appropriately used to desig- nate these centuries. 158. It is a strange and melancholy spectacle to see Cause of the civilization, after attaining so considerable a relapse. height in the Roman Empire, fall back into barbarism. This relapse has sometimes been laid to the door of the barbarous races that overthrew the Empire ; but it was not due wholly to this influence. For two or three centuries before the structure of Roman civilization finally fell, the foundations were undergoing gradual but irre- trievable decay ; and the edifice would have come to the ground of itself, even had no barbarian hand assailed it. In the latter ages of the Roman Empire w find a general indifference towards the cultivation of letteis. As a natu- ral result, original and powerful works ceased to be pro- duced. The final settlement of the uncultured Teutonic nations in Gaul, Spain, and Italy completed the ruin of literature. They despised learning themselves ; and the native Roman and Latinized inhabitants of those countries soon sank to the level of the barbarians. 159. A main cause of this loss of culture was a change Cause of loss that was at this time going on in the languages of culture, spoken by the people of Western Europe. In THE DARK AGES. 273 the two or three centuries succeeding the Teutonic con- quests there was a gradual breaking up of the structure of the Latin speech as spoken in Italy, Spain, and Gaul. The Teutonic conquerors, ni order to communicate with the people in these countries, had to learn Latin, but in learn- ing it they still further corrupted it. Thus the common language of those lands was a sort of broken Latin, which was called Romafi, while classical Latin was still written by scholars. The process of change went further, however : differences of dialect arose in the several countries, and Roman developed into Italian, French, and Spanish. 160. When Latin had ceased to be a living language, the whole treasury of knowledge was locked Result of up from the people. Those who might have 'Change, imbibed a taste for culture if books had been open to them were left destitute. All books were in Latin, which they did not understand, while in the language they did under- stand there were no books. To be sure, a knowledge of Latin did not wholly die out. It was still taught in schools ; but these schools were confined to cathedrals and monas- teries, and designed solely for religious education, so that the people in general had no opportunity for learning. 161. The worst effect was, that, as the newly formed languages were hardly made use of in writing, — Latin being still the official language of public documents, legal papers, etc., — the y&ry nse of letters, as well as of books, was nearly forgotten. It was rare for a layman, of whatever rank, to know how to sign his name. The charters were inscribed with the mark of the cross. In this state of things, whatever learning existed was in the keeping of the clergy ; but, according to the records of the Church and of the councils, this was far from extensive. 162. A chief cause of this general ignorance was tha scarcity of books. The art of making paper scarcity of from cotton rags was not introduced till about '"'°''^- 12* R 274 MEDIJSiVAL HISTORY. the close of the nth century. Previous to this the two kinds of writing material were papyrus and parchment. But after the conquest of Alexandria by the Saracens in the 7th cen- tury, papyrus almost ceased to be imported into Europe , while parchment was too costly to be readily spared for book purposes.* 163. During the five centuries of the Dark Ages, we find but few names of really eminent men. Bede, the Englishman, known as the "Venerable Bede " (born about A. d. 673), and Alcuin, another English- man, already mentioned as the teacher and friend of Charle- magne, were men rather of learning than of genius. John, surnamed Sco'tus or Erige'na, a native of Ireland, belonging to the 9th century, and Pope Sylvester, who lived in the loth century, were the two really original thinkers during this long period. The former was a bold and acute reasoner, the latter an excellent mathematician. 164. These centuries have been called the Ages of Faith ; but they were quite as much ages of supersti- "^ '^ ' * " tion. A curious illustration of the wild fancies that took possession of men's minds in these times of igno- rance was a general belief, which arose in the loth century, that the world would come to an end in the year 1000 a. d. Many charters begin with these words, " As the world is now drawing to its close." Another superstition was the notion that the guilt or innocence of a person could be de- termined by what was called the ordeal These ordeals, or trials, consisted of handling hot iron, walking over red-hot plowshares, plunging the arm into boiling fluids, etc. If the person was innocent, no harm, it was said, came to him. * From this dearness of parchment a curious practice arose : the monks in the monasteries would erase a manuscript, and write another on the same skin. Such writings are known as paPimpsests (twice writ- ten). This practice occasioned the loss of many ancient authors, as the "legend of a saint would often take the place of a work of the classic age. THE DARK AGES. 275 Even a man as enlightened as Charlemagne was a warm advocate of the ordeal. 165. It is not wonderful that in this state of affairs the human intellect became enfeebled, that morals picture of the were corrupted, and that society in general ^^e. sank to a low level. Agriculture was in a miserably back- ward condition. There is not a vestige to be discovered for several centuries of any considerable manufacture. Everything had to be made on the place, and even kings, m the 9th century, had their clothes made by the women upon their farms. To traffic there were great obstacles ; for in the lawless state of society a merchant ran constant risk of being robbed, while in the domains of every feudal lord a toll was to be paid in passing his bridge, or along his high- way, or at his market. In Germany especially unscrupulous robbery was practiced by the great, who, from their gloomy and inaccessible castles, issued forth to harry the land and spread terror over the country. 166. If it be asked how it happened that a few sparks of ancient learning survived throughout this long influence of winter, we can ascribe their preservation only to ^^^ church. Christianity. The Church was the bridge across the chaos, and linked the two periods of ancient and modern civiliza- tion. We cannot fairly rate the knowledge of the clergy high during the Dark Ages ; but, such as it was, clerical culture alone kept Europe from lapsing into intellectual barbarism. 167. In the good work of the Church the most active agents were the monks. Monachism, or the ° . , . . ,. 1 , The monks. practice of retirmg to a solitary and contempla- tive life, took its rise in the East. At first monks were gen- erally laymen, but in time they all belonged to the priestly order, and came under certain vows. 168. The monastic system was introduced into Western Europe early in the history of the Christian The secedic Church ; but it received its perfect form in the **"^^- 276 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 6th century, at the hands of St. Ben'edict, an Itahan, who established the first monastery on Mount Cassi'no, in Lower Italy. He was thus the founder of the widely spread order of Bene- dictines, which rap- idly extended itself among all nations, and built many mon- asteries. The rule of this order included the novel feature of industrial occupation. Agriculture was espe- cially recommended ; and in the Middle Ages the Benedictine monks were the best husbandmen in Eu- rope. The monas- teries — erected for the most part in beautiful and remote situations, and the inhabitants of which were obliged to take the three vows of celibacy, personal poverty, and obedience — proved, in those daj'^s of lawlessness and barbarism, a blessing to mankind. Thev converted heaths and forests into flourishing farms ; they afforded a place of refuge (asylum) to the persecuted and oppressed ; they ennobled the rude minds of men by the preaching of the gospel ; they pre- served the remains of ancient literature from utter destruc- tion, and were the nurseries of education and of learning. ==S^;rr, -^ — Monastery Gatb, a. THE AGE OF REVIVAL. — CITIES AND COMMERCE. 169. From the state of degradation and poverty de- scribed in the last section all the European nations grad I THE AGE OF REVIVAL. 2/7 ually recovered, — some slowly, others more rapidly. The commencement of this restoration may be General state- dated from about the close of the nth cen- '"s"'. tury. We cannot apply the term " Dark Ages " to the period between the nth and the 15th centuries, — for at this time we see the shadows grow fainter as we advance, till finally the twilight reddens into our modern dawn. 170. One of the first signs of advancing civilization, and also one of the great agencies of further pro- Growth of gress, was the growing up of Towns to a posi- 5?54:ds. tion of prime importance. Cities are always the centers of civihzation. In the old Greek and Roman times the towns had, so to speak, been everything. But the Goths, Franks, and other Teutonic invaders were not used to cities, and even those that had arisen in Central Europe, under Roman influence, declined very much after the German settlement, and lost much of their importance and local freedom. However, as civilization began to revive, new towns arose, especially in Germany and Italy, and the old towns won back something of their former greatness.* 171. The real importance of these German towns is to be dated from their famous union in what is called the Hanseatic League. This was a con- * In Germany, till the reign of Charlemagne, at the close of the 8th cen- tury, there were no towns except a few that had been erected on the Rhine and Danube by the Romans. During the next three hundred years, however, we find many cities arising. At the commencement of the I2th century, Henry V. conceded certain privileges to the free cities, and especially to their artisans, and these gave a soul to industry. The first town erected on the coasts of the Baltic was Lubeck (a.d. 1140). In the 13th century it became independent of any sovereign but the Ger- man Emperor. Ham'burg was originally a castle (Ham'maburg) built by Charlemagne for defense against the Norsemen. It purchased inde- pendence of its bishop in 1225. Bremen dates from about this period. A colony from Bremen founded Riga in the 12th century; Dant'zic arose in the following century- 278 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. feaeranon, made about the middle of the 13th century, ot eighty of the most considerable German cities. The union was suggested by the need of mutual defense against piracy by sea, pillage by land, and the exactions of the nobles. It was of the greatest importance both to commerce and to freedom. 172. In Italy, the cities rose to greatness even earlier Italian free than in Germany. This was particularly the *^'*'^^- case in Northern Italy, that is, Lombardy. There from the nth century the towns became every- thing. Though nominally under the dominion of the Ger- man emperors, they gradually grew strong, while the power of the emperors declined. What is called the Lombard League was formed in 1167 ; and the peace of Constance, in 1 183, secured the independence of the cities. The great city-republics of Venice, Gen'oa, etc., date from this period. 173. With the growth of the towns, industries of various Wool manu- kinds began to spring up, and trade and com- facture. merce to spread and flourish. One of the earliest industries was the woolen manufacture of Flanders. This had grown to great importance in the 12th century, and the " Flemish stuffs " were sold wherever the sea or a navigable river permitted them to be carried. Ghent and Bru'ges were the chief seats of this industry, and the weav- ers of these cities were distinguished for their democratic spirit. 174. In England, commerce, for two centuries after the English com- Norman conquest, — middle of the nth to the merce. middle of the 13th century, — was almost con- fined to the export of wool, then the great staple of that country. But in the next century Edward III., the father of English commerce, introduced the finer manufacture of woolen cloths, by bringing large numbers of artisans from Flanders. From about the middle of the 14th century THE AGE OF REVIVAL 2/9 we find continual evidence of a rapid increase in wealth, and at this period, for the first time in English history, the occupation of a merchant began to be recognized as honorable. 175- The commerce of the South of Europe was through the city-republics of Venice, Amal'fi, Pi'sa, and naiian com- Genoa. It was chiefly with the Saracenic '"^'■c=- countries before the first Crusade ; but the Crusades them- selves led immediately to the growing prosperity of the com- mercial cities of Southern Europe, and opened an extensive trade with the Levant'. In Southern France, Marseilles', Nismes, and Montpel'ier, and in Spain, Barcelo'na, had a flourishing commerce. 176. The earliest impulse to manufacturing industry in Italy was given by the introduction of a silk siik manufac- manufacture at Paler'mo by Roger Guiscard, in *"''^- 1 148. Silk became very soon a staple manufacture of the Lombard and Tuscan republics, and the cultivation of mul- berries was enforced by their laws. The same industry soon spread into Southern France and Catalo'nia (in Spain), where it flourished greatly. 177. The needs of an enlarging commerce eventually led to the organization of moneyed institutions, xhe jews and By most people in the Middle Ages lending '"°"ey- money for profit was treated as a crime. The trade, in fact, was at first entirely in the hands of the Jews, who were V" long the objects of cruel persecution, being maltreated and swindled to an almost incredible extent. 178. In the 13th century the trade in money was taken up by the merchants of Lombardy and of the xhe Lombard South of France, who began the business of bankers, remitting money on bills of exchange, and of making profits on loans. In spite of much prejudice the Lombard " usu- rers," as they were called, established themselves in all the chief commercial centers of Europe, and, as the practical 280 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. Utility of their business was found very great, good sense finally overcame ancient prejudices.* lyg. The growing wealth of Europe led to a consider- able diffusion of comforts among the people. Comforts. _, . . , i i • i i Ihis IS proved by the enactment, in the 14th century, of what are called " sumptuary laws," — that is, laws designed to restrict men in regard to what they shall eat, wear, etc. 180. It may also be noticed that at this same period the houses people lived in began to be of a better Houses. , , f , sort, though for several centuries after this they were what we should regard as very indifferent habi- tations. Still, it is something that at this time chimneys and window-glass were introduced. Chimneys were wholly unknown to the ancients, who had to let the smoke escape through an opening in the roof. They came into use in the 14th century, as did also window-glass. The internal accommodations were, however, yet very imperfect. Even in gentlemen's houses, the second story (where there was one) was approached from the outside, the walls were bare, without wainscot or plaster, and it is hardly necessary to say that neither pictures nor libraries were to be found in them. 3. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 181. The low condition to which the European mind had sunk in the Dark Ages, as regards every- thing relating to literature and science, has been spoken of in a previous chapter. One of the earliest signs of the reviving spirit was the establishment of uni- versities. * The earliest bank of deposit is said to have been that of Barcelona, \ founded 1401. The bank of Genoa was established in 1407, and soon grew to be a great power. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 28 1 The University of Paris first became famous, at the beginning of the I2th century, under the teachings of Ab'elard, a man of bold and brilliant genius. The University of Oxford in England is said to have been founded by King Alfred (9th century), but it was not really a flourishing seat of learning till the nth century. In the year a. d. 1201 it contained 3,000 scholars. In the 12th century we find the University of Bologn'a with a roll of 10,000 students, while the University of Paris, in the 15th century, numbered 25,000 students. Cambridge was founded in the 13th century. The earliest German university was that of Prague, founded in 1350. Other famous mediaeval schools of learning were Pad'ua, Toulouse, Montpelier, and Salaman'ca. 182. The chief attraction that drew the crowds of students to the universities, after a long season of utter ,srh"''"'^i'- indifference to learning, was the rise of the new pJlii?52Phy- "scholastic philosophy" in the nth and 12th centuries. "^ The chief feature of this was the application of the art of dialectics to subtle questions of metaphysics and theology. 183. The great masters of this art are known collectively as the Schoolmen ; and it attained its highest xhe school- perfection, in the 13th century, in the persons '"^"■ of Thomas Aqui'nas and Duns Scotus. Other famous schoolmen were Roscelin, Anselm, and Peter Lombard. 184. Many of the questions which the schoolmen dis- cussed with great interest now seem very frivo- Nature and , r" , . . ■' effect of the lous, — as, tor mstance, the question as to philosophy. "how many angels can stand on the point of a needle," and whether " an angel in passing from one point to another passes through intermediate space." But, in spite of some frivolities of this kind, there is no doubt that the scholastic philosophy developed acute intellects, and prepared the way for the fruitful inquiries of the i6th and 17th centuries. 185. While the schoolmen were devoting themselves to subtle points of theology and metaphysics, a tew mmds were beginning to investigate math- ematical and scientific questions. Among the greatest ot these may be mentioned R oger Ba con, an English monk, v^ 282 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. and Albertus Magnus, both of whom lived in the 13th cen- tury. For the times in which they Uved these men made wonderful advances in true knowledge ; and each had to pay the penalty of being in advance of his age, for both Bacon and Albertus were punished as magicians. 186. One of the most interesting chapters in the Intel- Saracenic Icctual history of Europc during the Middle learning. Agcs IS that of the Arabian contributions to science. The Saracens instituted universities, observatories, public libraries, and museums ; they collected together all the remains of Greek and Alexandrine learning, and through their medium the greater number of Greek and Latin authors which were read during the Middle Ages were known to Europe. It may also be noted that a noble order of archi- tecture, of which the Alhambra presents us a fine specimen, was created by them. Court ok Lions, Alhambra. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 283 187. In the loth century we hear of Spain, under the Saracens, as a center of learning: ; and it is Saracenic 1 1 1 1 r I • • f schools m there that we must look for the origin of sev- Spain, eral sciences that have commonly been attributed to other nations. It is from them that we received our mode of notation, called the Arabic figures ; and the terms " algebra," " alcohol," " alchemy," " zenith," " nadir," etc., all of which are Arabic, attest the influence of that remarkable people on the science of the Middle Ages. It is well known that to the researches of the Saracenic alchemists we owe the beginnings of chemistry, — a science which the Arabians . .^ cultivated with success ; and the first work on the subject with which we are acquainted was written by Yeber-Abou- Moussah-Djafer-al-Sofi, whom we call Geber, an Arab of the 8th century. 188. It must be remembered that all the writings of the churchmen were in Latin. But literature, to Growth of na- become a real national power, must come from ^'"^ literature, the people. Hence it is of importance to know when a native literature began to spring up in the various European nations. We may say, in a general way, that there began ^'^ to be works written in the new Roinance tongues, — the Italian, French, Spanish, — and also in the German, about the time of the Crusades and immediately thereafter. It was at this time that the Troubadours and Minnesingers arose to celebrate the deeds of knights, battles, adventures, and love. The German collection known as the Nibelmigen Lied., the Spanish romance of the DV/, and the cycle of poetry relating to the British Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table, are among the most famous collections of the heroic poetry of the Middle Ages. 189. These earlier preludings were in the 13th and 14th centuries followed by some true outbursts of Dante and the highest form of poetry, — the real begin- Chaucer. ^ xiings of our modern literature. In the 13th century we 284 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. have in Italy, Dante (born a. d. 1265), whose Divina Corn- media is one of the great world-books ; and in the 14th cen- '^tury our own English Chaucer (born a. d. 1328), who is still 'accounted one of England's five greatest poets. 190. The characteristic art of the Middle Ages was architecture, — especially the building of Architecture. ^ \. j o cathedrals. The Gothic cathedral is the high- est expression of the blended faith and genius of that age. The nth century was a time of great splendor in building churches. They were, however, still built in the round- arched., or what is called Romanesque, style. 191. The use of the pointed arch and what is called the Gothic cathe- Gothic Style did not come in till near the end *^''^'^- of the 1 2th century. Originating in Northern France, the Gothic style of sacred architecture soon spread over all Europe, and during the 13th and 14th centuries it attained its highest perfection. Many of the grandest edi- fices occupied from one to two centuries in building. With their heaven-piercing spires, their noble arches, their elabo- rate sculptures and traceries, and their great mullioned win- dows, on whose " storied panes " the whole history of the Bible is written in the hues of the rainbow by the earnest hand of faith, they remain to this day the most sublime structures ever reared by the hand of man. 192. We have said that architecture was the character- . Painting and istic art of the Middle Ages. Painting, though I music. j^ began in that period, did not reach full ' development till the i6th and 17th centuries, while music belongs to a date still closer to our own times. THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 2S5 CHAPTER IX. POLITICAL OUTLINE. FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO THE CLOSE OF THE Mr DOLE AGES. I. THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 193. When Charlemagne died (a. d. 8x4), he was suc- ceeded by his son Louis, who divided the Division of T-, i-'ii •• 1 ^ • Charlemagne s Frankish dominion between his three sons. Empire. They quarreled violently, but the Treaty of Verdun (a. d. 843) confirmed the partition. Thus out of Charlemagne's Empire grew three states, — Germany, France, and Italy. But neither of these countries remained long under rhe rule of the descendants of Charlemagne. 194. The Carlovingians ruled in Germany for less than a century after Charlemagne's death. During Germany this time the chief power was in the hands Cariovingians. of certain great dukes, and when the last of the German Carlovingians died (a. D. 911), five of these got together and chose Duke Conrad of Franconia to be king ; so that Germany became an elective kingdom. 195. On the death of Conrad the Saxons and Franco- nians united in placing Henry, a Saxon (called pirst line of Henry I., or the Fowler), on the throne (a. d. emperors. 919); and he was the first of a series of five Saxon em- perors who ruled Germany for more than a century, and raised it to be the greatest power in Europe. 196. Henry was succeeded by his son Otho the Great Ca. d. Q'^6), under whom took place a very Revival of the > ^o /' ^ . , , , -^ Western Em- important event, namely, the revival of the pire. A Western Empire under the title of the " Holy Roman Empire of the German nation." This took place when 286 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Otho married Adelaide, widow of Lothaire, the last Car- lovingian king of Italy : receiving the iron crown of Lom- bardy, he united Upper Italy with the German kingdom. Otho was consecrated emperor by the Pope in a. d. 962. From this time every German emperor continued to re- t ceive a triple coronation, — as King of Germany, as King I of Italy, as Emperor of the West. The " Empire " was ■ after a time little more than a fiction, but it was a fiction that had a great influence on political affairs throughout the Middle Ages. The Saxon dynasty went on in three descendants of Otho, till a. d. 1024, when a line of Fran- oonian emperors begins. 197. The Franconian line of emperors lasted for a cen- Pranconian tury and a year. The first was Conrad II., a. d. emperors. 1024. The chicf cvcut of his reign was that the Kingdom of Burgundy was united to the Empire. Con- rad's son, Henry III. (a. d. 1039), was one of the greatest of all the emperors. It was in his time that the Empire came to have a great deal to do with the election of the popes, for Henry III. took this matter into his own hands. Under the next emperor, Henry IV. (a. d. 1056), the troubles between the popes and the emperors grew to a great height, and we have seen that Pope Gregory VII. forced Henry IV. to beg his pardon. Henry V. had nearly the same disputes with the popes. As this emperor had no son, the Franconian line ended A. D. 1125. 198. After Lothaire of Saxony had held the imperial Events under crown for twelve ycars, it passed to one of the Suabian . ... ^ ^ , i i • i emperors. the greatest families that ever held it, that of the Hohenstaufen, or Dukes of Suabia. The first of this line was Conrad III., who reigned as king of Germany, but who was never crowned emperor. Frederick Bar- barossa, his nephew, was elected to succeed him, and he was crowned emperor a. D. 1155. The greater part of his reign was taken up with a struggle with the Lombard FRANCE. 287 cities of Northern Italy, which claimed to be independent. The cities triumphed in the end, and by the Peace of Constance, a. d. 1183, acquired the right to govern them- selves. Under Frederick's successor, Henry VI., the king- dom of Sicily was conquered, and united with the Empire, Thus under the next emperor, Frederick II., were joined together the crowns of Germany, Italy, and Sicily. 199. A period of confusion followed the death of Fred- erick II. (a. d. 1254), but finally Rudolf I. The Empire wus chosen King of Germany, and with him Hapsburgs. began a new line of rulers, the House of Hapsburg, or of Austria. Rudolf was never crowned emperor, and indeed his successors, though they were still called E?fiperors of the Romans, were really very little more than kings of Germany. Even in Germany their authority was always growing less, while the princes in Germany greatly enlarged their own powers. Then followed other kings on whom we need not dwell, till we come to Sig'ismund, who was crowned emperor. He was already Margrave of Bran'denburg and King of Hungary, which fact might make it appear strange that he should be chosen emperor ; but the Empire by itself was growing so weak that the electors thought it best to choose some powerful prince who had possessions outside of Ger- many. With Albert II. came in the Austrian branch of the Hapsburg line, and for many centuries, though the emperors were still always elected, yet the electors always chose a member of the House of Austria. The long reign of Frederick III. (a. d. 1440- 1493), the second of this house, carries us through the Middle Ages. 2. FRANCE, 200. The real beginning of what we understand by France was in the loth century. When Gaul Real begin- was conquered by the Franks, it became a France. 288 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. part of the kingdom of the Franks ; while under Charle- magne it was a part of his extensive Empire. 201. After the partition of Charlemagne's Empire by France under the treaty of Verdun, the Carlovingian line the Carlovin- ■'...' . ° gians. went on rulmg m France ; but they were feeble kings, and the powerful Dukes of Francia, Burgundy, Normandy, etc., were really independent sovereigns. The Carlovingian line came to an end with Louis the Sluggard ; and then in the confusion one of the great dukes, Hugh Capet \ccip-ay'\ Duke of Francia^ made himself king by right of manhood. Thus the Duke of Francia became King of France, and this was the real beginning of the kingdom of France, a. d. 987. 202. During the imbecile rule of the Carlovingians, the northern coast of France was invaded by Scandinavian bands named Norsemen. These were rude-handed pirates and sea-rovers ; their galleys were painted to represent dragons, their banners bore Normans in France. Norse Galley. the figure of a raven • they were worshipers of Thor and Woden, and delighted in blood. Under Rollo they appeared in the Seine (a. d. 901), and made themselves so formidable that Charles the Simple granted them the FRANCE. 289 piOvince thenceforward called Normandy. In France the Norsemen became Christianized, and their name was soft- ened down to Normans. 203. The Capetian line of French kings continued for nearly three centuries and a half, and com- capetian prised fifteen kings whose names and dates '""e^- are given in the note below for convenience of reference.* 204. The first of this line, as has been seen, was Hugh Capet. His descendants for many generations state of were, however, kings of France hardly more ^'■3"'==- than in name ; for their vassals, the great dukes and counts, held the real authority. 205. During the reign of the third king, Henry I., Duke William was ruling over the Duchy of Norman con- " •' quest of £ng- Normandy. William laid claim to the crown land, of England, and he invaded and conquered that land a. d. 1066. As after this the Norman King of England was Duke of Normandy, England and France were brought into sharp rivalry, and a great part of the history of France during the Middle Ages is taken up with the hostilities be- tween the two countries. 206. In 1 154 Henry II. of England began to rule. He married El'eanor, the divorced wife of Louis English pos- ■,r-r-r r T-. * 1 l • r 1 SeSSiOHS in VII. of France. As she was heiress of the France. French Province of Aquitaine', the English king held really greater possessions in France than did the French king himself. 207. This state of affairs was altered by Philip II. (Philip Augustus), who wrested from the English king, * Hugh Capet, A. D. 987 Louis VIL, A. D. "37 Philip IV., A. D. 1285 Robert, 996 Philip n., 1 180 Louis X., 1314 Henry I., 103 I Louis VIII., 1223 John I., I316 Philip I., 1060 Louis IX., 1226 Philip v.. I316 Louis VI., 1 108 13 Philip III., 1270 Charles IV., 1322 290 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. John, Normandy, Maine, and other possessions in Northern Their recov- France. The recovery of these added greatly ery by France, ^q ^y^^^ strength of France ; and the wise rule of Louis IX. (Saint Louis) gave her increased importance. Indeed, France at this time began to be a great nation, and she was henceforth reckoned amongst the foremost powers of Europe. 208. The last of the Capetian dynasty, Charles IV., died Kings of the in 1^28, leaving no male issue. The crown House of Va- "^ ' , *^ . lois. now passed to his cousin, Philip of Valois, with whom begins the House of Valois.* This dynasty ruled for more than two and a half centuries, and ended with the assassination of Henr}^ III. (a. d. 1589). 209. At the commencement of the Valois period of Claims of French history, Edward III. was King of Eng- Edward III. land. As his mother was a sister of the late French king, Charles IV., and that king had left no son, Edward of England thought he should have the crown of France, and accordingly he fitted out a great armament by sea and land to wrest that crown from Philip of Valois (Philip VI.). There thus began a great war, called in French history the Hundred Years' War. 210. The most famous events in this series of wars are: — 1. Battle of Crecy (a. d. 1346) : English victory. 2. Battle of Poitiers (a. d. 1356) : English victory. [This first part of the war was ended by the Peace of Breti^ny (a. D. 1360), by which the English king, Edward, gave up his claim to the crown of France, but he kept his possessions in Aquitaine, together with Calais', and that no longer as a vassal, but as an independent king.] Henry II., 1547 Francis II., 1559 Charles IX., 1560 Henry III., 1574 « Philip VL, A. D. 1328 Louis XL, A. D. 146 1 John II., 1350 Charles VIIL ,1483 Charles V., 1364 Louis XII., 1498 Charles VI., 1380 Francis L, I5IS Charles VII., 1422 ENGLAND. 29 1 3. Conquest of Aquitaine by the French. The French king, Charles V., broke the Peace of Bretigny, and wrested from the English nearly all of Aquitaine except the cities of Bordeaux' and Bayonne'. 4. Renewal of the war by the English. Henry V. of England took advantage of the dissensions by which Prance was torn in pieces during the reign of the mad French king Charles VI. The greal action was the 5. Battle of Agincourt (a. d. 141 5) : English victory. [By a treaty of peace (a. d. 1420) it was agreed that the English king, Henry V., should succeed to the crown of France on the death of the mad king Charles VI., and that the two crowns were to be evei after united.] 6. Refusal of the French to acknowledge the treaty after the death of both Charles and Henry in A. D. 1422. The war was now carried on by the French king Charles VII. 7. Uprising of France, under the inspiration of the famous Maid ol Orleans, Joan of Arc. By the enthusiasm which she excited, the French gained several victories over the English, and finally, by A. D. 1453, ^^^ latter were entirely driven from France, retaining only the town of Calais. This closed the Hundred Years' War. 211. On the whole, notwithstanding the long war with England, the kingdom of France grew greatly state of the in power and extent in the times between the French nation, middle of the 13th century and the middle of the 15 th century. And, regarding the history of France during the Middle Ages as closing with Louis XI. (a. d. 1483), we may say that the French nation was then the most powerful in Europe. 3. ENGLAND. 212. The history of Anglo-Saxon England has been traced up to the epoch of Charlemagne, when ix. ■ 1-1 11-1 Review. the various petty kmgdoms were all united under King Egbert, at the beginning of the 9th century. 213. The supremacy of Egbert was soon interrupted by the Danes, or Norsemen, and both he and his Troubles with successors were very greatly disturbed by them. ^^^ Danes. 292 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Alfred the Great was a grandson of Egbert, and became ^ing of Wessex in a. d. 872. He was almost constantly em- ployed in fighting the Danes. But all he could do did not prevent them making a lodgement in England ; and a cen- tury after Alfred's death England was quite won by them, for the Dane Canute wore the English crown (a. d. 1017- 1036), as did his successors till a. d. 1041. 214. The Norman conquest of England, under William Effect of Nor- the Conqueror (a. d. 1066), the facts of which man conquest, h^ve been related (under France), was the next great event in the history of England. By this event the English nation was thoroughly subjugated. The Normans, who came over in crowds, were the ruling class. They had all the great offices. The Church and the law courts were directed by them. The official language was that spoken by the conquerors, that is, Norman-French, which was a Romance, or Latin-sprung, speech. 215. The Saxons, however, were of tough mettle. They Persistence ^^sld their own Well, for in fact they were still •f Saxons. ^|^g great majority of the people. What is very important, also, they clung to their native Anglo-Saxon language. The effect on the language was peculiar. For a long time the two tongues did not coalesce. Anglo- Saxon remained the speech of the common people, while French was the official and the fashionable language. In two hundred years but few Norman words had been bi ought into the ordinary speech ; but meanwhile the An- glo-Saxon began to drop most of its peculiar grammatical forms. Then, when Saxon had been stripped down to semi- Saxon, there came about in the 14th century a remarkable rushing together of the languages. Thousands of Norman- French words were introduced into the common dialect, and the result was the type of English which we may read in Chaucer,* who lived in the 14th century. * As in the Canterbury Tales. ENGLAND. 293 216. To rcbuiue our outline of the dynastic history of England. The Norman line was composed of The Norman the following sovereigns : — kings. William I., a. d. 1066- 1087. William II. (Rufus), a. d. 1087 -i 100. — Henry I., a. d. i 100- i 135. Stephen, a. d. i 135 -i 154, 217. William II. was the second surviving son, and Hen- ry I. the youngest son, of William the Con- Lineage of queror. Stephen was the son of the Count of ^^^ J^jngs. Blois and Adela, fourth daughter of William the Conqueror, 218. With Henry II., son of Geoffrey Plantag'enet and Matilda, daughter of Henry I., began the Plan- The Piantage- tagenet line of sovereigns. ^^'^^^ Henry II. (a. d. 1154-1189). Richard I. (a.d. 1189-1199). John (a. d. 1199-1216). Henry III. (a. d. 1216-1272). I ■ Edward I. (a. d. 1272 -1307). Edward II. (a. d. 1307- 1327). Edward III. (a. d. 1327- 1377). Richard II. (a. d. 1377 -1399). 219. During the reign of the wicked and foolish King John, the French won back Normandy, and on ^^^".^* °^^^^ the whole it was a very good thing for Eng- feats, land that they did so. Says Macaulay : " John was driven from Normandy. The Norman nobles were compelled to make their election between the island and the continent. Shut up by the sea with the people whom they had hitherto oppressed and despised, they gradually came to regard Eng- land as their country, and the English as their countrymen. 294 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. The two races, so long hostile, soon found that they had common interests and common enemies." 220. It was in the 13th century that the Constitution of England began to put on the shape which it has kept ever since. The first step was when the English people in a. d. 12 15 forced King John to grant the Great Charter {Magna Charta), by which all the old rights and good laws which he had broken were confirmed. It has been the groundwork of English freedom ever since. 221. The next step in freedom was one of even greater importance. This was the establishment of Parliament in the form of an Assembly with 'Two Houses. It came about in this way. The king, Henry III., John's son, had behaved badly. The great nobles, with Sir Simon Montfort, banded against the king, defeated him in the field, and made him captive. Then Sir Simon issued writs which added to the old assembly of lords, clergy, and knights tzi'o burgesses from each borough (a. D. 1264). This was the commencement of the English House of Commons and of true representative government. It was a wonderful step in advance. 222. The wars waged with the French had the effect Effect of the of developing in the English people a strong ^ars. sentiment of nationalit}'. It may be said that by this time all distinction of Norman and Saxon had ceased, and that there were only Englishmen. 223. With the deposition by Parliament of Richard II., Lancastrian i^ A. D. 1 399, the Plantagenet line went out. kings. Three kings of the House of Lancaster now followed: Henry IV. (a. D. 1399-1413); Henry V. (a. d. 1413-1422); Henry VI. (a. D. 1422-1461). 224. In A. D. 1455 there broke out the great civil strife Wars of the known as the Wars of the Roses (the red rose^ Roses. symbol of Lancaster, and the white rose, sym- 3ol of York), the contending parties being the respective ITALY. 295 representatives of the families of Lancaster and of York, both of which were claimants to the throne. Six years of war resulted in the accession of Edward IV., of the family of York. 225. The House of York included three kings : Edward IV. (a. d. 146 1 — 148^) ; Edward V. (a. d. 148^ ON J- u J TTT / c o \ House of York. -1483); Richard III. (a. d. 1483 -1485). The twenty-four years' reign of these three kings was filled with troubles and intrigues, and these continued till A. D. 1485, when a Lancastrian earl, son of Edward Tudor, came to the throne as Henry VH. With him the Tudor line of English sovereigns begins, and English mediaeval history ends. 4. ITALY. 226. When the extensive Empire of Charlemagne was parceled out by the treaty of Verdun (a. d. 843), changes in the Italian possession (comprising all of Lom- ^*^'y- bardy) fell to Lo- thaire, one of the grandsons of Char- lemagne. Under the German Emperor Otho these were, as has been seen, ab- sorbed in the " Holy Roman Empire." 227. But this did notbring Her condi- quietude ^'°"- to Italy ; for the emperors and the popes were continually quarreling, and Italy was inevitably drawn into the strug- gles between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. The Ghib- ellines were the friends of the emperors ; the Guelphs, with whom the popes generally sided, upheld the cause of the The Lion of St. Mark. 296 AfEDTy^VAL HISTORY Italian people, who were constantly striving to rend the links that bound them to the German Empire. 228. In the latter half of the 12th century Frederick Struggle with Barbarossa attempted to strip the Italian the Emperor, towns of their dearly prized liberties. This resulted in the League of Lombardy in a. d. 1167, when twenty-three Italian cities united to claim, among other privileges, the right of electing their own magistrates and making their own laws. By granting charters and working on local jealousies, Frederick contrived to muster in oppo- sition a league of Ghibelline cities. For nine years war wasted Northern Italy, until the decisive Battle of Legna'no was fought in a. d. 1176. Seven years later, by the Peace of Constance, the Emperor acknowledged the right of the republics to govern themselves. 229. The most illustrious of the Italian republics were Venice and Florence. 230. The glory of Venice began with the Crusades. Her position, favorable for commerce, had already led to ship-building on a large scale ; and the hire of vessels to carry the Crusaders to Palestine filled her coffers with gold. Her ships brought back from Syria the silks and spices and jewels of the East. The same course led to the rapid rise of her rival, Genoa, on the oppo- site shore of Italy. With her commerce her manufactures also throve, — the silks and the glass made at Venice being especially prized. 231. The territor)^ of Venice spread at an early day Growth of round the northern shore of the Gulf. Istria Venice. ^^d Dalmatia became hers. During the Fourth' Crusade she gained the Ionian Islands, the Morea, and Candia ; and later she extended her sway through Lom- bardy as far as the Adda. C5rprus was conquered by her in A. D. 1480. 232. In A, D. 1 172 the appointment of the Doge, or Duke, ITALY. 29; Florence. and other magistrates was vested in a grand council of four hundred and eighty members. Change after Political change took place, until a Council of Ten se- changes, cured the government to themselves. Under this unchecked oligarchy a reign of terror began, 233. In the mean time the power of the state was decay- insr. The League of Cambray was formed ° ... Decay. against the island-city in a. d. 150S by the Pope, the Emperor, and the kings of France and Spain, and she suffered a defeat from which she never fully recovered. 234. The strength of Florence lay in the commercial spirit of the citizens. They wove in silk and wool, made jewelry, and especially followed the occupation of bankers. Their gold florin, first coined in A. D. 1252, became the standard currency of Europe. In A, D. 1250 the citizens, revolting against the rule of the Ghibelline nobles, established a magistracy styled the St^- noria. Long and tedious feuds distracted Florence ; but in spite of these she grew rich. 235. In the course of these troubles a family of mer- chants named the Medicis \ined' e-chee\ rose to great influence in Florentine politics; and finally one of these, named Lorenzo de Medici, raised him- self to be the head of the state. His splendid patronage of art and literature gained for Loren- zo the name of the Magnificent. He turned his gardens at Flor- ence into an Academy, he en- riched the public library with many hundreds of manuscripts collected in Italy and the East, and by his patronage of artists Lorenzo de Medici. made Florence the scene of some of the most brilliant triumphs ever won by brush or chisel. J3* The Medicis. 298 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Later events. 236. When Charles VIII. of France, crossing the Alps, invaded Italy, Florence was rudely despoiled. The Medicis were then banished from Flor- ence ; but they were restored in a. d. 15 12. The republic, however, did not long endure. Its extinction dates from A. D. 1537, when Cosmo I. was proclaimed Duke of Flor- ence. In A. D. 1569 he was created by the Pope Grand Duke of Tuscany. But this carries us beyond the period of the Middle Ages, and we shall return to Italy under Modern History. 5. SPAIN. 237. It has already been seen that Spain was over- Condition whelmed by a Saracenic deluge in the early under Moham- c ^ r> ^ >-n. ^i • • i • medan rule. part of the 8th ccntury. The Christian king- dom was almost utterly crushed. However, after a time the Mohammedan dominions were split up among a num- ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. 299 ber of petty sovereigns, and the Christians began gradually to conquer back what had been lost. 238. The kingdom of Navarre was founded in a. d. 873, the kingdom of Aragon in a. d. 1035, the king- Rise ^f span- dom of Castile in a. d. 1026. Leon and Astu'- '^•^ kingdoms, rias were added in a. d. 1037, and Ferdinand of Leon and Castile added Cor'dova, Toledo, and Sev'ille between a. d. 1234 and A. D. 1248. 239. The Kingdom of Spain was formed by the union of Castile and Aragon, by the marriage of Ferdi- unification of nand and Isabella, and in a. d. 1491, Granada, Spain. the last of the Mohammedan possessions, was wrested from the Moors by Ferdinand and Isabella. In the long cam- paign against the Moors the court moved with the army, and Columbus, who was then soliciting the aid of the Spanish sovereigns in his great enterprise, moved with it. It is an interesting fact that the formal arrangement, or capitulations, between Isabella and Columbus is dated from the "Vega (or plain) of Granada " three days after the sur- render of the last stronghold of the Moors. ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS FOR REVEW. Fifth Century. The latter part of this century is filled with the events attending the dissolution of the Western Roman Empire. The series of emperors in the West comes to an end, and the Visigoths reign in Italy. Mean- while the Goths, Franks, and other Teutonic nations press into the Em- pire, and out of their settlements the Romance nations of Europe arise. At the same time the An- gles and Saxons are settling in Britain and laying the foundations of ths English nation. Progress of CiviU" 2ATI0N. Introduction of Christianity into France. 300 MEDIAL VAL HISTORY. Sixth Century. Seventh Century. In the sixth century the Franks establish themselves as the domi- nant race, and under Clovis, A. D. 510, found a kingdom of the Franks that embraced parts of what we now call France and Germany. Clovis is succeeded by other kings of the Merovingian line. In the Byzantine Empire Justinian reigns in the first half of the century. Under him the Ostrogoths are driven out of Italy, and a good part of the peninsula is united with the Eastern Empire, as is also the Vandal kingdom in Africa. But in the latter half of this century the Lombards pour into Italy and conquer the whole northern part, leaving to the Eastern Empire only some parts of Central Italy — the j Exarchate of Ravenna — and of the ; southern section. The Lombards I establish the kingdom of Lombardy, 1^ embracing the valley of the Po. The first half of the seventh cen- tury is marked by the rise of Mo- hammedanism, and by the first great Saracenic conquests ( Hegira, A. D. 622). Under the Caliphs the Saracens wrench from the Eastern Empire a great part of its Oriental dominion. North Africa also is conquered. But Constantinople successfully withstands the Sara- cenic assaults. In Italy and the land of the Franks matters remain much as at the close of the previ- ous century. England is Chris- tianized ; but it is not yet Eng- \ land, — being divided among seven i or eight petty sovereignties called ! the Heptarchy. Silk-\vorms brought to Europe. Roman lavir codified under Justinian. Introduction of Christianity into England. Latin disused In Italy. Pens made quills. from Glass manufactured in England. Alexandrian Librar} destroyed. Greek fire inventea Koran published. Eighth Century. Ninth Century; ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. In the early part of the eighth century the Saracens cross into Spain, which falls almost wholly into their hands. They also at- tempt to push their conquests beyond the Pyrenees, but are met at Tours by Charles Martel and defeated. The Frankish kings sink into mere nonentities. The real rulers are the Mayors of the Palace ; and one of these, Pepin, deposes the last Merovingian, and becomes the founder of the Carlo- vingian line. Under Pepin's son, Charlemagne, the Frankish domin- ion is greatly extended ; North- ern Italy is conquered from the Lombards, and on Christmas day, A. D. 800, Charlemagne is crowned Emperor of the West. Pepin lays the foundation of the temporal power of the popes by the gift of the Exarchate of Ravenna. r In the early part of the ninth ' century the various petty sover- eignties in England are all united into one kingdom under Egbert : and the brilliant period of Alfred comes in the latter half of this century. In Spain the Saracenic power declines, and the Christian kingdoms of Navarre and Leon are founded. Under the successors of Charlemagne the Empire is broken up into the three kingdoms of France, Germany, and Italy ; but it is a period of great confusion and many changes in these coun- tries, owing to the fact that the feudal barons assume the power of sovereign princes in various parts of the Empire. 301 Paper made from cotton. Carpets introduced. Schools of learning founded by tlie Saracens. Greek ^vorks of sci-^ ence translated into Arabic. Clocks brought to AA/estern Europe. Oxford University founded. Agriculture and hor^ ticulture encour- aged in Germany^ A navy first organ- ized by Alfred the Great. 302 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Tenth Century. Eleventh Century. In the early part of the tenth cen- tury the Norsemen become promi- nent, and under Rollo they make a landing at the mouth of the Seine, and become so formidable that the French king cedes to them the province of Normandy. They also (as Danes) assert their power in England and maintain a footing there. At the same time Germany passes entirely away from the Car- lovingians, and under new sover- eigns begins to grow great. Otho, the German king, is crowned em- peror ; so that most of Italy is now part of the Empire. In France, to- wards the end of the century, the im- becile Carlovingian dynasty comes to an end ; Hugh Capet, the Duke of Francia, is crowned king, and the t French monarchy now really begins. f During the eleventh century the j German Empire is the foremost ' power in Europe. The popes also I have risen to great influence in temporal affairs, and a good part of this century is marked by a great and prolonged struggle be^veen the popes and the emperors. In the latter half of the century Hilde- brand (Gregory VII.) is Pope ; he asserts the power of the Church over all temporal sovereigns, and compels the Emperor Henry IV. humbly to sue for pardon. The Norman conquest of England takes place during the latter half of this century, — a. d. io66. The king- dom of Castile is greatly enlarged at the expense of the Mohamme- dans. Towards the end of the cen- i tury the Crusades begin. Arabic notation in- troduced into Eu- rope. ■Wine-presses first introduced into Italy. Cambridge Univer- sity founded. Musical notes in- vented. Windmills first used. Clocks with wheels introduced. Beginnings of native literature in the Romance tongues. ANALYTIC SYNOPSIS. 303 Twelfth Century. Thirteenth Century. During this century much is done towards bringing the various pow- ers of Europe into something like the state in which they are now. The Italian cities assert their inde- pendence, the power of the Ger- man Empire comes pretty well to an end, and Germany and Italy begin to be collections of separate states, independent or nearly so. The Crusades go on at intervals during this century. Chivalry be- comes a great institution. The Italian republics rise to great wealth and glory. It is also a season of general intellectual awakening, and Europe has completely emerged from the Dark Ages. The Crusades continue during the thirteenth century, but in a feebler way, and finally cease in the latter half. In England Nor- mans and English are fully recon- ciled ; the English kings, losing the greater part of their dominions in France, are forced to become na- tional sovereigns ; the rights of the people are asserted in Magna Charta, and the establishment of the House of Commons. In Ger- many the Empire is upheld by Frederick II. (King also of Sicily), thus joining together in himself three crowns ; but he has continual strivings with various popes. In Spain, the Saracens and Moors are left with nothing but Granada. This is also a period of general intel- lectual improvement. The universi- ties are established, and this is the age of the Minnesingers of Germany and of Gothic church-architecture. Cultivation of the sugar-cane intro- duced into Sicily. Glass w^indows used in England. Introduction of the scholastic philoso- phy by Abelard, Peter Lombard, and others. Spectacles invented. Glass mirrors used. Clocks to strike made in Europe. Science cultivated by Roger Bacon and Albertus Magnus. Marco Polo neyed into ern Asia. jour- East' 304 MEDIEVAL HISTORY Fourteenth Century. Fifteenth Century. During a good part of this cen- tury England and France are en- gaged in war. France, in conse- quence of the English invasions of Edward III., is nearly con- quered ; but she gains in the end. These wars exercise a great influ- ence in uniting the English into one nation. The English language takes on to a good degree its mod- ern form : it is now really English, not Anglo-Saxon or Semi- Saxon. In Italy learning revives ; but the republics lose most of their free- dom. Spain is gradually becoming a great power. Norway, Denmark, and Sweden are joined by the Union of Calmar. In the course of this century we get fairly beyond the Middle Ages. The feudal form of society has been gradually undermined, and strong national monarchies have arisen in the various European countries. The Eastern Empire comes to an end, being overthrown by the Turks in the middle of this cen- tury. Spain becomes one great nation by the union of Aragon and Castile. The application of the mariner's compass leads to distant sea voyages, — new lands are opened up. Gunpowder changes I the art of war, and printing makes [ aa intellectual revolution. Mariner's compass introduced into Europe. Paper made from linen rags. Gunpowder and can- non used in war. Pins invented. Beginnings of Eng- lish literature, — Chaucer. New Testament translated by Vv^ycliffe. Invention of the art | of printing. Greek philosophers seek refuge in Italy. Algebra borrowed from the Arabs. Discovery of Amer- ica. Passage round Capt of Good Hope dis- covered. TRANSITION TO MODERN HISTORY. 305 SECTION V. MODERN HISTORY. FnOM THE BEGINN/yC, OF THE 16TH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT TIME. CHAPTER I. TRANSITION TO MODERN HISTORY. I. INTRODUCTION. I. It is difficult to fix upon a precise date at which to say Medinsval History ended and Modern When does History began ; for, as a great author declares, history end ? " The horologe of Time does not peal out the passage from one era to another." And indeed this difficulty is shown First Printing-Press. Vasco da Gama. by the different dates selected by different historians as the proper close of the Middle Ages. Some place it at the date of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, when the Eastern Roman Empire came to an end. But T 306 MODERN HISTORY. this was far from being an event of marked importance for Europe in general. Others place it at the date of the discovery of America. But this event, great though it was, was merely one event in a series of maritime discoveries. Others, again, place it at the close of the 15th century. Bu^ this is purely arbitrary. 2. In place of marking one single date as the close oi Period of the old and the commencement of the new transition. g^^^ j|- ^jj] \^^ wiser to regard the period in- cluded between the latter part of the 15th and the early part of the i6th century as a Period of Transition, in pass- ing through which it may fairly be said that we cross the bridge from mediaeval to modern history. 3. This period will embrace several marked events and Events in- tcvolutions in affairs : as, the destruction of eluded. ^i^g Eastern Empire ; the era of maritime dis- covery, including the discovery of America and the circum- navigation of Africa ; the invention of printing and the revival of learning ; the invention of gunpowder, with con- sequent changes in the art of war and in the organization of society ; the decline of feudalism and the establishment of centralized monarchies. 2. FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 4. In the middle of the 15th century Constantine Palae- State of the ol'ogus was the ruler over the Byzantine Em- Eastern Em- . ° . Ill pire. pire ; but this empire was reduced almost to the limits of the city of Constantinople, — for to such a pass had the great dominion of Constantine been brought by the vice and folly of its rulers, the fury of theological controversy, and the corruption of its citizens. Thus sunk in hopeless decay, it was to fall before the power of the Ottoman Turks. 5. The power of the Ottoman Turks commenced in FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 307 Asia Minor, and was laid by Othman, or Ottoman (bom i2';8), who, originally ruler of a small moun- History of ? ^\. . r . ^ , . r . the Ottoman tarn district forming the frontier of ancient Turks. Bithynia and Phrygia, gradually extended his dominion till it became one of the most flourishing states of Asia Minor. The advance of the Ottoman dynasty after this was rapid. Not only did nearly all Asia Minor fall under Turkish sway, but in the 14th century the Turks crossed the Hellespont, made Adrianople their capital, and reach- ing out from there gradually stripped the Byzantine em- perors of Thrace, Macedon, Servia, and Southern Greece. At length Mohammed II. ascended the Ottoman throne (145 1 ), and, from the moment of his accession, directed his efforts to the capture of Constantinople. 6. At the head of an army of 300,000 men, supported by a powerful fleet, he laid siege to the cele- siege of Con- brated metropolis. Constantine Palaeologus stantmopie. met the storm valiantly, and for fifty-three days made a stout defense of the city. At last, on the 29th of May, UsB OF Gunpowder at thu Siege of CoNSTANTiNok'LE. 1453, the Turks stormed the walls, having previously bat- tered them with cannon (then used for perhaps the first 3o8 MODERN HISTORY. time) ; Constantine fell, sword in hand, boldly disputing every inch of ground ; multitudes of his subjects were mas- sacred ; the Crescent waved over the church of St. Sophia, and the Byzantine Empire fell forever. 3. MARITIME DISCOVERIES. 7. We have now to take a survey of the maritime The world discoveries of the ii;th century, and the con- before the 15th .^ -" century. sequent changes in trade and commerce. The accompanying map presents to the eye the world as X we now know it, with the world as known to Europeans I MARITIME DISCOVERIES. 3O9 previous to the discovery of America and the circumnavi- gation of Africa. From this it will appear that, during the whole of what we call ancient history and the Middle Ages, the historic stage was limited to Europe, a small part of Western Asia, and a narrow strip of Northern Africa. We are now to learn how these limits were prodigiously enlarged in consequence of the great discoveries that mark the latter half of the 15 th century. 8. A knowledge of the properties of the magnet was a necessary antecedent of distant ocean voyages invention of and the discovery of unknown lands. The ^^^ compass, invention of the compass has commonly been attributed to an Italian named Gioja \_jo'ya\, who flourished about the beginning of the 14th century ; but erroneously, for the in- strument was known, even in Europe, nearly two centuries before this time. It was then, however, in a very rudimen- tary state, being merely a needle rubbed on a loadstone and floating on a cork, or other light substance, in a vessel filled with water, — a method used long before by the Chinese. The really important question is, When was the compass practically applied in navigation ? This does not seem to have been done till about the beginning of the 15 th century. 9. It was the Portuguese who, under the patronage of Prince Henry of Portugal, took the lead in prince Henry maritime discovery. Retiring to the promon- "^ Portugal, tory of St. Vincent, this enlightened prince established himself at the seaport town of Sa'gres, where he built an observatory and gathered around him from all quarters men skilled in astronomy and navigation. With these he discussed bold projects of maritime enterprise ; and the point to which he especially directed his attention was the practicability of sailing round Africa and of thus reach- ing the East Indies. 10. The southernmost cape of Africa known in those 310 MODERN HISTORY. days was Cape Non, which received this appellation from Portuguese the idea that it was utterly impossible to get discoveries in i i • -r-. ^ rr r tt Africa. beyond this cape. But the officers of Henry, having at length doubled it, found Cape Bojador \bozh- d-dor''\ ; and this awful cape being passed by, the region of the tropics was penetrated, and divested of its fancied terrors ; the river Sen'egal was observed, the greater part of the African coast, from Cape Blanco to Cape de Verde, was explored, and the Cape de Verde and the Azore Islands were discovered. Before the death of Prince Henry, in 1463, Portuguese discovery had been pushed to within five degrees of the equator. 11. The passion for discovery languished after the death Their further ^^ PHncc Henry ; but it was revived with ad- progress. ditional ardor by his grand-nephew. King John 11. (148 1). In his reign the Portuguese for the first time crossed the equator and beheld the stars of a new hemi- sphere : in 1484 a Portuguese fleet sailed fifteen hundred miles south of the equator, settlements were made on the coast of Guinea, and a regular commerce was established. 12. The Portuguese now began to conceive the pos- Circumnaviga- sibility of reaching India by a southern nav- tion of Africa, jgation around Africa. In 1487 Bartholo- mew Di'az sailed far enough south not only to descry, but to double, the Cabo Tormentoso, or Cape of Storms ; and as the coast was ascertained to run towards the north- east, the prospect of success seemed now so clear that the king renamed this cape Cabo de Boa Esperafifa, or Cape of Good Hope. The " good hope " was realized by Vasco da Gama, who, having doubled the southern point of Africa, arrived at Cal'icut, in Mal'abar, in May, 1498. A sea-route to India was thus opened up. 13. The desire of reaching India by sea was the inspir- What led to ing motive of a voyage that resulted in a still of Amtri'c^a^.'^^ morc brilliant discovery, namely, the discov- ery of America by Columbus. MARITIME DISCOVERIES. 31I 14. Columbus's love of enterprise was no doubt stimu- lated by the maritime discoveries of the Portu- Aim of Co- guese ; and it has been recently proved that '"'"'^"s. he conceived his grand project soon after his arrival in Portugal. This project, as is vi^ell known, was by no means that of finding a new continent, but of seeking a passage to India, the land of gold and spices. He knew that the Portuguese were bending their efforts to reach India by the circumnavigation of Africa ; and his grand inspiration was that India might more readily be attained by sailing west- ward across the Atlantic. 15. The success of the Portuguese in India, though not so brilliant, was scarcely less important than Portuguese , r ^ c • 1 • » • . ,, in the East that of the Spaniards in America. Albu- indies, querque conquered Goa (15 11), and made it the capital of the Portuguese establishments in the East. But the Portu- guese generally abstained from territorial acquisition ; they contented themselves with commercial establishments along the coast, whence they exported from India direct the arti- cles which the Venetians had formerly supplied to Europe through Egypt and the Levant. 16. The circumnavigation of Africa made a complete revolution in the commercial condition of Effect of sea- Europe : the trade which had been confined on trade. to the Mediterranean now traversed the Atlantic, and the Western nations hastened to share in its gains. With characteristic indolence, the Portuguese carried the Indian produce no farther than Lisbon, where it was sold to for- eign merchants for transmission to other countries. The Dutch engaged veiy eagerly in this carrying-trade, and found it so lucrative that they took the earliest opportunity of excluding the Portuguese themselves from all share in their commerce by depriving them of their colonies. 17. England was not altogether without a share in these great maritime discoveries. In 1497, under the auspices 3 1 2 MODERN HIS TOR Y. of Henry VII., Sebastian Cabot, a native of Bristol, and Part taken by o^ie of the three sons of John Cabot, a Venetian the English. merchant settled in that city, sailed around the northern coast of Labrador, touched at a point supposed to have been either New'foundland or Cape Breton', and sailed to the south along the coast of what is now the United States as far as latitude 38°. His enterprise led to no im- mediate advantage, though the discoveries of Cabot are of interest as having been the foundation of the English claims to dominion in North America. 18. The growth of commerce in this age was very rapid, Circumnavi- but there appeared to be still room for further globe. discoveries, until the globe was circumnavi- gated by the ships of Magellan (1519-1521). From that time the attention of nations began to be directed more to completing old discoveries than to the search for new lands. The navies of Europe commenced to assume a formidable aspect ; manufactures multiplied, and states previously poor became suddenly rich. Sovereigns and governments began to direct their attention to commerce, justly persuaded that mercantile wealth is the source as well of the prosperity as of the glory of nations. 4. THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 19. While the European mind, in the 15th century, was Circumstances thus astir with the spirit of discovery, there rev1vai"^f*^^ took placc that remarkable intellectual awak- learning. ening Styled the Revival of Learning. We have already seen that this movement had begun in the latter part of the Middle Ages. Long before the fall of Constantinople the love of classical literature had been gradually reviving ; — that event increased it by compelling a great number of learned Greeks to seek shelter in Italy, and other parts of Western Europe, carrying with them THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 313 their treasures of classic lore. There now began among scholars a most ardent search for buried and neglected manuscripts, and their diligence was rewarded by the discov- ery of many precious monuments of the Greek and Roman literature. The labors of these scholars were mainly in- strumental in producing that state of things which turned men's minds towards the invention of printing, and nour- ished it to maturity when invented. 20. It is rather singular, in connection with the history of printinsf, so aptly termed the " art preserva- Controversy ^ ° ,, , , ., • 11°" t*^s origin tive of all the arts, that while it records the of printing, birth of other inventions, no positive record exists of its own. A controversy has arisen, concerning the origin of the art, between the three towns of Harlem, Mentz, and Strasburgj each, from a natural partiality, attributing it to her own citi- zens. The dispute, however, has turned rather on words than facts, and it seems to have arisen from the different definitions of the word printing. If the invention of the principle be made the criterion, the honor is unquestionably due to Laurence Coster, a native of Harlem, who first found out the method of impressing characters on paper by means of carved blocks of wood. If movable types be considered as the criterion, the merit of the discovery is due to John Gu'tenberg of Mentz ; while Schoeffer \shef'er\, in conjunction with Faust, was the first who founded types of metal. 21. In regard to the earliest books printed, the follow- ing facts are of interest : — 1423. Year of the earliest dated print. This is known as the "St. Christopher" print, — a single engraved page with a few lines of e7tgraved letters. 1438. Letters separately cut in wood about this date. 1450. Letters separately cast in metal about this date. 1455. Bible in Latin. This earliest complete printed book known is called the Maz'arin Bible, from having been found in the collection of Cardinal Mazarin. It is supposed to have been issued from the press of Gutenberg a;jd Faust at Mentz, about id";!;. 314 MODERN- HISTORY. 1457, Psalter in Latin; printed at Mentz by Gutenberg and Faust, — first book printed with a date. 1460. Bible in Latin and German : earliest example of a book printed on both sides of the leaf with metal types. 1474. First book printed in England by Caxton. Its title is " The Game and Playe of the Chesse." 5. DECLINE OF FEUDALISM. 22. At the close of the 15th and commencement of the Feudalism in 1 6th ccntuty, the power of the great European France. vassals had been shaken, but not annihilated. In France feudalism had received a severe blow at the hands of Louis XI. ; yet it still in some degree survived ; it threatened to rise again during the civil wars of France, and was not completely extinguished till the time of Riche- lieu. 23. So also in Spain, though much abated, it remained In Spain and to be put down by the policy of the Emperor England. Charles V., and his successor Philip II. In England the great vassals cf the crown had never been so powerful as on the Continent; and hence in the time of John they had been obliged to league themselves with the people in defense of their common rights. The great Earl of Wanvick in the reign of Edward IV., and the Duke of Buckingham in that of Richard III., are among the last remarkable instances of formidable power in the nobles. The greater part of them perished in the Wars of the Roses. 24. Among the chief agents in the destruction of feu- Resuit of the dalism were the invention of gunpowder and p"owder°" ° the consequent change in the art of war ; for neither the armor of the knights nor the thick walls of their castles were proof against bullets and cannon-balls. 25. Although it is universally conceded that gunpow- Period of the der was invented by Roger Bacon, the English invention. monk, in the 13th century, it was long before the invention was applied to the art of war. This applica RISE OF GREAT MONARCHIES. 315 tion has been claimed for Berthold Schwartz, a German apothecary, about 1330 ; but gunpowder appears to have been used in war by the Moors before that period. 6. RISE OF GREAT MONARCHIES. 26. The most striking fact in the political aspect of Europe at the commencement of modern his- Great feature tory is the appearance of a series of great °^ ^^^ period, centralized monarchies, which in the period of transition arose upon the ruins of the Feudal States. 27. Despotism could not exist in the time of feudalism, on account of the resistance of the nobility ; cause of royal but when the great vassals were overthrown, despotism, the kings gradually contrived to get all power into their own hands. And thus, strange to say, the condition of affairs at the beginning of the modern period, though in some respects a going forward, was in other respects a falling back from the state of affairs in the Middle Ages. It was a time when laws could be more regularly carried out, when much of the turbulence and disorder of the feudal period came to an end. But it was also a time when political freedom retrograded, when the great states became absolute monarchies under sovereigns whose will was law. 28. These monarchs wielded the sword of the state, and this sword was the Standing Army, a thing Effect of stand, new in European history. In the feudal ages, '"^ armies, when, in order to make war, the sovereign had to call on his liegemen, there was always this limitation of the king's power, that the great vassals might not obey. But an army of soldiers kept constantly under the king's pay was a tre- mendous weapon which he could wield at will ; and it was by means of this weapon that the kings in most parts of Europe overthrew the free institutions that had arisen in the Middle Ages. 3l6 MODERN HISTORY. 29. The people surrendered these liberties without heed ; Surrender of for such was the Spirit of the age, that men liberties. j-^^^j come to think the sovereign and the state one, and patriotism meant simply loyalty to the king. This was a devotion not without its noble aspect, but it was fatal to the people ; and we shall see that liberties surrendered thus lightly had afterwards to be reclaimed with terrible throes. 30. The absolute power which the great sovereigns had Nature of the acquired enabled them to wage wars for their wars waged, q^^ purposcs, — wars in which the nations that they governed had very little interest, and which were designed merely for the aggrandizement of particular royal families. Thus, though the most valuable part of history is that which concerns the people themselves, and not that which has to do with kings and courts, it happens that at this period we cannot pass over the latter in silence, because the relations, hostile or otherwise, of great princes form really the most salient facts in the history of the i6th and 17 th centuries. 31. The understanding of this state of affairs will help Balance of the student to a knowledge of what is meant Power. ]-,y thg balance of power, — of which we read a great deal in modern European history. For when the strength of nations thus became centralized in the hands of a few monarchs, it was not unlikely that one of these might through his own power, aided by family connections, gain a great and dangerous preponderance over the others. Now the aim of the policy named the balance of power was to attain such a just distribution of force, either by alliance or internal resources between the different states, that no one should overshadow the others. This led to exceed- ingly complicated international relations, and the combina- tion of nations thus formed is often spoken of a;i the "States- System of Europe." AGE OF CHARLES V. 317 CHAPTER II. GREAT EVENTS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY TOPICS. 'Age of Charles V. England under Henry VIII. Rise of the Dutch Republic. Civil and Religious Wars of France. Age of Elizabeth. I. AGE OF CHARLES V. 32. It is the brilliant figure of Spain that first attracts our attention at the beginning of modern his- Growth of tory ; and indeed we may fairly say that dur- Spanish power, ing most of the i6th century Spain was the greatest power in Europe. For a long time during the Middle Ages Spain lay obscurely between the ocean and the Pyrenees, and carried on wars and policies which were limited by its territorial bounds. Indeed, we can hardly say that at this time Spain was a nation at all ; for the peninsula was parceled out between a number of small independent kingdoms, while the Moors, though their power had been greatly circumscribed, still held firm foothold in Grenada. But the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella of Castile united the two most powerful states. Then these sovereigns entered upon a vigorous campaign against the Moors, and the year 149 1 saw the fall of Grenada. In 15 12 Ferdinand conquered nearly all the kingdom of Navarre, — so that the whole peninsula except Portugal was thus joined together; and the year 1516 saw the supreme power over all united Spain descend on the head of the grand- son of Ferdinand and Isabella. Now this grandson was the character known in history as the Emperor Charles V. 3l8 MODERN HISTORY. 33. Charles V. was born at Ghent in the year 1500. Position of He was the son of Philip, Archduke of Austria Charles V. (^^^ q£ Maximilian, Emperor of Germany), and of Joanna (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain). At the age of fifteen he assumed the government of Flan- ders, which came to him through his paternal grandmother, Mary of Burgundy. In the following year, 15 16, the death of his maternal grandfather, Ferdinand, placed on his head the brilliant crown of Spain, and as Don Carlos I. he ruled jointly with his mother, Joanna, who, however, was insane. The Spanish dominion at this time included not only Spain, but Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and those vast possessions beyond the Atlantic with which the genius of the Genoese navigator had dowered the Castilian Crown. Three years after this, in 15 19, the death of his pater- nal grandfather (the Emperor Maximilian) transferred to him the sovereignty of Austria and of the other hereditary possessions of the House of Hapsburg. 34. The death of Maximilian transferred to Charles He is chosen Maximilian's hereditary possessions, but not Emperor. |j^g imperial crown ; for in these times the Emperor of Germany was elected by the Electors, or great princes of the various German states. Accordingly, on the death of Maximilian, in 15 19, it became the duty of these Electors to choose an emperor of Germany. Charles's most formidable competitor was Francis I. of France, though for a while young Henry VIII. of England sought the glittering prize. Charles was chosen ; so that now Don Carlos I. of Spain became the Emperor Charles V., and as such he was crowned with the diadem of Charle- magne at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the year 1520. He was but twenty years old, yet he ruled a dominion more extensive than that which had obeyed the sway of Alexander or of Augustus. 35. The two great events of the reign of the Emperor AGE OF CHARLES V. 3I9 Charles V. are: i. The rise of Protestantism; 2. The wars carried on under the lead of Francis I. of "^^o *='^'^'^ T- • ^1 , -.r . . , events of the i:* ranee against Charles v., to manitain the reign, balance of power. 36. At the beginning of the i6th century all the nations \ of Western Europe were in communion with Position of the Roman Catholic Church. It is true that Church. from time to time, during the latter half of the Middle Ages, there had been religious discontents among particular men. Thus in the 12th century there arose in the South of France a sect called the Albigenses, who agreed in considering the authority claimed by the popes in spiritual matters, as well as the discipline and ceremonies of the Roman Church, erroneous and unlawful. Very similar opinions were pro- claimed in England in the 14th century by Wycliffe, and in the next century by Huss in Bohemia. But these revolts against the See of Rome had been partial and temporary, and they were all put down, though not till many persons were burnt as heretics. 37. It happened, however, very soon after the beginning of the 1 6th century, that great controversies Beginnings of on matters of religion arose. There was com- '^'ssent. plaint at many practical abuses in the Church, and at the claims of the popes to interfere in the affairs of nations; and there was also a growing feeling among many that not a few of the doctrines which were believed, and of the cere- monies which were practiced, in the Church, were contrary y to Scripture. 38. It was in this state of affairs that there arose a dis- pute, trivial indeed in its nature, but which Protestantism 1 • IT 1 n 1 -11 1 3* ^^^ foun- kmdled a ilame that quickly spread over most tain, of Western Europe. When Leo X. came to the Papal chair, he found the treasury of the Church exhausted by the am- bitious projects of his predecessors. He therefore had recourse to every means which ingenuity could devise foi 320 MODERN HISTORY. /recruiting his exhausted finances, and among these he adopted an extensive grant of indulgmces to those who con- tributed of their means to the great enterprises of the Church.* The Dominican friars, having obtained the monopoly of indulgences in Germany, employed as their agent Tetzel, one of their own order, who carried on the traffic in a manner that was very offensive, and especially so to the Augustinian friars. 39. One of these, named Martin Luther, Professor of First appear- Theology in the University of Wittenbere, took ance of , , / • • rr. 1 tt • • , Luther. the lead m opposmg letzel. Havmg vamly sought to procure the suppression of the traffic from the Archbishop of Mag'deburg, he appealed to the people and to men of letters (15 17), by publishing ninety-five theses condemning the sale of indulgences as contrary to reason and the teachings of the Church. 40. This was in 15 17. Several of the nobles and princes Progress of *^^ Germany eagerly embraced his cause, for Luther. ^^gy were angered at seeing large quantities of money drained from their own country' to be expend- ed on works of art in Italy. The Papal party accepted Luther's challenge, fully believing that the slightest exer- tion of power would at once stifle opposition. Leo X., too proud to trouble himself about the opposition of a simple friar, published a bull, or decree, condemning the theses of Luther as impious and heretical (1520). The bold reformer at once declared open war against the Papacy by appealing to a general council, and burning the bull of excommunica- tion in presence of a vast multitude at Wittenberg. 41. All Germany was soon in a ferment. Frederick, 'Indulgences have always been approved and authorized by the highest councils of the Catholic Church ; but at this period the exercise of this privilege was attended by many irregularities and scandals, which were afterward severely condemned and "energetically prohibited" by the Council of Trent as a " most plentiful cause of abuses flowing into Chris- tian nations." AGE OF CHARLES V. 32 1 Duke of Saxony, was one of the first converts to the Ref- ortnatmi, as the movement now began to be spread of the called. Other German princes took the same i^eformation. side ; for indeed, as a Catholic historian has remarked, "Policy became more Lutheran than religious reform." 42. Pope Leo X. was now roused to the importance of doing something to arrest the spread of the The Diet of new doctrines, and soon after Charles V.'s 'vvorms. election as emperor, the Pope appealed to him to take the matter in hand. Accordingly, when, soon after his election, the young Emperor removed from Spain to Ger- many, he summoned an assembly, or Diet, of the German princes at the city of Worms. Luther was cited to appear before the Diet of Worms in 1521. Being called on to retract, he refused to do so ; and though he was dismissed under "safe-conduct" from the Emperor, y^ Charles V. promised to "use all endeavors to extirpate the heresy.'"' 43. Nevertheless, the new doctrines rapidly spread, and under various forms took deep root in Ger- many, France, Switzerland, England, Scotland, and Scandinavia. The result may be thus stated : allowing for considerable exceptions, the nations of Teutonic stock embraced the new doctrines, while most of the Latin race adhered to the faith of Rome. 44. An attempt was made to check the movement by the Diet of Spires, 1529; for by this assemblage Origin of the 1 -I . 1 /■ 1 • 1 !• name Protes- a decree was promulgated forbiddmg any tant. change until the meeting of a' general council. Luther's friends and followers protested against this decree, and hence the professors of the reformed religion received the common name of Protestants. 45. We now turn to the other and political events of the age of Charles V., namely, the complications Rivalry with with Francis L of France. This bitter rivalry FTa^cis i. led to four wars, in each of which the avowed object of 14* u 322 MODERN HISTORY. Francis was to preserve the balance of power, as against the menacing greatness of the House of Austria, repre- sented by Charles V. 46. In the first war, which was mainly an Italian war, Events of the the dccisive action was the battle of Pavi'a, first war. 1 5 25. Here the imperial forces shattered the French power in Italy ; and Francis himself was taken prisoner and conveyed to Madrid, where he lay a year in prison. At the end of that time he was released by Charles on the promise that he would give up the Duchy of Burgundy, renounce all his pretensions to Italian terri- tory, and surrender his two sons as hostages. 47. Francis had made the stipulations mentioned, with- out ever intending to keep them : the result Second war. ,,.,.. . ,. , , was, that hostilities were immediately renewed, and the second war (1527 -1529) began. This time Henry "VIII. of England sided with Francis, Who was also sup- ported by the Pope. The French aiTny entered Italy, but was there repeatedly defeated. This inclined Francis to peace ; and as at the same time the Emperor was anx- ious to suppress the Reformation in Germany, a treaty was made in 1529 (Treaty of Cambray), the terms of which were quite unfavorable to Francis I. 48. The third war began in 1535, but in three years Third and both parties M'ere exhausted ; so by the fourth wars, mediation of the Pope they concluded in 1538 a truce that was to last for ten years. Before the time of truce had half expired, hostilities were renewed, and the fourth war commenced. A strange alliance it was that Francis now formed ; for Solyman, Sultan of Turkey, together with some of the Protestant princes of Germany, united with the French against Charles V., who was aided by Henry VITI. of England. The French king won a victory over the Emperor at Cerisoles ; but this did not prevent the invasion of France both from England and AGE OF CHARLES V. 323 from Spain. However, the Emperor and the English monarch did not act in concert, and accordingly Francis concluded a peace with Charles at Crespy in 1544. Three years after this, 1547, the Emperor's two great royal con- temporaries, Francis I. and Henry VIII., died. 49. At this time Charles V. became engaged in a contest with the Protestant princes of Ger- vvar with the 1 1 c 1 • Protestant many, who had formed a league for their princes, mutual protection at Smalcald, in 153 1. A great council^ called the Council of Trent, was convened against Prot- estantism in 1545. At the very commencement of the war, Maurice of Saxony, one of the leading Protestant princes, deserted the league and went over to the cause of the Emperor. The result was that the Protestant League was soon thoroughly broken up. 50. The triumph of the Emperor seemed now to be complete. Encouraged by this, Charles V. Defection of became thoroughly tyrannical. But his over- Maunce. bearing course excited the animosity as well of the Catholic as of the Protestant princes of Germany. Maurice of Saxony, to whom he had owed his recent successes, and who was throughout a Protestant at heart, deserted the Emperor, joined the Protestant leaders, and formed a bold plan for compelling the Emperor to establish religious freedom. He formed an alliance with Henry II. of France (son and successor of Francis I.), and proclaimed war against the Emperor, 1552. 51. The Emperor's reverses in Germany were as rapid as had been his success, and he was compelled Triumph of to sign a treaty at Passau (1552) by which Protestantism, the free exercise of their religion was secured to the Protestants. Three years later (1555) the principles of mutual toleration were formally sanctioned by the Diet of Augsburg. Thus the Reformation gained its first decisive political triumph in Germany. 324 MODERN HISTORY. 52. And now the clouds thickened fast around the The Emperor's Emperor. The son of his now dead rival, troubles. Francis I., had taken up, as a legacy, the long- standing quarrel, and was vigorously assailing the imperial power ; while the Pope, angered at the Emperor's sanction of the principles of toleration at the Diet of Augsburg became the avowed enemy of the House of Austria, and entered into close alliance with the king of France. 53. In this state of affairs Charles V. took a strange His abdication resolve : he determined to lay aside his and death. crowns. Accordingly, in 1556 he resigned the scepter of Spain and tlie Two Sicilies to his son, Philip II., and the imperial crown to his brother Ferdi- nand : he then retired to the monaster}' of San Yuste \yoos'ta\^ in Spain, being resolved there to end his days. In the solitude of the convent he divided his time be tween religious duties and the making of mechanical con- trivances. Towards his latter end he conceived the ghastly fancy of having his own funeral rehearsed. This theatri- cal display was the forerunner of the dread real tragedy itself; for death overtook the Emperor in 1558. 54. In summing up the character of Charles V., we Character of "^^y Say that he was free from many of the Charles V. yj^^gg ^f j^jg Singly Contemporaries. Yet his virtues were rather negative than positive, and seem to have been the result of his temperament, which was cold. He spoke but little, and a laugh or smile was rarely seen upon his face. In some respects he was a man of comprehensive views ; 5'et his ambition w-as selfish, looking mainly to the aggrandizement of the House of Austria. He had great successes in his time ; but in the end he was doomed to see all Ws A ENGLAND UNDER HENRY VIII. 325 plans fail. Nor is the cause of this failure difficult to find : he did not comprehend his times. He stands to us as the last champion and the last support of the Middle Ages j but the Middle Ages had passed away, — a new era had been ushered in by the new intellectual and religious movement, and the advance of the modern spirit was not to be checked even by the sovereign of Spain and the Indies. a. ENGLAND UNDER HENRY VIII. 55. In the year 1509 Henry VII., the first of the Tudor line of English sovereigns, died, leav- Events at the ing as heir to the throne a son, who is known accession. to history as Henry VIII. The young king, at this time eighteen years of age, was handsome, lively, accomplished, and learned. Soon after his accession he married Kath- arine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, and aunt of Charles V. of Spain. 56. The king soon became mixed up with continental politics, into which he was drawn by the fact England's for- that the two great sovereigns of France and ^'S" relations. Spain who were his contemporaries, namely, Charles V. and Francis I., both sought his alliance in their wars. Henry was generally on the side of the Emperor, and he more than once invaded France ; but in truth nothing veiy great was done by England on the Continent, and altogether the most important events of Henry VIII.'s reign were con- nected with matters that happened at home. 57. During the first twenty years of this reign tha most notable figure in political affairs was the cele- Greatn^ns of Cardinal 'woi« brated Cardinal Wolsey. Wolsey was the son sey. of a butcher ; but displaying while young great quick- ness and intelligence, he received a learned education with a view to his entering the Church. His first employ- ment at court was in the humble office of chaplain; but 326 MODERN HISTORY ^ becoming acquainted with the young monarch, he soon grew to be a great favorite. He was made Archbishop of York, then High Chancellor of England, and finally became Henry's sole minister. 58. It was in the early part of this reign that the The king and doctrines of Luther began to make a great the Church. g^jj. j^^ Europe. (Henry's accession, 1509; Luther before the Diet of Worms, 1521.) At this time the English people were ardently Roman Catholic in faith, and Henry VIH. distinguished himself by writing a book against the Lutheran doctrines. The Pope was so much pleased with the production, that he gave the English king the title of Defender of the Faith. How- ever, Henry was not destined to continue long an ad- herent of the Roman Pontiff, and we are now to see the circumstances under which the great schism arose. 59. After Henry YHL had lived eighteen years with Beginning of his first wife, Katharine of Aragon, he pro- Henry's wife- , , . ' . . ° ' ^ troubles. fcsscd to feel conscientious scruples respect- ing the lawfulness of the marriage, on account of her hav- ing been the wife of his brother. About the same time he became enamored of the beautiful and fascinating Anne Boleyn \bdbl'vi\, one of the queen's attendants. He now conceived the design of annulling his marriage with Katha- rine and marrying this younger and more agreeable person. To this end he applied to the Pope for a divorce. 60. The Pontiff (Clement VII.) was much perplexed by The Pope and this request of Henry ; for he could not accede Woisey. tQ jt without offending Charles V., one of his best supporters and the nephew of Queen Katharine. The j process went on for several years, but without reaching the conclusion desired by the king. Woisey at length fell under the king's displeasure for not acting with sufficient zeal in the matter ; he was stripped of all his places of power and wealth, and, sinking under grief and mortifica' ENGLAND UNDER HENRY VIII. 327 tion, he died in 1530. In his last moments he is said to have exclaimed to his attendant, " Had I but served mj God as diligently as I have served my king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs." * 61. The negotiations with the Pope for the divorce went on for two years longer, and endless tricks and Henry's deci- subterfuges were resorted to by both parties. ®'^^ ®*^P' At last in January, 1533, Henry took the final step from which there was no retreat, — he secretly married Anne Boleyn ; and as, soon afterwards, the marriage with Katharine was declared invalid by the Archbishop of Can- terbury, Henry's private union with Anne Boleyn was acknowledged, and on the ist of June, 1533, she was crowned queen, with imposing splendor. In the same yeat was born their celebrated daughter Elizabeth. 62. History has pronounced a severe verdict on Henry VIII. for his conduct in divorcing Queen verdict on his Katharine. And there is no doubt that in conduct, many respects it deserves condemnation. But recent histo- rians, and especially Froude in his " History of England," have endeavored to free the king from a considerable part of the burden of blame. His defenders call attention to the fact that Henry VIII. was moved by a public motive ; to wit, the fear of civil war likely to break out, after his death, on the question of disputed succession, owing to the fact that he had no living son and heir by Katharine. It is further urged that on this account the divorce was warmly desired by the great body of the English nation. * Shakespeare weaves this sentiment into the touching soliloquy of ihe Cardinal in the drama of Henry VIII. " O Cromwell, Cromwell, Had I but served my God with half the zeal 1 served my king, he would not in mine age Have left me naked to mine enemies." Henry VIII., Act iji. Scene a. 328 MODERN HISTORY. 63. As regards the relations of the English people to the The English Catholic Church, all that had been done thus and the Pope. f^^. ^^^ ^.q declare that the Pope had no juris- diction in England. There was no thought of secession from the unity of the Catholic faith, and this fact Parlia- ment in 1534 took pains to declare. Nevertheless, events soon led to a considerable widening of the breach. Thus in this same year, 1534, the Pope declared King Henry VIII. to be excommunicated from the fellowship of the Church, and to have forfeited the allegiance of his subjects. 64. The English king now concluded that there was What Henry nothing left but to meet defiance with defiance, aow did. Accordingly the Pope's authority in England was declared to be abolished, and all persons were required to take an oath of allegiance, which pronounced the mar- riage with Katharine illegal, and the children by Anne ^oleyn the only rightful heirs. In addition. Parliament in 1534 passed an act declaring the king to be the Supreme Head of the Church of England, and all who denied him this title were to be held guilt}^ of high treason. 65. This led to some terrible acts of persecution against Persecution Catholics, whosc consciences forbade their of Catholics. acknowledgment that the king was the head of the Church. First a number of humble friars were put to death. Then came nobler victims, — the venerable Bishop Fisher, and the illustrious Sir Thomas More, who had been Lord Chancellor after the disgrace of Wolsey, and who was acknowledged to be the most learned and eloquent man in England. 66. The happiness which the king had expected to find Fate of Anne with Anne Bolcyn was destined to be of brief Boieyn. duration. In less than three years after the marriage, charges of gross misconduct were brought against her; she was brought to trial before a high court, and, being found guilty, was condemned and beheaded, 15.36. ENGLAND UNDER HENRY VIII. 329 67. Hitherto, though professing independence of the Church of Rome, Henry still maintained and changes in re- enforced by bloody laws most of its doctrines, ^'sion- Now, however, he took measures for altering the system of worship to something nearer the Lutheran model, and also for suppressing the numerous monasteries throughout the country. As many as 645 monasteries, 2374 chantries and chapels, 90 colleges, and 1 10 hospitals were broken up by this powerful but unscrupulous monarch. He partly seized the revenues for his own use, and partly gave them away to the persons who most actively assisted him. In the mean time it was difficult to tell what the state religion really was ; for if not Catholicity, it was also not Protestantism. And, indeed, for many years Henry vacillated so much in his opinions, and enforced them with such severe enactments, that many persons of both religions were burnt as heretics. 68. The day after the execution of Anne Boleyn, the kino- married Tane Seymour ; but in the follow- Henry's sub- 1 T 1 1 XT 1 -1 sequent mar- mg year she died, and Henry then married riages. Anne of Cleves, a German princess. He was not pleased with her person, however; so he divorced her by an act of Parliament. Next he married Catherine Howard (1540), but had not been long united to her when he discovered that she had been guilty of evil conduct both before and since her marriage. The unfortunate woman was beheaded. To close this tragic business of Henry's marriages, it may be added that he took for his sixth wife Catherine Parr, widow of Lord Latirner (1542). She seems to have been a person of great discretion, who knew how to humor her arbitrary lord, and she survived the king, whose death took place five years afterwards. 69. Henry VHI. died in 1547, being in his fifty-sixth year. The common verdict which has been Common ver- 1 1 . 1 1 • • . 1 , "iict on Henry pronounced on him by historians is that he viii. was a remorseless tyrant. " If all the pictures and patterns 33© MODERN HISTORY. of a merciless prince," says Sir Walter Raleigh, " were lost in the world, they might all again be painted to the life out of the story of this king." " Perhaps no other monarch since the emancipation of woman from polygamy," says Mackintosh, " has put to death two wives on the scaffold, divorced another whom he owned to be faultless after twenty-four years of wedded friendship, and rejected a fourth, without imputing blame to her, from the first im- pulse of personal distrust." 70. In recent times a tendency to modify the rigor of Milder judg- this judgment has shown itself. It is urged* ments. ^^j^^j- ^j^ examination of contemporary history shows that for some of his arbitrary and seemingly cruel acts he had proper justification, and that many other meas- ures which we must regard as reprehensible were forced upon him by the necessities of the difficult and perilous times in which he and England found themselves. 71. Though Henry VIII. ruled with a strong hand, his Benefits of his reign was not unfavorable to the progress of reign. liberty. He first made Parliament a real power; and though that body was servile in doing his bidding, yet it then learned its strength and established precedents that were afterwards used to humble the inso- lence of kings. Though he struck at the high heads, he favored the common- alty: the taxes were light, the govern- ment was energetic, and the people were contented and well to do : so that, ,,,,, ,,.., ,.,.,. ,,. Henry VIII. m spite of his faults, his follies, and his crimes, his reign tended, under Divine Providence, to the prosperity and glory of England. * See Froude's History of England. RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 33 1 3. RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 72. The name of the Netherlands is at present given only to the kingdom of Holland. In the i6th Extent of the century, however, that name denoted a cluster Netherlands, of provinces extending from the Zuyder Zee and the Dollart to the northern frontiers of France, and forming that tract of fertile and alluvial land which is at present occupied by the two kingdoms of Holland and Belgium. These prov- inces were a part of the extensive dominion which the Em-' peror Charles V., on his abdication in 1556, resigned into the hands of his son, Philip II., King of Spain. 73. At this period the Netherlanders had by industry and intelligence attained a high degree of prosper- spirit of the ity. They were the boldest navigators and the p«°p'«- most skillful manufacturers in Europe. They were ardent lovers of civil liberty, and they were now eagerly embracing the principles of the Reformation. 74. This last fact was very offensive to Philip II. The religious zeal of Charles V. had, in passing character of into the gloomy character of his son, taken the P^ihp. form of a dark fanaticism. He was a silent, plotting, pa- tient man, and, sitting in his palace of the Escurial, he wove his webs of political intrigue. And now, above all, his somber soul brooded on how the heresy that had spread into the Low Countries might be rooted out, for he saw that if this were not done, a separation between the Nether- lands and the power of Spain was inevitable. 75. It was soon discovered that the king had resolved to carry on the government in his own way. The quarrel and independently of the will of the country as t>egins. expressed by the council of nobles. The next step was the introduction of the terrors of the Inquisition. The people rose in a species of frenzy, and within foui days no less than four hundred churches, with everything they contained, were 332 MODERN HISTORY. destroyed. This riotous outrage infuriated the king, and accordingly he sent the Duke of Alva, a relentless soldier, with a large force to crush the insurrection, 1567. Then followed five years of dreadful work. The Duke of Alva, at the head of the famous " Blood Council," seized, impris- oned, and beheaded ; and in six months he had passed a sentence of death upon every inhabitant of the country ! 76. In this sad situation the man to whom the Nether- Events under landers looked for deliverance was William of Orange. Nassau, Princc of Orange, and known in his- tory as William the Silent. He was a Protestant, and now took up the cause of the people. He led an army out of Germany into the Netherlands ; but as the Spaniards held all the fortified towns, he could for a time accomplish very little. The capture of Brille (1572) was the first success. Then the people of the province of Holland, under the Prince of Orange, cast off the Spanish yoke. The province of Zealand followed. Various towns were taken, and the gallant defense of Harlem convinced Alva of the inability of strong measures. He accordingly asked to be recalled, 1573- 77. Alva was succeeded by Requesens, commander of Progress of Castilc, a man of mild disposition. The war the war. g^j^ ^yent On. The defense of Leyden (1574), which was saved by cutting the dikes and flooding the Spanish trenches, was a great blow to the pride and power of the Spaniards. But they proved too powerful for the two revolted provinces. Then the Dutch in their despair offered the sovereignty of their country to Elizabeth of England, but the virgin queen, though a Protestant, did not then wish to interfere. The war raged as fiercely as ever. 78. Meanwhile Requesens died ; and the Spanish garri- Events to the son Committed such atrocities at Ant^verp that death of Wil- ,, , . , . . ,, , Ham. all the provmces entered mto a union called RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 33 ■ the Factficaiion of Ghent (1576), William of Orange being chosen chief magistrate, with the title of Stadtholder. The struggling Dutch were able to confirm their constitution in 1579, when the Union of Utrecht formed the seven north- ern provinces into the Dutch Republic, under the presi- dency of William. 79. Philip II. had set a reward on the head of the Prince of Orange, and the dagger of an assassin de- Assassination prived the states of their able and patriotic the sequel, leader. Their gratitude made them appoint his son Mau- rice, a youth of eighteen, in his stead. He proved himself a valiant captain in the war with Spain, which continued to rage in the southern provinces. The Spanish general, the Duke of Parma, took Antwerp, which was a great blow to the states. Elizabeth now resolved to aid the Dutch. The Earl of Leicester accordingly was sent with an English force of 6000 men to Zutphen, near which the heroic Sid- ney received his mortal wound. 80. The bitter contest continued for several years yet Towns were taken on both sides. The pa- stubbornness tience of the Netherlandeis, however, sustained °f ^^^ Dutch. them through all their trials, and finally the Spanish com- mander gave it as his opinion that the subjugation of the United Provinces was impracticable. The pride of Spain was reduced to treat with the Dutch as an independent nation, and under the mediation of France and England a truce for ten years was made, 1609. 81. Thus, after a severe struggle of thirty-seven years, the independence of the Dutch Republic was „ , , . -11 1 n J- Summing up. secured, though it was not till the Peace of Westphalia (1648) that this independence was acknowl- edged by Spain. During the conflict the Dutch had in- creased in wealth, had made extensive acquisitions in the East Indies, and had established the most powerful navy in Europe. 334 MODERN HISTORY. 4. CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE. 82. The history of France during the latter half of the Subject of the i^th century is mainly taken up with a series chapter. ^f ^^j^jj ^^^ religious wars between the Catho- lics and Protestants within the country. Connecting Note. — On the death of Francis I. (1547), the crown passed to his son, Henry II., who was married to Catherine deMedicis, a wily and artful Italian. After a reign of twelve years (1547- 1559) he met his death accidentally at a tournament held in honor of the marriage of his daughter Elizabeth with Philip II. of Spain, His son, a sickly boy of sixteen, now ascended the throne under the title of Francis II. The guardians of the feeble sovereign and managers of the Court were the two brothers Guise, — Francis the general, and the Cardinal of Lorraine, uncles of the fair young queen. The nominal sovereignty under Francis II. lasted only seventeen months ; for at the end of that time he died, and his young widow, Mary Queen of Scots, sighing a sad farewell to beautiful France, sailed back to Scotland. Two other sons besides Francis were left by Henry II. The eldest, Charles IX., was now but nine years old ; so the queen-mother, Catherine de Medicis, claimed the custody of her son, and became in fact, if not in name, regent of the kingdom. This brings the train of events up to the epoch at which begins a direful series of civil and religious wars. 83. Protestantism had taken root in France ; but the Form of French French Protcstants were followers, not of Protestantism. Luthcr, but of John Calvin, a Frenchman by birth, who had settled at Geneva. His teaching was a greater departure from the doctrines of the Roman Church than was that of Luther. The followers of Calvin grew to be very numerous in France, where they were known by the name of Huguenots.^ The Huguenots were cruelly persecuted by Francis I., in whose reign they first came into notice, as they were also by his successor Henry II., and by his successor, Francis II. * The name "Huguenot" is a corruption of the German word "Eid- genossen," that is, persons associated by oath, — " Covenanters." CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE 335 84. These persecutions were the underlying cause of a series of wars which began in France in Nature of the 1562. It should be noted, however, that these ^^""^ waged, wars were quite as much political as religious ; for, so far as the great actors were concerned, it was personal ambition fully as much as religious zeal that animated them. We must, accordingly, guard carefully against misinterpreting the nature of this contest. For there were few on either side that cared for the things in whose name they fought ; while on both sides the most frightful crimes were com- mitted in the name of religion. 85. During the brief reign of the feeble Francis II. the all-powerful Guises, together with Catherine Antagouism de Medicis, governed the country. This fact °^ *^^ leaders, excited the anger and jealousy of the Princes de Bourbon, who were of the blood royal, and claimed a direct descent from Saint Louis. One of these princes, Antoine de Bour- bon, enjoyed the title of King of Navarre ; another occu- pied the principality of Conde. These nobles, being excluded from all court influence, formed an opposition party to the Guises. The Prince of Condd embraced the Reformed religion and became a Huguenot, and his ex- ample was followed by Admiral Coligny \kol-len-ye''\ and other powerful persons. The partisans of the opposing fac- tions arranged themselves on the one side or on the other. 86. In 1562 an event happened which precipitated France into civil war. The Duke of Guise, Events of the passing through the little town of Vassy in ^^'■• Champagne, found some Protestants singing hymns in a barn : his attendants insulted them ; blows were given and returned, and sixty of the Protestants were killed. This kindled the flame. For a year there was war, or rather mutual massacre. The contest went on till the following year, 1563, when hostilities were brought to a close by a treaty; but this was soon broken, and between 1567 and 336 MODERN HISTORY. 1570 the whole period was a continuous war, interrupted only by short and unsteady truces. The Treaty of St. Gennain (1570) put an end to the contest. 87. In the latter part of the contest the chief part on Settlement by the Reformed side had been taken by the marriage. young Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre, who was next heir to the crown of France after the sons of Henry II. To cement the peace a marriage was proposed bet^veen the young king of Navarre and the Princess Margaret, the beautiful sister of the king of France. The proposal diffused universal joy, and both the Catholics and the Protestants came to witness the nuptials, which were celebrated on the i8th of August, 1572. 88. The events which led to the fearful tragedy that ac- Word of cau- companied this marriage have been so misrep- **""• resented by party writers on every side, that it is desirable to state the facts as they have been narrated by the principal actors themselves.* 89. Charles IX., feeble in body and weak in intellect, Plots and had just attained his legal majorit}', but the counterplots, j-g^j power of the state was wielded by Cathe- rine de Medicis. In some of his conversations with the Protestant lords Charles complained very bitterly of the state of thraldom in which he was held, and Coligny, com- miserating the unhappy monarch, promised to aid in his deliverance. The king soon began to vaunt of his design to assume the reins of power and to remove his mother and brother from the court. They took the alarm, and easily discovering by whose counsels the king was influenced, re- solved to assassinate the Admiral Coligny. The attempt was made, but failed. When the Huguenot leaders discov- ered the real instigators of the plot, they very imprudently proclaimed their intention to exact heavy vengeance upou Catherine and her favorite son Henry. ' * The following account is based mainly on the narradve of Tayler. CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE 337 90. In this emergency Catherine convoked a secret council of her friends, and there it was re- Preparations solved to strike, on the eve of St. Bartholomew, edy. a blow that would effectually crush the Huguenot party. Late in the evening of August 23d Catherine went to Charles IX., accompanied by her chosen advisers, and told him that the Protestants had formed a plan for the extermi- nation of the royal family, which could be frustrated only by the most immediate and decisive measures. The feeble monarch, who was not many degrees removed from idiocv, exhibited every sign of helpless alarm : whilst in this condi- tion his mother placed before him the dreadful decree of extermination, and demanded his signature. Charles at first refused, and for some time it was doubtful whether his consent would be obtained. At length he exclaimed, " I consent, provided that you kill them all, and leave no sur- vivor to reproach me." 91. On the night of August 23-24 the dreadful tragedy known as the Massacre of St. Bartholomew Bartholomew's began. The tocsin was sounded at two in the ^^^• morning. All had been arranged beforehand, and the participants carried a scarf on the left arm and a white cross in the hat, for better distinction. Death reigned throughout Paris ; the Huguenots rushed out of their houses half naked at the sound of the tocsin and the cries of their brethren, and were slaughtered in the streets. Coligny was one of the first victims ; but Henry of Navarre saved his life from the personal fury of the king by promising to go to mass. After three days of direful destruction there fell a dead silence upon the streets of Paris, — there was nobody left to slaughter. Ten thousand victims are said to have fallen in the city. Royal orders were then forwarded through the provinces for the renewal of the massacre, and forty-five thousand more victims were sacrificed. 92. Queen Catherine and her son had anticipated as th6 15 V 338 MODERN HISTORY. result of this blow a reign of submission and the termina- Conductofthe tion of the civil wars. But they were deceived. Huguenots. yj^g Huguenots, Utterly desperate, flew to arms : the war broke out with greater fury than before, and it was terminated only after a year of bloodshed. 93. Less than two years after the fatal night of St. Bar- France under tholomew, Charles IX. died at the age of twen- Henry III. ty-four (1574). His brother, the third son of Catherine de Medicis, now came to the throne with the title of Henry III. During his reign of fifteen years France was in a frightful state of anarchy, confusion, and bloodshed, and in 1589 Henry III. died by the hand of an assassin. With him the House of Valois, which had ruled in France during more than two centuries and a half, became extinct. 94. The crown now came of right to Henry of Navarre, Henry of Na- and indeed Henry III. had before his death varre wins ........ , . _, the crown. rccognized his right to the succession. But this prince, who now took the title of Henry IV. {Henri Quatre), had to fight for his throne. He won two signal victories over his enemies, at Arques [ark'\ (1589) and at Ivry (1590), and three years later he removed all grounds of opposition by himself becoming a Catholic. 95. Henry IV., the first king of the House of Bourbon, Settlement of was crowncd King of France and Navarre, the religious ° . disputes. 1594- His first care was to terminate the re- ligious disputes which had so long distracted the kingdom. For this purpose he in 1508 promulgated the celebrated Edict of Nantes, which re-established all the favors that had ever been granted to the Protestants by other princes.* * The Edict of Nantes allowed the Protestants the exercise of their worship ; it left open to them admission to all employments ; established in every parliament a chamber composed of magistrates of each relig- ion ; tolerated the general assemblies of the Reformers ; authorized them to raise taxes among themselves for the benefit of their church ; provided ministers for them ; and granted them fortified places of safety, the principal of which was Rochelle'. AGE OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 339 The Edict of Nantes put an end to the disastrous wars which for thirty-six years had desolated the kingdom. 96. The administration of Henry IV. and of his saga- cious minister Sully was a blessing to France ; France under agriculture revived, commerce was restored, ^^^"'■y ^v. new branches of industry were opened, and vexatious im- posts abolished. The king became the most popular of sovereigns, and, despite some weaknesses of character, was unquestionably the most honorable and humane. 97. The career of Henry IV. was ended in the year 16 10 by the hand of an assassin. On the 14th of May, as he was riding through the streets of Paris in his carriage, a fanatic named Ravaillac \rd-vah-yak'^ mounted on the wheel, removed the leather curtain, and reaching over stabbed the king with two blows, of which the second was instantly fatal. Such was the end of Henri Quatre, surnamed by some the Great, and by others the Father of his People. 5. AGE OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 98. The reign of Queen Elizabeth is in every respect one of the greatest eras in English history. It character of was an age of wonderful activity both material *^^ ^se. and intellectual, an age of great fullness of national life ; and this appeared in bold maritime enterprises, in deeds that gave England a proud pre-eminence in the politics of Europe, and in the most original and powerful literary crea- tions ever witnessed. 99. Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. She came to the throne at the Genealogy of age of twenty-five, in the year 1558, that is, Elizabeth, eleven years after the death of her father. Connecting Note. — The interval between Henry VIII. and Eliza* Ijeth was filled by two brief reigns. I. Reign of Edward VI. lasted for six years {1547- 1553). Edward, 340 MODERN HISTORY. who was the son of Henry VIII. by his third wife, Jane Seymour, was but ten years old when his father died ; so the government was placed in the hands of one of the great nobles, Somerset, named the Protector; but Somerset was brought to the scaffold by another of the great lords, named Warwick. Warwick married his son to the Lady Jane Grey, a beautiful and accomplished princess of the blood royal ; and when the young king Edward died at sixteen (1553), Warwick caused Lady Jane Grey to assume the crown. However, she can hardly be said to have worn it, for in ten days a stronger party set Mary, daughter of Henry VHL by his first wife, Katharine of Aragon, on the throne. Mary caused Lady Jane Grey and her husband to be beheaded. 2. Reign of Mary lasted for five years (1553 -1558). Under Edward the Protestant party had held sway in England; but Mary, who was an ardent Catholic, caused all the laws in regard to Protestantism to be re- pealed, and many men were burned for their religion. The chief scene of these tragedies was Smithfield, in London. Jn order to strengthen herself against the Protestant interest, she married Philip IL of Spain, son of the Emperor Charles V. ; but the people, who detested the Span- ish alliance, took care that Philip should have no power in England, — and on the whole the result was to withdraw the English more and more from the Pope. With the death of Mary in 1558 came a new turn of affairs. 100. From the peculiar circumstances of her birth, Eliza- Viev^s as to beth's right of succession was denied by all the the succession. CathoHcs at homc and abroad. By the Cath- olic party in England the person looked upon as the legiti- mate sovereign was the then young, beautiful, and fasci- nating Mary Queen of Scots.* 101. Under these circumstances Elizabeth deemed that her best course lay in restoring and maintaining the Prot- * Mary of Scotland was the daughter of James V. of Scotland, and grand-niece of Henrj' VHL This princess, celebrated in history as Mary Queen of Scots, had been brought up in the Catholic faith at the court of France. In 1558 (the same year in which Elizabeth came to the throne) Mary was married to the Dauphin of France, who, the next year, by the death of his father, became king of France, under the title of Francis II. In the following year, however (1560), Francis II. died, and in 1561 Mary returned to Scotland to assume the personal government of that country. AGE OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 341 estant religion in her own country, and in seeking to support it in all others where the people were favorable Elizabeth's to it. Accordingly, soon after her accession v°^'^^y- two celebrated acts — the Supremacy Bill and the Act of Uniformity — were passed for the purpose of crushing the political influence of Catholicism. By the Supremacy Bill all clergymen and all holding offices under the crown were compelled to take an oath ascribing to Elizabeth all power both in the Church and State of England, and abjuring the temporal and spiritual jurisdiction of any foreign prince or prelate ; the Act of Uniformity prohibited any one from attending the ministry of any clergyman who was not of the established religion. These laws were enforced with great severity, and under them many Catholics suffered death. 102. It was at this time that the Puritans arose in Eng- land. Many Protestants who had fled to the Rise of Puri- Continent from the persecution under Mary, t''n»sm. returned on the accession of Elizabeth. For a time they reunited themselves with the Church of England ; but being pressed to acknowledge the authority of Elizabeth as Su- preme Head of the Church, they separated from that body in a few years. As they professed a desire to establish a purer form of worship, they received in derision the name of Puritans. As they refused also to be bound by the Acts of Supremacy and of Uniformity,* they were fined and imprisoned in great numbers during the rest of this reign. 103. Mary Queen of Scots had in 1561 returned to Scot- land. After seven stormy years there she was xhe Queen of compelled to flee across the border (her in- Scots. fant son being proclaimed King of Scotland under the title of James VI. f), and came to implore the pity of Elizabeth. * From this fact the Puritans are often called Nonconformists. t James VI. of Scotland became, on the death of Elizabeth, King of England, under the title of James I. See p. 350. 342 MODERN- HISTORY. The English queen imprisoned her in Bolton, Tutbury, and Fotheringay castles for eighteen years. 104. During this time Elizabeth was constantly harassed Plots and by plots formed by her Catholic subjects in be- their result. j^^j£ q£ ^^ Queen of Scots. An act was passed declaring that any person by or for whom any plot should be made against the Queen of England should be guilty of treason. When, soon after, a gentleman named Babington formed a conspiracy for assassinating Elizabeth and placing Mary on the throne, the latter became liable to the punish- ment for treason. She was subjected to a formal trial in her prison of Fotheringay Castle, and found guilty. 105. The warrant for her execution was delayed by the The death- rcluctance — real or pretended — of Elizabeth, warrant. _^f j^gj- ^j^g queen signed the warrant, and sent her secretary, Davidson, with it to the chancellor, that it might receive the great seal. Recalling this order next day, she found that she was too late : the seal was affixed, and the warrant was on the way to Fotheringay. There, in one of the castle halls, in the gray light of a February morning (1587), Mary Stuart, aged forty-five, was beheaded. 106. The Catholic powers of the Continent formed many schemes for annoying: or dethroning Elizabeth, The Armada. , , . ,. \^. , . ^ ^ . and these finally culminated in a great invasion by Spain. The Invincible Armada, the most formidable fleet ever seen up to that time, was fitted out against Eng- land. This armament consisted of 129 ships, 3000 can- non, and 20,000 men, while 34,000 additional land forces prepared to join from the Netherlands. 107. In July, 1588, the Armada entered the English Account of Channel. Thirty vessels prepared to meet the the action. Spanish fleet. The command was taken by Lord Howard of Effingham. The English fleet attacked the Armada in the Channel, and was found to have a con- siderable advantage in the lightness and manageableness of I AGE OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 343 the vessels. After seven days, only three of which passed without warm actions, though there was no decisive engage- ment, the Spanish fleet was so harassed and damaged that it was forced to take shelter in the roads of Calais. The English during the night sent in fire-ships, which destroyed several vessels, and threw the others into such confusion that the Spaniards no longer thought of victory, but of es- cape. At daybreak they were attacked by Howard, Drake, The Armada. and Lord Henry Seymour, and though the Spaniards fought gallantly, they were completely at disadvantage ; in sea- manship and gun practice they were inferior to their adver- saries, and their great floating castles were no match for the active little English vessels. Had not the queen's ill- timed parsimony kept her fleet insufficiently supplied with powder, the Armada would have been destroyed. As it was, the Spanish leader, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, attempted to return home by sailing round the north of Scotland ; but dreadful storms arose, scattering the fleet about in the seas of Scotland and Ireland ; and of the triumphant navy that sailed from Lisbon but a third part returned in a wretched state to tell of the calamity. I08. This success was regarded as a triumph, not so much of England as of the Protestant cause Effect of the throughout Europe ; it virtually established the victory, independence of the Dutch, raised the courage of the Hu- 344 MODERN HISTORY. guenots in France, ana completely destroyed the decisive influence that Spain had acquired in the affairs of Europe. 109. The years following the defeat of the Armada England as- wcrc years of splendor and triumph. The cendant. fl^g Qf England became supreme on the seas ; English commerce penetrated to the farthest corners of the Old World, and English colonies rooted themselves on the shores of the New ; while the national intellect, stimulated by the excitement of sixty 3'ears, took shape in a literature which is an eternal possession to mankind.* 110. At this time the chief articles exported from Eng- Commerce and ^^^id to the Continent were wool, cloth, lead, manufactures, ^j-^^j (.jj^_ Formerly these had been sent in vessels belonging to the Hanse Towns ; but now English ships were substituted for this trade. Birmingham and Sheffield were already thriving seats of the hardware man- ufacture, and Manchester was becoming distinguished for making cottons, rugs, and friezes. Stocking-weaving and the making of sail-cloth, serge, and baize, took their rise in this reign. The progress of other arts was much favored by the bloody persecutions in the Netherlands, which drove into England great numbers of weavers, dyers, cloth-dress- ers, etc. 111. Amongst the wealthier classes the wearing of Increase of handsomc apparel, and of gold ornaments and luxury. jewelry, made a great advance. Coaches were introduced, but for a time were thought fit for the use only of ladies. Great improvements were made in the building of houses. Theatrical amusements were begun and became very popular, though only in London. The smoking of to- Dacco was introduced by Sir Walter Raleigh, who became acquaintea with the plant in "Virginia." 112. During torty vears of her reign Elizabeth was guided by the advice of Lord BuHeigh, a wise and cool* * Froude, History of tnglaud AGE OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 345 - -■"" 1 ' — — tempered statesman. He rose to be Lord Treasurer, and by his policy greatly increased the revenue of Elizabeth's the kingdom. Sir Francis Walsingham, too, "Ministers, as Secretary of State, enjoyed much of Elizabeth's favor. 113. It is remarkable that while Elizabeth increased in power and resources, she became more noted 7. r . . , TT /• •, • "sr favorites. for femnime weaknesses. Her favorite in middle life was Robert, Earl of Leicester, a profligate and a trifier. In her latter days she listened to the ad- dresses of the Earl of Essex, a young man of greater courage and better principle, but also headstrong and weak. Essex, who had acquired popularity by several brilliant military enterprises, began at length to assume an in- solent superiority over the queen, who was on one occa-. sion so much provoked by his rudeness as to give him a hearty box on the ear. Notwithstanding all his presump- tion and caprices, the queen still dotingly forgave him, until he at length attempted to raise an insurrection against her in the streets of London, when he was seized and condemned to die. He might still have been par- doned, if a ring given to him by the queen in some moment of tenderness, to be sent to her when any danger hung over him, had reached her. It never came, and Essex was be- headed in the Tower, aged thirty-four. 114. Some two years later the queen was entreated to visit the Countess of Nottingham, who was story of dying. This lady confessed that Essex had Elizabeth, intrusted the ring to her to be carried to Elizabeth ; but that she, influenced by her husband, a bitter enemy of the earl, had not delivered it. Rage and grief seized the queen ; and it is said that she shook the dying countess in her bed. 115. Never happy since the death of Essex, she sank under this blow. Ten days and nights she , , 1 1 • ^ n 1 • • , Her death. lay on cushions on the floor, taking neither 346 MODERN HISTORY. Her character. food nor medicine; and then falling into a heavy sleep she died, March 24, 1603. She was in her seventieth year. 116. In Elizabeth's reign of forty-five years England advanced politically and commercially from the position of a second-rate to that of a first- rate power. It follows that she was a sovereign of very remarkable ability. Yet her character was a strange blend- ing of the base and the noble, the weak and the strong. She bribed and bullied and de- ceived, and to the cruelt}' of a Tudor she added personal van- ity and insatiable fondness for flattery and admiration. Still she had royal traits, and the heart of a king, and all she did was for her country. Through- out her long and agitated reign her constant object was the glory of her realm, the establishment of a united and irre- sistible bulwark against foreign oppression and domestic disunion. The proud pre-eminence which England held before all Europe while Elizabeth grasped the scepter is the noblest epitaph on the Virgin Queen. The Virgin Queen. GREAT NAMES OF THE 16TH CENTURY. 347 GREAT NAMES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. ARTISTS. Michel Angelo (1475- 1564), an Italian sculptor, painter, and archi- tect. He flourished under the patronage of Lorenzo de Medici. His works are characterized by exceeding massiveness and grandeur. He superintended St. Peter's, but did not live to complete the dome. Raphael {1483- 1520), an Italian painter of great distinction. Madonnas and sacred pieces chiefly employed his brush. His great work in Michel Angelo. Raphael. Rome was the decoration of the walls of the Vatican. After producing immortal works, he died at the age of thirty-seven. Titian (1477- 1576), a Venetian portrait and landscape painter. His chief works are at Venice and Madrid. By many he is considered the prince of colorists. Albert Durer (1471 - 1528), a German painter, engraver, and sculptor. He is entitled the Father of German painting, and has certainly the pre-eminence. His best paintings are Christian Martyrs in Persia, Adoration of the Holy Trinity, and other sacred subjects. Holbein (1498- 1543), next to DUrer the most distinguished of German artists. The greater part of his life was spent in England, under the patronage of Henry VIII. He was celebrated for his portraits. WRITERS. Spenser, Edmund (1553 -1599), one of England's greatest poets. His chief work is the Faerie Queen, an allegorical poem, written in stanzas of nine lines each, called the Spenserian stanza. It is not now much read, for the diction is archaic, and the poem lacks anything like strong human interest ; but the Faerie Queen exhibits exquisite sweet- ness of language, pure and tender feeling, and fine imagination. 348 MODERN HISTORY. William Shakespeare (1564- 1616), the greatest creative genius that ever lived. He was born at Stratford-on-Avon, where he lies buried. Removing, when a young man, to London, he became an actor, a manager of a theater, and a playwright. His fame rests on his dramas, of which he wrote thirty-seven. Among the greatest are Macbeth, King Lear, Hamlet^ Othello, Midsummer Night's Dream, The Tem- pest, The Merchant of Venice, Romeo and Ju- liet, and Julius CcBsar. Shakespeare has been called the " Myriad-minded." Some authors may be said to equal him in a particular pomt, Shakespearb. Ij^^ ^q jj^^^ gygj- possessed his wonderful power of searching out and exhibiting the workings of the human heart, Sidney, Sir Philip (1554- 1586), a courtier of Queen Elizabeth, who called him the "jewel of her dominions." Though he did not write for publication, being a man of the court and the camp, he had a fine poetic temperament, and he produced two works that had a powerful influence on the intellectual spirit of his age. These were The Ar' cadia, a heroic romance, now but little read, and the Defense of Poesie, one of the earliest pieces of English criticism. Raleigh, Sir Walter (1552- 1618), also a courtier, a soldier, and an adventurer, and necessarily a man rather of deeds than of the pen, is known for one celebrated work, — his History of the World. Although of course superseded in matters of fact by later works, it is regarded as a model of stj'le, and contains passages of lofty eloquence. He was also a poet of no mean ability, and a great friend of Spenser. Raleigh was a favorite of Queen Elizabeth ; but he incurred the displeasure of James I., and was beheaded on a groundless charge of treason. Cervantes (1547- 1616), a renowned Spanish writer. He led an ad- venturous life, even falling into the hands of pirates, and being sold into slavery. He wrote numerous plays and tales, but his immortal work is Dott Quixote, one of the finest pieces of hurnor ever penned. Rabelais (1483 - 1553), a famous French satirist. He was a priest, and MTOte a book called the Life of Gargantua and Pantagniel. It vividly illustrates the first half of the i6th century, but is immoral. Montaigne (1533- 1592), the most lovable of French skeptics. He was a judge and mayor of Bordeaux ; but after the Bartholomew mas- sacre he retired from the court to the solitude of his own chateau. Here he jotted down the observations on life and manners which were afterwards published as his Essays. His motto was Que sais-Jet (What do I know ?) The Essays were early translated into English, and have been largely read ever since. GREAT NAMES OF THE id TIT CENTURY. 349 Ariosto (1474- 1533), an Italian poet, whose great work was Orlando Furioso. The Emperor Charles V. created him laureate. Tasso (1544- 1595), an Italian poet, who celebrated the First Crusade in beautiful language in his Jenisalem Delivered. Camoens (1524- 1579), the only Portuguese poet of European reputa- tion. His great poem is the Lusiad, which celebrates the chief actors in and events of Portuguese history. PHILOSOPHERS AND SCIENTISTS. Copernicus (i473-i545)> a celebrated German astronomer. He was the first to question the ancient theory of the heavens (called the Ptolemaic theory), which taught that the earth was the centre round which all the heavenly bodies revolved. This doctrine had remained unques- tioned for fifteen hundred years, when Copernicus demonstrated its falsity. He feared, however, to shock general belief by publishing his proof, and his great work, De Orbium Celesthtm Revoliitionibits, was finally published by a cardinal, and dedicated to Pope Paul III., himself a mathematician, — a politic step to secure himself from attack. Galileo {1564- 1642), a celebrated Italian astronomer. He adopted the Copemican system, and making use of the then recent invention of spectacle-glasses, he contrived a telescope with two such glasses in a leaden tube. By the aid of this instrument he discovered the satel- lites of Jupiter, the ring of Saturn, and the moonlike phases of Venus. Twice he was carried before the Court of Inquisition to ren^u'sce the heresies, which he had put forth m his Systetn of the World. He pub- licly recanted, but on rising from the g;round is said to have erdclmed in an undertone : E pur si muove, — " It does move, for all that I " '"' Tycho-Brahe (1546- 1601), an astronomer of Copenhagen. Frederick II. of Denmark erected an observatory on the island of Huen, and there Tycho-Brahe was established for many years, making astronom» ical observations that were of great vame. * 1^ should be said that the letters of Galileo's daughter discredit this storg. 350 MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER III. GREAT EVENTS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY- ( England under the Stuarts. TOPICS... J The Thirty Years' War. i The Age of Louis XIV. I. ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 117. Elizabeth was the last of the Tudors. On her death, in 1603, James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots, succeeded to the throne, and took the title of James I. of England.* With James I. begins the Stuart period of English history, — an eventful period, comprising six reigns and covering the whole of the 17th century, f 118. The distinctive feature of this period is the arduous Stuarts and and continuous struffsfle on the part of the Tudors con- . , , . , trasted. people against the arbitrary and unconstitu- tional government of the Stuart sovereigns. The Tudors had been despots, but they ruled with vigor and tact. The Stuarts, at least James I., the two Charleses, and James II., had none of the rugged sense of Henry VIII. and his great daughter Elizabeth; — and, besides, times were changed, for * James VI. of Scotland was the nearest living lineal descendant of Henry VII. Strictly speaking, his claim to the crown was not perfect ; but Elizabeth on her death-bed declared as her will that her successor should be " her cousin of Scotland." t James I. (son of Mary Queen of Scots) 1603 Charles I. (soti) 1625 [The Commonwealth and Cromwell] 1649 Charles II. (son of Charles I.) 1660 James II. (brother) 1685 William III. (nephew), and Mary II. (daughter) 1689 Anne (daughter of James II.)... 170a ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 35 1 the English people had in the mean time been advancing greatly in intelligence, and consequently in the love of lib- erty. Blind to this significant fact, James I. no sooner came to the throne than he began to proclaim that the king, by Divine right to the crown, was above all laws. This is the famous Stuart doctrine of the " Divine Right of Kings," — on which doctrine James I. was almost crazed, and which he transmitted to his son, Charles I. 119. In carrying out this policy he was guilty of the most arbitrary and illegal measures, — imprisoning james and his members of Parliament, and raising money by Parliament, forced loans, Star-Chamber fines, and " benevolences." But Parliament gained some important advantages. They de- clared against monopolies and royal proclamations not au- thorized by Parliament ; they secured their right of impeach- ment and of deciding disputed elections ; and finally, when James told them they had no right to interfere in state affairs, they recorded the memorable protest that the " Liberties of Parliament are the undoubted birthright of the subjects of England ; that all matters of debate are fit subjects for dis- cussion there ; that every member has a right to freedom of speech ; and that no member can be la^vfully imprisoned or molested for his conduct in Parliament, except by order of the House itself." 120. The reign of James I. was not marked by what are usually called great events. This was owing characteristics to his timid character, which induced him to °*^ ^'^'^ reign, maintain peace, at whatever sacrifice, throughout the greater part of his reign. On the other hand, it may be said that under the rule of this king the nation took greatly to trade and maritime enterprise, and increased rapidly in wealth and inteliigence. 121. James I. was an oddity in human character. His appearance was awkward, chiefly from the character of weakness of his knees. He was weak, obstinate, Ja^^es !• 352 MODERN HISTORY. and conceited. He made a great show of his learning, which was considerable, and he wrote several books ; but he was exceedingly pedantic. The French statesman, Sully, called him " the wisest fool in Europe," and the phrase ex- actly paints his character. 122. The respect of the English people for royalty was Temper of "^^^ increased by the policy or character of Charles I. Jamcs I., and the folly of that king descended to his son, Charles I., who came to the throne at the age of twenty-five (1625). He had a higher notion than even his father of the " Divine Right of Kings to govern wrong." 123. At the time of the accession of Charles I. a foolish His dealings war With Spain was going on. The Parlia- with Parha- ^ fc> t> ment. ment having refused to grant the funds neces- sary for continuing it, the king raised money by illegal means. A general discontent spread over the nation. The Commons, seeing that, if the king could support the state by self -raised taxes, he would soon become independent of all control from his parliaments, resolved to take every measure in their power to check his proceedings. They also assailed him i'^;specting a right, which he assumed, of imprisoning his subjects upon his own warrant and detain- ing them as long as he pleased. Having made an inquiry into the ancient powers of the crown, before these powers had been vitiated by the tyrannical Tudors, they embodied the result in what was called a Petition of Right. With great difficulty Charles was prevailed on to give his sanction to this bill (1628) ; but soon afterAvards his dispute with Par- liament ran to such a height that he dissolved it in a fit of indignation, resolving nevermore to call it together. 124. For some years Charles governed the country en- Progress of tirely as an irresponsible despot, levying taxes despotism. |^y }^jg q^j^ orders, and imprisoning such per- sons as were obnoxious to him, in utter defiance of the Petition of Right. How long the English people would ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 353 have borne the tyranny it is impossible to say: events soon occurred that precipitated a struggle. The Scots, whom Charles had roused to revolt by trying to force on them the liturgy of the Church of England, crossed the border in arms, and then it became necessary to summon Parliament. 125. In 1640 the memorable assembly known in his- torv as the Lonz Parliament * came together. Action of the -' ° ° , Long Parlia- They resolved to curb the royal power and ment. remove the grievances under which the nation had groaned for the past eleven years. The king himself at last saw that the torrent was irresistible, and resolved, though too late, to give way to it. By the Trien7iial Bill it was enacted that there should be a Parliament at least every three years. Strafford and Laud, who were blamed as the authors of the king's obstructive policy, were brought to the block. The court of " Star-Chamber " was abolished. Finally a bill was passed declaring that Parliament should not be dissolved without their own consent. 126. By the month of November, 1641, all the abuses of which complaint had been made were re- The situation moved ; and as the king by his concessions '" '^^'^^■ had gained many friends, it seemed that all the troubles were now at an end. But it is the nature of a revolutionary movement that it gains as it goes on. The leaders of the Opposition, still distrustful of the king's sincerity, resolved that they would have a guaranty for the future. They ac- cordingly passed in Parliament a measure called the Remon- strance, setting forth all the faults of the king's government, and expressing the distrust with which his policy was still regarded. 127. That the Radicals were right in their judgment of the temper of the king was soon made mani- xhe explosion test by a despotic act committed by him. comes. * So called because it sat for more than thirteen years. w 354 MODERN HISTORY. Early in 1642 Charles, in order to overawe the refractory Commons, demanded the surrender of five of the most trou- blesome members on a charge of treason. They were not given up, and on the following day the king went to the House, accompanied by a considerable number of armed men, to seize them. They were, however, designedly ab- sent. This violation of the Constitution alarmed the Com- ^mons. There was great indignation against the king, for 'he had insulted the nation. He left the capital and went to York. 128. For some months messages passed between the Steps towards king and the Parliament ; but there was no civil war. dcsire to yield on either side. At last the Par- liament demanded that he should give up the command of the army. He refused, and Civil War became inevitable. 129. On the side of the king were the nobles, the clergy, Cavaliers and and a majority of the country gentlemen. We Roundheads, j^^y ^all these the Royalists ; but in that time they received the name of Cavaliers. On the side of Parlia- ment were the tradesmen and shopkeepers of the towns, the yeomanry, a considerable number of the country gentlemen, and a few of the nobility. The Opposition, or Parliamenta- rians, were called in derision Roundheads, from the Puritan fashion of wearing closely cropped hair.* 130. On the 25th of August, 1642, the royal standard General sketch was unfurlcd at Nottingham. In the followins of the Civil 1 1 . 1 War. month the opening battle was fought at Edge- hill ; and, though indecisive, it enabled the king to approach London and produce considerable alarm. He then retired to Oxford, and negotiations were entered into which proved unavailing. From Edgehill (1642) to Colchester (1648) we may count six years of strife, and the names of the princi- * Perhaps we may regard the Whigs and Tories who sprang up in England in the following century, as well as the Liberals and Conserva- tives of modern England, as in some respects the representatives of thf principles of the Roundheads and Cavaliirs respectively. ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 355 pal actions will be found in the note below.* During the first two campaigns the Royalists were generally success- ful ; but after that, and especially onward from Marston Moor, the Roundheads were victorious. 131. The first leader on the side of the Roundheads wa« the Earl of Essex : but a greater than he was First appear- , T-. , , .,, . - ance of Cromo soon to appear. At Edgehill a captam of well, horse named Oliver Cromwell had fought in the army of the Parliament. He was then about forty years of age (born 1599), and had up to that time lived a peaceful country life in Huntingdon. As a member of the Long Parlia- ment he was known chiefly as a man of homely manners, slovenly dress, and rough-and-ready speech. 132. Cromwell had been captain of a troop of horse at Edgehill : after that he became a colonel of cav- His advance- , ment and coil' airy. He put his regiment under the severest duct, discipline, and soon Cromwell's " Ironsides " became famous, * The following tabic exhibits the leading battles of the Civil War : — P. means Parliamentarian ; R- means Royalist. RESULT. Edgehill Reading (siege) . . . . Chalgrove Field . . . Athertoon Moor . . . Lansdowne Roundway Down . . Bristol (siege) 1st Newbury Nantwich Cropredy Bridge . . Marston Moor . . . . 2d Newbury Naseby Bridgewater (siege). Bristol (siege) Pembroke j Colchester , 1642 1643 1643 1643 1643 1643 1643 1643 1644 1644 1644 1644 164s 1645 1645 1648 1648 Indecisive. P. victory. R. " R. " R. « R. " R. " P. " P. « R. " P. " Indecisive. P. victory. P. " P. " P. " ; 5 6 MODERN HIS I'D R Y. Alter two or three years the army was remodeled ; and then, though Sir Thomas Fairfax was appointed commander-in- chief of the Parhamentary forces, yet the real captain was Cromwell, who received the rank of Lieutenant-General. Then was organized that army, — the most wonderful ever seen, and the very embodiment of Cromwell's own fervent Puritan soul, — composed of stern, religious men, who prayed when they did not fight, and who, marching to battle with the singing of psalms, scattered like chaff the licentious and roistering Royalists. Naseby (1645) "^^^s the decisive bat- tle of the war ; for there the king was so completely beaten that he and his party could no longer keep the field. 133. Meantime the Puritans had become divided into The two Puri- two parties : the one, called Presbyterian, and tan factions, consisting of the majority of Parliament, was desirous only of limiting the power of the king ; the other, called Itidependerit, and enibracing the leaders of the army, was bent upon the destruction of the throne. Cromwell became the leader of the Independents. 134. After the disaster of Naseby the king fled to the The king and Scots, who, however, gave him up to Parlia- Cromweii. ment ; but Cromwell caused Charles to be seized and confined as a prisoner at Hampton Court. Much negotiation now went on between the king and the two par- ties, and indeed at one time a satisfactory arrangement was made between Charles and the Parliament for the settle- ment of all difficulties. This alarmed the leaders of the army ; and under the direction of Cromwell measures were taken to clear the House of Commons of all members op- posed to their plans. For this purpose Colonel Pride, with an armed force, barred the door of the House of Commons, and thus prevented the entrance of more than a hundred members opposed to the army party (December, 1648). This high-handed act was called Prides Purf^e. The re- maining fifty or sixty members, all of whom were Indepeir dents, received the nickname of the " Rump." ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS, 357 135. This remnant proceeded to nominate a High Court of Justice for the trial of King Charles. The Trial of the court sat in Westminster Hall, and Charles ''^"s- was brought to the bar January 20, 1649. The king en- tered a dignified protest against the right of the court tc try him. This, however, availed him nothing ; lengthy evi« dence was given, and on the 27th he was condemned to execution as a " tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy." 136. The sentence was carried out January 30, in front of the banqueting-hall of Whitehall Palace. His execu- Soldiers surrounded the black scaffold, on *'°"- which stood two masked headsmen beside the block. Even at the last moment, with " the ruling passion strong in death," the king declared that the people had no right to any part in the government. He then calmly placed his head on the block and gave the signal. One blow, and all was over ; and the executioner, raising the dripping head of Charles Stuart, cried out, " This is the head of a traitor ! " 137. The execution of Charles, the first and only king of England that has died on the scaffold, was verdict on hi« utterly unconstitutional. The one right and execution, open course would have been to depose him, for he had violated his Coronation Oath. But this was not a time for calm measures, when the nation was in the throes of a revo- lution, and the king fell a victim to the spirit of the age, which he obstinately refused to understand. 138. The Parliament now governed England, and estab- lished a republic under the title of The Com- xhe common. MONWEALTH. It lasted for eleven years, which wealth, years maybe divided into two periods: i. From Charles's death to the appointment of Cromwell as Lord Protector j 2. The Protectorate of Cromwell. 139. During the first period the executive power was in- trusted to forty-one members, but even under Events of tho this arrangement Cromwell was the actual head. **"* penod. 358 MODERN HISTORY. ^ He acted with astonishing vigor. He led an army into Ire- land, and rapidly overran and conquered the whole country. The people of Scotland having proclaimed Charles H. king, Cromwell invaded and reduced that kingdom also. Charles entered England with a Scottish army; but the battle of Worcester (1651) put an end to his hopes. The Dutch becoming insolent, he chastised them, and forced their ships to strike their flag to the English. 140. At home Cromwell found himself surrounded by Cromwell dis- many difficulties. And the most troublesome Bolves Parha- , 11.1 i ,. ment. of these were caused by jealous and discon- tented Puritans in Parliament. So one day in April, 1653, he went to the Parliament House, and said, " Get you gone, and give way to honester men." He stamped on the floor ; musketeers stationed without poured in, the hall was speedily cleared, and Oliver, locking the door, carried off the key. In this forcible way was the Rump Parliament dissolved. 141. Under the direction of Cromwell a new Parliament, He becomes known as " Barcbonc's Parliament," * was Protector. called. But after sitting a short time they re- signed their power into the hands of Cromwell, bestowing upon him the title of Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. He was king in all but name, and indeed had more power than any king since Henry VHI. 142. In the government of England Cromwell ruled as a despot. To insure the maintenance of his His home rule. , . , , , , t -j j • ^ authority the whole country was divided into eleven districts, and each placed under the command of a major-general with almost unlimited power. Resistance was hopeless ; men were fined and imprisoned contrary to law, and some were sent as slaves to Barbadoes. 143. The Protector's foreign policy was as vigorous as « So called from a London currier named Barebone, who was a lead' feg member of it. If ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS 359 his home government. He made England honored and feared. He vanquished the Spaniards by land His foreign and sea, and took from tliem the island of P°i'cy- Jamaica. He dictated peace to Holland. He united the Protestant states of Europe, and forced the Pope himself to moderate the religious zeal of Catholic princes. 144. Cromwell's latter days were clouded with many cares and fears. Royalists, Presbyterians, and Last days and disappointed republicans plotted against him, <*eath. and he was in constant dread of assassination. Anxiety and fear at last wore out his strength, and an ague carried him off in the sixtieth year of his age (September 3, 1658), on the anniversary of his decisive victories of Dunbar and Worcester. 145. In his person Oliver Cromwell was of a coarse and heavy figure, about the middle size. His eyes character of were gray and keen, his long nose was of a Cromweii. deep red. It is a characteristic trait that when a painter, wishing to flatter him, represented the Protector with- out a wart which deformed his face, he angrily told the artist, " Paint me as I am!" Yet within this rugged frame there burned a great and heroic soul. He had military talent of the highest order ; but he was more than a mere soldier : he was an iron char- acter, a man of terrible, fiery earnestness, fitted by Divine Providence for the awful yet necessary part he had to play in the history of England. 146. Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded by his father's appointment to the protectorate ; but Events to the he was wholly unfit for the position, being a Restoration, gentle, modest soul. Realizing his own deficiencies, he re- *«%ned the office in five months. Then followed an inter- Cromwell. 360 MODERN HISTORY. val of great confusion, in the midst of which it was clearly seen that the English people were leaning towards their exiled sovereign, Charles II. He was accordingly invited back to his native land, and returning, he was proclaimed king in May, 1660. 147. The Restoration, as it is called, was hailed with Circumstances transports of joy, — the joy of a people who ration. loved order and hated anarchy. Yet a people may purchase order at too dear a price, and this fact soon received a striking illustration in England. The nation, without imposing any terms on the new sovereign, trust- ed implicitly to his good disposition. Charles II. soon showed his true character : though humane and amiable, he was indolent, prodigal, and licentious, unfitted either to support the national honor abroad, or to command respect at home. 148. During the greater part of his reign Charles II. The reign of made few inroads on the Constitution and Charles II. laws. It is true that he issued Declarations of Indulgence, removed incorruptible judges, sanctioned excessive fines and punishments, and published proclama- tions on his own authority. But these measures were so feeble and few compared with those of his father, and they were counterbalanced by so many excellent laws conducive to freedom, that they excited little opposition ; and the dis- like with which the king soon came to be regarded sprang, not from these illegal measures, but from his disgracefully licentious manner of life, and the mean acts to which he resorted to procure money. 149. Towards the close of his reign he governed with- His later o^t a Parliament, under the influence of his character. brother,* and was guilty of acts as t}Tannical and monstrous as any committed by his father. His con- duct during these last years shows him to have been as * The Duke of York, afterwards James II. ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 36 1 despotically inclined as any of the Stuarts ; and there seems little doubt that only his being steeped in vicious and idle pleasures during the greater part of his reign prevented his being the most arbitrary monarch of his line. 150. Under the austere Puritan rule of Cromwell sculp ture and painting had been almost banished Puntan aus- from the land, as savoring of idolatry. Then, Verity. too, all public amusements, especially theatrical perform- ances, were forbidden, and even the innocent sports around the May-pole and by the Christmas-fire were sternly put down. 151. The nation, released at the Restoration from such restriction, plunged wildly into the opposite Manners under extreme. The king's libertine example was ^^^^''^^ "• imitated, and morals became very corrupt. Members of Parliament sold their votes, as a matter of course. The plays written then, in which for the first time female per- formers took the female parts, are unfit to be read, so dis- gusting are the thoughts and the language. The power o\ even the Church was but feebly exerted to stem this torrent of wickedness. 152. On the other hand, it may be noticed that the Eng- lish during the reign of Charles II. advanced Progress of considerably in material prosperity. Naviga- England, tion and commerce were encouraged. Manufactures of brass, glass, silk, hats, and paper were established. The post-office, set up during the Commonwealth as a means of raising money, was advanced in this reign. Roads were greatly improved, and stage-coach traveling was commenced, though not carried to any great extent. During this reign tea, coffee, and chocolate were first introduced. In 1660 the Royal Society was established in London, for the cul- tivation of natural science, mathematics, and all useful knowledge. 153. In 1685 Charles II. died, and was succeeded by 16 362 MODERN HISTORY. his brother, the Duke of York, who received the title of Sketch of Tames II. His reign was brief and insrlo- JamesII.'s -'. *' - ., " reign. rious. James II. was a man of one idea, — that of making Catholicism the national faith. The Ro- man Catholics at this time were not the hundredth part of the nation, yet the king believed he could bring back the old religion, and to this end alone he directed the exercise of that prerogative to which he clung with Stuart-like tenacit}'. The efforts of James were for some time attend- ed with success ; but at last they disgusted both Whigs and Tories, and both parties united in inviting over William, Prince of Orange, to deliver the nation. William was the grandson of Charles I., and nephew and son-in-law of James II., being married to that king's daughter Mary, known in history as Mary II. 154. He accepted the invitation ; and collecting a large William of fleet and force, landed on the coast of Ene- Orange and _ . ^ James. land, 1 688. James did not perceive the storm that was gathering around his head, until William had landed. It was in vain that the king now turned himself to the army and the people, and promised the removal of every measure repugnant to the Constitution. When a part of the army went over to William, and the general voice declared itself against the king, James sent his wife and son to France, threw the Great Seal into the Thames, and then fled himself in despair from the land of his fathers. He lived from this time forth at St. Germain, a pensioner of Louis XIV. 155. After the flight of James the representatives of Throne de- the English people declared the throne vacant, Glared vacant. ^^^ agreed that the Catholic line of the House of Stuart should be excluded from the government, and that this should be placed in the hands of the royal pair, William III. and Mary II. Instructed, however, by the past, they secured the liberties of the nation against anjf future arbitrary acts by the Bill of Rights. ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 363 156. Such was what the English people call the " Glori- ous Revolution of 1688." And indeed it is Benefits of the not unworthy of the name ; for it presents a Revolution, striking example of the salutary power of public opinion directed by wisdom and aiming at just and worthy ends. By the Bill of Rights the British Constitution now became, in many important points, fixed and determined. This act secured by guaranties all the old English liberties which the Stuarts had violated. It was a triumph of the People over Kings. It destroyed at one blow and forever the false and pernicious doctrine that the royal prerogative is some- thing more sublime and holy than the fundamental laws of the realm. It laid the sure basis of the stability and the prosperity of England.* 157. The Revolution was accomplished ; but James did not yield without a struggle. Of this, Ireland Hostile efforts was the chief scene. Besieging Londonderry °^ James. in vain, he was signally defeated at the Boyne in 1690 ; and, utterly dispirited, he hastened to return to France. 158. The death of Mary in 1694 left her husband to rule alone. This he did by prudently conceding a good deal to the Parliament, provided that thev Career and , . , . , death of Wil- gave him money to carry on the war with Ham. Louis XIV. (Of this we shall have an account under the Age of Louis XIV.) The treaty of Ryswick brought the struggle to an end in 1697. A second war was in prepara- tion when William died (March 8, 1702), in consequence ot a fall from his horse. * Some of the most important articles in the Bill of Rights are the following: I. The king cannot suspend the laws or their execution. 2. He cannot levy money without the consent of Parliament. 3. The subjects have a right to petition the crown. 4, A standing army cannot be kept up in time of peace but with the consent of Parliament. 5. Elec- tions and parliamentary debates must be free, and parliaments must be frequently assembled. 364 MODERiY HISTORY. 159. William was a prince of commanding ability, par- ticularly in military affairs. His ruling senti- ment was a wish to reduce the power of the King of France, and this he was able in no small degree to effect. His person was thin and feeble, and his ordinary demeanor was cold, silent, and unattractive. It was only in battle that he ever became animated or easy. He was a conscientious man, of sober and even kindly domestic hab- its, and sincerely attached to toleration in religion. 3. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 160. The greatest event in the politics of Continental Character of Europe during the first half of the 17th century the war. ^^^ ^j^g famous Thirty Years' War., which be- gan about 16 18, and was terminated by the Treaty of West- phalia in 1648. This war had Germany for its center, and it was, properly speaking, a contest between the Catholic and Protestant princes of that country; but eventually most of the nations of Europe were drawn into it. 161. In order to understand the nature of this struggle, Events from we must glancc back to the affairs of Germany Charles V.'s time. ' at the period of the abdication of the Emperor Charles V., the point at which our last survey of the Empire closed. Germany was at that time distracted by the politi- cal factions and quarrels of its independent princes, and by the contending sects of the Catholics, Lutherans, and Cal- vinists. Ferdinand I., the brother and successor of Charles v., attempted to reconcile these factions and unite the three religions, but in vain. This state of affairs was not at all changed under the succeeding three emperors down to Mat- thias, who was emperor in the early part of the 17th century. 162. When Matthias, who had been King of Bohemia Beginnings of "^"^^ Hungar}', was elected emperor, he had the revolt. ]^g cousin Ferdinand mad€ King of Bohemia. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 365 Ferdinand was intolerant towards the Protestants of Bo- hemia, and they rose in revolt. While the war was yet in progress Matthias died, and Ferdinand II., to the great alarm of the Protestant party, was raised to the imperial throne, 16 19. But just about the time that Ferdinand II. was crowned emperor the Bohemians renounced their alle- giance, and chose as their king the Elector Palatine, Freder- ick, a Protestant prince. 163. Frederick was the son-in-law of the English king, James I., and the Protestants of Bohemia in Defeat of choosing Frederick trusted that he would be Frederick, upheld by British influence and power. But this hope was frustrated by the weakness and timidity of James. The re- sult was that in the next year (1620) Frederick was driven out of Bohemia by the imperial army, and he presently lost his own dominions as well. 164. The Emperor, blinded by his success, now deter- mined to crush Protestantism in Germany. Narrative of Wallenstein, a great general, but a most un- *^^ ^^'■• scrupulous plunderer, was at the head of the army, and ravaged the territory of the Protestant princes. It seemed indeed that the Emperor would swallow up all Germany. But at this crisis other powers began to step in. The first was Christian IV., King of Denmark, who became the chief of the Protestant League (1625). He was able to accom- plish nothing, however, and was presently forced to return to his own dominions. Then it was that a heroic figure from the North came upon the scene. This was the famous Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden. 165. Gustavus was a prince of the highest military and civil talents, and in every respect a noble char- Gustavus 1 T-> 111 Adolphus ap- acter. He was a zealous Protestant, and had pears. the full confidence of the Protestant princes of Germany, who were ready to rally the moment he obtained any signal advantage. On the 20th of May, 1630, taking 366 MODERN HISTORY. in his arms his daughter Christina, then only four years of age, he presented her to the Swedish Parliament as their future sovereign, and made his farewell address. " Not lightly, not wantonly," said he, " am I about to in- volve myself and you in this new and dangerous war. God is my witness that I do not fight to gratify my own ambi- tion ; but the Emperor has wronged me, — has supported my enemies, persecuted my friends, trampled my religion in the dust, and even stretched forth his revengeful arm against my crown. The oppressed states of Germany call loudly for aid, which, by God's help, we will give them." 166. Landing in Germany at the head of a small but His career of highly disciplined army composed of moral, victory. God-fearing men, Gustavus began his career of victory. At the same time aid came from other quarters. The great Cardinal Richelieu, then the real chief of France, made a treaty with Gustavus and helped him with money, — not that he loved Protestantism (for he was then bending all his energies to crush the Huguenots at home), but be- cause he hated the House of Austria. England, too, though she never formally joined in the cause, lent it her moral support, and thousands of Englishmen and Scotchmen went over to enlist under the banner of Gustavus Adolphus, the " Lion of the North." 167. The career of Gustavus in Germany continued for His victories ^wo ycars, down to the time of his death and death. (1630-1632). He defeated the imperial gen- erals Tilly and Wallenstein, and rapidly regained all that the Protestants had lost. His last and greatest battle was at Llitzen in Saxony (November i6, 1632), one of the mem- orable fields of history. Victory declared for the troops of Gustavus, but the heroic leader himself was killed in the fullness of his glory. 168. The Swedes were overwhelmed with sorrow, and began almost to despair of their cause 3 for the successor of THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 367 Gustavus was an infant only seven years old. Fortunately, the council of regency intrusted the manage- Affairs after ment of the German war to Ox'enstiern, a "^'^ death, statesman of the highest abilities. Under his guidance the Protestant cause soon began to assume a formidable aspect ; the organization of the armies was once more completed, and the chief command intrusted to the Duke of Saxe-Wei- tnar, a worthy successor of the great Gustavus. 169. An unexpected event soon after greatly raised the confidence of the Protestants. The Emperor Death of Wau Ferdinand had reason to suspect that Wallen- 'enstein. stein meditated a revolt, and was about to use the imperial army as a means of obtaining sovereign power. Though Wallenstein's guilt was established by undoubted proof, he was too powerful in the camp to be arrested. Under these circumstances the Emperor had recourse to the disgraceful expedient of assassination ; and Wallenstein was murdered (1634) by some of his own officers, who had an imperial warrant for the crime. 170. The war now assumed a new aspect, by the fact that France under Richelieu took a direct part New phase of in the contest. In fact, it became a war for *^^ ^^'■• the aggrandizement of France, — and all the more so as most of the Protestant states of Germany made peace with the Emperor in 1635. Under the guidance of Richelieu and Oxenstiern the struggle went on in most parts of Europe with varying success. 171. After the death of Richelieu, in 1642, his policy of hostility to Austria was continued by Cardinal situation after Mazarin, who succeeded to the power of Riche- R"=heheu. lieu. The Emperor Ferdinand had died five years before ; so that the latter part of the Thirty Years' War went on under a different emperor and different rulers, both of France and Sweden, from those under whom it had begun. 172. In this latter part of the war the French armies, 368 MODERN HISTORY. under their great leaders, Turenne and Condd, were French sue- crowncd with such success that the Emperor cesses. found it necessary to propose a treaty in order to prevent the dismemberment of Germany. After long and tedious negotiations the Treaty of Westphalia was signed at Munster, in 1648. 173- The Treaty of Westphalia is one of the most ira- Nature of the portant treaties in the history of Europe. It treaty. established the religious independence of the Protestant states, and formally acknowledged the indepen- dence of Switzerland and Holland. And, what was even more important, the two foreign kingdoms that had had the chief share in the war, France and Sweden, obtained posses- sions within the Empire,* and also as sureties of the peace they obtained a general right of meddling in the affairs of Germany. 174. To Germany the Thirty Years' War was most ruin- Effect of the ous. The Empire was thoroughly shattered, war on Ger- o y ' many. and became a mere lax confederation of petty despotisms and oligarchies, with hardly any national feel- ing. Whatever traces were left, either of authority in the Empire or freedom in the people, quite died out. Thus began that weakness and disintegration which marked Germany for the next two centuries, and from which the Teutonic Fatherland has only in our own day been lifted into unity by mighty throes. 3. THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 75. Before narrating the history of the age of Loui5 Review of XIV. we must glance at the events that con- events down , . -11 • r TT -r-rr 1 to Richelieu, ncct this age With the reign of Henry IV., the * France obtained Alsace, Brisach, Metz, Verdun, and other territo- ries ; Sweden got Upper Pomerania, Stettin, the isle of Riigen, Bremen, etc., with three votes at the Diet. THE AGE OF LGUIS XIV. 369 period at which we stopped in our last survey of French history. Henry IV. died by the dagger of Ravaillac in 16 10. His son, Louis XHL, being then but nine, the queen- mother, Mary de Medici, ruled as regent. It was a time of miserable court cabals, and France, which under Henry IV*/ itiad risen to high prosperity and splendor, sank into weak- ness, faction, and disorder. Louis XIII., becoming of age, assumed the government ; but he was a feeble character. By the advice of his favorites he banished his mother : she took up her residence at Blois, rallied the dissatisfied nobles around her, and for two years the kingdom was kept in a state of anarchy. In the midst of these events a man came to the front who was to be the real king of France, and to mark an epoch in the history of Europe. This man was the Cardinal de Richelieu. 176. A few years before this time a quiet-looking young ecclesiastic named Armand Duplessis de Riche- Advancement lieu had spoken with eloquence at a meeting °^ Richeheu. of the States-General, and had been appointed Bishop of Lu^on. Then he became spiritual adviser to Mary de Medici ; and, as it was through his tact that the quarrel be- tween herself and her son was made up, the queen-mother succeeded in getting for him a cardinal's hat from the Pope, and in having Louis XIII. agree to admit him to the cabinet. He was only to give his opinion : he was to affect no state, to hold no levees, and to behave in all respects as a simple, humble-minded ecclesiastic. But no sooner had he taken his seat at the council-board than it was evident that the true man was found. For twent}' years (1622- 1642), up to the time of his death, he exercised an entire control over the king, making him, as was said, " the first man in Europe, but the second in his own kingdom." 177. Richelieu has been compared with Wolsey of Eng- land, and there are certainly points of compari- comparison son. Like him he was a prelate, a minister, a ^'^^ Woisey, i6» X 370 MODERN HISTORY. consummate politician, and a master of the arts of intrigue. He gave his whole attention and all his vast abilities to affairs of state, was prodigal of display, and entertained projects of the most towering ambition. He added to his ministerial and priestly dignities the emoluments and hon- ors of the profession of arms, assumed the title and dress of generalissimo of the French army, and wore alternately the helmet of the warrior and the scarlet hat of the cardi- nal. Richelieu, however, was far more crafty than the min- ister of Henry VIH., and more unscrupulous, while at the same time he pursued a more profound and comprehensive policy. 178. The chief domestic object of Richelieu was the Domestic poi- crushinGf of the Hu2:uenots. Alienated by per- icy of Riche- . , , , , , rr 1 lieu. secution, they had attempted to throw on their allegiance, and establish an independent state of which Ro- chelle was to be capital. Richelieu laid siege to this city, which, after maintaining a most obstinate resistance for a year, during which 15,000 persons perished, was forced to surrender (162S.) By this event the civil war was ended, and the Protestant power in France finally crushed. 179. The principal aim of Richelieu's foreign policy was His foreign the humiliation of Austria. This he accom- poiicy. plished by giving his aid to Gustavus Adol- phus in the Thirty Years' War ; and after the death of that hero France took the field directly as one of the com- batants of the struggle. 180. The power of the nobles was always hostile to Dealings with Richelieu ; but his stern resolve and deep craft the nobles. thwarted all their schemes against him. When he got them in his grasp he did not spare, as Montmorency, Cinq-Mars, and De Thou — all of whom were executed for plots against him — bitterly experienced. 181. In 1642 the great Cardinal died. He had extended the glory of the French name to distant regions, com- THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 371 Richelieu. manded the respect of all the European powers, patronized literature Death of the and SCi- cardinal. ence, and founded the French Academy. Five months later died the nobody who wore the crown. 182. Louis XIII. left a son who was at this time only five years old, but who, under the Reign of title of Louis XIV. Louis XIV., inherited the throne of France. The reign of this king forms the main topic of this chapter. It had the extraor- dinary duration of seventy-two years, lasting from 1643 to 17 1 5. It is usually regarded as one of the great periods of French history, for during this space France rose to be the most formidable power in Europe. 183. The long reign of Louis XIV. naturally divides it- self into three eras: i. The government of Mazarin ; 2. The development of the ambitious policy of the king ; 3. Its retribution. 184. During the minority of Louis XIV. the regency was in the hands of his mother, Anne of Austria. She took as her counselor an Italian, Cardinal Mazarin, who became the guide and master of the weak and self-willed queen. 185. At this time the war against Spain and the Emperor of Germany, begun by Richelieu and forming Part in the part of the Thirty Years' War, still continued. War. The result was glorious for the arms of France. Conde, an Three epochs. The regency. 372 MODERN HISTORY. illustrious general, won a series of brilliant victories over Spain and the Emperor. These victories were followed by the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which concluded the Thirty Years' War. The pacification, however, did not extend to Spain, which continued hostilities for ten years longer. 186. Though triumphant abroad, France was meanwhile Rise of the ^^^ ^ State of civil commotion. Mazarin, the Fronde. prime minister, was the object of numerous cabals, while at the same time the exhausted condition of the finances brought the crown into collision with the peo- ple. A reform party called the Fronde waged a civil war against the court part}', from 1648 to 1653. This move- ment had in it promise of great good, but it came to naught, and was marked by extreme frivolity. 187. On the death of Mazarin, Louis XIV., at the age LouisXiv.be- of twenty-three, assumed the direction of the comes king. government himself. The President of the Assembly of the Clergy desired to know to whom he should now address himself on business : " To myself," said Louis ; and he was sole master of France until his death. 188. Louis XFV. had the discernment to choose great men as his ministers. Colbert and Louvois His ministers. -i , -i . i rr- i i i- filled the highest offices, and put the finances, commerce, and the army and navy on an excellent footing. 189. The king washed to enlarge his empire, and to War with render his name illustrious by military renown. Spain. fjg |-qq]. advantage, therefore, of the death of ■ the Spanish king, Philip IV., to make pretensions to his inheritance as the husband of Maria Theresa, Philip's daughter, and to march an army into the Spanish Nether- lands, 1667. By the triple alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden he was compelled, by the Peace of Aix-Ia- Chapelle (1668), to surrender, after a short campaign, the greater part of his conquests ; but many of the frontier towns of Flanders remained with France, and were converted by the great engineer, Vauban, into iiiiprcgnable fortresses. THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 373 190. As Holland had been the chief instrument in checking the victorious course of the haughty war begins king, so she did not fail to experience his ven- '^'^^ Holland, geance. Louis won Sweden to his side, and purchased the favor of the English king (Charles II.) by bribes. Thus prepared and protected on every side, Louis, in 1672, began a second war, which at first was directed against Holland alone, but in which almost all the European states were involved during the seven years of its continuance. 191. The Hollanders saw the approaching storm, and turned their eyes to a young man, the de- xhe Dutch scendant of the great Nassaus, to whom they champion, owed their deliverance from the Spanish yoke, and in- vited him to take the military government into his own hands. This was William, Prince of Orange, whom we have already seen as coming at a later period to the throne of England. 192. Passing the Rhine, the French army pursued a rapid course of victories into the territories of French sue- the United Netherlands. In forty days Hoi- messes. land was overthrown, and the French were already within four leagues of Amsterdam. De Witt, the Grand Pension- ary, or chief magistrate, of the Netherlands, in despair demanded terms of peace. The Embassy was insultingly dismissed by the French king, and the people of the Hague rushed desperately to the house of De Witt and tore him and his brother Cornelius to pieces. 193. It seemed that the ruin of Holland was now com- plete ; but the calm and resolute William of Deeds of wii- Orange ventured on a desperate yet success- ''^'" °^ Orange, ful measure. Better, thought he, that the sea should ingulf his country than that his country should lose its liberties. He opened the sluices throughout the land. The German Ocean and the Rhine poured over all the plain, and the invading army was limited to the high grounds on whicb 374 MODERN HISTORY. their citadels were placed. William then sent forth the Dutch fleet to meet his enemies on the sea, and the great Admiral de Ruyter met the united French and English fleets in three combats, which, though indecisive, were on the whole to the advantage of the Dutch. 194. And now from many quarters unlooked-for aid Aid to the Came to the Netherlanders. Shame took pos- Dutch. session of the English Parliament at the al- liance with France against a Protestant prince, and they forced the mercenary Charles II. to sign, with his nephew William of Orange, a treat}^ of peace, 1674. It needed but an example, and every generous heart warmed to the defender of his country. The King of Spain, the German Emperor Leopold, and the Elector of Brandenburg (now Prussia) took arms against the oppressor. 195. A grand combat of the nations, in which Louis The giant XIV. stood opposed to half of Europe, now en- struggie. sued. For four years (1674- 1678) the tramp of a dozen armies shook the Rhine provinces, and Flanders and Alsace and Franche Comte. Great generals, Turenne and Condd and Montecuculi and William of Orange, put forth the mighty efforts of their genius. Success was now with the one side and now with the other, but it was not decisive with either. At length longings for peace seized on the heart of Europe. Louis himself was wearied with the struggle, which had drained the resources of his realm. Negotiations were entered into, and the war was brought to a close by the Peace of Nim'eguen, 1678. 196. The treaty was especially favorable to the interests Results of the o^ France, as it secured to Louis the provinces treaty. ^f Franche Comtd, Alsace, and many of the strong fortresses and industrious towns of Flanders. Hol- land by the treaty recovered everything, so that Spain was the chief loser by the Peace of Nimeguen. 197. Louis XIV. was now at the height of his power, THE AGE OP LOUIS XIV. 375 and the municipal authorities conferred on him the title of Great. Yet in reality the grandeur of the point of cui- French monarchy had culminated, for the '"'"^tion. glory of the king had been bought at too great a cost The constant wars and the despotic home government ot Louis had weakened and impoverished his kingdom. 198. Avery impolitic measure was the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, granted by Henry IV. for the Edict of Nantes toleration of the French Protestants.* While revoked, their worship was suppressed, their churches demolished, and their ministers banished, the Protestant laity were for- bidden, under the most rigorous penalties, to quit the king- dom (1685). The government entered also on a most cruel persecution, employing dragounades, as they were called ; that is, raids by parties of dragoons, who were allowed full license to insult and worry the heretics till their conversion was obtained. The result was, that, in spite of the pen- alties, crowds of Huguenots continued to escape from France, which thus lost 500,000 of her most industrious and useful subjects. 199. The Revolution of 1688 brought the Dutch Stadt- holder, William of Orange, to the throne of Grand Aiii- England. He had been the persistent enemy ^"" formed, of Louis, and being now at the head of a great nation, he had a very formidable backing. King William became the soul of a general league, called the Grand Alliance, which was now made against the aggressions of Louis. 200. The war went on almost everywhere at once, and many battles were fought and towns taken on ^, The result. both sides, especially in the Netherlands. It was at last ended by the Peace of Ryswick (1697), which retrenched some of the unjust conquests of Louis XIV. on the Rhine and in the Netherlands, and recognized William III. as the lawful sovereign of England. * See p. 33«. 376 MODERN HISTORY. 201. Another great war in which Louis was the moving War of Span- Spirit broke out in the year 1701. This is ish succession. j.jj]lg^ tj^g War of the Spanish Succession. The manner in which it originated was as follows. The King of Spain, Charles II., died in the year 1700, leaving no children, but leaving a will by which he bequeathed the succession of his house to a grandson of Louis XIV., named Philip of Anjou. This at once alarmed the nations of Europe as a menace to the Balance of Power, for Philip of Anjou was a mere boy. The astute and ambitious Louis XIV. would himself be the real ruler, and the close union of two such kingdoms as France and Spain was greatly to be feared. 202. Accordingly the German Emperor and William IIL Narrative of of England United with Holland and Prussia events. ^^ prevent Philip's wearing the crown of Spain. They supported the claims of the Archduke Charles, second son of the German Emperor, as King of Spain. William IIL, who was the head of the coalition, died in the midst of his hopes and preparations ; but two men rose in his place, — one the greatest general except one in the annals of Eng- land, John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough ; the other. Prince Eugene of Savoy, who headed the armies of the Emperor. 203. This War of the Spanish Succession lasted for thir- Resuitofthe teen years (1701-1714), and resulted in the ^^'■- humiliation of Louis XIV. The French king was defeated in all his plans. Marlborough sent his mar- shals in headlong flight from Blen'heim, Ramillies', Oude'- narde, and Malplaquet. Gibraltar was wrested forever from Spain and attached to England. The French fleets were burned at Vigo, and Toulon was besieged by sea and land. Prince Eugene in the mean time crushed the French power in Italy and approached the boundaries of France. Domes- tic sorrow, too, came to Louis. His only son died, then THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 377 two of his grandsons ; and nobody remained in the direct line of succession to the old man of seventy-four but a great-grandson, then a child in arms. 204. Nevertheless, Louis succeeded so far that he estab- lished Philip of Anion on the throne of Spain : Sudden suc- , , . , . , , , ^ cess of Louis and the way in which, after so many defeats, xiv. this came about is rather curious. The allies were contend- ing with France to set the Archduke Charles of Austria on the throne of Spain, in order to prevent too close a union between Spain and France. Now, in the thirteenth year of the war the Emperor of Germany died, and the Archduke Charles became Emperor. If //., \\ e^ e made King of Spain while at the same time German Emperor, would not the Balance of Power, about which the allies were so anxious, be still more daringly menaced } Accordingly Louis XIV. was surprised to find his nomination of Philip to the Span- ish crown suddenly ratified by England and Holland. The chief point was conceded, and Philip V. became the first of the Bourbon line in Spain. The treaties of Utrecht (1713) and of Rastadt (17 14) terminated the war. The next year Louis XIV. died. 205. During the last thirty years of the reign of Louis XIV. France stood at the culminating point of Position of her power abroad and of her prosperity at France, home, so that the flattering chronicles of those days de- scribed the period of Louis Qjiatorze as the golden age of France. Trade and industry received a prodigious develop- ment by the care of Colbert ; the woolen and silk manufac- tures, the stocking and cloth weaving, which flourished in the southern towns, brought prosperity ; the maritime force increased ; colonies were planted ; and the productions of France were carried by trading-companies to all parts of the world. 206. In this age also the court of France displayed a magnificence that had never before been witnessed. Sump- 378 MODERN HISTORY. tuous buildings, costly libraries, splendid literary produc- Thc court and tions, vast establishments for the natural sci- manners. enccs, academies and similar institutions, ex- alted the glory and renown of the Great Monarch. The refined air of society, the polished tone, the easy manners of the nobility and courtiers, subdued Europe more per- manently and extensively than the weapons of the army. French manners and fashions bore sway from this time in all the higher circles of society, and the French language and French style attained supremacy in Europe. 207. Nevertheless, it was not a period which any one True character who lovcs the greatest of all things, political of the age. liberty and the true virtue of nations, can re- gard with unmixed satisfaction. We must, in summing up the Age of Louis XIV., carefully guard against the false political philosophy that would teach us to judge an epoch by its mere external glitter. For beneath the polish and veneer was utter rottenness. The government, though tem- pered by courteous manners and superficial polish, was an Oriental despotism, and Louis XIV. himself summed up all the political characteristics of the reign in one signifi- cant sentence, " I am the State " {L'Efat c^est mot). The means to carry on the great and often unjust wars whose victories are cited as the ground of our admiration, were raised by a severe and unequal taxation that pressed heavily on the cultivators of the soil. Under a flimsy veil of pro- priety and politesse, the morals of society were exceedingly corrupt. The literature of the age was brilliant, but it was at the same time servile. Louis put the muses into his liv- ery, as he had already done with the nobility, and artists and authors took his wages to cover him with official adulation. 208. The great characteristic of the age, in fact, is its Its artificial- artificialit}', which pervaded everything, — lit- '*y- erature, conversation, manners, life. The king himself wore red heels to his shoes, four inches high, which PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION: 2>79 addition was supposed to make his stature something very imposing. And so when he danced in public, and stalked across the scene, rolling his eyes and turning out his toes, it was thought the sublimest spectacle on earth ; and all the gentlemen of France then walked with a strut, and stuck out their elbows, and tied themselves in at the waist. The whole reign was a spectacle, a theatrical display with grand machinery, and calculated to excite astonishment ; — and the justest praise that can be given to the Grand Monarque is in the sentence of Bolingbroke, who pronounced Louis XIV. " the best actor of majesty that ever filled a throne." ^ 4. PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 209. The 17th century is one of the most active and progressive periods in the intellectual history character of of Europe. A great revival had begun in the ^^^ century, previous century, and in this century it was carried forward in great scientific discoveries, in striking improvements in philosophy, in powerful literatures, and in a general advance in the condition of the people. 210. In philosophy the most notable change was the substitution of the modern method of inductive Bacon and hi« inquiry for the barren and fruitless method of philosophy, reasoning which had come down from Aristotle to the schoolmen, and which consisted in assuming causes instead * of interrogating Nature herself. The name of Bacon is asso- ciated with the new philosophy, which, indeed, is often called the Baconian method. But Bacon was not so much the author of the change as an evidence that the change had taken place. 211. The man to whom the new philosophy was per- haps more indebted than to any other was _ the French philosopher Descartes ^dd-carf\ He found uncertainty and doubt everjrwhere, and gave 380 MODERN HISTORY. himself to the study of certainties by universal doubt ; not nursing doubt as a skeptic, but striving to arrive at truth by dismissing all prejudices. He then starts from this fact, — / think ; or, as he expresses it, Cogito, ergo sum* Then, / exist, not of my own wi/l, but from sofne source out of myself Then, I cannot come from any source less perfect than my own ideas of perfection, etc. 212. A still bolder course was pursued contemporane- ously by a Jew of Holland, Spino'za, who by pinoza. ^ method akin to geometrical demonstration proved that there must be only one " Infinite Substance," of which all the various forms of existence are but emana- tions. Ignorant and uncharitable persons have been accus- tomed to call him an atheist, and speak evil of him ; but he was one of the most virtuous and self-denying of men. While speculative philosophy has any interest for the race, his works will be a wonder which thinkers will consider carefully as one of the grandest and, in many respects, most appalling creations of human genius. 213. In astronomy Galileo led the way, in the early part Kepler and of the 17th century, by the discovery of the Newton. satellites of the larger planets and their mo- tions. Then a greater genius followed : Kepler earned for himself the title of the " legislator of the heavens," by investigating with enormous labor three of the great laws that regulate the motions of the planets. Newton came after Kepler, and completed his work. He demonstrated the theory of universal gravitation, a principle which solves the chief phenomena of nature and connects and regu- lates the whole material universe. His theory of light and colors is the foundation of the science of optics, and his Principia the basis of all natural philosophy, or physics. 214. Newton was also the discoverer of that most power- • " I think, therefore I am." PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 38 1 ful instrument of mathematics, the Calculus, Newton and which he called Jluxions, — though it is a curi- Leibnitz, ous fact that Leib'nitz, a German philosopher of universal genius, discovered this method independently about the same time. 215. The discoveries in astronomy led to improvements in navigation. Napier abridged calculation by other great the invention of logarithms. The Florentine "a^n^s. physicist, Torricel'li, laid the foundation of hydraulics, and invented the mercurial barometer. Otte Guericke [^er'ik-ka \ invented the air-pump. In 1628 Harvey published his dis- covery of the circulation of the blood, having spent nearly twenty years in collecting facts to establish his theory. 216. The English Royal Society, which originated from private meetings of the English philosophers, scientific so- was incorporated by Charles II. in 1662, and «='^t'^s- greatly contributed to the advancement of the sciences and the useful arts. The French Academy of Sciences was insti- tuted in 1666 by Louis XIV., and similar institutions were founded in most of the countries of Europe. These socie- ties did much for physics and chemistry. Brandt, an al- chemist, discovered phosphorus in 1677. 217. The progress of literature in the 17th century was equally remarkable with that of science and philosophy. And here the French showed the greatest advance. The French drama was the creation of the AgQ of Louis XIV. Corneille' and Racine' brought French tragedy to its highest elevation. Corneille has more grandeur and sublimity than his rival, who excels him in the tender and pathetic. The comedies of Moliere [mol- le-er'~\ are among the finest productions of wit ever com.posed. 218. The French pulpit oratory of this century can boast several unrivaled names. Bossuet [bos-su-a'^ , . ..... -^ Other writers. was a universal genms and spint-stirnng ora- tor ; Mas'sillon and Bourdaloue' were reckoned the greatest 382 MODERN HISTORY. of French preachers ; Fe'n'elon, the author of Telemague, was an admired pastor. Pascal was a mathematician when a child, and was famous in many sciences before he had attained manhood. His Provincial Letters, directed against the Jesuits, are reckoned masterpieces of witty argument, and he is characterized by Bayle as " one of the sublimest spirits of the world." The other French writers of emi- nence are Rochefoucauld \ros/i-foo-kd''\, the author of the well-known keen and witty Maxims; Boileau \bwah-lb'\ the critic and writer of satirical poems ; and La Fontaine', the modern ^sop, and author of the most delightful fables ever written. 219. English literature continued to flourish in all its English litera- splendor during the tirst half of the 17th *"''^- centur}'. Shakespeare died in 1616; but he was followed by Ben Jonson and Fletcher and Mas'singer. The period of civil war was not favorable to literary prog- ress, but still there w^ere many w-riters of undying fame even in those days of strife. In verse Milton produced his great epics ; Jeremy Taylor shone in prose ; and Bunyan, the " Dreamer of Bedford," gave to the world his famous allegories. The period following the Restoration produced many dramatic writers, of w-hom John Dr\-den was the prince. The stage literature of the epoch w^as, how- ever, marked by great licentiousness. Butler, the author of Hitdibras, shines as a humorous and satirical writer. 220. In art, though the 17th century showed rather a Art and the falling off from the epic grandeur of the pre- Flemish . * , • -A school. vious centurv^ yet there are not wantmg illus- trious names. At this period it is, strange to say, the Neth- erlanders that lead in art. Rubens, born in the previous century, was the greatest painter of the Flemish school, and specially famed for his coloring and bold execution. Ru- bens's famous pupil, Vandyck, was a native of Antwerp, but was naturalized in England, where he lived the larger PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 2>^l part of his life, painting those portraits that hand down to us the faces of most of the beauties of Charles I.'s court. The third great name of the Flemish school is Rem'brandt, who excelled particularly in color and the effects of light and shade. 221. Of the Spanish painters Muril'lo was the most celebrated during this period. The land of Michel Angelo and Raphael could during this century produce no greater name than that of Salvator Rosa, a second-class artist. England had but little native art, though we may mention the name of Sir Christopher Wren, the architect of St. Paul's Cathedral. 222. The social condition of the European nations dur- ing the 17th century is a subject so large and Europe in the diversified, that we shall confine our attention '^th century, to that people in which we are most directly interested, namely, the English people.* 223. The country " gentlemen," now a polished and im- portant class, were then rough and poorly edu- Engjigj, „^^. caled. Seldom leaving their native country, *''y ^""^ cfergy. even for London, they spent their days in field sports or in attending the neighboring markets, and their evenings m drinking strong beer. The ladies of the family, whose accomplishments seldom rose above the baking of pastry or the brewing of gooseberry-wine, cooked the meals of the household. In the evening they amused themselves by sewing and spinning. The country clergy stood low in the scale. In most mansions there was a chaplain, or, as he was often called, a Levite, who, receiving his board and $ 50 a year, was no better than an upper servant. When he married, his wife was usually selected from the kitchen of his patron. * The details here given are derived chiefly from the well-known third chapter of Macaulay' s Histmy of England, which should be read in full for a vivid picture of English life in the 17th century. 384 MODERN HISTORY. 221^. The yeomen, or small farmers, were numerous and influential. It is estimated that under the Stuarts one seventh of the whole population of England cultivated lands of their own. Men of this class were characterized by a spirit of independence and a leaning towards Puritanism, and they formed the strength of the Roundhead armies. Since then very many of the small freeholds have been bought up by large proprietors, and the English yeomanry of the present day are, in con- sequence, much less independent in political matters than the same class of men in the 17th century. 225. Of the laboring classes we know little. Four fifths Laboring o^ them were employed in agriculture, at wages classes. averaging from four to six shillings (English) per week. A mechanic, as late as the reign of Charles II., worked for a shilling a day, but oftentimes he was com- pelled to take less. The chief food of the poor was rye, barley, or oats. Rude ballads were their only means of complaint, and in these they poured forth their woes. The " poor-rate " was the heaviest tax, for the paupers amounted to no less than one fifth of the community. 226. In the English people there seems to have been a Brutality of remarkable vein of coarseness and brutality ; the people. j^qj. jg j.]^jg wouderful whcu the practice of every-day life is considered. Masters beat their servants ; husbands beat their wives daily. Teachers used the lash as the principal means of imparting knowledge. The mob rejoiced in fights of all kinds, and shouted with glee when an eye was torn out, or a finger chopped ofT, in these savage encounters. Executions were favorite public amusements. The prisons were constantly full, and proved to be fruitful nurseries of crime. 227. To describe the various costumes and manners of Costumes of the pcHod would be impossible within brief Cavalier and . , i i i j. Roundhead. compass, — SO a f ew pomts on each head must PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 385 suffice. The Cavalier and the Roundhead present a strik- ing contrast in their dress and habits. The Cavalier cos- tume consisted of a tunic of silk or satin with slashed sleeves ; a rich lace collar adorned the neck, and a short cloak hung gracefully over one shoulder. Short full drawers, or trousers, almost reached the top of the wide boots, which came half-way up the calf of the leg. A broad-brimmed beaver, adorned with a rich band and a plume of feathers, covered the head. The hair hung in curls over the shoul- ders, and the beard was trimmed to a point, while the love- locks were tied up with a pretty colored ribbon. The Puri- tan Roundhead wore a cloak of sad-colored brown or black, a plain collar of linen laid carelessly down on the plaited cloth, and a hat with a high, steeple-shaped crown over his closely clipped or lank straight hair. 228. With regard to the ladies' dresses, the farthingale and stiff ruffs of the Elizabethan period gave 1 r^^ ^ t n • i • i Ladies* dress. way, under Charles I., to nowmg skirts, and falling collars edged with lace. The costumes of the court of Charles II. were something of the same style, but the dress was worn indecently low. An improvement in the lat- ter respect was made after the Revolution of 1688. Then, too, began the fashion of looping up the skirts to show the rich underclothing, and the custom of wearing the hair combed up like a tower. Both these fashions disappeared at the close of the period, when curls and the old farthingale, under the name of the hoop-petticoat, came again into use. 229. The means of communication between one place and another were very deficient. The roads Means of com- were in a most wretched state, and canals '"""''nation, were scarcely yet thought of. In wet weather it was almost impossible to get along the highways in any kind of car- riage. The rich traveled in their own coaches, but six horses at least were required to overcome the badness of the roads. The post-bags were carried on horseback at the 17 H 386 MODERN HISTORY. rate of five miles an hour ; but in many country places letters were delivered only once a week. The erection of toll-gates in 1663 was the first step towards improving the means of transit. Bad roads and conveyances were not the only drawbacks to traveling in this period. Mounted highwaymen infested all the most frequented ways, and it was not safe even for a public coach in broad day to pass certain places unless the passengers were well armed. 230. The state of culture and education was very low. Culture and There was nothing equal to our modern news- education, paper, and there were few printing-presses in the country except in London and at the Universities. Books were therefore scarce and dear. Female education was at a very low point, and the most accomplished ladies spelled their letters very badly. 231. Those great branches of manufacturing industry which now form the wealth of England were Industries. , . , . . ^ ,_,, , then m their mfancy. The woolen manufac- ture was the leading industry, though the silk manufacture began to attract attention during this period. The linen manufacture was chiefly a domestic employment ; the cot- ton-trade was almost unknown. The mineral wealth of the country was quite neglected, and not until the close of this century did it begin to receive some attention. GREAT NAMES OF THE i^TH CENTURY. 387 GREAT NAMES OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. PHILOSOPHERS AND SCIENTISTS. Francis Bacon (1561-1626), the greatest of English philosophers ■ is called the founder of the Inductive system of philosophy (as opposed to the Deductive or Aristotelian system) ; for, though it was applied before his time, he was the first to put the method in philosophic form — his great works, the A'iw/^w Orgaiium and the Advancemejit of Learning; but the book by which he is best known is his Essays. Descartes (1596- 1650), a great French philosopher — was brought up for the army, but abandoned the profession and retired ^°'^^ Bacon. to Holland to study philosophy — was tutor of Queen Christina of Sweden — had a great influence on the method of philosophizing in the 17th century. Hobbes (158S-1679), a famous English philosopher — was early asso- ciated with Galileo and Descartes — he partly educated Prince Charles — was a "freethinker," but not a deist or atheist — chief works, the Leviathan and the Behemoth. Kepler (1571 - 1630), an illustrious German mathematician and astron- omer — he discovered what are known as Kepler's "Three Laws," which laid the foundation of mathematical astronomy — one of the greatest thinkers of any age, combining the inspiration of a prophet and poet with the method of a mathematician — passed most of his life in great poverty. Harvey (1578- 1657), studied medicine at Padua, England having no schools for the purpose — in 1615, as lecturer at the College of Physi- cians, he first announced his discovery of the circulation of the blood. Spinoza (1622- 1677), of Jewish birth— one of the great modern philosophers — much persecuted for his inquiring and skeptical turn of mind — led a very simple and virtuous life — his philosophy is very profound, and his greatest work is Ethica Mp7-e Geometrica Demon- strata (" Ethics Demonstrated by Geometric Method "). Isaac Newton (1642 -1727), professor of mathematics at Cambridge discoverer of the law of universal gravitation — remarkable also for his optical discoveries — chief work, Frincipia, a Latin treatise on natural philosophy. 388 MODERN HISTORY. Leibnitz (1640- 1716), a jurist, historian, mathematician, and meta- physician — the most learned of modern philosophers, and the founder of the eclectic system of German philosophy. ARTISTS. Rubens (1577- 1640), born in Westphalia, but son of a Dutch refugee from Antwerp — destined for a lawyer, but was a painter by nature — his industry resulted in four thousand pictures and sketches, and his wealth was immense — as a painter of portraits and historical scenes was almost unrivaled — most famous pieces, the Descent from the Cross, the Last Judgment, Peace and War, etc. Vandyck (1599- 1641), son of a glass-painter — pupil of Rubens — went to England in 1632 — celebrated for his portraits — those of Charles I. and Strafford very fine — best historical picture, The Crucifixion. Rembrandt (1606- 1669), a native of Leyden, and one of the most original and able painters that ever lived — excelled particularly in color and the effects of light and shade, but shows lack of refinement in his figures. Poussin {1594- 1655), born at Andely in Normandy — a great painter — among his works are the Death of Germanicus, the Taking of Je- rusalem, and the Last Supper. Murillo (1618-1682), one of the most celebrated Spanish painters — his earlv pictures are taken from humble life, as beggar-boys, flower- girls, etc. — his later productions are religious pieces, as Madonnas, holy families, etc. — died of a severe fall whilst engaged in painting the interior of a church. WRITERS. Ben Jensen (1574- 1637), in early life a soldier — then an actor — poet' laureate under James I. — author of fifteen plays extant, chiefly come- dies, and numerous masques — earliest comedy, Every ma?i in his Humor. Calderon (De la Barca) (1601-1681), a distinguished Spanish dramatist — born at Madrid — wrote about five hundred pieces. Corneille (1606- 1684), a great French dramatist — born at Rouen — made his fame by his tragedy of the Cid — other great works, Hor- ace and Cinna. John Milton (1608- 1674), the greatest epic poet of modern times — Latin secretary to Oliver Cromwell — author of Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained, which were written in poveny and blindness — GREAT NAMES OF THE it Til CENTURY, 389 numerous masques and sonnets came from his pen — wrote also in prose — his genius remained unnoticed under the Stuarts. Samuel Butler (1612-1680), son of a Worcestershire farmer — author of a mock-heroic poem called Hudibras, which was a famous satire upon the Puritans. Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667), an English bishop after the Restoration — wrote on theology — author oi Liberty of Prophesying, Holy Living, Holy Dying, and many other works — his style distinguished for its ornateness and splendor of imagery. La Fontaine {1621- 1705), a French poet and fabulist — lived a quiet, lazy life in patrons' houses — chief works, his Fables. Moliere (1622- 1673), a distinguished French dramatist and writer of very charming comedies — among his many works, Le Bourgeois Gen- tilhomme, Le Misanthrope, and Tartufe may be named. Pascal (1623- 1662), an eminent French philosopher and scientist- early displayed great aptitude for mathematics and science, but went into the Church — wrote against the Jesuits in his Provincial letters — another great but fragmentary work is his Penskes. Bossuet (1627- 17C4), consecrated Bishop of Meaux in 1681 — one of the greatest pulpit orators of France. John Bunyan (1628- 1688), a tinker of Bedford — became a Baptist preacher — imprisoned twelve years for preaching — wrote in prison the celebrated Pilgrim's Progress. John Dryden (1631-1700), a great English poet — made poet-laureate by Charles II. — author of numerous plays and satires in verse — chief works, Absalom and Achitophel, the most perfect and powerful satire in our languai^e. The Hind and Panther, Alexander' s Feast, etc. Boileau (1636 171 1), a noted French poet, remarkable for the moral tone of his writings — chief works, his Satires and Epistles, and the Lutrin, a mock heroic. Racine (1639- 1699), the most celebrated of the French dramatists — Andromaqiie was his first successful piece, and Phidre and Iphighiie were the most famous — his style is founded on classic models. Fenelon (1651-1715), Archbishop of Cambray — one of the sect called Quietists — denounced as a heretic by Bossuet — best-known work, the romance of TMemaqws^ 390 MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER IV. GREAT RVENTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TOPICS England under the Georges. Prussia and Frederick the Great. Rise of Russia. The French Revolution. I. ENGLAND UNDER THE GEORGES. 232. The history of England has been traced down to The successor the death of William III., in 1702. He was of William in. succeeded by his sister-in-law Anne, who was a daughter of James II. Her reign fills the twelve years between 1702 and 17 14, and with it ends the Stuart line of English sovereigns. 233. The three chief events of Anne's reign are : i. The Three leading union of Scotland with England ; 2. The cam- events, paigns of Marlborough ; 3. The contests be- tween the Whigs and Tories. 234. Though by the accession of James I. to the throne Hostility be- of England the two crowns were united, yet tween England t-. i i i r>. i i -n and Scotland. England and Scotland were still two separate nations, with separate parliaments. Indeed, ever since that event a feeling of jealousy and dissatisfaction had been growing up in the minds of the Scotch people with refer- ence to England. This feeling grew apace ; and finally, at the beginning of the i8th century, it became plain that a separation of the two countries was nigh at hand, unless something was done to allay the discontent. There was even for a time a show of war upon the part of the Scots. But better counsels prevailed. 235. Wise men on both sides were commissioned to draw up a Treaty of Union, and this in 1707 received the sane- ENGLAND UNDER THE GEORGES. 39 1 tion of the Scottish Parliament. This treaty provided that the two kingdoms should form one, under the Treaty of name of Great Britain ; and it is believed that Un'°n- this measure, to a great extent, laid the foundation of Scot- tish prosperity. 236. During a great part of the reign of Anne the War of the Spanish Succession, about which we Mariborougti's learned under the account of the Age of Louis campaign. XIV., went on. It was in this war that the great captain, Marlborough, humbled the power of France. The contest, as already seen, was brought to a close by the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713- 237. Throughout the whole of the reign of Queen Anne a struggle went on between the Whigs and the strife of whigs Tories for the possession of the government. ^"'^ Tories. Anne, though at heart a Tory, was long compelled to yield to the guidance of her Whig ministers. The strife raged fiercely around two great questions, — the War and the Church. The Whigs, of whom Marlborough was leader, cried out for war ; the Tories sought the restoration of peace. The Whigs were Low Church ; the Tories, High Church. The Whigs at last were forced to succumb, a Tory ministry came into power, and the Treaty of Utrecht was their work. 238. Anne died of apoplexy in the year 17 14. She had lost her husband (Prince George of Denmark) character of six years before. Not one of her seventeen Anne, children was then living. She was a woman of little talent and less learning ; simple and homely in all her tastes and habits. The expression of her face was heavy, — the dull look of one upon whom domestic bereavements had laid a heavy hand. She had, however, an affectionate disposition, and her virtues obtained for her the title of " Good Queen Anne." Her reign is noted as one of the brilliant periods of English literature. 392 MODERN HISTORY. 239. Queen Anne dying without children, the Parlia- Anne's sue- mcnt chose as king, George, Elector of Hano- ccssors. ygj.^ ^yj-jQ ^^^ ^ descendant of James I. in the female line, and the next Protestant heir. With him begins the Guelph line, or House of Brunswick. This dynasty still continues to rule England ; * but so far as we are now con- cerned we shall carry the narrative only down to George III., whose rule passes over into the 19th century. 240. George I. was a German ; so that England now pre- Accession of scnted the curious spectacle of being ruled by George I. ^ king who could not speak English. At the time of his accession he was fifty-four years of age. His person was coarse and heavy ; his mind was uncultivated ; his tastes were low. His wife, Sophia of Brunswick, had been left in imprisonment in Hanover, condemned to per- petual confinement for some alleged misconduct. 241. George I., who was a thorough German, thought Politics under ^^^ more of his Electorate of Hanover than George I. j^g ^^jfj Qf j^jg Kingdom of Great Britain ; and this partiality became a source of political complication. He had been called to the throne by the Whigs, and it was from this party that he chose all his advisers. The Tory leaders were prosecuted and impeached. Great riots then took place, for the feeling of almost the entire nation ran strongly in favor of the Tories ; and opposition to the king finally took shape in the rallying of a considerable party to the support of the Fretender. * The following list comprises the sovereigns of the House of Bruns- wick, with the dates of their accession : — George I. (great-grandson of James I.) 1714 George II. (son) 1 727 George III. (grandson) 1760 Regency of the Prince of Wales 1811 George IV. (son) 1820 William IV. (brother) 1830 Victoria (niece) 1837 ENGLAND UNDER THE GEORGES. 393 242. This person was the son of James II., and called himself James III. He had pretensions to The Pretender the throne of England and Scotland, for, of sion. course, he did not acknowledge the union of the two king- doms. His supporters were called "Jacobites," from yaco- biis, the Latin name for James. Louis XIV. had promised the Pretender aid in winning the British throne ; but just then the French king died, — so that when in 17 15 risings were made both in Scotland and England in the cause of the Pretender, and he himself came over from France to join in, he was easily defeated, and the attempt utterly failed. 243. A pacific reign, like that of George I., furnishes few events of importance in history. One, south Saa however, of disastrous consequence occurred, scheme. A Scotchman named Law, who had become controller- general of France, and amused that country with financial schemes which at first promised to enrich, but finally almost ruined the country, was the means in 1720 of inspiring the British people with a similar visionary project, called the South Sea Bubble. It seemed for a time to prosper, and many realized large fortunes by selling their shares at a premium to others ; but in a short time its unsoundness was discovered, the price of shares fell, and thousands were utterly ruined. With great difficulty the House of Com- mons equalized as nearly as possible the state of gain and loss among the innocent parties, and credit was restored. 244. George II., son of George I., ascended the throne of Great Britain in the forty-fifth year of his age, character of 1727. He was a little, light-haired, fair-corn- George 11. plexioned man. Having resided some time in England, he had a partial knowledge of the English language, which, however, he spoke with a foreign accent. He cared as little for science, art, or literature as did his father, and he was more than once heard to growl, in his German-English, that he saw no good in " bainting and boetry." i7» 394 MODERN HISTORY. 245. During nearly half the reign of George II. (i. e. till 1742) the office of Prime Minister was held by Sir Robert Walpole. He was a man of little learning, rough and boisterous in his manners and in his life ; but he retained his great power with a passionate grasp, preserving it, dishonorably indeed, but with consummate tact. Bribery was the secret of his long reign as Premier ; so that he had always at command a majorit}' of votes in Parliament. 246. During the reign of George II. there were four Four wars of ^ars of considerable importance : i. The war George 11. \]\\}ci Spain ; 2. The war of the Austrian Succes- sion ; 3. The war for the Young Pretender ; 4. The Ameri- can war with France. 1. The war with Spain was begun in 1739, and was forced on George II. and Walpole by the general wish of the people, who were stirred up by tales of wTong done to Englishmen by the Spaniards in America Little or nothing came of this war. 2. The war of the Austrian Succession broke out in 1741. It was to determine whether Maria Theresa, daughter of the Emperor of Germany, Charles VI., should succeed to the Austrian throne, or whether it should gfo to another claimant, Charles, the Elector of Bavaria. Though it was a quarrel with which in reality England had nothing to do, yet George II. espoused the cause of Maria Theresa, while Prussia under Frederick the Great, and France under Louis XV., took the side of Charles. Noth- ing came of this war, as England and France gave back their conquests to each other at the end of it. (Treaty of A.i.\-la-Chapelle, 1748.) 3. In the year 1745 Charles Edward, the son of the Old Pretender, tried with French aid to gain the British crown for his father. The battle of CuUoden decided against him. 4. The war with France had relation to the colonies of the two coun- tries in America, and is known in United States history as the " French and Indian War." It began in 175S, was continued into the reign of George III., who began to rule in 1760, and was ended in 1763 by the Peace of Paris. By this treaty all Canada was surrendered to the British. 247. During the latter part of the reign of George II. the great figure in politics was William Pitt, known as the Great Commoner. He was bon; ENGLAND UNDER THE GEORGES. 395 in 1708; he was educated at Oxford, served in the army, then in Parliament, and finally giving himself up entirely to politics, he won for himself a leading place in the government of his country. He directed all his genius to raising the glory of England both in America and in India ; and it was to his clear head and admirable admin- istrative faculties that Great Britain owed her formidable position in the politics of Europe in the middle of the i8th century. 248. George III. in 1760 ascended a glorious throne. Through the energy and foresight of the Great England under Commoner Britain had become the first nation George iii. in the world. He was the first monarch of his House who could be regarded as English in feeling. His first speech to the Parliament contained words which showed that Eng- land had obtained at last a native king. " Born and edu- cated in this country," said George, " I glory in the name of Briton." 249. George III. was the best of the Georges, which, however, is not saying much. He was correct character of in his private life, devoted himself faithfully George in. to the duties of his station, and no doubt had the good of his country at heart. But he was a man of narrow under- standing and obstinate prejudices, and his very patriotism led him into a series of fatal blunders. Long prone to insanity, his mind quite gave way in 18 10, though he lived until 1820. 250. This reign was fruitful in Colonial history. In-^ deed, ere it was five years old, symptoms of the Events in great, and to Britain disastrous, American War America, began to appear. The trouble arose during the adminis- tration of Mr. Grenville, showing itself decisively on the passage of the Stamp Act, 1765. This was afterwards re- pealed ; but other taxes were imposed which finally precipi- tated that momentous conflict which resulted in the inde- 396 MODERN HISTORY. pendence of our country and the appearance of the Repub- lic of the United States among the powers of the earth. 251. It was in this reign also that the great struggle be- Conquest of tween the French and English for the possession ^°'*'*- of India was settled in favor of the latter. The English power in India first made great advances under Clive, and after him the most famous name in the history of British India was that of Warren Hastings. Not only were the French subdued, but the various native princes were conquered one after another, and their provinces in- corporated with the British dominion ; so that now England rules over 200,000,000 of people in Hindostan. 252. Aside from Colonial history, the most important events with which England had to do during Other events. , , r , r, i i the latter part of the i8th century were the events of the French Revolution, — that fearful maelstrom of war that drew into its vortex all the nations of Europe. The part which England played in this mighty epoch will, however, be best related in the special section on the French Revolution. (See p. 409.) a. PRUSSIA AND FREDERICK THE GREAT. 253. We are now to trace the rise of Prussia, that great Subject treated power which in our own times has been able ^^- to bind together the long-dissevered German states into the mighty German Empire. 254* Ono. of the numerous states of the German Empire Beginnings of during the Middle Ages was the Electorate of Prussia. Brandenburg. Lying alongside of this was a small territory known as the Duchy of Prussia.* While Elizabeth sat on the throne of England, the Electors of Brandenburg added this duchy to their dominions. By * The name Prussia is derived from the word Borussi, the naouc of i fierce Slavonic tribe. PRUSSIA AND FREDERIC!^ THE GREAT. 397 good management on the part of its rulers Brandenburg grew apace ; and finally, towards the close of the 17th cen- tury, the Elector Frederick III. bargained to lend the Em- peror aid in the War of the Spanish Succession, provided he obtained the crown of Prussia. The first year of the i8th century (1701) marks the change of the last Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick III., into the first King of Prussia, Frederick I. 255. The second king of Prussia was Frederick William, (17 13- 1740). He was a stern old tyrant and Frederick semi-savage, but he was at the same time a W'^'^m- rigid economist ; and he set himself to drilling and disciplin- ing a magnificent army, which in the hands of his son was to be the instrument for raising Prussia to the position of one of the greatest military powers in Europe. 256. This son was the famous Frederick II., or, as history calls him, Frederick the Great. He was born in Youth of __,. •iiiri T-.1-1 Frederick the 1 7 12. By his tyrannical old father, Frederick Great. William, he had been kicked and raved at and fed on bread and water, till he finally ran away, and was with great diffi- culty saved from the death of a deserter. This was not a promising training ; but there was the true marrow in the young man, so he bided his time, while in the mean time he played on the flute, and scribbled books, and kept up a correspondence with Voltaire and otliers of the new French school of philosophy. 257. In the year 1740 rough old Frederick William died, and his son came to the throne of Prussia. He He ascends had as a boy had the dream of being a great ^"^^ throne, soldier : he was now the possessor of a full treasury and a well-drilled army, — so he looked about for a war. 258. In the very year in which Frederick came to the throne the Emperor of Germany, Charles VI., J- 1 TT- 1 1 ^1, • r,.y , , ' Maria ThercsB. died. His daughter Maria 1 heresa, by a law called a Pragmatic Sanction^ became ruler over all the 398 MODERN HISTORY. hereditary dominions of Charles, namely, the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, the Archduchy of Austria, etc. — and she was called by her highest title, that of Queen of Hungary. The Empire, of course, was at the disposal of the Electors. No sooner had Maria Theresa come to power, than various princes began to lay claim to the whole or part of her dominions. 259. Among others Frederick set up a claim to part of Frederick's the territory of the helpless princess ; to wit, claim and r>-i • i • • • <• i conduct. Silesia, claiming it as part of the ancient do- minion of the House of Brandenburg. It was a mere pre- text, without show of justice ; but Frederick marched an army into Silesia, won two victories (1741, 1742), and Maria Theresa, anxious to concentrate her energies against her other foes, made over Silesia to him. This is known as the First Silesian War. 260. Hostilities were renewed in 1 744 ; but nothing came Second war, of this Second Silesian War, though France and and sequel. England Were both in it on opposite sides, and it was closed the next year. Eight years of peace followed, and this breathing-space was devoted by Frederick to the good of Prussia, which, under his able administration, con- tinued to rise in importance. 261. And it needed all the strength he could husband ; Nature of the for in I7s6 there broke out another and far Seven Yesrs' War. greater contest, called the Seven Years' War. This time Frederick was not to blame for drawing the sword; for though, in fact, he drew it first, the war was strictly de- fensive. Austria formed a secret treaty with France, and another with Russia, Poland, Saxony, and Sweden, for the partition of Prussia. England, then engaged in the great Colonial wars with France, took sides with Prussia ; — and so it was that Frederick, unaided save by the half-hearted support of Great Britain, had to confront more than half of Europe, arrayed in arms to overwhelm him. PRUSSIA AND Fl^EDERICK THE GREAT. 399 261. The stoiy of how the Prussian captain-king bore up against this " sea of troubles " that raged all around his country forms one of the most wonderful xhe war and chapters in military annals. Some of the main '*^ results, points are stated in the note below ; * but, leaving aside de- tails here, we may say that after the conflict two results appear : i. That in Frederick himself was one of the world- soldiers, one of the men that make epochs in the history of war and of nations : 2. That in Prussia a new power had arisen. In fact, henceforth Prussia takes rank as one of the Five Great European Powers, and the Holy Roman Empire is practically divided into the two great monarchies of Austria and Prussia, which till the French Revolution held the balance of power on the Continent. * First Campaign, 1756. — Frederick assumed the aggressive, know- ing that a league had been formed against him. At the head of 70,000 men he invaded Saxony, tooli Dresden, and defeated the Austrians at Lo'wositz. At Dresden Frederick seized the state papers, and found therein the whole story of the secret plot for the partition of Prussia : these papers he published, in order to defend his action in beginning hostilities. Second Campaign, 1757. — This campaign, the greatest of the seven, began with the invasion of Bohemia by Frederick. Near Prague he won a great battle over the Austrians, but he suffered a severe defeat at Kolin. Then a succession of terrible misfortunes burst over the head of the Prussian king, — Russians breaking through his eastern frontier, Swedes in Pomerania marching on Berlin, his friends the Eng- lish driven in disgrace from Hanover by the French, who were rapidly advancing into Saxony. It is said that at this time Frederick meditated suicide, such were the disasters that overwhelmed him But presently there came a turn in the tide. The Russian army of invasion was re- called, owing to the illness of the Empress Elizabeth ; Frederick, taking heart again, dashed into Saxony with only 20.000 men, and at Rossbach overwhelmed an Imperialist and French army of three times the force. Another crushing defeat to the Austrians took place a month afterwards at Leuthen, in Silesia. The immediate result of these victories was the recapture of Silesia, which had been overrun by the Austrians, and the exaltation of Frederick to the greatest fame London was a blaze of illumination in his honor, and the English Parliament voted him £, 1(X>fiQQ a year. 400 MODERN HISTORY. 262. It is estimated that, counting the losses on all Prussia's loss- sides, a million of men fell in the Seven es and resto- ration. Years' War. Prussia bore her own sad share in this sacrifice, while those who survived found themselves in a wasted land. Frederick now set himself to repair the terrible mischief done by the war. He gave corn for food and seed to the starving people, and rebuilt the houses that had been burnt. Silesia was freed from the payment of all taxes for six years, and other districts received the same boon for a shorter time. Rewards to his living soldiers and pensions to the widows and children of the dead were bestowed with liberal hand. Measures were taken for the revival of commerce ; and though tnese meas- ures were not always wise (the debasement of the coin by Third AND Fourth Campaigns, 1758- 1759. — In the third campaign the cause of the Prussian king was on the whole triumphant : he still held Sile>ia, and the French had been driven out of Germany. But in the fourth year of the war blow after blow fell heavily on Frederick. At Kunersdorf, in Brandenburg, he was terribly defeated by the Russians, who had again taken the field against him. Dresden was taken and held by the Austrians, and an army of nearly 20,000 Prussians, hemmed in by Austrian bayonets among the passes of Bohemia, was forced to unconditional surrender. Sixth Campaign, 1760. — Frederick, desperate, stood at bay, sur- rounded by a gigantic host of 200,000 men. One tremendous dash he made at Torgau, where he won a victory that saved the Prussian mon- archy from annihilation. But he could do no more than watch his foes firom a strong camp in the heart of Silesia. The outlook was so dis- couraging that again, v.-e are told, the thought of suicide crossed Fred- erick's mind. Last Year, 1762- 1763. — A death saved him. Elizabeth of Russia died in January, 1 762, and her cousin Peter III., Frederick's warm ad- mirer and friend, not only made peace, but sent him aid. The example set by Russia was followed by Sweden. Then came the Peace of Paris (1763), concluded by England and France, so that Austria and Prussia fronted each other alone. However, these Powers also signed the peace of Hubertsburg (1763), and this ended the Seven Years' War This treaty left the face of Germany on the whole unchanged, — Prussia intact and still holding Silesia. PRirsSIA AND FREDERICK THE GREAT. 401 the king's order is a notable instance of financial unwis- dom), yet, on the whole, Prussia flourished greatly under Frederick. The best proof of this is, that, having inherited a kingdom with a population of two millions, and six mil- lion thalers in the national treasury, he died leaving seventy^ two millions of thalers, and a contented and happy popula- tion of over six millions. 263. Frederick the Great died in the year 1786; and it may be noticed as an interesting fact that his character of last great public act was the conclusion, in Frederick. that year, of a commercial treaty with the then infant Republic of the United States of America. He was in his seventy-fifth year at the time of his death, and had reigned forty-seven years. He was a great soldier, of daring courage in battle, of quick and fertile genius in diffi- culties, of most elastic spirit in the hour of de- pression. He gave him- self little trouble respect- ing the justice of his un- dertakings ; but he was distinguished from the common herd of conquerors by having one fixed object, — to make his country one of the great powers of Europe. Carlyle selects him as a hero for the characteristic reason that "he managed not to be a liar and a charlatan, as the rest of his century was." And certainly, as compared with his royal contemporaries, the Georges of England and the Louises of France, he challenges our admiration for his consummate ability, if he cannot claim our love as a man. Frederick the Great. 402 MODERN HISTORY. 3. THE RISE OF RUSSIA. 264. In the history of Europe down to the beginning of Russian ques- the 1 8th century Russia is a blank. Why is tion stated. t^jg ? 'phg s\.oz\i to which the Russians be- long, the Slavic race, is inferior in capacity to no other member of the Aryan family. Moreover, Russia early started on the path of civilization. The foundation of the kingdom was laid by the Norseman Ruric in the 9th cen- tury, and in the loth century the Russians were Christian- ized, adopting the faith of the Greek Church. 265. The explanation of why no progress was made is Reason of found in the fact that Russia lies directly ex- wardness. poscd to the attacks of those fierce Mongolian savages who, from their hive in Central Asia, were wont to pour themselves in devastating tides into Europe. From these inroads the Slavic land had repeatedly suffered, when, in the 13th century, it was completely overrun by the Tar- tars of Genghis Khan. For more than two centuries Russia was held in bondage by these savages, while the Poles and Lithua'nians hemmed her in to the west, so that she was quite cut off from any part in European affairs. 266. The deliverance of Russia from Tartar supremacy Progress of ^^"^'^ due to Ivan Vasilovitz, who became czar, Russia. Qr emperor, about the same time that Queen Elizabeth ascended the throne of England. Russia was now a powerful state, but it was cut off from the Baltic by the Poles and Swedes, and from the Black Sea by the Tar- tars, who held the Crimea. However, the close of the 17th century saw the appearance of a ruler who was to give Rus- sia for the first time a place in the states-system of Europe. This man was Peter the Great. 267. Peter was a son of the czar Alexis, called the Good Peter's biog- (1645 - 1 676), and the father of this Alexis was raphy, ^ certain Michael Romanoff, who in 1613 was THE RISE OF RUSSIA. 403 made czar : from him the present royal family springs (the old line of Ruric then ceasing). Peter was born in 1672, and ten years later was crowned, along with his half-brother Ivan ; but the latter, a poor deformed idiot, was only a name in the state. Having baffled the ambitious scheme of his half-sister Sophia, a bold and beautiful woman who acted as regent, the young Peter, when only seventeen, seized alone the scepter (1689). 268. At this time he was a tall, rough youth, sensual and debauched, but showing at the same time a tre- His person mendous fund of native energy and will. And, ^"'^ ^'™^- strangely enough, this energy and will seemed to aim, not at what is ordinarily with such characters the object of am- bition, namely, war and destruction, but at the elevation of his people by means of those peaceful creative arts that are the basis of all national prosperity. Wars he waged, indeed, but he did not make war for war's sake : he made it because he was forced to do so in carrying out his pacific plans. 269. The first great idea that possessed Peter seems to have been that the absence of any available ... r ^ "'5 Tvc%X. idea. seaboard was necessarily a source of weak- ness to his country. Seizing Azof from the Turks (1696), he obtained a footing on the Black Sea ; and, having accom- plished this, he resolved to form a fleet sufficient to overawe that power. 270. With this view the young monarch, leaving the gov- ernment in the hands of an old noble, traveled His visit to to Holland and England for the purpose of *^^ West, learning the art of ship-building, and of acquiring whatever knowledge might be necessary for his great undertaking. At Saardam in Holland he worked as a common ship-car- penter, receiving his wages every Saturday night, and every day boiling his own pot for dinner. At the same time he picked up rope and sail making, blacksmith's work and some surgery, though afterwards his surgery was mostly of 404 MODERN HISTORY. a very rough kind.* In England, whither he went in 1698, he was heartily received by King William III. ; but, instead of passing his time in the usual entertainments of princes, he busied himself visiting dock-yards and looking into all the details of naval construction. 271. Returning home in the first year of the i8th cen-, His social tury, Peter began his social reforms. Dressing reforms. himself in a brown frock-coat, he insisted on all Russians, except the priests and the peasants, casting off the long Asiatic national robe. He laid a tax on beards. He changed the titles and lessened the power of the nobility. He tolerated all sects, and gave free circulation to the Bible. 272. To obtain an outlet on the Baltic was now Peter's object. The opportunity seemed to be excel- Peter's plan. , , rr^i 1 r , • • lent. Ihree years before this, in 1697, the king of Sweden had died, leaving as his successor a youth but fifteen years of age. He seemed to be helpless ; so, in kingly fashion, Russia and Denmark and Poland entered into a league for the dismemberment of his kingdom.. But this was not to be so easily done ; for the youth was Charles XII., that astonishing meteor that for a decade swept across the northern sky. 273. Charles XII. allowed his foes no time to carry their Campaign of plot into cxccution. Moviiig swiftly, first upon Charles XII. Denmark and then upon the Polish army at Riga, he speedily rid himself of tAvo of his three enemies. Next he turned upon a Russian force of 80,000 men that Was besieging Narva, a small town near the Gulf of Livonia, and within the Swedish dominion. His own force was only a tenth that of the Prussians ; but with his gallant Swedes he flung himself with such impetuosit}' on the enemy that he utterly overthrew the Russian army, capturing most of it, * Thus, on his return to Russia he found that his guards had made 2 rebellion, which, however, had been quelled. With his own hand he beheaded twenty of ths wretched guards in one hour. THE RISE OF RUSSIA. 405 with its artillery and baggage (November 30, 1700). Peter was not at the battle. " Ah," said he, when the news came to him, " these Swedes, I knew, would beat us, but they will soon teach us how to beat them ! " 274. The same marvelous fortune attended the Swedish warrior in the operations of the next four years Proposes to in- in Poland and Saxony. His success quite in- ^^*^^ Russia, toxicated him, and he prepared to invade Russia. Peter offered terms of peace, but Charles declared that he could negotiate only at Moscow. When the czar was informed of this haughty answer, he coolly replied, " My brother Charles affects to play the part of Alexander, but I hope he will not find in me a Darius." 275- The strategy adopted by Peter for the purpose of meeting this invasion was simple and sensible, peter's strat- The advance of the Swedes on the direct line ^^y- to Moscow was prevented by the destruction of the roads and the desolation of the country. After enduring many privations Charles turned off towards the U'kraine, whither he had been invited by Mazep'pa, a Cossack chief who had thrown off his allegiance to the czar. The convoy and re- inforcements which Charles had expected from Lithuania were intercepted by the Russians ; but, notwithstanding these misfortunes, he continued the campaign even in the depth of winter, though the season was so severe that two\ thousand men were at once frozen to death, almost in his presence. 276. At length Charles laid siege to Pultowa, which con- tained one of the czar's principal magazines. rri, , T • 1 1 r , 1 , Pultowa. Ihe town was obstmately defended, and Charles was wounded in the heel while viewing the works. Before he recovered he learned that Peter was advancing to raise the siege. Leaving 7000 men to guard the works, the Swedes advanced to intercept the Russians, accom- panied by their king borne in a litter. The battle was 406 MODERN HISTORY. decided by the Russian artillery, for Charles in his rapid march had abandoned his cannon. In less than two hours the Swedish army was ruined, and Charles, with only 300 followers, sought shelter within the frontiers of Turkey (1709). 277. To pursue the subsequent career of Charles XII. ciof e of would be aside from our purpose here. Suf- Chsrles XII. 's - . , , . • , • career. iice it to Say that this astonishing man ran a course of nine years longer, — a course of strange ups and downs, and was finally killed by a cannon-ball while besieg- ing the castle of Fredericshall in Norway, 17 18. " His fall was destined to a barren strand, A petty fortress, and a dubious hand ; He left the name at which the world grew pale To point a moral or adorn a tale." * 278. To Russia the winnings of the struggle with Sweden Gains to Rus- were most important, for Peter gained Livonia ^'^- and the other Swedish possessions east of the Baltic, so that now he had a water-front on that sea as well as on the Euxine. Later in his reign he extended his bor- ders on the other Russian sea, the Caspian, at the expense of Persia. 279. In the intervals of the war Peter the Great was not His pacific forgetful of his pacific ambition. In 1704 he measures. founded the city of St. Petersburg,t at the mouth of the Neva, on the Gulf of Finland (a region won from the Swedes), and he made it his capital in place of the old metropolis, Moscow. In the internal state of the coun- try he made many changes : he remodeled his army, created * Dr. Johnson, Vanity of Human Wishes. The fine passage begin- ning with " On what foundation," etc., and of which the four lines above quoted form the conclusion, may be read for a summing up of the whole career of the " Madman of the North." + So called after the name of his patron saint and name-father, the Apostle Peter. THE RISE OF RUSSIA. 407 a navy, improved the administration of justice, enlarged the commerce, encouraged manufactures, cut canals, built roads, and introduced the printing-press. It was the task of a giant to lift the great savage land into a position among the civilized nations, but Peter did it. 280. This greatest of the czars died at the beginning of the year 1725, of fever caught by vi^ading knee- Death and deep in Lake Ladoga, to aid in getting off a character, boat which had stuck on the rocks. His character is well described by Voltaire : " He gave a polish to his people, and was him- self a savage ; he taught them the art of war, of which he was himself ignorant ; from the sight of a small boat on the river Moskwa he cre- ated a powerful fleet ; he made him- self an expert and active shipwright, sailor, pilot, and commander ; he changed the manners, customs, and laws of the Russians, and lives in their memory as the •Father of his Country.'" 281. The history of Russia from the time of Peter the Great down to the close of the century may be peter's sue- rapidly sketched. During the greater part of ^^^ssors. this time the throne was filled by women. There was first his widow, named Catherine I., who continued the policy of her great husband. Her reign, however, lasted but for two years, when she was succeeded by Peter H., the grand- son of Peter the Great. His death, three years afterwards, brought to the throne a niece of Peter the Great, named Anne, She ruled till 1740. Then came Ivan VI., an infant, who, after a few months, was deposed by Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, who filled the throne till 1762. EHzabeth left her empire to her nephew, who became Peter III. In a few months, however, he was murdered, and his wife was raised to the throne as Catherine II., surnamed the Great (1762). Peter the Great. 4i08 MODERN HISTORY. 282. Catherine II. was, next to Peter the Great, the ablest Doings of 3.nd most successful of the Russian autocrats. Catherine. gy j^^,^ vigorous generals, Potem'kin and Su- warrow \soo-dr' nP^, she won greatly from the Turks, and achieved the conquest of the Crimea, thus getting rid of the last trace of the old Tartar dominion, and at the same time obtaining free access to the Black Sea. 283. But Catherine II. won still more by her share in Partition of what is Called the Partition of Poland, though Poland. ^j^g means by which she won was a gross vio- lation of the law of nations. The scheme for dismembering the kingdom of Poland is supposed to have originated with Frederick the Great of Prussia, and he and Catherine of Russia and the Empress-Queen Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary, entered into it. The Poles were so weakened that they could make no resistance, so the royal robbers each seized certain provinces in 1772. 284. In 1792 another partition was made by Russia and Prussia only, and in 170"; Poland was destroyed End of Poland. , , -" . , , • i • altogether as an independent nation, and its remaining territory was divided among its three neighbors. "Oh ! bloodiest picture in the book of time ! Sarmatia fell, unwept, without a crime." Wicked as was this assassination of a nation, the accession of territory to Russia was of immense importance to the empire, and " brought that nation into the middle of the continent and into the thick of European affairs." 285. Catherine II. died in 1796. She was succeeded by Catherine's her son Paul ; but he was an eccentric, half- successors, crazy creature, and when he was murdered, in 1 80 1, his son Alexander I. came to the throne. This Alex- ander I. was the uncle of Alexander II., murdered by Nihilists in 1 88 1, who was succeeded by his son Alexander III., ?,s Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 409 MiRABBAU. Robespierre. 4. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 286. " After me the deluge " {Apres moi le deluge), sighed Louis XV. to his courtiers as he lay on his Remark of death-bed in the year 1774, which was the very ^ouis xv. year of the meeting of our " First Continental Congress." The deluge came, — that dreadful deluge of fire and blood known in history as the French Revolution. We are now to learn about the causes, the leading facts, and the results of this tremendous explosion. 287. The student will remember that the close of the reign of Louis XIV. (1715) saw France in an France and exhausted and a demoralized condition. Un- Louis xv. der his successor, Louis XV. (1715 — 1774), things went from bad to worse. The court, ruled by the painted favor- ites of the licentious king, Pompadour and Du Barri, ex- hausted every shape of costly debauchery. The last sou of taxation was wrung from the starving peasants. And, to add to the awful burden, a continued series of wars was car- ried on for the gratification of a profligate ambition, and sometimes apparently for no better reason than to afford \ 410 MODERN HISTORY. employment to a numerous body of idle nobility, who dis- dained to follow any other profession than that of arms. 288. Louis XV. died in 1774, leaving his throne, with all Accession of its embarrassments, to his grandson Louis Louis XVI. XVI., a kind-hearted, amiable, pious young man, but utterly destitute of the mental qualities calculated to fit him for the arduous position he was called upon to oc- cupy. Then twenty years of age, he had been already four years married to Marie Antoinette, the beautiful daughter of Maria Theresa. Surrounded by eager courtiers, and sa- luted for the first time as king and queen, they fell upon their knees and cried, weeping, " O God, guide us ! Pro- tect us ! We are too young to reign ! " 289. And they w-ere indeed too young and too inexperi- Bad condition GHced to deal with a problem whose solution of France. would have demanded the supreme genius and iron will of a Cromwell or a Napoleon. For already signs of dissolution and prophecies of woe were abroad. France had been sowing the wind, and was now to reap the whirl- wind. Long wars and the lavish expenditures of the last century and a half had reduced the finances of the king- dom to a deplorable condition. The public credit was at its lowest ebb. The treasury presented a deficit of two hundred millions of dollars. The people were overtaxed, restless, and half savage. Many abandoned agriculture and sought a precarious subsistence by smuggling and spo- liation. 290. A spirit of political and religious infidelity per- Purther de- vaded the middle and lower classes. The *^''^- throne had been too long degraded by excess and tarnished by scandal to command the affection of the multitude. The nobles were scorned rather than rever- enced, and not even the ancient stronghold of terror re- mained. The clergy, by their cruelties, their ignorance, ind their debaucheries, had alienated the great body of the pec- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 4II pie, and brought down upon themselves the satire and in- dignation of the enlightened. In Voltaire \j'ol-iare'\ Rous- seau \roo-so'\ Helvetius, and Condillac \con-de-ydIf\ the new opinions had found their chief advocates and leaders. Before their sweeping censures so-called Christianity, Loy« alty, Tradition, had been reduced to powder. They were speedily reinforced by all the intelligence of the age. A host of distinguished men hastened to their support, and the innovators carried all before them, — leveling good as well as evil, and sapping the foundations of truth, mercy, and chivalry, while compassing the necessary destruction of falsehood, despotism, imposition, and vice. 291. The grand problem was the finances. The first financial minister of the reign was Turgot \tur- Financial go'\ an able man of extensive views, who pro- "measures, posed gradually to sweep away the abuses which weighed so heavily upon the kingdom ; but his reforms alarmed the courtiers : they persuaded the king that such experiments were dangerous, and Louis, always obedient to the last adviser, dismissed Turgot in 1776. Two new ministers soon gave way to Necker, a Geneva banker of good reputation and the best intentions. His maxims were the reduction of expenditure, so as to avoid all necessity of loans, except on extraordinary occasions, and the maintenance of public credit, so that money might be borrowed when requisite. This clever banker held his office for five years, and in 1 78 1 was able to produce a balance-sheet which showed a revenue larger than the expenditure. But his accounts angered the nobility by revealing that they paid no taxes : so Necker was harassed into a resignation. 292. It was during the administration of Necker that France became embroiled in a war with Eng- Effect of the land, caused by the former country's siding with American war. the Americans in the struggle for independence. To have aided in founding a great democracy across the Atlantic \ 412 MODERN HISTORY. was a subject of pride to the French ; but the sight of their handiwork reminded them painfully of the position still occupied by themselves. Democratic doctrines from Amer- ica found their way into the dull head of the French peas- ant, who could not help realizing the injustice that gave two thirds of the soil to the nobility (who numbered only about 150,000 souls) and to the priests, both of which orders were exempt from taxes, while he and his twenty-five millions of brother serfs, owning but one third of the land, had to bear all the burdens of the state. 293. The war with England only added to these bur- Administra- dens, while the finances, no longer in the tionofCaionne. skilled and prudent hands of Necker, werd managed by a brilliant financial juggler named Calonne S^cal-on'\ who borrowed on every side without one thought of repayment. For a time this went on ; but the day came when even Calonne could get no more. It was necessary to devise some new expedient, and the one adopted was the assembling of the Notables. 294. The Assembly of the Notables is the name given Meeting of the to a Convention of the chief nobles and magis' Notables. trates of France called to consult on public affairs. Such a meeting had in the previous centuries beei> occasionally called by the kings in emergencies, and much was now hoped from it by the nation. It met in February, 1787: there were 137 members. Calonne wanted to make up for the deficiency of revenue by a land-tax ; but his pro- posal was rejected by these lords of the soil, and the As- sembly was dissolved in May. Then came the dismissal of Calonne, who was soon succeeded by Brienne, Archbishop of Toulon. But Brienne could do nothing to stem the rising tide, so Necker was recalled in 1 788. 295. Necker, as his first act, proposed to convoke a States- General, an assembly having the rights of confer- ring and petitioning. There had been no meeting of THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 413 such a body since the days of Richelieu, the last being in 1 6 14. Since that time the existence of Neckersprop- a constitution had been almost forgotten, for °s'tion. the three kings that intervened had caused a virtual suspen- sion of every power except their own. But the convocation of a States-General, where, as in an English Parliament, every class of society had a voice, was hailed as an ac- knowledgment that power proceeded from the people. 296. All over France the elections went on, and no man who wore a decent coat was refused leave to , , , The elections. vote. Three millions of the people sent up their deputies — lawyers, doctors, priests, farmers, writers for the press — to the great States-General, in which for the first time during nearly two centuries the down-trodden Commons were to sit in council with the nobles and the high clergy. There were 1200 representatives, and they met in the king's palace at Versailles \ver-sdlz'\ on the 5th of May, 1789. 297. It soon became evident that the real strength of the States-General lay in the Commons, or, as the The Commons _ ; , m W r • I assert them- French named them, the Tiers Etat \te-airz selves. a-td'\ i. e. the Third Estate.* They numbered as many mem- bers as the noblesse and the clergy together. At the very outset came the trial of strength. It had not been decided whether the nobility, the clergy, and the Tiers Etat should meet in one chamber, or be organized into two : it had been assumed that the latter would be the plan. But the depu- ties of the Tiers Etat would not submit to be separated from the Upper House. Sitting in their own chamber, they invited the nobles and the clergy to join them ; and when the invitation was scornfully rejected, they constituted themselves the National Assembly., by which name we. shall now have to call the body. * The Clergy and the Nobility constituting the First and the Second Estates. 414 MODERN HISTORY. 298. In vain did dukes and archbishops complain of this King and Unexampled usurpation of supreme power. Commons. 'pj^g j^jj^g ^^^^ undecided and alarmed, and in this condition he took a suicidal step. He prorogued the Assembly for a month, and stationed soldiers at the door to prevent the members from going in. Their president Bailly, when crossed bayonets refused them admittance, led them to the Tennis-court {yeu de paume) of the palace, where they swore a solemn oath not to dissolve their Assem- bly until they had formed a constitution for France. The firmness of the Tiers Etat gave them the victory. A large secession took place from the other orders, — most of the clergy and forty-seven of the noblesse, with the Duke of Or- leans at their head, joining the Commons in their hall. 299. There was Lafayette, a pure patriot, but not a man Three charac- of Commanding ability. And there sat Mira- *^''^- beau \mer-d-bof\ the wickedest and most de- bauched aristocrat in France, but a man of pre-eminent power and eloquence. Different from him, and near him, was the small person and commonplace countenance of Robes- pierre \robz-pe-air'\ — grinning, smirking, and contemptible, — but who ere many months were over was to thrill with terror the stoutest hearts. 300. The Court, thus foiled and acknowledging its own Action of the humiliation, adopted again an unpopular Assembly. coursc : Neckcr was banished, and troops were gathered around Versailles. But the Assembly proceeded with their business in the most radical fashion. They abol ished all privileges of birth or profession ; taxes were imposed on all equally ; the public debt was consolidated, the press was declared free, and political and religious liberty was guaranteed. These were great steps in advance. 301. Meanwhile all Paris was in a state of insane com- Madness of motion. Clubs, meetings, associations of all Pans, kinds, kept every quarter of the great city astir. J THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 415 Enthusiasm grew with every fresh event, and already the thirst for blood, which so strongly distinguishes the Pari- sian mob, began to fire the hearts of the rabble. A single spark exploded the mine. There came a report that the soldiers were on the march to dissolve the National Assembly. The people rushed to the defence, guns were procured, and tricolored flags hoisted on public buildings. Rioting and pillage went on in various quarters, and the more so that the guards, when called out to disperse the mob, refused to fire. Finally on the 14th of July a definite aim was given to the wild intoxication of the people by a cry which suddenly went through Paris, " Let us storm the Bastile ! " 302. This ancient and fortified prison was at the time defended by a feeble garrison of eighty-two capture of invalids and thirty-two Swiss, under a stanch *^^ Bastiie. old soldier, the Marquis de Launay, The wild multitude raged around its walls, but the governor utterly refused to surrender. Then a siege of four hours began. The be- siegers were joined by the French guards, — cannon were brought, — De Launay capitulated, — the drawbridge was lowered, and the Bastile taken : taken by a lawless mob of maddened men and women, who forthwith massacred the governor, his lieutenant, and some of the aged invalids, — freed the few prisoners found in the cells, — set fire to the building and razed it to the ground, — garnished their pikes with the evidence of murder, and so paraded Paris. 303. From this moment the people were supreme. The troops were dismissed from Versailles, Necker ,,,,,. . . , _ . , The sequel. was recalled, the kmg visited Pans, and was invested at the Hotel de Ville with the tricolored emblem of democracy. Then began what is called the first efnigraiion, — that is, a general and most cowardly, as well as most imprudent, flight of the nobles, who from beyond the fron- tiers witnessed the revolution in ignoble safety. The king and his family remained at Versailles, sad at heart amid 4l6 MODERN HISTORY. their presence-chambers and garden-groves, four leagues from volcanic Paris. 304. Hither, from time to time during the few days that Provincial ris- intervened between the 14th of July and the '"^^" 4th of August, came strange tidings of a revo- lution which was no longer Parisian, but national, — tidings of provincial uprisings, of burning chateaux, of sudden ven- geance done upon unpopular officials, tax-gatherers, and the like. It was plain that the Nobility must bow its head before the five-and-twenty savage millions, make restitution, speak well, smile fairly, or die. 305. The memorable 4th of August came, when the no- Sweeping re- blcs did this, making ample confession of their forms. weakness. The Viscount de Noailles [w^'-o/] proposed to reform the taxation by subjecting to it every order and rank, by regulating it according to the fortune of the individual, and by abolishing personal servitude and every remaining vestige of the feudal system. An enthusi- asm, which was half fear and half reckless excitement, spread throughout the Assembly. The aristocrats rose in their places and publicly renounced their seignorial dues, privileges, and immunities. The clergy abolished tithes and tributes. Yet all this availed but little now : it should have been done many months before, to have weighed with the impatient Commons. The people scorned a generosity that relinquished only what was untenable, and cared little for the recognition of a political equality that had already been established by the pike. 306. And now another false step was made by the king. Another false The popular demonstrations had so alarmed ^*^P- the little court yet hanging around Louis at Versailles, that they persuaded him that he must have mili- tary assistance. The regiment of Flanders and a body of dragoons came; and on the ist of October the newly arrived officers were invited to a grand banquet by their THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 417 comrades of the royal body-guard. After the dinner was removed and the wine had begun to circulate, the queen presented herself with the Dauphin in her arms, and her husband at her side. Cries of loyalty and enthusiasm burst forth, their healths were drunk with drawn swords, the tricolored cockades were trampled under foot, and white ones, emblematic of the house of Bourbon, were dis- tributed by the maids of honor. 307. The news of this fatal evening flew to Paris. Ex- asperated by the arrival of the soldiery, by the The mob goes insults offered to the tricolor, and by hunger, *° Versailles, the mob rose in fury, and with cries of " Bread ! bread ! " poured out of Paris and took the road to Versailles. A strange, fearful mob it was, — thousands of women of the wildest appearance, maddened furies, followed by thousands of haggard, cruel, revengeful men. Reaching Versailles they sent messages, threats, and deputations to the king and to the Assembly. They had their smooth speeches from the king and their fair assurances from the Assem- bly ; but they still lingered about Versailles, and though a great rain came on they camped for the night around the palace. 308. Towards morning a grating that led into the grand court was found to be unfastened, and the mob Attack on the rushed in. On they went across the marble P^'a^^^- court and up the grand staircase. The body-guards de- fended themselves valiantly, and raised the alarm ; the queen fled, half dressed, to the king's chamber, while the " living deluge " poured through galleries and reception- rooms, making straight for the queen's apartments. The royal family listened tremblingly to the battering of the axes on the yet unbroken doors. At this moment of peril came Lafayette, with the national guard of Paris, and succeeded in clearing the palace, and in rescuing for the time the hap- less group in the king's apartments. i8« «4 \ 418 MODERN HISTORY. 309. The crowd demanded that the king should come Return to to Paris ; and amidst a procession of market- f"^"^- women, at a foot pace, with human heads borne aloft on pikes before the carriage, the unhappy Louis and Marie Antoinette were conducted to the capital (so- called Joyous Entry, October 6, 1789), and placed more immediately under the eyes of the revolutionists. 310. During all this tiine the emigration of the noblesse Conduct of the Went on. Assembling upon the German fron- emigrants. ^-jgj. towards the Spring of the year 1791, they formed themselves into an army under the command of the Prince de Conde', and adopted for their motto, " Con- quer or die " ; yet they neither conquered nor died, but merely hovered along the Rhine, fearful of endangering the personal safety of the king by any aggressive measures. 311. The king's position was by this time not only hu- The king's miliating, but perilous. Such had been the de- *'*£*'*• sertions, that now Louis and the queen, with their two children and the king's sister, were the only mem- bers of the royal family left in Paris. Flight had long been talked of, frequently delayed ; but at last everything was arranged for, and Monday night, June 20, 1791, was fixed for the attempt. Eluding the vigilance of the guards, they stole out of the palace in disguise, and entered a carriage- and-four at the gate St. Martin. 312. The flight was successfully made as far as Va- rennes ; but there, while stopping to change horses, the king was recognized. The na- tional guard flew to arms ; an aide-de-camp came up in breathless haste, seeking the fugitives and bearing the de- cree of arrest, — the horses' heads were turned towards Paris, and the last chance for life and liberty was past. After a return-journey of eight days the king and his family re-entered the capital, and were received in profound silence by an immense concourse. More closely guarded, more THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 4I9 mistrusted than ever, he was now suspended by the Na- tional Assembly from those sovereign functions which he had so long ceased to exercise or possess. 313. In the mean time the articles of a new constitution had been drawn up, putting France on the xhe new con- basis of a constitutional monarchy. Its arti- ^titution. cles were publicly ratified by the royal oath and signature, on the 14th of September, 1791. 314. The National (or, as it is sometimes called, the Constituenf) Assembly having sat for three The new as- years, now passed a resolution dissolving it- ^embiy. self (September 29, 1791). Its place was taken by a new body, called the Legislative Assembly^ which began to sit on the I St of October in the same year. 3I5> By this time three distinct factions were clearly marked out, and between them there was to The three fac- be battle to the death. First were the Feuil- "°"^- lants^ who adhered to the law and the constitution ; they formed the ghost of the vanished National Assembly, which had established a constitutional monarchy, and they sat on the right of the tribune. The Girondists, or Moderate Re- publicans, formed the second party. Mirabeau would have been their leader, and might have wielded their influence to some effect ; but that great man had died a few months before this time. Occupying the highest seats in the hall, and therefore called the Mountain, sat the Red Repub- licans, chiefly members of the Jacobin and Cordeliers Clubs ; whose rallying cry was, " No king ! " The list of this third party contained those terrible names — Robes- pierre, Danton, Marat [md-ra] — the very sound of which suggests the thought of blood. 316. The spirit of revolution which had set France in a blaze menaced every throne, and it behooved l°J^'f^^^1^^' the kings of Europe to see to their own safety, effect. Armies were raised by Austria and Prussia to defend the 420 MODERN HISTORY. royal cause, hostilities were threatened, and the Legis- lative Assembly declared for war, April 20, 1792. Soon afterwards a force of 70,000 Prussians and 68,000 Austri- ans and emigrant French royalists crossed the frontier. Perhaps no effort on the part of his most eager enemy could have so injured the cause and periled the safety of Louis XVI. The Assembly replied by fitting out an army of 20,000 national volunteers, and giving the command to General Dumouriez \du-moor-yea'\ who in several actions repelled the invaders. 317. In the mean time, enraged at this interference of Feeling to- ^he foreign powers, and fluctuating (accord- wards Louis, jjjg |.Q ^jjg reports from the scene of war) be- tween apprehension and exultation, the Parisian mob and the extreme Republican party came to regard the king with increased enmity. He was named in the Assembly with violent opprobrium ; and the mob, incited to fury by Robes- pierre and his associates, demanded the deposition of Louis. 318. On the loth of August the palace of the Tuileries Attack on the \t^i'ecl-ree^z''\ was attacked. The national guards, Tuileries. ^j^q \^^^ been appointed to the defense of the court-yard, went over to the insurgents, and pointed their cannon against the chateau. Only 300 Swiss guards were left ; and they, overpowered by numbers and fighting gallant- ly to the last, were literally cut to pieces. The king and his family escaped to the Legislative Assembly, and on the 14th were removed to the old Temple prison. 319. From this time that awful period known in his- tory as the Reign of Terror may properly be eigno ^"o""- g^j^ |-Q j^^^,g begun. " My advice," said Dan- ton, " is to confound the agitators, and to stop the enemy by striking terror into the royalists." This advice produced the imprisonment of hundreds of persons considered not sufficiently zealous in the revolutionary cause. A tempO' THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 421 rary success won by the Prussians in the capture of Verdun was the death-doom of the unfortunate prisoners. The news was brought in the night, and next day (September 2, 1792) the prisons were cleared by the death of the captives. Three days did the horrible scene of bloodshed continue, and the victims displayed the most touching traits of resig- nation and heroism. This wholesale massacre is known as the Massacre of September. 320. On the 2ist of September, 1792, the Legislative Assembly, having sat for the allotted space of The new gov- one year, was succeeded by a new body of emment. representatives, known by the name of the National Conven- tion. 321. The constitutional party of the old Legislative As- sembly (the Feuillafits) had disappeared in the The parties 1 f , T^ 1 • 11^ and their lead- maelstrom of the Revolution, and the Conven- crs. tion was divided between the Girondists and the Mountain. In the Chamber the Girondists had the majority ; but the Mountain, led by Danton, Robespierre, and Marat, had the great revolutionary advantage of being on the aggressive ; and they had, besides, the support of all the sans-culottes, or rabble of Paris. Their policy was simple and well defined, — the death of the king, and the establishment of a Re- public. 322. To proclaim the Republic was the first act of the Convention. Then came the trial of the king. Trial of the On the nth of December, 1792, Louis XVI., '''"s- who had been for months a prisoner in the Temple, ap- peared before the tribunal of his enemies. The charges brought against him were based principally upon some papers that disclosed the intrigues of the Court against the Revolution, and on others that seemed to indicate a knowl- edge of the proceedings in favor of the royal cause in for- eign countries. Some writers have pointed out that the deposition of the king (which had already taken place when 422 MODERN HISTORY. the Republic was proclaimed) should have barred all these accusations. But this was not a time either for legal tech- nicalities or calm judgment to have any weight. Robespierre appealed to the will of the people. " What have not the friends of liberty to fear," said he, " when they see the ax unsteady in your grasp, and detect a regret for your past fetters, even after your emancipation ? " 323. Louis stood before his judges with a firm counte- The trial con- nance. He required counsel, and when one tinued. Qf those he selected declined the task, Males- herbes \malz-erb'\ who had in the early part of his reign been one of his ministers, came forward to undertake his master's defense. Said he : "I have been twice called to assist at his council-table, when such a summons was an ob- ject of ambition to every one. I owe him the same service now that it is a function that many persons would consider dangerous," After an able defense by Malesherbes, a long and earnest discussion arose. Robespierre said, " The last proof of devotion which we owe to our country is to stifle in our hearts every sentiment of sensibility." On the side of the Girondists vigorous efforts were made in the king's de- fense ; but finally the discussion was closed, and three questions were put to the vote, — the guilt of Louis, the ap- peal to the people, and the penalty. 324. The king by a unanimous vote was pronounced guilty, and the appeal to the people rejected ; The verdict. ° •" . , , , . 1 • n • ^. j the question of the penalty to be inflicted re- mained. But the orators did not deliberate alone ; fo around the doors of the Assembly was a savage mob, heap ing threats upon all who dared to be merciful, — so that even those who most desired to save the king became frightened. For ten days the voting went on, and when with a voice of emotion the President of the Convention, Vergniaud \yern-yo''\ declared the result, he ^ound that, out of 721 votes, the sentence awarded by a majority of 26 was death, — death within twenty-four hours ! THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. /^2\ 325. Louis requested the attendance of a priest (the Abbd Edgeworth) to administer the offices of ... 1 • • 1 • 1 1 ^ ^^^ scene. rengion to him m his last moments : the re- quest was granted. A last interview with his family, from whom he had for some time been separated, was granted also ; but the keepers required that the meeting should take place in a hall which had a glass door giving a view of the interior. The king entered the apartment at eight, and walked about for some time in expectation. At half past eight a door opened, and the queen, the king's sister Elizabeth, and his two children entered, casting themselves with sobs into his arms. After a long and sad conference Louis rose and promised to see them again on the morrow : in spite of this promise, which was not to be fulfilled, the farewell was heart-rending. 326. Towards midnight the king slept soundly, continuing to do so till five in the morning, when he re- Execution of ceived the sacrament from the priest. At eight ^ouis xvi. on the morning of January 21, 1793, the officers entered; the procession moved between two lines of armed men, and arrived, at half past ten, at the Place de la Re'volution. There in a large open space stood the scaffold with the fatal guillotine,* surrounded by the guards and a rabble uttering ferocious cries and yells. Louis attempted to speak : " I die innocent ; I pardon my enemies ; and as for you, unfortunate people — " but the drums drowned his voice, and while the confessor poured into his ear the words, " Son of St. Louis, ascend to heaven ! " the king ceased to live. 327. This act of regicide was equivalent to a declaration of war with the whole of Europe. England, Foreign af- Holland, Spain, Germany, Sweden, and finally ^^''■*- * " La guillotine," as the French call this deadly machine, was in- vented about 1755 by Dr. Guillotin, whose name in the French femi- nine form it bears. It is a large loaded knife set in a wooden frame, and its action is instantaneous. 424 MODERN HISTORY. Russia, flew to arms. Almost at the same time the French province of La Vendue broke into open insurrection, and the Republic found itself called upon to suppress disaffec- tion at home, to organize armies, and to defend France from 350,000 of the best troops in Europe, now approaching the frontiers upon every side. A levy of 300,000 men was accordingly decreed, and Dumouriez marched into Holland, where he won several victories ; but soon after, becoming dis- gusted with the excesses of the republican government, he went over to the enemy's camp. Other generals, however, took his place, and the war went on in the Austrian Nether- lands, along the Rhine, and in Italy. Though sometimes beaten, the French were on the whole victorious, and were able all the time to make head against the allies. The en- ergy displayed by the leaders of the Revolution was truly amazing. 328. These achievements of the French armies abroad Excesses of the were, however, almost effaced by the disgrace revolutionists, -^yhich fell upon the name of the Republic in consequence of its atrocities at home. Appropriately com- mencing with the abolition of religious belief, the worship of Reason, and the suppression of the Sabbath, the savage man who ruled the whirlwind passed on to a saturnalia of blood. The queen, Marie Antoinette, the king's sister Elizabeth, and hundreds of persons of rank and station went to their death. The victims of the guillotine in Paris amounted to seventy or eighty a day, and a sewer was con- structed for the express purpose of carrying off the human blood. The Girondists were slain without mercy. Two hundred thousand suspected persons were cast into prison, and thence day by day brought out in tumbrels to the place of doom. It is shocking to record that women sat and knit as calmly as in the pit of a theatre while the fear- ful tragedy was being played out before their eyes. 329. During the height of the Reign of Terror all the THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 425 powers of the state were centered in a small body of Jaco- bins called the " Committee of Public Safety," The leaders foremost among whom were Danton, Robes- struggles, pierre, and Marat. Marat met a deserved death at the hands of Charlotte Corday, a young woman who came to Paris from Caen for the express purpose of assassinating him, — a purpose which she accomplished in his bath. Danton, thinking that the revolution had gone far enough, wished to bring back something like order. But the " sea- green " Robespierre had another thought ; he determined to destroy his former friends, that he might stand alone on the dreadful eminence of terror. He succeeded in his attempt, and, as we shall see, was himself swallowed up in the same abyss. 330. In the spring of the year 1794 Robespierre be« came absolute ruler of the Convention, and he Robespierre determined to exterminate the leaders of all ™^s'^^'"- parties. He therefore denounced on the one hand what were called the anarchists as enemies to the true welfare of the state, and on the other the moderates as lukewarm in the cause of liberty. Among the latter were Danton and his party: the leader himself, with most of his followers, went to the scaffold. Robespierre ruled by murder, and between June 10 and July 17, 1794, he sent 1285 persons to the guillotine in Paris. 331. At length, terrified by the rapidity, the impartiality, and the number of Robespierre's condemna- '^ , The reaction. tions the members of the Convention re- solved to rid themselves of the tyrant. No man's life was certain for a day. No man knew but that his name might be found upon the next list of victims. On the 27th of July, 1794, Robespierre was defied in the tribune, and with his brother and some of his accomplices arrested. A con- test between the Assembly and the Jacobins of the city ensued : after many times inclining the other way, it was decided in favor of the Convention. 426 MODERN HISTORY. 332. Robespierre, with some of his fellow-demons, had Death of taken refuge in the Hotel de Ville. In despair Robespierre, j-^g attempted self-destruction with a pistol, but only fractured his jaw. He and his fellows were cast rudely into a cart and carried to the guillotine (July 28, 1794), where they suffered a part of the punishment due to ;Jieir accumulated crimes. 333. The Reign of Terror was over. It is true that some of the Jacobin members of the Convention continued to advocate the principles of the revolutionar}' tribunals, and the sans-culottes attempted one or two insurrections. But the reaction had fairly set in. The people awoke as from a hideous dream. The prisons were opened, the living Girondists were recalled from exile, the laws of Robespierre were repealed, and the churches were again devoted to the worship of God. 334. While these things were passing in Paris, the cam- Foreign sue- paigns against the allies, who had all along cesses. V&^l the field against the French, were emi- nently successful. All Flanders, the frontiers of Holland, and many strongholds on the Rhine, as also several places in Spain, submitted in 1794 to French commanders. And early in 1795 the French general Pichegru marched into Holland and took possession of Amsterdam. The stadt- holder fled to England, and up to the close of the revolu- tionary wars Holland remained a dependency of France. Indeed, so successful were the French in the field, that in the year 1795 both Prussia and Spain made peace with them. 335. In this same year, 1795, France received a new con- The new gov- stitution, — the third since 1789. Two legis- ernment. lativc couucils Were decreed, — the Ancients and the Five Hundred. The executive power was vested in five Directors, and hence the name of the Directory is often given to this phase of French government. The Directors were to be chosen by the two councils, and each Director was to be in turn President for three months. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION: 427 336. The Directory was not established without a strug- gle. The inhabitants of Paris were dissatisfied conflict for with the change proposed by the Convention ; P°wer. so the citizens by their Sections, or municipal divisions joined battle with the Convention, supported by 5000 regu- lar troops. The Sections, joined by the National Guards, mustered 40,000 men, and had at first the advantage. The Convention, however, gave command of the regular force to a general named Barras. He nominated as his second in command a young Corsican officer of artillery named Napo- leon Bonaparte, of whom we shall soon hear a great deal. 337. Bonaparte pointed his cannon down all the streets by which the Tuileries could be approached, Triumph of and when the assailants attempted to advance *^^ Directory, he mowed down the mass with grape-shot (October 4, 1795). This settled the matter : the Convention triumphed, and the new constitution and Directory stood on firm ground. With this ended the French Revolution, and here opened the wonderful career of Napoleon Bonaparte. 338. Napoleon Bonaparte was of Italian blood and name, and was a native of Corsica. Only two months Youth of before the birth of Napoleon (which took place Napoleon. in the year 1769) Corsica had given up its long struggle for independence and was incorporated with France, — so that he chanced to be born with all the privileges of French citi- zenship. He was the second son of Charles Bonaparte, a lawyer. At the age of ten he was sent away from home to the French Military School at Brienne. Here he spent over five years. At the end of that time the official report made of him was as follows : " Distinguished in mathemati- cal studies, tolerably versed in history and geography, much behind in Latin, belles-lettres, and other accomplishments ; of regular habits, studious and well-behaved, and enjoying excellent health." In 1785 he received his commission ajt a sub-lieutenant of artillery. 428 MODERN HISTORY 339. When the Revolution broke out Napoleon took the popular side. He first comes to notice in connection with First appear- the sicgc of Toulon. That city had made a •oidier. royalist uprising in 1793, and the garrison was aided by English and Spanish ships. The Republican gen- eral, Barras, made very, little progress till Napoleon dis- covered a mode of converging his artillery-fire on the forts in the harbor, and the result was that Toulon soon fell. Barras recognized the ability of the young artillerist, and accord- ingly, when he was appointed to the command of the troops of the Convention to oppose the Paris Sections, he asked for Lieutenant-Colonel Bonaparte as his assistant. The part which Napoleon played on that occasion we have already seen. 340. In the new government of the Directory, which we His advance- saw formed in 1795, Barras was one of the ment. ^yg Directors. Now in the spring of 1796 the Republic organized three great armies to oppose the allied enemies of France. One army was given to General Moreau \mor-o'\ another to General Jourdan'. The third, the army of Italy, through the friendly influence of Barras was conferred upon the young Corsican officer. He was twenty-six years of age, and had but just married Jose- phine, widow of the Count de Beauharnais \bo-harn-a!\ when appointed to this important command. 341. A strict following of chronology would require us Napoleon's re- here to enter upon the narrative of the cam- lations with . , it i i • t^ i if the Revolution, paign that Napoleon now made m Italy, and or his subsequent campaigns, up to the close of the i8th cen- tury. But it will be much more convenient to treat the Napoleonic wars as a whole, which we shall be able to do in the next chapter. And, indeed, it is the appearance of Napoleon on the stage, rather than the mere date of the year 1800, that marks the close of the period under review, The booming of the cannon with which, on that Octobei PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 429 day, in the year 1795, ^^ stayed the on-coming of the Sections and secured the victory of the Directory, was the death-knell of the Revolution, and announced a great era of French, and indeed of European, history, in which him- self was for twenty years to be the central figure. France had waded through revolution to a republic, but it was only to find herself in the hands of a master more despotic than any king that had ever sat upon her throne. 5. PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 342. The details already given under the topics em- braced in this chapter show that the i8th character of century was a period of wonderful changes, — *^° century. a time when old ideas and old institutions were swept away in a manner that had never happened in any previous time. 343. The great characteristic of this period is the ad- vance of democratic ideas. These ideas were influence of first promulgated in systematic form in France, ^''^^'^^ writers, where about the middle of the i8th century a series of remarkable writers arose to doubt and question all existing beliefs and things. There were wits and philosophers and economists in this school ; and its leaders were Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot, Condorcet, and the En- cyclopedists. They attacked the State and the Church with bitter wit and telling arguments. They were not always wise men, nor were their motives always noble ; but they did a needed work in what was, perhaps, the only way possible. They voiced a passionate desire, that swelled in the hearts of all the peoples, for those " inalienable rights " of which kings had robbed them. 344. These ideas, though first proclaimed as theory in France, were to find their earliest practical Democracy in embodiment in America. England itself was America, astir with the new thought, and in our own country was a 430 MODERN HISTORY. constituent part of the English people, whom the circum- stances of colonial life had obliged in a great measure to exercise self-government, — so that, of all parts of the world the American colonies were the ripest for democracy. The influence of the French school of political and social philosophers upon the founders of our Republic is readily traceable, and the Declaration of Independence draws some of its inspiration from Rousseau's Contrat Social. 345. While France by her ideas influenced America, the Influence of rcflex influence of America on France was pro- America on . . . , , ,. , , TT ■ 1 France. digious. Here m the Republic of the United States was a living embodiment of the gospel of democ- racy. Here was a great self-ruling nation, — a government of the people, for the people, and by the people. French armies and fleets had fought to establish this government, and the reports from across the Atlantic, and the living voice of those who had shared the conflict, set the blurred brain of every poor French serf into activity. 346. The result of this ferment was the French Revolu- Phiiosophy of tion, — that savage uprising of a people against Revolution. the abuses of feudalism and the divine right of kings. That this deluge swept away much that was good cannot be doubted ; yet it is equally certain that all the crimes and atrocities of the dreadful period between 1789 and 1795 were far more than counterbalanced by the per- manent gains which liberty then made. 347. The influence of the French Revolution spread Influence of throughout all the nations of Europe. Even the revolution , ^ , ,. . , , generally. where there was no great political change there was a wide social change ; and we may say, gen- erally, that since that great popular upheaval there has been no part of Europe where the people have been so utterly down-trodden as they were before. If all the glit- tering dreams of French Liberie, Fraternite, and Egaliti were not destined to be realized, one immense and perma- PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION: 43 1 nent gain there was : it was acknowledged that the people have rights, and ever since that time there have been slow yet steady advances towards the embodiment of these rights in the constitution of society and nations. 348. The literature of the i8th century is distinctively the literature of wit, which glitters in all kinds of composition, — letters, pamphlets, lampoons, essays, novels, and poetry. Nearly every cele- brated writer had the talent of exciting laughter not only as a conspicuous talent, but as his most conspicuous. Pious Addison and pious Cowper had it, surly Dr. Johnson, good- natured Goldsmith, courtier Voltaire, and rustic Burns. Another century of ridicule may not occur again in history, but it was needed. Institutions, manners, and habits had become ridiculous and vicious, and they required to be laughed out of the world. (For the most eminent writers of the i8th century see "Great Names," pages 437, 438.) 349. In pure philosophy the progress was not specially marked. In England Locke's Essay on the Human Unda'standhig had at the time a great repute ; but the book has not held its place. Bishop Berkeley propounded a form of idealism, and Reid on the other hand put forth his system of Common Sense. The contributions of Hume have probably had a more lasting influence than those of any contemporary English phi- losopher. French philosophy was almost wholly of a negative and destructive character, — and hence had but a temporary influence. Far deeper were the metaphysical speculations which now began to engage the attention of some profound German philosophers. Among these the greatest name is that of Kant, whose system laid the basis of all subsequent German metaphysics. 350. The fine arts were cultivated assiduously during this century. It was now for the first time _,•',, , . Fine arto. that England began to have native pamters of 432 MODERN HISTORY. some eminence and originality. The chief names in the English school are Gainsborough, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and Benjamin West, the last of whom was born in this country. But the most notable fact in the artistic history of this period is the great advance in the art of music, which now began to take embodiment in truly grand com- positions. It is sufficient to mention the names of Handel, Haydn, and Mozart. These great composers all belonged to the 1 8th century, and they were the fathers and founders of modern music. 351. The progress of science during this century was Science. most Striking. It was at this time that chem- Chemistry. jg^ry first took rank as a science. Black dis- covered carbonic acid gas ; Cavendish, the composition of water, and the constituents of the atmosphere ; Priestley, oxygen and more new substances than any other chemist ; while the great French chemist, Lavoisier \la-vtodz-yea'\ sys- tematized and generalized all previous discoveries, adding also other important contributions. 352. The science of electricity may be said to have originated at this same time. Benjamin Franklin did much for this branch of investi- gation, both by theory and by experiment. He demonstrated the identity of natural and artificial electricity. Then came an accident that made the electric telegraph possible in oui own time. The wife of Galvani, a professor in Bologna, had skinned some frogs, and noticed the twitching of the leg of one of them when the nerve came in contact with £ piece of metal, — and this was the first observed manifesta- tion of galvanism. To produce it Volta devised his pile, but in time a battery of plates of zinc and copper was found most convenient. 353' To enumerate even a tithe of the great scientific Other discov- discovedes that render the iSth century illus- ^*''*®- trious is impossible here. It was then that PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 433 the basis of modern geology was laid. Botany, from a jumble of pre-existing observations, was by the genius of Linnaeus first brought into systematic form. Comparative anatomy was created. The weight, form, and size of the earth were determined. Laplace collected and elaborated the mathematics of astronomy in his Mecanique Celeste; Sir William Herschel discovered Uranus (1781), and resolved the Milky-Way into distinct and separate stars. Adam Smith, in his Wealth of Nations, created the science of po- litical economy, and thereby rendered mankind one of the greatest services. 354. Striking as are these advances of pure science, we are even more impressed by the mighty practi- Great inven- ouis XVIII., the brother of the guillotined king. 456 MODERN HISTORY. But Louis XVIII. was indeed a Bourbon, — "one who forgot The Bourbon nothing and who learned nothing." Indeed, so Restoration. unpopular did he make himself, that soon all hearts began to turn once more to the exile of Elba. And he was now to startle Europe with a new appearance on the stage. 392. After ten months in Elba, Napoleon escaped. Napoleon's Landing near Cannes \ca7i\ he pushed on to reappearance. Paris, being joined by a small body of troops, and reached the capital without faring a shot. Louis XVIII. fled to Ghent. At this time a congress was sitting at Vienna, and the task of reconstructing the map of Europe, so roughly disturbed by Napoleon, was going merrily on when the news came. The news is said to have been greeted by the assembled diplomatists first with a silent stare of incredulity and then with a roar of laughter. 393. But Napoleon was in Paris, levying troops ; action Progress of must be prompt and decisive. The allies events. immediately declared Bonaparte an outlaw, and poured their armies toward France. Resolving to deal first with the enemies nearest to him. Napoleon invaded Belgium, where lay the English and Prussians under Wel- lington and Blucher. 394. The result of this campaign is told in a single word, — Waterloo ! This decisive combat Waterloo. , ' , „ , , ,n took place on the i8th of June, 181 5. It was an overwhelming defeat to the French, and Napoleon hastened to Paris to announce that all was lost. 395. On his arrival he found himself no longer treated Abdication and 3.S a Sovereign : his star had set, and as in his surrender. grandeur he had made the best interests and liberties of France subservient to his own glor}'^, so now he was cast aside that the nation might be cared for. On the 22d of June he signed his second abdication, and the allies, entering Paris on the 7th of July, remstated Louis XVIIL THE CONSULATE AND THE EMPIRE. 457 as King of France. Napoleon now sought to escape to the United States ; but this he could not do, as the British cruisers watched all the coast. On the 15th of July he went on board a British ship, having previously written to the Prince Regent of England, to say that " he came like Themistocles to claim the hospitality of the British people, and the protection of their laws." 396. But the British government regarded him as a tiger who was better chained than tree, and orders st. Helena were sent to carry him to St. Helena. The *"■* death, ship reached the lonely rock in October, 1815, and there he lived for six years. His death took place May 5, 182 1 ; and his last words, as he lay dying amid the crash and glare of a tropical thunder-storm were, Tete d^armee > (" Head of the army ! ") 397. The character of Napoleon Bonaparte has been matter of great discussion and of most opposed . . J ii • M • • 1 His character. opmion ; and this necessarily so, since, in the judgment of lives, men differ so widely in their basis of judgment. Viewed purely from an intellectual standpoint, as a man accomplishing world- ly ends by worldly arts, — by generalship, by faculty of com- bination, by administrative gen- ius, — he was undoubtedly the greatest that ever lived. But as a character he was neither good nor in the highest sense great ; for he was not great enough to be above self. We can only say that the work he 111 1 , , Napoleon. did needed to be done, and let the verdict go at that. For the rest, never has the world seen ambition so brilliant in its success, so tragic in its fall. 45 8 MODERN HISTORY. 1. MODERN ENGLISH POLITICS. 398. At the time when peace came to Europe, after the George III. long Napoleonic wars, George III., whose reign and George IV. began far back in the previous century, was still alive ; but he did not rule. Long prone to insanity, his mind had given way in 18 10, and the appointment of a Regent had become necessary. This office devolved upon his eldest son, who held it until the death of the poor old blind, crazy king, in 1820, when he ascended the throne as George IV. He is said to have been a man of consider- able ability ; and from his fine person and polished man- ners he was called by his flatterers the " first gentleman in Europe " ; but if to be a gentleman one must lead a decent life and have a feeling heart, then this king deserves not the name. 399. After the battle of Waterloo the sovereigns of England and Austria, Russia, and Prussia entered into what liance. Is Called the Holy Alliance, by which they bound themselves " to aid one another, in conformity with Holy Scripture, on every occasion." By this high-sounding profession they seem to have meant no more than that they would crush the desire for liberty and reform which began to show itself in the several countries. France also joined the alliance ; but England, suspecting that its object was the maintenance of despotic government, refused to assent to the principle of interference with the internal affairs of other states. 400. The most important political event of George IV.'s A step in reign was the removal of certain grievous dis- progress. abilities under which all persons who did not belong to the Church of England labored. These affected both Catholics and Protestant dissenters. The restriction which required all persons taking office to commune according to the rites of the Established Church was MODERN ENGLISH POLITICS. 459 removed in 1828 ; but many grievous laws yet remained in force against Catholics, who were shut out from Parliament and from many offices, franchises, and civil rights. 401. In Ireland there arose a great agitation for the re- peal of these laws, and early in the reign justice to Daniel O'Connell, an Irish barrister of great Catholics, eloquence, organized the Catholic Association^ for the pur- pose of pushing the question of emancipation. The sub- ject was frequently debated in the House of Commons, and motions in its favor were carried ; but the House of Lords- would not sanction the repeal of the penal laws. The ex- citement became intense, and the Catholic Association elected O'Connell to a seat in Parliament. So well did he ■fight the battle of his Church, that a bill was passed remov- ing all penal laws against Catholics, and placing them on the same political footing as Protestant subjects. The Duke of Wellington, who was at that time Prime Minister, avowed in the House of Lords that he had brought forward the measure in order to avert civil w^ar. The bill received the royal assent in April, 1829. Next year the king died. 402. George IV. was succeeded by his brother, William Henry, Duke of Clarence, who ascended the Accession of throne as William IV. He reigned seven wiiuam iv. years, that is, till 1837. 403. At the time of William's accession, the great ques- tion of Parliamentary Reform agitated the peo- Abuses of Par- 1 -r *U U J U liamentary pie. For many years there had been a grow- representation, ing demand for a change in Parliamentary representation, and certainly such a change was greatly needed. Many towns, such as Liverpool and Manchester, which contained a teeming population, were without representation at all, while many small and insignificant places returned to Par- liament one or more members. In such boroughs, known as "pocket" or "rotten" boroughs, the property was in most instances in the hands of some one large owner, by 460 MODERN HISTORY. whom the elections were controlled. The laige centers of population, unrepresented in the national legislature, could no longer suffer this state of things to continue, and loudly demanded Parliamentary reform. 404. The celebrated Reform Bill was brought into Par- Passage of the Hament in March, 183 1, by Lord John RusseU. Reform Bill. -pj^g ^^q parties in the House of Commons were so evenly balanced, that another appeal was made to the country, and a new House of Commons was returned, pledged to carry "the Bill." After a desperate struggle the measure was passed in the House of Commons by a large majority, but it was thrown out in the Lords. This caused great excitement throughout the country, and riots broke out in many places. On the assembling of Parlia- ment the following year, 1832, the Reform Bill was again introduced, and passed the Lower House ; and on finding both the Crown and the people against them, the Lords were induced to give up their opposition to the measure. 405. By this Act three great changes were made : i. Fifty- Changes it six of the pocket boroughs were disfranchised ; effected. 2. Several towns which had sprung, during the last centur}', into first-class cities, now for the first time re- ceived the right of sending members to Parliament ; 3. The franchise, or right of voting, was extended more widely among the middle classes. The right of voting for towns was given to the tenants of houses worth ;^ i o a year or upwards ; for county members all were entitled to vote who owned land worth ;^ lo a year, or who paid an annual rental of £ 50. 406. When the Reform Parliament met in the following Abolition year, 183-5, it justified the best hopes of its of colonial r • j ^ . • r • j slavery. fnends by entering upon a course of wise and liberal legislation. One of the most important of its acts was the abolition of slavery in the British colonies. The merit of this work is mainly due to William Wilberforce, MODERN ENGLISH POLITICS. 46 1 who for many years had devoted himself to the question of Emancipation. For the 800,000 slaves who thus received their freedom, a compensation of £ 20,000,000 was paid to their masters. 407. William IV. died in 1837, and was succeeded by Alexandrina Victoria, daughter of his brother, Accession of Edward Duke of Kent. She was then eighteen Victoria, years of age, and three years afterward was married to her cousin. Prince Albert, of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. 408. The most important political event during the early part of this reign was the Repeal of the Corn Repeal of the La7vs, These were laws imposing heavy duties ^"""^ ^^'^3- upon the importation of foreign grain. All who lived by agriculture — the land-owners, the farmers, and the laboring classes — wished to keep foreign grain out of the market, in the belief that it was their interest, by high duties, to prated home agriculture. On the other hand, those who held free- trade doctrines argued that every man and nation should be free to buy in the cheapest and sell in the dearest mar- ket, and that all protective restrictions were futile. In 1839 a number of these men, of whom Richard Cobden was the most prominent, formed what was called the Anti- Corn-Law League. By vigorous agitation the cause tri- umphed in 1846, when bills were carried through Parlia- ment for abolishing or reducing to a merely nominal amount the duties on grain, cattle, and other productions. 409. About the same time the English people were ereatlv stirred up by what was called the ^^ ^^ ^. ^ o •' >■ J The Chartists. Chartist agitation. The Chartists were for the most part workingmen, and took their name from their People's Charter., — a document in which they demanded six changes in the Constitution: i. Universal suffrage; 2. Vote by ballot ; 3. Annual Parliaments ; 4. Electoral dis- tricts ; 5. The abolition of property qualification for mem- bers ; 6. The payment of Parliamentary representatives, 462 MODERN' nrSTORY. After some rioting in 1839 the Chartists remained tolerably quiet until 1848, when, excited by the revolutions that took place during that year in France and other parts of the Continent, they determined to show their strength. 410. On Kensington Common, 20,000 of them assem- How they bled, for the purpose of walking in procession down. through London to the House of Commons, there to present a monster petition in favor of their claims. Why they should have been prevented from doing so, if they broke no law, it is not easy for us in this country to see ; for with us every one of the six points in their Peoples Charter is a part of the organic law of the land. However, the government took alarm, and appealed to the people. The result was that a quarter of a million of Londoners enrolled themselves as special constables to prevent the dreadful " red republican " demonstration. The affair, however, passed off without any trouble: the Chartists were not allowed to recross the bridges in procession, and there the matter came to an end. From this time the Chartists ceased to be of any importance as an organized body, but their work was of value in educating the public mind, and what they did bore fruit \ for, as we shall see, most of the reforms for which they contended have since become law. 411. Since Waterloo there had been no great European war, but the year 18 "^4 was signalized by the Crimean W^ar. i , r outbreak of the Crimean War. This arose from the fact that the Czar of Russia, Nicholas, disturbed the balance of power by seizing the Turkish Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. Great Britain and France, afterwards joined by the King of Sardinia, formed an alli- ance in aid of the Sultan, and engaged in a war with Rus- sia, which was carried on mainly in the Crimea. The chief actions were the victories of the Alma, September, 1854, and of Inkerman', November, 1854. The allied armies then REVOLUTIONS IN FRENCH POLITICS. 463 invested Sebastopol. The siege lasted 349 days, at the end of which time the place was evacuated by the Russians, in September, 1855 ; and in the course of the following year peace was made. 412. Since this time England has been engaged in no considerable war, and the history of the coun- Later English try has been one of steady internal develop- P°'>tics. ment. That slow but sure progress in political reform which characterizes the English has been going on all the time. In accordance with a prevalent desire for further Parliamentary improvements, a new Reform Bill was in 1867 brought in and carried by the Tory, or Conservative, Ministry then in power, the chiefs of which were the Earl of Derby and Mr. Disraeli. By this the right of franchise was greatly extended. In 1869 and 1870 important changes were made in Ireland, by measures carried by the liberal ministry under the leadership of Mr. Gladstone. By one act the Irish Church was disestablished on the ground that it was the church of the minority of the Irish people, — a measure of justice to the Catholics. By an act passed in 1872 votes in Parliamentary elections are now given by bal- lot, instead of open voting as heretofore. This was one of the fundamental desires of the Chartists, and brings the English political system still nearer to our own. 3. REVOLUTIONS IN FRENCH POLITICS.* 413. The modern history of France presents a striking contrast to that of England. Reform — the Character of ? . . . , - modern French gradual improvement of the existmg order of politics, things — has been the watchv/ord in England ; but in France, since Napoleon I., the people have been able to effect changes only by Revolution. 414. Louis XVIII.* was fifty-nine years of age when he * Louis XVIII. was brother of Louis XVI., and uncle of the Dauphin (son of Louis XVI.), who would have been Louis XVII. ; but he died when & lad, owinj; to his cruel treatment during the Revolution. 464 MODERN HISTORY. was restored to the throne of his fathers. Weary of strife, Reign of exhausted alike in her finances and in her pop- Louis XVIII. ulation, France now enjoyed tranquillity, and slumbered contentedly beneath the inoffensive government of her new sovereign. He was a man of easy temper, un- wieldy person, and mediocre capacity. He desired sincerely enough the good of his people, and wished to rule as a constitutional king. But there were those around him who desired nothing so much as the restoration of the old despotic regime of Louis XIV. ; and among these the greatest reac- tionist was the king's brother, the Count d'Artois \ar-iwa% who became king with the title of Charles X., on the death of Louis XVIIL, in 1824. 415. Witli Charles X. absolutism set in. He had as Despotic acts Strong a mania for despotic rule as ever pos- of Charles X. scsscd the English Stuarts, and was unable, poor blind man, to read the terrible lesson which he should have learned when his brother's head rolled from the guil- lotine block. In 1827 he disbanded the Civic Guard. In 1830, aided by a minister as blind and foolish as himself, he issued three ordinances which kindled the Second French Revolution. These were: i. That the liberty of the press was suspended ; 2. That the Chamber of Deputies was dis- solved before it had met ; 3. That the elections were to be made by the Prefects, who were mere creatures of the gov- ernment. 416. The Parisians met these enactments in a spirited manner ; there was a blossoming out of tricol- Revoiution. ^^^^ cockadcs, a sudden irruption of barricades in the streets, some brisk fights with the troops, and in three days (July 27, 28, and 29, 1830) the people were masters of the city. A provisional government was appointed ; and in a few days Louis Philippe, of the House of Orleans, and cousin to Charles X., was elected King of the French. Charles soup-ht refuge abroad, and died in Austria six years later. REVOLUTIONS IN FRENCH POLITICS. 465 417. The new sovereign was now fifty-seven years of age*, he had known adversity and privation, had Account of been a refugee in Switzerland, where he taught ^°"'^ Philippe, school for a while, had traveled extensively in the United States, and finally settled down in England, where he re- mained till the downfall of Napoleon. 418. Counting on the salutary effect of these his varied experiences, the French people now looked ^.^ troubles forward to the reign of Louis Philippe as to a period of genuine freedom. Yet the position of the Citizen- King, as he was called, was a difficult and delicate one, for he was between two extreme parties, — on the one hand the republicans, on the other the partisans of the old Bourbon regime. It was not long before the troubles of the new reign began, — troubles at Lyons and in Paris itself. Then came repeated efforts made against the king's life. These things impelled him to take several very foolish steps, such as abridging the liberty of the press and making fre- quent prosecutions, while his want of good faith, his insa- tiable avarice, and his lavish expenditures alienated the moderate men on whom he might have relied for support. 419. During this period there was a young man who made two separate attempts at revolution : but Early exploits of Louis Na- these sallies were of rather a burlesque charac- poieon. ter, and had little other effect than that of exciting laughter. The man was Louis Napoleon, a nephew of the Great Na- poleon, and son of that Louis Bonaparte who was once king of Holland. He was born at Paris in 1808, educated under the care of his mother, Hortense, and had spent most of his time in Switzerland, where he led a quiet, studious life. His one infatuation was to imitate his great uncle, and it is astonishing how far he was ultimately able to carry the delusion of his name. In 1836 he made an attempt to excite insurrection at Strasburg ; but it failed, and he was permitted to go to America. Returning to Europe, h« 466 MODERN HISTORY. made a fresh effort in 1840, — this time at Boulogne, whither he went from England with fifty friends and a tame eagle. The troops at the Boulogne barracks, however, would not surrender as he expected, so his crestfallen party made a retreat to their vessel ; but Louis Napoleon was arrested, tried, and condemned to imprisonment in the fortress of Ham. After six years he managed to escape in the dress of a workman, and took up his home in Eng- land. By this time events were to open for him a new theater of action. 420. The murmurs of the people at the corruptions of Revolution of the government were growing loud and deep. ^^48. The king had become exceedingly unpopular. Meetings of disaffected persons in what were called Re- form Banquets were now frequent in Paris and the provin- cial towns. The working-classes adopted as their motto those three words, fatal to sovereigns, — Liberty, Equal- ity, and Fraternity. The crisis came in 1848, when a Reform Banquet, appointed to take place on Washington's birthday (February 22), was forbidden by the government. There was a new appearance of barricades in Paris streets, and the citizen-king, under the ver)' bourgeois name of Mr. Smith, took his flight to England, where he lived till his death, two years afterwards. 421. France was now a Republic once more, and a The Republic National Assembly was elected by universal and anarchy, suffrage, Opening its scssion. May 5, 1848. . Still, for several months Paris was a scene of anarchy. In June especially the tumult rose to a great height, and a frightful contest began between the populace, the troops, and the national guard. Paris was declared in a state of siege, and General Cavaignac v.^as made Dictator. The city was not quieted during a whole month, and it is cal- culated that in this time 16,000 persons were killed or wounded. REVOLUTIONS JN FRENCH POLITICS. 467 422. A new constitution, vesting the executive power in a President of the Republic, who should be xhe new con- chosen by all the peoj^le and should hold of- ^titution. fice for four years, was adopted by the National Assembly in November, 1848. Louis Napoleon had returned to France, having been elected a deputy for the department of the Seine. He stood as candidate for the Presidency, and in the following month was elected to the office by the votes of five millions and a half of the French people. 423. He never agreed well with the Assembly, and it was soon manifest that one or the other must The Coup be crushed. Indeed, it is quite certain that ^^'^t^*- from the beginning of his Presidency he was busily engaged in weaving plots to make himself master of France. The plan he formed was what the French call a coup diktat (stroke of state), which in this case meant a massacre by military force, and the midnight arrest of his opponents. The work was done quietly on the night of December 2, 185 1, — so quietly that next morning Paris was in Louis Napoleon's hands, and on the placarded walls men read a decree proclaiming that the Assembly was dissolved, that universal suffrage was restored, and that Paris was under martial law. On the 4th, there was the usual Parisian up- rising ; but it was put down by the strong hand, after some 800 of those who resisted the usurpation had fallen by the bullets of the soldiery. On the 14th of the following Jan- uary (1852) a new constitution placed in the hands of Louis Napoleon the government of France for ten years. 424. The strange success attending this extraordinary seizure of power can only be accounted for by Cause of Louia "^ Napoleon's the fact that France was completely demoral- success, ized by the long peiiod of change and anarchy through which she had passed. How thoroughly, by this time, the French had lost all sense of real political liberty is evi- denced by the next step in the marvelous career of Louis 468 MODERN HISTORY. Napoleon. This was his elevation to be Emperor by over seven millions of votes, being nearly the entire vote of France. 425. On the 2d of December, 1852, he was proclaimed Becomes Em- Empcror with the title of Napoleon III.* On peror. ^-^g ^oth of January, 1853, he was married to Eugenie de Monti jo, a Spanish lady of Scottish extraction and ancient birth. The ceremony was performed with great splendor by the Archbishop of Paris in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. 426. When Napoleon III. assumed the Imperial Crown, His profession he made an utterance which, it was supposed, of peace. would be the key to his policy : " The Empire," said he, " is peace " {L Empire c'est la paix). But indeed there have been wars in Europe ever since, in which France has taken the chief part. 427. The year after his accession, when there arose the quarrel between Russia and Turkey that re- His first war. -^ , . . , , i , suited m the Crimean War, he led the way m forming the coalition against Russia. The nation entered with eagerness enough into the contest, and it is gen- erally believed, that, as between France and England, the French had the greater share of glory in the operations be- fore Sebastopol. 428. In 1859 hostilities broke out between Austria His second 3,nd Sardinia. The French Emperor in per- ^^'■- son took the field in Northern Italy as an ally of Sardinia. It was given out that he intended to free all Italy, from the Alps to the Adriatic ; but though the French were victorious over the Austrians at Magenta and Solferino, Napoleon III. stopped short and concluded the mysterious Peace of Villafranca. It did not then appear * The putative Napoleon II. was the son born to Napoleon I. and Maria Louisa in 181 1. He never reigned, and on the abdication of his father was created Duke of Reichstadt in Austria. He died in 1831. REVOLUTIONS IN FRENCH POLITICS. 469 that his conduct was wholly disinterested, for though by his action Lombardy (given up by the Austrians) was joined to Sardinia, yet Victor Emanuel, the king of that state, had to cede to France the two provinces of Nice and Savoy. 429. The last and greatest of Napoleon III.'s wars was that which he declared against Prussia, in The German 1870. The reason which he assigned for "'^'■• this act of aggression was, that there had been talk of giving the crown of Spain to Leopold, a distant kinsman of the King of Prussia; but the real reason was that he was very jealous of the greatness of Prussia, which was rapidly accomplishing the reconstitution of Germany ; and, besides, he was desirous of establishing his waning pop- ularity in France by means of a successful war. To take away all cause of dispute, Leopold, in July, 1870, withdrew from being a candidate for the crown of Spain. But this did not satisfy Napoleon, who asked the king of Prussia to give formal assurances that Leopold would never in the future accept of the crown of Spain. This demand was refused, and France declared war, 430. In the sketch of Germany a brief account will be given of the stupendous struggle which now summary of ensued. It is sufficient for the present to say, events. that the French crossed the German frontier, but were driven out in a few days, and then the German armies en- tered France and won a series of great victories. Napoleon III. himself became a prisoner. Paris was besieged, and surrendered to the Germans. Meanwhile Napoleon III. was declared deposed, and a republic was again set up in France. The late Emperor retired to England, where two years afterwards he died. 431. In thus following down through the wars waged during the reign of Napoleon III., we have, for Material pros- 1 • 1 • II,. , ,• perity of the time being, neglected the mternal state of France. France. The eighteen years of imperial rule formed a 470 MODERN HISTORY. period of quite marked material prosperity. Louis Napo- leon had something of his uncle's genius for administrative details. He did much to build up the commerce of the country, to develop its railroad system and its mining and manufacturing interests, and to extend and beautify its cities. The French people, freed for twenty years from anarchy, and directed into industrial channels, became as a nation more practical than they ever were before, and the material prosperity of France was never greater than under the Second Empire. 432. But a nation pays too dearly for peace and material The price it well-being when it purchases them at the price ^°^^- of liberty. The French are a mighty, a noble people, and for centuries upheld the civilization of Europe \ yet it is to be said of them, that for twenty years in the midst of the 19th century they permitted themselves to live under a rule which, in principle, if not in practice, was no better than an Asiatic despotism. The real rottenness of the system was clearly disclosed by the German conflict. The issue on trial was this: a people, the bravest, the proudest in Europe, but the great mass of whom were morally enfeebled both by want of education and of in- telligent participation in public affairs, opposed to a na- tion brought up in the public school. The result was a most significant verdict as to the merit of the two systems. 4. THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY. 433. After the Congress of Vienna (18 15), Austria hung Italy, 1815- ^i^^^ ^ millstone round the neck of Italy; so »848. that this beautiful land can hardly be said to have had any history from 18 15 to 1848. Austrians swarmed in the basin of the Po, and creatures of Austria wore the coronets of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma. 434, When Pius IX. became Pope, in 1846, he began to UNIFICATION OF ITALY. 47 1 make some useful changes among the people of the Papal States. The Austrians, alarmed at any signs Revolution of of growing freedom, entered Ferrara in 1847, '^'*^' and all Central Italy rose in arms against the tyrants. ' The following year saw the flame of revolution kindled in Lom- bardy. The Austrian troops were driven from Milan, and Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, took the field against them. But the hour of triumph was short : the Austrians soon reconquered Lombardy and invaded Sardinia, and Charles Albert, defeated at Novara in 1849, abdicated, and was succeeded by his son Victor Emanuel II. Meanwhile Venice, which had again become a republic, was recovered by Austria. Rome, where a republic had been set up, was overcome by troops sent by the new republic of France. In the other Italian States the princes who had been frightened by the revolutionary movements into granting constitutions, withdrew these. Thus, after 1849, Italy was left in much the same case as she had been in before the uprising. 435. In this depressed state of affairs the one outlook for Italian patriots, who yearned intensely for victor Eman- the freedom and unity of their country, was "^'• in Sardinia, whose new king, Victor Emanuel II., was known to be liberally inclined. His subjects, the Piedmon- tese, enjoyed a constitutional government, a free press, and a large share of religious liberty. Victor Emanuel did not disappoint the good hopes of the patriots, for he introduced many reforms, and kept his word so faithfully that he won for himself the honorable nickname of // Re Galantuomo (The Honest King). 436. In 1853 Count Cavour became prime minister to Victor Emanuel. He was one of the ablest cavour's statesmen of the 19th century, and passionately p'^^s. desired to see all Italy free and united. As an important step towards this end, he induced the king in 1855 to enter into the war which England and France were carrying on 472 MODERN HISTORY. against Russia in the Crimea ; for he reasoned that if Italy should come to be regarded as a useful ally by the great powers, her deliverance might be hastened by foreign inter- ference. Accordingly, at the Congress of Paris, held the following year to arrange terms of peace between the allies and Russia, Cavour took the opportunity of laying before the representatives of the European powers the unhappy condition of his countrymen in the other Italian States. This led France and England to remonstrate with the King of Naples, who was one of the worst of the Italian tyrants, and at length the dispute became so serious that their am- bassadors were withdrawn from Naples. And now we come to the eventful days that changed the little kingdom of Sar- dinia into the kingdom of Italy. 437. In 1859 France and Sardinia declared war against War with Austria, and the Emperor Napoleon III. said Austria. j^g would free Italy from the Alps to the Adri- atic. The Austrians were beaten in the two great actions of Magenta (June 4, 1859) and Solferino (June 24), and it seemed as though the French Emperor would keep his word. But he found that if he went further Prussia would take up the cause of Austria, and so he concluded the Peace of Villafranca. Austria gave up to the King of Sar- dinia Lombardy to the west of the Mincio. In March, i860, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Romagna, by a gen- eral vote of the people, became subject to the King of Sar- dinia. 438. In the mean time the doings of one man gave free- dom to Naples and Sicily. Joseph Garibaldi,* "the hero of the red shirt," issuing from the rocky islet of Caprera, * Joseph Garibaldi, born at Nice in 1807, has had a most eventful and wandering life. After making some voyages as a sailor, he engaged in plots with Mazzini against Charles Albert of Sardinia. Escaping from the perilous consequences of these, he carried his sword to South Amer- ica, where he fought against Brazil on behalf of Rio Grande. On his return to Europe he aided in defending Rome against the French (1848). THE GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. 473 landed in May, i860, at Marsala in Sicily, proclaiming him- self Dictator for Victor Emanuel. Storming Garibaldi's Palermo, the capital of Sicily, and defeating operations, the troops of the King of Naples at Melazzo, he then in- vaded the mainland, forcing Reggio to capitulate. The King of Naples took refuge in the maritime fortress of Gaeta, while Garibaldi entered the capital and nominated a provincial government. 439. The troops of Sardinia soon invaded the Papal States, whose armies they defeated, and whose itaiy a king- seaport of Ancona they forced to capitulate. ^°'"- Other victories followed, and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies became a dependency of Sardinia. By vote or revo- lution all the other States, except the Papal territories and the Austrian province of Venetia, were in 1861 amalgamated into the Kingdom of Italy, and the Italian Parliament made Victor Emanuel king of Italy. 440. The rest of the story of Italian liberation is soon told. When the war between Austria and „. . . . t^r ^ -r t • • IT-. • Closing events. Prussia broke out m 1866, Italy joined Prussia, and Austria had to give up Venice and Verona. Lastly, when the war between France and Germany (1870) caused the French troops to be withdrawn from Rome, the eter- nal city was at last joined to the Italian kingdom. The entrance of Victor Emanuel into Rome was the end of the struggle for Italian unity. Italy is now united into a single kingdom and has Rome for her capital. 5. THE GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. 441. Until the Napoleonic wars, the German Empire, or " Holy Roman Empire," the true represent- Review of Ger- ative of the Empire of the Caesars, had con- ""^^ politics. Another turn of Fortune's wheel, — and he appears as a soap-boiler and candle-maker in America ; then is transformed to a farmer on the rocky islet of Caprera. 474 MODERN HISTORY. tinued to exist in name, though, since the Peace of West- phalia, the union of the German States had been very lax indeed. But under Napoleon even the name of union under an imperial head passed away. First he suc- ceeded in detaching the two duchies of Bavaria and Wiir- temberg and several smaller states, and these he formed into the Confederation of the Rhine.* And at last the Emperor, Francis II., in 1806, formally resigned the imperial crown, and was called simply Efnperor of Austria ; — so that, after this, Germany was no longer, even nominally, a united state, acknowledging a common head. 442. When, after the downfall of Napoleon in 1815, the The German status of the various European nations was Confederation, settled at the Congrcss of Vienna, the jeal- ousies of the greater German states, especially Austria and Prussia, did not permit that the Empire should be restored. Instead of this the German princes united by a lax federal tie in what was called the German Confederatioji (June 8, 1815), which union lasted until quite recent times. It was made up of thirty-nine states.t Each state was to remain independent in matters that affected // alone, — the object of the confederation being merely the regulation of those affairs common to all German states equally. A permanent Diet, or Parliament, consisting of the plenipotentiaries of the states, was to hold its sittings in Frankfort-on-the-Main, the representatives of Austria presiding. The members of the Confederation agreed never to declare war against one another ; there was to be a confederate army, to which each * See page 451. t The principal of these were: (i) Austria, (2) Prussia, (3) Bavaria, |4) Saxony, (5) Hanover, (6) Wiirtemberg, (7) Baden, (8) Hesse, (9) Darmstadt, (10) Brunswick, (11) Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Nassau. The votes in the Diet were so regulated that the eleven states of first rank alone held a full vote, the secondary states holding merely a half or the fourth of a vote. THE GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. ^y^ state was to contribute according to its population, and all subjects of dispute between the various states were to be referred for settlement to the Diet. 443. By the Act of Confederation all the princes prom- ised free constitutions to their people. This was a conces- sion to the spirit of the age ; but, in fact, most Broken prom- of them forgot to make good their promise. '^^^• This was a great disappointment to the hopes of the liberal and patriotic party throughout Germany. 444. Moreover, for some time a strong feeling for the real unity of Fatherland had been growing up, unity,— a step especially since the war of freedom. There towards it. was a very general desire that Germany should cease to be a mere bundle of states only nominally united, and become a strong power by becoming a tmited power. One not unim- portant step towards realizing this wish was taken as Prus- sia gradually, from 1828 onwards, became the center of a commercial union among the German states, the members of which agreed to levy no duties on merchandise passing from one state to another, but to levy them only at the com- mon frontier. This union, called the Zollverein, or Customs' tJnion, was gradually joined by most of the German States. 445. But, aside from this, most of the German sovereigns and princes showed themselves to be thorough The govem- , , . . ... . _, ment and the absolutists m prmciple and practice. Repres- people, sive measures were used to crush every little manifestation of independence, and the press was completely shackled. But, indeed, these acts had only the effect of making the desire for freedom and unity stronger. When the French Revolution of 1830 took place, there were slight sympa- thetic uprisings in Prussia and Austria, and especially in Brunswick ; but very little came of these. 446. However, the French Revolution of 1848 (when King Louis Philippe was driven out, and a xhe earth- republic was set up) had more serious conse- i^ai^e year. 476 MODERN HISTORY. quences in Germany. The people this time were in earnest, and resolved to obtain, at whatever cost, their chief de- mands. The princes of the smaller states were alarmed, and most of them at once adopted a more liberal policy. In Austria the reforming or revolutionary part)' everywhere gained the upper hand ; and the Emperor was obliged to summon a Diet, to be elected by universal suffrage in all his hereditary lands. In Berlin the uprising was even more determined ; there were sharp contests between the people and the soldiers ; and the king, Frederick William IV., was obliged to grant a new constitution. It was gen- erally hoped that union as well as freedom was now to be achieved in Germany, for the movement gained such height that members from the various states were elected to a National Assembly, which was opened at Frankfort in May, 1848, and which had the right of acting for all Germany, since the Diet had meanwhile voluntarily ceased to exist. 447. But, once again, the movement for union and in- Cause of the dependence proved abortive, and this time people's fail- , '■ , ure. when the people seemed to have everythmg their own way. This failure was due to several causes. To begin with, the National Assembly was largely under the influence of well-meaning, but visionary men, and showed itself unequal to the task of reconstituting Germany. Then the movement for independence was seriously checked by the great excesses to which the revolutionary party in Austria and Hungary went. 448. The Hungarians, it must be remembered, were under Uprising and the Austrian dominion, and formed one of the down-putting . _ , . ,, -r-> •, ^ of Hungary. statcs of Fraucis II. s " Empire. But they had once been a great and an independent nation, and they sighed to be freed from the yoke of the House of Haps- burg. Headed by the famous orator Kossuth, they de- manded complete independence, and set up a republic. Jut unluckily feuds arose between the Magyars and the THE GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. 477 Other races in Hungary, and this greatly helped the recon- quest of the country by Austria, which, however, was not done without the help of Russia. 449. While these events were taking place in Hungary, there was a gradual subsidence of the republi- The tide re- can movement in Germany proper, so that in '^^'^ss. Austria and Prussia and the other states the government got the upper hand. And now that the governments were freed from the fear with which the revolutionary outburst had at first inspired them, they became less and less in- clined to adopt any very thorough changes. Moreover, the National Assembly, still sitting at Frankfort, was violently divided. True, it got so far in April, 1849, ^s to form a kind of constitution, and it offered the Imperial power to the King of Prussia, in whose family it was to be heredi- tary. Frederick William, however, refused to accept the title under a constitution which, he said, would not give him power sufficient to fulfil the duties of an emperor. 450. All this time, and long afterwards, the greatest difll- culty in the unification of Germany arose from Jealousies of the jealousies between Prussia and Austria, Austria, each believing that // should form the nucleus in the recon- stitution of the Empire. Prussia, when Austria was en- gaged in quelling the Hungarian revolt (1849), made an ef- fort to unite Germany, leaving out Austria. Several states joined Prussia in an alliance. Then Austria, alarmed by the attempt of Prussia to seize the place in Germany which she looked on as lawfully hers, made a counter-effort, and succeeded in joining with her various states in another alli- ance, leaving out Prussia. Feeling ran very high, and the two sections were nearly plunged into civil war on a dispute that arose in regard to Hesse-Cassel. The difficulty was settled by the temporary re-establishment of the Confeder- ation much as it had been before 1848. But it remained clear that the great question in German politics was whether 478 MODERN HISTORY. Austria or Prussia should occupy the first place in Ger- many. 451. The years that followed the revolutionary period besrun in 1848 were on the whole prosperous. Events to 1859. ^^^ a-uj a uj Commerce nourished, and much was done to promote popular education. In the year 1859 Austria plunged into the war with Sardinia, — the war in which Napoleon III. took sides with Sardinia and compelled Aus- tria to give up Lombardy.* Austria tried to drag the Con- federation into the struggle on her side ; but Prussia firmly adhered to the principle that the Confederation could take no part in any contest that did not directly affect German interests. As bearing on Germany, this war is only impor- tant in that the partial unification of Italy, which was the result of it, gave a fresh impulse in many German minds to the desire for national unit}^ 452. King Frederick William IV. of Prussia died in Prussia under 1861, and was succccded by his brother, who William I. tQQi^ thg tij.jg of William I. He appointed Otto von Bismarck, one of the ablest of modern states- men, his prime minister and minister of foreign affairs. The king was an enthusiastic soldier, and wished to see the Prussian army reorganized. His efforts to achieve this end led to disputes with the Parliament, which did not wish to sanction the heavy expenditures required. But the king and Bismarck, in direct violation of the constitution, carried out the scheme. 453. All this time the relations of Prussia and Austria, Progress of ^^^^ of both to the Confederation, were very the quarrel. unsatisfactory. Bismarck declared in Parlia- ment that the German problem could be solved only by "blood and iron." For a time the jealousies of the two rival states were kept in abeyance by the absorbing inter- est of what is called the " Schleswig-Holstein question." * See page 469. THE GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. 479 This joined Prussia and Austria against Denmark. In Feb- ruary, 1864, the united armies crossed the Eider, and drove the Danes from a rampart called the Danewirk. The for- tress of Diippel also was taken, and such loss was in- flicted on Denmark that she consented to part with the three duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lau'enbiirg, in favor of the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia. 454. And now a fresh difficulty arose in regard to the disposition that should be made of the duch- Relations of ies. Prussia desired to annex them to her '^^^ powers, own territory ; Austria, though not anxious for them, was still resolved that Prussia should not obtain them. The dispute was finally settled amicably. However, the real difficulties between the two rival powers were not lessened, — and Bismarck did not desire that they should be les- sened, for he saw in these complications the opportunity for increasing the greatness of Prussia. 455. When a nation wishes to make war, the opportunity is usually found. Prussia discovered one in The fresh out- the still open dispute with Austria in regard to break. the Schleswig-Holstein question. But the struggle that now began, and which proved to be one of the most rapid and decisive in history, had in reality very little to do with the petty question with which it was nominally associated. The real issue was the long-pending one of whether Austria or Prussia should guide the destinies of the Fatherland. 456. The conflict was precipitated in June, 1866, and was continued through what is called the Six Events of the Six Weeks Weeks' War. Italy united with Prussia in de- war. daring war against Austria. For a time Austria had toler- ably good fortune. The Italians were defeated at Custozza by the Archduke Albert. But the Prussians, armed with the needle-gun, — a breech-loading rifle of new construction, — invaded Bohemia under the command of their king, and in- flicted a signal defeat upon the Austrians under command 480 MODERN HISTORY. of Marshal Benedek at Sadowa, near Koniggratz. Austria was obliged to sue for peace, which was concluded at Prague, in August of the same year (1866). 457. By this treaty Austria was forever excluded from Results of the Germany, and had to pay a heavy indemnity, struggle. Besides this, several of the states that had taken part with Austria — Bavaria, Baden, and two or three others — entered into a secret alliance with Prussia, by which their troops were placed at the disposal of Prussia for the defense of Germany. 458. The final result was that all the states to the north Formation of of the Main united to form the North German Confederation. Confederation under the leadership of Prussia, the whole military system of the Confederation being placed at the disposal of that country. The first Diet of the new Confederation met at Berlin in February, 1867. 459. This partial union of Germany was a great advance Further pro- o>^ the old State of things, but still it was far s^ess. from complete. A great party — the so-called National Liberal party — had already been formed, whose leading aim was the union of South Germany with the new Confederation. Still, such a union seemed far off, when an event happened by which, amid the rejoicing of Germany, the object was attained. This event was the war with France. 460. The occasion of the war with France, as has already Cause of the bccu Stated,* was the fact that Leopold, of ^^''- Hohenzollern, a kinsman of the King of Prussia, allowed himself to be a candidate for the Spanish throne ; but the underlying cause was the intense jealousy of Napoleon III. at the success of Prussia in gathering so great a part of Germany around herself. 461. In declaring war, which Napoleon III. did in July, Napoleon's 1870, he hoped that the South Germans, if ^isappoint- ^^^ ^.^ ^^^ actually join France, would at * See page 469. THE GERMAN EMPIRE RESTORED. 48 1 least remain neutral. But he was greatly disappointed. The petty occasion of the dispute was soon wholly lost sight of, and most of the South German states, realizing that the struggle was one of aggressive and domineering France against the long-humiliated Fatherland, willingly united with Prussia. Austria and the other dominions of the House of Austria alone held back. 462. Soon a million of men were in the field, under the King of Prussia. His chief adviser was Gen- Beginning of eral von Moltke, one of the ablest strategists ^^^ struggle, of modern times. The French, assuming the offensive, crossed the frontier, fully expecting, in their blind confidence, that they would soon dictate a peace at Berlin. 463. With the details of this remarkable campaign it will be impossible for us to occupy ourselves ; Account of the but a few of the prominent points are here ^^'■• presented. Battle of Weis'senbur^:. — The French having invaded Germany, ac- tive operations commenced early in August, 1870. Battle of Weis- senburg, fought between the German army under the Crown Prince and the French, August 4th : result, the French were defeated. The army of the Crown Prince now encamped on French ground. Battle of Worth, — fought between the German forces and the French army under Marshal MacMahon, August 6th: result, defeat of the French ; and, as some other successes were won by the other German columns about the same time, the whole German army now entered France. Battle of Sedan', — The main French army under Marshal Bazaine was defeated in several engagements near Metz ; and after various op- erations in different quarters the French were driven from all sides into Sedan, which was surrounded by the Germans (September i): result, the French army of 80,000 men was forced to surrender ; the Emperor Napoleon III., who was present with this army, yielded his sword to King William, and received as his residence the Castle of Wilhelmshohe, near Cassel. Siege of Paris. — Soon after Sedan, two of the German armies, under the Crown Prince, marched towards Paris, which they invested (Sep- tember 19th), while the third German army occupied the country to the south and southeast, and other forces the region to the north and 20 EE 482 MODERN HISTORY. northeast. The French made several attempts to break through the German line of investment (September and October), but were driven back. Surrender of Metz. — Meanwhile, a new French army had been raised to operate with a view to the relief of Paris, but just then fresh disas- ters befell France. Marshal Bazaine, surrounded by German forces at Metz, after having tried several times to escape, capitulated with his whole army of 170,000 men (October 27). Surrender of Paris. — A last attempt was made by the French to es- cape from Paris in January, 1871 ; but they were driven back with heavy loss, and as, in spite of some partial successes, all their armies in the field were defeated, the " Government of the National Defense," which had taken the control of affairs after the surrender of Napoleon, opened negotiations for peace. Paris formally surrendered January 28, 1871. 464. The final treaty of peace between France and Ger- 1-erms of many, called the Treaty of Frankfort, was peace. signed May 10, 187 1. Very severe terms were imposed on France, which had to give up to the Germans the provinces of Alsace and German Lorraine, and pay an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs. 465. Even before the termination of hostilities, the long- Creation of the desired result, the uaification of Germany, was Empire. ^accomplished. TRe war itself had inspired the South Germans with a warm desire for a closer union with the Northern Confederation. By treaties made with the various South German states in November, 1S70, the Northern Confederation was changed into a German Con- federation, under the presidency of Wilham I. of Prussia. In the following month the German sovereigns proposed that the President of the Confederation should receive the title of German Emperor. The proposal being agreed to, King William was, in the palace of Versailles, solemnly proclaimed Emperor of Germany, January 18, 1871. 467. In the month of March the first Diet of the new The German Empire was Opened at Berlin. By this Parlia- constitutjon. ment a constitution was adopted for the twenty- GREAT NAMES OF THE \^7 H CENTURY. 483 five states forming the Empire. Each of these regulates its own affairs, and is allowed to send and receive diplomatic representatives. What concerns the whole country is left to the Imperial Government. The duties of legislation rest with the Federal Council and the Diet; the executive power, in- cluding the right to declare war and make treaties, is wielded by the Emperor. 468. Thus it was that the greater part of Germany was again united as a single power. In the mean- summary of time Austria and its adjuncts formed a separate results, kingdom known as the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. The triumph of Prussia was complete ; but it was also the triumph of Germany. The Austro- Prussian war raised Prussia to the first place in Germany ; the Franco-Prussian war raised Ger- many to the first place in Europe. The German Emperor, William I., died March 10, 1888, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick III., who, after a reign of about four months, died, and was succeeded by his son, William II. GREAT NAMES OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. PHILOSOPHERS AND SCIENTISTS. Humboldt, Alexandervon (1769- 1859), born at Berlin — the greatest of descriptive naturalists — chief work, his Kosmos, an account of the physical phenomena of the universe. Cuvier (1769- 1832), a Swiss, but lived most of his life in Paris — a very distinguished naturalist and paleontologist — principal works, The Atiimal Khigdotn and Discourses on the Revolutions of the Surface of the Globe — employed by Napoleon as minister of education. Hegel (1770- 1831), a German philosopher and founder of a new school of philosophy. Davy, Sir Humphry (1778- 1829), a celebrated chemist and natural philosopher — discovered a number of scientific facts and principles — inventor of the safety-lamp for miners. Arago (1786- 1852), a distinguished French savant, and especially re- nowned in astronomy — was superintendent of the Paris Observatory Hamilton, Sir William (1788- 1S56), a Scotch metaphysician and 4S4 MODERN HISTORY. logician — author of works on mental philosophy and logic — contrib* uted greatly to advance metaphysical science as a professor and critic. Faraday (1 791 -1869), an eminent physical philosopher — made im- portant discoveries relative to magnetic electricity and light — the prince of lecturers on scientific subjects. ' Comte (1798- 1857), a famous French philosopher, and author of the Positive Philosophy. Liebig (1S03-1872), born at Darmstadt — a great chemist — profes. sor at Munich — has written much on the chemistry of agriculture and physiology. ^Mill, John Stuart (1806- 1873), an eminent English philosopher — author of Political Econotny, Logic, On Liberty, etc. Brewster, Sir David (1781-1868), a distinguished Scottish scientist — editor of the Edinburgh Encyclopedia — wrote Letters on Natural Magic and a Life of Newton — famous for his discoveries in optics. Leverrier (1811-1877), a great French astronomer — proved by mathematical calculation that there must be another planet beyond the orbit of Uranus, and told when and where it would come into view, August, 19, 1846 ; in September it was discovered in nearly the locality indicated, and is now known as Neptune. Tyndall, John {1820- 1893), a natural philosopher and most clear and eloquent expounder of scientific subjects — author of Heat considered as a Mode of Motion, Glaciers of the Alps, etc. Agassiz, Louis J. R. (1807- 1873), an eminent naturalist — born in Switzerland, but spent the last twenty-five years of his life in this country — leading works, Poissons Fossiles, Contributions to the Natural History of the United States, and Methods of Study in Natural History. 1 WRITERS. Goethe (1749 -1832), born at Frankfort-on-the-Main — one of the most glorious names of Germany — chief works, Werther, Wilhelm Meister, and Faust. Richter (1763- 1825), a German author and humorist, and a most original writer — principal works, Titan, Hesperus, and Levana on Education. Wordsworth, William (1770 -1850), one of the Lake Poets — chief works, The Excursion ^x\A The White Doe of Rylstone — Poet Laureate after Southey ; many of his poems describe common events in every- day words. Scott. Sir Walter (1771-1832), born in Edinburgh — famed as a GREAT NAMES OF THE \^TH CENTURY. 485 poet, and still more so as a novelist — began with a translation of Burger's Leonora and The Wild Htuttsman — chief poems, Lady of the Lake, and Lay of the Last Minstrel. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (1772- 1834), one of the Lake Poets- chief works, The Ancient Mariner and Christabel, an unfinished poem. Campbell, Thomas (1777- 1844), born and educated in Glasgow — author of Pleasiires of Hope — more admired for his warlike ballads, such as The Battle of the Baltic and Ye Mariners of England. Beranger (1780- 1857), a noted lyric poet of France — sang of the common people and their interests : the Burns of France. Grimm, Jacob and William (1785 -1863), brothers, and associated as philologists and antiquarians — through their labors comparative philology was raised to the dignity of a science — greatest works, Teutonic Grammar and German Dictionary — known to the young as the authors of Hoiisehold Tales. Guizot, Francois Pierre Guillaume (1787- 1875), a prominent statesman and the most distinguished modern French historian, — au- thor of a " History of Civilization in Europe " and many other works. Byron (1788- 1824), born in London — one of the leading British poets — his chief work is Childe Harold'' s Pilgrimage, written in the stanza of Spenser — died at Missolonghi (in Greece), of fever, aged 36. Carlyle, Thomas ( 1795 -1881), born in Scotland, but has lived most of his life in London — one of the greatest of modern English writers — distinguished for his powerful and picturesque, though somewhat eccentric, style — did much to introduce German literature to the knowledge of the English-speaking public — greatest works, the Fre7ich Revolntio7t (a grand prose epic). Life of Frederick the Great, Life of Cromwell, Sartor Resartus, etc. — has profoundly influenced the thought of his age. Prescott (1796- 1859), an eminent American historian — devoted him- self especially to Spanish history — chief works, Ferdinand and Isa- bella, Conquest of Mexico, etc. Thiers (1797 -1877), a French historian and statesman — author of The French Rez'olution and The Consulate and the Empire — was made President of the French Republc after the overthrow of Louis Na- poleon, in 1870. Pushkin (1799 -1837), the greatest of Russian poets. Macaulay (1800- 1859), the finest historian of the day — chief work, History of England ■ — distinguished for his brilliant and picturesque style. Hugo, Victor (1802-1885), a French poet, dramatist, novelist, and 486 MODERN HISTORY. politician — took part in the school of Romanticists in opposition to the Classicists — best-known novels, Notre Dame in his earlier days, and Les Miserables and Ninety- Three in his latter days. Emerson, Ralph Waldo ( 1803 - 18S2), the " sage of Concord " — the most subtle and original thinker of America — leading works, Essays, Representative Men, etc. Hawthorne (1805 -1864), an American novelist — distinguished for the subtlety of his analysis and his graceful, powerful style — author of The Scarlet Letter, Twice- Told Tales, etc. Tennyson, Alfred (1809 -1892), Poet Laureate of England — a great master of rhythm and metrical harmony — his poems marked by sweetness and depth of passion — leading works. The Princess, In Memoriam, Idyls of the King, etc. Thackeray (181 1 -1863), though not the most popular, yet the pro- foundest, of English novelists — distinguished for his subtle analysis of character — leading works, Vanity Fair, Pe7idennis, The Newcomes, etc. Dickens, Charles (1812 - 1870), the most popular of modern English novelists — the Shakespeare of the 19th century — his novels distin- guished as generally having some object of philanthropy or reform. ARTISTS. Thorwaldsen (1770 -1844), a Danish sculptor, and author of many noble works — founder of the Art Museum at Copenhagen. Beethoven (1770- 1827), a great German musician — among his many works may be named The Mount of Olives, an oratorio, and Fidelia, an opera. Turner (1775- 185 1), one of the best landscape painters of the English school — painted also several historical pictures — died under an assumed name in a humble lodging in London. Weber (1786- 1826), a distinguished musician of the German school — his greatest %vork, Der Freischiitz, was brought out in 1822 at Berlin. Vernet, Horace (1789- 1863), one of the greatest of modern French painters — his favorite subjects, battles and African hunting — painted on very large canvases. Rossini (1792- 1868), a great Italian musical composer — most cele- brated operas, William Tell and The Barber of Seville — author also of Stabat Mater. Meyerbeer (1794 — 1864), a renowned German musical composer — at six years of age astonished the public by his playing — greatest operas, Robert le Diable, The Hugitenots, The Prophet, and V Africaine. GREAT NAMES OF THE igTH CENTURY. 487 Donizetti (1798- 1848), acomposer of Italian operas — best known, Lucrezia Borgia and Lucia di Lamviermoor. Landseer, Sir Edwin (1802- 1873), famous for his paintings of ani- mals, which have been widely popularized in engravings. Kaulbach, Wilhelm von {1805 -1874), the most illustrious modern German painter — the leader of the idealistic school — spent most of his life in Munich, the last twenty-five years as director of the art academy — produced many grand paintings, his masterpieces being the "Battle of the Huns" and the " Destruction of Jerusalem." Mendelssohn (1809- 1847), born at Hamburg, of German-Jewish parentage — a musician of the highest genius — chief works, his music for the Midsummer Nighfs Dream, and his sublime oratorios, St. Paul and Elijah. Verdi (1814-1901), an Italian composer — best-known operas, // Tro- vatore and La Traviata. Dor6, Gustave (1833- 1883), a French artist- distinguished for ex- traordinary powers of conception — well known for his illustrations of the works of Dante, and of Don Quixote and the Wandering Jew. INVENTORS. Brunei, Sir Isambard (1769- 1849), ^ distinguished engineer — great- est work, the Thames Tunnel ; begun 1826, finished 1843. Stephenson, George {1781- 1848), born at Wylam, Northumberland — the great railway engineer — inventor of the locomotive engine — died at Tapton, aged 67 — his son Robert is distinguished as the engi- neer of the Tubular Bridge over the Menai Strait. Daguerre (1789 - 1851 ), inventor oi the daguerreotype — the production by light of images on a sensitive surface was already known, but Daguerre discovered how to fix the image in hyposulphate of soda. Morse, Professor S. F. B. (1791-1872), born in Massachusetts — educated for a painter, but devoted himself to science — his world- wide fame is based on his invention of the electric telegraph. Edison, Thomas A. (1847- ), born in Ohio — an eminent elec- trician, and inventor of many improvements in telegraphic and tele- phonic instruments, the phonograph, and the incandescent light. Abraham, 31, 38. Abu-Beker, 229. Academy of Sciences, foundation of, 381. Achaia, province of, iii, 155. Acre, siege of, by Crusaders, 263, 445. Actium, battle of, 177. Addison, 437. iEgos Potamos, battle of, loi. ^neas, 133. iEschines, 123. i^schylus, 121. Africa, circumnavigation of, by Da Gama, 310. Agassiz, Louis J. R., 4S4. Ages, the Dark, 272, 277. Agincourt, battle of, 291. Agriculture, low state of, in Middle Ages, 275- Alba Longa, 134. Alcxus, 121. Alcibiades, 100, loi. Alcuin, 274. Alexander the Great, career of, 104, 105 ; his successors, io8. Alexander I. of Russia, 408. Alfred the Great, 292. Alhambra, the, 282. Alliance, the Holy, 458. Alphabet, the Phoenician, 45, 46, 47. Alsace, 482. Alva, Duke of, 332. Ambrose, 200. Amusements, Roman, 204. Ancient History, end of, 5. Andalusia, meanmg of the term, 216 Angelo, Michel, 347 Anglo-Saxon, persistence of, 292. Anglo-Saxons, conquest of Britain by, 225, 226. Aatioch, siege of, 35S, 259. Antony, Mark, 173, 175, 176, 177. Aqueducts, Roman, 187. Arago, 483. Arbela, battle of, 105 Archasology, definition of, i. Architecture, Egyptian, 22 ; Chaldxan, 30 : Hindoo, S3 ; Persian, 60 ; Greek, orders of, 125, 126; Gothic, 284. Archons, Athenian, 89. Areola, battle of, 443. Ariosto, 349. Aristides, 94. Aristophanes, 122. Aristotle, 125. Arkwright, 439. Armada, the, 342, 343. Arques, battle of, 338. Art, Greek, 125; the Flemish School of, 382. Arts, Assyrian, 35 ; Babylonian, 37 : Per- sian, 61. Aryans, 3 ; proof of the unity of, 3 ; influ- ence of, in history, 4 ; first seat of, 50. Asia, geographical divisions of, 8, 9, 10 Assembly, the French Legislative, during the Revolution, 419. Assyria, Empire of, 32- 35. Astronomy, Chaldaean, 30. Athanasius, 200. Athens, early history of, 88. Attila, 210. Auerstadt, battle of, 451. Augustine, 201. Augustan Age, 188. Augustus (see also Octavius), 182-189. Austerlitz, battle of, 450 Austrian Empire, establishment of, 451. Babylon, description of, 36. Bacon, Roger, 281 ; Francis, 379, 387. 490 INDEX. Balance of Power, nature of the, 316; wars of Francis I. to preserve the, 322. Banking, origin of, 279, 280 noU. Barras, 427. Bassano, battle of, 443. Bastile, capture of the, 415. Baths, Roman, 204, Bautzen, battle of, 455. Bayard, 271. Bede, 274. Beethoven, 486. Belisarius, 223. Benedict, Saint, 276. B^ranger, 485. Berkeley, 431. Bemadotte, 453. Bernard, Saint, 261. Bishop of Rome, power of, 247. Bismarck, 478. Blood, discovery of the circulation of, 381. Boleyn, Anne, 326-328. Bonaparte, Joseph, 451, 452; Louis, 451. Books, Roman, 205 ; scarcity of, in Middle Ages, 273, 274; earliest printed, 313. Bossuet, 38r. Bourbon, House of, 290; first king of name, 338. Brewster, Sir David, 484. Brindley, 433, 439. Britain, conquest of, by Romans, 19J : aban- donment of, by Romans, 209. Brunei, Sir Isambard, 487. Brunswick, House of, 392, 392 note. Brutus, Lucius Junius, 137 ; Marcus Jun- ius, 173, 174, 176. Buddhism, 54. Burgundians, 216. Burke, 438. Burleigh, 344, 345. Burns, 438. Byron, 485. Byzantium, 193. Cabot, 312. Cadmus, 46. Cxsar, Julius, 165-175. Caliphs, meaning of term, 229. Calonne, 412. Calvin, John, 334. Cambyses, 56 ; son of Cyrus, 5S. Camoens, 349. Campbell, Thomas, 485. Campo Formio, treaty of, 444. Canals, first navigable, 433. Cannae, battle of, 151. Canova, 439. Capet, Hugh, 288. Carlyle, Thomas, 485. Carthage, founding of, 43; position 0% in Roman period, 48, 148; siepe of, 153, 154. Cassius, Caius, 173, 176. Castes, Egyptian, 20, 21 ; Indian, 51 ; origio of, 52. Castiglione, battle of, 443. Castile, foundation o^ 299. Catherine IL of Russia, 407, 408 ; de Med- ici, 334-338. Catholics, persecution of, under Henry VI n., 328, 329. Catiline, 165. Cato the Censor, 153, 158 note; the Young- er, 171. Catullus, 188. Caucasian race, its historic representa- tives, 2. Cavaignac, 466. Cavaliers, 354; costume of the, 384, 385. Cavour, 471. Celts, immigration of, into Europe, 213 ; in- fluence of Rome on, 214. Cervantes, 348. Chsronea, battle of, 104, Chaldia, the kingdom of, 29-31. Charlemagne, empire of, 234-239. Charles Albert, 471. Charles I. (of England), reign of, 352-357; Charles II. (of England), reign of, 360, 361 : Charles V. (of Spain), age of, 317- 325 ; Charles IX. (of France), 336 - 338 ; Charles X. (of France), 464 ; Charles XII. (of Sweden), 404-406. Chartists, the, 461, 462. Chaucer, 2S4. Chemistry, foundation of, in 18th century, 432- Cheops, iS. Chimneys, origin of, 280. Chivalry, 267 - 271. Christ, birth of, i8q. Christianity, spread of, 194-201. Christians, first pagan mention of, 195, 196. Chronology, French system of, during the Revolution, 441 note. INDEX. 491 Chrysostom, 201. Church, influence of, in Dark Ages, 275. Cicero, 164, 165. Cincinnatus, 139. Cities, rise of, in Middle Ages, 245, 346 ; the growth of, in Middle Ages, 277. Citizenship, Roman, extension of, 192. ^'Civilization, connection of, with geography, 10 ; Assyrian, 34 ; Phoenician, 49 ; Alex- andrian, 108; Grecian, 114-129; types of, in Roman Empire, 155: sources of modem, 214, 215; Byzantine, 222; in Middle Ages, 272-284. Cleopatra, 170, 176, 177, 178. Clergy, the English, in 17th century, 383. Clovis, 224. Code Napoleon, 449. Coleridge, Samuel T., 485. Coliseum, 185. Colonies, Phcenician, 44, 45 ; Greek, in Asia Minor, 82. Columbus, 311. Commerce, Babylonian, 64 ; Phoenician, 66 ; Carthaginian, 68 ; early English, 278, 279 ; Italian, 279 ; Venetian, 296 ; effect of circumnavigation of Africa on, 311 ; English, under Elizabeth, 344. Commonwealth, the English, 357. Compass, invention of Mariner's, 309. Comte, 484. Confederation of the Rhine, 451 ; the Ger- man, 474, 480. Conformity, Act of, 341. Constance, Peace of, 278, 296. Constantine, ig8, 199. Constantinople, 193, 230, 307. Consulate, establishment of French, 446, 447- Consulate and the Empire, France under the, 440-457. Copernicus, 349. Corday, Charlotte, 425. Coriolanus, 138. Corneille, 381, 388. Corn Laws, repeal of, 461. Cosmo I., 298 Cotton-gin, 434. Crassus, 163, 165, 168. Crecy, battle of, 290. Crimea, conquest of the, by Russia, 408. Crimean war, 462, 463, 468 ; part taken by Italy in, 471, 472. Croesus, overthrow of, 57. Crompton, 433, 439. Cromwell, Oliver, 355-359: Richard, 359. Crusades, the, 253 - 266 ; meaning of term, 253 ; origin of, 254 : the First, 256-260 ; the Second, 261, 262 ; the Third, 262, 263 ; later ones, 264 ; results of, 265, 266. Cuneiform, nature of characters, 30, 31, 45. Custozza, battle of, 479. Cuvier, 483. Cyaxares, 56. Cyprian, 200. Cyrus, legends of, 56, 57 ; his conquests, 57, 58. Daguerre, 487. Damascus, siege of, by Crusaders, 262. Dante, 284. Darius I., 59, 91-93; Darius Codomannus, 105, 106. Dark Ages, 212. Davy, Sir Humphry, 483. Decemvirs, the Roman, 141. Declaration of Independence, influence of French philosophy in, 430. Democracy, contributions of Greeks to, tt4> Demosthenes, 103, 123. Descartes, 379, 380, 387. Desiderius, 224. Dickens, Charles, 486. Dictator, origin of Roman, 139. Diet of Worms, 321. Diocletian, 197. Directory, French government called th«, 426, 427 ; the French, 442. Donizetti, 487. Dore, Gustave, 487. Dorians, character of, 84. Dorylaeum, battle of, 258. Draco, laws of, 89. Drama, Grecian, 121, 122. Dress, Grecian, 128; Roman, 201,303; la- dies', in 17th century, 385. Dumouriez, 420, 424. Diirer, 347. Dutch Republic, rise of, 331-333. Dynasty, the Merovingian, 224 ; the Carlo- vingian, 285 ; the Norman, in England, 293- Edessa, principality of, 36t> Edgehill, battle of, 354. 493 INDEX Edict of Nantes, revocation of, 375. Education among Greeks, 128. Edward VI. of England, reign of, 339, 340. Egbert, 291. Egypt, 12-26; antiquity of, 12; its geog- raphy, 13; populousness of, 14; hiero- glyphics, 14- 16 ; chronology, 17 ; castes, 20, 21 ; architecture, 22 ; sculpture, 23 ; religion, 24 ; manufactures, 25. Elba, 455. Electricity, Franklin's discoveries in, 432. Elegy, rise of, among the Greeks, 120. Elizabeth of England, reign of, 339-346. Embalming, practice of, among Egyptians, 25- Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 486. Emperors, the Roman, 189, igo. Empire, the Eastern Roman, 221 ; the German, in Middle Ages, 285 - 287. England, meaning of name, 226 ; Christiani- zation of, 227 ; history of, in Middle Ages, 291 - 295 ; effect of Norman con- quest, 292; under Henry VIII., 325- 330 ; under the Stuarts, 350 - 364 ; social condition of, in 17th century, 383, 384. Epaminondas, 102. Era, the Christian, true beginning of, 189 note- Essex, Earl of, 345. Essling, battle of, 453. Ethnology, definition of, 1. Etruscans, the, 131. Euripides, 121. Exodus, the, 19 note. Eylau, battle of, 452. Faraday, 484. Fathers, the Christian, 200. Federations, Greek, no. Feudalism, 241 -246 ; decline of, 314. Fief, nature of, 241, 243. Fielding, 437. Florence, history of, in Middle Ages, 297, 298. Food, Roman, 202. France, meaning of the term, 216 ; founda- tion of, 224 ; beginnings of, 287, 288 ; under Carlovingians, 288 ; Capetian kings of, 289 : under House of Valois, 2QO ; under Louis XIV., 368-379. Franchise, the Latin, 147. Frankfort, Treaty of, 48a. Franklin, Benjamin, 432, 436. Franks, meaning of the word, 216; invasiot of Gaul by, 216, 224. Frederick Barbarossa, 262, 263, 296 ; Duke of Saxony, 321 ; Elector Palatine, 365 ; William, 397. French Revolution, 409 - 429. Fulton, 439. Gades, 44. Gainsborough, 438. Galileo, 349, 380. Gallia Cisalpina, 131. Galvani, 432, 436. Galvanism, origin of, 432. Games, the four Grecian, 117, iif. Garibaldi, 472, 473. Gas-lights, first use of, 434. Gaul, settlement of Teutonic tribes in, 224. Gauls, seat of, in Italy, 131 ; burning of Rome by, 133 ; capture of Rome by, 142. Genseric, 210. Gentleman, origin of the, 271. Geology, foundation of, 433. George I. of England, reign of, 392, 393; II., reign of, 394; III., reign of, 395, 396; III., 458: I v., 458. Germany, Empire of, in Middle Ages, 285- 287. Ghibellines, 295, 296. Gibbon, 438. Gibraltar, meaning of term, 230. Gioja, 309. Girondists, the, 419, 421, 424. Glass, introduction of, in windows, 28o> Godfrey of Bouillon, 260. Goethe, 484. Goldsmith, 438. Good Hope, Cape of, doubled, 310. Goths, 208, 209 ; original home of, 2ij. Gracchus, Tiberius, 159, 160 ; Caius, 160, Granicus, battle of, 105. Great Britain, origin of name, 391. Greece, history of, 73 - 129 ; race, 74 ; geog- raphy of, 75 : states of, 76 ; legends of, 78, 79; movements of races, 81, 82; colonies, 82 ; earliest history, 84 ; growth of Sparta and Athens, 85-90; Persian invasions of, 91-98; age of Pericles, 98, 99 ; Peloponnesian war. INDEX. 493 xoe, loi ; Spartan and Theban suprem- acy, loi, I02 ; supremacy of Macedonia, 103, 104; later history, 109- iii ; civili- zation of, 114-129. Greek society, 129. Gregory Nazianzen, 200. Gregory VII., 250. Granada, capture of, 299. Grey, Lady Jane, 340. Grimm, Jacob and William, 485. Guelphs, the, 295. Gunpowder, effect of, 270. Gustavus Adolphus, 365, 366. Gutenberg, 313. Hamilcar, 150. Hamilton, Sir William, 483. Hamites, their representative, 3. Handel, 438. Hannibal, 151-153- Hanno, 68 note. Kapsburg, origin of House of, 287. Hargreaves, 439. Haroun-al-Raschid, 231. Harvey, 381. Hawthorne, 486. Haydn, 439. Hebrews, the, 38 - 42. Hegel, 483. Hegira, date of, 228. Hellas, 75. Henry II. (of England), 289; VII. (of England), 295 ; VIII. (of England), reign of, 325-330; III. (of France), 338 ; IV. (of France), 338, 339 ; IV. (Emperor of Germany), 250. Henry, Prince of Portugal, 309. Herodotus, 14 note, 122. Herschel, William, 436. Hesiod, 1 20. Hieroglyphics, Egyptian, 14- 16. Hildebrand, 249, 250. Hindoos, the, 50 - 54. History, definition of, i ; a unit, 6 ; earliest theater of, ii. Hohenlinden, battle of, 448. Holbein, 347. Homer, 78, 79, 90, 119, 120. Horace, 188. Horatius Codes, 138. Houses, description of Roman, ao6. Howard, Catherine, 329 ; John, 435. Hugo, Victor, 485. Huguenot, origin of name, 334. Humboldt, Alexander von, 483. Hume, David, 431, 437, 438. Hungary, revolution of, in 1848, 476, 477. Hyksos, 18, 19. Imperator, meaning of, 171. India, Alexander's expedition to, 106 ; con< quest of, by British, 396. Innocent III., 251. Inventions, sketch of, in 18th century, 433. Ionia, revolt of cities of, gi. lonians, character of, 83, 84. Ipsus, battle of, 108. Isabella, 299. • 1 Israel, kingdom of, 40. Issus, battle of, 105. Italy, in Middle Ages, 295-298; unification of, 470-473- Ivry, battle of, 338. Jacobite, origin of the name, 393. Jacquard, 439. James 1. of England, 350-352 ; II., 363. Janus, temple of, 186. Jena, battle of, 451. Jerome, 201. Jerusalem, destruction of, by Titus, 41 ; capture of, by Crusaders, 260 ; kingdom of, 260. Jews, their place in history, 42. Joan of Arc, 291. John of England, 293. Johnson, Samuel, 437. Josephine, 428. Jourdan, 428, 442, 443. Judah, kingdom of, 40. Jugerum, 143 note- Julian the Apostate, 200. Justinian, reign of, 221, 223. Juvenal, 189. Kant, 431. Kepler, 380. Kings, divine right of, 351. Knight, dress and equipment of, 269' Knighthood, ceremonial o^ 868> Koran, the, 228. Kossuth, 47b> Labakum, the, 199. 494 INDEX. Lafayette, 414. Lamian war, the, log. Lancaster, House of, 294. Landseer, Sir Edwin, 487. Languages, the Teutonic, 219; tha Sla- vonic, 219; the Celtic, 2'8; the Ro- mance, 273. Laplace, 437. Latins, the race of the, 13a. Laud, 353. Lavoisier, 432, 436. Law, John, 393. Law, the civil or Roman, 221. Laws, English penal, 435. League, the Achaean, 1 10 ; the Smalcaldic, 323; Hanseatic, 277, 278; Lombard, 278. Learning, revival of, 312-314. Leibnitz, 381, 3S8. Leicester, Earl of, 345. Leipsic, battle of, 455. Leonidas, 95, 96. Leopold, 469. Lepidus, 175. Lessing, 438. Letters, the disuse of, in Middle Ages, 273- Leuctra, battle of, 102. Leverrier, 484. Library, the Alexandrian, 108, 170, 229. Licinian law, the, 143. Lictors, the Roman, 138 note. Liebig, 484. Literature, Hindoo, S2> 53 : Persian, 62 ; early Roman, 157 ; Roman, 1S8 ; char- acteristics of European, in i8th century, 431 ; French, in i8th century, 429. Lithography, invention of, 434. Livy, 133, 134, 188. Locke, 431. Lodi, battle of Bridge of, 443. Logarithms, invention of, 381. Lombards, 217, 223, 248. Lombardy, Charlemagne king of, 237 ; League of, 296. Long Parhament, 353. Lorraine, 482. Louis Napoleon, early career of, 465 ; coup d'etat by, 467 ; becomes Emperor, 468. Louis Philippe, 464, 465. Louis le Deboonaire, 239 ; IX.> 364, 265 ; XIIL, 369; XIV., 368- 379: XV., 409, 410; XVI., 410-423; XVIII., 455, 456, 463, 464. Lucretius, 188. Luneville, Treaty of, 448. Luther, Martin, 320. Liitzen, battle of, 366, 455 Luxury, Roman, 158. Lydia, 63 note. Macaulay, 485. Macedonia under Philip, 103, 104; subju- gation of, by Rome, 154. Magellan, 312. Magenta, battle of, 472. Magianisra, 61. Magna Charta, 294. Magna Grascia, 132 ; subdued by Romans, 146. Magyars, 218. Manetho, 14. Manners, English, 361. Manufactures, Babylonian, 64 ; Florentme, 297 ; English, 361. Marat, 425. Marathon, battle of, 93. Mardonius, invasion of Greece by, 93. Marengo, battle of, 448. Maria Theresa, 397, 398. Marie Antoinette, 424. Marius, t5i, 162. Marlborough, Duke of, 376. Marriage, Roman, 205. Martel, Charles, 225, 230, 231. Martial, i88. Mary de Medici, 369. Mary I. (of England), 340; II. (of Eng- land), 362; Queen of Scots, 340-342. Massilia, 82. Maurice of Saxony, 323. Medes, the, 55, 56. Medici, Lorenzo de, 297 ; Catherine de 334-337- Mendelssohn, 487. Messenians, wars of Sparta with, 3y. Metz, surrender of, 4S2. Meyerbeer, 4S6. Mill. John Stuart, 484. Miltiades, 93. Milton, 382, 38S. Mirabeau, 414. Mitbridates, 163. INDEX. 495 Mohammed, early life of, 227 ; character of religious system of, 328: death of, 229. Molifere, 3S1. Monks, rise of, 275, 276. Montaigne, 348. Montesquieu, 437. Montfort, Sir Simon, 294. Moore, Thomas, 485. Moreau, 428, 443. Morse, Professor S. F. B., 487. Moscow, burning of, 454. " Mountain," French Revolutionary party called the, 419. Mozart, 439. Murat, 452. Murillo, 383, 388. Music, founders of modem, 432. Mycale, battle of, 98. Mythology, Greek, 115- 117. Nabonassar, era of, 33. Nabopolassar, 35. Nantes, edict of, 338. Napier, 38 1. Napoleon Bonaparte, 427 ; early campaign of, 442 - 445 ; made Emperor, 449. Napoleon III., 465-470. Naseby, battle of, 356. National Assembly, doings of the, 413- 419. Navarre, foundation of kingdom of, 299. Nebuchadnezzar, 35, 36. Necker, 411, 412, 414. Nelson, 448, 450. Nero, 189. Newton, 380, 381, 387. Nice, 469. Nicias, Peace of, 100. Nile, battle of the, 445. Nimeguen, Peace of, 374. Nineteenth century, characteristics of the, 44T. Nineveh, description of, 34 ; its fall, 34. Normans in England, 243, 244 ; origin of, 288, 289. Norsemen, invasion of France by, 288. Notables, Assembly of the, 412. O'CoNNELi,, Daniel, 459. Octavius, 175, 178. Odoacer, 216, 222. Olympiad, the first, 84. Omar, 229. Oracles, 117. Orange, William, Prince o^ 36a Ordeal, 274. Origen, 200. Orleans, Maid of, 291. Ostracism, 94. Otho I., 285, 286. Ovid, 188. Page, meaning of term, 267. Painting, rise of, in England, 431, 438. Palace, mayors of the, 225. Papal power, growth of the, 247-251. Parliament, origin of English, 294 ; Englisb under James I., 351 ; under Charles I.i 352 ; the Long, 353 ; Barebone'9, 358. Paris, siege of, in 1870, 481, 4O2. Parr, Catherine, 329. Parthenon, the, 127 ; cut of, 73. Pascal, 382. Patricians, the Roman, 135. Pavia, battle of, 322. Pelasgi, 76, 77. Pelopidas, 102. Pepin, 225. Pericles, 98, gg ; ar an orator, 123. Persecutions of early Christians, 195-108. Persia, Empirr of, 55 -M. Peter the Hermit, 254-256, 260; the Great 402 - 407. Petition of Right, 352. Pharnaces, 170, 171. Pharsalia, battle of, 170. Philip, King of Macedon, 103, 104; Augu» tus, 262, 263, 289, 2go ; II., of Spain character of, 331 ; marriage of, wit* Mary of England, 340. Philosophy, the scholastic, 281. Phoenicians, the, 43-49. Phrygia, 63 note. Piano-forte, invention of, 434. Pindar, i2t. Pisistratus, go. Pitt, William, 394, 395. Pius IX., 470, 471. Plantagenets, the, 293. Plata;a, battle of, 97. Plato, 124, 125. Plebeians, early oppression of Rocnarii 1351 140, 143- 496 INDEX. Pliny, i88. Plutarch, 123. Poitiers, battle of, 290. Poland, partition of, 408. Poles, their race, 217. Political Economy, contribution of Adam Smith to, 433. Pompeii, 188, 206. Pompey, 163, 166, 16S-170. Pope, Alexander, 437. Pope, the, meaning of term, 24S. Popes, 247- 251. Populus Romanus, meaning of term, 146. Portuguese, account of discoveries in Africa, 309, 310; in the Indies, 311. Powder, invention of, 314, 315. Pragmatic Sanction, 397. Prescott, 485. Pretender, the, 393. Pretorian Guard, the, 191. Pride's Purge, 356. Priests, influence of, in Egypt, 20. Printing, origin of, 313. Protestant, origin of name, 321. Protestantism, origin of, 319, 320 ; French form of, 334. Prussia, beginnings of, 396 ; history of, un- der Frederick the Great, 396-400. Ptolemies, the, 108. Ptolemy Soter, 108. Punic wars, 148- 154. Puritanism, rise of, 341. Puritans, austerity of, 361. Pushkin, 485. Pydna, battle of, iii. Pyramids, battle of the, 445. Pythagoras, 123. Rabelais, 348. Race, the Italian, 132. Races, the historical, compared, 4, 5 : Italian, 131 ; historical, of Europe, 213. Racine, 381, 389. Raleigh, 348. Raphael, 347. Ravenna, exarchs of, 223. Rebellion, history of Great English, 314- 357- Reform Bill, 460 Regulus, 149. Reichstadt, Duke of, 453, 468, nott- Reign of Terror,. 420, -A26. Religion, Egyptian, 24 ; Hindoo, s* • Greek, 115. Rembrandt, 388. Republic, duration of Roman, 136. " Restoration," the English, 360. Revolution, the English, of 1688, 363 ; be- ginning of American, 395 ; French, 409- 429; French, of 1830, 464; of 1848, 466. Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 438. I Richard I. (Cceur de Lion), 262, 263 note. I Richelieu, Cardinal, 366, 367, 369-371. Richter, 484. Rights, the Bill of, 363, 363 tiott- Rivoli, battle of, 443. Robespierre, 414, 425, 426. Roderick, 230. Romance languages, origin of, 218. Roman Empire, boundaries of, 182, 183 ; division of, 194; downfall of, 211. Rome, history of, 130-211 ; its geography, 130; races, 131, 132; early history, 134; early struggles, 136-142; Punic wars, 148-154; civil struggle, 159-178; the Empire, 182-211; city of, 184, 185, 193- Romilly, Sir Samuel, 435. Romulus, 133, 134. Roses, Wars of the, 294, 295. Rosetta stone, 15. Roundheads, 354. Royal Society, foundation of, 381. Rossini, 486. Rotten boroughs, 459. Rousseau, 438. Roveredo, battle of, 443. Rubens, 382, 388. "Rump" Parliament, 356. Russia, invasion of, by Napoleon, 454, 455. Russia, rise of, 402 ; history of, under Petal the Great, 402 - 406. Ryswick, Peace of, 375. Sadowa, battle of, 480. Saint Bartholomew, Massacre of, 337. Saint Petersburg, foundation of, 406. Saladin, 262, 263 note. Salamis, battle of, 97. Sallust, 188. Sanction, Pragmatic, 3-,i7« Sanscrit, 52. Sappho, 121. INDEX. A97 Saracens, their Empire, 231 ; learning of, 282, 283 ; expelled from Spain, 299 Satraps, the Persian, 59. Saxons, meaning of term, 217; native seat 217 ; wars of Charlemagne with, 236. Savoy, 469. Schiller, 438. Schleswig-Holstein question, 478. Schoolmen, 281. Science, Egyptian, 25 ; progress of, in i8th century, 432. Scipio, Publius, 151. Scots, Mary Queen of, 340-342. Sculpture, Egyptian, 23 ; Assyrian, 34 ; Greek, 127. Scott, Sir Walter, 484. Scotus, John, 274. Sedan, battle of, 4S1. Seleucidae, kingdom of the, log. Seleucus, 109. Semites, their historical representatives, 3. Sennacherib, 33. Sesostris, 19. Seven Years' War, 398. Seymour, Jane, 329. Shakespeare, comparison of, with Greek dramatists, 122 ; life of, 348. Sicily, Roman province of, 150. Sidney, Sir Philip, 348. Sieyes, 446. Silesia, 398. Silk, first manufacture of, 279. Simonides, 120. Slavery, Roman, T 57, 158; abolition of Eng- lish colonial, 460. Slaves, price of Roman, 206. Slavonians (see also Slaves), 217. Smerdis, 58. Smith, Adam, 433, 436. Socrates, 124. Solferino, battle of, 472. Solomon, reign of, 40. Solon, 89. Sophists among the Greeks, 123, 124. Sophocles, 121. South Sea Scheme, 393- Spain, history of, in Middle Ages, 298, 299. Spanish succession, war of, 376. Sparta, growth of, 85 ; education in, 86, 87 ; constitution of, 87. Spenser, 347. Spinning-jenny, 433- Spinoza, 380, 387. Spires, Diet of, 321. Squire, duty of, 268. Standing armies, establishment of, 315. Star-Chamber, abolition of, 353. States-General, meeting of the, 412, 413. Steam-engine, improvement of, by Watt, 433- Stephenson, George, 487. Stereotyping, first practice of, 434. Sterne, 438. St. Helena, 457. Strafford, 353. Stuarts, the line of, 350, 350 note, 351. Sulla, 161 - 163. Superstition, growth of, in Middle Ages, 274. Supremacy, Act of, 341. Swedenborg, 436. Sylvester, 274. Tacitus, 189. Tarquinius Superbus, 135. Tasso, 349. Tennyson, Alfred, 486. Terror, Reign of, 420, 426. Tertullian, 200. Teutons, the, 207, 208, 210 : historic influ ence of, 214 ; unity of, 215. Thackeray, 486. Thales, 123. Thapsus, battle of, 171. Thebes (Greek state), supremacy oi, loa. Themistocles, 94. Theodoric, 222, 223. Theodosius, 193. Thermopyla;, battle of, 96. Thiers, 485. Thorwaldsen, 486. Thucydides, 122, 123. Tigris, the river, description of, 2%. Tilsit, Treaty of, 452. Tin, Phoenician trade in, 67. Titian, 347. Tobacco, introduction of, into England, 344. Tory, 354. Toulon, siege of, 428. Tournament, 269. Trafalgar, battle of, 450. Tribonian, 221. Tribunes, establishment of Romsa, 14O 141 ; military, 142. 498 INDEX. Triumvirate, the second, 176. Troy, siege of, 78 ; site of, 80 note. Tudor, House of, 295. Turgot, 411. Turks, rise of the Ottoman, 306, 307. Turner, 486 Twelve Tables, laws of the, 141. Tytho-Brahe, 349. Tyndall, John, 484. 1 yre, commerce of, 48. Tyrtaus, 120. Ulm, capture of, 450. Union, treaty of, between England and Scotland, 390. Universities, establishment of, in Middle Ages, 280, 2S1. Ur, 31. Utica, 171. Utrecht, Treaty of, 377. Vaccination, discovery of, 434. Vandals, 210, 216. Vandyck, 382, 388. Vassal, 241, 242. Vedas, the, 52. Venice, 223 ; growth o^, 296 Verdun, Treaty of, 285. Verdi, 487. Vernet, Horace, 486. Victor Emanuel, 471 - 473. Victoria, 461. Virgil, 188. Visigoths, settlement of, in Italy, 216 ; in Spain, 216. Voltaire, 437. SEAGRAM, battle o( 453. Wallenstein, 365, 367. Walpole, Sir Robert, 394. War, the Jugurthine, 161 ; the Thirty Years' 364-36S; the Seven Years', 398, 39t note; the Franco-Prussian, 469, 480- 482; the Six Weeks', 479, 480. Waterloo, battle of, 456. Watt, James, 433, 439. Weber, 486. Wedgwood, 439. Weissenburg, battle of, 481. West, Benjamin, 439. Westphalia, Treaty of, 36$ ; I^sace of, 333 , kingdom of, 452. Whig, 354. Wilberforce, 435, 460. William I. (of Germany), 478, 482 ; III. (o) England), 362 ; IV. (of England), 459 . the Conqueror, 289; of Orange, 3321 333- Wines, Roman, 204. Wolsey, Cardinal, 325, 326. Woman, position of, among the Greeks, 129 ; education of English women ic the 17th century, 386. Wool, manufacture of, 27S. Wordsworth, William, 484. Worcester, battle of, 358. Worth, battle of, 481. Wycliffe, 319. Xenophon, 56, 56 note, 123. Xerxes, invasion of Greece by, 95, 97. "Year III.," constitution of the, 441* York, House of, 295. ZoUverein, the German, ^^ Date Due / 7 CJ c^ DEC 1 ^ DEC 7 1982 ■\;i'\p 1 a" 1963 jiilK 7 19g3 WAY 2 g - JAN 31 IQ64 JUN 9 ^ OCT 2 6 NOV 1 3 1S6r 1967 19R7 5 19K^ ^' 8 797D JAM i^ i m. .'JU, kXB_ FEB 2 6 N/3 3 ■EP R^^ ]mZ^^M 5 /Ml ^ Library Bureau Cat. No. 1137