% # % ^ <,NXT-!!nRARY/9/- 7)^ ^lOSANCELfx^ ^.OfCALIFO/j*^ 01^ "^HOiim •jT^ 'paMOJJoq SBM )! iioiq/w uioj^ Ajejqn aqi o} leuaieui sfm ujniey 88ei.-96006 viNdOdnvo 'sanaoNV son 88CI-96 xog • 11 \o-\ 6u!>|jecl - bauq bagn aa 90e Ainiovd Auvdan nvNoioad NUSHinos ejujo^lieo jO A^jSjaAjun -n (— > O U_ ■^/ Fkoxtispiece. DLMLDA^CLK, WliU l^ iKl 1: vid VM) CM i 1 ^ u^ ii THE LAND OF CHARITY:' A Bl SCIUI'TIVE ACCOCXT OF TRAYANCORE AND ITS TEOPLE, V;iTH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO MISSIOInARY LABOUR BY THE EEV. SAMUEL :\rATEEi;, E.LS., OF THE lONDOX illS^IONAKY SOCIETV. E\V OF StA-CU.VST VUOM MLTT LONDON JOHN SNOW AND CO., 2, IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW. 1871. '? PREFACE. A POPULAR, comprehensive work upon Travancore and Missionary operations in that territory, for the use of missionaries and students and the friends of missions at home, has long been felt to be a desideratum. During a residence of over nine years in India wholly occupied in vernacular labours amongst the natives, and con- stantly enjoying as close familiar intercourse with them as is possible for a European, the writer continued, both as a matter of duty and of pleasure, to collect informa- tion of all kinds ■ about the country and people, and several years ago sketched out the plan of this work. Having conceived, however, a high ideal of the excel- lence, both in substance and style, which ought to characterize a work produced by a competent and graphic pen on a subject so extensive and so interesting in every aspect, he waited for other and abler hands to undertake the duty, and repeatedly expressed liis sur- prise that this had not been done. In his frequent tours during the last two years in Great Britain and Ireland, lecturing and preaching on behalf of the London Missionary Society, receiving every- where the kindest hospitality, and enjoying Christian intercourse with many friends of the Society, he has had special opportunities of learning what kind of informa- tion is wanted by the supporters of our Indian missions ; and this he has attempted to supply in the present volume. Nearly the whole of the multitudinous ques- tions which are naturally put to an Indian missionary are here answered. JNIinisters and other friends at 1 6G1 156 IV PREFACE, home ask their missionaries to give them fads. Here is what might be called a Handbook of Travancore — a compendium of facts grouped, classified, and arranged for convenient reference. Works on India are sometimes full of misstatements and error, generally arising, in such cases, from insuf- ficient acquaintance with the native languages and customs. Throughout this work we have aimed at special accuracy in every assertion that has been made, and at giving a fair, unvarnished statement of both sides of every question. Intelligent readers can thus form their own conclusions. These facts can also be adduced and enlarged upon by preachers and public lecturers. They will be found, we think, powerfully to illustrate the moral guilt and spiritual wretchedness of the heathen, their urgent need of the Gospel of Christ, the converting and renewing power of Divine grace, and the bright prospects already opening up of the complete and final triumph of Christian truth in India. The circumstances of the young, and of general readers who may not have had time or opportunity for studying many works on India, have been borne in mind; and the attempt has been made to explain every- thing very simply and clearly, without taking for granted the possession of much special knowledge on the part of our readers. In order to bring the matter at our disposal within as small a compass as possible, and to furnish a cheap illustrated volume for wide popular distribution and perusal, suitable for placing in Sunday school and Congregational libraries, &c., we have condensed our remarks, and for the most part omitted practical observations and the discussion of PREFACE. V principles which otherwise would have found place in such a work, but would have made it much larger and more expensive. Where Indian customs ap]iear to throw light, either directly or indirectly, upon Holy Scripture, the passages have been suggested for comparison, examination, and inquiry. In the statistical chapters and in the history of our Mission I have, where necessary, freely compiled from the annual Reports of the various missionaries (including my own) ; the Selections from the Government records of Travancore; and the Dewan's Reports of the Administra- tion, with co]ues of wliich I have been favoured by that statesman. Other works, a list of which is subjoined, have also been consulted and used to a greater or less extent. Still it would only appear pedantic and cum- bersome to give formal references to volume and page of each minor quotation or allusion. My best thanks are due to the Rev. R. Robinson, Home Secretary, London Missionary Society, for the use of a number of woodcuts ; and to the Rev. C. C. Fenn, M.A., Secretary, Church Missionary Society, for the use of two engravings for the illustration of this volume. It is, of course, possible that, notwithstanding all the care that has been taken, errors may have crept in. Should a second edition be required, we shall be happy to avail ourselves of any further information, correc- tions, or suggestions which may tend to render the book more complete or usel'ul. Indian words, some of them rather formidable in length and appearance, must of necessity occur. To VI PEEFACE. assist our readers in their pronunciation, please observe that — d is pronounced like a in father. i „ „ „ cc, or like i in pique. ai or ei „ „ eye, or English i. u generally,, „ oo in food. e „ „ „ a in fate. a often „ „ tc in drum, or a in avoid. If such terms are otherwise pronounced like English words, a sufficiently accurate approximation to the true pronunciation will be made. May that one true and living God, whose kingdom and the saving knowledge of whose Son we humbly seek to extend, grant that this little work may be of some service in exciting, reviving, and nourishing a more intelligent and prayerful interest in the great work of Christian missions ! S. M. London, 29tli November, 1870. PRINCIPAL "WORKS REFERRED TO. Madras Journal of Literature and Science. Fra Bartolomeo's Voyage to the East Indies. London, 1800. The Tinncvt'lly Shfmars ... ... ... Caldwdl, London, 1850. Comparative Grammar of the Drfividian Lan- guages... ... ... ... ... Caldwell. London, 1856. Missionary Life and Labours of Xavier ... Venn. London, 1862. The Land of the Permauls, or Cochin ... Bay. Madras, 1863. The Useful Plants of India Lrunj. Trevandrum, 1858. Popular Description of the Palmyra Palm... Firyuson. Colombo, 1850. The Christians of St. Thomas and their Liturgies ... ... ... ... Howard. Oxford, 1864. The Syrian Christians of Malabar... P/;(7/;;osa«rf If ow(7>-ut should eitlier I or my children, contrary to this THE PEOPLE — THEIR MAXNEPS AND CUSTOMS. 41 agreement, make any claim hereafter on the property of Mallan Changili, the case, with this document, may be re- ported to the court, whose decision I shall obey, and again submit to the above terms.' "Witnesses, — (Signed) Valli Mathi. " Mallan Karuman. " Mattandan Krdi." The Shanars of South Travancore are of the same class as those of Tinnevelly, and in both provinces they have in large numbers embraced the profession of Christianity. Their em- ployment is the cultivation of the Palmyra palm, which they climb daily in order to extract the sap from the flower-stem at the top. This is manufactured into a coarse dark sugar, which they sell or use for food and other purposes, as de- scribed at length in Chapter IX. The general circumstances of the Shanar and Ilavar popu- lation in Travancore, especially of the former, have long been most humiliating and degrading. Their social condition is by no means so deplorable as that of the slave castes, and has materially improved under the benign influence of Chris- tianity, concurrently with the general advancement of the country, but until recently it was very bad. To mark their degradation, their women were forbidden to wear any clothing whatever above the waist. They were not allowed to carry umbrellas, to wear shoes or golden ornaments, to carry pots of water on the hip, to build houses above one story in . height, to milk cows, or even to use the ordinary language of^ \ the country. Their services were often demanded to labour I or carry burdens for the Sudras and the native Government, ; for which they were often unpaid, or received a mere nominal sum. In consequence of long ages of oppression, the Shanars are, as a class, timid, deceitful, and ignorant. But they are 42 " THE LAND OP CHARITY." usually faithful in the observance of the marriage hond, and are somewhat more chaste and truthful, more grateful and less prejudiced, than many other classes of the Hindus. Their superstitions, too, though gross and debasing, are less complex and fascinating to the native mind than those of the Brahmans, so that they appear to have been pro- videntially prepared to lend a willing ear to the truths of the gospel. The slave castes — the lowest of the low — comprehend the Pallars (3,736), the Pariahs (41,360), and the Pulayars (98,766); numbering in aU 143,862. Of these the Pariahs, a Tamil caste, are found, like the Shanars, only in the southern districts and in Shencotta, east of the Ghauts ; but they appear to be in many respects in- ferior to those of the eastern coast. Indulging a depraved taste for carrion, they are in the habit of carrying off the carcasses of bullocks and cows left dead by the road-side and in the fields, which they regard as their peculiar perquisites. Their habits generally are most filthy and disgusting, and they have sometimes been suspected of kidnapping and en- trapping into their number women of high caste. The Pulayars, the lowest of the slave castes, reside in miserable huts on mounds in the centre of the rice swamps, or on the raised embankments in their vicinity. They are engaged in agriculture as the servants of the tSudra and other landowners. Wages are usually paid to them in kind, and at the lowest possible rates. To eke out their miserable allowances, therefore, they are accustomed to enter the grounds of their neighbours at night to steal roots, cocoa- nuts, and other jiroduce ; and they are but too ready to commit assault and other crimes, for the commission of which they may be sufficiently bribed by their masters. These poor people are steeped in the densest ignorance and stupidity. Drunkenness, lying, and evil passions prevail THE PEOPLE THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 43 amongst them, except where of late years the gospel has heen the means of their reclamation from vice, and of their social elevation. Tliey differ from the Pariahs, however, in abstaining from the flesh of all dead animals. In former times slaves were let or transferred at the choice of the owner, were offered as presents to friends or as gifts to temples, and were hought, sold, or mortgaged in the same manner as the land on which they dwelt or as the cattle and other property of their owners. The price of a slave varied from six to nine rupees (twelve to eighteen shillings). In some parts of the country, however, as much as eighteen rupees were given. ' Being frequently engaged in digging and manuring, transplanting the young rice, repairing the banks, and performing other labours in the rice-fields, sometimes standing for hours in the water, they are subject to rheumatism, fevers, cholera, and other diseases, which carry oif many long before the approach of old age. The survivors are often left, when past work, to beg or steal for their support, or to perish with hunger. Cases of horrid and aggravated cruelty in the treatment of slaves by their masters, especially of those wlio attempted to escape to the mountains, were once numerous. In- deed, one of the usual clauses in the deed of transfer of slaves was "You may sell him or kill him." Both privi- leges have now, of course, ceased. One instance of savage cruelty by a Syrian towards a poor slave who had made his escape came under the cognizance of the Rev. H. Baker. This slave, after his convei'sion, went to visit his former master, carrying with him a few presents to avert his anger. He was immediately seized and fearfully beaten, then covered with hot ashes, and confined in the cellar of a granary. There he lay for three days, groaning and praying that God would forgive all his sins and his master's too. He asked for water, and they gave him some filthy compound 44 "tiik land of ciiarity." from the cattle stall ; at length lie died of liis wounds and starvation, and they buried his corpse to hide the deed. Some one told the facts of the case to the Puniattu liajah, who gave notice to the police, and it cost the owner some 500 rupees in bribes " to settle the trouble," as the natives call it. Various measures for the amelioration of the condition of the slaves, and ultimately for their emancipation, have, through British and Christian mediation, been adopted by the native Government. In October, 1853, the Rajah's pro- clamation set free the future offspring of Government slaves, and somewhat modified the condition of other slaves ; and in June, 1855, another proclamation was issued for the "amelioration of slavery," liberating all Government slaves, forbidding the courts of justice to enforce claims on any person as a slave, and providing for their holding property and obtaining redress for injuries the same as freemen. Although thus legally emancijiated the condition of the slave population remains very much as before ; and jierhaps it is Avell that there should be no sudden or violent convul- sions of society. They have not the courage and enterprise, nor perhaps the industry, to avail themselves as a body of their legal rights. IS^or, indeed, is it possible that they should rise to any considerable degree of improvement while the system of caste tyranny and oppression remains in full force. Could we depict in true and vivid colours the miseries and woes of the Pulayars and other slave population of Tra- vancore, the hearts of our readers would melt with pity and compassion for their temporal sufferings and spiritual danger. Mention can only be made of some of the bare facts as to how the inhuman system of caste affects the poor Pulayan in his person, his house and family, his business, his religious worship, and, in short, throughout the whole of his wretched life. THE PEOPLE— THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 45 The very name expresses the idea of impurity ; it is derived from the word '' pida,''' funeral pollution. With regard to his personal comfort and deportment, the only dress of the degraded Pulayan is a piece of coarse cloth fastened round the loins, and a small piece tied around the head as a head-dress. To women, as well as to men, it was forbidden, until 1865 (when, through the benevolent inter- position of the British Government, the restriction was removed) to wear any clothing whatever above the waist. Their ornaments must be no more valuable than brass or beads, umbrellas must not be used to shelter the body from the scorching heat of the sun, nor shoes to protect the feet from the thorns and sharp stones of the jungle paths. The Pulayan has no education, for who would be found willing to teach, or even to approach, the impure one 1 The language which he is compelled to use is in the highest degree abject and degrading. He dare not say " I," but " rtc?/y/ere," "your slave;" he dare not call his rice ^^ dwru" but '■'■ Uarilmdi" — dirty gruel. He asks leave, not to take food, but " to drink Avater." His house is called " mddam" a hut, and his children he speaks of as " monkeys " or " calves ; " and when speaking he must place the hand over the mouth, lest the breath should go forth and pollute the person whom he is addressing.* The Pulayan's home is a little shed, which barely affords shelter from the rain and space to lie down at night, desti- tute alike of comfort and furnitiu'e. It must be built in a situation far from the houses of all respectable persons. Let him dare to attempt the erection of a better house, and it will immediately be torn doAvn by the infuriated Sudras. Very rarely has the Pulayan land of his own. It belongs to the Sudra master, and the poor slave is liable to be expelled * Compare Job xl. 4. 46 "the land of charity." from the land wliich he occupies, and from his means of living, if he claims the freedom to which he is now entitled by laAV. I have known Sudras even take forcible possession of waste land which had been cleared and cultivated by Pulayars. In the transaction of the ordinary business of life, the disabilities of the low caste man are such that it is hard to imagine how human beings could ever have been held in a condition of subservience to them. But we must remember the effect of thousands of years of oppression and tyranny. The Pulayan is not allowed to use the public road when a Brahman or Sudra walks on it. The poor slave must utter a warning cry, and hasten off the roadway into the mud on one hand or the briers on the other, lest the high caste man should be polluted by his near approach or by his shadow. The law is (and I was informed by a legal authority that it is still binding) that a Pulayan must never approach a Brah- man nearer than ninety-six paces, and he must remain at about half this distance from a Sudra. I have often seen the Sudra master shouting from the prescribed distance to his slaves toiling in the fields. The Pulayan cannot enter a court of justice, — he must shout from the appointed distance, and take his chance of being heard and receiving attention. A policeman is sometimes stationed halfway between the Pulayan witness or prisoner and the high caste magistrate, to transmit the cpiestions and answers, tlie distance being too great for convenient hearing.* As he cannot enter a town or village, no employment is open to him except tliat of Avorking in rice-fields, and such kind of labour. He cannot * Since those remarks were written, orders have been issued by the Govern- iTient to allow the admission of the low castes to the piibhc courts and a few of the English schools. No one, however, who understands the force of caste prejudice in Travancore can imagine that this concession will largely affect the condition of the low caste population for a long time to come. Nothing is yet being attempted for the education of tlie slave castes. THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 47 even act as a porter, for he defiles all that he touches. He cannot work as a domestic servant, for the house would be polluted by his entrance ; much less can he (even were he by some means to succeed in obtaining education or capital) become a clerk, schoolmaster, or merchant. Caste affects even his purchases and sales. The Pulayars manufacture umbrellas and other small articles, place them on the highway, and retire to the appointed distance, shouting to passers by Avith reference to the sales. If the Pulayan wishes to make a purchase, he places his money on a stone and retires to the appointed distance. Then the merchant or seller comes, takes up the money, and lays down whatever quantity of goods he chooses to give for the sum received, — a most profitable mode of doing business for the merchant, but alas for the poor purchaser ! It calls to mind that old historic stone outside the walls of the ancient city of Win- chester, which was used during the great plague. Upon it Avere placed letters, money, and articles of barter, to avoid the personal contact of the healthy with persons affected with the plague. But the pride and tyranny of caste produces a wider separation of heart and feeling between man and his brother man than the most deadly plague or disease. Only Jesus, by His love and grace, can reunite the hearts of men thus sepa- rated and draw all to Himself — "Unto Him shall the gathering of the people be." Reference might be made further to the rites of religious ivorship, in which the " common and unclean " Pariahs and Pulayars are forbidden to unite with the holy Brahman ; and of times of sickness and distress in Avhich no aid will be rendered by those best able to assist. Were fifty Pulayars drowning in a river, the Brahmans and other caste men would stand aloof and witness their dying struggles with per- fect indifference, and would never put forth a liand to touch and to save their wretched and despised fellow-creatures. I 48 " THE LAND OF CHARITY." liave known these poor people robbed, oppressed, beaten, put in the stocks, and tortured by their Sudra owners. I have seen a well-to-do Pulayan, who was suspected of desmng to avail himself of his legal freedom, falsely charged by his master, his house gutted of his little property, his family left destitute, and himself exposed to torture and suffering. The heart sickens at the thought of all that these poor people are compelled to endure. " So I returned, and considered all the oppressions that are done under the sun : and behold the tears of such as were oppressed, and they had no comforter; and on the side of their oppressors there was power ; but they had no comforter" (Eccles. iv. 1). The Hill tribes, numbering 14,348, we have classed with the low caste population, but perhaps they should be regarded as outside the whole system of caste, in which it seems rather difficult to assign to them their exact position. They are called Kanikarar (heritors), or Maleyarasar (hill kings), or hill Arrians. Most of them are migratory in their habits, cultivating, for a year or two, plots of ground cleared from the forest, and afterwards removing in search of other fertile lands. They also collect the honey and other spontaneous products of the forests. They have their fixed villages in picturesque sites on the slopes of the mountains, or in ahnost inaccessible ravines. Some of their houses are good, substantial erections of wood and stone, but most are mere temporary huts of mud or bamboo ingeniously interwoven with leaves and grass. These people are employed in digging the elephant pits, and helping, with bark ropes, to conduct the animals into the taming cages. In the IS^orth many of them are comfortable, or even wealthy in circumstances, and are well formed in person. Large numbers in the Mundakayam district have placed themselves under Christian instruction. The hill tribes in South Travancore are exceedingly THE PEOPLE— THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 49 wretched, uncivilized, and degraded. The men go almost naked, having only a few inches of cloth round the loins, and a small cloth on the head. They are short in stature, but strongly built. The women wear bracelets of iron or brass, numerous necklaces of coral or beads, and leaden rings in the ear. They are much overcharged in the purchase of these ornaments by the Mohammedan and other dealers, and are continually in distress through the almost universal pre- valence of drunkenness. They lack even an ordinary amount of knowledge, being unable to read or -vrate, or to count above a dozen ; fibres of various climbing plants are knotted in a particular way, to express their wants. I have never met with one who could tell his own age. Being remarkably addicted to the worship of the hill demons, they are supposed to have great influence with those evil spirits, and are therefore often dreaded by the people of the low country. When spoken to on religious subjects they seem hardly able to understand the distinction between good and evil. They say that, should they become Christians, the devils would kill them and spoil their cultivation by means of the wild beasts. They fear even to touch a printed book. One of them said to a native Christian teacher, " Do you come to destroy us by bringing the wrath of the demons upon us 1 " A poor woman pleaded on a similar occasion, " I have only two children, do not kill them by teaching them the Vedam, (Scripture)." The INIohammedans, too, endeavour to prevent them from attending Christian schools by saying, " These people wish to make you all Christians ; then the demons will desert you, so that you shall become the prey of wild beasts." This superstitious fear hinders them from all opportunity of improvement. We have thus briefly sketched the Hindu population of Travancore. By the census of 1854r it amounts to about E 50 "the land of charity." one million, but we should add at least a fourth more as the probable number at present. This one million is composed of some 60,000 Brahmans, or closely related castes, and 482,000 Sudras and others, so making the high castes rather more than half of the heathen population. The other half comprehends about 321,000 Shanars, &c., and 144,000 slaves. The Christian and Mussulman population of Travancore, amounting to above a quarter of a million, will form the subjects of sejiarate chapters. 5] CHAPTER IV. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS (CONTINUED). Native Houses — Costume and Ornaments of Men and Women — Food. Few native houses in Travancore can pretend to anything of magnificence or splendour in architecture or style. Even the residences of wealthy families are mean in external appearance, and insignificant as to size. The best houses consist rather of a series of small detached buddings, one or two stories in height, all contained within the walls of the outer enclosure. The dwellings of the poorest natives are more wretched and fragile than can well be conceived by those who have not had the opportunity of inspecting them. These consist of but four mud walls, with wooden rafters, and grass or palm-leaf thatch. ISfany huts are constructed wholly from the leaf and stems of the palmyra or cocoa- nut palms. A native hut of this kind would easily be contained within the limits of an ordinary English drawing- room, yet in such dwellings thousands of families in Travan core reside. A painful but accurate picture of the deplorable condition of the dwellings of the i)oorest class is drawn by the Eev. C. Yesudian, in describing a visit to a slave village : — " While going about among them I with great difficulty got into and inspected an uninhabited hut, which was of the following description : — It was eight feet square, and was divided into three apartments. One of the rooms, intended for the accommodation of friends, was eight feet in length, and oniv 52 THE LAND OF CHARITY. three in breadth. The height of the top of the roof was not more tlian nine feet. Eegretting that human beings should have been reduced to such miserable extremities, I turned round to get out, but I found it rather difficult to do so for some time, the door in the front, the only entrance to the house, being only three feet high, and two and a half broad, and the eaves of the roof still lower. I had first to stoop down very low, and then to drag myself carefully out. (Several huts of this descrij^tion are put together in lines opposite to each other, having in their midst a narrow street varying in breadth from six to eight feet. In the middle of this Avretched jiathway there is a gutter a foot broad, Avhich is intended to serve as a drain for all sorts of filth. It would be almost impossible for persons unaccustomed to sucli habitations to remain and work any number of hours there. The reason why they make their doors so small is to keep themselves warm in cold weather, as they have very little clothing about them. To serve the same purpose the thatch of the roof is thickly covered over with straw. In fact, they were not allowed by their masters better clothing and dwellings, as improvements in these would have made them unfit for toiling day and night in the rice-fields, river banks, and threshing-floors, exposed to cold winds, rain, and dew." The walls of the better class of houses are built of clay bricks dried in the sun or kiln burnt, or of a hard clayey material called " laterite," dug in abundance out of the hill- sides almost everywhere. It is cut into squares like bricks, and hardens by exposure to the air. " (Jhunam," or lime for plastering the walls, is procured by burning bivalve shells, found in abundance on the sea-shore and in the backwaters. 'J'his is very white and beautiful, and when properly applied and polislunl looks like fine white marble. These houses are often built two stories in height, with a verandali round the lower story to protect the walls from sun and rain, and THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 53 to form an open hall for rest or recreation. The ceilings, rafters and beams are of teak, jack, or palmyra wood, and the roof is covered with small tiles of burnt clay. The above engraving of the Reading-room at Kottav, recently erected through the indefatigable etforti^ of Ilev. d. Duthie, will give a correct idea of the style of the better class of buildings. Some houses are built wholly of wood, like immense boxes : in the woodwork of these handsome carvings are occasionally found. They are placed upon brick foundations, and with care last for centuries. The principal dwellingdiouse is divided into several small rooms. One is used by the females of the family, another is more public, and another is the strong-room, carefully fitted 54 "the land of charity." with locks and bars, and upper ceiling, so as to form a seciue repository for the cloths, jewels, weapons, coins, brass vessels, and other household valuables. Windows are either wanting, or are exceedingly small, and fitted with wooden bars or carved work. The interior is often dark, and ventilation is wholly disregarded. Rarely, except in large towns, are native houses built in .•street rows, or quite up to the line of the roadway. Between the public road and the dwelling an open space or yard is left for various uses. Here rice is beaten in the w^ooden mortar, or spread out to dry in the sun. In one corner of the yard are sheds for cattle, and receptacles for rice, straw, cocoa-nuts, &c. Behind or at the side is a small cookhouse, unless indeed culinary operations are performed against the outer wall of the house, or even inside one of the apartments. A well is often dug inside the courtyard for convenience of access. In front is the door or gateway, covered with a small roof-like frame, thatched, to protect the woodwork from the effects of rain and sun. Here, too, in most houses there is an open shed, in which visitors are received, and business of all kinds transacted. In these little sheds we have often engaged in worship with our Christian people. In the more respectable native houses there are a great many separate buildings ; some of them carefully secluded for the use of the various members of the family and their wives and children, with store-rooms, cooking-houses, and often a small domestic temple in one corner of the open courtyard. Little furniture is required or used. A bench or two, a small native " cot" or T)ed-frame, on which a mat is spread, a brass Limp suspended by a chain, a Avooden mortar for pounding rice, and a few cooking vessels (the whole costing but a few shillings), Ibrm the furniture of a small native hut. THE PEOPLE THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 55 European furniture, however, is coming into use in the houses of wealthy natives. The ordinary costume of the people of Travancore is remarkably simple and j^rimitive. While hard at work, many men, such as fishers, tree climbers, and others, wear but the scantiest shred of clothing demanded by common decency. A miserable covering of green leaves serves to hide the nakedness of some of the wildest of the mountaineers. Even the better classes ordinarily wear very light clothing. " This, you know, is our uniform," said a noble of high rank whom I visited once, and who received me dressed in a single piece of cotton cloth fastened round the loins. A Tamil man from the East is recognised in Travancore by the comparative abundance of cloths in which he is enveloped. On im- portant occasions and in public, wealthy natives don a long coat or jacket of wdiite or printed calico, with trousers some- what in the European style. This is the usual dress of the Mohammedans and Christian teachers, and of the native police and Goverament messengers, or "peons." The latter wear also an embroidered belt with a brass or silver badge, having inscribed on it the department of state in which they are employed. The materials ordinarily used are common calico, or checked and striped coloured cloths, manufactured in the country. The better classes occasionally use fine silks, dyed or printed with brilliant colours. A turban of white or coloured muslin, tightly and neatly folded in a great variety of fashions, is the usual head-dress of the Travancorean. This is very often simplified into a jjlain piece of white cloth, which may either be thrown over the shoulders or twisted round the head. The turban forms an admirable protection for the head from the burning heat of the sun. Another head-dress is a light cap of cloth fitting closely to the head, but somewhat conical at the top, and comin" down low over the ears and back of the head. 56 "the land of charity." Slaves and other poor people wear rude caps, composed of the thick, leather-like leaf- sheath of the areca palm tree. Men of all castes are accustomed at regular intervals to shave the hair from the head as well as the face, for coolness and cleanliness. After a " clean shave " of this kind I have sometimes been at a loss to recognise my most intimate friends. A small portion of the hair is always left uncut by heathen natives. This is called the " Jiudmni," and is only cut off with certain ceremonies on the occasion of the death of a father.* Most missionaries regard this lock of hair as essentially a mark of heathenism, and require Christian con- verts to abandon the custom. The "kudumi" is usually worn at the hack of the head, but the JS'amburi Brahmans have it at the front of the head, over the forehead, Avhere it is tied up in a loose knot. The tradition is, that in former times Parasu Ramen introduced these Brahmans into Tra- vancore from the other side of the mountains, lifting them up by the hair of the head, and hurling them over the moun- tains. Thus the " kudumi " was dragged from the back to the front of the head, where it has been worn by members of this caste ever since. On the forehead of the Hindu a little dot, or horizontal or upright lines are drawn with sacred ashes, and renewed every morning. These are the sectarial marks denoting the par- ticular deity worshipped. The upright lines are the marks of Vishnu, the horizontal lines of Siva, and so on. These signs are repeated on the shoulders and breasts, while a few who make pretences to special jmrity, rub the sacred ashes over the whole of the u])per part of the body. Small golden earrings are often worn by men. A few have the privilege of wearing large rings of gold in tlieir ears. Kings are also worn by men upon the fingers. Around the necks of Brahmans and others specially devoted to religion * Compare Duut. xiv. I. THE PEOPLE THEIR MAXNERS AND CUSTOMS. 57 hangs a necklace, or rosary, made of the hard round nuts of certain trees strung together. These are used for reckoning the repetitions of the appointed prayers. The heathen use vain repetitions, " for they think that they shall be heard for their much speaking " (Matt. vi. 7). In passing a native house I have often heard the voice of prayer, if the mere repetition of " Narayana — Xarayanii — Xarayana ! " or of the name of some other god several hundred times, can he regarded as prayer in any true sense of the word. One is reminded by these heathen customs of the singular resemblance which they bear to some of the rites of the Eoman Catholic Church. The Eomanists, like the Hindus, rub the sacred ashes on the forehead, but only once a year — on Ash Wednesday. They use rosaries, exactly as the Hin- dus do. They have images in their Avorship, but repudiate the idea of worshipping the images themselves — so do the Hindus. Romish priests and monks shave the crown of the head, leaving a ring of hair on the outside. The Hindus have the long hair in the centre. IMoreover, in the approval of celibacy and monachism, penances and pilgrimages — in the use of sacred lamps, and candles, and processions in wor- ship — in regard to holy water, and sacred wells, and prayer in an unknown tongue (Latin in the case of the Romanists, Sanscrit amongst the Brahmans), and in the flicts that the recognised Scriptures are forbidden to the laity, and all true progress prohibited, we see points of startling resemblance or identity between the superstitions of the East and those of the West. Human nature is the same in every land. The mark of Brahmanical dignity is a cord composed of three treble threads of cotton, worn across the breast, running over the left shoulder and under the right arm. This cord, however, or '^pumiJ," is worn also by goldsmiths and several other castes, and by the males of the Eoyal Family. It is renewed from time to time as it wears out. The upper part 58 " THE LAND OF CHARITY." of the body and the lower part of the legs are usually bare. Over one shoulder, or around the neck, a light scarf-like cloth is often thrown. The principal garment worn by men is the cloth fastened around the waist and covering the lower part of the body and the loins. This is a single piece of cotton cloth, not sewed or pinned, but merely fastened by having the extremity tucked in at one side. Wooden or leather sandals and shoes, or rather slippers, of various patterns, form the protection for the feet. The shoes are peaked and turned backwards at the toes and " down at the heel," so as to be easily laid aside when entering a house, and resumed after the visit is over. Natives, up to the highest in rank, put off the shoes before receiving visitors or entering a house, just as Europeans uncover the head; while on the other hand they retain the turban, or head-dress, which is always worn according to the rules of Hindu eti- quette on such occasions. Stockings are never used. Ee- spectable natives carry an umbrella of palm leaf, or cloth, but these are forbidden, by ancient custom, to the lowest castes. They are permitted, however, to wear a kind of broad umbrella cap of palm leaves. Persons of official rank enjoy the privilege of having an umbrella of large size carried by an attendant, and in the case of the Royal Family and the Prime Minister this is formed of crimson silk. Fe dale dress in Travancore does not vary like the ever- changing fashions of European countries. For perhaps two or three thousand years it has remained unaltered. The Hindu woman has long, black, luxuriant hair, which she ties up in a knot at the back, or, in the case of some castes, at the right side of the head. AVhen fully dressed, rich golden ornaments and a few handsome flowers are used to decorate the hair. Might it not be worthy the consideration of fixshionable ladies at home Avhether it would not be a hitherto unthought-of novelty, amidst the innumerable THE TEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 53 fashions of " cliignons " at present, to try the effect of wear- ing them, not at the back, or npper part of the head, but at the side, in. imitation of this ancient, yet novel, Malabar fashion? Strange that none of the leaders of fashion in Europe have thought of this ! Ear ornaments, worn in a considerable variety of forms, are indispensable to the completeness of the costume of a Travancore lady. The views of the ]]rahman women as to the size of these ornaments are much more moderate than those of the Sudra and Shanar females. In the case of the latter the ear of the child is pierced in the usual place, and a heavy leaden ring, or weight, is then inserted, so as to draw down and extend the fleshy lobe and greatly to enlarge the opening. After some time another weight is added, then WOODEN BAE-CTLINDEB. another, and another, until, in the course of a year or two, the ear is drawn down almost to the shoulder ; without this the apj)earance of the maiden is supposed to be very incom- plete. The hole is enlarged and kept open by a piece of CO "the land of charity." palm leaf rolled up so as to form a light spring, or by a heavy wooden cylinder, represented of the ordinary size in the illustration on the preceding page. Occasionally the ring of flesh breaks under the operation, or is accidentally torn, and the ends have to be cut afresh and re-attached, bandaged with a small piece of the wing of a bat, anointed with oil, and carefully tended till they re- unite. In the opening of the ear thus unnaturally enlarged, a circular ornament of gold or other material, of monstrous size, is worn on marriage and other festive and full dress occasions. ^'^ose jewels, too, are required by the demands of female fashion in Travancore. These are sometimes mere studs, worn on one side of the nose, and fastened Avith a little pin inside. Or a large gold ring, two inches in diameter, is passed through the nasal cartilage, and hangs over a consi- derable portion of the mouth. This must be held up by one hand, or removed, while partaking of food. These golden ornaments are considered by the natives to form an admirable contrast with the dark complexion, and to add greatly to the beauty and bright expression of the countenance. Necklaces of gold, silver, brass, or beads are worn by all except widows, who are compelled to lay aside all ornaments and all coloured articles of dress. In the case of the poor slave women, the necklaces of beads, &c., hanging across the breast are so numerous as almost to amount to an additional article of clothing. The " tdli " — marriage badge, or neck ornament — corre- sponds, to all intents and purposes, to the wedding ring amongst Euro]ieans. It is composed of one or more small gold jewels and beads strung on a twisted thread. The " tali " is tied on the bride's neck by the bridegroom at the time of the wedding, and is worn as an auspicious ornament. It is preserved with great care, and never removed except in case THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANXERS AND CUSTOMS. 61 of widowhood, wlien it is torn off and not again resumed. In the Christian form of marriage the national custom of " tying the tali " is allowed and generally followed, though a few prefer to use the European marriage ring. As already stated, low caste females in Travancore were forbidden to wear any clothing whatever above, the waist. This restriction has recently been removed by law, but a lengthened period must yet elajise before the poorer classes excepting those who enjoy the protection and support of the Christian community, dare to avail themselves largely of this privilege, on account of the jealousy of the higher castes. ^or, indeed, do all the low castes, as individuals, care greatly for the use of the privilege, except on special occasions, as it involves some trifling additional expense and trouble. How- over, it is now left by the Native Government, as it ought to be, to the free choice and right feeling of the parties them- selves. On his first arrival in the country a European must be greatly shocked by seeing so large a proportion of the people going about in a state thus nearly approaching to nudity, and it requires a long time to become familiar with such a state of things. The dark complexion of the natives, perhaps, makes this custom seem less unnatural than it would be amongst Europeans. Christian and Mohammedan women wear a neat jacket of white or coloured cotton. The Siidra and other middle class females j^lace a light cotton cloth loosely across the breast and over one shoulder. This is called the "upper cloth." But in the presence of the Royal Family or persons of high rank, or when saluting such persons passing by, ancient usage actually required tlie removal of this cloth. Since 1865, however, by the good feeling and enlightened action of the Maharajah and his Minister, this degrading custom was discountenanced and completely abolished by a Proclamation of which the follow- ing is a translation : — C2 "the land of charity." " "Whereas Siidra women, when in the presence of persons in high office, and when serving in the Temple or Palace, lower their upper garment as a mark of respect, this ap- pears to His Highness (the sacred mind) exceedingly im- modest. We have informed the aforesaid persons that this offensive custom is henceforth unnecessary. It is our will that all the native people wear garments in accordance with propriety, and this we now make known, when women in temples, in tlie Palace, and other places, shall cover the upper parts with the cloth, in accordance with this circular, we hereby order that the officials do not ojipose their doing so." The Brahman women are, as might be expected, much superior to others in regard to the proprieties of dress. AVliile imposing barbarous and often inhuman restrictions upon others, the Brahmans have taken good care that they them- selves shall not suffer any diminution of comfort or honour. The upper part of the dress of a Brahman lady consists of a smart coloured jacket, fastening in front, and covering the bosom, and over this in addition the upper cloth is also worn. The principal gai'ment of all classes of females is a piece of cloth several yards in length, usually of white calico — some- times coloured or checked — occasionally of silken materials. This is tightly wound around the waist and turned in at one end in a variety of forms, with neat folds, making a kind of petticoat. The other extremity is used as an "upper cloth," or shawl, by being thrown over the shoulder so as to cover the shoulders and bosom. Considerable ingenuity and taste are displayed in the mode of enveloping the person in this cloth, and the whole forms a very graceful and appropriate female dress. Sundry ornaments and jewellery, with the names and uses of which a European gentleman can hardly be expected to be familiar, are worn by Hindu females in various ranks and conditions of life. Besides ornaments for tlie hair, nose- THE PEOPLE — THEIR MA.N.VERS AND CUSTOMS. 63 rings, earrings, and necklaces, there are armlets and bracelets of various patterns and materials, numerous rings of shell or metal on the fingers, large hollow rings on the ankles (never of gold), and rings on the second toe of thp foot. In fact, when a native girl or woman goes out to walk in full dress, the " tinkle, tinkle, tinkle," which attends her movements are a notice that all may see she is dressed " in the tip-top of tlie fashion." One is reminded of the list of Jewish female ornaments in the third chapter of Isaiah, the names and uses of Avhich seem to have perplexed commentators quite as much as those of the Hindu ladies puzzle present writers on India. On no subject are Hindus more vigilant and prejudiced than on that of food ; this being one of the great tests of orthodoxy. Caste rules, as we have seen, forbid their par- taking of food in company with persons of lower caste, or which has been prepared by such. The profession of a cook, as well as that of a teacher, is highly honourable in India. Hence the exercise of extreme caution as to the individuals with whom they eat, and as to the preparation of food. After coming into personal contact with a low caste man or a European, a caste Hindu must bathe and perform other ceremonies before he dare again eat or drink. Their diffi- culties in this matter, while on a journey and under other circumstances, are incessant and annoying ; yet the law of caste is unyielding, even in the most extreme cases. A European physician was invited to visit and prescribe for a Hindu Prince, who was suffering under a severe attack of illness. The medical gentleman was duly Avarned not to touch or a})proach the noble patient ; but in his anxiety about the case he forgot the prohibition, and in the course of conversation drew his chair nearer and nearer. At last, rising for a moment, and laying his hand upon the post of the bed, he requested the patient to show his tongue. A 64 "the land of charity." groan of sympathetic horror and distress was uttered by the native attendants, for now their master had become polluted, and it would be necessary, notwithstanding the suffering and danger of using cold water, to bathe ere he could again par- take of nourishment of any kind. Long voyages are impracticable, because, in accordance with the laws of caste, food cannot be cooked or eaten on shipboard, and it is, of course, impossible to land for the preparation of every meal. I have sometimes seen native dignitaries at the table of Europeans, by whom they were invited as an act of courtesy, or giving a dinner at their own houses to European guests. On these occasions they sit and converse with their European friends, but dare not partake of a single particle of food with them, or in their presence. The Brahmans profess to reject animal food of every kind, including eggs, but they indemnify themselves, to some extent, for this self-denial by the use of quantities of milk, curd, and butter. Siidras partake freely of miitton and poultry, and even pork, but to all, excejot the most degraded Hindus, the flesh of the cow is the object of unmitigated abhorrence. This, no doubt, arose originally from the pecu- liar utility of these humble and patient creatures for agricul- tural jjurposes, and the consequent idea of sacredness which became attached to them. Hence it is that European " beef- eaters " cannot but be viewed, from a caste point of view, with the greatest abhorrence. " Ourry and rice " is one of the ftivourite and characteristic dishes of the natives of India, and a capital article of food it is when properly prepared. The rice is well boiled in water. Curry is a compound of spices — such as mustard, pepper, turmeric, ginger, coriander seed, tamarinds, onions, cocoa- nut juice, &c., in varying proportions, according to the flavour required. The ingredients being ground with a stone roller, on a flat smooth stone, are boiled and added to the meat, THE PEOPLE — THEIR MAXXERS AXD CUSTOMS. G5 fish, or vegetable which, is to he "curried." When eating, the natives sit cross-legged upon the ground. The rice is ladled out upon a large plantain leaf, and a small quantity of the savoury curry soup is added. Plates, spoons, and forks are not used. A small quantity of the rice is taken up in the right hand, mixed with the curry, made into a little ball, and deftly thrown into the mouth. For liquids, the firm hard leaves of the jack tree are puckered up at one side and fastened with a thorn, so as to form a rude kind of spoon. These leaves are thrown away after being once used. Wealthy natives have many different kinds of curries set before them at each meal. Vegetables and fruits of all kinds, milk and curds, rice and flour cakes, are largely used by the natives as food ; of late coffee also is coming into use. A considerable variety of sweetmeats are sold in the bazaars. A light meal of " conjee," that is, rice with the water in which it is boded, is taken early in the morning ; curry and rice are ready by noon ; and at sunset, or later, supper is made of the same dishes with the usual accompaniments. In India, men and women never eat together. After the males of the family have finished their repast, the women, who have meanwhile been attending upon them, retire apart to their own quiet meals. 66 CHAPTEE V. THE NATIVE GOVERNMENT. Eelation to the British Government — Legislation — The Maharajah — His Titles — Court and Levees — The DewSn — Revenue and Expenditure — Law Courts — Crime and Criminals. Travancore, though nominally an independent state, under the rule of its own native sovereign, is in reality, as we have shown, tributary to the British Government, and under its control and protection. All important measures of legis- lation and finance, the appointment of the higher officials, and even the succession to the musnud, or throne, must be submitted to tlie British Eesident for his opinion and sanc- tion before being carried into operation. Sentences of capital punishment, too, must have the concurrence of the Eesident before being executed. Without some such external restraint and stimulus, the country, with its rigid Hindu conservatism and barbarous caste laws, could never have improved as it has done for the last ten or twelve years, so as to be now, except in the matter of the low -caste population, who are treated as quite out of the pale of human society and laws, confessedly one of the best governed native states in India. In many instances it has been only after considerable moral pressure, both from public opinion and from the British representatives, that the native Government have yielded to accept the reforms urged uj)on tliem. Notwithstanding all that has been accomplished, however, \^cry much yet remains to be effected in the improvement of THE NATIVE GOVERNMENT. 67 legislation, and the extension of freedom to all classes of the population. Large and liberal measures are still imperatively required for the henefit of the oppressed and down-trodden low castes. These are not, it should be remembered, in every instance, necessarily poor or destitute of capacity and moral character, in proportion to their position in the arbitrary scale of caste. The masses of the low-caste population have been as yet but slightly touched by the partial reforms of the Travancore Government. They ought, for instance, to have a fair share in the scheme of Government education, from which they are at present excluded solely on account of caste. Children of low caste are refused admittance into nearly all the Government English and vernacular schools ; yet these contribute their fair quota to the public funds, which are wasted on Brahmanical rites, or expended almost exclusively on the education of the higher castes. Although permission to cover the upper part of the person has been given to the lower castes, they are still by law restricted to the use of coarse cloths, to the manifest detriment of the national commerce and manufactures. Any advance, too, in the use of richer ornaments, palankeens, and other luuxuries, on the part of wealthy members of these castes, is strictly prohibited. The public roads, also, ought to be opened freely to all classes, and admission to all the courts conceded to even the lowest and most despised of the population.* Moreover, the flourishing, peaceful, and loyal native Pro- testant Christian community claims recognition by the Government as a body with a status of its own, like the Mohammedans, Syrian Christians, and Jews. IN^ative Pro- testant Christians should be specified in the census, and admitted to the police, the civil service, and any other employments and offices in the state for which they may * See Note on p. 46. 68 " THE LAND OF CHARITY." prove themselves to possess the requisite qualifications. In short, the half a million low-caste people, constituting no less than one-third of the whole population, should be educated, enfranchised, invested with the rights of citizenship, and admitted to the enjoyment of the natural and indefeasible rights and liberties which belong to every member of tlie great human family. The official titles of the MahaRxUah of Travancore are sufficiently numerous and imposing. The title in full is as follows : — " His Higlmess Sree Patmanabha Dausa Vunchee Eaula Eama Vurmah Koolasekhara Kireetapati Munnay Sultan Mahiiraj Riljah Eamarajah Bahadur Shamsheer Jung, Knight Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India, Maharajah of Travancore." "Maha" is the Sanscrit term for "great" or "mighty," as " rajah " means " king." The title " Maharajah" had long been used by native subjects, but it was only in 1866 that the British Government resolved that in recognition of the liajah's excellent administration of the state he should in future be addressed in all communications as " Maharajah." In the same year the order of the Star of India was conferred on his Highness as a mark of her Majesty's royal favour. The letter announcing the nomination as Knight Grand Commander was formally received at a grg,nd "durbar," or levee, in Trevandrum, and the insignia were presented to his Highness by Lord Napier, Governor of Madras, in that city. The personal name of the j)resent [Maharajah is " Eama Vurmah," the names of two Hindu deities. " Shamsheer Jung" means "Chief in War." The remaining titles mostly refer to the names of Hindu gods, or are indicative of regal authority and dignity. Durbars or levees are held by the INIaharajah on state occasions, — such as the installation of the sovereign, mar- THE NATIVE GOVERXMEXT. G9 riages in the royal family, visits of the Governor of INIadras, or the reception of state letters and documents. A brief description of the first durbar vi'hich the writer attended may interest our readers. This took place on the 2nd of May, 1860. The occasion was the reception of an autograph letter and handsome present from her Majesty the Queen to the late Eajah. Invitations had been issued by the Eesident, on behalf of the liajah, to most of the Europeans resident m the country, so that the unusually large number of thirty or forty Avere present at the durbar. The native houses in the town were decorated with bright-coloured flowers and plan- tain trees in fruit, and festoons of flowers and the green leaves of the palm tree cut and plaited into a variety of ornamental shapes, were strung across from house to house. At three o'clock we drove to the palace, and entered a mag- nificent pavilion which had been erected for the occasion. This was prettily adorned with garlands, hangings, mirrors and ornamental work, and supplied with showy European furniture. At the head of the room stood an ivory throne, with a shield and bow at the sides ; above it was a glittering canopy supported by four silver pillars. In this hall the guests were already assembling, and a crowd of native officials stood around. The Dewan, a pleasant-looking man, short in stature, Avith a very intelligent countenance, fair complexion, and bright expressive eyes, dressed in white robes with gold spangles, and a Avhite turban, engaged in polite conversation with the visitors. Shortly afterwards, the Eajah, a rather stout and fine- looking man, entered the room, accompanied by the Princes, his nephews. He Avore a robe of green satin, and a white turban, garnished Avith emeralds and a drooping plume of feathers, with two large pendent pearls. After bowing to the company, his Highness passed on to Adew his little army draAvn up Avith military dis].)lay in front of the palace, 70 "the land of oiiaritt." where also were the gigantic state elephants gorgeously caparisoned Avith howdahs and trappings of silver, ivory, and velvet, and an immense crowd of native spectators. On his appearance the troops presented arms, and the "band struck uj) the national anthem. At half-past three the British Resident arrived in pro- cession, with his escort of British sepoys, and was saluted by the native troops. He was met and received at the door of the Durbar Hall by the First Prince, and a little farther on by the Eajah himself. Here he presented the Queen's letter to his Highness, who received and opened it, and taking the Resident's arm, proceeded wp the hall to the throne. The Europeans, at the same time, took their seats in their order of precedence, on chairs ranged on either side of the room. There were present, besides the British Resident and Mrs. Maltby, Colonel Stevenson, who was charged with the safe delivery of the Royal letter, the commanding officers of the Nair Brigade and the residency escort, other military officers, judges, medical gentlemen, engineers, merchants, and missionaries, with their respective wives. The native offi- cials stood behind as spectators. The letter from the Queen acknowledged the present of an ivory throne, beautifully carved, which had been forwarded to the Great Exhibition of 1851, and was afterwards given by the Rajah to her Majesty. (It is now in one of the apartments of "Windsor Castle.) The Queen sent, in return, a handsome ornamental belt, with rich gold embroidery and buckle, set with precious stones and containing a watch with the initials of the Queen and the Rajah, set with diamonds in blue enamel, on the opposite sides. The Resident then pre- sented the case containing the belt to his Highness, who placed it for a moment on his head as a mark of great respect. Tli"* AGRICULTURE. 125 a practised climber in a few moroents reaches the top of the tree. The agihty of these men is really marvellous. The Shanar takes down the little round earthenware pot, holding about a quart, which had been suspended to the flower-stalk, empties its contents into his basket, cuts the extremity of the stalk afresh, and again ties up the little pitcher till evening. In this way from five to fifteen jjints of " sweet water '' are drawn daily from each palm (compare Psa. civ. 16). This is an agreeable, harmless drink, tasting just like sugar and water. Other palms besides the Palmyra yield a similar juice. When set aside for a day the " sweet water " ferments, and is then called " tadi," or " toddy." It is a pleasant acid drink, corresponding in a measure to our beer, but with a larger proportion of intoxicating quality ; it makes an excellent yeast for bread. Toddy spoils in two or three days, but is then laid aside for some months, till it passes into vinegar by acetous fermentation. It is matter for great regret that this work is everywhere carried on on Sundays as well as week days during the climbing season, Avhich very much reduces the attendance on public worship at this time of the year, and is a hindrance in many respects to the improvement of our people. To test the practicability of dropping this Sunday work, I made careful and extended experiments Avith a number of trees, but found that the ondssion of a single day's tapping seri- ously checks the flow of the sap, and reduces the quantity to less than one-half. Still, some of our Christian people attempt, by vaiious arrangements, to reduce the Sunday work to a minimum, while others distribute to the poor the whole produce of this day's labour. Eoiling the sap into sugar is the next process, and is per- formed by the laborious SliiTnatti, or female Shanar. She first gathers firewood in the jungles, and bears it home on her head ; then, when the juice has been collected, the 126 "the land op charity." climber's wife coramences to boil it down over a slow fire in large earthen pots, till it becomes a thick syrup. This is then poured into moulds, each formed of half a cocoa-nut shell, in which it hardens into lumps of very dark coarse sugar. This '^ jaggery j''' or palm sugar, is largely used as food. Bearers and workmen when unable to spare time for cooking curry and rice, eat a lump of "jaggery" as a refresh- ment. They use it also with salt fish as a regular meal, and in times of famine, when rice is scarce, we have occasionally given a light meal of jaggery to the chiklren of our boarding schools. Jaggery is also an essential ingredient, in fixed pro- portions, in good mortar, to Asdiicli it imparts adhesive strength and tenacity. It is sometimes imported into England as an excellent manure. The dark palm sugar is sometimes refined and clarified with animal charcoal, eggs, or lime ; and this might well become a staple trade of Travancore. Small quantities of sugar-candy are also prepared, of which a handful is often presented by native gentlemen, as a friendly gift and token of respect, when visiting Europeans. Arrack, or native spirits, a transparent, colourless liquid like gin or whisky, is distilled from jaggery. The sugar is first broken up and put in water for four days to ferment ; it is then boiled in an earthen pot, the vapour being caught in a bamboo tube which falls into another vessel, in which the liquor is cooled and condensed. This operation is re- peated a second time when necessary. Arrack is a most injurious beverage, and there is reason to fear that it is largely used by some classes of the people ; a single penny- Avorth will intoxicate a native. The economical uses of the noble Pahuyra are almost end- less. The natives say that there are 801 uses of the palm, and I have no doubt tliat tliis number might be reckoned. A liuudred trees wiU support two families ; and the produce is AGRlCULTUPvE. 127 not, like that of some other plants, readily affected hy change or inequality of seasons. " A native," says Dr. Winslow, " if he will content himself Avith rather ordinary doors (windows he wants none) and the common mud Avail, may build an entire house — wanting no nails or ironwork — with posts, plates, roof, and covering of the Palmyra tree. From this tree he may store his grain, make his bed, furnish his pro- visions, kindle his fire, draAv or bring his Avater ; and also, by the help only of an earthen pot set on three stones, cook his food, sweeten it if lie chooses, procure his Avine (such as it is), and live day after day dependent only on this tree."* Thus bountifully does the wise and paternal providence of God supply the Avants of man, and proAdde for his sustenance and enjoyment in every climate, according to its special require- ments and circumstances. * Ferguson's Popular Description of tbe Palmjra Palm. 128 CHAPTEE X. VERNACULAR LANGUAGES. VerDaeular Languages — Tamil — Its Peculiarities and Idioms — Malajalim — Comparison with Tamil — Ludicrous Blunders in Speaking — Proper Names of Places and Persons. Two languages, Tamil and Malayalim, are spoken in Travan- core. The former, vernacular in the south-east of the Indian peninsula, extends round the corner, as it were, of Cape Comorin into Travancore, and for a distance of about forty miles along the Western coast. The Neyyattunkara river may be regarded as the boundary of the two languages ; so that, when labouring in the district of Pareychiiley, the writer studied and preached in Tamil ; but, after removing over the borders of the Tamil country to Trevandrum, a distance of only twenty miles, it was necessary to learn Malayrdim, which is spoken throughout the remainder of the principality, and is the language in. which the missionary services at Trevan- drum and Quilon are conducted. The Tamil-speaking portion of " the Land of Charity " may be estimated at one-fourth of the whole population. In the capital itself almost every native is acquainted Avith both languages. Malayalim extends altogether to the vicinity of Mangalore, a distance of about 300 miles along the Western coast, and is vernacular to three millions of the people of India. Tamil is, strangely enough, called by old writers the " Mala- bar " language. The word " Tamil " or " Tamir " signifies " sweetness " or " melodiousness," intimating the high estima- VERNACULAR LAN'GUAGES. 129 tion in Avhich this language is held. The languages of Southern India are not derived from Sanskrit, but from that which was spoken by the early inhabitants of the peninsula before its conquest by the Brahmanical, or Sanskrit-speaking race ; and Dr. Caldwell, in his learned and able work on the Comparative Grammar of these Dravidian languages, shows that they are distantly related to the Scythian or Tartar tongues, as also in some measure to Hungarian and Finnish. The South Indian languages have, however, engrafted upon the original stock many Sanskrit words, the proportion being- greatest in Malayalim, next in Telugu, and least in Tamil. The Tamil language, spoken by at least twelve millions of people, is very pleasing and euphonious in character, though it is more circumlocutory and diifuse than English ; a page of the latter, when translated, generally occupies If pages of the same size in Tamil. The Tamil alphabet has 30 letters (12 vowels and 18 con- sonants), and 216 combined or compound characters. The characters are read from left to right, as in English and other European tongues. Dr. Winslow's Tamil Dictionary contains G7,452 words. In native books the words are printed without separation, certain letters being altered, omitted, or doubled, according to the connection; thus, '■^vanthu iniMdren," "I have come," becomes " vaiithinil-- li'iren ;" " soUa 'ponan^'' " he went to tell," becomes " soil a p- ponan ;" " kadalthirei^'' " wave of the sea," becomes " Icadat- tirei,^' and so on. Tamil grammarians divide the words into four classes or parts of speech, viz., Xoun, A'ei'b, Adjective, and Particle. This language has many peculiarities of grammar and idiom. There is no word corresponding to our relative pro- noun " who " or " which," the deficiency being abundantly supplied by participles used only with tlie noun, somewhat like the Greek participle in on, omenos, &c. Thus " the K 130 "the land of charity." labourer who digs" is "the digginrj labourer." The colloca- tion of words is also very different from that of English, being often the very reverse of ours. Sentences usually end with the verb, — ^just as the participle or infinitive is put at the end of a sentence in German. "And" is expressed by tlie addition of "um" to the various nouns, like the " que " subjoined to the last of two nouns in Latin, as " kuthireiyz/?^ manithan?<9w " — " The horse and the man." There is no definite article in the lan- guage ; but " one " — " one," is used for the indefinite article "a." To denote quotation, the conjunction "that" is not used, but " endru," " saying ;" thus, " he said that he would come" would be expressed — "I will come, saying, he said." Some idea of the structure and style of the Tamil language may be gathered from the following popular story, trans- literated into Roman characters : — "Entha uyireiyum kollatha oru What- (ever) life (even) not-killing, an sanniyasi oru ascetic eri karei pond bank van antha man that ponan. went. mele upon eriyile meen pond-in fish sembadavanei (p) pavtthu fisherman seeing, eruviiy 1 wilt ascend (get to heaven)?" nfd karei eruven, bank ascend will I," Pogumpothu Went-when piditthiin. was-catching. Eiyo ! nee "Alas! thou oru a sembada fislier- Sanniyasi (The) Ascetic, eppothu karei when bank endran. Eiya en pari niramin said he. "Sir, my basket fill-if endran. said he. The luunour of the story consists in the pun on the double meaning of the words " ascend the bank," which are often used to denote the attainment of future happiness — " get to heaven." The ascetic is shocked at the criminality of the VERNACULAR LANGUAGES. 131 fisherman in destroying the life of the fish, hut is at once silenced by his ready and witty reply. The word " vendum" corresponding generally to " mtist^^ is also used in urgent but respectful solicitation ; but the newly arrived European is rather astonished, if not, indeed, provoked when he is told by a poor native that he must do so and so, while an urgent entreaty is all that is intended by the humble suitor. In fact, this word " must," with the addition of the emphatic " e," is the form used in Malayalini in prayer to the Supreme Being. There is a set of onomatopoetic words much used in Tamil, expressing by their very sound the idea intended. Thus they say, " He cried saying A'o," — that is, he cried like " ko " or " koo." He walks " taliku takJcu," — that is, stejjping heavily as stout persons. He walks " tattalika pittaJiJia"- — that is, tottering as an old person. He shut the door like ^^ paddr,'" and so forth. One of the great difficulties of Tamil consists in the correct and appropriate use of the honorific forms of address. The pronouns and verbs which you use, as well as some of the names of objects, at once reveal your estimate of the relative rank of the person whom you address. If he is evidently your inferior or junior, you say, "nee pogiray," — "thou goest," and the use of the honorific in such circumstances would be simply inappropriate or ludicrous. If he is your equal in rank, or you wish politely to treat him as such, the form is " neer pogireer," — thou (sir) goest. If superior, " neengal pogireergal," — "ye go," or "tangal pogireergal," — "themselves go," — which is the customary form of address from natives to European gentlemen. If higher still, as, for example, in addressing the Maharajah, the most respectful form would be, "Is the Maharajah themselves going?" unless one were to use the customary native form of address to his Highness — "trolden uod" or "sacred mind." 132 "the land op charity." Should the person addressed be an entire stranger, and his rank not he apparent from his dress, pronunciation, or attendants, the pronoun " it " may he used without offence ; " enge pogirathur' "where does it gol" afterwards rising to "neer" or "neengal" if necessary. There are yet other forms, such as " pogirathundu " — " there is a going," which are occasionally used without any pronoun, or intimation of either respect or disrespect ; but this style is rather trouble- some and roundabout. It is by no means polite or respectful to call a person by his proper name in Tamil. Individual missionaries, for in- stance, are spoken of as the " Neyoor eiyar," or " missionary " — the " Cannamoola padre," or " minister " (fi'om the name of our mission premises at Trevandrum), and so forth (compare First Samuel, 9th chapter, 11th and 18th verses). Letters are addressed " to the very reverend teacher gentleman them- selves." Other European gentlemen are lecognised as " the fireat gentleman " (the Eesident) ; " the second " or " little gentleman " (his assistant) ; the " Tyecad Doctor," the " Engi- neer gentleman," and so on. I have experienced difficulty at times in inducing uneducated natives to mention the personal name of the catechist of their congregation, when I have been uncertain as to tlie person indicated. One of the ruics of native etiquette which females are taught is that they must never be so disrespectful toward their husl)ands as to mention tlieir names, and this often causes little dilliculties. When, for example, a woman Avhose husband's name is IMattliew is asked to read " the Gospel according to St. Matthew," she hesitates to pronounce the evangelist's name, and is only induced to do so after some expostulation and advice. There are in Tamil, as in I\lalagasy and the Polynesian languages, two distinct forms of the personal pronoun " we " — " nam," //^eluding, and " nfoKjal," e.Kcluding tlie party addressed ; as, for example, " AVe (nam) are men," or " we VERNACULAR LANGUAGES. 133 (uangal) will not go -with you." These distinctions, though somewhat difficult to the learner, are yet useful in practice, and of essential importance. In preaching to a congregation one must say, " Our (»aH;mudeiya) Saviour ; " while b\ l»rayer addressed to the Divine Being, one must be careful to say, "We {^^ndnfjaf," not "nam") are sinners ;" otherwise the persons respectively addressed are wrongly excluded or included in the " we." The Malay rdim letters (pronounced Ma-lay-a-lim) are 53 in number, of which 16 are vowels ; the double letters are 592. Many are aspirate letters, as gha, Ma, bha, &c., which do not exist in Tamil. The great number and intricacy of these characters, as compared with Tamil, is rather puzzling to a beginner. In Bailey's Malayalim Dic- tionary there are 43,000 words, but being the first work of the kind it is less accurate and complete than the present Tamil dictionary. In essential structure this language closely resembles Tamil, and the roots are nearly identical in both. The chief distinction lies in the grammar and inflections, and in the large proportion of Sanskrit words used in INIalayalim. The difference is about as great as between the Spanish and Italian languages, in both of which the roots ai'e identical, while the details of the grammar are quite diverse. The question as to which is the preferable language, Tamil or Malayalim, is often discussed, and I have noticed that most of those who are acquainted with both languages give the preference to the one which they had learnt first, and to which they had naturally become attached. This seems to show that both have their merits. It is indisputable, how- ever, that Tamil is the more highly cultivated, exact, and euphonious of the two ; while IMalayalim is the more terse, and adopts Sanskrit words in their most correct form, with- out the corruptions and alterations to which they are neces- 1 34 " THE LAND OP CHARITY." sarily exposed by tlie rules of Tamil. To the Malayfilim speaker, Tamil appears needlessly to lengthen out its Avords ; to the Tamil scholar, Malayiilim sounds harsh, nasal, and full of aspirates, and appears deficient in exactness, especially in the terminations of the verhs. There are fewer honorifics in Malayalim, so that one at first feels awkward in addressing the Divine Being in prayer, in this language, as " Nee," which in Tamil would be exceedingly irreverent and unbe- coming. These languages were doubtless once identical, the most ancient forms of Tamil and Malayfdim almost coinciding. This is ingeniously demonstrated by Dr. Caldwell, who shows that the Avord for east in both languages means literally fZo?PKwards, and for niest ?(/9wards — tln;s proving that both nations were originally located on the eastern side of the Ghauts ; in which case eastwards is really " downwards " to the coast, and westwards "upwards" toward the mountains. It is interesting to note that in our own language we have adopted several words of Tamil origin. A certain stimu- lating mixture is called toddy (in Tamil "tadi"); cigars are called cheroots, from the Tamil " churuttu," a roll ; cot, now occasionally used in England, as in India, for "a small bed," is from the Tamil "kattil," a very different Avord from our own " cot," — a house or cottage ; rice is the Tamil " arisi," — written by the Greeks "oruza," — in English "rice." On the other hand, many English, Portuguese, Arabit;, and other terms, learned by intercourse with these nations, are now in common use amongst the people of South India. It Avill readily be seen tluit much study and attention aie required to attain proficiency in Tamil or JMalayfdim. Not that the Indian languages are by any means ecpially intricate and perplexing as Arabic and Chinese ; the difficulty is really not extreuK!, and can in every case be surmounted by care and constant practice. In the pronunciation, Euiopeans VERNACULAR LANGUAGES. 135 err chiefly in interchanging one d or t sound for another ; in omitting aspirates ; in mistaking the long and short vowels ; and in confounding the hard and soft and hissing r. With industry, living amongst the natives, and freely associating with them, and with daily reading and conversing, a Euro- pean should be able fairly to commence regular extempore speaking within a year after his arrival in the country, and two years may suffice for a fluent and moderately accurate command of the language. At first, egregious blunders are unavoidable, but the natives are very polite and lenient in their criticisms, and are delighted with any earnest attempts to overcome the difficulties of the language. The exact intonations and idioms are, it must be confessed, rather difficult of acquisi- tion. For example, different words are used for " the sun," and "the heat or rays of the sun," while in English we apply the same term to both. A European, therefore, using the wrong word may be insisting on having his towels put into the body of the sun itself, instead of into its rays merely. In Englisli we are accustomed to speak of both " mirror " and " tumbler " alike as " glass," so that the tyro in Tamil may inadvertently call for "a mirror of water;" or, by a slight mispronunciation, he may speak of " pilleigal," children, as " puligal," tigers. Mistakes will occasionally be committed even after some practice in speaking. I remember on one occasion observing a gentle twinkling smile steal over the foces of my hearers, and on afterthought recollected that I liad made a mistake of half a letter in a text which I had quoted, " Riches make to themselves wings like an eagle," — a " karugei," I should have said ; but " karuthei," a donkey, was the word Avhich, by a slip of the tongue, 1 uttered ; and as the good people had never seen wings on a donkey in that part of the world, it was no wonder that their fancy- was tickled by the ludicrous idea. 13G "tub land of charity." The long and strange names of places in India often seem very puzzling, Ijut most of the Indian geographical names given in English maps and other publications are much altered and corrupted, or abbreviated from the real form of the word. This arises from carelessness and insufficient acquaintance with the language on the part of the early British residents in India. Thus Travancore is called by the natives themselves Tiruvithankodu ; Trevandrum is Tiru- vanantapuram ; Quilon is properly Kollam ; (Cape) Comorin is Kumari ; and so on with most of the names of well-known localities in India. Our English form of many words has become established through long use, and cannot now be well altered or corrected. It is interesting to observe that the Hindus have given names to localities very much resembling those in use in our own country. There are many villages and towns with names similar (when translated) to some of our own. In Travancore, as well as in Great Britain, I have known or visited Newmarket (Puthukadei), Hillsborough (Maleivilei), iS'ewport (Puttentorei), Smithfield (Kollanvilei), and many others of like nature ; thus showing that the Hindus are like ourselves in mental structure, as also in the essential charac- teristics of their languages. Although it is impossible, from the various changes which words undergo in course of time, to discover the meaning of every local name at present in use in India, yet most of these long and formidable-looking names have a definite signification. They are generally compound Avords, and may readily be resolved into their elements. Many of our English geographical terms end in ham, stoio, ton, &c., each of which has its appropriate meaning. So also will be found in South Indian local names such terminations as kodu, ridge or stronghold ; ^;aZ7i, temple ; vilei, field ; puram, town ; oor or ur, village; patnam, town ; VERNACULAR LANGUAGES. 137 hirei, river bank; konam, corner; and j)e//«/i, a village attached to a fort. The position or other circumstances of a locality are often indicated in these local terms. Such are Valiatory (Great Port), Kulivilei (Hollow Field), Udayagiri (Eastern Hill), Pareikonam (Rock Corner), A'ttur (Eiver Village), Mana- kudu (Sand Desert). These resemble in character such English words as Springfield, Blackwater, Bath, and others. Cochin, properly A'or/i /, is from " kochu," "little " — the town being built upon a very small piece of land between the sea and the backwater. Some of the Tamil local names are, like the English I^ew- castle and Chester, suggested by forts, palaces, and great and important edifices by which the localities were distinguished. Thus Aranmanei means The Fortifications ; Kottaram, The Palace ; and Cottayam, The Fort. The names of traditional or fabulous heroes and gods, or allusions to legendary tales related of the localities, furnish many geographical terms. Trevandrum is " The City of the Sacred Snake," where a great serpent is said to have sheltered the god Vishnu, who there became incarnate ; Patmana- bhapuram is " The City of Patmanabhan," the national god of Travancore; Devikodu, "The Goddess's Town;" Nagercoil, " Snake Temple," where the serpent god is worshipped ; Mavelikkara, " Great Bali's bank ; " Alagiapandij^uram, " The Beautiful City of Pandi," &c. Compare with these our Peterborough, St. Albans, Holywell, &c. Animals and plants common in India give names to numerous localities. Anjengo, properly Anjutenga, means "The Five Cocoa-nut Trees ; " Tamareikulam, "The Water- lily Pond ; " Kanyu'ankulam, " Strychnine Tree Pond ; " Vareitottam, "Plantain Garden;" " Nellikakuri, " Gooseberry Hole ;" Mungilvilei, "Bamboo Field." One might almost by these names discover what plants most abound in each place. 138 " THE LAND OF CHARITY." Sokankani is " Monkey's Land ; " Meiliidi, " Peacock's Dance ; " Pilmbadi, " Snake's Dance ; " Ivolitottam, " Fowl Garden;" A'neikadu, "Elephant Forest;" and Kiliur, "Parrot Village." In like manner we in England have Primrose Hill, Ivy Bridge, Oakley, Oxford, Otterton, Foxliam, &c. In India localities are often named after the class of persons who formerly or at present reside in them. Accordingly, Vannanvilei means "Washerman's Field;" Pareicheri or Parcherry, "Parian's Street;" Pitcheikudiyiruppu, "Beggar's Dwelling-place;" and Tattanvilei, " Goldsmith's Field." The Hindus frequently indulge in fanciful and poetical names for their villages, which are sometimes strikingly in- consistent with the matter-of-fact or miserable appearance of the places themselves. Butter and milk are frequently re- ferred to, probably as emblems of fertility and prosperity. Such are Pfdur, " Milk Village ; " Pfdrir, " Milk Pdver ; " Neyoor, " Butter Village ; " Neyyattunkarei, " The Bank of the Butter River ; " — the very figure used in Holy Writ, " a land flowing with mllJc and honey," Exod. iii. 17. One village which I have often visited is called Chandraman- galam, "Moon's Eejoicing" — evidently a mere poetical compound. Many of these names are very long and formidable-looking, but of course to those who have studied the language they are quite as easy as our longest English Avords. Others, longer still, are by no means difficult to pronounce. Here are one or two of the longest : — Koleishegaramangalam, Chinnamartandaputtentorei, Anantanfidankudiyiruppu. As the British Indian Government have decided that all Indian names shall henceforward be simply transliterated into Roman characters, and as this is the only remedy for the confusion and diversity in this respect so generally com- plained of by English readers, this system has been adopted in the present work, except in the names of places frequently VERXACULAR LANGUAGES. 139 referred to in geograpliical works and missionary reports, of which the less accurate orthography has become established and familiar. In like manner proper names of jfersons have their several significations, and those often very pretty and poetical. Many of the people receive names in honour of popular Hindu gods and goddesses, as I^arayana, Rama, Madava, Perumal, Pfirvathi, Latchmi; or of demons, as Madan, Sattan, Isakki. Others are elegant and poetical compounds, and these, as well as Scripture names, are favourites amongst Christian converts. Such are Masillamani, " Pearl without a flaw ; " Vethamanikkam, " Gem of Scripture ; " Gurupa- tham, " Feet of the Teacher ; " Karuttudian, " Possessor of thought, or judgment;" Gnanakkan, "Eye of wisdom;" Gnanamuttu, "Pearl of wisdom ; " Sebattifm, "Praying one ; " Devadasen, " Servant of God ; " Sattiyayi, " True one ; " &c. Other names are suggested by the personal appearance of the individuals who bear them, as Karuttan, " Black one ; " Velleiyan, " White one ; " Ilayan, " Tender one ; " Kochu- kutti, "Little one." Many names are given on the principle of bestowing an humble cognomen, as a kind of protection from envy, or the evil eye, which might injuriously affect those who assume to themselves lofty and sounding titles : such are Ummini, " a small particle ; " Valli, " a creeping plant ; " Podipen, " a mmute woman — a bit of a girl;" Pichei, "alms, or charity," — unless indeed this last alludes poetically and beautifully to children being the charitable gifts of God's bounty, for which the parents may have offered their humble petitions. I 1-il CIIAPTEE XI. LITERATURE AXD POPULAR EDUCATIOX. Classical Literature — Proverbs illustrative of Scripture — Astrologv — Native Poems — A Hojal Author — Moral Sentiments — Poetical Figures — Metres — Specimens of Christian Lyrics and Native Tunes — Village Schools — System of Instruction — Government Schools and College — Female Education — Mission Schools. The Tamil vernacular literature is of considerable extent and variety, i^o less than 1,755 distinct publications (including tracts, &c.) have been put into print by Hindus, Moham- medans, Roman Catholics, and Protestants, in addition to many works still found only in manuscript. Of these the largest proportion are Protestant religious works, next those on Hinduism, with poems, plays, philosophy, fables, proverbs, and works treating of medicine, grammar, and educational subjects. The first book printed in the Tamil language was by a Portuguese Jesuit, in 1577. The Tamil translation of the Holy Scriptures was the first rendering of the Scriptures in an Indian language, being published by the Danish missionaries in 1715 — above a hundred and fifty years ago. The Malayillim indigenous literature is very scanty in amount, and is inferior in literary character ; this language liaving been chiefl}' cultivated by Brahmans rather than by native ]\Ialayalis. A few good works, including a translation of the great Hindu epic, " Eamayanam," exist in manuscript. There are one or two printing presses conducted by natives, but there is no sucli sale for vernacular books as amongst the Tamil people. 142 "the land of charity." The works most popular in Travancore are portions of tlie great epic poeras, the Eamayana and the Mahabharata, the Story of King l^ala, and other fabulous histories of Hindu heroes and gods, together with religious works expatiating on the benefits to be derived from the strict observance of the prescribed ceremonies aild prayers. Other popular and much- read books treat of omens, incantations, astrology, and so forth. Many Hindu proverts, as well as common customs, furnish admirable illustrations of the language or statements of Holy Scriptui'e. The following may be selected out of many of a similar character : — 1. "A knife Avithin and piety outwardly." (Compare Psa. Iv. 21 ; Matt, xxiii. 28.) 2. " The king administers instant punishment, but God delays His judgment." (Eccles. viii. 11.) 3. " Will words of commiseration cool the head 1 " (Jas. ii. 16.) 4. "The future fruit may be known before it is ripe." (Prov. XX. 11.) 5. " Like standing upon two boats." (Jas. i. 6.) C. " Though the bitter gourd be washed in the Ganges, it will not become good." (Jer. ii. 22.) 7. " They who give have all things ; those who withhold have nothing." (Prov. xi. 24; Matt. xiii. 12.) 8. " The fowl is not aware of danger till it is seized by the hand." (Prov. xxix. 1.) 9. " The moon shines even in the house of the wicked." (]\ratt. V. 45.) 10. " When a thing is given out of love, it is like nectar." (Prov. XV. 17.) 11. "Are there any bars that can confine love? Tlie tender tears of the loved one cause a very tempest in tlie soul." (Cant. viii. 6, 7.) LITERATURE AND POPULAR EDUCATIOX. 143 12. " Purity of mind alone is virtue." (jNIatt v. 8.) 1 3. " The iinloving live to themselves, the loving live wholly for others." (Eoni. xiv. 7.) 14. " Soft words are Ijetter than harsh : the sea is attracted by the cool moon and not by the hot sun." (Prov. xv. 1.) 15. " Where there is a stain on the heart, even good deeds will be all received as evil ; but those of spotless minds Avill still look upon it as good." (Tit. i. 15.) IG. " If those who confess the existence of God enter on an evil action, God will rebuke them. Xot so those who say, 'There is no God.' Is it not to their own dear children that men patiently repeat instruction 1 " (Heb. xii. 8.) The school books in general use ordinarily contain lessons in Astrology. One of these in IMalayalim is entitled " Vak- kiam " — Astrology. It is divided into four parts, of which the first and the third consist of tables to facilitate computa- tions of the relative positions of the moon and planets — the data and formulae being represented by Sanskrit mnemonic words and letters. The second part contains tables of the days of the week ; the twenty-seven stars or constellations tluough which, according to Hindu astronomy, the moon passes ; the twelve signs of the zodiac ; the age of the moon, and other information. The fourth part is exclusively astrological, giving rules for finding out lucky times for the performance of every necessary action, — such as bathing, shaving, marriage, domestic events, house-building, lending money, journeying, and so forth. The following specimen of information of this kind from the Malayalim almanack for m.e. 1039 may not be devoid of interest : — "Propitious times for marriage, Sfc. — 1st Chiiigum, 1039 (16th August, 1863). After sunset, between 18| and 20 hours, and 22 and 23| hours, the moon being in the first quarter of the star Uttiram, and the sign Gemini rising, — ■ 144 "the land of CIIARITr." a good time for children's teething. Between 19 J and 25 1 hours, Gemini and Cancer rising, — fortunate for giving names. "11/7/.— From 8 to 9| hours, and lU to 13 hours, the moon being in the third quarter of Uttradam, and Libra rising, — good for giving chiklren rice for the first time (weaning). " 9/// Vricluijam, 1039. — After sunrise, 14^ to 15| hours, the moon being in the fourth quarter of Aswathi, — lucky both for commencing the erection of a house, and for first entrance into a new residence. " Wth. — After sunset, 8f to 19 hours, the moon being in the second quarter of Rohini, Cancer and Leo rising, — good for marriage, excepting ten minutes at midnight." A curious specimen of a thoroughly native production is a Malayrdim poem in my possession, composed by a Sfidra native of Trevandrum, INIadavan Pillei, in lionour of the late Rajah Martanda Vurmah, and written in the most inflated style of fulsome panegyric. Opening, as usual, with invoca- tions to Vishnu and other deities, the poem proceeds to describe, in the most exaggerated terms, the public reception of the present from her Majesty the Queen to the late Rajah, — to which we have already referred in Chapter V. The Rajah's fame for wisdom and virtue had, it appears, attracted the attention and excited the admiration of the gods themselves, several of whom came down to have the pleasure of witnessing those excellences, bestowing upon the Rajah at the same time the nectar of the gods, so that thenceforth his words seemed to the hearers as heavenly ambrosia flowing from his lips. Victoria is represented as (^ueen of tlie 11 Anas, or Euro- peans, (la formci' ages, according to tradition, the monkey gods in the army of Rrima married tlie female Rilkshasas or giants of Ceylon, and to their descendants Rama allotted the LITERATURE AND POPULAR EDUCATIOX. 145 remote West as their place of atode. These are the Euro- pean nations, and they still evidently retain the charac- teristics of both the original races from whom they are descended, inasmuch as, like the monkeys, they select elevated sites for their abodes, and delight to sit upon chairs and benches instead of the ground, and, like the giantesses, they habitually devour flesh for food.) To this Huna Queen the Rajah had sent a beautiful ivory throne, richly carved and inlaid, and in token of her Majesty's regard for him she kindly sent in return a handsome embroidered belt and watch. Details of the Durbar are then given, but, it must be confessed, without much regard to historic accviracy ; the Eajah is represented upon this occasion as shining amongst his attendants like the moon amongst the stars. The second part of the jioem describes a visit paid by the Eajah to the sacred temples at Sucliindram and Cape Comorin. He is described as no less than an incarnation of Deity itself, and his learning, courage, and piety are highly extolled. This kind of thing is no doubt the origin of much of the hero-worship and idolatry which have prevailed amongst ancient nations. The royal procession being Avitnessed by strangers, a dialogue is introduced, in which the specta- tors, ignorant of the person of the Eajah, inquire who this glorious and extraordinary personage is. One hints that it must be the god Indra on a visit to the presiding deity of the temple ; another, that it is the god of riches, but that he is not so fair as this glorious person. Others suggest that it may be the great hero Eama or Ivamadeva, the god of love, but for the report that the latter is without material body or form. At last they meet with one who sets them all right upon the subject. This extravagant production exhibits few signs of true poetic ability, and possesses little merit as to literary compo- sition or style. L liG "the land of charity." More special interest naturally attaches to a poem com- posed and published by H. H. the late Rajah Vunjee Bala Eama Vurmah, elder uncle of the present Maharajah, who died in 1846. It is considered by native scholars to be a good specimen of modern Sanskrit poetry, the compound poetical terms being formed according to standard rules, the sentences skilfully constructed, and the whole adapted to be sung to the most popular and melodious Hindu tunes. This work contains hymns in praise of Patmaniibhan, the tutelar deity of "the charitable kingdom;" but of course is tho- roughly superstitious, and after a fashion devout in sentiment and tone. The first hymn commences thus : — " thou, Lord of Earth, Husband of Sree (the goddess of prosperity), thou, God, who hast lotus-like eyes — save me ! holy Patmanabhan, whose chariot is drawn by birds — save me ! thou who art worshipped by the king of the Suras (celestials), thou who art full of goodness, Subduer of ene- mies. Giver of blessings to thy servants, thou who hast arras admirably powerful, thou who art adored by the holy ones — save me ! thou Upholder of mountains, thou Enemy of Mura (a demon), thou Seat of Mercy, Eemover of the suf- fering arising from births and deaths. " Remove my manifold sins, Souri ! (a name of Vishnu,) who walkest in the most holy gardens of bliss and haj)])i- ness. Remove my manifold sins, O thou Destroyer of Kashipu, who was a terror to the three worlds, thou who shinestlike gold. Remove my manifold sins, thou l^n-iticr from sin, thou Joy of the shepherdesses, thou who art adorned with beautiful features, thou who art devoid of passions, wliose lotus-like foot measures the universe. Remove my manifold sins, O my Lord, who takest away sorrows ; thou, O Souri, who hast the sun and the moon for thine eyes." The last hymn is an address to the soul, as follows : — "(J my Mind! be thou always fixed upon God. Ah! LITERATUPxE AND POPULAR EDUCATIOX. 147 tell me, art tliou not incessantly fixed on self 1 my Mind, know that this thy body is fragile ; be not over-anxious. Do not covet earth. Delight in the history of Madhava (Vishnu), which is full of joy, holy and divine. my Mind, cherish not rude ignorance ; let not dreadful sins have place in thy thoughts ; avoid evil communications. my Mind, be kind to every one. Consider all things as thou con- siderest thyself. Put away thy sorrows, and Avith all thy .strength incessantly serve the azure-tinted Patmanabhan. my Mind, be thou always fixed upon God !" It should be borne in mind that this poem is the pro- duction of one well acquainted Avitli many of the truths inculcated by the Christian religion. Excellent sentiments are contained in the Tamil ethical poems, studied as classics, several of which are of con- siderable antiquity. But it must be remembered that the Hindus have had considerable opportunities of learning something of revealed truth from their intercourse, in ancient as well as modern times, with Jewish and Christian colonists and merchants. Beautiful and apj)ropriate poetical fi(/ures abound in these works. Gratitude, for instance, is set forth in the following verse : — " The cocoa-nut bears heavy bunches, and gives men its nectar-like water its lifelong time, in grateful remembrance of the water given to it in its younger days : likewise, vir- tuous men never forget former favours." The evil of association with the wicked is thus described : — " Even the blameless are despised on account of their associations. The sweet sandal-wood tree and the fine timber trees are burnt up with the rest of the jungle." The benefit of association with the good is illustrated as follows : — " When the rice-field is watered, the grass on the borders is also profited. If there be one good person, for his sake the rain falls." 118 "the land of charity." ^[iiny "works on medicine, grammar, jurisprudence, and other subjects, in Tamil and Malayalim, are composed in a poetic form, to aid tlie memory of students. The poetical dialect of Tamil is, however, very different from the language iu common use at the present time ; it is the ancient form of the Tamil language, and contains very few, if any, Sanskrit words. Malayalim poetry, on the contrary, employs a large proportion of Sanskrit, in consequence of the influence of the Brahmans in Malabar, by whom the language has been cultivated. In both languages a great variety of metres are in use, to wliich are attached ancient and appropriate tunes, sung in temple worship and on other occasions. Alliteration is introduced, often to the absurd extent of sacrificuig sense to sound. The rhyme, like that of the Welsh poetry, comes not at the end but at the beginning of the lines, as in the following verse : — " Roll, O rill, for ever ; Rest not, lest thy wavelets, Sheen as shining crystal, Shrink and sink to darkness." It will not be difficult to perceive a similar rhyme and alliteration in the following verse of a Christian lyric iu 1 amil, viz., — "Mi'ivarjly arubivfiy man uri I'lri kiilam var Pava tar vilil vala parabara tayabara." Amongst the Tamil people several eminent Christian poets have, in the providence of God, been raised up, and their delightful hymns and spiritual songs are exceedingly j)opular amongst our Christian people, who sometimes sit up all night, at weddings and other festivals, singing and hearing these lyrics. Their partial use in public worship has for some years past been encourag(;d by many missionaries, and the LITERATURE AND POPULAR EDUCATION. 149 English prejudices against them which formerly prevailed are rapidly disappearing. We are accustomed to sing these hymns at our open-air services, and many heathens are attracted and instructed by the Christian truths presented in so captivating a form. This is literally " singing for Jesus," like that sweet singer and Christian poet, Philip Phillips, of New York. Many instances have come to our knowledge of heathens taking with them printed copies of single lyrics, published as hand- bills — notably one on "The Day of Judgment," — and learning and singing these in their own houses and vil- lages. The favourite Tamil jioet and most voluminous Avriter was the late Vethanayagam Shiistri, of Tanjore ; next stand John Palmer, of Trevandrum, formerly a catechist at Nagercoil, and many other writers of popular hymns. A few original Malayalim poems have been puljlished, and the writer had a number of the best Tamil lyrics translated into that language by a Syrian Christian friend, and published for the use of native Christians in Malabar. One or two specimens of the lyrics and tunes most popular amongst our people will perhaps be interesting. The first line of each verse is generally repeated, and the chorus is always re- peated at the conclusion of each verse. Some of the tunes are slow and grave, others very cpiick ; or else a part of the tune may be slow, and then a line or two be sung in very quick time ; but they are mostly a kind of rapid chant. !N^ative musicians do not sing in parts, but in unison merely, the best of them keeping time with wonderful accuracy. The following are among the simplest and shortest of these tunes, but their peculiar character is to a large extent lost by their reduction to the English notation, and by their discon- nection from the original words. ir>o THE LAND OF CHARITY. No. 1.* CUOKUS. M. 96, fwice to a measure. nam eeth - un kilt - chi sa - la ar - ul a na - thi - a^—M- — F=K— • ■ — *— • — F — * — P div - ya sa - ru - va nee - thi - ye D.C. for verse. ar - ul a-na-thi - ye div - ya sa - ru - va nee -thi - ye. The above words form the chorus of a hymn, written to this tune, by Vethanilyagam Shastri, containing earnest de- sires and humble petitions for the Divine presence. -The literal meaning is as follows : — . " Grant at this time the abundant manifestation of Thyself, Eternal! Divine! All-righteous One ! " The verses all throngh are sung to the same tune as the chorus. No. 2. Chokus. M. 13(i. Tu - thi - tan - gi - ya pa - ra - man - da - la six - vi - se - da - ga nam - am su - ba man ■ ga - la mi - gu sara-bra - ma su - ga ir Finis. Vebse. ((l>_j__;f-*zzii«-__^_.0_ so - ba - na chem a - thi sun - da - ra ni - rei -I — I — A — I — -kj — I- ■ !|— z:i^z-2~:i~3.i-n'iri^ t-C: i^- zrpqz;D-J-n-z-izrrr|: kond-weer ar - ul mok - ki - sha tee ban a - thi * Kos. 1 and 2 have been written for this work in English musical nota- tion by Mr. W. E. Clift. LITERATURE AXD POPULAR EDUCATION. 151 sun - da - ra ni - rei kond - weer ar - ul mok - ki-sha tee - ban a-thi um-bar-fjal tor-um in-githa ka-ru - nei pi- ra - tba - ban. The \jvic sung to this lively tune is a hymn of praise to Christ, also composed by the Tanjore poet. The following is a literal translation of the above verses : — CHOEUS. " O worthy of praise ! O heavenly gospel name ! O excellent joy ! great splendour ! Our health, beauty, happiness ! " YEESE. " O soul filled with exceedingjoveliness ! heavenly Lamp of grace ! Renowned One, whom celestials praise for thy sweet j;racc ! O worthy, &c." Is^. 3. Chobus. Ten ma-yan - gi - riiy ma - na - me yen ma - yan - gi - ray « ^ Finis. ? — •- • ^«-:| -»-«-a :{:- 1 — >- ^*— q — , — , — ^ — ka - na man ma - yan - gi - rap pol yen ma Vebsb. yan - gi - ray m—zt:z-zl/~\^zzt-i:=^~>iii±-b --^- z^-l- y--y— E- ba - ran D.C. an - ta - ra van pu - vi tan - ta pa -— N-q^:J :q=;iriqvrqvq^c: [l=i-it:-zU^=i±zzzzz 5r end a - ri - Till a - ri - yfi - mal. The above tune (written in English musical notation by 152 "the land of charity." Eev. J. P. Ash ton, M.A.) is sung to anotlier of the Shtlstri's compositions, part of which translated, is as follows : — CHORUS, " Why art thou bewildered, O my soul ? why art thou bewildered ? As the wild deer is bewildered (or confused), why art thou bewildered, O my soul ? " VEESE. " The Grod who made space, air, heavens and earth, If thou knowest who He is, why, as if not knowing him ? Why art thou, &c." The following is a more complete specimen of a character- istic composition by Vethanayagam Shastri, on the subject of Christ 'Worthy of the Confidence of Sinners. CHOEUS. "Jesus (Thou art my) strength — O grant Thy grace !" VEKSES. "Surrounded by the holy excellent ones, Thou rulest in the great Mount Zion, Sweet Sea of grace. Helper of men ! Blessed Being, glorious, magnificent, formless Spu'it, Effulgence, Beginning, Righteousness — who earnest by Thine own power in form of a sacred man. Jesus, Thou art, &c. " Fulness of good. Stream of wisdom ! Sea of might — Head of the heavenly hosts ! Adoration to Thy greatness (which is) beyond the praise of Thyservants ! O Word, Love, Jesus, King— Object of men's daily worship and praise and honour ! Jesus, Thou art, &c. " Thou didst create heaven and earth, and destroyest the work of the great serpent ; Thou dost impart spiritual blessings and grace to men, Loving, friendly, gracious One ! Plant who destroyest the sin of the world ! Desiring, enduring, seeking, accompanying. Thou art the King who givest grace, the kind Friend! Jesus, Thou art, &e." LITERATURE AND POPULAR EDUCATION. 153 We conclude with a translation of a favourite hymn on the work of the Holy Spirit by Rev. S. Winfred, a native minister labouring in connection with the London Mission in Madras. It is sung to the first tune. Chorus. " The evil heart to change, O Holy Spirit, come,— Great loving One ! " Verses. " Cleaving to the bondage and illusion of sin, pining, djing the death, — A greatly deceived sinner was I. The evil heart, &c. Measureless sin I did, resisting knowledge, With great desire infringing, — The evil heart, &e. Worldly prosperity I reckoned perpetual, in it took pleasure ; My heart was absorbed and exhausted. The evil heart, &c. Heaven to view I had no mind ; mere chaff I sought, O Lord — A sinner am I, O Lord. The evil heart, &c. My deceitful heart desired but evil. O thou refuge, Who wilt end my delusion. The evil heart, &c. Darkness to remove, inward light to grant. Thou didst come; To soften the mind Thou dost wait. The evil heart, &c. New thought, new desire to renew and preserve To Thy praise, — The evil heart, &c. As Thou didst give grace to Lydia, show mercy to me ! So open my heart That conformity to Thee may begin. The evil heart, &c." How encouraging and delightful to think that men who might, but for the gospel, have been sunk in the dense darkness of Hindu idolatry and superstition, have been k^d 154: "the land of charity." by the grace of God tlius to write the praises of our adorable Saviour, and to seek the influences of that divine Spirit who is the author of all good and grace in the hearts of men ! Vernacular schools conducted by private teachers are found in almost every village in Travancore. Throiighout the whole of India, indeed, the profession of a teacher is held in high repute. In 1865 I had occasion to make careful and detailed inquiries as to the number of heathen schoolmasters in the districts of Trevandrum and Quilon, in order to carry out in my own neighbourhood the effort which was then being made by the Bible Society to supply a New Testament, in his own mother tongue, to each heathen school- master in India. Above 160 copies were distributed in these districts, and there may have been a few other teachers whom we did not discover. These men were chiefly of the Sudra and Ilavar castes, with a few carpenters, vellalars, goldsmiths and others. Very few Brahmans were found engaged in educational pursuits. In most of these schools there are from 20 to 30 or more boys. I was pleased to find also in almost every school from 2 to 4 or 5 Sudra and Ilavar girls. The total number of pupils under instruction in schools, other than those maintained by the native Government (including all mission schools), is roughly estimated at 40,000. The system of instruction in the common village schools is very defective, and consists chiefly in imposing rote lessons, without sufficient explanations of the meaning or rationale of what is taught. In addition to " the three R's," the principal studies in the better schools are astronomical calculations and vernacular poetry. The first lesson of the juvenile pupil is writing on sand. He is made to strew a handful of sand over a part of the floor, smooth it, then write the letters with his forefinger, and at the same time sing out the name of each letter; LITERATURE AND ROPULAR EDUCATIOX. 155 thus learning to read and write at the same time. After a time the scholar is advanced to writing on " oleis " or palm leaves ; few of them vise paper. The native system of arithmetic is ingenious, and, as far as it goes, rapid in its processes ; but generally I have not found those educated in the common schools good arithmeti- cians, — they are easily puzzled hy a long sum in addition or multiplication. The schools supported by the native Government are of a sujjerior class. At the head of these stands the Central Institution, or High School, at Trevandrum, commenced by Mr. Eoberts many years ago, and in which, at his request, the then Eajah liberally gave permission to have the Bible read and explained by the Christian teachers. This practice, I am happy to say, is still continued. In the junior depart- ment of this institution nearly 700 boys of all castes, except the lowest, receive a good English education ; and in the senior or collegiate department, under the care of the prin- cipal, ]\Ir. John Eoss, A.]\l., there are ninety-six youths, of whom thirty-nine are undergraduates of the Madras Univer- sity. This institution takes a high position in the Govern- ment examinations amongst the schools and colleges of South India. For the accommodation of the senior pupils, the foundation stone of a new college at Trevandrum was laid, with ap- propriate ceremonies, by H. H. the Maharajah, on 30th Sept., 1869. English education early took root in the country, and the standard has by degrees been raised higher and higher during recent years. There is now a large and increasing number of native youths and men well educated in English, some of them being graduates in arts and law of the Madras University. Sixteen District English Schools and twenty-nine Verna- cular Schools are supported by the Government in various 156 " THE LAND OF CHARITY." districts of Travancoi'e ; in these above 4,000 looys receive a good education. There are also twenty vernacular village schools, with 1,300 pupils, receiving grants in aid. Female education, too, is spreading. There has never heen any decided objection on the part of Sudras or Ilavars to the elementary instruction of females, probably in consequence of the influential j)osition of women in their singular system of inheritance by the female line. One or two thousand girls of these castes attend the ordinary village schools. It is from the Brahmans, principally, that objections to female education come. Of course the lowest classes also are without the means of obtaining instruction, except in Mission Schools ; their children being refused admission to all respectable native schools, and, with rai'c and recent exceptions, to all Government schools. From the commencement of missionary operations in Travancore, great attention has been paid to female education by missionaries both of the London Missionary and the Church Missionary Societies, the former being liberally aided by the Society for Female Education in the East. Within the last few years much good has also been accomplished hy the agents of the Indian Female Xormal School and In- struction Society, Avho have induced numbers of the very highest families in Trevandrum to send their children to their school, or to receive instruction at their own homes, like the " zeuiina " teaching of Northern India. This good work has enjoyed the patronage and benctited by the personal example of H. IL the Maharajali, the lirst Piince, and the Dewan ; and there are now, in addition, two schools for Brahman and other high-caste girls, under their more immediate patronage, conducted respectively in the fort and in one (jf the suburbs of the capital. Mission schools are numerous and inlhiential. According to information furnished by tlie missionaries themselves, Uy LITERATUUK AND rOPULAU f:DUCATIOX. 157 insertion in the Calendar for 18G7, tlie schools of the London Missionary Society then contained about 8,000 jiupils, of whom 1,600 Avere girls ; those of the Church Missionary .Society, 2,200, of Avhoni over 400 were girls ; the Eoman Catholic Mission Schools over 2,700, of whom 270 were girls ; and the Syrian Christian Schools 2,000 children, of Avhoin 900 were girls. The aggregate, therefore, amounts to 13,000 hoys and 3,200 girls ; to all of whom more or less of religious as well as secular instruction is imparted. The Church Missionary Society have an excellent English College and Vernacular Institution at Cottayam, and the London Missionary Society an English and A^ernacular Seminary at ^Xagercoil, hoth of which have largely aided the cause of popular education in Travancore. Education is thus spreading in a remarkable degree in this interesting country, and must inevitably bring with it, by the blessing of God, the downfall of superstition, error, and oppression, and be the means of introducing an era of national enlightenment, progress, and freedom. 158 CHAPTER XII. HINDUISM IN TRAVANCORE. State Puppovt of Idolatry — Worship of Vishnu as Patmanablian — History and Description of Great Temple at Trevandrum — Principal Ceremonies and Festivals — Sexennial Murajabam — Royal llegeneration Ceremony. The thoiiglit of the general prevalence of idolatry throughout the vast emph'e of India is a solemn and depressing one to the Christian mind. In the little kingdom of Travancore alone there are at least a million of heathen idolaters, living "u-ithout God and without hope in the Avorld, — knowing not the Giver of every good and perfect gift, hut turning from the great Fountain of all life and happiness to endea- vour to liew out for themselves " broken cisterns that can hold no water." How terrible to tliink of such a multitude, generation after generation, bowing down to worship false gods, " the work of their own hands, that which their own lingers have made ; " to see — " Immortal men Wide wandering from the way, eclipsed in night — Park, moonless, moral niijlit — living like beasts, Like beasts descending to the grave, untaught Of life to come, unsanctified, unsaved ! " Oh that they may be l)rouglit speedily to return unto the Lord, and find in Him peace and eternal salvation ! Hinduism is the established religion of the state, and is sustained and su])poi'ted by all its power, wealth, and HINDUISM IX TRAVAXCORE. 159 social influence. The theory is that all other classes are created for the service of the Brahmans, and that the highest possible virtue consists in obedience and homage being rendered to them. Their influence and authority are sup- posed to extend over all the acts and relationships of life, and everything enjoyed or possessed by others comes, they afiirm, from the favour of the Brahmans, and belongs properly to them. Manu says (i., 100, 101, 105), "Whatever exists in the universe is all in effect, though not in form, the wealth of the Brahman ; since the Brahman is entitled to it all by his primogeniture and eminence of birth. The Brah- man eats but his own food, wears but liis own apparel, and bestows but his own in alms. Through the benevolence of the Brahmans, indeed, other mortals enjoy life. He alone deserves to possess this whole earth." In accordance with these and other principles of the law of Manu, so far as it is possible to carry them out in human society, the attempt has been made to shape out the whole civil polity of the state. Occupying, as it does, a secluded corner of the peninsula of India, and having thus escaped the modifying influences of conquest and political change, Travancore retains the observance of most of the laws and institutions of Hinduism in their primitive form and obligation. It has yielded but very slowly, and with intense and unconcealed reluctance, to the few inevitable national reforms which have been eftected, to the introduction and extension of Christianity, and to the consequent gradual decrease of Brahmanical domination and influence. This state is still therefore one of the great strongholds of Hinduism and caste in the South of India, and is distinguished as " The Land of Piety and ('harity " for its liberal support of the Brahmanical religion and priest- hood. No less than one-tifth of the Avhole annual revenue of the state is expended on the support of the Brahman temples and priests, and the influential classes are united in 160 " TIIK LAND OF CHARITY." the support and defence of this formidable system of impos- ture and superstition. Vishnu, the second deity of the Hindu triad, is wor- shipped as the national deity of Travancore. He is usually represented by the Hindus as a black or blue man with four arms. In one hand he holds a war-club ; in another a " cha- kra " or circular missile weapon, like a quoit, sharp at the edges, with which he is said to cut off the heads of his enemies. A third hand holds a lotus water-lily, the emblem of emanation, — unfolding — creation. A conch-shell is in the fourth hand ; and this has consequently been adopted as the national emblem of Travancore, as the rose, thistle and shamrock are for Great Britain and Ireland, the peacock for Eurraah, and the dragon for China. Vishnu is said to have appeared under nine several incar- nations, viz., as a fish, tortoise, boar,