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ii
THE LAND OF CHARITY:'
A Bl SCIUI'TIVE ACCOCXT OF
TRAYANCORE AND ITS TEOPLE,
V;iTH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO MISSIOInARY LABOUR
BY THE
EEV. SAMUEL :\rATEEi;, E.LS.,
OF THE lONDOX illS^IONAKY SOCIETV.
E\V OF StA-CU.VST VUOM MLTT
LONDON
JOHN SNOW AND CO.,
2, IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW.
1871.
'?
PREFACE.
A POPULAR, comprehensive work upon Travancore and
Missionary operations in that territory, for the use of
missionaries and students and the friends of missions
at home, has long been felt to be a desideratum. During
a residence of over nine years in India wholly occupied
in vernacular labours amongst the natives, and con-
stantly enjoying as close familiar intercourse with them
as is possible for a European, the writer continued, both
as a matter of duty and of pleasure, to collect informa-
tion of all kinds ■ about the country and people, and
several years ago sketched out the plan of this work.
Having conceived, however, a high ideal of the excel-
lence, both in substance and style, which ought to
characterize a work produced by a competent and
graphic pen on a subject so extensive and so interesting
in every aspect, he waited for other and abler hands to
undertake the duty, and repeatedly expressed liis sur-
prise that this had not been done.
In his frequent tours during the last two years in
Great Britain and Ireland, lecturing and preaching on
behalf of the London Missionary Society, receiving every-
where the kindest hospitality, and enjoying Christian
intercourse with many friends of the Society, he has had
special opportunities of learning what kind of informa-
tion is wanted by the supporters of our Indian missions ;
and this he has attempted to supply in the present
volume. Nearly the whole of the multitudinous ques-
tions which are naturally put to an Indian missionary
are here answered. JNIinisters and other friends at
1 6G1 156
IV PREFACE,
home ask their missionaries to give them fads. Here
is what might be called a Handbook of Travancore — a
compendium of facts grouped, classified, and arranged
for convenient reference.
Works on India are sometimes full of misstatements
and error, generally arising, in such cases, from insuf-
ficient acquaintance with the native languages and
customs. Throughout this work we have aimed at
special accuracy in every assertion that has been made,
and at giving a fair, unvarnished statement of both
sides of every question. Intelligent readers can thus
form their own conclusions. These facts can also be
adduced and enlarged upon by preachers and public
lecturers. They will be found, we think, powerfully to
illustrate the moral guilt and spiritual wretchedness of
the heathen, their urgent need of the Gospel of Christ,
the converting and renewing power of Divine grace, and
the bright prospects already opening up of the complete
and final triumph of Christian truth in India.
The circumstances of the young, and of general
readers who may not have had time or opportunity for
studying many works on India, have been borne in
mind; and the attempt has been made to explain every-
thing very simply and clearly, without taking for
granted the possession of much special knowledge on
the part of our readers. In order to bring the matter
at our disposal within as small a compass as possible,
and to furnish a cheap illustrated volume for wide
popular distribution and perusal, suitable for placing in
Sunday school and Congregational libraries, &c., we
have condensed our remarks, and for the most part
omitted practical observations and the discussion of
PREFACE. V
principles which otherwise would have found place in
such a work, but would have made it much larger and
more expensive.
Where Indian customs ap]iear to throw light, either
directly or indirectly, upon Holy Scripture, the passages
have been suggested for comparison, examination, and
inquiry.
In the statistical chapters and in the history of our
Mission I have, where necessary, freely compiled from
the annual Reports of the various missionaries (including
my own) ; the Selections from the Government records of
Travancore; and the Dewan's Reports of the Administra-
tion, with co]ues of wliich I have been favoured by that
statesman. Other works, a list of which is subjoined,
have also been consulted and used to a greater or less
extent. Still it would only appear pedantic and cum-
bersome to give formal references to volume and page
of each minor quotation or allusion.
My best thanks are due to the Rev. R. Robinson,
Home Secretary, London Missionary Society, for the
use of a number of woodcuts ; and to the Rev. C. C.
Fenn, M.A., Secretary, Church Missionary Society, for
the use of two engravings for the illustration of this
volume.
It is, of course, possible that, notwithstanding all the
care that has been taken, errors may have crept in.
Should a second edition be required, we shall be happy
to avail ourselves of any further information, correc-
tions, or suggestions which may tend to render the
book more complete or usel'ul.
Indian words, some of them rather formidable in
length and appearance, must of necessity occur. To
VI PEEFACE.
assist our readers in their pronunciation, please observe
that —
d is pronounced like a in father.
i „ „ „ cc, or like i in pique.
ai or ei „ „ eye, or English i.
u generally,, „ oo in food.
e „ „ „ a in fate.
a often „ „ tc in drum, or a in avoid.
If such terms are otherwise pronounced like English
words, a sufficiently accurate approximation to the true
pronunciation will be made.
May that one true and living God, whose kingdom
and the saving knowledge of whose Son we humbly
seek to extend, grant that this little work may be
of some service in exciting, reviving, and nourishing
a more intelligent and prayerful interest in the great
work of Christian missions ! S. M.
London, 29tli November, 1870.
PRINCIPAL "WORKS REFERRED TO.
Madras Journal of Literature and Science.
Fra Bartolomeo's Voyage to the East Indies. London, 1800.
The Tinncvt'lly Shfmars ... ... ... Caldwdl, London, 1850.
Comparative Grammar of the Drfividian Lan-
guages... ... ... ... ... Caldwell. London, 1856.
Missionary Life and Labours of Xavier ... Venn. London, 1862.
The Land of the Permauls, or Cochin ... Bay. Madras, 1863.
The Useful Plants of India Lrunj. Trevandrum, 1858.
Popular Description of the Palmyra Palm... Firyuson. Colombo, 1850.
The Christians of St. Thomas and their
Liturgies ... ... ... ... Howard. Oxford, 1864.
The Syrian Christians of Malabar... P/;(7/;;osa«rf If ow(7>-<f. Oxford, 1869.
The Tulfipurushadanam, by a Tra-
vancorean Trevandrum, 1870.
&c., &c.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF TllATAXCORE
1
CHAPTER II.
SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF TKAVANCORE . . . . 13
CHAPTER III.
THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CrSTOMS .... 25
CHAPTER IV.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS (CONTINUED) . . . . . .51
CHAPTER V.
THE NATIVE GOYEKNMENT . ...... 66
CHAPTER YI.
NATURAL HISTORY 76
CHAPTER VII.
NATURAL HISTORY (CONTINUED) 93
CHAPTER VIII.
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE ........ 104
CHAPTER IX.
AGRICULTURE .......... 115
CHAPTER X.
VERNACULAR LANGUAGES 128
CHAPTER XL
LITERATURE AND POPULAR EDUCATION ..... Ill
CHAPTER XII.
HINDUISM IN TRAVANCORE 158
VI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XIII.
HINDUISM (continued) 176
CHArTER XIV.
DEVIL-WORSHIP 189
CHAPTER XV.
DEVIL-WORSHIP (CONTINUED) . . . , . . .213
CHAPTER XVI.
NATIVE MOHAMMEDANS ........ 227
CHAPTER XVII.
NATIVE ROMAN CATHOLICS 230
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS OF MALABAR 236
CHAPTER XIX. ;
THE CHURCH MISSION IN TRAVANCOKE 253
CHAPTER XX.
ESTABLISHMENT AND EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION
IN TRA VAN CORE ........ . 257
CHAPTER XXI.
EXTENSION AND PROGRESS OF THE MISSION .... 283
CHAPTER XXII.
RECENT HISTORY OF THE MISSION ...... 295
CHAPTER XXIII.
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS . . 320
CHAPTER XXIV.
DIRECT RESULTS OF MISSIONARY LABOURS IN TRAVANCORE . . 350
LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS.
Devil-dancer of Travancore ...... Frordispiece
View of Sea-coast from Muttam ...... Vignette
PAGE
The "Western Ghauts fi-om Calcaud ...... 5
Namburi Brahmins ......... 30
The Ee.i ding-room at Kottar ........ 53
Native Ear Ornament ......... 59
The Rajah, First Prince, and Dewan of Travancore . . face 69
Serpent Idol ........... 88
Travancore Boatman . . . . . . . . .107
Native Coins and Chuckram Board . . . . . .110
Palm-leaf Letter and Writing Implements . . . . .122
Palmyra Trees and Climbers . . . . . . . .124
Native Chapel, Teacher's House, and Schools . .... 140
Patmanabhan, the National Deity of Travancore . . . face 160
Courtyard of Trevandrum Temple ....... 163
Karunkilli and Mallan ......... 196
Pattirakali 198
Veerapatran 199
Paramasattee ........... 203
Magic Charms 211
Devil Temple at Agastispuram face 219
Syrian Church .......... 241
Mission Bungalow, Nagercoil ....... 266
Native Laie-worker, with Pillow ....... 272
Christian Female, with Jacket and Upper Cloth .... 277
Pareychaley Mission Station. face 283
Seminary at Nagercoil . ...... 285
Neyoor Dispensary . . ...... 290
Medical Missionary and Students 313
Travelling Chair 325
Village Chapel and School-house face 326
Pilreychaley Evangelists face 328
Key. C. Yesudian 332
ERRATUM.
Page G8, ll'.h liue from top, omit "Kuight."
''THE LAND OF CHAEITY."
CHAPTEE I.
GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF TRAVANCORE.
Position and Extent of the Country — Physical Features and Scenery —
Climate and Seasons — Principal Towns and Villages.
" Dharmma Bhumi," The Land of Charity, or Piety, is
the poetic appellation "bestowed. Ly the Brahmans on the
little kingdom of Travancore, in South India. In this term
allusion is made to the generous scale of expenditure adopted,
by this native state toward the support of the Brahman
priests, and the Hindu religion and ceremonial. Travancore
is a country concerning which little is known in England,
or even in the more distant parts of India, yet it is one of
tlie most beautiful, strange, and interesting provinces to be
found within the limits of that great empire. The country
itself, Avith its varied and valuable productions, and the
people, their languages, customs, and extraordinary laws,
afford aljundant material for study and research to all
wlio take an interest in human nature and. the works of
God ; while the remarkable spread of Christianity in the
land invests it with great additional interest to the mind
of the Christian philanthro])ist.
B
2 THE LAND OF CHARITY.
Cape Comorin, the soutliernmost extremity — the Land's
End— of the peninsula of India lies just "within the southern
limits of Travancore. From the Cape the jirovince extends
southwards along the Western or Malabar coast of India.
It thus forms the most southerly portion of the Western
coast, being somewhat similar, in this respect, to the geo-
graphical position of Cornwall relatively to Great Britain, to
which county, indeed, it hears some resemblance in general
outline. Travancore is, then, a long, narrow strip of terri-
tory, measuring 174 miles in extreme length, and from
30 to 75 miles in breadth, lying between the Malabar Coast
and the great chain of the Western Ghauts, a noble range
of mountains, which, for hundreds of miles, runs almost
parallel with the Western Coast of India, and which divides
Travancore from the British provinces of Tinnevelly and
Dindigul. It will be observed that Travancore thus occu-
pies a very secluded position. The high mountain barrier
on the East is almost impassable ; the sea forms a pro-
tection on the West ; it is therefore only from the North
and the extreme South that the country is easily accessible.
The area of Travancore is about one-thirteenth of that of
Great Britain, or nearly as large as the principality of Wales,
measuring 6,371 square miles, of which about one-third is
occupied by mountains.
The physical aspect of this tract of country is strikingly
diversified and T)eautiful. On one side the lofty mountains
of the Ghauts rise to a height of from 3.000 to 5,000 feet,
and present a magnificent background to the lowland sceneiy ;
on the other the Indian Ocean stretches its wide exi)anse of
waters, its restless waves breaking perpetually in rollers of
■white surf on the sandy coast. The country is for the most
part, except in the extreme south, undulating or hilly, and
slopes down from the base of the mountains to the sea.
Dense forests, or thick jungles of smaller trees and brush-
GEOGPAPHICAL SKETCH OF TRAVANCORE. ■)
wood, cover the uncultivated land. The hill slopes are
generally cleared and planted -with the jack, the mango,
cashew, and other fruit-trees, or are cultivated with a variety
of grains and esculent roots. The valleys and low grounds,
where hrooks and rivers naturally run, are carefully levelled
and terraced, so as to retain the water with which they are
irrigated as long as may be necessary ; and here is grown
the nutritious rice, which forms so large a proportion of the
food of the Hindus, yieldmg usually two, sometimes three
crops in the course of the year.
Much of the scenery of Travancore is very picturesque,
from its variety, romantic grandeur, or beauty. Many are
the magnificent views of hill and dale, of wooded jungle and
cultivated lands — verdant rice-fields gleaming in the brilliant
tropical sun like lakes of rich emerald green, belts of noble
forest, and isolated masses of rock rising abruptly from the
surrounding country, with the lofty mountain peaks of the
Ghauts shining calm and majestic in the distance. One of
the finest and most charming views I ever beheld was from
the summit of one of the mountains near Capie Comorin, on
the slope of which our mission has a small bungalow, used
as a sanitarium for the enfeebled, and as an occasional retreat
from the labour and excessive heat of the Ioav country. To
the east lay spread out the wide plains of Tinnevelly, flat
and arid, on the red sandy soil of which few trees flourish
save the tall Palmyra palm ; westward stretched the green
and undidating country of Travancore, luxuriant with exu-
berant vegetation ; northwards the noble range of the Ghauts
expanded into a mazy group — a very ocean of mountain-
tops ; while to the south the whole coast-line on both sides
from Cape Comorin showed clearly visible. At our feet lay
dense forests, some still impenetrable, the abode of numerous
v/ild beasts. Here and there portions of this primeval forest
had been cut down to make room for plantatior^s of colTee,
4r " THE LAND OF CHARITY.
and tliere rows of coflfee bushes, witli tlieir glossy gi-een leaves
and beautiful white jasuiine-like flowers, clothed the acclivi-
ties with perpetual verdure ; while down from the heights,
over rocky precipices, through green and shady valleys and
deep ravines, gushed sparkling brooks, like streams of molten
silver, the sources of those larger rivers which could be seen
below flowing peacefully onward to the sea, now irrigating
the fertile plains in their course, but in the rainy season to
be transformed into swollen, rapid, and impassable torrents.
The vignette on the title-page gives a view of the coast-line
from Muttam looking southwards toward Cape Comorin,
showing the cocoa pahn plantations along the coast, with the
southern termination of the Western Ghauts in the back-
ground. The engraving opposite shows the "Western Ghauts
from the Eastern, or Tinnevelly side. Calcaud is in the
same latitude as Trevandrum.
From its physical conformation Travancore is literally " a
land of brooks of Avater, of fountains and depths, that spring
out of valleys and hills." Fourteen princij^al rivers take
their rise in the mountains, and before falling into the sea
spread out, more or less, over the low grounds near the coast,
forming inland lakes or estuaries of irregular forms, locally
called "backwaters." These "backwaters" have been unite<l
by canals running parallel with the coast, and they are thus
of immense value as a means of communication between the
Northern and Soutliei'n districts. Travellers may in this
way pass by water from Ponany, near Calicut, to Kolachel, a
distance of not much under 200 miles. The mode of con-
veyance consists either of canoes hollowed out of the trunks
of large trees, pushed along by two men with bamboo poles,
or of " cabin boats," built somewhat like English boats, with
a neat and comfortable cabin at the stern, which are pro-
pelled by from eight to fourteen rowers, according to their
size. Most of the traffic is carried on these canals and back-
GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF TRAVAXCOBE. /
waters, and native passengers are conveyed at marvellously-
low rates. The principal road in Travancore also runs nearly
parallel with the coast at a few miles distance.
The climate of Travancore is by no means the hottest in
India, and presents, in several respects, a marked contrast to
that of the Eastern coast. The temperature is moderated by
the cool sea breezes which blow every forenoon, and by the
abundance of rain which falls throughout more than half ol
the year. The thermometer does not often rise above 92
degrees Fahrenheit, and rarely sinks lower than 64 degrees.
The annual range of the thermometer is about 20 degrees,
and the average temperature of the whole year about 78 de-
grees Fahrenheit. In the mountains the temperature of course
varies, diminishing in proportion to the height of the locality.
The soutli-west monsoon, or periodical wind from that
quarter, commencing in IMay or June, and continuing for
six months, brings with it the vapours of the ocean, and
a consequent abundant fall of rain, which is, to some extent,
intercepted by the lofty mountains from the Eastern coast.
The rains of the north-east monsoon in October are less
copious, but are still sufficient to maintain the delightful
verdure and exuberant productiveness of the vegetable king-
dom. The change of seasons usually sets in with tremendous
thur.derstorms and violent gusts of wind. At the capital
the annual fall of rain averages sixty-eight inches, but in the
moLntains it is much greater, and strange variations have
been observed in the amount of rainfall at different points
noc far distant from each other.
Practically the year may be divided into five periods : —
(1) 'The hot .season, from February to May; (2) the rainy
mason of the south-ioest monsoon, in June and July ; (3) an
interval in August and September between the rains ; (4)
the rains of the north-east monsoon, in October and November ;
(5) the cold season, December and January.
8 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
In December and January the niglits and mornings are
delightfully cool and pleasant, and very little rain falls.
But in February the heat increases, and plants and flowers
begin to dry up and Avither, in preparation for the hot
season, "vvhich is to the vegetation of the tropics a season of
complete rest, as winter is in more northerly regions. A few
trees, however, now appear in full bloom. The rice harvest
is gathered in early this month.
In March and April a few light and refreshing showers
fall, just sufficient to set and bring forward the fruits oa the
mango trees, which ripen early in May. The temperature
is now at the highest point of the whole year, and much of
the smaller vegetation is shrivelled and withered. The
mountaineers embrace this opportunity for destroying the
old grass and brushwood in the jungles and on the hills by
fire, in order to clear the way for the new growth in the ap-
proaching rainy season. These fires are often visible from a
great distance on a clear night.
The rains commence about the middle of May, ani are
ushered in by violent storms, with thunder and lightning.
Eain falls almost incessantly for about three weeks. During
this period little out-of-door work or exercise can be engaged
in, and books, clothing, and furniture become mouldy and
saturated with damp, and, if not carefully dried, rot away or
fall to pieces. The rivers are swollen, and water is now
stored up in tanks to furnish a supply for agricultural n-ri-
gation. All vegetation is invigorated and s^jrings apace, l)ut
flowers are still scarce, and insects and birds are less plentiful
than at other seasons. The rainfall in May, June, and JuIy
amounts to about thirty inches.
August and September arc two of the finest montlis in the
year, and are characterized by cool, n^freshiug weather, green
vegetation, and abundance of brilliant iloAvers, with animal
life in all its varied forms. This is the season appointed for
GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF TRAVANCORE. 9
the popular festivities connected with the Hindu new year.
In the beginning of August the second rice harvest is cut
and stored, and no time is lost by the farmers in again ma-
nuring and ploughing the fields, and in sowing the seed for
another crop.
The rains of the north-east monsoon commence in the
middle of October, and pour down heavily for a week or
more. During this month and November rain is frequent ;
but little falls in December. The land winds, however, pre-
vail during November, December, and January, and, if not
guarded against, produce most unpleasant symptoms and dis-
orders, such as rheumatism, cough, and local pains. These
winds travel over the miasmatic swamps and valleys inland,
and bring with them the seeds of disease. At the same
time jungle fever, caused by the malarious exhalations of
decaying vegetable matter in the forests, prevails near the
base of the moiintains, where it is almost certain death to
remain overnight, or without taking the greatest precautions
against this terrible and mysterious disease.
"While the heat in Travancore is thus greatly moderated
by frequent rains, and while the climate is therefore more
agreeable, it is not, probably, upon the whole, more healthful
than the hotter and drier climate of the Eastern coast. The
moist heat is essentially enervating and depressing, lowering
the action of the heart, and producing rheumatism, diarrhoea
and dysentery where there is any constitutional tendency
to those diseases.
The principal towns and villages in Travancore are mostly
situated within a few miles of tlie coast. Farther inland
the population is more sparse, and the proportion of uncul-
tivated land much greater. Few of these towns are of great
importance, but as there will be occasion hereafter to refer
to some of them, a few remarks respecting the principal
places may be usefid.
10 "the land of charity."
A reference to the map prefixed to this chapter will hring
to notice three prominent places, viz., Cape Comorin,
Trevandrum, and Quilon. So far the missions of the London
Missionary Society extend ; all the country north of Quilon
is occupied Ly the Church Missionary Society.
Trevandrum is the capital of Travancore, and is the resi-
dence of the Maharajah. Here are the head-quarters of the
native governnient, and the chief courts and offices. A fuller
description of this city is given in Chapter XXI.
From Trevandrum southwards will be seen on the map the
following places, viz., — Neyyattunlcara, on the main road — a
considerable inland town on the banks of a river, with a
temple and royal lodge. Oodagerry, near to Palpanabha-
puram, a fort now dismantled and useless. "Within its walls
are the ruins of an old cJiapel in which was interred D'Lannoy,
a European officer to whose genius Travancore owes much of
its conquests. Kolaclud, an ancient seaport, where the Danes
once had a factory and a commercial resident, and from
which a considerable trade with the coast and with Ceylon
is now carried on. Kottdr, a large and very ancient market
town, mentioned by Ptolemy and Pliny, and still flourishing.
Near to this is Ndgercod, one of tlie principal stations of the
London Missionary Society; and Suc/undrcan, witli its great
temple, the largest in Travancore.
Cape Comorin is one of " the five renowned sacred bathing-
places " to which pilgrims from all parts of India resort,
though in smaller numbers now than in former times.
Qidlon is an ancient seaport town, mentioned by ]\Iarco Polo
in A.D. 1295. This place is remarkable from the circum-
stance that the Malabar chronological era is reckoned from
the traditional foundation of Quilon, the present year (1870)
being the lU46th of that era.
About halfway between Trevandrum and Quilon, two
places require special mention. Anjengo, on the sea-coast, a
GEOGRArUICAL SKETCH OF TRAVANCORE. 11
possession of the British Government, -where a ftictory was
established in 1684, but which was given up in 1813. It is
now inhabited chiefly by a few Portuguese descendants in
reduced circumstances. The remains of the old fort and
several ancient monuments are worthy of examination. Here
Orme the historian was born. The population is estimated
at 2,000. A'tttoigal, five miles east of Anjengo, contains a
fort and palace, and constitutes, with seventeen surrounding
villages, the hereditary domain of the ranee or eldest princess
of Travancore, who formerly possessed the sovereignty
of the country. In the earliest periods of the English
factory at Aiijengo, contracts were made with the 7'd)tee of
A'ttungal.
North of Quilon numerous towns and villages lie scattered
over the couiitry. In most of the northern villages the
houses are detached and straggling, each surrounded by its
little garden and plantation of fruit-trees, cultivated for the
pleasant shade and the food which they afiPord. On the
backwater, a few miles north of Quilon, is Kaijanl-olhim, a
populous market town, formerly a Dutch commercial sta-
tion. MdvelUiliara Fort is about two miles in circum-
ference ; it contains a temple and the palace of a petty rajah,
from whose family the present ranees of Travancore were
adopted. Pantalam was once the capital of an independent
principality, subjugated about a century ago. Changancicheri
is a large market town, in which crowded fairs are held. The
numerous rivers and canals maintain communication with all
parts of the country.
AUepey is the chief seaport of Travancore. The produce
of the forests is conveyed thither for disposal, and a large
trade is carried on in timber, coir, pepper, cardamoms, &c.
For the accommodation of shipping, which amounts to
74,000 tons yearly, a first-class lighthouse was erected in
1862. It is in the form of a pillar, about 100 feet in hei'dit.
12 "the land of charity."
The light revolves, and shows a bright flasli once every
minute, visible, in ordinary weather, to a distance of twenty
miles. Allepey contains a very varied population, including
a small proportion of Arabs, I^egroes, and IMalays. Cottayam^
situated on the bank of a fine navigable stream, and in the
midst of most beautiful scenery, is the principal seat of the
Syrian Church, and is the head-quarters of the Church
Missionary Society. Edda^xdli is the capital of a small
principality, governed by a rajah of the I«[amburi Brahman
caste. He is regarded as the family priest of the princes
of Travancore.
The little island of Verdjiohj, seven miles north-east of
Cochin, is the head-quarters of the Eoman Catholic religion
in Travancore.
Pardvur, now the largest mart of the northern districts,
was once a military station. It was plundered and partly
destroyed during the invasion of Tippu Saib.
On the eaetern side of the Ghauts lies a small but beau-
tiful tract of territory belonging to Travancore, of which
Shencotta is the capital. This is situated at a distance of
sixty-five miles from (,^)uilon, and is a tolerably large and
compactly built town.
The total number of towns and villages in Travancore is
about 3,000.
13
CHAPTEE II.
SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF TRAVANCORE.
Early Traditional and Legendary History — Else of the Kingdom in a.d. 1335,
and its Advancement till 1789 — Modern History — Invasion of Tippu
Saib, and Connection with the British Power.
Travancore, secluded by its geographical position, and dis-
tinguished from other parts of India by many peculiarities,
has never been the scene of those great Avars and schemes of
ambition, nor of those displays of Oriental pomp, cruel revenge,
and religious fanaticism, "which occupy so large a portion of
the history of India, and which have deluged its soil with
blood. The history of Travancore, therefore, as distinguished
from the rest of India, is not possessed of any very special
interest or importance ; still a brief summary of its history
seems essential to the full comprehension of the present cir-
cumstances of the country. This subject naturally divides
itself into — First, the mythological period. Second, the
rise of the kingdom of Travancore, and its advancement to
its present extent. Third, its modern history.
1. According to the legendary account contained in a
celebrated Malaya,lim work called " Kerala Ulpatti " — the
Creation of Kerala, — which professes to record the origin and
history of the countries on the AVestern coast of India, but
much of the earlier portions of Avhich appear to be fabulous,
the creation of the land on the Western coast between the
mountains and the sea, anciently called Kerala, is ascribed to
14 "the land of charity."
Parasu Ramen, the sixth incarnation of Vishnu. He ap-
peared as a great warrior to destroy all the Chatriyas with
their king, on account of their oppressive and wicked rule.
After having gained twenty-one victories over these enemies,
he retired to a mountain, and engaged in the observance of
various penances and austerities to expiate the guilt of having
shed blood. Here he obtained from the sea-god, Varuna, a
grant of land as far in extent as the space over which he
could throw his battle-axe. Exerting all his strength, he
hurled the axe from Gokarnam (in ]^. Lat. 14° 32') to Cape
Comorin, a distance of 500 miles ; and the land of Kerala,
which had been submerged under the ocean in a former age,
again rose and was recovered from the sea. Of this country
Travancore forms the southern portion.
Parasu Ramen parcelled out the newly created land among
the Brahmans whom he introduced. For their comfort and
direction he made all necessary arrangements, and then
departed. The Brahmans at first conducted the government
on the principles of a republic, but afterwards a King or
Perumal was selected. Eighteen of these are said to have
reigned for 216 years previously to the accession of the cele-
brated Cheraman Perumal, the last of their number. His
reign is supposed to have ended in a.d. 352. After his
death the Malayrdim empire was divided and portioned off
among his descendants.
This legend probably refers to the conquest of the "Western
coast by a Brahman named Parasu Ramen, after whose time
the country was partitioned amongst his principal chiefs.
From this ruler all tlie present rajahs and chiefs of Malabar
profess to be descended, or to have received grants of land or
titles. The native accounts go on to state that Cheraman
Perumal bestowed on his son, Veera Kerala, the southern-
most part of his empire, lying between Quilon and Cape
Comorin. This territory descended from Rajah Veera
SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF TRAVAXCORE. 15
Kerala by nephews, according to tlie custom of Malabar, for
300 years. From this time little is known of the history of
the country. It was probably ruled over at various periods
from the ninth to the twelfth century by Mysore, Madura, or
Tanjore in turns, as each of these States succeeded in
obtaining the ascendency.
2. The present kingdom of Travancore rose at the begin-
ning of the fourteenth century, and advanced by degrees, by
the conquest and absorption of the neighbouring states, to its
present extent towards the close of the eighteenth century.
The whole of the Malabar coast had been parcelled out into
numerous rival states, all small and insignificant as to extent
or influence, which were frequently engaged in petty warfare
against each other. I^earest to Trevandram, in the East and
South, the country was divided amongst a race of subordinate
chieftains called " The Chiefs of the Eight Districts." Im-
mediately north of Quilon lay the principality of Kdijan-
Jwllam. South and east of the great lake, Clumgandcheri
and Tekkankur had their own rajahs; while Vadakkankur
lay between Cochin and the mountains eastward. Still farther
north were A'lamjddu and Pardviir. Besides these there were
a multitude of inferior states, so that it became a proverb
that, " although two steps might be made on one territory, a
third must pass the boundary."
The line of rulers descended from Rajali Veera Kerala,
son of Cheraman Perumal, had by this time become extinct.
About A. n. 1304, two princesses, said to have been descended
from Cheraman Perumal by another wife, took up their
residence in A'ttungal, and established that principality.
From them were descended (or adopted, according to Hindu
custom) the tliirty-three sovereigns who preceded the present
Eajah, and whose names are recorded in the native histories.
Veera Rama Martanda Vurmah was the first of this line,
and commenced his reign in 1335. He founded the Tre-
16 "the land of CHAEITY."
vandrum fort and palace, Avliicli lie made his principal
residence. He was succeeded by twenty-two princes, of
whom little besides the names and dates is recorded. Their
rule occupied a period of 350 years. They were continually
engaged in contending with the " Eight Chiefs," and had
therefore little time to enter uj^on schemes of foreign
conquest.
In 1684 Eavi Vurmah Rajah ascended the throne, after
having escaped many dangers and enemies during his
minority. Much of his long reign of thirty-four years was
occupied in attempts to quell the turbulent spirit of his feu-
datories, some of whom, being unable to sul)due, he trea-
cherously assassinated in the temple at Trevandrum. Tlie
reigns of his two immediate successors, Unni Kerala Vurmah
and Rama Vurmah, were but brief, extending to six and
five years respectively.
The next rajah, Vunjee Martanda Vurmah, was amongst
the most successful in the subjection of his neighbours and
severe in the government of his people. He received into ,
his employment a Flemish military adventurer named
D'Lannoy, and set himself to establish the jjower and extend'
the boundaries of his kingdom. The fortifications, garrisons,
and arsenals at Trevandrum and other places were largely
strengthened and increased, and the troops carefully disci-
plined. Additional customs duties were levied ; a poll tax on
the Shanars, a tax on the nets of the fishermen, and other
rates, were imposed to defray the increased expense of the
military establishment. During the lengthened reign of this
prince, Kayankollam, Tekkankur, Vadakkaukiir, Changa-
nacheri, and other inferior states were subdued and annexed,
notwithstanding the efforts of the Dutch at Cochin to restrain '
the advance or curtail the rising power of Travancore.
In the early part of this reign a contention arose between
the Rajah and his sons on the subject of the succession to
SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF TRAVANCORE. IT
the kingdom. According to the ]\[alabar law, nepliews were
the heirs and successors to all property and honours ; hut
the sons of the Eajah sought to alter the law of succession
in their own favour. They were aided in their ambitious
schemes by several of the " eight chieftains," and by other
adherents. Becoming aware of the conspiracy, the Eajah
watched his opportunity, and ordered the execution of his
two sons, one of whom he put to death with his OAvn hand.
Several of the minor chiefs were slain at the same time,
their families sold into slavery, and their estates confiscated.
Yet this Prince was at the same time remarkable for his
superstitious zeal in the service of the gods. He ever
regarded the whole of his possessions as consecrated to
Patmanabhan, the national deity, in whose honour he re-
built and adorned the great temple and handsome pillared
courts at Trevandrum. The splendid and costly sexennial
festival, still observed by the native Eajahs, was first estab-
lished in 1749 by Vunjee ]\Iartanda Vurmah. Other temples
at N^eyyattixnkara and elsewhere were built, and the whole
expenditure of the religious establishment raised to the very
liberal and even profuse scale which characterizes it at the
present day. " He was," says Bartolomeo, " a man of great
pride, courage, and talents, capable of undertaking great
enterprises, and from his youth had been accustomed to war-
like operations."
This Prince reigned for a period of twenty -nine years, and
was succeeded in 1758 by Vunjee Bfda Eama Vurmah.
During his reign the authority of the petty chieftains was
wholly extinguished, and he was enabled to direct his excur-
sions northwards. By the aid of D'Lannoy and an eminent
native general called Martanda Pilley, the wide extent of
country under the Eajahs of A'langadu and Paravur was sub-
dued and annexed; and in conjunction Avith his ally, the
Eajah of Cochin, he drove back the troops of the Zamorin of
c
18 "the land of charity. "
Calicut. Thus Travancore was advanced to its present limits,
and a line of fortifications, consisting of a Avail and a ditch,
was drawn across the Avhole northern military frontier.
Thus, too, in the overruling providence of God, the anarchy
and intestine feuds which had so long prevailed were
brought to an end.
In religious enthusiasm, liberality in the erection of temples,
and attention to rites and ceremonial, this Eajah imitated
his uncle and predecessor. He is described as having been
accomplished in Hindu literature and science, and bold and
enterprising in character. He established the system of
" Ootooperas," or free inns for Brahmans, in various parts of
the country, and visited Rameeswarani and Alwaye to perform
the ceremonies of bathing and sacrifice at those sacred places.
Useful roads were made, and public buildings everywhere im-
proved or rebuilt. Father Bartolomeo, a learned Eomish
missionary, Avho visited this Bajah in 1780, and knew him
well, thus speaks of his appearance and habits : — " The king
generally wears a turban of dark blue silk, a long white robe
fastened at the breast with a string of diamonds, long wide
drawers of red silk, and shoes, the points of which are bent
backwards like those of the Chinese. A sabre is suspendctl
from his shoulders, and in the blue girdle bound round his
loins is stuck a poniard or Persian dagger, which can be used
either for attack or defence. When he shows himself to the
people in full state, he is attended by 5,000 or G,000 men,
together with a great number of palanquins and elephants. At
the head of the procession is a band of musicians and two
court poets, who celebrate in songs liis great achievements.
He is borne in a palanquin, and the principal gentlemen of
his court must walk on each side of it. He is an affable,
polite, and friendly man. It is the more to be lamented that
he is so zealously attached to idolatry."
3. Travancore had now readied tlie acme of its political
SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF TRAVAXCORE. 19
power and extent, and at this period commenced its con-
nection with the British power as an ally and tributary state.
This occurred during the reign of Vunjee Bala llama Vurmah
Rajah, last mentioned. He had been a conqueror and spoiler
of nations, and now his own turn came to be the object of
the aggressions and spoliation of a mightier than himself.
Tippu Saib, Sultan of Mysore, was the son and successor
of Hyder A'li, who had risen from the ranks of the JNIj^sore
army by his military genius, and usurped the supreme power.
Many of the kingdoms of Malabar had been conquered by
Hyder or by Tippu, and fiendish cruelties perpetrated on the
defenceless inhabitants. They seized the native princes,
many of whom were starved in prison. Bralimans were
forcibly circimicised and compelled to eat beef in order to
destroy their caste ; others committed suicide rather than
submit to such indignities. Thousands were murdered ; the
lawless and licentious Mohammedan soldiery devastated the
conquered territory and committed many acts of atrocity,
■polluting sacred wells and razing ancient temples to the
ground.
The insatiable ambition and superstitious cruelty of Tippu
Saib induced him to attempt the invasion and subjugation of
Travancore also. Cochin had previously been reduced to
complete vassalage to Mysore, and part of that state lay
within the northern rampart and defences of Travancore.
The chief obstacle in the Sultan's way was tlie Government
of Madras; for a defensive alliance had been formed in 178-4
between the Rajah of Travancore and the English; to them,
therefore, Tippu alleged various excuses for the invasion of
the province. In December, 1789, he hastened with a
powerful army to attack the Travancore lines. Reports of
the barbarities of the Sultan had reached the Travancoreans,
and they were nerved to put forth every effort in defence of
their beautiful and sacred country, hitherto unpolluted by
20 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
rude contact with foreigners. Their forces were, in the first
instance, successful in driving back the Mysore army ; but in
April, 1790, Tippu, having received regular batteries of
heavy cannon, breached the Avail and overran the conquered
territory as far as Verapoly, committing his usual devasta-
tions and cruelties.
In the meantime Travancore had appealed to the British
for aid. Lord Cornwallis, then Governor-General, regarding
this attack on a stedfast ally as an act of hostility against
the Eritish Government, determined to interpose and to
strike a blow at the very heart of Mysore by besieging the
capital itself. Tippu was thus compelled to relinquish the
prey which he had just grasped, and to hasten to the defence
of his own dominions. The war resulted in the restoration
of all that had been wrested from the Eajah of Travancore, in
the death of Tippu, and the complete annihilation of his
power.
The protection rendered by the English on this occasion
was afforded on condition that the liajah of Travancore
should pay an annual subsidy to maintain a certain number
of troops, to be stationed within his territory, and that he
should receive a British Eesident at his court. The following
extract from the Treaty of 1805, renewing and confirming
that of 1795, refers to one important stipulation: — "His
Highness herel)y promises to pay at all times the utmost
attention to such advice as the English Government shall
occasionally judge it necessary to offer to him, witli a view to
the economy of his finances, the better collection of his re-
venues, the administration of justice, the extension of com-
merce, the encouragement of trade, agriculture, and industry',
or any other objects connected with the advancement of his
Highness's interests, the ha])})iuess of his people, and the
mutual welfare of both states."
This important provision for the good government of the
SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF TRAVANCOKE. 21
State has been, in the providence of God, the means of aiding
the introduction of Christianity, and removing obstacles to
its progress. Had it not been for the repeated exercise of the
influence of godly and enlightened British Governors and
Eesidents, and had the country been left wholly to native
rule — or rather, misrule, — missionaries could have had little
access to Travancore, caste injustice and social evils would
still have been rampant, and slavery Avould still have ener-
vated and corrupted the whole framework of native society.
And yet, as far as the immediate parties were concerned, tem-
poral interests only were regarded. The officials of the
English Government merely sought the extension of British
power, and a security for the due payment of the subsidy ;
the Travancoreans yielded to the conditions simply as a
matter of unavoidable necessity ; while the prime cause —
Tippu's invasion — Avas entirely owing to his wicked and un-
scrupulous lust of power ; — but the ultimate result of all, in
the wondrous providence of God, has been the introduction
into Travancore of civilization, justice, freedom, and Chris-
tianity. What an illustration is this of the inspired words,
" Surely the wrath of man shall praise Thee ; the remainder of
wrath shalt Thou restrain " !
(Avittam) Bala Eama Vurmah succeeded to the throne in
1798, and occupied it for thirteen years. He was a weak
and imprudent ruler, misled by selfish and ignorant favour-
ites, and unable rightly to control his violent and corrupt
ministers, yet withal rigorous and cruel in his treatment of
the people.
The troops which had been levied for the defence of the
kingdom against Tippu Srdb were, after the conclusion of the
war, so numerous that, having no other employment, they
overawed and harassed their more peaceable countrymen.
"The military, exasperated l^y the reduction of some cus-
tomary allowances, or instigated by leaders who concealed
23 "the land of charity."
their views under this specious pretence, broke into open
revolt against the Eajah in 1804. The ferment was allayed
for a time by the concessions of the Kajah, but the views of
the disaffected were soon afterwards directed against the
British." They determined to make an effort to throw off
the British alliance, and to repudiate the just obligations
under which they were placed towards that power.
" The contest commenced by a treacherous attempt (Dec.
29th, 1808) to assassinate the British Eesident, Colonel
Macaulay, then residing at Cochin. The Resident had a
narrow escape, which he owed to the fidelity of a domestic."
Several attacks on Cochin were made by the Travancoreans ;
but reinforcements from Quilon and IMalabar were speedily
called in, and tranquillity was restored. "The state was
called upon to defray the expense incurred by the British
Government in this expedition; and a brigade, consisting of
one European and three native regiments, with a detachment
of artillery, was left in cantonment at Quilon as a subsidiary
force, agreeably to tlie treaty concluded in 1795.
"After the restoration of peace the administration of affairs
was still left in a most disorganized and unsettled state. So
far did this proceed that the Britisli Government at length
felt itself called upon to remonstrate upon the non-fulfilment
of the ol)ligations under which Travancore was placed, and
to intimate that further delay would render it necessarj'
to assume the internal administration of tlie country, as the
only means of insuring the satisfaction of those demands." *
The death of Rajah Bala Riima in 1811, and the accession
of his sister, Gouri Letchmi Ranee, who was at that time
without children, put a new and improved aspect on affairs.
This Princess had the good sense to place the administration
of the country into the hands of Colonel Munro, the British
Resident, who acted for about three years in the capacity of
* Memoir of Travancore.
SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF TRAVANCORE. 23
Dewan, or Prime Minister. The effect upon the administra-
tion and resources of the country, notwithstanding another
attempt in 1812 to destroy the British authority, Avas most
beneficial, and highly appreciated by the natives themselves.
In 1815 the Riinee died, leaving two infant sons and one
daugliter, and her sister, Gouri Pfirvathi Eanee, was entrusted
with the regency during the minority of the heir. She.
followed a simihir policy to that of her predecessor, and
sought the aid of able and upright advisers ; so that the
country continued, on the whole, peaceful and prosperous.
On attaining his majority in 1829, at the age of sixteen,
(Choti) Vunjee Bala Eama Vurmah was installed as Eajah,
and occupied the tlirone for eighteen years. In 1832, the
country being considered safe from external attack, the
greater portion of the subsidiary forces, including all the
European soldiers, was withdrawn, and the entire responsi-
bility of preserving the peace of the country was entrusted to
the Eajah, " During the last few years of his administration
the country was allowed to deteriorate, notwithstanding the
vigorous remonstrances of the British Eesident. Extrava-
gance wasted the accumulations of former years of careful
management ; and a decreasing revenue, coincident with a
lavish expenditure, led to the neglect of nearly all public
works, however important or necessary. The roads and
bridges were left to go to decay ; and even the works for
irrigation, so essential to the prosperity of the people and so
closely connected with the immediate interests of the revenue,
were not kept in repair." *
ToAvards the end of 1846 this Prince died; and in the
following February his younger brother, Baghiodya
Martanda Vurmah, was installed as Rajah.
This ruler Avas personally of a kind and amiable dis-
position, and possessed many excellences of character ; but
* Thornton's East Indian Gazetteer, Art. " Travanoore."
24 "the land of charity."
lie lacked decision and energy. lie had enjoyed the benefit
of a fair education, and was fond of the study of chemistry
and medicine ; but he was not less devoted to superstition
than his predecessors. Sincere and devout in idolatrous
Avorship beyond most of his people, he was lavish in his ex-
penditure on religious ceremonials, and spent much of his
time in devotional observances.
For some time after the succession of this Eajah, aided by
an able though thoroughly unprincipled Dewan, he set him-
self to correct the improvident expenditure of his predecessor.
But this course of improvement did not long continue. The
reins of government were soon relaxed, and misrule began to
produce its natural results. Public duty was neglected for
festivals ; the courts and police grew corrupt ; the character
of many of the high officials was bad ; and monstrous evils in
the system of forced labour, the collection of the revenue,
and the administration of justice prevailed throughout the
country. The state of affairs became increasingly worse,
until the Madras Government was com^iolled again to inter
fere and urge reforms. Subsequent reforms were inaugurated
in 1858 by the appointment of the present able and upright
Dewan; and in the beginning of 18G0 a British Resident,
Mr. r. I^. Maltby, arrived in Travancore. The talents and
firmness, the political experience and Christian character of
this gentleman were such as to warrant the expectation of
considerable improvement in the state of the country. He
has since been succeeded by others of like mind.
A few months after this the Kajah died, and was succeeded
Ity his sister's son, (Ayilliam) Eama Vurmah, the present
IMaharajah, a truly estimable and enlightened Prince, under
whose rule, aided by his minister, Sir Madava Row, K.C.S.I.,
with the advice of the British Resident, the administration
has been remodelled, and the condition of the country has
visibly amended and promsies still further to improve.
25
CHAPTEE III.
THE PEOPLE THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
Numbers and Density of Population — Caste; its Character, Origin, and In-
fluence — Brahmans — Their Pride and Assumption — Bearing towards
Europeans — Assault on Mr. Lee — Svidras — Their Singular Customs
— Ilavars and Shanars — Deed of Divorce — Slave Castes — Their
Degradation and Sufferings — Hill Tribes.
A REGULAR census of the population of Travancore was
taken in 1854, and showed a total of 1,262,647 inhabitants.
There is reason to believe, however, that this number has
since risen to at least a million and a half of inhabitants ;
but in any analysis of the elements of the population we
must refer to the census, in which details are given. The
average population, according to the more recent estimate, is
223 to each square mile of territory. The average density
of the population of Great Britain is 274; of the Madras
Presidency, 180 ; and of the whole of India, 130 to the
square mile.
The population of Travancore is far from being uniformly
distributed over the entire surface of the country. It chiefly
occupies a strip of land, of a width of from sixteen to thirty
miles from the sea. The maritime districts are the most
Avealthy and populous, while the mountains are uninhabited,
except here and there by a few unsettled tribes of mountain-
eers, and, within the last few years, by the proprietors of
coffee plantations and the labourers in their employment. The
rocky, wild, and malarious districts near the base of the hills
are almost wholly destitute of inhabitants.
26 "tfie land of charity."
Leaving out of view for the present the native Christians and
the Mohammedans, to both of whom reference is made else-
where, it is needful to give some account of the great body of
the Hindu population, as separated into distinct castes or
classes. The term " caste," be it remembered, is not always
synonymous with employment, profession, or trade ; nor does
" high caste " imply the possession of wealth, nor " low caste "
always indicate extreme poverty. Caste in India is but one of
the innumerable manifestations of the pride, partiality, and sel-
fishness everywhere natural to the unsanctified human character.
iSome writers upon India have regarded caste as a mere
social institution, corresponding in a measure with the division
of labour amongst ourselves. They suggest fanciful theories
respecting its supposed origin in the commencement of the
framework of society ; that it arose from the necessity of
allotting to certain classes particular manufactures and em-
ployments, in order to increase and perpetuate from generation
to generation the professional skill of artisans and labourers.
Others, again, speak of this institution as being merely civil or
political, not religious in its character, but rather correspond-
ing to distinctions of rank and position amongst ourselves,
liut amongst the Hindus, caste is placed upon distinctly re-
ligious grounds, and is inseparably connected with the doc-
trines and traditions of Hinduism. Its origin is said to be
divine. Its rules and sanctions are divine. It is supposed
to exhibit the relative position in regard to holiness and
purity, and the measure of salvation already attained by each
individual. He who is now a " high caste" man must have
performed meritorious acts in a former birth, on account of
Avhich he was again born into this higher position ; and
the degraded " low caste " man is now suffering the punish-
ment of some former misdeeds. Thus the system of caste
must stand or fall with Hinduism itself, and must be wholly
and for ever rejected as heathenish and wicked by all
THE PEOFLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. Z /
genuine converts to Christianity. It were an easy task to
prove from facts that the excuses and palliations of the
system of caste brought forward by some European writers
are utterly untenable, and are founded on error.
The origin of caste is doubtless connected with the early
history of India, and the conquest of the aboriginal inhabit-
ants by the Brahmanical race. In the present population of
India there are two strata of people, distinguished from one
another by physical characteristics, as well as by language,
customs, and religion. The Brahmans and other higher
classes migrated from a more northerly region, and are not
distantly related to the European races ; the lower classes are
of remote Scythian or Tartar origin, and, in Southern India,
are demon worshippers. The Brahmanical, or Aryan tribes in
early ages subjugated the primitive inhabitants of India, and,
to retain them in a condition of subservience and inferiority,
invented the legends which are now related in the Hindu
Puranas relative to the origin of caste. The Brahmans
placed their claims to superiority on a religious basis ; and the
result has fully justified their shrewd and selfish policy.
Caste separates the people into many different classes
throughout the whole of India. Each caste is supposed to be
as distinct from others as are the various species of animals,
such as the horse, the ox, or the ass. Those who belong to
the highest caste enjoy extravagant privileges, and are almost
worshipped as gods, while the lowest are regarded as de-
graded almost below tlie level of the beasts of the field.
Individuals of different castes cannot intermarr3^ They are
prohibited from eating together or in each other's presence,
from drawing water from the same well, or even partaking of
a cup of water from the hands of any of a lower caste. They
cannot even Avorship in common ; the man of low caste can
never be admitted into a Brahman temple, nor even, in
Travancore, touch its outermost walls ; nor is he ever
28 "the land of charity."
allowed to hear or to read the sacred books. Familiar hos-
pitable intercourse between the different castes, or between
high caste Hindus and Europeans, is impossible ; the very
touch of the degraded Pariah or Pulayan, even his shadow
falling on the food of the Brahman, conveys pollution. I
have known instances in which native gentlemen, or nobles,
have ventured to sit at the table of Europeans, but dare not
themselves partake of any of the food before them on account
of the laws of caste. In Travancore, moreover, the most
servile and humiliating language must be used by persons of
inferior caste to those of high caste.
The fearful and aggravated evils of such a system must be
obvious. It obstructs all progress even in civilization and
arts ; sea voyages are impracticable, manufactures in leather
and other materials are prohibited, praiseworthy ambition
and enterprise are repressed, patriotism is totally annihilated.
The separate castes cannot unite even to repel an invader.
Hospitality, kindness, the observance of the duties of common
humanity, are extinguished by the rigid rules of Hindu caste.
The whole system is, in every aspect, fraught with evil to high
as well as low — is morally degrading to rich as well as
poor; and, perhaps, nowhere is caste retained and defended
with such tenacity, bigotry and jealousy as in Travancore.
The distinct castes and subdivisions found in various parts
of this little state are reckoned to be no less than eighty-two
in number. All these vary in rank, in the nicely graduated
scale, from the highest of the Brahmans to the lowest of the
slaves. Occasional diversities, arising from local circum-
stances, are observable in the relative position of some of
these castes. But speaking generally, all, from the Brahman
priests down to the guilds of carpenters and goldsmiths, are
regarded as of high or good caste ; and from the Shanar tree
climbers and washermen down to the various classes of slaves,
as of inferior or low caste.
THE PEOPLE — TUEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 29
To give some definite idea of these component parts of the
population, four principal castes may be selected as typical
or illustrative of the whole. These are Brahmans, Siidras,
Shanars, and Pulayars.
According to the census of 1854, the Brahmans resident
in Travancore number about 39,000. They are divided into
two principal classes — iNamburis or Malayalim Brahmans,
indigenous to the country, and foreign Brahmans, originally
from the Canara, Mahratta, Tulu, and Tamil countries, but
who are now settled in Travancore.
The Nambiiri Brahmans, numbering 10,238, are regarded
as peculiarly sacred, and as exalted far beyond the foreign
Brahmans. They claim to be the aboriginal proprietors of
the soil, to whom the ancestors of the present rajahs and
chiefs Avere indebted for all that they possessed. Theu' head-
quarters are at A'rancheri in the Cochin state, where the
chief Namburi resides. The highest class of Namburis, with
rare exceptions, refuse to reside under the sway of the Sudra
king of Travancore, and any of the females going south of
Quilon are said to lose caste. Hence the Namburis resident
within the limits of Travancore are not recognised as being
of the purest class.
These proud and arrogant Brahmans are not numerous in
the south, but chiefly inhabit the central and northern
provinces of Travancore. Their manner of life is usually
very secluded, and many devote themselves especially to the
performance of religious ceremonies in connection with the
temples. In all the great religious observances of the Rajah,
these priests are the principal celebrants, and are treated
with every mark of reverence and respect. They rarely con-
descend to enter upon the arena of political life ; and it was
only in 1863 that the first instance occurred of a youth of
this caste entering the High School at the capital, for the
purpose of learning English. In consequence of their
30
"the land of charity."
seclusion, caste prejudices, and strict attention to ceremonial
purity, these Brahmans are inaccessible to the European
missionary.
The Namburis are often wealthy, and reside in large,
comfortable houses. Their women are carefully concealed from
the public gaze ; and, when venturing out of the house, are
enveloped in cloths, or are covered by an immense umbrella.
The females are said to be distinguished by their beauty,
and they enjoy the privilege of wearing golden bracelets.
The above illustration, copied from a native drawing,
gives a fair representation of these people.
To keep down the numbers of this caste, the eldest son
alone in a family is allowed to marry in regular form with a
female of his own caste. The others form such temporary
connections as they may find convenient, and are usually
welcomed by the females of the Si'idra caste, who regard it as
a hi"h honour to receive the visits of a Namburi. Should
THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CU.ST(mS. 31
the eldest son have no issue, the second marries, and so on
till the object is attained.
Foreign Brahmans of various nationalities, attracted by
the respect and attention paid to their class in the " Land of
Charity," number 28,461. i^ome of them are engaged in
trade, or in the employment of the native Government ; others
perform the minor duties of the temples. The Canara Brah-
mans are not accompanied by their families, but some of
them associate with the Nair females during their stay in
Travancore, giving to them a portion of their allowances,
and remitting the remainder to their families. Others take
up their residence altogether in Travancore, and never return
to their resj^ective countries.
Another numerous class closely connected with the Brah-
mans, and who might indeed be numbered with them, is
that of Umbalavasies, or " temple dwellers." Their caste
position is intermediate between that of Brahmans and
.Sudras. They prepare garlands with which to decorate the
idols, officiate as musicians in the temple services, and, like
the Jewish Levites, perform various duties about the pagodas.
They amount to 18,870 in number.
Very few Chatriyas and Vaishyas are found in Travan-
core, and it is not certain that these are the genuine
descendants of the original castes so named.
The Brahmans in Travancore have secured for themselves
a singularly high and unfair superiority over all other classes,
— very different from their present position in British India.
Though comparatively so few in number (little more than
three per cent, of the whole population), they are the only
class that are free from all social and religious disabilities,
and enjoy perfect liberty of action. The whole framework
of Hinduism has been adapted to the comfort and exaltation
of the Brahman. His word is law ; liis smile confers happi-
ness and salvation ; his power with heaven is unlimited ;
32 "the land of charity."
the very dust of his feet is purifying in its nature and effi-
cacy. Each is an infallible Pope in his own sphere. The
Brahman is the exclusive and Pharisaic Jew of India. He
is professedly the pure and exalted priest, separate from all
that is " common or unclean."
The traditional and guast-legal rights and privileges con-
ceded to Brahmans in Travancore, constitute a formidable
barrier to the genei'al progress and political improvement of
the country. They are exempt in a native state from capital
punishment for any offence whatever, and their crimes are
very leniently dealt with, while those committed against
them are severely punished. The laws as to caste distance also,
as far as they are carried out, cannot but put a stop to the ele-
vation of the lower orders, and necessarily limit the natural
freedom of large classes of individuals. Fixed distances are
appointed, within which persons of low caste dare not approach
those of higher caste. A Nair, for example, may approach,
but must not touch a Xamburi Brahman. A Shanar must
remain thirty-six paces off, and a Pulayan slave must stay at
a distance of ninety-six paces. Other intervals, according to
a graduated scale, are appointed to be observed between the
remaining castes ; thus, for instance, a Shanar must remain
twelve steps away from a Nair, a Pulayan sixty-six steps,
and so on.
Even Europeans would be brought by Brahmans under
the influence of these intolerable arrangements, did they
only possess the power to compel the former to observe;
them. During the early intercourse of Europeans with
Travancore, they Avere forbidden to use the main road, and
required to pass by a path along the coast where Brahmans
rarely travel ; access to the capital was also refused as long
as possible. I myself have been ordered to run out of the
public road by the servants of a great Brahman priest who
was passing along in his palaid^een, but, of course, refused to
THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOJIS. OO
do SO, Other missionaries, however, have been assaulted
and beaten for declining to yield submission to these arbitrary
and despotic regulations.
The most recent occurrence of this kind took place about
the middle of 1868, in the case of the Rev, W. Lee. One
inorning, attended as usual by his horsekeeper, a native
Christian, Mr. Lee was riding to one of his congregations,
through the Brahman street of Panjalingapuram, near Cape
Comorin, a street which he had passed through rejDeatedly,
as had other missionaries and Europeans for the last forty
years, and which was the only direct road to the place he
was about to visit. On this occasion the Brahmans assembled
to prevent his passing through their street, and one suggested
that he should go by an alleged back road instead of the
direct route. Willing, if possible, to gratify the people, Mr.
Lee consented to examine the by-road, so called, and found
it was merely a path among the cesspools of the village,
scarcely passable, of the existence of which he had never
before heard, and by which under these circumstances he
declined in future to proceed. When returning in the
evening he was set upon and furiously attacked by a mob of
Brahmans ; stones and brass vessels were thrown at him,
and he received some severe blows. He was struck at with
a bullock pole, and his travelling bag was carried off by one
of the assailants. After passing through the village he got
off his horse and went back alone to the Brahmans, who had
congregated at a little temple at the outside of the street,
and asked in a conciliatory tone why they had committed the
outrage, requesting them to return the bag. Again he was
assaulted, and with difficulty escaped.
The question of right of way being one of essential im-
portance, a complaint was lodged before the authorities, and
duly investigated for nine successive days by the Dewan
Peishcar. Everything went clearly against the Brahmans,
D
34 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
and the case being fairly established was forwarded to tlie
Dew an. Great excitement prevailed throughout the country
during the trial. But the hnal decision of the Dewan was
very unsatisfactory. A mere nominal fine of thirty rupees
each was inflicted on five of the offenders, and although the
street was proved in court to have been open to the public
for a great number of years without any objection having
been expressed by the Brahmans, and though Mr. Duthie had
gone through it with his bearers but a few weeks previously,
Mr. Lee was ordered to abstain from jiassing through it till
he had first proved his right to do so in a civil court ; a
decision tantamount, in the present state of the country and
its unequal legislation, to an absolute prohibition.
The stolen bag was discovered concealed at the bottom of
a Brahman's well, but for the theft the men were simply
punished with an insignificant fine of five rupees each, and
the village watchman was allowed to retain his situation in
the pay of the Government.
An appeal in the case was made to H. E., the Governor of
Madras, in Council, and it was understood that his lordship's
personal opinion was strongly in favour of the missionaries'
right of way ; but we have not heard the result of this appeal.
It would certainly require some courage and determination
on the part of the rulers of Travancore to repeal the unjust
and partial caste laws which' have hitherto prevailed to the
serious detriment of so large a proportion of their subjects ;
but some such course is essential to the improvement of the
country. While progress may be expected to be somewhat
slow, any retrograde measures towards the old state of things
will have to be vigilantly guarded against and avoided.
TuE SuDRAS constitute the next great division of the
population. These were originally the lowest of the four
true castes, and are still a degraded caste in J^orth India.
But in the South there arc so many divisions below the
THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 35
Sudras, and they are so numerous, active, and influential, that
they are regarded as quite high caste people. In Travancore
the Malayalim Sudras number 384,242 ; the Chetties, or
Sudras from the Carnatic, 19,955; and the carpenters, weavers,
herdsmen, smiths, and other castes, who may be regarded as
belonging to the same great class, 78,210; making in all
482,407, or above one-third of the whole population.
Tlie Sudras are the middle classes of Travancore. The
greater portion of the land is in their hands, and until
recently they were also the principal owners of slaves.
They are the dominant and ruling class. They form the
magistracy and holders of most of the Government offices —
the military and police, the wealthy farmers, the merchants
and skilled artisans of the country. The Royal Family are
members of this caste. The ordinary appellation of the
Si'idras of Malabar is Nair (pronounced like the English
word " nigher "), meaning lord, chief, or master ; a marvellous
change from their original position, according to Hindu tra-
dition. By the primitive laws of caste they are forbidden to
read the sacred books, or perform religious ceremonies, and
are regarded as created for the service of the Brahmans.
The ancient law of Manu runs thus:— "Men of the servile
(Sudra) caste were created for the purpose of serving Brah-
mans. The Brahman who declares the law to a servile man,
and he who instructs him in the mode of expiating sin, sinks
with that very man into hell. If a Sudra reads the Vedas
or the Purunas, then the magistrate shall heat some bitter
oil and pour it into the Sudra's mouth ; and if the Siidra
listens to the Vedas, then boiling oil shall be poured into
his ears." Accordingly, as a matter of fact, the Sudras never
do read the Sauscrit Vedas, nor trench upon the duties and
privileges of the Brahmans, though there are but few of
them now in a position of direct subserviency to the priest-
hood.
36 "the land of charity."
Amongst the IS^airs there are several subdivisions, "with
their distinguishing titles and characteristics, and their
respective gradations of caste pre-eminence.
The four castes of goldsmiths, hrassworkers, blacksmiths,
and carpenters, form tlie lowest subdivision of the Siidras.
The ISTair customs with respect to marriage are of a most
singular and licentious character. In early youth the girl
goes through the ceremony of marriage by having the " ta]i,"
or marriage cord, tied round her neck, but this is not followed
by coliabitation. It is a mere formality, and simply sets her
at liberty to exercise and follow out her own inclinations in
more mature years. When arrived at a marriageable age
suitors present themselves, and the favoured individual offers
to the young woman a cloth and other jDresents, and either
resides with her or visits her at intervals in her brother's
house. This is called " mundu koduttu parppikka," " giving
a cloth and residing together," and is the only practical sub-
stitute for marriage amongst these people. But this form
cannot be regarded as constituting marriage in any true
sense. It differs widely from the marriages of the Brahmans
and Shanars, inasmuch as the engagement is not binding
upon either party longer than they choose, and is readily
dissolved. The woman is at liberty to dismiss the man, or
the man to dismiss the woman, on very easy terms. A
settlement of accounts as to presents, expenses of marriage,
ornaments, &c., and a deed of separation, di'awn up and
signed in the presence of four witnesses of the same caste,
completely dissolves this trivial connection. Many of these
alliances are of course continued tliroughout life, but great
evils result from the facilities afforded for change. Formerly,
too, it was common for Nair females, while residing at their
brother's house, to receive more than one visitor of the male
sex, nor is this altogether unknown at the present day.
In consequence of these jieculiar customs the law of
THE PEOPLE THEIR MAXXERS AND CUSTOMS. 1
inheritance amongst the Sudras is equally strange. The
children of a Sudra -woman inherit the property and heritable
honours, not of their father, but of their mother's brother.
They are their tmde's nearest heirs, and he is their legal
guardian. So it is, for example, in the succession to the
throne. The late Eajah Avas not succeeded by his own sons.
They received some private property during the lifetime of
their father, but have no claim upon the throne or royal
honours ; and their descendants, in a few generations, will
sink down to the level of ordinary Sudras, though they
continue to be recognised by the title of "Tambi." The
sister of the late Eajah left two sons, the elder of whom is
now reigning. He will be succeeded by his younger brother,
the heir ai^parent. ISText in succession come the two sons of
their late sister, who are entitled respectively the second and
third princes of Travancore. Their mother had no daughters,
so that it became necessary for the continuation of the suc-
cession by the female line to adopt some one into the family.
Two daughters of the petty rajah of Mavelikkara were
accordingly adopted, who are by Hindu law and custom
regarded as the sisters of the second and third princes, and
are called respectively the senior and junior Ranees of Tra-
vancore. The senior Eanee is without issue, but the junior
Eanee has three sons, — the fourth, Ji/th, and sixth princes,
who follow next in the succession. But unless daughters are
born hereafter to the Eilnee, there will be another break in
this curious chain of sisters' sons, and it will be necessary
again to adopt females into the family.
The monstrous custom of polyandry, or of one woman
having several husbands, is sometimes practised in Travan-
core by carpenters, stonemasons, and individuals of other
castes. Several brothers living together are unable to sup-
port a wife for each, and take one amongst them, who resides
with them all. Tlie children are reckoned to belong to each
38 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
brother in succession, in the order of seniority. Such cases
necessarily lead to jealousies and disputes, and other great
evils ; but they are much more rare now than in former times.
These peculiar usages of the Nairs naturally give to their
females considerable social influence and liberty of choice
and action. It is remarkable that most of the Sudra females
are taught to read and write, though they can be expected to
profit little by their training while no better books than
heathen songs and foolish legends are within their reach.
This class of people cherish a most tenacious attachment
to their native locality and country, and are rarely known to
engage in travel, or to emigrate to other parts of India.
They were once trained to the use of arms ; they carried a
sword and shield, and were noted as warriors, but little of
the martial character is seen in them now-a-days. Able in
the management of business aii'airs, they are crafty, unscru-
pulous, and deceitful. Polite and even respectful when an
object is to be gained, they are often arrogant and oppres-
sive toward their inferiors and to the weak. Hence they are
greatly dreaded and disliked by the various classes beneath
them, whom they treat in this severe and tyrannical manner,
but who now, by British influence and by the progress of
enlightenment and of Christianity, are gradually being freed
from the power and domination of their hard and exacting
taskmasters.
The Ilavars, Shanars, and others, form a third great sub-
division of the population. These constitute the highest
division of the low castes. The Ilavars number 168,860 ; the
Shanars 82,861; and the potters, washermen, barbers, and
mountaineers, who may be classed with them, 69,399; making
in all 321,126.
The Ilavars and Shanars differ but little from one another
in employments and character, and arc, no doubt, identical
in origin. The Shanars are found only in the southern dis-
THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOJIS. 39
tricts of Travancore, between tlie Cape and Trevandruni ;
from which northwards the Ihivars occupy their place.
These are the palm tree cultivators, the toddy drawers, sugar
manufacturers and distillers of Travancore. Their social
position somewhat corresponds to that of small farmers and
agricultural labourers amongst ourselves.
The term Ilavar is derived from Ham, a native name for
Ceylon. The tradition is that they are immigrants from that
island, who came over at the request of some of the early
settlers on the western coast. They are also called Cliogan-
mar or serfs, and in other parts of the Malabar coast Teeyars
and Billavars. Their labours are chiefly bestowed on the
cultivation of the cocoa-nut palm and the manufacture of its
various products. ]\tany own or rent small plots of land, on
Avhich they cultivate a few trees and a small supply of
kitchen vegetables, and some of them are in comfortable
circumstances. They draw the fresh sap from the cocoa-nut
palm, which is used as a drink, either fresh or fermented.
It is also boiled into a coarse sugar, from which they distil
the native spirits called "arrack."
The Sudra custom of a man and woman living together as
husband and wife, with liberty to separate after certain settle-
ments and formalities, has been adopted by most of the
Ilavars, and by a few of the Shanars in their vicinity ; and
amongst these castes also the inheritance usually descends to
nephews by the female line. A few divide their property,
half to the nephews and half to the sons. The rule is that
all property which has been inherited shall fall to nephews ;
but wealth which has been accumulated by the testator him-
self may be equally divided between nejjhews and sons.
Some portion is usually left to the widow as a kind of legacy.
She may, however, have received some property from her
husband during his life, by deed of gift, or may have secretly
accumulated her savings in anticipation of widowhood.
40 " THE LAND OF CHARITY. "
These strange customs have sometimes occasioned consider-
able difficulty to missionaries in dealing with them, in the
case of converts to Christianity. Persons who have been
living together after the observance of the trivial form of
" giving a cloth " are of course required to marry in Christian
form. The necessary inquiries are therefore made into their
history, and into the circumstances of each case of concu-
binage ; deeds of separation, drawn up according to heathen
law, are read and examined, and all outstanding claims are
legally settled. Many an hour have I spent along with my
native teachers in such investigations. The ordinary form of
divorce deed will be seen from the following translation of
one in my possession : —
" This unalterable deed of separation is written and given
by (woman) Valli Miithi, of Pandaratopu, in I^eyyattunkara
District, to (man) Mallan Changili, of Valiavilei, in Ko-
tukkal District, on this 10th day of Veigasi month, M.E. 1034.
" Valli Mathi was married to Mallan Changili, and resided
with him for some time. Afterwards she refused to live Avith
him, and went to her relatives to reside. Shortly after she
was taken as wife by one of her cousins, and cohabited with
him. When the former husband, Mallan Changili, went and
invited her to return she refused ; and on his asking her to
repay him the expenses incurred by him in marrying her, and
to sign a deed of separation, so that he might take another
wife, she consented to do so, on condition that he made an
allowance for her support. Accordingly, the expenditure was
inquired into and settled, and what was due to her was j)aid.
She now signs this deed, saying, ' From this day I give
liberty to Mallan Changili to marry or take as a wife any
woman he chooses, according to caste rule, and she may in-
lierit his property and debts, firewood and ])ots, and all that
belongs to him.
" ' r>ut should eitlier I or my children, contrary to this
THE PEOPLE — THEIR MAXNEPS AND CUSTOMS. 41
agreement, make any claim hereafter on the property of
Mallan Changili, the case, with this document, may be re-
ported to the court, whose decision I shall obey, and again
submit to the above terms.'
"Witnesses, — (Signed) Valli Mathi.
" Mallan Karuman.
" Mattandan Krdi."
The Shanars of South Travancore are of the same class as
those of Tinnevelly, and in both provinces they have in large
numbers embraced the profession of Christianity. Their em-
ployment is the cultivation of the Palmyra palm, which they
climb daily in order to extract the sap from the flower-stem
at the top. This is manufactured into a coarse dark sugar,
which they sell or use for food and other purposes, as de-
scribed at length in Chapter IX.
The general circumstances of the Shanar and Ilavar popu-
lation in Travancore, especially of the former, have long been
most humiliating and degrading. Their social condition is
by no means so deplorable as that of the slave castes, and
has materially improved under the benign influence of Chris-
tianity, concurrently with the general advancement of the
country, but until recently it was very bad. To mark their
degradation, their women were forbidden to wear any clothing
whatever above the waist. They were not allowed to carry
umbrellas, to wear shoes or golden ornaments, to carry pots
of water on the hip, to build houses above one story in .
height, to milk cows, or even to use the ordinary language of^ \
the country. Their services were often demanded to labour I
or carry burdens for the Sudras and the native Government, ;
for which they were often unpaid, or received a mere
nominal sum.
In consequence of long ages of oppression, the Shanars are,
as a class, timid, deceitful, and ignorant. But they are
42 " THE LAND OP CHARITY."
usually faithful in the observance of the marriage hond, and
are somewhat more chaste and truthful, more grateful and
less prejudiced, than many other classes of the Hindus.
Their superstitions, too, though gross and debasing, are less
complex and fascinating to the native mind than those
of the Brahmans, so that they appear to have been pro-
videntially prepared to lend a willing ear to the truths of the
gospel.
The slave castes — the lowest of the low — comprehend the
Pallars (3,736), the Pariahs (41,360), and the Pulayars
(98,766); numbering in aU 143,862.
Of these the Pariahs, a Tamil caste, are found, like the
Shanars, only in the southern districts and in Shencotta, east
of the Ghauts ; but they appear to be in many respects in-
ferior to those of the eastern coast. Indulging a depraved
taste for carrion, they are in the habit of carrying off the
carcasses of bullocks and cows left dead by the road-side and
in the fields, which they regard as their peculiar perquisites.
Their habits generally are most filthy and disgusting, and
they have sometimes been suspected of kidnapping and en-
trapping into their number women of high caste.
The Pulayars, the lowest of the slave castes, reside in
miserable huts on mounds in the centre of the rice swamps,
or on the raised embankments in their vicinity. They are
engaged in agriculture as the servants of the tSudra and other
landowners. Wages are usually paid to them in kind, and
at the lowest possible rates. To eke out their miserable
allowances, therefore, they are accustomed to enter the
grounds of their neighbours at night to steal roots, cocoa-
nuts, and other jiroduce ; and they are but too ready to
commit assault and other crimes, for the commission of which
they may be sufficiently bribed by their masters.
These poor people are steeped in the densest ignorance and
stupidity. Drunkenness, lying, and evil passions prevail
THE PEOPLE THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 43
amongst them, except where of late years the gospel has
heen the means of their reclamation from vice, and of their
social elevation. Tliey differ from the Pariahs, however, in
abstaining from the flesh of all dead animals.
In former times slaves were let or transferred at the
choice of the owner, were offered as presents to friends
or as gifts to temples, and were hought, sold, or mortgaged
in the same manner as the land on which they dwelt or
as the cattle and other property of their owners. The price
of a slave varied from six to nine rupees (twelve to eighteen
shillings). In some parts of the country, however, as
much as eighteen rupees were given. ' Being frequently
engaged in digging and manuring, transplanting the young
rice, repairing the banks, and performing other labours in
the rice-fields, sometimes standing for hours in the water,
they are subject to rheumatism, fevers, cholera, and other
diseases, which carry oif many long before the approach of
old age. The survivors are often left, when past work,
to beg or steal for their support, or to perish with hunger.
Cases of horrid and aggravated cruelty in the treatment of
slaves by their masters, especially of those wlio attempted
to escape to the mountains, were once numerous. In-
deed, one of the usual clauses in the deed of transfer of
slaves was "You may sell him or kill him." Both privi-
leges have now, of course, ceased. One instance of savage
cruelty by a Syrian towards a poor slave who had made his
escape came under the cognizance of the Rev. H. Baker.
This slave, after his convei'sion, went to visit his former
master, carrying with him a few presents to avert his
anger. He was immediately seized and fearfully beaten, then
covered with hot ashes, and confined in the cellar of a
granary. There he lay for three days, groaning and praying
that God would forgive all his sins and his master's too. He
asked for water, and they gave him some filthy compound
44 "tiik land of ciiarity."
from the cattle stall ; at length lie died of liis wounds and
starvation, and they buried his corpse to hide the deed. Some
one told the facts of the case to the Puniattu liajah, who gave
notice to the police, and it cost the owner some 500 rupees
in bribes " to settle the trouble," as the natives call it.
Various measures for the amelioration of the condition of
the slaves, and ultimately for their emancipation, have,
through British and Christian mediation, been adopted by
the native Government. In October, 1853, the Rajah's pro-
clamation set free the future offspring of Government slaves,
and somewhat modified the condition of other slaves ; and
in June, 1855, another proclamation was issued for the
"amelioration of slavery," liberating all Government slaves,
forbidding the courts of justice to enforce claims on any
person as a slave, and providing for their holding property
and obtaining redress for injuries the same as freemen.
Although thus legally emancijiated the condition of the
slave population remains very much as before ; and jierhaps
it is Avell that there should be no sudden or violent convul-
sions of society. They have not the courage and enterprise,
nor perhaps the industry, to avail themselves as a body of
their legal rights. IS^or, indeed, is it possible that they should
rise to any considerable degree of improvement while the
system of caste tyranny and oppression remains in full
force.
Could we depict in true and vivid colours the miseries
and woes of the Pulayars and other slave population of Tra-
vancore, the hearts of our readers would melt with pity and
compassion for their temporal sufferings and spiritual danger.
Mention can only be made of some of the bare facts as to
how the inhuman system of caste affects the poor Pulayan in
his person, his house and family, his business, his religious
worship, and, in short, throughout the whole of his wretched
life.
THE PEOPLE— THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 45
The very name expresses the idea of impurity ; it is
derived from the word '' pida,''' funeral pollution.
With regard to his personal comfort and deportment, the
only dress of the degraded Pulayan is a piece of coarse cloth
fastened round the loins, and a small piece tied around the
head as a head-dress. To women, as well as to men, it was
forbidden, until 1865 (when, through the benevolent inter-
position of the British Government, the restriction was
removed) to wear any clothing whatever above the waist.
Their ornaments must be no more valuable than brass or
beads, umbrellas must not be used to shelter the body from
the scorching heat of the sun, nor shoes to protect the feet
from the thorns and sharp stones of the jungle paths.
The Pulayan has no education, for who would be found
willing to teach, or even to approach, the impure one 1 The
language which he is compelled to use is in the highest
degree abject and degrading. He dare not say " I," but
" rtc?/y/ere," "your slave;" he dare not call his rice ^^ dwru"
but '■'■ Uarilmdi" — dirty gruel. He asks leave, not to take
food, but " to drink Avater." His house is called " mddam"
a hut, and his children he speaks of as " monkeys " or
" calves ; " and when speaking he must place the hand over
the mouth, lest the breath should go forth and pollute the
person whom he is addressing.*
The Pulayan's home is a little shed, which barely affords
shelter from the rain and space to lie down at night, desti-
tute alike of comfort and furnitiu'e. It must be built in a
situation far from the houses of all respectable persons. Let
him dare to attempt the erection of a better house, and it
will immediately be torn doAvn by the infuriated Sudras.
Very rarely has the Pulayan land of his own. It belongs to
the Sudra master, and the poor slave is liable to be expelled
* Compare Job xl. 4.
46 "the land of charity."
from the land wliich he occupies, and from his means of
living, if he claims the freedom to which he is now entitled
by laAV. I have known Sudras even take forcible possession
of waste land which had been cleared and cultivated by
Pulayars.
In the transaction of the ordinary business of life, the
disabilities of the low caste man are such that it is hard to
imagine how human beings could ever have been held in a
condition of subservience to them. But we must remember
the effect of thousands of years of oppression and tyranny.
The Pulayan is not allowed to use the public road when a
Brahman or Sudra walks on it. The poor slave must utter a
warning cry, and hasten off the roadway into the mud on
one hand or the briers on the other, lest the high caste man
should be polluted by his near approach or by his shadow.
The law is (and I was informed by a legal authority that it is
still binding) that a Pulayan must never approach a Brah-
man nearer than ninety-six paces, and he must remain at
about half this distance from a Sudra. I have often seen
the Sudra master shouting from the prescribed distance to
his slaves toiling in the fields. The Pulayan cannot enter a
court of justice, — he must shout from the appointed distance,
and take his chance of being heard and receiving attention.
A policeman is sometimes stationed halfway between the
Pulayan witness or prisoner and the high caste magistrate,
to transmit the cpiestions and answers, tlie distance being too
great for convenient hearing.* As he cannot enter a town
or village, no employment is open to him except tliat of
Avorking in rice-fields, and such kind of labour. He cannot
* Since those remarks were written, orders have been issued by the Govern-
iTient to allow the admission of the low castes to the piibhc courts and a few
of the English schools. No one, however, who understands the force of caste
prejudice in Travancore can imagine that this concession will largely affect
the condition of the low caste population for a long time to come. Nothing
is yet being attempted for the education of tlie slave castes.
THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 47
even act as a porter, for he defiles all that he touches. He
cannot work as a domestic servant, for the house would be
polluted by his entrance ; much less can he (even were he by
some means to succeed in obtaining education or capital)
become a clerk, schoolmaster, or merchant.
Caste affects even his purchases and sales. The Pulayars
manufacture umbrellas and other small articles, place them
on the highway, and retire to the appointed distance, shouting
to passers by Avith reference to the sales. If the Pulayan
wishes to make a purchase, he places his money on a stone
and retires to the appointed distance. Then the merchant
or seller comes, takes up the money, and lays down whatever
quantity of goods he chooses to give for the sum received, —
a most profitable mode of doing business for the merchant,
but alas for the poor purchaser ! It calls to mind that old
historic stone outside the walls of the ancient city of Win-
chester, which was used during the great plague. Upon it
Avere placed letters, money, and articles of barter, to avoid the
personal contact of the healthy with persons affected with the
plague. But the pride and tyranny of caste produces a wider
separation of heart and feeling between man and his brother
man than the most deadly plague or disease. Only Jesus, by
His love and grace, can reunite the hearts of men thus sepa-
rated and draw all to Himself — "Unto Him shall the
gathering of the people be."
Reference might be made further to the rites of religious
ivorship, in which the " common and unclean " Pariahs and
Pulayars are forbidden to unite with the holy Brahman ; and
of times of sickness and distress in Avhich no aid will be
rendered by those best able to assist. Were fifty Pulayars
drowning in a river, the Brahmans and other caste men
would stand aloof and witness their dying struggles with per-
fect indifference, and would never put forth a liand to touch
and to save their wretched and despised fellow-creatures. I
48 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
liave known these poor people robbed, oppressed, beaten, put
in the stocks, and tortured by their Sudra owners. I have
seen a well-to-do Pulayan, who was suspected of desmng to
avail himself of his legal freedom, falsely charged by his
master, his house gutted of his little property, his family left
destitute, and himself exposed to torture and suffering. The
heart sickens at the thought of all that these poor people are
compelled to endure. " So I returned, and considered all the
oppressions that are done under the sun : and behold the
tears of such as were oppressed, and they had no comforter;
and on the side of their oppressors there was power ; but
they had no comforter" (Eccles. iv. 1).
The Hill tribes, numbering 14,348, we have classed with
the low caste population, but perhaps they should be regarded
as outside the whole system of caste, in which it seems
rather difficult to assign to them their exact position. They
are called Kanikarar (heritors), or Maleyarasar (hill kings),
or hill Arrians. Most of them are migratory in their habits,
cultivating, for a year or two, plots of ground cleared from
the forest, and afterwards removing in search of other fertile
lands. They also collect the honey and other spontaneous
products of the forests. They have their fixed villages in
picturesque sites on the slopes of the mountains, or in
ahnost inaccessible ravines.
Some of their houses are good, substantial erections of
wood and stone, but most are mere temporary huts of mud
or bamboo ingeniously interwoven with leaves and grass.
These people are employed in digging the elephant pits, and
helping, with bark ropes, to conduct the animals into the
taming cages. In the IS^orth many of them are comfortable,
or even wealthy in circumstances, and are well formed in
person. Large numbers in the Mundakayam district have
placed themselves under Christian instruction.
The hill tribes in South Travancore are exceedingly
THE PEOPLE— THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 49
wretched, uncivilized, and degraded. The men go almost
naked, having only a few inches of cloth round the loins,
and a small cloth on the head. They are short in stature,
but strongly built. The women wear bracelets of iron or
brass, numerous necklaces of coral or beads, and leaden rings
in the ear. They are much overcharged in the purchase of
these ornaments by the Mohammedan and other dealers, and
are continually in distress through the almost universal pre-
valence of drunkenness. They lack even an ordinary
amount of knowledge, being unable to read or -vrate, or to
count above a dozen ; fibres of various climbing plants are
knotted in a particular way, to express their wants. I have
never met with one who could tell his own age.
Being remarkably addicted to the worship of the hill demons,
they are supposed to have great influence with those evil spirits,
and are therefore often dreaded by the people of the low
country. When spoken to on religious subjects they seem
hardly able to understand the distinction between good and
evil. They say that, should they become Christians, the devils
would kill them and spoil their cultivation by means of the
wild beasts. They fear even to touch a printed book. One
of them said to a native Christian teacher, " Do you come to
destroy us by bringing the wrath of the demons upon us 1 "
A poor woman pleaded on a similar occasion, " I have only
two children, do not kill them by teaching them the Vedam,
(Scripture)."
The INIohammedans, too, endeavour to prevent them from
attending Christian schools by saying, " These people wish
to make you all Christians ; then the demons will desert you,
so that you shall become the prey of wild beasts." This
superstitious fear hinders them from all opportunity of
improvement.
We have thus briefly sketched the Hindu population of
Travancore. By the census of 1854r it amounts to about
E
50 "the land of charity."
one million, but we should add at least a fourth more as the
probable number at present. This one million is composed
of some 60,000 Brahmans, or closely related castes, and
482,000 Sudras and others, so making the high castes rather
more than half of the heathen population. The other half
comprehends about 321,000 Shanars, &c., and 144,000
slaves.
The Christian and Mussulman population of Travancore,
amounting to above a quarter of a million, will form the
subjects of sejiarate chapters.
5]
CHAPTER IV.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS (CONTINUED).
Native Houses — Costume and Ornaments of Men and Women — Food.
Few native houses in Travancore can pretend to anything of
magnificence or splendour in architecture or style. Even
the residences of wealthy families are mean in external
appearance, and insignificant as to size. The best houses
consist rather of a series of small detached buddings, one or
two stories in height, all contained within the walls of the
outer enclosure. The dwellings of the poorest natives are
more wretched and fragile than can well be conceived by
those who have not had the opportunity of inspecting them.
These consist of but four mud walls, with wooden rafters,
and grass or palm-leaf thatch. ISfany huts are constructed
wholly from the leaf and stems of the palmyra or cocoa-
nut palms. A native hut of this kind would easily be
contained within the limits of an ordinary English drawing-
room, yet in such dwellings thousands of families in Travan
core reside.
A painful but accurate picture of the deplorable condition
of the dwellings of the i)oorest class is drawn by the Eev. C.
Yesudian, in describing a visit to a slave village : — " While
going about among them I with great difficulty got into and
inspected an uninhabited hut, which was of the following
description : — It was eight feet square, and was divided into
three apartments. One of the rooms, intended for the
accommodation of friends, was eight feet in length, and oniv
52
THE LAND OF CHARITY.
three in breadth. The height of the top of the roof was not
more tlian nine feet. Eegretting that human beings should
have been reduced to such miserable extremities, I turned
round to get out, but I found it rather difficult to do so for
some time, the door in the front, the only entrance to the
house, being only three feet high, and two and a half broad,
and the eaves of the roof still lower. I had first to stoop
down very low, and then to drag myself carefully out.
(Several huts of this descrij^tion are put together in lines
opposite to each other, having in their midst a narrow street
varying in breadth from six to eight feet. In the middle of
this Avretched jiathway there is a gutter a foot broad, Avhich
is intended to serve as a drain for all sorts of filth. It would
be almost impossible for persons unaccustomed to sucli
habitations to remain and work any number of hours there.
The reason why they make their doors so small is to keep
themselves warm in cold weather, as they have very little
clothing about them. To serve the same purpose the thatch
of the roof is thickly covered over with straw. In fact, they
were not allowed by their masters better clothing and
dwellings, as improvements in these would have made them
unfit for toiling day and night in the rice-fields, river banks,
and threshing-floors, exposed to cold winds, rain, and dew."
The walls of the better class of houses are built of clay
bricks dried in the sun or kiln burnt, or of a hard clayey
material called " laterite," dug in abundance out of the hill-
sides almost everywhere. It is cut into squares like bricks,
and hardens by exposure to the air. " (Jhunam," or lime for
plastering the walls, is procured by burning bivalve shells,
found in abundance on the sea-shore and in the backwaters.
'J'his is very white and beautiful, and when properly applied
and polislunl looks like fine white marble. These houses are
often built two stories in height, with a verandali round the
lower story to protect the walls from sun and rain, and
THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
53
to form an open hall for rest or recreation. The ceilings,
rafters and beams are of teak, jack, or palmyra wood, and the
roof is covered with small tiles of burnt clay.
The above engraving of the Reading-room at Kottav,
recently erected through the indefatigable etforti^ of Ilev.
d. Duthie, will give a correct idea of the style of the better
class of buildings.
Some houses are built wholly of wood, like immense
boxes : in the woodwork of these handsome carvings are
occasionally found. They are placed upon brick foundations,
and with care last for centuries.
The principal dwellingdiouse is divided into several small
rooms. One is used by the females of the family, another is
more public, and another is the strong-room, carefully fitted
54 "the land of charity."
with locks and bars, and upper ceiling, so as to form a seciue
repository for the cloths, jewels, weapons, coins, brass vessels,
and other household valuables. Windows are either wanting,
or are exceedingly small, and fitted with wooden bars or
carved work. The interior is often dark, and ventilation is
wholly disregarded.
Rarely, except in large towns, are native houses built in
.•street rows, or quite up to the line of the roadway. Between
the public road and the dwelling an open space or yard
is left for various uses. Here rice is beaten in the w^ooden
mortar, or spread out to dry in the sun. In one corner of
the yard are sheds for cattle, and receptacles for rice, straw,
cocoa-nuts, &c. Behind or at the side is a small cookhouse,
unless indeed culinary operations are performed against
the outer wall of the house, or even inside one of the
apartments.
A well is often dug inside the courtyard for convenience
of access. In front is the door or gateway, covered with a
small roof-like frame, thatched, to protect the woodwork
from the effects of rain and sun. Here, too, in most houses
there is an open shed, in which visitors are received, and
business of all kinds transacted. In these little sheds we
have often engaged in worship with our Christian people.
In the more respectable native houses there are a great
many separate buildings ; some of them carefully secluded
for the use of the various members of the family and their
wives and children, with store-rooms, cooking-houses, and
often a small domestic temple in one corner of the open
courtyard.
Little furniture is required or used. A bench or two, a
small native " cot" or T)ed-frame, on which a mat is spread,
a brass Limp suspended by a chain, a Avooden mortar for
pounding rice, and a few cooking vessels (the whole costing
but a few shillings), Ibrm the furniture of a small native hut.
THE PEOPLE THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 55
European furniture, however, is coming into use in the
houses of wealthy natives.
The ordinary costume of the people of Travancore is
remarkably simple and j^rimitive. While hard at work,
many men, such as fishers, tree climbers, and others, wear
but the scantiest shred of clothing demanded by common
decency. A miserable covering of green leaves serves to hide
the nakedness of some of the wildest of the mountaineers.
Even the better classes ordinarily wear very light clothing.
" This, you know, is our uniform," said a noble of high rank
whom I visited once, and who received me dressed in a single
piece of cotton cloth fastened round the loins. A Tamil man
from the East is recognised in Travancore by the comparative
abundance of cloths in which he is enveloped. On im-
portant occasions and in public, wealthy natives don a long
coat or jacket of wdiite or printed calico, with trousers some-
what in the European style. This is the usual dress of the
Mohammedans and Christian teachers, and of the native
police and Goverament messengers, or "peons." The latter
wear also an embroidered belt with a brass or silver badge,
having inscribed on it the department of state in which they
are employed. The materials ordinarily used are common
calico, or checked and striped coloured cloths, manufactured
in the country. The better classes occasionally use fine
silks, dyed or printed with brilliant colours.
A turban of white or coloured muslin, tightly and neatly
folded in a great variety of fashions, is the usual head-dress
of the Travancorean. This is very often simplified into a
jjlain piece of white cloth, which may either be thrown over
the shoulders or twisted round the head. The turban forms
an admirable protection for the head from the burning heat
of the sun. Another head-dress is a light cap of cloth
fitting closely to the head, but somewhat conical at the top,
and comin" down low over the ears and back of the head.
56 "the land of charity."
Slaves and other poor people wear rude caps, composed of
the thick, leather-like leaf- sheath of the areca palm tree.
Men of all castes are accustomed at regular intervals to
shave the hair from the head as well as the face, for coolness
and cleanliness. After a " clean shave " of this kind I have
sometimes been at a loss to recognise my most intimate
friends. A small portion of the hair is always left uncut by
heathen natives. This is called the " Jiudmni," and is only
cut off with certain ceremonies on the occasion of the death
of a father.* Most missionaries regard this lock of hair as
essentially a mark of heathenism, and require Christian con-
verts to abandon the custom. The "kudumi" is usually
worn at the hack of the head, but the JS'amburi Brahmans
have it at the front of the head, over the forehead, Avhere it
is tied up in a loose knot. The tradition is, that in former
times Parasu Ramen introduced these Brahmans into Tra-
vancore from the other side of the mountains, lifting them up
by the hair of the head, and hurling them over the moun-
tains. Thus the " kudumi " was dragged from the back to
the front of the head, where it has been worn by members
of this caste ever since.
On the forehead of the Hindu a little dot, or horizontal or
upright lines are drawn with sacred ashes, and renewed every
morning. These are the sectarial marks denoting the par-
ticular deity worshipped. The upright lines are the marks
of Vishnu, the horizontal lines of Siva, and so on. These
signs are repeated on the shoulders and breasts, while a few
who make pretences to special jmrity, rub the sacred ashes
over the whole of the u])per part of the body.
Small golden earrings are often worn by men. A few
have the privilege of wearing large rings of gold in tlieir ears.
Kings are also worn by men upon the fingers. Around the
necks of Brahmans and others specially devoted to religion
* Compare Duut. xiv. I.
THE PEOPLE THEIR MAXNERS AND CUSTOMS. 57
hangs a necklace, or rosary, made of the hard round nuts of
certain trees strung together. These are used for reckoning
the repetitions of the appointed prayers. The heathen use
vain repetitions, " for they think that they shall be heard for
their much speaking " (Matt. vi. 7). In passing a native
house I have often heard the voice of prayer, if the mere
repetition of " Narayana — Xarayanii — Xarayana ! " or of the
name of some other god several hundred times, can he
regarded as prayer in any true sense of the word.
One is reminded by these heathen customs of the singular
resemblance which they bear to some of the rites of the
Eoman Catholic Church. The Eomanists, like the Hindus,
rub the sacred ashes on the forehead, but only once a year —
on Ash Wednesday. They use rosaries, exactly as the Hin-
dus do. They have images in their Avorship, but repudiate
the idea of worshipping the images themselves — so do the
Hindus. Romish priests and monks shave the crown of the
head, leaving a ring of hair on the outside. The Hindus
have the long hair in the centre. IMoreover, in the approval
of celibacy and monachism, penances and pilgrimages — in
the use of sacred lamps, and candles, and processions in wor-
ship — in regard to holy water, and sacred wells, and prayer
in an unknown tongue (Latin in the case of the Romanists,
Sanscrit amongst the Brahmans), and in the flicts that the
recognised Scriptures are forbidden to the laity, and all true
progress prohibited, we see points of startling resemblance or
identity between the superstitions of the East and those of the
West. Human nature is the same in every land.
The mark of Brahmanical dignity is a cord composed of
three treble threads of cotton, worn across the breast, running
over the left shoulder and under the right arm. This cord,
however, or '^pumiJ," is worn also by goldsmiths and several
other castes, and by the males of the Eoyal Family. It is
renewed from time to time as it wears out. The upper part
58 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
of the body and the lower part of the legs are usually bare.
Over one shoulder, or around the neck, a light scarf-like
cloth is often thrown. The principal garment worn by men
is the cloth fastened around the waist and covering the lower
part of the body and the loins. This is a single piece of
cotton cloth, not sewed or pinned, but merely fastened by
having the extremity tucked in at one side.
Wooden or leather sandals and shoes, or rather slippers, of
various patterns, form the protection for the feet. The shoes
are peaked and turned backwards at the toes and " down at
the heel," so as to be easily laid aside when entering a house,
and resumed after the visit is over. Natives, up to the
highest in rank, put off the shoes before receiving visitors or
entering a house, just as Europeans uncover the head; while
on the other hand they retain the turban, or head-dress,
which is always worn according to the rules of Hindu eti-
quette on such occasions. Stockings are never used. Ee-
spectable natives carry an umbrella of palm leaf, or cloth,
but these are forbidden, by ancient custom, to the lowest
castes. They are permitted, however, to wear a kind of
broad umbrella cap of palm leaves. Persons of official rank
enjoy the privilege of having an umbrella of large size carried
by an attendant, and in the case of the Royal Family and
the Prime Minister this is formed of crimson silk.
Fe dale dress in Travancore does not vary like the ever-
changing fashions of European countries. For perhaps two
or three thousand years it has remained unaltered. The
Hindu woman has long, black, luxuriant hair, which she
ties up in a knot at the back, or, in the case of some castes,
at the right side of the head. AVhen fully dressed, rich
golden ornaments and a few handsome flowers are used to
decorate the hair. Might it not be worthy the consideration
of fixshionable ladies at home Avhether it would not be a
hitherto unthought-of novelty, amidst the innumerable
THE TEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
53
fashions of " cliignons " at present, to try the effect of wear-
ing them, not at the back, or npper part of the head, but at
the side, in. imitation of this ancient, yet novel, Malabar
fashion? Strange that none of the leaders of fashion in
Europe have thought of this !
Ear ornaments, worn in a considerable variety of forms,
are indispensable to the completeness of the costume of a
Travancore lady. The views of the ]]rahman women as to
the size of these ornaments are much more moderate than
those of the Sudra and Shanar females. In the case of the
latter the ear of the child is pierced in the usual place, and a
heavy leaden ring, or weight, is then inserted, so as to draw
down and extend the fleshy lobe and greatly to enlarge the
opening. After some time another weight is added, then
WOODEN BAE-CTLINDEB.
another, and another, until, in the course of a year or two,
the ear is drawn down almost to the shoulder ; without this
the apj)earance of the maiden is supposed to be very incom-
plete. The hole is enlarged and kept open by a piece of
CO "the land of charity."
palm leaf rolled up so as to form a light spring, or by a heavy
wooden cylinder, represented of the ordinary size in the
illustration on the preceding page.
Occasionally the ring of flesh breaks under the operation,
or is accidentally torn, and the ends have to be cut afresh
and re-attached, bandaged with a small piece of the wing of
a bat, anointed with oil, and carefully tended till they re-
unite. In the opening of the ear thus unnaturally enlarged,
a circular ornament of gold or other material, of monstrous
size, is worn on marriage and other festive and full dress
occasions.
^'^ose jewels, too, are required by the demands of female
fashion in Travancore. These are sometimes mere studs,
worn on one side of the nose, and fastened Avith a little pin
inside. Or a large gold ring, two inches in diameter, is
passed through the nasal cartilage, and hangs over a consi-
derable portion of the mouth. This must be held up by one
hand, or removed, while partaking of food. These golden
ornaments are considered by the natives to form an admirable
contrast with the dark complexion, and to add greatly to the
beauty and bright expression of the countenance. Necklaces
of gold, silver, brass, or beads are worn by all except widows,
who are compelled to lay aside all ornaments and all coloured
articles of dress. In the case of the poor slave women, the
necklaces of beads, &c., hanging across the breast are so
numerous as almost to amount to an additional article of
clothing.
The " tdli " — marriage badge, or neck ornament — corre-
sponds, to all intents and purposes, to the wedding ring
amongst Euro]ieans. It is composed of one or more small
gold jewels and beads strung on a twisted thread. The " tali "
is tied on the bride's neck by the bridegroom at the time of
the wedding, and is worn as an auspicious ornament. It is
preserved with great care, and never removed except in case
THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANXERS AND CUSTOMS. 61
of widowhood, wlien it is torn off and not again resumed.
In the Christian form of marriage the national custom of
" tying the tali " is allowed and generally followed, though
a few prefer to use the European marriage ring.
As already stated, low caste females in Travancore were
forbidden to wear any clothing whatever above, the waist.
This restriction has recently been removed by law, but a
lengthened period must yet elajise before the poorer classes
excepting those who enjoy the protection and support of the
Christian community, dare to avail themselves largely of this
privilege, on account of the jealousy of the higher castes.
^or, indeed, do all the low castes, as individuals, care greatly
for the use of the privilege, except on special occasions, as it
involves some trifling additional expense and trouble. How-
over, it is now left by the Native Government, as it ought to
be, to the free choice and right feeling of the parties them-
selves. On his first arrival in the country a European must
be greatly shocked by seeing so large a proportion of the
people going about in a state thus nearly approaching to
nudity, and it requires a long time to become familiar with
such a state of things. The dark complexion of the natives,
perhaps, makes this custom seem less unnatural than it
would be amongst Europeans. Christian and Mohammedan
women wear a neat jacket of white or coloured cotton.
The Siidra and other middle class females j^lace a light
cotton cloth loosely across the breast and over one shoulder.
This is called the "upper cloth." But in the presence of the
Royal Family or persons of high rank, or when saluting
such persons passing by, ancient usage actually required tlie
removal of this cloth. Since 1865, however, by the good
feeling and enlightened action of the Maharajah and his
Minister, this degrading custom was discountenanced and
completely abolished by a Proclamation of which the follow-
ing is a translation : —
C2 "the land of charity."
" "Whereas Siidra women, when in the presence of persons
in high office, and when serving in the Temple or Palace,
lower their upper garment as a mark of respect, this ap-
pears to His Highness (the sacred mind) exceedingly im-
modest. We have informed the aforesaid persons that this
offensive custom is henceforth unnecessary. It is our will
that all the native people wear garments in accordance with
propriety, and this we now make known, when women in
temples, in tlie Palace, and other places, shall cover the
upper parts with the cloth, in accordance with this circular,
we hereby order that the officials do not ojipose their doing so."
The Brahman women are, as might be expected, much
superior to others in regard to the proprieties of dress. AVliile
imposing barbarous and often inhuman restrictions upon
others, the Brahmans have taken good care that they them-
selves shall not suffer any diminution of comfort or honour.
The upper part of the dress of a Brahman lady consists of a
smart coloured jacket, fastening in front, and covering the
bosom, and over this in addition the upper cloth is also worn.
The principal gai'ment of all classes of females is a piece of
cloth several yards in length, usually of white calico — some-
times coloured or checked — occasionally of silken materials.
This is tightly wound around the waist and turned in at one
end in a variety of forms, with neat folds, making a kind of
petticoat. The other extremity is used as an "upper cloth,"
or shawl, by being thrown over the shoulder so as to cover
the shoulders and bosom. Considerable ingenuity and taste
are displayed in the mode of enveloping the person in this
cloth, and the whole forms a very graceful and appropriate
female dress.
Sundry ornaments and jewellery, with the names and uses
of which a European gentleman can hardly be expected to
be familiar, are worn by Hindu females in various ranks and
conditions of life. Besides ornaments for tlie hair, nose-
THE PEOPLE — THEIR MA.N.VERS AND CUSTOMS. 63
rings, earrings, and necklaces, there are armlets and bracelets
of various patterns and materials, numerous rings of shell or
metal on the fingers, large hollow rings on the ankles (never
of gold), and rings on the second toe of thp foot. In fact,
when a native girl or woman goes out to walk in full dress,
the " tinkle, tinkle, tinkle," which attends her movements
are a notice that all may see she is dressed " in the tip-top of
tlie fashion." One is reminded of the list of Jewish female
ornaments in the third chapter of Isaiah, the names and
uses of Avhich seem to have perplexed commentators quite as
much as those of the Hindu ladies puzzle present writers on
India.
On no subject are Hindus more vigilant and prejudiced
than on that of food ; this being one of the great tests of
orthodoxy. Caste rules, as we have seen, forbid their par-
taking of food in company with persons of lower caste, or
which has been prepared by such. The profession of a cook,
as well as that of a teacher, is highly honourable in India.
Hence the exercise of extreme caution as to the individuals
with whom they eat, and as to the preparation of food.
After coming into personal contact with a low caste man or
a European, a caste Hindu must bathe and perform other
ceremonies before he dare again eat or drink. Their diffi-
culties in this matter, while on a journey and under other
circumstances, are incessant and annoying ; yet the law of
caste is unyielding, even in the most extreme cases. A
European physician was invited to visit and prescribe for a
Hindu Prince, who was suffering under a severe attack of
illness. The medical gentleman was duly Avarned not to
touch or a})proach the noble patient ; but in his anxiety
about the case he forgot the prohibition, and in the course of
conversation drew his chair nearer and nearer. At last,
rising for a moment, and laying his hand upon the post of
the bed, he requested the patient to show his tongue. A
64 "the land of charity."
groan of sympathetic horror and distress was uttered by the
native attendants, for now their master had become polluted,
and it would be necessary, notwithstanding the suffering and
danger of using cold water, to bathe ere he could again par-
take of nourishment of any kind.
Long voyages are impracticable, because, in accordance
with the laws of caste, food cannot be cooked or eaten on
shipboard, and it is, of course, impossible to land for the
preparation of every meal. I have sometimes seen native
dignitaries at the table of Europeans, by whom they were
invited as an act of courtesy, or giving a dinner at their own
houses to European guests. On these occasions they sit and
converse with their European friends, but dare not partake
of a single particle of food with them, or in their presence.
The Brahmans profess to reject animal food of every kind,
including eggs, but they indemnify themselves, to some
extent, for this self-denial by the use of quantities of milk,
curd, and butter. Siidras partake freely of miitton and
poultry, and even pork, but to all, excejot the most degraded
Hindus, the flesh of the cow is the object of unmitigated
abhorrence. This, no doubt, arose originally from the pecu-
liar utility of these humble and patient creatures for agricul-
tural jjurposes, and the consequent idea of sacredness which
became attached to them. Hence it is that European " beef-
eaters " cannot but be viewed, from a caste point of view,
with the greatest abhorrence.
" Ourry and rice " is one of the ftivourite and characteristic
dishes of the natives of India, and a capital article of food it
is when properly prepared. The rice is well boiled in water.
Curry is a compound of spices — such as mustard, pepper,
turmeric, ginger, coriander seed, tamarinds, onions, cocoa-
nut juice, &c., in varying proportions, according to the flavour
required. The ingredients being ground with a stone roller,
on a flat smooth stone, are boiled and added to the meat,
THE PEOPLE — THEIR MAXXERS AXD CUSTOMS. G5
fish, or vegetable which, is to he "curried." When eating,
the natives sit cross-legged upon the ground. The rice is
ladled out upon a large plantain leaf, and a small quantity
of the savoury curry soup is added. Plates, spoons, and
forks are not used. A small quantity of the rice is taken up
in the right hand, mixed with the curry, made into a little
ball, and deftly thrown into the mouth. For liquids, the
firm hard leaves of the jack tree are puckered up at one side
and fastened with a thorn, so as to form a rude kind of
spoon. These leaves are thrown away after being once used.
Wealthy natives have many different kinds of curries set
before them at each meal.
Vegetables and fruits of all kinds, milk and curds, rice
and flour cakes, are largely used by the natives as food ; of
late coffee also is coming into use. A considerable variety of
sweetmeats are sold in the bazaars. A light meal of " conjee,"
that is, rice with the water in which it is boded, is taken
early in the morning ; curry and rice are ready by noon ;
and at sunset, or later, supper is made of the same dishes
with the usual accompaniments.
In India, men and women never eat together. After the
males of the family have finished their repast, the women,
who have meanwhile been attending upon them, retire apart
to their own quiet meals.
66
CHAPTEE V.
THE NATIVE GOVERNMENT.
Eelation to the British Government — Legislation — The Maharajah — His
Titles — Court and Levees — The DewSn — Revenue and Expenditure —
Law Courts — Crime and Criminals.
Travancore, though nominally an independent state, under
the rule of its own native sovereign, is in reality, as we have
shown, tributary to the British Government, and under its
control and protection. All important measures of legis-
lation and finance, the appointment of the higher officials,
and even the succession to the musnud, or throne, must be
submitted to tlie British Eesident for his opinion and sanc-
tion before being carried into operation. Sentences of capital
punishment, too, must have the concurrence of the Eesident
before being executed. Without some such external restraint
and stimulus, the country, with its rigid Hindu conservatism
and barbarous caste laws, could never have improved as it
has done for the last ten or twelve years, so as to be now,
except in the matter of the low -caste population, who are
treated as quite out of the pale of human society and laws,
confessedly one of the best governed native states in India. In
many instances it has been only after considerable moral
pressure, both from public opinion and from the British
representatives, that the native Government have yielded to
accept the reforms urged uj)on tliem.
Notwithstanding all that has been accomplished, however,
\^cry much yet remains to be effected in the improvement of
THE NATIVE GOVERNMENT. 67
legislation, and the extension of freedom to all classes of the
population. Large and liberal measures are still imperatively
required for the henefit of the oppressed and down-trodden
low castes. These are not, it should be remembered, in
every instance, necessarily poor or destitute of capacity and
moral character, in proportion to their position in the arbitrary
scale of caste. The masses of the low-caste population have
been as yet but slightly touched by the partial reforms of
the Travancore Government. They ought, for instance, to
have a fair share in the scheme of Government education,
from which they are at present excluded solely on account of
caste. Children of low caste are refused admittance into
nearly all the Government English and vernacular schools ;
yet these contribute their fair quota to the public funds,
which are wasted on Brahmanical rites, or expended almost
exclusively on the education of the higher castes. Although
permission to cover the upper part of the person has been
given to the lower castes, they are still by law restricted to
the use of coarse cloths, to the manifest detriment of the
national commerce and manufactures. Any advance, too, in
the use of richer ornaments, palankeens, and other luuxuries,
on the part of wealthy members of these castes, is strictly
prohibited. The public roads, also, ought to be opened freely
to all classes, and admission to all the courts conceded to
even the lowest and most despised of the population.*
Moreover, the flourishing, peaceful, and loyal native Pro-
testant Christian community claims recognition by the
Government as a body with a status of its own, like the
Mohammedans, Syrian Christians, and Jews. IN^ative Pro-
testant Christians should be specified in the census, and
admitted to the police, the civil service, and any other
employments and offices in the state for which they may
* See Note on p. 46.
68 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
prove themselves to possess the requisite qualifications. In
short, the half a million low-caste people, constituting no less
than one-third of the whole population, should be educated,
enfranchised, invested with the rights of citizenship, and
admitted to the enjoyment of the natural and indefeasible
rights and liberties which belong to every member of tlie
great human family.
The official titles of the MahaRxUah of Travancore are
sufficiently numerous and imposing. The title in full is as
follows : — " His Higlmess Sree Patmanabha Dausa Vunchee
Eaula Eama Vurmah Koolasekhara Kireetapati Munnay
Sultan Mahiiraj Riljah Eamarajah Bahadur Shamsheer Jung,
Knight Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the
Star of India, Maharajah of Travancore."
"Maha" is the Sanscrit term for "great" or "mighty," as
" rajah " means " king." The title " Maharajah" had long been
used by native subjects, but it was only in 1866 that the
British Government resolved that in recognition of the
liajah's excellent administration of the state he should in
future be addressed in all communications as " Maharajah."
In the same year the order of the Star of India was
conferred on his Highness as a mark of her Majesty's
royal favour. The letter announcing the nomination as
Knight Grand Commander was formally received at a grg,nd
"durbar," or levee, in Trevandrum, and the insignia were
presented to his Highness by Lord Napier, Governor of
Madras, in that city.
The personal name of the j)resent [Maharajah is " Eama
Vurmah," the names of two Hindu deities. " Shamsheer
Jung" means "Chief in War." The remaining titles mostly
refer to the names of Hindu gods, or are indicative of regal
authority and dignity.
Durbars or levees are held by the INIaharajah on state
occasions, — such as the installation of the sovereign, mar-
THE NATIVE GOVERXMEXT. G9
riages in the royal family, visits of the Governor of INIadras,
or the reception of state letters and documents. A brief
description of the first durbar vi'hich the writer attended
may interest our readers. This took place on the 2nd of
May, 1860. The occasion was the reception of an autograph
letter and handsome present from her Majesty the Queen to
the late Eajah. Invitations had been issued by the Eesident,
on behalf of the liajah, to most of the Europeans resident m
the country, so that the unusually large number of thirty or
forty Avere present at the durbar. The native houses in the
town were decorated with bright-coloured flowers and plan-
tain trees in fruit, and festoons of flowers and the green
leaves of the palm tree cut and plaited into a variety of
ornamental shapes, were strung across from house to house.
At three o'clock we drove to the palace, and entered a mag-
nificent pavilion which had been erected for the occasion.
This was prettily adorned with garlands, hangings, mirrors
and ornamental work, and supplied with showy European
furniture. At the head of the room stood an ivory throne,
with a shield and bow at the sides ; above it was a glittering
canopy supported by four silver pillars. In this hall the
guests were already assembling, and a crowd of native officials
stood around. The Dewan, a pleasant-looking man, short in
stature, Avith a very intelligent countenance, fair complexion,
and bright expressive eyes, dressed in white robes with gold
spangles, and a Avhite turban, engaged in polite conversation
with the visitors.
Shortly afterwards, the Eajah, a rather stout and fine-
looking man, entered the room, accompanied by the Princes,
his nephews. He Avore a robe of green satin, and a white
turban, garnished Avith emeralds and a drooping plume of
feathers, with two large pendent pearls. After bowing to
the company, his Highness passed on to Adew his little
army draAvn up Avith military dis].)lay in front of the palace,
70 "the land of oiiaritt."
where also were the gigantic state elephants gorgeously
caparisoned Avith howdahs and trappings of silver, ivory,
and velvet, and an immense crowd of native spectators. On
his appearance the troops presented arms, and the "band
struck uj) the national anthem.
At half-past three the British Resident arrived in pro-
cession, with his escort of British sepoys, and was saluted by
the native troops. He was met and received at the door of
the Durbar Hall by the First Prince, and a little farther on
by the Eajah himself. Here he presented the Queen's letter
to his Highness, who received and opened it, and taking
the Resident's arm, proceeded wp the hall to the throne.
The Europeans, at the same time, took their seats in their
order of precedence, on chairs ranged on either side of the
room. There were present, besides the British Resident and
Mrs. Maltby, Colonel Stevenson, who was charged with the
safe delivery of the Royal letter, the commanding officers of
the Nair Brigade and the residency escort, other military
officers, judges, medical gentlemen, engineers, merchants, and
missionaries, with their respective wives. The native offi-
cials stood behind as spectators.
The letter from the Queen acknowledged the present of an
ivory throne, beautifully carved, which had been forwarded
to the Great Exhibition of 1851, and was afterwards given
by the Rajah to her Majesty. (It is now in one of the
apartments of "Windsor Castle.) The Queen sent, in return,
a handsome ornamental belt, with rich gold embroidery and
buckle, set with precious stones and containing a watch with
the initials of the Queen and the Rajah, set with diamonds in
blue enamel, on the opposite sides. The Resident then pre-
sented the case containing the belt to his Highness, who
placed it for a moment on his head as a mark of great respect.
Tli<? belt was put on the Rajali l)y the Resident, and his
lliglmess in a short speech expressed liis great gratification
THE NATIVE GOVERXMEXT. 71
■witli the present, declaring that he regarded himself as the
most fortunate prince in India, on account of it.
Three cheers for the Queen were then given, amid the
deafening roar of a royal salute from the artillery and volleys
of musketry. After a short time spent in formal conversa-
tion — the Eajah, addressing the Dewan, who repeated his
remarks to the Resident, and carried back his answers in
return — the durhar closed.
Before leaving, garlands of jessamine, fragrant leaves and
tinsel ornaments were placed, according to Hindu custom,
by the Eajah round the neck and on the wrists of the Resi-
dent and his lady. The Princes did the same for the re-
mainder of the guests, each saldmmg and shaking hands
with their Highnesses at the door of the palace.
The Dewan, or Prime Minister, is at the head of the
Avhole administration of the State, and responsible only to the
Maharajah, and indirectly to the British Government. The
present Dewan, Sir Madava Row, Knight Commander of the
Order of the Star of India, is a jNIahratta Brahman of great
talents and probity. Having enjoyed the benefit of a liberal
education at the Madras University, he became English
tutor to the present Maharajah and his brother. He after-
wards received the appointment of Peishcar, and in 1858
became Dewan. It seems providential that his eminent
talents, firmness, and political sagacity have for so long a
time been devoted to the interests of Travancore. He has
had a large share in the improvements which have taken
place — in the removal of several long-established evils, the
amendment of the laws and administration of justice, and in
the establishment of valuable educational and benevolent
institutions. His own example and personal influence in
favour of popular education have also produced most bene-
ficial results.
The country is divided, for purposes of government, into
72 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
four " divisions," or provinces, each in charge of a " Dewan
Peishcar," or provincial governor, and these are suhdivided
into thirty-two " districts," or counties, with a " Tahsildar,"
or magistrate, at the head of each. There are also numerous
minor subdivisions under the charge of inferior officers.
The annual revenue of the Travancore State amounts on an
average to about forty-five lacs of rupees, or £450,000 ster-
ling. For the last two years it has exceeded 50 lacs. Of
this sum, above one-third, £165,000, or more, is raised by
taxes on land, rice-fields, gardens, and productive trees —
such as palms, jack trees, and coffee. Customs duties on
imports and exports, by land and sea — especially the exports
of cocoa-nut produce, tamarinds, and cofi"ee, yield say
£35,000. The import duty on tobacco brings about £80,000,
and that on salt £85,000, besides which there are taxes on
arrack and opium, pepper, cardamoms, timber, &c.
The usual annual expenditure includes about £56,000
(somewhat less during the past two years) for the maintenance
of Hindu temples ; £30,000, or more, for the Free Inns for
Brahmans ; and occasionally large sums in addition for ex-
traordinary religious ceremonies, such as the sexennial Mura-
jabam, which costs £16,000, the " Tulabharam " ceremony
£16,000, and others of a similar character. The Maharajah's
personal expenditure is within £50,000 per annum. Pubhc
works, to the extent of between £50,000 and £60,000, are
annually undertaken. The Nair troops, about 1,400 in
number, with European officers, maintained for purposes of
State and the preservation of internal peace, cost £15,000
a year. The annual subsidy paid to the British Government
is fixed at about £81,000. The remainder of the income
is expended on the civil, judicial, and police establishments,
with some £30,000, or more, paid for various goods, as salt,
tobacco, timljer, &c., of whicli the Government retains the
monopoly, or which it purchases and sells at considerable profit.
THE NATIVE GOVERXMEXT. 73
It will he seen that the taxes in Travancore amount to
about three rupees, or six shillings, per head, a sum somewhat
higher than the average taxation in British India.
The High Court, in which there are four judges, sits at
Trevandrum, and receives appeals in both civil and cruninal
cases. One of the judges is always a Christian, as so large a
proportion of the people are Christians of various sects.
Subordinate to this court are the District Civil and Criminal
Courts, each held at some central town in one of the principal
divisions. Each coui't has two judges, of whom one is a
Christian. There are in addition small cause courts, besides
the various police courts at the head-quarters of each Tah-
sildar. Appeals may be made ultimately from all these
tribunals to the royal justice and supremacy of his Higimess
the Maharajah.
Litigation is common amongst all classes. This arises
from many causes, such as the minute subdivision of lands
and the intricate tenures on which they are held, the peculiar
laws of succession and inheritance, family partnerships and
2)articipation in common property, caste regulations, jea-
lousies and oppressions, religious disputes, the injustice and
partiality of inferior Government officials, assaults, forgeries
and fraud, larcenies, and so forth. There are few natives
who have not had, at some time or other, dealings with the
law, and I have often marvelled at the pertinacity and dogged
determination evinced by them in disputes which involved
apparently very insignificant interests.
Crime is not at present particularly rife in Travancore.
There is no organized crime, nor are there professional cri-
minals. The commonest offences are those against the person
and against property, and disputes regarding the possession
of land, with cases of smuggling, forgery, perjury, &c.
In 18G9, 512 persons, of whom a few were females, were
charged with the graver offences. Yet this is not an unfa-
74 "the land of charity."
vourable average in a population of a million and a half.
'I'here were 24 charges tried of culpable homicide, involving
62 persons, which (with the average of previous years) is a
much larger proportion than in .England. Of these, 3 were
sentenced to capital punishment. The attempts at suicide
were 16 ; and the actual deaths by suicide, so far as ascer-
tained, were 52. The number of accidental deaths was 200.
The favourite mode of committing suicide is by hanging
from a tree or drowning in a well. Natives frequently
threaten this if thwarted or denied their requests, and the
mere threat is often effectual for their purpose. It is some-
times actually carried out in revenge for some injury, real or
imagined. The offended party kills himself on the premises
of his adversary, under the erroneous imjiression that he will
be held resjDonsible for the occurrence. Indeed, in old times
it generally did require the expenditure of large sums of
money in bribing the police, who were ever ready to take
advantage of the terror and misgivings of the party impli-
cated, and of the uncertainty often necessarily arising as to
whether the case was one of suicide or of murder.
There are generally 500 or 600 convicts in the several
prisons, of whom above 400 are in the principal gaol at Tre-
vandrum. Of the whole number, about 60 are under con-
finement for life. Most of the convicts are sentenced to
hard labour, and go out daily under the charge of guards to
work in gangs on the roads. Bound the ankles of the male
prisoners heavy iron rings are fastened, and these are united
by cross bars which admit of their walking, but not with
ease. Very rarely is solitary confinement resorted to. 1'he
prison at Trevandrum consists of a long, two-storied build-
ing, running round the sides of a square yard or open space
with a noble banyan tree in the centre, under the shade of
which stands a small temple for the use of the heathen
prisoners. The ground-floor is supported by pillars, and is
THE NATIVE GOVERNMEXT. 75
open towards the yard all round. The men sleep on mats on
the floor, with a small wooden or stuffed pillow for the head.
They are groujjed according to their respective castes. In
one corner may he seen a number of comfortable-looking
Brahmans, some of whom are wealthy men, convicted of
forgery and other crimes. These are allowed the privilege of
going outside the prison to the Free Inn for meals, to avoid
pollution by their fellow-prisoners of low caste. Next come
Sudras and artisans. Another part of the long arcade is
occupied by Mohammedans, who are often troublesome and
unmanageable. ISText, in a corner, you come to the Eoman
Catholics, with their little altar built into the wall, sur-
mounted by a cross and a common coloured print of the
Virgin Mary. These appear to be quiet people, and are
often observed perusing devotional books. iN'ext are the
Protestant Christian prisoners, generally from fifteen to
twenty in number, who have been more or less closely asso-
ciated with the London Mission or the Church Mission, or
have professed to receive Christianity in the prison itself.
All the Christians have a holiday out of the prison on Christ-
mas day and Easter Sunday. Our Sunday services are held
in this part of the prison, so that any who wish may come
over and hear ; and this many are in the habit of doing.
Further on are Pulayars and other very low castes. JS'one
of the regular European systems of discipline are carried
out in these prisons.
For several years past the Government have very liberally
granted us admission to the gaols at Trevandrum and Quilon
for the purpose of instructing the Christian prisoners ; these
are rarely, it should be observed, baptized and recognised con-
verts, but mere occasional attendants at our places of worship.
Our efforts and instructions have incidentally, we believe, been
the means also of much good to other classes of prisoners.
76
CHAPTEE YI.
NATURAL HISTORY.
Elephants and Tigers — Deer — Monkeys — Jackals — Mungoose — Flying
Fox — Sacred Kite — Weaver and Tailor Birds — Crows — Peacocks —
Singing Birds— Crocodiles — Snakes — Serpent- worship — Fish — Sharks
— Insects — White Ants — Conch Shell.
The natural history of Travancore is of the most compre-
hensive and instructive character. Air, earth, and water
alike teem with animal and vegetable life. A few cursory
remarks, therefore, on the most common animals, plants, and
minerals will gratify many readers.
Throughout the dense and yet only partially explored
forests of the valleys and table-lands of the Western Ghattts,
wild beasts still abound. Many elephants are annually
captured or destroyed ; yet they still remain numerous, and
are often dangerous to the life and property of the inhabit-
ants of the mountain slopes. It may easily be imagined
what would be the condition of a held of growing rice after
having been trodden over by half a dozen of these gigantic
creatures with their broad round feet. The hill people,
therefore, are compelled to place watchmen at night in the
tops of trees to frighten oft' these formidable visitors with
cries and hideous noises. Indeed, in those parts where
elephants and tigers most abound, the mountaineers are
obliged to erect little huts in the tops of the trees, for refuge
and secm-ity. I have seen a house erected by the labourers
at a coftee plantation which the Avild elephants had
NATURAL HISTORY. 77
actually walked right through one night, treading down th(?
house as a stout boy might trample over the plants in a
cabbage-garden. The poor men sleeping inside were glad to
escape with their lives. To avoid similar rencounters, the
hill people select a large tree with spreading branches.
Light beams are lashed across from one branch to another, so
as to form a rude platform, and upon this foundation a
hut of bamboo or other light materials is built as a watch-
house by day and sleeping-room by night. The ascent is
by a long stout bamboo, with the side branches cut off to
within a foot of the stem, thus forming a kind of rude
ladder.
Solitary or " rogxie " elephants are occasionally met wan-
dering about alone in the forests. These are always danger-
ous. JSTot long since, four of the Nagercoil Christians were
descending the mountains from a coffee plantation in which
they had been employed, when one of these " rogue " ele-
phants rushed upon them. They ran, and did not venture
to look back till they had gone a long distance. Then it was
discovered that one of their party was missing. Hastening
to the nearest chapel, they called some of the Christians to
accompany them in search of the body of their comrade, and
found it crushed and mangled by the savage brute. This
animal killed altogether seven or eight persons.
Wild elephants are caught in large pits dug in the paths
which they frequent, and concealed with a slight covering of
twigs, earth, and grass. They are afterwards trained for six
or twelve months, and accustomed by degrees to work and to
enjoy a measure of liberty. The stud of elephants employed
by the Travancore Government in dragging timber in the
forests, labouring at public works, and otherwise, numifeers
about 120. Every year some are entrapped, and about 1,000
pounds of ivory collected. I have seen a single large tusk
which weighed nearly 80 pounds.
78 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
Tigers and leopards, or clieetahs, are also common and often
dangerous. Eewards are paid by the Government for their
destruction. During 18G9 the skins of 23 royal tigers and
112 cheetahs, killed by natives, were brought to the Dewan's
office for the reward. Their depredations had been on the
increase. Poor people are sometimes seized, carried off, and
devoured by the tigers. An instance of the boldness and
audacity of these beasts was related to me by the gentleman
to whom it happened. He had a little house near his estate
in the mountains, with a back room in which a milch cow
was secured at night. One evening Avhile sitting reading he
heard a scuffling noise in the back room, and stej^ped into it
to discover the cause. The cow was gone. A tiger had
actually been bold enough to enter and carry it off. Next
day he found the remains partly devoured, and watched
the whole of the succeeding night in a tree to have a shot at
the depredator ; but the night was so dark that this proved
impracticable.
The flesh of the tiger is supposed by the natives to
possess medicinal properties, and its claws strung round
the neck of a child are relied on to preserve it from the
evil eye.
Black cheetahs are occasionally caught. Several of these
are exhibited in the zoological collection at Trevandrum,
where the female lately produced four cubs. These are pro-
bably a mere variety ratlier than a dilferent species, as the
spots can easily be seen through the dark hair when the light
shines strongly on the skin.
Several species of deer are found in these mountains. The
smallest is a beautiful creature about the size of a hare, and
most graceful in its form and movements. Another species is
the spotted deer, about the size of a calf; and a third,
the sambhur, dark brown in colour, is as large as an ordi-
nary ox. There are also antelopes, and the wild goat or ibex.
NATURAL HISTORY. 79
The wild oxen, found only in the more retired parts of the
forests, are enormous animals, fully as large as the- finest prize
cattle in England. The hulls measure sometimes over six
feet in height at the shoulder, and are possessed of immense
muscular power.
Long-tailed monkeys gamhol in the most amusmg style in
the lofty forest trees. The Hanuman, or sacred monkey, is
ahout three feet in height, and quite black. They are gene-
rally vicious and intractable in a state of captivity. The
Ilamayana relates that Hanumat, a monkey chieftain, aided
the hero and demigod, Rama, in the search for his Avife, Sita,
Avho had been seized and carried ofi" to Ceylon by Eavana,
King of the Giants. Visiting the city of Eavana as a spy,
Hanumat is detected and punished by having his tail oiled
and set on fire, which appendage monkeys hold in great
esteem. It was in extinguishing this fire, they say, that his
face became blackened, and his posterity have been black
ever since.
An isolated hill not far from Nagercoil is said to have been
brought from a distance of several hundred miles, and thrown
down in its present situation hj Hanuman. He was sent to
the mountain to search for medicinal plants, but was unable
to find them. Still, he knew that they were somewhere in
the mountain, and to prevent disappointment he resolved to
bring it entire, and get others to investigate the plants. He
took it up and carried it through the air, but in putting it down
he set it upside down, in which condition the people say it
now is.
The following amusing story of one of these monkeys is
told by Eev. J. Duthie : —
" One day a gentleman succeeded in catching one of these
animals, which turned out to be of a very vicious disposition,
and it was resolved to send him to a neighbour who had ex-
pressed a wish to have him. A strong basket was procured,
80 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
into wliicli, after no inconsiderable trouble and manoeuvring,
he was safely lodged. Jacko was furious ; but the coolie
Avho had been engaged to carry the load set off with it on his
head, without any fear or misgivings, for the basket was
strong and the lid carefully fastened down. He had not
gone far, however, when, to our surprise, we heard screams
proceeding from the direction in which Jacko had just been
conveyed, and upon going out to see what the matter could
be, we found the entire juvenile community of the station
hailing towards the scene of the disaster, where stood the
poor unfortunate coolie, screaming and gesticulating in a
most piteous way. The people of India shave off all the hair
of the head except a tuft on the crown, which on the pre-
sent occasion proved to be very inconvenient, for Jacko,
having torn open the bottom of the basket, seized hold of
this tuft on the head of the coolie, to Avhich he held on with
relentless grasp. The more the poor man exerted himself to
get rid of his basket, the more forcibly Jacko held on, till
the friendly interference of the boys who had gathered to
the spot succeeded, amid much merriment, in delivering the
coolie from his perilous and ridiculous position."*
Another species is the small grey monkey, common through-
out India. There is also a very pretty animal, called the
wanderoo, or lion monkey. The body is covered with short
black hair, and a long white beard or mane surrounding the
face gives it a very odd appearance. The last two species are
often tamed and kept as pets for children.
Other animals occasionally met with are hyenas, bears,
sloths, wolves, and flying squirrels. The pangolin is a kind of
armadillo, three or four feet long, which digs holes in the earth
with its powerful claws with marvellous facility. Wild hogs are
very mischievous to the cultivations near the foot of the hills.
* Juvenile 3Iissionary Magazine, April, 1870.
NATURAL HISTORY. 81
The larger mammalia fortunately do not often descend into
the low country. Here the greatest annoyances are jackals,
with their diabolic howlings, which one can hardly dis-
tinguish at first from the cries of a woman in anguish or
of children being murdered. These animals lurk in quiet re-
tirement through the day, but come forth in tlie evening, and
hunt about in packs all night in search of prey. The por-
cupine, or " spiny pig," as it is called, is very destructive to
esculent roots, which it digs up and devours. Hares are not
uncommon.
The mungoose, somewhat like a weasel, but larger, is very
valuable as a foe to the cobra and other venomous serpents.
Being wonderfully agile, it worries and torments the snake
till it twists itself up in a coil; it then springs upon it,
and seizing it by the neck soon despatches it. These nimble
creatures are rarely bitten, but even then, strange to say, the
venom appears to produce no effect. It was formerly sup-
posed that there is a j^Iant (Ophiorrhiza mungos) to which
the mungoose resorted as an antidote to the poison; but
recent experiments seem to demonstrate that the venom
of serpents does not poison the blood of the mungoose as it
does that of all other animals. If so it is a striking provi-
vision of Providence for reducing the numbers of these rep-
tiles. The mungoose is easily tamed, and makes itself very
useful about a dwelling-house in the destruction of snakes
and vermin.
The flying fox is the largest of the numerous species of
bats, measuring upwards of four feet in expanse of wing, the
body being as large as that of a chicken. On the Avide-
spreading banyan trees, near temples, these creatures may be
seen in multitudes hanging by one leg, with the head down-
wards and the wings wrapped round the body, looking very
like black bottles hung in rows upon the branches. Here
they sleep all day long. Towards evening they awake and
G
82 "the land of charity."
Hy a"brocad in search of fruits and otlier food. They are
destructive to the ripening fruit in orchards and gardens.
The flesh is said to be good eating.
Birds of brilliant plumage, graceful form, and sometimes
pleasant song, abound in the forests, jungles, and cultivated
lands of Travancore. The Brahminy kite, a very handsome
bird with brown and white plumage, is regarded as the
vehicle of Vishnu, to Avhom it is therefore sacred. Oh
Saturday afternoons crowds may be seen assembled and
looking up towards the sky ; they fast and continue gazing
upward till sunset. If the sacred kite appears, it is wor-
shipped ; if not, the unlucky gazers return home in great
heaviness of heart.
Amongst other birds may be mentioned the tall adjutant,
or marabou stork, some of the feathers of which are highly
prized ; the curious hornbills (sometimes incorrectly called
toucans) ; herons and cranes in the marshes and backwaters,
which are supposed to be very lucky to the beholder ; owls,
whose hoarse hoot is supposed to presage pestilence or mis-
fortune ; the woodpecker, constantly tap-tapping the trunks
of trees in search of insects; the magnificent golden oriole,
and the brilliant bhie jay ; splendid kingfishers, sitting
patiently and silently on an overhanging branch, then darting
down like an arrow into the water to seize the fish on which
they prey ; ringed parrakeets, in large flocks, harshly screaming
as they fly ; sunbirds, little larger than luunming-birds,
flitting gaily from flower to flower; with the rarer wild goose
and duck, the quail, grouse and partridge, the cuckoo, dove,
and hundreds of other species.
The mynah, which may be regarded as a kind of starling,
is often taken young, caged, and trained to utter a few words.
The jungle fowl, a small bird with brilliant plumage, but
singularly shy in its habits, is perhaps the original of the
common domestic fowl. The weaver bh"d, one of the family
NATURAL HISTORY. 83
of finches, builds a long pendent tottle-sliaped nest, ■vvliicli
hangs from the end of a branch, and is entered from beneath,
quite out of the reach of monkeys and serpents. The tailor-
bird, a little warbler, actually stitches leaves together with
cotton, which it gathers for the purpose, to form its nest in
the cavity ; I have sometimes found these in garden shrubs
quite close to the window of my study. Crows abound
everywhere : their impudence and thievery are astounding ; I
have known them carry off the wick and smaller portions of
a brass lamp while it was being cleaned at the back of the
bungalow.
One of the finest sights that can be enjoyed is that of
a flock of j)eacocks flying about in the jungles. There is a
curious fact connected with the name of this bird which
throws some light upon Scripture history. King Solomon
(1 Kings X. 22) sent his navy to Tarshish, which returned
once in three years, biinging " gold and silver, ivory, and
apes, and peacocks." IsTovv the word used in the Hebrew
Bible for peacock is " tukJii," and as the Jews had, of course,
no word for these fine birds till they were first imported into
Judea by King Solomon, there is no doubt that " tukki " is
simply the old Tamil word " tokei," the name of the peacock.
This is therefore the first word of the Tamil language that
ever was put in Avriting. The ape or monkey also is, in
Hebrew, called " Jio^^Jc," the Indian word for which is
" kapi." Ivory, we have seen, is abundant in South India,
and gold is widely distributed in the rivers of the Western
coast. Hence the " Tarshish " referred to was doubtless the
Western coast of India, and Solomon's ships were the first
" East Indiamen." Erom a very early period there has been
maritime intercourse between the West coast and Arabia, and
this was the first part of India reached in more recent times
by European explorers, attracted by the valuable products of
the East. A learned missionary, Dr. Caldwell, even con-
84 "the land of charity."
jectures that certain huge old specimens of the baobah tree
(which is not indigenous to India, but belongs properly
to Africa), found only at several ancient sites of foreign
commerce, may, for aught we can tell, have been intro-
duced into India, or planted, by the servants of King
Solomon.*
It is often supposed in England that the birds of India do
not sing, and are remarkable only for their fine plumage.
Eut this is an error. The bulbul is a lively and agree-
able warbler, as are other birds of the thrush family. A
species of shrike sings most charmingly, and the Indian
nightingale is exceeded only by the European species. The
white-headed mynah, Indian robin, stonechat, and a species
of flycatcher, are sweet songsters. The notes of the jungle
mynah are very varied and pleasing. A species of lark
which is frequently kept in a darkened cage, sings very
sweetly, and learns to imitate exactly the notes of other
birds and even animals. There are also several mimicking
birds, and many others which utter strange or curious sounds
or cries.
The largest and most formidable of the reptiles of Travan-
core are crocodiles, which may often be seen lying sunnhig
themselves on the grassy banks of the rivers and backwaters,
or swimming in the water with only the upper portion of tlie
head visible, or lying in a hole in the bank of the river with
the head protruded and the mouth wide agape, ready to snap
vipon any living thing which may come within reach.
There are two species of crocodiles, the smaller and more
common, generally six or seven feet in length, and not
ordinarily dangerous to human life ; the larger reaching the
length of eighteen or twenty feet. The latter are more
dangerous ; still, one does not often hear of lives being lost
by them in this part of India.
* "Comparative Grammar of the DraviJian Languages," p. 66.
NATURAL HISTORY. So
A curious story is told of a crocodile which attempted to
seize a cow that was grazing near its haunts fastened to
a stake by a long rope. The monster had nearly reached the
wooden post before it was perceived by its intended victim.
On discovering its danger the terrified cow rushed round and
round, and the rope caught the crocodile in such a manner
as to wind around its body and the post, so that it was held
firmly until seen and despatched by the owner of the cow.
In former times, when trial by ordeal was practised, one
mode was to require the accused party to swim through
a river infested by voracious crocodiles ; if he succeeded
in crossing in safety he was acquitted. Some of the people
do not object to eat the flesh of these rejDtiles.
The guana, a large lizard three or four feet in length, is
not rare, and its flesh is considered excellent for food. Cha-
meleons and many other lizards, tortoises, and turtles, are
also found in their respective habitats.
But the most noxious of all the reptiles, and indeed one of
the most incessant discomforts and ubiquitous perils of life
in India, are the snakes and serpents of every kind, including
the enormous boas, or rock snakes, which, infest the moun-
tains, measuring up to seventeen feet or more in length, the
deadly venomous cobras, the beautiful bright-coloured and
striped sea-serpents, and all the varieties of lesser snakes.
Of course, all the species are not venomous, and perhaps
those whose bite is speedily fatal form, in reality, but a
small proportion of the whole. The boas, or pythons, destroy
their prey by winding themselves around their bodies and
crushing them. Others are perfectly innocuous, such as the
pretty green tree snakes, with Avhicli children sometimes play,
and which the natives suppose to be a good cure for head-
ache when killed and tied around the head and over the
forehead. But there is a sufficient number of cobras and
vipers to cause great danger to the poor people who are
86 "the laxd of charity."
compelled to walk abroad after dark, and in unfrequented
places. When accidentally trodden upon they instinctively
turn and hite, in self-defence as it were. Many deaths
consequently occur. In 1862, in Bengal alone 2,394 persons
]net their deaths from snake bites. At this rate, it may be
estimated that throughout the whole of India not less than
10,000 persons annually die from this cause, in addition to an
equal number destroyed by wild beasts.
The Bengal Government spent at that time .£2,000 annu-
ally in rewards, at the rate of sixpence for each snake killed.
Yet, though multitudes of these reptiles are destroyed every year,
they increase so rapidly in uncultivated lands, of which there
is a large proportion everywhere, and are so lithe and slender,
that they still find their way into villages and towns, and are
frequently found in the vicinity of houses, so that it would
be difficult, not to say impossible, wholly to eradicate them
from the country.
Innumerable anecdotes might be related of these repulsive
and insidious creatures. Indeed, it is a common remark that
if conversation flags in society in India, one has only to
introduce the s^ibject of snakes, and every one present has
some personal experience which he is eager to relate. I have
on various occasions found cobras and other serpents in the
garden, in the thatch of the bungalow when annually re-
newed, creeping about amongst the floAver-pots, in the bath-
room, in the soiled clothes basket, and once even under the
bed. On one occasion I was climbing a tree to examine its
flowers, and grasped a branch Avhicli felt unnaturally §oft.
It was a viper asleep on the branch. The last snake I killed
was on the window of my bedroom. Rain had been falling
all night, and the unfortunate snake no doubt expected to
find hospitality and shelter, if anywhere, in the house of
a missionary. Creeping in by the lattice of the window he
quietly lay down to sleep on the frame. Finding the
NATURAL HISTORY. 87
intruder there, on rising in the morning, I took a large knife,
and at one blow struck otf Lis head.
We take care to bury the snakes when killed, lest any of
the natives with their bare feet should tread upon the fangs,
Avhich still retain their deadly venom. In short, one never
feels quite at ease when walking through grass, sitting in the
open air, or putting one's hand behind a shelf or box.
Children are a continual source of anxiety to careful parents.
One of the native children of our boarding-school while at
home in the vacation, and walking about her brother's
garden, leant her hand upon the wall of the enclosure. A
cobra concealed in a hole bit her, and she died in about two
hours. An illustration this of the expression in Amos v. 19,
" As if a man leaned his hand on the wall, and a serpent
bit him."
^o certain specific is known for the cure of snake bites,
though liberal rewards have been offered, and extended
experiments made, with this view. Ammonia is probably
the most useful medicine in these cases.
The serpent is very generally an object of worship to
Hindus, especially on the Western coast. Many stone images
of the cobra are found in temples and sacred localities.
That represented in the illustration on the next page was
renounced by some of the natives of Travancore on their
conversion to Christianity, nearly forty years ago, and sent
to England. A similar one is in the possession of the writer.
The national deity, too, is supposed to recline on a great
fiv»-headed serpent. A large brazen gilt image of the serpent
is worshipped at Nagercoil, and carried out in procession,
like other idols, once a year. Brahmans sometimes worship
silver representations of Vishnu trampling a serpent under
his feet. The cobra is called "nalla pilmbu," — "the good
snake ;" — certainly on the principle that it is dreaded, and must
be propitiated and pacified by gentle words and acts of wor-
THE LAND OF CHARITY.
ship. The account of the origin of this worship given in
the " Kerala Ulpatti " is to the effect that in early ages ser-
pents, increasing to an insufferable degree, killed many of the
SERPENT IDOL.
people. The surviving inhabitants refused to reside longer
in so dangerous a country. Parasu-Ramen, therefore, allotted
certain localities in which these reptiles should be placed,
NATURAL HISTORY. 89
and receive offerings and sacrifices. This being done, the
serpents were appeased, and ceased to torment the people.
Serpents are now worshipped chiefly by Sudras, Brahmans
officiating as their priests. When Sudras observe a snake,
they catch it by a cord with a noose tied to the end of a long
rod, place it carefully in an earthen pot, and bring it to the
place of worship. Should they find others killing these
sacred reptiles, they earnestly beg for their protection, or
lavish abuse on the persons who have committed the sacri-
legious act. Oiferings of fruits, cakes, flour, milk, rice, &c.,
are made to the snake god.
No doubt the worship of serpents is similar in principle
and is closely connected with the demon-worship of
South India. Amongst the Hindus everything that is spe-
cially remarkable, either for good or evil, becomes the object
of religious veneration.
No fish of the salmon order are to be found in India.
But the pomfret, seir fish, mullet, mackerel, eels, and many
others, both salt and fresh water species, are excellent food,
and much relished by the natives. One celebrated fish is
the " climbing perch," which has sometimes been found
a little Avay up the trunk of a palm tree. The natives call
it the " palm climber," and it seems endued with capacity
of living long out of water.
Sharks are abundant and dangerous, as well as their con-
geners, the sword-fish and saw-fish. The latter occasionally
attack fishermen. A case was brought to our medical mis-
sionary in which the fish had left several inches of its bony
snout in the thigh of a poor man whom it had attacked.
The ray, also, uses the powerful spine at the base of its long
whip like tail, and I have seen the hand of a fisherman torn
open by this powerful weapon.
The insect world in Travancore is exceedingly diversified
and prolific, and is at times a perfect pest. Butterflies and
90 "the land of charity."
motlis of brilliant colours and elegant forms, locusts, grass-
hoppers, mantises, &c., abound. Several species of wild bees
produce large quantities of honey on branches of trees and
in clefts of rocks. Beetles are of all sizes, colours, and odd
shapes. Some are tinted with brilliant green, scarlet, or gold.
The longicornm bore their way into the terminal bud of the
palm, utterly destroying these valuable trees. The great stag
beetle measures 4| inches Ln length, and 1^ in breadth. The
first specimen which I caught, I rolled up in a pocket handker-
chief to carry home for examination, but on my arrival found
the handkerchief completely cut up by the powerful man-
dibles of the insect. Mosquitoes are very troublesome, espe-
cially in localities embosomed in trees. Myriads of ants, red,
black, and brown, — large and small, — stinging and stingless,
fill the whole land, so as to make it exceedingly difficult to
preserve articles of food from their attacks. The order,
sagacity, and habits of the numerous species of these little
animals, would fill a volume with interesting matter. Scor-
I^ions, up to six inches in length, millipedes, centipedes, and
monstrous spiders {inygnle) infest the jungles and waste
lands.
But perhaps the most annoying of all the insect population
are the white ants, or termites, small and insignificant in size,
but all-powerful by their vast numbers, constitutional order,
and almost incredible voracity. They are divided into at
least three classes of individuals — workers, soldiers, and
queens. The workers are about the size of a grain of wheat,
the soldiers twice as large, with an immense disproportionate
head and mandibles, and the queens (of whom, as amongst
bees, but one is found in each nest or community) are swelled
out to the length of three or four inches. Another class with
wings issues at certain ])eriods in myriads from the nest, but
these are mostly devoured by birds and black ants. The
(^ueen occuj^ies the central cell, which is built of extra
NATURAL HISTORY, 91
strong tempered c\aj, and has no opening sufficiently large to
admit of her egress. She is therefore continually imprisoned
in the cell, engaged in laying eggs, of which 80,000 per day
are said to be produced. A numerous train of attendant
nurses wait upon her majesty, carrying off the eggs as fast as
possible into the nurseries, where they are tended with great
care. When annoyed the working termites retire into their
galleries, and hosts of soldiers rush out, prepared valiantly
to attack the assailant.
These tiny mischievous insects devour everything except
stones and metal They burro vy through the ground, and up
the interior of brick walls, working in relays, and removing
the mortar, grain by grain, to reach the wookwork of the
ceiling and roof.
A box of woollen clothing, which was laid aside for some
months, was found completely riddled with holes, as if a red-
hot iron had been thrust through the articles in all directions.
I have laid my Bible down on the window-sill of a chapel
after evening service, and found it partially eaten by the
morning ; numbers of books are thus destroyed. Carpets
cannot be used, as even a thick coating of tar preserves a floor
only for a year or so. "Wooden roofs and beams must be
frequently inspected and the ants beaten off, and all furni-
ture carefully examined daily, and placed at a little distance
from the walls of the house. Indeed, a house built and fur-
nished as in England, left unwatched, would be eaten up by
these weak, yet mighty insects in a couple of months,
leaving perhaps the bones and outer skin of the more solid
tables and beams. To such a state of distress and consterna-
tion were the good people of St. Helena reduced a few
years ago by the ravages of termites, which had somehow been
introduced, that the Governor of the island wrote urgent ap-
peals to India for suggestions as to the destruction of the
white ants. But little could be done. Most of the houses
92 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
and churches in St. Helena have since been rebuilt with iron
beams and girders, such as even the white ants cannot devour.
The only certain means of keeping down their numbers is
by the destruction of the queen, which causes the dispersion
of the whole community. But this is very difficult, as the
galleries and passages extend to the length of many feet, and
the central cell may be underneath some wall or building,
and at such a depth as cannot easily be reached. I have
found only two queens during a residence of several years in
India.
Of course these insects have their own duties and value in
the economy of nature, for the removal from the luxuriant
forests of the tropics of dead and decaying matter, which
might otherwise produce malaria and disease.
Crustacea and molluscs are found in due jjroportion in
Travancore. Land crabs burrow in the rice-fields, and are
used as food by the slave castes. Oysters of indifferent
quality are produced in the backwaters. The marine shells
are mostly small in size and of little interest. The conch, or
chunk shell, however (TurhmeJIa jtfjrujn), like a monstrous
Avhite whelk the size of a man's fist, is remarkable. It is the
sacred shell of India, used in Brahman worship and on
funeral and festive occasions as a kind of trumpet, a hole
being made at the smaller end of the shell and blown into.
This, too, is the national emblem of Travancore, stamped on
some of the coins, sculptured in enlarged proportions over
the gateway of the palace, impressed on the Government seal,
and used in a variety of ways as the emblem of the state.
A representation of this emblematic form of the conch shell
will be found on the cover of this volume.
93
CHAPTER VII.
NATURAL HISTORY [continued).
Indigenous Plants — Grains — Yams and Roots — Fruits — Palms — Spices —
Medicinal Plants — Timber Trees — Flowers and Fragrance — Minerals.
The flora of Travancore is a subject of very wide extent,
which can, therefore, only be treated in the briefest and most
superficial manner in such a work as the present. There are
few Europeans who have resided for any length of time in
the country Avhose interest has not been excited in its
vegetable productions. Whether arising from the great
variety, beauty, and economic value of the vegetable kingdom
in Travancore, or the leisure and facilities which British
officials occasionally enjoy, there has been quite a succession
of amateur botanists there for some time past. A very useful
and comprehensive botanical work, the " Flora Indica," has
recently been published by Colonel Drury, late of Trevan-
drum. Although wholly unacquainted with scientific methods
of investigation, the natives themselves take great delight in
the study of medical botany. Annual flower shows have for
several years past been held in the capital, and are likely to
exercise a beneficial influence on gardening and agriculture.
The climate being moist and hot, and the country pre-
senting great diversities of land and water, mountain and
valley — situations dry and moist, exposed and shady, from
the level of the sea to the height of fully 5,000 feet — a very
considerable variety of species are, as might be expected,
found indigenous in Travancore.
94 "tue land of charity."
The principal orders exemplified are grasses (including the
giant bamboos), sedges, arums, palms, plantains, gingerworts,
orchids, lilies, yams, euphorbias, cucurbits, capparids, mal-
vaceie, water-lilies, amaranths, pepperworts, leguminosse (in-
cluding a large proportion of the regular-flowered cassias and
acacias), apocynacepe, solanacese or nightshades, asclepiads, con-
volvuluses, jasmines, labiates, verbenas, bignonias or trumpet-
flowers, acanths, asters or composite flowers, myrtles, and
cinchonads.
For oaks, fir trees, apples, gooseberries, and many other
plants of temperate regions, one would search in vain.
Potatoes, except in the mountains, will not bring tlieir
tubers to maturity, though the plants will grow for a time.
Cabbages and English peas hardly yield as much as Avill
repay the trouble of their cultivation. "Wheat is not groAvn
at all in Travancore.
An ample variety of valuable grains and pulse, roots,
fruits, spices, and other edibles are cultivated. Amongst
grains the principal are rice, ragee, and various kinds of
millet. The species of native peas, beans, and other pulse
are very numerous.
Yams — the tubers of Dioscorea, a slender climbing plant
— I have seen grow to nearly four feet in length and six
inches in diameter. On one species, commonly called the
" Travancore potato," additional tubers grow attached to
the climbing stem, so that it may be said with truth that
the potatoes grow upon the tops of the trees in that count]-y,
rather than underground. Yams are very palatable, but
hardly so fine in flavour as the potato. Several species of
arums produce large and nutritious roots, weighing sometimes
seven or eight pounds each.
The sweet potato is a kind of convolvulus {Batatas edulis),
with a sweet mealy tuber at the root. The tubers of a ginger-
like j)laut {Curcuma) ground into lluur, steeped in water and
NATURAL HISTORY. 95
dried, yield East Indian arrowroot. Tapioca is largely grown,
and yields an abundant return. It is the farina manufactured
from the large fleshy roots of a shrub which is propagated by
cuttings, and arrives to perfection within a year. The fresh
roots contain a virulent poison, used by the American Indians
for poisoning their arrows ; but happily this is dissipated
when heat in any form is applied to the roots. A large pro-
portion of the people, in districts where water is scarce, or in
times of drought, live, to a large extent, on these esculent
roots.
Many excellent fruits are grown, — not all, however, properly
indigenous to the country. The fine graft mango, which re-
sembles an immense kidney- shaped plum, the size of a man's
fist, juicy, and of most luscious flavour, is perhaps equal to
any fruit m the world. Pineapples have long been domes-
ticated, and grow in whole fields almost wild. They sell at
a rate equal to about three for a penny, but these are not
equal in flavour to the superior varieties found in gardens.
Plantains are used in public and social festivities, as an
emblem of plenty and fertility, and well deserve the dis-
tinction. They are a delicious and usefid fruit, of all varieties
of flavour and size, and are used both as a vegetable and as
a fruit. They are in season all the year round, and are per-
fectly wholesome, even when freely eaten. The succulent stem
grows rapidly, rising to the height of from twelve to twenty
feet, and perishing when it has once borne fruit ; suckers
spring up around the old stem. The large smooth leaves are
used instead of plates by the Hindus while eating. The
fruit is produced in heavy clusters of several hundreds,
the bunch weighing sometimes seventy to eighty pounds.
One of these bunches will be observed in the frontispiece.
The plantain is as valuable to the people of India as the
bread-fruit is to the South Sea Islanders. There is a very
handsome wild plantain (Musa superha), of which I brought
96 *' THE LAND OF CHARITY."
seeds to England ; tlie young plants from tliese are now
flourishing in Kew Gardens.
The jack, an odd-looking fruit of immense size, covered
with thick green skin with blunt prickles, is a species of
bread-fruit (Arfocarptis) . Inside are many pulpy fruits,
packed in a viscid fibre around the central axis ; each of
these inner fruits contains a nut about the size of a pigeon's
egg. The jack fruit is oval in shape, measuring about a foot
and a half in lengtli, and nine inches in diameter; the weight
is from thirty to fifty pounds. Being so heavy, the fruit cannot
be supported by the smaller branches ; but in young trees
they grow out of the large branches, afterwards from the stem,
and, in very old trees, even on the root. Europeans who
venture to taste these fruits generally begin to relish them
after a few trials ; but most ladies declare that the smell is
quite enough. They certainly emit a powerful odour ; but
the natives are fond of them, and they constitute an im-
portant and wholesome article of food.
Custard apples, guavas, cashew nuts, cucumbers, melons,
and gourds of every description, with limes, papaws, and other
fruits, grow abundantly and in great variety. On the whole,
for abundance, variety, and excellence, the Indian fruits may
be said to excel even those of Europe. Oranges and lemons,
the bread-fruit, cocoa bean {Theobroma cacao), mangosteen,
and others appear to deserve more attention and more
extended cultivation than they receive at present.
The tamarind is a large umbrageous tree, producing pods
with an acid pulp, which is an indispensable ingredient in
curry, and is also made into good preserves.
A coarse sago is made from the pith of the Cycas circbialis,
and from that of the Caryota palm. The cocoa-nut and
Palmyra palms are of so great economic importance that we
must reserve a fuller description of them and their uses to the
next chapter.
NATURAL HISTORY. 97
Several of the most precious spices of the East are grown
in Travancore. The black pepper vine covers the stem of a
large tree like ivy, and large quantities of the dried herries
are exported. It is proverbially styled " the money of ]\[ala-
bar." Chilies (from which is made Cayenne pepper) are the
fruits of a small annual shrub. Cardamoms are the seed of a
ginger-like plant which springs up spontaneously in certain
localities in the mountains. Ginger is produced in con-
siderable quantities. Turmeric root, resembling a yellow
ginger, is much used in making curry. Ciimamon, cloves,
and nutmegs are little grown, but are worthy of more atten-
tion. Cotfee is now largely cultivated on the mountam
slopes by European capitalists.
The natives of India may be constantly observed chewing
what is called " betel nut." The "nut" is the fruit of the
areca palm, closely resembling in appearance the common
nutmeg ; and " betel " is the dark green, heart-shaped leaf of
a kind of climbing pepper plant, which grows like hops on
poles, but twice as high ; these are chewed together with a
small quantity of lime. The teeth and mouth are dyed red
by the use of these spices, and European physicians believe
that this habit often produces cancer in the mouth and
other painful affections.
The medicinal plants of Travancore merit, and Avould,
doubtless, repay judicious investigation and experiment.
The native doctors are sometimes successful in the adminis-
tration of indigenous remedies, but their practice is entirely
empirical, and their opinions respecting tlie medicinal pro-
perties of plants generally require confirmation. A com-
petent i^hysician would in time be able to determine how
far the statements in native works on ^Materia Medica are
reliable, and would probably discover many plants readily
and cheaply procurable and of great service in medicine.
It is already well known that there are powerful tonics
H
98 "the land of charity."
and febrifuges, such as the hark of the INIargosa tree and of
(Jedrehi, the chiretta herb, and others ; the fruit of the bael
tree, the cultivation of which the Government of British
India have of late sought to encourage and extend, is a
specitic in cases of obstinate diarrhoea and dysentery ; hydro-
cotyle has obtained considerable repute as a remedy for
leprosy ; the milk of the papaw is a useful vermifuge, and
the root of PlumhiKjo rosea a sharp and speedy blister. The
thorn-apple, bryony, croton, dill, mix vomica, catechu, senna,
and the Indian jalap, ipecacuanha, liquorice, sarsaparilla,
squill, and galls have already been recognised and introduced
into European practice.
The commercial and economic value of many of the native
vegetable products is already considerable ; and might, if
thoroughly developed, be largely augmented. Several
valuable timber trees are plentiful. At the head of these
stands the strong, fine, durable Teak, wliich flourishes best in
the mountains, large quantities of which are annually cut for
sale and exportation. In the Trevandrum museum a slab of
teak is preserved measuring eight feet in length by above
four feet in breadth, and perfectly sound throughout. Jack
wood is much used as a furniture wood, but is somewhat
brittle. When polished, it is very beautiful, and darkens
with age, so as to resemble mahogany. Black-wood is the
timber of a Dalbergia, not unlike rosewood in appearance. It
is in great request for furniture, but is becoming much more
scarce and high-priced than formerly. Cedar wood is very
light and strong. Ebony is rare, and not equal to the Ceylon
article, Anjely wood {Artocarpus hirsutus) is strong,
durable, and easily worked, and is particularly useful in
house and ship building. Canoes are often hollowed out of
the great trunks of the anjely. The wood of Thespesia is
fine-grained and dark, and looks Avell in small articles of
furniture. There are also the woods of Terminalia, Bassia,
NATURAL HISTORY. 99
Lagerstromia, and many others ; some, liowever, being too
heavy for ordinary work.
The Bamboo is one of the most useful and admirable plants
in In<lia. It combines to an uncommon degree lightness,
elasticity, and strength, and is indispensable to the Hindu.
The young green shoots are eaten or made into preserves. A
single joint is commonly used as a bottle for honey, milk,
and other articles, or as a case for rolls of paper ; a section of
a joint is the ordinary rice measure. A long bamboo, with
the side branches cut off to witliin a few inches from the
main stem, makes a light ladder. The stems of various
diameters are also used as rafters, levers, beams, boat-jjoles,
masts and oars, water-pipes, fishing-rods, arrows, &c. The
broad grassy leaves are used for thatching ; indeed, tlie whole
hut of a mountaineer is often constructed of the Iximboo, with
elastic flooring and beds made of the same material, partially
split lengthwise, opened and flattened out into a kind of
planks. Slips of the wood are used in the manufacture of
bows, window-blinds, &c., and are woven into mats and
baskets. The thorny varieties, being planted around villages,
form a high and almost impervious stockade or fortification.
Dye-stuffs, consisting of woods and other vegetable pro-
ducts, and vegetable oils in great variety, are also produced in
Travancore. Abundance of fibrous materials might be manu-
factured from the plantain, agave, pine-apple, and many
other common plants. E"atives are never at a loss for sub-
stitutes for paper and twine. They will step into the garden
or jungle, and at once select one or two broad leaves, in
Avhich they ingeniously fold their parcels, securing them
with some creeper or fibrous stem. Milk has ol'ten been
brought to me in a piece of plantain leaf pinned up at the
corners, by means of tliorns, into a neat but frail drinking
vessel. The Indian grass matting for floors, now occasionally
imported into England, is made of the flowering stem of a
100 "the land of charity."
species of Cyperus, or sedge, which takes a red, black, or yellow
dye, and is woven into pretty square or diagonal patterns.
INIany beautiful flowering plants are indigenous to Travan-
core, and till the jungles, forests, open country, and gardens
with their beauty, their gay flowers and varied forms. The
flowering trees especially are admired as singularly flne.
Such are the showy Lagerstromia, which may most aptly be
compared to a large oak tree covered with clusters of single
roses ; the Earringtonia, with its pendulous racemes of lovely
pink tassels ; the Cassia alata, with its tall upright spikes of
bright yellow flowers; and the Cathartocarjmsjistula, draped
in gracefid hanging yellow flowers, strikingly resembling our
own laburnum. The Piney varnish tree, with white fragrant
blossoms ; the Michelia, with its rich orange-coloured flowers
— famed in Hindu poetry ; the Persian lilac ; many species
of Acacia ; Bignonias, notably the Indian cork tree, with its
long white fragrant flowers ; the gaudy Pomciana, or peacock-
flower — the two species of which have been introduced from
the "West Indies and Madagascar respectively ; the large pea-
flowered Agati ; the flaming Erythrina, or coral tree, and many
others, are equal in beauty to those found in any quarter of
the globe.
Ornamental shrubs, too, are numerous ; some of which are
almost constantly in blossom. Especially may be named the
various Bauhinias, Ixoras, and Jasmines; Henna (called in
Holy Scripture " camphire " — Song of Sol. i. 14) ; Memecylon
also, with its lovely azure-tinted feather-like flowers ; the
Oleander, Osbeckia, Mussoenda, with its curious white caly-
cine leaf, contrasting with the golden-coloured flowers, the
Hibiscus, <.K:c.
There are also the Cauna, or Indian shot ; Clitorea, or shell-
flower ; the gorgeous and elegant Gloriosa superha, the
flowers of Avhich bear some resemblance to tliose of tlie
Martagon lily ; many species of Ipomo^a and Convolvulus,
NATURAL HISTORY. 101
forming rich festoons from the trees and bushes, with their
large and delicate flowers of every variety of colours ; Plum-
bago, Costus, Hoya, and Roses, which are everywhere culti-
vated in gardens.
Water-lilies fill the quiet ponds with their floating leaves, and
rare Orchids,with grotesque but beautiful flowers, gleam among
the branches of trees, run over the rocks, or spring out of the
earth. The Loranthus also, a plant nearly allied to the mis-
tletoe, is a most beautiful object, with brilliant scarlet fuchsia-
like flowers hanging from the branches of the trees to which
it clings. Graceful ferns are abundant, growing often as
epiphytes on the trunks of trees, or luxuriating in moist and
shady nooks.
It is sometimes supposed that the flowers of India are
gaudy but scentless. This may perhaps be affirmed with
truth of many fine flowers, but those yielding a delightful
jierfume form a large proportion of the whole. There are,
for instance, the roses, jasmines, lime, tuberose, orchids,
araaryllis, bignonias, guettarda, melia, pandanus, oleander,
henna ; with sweet basil, lemon-grass, and others that have
fragrant foliage. It must, however, be confessed that some
of these flowers are too overpowering, and not sufficiently de-
licate in their perfume, for English taste. On the other hand,
the poetical allusions sometimes made to the " spicy breezes "
of India are founded upon error, for the leaves of cinnamon,
clove, and other spice plants, emit no fragrance except when
bruised.
Several plants are, on account of their beauty, or some
legendary circumstance connected with them, held sarrt'd in
the estimation of the Hindus. The Ficus reli(jiosa is a
stately tree somewhat resembling our aspen, and, like the
latter, its leaves also tremble in the breeze. It has not the
descending roots of the banyan. The motion of the leaves
is supposed to arise from the presence of the god Vishnu, to
l02 "the land of charity."
whom tlie tree is therefore sacred. Ocimum, or sweet basil,
is the well-known Toolsee, dedicated to Vishnu and much
worshipped in Bengal. The fragrant flowers of a handsome
tree, Michelia champaca, highly venerated and planted near
temples, are often referred to in native poetry. The leaves
and fruit of the Bael tree, or wood-apple, are offered to Siva.
Sandal wood is largely used in religious ceremonies. The
cratoeva, ixora, oleander, hibiscus, and others are also planted
near temples, and offered in worship to the gods.
One of the most celebrated, as it certainly is one of the
most beautiful plants in India, is the sacred Lotus, or rose-
coloured water-lily. It is associated with much of its
mythology, and furnishes many of the finest allusions and
figures in Indian poetry. The sensitive plant {Mimusa pudica)
is one of the commonest and most troublesome weeds in the
country. It spreads with singular rapidity in gardens and
fields, and one's footsteps may be traced for some time by
the shrinking of this little plant. Another little plant, whose
leaves possess a similar power, is Oxalls sensHiva.
The mineral products of Travancore are few, and do not
require lengthened notice. A more careful and intelligent
search may yet, however, disclose the existence of minerals
of some value. The Western Ghauts being granitic, abun-
dance of granite, gneiss, syenite, and other formations of this
series are readily procurable and extensively used as a
durable building stone for the erection of temples and other
structures, and in carved images and ornaments. In con-
nection with the granite, mica (used in ornamenting fans and
other articles) occurs in thin laminated flakes ; and from the
disintegration of the granite, fine porcelain clays are pro-
duced, some of which are found in a very pure state. The
manufiicture of porcekun might therefore be established with
advantage.
A peculiar indurated iron clay called " laterite," or brick-
NATURAL HISTORY. 103
stone, is found widely diffused everjAvliere near the coast, ex-
cept towards Cape Coniorin, where it ceases altogether. It
lies at no great depth from the surface, ordinarily overlying
the granite rocks. There are many varieties of laterite, some
very compact and heavy, of a deep red colour, and containing
a proportion of iron ; others deteriorating into soft white and
yellow ochrey earths. Often it has the appearance of nume-
rous rounded pebbles united together by a clayey cement.
Fossil shells have occasionally been found embedded in it.
This hard clay is dug out in large bricks from the localities
in which, it occurs, and hardens still more after exposure to
the air. As a building material it is easily Avorked and
durable, and is usually stuccoed over with .fine white lime,
made of calcined shells.
Iron ore is plentiful but little worked. From the sulphuret
of iron found at Varkkala large quantities of Prussian blue
might readily be manufactured. Plumbago, or black-lead, is
not uncommon, being found sometimes in lumps a few feet
below the surface, at other times running in veins through
the laterite. It seems, however, from the admixture of
foreign matter, to be deficient in purity. Several sulphuric
springs, with jets of gaseous air bubbling up through the
water, have been discovered within twenty miles of
Trevandrum.
104
CHAPTEE VIII.
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE.
Wasliermen and Barbers — Goldsmitlis — Weavers — Carpenters — Ivory
Carvings — Lace-making — Merchants — Weights and Measures — Mone-
tary System — The Mint — Fisheries — Exports and Imports — Domestic
Animals.
Considerable activity in industrial and commercial pur-
suits, elementary arts and agriculture, prevails in Travancore,
so that a large proportion of the people are usefully occupied
in various forms of productive labour. All the ordinary
occupations essential to civilized life are carried on, often in
a style very primitive, and different from that of European
workmen, but still practically efficient, according to native
ideas.
A numerous body of washermen and barbers exercise their
vocation for the personal cleanliness and adornment of the
various classes of the community. Washing is principally
performed by men, aided to some extent by their wives.
The clothes are first boiled in a lye, then beaten on a stone
at the brink of a river, and are soon, by the aid of a blazing
sun, brought to a dazzling whiteness, without injuring the
fabi'ic so much as might be expected from this rude style of
procedure. The clothes are carried home on the backs of
donkeys. Earbers are in constant demand, as the men have
their heads and beards closely shaven (always excepting the
" kudumi ") at regular and frequent intervals.
(ioldsmiths also contribute to the personal adornment of
IXDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 105
"both sexes. As there are no banks in the country, thriving
people lend out their money at heavy rates of interest, or
hoard it np in the form of coin in a bottle or pot, concealed
beneath the floor of the house. But as another means of
security, they are accustomed to expend their savings on
gold and silver ornaments of every variety of patterns and
uses, which, being of small bulk, can be easily guarded or
transferred or turned into money at any time. This practice,
however, operates as a temptation to crime, as women and
children going into unfrequented localities are occasionally
robbed, and even murdered, for the sake of these costly
decorations, which excite the criminal cupidity of their
neighbours.
The goldsmiths are skilful workmen. One or a couple of
these men will sit down in the verandah of a house, and
with a few simple tools — a piece of broken pottery for holding
tire, a reed for blowpipe, and a stone as anvil — will execute
neat repairs, or turn out very creditable specimens of work-
manship. Elegant filigree ornaments in silver, similar to
the far-famed Trichinopoly work, are made in Quilon. Well-
hnished gongs, cups, waterpots, lamps, and other articles in
brass, are made by braziers in several parts of the country.
Weavers in Travancore rarely attempt the manufacture of
any but the coarsest and plainest descriptions of cotton cloth.
Small quantities of silk cloth, checks, and huckaback are
manufactured in Ivottilr. The colours are well dyed and
permanent. The thread used is English, purchased from
merchants and importers, but the machinery and tools are of
the most wretched and imperfect description. Instead of a
proper warping-mill, boys are employed to run with the
spools of thread up and down a long path like a ropewalk,
to form the warp. Instead of the ingenious but simple
arrangement of machinery in the English loom, by Avhich the
shuttle is thrown rapidly and easily from side to side by a
106 "the land of charity."
cord fastened to a " pluckstick," the shuttle is thrown, as
was once the practice in England, from one hand and caught
in the other alternately. The introduction of the English
handloom would at once treble the manufacture of cloth
from the Indian looms, and would be a great boon to the
weavers themselves.
By far the largest proportion of skilled artisans are those
employed in connection with the building trades. Wood for
the roof-work, doors, windows, pillars, and carved deco-
rations, enters largely into the peculiar style of house archi-
tecture in Malabar. Eice-bins, ploughs, carts, and other
articles, are made, and must be kept in repair. Native
vessels, also, are built in several of the seaports, and cabin-
boats and canoes are common on all the backwaters and
rivers.
The carpenters are clever and handy with the tools at
present in use, — which, by the way, might be vastly im-
proved. They sit at work, holding the materials on which
they are operating with the left hand and the toes of the
foot. Their tools are almost exclusively rude chisels, of
various sizes and breadths. With these they cut or chop
through, insteail of sawing across, a piece of timber; of course
with great waste of material. PJanks are smoothed or planed
with the broad chisels ; narrower tools are used for piercing
holes, into which })ins of palm wood, instead of iron nails,
are driven t(j fasten the pieces together. When carefully
superintended, and allowed to take their own time, the more
experienced of these workmen make strong and handsome
articles of furniture. Their wood carvings are often strilvingly
correct, elaborate, or curious.
In the erection of temples and wayside rest-houses, and
for images and decorative carvings, stone is largely used. It
is of course expensive to work, but is imperishable. JS^oble
and imposing works of art in the peculiar Hindu style exist
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE.
107
in some of the ancient temples, but the stonecutters of the
present day seem hardly equal to the execution of artistic
productions of equal merit.
TKAVANCORE BOATMAN.
Blacksmiths and potters are the remaining classes of
skilled artificers. The latter produce the common retl
"chatties" and other vessels of clay for drinking, eating,
cooking, storing oil, and other purposes. As these are ex-
ceedingly fragile, and are besides frequently thrown away,
108 "the land of charity."
and the lioiisehold stock renewed on account of imaginary
defilement, immense quantities are used throughout the
country. They are moulded hy hand on a wheel, and burnt
in a small furnace.
Tlie ivory carvings of Travancore have of late years come
into notice at exhibitions and elsewhere. Tlie work is well
executed, and the designs are often artistically composed of
animals, foliage, and geometrical patterns ; but these articles
are very expensive, only one or two families of high
caste being acquainted with the art. Arrangements have
recently been made to preserve and extend this branch of
industry.
Lace-making, introduced by Mrs. Mault in her boarding
school at Nagercoil, and by Mrs. Lewis at Santhapuram, has
succeeded to perfection. Admirable specimens of fine pillow
lace, in cotton and gold and silver thread, manufactured at
the Mission school, were shown at Madras, and in the great
London and Paris Exhibitions, in all of which they gained
prize medals. Being sold for the benefit of the female
schools, the profits have greatly assisted this department of
our work. The employment has also spread to Tinnevelly.
A suggestion has recently been made that it might be more
profitable, instead of merely copying and repeating, as ha-s
hitherto been done, the old standard English patterns and
styles, to get up real Indian designs in accordance with the
purest national taste and styles of art, so as to establish the
IS^agercoil lace as a purely indigenous ])roduction. The sug-
gestion seems important, and worthy of being carried into
efi'ect.
The trade of Travancore is chiefly in the hands of the
chetties or merchants. ]?ut in every part of the country
there are innumerable shops and bazaars where small articles
of native provisions, clothing, and household convenience are
retailed ; besides which men and women of the lower classes
IXDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 109
purchase sugar, rice, fish, fowls, &c., in the jjeriodic markets
and fairs, and hawk them about for sale at a small profit
Avherever they can find a purchaser.
The weights and measures in common use are in a most
unsatisfactory condition of uncertainty, confusion, and varia-
tion, though of late efforts have been made by the native
Government to determine and supply verified copies of several
of the established measures. Those used in one part of the
country are quite unknown in other parts. Different weights
of the same denomination are used for metals, for pepper, and
for salt. The introduction of uniformity in this matter
throughout the bounds of so small a state appears to be quite
practicable, and is certainly much to be desired.
The coinage also is rather unsettled and fluctuating in its
relative value as compared with British currency, and some
skill and practice aie required readily to perform calculations
of this kind. Poor people, too, have often difficulty in pro-
curing change at equitable rates.
The smallest coin in use is the copper " Imsu " (c in en-
graving, p. 110), called by Europeans '^ cash" and equal in
value to about one-nineteenth of a penny — less than a quarter
of a farthing. On the obverse of this coin is a figure said to
represent the god Krishna ; on the reverse a curious geo-
metrical figure composed of two triangles, to which some
notion of sacredness or good luck appears to attach. Coins
of this minute value are indispensable for so poor a people :
even a single cash will purchase a determinable quantity
of fruit, tobacco, vegetables, or other cheap commodity. Many
a noisy quarrel between two poor women takes its rise about
a cash or two in their jjctty dealings.
The only other coin largely circulated is the " chuclimm'^ {a
and b in the engraving), a tiny silver coin, about the size of half
a small pea, and weighing under six grains. The impression on
one side appears to be merelj a fancy design. On the other side
110
THE LAND OF CHARITY.
are ten dots and two curved lines, interpreted hj the natives
as representing the legs and toes of the national deity Pat-
manabhan. A chuckram is worth sixteen copper cash, and
28i chuchrams are reckoned to be equal to one rupee (two
shillings), so that a single chuckram is worth about six-
sevenths of a penny.
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NATIVE COINS AND CHUCKEAM BOARD.
These are the only two coins in popular daily use in Tra-
vancore. British Indian rupees pass current, and tlie native
Government are just now introducing into circulation a quan-
tity of the copper coinage of British India. Within the last
two years another native coin, in silver, called " pcmam,"
or '^fanam," equal in value to four chuckrains, and about
the size of our threepenny ])iece, has been struck. Gold
coins of the size of the cash, and worth about sevenpence,
were formerly in circulation, and a variety of other coins have
occasionally been tried for a time.
Chuckrams being so small and globose are exceedingly
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. Ill
troublesome to count or handle. They slip out of the fingers
and run over the floor, and are only discovered again with diffi-
culty. £100 sterling amounts to 28,500 chuckrams, weighing
twenty-four pounds avoirdupois ; and hours would be wasted
in reckoning this number of small coins. They are therefore
measured, or counted, by means of a " chuckram board," — a
small square wooden plate (rZ), with holes, the exact size and
depth of a chuckram, drilled in regular rows on its surface,
as shown, of reduced size, in the illustration ; a board contains
fifty, a hundred, two hundred, or more of these holes, accord-
ing to convenience. A small handful of coins is thrown on
the board, and it is then shaken gently from side to side, so
as to cause a single chuckram to fall into each cavity, and
the surplus, if any, is swept ofl" with the hand. A glance at
the board, when filled, shows that it contams tlie exact number
of coins for which it is intended. The rapid manipidation
of this simple but ingenious implement requires some prac-
tice, but the Government clerks and native merchants are
surprisingly expert and exact in its performance.
The Mint Department Avas established about eighty years
ago. Its operations are now conducted within the fort at
Trevandrum. Chuckrams are coined from dollars and other
silver coins bought up for the purpose. These are melted in
clay crucibles, which are each used but once, then ground to
powder, and the atoms of precious metal which adhere to the
clay carefully remelted and collected. The molten silver is
suddenly poured into cold water, where it falls into grains
and dust. These are then weighed out in delicate scales to
the exact weight of a chuckram, and the separate quantities
thrown into small cavities in a large earthen plate, which
contains several thousand holes of the proper size, closely
arranged on its surfice. The })late, witli its whole contents,
being put into the furnace, is exposed to a high temperature
for three hours and a half, so that the grains of metal are
112 "the land of charity."
fused and formed into separate globules, of which there may
be 3,000 in a single earthen plate. When cooled these are
taken out and punched by hand into chuckrams, one of the
dies being firmly embedded in a stone underneath the coin,
the other held in the workman's hand.
Copper is purchased in sheets and multed in a similar way,
but double the time is required for its fusion. The copper
globules are partially fiattened by a single blow of a hammer
previous to the operation of stamping. Two men will make
20,000 chuckrams in a single day. A good press, with feed-
ing machine, for the manufacture of fanam pieces, has recently
been procured from England, and strikes off 8,000 coins in a
day. The acid of tamarind fruit is used for cleansing the
coins.
The fisheries of Travancore are productive, and afibrd
employment and support to multitudes of people all along
the coast. The fish are caught with nets and hooks, and are
carried inland on the heads of the women to be sold. Large
quantities are also dried in the sun, or salted for home use or
exportation; the value of the fish annually exported amounting
to about 75,000 rupees. The curing of the fish is, however,
insufficiently done, so that its use as food at certain seasons
tends to increase the ravages of cholera and dysentery.
Greater attention to the process of curing would soon enlarge
the profits and importance of the trade. Fish oil is manu-
factured, the best quality of which is now coming into
medicinal use, as a cheap and eft'ectual substitute for cod
liver oil.
The exports by land and sea amovuit in value to about GO
lacs of rupees, or £600,000 sterling ; in 18G9 the amount was
72;} lacs. The imports reach about 25 lacs, or .£250,000,
and are also on the increase. The exports consist chicfiy of
the various ju'oducts of the cocoa-nut, areca, and palmyra
palm trees ; such as the dried kernel, fibre, and oil of the
INDUSTRY AXD COMJIERCE. 113
cocoa-nut, the nuts also, the leaves (for thatching purposes),
and the cordage or " coir " spun from the hbre, besides coir
matting, palm sugar, &c. Great quantities of cocoa-nut oil
are now shipped to Bombay for the manufacture of gas in
that city, and to England for use in the manufacture of
stearine candles. Pepper, formerly a monopoly of the native
Government, but now an article of free trade, although very
heavily taxed, is exported to the value of £25,000 yearly. It
is an important staple of the country, and holds a high place
in the French market. The quantities, however, vary much
according to the seasons, the pepper vine being said to bear
with greater profusion in alternate years.
Arrowroot, hides, molasses, tamarinds, ginger, rice, &c., are
also included in the list of exports. Cardamoms, ivory, and
salt are Government monopolies. The trade in coffee is of
recent growth, the quantity produced having been very in-
significant until about seven years ago. It is now, however,
rapidly and steadily advancing as the estates in the moun-
tains come into bearing, and promises to become of gi-eat
future value to the State. Over 15,000 acres are now planted.
Coffee to the value of £25,200 sterling was exported during
1869, and a large increase may shortly be expected.
Most of the imports are from British India ; and these, by
a commercial treaty, are exempt from duty to the Travan-
corean Government. They consist principally of raw cotton,
cotton thread and piece goods, metals, chilies, opium, and
cattle, with salt and tobacco. The consumption of opium
appears to be on the increase.
Domestic cattle are abundant in Travancore. Black cattle,
according to the last enumeration, number about 400,000 ;
buffaloes, 100,000 ; sheep and goats, 28,000. The native breed
of oxen, however, is wretchedly small ; nor would it be easy at
present to provide sufficient pasturage for larger animals, if
introduced. They are kept and reared for their milk, so
I
114 "the land of charity."
largely iised by Brahmans and others, and for farm work and
agricultural labour ; but never, of course, for slaughter.
Buffaloes, powerful bat sluggish creatures, almost amphi-
bious in their habits, are of great service in ploughing the
mud of the rice-fields. Their milk is made into the native
butter or "^//ee," which forms a kind of substitute for flesh-
meat to those whose religious prejudices forbid their eating
such. Sheep do not thrive in Travancore ; while goats, on
the contrary, do. The flesh of both is used by the middle
classes of natives. They are sold at about eight shillings
each. Common poultry are reared in great numbers for their
eggs and flesh, Avliich the people say is " good for medicine,"
and on this point all will agree with them ; for the very best
" medicine " one could recommend to a poor ill-fed native
would be a fowl nicely boiled or roasted. They are sold
at the rate of sixpence to a shilling each, but are diminu-
tive and badly fed.
For horses the climate is unfavourable ; these animals are
therefore very rare. Even Europeans usually keep the hand-
some and docile Pegu ponies, as large horses often become
weak in the loins in consequence of the humid climate and
unwholesome winds of the Western coast. Donkeys are
kept chiefly by lime-burners and washermen. Nor do
superior specimens of the dog readily increase in India ; but
the native " pariah dog," a Avretched, ugly, annoying brute,
abounds in every village.
115
CHAPTER IX.
AGRICULTURE.
State of Husbandry — Price of Labour — The Palm Tree — Its Mode of Culture
— Products and Manifold Uses.
Agriculture, as a science, is utterly unkBown in Travancore,
and the implements in use are wretchedly inefficient ; yet the
natives are pretty well acquainted, from experience and
observation, with the best practical mode of cultivating their
various crops.
Most of tlie common vegetable productions are grown in
small holdings by the cottagers and small farmers. Almost
every native, however poor, has some little property in land.
The principal crop, cultivated on an extensive scale through-
out the country, is rice, of which valuable and nutritious
grain there are many varieties — white, red, black, bearded
and smooth, early and late, suitable for wet or dry lands, hill
or plains. Sixty -four distinct varieties were exhibited in one
case at an exhibition of fruits, flowers, and vegetables in
Tre van drum.
Three crops of rice in the year are procured from the best
land. This grain, as is well known, is grown in fields
flooded with water; in fact, rice is grown in mud and water
from the sprouting of the seed till the crops begin to ripen,
when the water is run ofi". The fields are therefore made
perfectly level, and are surrounded with narroAv banks of
clay. The seed is sown thickly broadcast ; when the young
IIG "the land of charity."
plants have reached the height of several inches, they are
gently pulled up and transplanted in small hunches.
The rice-grounds are subjected to repeated ploughings, and
are well manured with ashes, dung, green leaves, and twigs
chopped small — in short, with whatever can be procured for
this purpose. The Pulayar slaves do the rough work in the
mire for their masters, such as repairing the outer banks,
ploughing, manuring, and threshing ; the females of this caste
assist in the transplanting, reaping, and carrying the grain.
Eice cultivation is very profitable, except in seasons of
excessive drought.
The rice or " paddy " fields, as they are called, form an ex-
ceedingly beautiful feature of the Indian landscape, quite as
much so as fine corn-fields in England, usually presenting, in
addition, a marked contrast with the surrounding declivities
and high lands. They look like lakes of bright, soft green,
afterwards assuming the golden tinge indicative of a rich
and satisfying harvest. The fields lie on various levels, so as
to allow of a slight current of water running from one to
anotlier ; in sloping ground they have the appearance of
terraces of different widths and outlines according to the
conformation of the ground. liice straw makes good fodder
and bedding for cattle.
The price of labour, both skilled and unskilled, and in-
deed of every commodity, has largely increased within the
last twelve years. Whether this is owing to enlarged inter-
course with other parts of India ; to the abolition of slavery
and the spread of education and civilization ; to the emigration
of many of the Shanars to Ceylon and the Mauritius ; to the in-
troduction of coffee-planting, the building of bridges and other
important public works which bring labour more into demand,
and consequently increase its value ; or to other less obvious
causes, producing a slow but general equalization of the value
of money throughout the world, it is not easy to say. 13 ut
AGRICULTURE. 117
the wages of day labourers, Avhicli in 1858 were, in rnral
districts, 2 chuckrams a day, have by degrees risen to a
minimum of 5 chuckrams = 4|d., while even more is paid to
labourers on the coffee jilantations. The prices of rice, meat,
cloth, and other necessary articles have also doubled at the
least within the same period.
The value of money is, on the whole, about six times
as much as in England, except to Euroj^ean residents, who
are compelled to purchase the articles of food and cloth-
ing to which they are habitually accustomed from native
merchants at double the English rates, or to procure them
from Cochin, Madras, or even from London ; in other
respects, too, their necessary expenditure has enormously
increased.
Considering the position which the Palm tree occupies,
we cannot pass on without giving some fuller account of it,
especially as many of the native Christians of South Travan-
core, like those of Tinnevellj', are largely supported by its
various economic prodiicts.
The Palms are amongst the most interesting productions
of the vegetable kingdom, whether " we consider the majestic
aspect of their towering stems, crowned by a still more
gigantic foliage, the character of grandeur Avhich they im-
press upon the landscape of the countries they inhabit, their
immense value to mankind as affording food and raiment,
and various objects of economical importance, or, finally, the
prodigious development of those organs by which their race
is to be propagated."* They have been rightly stjded " the
princes of the vegetable world." Several species of plants
belonging to this noble order are found in Travancore. The
lofty Bastard Sago, with its graceful leaves and immense pen-
dulous strings of nut-like fruits ; the Talipot, or Fan palm,
with its gigantic leaves, each of wdiich is large enough to cover
* Lindley's "Vegetable Eingdom/'p. ISA.
118 "the land of charity."
ten or twelve men ; the dwarf Phoenix palm, and the long
trailing Eattan, have each their appropriate uses ; — but all
dwindle into insignificance beside the three principal palms
which constitute a large proportion of the vegetable wealth
of the country — the Areca, the Cocoa-nut, and the Palmyra
palms.
The Areca is the most graceful and elegant of all the In-
dian palms. It yields the "betel nut," which the natives
are in the hal)it of chewing as a stimulant spice. Within
the limits of Travancore alone nearly ten millions of these
trees grow, the value of the annual produce of which is esti-
mated at over £50,000 sterling.
The Cocoa-nut is very extensively cultivated, the number
of trees in Travancore amounting to nearly ten millions.
There seems no end to the economical uses of the various
parts of the plant. These trees thrive only in the neigh-
bourhood of the coast, and best under the influence of the
cool sea breeze, and when their roots are almost laved by salt or
brackish water. In such localities the whole country seems
a forest of stately cocoa palms, with their beautiful crowns
of leaves, like gigantic ostrich plumes, gently waving in the
breeze, and clusters of great nuts hanging from every tree.
This palm having been so frequently described, and being
consequently so well known to all readers, it will not be
needful to dwell upon its uses.
The Palmyra palm {Borassus fiahelliformis) ranks next to
the Cocoa-nut in importance and value. There are about
2,500,000 Palmyras grown in Travancore, almost all of which
are in the districts south of Trevandrum. Whether from
superabundance of rain and moisture, or from the absence
of iShanars to cultivate the tree, it rarely occurs in the Nor-
thern districts, where it is sometimes regarded as sacred in
consequence of the sojourn of local demons. The Palmyra
is also found in Ceylon and various parts of Asia and Africa.
AGRICULTURE. 119
This palm furnishes the principal means of support to
several millions of the human family. It flourishes best, not
like the Cocoa-nut in well-watered grounds and fertile soil, but,
by a remarkable providential arrangement, in inferior and
especially sandy and arid ground, where scarcely anything
else will grow, and where its long roots, penetrating to an
immense depth, draw perennial supplies from hidden sources
of nourishment. " The righteous shall flourish like the palm
tree" (Psa. xcii. 12).
The Palmyra is a tall, branchless palm, with a stiff radiat-
ing head of fan- shaped leaves ; —
" A column, and its crown a star, "
It rises to the height of from 60 to 90 feet, and begins
to produce when 25, or, in favourable soil and circum-
stances, 15 or 16 years old. Very rarely does a Cocoa-nut
palm grow quite upright, the stem being usually curved
or inclined more or less ; but the Palmyra, on the contrary,
like the Date and most other palms, is almost always perfectly
upright in growth — " upright as the palm tree " (Jer. x. 5).
The trees are always dioecious, that is, l^earing male and
female flowers on separate plants ; one tree producing only
barren or staminiferous flowers, another bearing the pistil
and fruits. The male flowers are minute, and are produced
between scales closely set on a branched flower-stalk. Each
stalk is estimated to bear 90,000, and as there are usually seven
of these on each tree, the male flowers on a single tree are pro-
bably 630,000 in number ; but not one of these produces
a fruit.
The fruiting, or female palms, bear on each flowering stalk
from 10 to 20 fruits. About 10 of these bunches are pro-
duced in a year ; so that over 200 fruits are sometimes ob-
tained from a single tree. The fruit is dark and globular, is
four or five inches in diameter, and generally contains three
good-sized nuts or seeds.
120 "the land of charity."
Eveiy part of this palm is turned to account by the na-
tives. The wood, for example, is one of the best and strongest
known for rafters and roof-work, and is employed for this pur-
j^ose in most of our chapels and mission-houses. It is very hard
and durable, with wire-like fibres, and freely splits up length-
wise. The hard wood is the outer portion of the stem, the centre
being filled with soft, spongy, useless pith; just the reverse of
exogenous tuuber trees, in which the toughest wood is in the
centre. The stem of the Palmyi-a, generally about a foot in
diameter, is split up into three or four jiieces ; these are
smoothed with the adze or chisel, the pith being cleared off,
and are then ready for use as rafters.
As the tree is so many years in arriving at maturity, the
people say it will live and bear for 1,000 years; but this is
scarcely credible. A common Tamil proverb is " Nattal
ayiram; vettal ayiram," " If you plant it, (it Avill grow) a
thousand years ; if you cut it, (it will last) a thousand years."
I have never been able to find sufficient data for calculating
the probable period of the life of this palm, as no record can
be found of its age, and the trees are usually cut when old for
timber instead of being allowed to die of age. Probably it
lasts for at least 150 or 200 years. Reliable information
on this point would be most interesting and acceptable. The
timber is not thoroughly ripened till the tree is 80 or 100
years old. "When cut it will no doubt, with reasonable care,
last for 1,000 years. It is really better after being in use for
a century, if preserved from rain and white ants, than when
newly cut. The whole stem of a tree is occasionally polished
and used as a pillar in Ijuilding. The wood is also made into
walking-sticks, bows, bed-frames, and other articles.
Tile pulp of the Palmyra fruit is eaten by the poor, but is
rather unsavoury. Tlie nuts are singularly hard and strong ;
it is a common proverb that even an el('i)liant cannot break
one. They are therefore planted somewhere near the house,
AGRICULTURE.
121
and after four montlis commence to grow. They are then
dug up and split with a heavy knife ; the kernel, now soft
and tender, is eaten, and the edible sprout, or young growing
stem, somewhat like a small parsnip inverted, is boiled,
roasted, or dried and ground into meal.
The large fan-shaped leaves are of service to the people in
innumerable ways. The petiole, or leaf-stem, is 3 or 4
feet in length, and the fan-like expansion over 3 feet' in
diameter, containing from 60 to 80 double slips or rays.
From 12 to 15 leaves are annually pruned off each tree;
these are used for fuel, thatch, &c. The outer skin or fibre
of the leaf-stem is exceedingly tenacious, and is used in
narrow strips for caning bed-frames, and as cordage. The
rays of the leaf, cut into narrow slips like straw, are plaited
into mats and baskets ; they are also made into folding fans,
umbrellas, tobacco pouches, and ornamental work, and the
slips form the ordinary writing material. These are three feet
in length, and about an inch and a half broad, of a very
smooth, leathery and satin-like texture. The best for writing
purposes are those which are cut while young and soft, and
afterwards dried in the sun. The writing is scratched into
the surface by an iron pen, or stylus, — a "writing nail" it is
called ; when desired, the characters can be blackened b}^
rubbing over them a mixture of lamp-black and oil. This is
as if we in England wrote our letters on large leaves, or the
bark of trees (as was once done*) with an iron nail, and then
darkened the writing by rubbing ashes over it.
The engraving on the next page represents these Avriting
implements, with a palm-leaf letter of the ordinary style, such
as are constantly received in India : — a is the small knife, used
to trim the slips of palm leaf ; b, the iron stylus, often inlaid
Avith silver or even gold; c, the piercer, with which small holes,
about a quarter of an inch in diameter, are made in either end
* Compare yti?iH»i, leaf, folio; and liber, bark, bouk.
122
THE LAND OF CHARITY.
of each, leaf, for the purpose of tying or binding them to-
gether ; d, the writing-case for holding these instruments^
usually worn stuck in the folds of the waist-cloth.
The letter itself (e) is neatly folded up, with the ends turned
inward, and fastened outside with a strap of the same material.
For books, the slips are cut into lengths, say 10 or 12 inches
long, a small round hole is pierced at both ends, through
which a cord runs to string them together, with two narrow
slips of wood at either side, similarly pierced and fastened, to
form a kind of bindin".
The natives are very rapid writers on the " o/e/," or palm
leaf, and write standing or walking as well as sitting. An
odd scratcliing noise is made by a number of men writing
simultaneously. I have seen a European missionary almost
put out in his early attempts at Tamil preaching by the
sound of the iron pens of the native teachers taking notes of
his sermon. Deeds and documents are all written upon this
material, and if kejjt in the smoke of the lire, or otherwise
AGRICULTURE. 123
out of reach of the white ants, they will last for two or three
hundred years, which is the age attributed to some documents
of this kind still extant.
Small specimens of the palm leaf are also smoothed and
flattened, the ends of the rays being cut off, then ornamented
with mica, tinsel and peacock's feathers, and made into beau-
tiful fans.* The leaves are also folded up so as to make light
buckets for carrying water, or small temporary drinking
vessels. The central leaf-bud makes a tender and delicious
pickle ; but of course this is only to be had when a tree is cut
down for timber, as the removal of the crown destroys the
life of the palm. But perhaps the most profitable product of
the palm is the sap, or " palm wine," which is drunk fresh or
fermented, boiled into sugar or distilled into spirits. The
last manufacture is chiefly in the hands of Ilavars, and is
never practised by Christian Shanars, whose ordinary occupa-
tion is the climbing of the Palmyra to tap the tree, to collect
the sap, and manufacture the palm sugar. The " climbing
season," during which the sap flows, extends over a period of
about seven months in the year, from August to February,
and this is a busy time Avith the Shrmar. He begins before
daylight in the morning, works hard till nearly noon, and
again late in the afternoon till night, manipulating from 30
to 50 palms, Avhich he must ascend twice — sometimes even
thrice, in the course of a day.
The Shanar's tools consist of a large curved knife for
cutting off" old leaves and the extremity of the unexpanded
flowering stalk, from which the sap exudes ; a pair of wooden
pincers for slightly crushing the sap-bearing branch, so as to
aid the ready flow of the juice ; a small basket Avith lime,
and a brush, with which a small quantity of lime is rubbed
inside each pot, to prevent the too speedy fermentation of
* See palm-leaf fan and umbrtllas in engraving on p. 30.
124
THE LAND OF CHARITY.
the palm juice. These instruments are jilaced within alight
hasket or tool bag, formed from the spathe or flowering sheath
of the same tree, and fastened on
one side to the climber's waist-
cloth. Another leaf basket, or
bucket, plaited double, to hold
the sap, is fastened at the other
side. In his hand the climber
carries a staff", or crutch, with
horizontal top.
Arrived at the foot of the tree,
he lays his crutch against the
stem, then placing one foot on the
top of the crutch, rises two or
three feet. Placing his feet in a
loop of fibre to keep them close
together, and clasping his arms
round the trunk of the tree, he
draws himself up a little way.
Extending his arms again, he
reaches higher up and draws up
his feet again, so that rising
alternately with hands and feet
"""^Ulu'
:>"*
AGRICULTURE. 125
a practised climber in a few moroents reaches the top of the
tree. The agihty of these men is really marvellous. The
Shanar takes down the little round earthenware pot, holding
about a quart, which had been suspended to the flower-stalk,
empties its contents into his basket, cuts the extremity of the
stalk afresh, and again ties up the little pitcher till evening.
In this way from five to fifteen jjints of " sweet water ''
are drawn daily from each palm (compare Psa. civ. 16).
This is an agreeable, harmless drink, tasting just like sugar
and water. Other palms besides the Palmyra yield a
similar juice. When set aside for a day the " sweet water "
ferments, and is then called " tadi," or " toddy." It is a
pleasant acid drink, corresponding in a measure to our beer,
but with a larger proportion of intoxicating quality ; it makes
an excellent yeast for bread. Toddy spoils in two or three
days, but is then laid aside for some months, till it passes
into vinegar by acetous fermentation.
It is matter for great regret that this work is everywhere
carried on on Sundays as well as week days during the
climbing season, Avhich very much reduces the attendance on
public worship at this time of the year, and is a hindrance in
many respects to the improvement of our people. To test
the practicability of dropping this Sunday work, I made
careful and extended experiments Avith a number of trees,
but found that the ondssion of a single day's tapping seri-
ously checks the flow of the sap, and reduces the quantity
to less than one-half. Still, some of our Christian people
attempt, by vaiious arrangements, to reduce the Sunday work
to a minimum, while others distribute to the poor the whole
produce of this day's labour.
Eoiling the sap into sugar is the next process, and is per-
formed by the laborious SliiTnatti, or female Shanar. She
first gathers firewood in the jungles, and bears it home on
her head ; then, when the juice has been collected, the
126 "the land op charity."
climber's wife coramences to boil it down over a slow fire in
large earthen pots, till it becomes a thick syrup. This is
then poured into moulds, each formed of half a cocoa-nut
shell, in which it hardens into lumps of very dark coarse
sugar. This '^ jaggery j''' or palm sugar, is largely used as
food. Bearers and workmen when unable to spare time for
cooking curry and rice, eat a lump of "jaggery" as a refresh-
ment. They use it also with salt fish as a regular meal, and
in times of famine, when rice is scarce, we have occasionally
given a light meal of jaggery to the chiklren of our boarding
schools. Jaggery is also an essential ingredient, in fixed pro-
portions, in good mortar, to Asdiicli it imparts adhesive strength
and tenacity. It is sometimes imported into England as an
excellent manure.
The dark palm sugar is sometimes refined and clarified
with animal charcoal, eggs, or lime ; and this might well
become a staple trade of Travancore. Small quantities of
sugar-candy are also prepared, of which a handful is often
presented by native gentlemen, as a friendly gift and token of
respect, when visiting Europeans.
Arrack, or native spirits, a transparent, colourless liquid
like gin or whisky, is distilled from jaggery. The sugar is
first broken up and put in water for four days to ferment ; it
is then boiled in an earthen pot, the vapour being caught in
a bamboo tube which falls into another vessel, in which
the liquor is cooled and condensed. This operation is re-
peated a second time when necessary. Arrack is a most
injurious beverage, and there is reason to fear that it is
largely used by some classes of the people ; a single penny-
Avorth will intoxicate a native.
The economical uses of the noble Pahuyra are almost end-
less. The natives say that there are 801 uses of the palm, and
I have no doubt tliat tliis number might be reckoned. A
liuudred trees wiU support two families ; and the produce is
AGRlCULTUPvE. 127
not, like that of some other plants, readily affected hy change
or inequality of seasons. " A native," says Dr. Winslow, " if
he will content himself Avith rather ordinary doors (windows
he wants none) and the common mud Avail, may build an
entire house — wanting no nails or ironwork — with posts,
plates, roof, and covering of the Palmyra tree. From this
tree he may store his grain, make his bed, furnish his pro-
visions, kindle his fire, draAv or bring his Avater ; and also, by
the help only of an earthen pot set on three stones, cook his
food, sweeten it if lie chooses, procure his Avine (such as it is),
and live day after day dependent only on this tree."* Thus
bountifully does the wise and paternal providence of God
supply the Avants of man, and proAdde for his sustenance and
enjoyment in every climate, according to its special require-
ments and circumstances.
* Ferguson's Popular Description of tbe Palmjra Palm.
128
CHAPTEE X.
VERNACULAR LANGUAGES.
VerDaeular Languages — Tamil — Its Peculiarities and Idioms — Malajalim
— Comparison with Tamil — Ludicrous Blunders in Speaking — Proper
Names of Places and Persons.
Two languages, Tamil and Malayalim, are spoken in Travan-
core. The former, vernacular in the south-east of the Indian
peninsula, extends round the corner, as it were, of Cape
Comorin into Travancore, and for a distance of about forty
miles along the Western coast. The Neyyattunkara river may
be regarded as the boundary of the two languages ; so that,
when labouring in the district of Pareychiiley, the writer
studied and preached in Tamil ; but, after removing over the
borders of the Tamil country to Trevandrum, a distance of
only twenty miles, it was necessary to learn Malayrdim, which
is spoken throughout the remainder of the principality, and
is the language in. which the missionary services at Trevan-
drum and Quilon are conducted. The Tamil-speaking portion
of " the Land of Charity " may be estimated at one-fourth of
the whole population. In the capital itself almost every
native is acquainted Avith both languages. Malayalim extends
altogether to the vicinity of Mangalore, a distance of about
300 miles along the Western coast, and is vernacular to
three millions of the people of India.
Tamil is, strangely enough, called by old writers the " Mala-
bar " language. The word " Tamil " or " Tamir " signifies
" sweetness " or " melodiousness," intimating the high estima-
VERNACULAR LAN'GUAGES. 129
tion in Avhich this language is held. The languages of
Southern India are not derived from Sanskrit, but from that
which was spoken by the early inhabitants of the peninsula
before its conquest by the Brahmanical, or Sanskrit-speaking
race ; and Dr. Caldwell, in his learned and able work on the
Comparative Grammar of these Dravidian languages, shows
that they are distantly related to the Scythian or Tartar
tongues, as also in some measure to Hungarian and Finnish.
The South Indian languages have, however, engrafted upon
the original stock many Sanskrit words, the proportion being-
greatest in Malayalim, next in Telugu, and least in Tamil.
The Tamil language, spoken by at least twelve millions
of people, is very pleasing and euphonious in character,
though it is more circumlocutory and diifuse than English ;
a page of the latter, when translated, generally occupies
If pages of the same size in Tamil.
The Tamil alphabet has 30 letters (12 vowels and 18 con-
sonants), and 216 combined or compound characters. The
characters are read from left to right, as in English and
other European tongues. Dr. Winslow's Tamil Dictionary
contains G7,452 words. In native books the words are
printed without separation, certain letters being altered,
omitted, or doubled, according to the connection; thus,
'■^vanthu iniMdren," "I have come," becomes " vaiithinil--
li'iren ;" " soUa 'ponan^'' " he went to tell," becomes " soil a p-
ponan ;" " kadalthirei^'' " wave of the sea," becomes " Icadat-
tirei,^' and so on. Tamil grammarians divide the words into
four classes or parts of speech, viz., Xoun, A'ei'b, Adjective,
and Particle.
This language has many peculiarities of grammar and
idiom. There is no word corresponding to our relative pro-
noun " who " or " which," the deficiency being abundantly
supplied by participles used only with tlie noun, somewhat
like the Greek participle in on, omenos, &c. Thus " the
K
130
"the land of charity."
labourer who digs" is "the digginrj labourer." The colloca-
tion of words is also very different from that of English,
being often the very reverse of ours. Sentences usually end
with the verb, — ^just as the participle or infinitive is put at
the end of a sentence in German.
"And" is expressed by tlie addition of "um" to the
various nouns, like the " que " subjoined to the last of two
nouns in Latin, as " kuthireiyz/?^ manithan?<9w " — " The
horse and the man." There is no definite article in the lan-
guage ; but " one " — " one," is used for the indefinite article
"a." To denote quotation, the conjunction "that" is not
used, but " endru," " saying ;" thus, " he said that he would
come" would be expressed — "I will come, saying, he said."
Some idea of the structure and style of the Tamil language
may be gathered from the following popular story, trans-
literated into Roman characters : —
"Entha uyireiyum kollatha oru
What- (ever) life (even) not-killing, an
sanniyasi oru
ascetic
eri karei
pond bank
van antha
man that
ponan.
went.
mele
upon
eriyile meen
pond-in fish
sembadavanei (p) pavtthu
fisherman seeing,
eruviiy 1
wilt ascend (get to heaven)?"
nfd karei eruven,
bank ascend will I,"
Pogumpothu
Went-when
piditthiin.
was-catching.
Eiyo ! nee
"Alas! thou
oru
a
sembada
fislier-
Sanniyasi
(The) Ascetic,
eppothu karei
when bank
endran. Eiya en pari niramin
said he. "Sir, my basket fill-if
endran.
said he.
The luunour of the story consists in the pun on the double
meaning of the words " ascend the bank," which are often
used to denote the attainment of future happiness — " get to
heaven." The ascetic is shocked at the criminality of the
VERNACULAR LANGUAGES. 131
fisherman in destroying the life of the fish, hut is at once
silenced by his ready and witty reply.
The word " vendum" corresponding generally to " mtist^^
is also used in urgent but respectful solicitation ; but the
newly arrived European is rather astonished, if not, indeed,
provoked when he is told by a poor native that he must do
so and so, while an urgent entreaty is all that is intended by
the humble suitor. In fact, this word " must," with the
addition of the emphatic " e," is the form used in Malayalini
in prayer to the Supreme Being.
There is a set of onomatopoetic words much used in Tamil,
expressing by their very sound the idea intended. Thus they
say, " He cried saying A'o," — that is, he cried like " ko " or
" koo." He walks " taliku takJcu," — that is, stejjping heavily
as stout persons. He walks " tattalika pittaJiJia"- — that is,
tottering as an old person. He shut the door like ^^ paddr,'"
and so forth.
One of the great difficulties of Tamil consists in the correct
and appropriate use of the honorific forms of address. The
pronouns and verbs which you use, as well as some of the
names of objects, at once reveal your estimate of the relative
rank of the person whom you address. If he is evidently
your inferior or junior, you say, "nee pogiray," — "thou
goest," and the use of the honorific in such circumstances
would be simply inappropriate or ludicrous. If he is your
equal in rank, or you wish politely to treat him as such, the
form is " neer pogireer," — thou (sir) goest. If superior,
" neengal pogireergal," — "ye go," or "tangal pogireergal," —
"themselves go," — which is the customary form of address
from natives to European gentlemen. If higher still, as, for
example, in addressing the Maharajah, the most respectful
form would be, "Is the Maharajah themselves going?" unless
one were to use the customary native form of address to his
Highness — "trolden uod" or "sacred mind."
132 "the land op charity."
Should the person addressed be an entire stranger, and his
rank not he apparent from his dress, pronunciation, or
attendants, the pronoun " it " may he used without offence ;
" enge pogirathur' "where does it gol" afterwards rising to
"neer" or "neengal" if necessary. There are yet other
forms, such as " pogirathundu " — " there is a going," which
are occasionally used without any pronoun, or intimation of
either respect or disrespect ; but this style is rather trouble-
some and roundabout.
It is by no means polite or respectful to call a person by
his proper name in Tamil. Individual missionaries, for in-
stance, are spoken of as the " Neyoor eiyar," or " missionary "
— the " Cannamoola padre," or " minister " (fi'om the name of
our mission premises at Trevandrum), and so forth (compare
First Samuel, 9th chapter, 11th and 18th verses). Letters
are addressed " to the very reverend teacher gentleman them-
selves." Other European gentlemen are lecognised as " the
fireat gentleman " (the Eesident) ; " the second " or " little
gentleman " (his assistant) ; the " Tyecad Doctor," the " Engi-
neer gentleman," and so on. I have experienced difficulty at
times in inducing uneducated natives to mention the personal
name of the catechist of their congregation, when I have
been uncertain as to tlie person indicated. One of the ruics
of native etiquette which females are taught is that they must
never be so disrespectful toward their husl)ands as to mention
tlieir names, and this often causes little dilliculties. When,
for example, a woman Avhose husband's name is IMattliew is
asked to read " the Gospel according to St. Matthew," she
hesitates to pronounce the evangelist's name, and is only
induced to do so after some expostulation and advice.
There are in Tamil, as in I\lalagasy and the Polynesian
languages, two distinct forms of the personal pronoun " we "
— " nam," //^eluding, and " nfoKjal," e.Kcluding tlie party
addressed ; as, for example, " AVe (nam) are men," or " we
VERNACULAR LANGUAGES. 133
(uangal) will not go -with you." These distinctions, though
somewhat difficult to the learner, are yet useful in practice,
and of essential importance. In preaching to a congregation
one must say, " Our (»aH;mudeiya) Saviour ; " while b\
l»rayer addressed to the Divine Being, one must be careful
to say, "We {^^ndnfjaf," not "nam") are sinners ;" otherwise
the persons respectively addressed are wrongly excluded or
included in the " we."
The Malay rdim letters (pronounced Ma-lay-a-lim) are 53
in number, of which 16 are vowels ; the double letters are
592. Many are aspirate letters, as gha, Ma, bha, &c.,
which do not exist in Tamil. The great number and
intricacy of these characters, as compared with Tamil, is
rather puzzling to a beginner. In Bailey's Malayalim Dic-
tionary there are 43,000 words, but being the first work of
the kind it is less accurate and complete than the present
Tamil dictionary. In essential structure this language
closely resembles Tamil, and the roots are nearly identical
in both. The chief distinction lies in the grammar and
inflections, and in the large proportion of Sanskrit words
used in INIalayalim. The difference is about as great as
between the Spanish and Italian languages, in both of
which the roots ai'e identical, while the details of the
grammar are quite diverse.
The question as to which is the preferable language, Tamil
or Malayalim, is often discussed, and I have noticed that
most of those who are acquainted with both languages give
the preference to the one which they had learnt first, and to
which they had naturally become attached. This seems to
show that both have their merits. It is indisputable, how-
ever, that Tamil is the more highly cultivated, exact, and
euphonious of the two ; while IMalayalim is the more terse,
and adopts Sanskrit words in their most correct form, with-
out the corruptions and alterations to which they are neces-
1 34 " THE LAND OP CHARITY."
sarily exposed by tlie rules of Tamil. To the Malayfilim
speaker, Tamil appears needlessly to lengthen out its Avords ;
to the Tamil scholar, Malayiilim sounds harsh, nasal, and full
of aspirates, and appears deficient in exactness, especially in
the terminations of the verhs. There are fewer honorifics in
Malayalim, so that one at first feels awkward in addressing
the Divine Being in prayer, in this language, as " Nee,"
which in Tamil would be exceedingly irreverent and unbe-
coming.
These languages were doubtless once identical, the most
ancient forms of Tamil and Malayfdim almost coinciding.
This is ingeniously demonstrated by Dr. Caldwell, who
shows that the Avord for east in both languages means
literally fZo?PKwards, and for niest ?(/9wards — tln;s proving that
both nations were originally located on the eastern side of
the Ghauts ; in which case eastwards is really " downwards "
to the coast, and westwards "upwards" toward the mountains.
It is interesting to note that in our own language we have
adopted several words of Tamil origin. A certain stimu-
lating mixture is called toddy (in Tamil "tadi"); cigars are
called cheroots, from the Tamil " churuttu," a roll ; cot, now
occasionally used in England, as in India, for "a small bed,"
is from the Tamil "kattil," a very different Avord from our
own " cot," — a house or cottage ; rice is the Tamil " arisi," —
written by the Greeks "oruza," — in English "rice."
On the other hand, many English, Portuguese, Arabit;,
and other terms, learned by intercourse with these nations,
are now in common use amongst the people of South India.
It Avill readily be seen tluit much study and attention aie
required to attain proficiency in Tamil or JMalayfdim. Not
that the Indian languages are by any means ecpially intricate
and perplexing as Arabic and Chinese ; the difficulty is
really not extreuK!, and can in every case be surmounted by
care and constant practice. In the pronunciation, Euiopeans
VERNACULAR LANGUAGES. 135
err chiefly in interchanging one d or t sound for another ; in
omitting aspirates ; in mistaking the long and short vowels ;
and in confounding the hard and soft and hissing r. With
industry, living amongst the natives, and freely associating
with them, and with daily reading and conversing, a Euro-
pean should be able fairly to commence regular extempore
speaking within a year after his arrival in the country, and
two years may suffice for a fluent and moderately accurate
command of the language.
At first, egregious blunders are unavoidable, but the
natives are very polite and lenient in their criticisms, and
are delighted with any earnest attempts to overcome the
difficulties of the language. The exact intonations and
idioms are, it must be confessed, rather difficult of acquisi-
tion. For example, different words are used for " the sun,"
and "the heat or rays of the sun," while in English we
apply the same term to both. A European, therefore, using
the wrong word may be insisting on having his towels put
into the body of the sun itself, instead of into its rays merely.
In Englisli we are accustomed to speak of both " mirror "
and " tumbler " alike as " glass," so that the tyro in Tamil
may inadvertently call for "a mirror of water;" or, by a
slight mispronunciation, he may speak of " pilleigal," children,
as " puligal," tigers. Mistakes will occasionally be committed
even after some practice in speaking. I remember on one
occasion observing a gentle twinkling smile steal over the
foces of my hearers, and on afterthought recollected that I
liad made a mistake of half a letter in a text which I had
quoted, " Riches make to themselves wings like an eagle,"
— a " karugei," I should have said ; but " karuthei," a
donkey, was the word Avhich, by a slip of the tongue, 1 uttered ;
and as the good people had never seen wings on a donkey in
that part of the world, it was no wonder that their fancy-
was tickled by the ludicrous idea.
13G "tub land of charity."
The long and strange names of places in India often seem
very puzzling, Ijut most of the Indian geographical names
given in English maps and other publications are much
altered and corrupted, or abbreviated from the real form of
the word. This arises from carelessness and insufficient
acquaintance with the language on the part of the early
British residents in India. Thus Travancore is called by
the natives themselves Tiruvithankodu ; Trevandrum is Tiru-
vanantapuram ; Quilon is properly Kollam ; (Cape) Comorin
is Kumari ; and so on with most of the names of well-known
localities in India. Our English form of many words has
become established through long use, and cannot now be
well altered or corrected.
It is interesting to observe that the Hindus have given
names to localities very much resembling those in use in our
own country. There are many villages and towns with
names similar (when translated) to some of our own. In
Travancore, as well as in Great Britain, I have known or
visited Newmarket (Puthukadei), Hillsborough (Maleivilei),
iS'ewport (Puttentorei), Smithfield (Kollanvilei), and many
others of like nature ; thus showing that the Hindus are like
ourselves in mental structure, as also in the essential charac-
teristics of their languages.
Although it is impossible, from the various changes which
words undergo in course of time, to discover the meaning of
every local name at present in use in India, yet most of
these long and formidable-looking names have a definite
signification. They are generally compound Avords, and may
readily be resolved into their elements.
Many of our English geographical terms end in ham,
stoio, ton, &c., each of which has its appropriate meaning.
So also will be found in South Indian local names such
terminations as kodu, ridge or stronghold ; ^;aZ7i, temple ;
vilei, field ; puram, town ; oor or ur, village; patnam, town ;
VERNACULAR LANGUAGES. 137
hirei, river bank; konam, corner; and j)e//«/i, a village
attached to a fort.
The position or other circumstances of a locality are often
indicated in these local terms. Such are Valiatory (Great
Port), Kulivilei (Hollow Field), Udayagiri (Eastern Hill),
Pareikonam (Rock Corner), A'ttur (Eiver Village), Mana-
kudu (Sand Desert). These resemble in character such
English words as Springfield, Blackwater, Bath, and others.
Cochin, properly A'or/i /, is from " kochu," "little " — the town
being built upon a very small piece of land between the sea
and the backwater.
Some of the Tamil local names are, like the English I^ew-
castle and Chester, suggested by forts, palaces, and great and
important edifices by which the localities were distinguished.
Thus Aranmanei means The Fortifications ; Kottaram, The
Palace ; and Cottayam, The Fort.
The names of traditional or fabulous heroes and gods, or
allusions to legendary tales related of the localities, furnish
many geographical terms. Trevandrum is " The City of the
Sacred Snake," where a great serpent is said to have sheltered
the god Vishnu, who there became incarnate ; Patmana-
bhapuram is " The City of Patmanabhan," the national god
of Travancore; Devikodu, "The Goddess's Town;" Nagercoil,
" Snake Temple," where the serpent god is worshipped ;
Mavelikkara, " Great Bali's bank ; " Alagiapandij^uram,
" The Beautiful City of Pandi," &c. Compare with these
our Peterborough, St. Albans, Holywell, &c.
Animals and plants common in India give names to
numerous localities. Anjengo, properly Anjutenga, means
"The Five Cocoa-nut Trees ; " Tamareikulam, "The Water-
lily Pond ; " Kanyu'ankulam, " Strychnine Tree Pond ; "
Vareitottam, "Plantain Garden;" " Nellikakuri, " Gooseberry
Hole ;" Mungilvilei, "Bamboo Field." One might almost by
these names discover what plants most abound in each place.
138 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
Sokankani is " Monkey's Land ; " Meiliidi, " Peacock's
Dance ; " Pilmbadi, " Snake's Dance ; " Ivolitottam, " Fowl
Garden;" A'neikadu, "Elephant Forest;" and Kiliur, "Parrot
Village." In like manner we in England have Primrose Hill,
Ivy Bridge, Oakley, Oxford, Otterton, Foxliam, &c.
In India localities are often named after the class of persons
who formerly or at present reside in them. Accordingly,
Vannanvilei means "Washerman's Field;" Pareicheri or
Parcherry, "Parian's Street;" Pitcheikudiyiruppu, "Beggar's
Dwelling-place;" and Tattanvilei, " Goldsmith's Field."
The Hindus frequently indulge in fanciful and poetical
names for their villages, which are sometimes strikingly in-
consistent with the matter-of-fact or miserable appearance of
the places themselves. Butter and milk are frequently re-
ferred to, probably as emblems of fertility and prosperity.
Such are Pfdur, " Milk Village ; " Pfdrir, " Milk Pdver ; "
Neyoor, " Butter Village ; " Neyyattunkarei, " The Bank of
the Butter River ; " — the very figure used in Holy Writ, " a
land flowing with mllJc and honey," Exod. iii. 17. One
village which I have often visited is called Chandraman-
galam, "Moon's Eejoicing" — evidently a mere poetical
compound.
Many of these names are very long and formidable-looking,
but of course to those who have studied the language they
are quite as easy as our longest English Avords. Others,
longer still, are by no means difficult to pronounce. Here
are one or two of the longest : — Koleishegaramangalam,
Chinnamartandaputtentorei, Anantanfidankudiyiruppu.
As the British Indian Government have decided that all
Indian names shall henceforward be simply transliterated
into Roman characters, and as this is the only remedy for
the confusion and diversity in this respect so generally com-
plained of by English readers, this system has been adopted
in the present work, except in the names of places frequently
VERXACULAR LANGUAGES. 139
referred to in geograpliical works and missionary reports, of
which the less accurate orthography has become established
and familiar.
In like manner proper names of jfersons have their several
significations, and those often very pretty and poetical.
Many of the people receive names in honour of popular
Hindu gods and goddesses, as I^arayana, Rama, Madava,
Perumal, Pfirvathi, Latchmi; or of demons, as Madan,
Sattan, Isakki. Others are elegant and poetical compounds,
and these, as well as Scripture names, are favourites amongst
Christian converts. Such are Masillamani, " Pearl without
a flaw ; " Vethamanikkam, " Gem of Scripture ; " Gurupa-
tham, " Feet of the Teacher ; " Karuttudian, " Possessor of
thought, or judgment;" Gnanakkan, "Eye of wisdom;"
Gnanamuttu, "Pearl of wisdom ; " Sebattifm, "Praying one ; "
Devadasen, " Servant of God ; " Sattiyayi, " True one ; " &c.
Other names are suggested by the personal appearance of
the individuals who bear them, as Karuttan, " Black one ; "
Velleiyan, " White one ; " Ilayan, " Tender one ; " Kochu-
kutti, "Little one."
Many names are given on the principle of bestowing an
humble cognomen, as a kind of protection from envy, or the
evil eye, which might injuriously affect those who assume to
themselves lofty and sounding titles : such are Ummini, " a
small particle ; " Valli, " a creeping plant ; " Podipen, " a
mmute woman — a bit of a girl;" Pichei, "alms, or charity,"
— unless indeed this last alludes poetically and beautifully
to children being the charitable gifts of God's bounty, for
which the parents may have offered their humble petitions.
I
1-il
CIIAPTEE XI.
LITERATURE AXD POPULAR EDUCATIOX.
Classical Literature — Proverbs illustrative of Scripture — Astrologv — Native
Poems — A Hojal Author — Moral Sentiments — Poetical Figures —
Metres — Specimens of Christian Lyrics and Native Tunes — Village
Schools — System of Instruction — Government Schools and College —
Female Education — Mission Schools.
The Tamil vernacular literature is of considerable extent and
variety, i^o less than 1,755 distinct publications (including
tracts, &c.) have been put into print by Hindus, Moham-
medans, Roman Catholics, and Protestants, in addition to
many works still found only in manuscript. Of these the
largest proportion are Protestant religious works, next those
on Hinduism, with poems, plays, philosophy, fables, proverbs,
and works treating of medicine, grammar, and educational
subjects. The first book printed in the Tamil language was
by a Portuguese Jesuit, in 1577. The Tamil translation of
the Holy Scriptures was the first rendering of the Scriptures
in an Indian language, being published by the Danish
missionaries in 1715 — above a hundred and fifty years ago.
The Malayillim indigenous literature is very scanty in
amount, and is inferior in literary character ; this language
liaving been chiefl}' cultivated by Brahmans rather than by
native ]\Ialayalis. A few good works, including a translation
of the great Hindu epic, " Eamayanam," exist in manuscript.
There are one or two printing presses conducted by natives,
but there is no sucli sale for vernacular books as amongst the
Tamil people.
142 "the land of charity."
The works most popular in Travancore are portions of tlie
great epic poeras, the Eamayana and the Mahabharata, the
Story of King l^ala, and other fabulous histories of Hindu
heroes and gods, together with religious works expatiating on
the benefits to be derived from the strict observance of the
prescribed ceremonies aild prayers. Other popular and much-
read books treat of omens, incantations, astrology, and so
forth.
Many Hindu proverts, as well as common customs, furnish
admirable illustrations of the language or statements of Holy
Scriptui'e. The following may be selected out of many of a
similar character : —
1. "A knife Avithin and piety outwardly." (Compare
Psa. Iv. 21 ; Matt, xxiii. 28.)
2. " The king administers instant punishment, but God
delays His judgment." (Eccles. viii. 11.)
3. " Will words of commiseration cool the head 1 "
(Jas. ii. 16.)
4. "The future fruit may be known before it is ripe."
(Prov. XX. 11.)
5. " Like standing upon two boats." (Jas. i. 6.)
C. " Though the bitter gourd be washed in the Ganges, it
will not become good." (Jer. ii. 22.)
7. " They who give have all things ; those who withhold
have nothing." (Prov. xi. 24; Matt. xiii. 12.)
8. " The fowl is not aware of danger till it is seized by the
hand." (Prov. xxix. 1.)
9. " The moon shines even in the house of the wicked."
(]\ratt. V. 45.)
10. " When a thing is given out of love, it is like nectar."
(Prov. XV. 17.)
11. "Are there any bars that can confine love? Tlie
tender tears of the loved one cause a very tempest in tlie
soul." (Cant. viii. 6, 7.)
LITERATURE AND POPULAR EDUCATIOX. 143
12. " Purity of mind alone is virtue." (jNIatt v. 8.)
1 3. " The iinloving live to themselves, the loving live
wholly for others." (Eoni. xiv. 7.)
14. " Soft words are Ijetter than harsh : the sea is attracted
by the cool moon and not by the hot sun." (Prov. xv. 1.)
15. " Where there is a stain on the heart, even good deeds
will be all received as evil ; but those of spotless minds Avill
still look upon it as good." (Tit. i. 15.)
IG. " If those who confess the existence of God enter on
an evil action, God will rebuke them. Xot so those who
say, 'There is no God.' Is it not to their own dear children
that men patiently repeat instruction 1 " (Heb. xii. 8.)
The school books in general use ordinarily contain lessons
in Astrology. One of these in IMalayalim is entitled " Vak-
kiam " — Astrology. It is divided into four parts, of which
the first and the third consist of tables to facilitate computa-
tions of the relative positions of the moon and planets — the
data and formulae being represented by Sanskrit mnemonic
words and letters. The second part contains tables of the
days of the week ; the twenty-seven stars or constellations
tluough which, according to Hindu astronomy, the moon
passes ; the twelve signs of the zodiac ; the age of the moon,
and other information. The fourth part is exclusively
astrological, giving rules for finding out lucky times for the
performance of every necessary action, — such as bathing,
shaving, marriage, domestic events, house-building, lending
money, journeying, and so forth.
The following specimen of information of this kind from
the Malayalim almanack for m.e. 1039 may not be devoid
of interest : —
"Propitious times for marriage, Sfc. — 1st Chiiigum, 1039
(16th August, 1863). After sunset, between 18| and 20
hours, and 22 and 23| hours, the moon being in the first
quarter of the star Uttiram, and the sign Gemini rising, — ■
144 "the land of CIIARITr."
a good time for children's teething. Between 19 J and 25 1
hours, Gemini and Cancer rising, — fortunate for giving
names.
"11/7/.— From 8 to 9| hours, and lU to 13 hours, the
moon being in the third quarter of Uttradam, and Libra
rising, — good for giving chiklren rice for the first time
(weaning).
" 9/// Vricluijam, 1039. — After sunrise, 14^ to 15| hours,
the moon being in the fourth quarter of Aswathi, — lucky
both for commencing the erection of a house, and for first
entrance into a new residence.
" Wth. — After sunset, 8f to 19 hours, the moon being in
the second quarter of Rohini, Cancer and Leo rising, — good
for marriage, excepting ten minutes at midnight."
A curious specimen of a thoroughly native production is a
Malayrdim poem in my possession, composed by a Sfidra
native of Trevandrum, INIadavan Pillei, in lionour of the late
Rajah Martanda Vurmah, and written in the most inflated
style of fulsome panegyric. Opening, as usual, with invoca-
tions to Vishnu and other deities, the poem proceeds to
describe, in the most exaggerated terms, the public reception
of the present from her Majesty the Queen to the late
Rajah, — to which we have already referred in Chapter V.
The Rajah's fame for wisdom and virtue had, it appears,
attracted the attention and excited the admiration of the
gods themselves, several of whom came down to have the
pleasure of witnessing those excellences, bestowing upon
the Rajah at the same time the nectar of the gods, so that
thenceforth his words seemed to the hearers as heavenly
ambrosia flowing from his lips.
Victoria is represented as (^ueen of tlie 11 Anas, or Euro-
peans, (la formci' ages, according to tradition, the monkey
gods in the army of Rrima married tlie female Rilkshasas or
giants of Ceylon, and to their descendants Rama allotted the
LITERATURE AND POPULAR EDUCATIOX. 145
remote West as their place of atode. These are the Euro-
pean nations, and they still evidently retain the charac-
teristics of both the original races from whom they are
descended, inasmuch as, like the monkeys, they select
elevated sites for their abodes, and delight to sit upon chairs
and benches instead of the ground, and, like the giantesses,
they habitually devour flesh for food.) To this Huna Queen
the Rajah had sent a beautiful ivory throne, richly carved
and inlaid, and in token of her Majesty's regard for him she
kindly sent in return a handsome embroidered belt and
watch. Details of the Durbar are then given, but, it must
be confessed, without much regard to historic accviracy ; the
Eajah is represented upon this occasion as shining amongst
his attendants like the moon amongst the stars.
The second part of the jioem describes a visit paid by the
Eajah to the sacred temples at Sucliindram and Cape Comorin.
He is described as no less than an incarnation of Deity
itself, and his learning, courage, and piety are highly extolled.
This kind of thing is no doubt the origin of much of the
hero-worship and idolatry which have prevailed amongst
ancient nations. The royal procession being Avitnessed by
strangers, a dialogue is introduced, in which the specta-
tors, ignorant of the person of the Eajah, inquire who this
glorious and extraordinary personage is. One hints that it
must be the god Indra on a visit to the presiding deity
of the temple ; another, that it is the god of riches, but that
he is not so fair as this glorious person. Others suggest
that it may be the great hero Eama or Ivamadeva, the god of
love, but for the report that the latter is without material
body or form. At last they meet with one who sets them all
right upon the subject.
This extravagant production exhibits few signs of true
poetic ability, and possesses little merit as to literary compo-
sition or style.
L
liG "the land of charity."
More special interest naturally attaches to a poem com-
posed and published by H. H. the late Rajah Vunjee Bala
Eama Vurmah, elder uncle of the present Maharajah, who
died in 1846. It is considered by native scholars to be a
good specimen of modern Sanskrit poetry, the compound
poetical terms being formed according to standard rules, the
sentences skilfully constructed, and the whole adapted to be
sung to the most popular and melodious Hindu tunes. This
work contains hymns in praise of Patmaniibhan, the tutelar
deity of "the charitable kingdom;" but of course is tho-
roughly superstitious, and after a fashion devout in sentiment
and tone. The first hymn commences thus : —
" thou, Lord of Earth, Husband of Sree (the goddess of
prosperity), thou, God, who hast lotus-like eyes — save me !
holy Patmanabhan, whose chariot is drawn by birds — save
me ! thou who art worshipped by the king of the Suras
(celestials), thou who art full of goodness, Subduer of ene-
mies. Giver of blessings to thy servants, thou who hast arras
admirably powerful, thou who art adored by the holy ones —
save me ! thou Upholder of mountains, thou Enemy of
Mura (a demon), thou Seat of Mercy, Eemover of the suf-
fering arising from births and deaths.
" Remove my manifold sins, Souri ! (a name of Vishnu,)
who walkest in the most holy gardens of bliss and haj)])i-
ness. Remove my manifold sins, O thou Destroyer of
Kashipu, who was a terror to the three worlds, thou who
shinestlike gold. Remove my manifold sins, thou l^n-iticr from
sin, thou Joy of the shepherdesses, thou who art adorned
with beautiful features, thou who art devoid of passions,
wliose lotus-like foot measures the universe. Remove my
manifold sins, O my Lord, who takest away sorrows ; thou,
O Souri, who hast the sun and the moon for thine eyes."
The last hymn is an address to the soul, as follows : —
"(J my Mind! be thou always fixed upon God. Ah!
LITERATUPxE AND POPULAR EDUCATIOX. 147
tell me, art tliou not incessantly fixed on self 1 my Mind,
know that this thy body is fragile ; be not over-anxious.
Do not covet earth. Delight in the history of Madhava
(Vishnu), which is full of joy, holy and divine. my Mind,
cherish not rude ignorance ; let not dreadful sins have place
in thy thoughts ; avoid evil communications. my Mind,
be kind to every one. Consider all things as thou con-
siderest thyself. Put away thy sorrows, and Avith all thy
.strength incessantly serve the azure-tinted Patmanabhan.
my Mind, be thou always fixed upon God !"
It should be borne in mind that this poem is the pro-
duction of one well acquainted Avitli many of the truths
inculcated by the Christian religion.
Excellent sentiments are contained in the Tamil ethical
poems, studied as classics, several of which are of con-
siderable antiquity. But it must be remembered that the
Hindus have had considerable opportunities of learning
something of revealed truth from their intercourse, in
ancient as well as modern times, with Jewish and Christian
colonists and merchants. Beautiful and apj)ropriate poetical
fi(/ures abound in these works. Gratitude, for instance, is
set forth in the following verse : —
" The cocoa-nut bears heavy bunches, and gives men its
nectar-like water its lifelong time, in grateful remembrance
of the water given to it in its younger days : likewise, vir-
tuous men never forget former favours."
The evil of association with the wicked is thus described : —
" Even the blameless are despised on account of their
associations. The sweet sandal-wood tree and the fine timber
trees are burnt up with the rest of the jungle."
The benefit of association with the good is illustrated as
follows : — " When the rice-field is watered, the grass on the
borders is also profited. If there be one good person, for his
sake the rain falls."
118 "the land of charity."
^[iiny "works on medicine, grammar, jurisprudence, and
other subjects, in Tamil and Malayalim, are composed in a
poetic form, to aid tlie memory of students. The poetical
dialect of Tamil is, however, very different from the language
iu common use at the present time ; it is the ancient form of
the Tamil language, and contains very few, if any, Sanskrit
words. Malayalim poetry, on the contrary, employs a large
proportion of Sanskrit, in consequence of the influence of the
Brahmans in Malabar, by whom the language has been
cultivated.
In both languages a great variety of metres are in use, to
wliich are attached ancient and appropriate tunes, sung in
temple worship and on other occasions. Alliteration is
introduced, often to the absurd extent of sacrificuig sense to
sound. The rhyme, like that of the Welsh poetry, comes
not at the end but at the beginning of the lines, as in the
following verse : —
" Roll, O rill, for ever ;
Rest not, lest thy wavelets,
Sheen as shining crystal,
Shrink and sink to darkness."
It will not be difficult to perceive a similar rhyme and
alliteration in the following verse of a Christian lyric iu
1 amil, viz., —
"Mi'ivarjly arubivfiy man uri I'lri kiilam var
Pava tar vilil vala parabara tayabara."
Amongst the Tamil people several eminent Christian poets
have, in the providence of God, been raised up, and their
delightful hymns and spiritual songs are exceedingly j)opular
amongst our Christian people, who sometimes sit up all night,
at weddings and other festivals, singing and hearing these
lyrics. Their partial use in public worship has for some
years past been encourag(;d by many missionaries, and the
LITERATURE AND POPULAR EDUCATION. 149
English prejudices against them which formerly prevailed are
rapidly disappearing.
We are accustomed to sing these hymns at our open-air
services, and many heathens are attracted and instructed by
the Christian truths presented in so captivating a form.
This is literally " singing for Jesus," like that sweet singer
and Christian poet, Philip Phillips, of New York. Many
instances have come to our knowledge of heathens taking
with them printed copies of single lyrics, published as hand-
bills — notably one on "The Day of Judgment," — and
learning and singing these in their own houses and vil-
lages.
The favourite Tamil jioet and most voluminous Avriter was
the late Vethanayagam Shiistri, of Tanjore ; next stand John
Palmer, of Trevandrum, formerly a catechist at Nagercoil,
and many other writers of popular hymns. A few original
Malayalim poems have been puljlished, and the writer had a
number of the best Tamil lyrics translated into that language
by a Syrian Christian friend, and published for the use of
native Christians in Malabar.
One or two specimens of the lyrics and tunes most popular
amongst our people will perhaps be interesting. The first line
of each verse is generally repeated, and the chorus is always re-
peated at the conclusion of each verse. Some of the tunes
are slow and grave, others very cpiick ; or else a part of the
tune may be slow, and then a line or two be sung in very
quick time ; but they are mostly a kind of rapid chant.
!N^ative musicians do not sing in parts, but in unison merely,
the best of them keeping time with wonderful accuracy.
The following are among the simplest and shortest of these
tunes, but their peculiar character is to a large extent lost by
their reduction to the English notation, and by their discon-
nection from the original words.
ir>o
THE LAND OF CHARITY.
No. 1.*
CUOKUS.
M. 96, fwice to a measure.
nam eeth - un kilt - chi sa - la ar - ul a na - thi -
a^—M- — F=K— • ■ — *— • — F — * — P
div - ya sa - ru - va nee - thi - ye
D.C. for verse.
ar - ul a-na-thi - ye div - ya sa - ru - va nee -thi - ye.
The above words form the chorus of a hymn, written to
this tune, by Vethanilyagam Shastri, containing earnest de-
sires and humble petitions for the Divine presence. -The
literal meaning is as follows : — .
" Grant at this time the abundant manifestation of Thyself,
Eternal! Divine! All-righteous One ! "
The verses all throngh are sung to the same tune as the chorus.
No. 2.
Chokus. M. 13(i.
Tu - thi - tan - gi - ya pa - ra - man - da - la six - vi - se - da - ga nam -
am su - ba man ■ ga - la mi - gu sara-bra - ma su - ga
ir Finis. Vebse.
((l>_j__;f-*zzii«-__^_.0_
so - ba - na chem
a - thi sun - da - ra ni - rei
-I — I — A — I —
-kj — I- ■
!|—
z:i^z-2~:i~3.i-n'iri^
t-C:
i^-
zrpqz;D-J-n-z-izrrr|:
kond-weer ar - ul mok - ki - sha tee
ban
a - thi
* Kos. 1 and 2 have been written for this work in English musical nota-
tion by Mr. W. E. Clift.
LITERATURE AXD POPULAR EDUCATION.
151
sun - da - ra ni - rei kond - weer ar - ul mok - ki-sha tee - ban
a-thi um-bar-fjal tor-um in-githa ka-ru - nei pi- ra - tba - ban.
The \jvic sung to this lively tune is a hymn of praise to
Christ, also composed by the Tanjore poet. The following
is a literal translation of the above verses : —
CHOEUS.
" O worthy of praise ! O heavenly gospel name !
O excellent joy ! great splendour ! Our health, beauty, happiness ! "
YEESE.
" O soul filled with exceedingjoveliness ! heavenly Lamp of grace !
Renowned One, whom celestials praise for thy sweet j;racc !
O worthy, &c."
Is^. 3.
Chobus.
Ten ma-yan - gi - riiy ma - na - me yen ma - yan - gi - ray
« ^ Finis.
? — •- • ^«-:| -»-«-a :{:- 1 — >- ^*— q — , — , — ^ —
ka - na man ma - yan - gi - rap pol yen ma
Vebsb.
yan - gi - ray
m—zt:z-zl/~\^zzt-i:=^~>iii±-b --^- z^-l- y--y— E-
ba - ran
D.C.
an - ta - ra van pu - vi tan - ta pa
-— N-q^:J :q=;iriqvrqvq^c:
[l=i-it:-zU^=i±zzzzz
5r end a - ri - Till a - ri - yfi - mal.
The above tune (written in English musical notation by
152 "the land of charity."
Eev. J. P. Ash ton, M.A.) is sung to anotlier of the Shtlstri's
compositions, part of which translated, is as follows : —
CHORUS,
" Why art thou bewildered, O my soul ? why art thou bewildered ?
As the wild deer is bewildered (or confused), why art thou bewildered,
O my soul ? "
VEESE.
" The Grod who made space, air, heavens and earth,
If thou knowest who He is, why, as if not knowing him ?
Why art thou, &c."
The following is a more complete specimen of a character-
istic composition by Vethanayagam Shastri, on the subject of
Christ 'Worthy of the Confidence of Sinners.
CHOEUS.
"Jesus (Thou art my) strength — O grant Thy grace !"
VEKSES.
"Surrounded by the holy excellent ones, Thou rulest in the great
Mount Zion,
Sweet Sea of grace. Helper of men !
Blessed Being, glorious, magnificent, formless Spu'it,
Effulgence, Beginning, Righteousness — who earnest by Thine own
power in form of a sacred man.
Jesus, Thou art, &c.
" Fulness of good. Stream of wisdom !
Sea of might — Head of the heavenly hosts !
Adoration to Thy greatness (which is) beyond the praise of Thyservants !
O Word, Love, Jesus, King— Object of men's daily worship and praise
and honour !
Jesus, Thou art, &c.
" Thou didst create heaven and earth, and destroyest the work of the
great serpent ;
Thou dost impart spiritual blessings and grace to men,
Loving, friendly, gracious One ! Plant who destroyest the sin of the
world !
Desiring, enduring, seeking, accompanying. Thou art the King who
givest grace, the kind Friend!
Jesus, Thou art, &e."
LITERATURE AND POPULAR EDUCATION. 153
We conclude with a translation of a favourite hymn on
the work of the Holy Spirit by Rev. S. Winfred, a native
minister labouring in connection with the London Mission
in Madras. It is sung to the first tune.
Chorus.
" The evil heart to change, O Holy Spirit, come,— Great loving One ! "
Verses.
" Cleaving to the bondage and illusion of sin, pining, djing the death, —
A greatly deceived sinner was I.
The evil heart, &c.
Measureless sin I did, resisting knowledge,
With great desire infringing, —
The evil heart, &e.
Worldly prosperity I reckoned perpetual, in it took pleasure ;
My heart was absorbed and exhausted.
The evil heart, &c.
Heaven to view I had no mind ; mere chaff I sought, O Lord —
A sinner am I, O Lord.
The evil heart, &c.
My deceitful heart desired but evil. O thou refuge,
Who wilt end my delusion.
The evil heart, &c.
Darkness to remove, inward light to grant. Thou didst come;
To soften the mind Thou dost wait.
The evil heart, &c.
New thought, new desire to renew and preserve
To Thy praise, —
The evil heart, &c.
As Thou didst give grace to Lydia, show mercy to me ! So open my heart
That conformity to Thee may begin.
The evil heart, &c."
How encouraging and delightful to think that men who
might, but for the gospel, have been sunk in the dense
darkness of Hindu idolatry and superstition, have been k^d
154: "the land of charity."
by the grace of God tlius to write the praises of our adorable
Saviour, and to seek the influences of that divine Spirit who
is the author of all good and grace in the hearts of men !
Vernacular schools conducted by private teachers are
found in almost every village in Travancore. Throiighout
the whole of India, indeed, the profession of a teacher is
held in high repute. In 1865 I had occasion to make
careful and detailed inquiries as to the number of heathen
schoolmasters in the districts of Trevandrum and Quilon, in
order to carry out in my own neighbourhood the effort which
was then being made by the Bible Society to supply a New
Testament, in his own mother tongue, to each heathen school-
master in India. Above 160 copies were distributed in these
districts, and there may have been a few other teachers whom
we did not discover. These men were chiefly of the Sudra
and Ilavar castes, with a few carpenters, vellalars, goldsmiths
and others. Very few Brahmans were found engaged in
educational pursuits.
In most of these schools there are from 20 to 30 or more
boys. I was pleased to find also in almost every school
from 2 to 4 or 5 Sudra and Ilavar girls. The total number
of pupils under instruction in schools, other than those
maintained by the native Government (including all mission
schools), is roughly estimated at 40,000.
The system of instruction in the common village schools
is very defective, and consists chiefly in imposing rote
lessons, without sufficient explanations of the meaning or
rationale of what is taught. In addition to " the three R's,"
the principal studies in the better schools are astronomical
calculations and vernacular poetry.
The first lesson of the juvenile pupil is writing on sand.
He is made to strew a handful of sand over a part of the
floor, smooth it, then write the letters with his forefinger,
and at the same time sing out the name of each letter;
LITERATURE AND ROPULAR EDUCATIOX. 155
thus learning to read and write at the same time. After a
time the scholar is advanced to writing on " oleis " or palm
leaves ; few of them vise paper.
The native system of arithmetic is ingenious, and, as far
as it goes, rapid in its processes ; but generally I have not
found those educated in the common schools good arithmeti-
cians, — they are easily puzzled hy a long sum in addition or
multiplication.
The schools supported by the native Government are of a
sujjerior class. At the head of these stands the Central
Institution, or High School, at Trevandrum, commenced by
Mr. Eoberts many years ago, and in which, at his request,
the then Eajah liberally gave permission to have the Bible
read and explained by the Christian teachers. This practice,
I am happy to say, is still continued. In the junior depart-
ment of this institution nearly 700 boys of all castes, except
the lowest, receive a good English education ; and in the
senior or collegiate department, under the care of the prin-
cipal, ]\Ir. John Eoss, A.]\l., there are ninety-six youths, of
whom thirty-nine are undergraduates of the Madras Univer-
sity. This institution takes a high position in the Govern-
ment examinations amongst the schools and colleges of
South India.
For the accommodation of the senior pupils, the foundation
stone of a new college at Trevandrum was laid, with ap-
propriate ceremonies, by H. H. the Maharajah, on 30th Sept.,
1869. English education early took root in the country, and
the standard has by degrees been raised higher and higher
during recent years. There is now a large and increasing
number of native youths and men well educated in English,
some of them being graduates in arts and law of the Madras
University.
Sixteen District English Schools and twenty-nine Verna-
cular Schools are supported by the Government in various
156 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
districts of Travancoi'e ; in these above 4,000 looys receive a
good education. There are also twenty vernacular village
schools, with 1,300 pupils, receiving grants in aid.
Female education, too, is spreading. There has never heen
any decided objection on the part of Sudras or Ilavars to the
elementary instruction of females, probably in consequence of
the influential j)osition of women in their singular system of
inheritance by the female line. One or two thousand girls of
these castes attend the ordinary village schools. It is from
the Brahmans, principally, that objections to female education
come. Of course the lowest classes also are without the
means of obtaining instruction, except in Mission Schools ;
their children being refused admission to all respectable
native schools, and, with rai'c and recent exceptions, to all
Government schools.
From the commencement of missionary operations in
Travancore, great attention has been paid to female education
by missionaries both of the London Missionary and the
Church Missionary Societies, the former being liberally aided
by the Society for Female Education in the East. Within
the last few years much good has also been accomplished hy
the agents of the Indian Female Xormal School and In-
struction Society, Avho have induced numbers of the very
highest families in Trevandrum to send their children to their
school, or to receive instruction at their own homes, like the
" zeuiina " teaching of Northern India. This good work has
enjoyed the patronage and benctited by the personal example
of H. IL the Maharajali, the lirst Piince, and the Dewan ;
and there are now, in addition, two schools for Brahman and
other high-caste girls, under their more immediate patronage,
conducted respectively in the fort and in one (jf the suburbs
of the capital.
Mission schools are numerous and inlhiential. According
to information furnished by tlie missionaries themselves, Uy
LITERATUUK AND rOPULAU f:DUCATIOX. 157
insertion in the Calendar for 18G7, tlie schools of the London
Missionary Society then contained about 8,000 jiupils, of
whom 1,600 Avere girls ; those of the Church Missionary
.Society, 2,200, of Avhoni over 400 were girls ; the Eoman
Catholic Mission Schools over 2,700, of whom 270 were
girls ; and the Syrian Christian Schools 2,000 children, of
Avhoin 900 were girls. The aggregate, therefore, amounts to
13,000 hoys and 3,200 girls ; to all of whom more or less
of religious as well as secular instruction is imparted. The
Church Missionary Society have an excellent English College
and Vernacular Institution at Cottayam, and the London
Missionary Society an English and A^ernacular Seminary at
^Xagercoil, hoth of which have largely aided the cause of
popular education in Travancore.
Education is thus spreading in a remarkable degree in this
interesting country, and must inevitably bring with it, by the
blessing of God, the downfall of superstition, error, and
oppression, and be the means of introducing an era of national
enlightenment, progress, and freedom.
158
CHAPTER XII.
HINDUISM IN TRAVANCORE.
State Puppovt of Idolatry — Worship of Vishnu as Patmanablian — History
and Description of Great Temple at Trevandrum — Principal Ceremonies
and Festivals — Sexennial Murajabam — Royal llegeneration Ceremony.
The thoiiglit of the general prevalence of idolatry throughout
the vast emph'e of India is a solemn and depressing one
to the Christian mind. In the little kingdom of Travancore
alone there are at least a million of heathen idolaters, living
"u-ithout God and without hope in the Avorld, — knowing
not the Giver of every good and perfect gift, hut turning
from the great Fountain of all life and happiness to endea-
vour to liew out for themselves " broken cisterns that can
hold no water." How terrible to tliink of such a multitude,
generation after generation, bowing down to worship false
gods, " the work of their own hands, that which their own
lingers have made ; " to see —
" Immortal men
Wide wandering from the way, eclipsed in night —
Park, moonless, moral niijlit — living like beasts,
Like beasts descending to the grave, untaught
Of life to come, unsanctified, unsaved ! "
Oh that they may be l)rouglit speedily to return unto the
Lord, and find in Him peace and eternal salvation !
Hinduism is the established religion of the state, and
is sustained and su])poi'ted by all its power, wealth, and
HINDUISM IX TRAVAXCORE. 159
social influence. The theory is that all other classes are
created for the service of the Brahmans, and that the highest
possible virtue consists in obedience and homage being
rendered to them. Their influence and authority are sup-
posed to extend over all the acts and relationships of life,
and everything enjoyed or possessed by others comes, they
afiirm, from the favour of the Brahmans, and belongs
properly to them. Manu says (i., 100, 101, 105), "Whatever
exists in the universe is all in effect, though not in form, the
wealth of the Brahman ; since the Brahman is entitled to it
all by his primogeniture and eminence of birth. The Brah-
man eats but his own food, wears but liis own apparel, and
bestows but his own in alms. Through the benevolence of
the Brahmans, indeed, other mortals enjoy life. He alone
deserves to possess this whole earth." In accordance with
these and other principles of the law of Manu, so far as it is
possible to carry them out in human society, the attempt has
been made to shape out the whole civil polity of the state.
Occupying, as it does, a secluded corner of the peninsula of
India, and having thus escaped the modifying influences
of conquest and political change, Travancore retains the
observance of most of the laws and institutions of Hinduism
in their primitive form and obligation. It has yielded but
very slowly, and with intense and unconcealed reluctance, to
the few inevitable national reforms which have been eftected,
to the introduction and extension of Christianity, and to
the consequent gradual decrease of Brahmanical domination
and influence. This state is still therefore one of the great
strongholds of Hinduism and caste in the South of India,
and is distinguished as " The Land of Piety and ('harity "
for its liberal support of the Brahmanical religion and priest-
hood. No less than one-tifth of the Avhole annual revenue
of the state is expended on the support of the Brahman
temples and priests, and the influential classes are united in
160 " TIIK LAND OF CHARITY."
the support and defence of this formidable system of impos-
ture and superstition.
Vishnu, the second deity of the Hindu triad, is wor-
shipped as the national deity of Travancore. He is usually
represented by the Hindus as a black or blue man with four
arms. In one hand he holds a war-club ; in another a " cha-
kra " or circular missile weapon, like a quoit, sharp at the
edges, with which he is said to cut off the heads of his
enemies. A third hand holds a lotus water-lily, the emblem
of emanation, — unfolding — creation. A conch-shell is in the
fourth hand ; and this has consequently been adopted as the
national emblem of Travancore, as the rose, thistle and
shamrock are for Great Britain and Ireland, the peacock for
Eurraah, and the dragon for China.
Vishnu is said to have appeared under nine several incar-
nations, viz., as a fish, tortoise, boar, <fcc. He is expected
yet once again to appear as a great reformer, mounted on a
white horse, and bearing a sword and shield. He has 1,000
names, such as Eama, Krishna, Kurayanan, Hari, Perumill ;
and one of the lessons of boys at school is to commit these
to memory. In various parts of India Vishnu is worshipped
under local forms and attributes. In the character of the
patron god of Travancore he is called Patmanabhan, and is
represented as reclining upon a great snake, called " Ananta "
(endless), which is coiled up to form a couch for the deity,
while its many heads stretch upwards over his head as a
canopy. Our copy of a native sketch, drawn in India, in a
very primitive style of art, shows the god reclining on the
king of serpents, surrounded by attendants and by glorified
worshippers and gods celebrating his praise. Patmanabhan
means " the lily-navelled one," and the sacred lily is accord-
ingly depicted as proceeding from the navel of the god.
From that flower Brahma, the creator, springs. The original
allusion of the symbol probably is to the deity in quiescence,
HINDUISM IN TRAVAXCORE. IGl
before the production or evolution of the universe, as repre-
sented under the emblem of the growth of the water-lily.
The head-quarters of the worship of this god are at the
great temple in the capital, Trevandrum. The correct native
name of this place is " Tiruvanantapuram " — " the town of the
sacred snake." This refers to the legend respecting the origin
of the national worship in this locality, which is as follows : —
The place where Trevandrum now stands was formerly a
jungle, called Ananta Kadu. In the centre of this desert
dwelt a Pulayan and his wife, who obtained a livelihood by
cultivating a large rice-field, near to their hut. One day, as
the Pulayan's wife was weeding her grounds, she heard the
cry of a babe close to her, and on search, found it so beau-
tiful that she supposed it was a divine infant, and was at
first afraid to touch it. However, after washing herself, she
fed the. babe with milk, and left it again under the shade of
a large tree. As soon as she had retired a five-headed cobra
came, removed the infant to a hole in the tree, and sheltered
it from the sun Avith its hood. It was an incarnation of the
god Vishnu. While there, the Pulayan and his wife used to
make ofi'erings to the babe of milk and conjee in a cocoa-nut
shell. Tidings of these things reaching the ears of the sove-
reign of Travancore, orders were issued for the erection of a
temple at the place. The natives add that the cocoa-nut
shell used by the Pulayan is still preserved in the royal
pagoda at Trevandrum.
Pew temples in Travancore equal those of the eastern coast
in extent or grandeur. That dedicated to Patmanabhan at
Trevandrum may be regarded as a favourable specimen of
other edifices of tliis kind. It is the centre and the holiest
part of the capital. Corresponding care is therefore taken to
guard and preserve its immaculate purity from all con-
tamination by contact with low castes or Europeans. It
covers a space of about a square furlong in the centre of the
H
1G2 "the land op charity."
fort, — in which the palace, the official residence of the prime
minister, the great offices of government, and the houses of
many Brahmans are situated. Several roads lead to the
temple, but natives of low caste and Europeans are prevented,
by native prejudice, from approaching too nearly even to the
outer walls. A lofty wall surrounds the sacred enclosure.
The principal entrance, on the east side, opposite the great
gate of the fort, is illuminated at night. A handsome flight
of stone steps leads up to the lofty entrance door, which is
surmounted by a great stone tower, pyramidal in form, and
80 or 100 feet in height. This is the "pagoda," or steeple,
and stands, not over the most sacred portion of the temple,
but above the entrance gateway. The tower is covered with
elaborate sculptures and ornamental work, and has window-
like openings in the centre of each of its seven stories.
Within is an extensive, well-swept courtyard, surrounded by
open porticoes supported on carved stone jiillars, which are
covered with grotesque or natural representations of gods,
warriors, and animals. In various parts are shrines dedicated
to various deities — as Krishna, Ganesha, Patmanabhan ; for
although a Hindu temple is dedicated to and recognised by
the name of one particular deity, numerous smaller fanes for
the worship of other gods are often included within the same
enclosure. So true is it that " their land is full of idols."
In the highest of the inner buildings, the golden image
of Patmanabhan, in whose honour the beautiful and costly
edifice has been erected, is treasured and worshipped with
daily offerings and services. In one part of the court-
yard stand two brazen j^iHars, thirty or forty feet in height,
with niches for the display of lights on festive occasions, also
a gold-plated flagstaff, on which is raised the flag that
announces the inauguration of the principal ceremonies.
A covered way runs round the courtyard, for protection from
the weather duruig the solemn processions of the idol. In
HINDUISM IS TRAVAXCORE.
163
one of the open halls, called the ludasegliara mandaham, or
" portico," the more important ceremonies are celebrated.
It is said that there is a deep well inside the temple, into
which immense riches are thro"\vn year by year ; and in another
place, in a hollow covered by a stone, a great golden lamp,
which was lit over 120 years ago and still continues burning.
COUETTAED OF TKEVANDEUM TEMPLB.
Outside the temple, on the north-east, is the great " tank,"
or pool of holy water, in wiiich the Erahmans bathe daily.
Such a reservou% or a stream in the near vicinity, is essential
to every Hind\i temple, as frecj^uent ablutions are necessary
to both priests and worshippers.
The greater part of the buildings in connection with the
temple of Patmanabhan are of no considerable antiquity. It
is probable that the locality has been regarded for ages as
more or less sacred, and used as a place of worship. iN'ative
historians date the first erection of a temple in the year 225,
Malabar era — that is a. D. 1050 : —
164 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
" In 225, M.E., a priest from the Tulu country, named
Divagaran, set out to visit sacred places, and happened on
his way to come to Ananta Kadu. His patron deity, Krishna
(or Vishnu), there appeared to him as Patmanahhan. He
determined thereupon to ofter worship and dedicate a temple
to this god. There were already two temples here in honour
of Krishna and Shastava. To the priests of these temples,
therefore, Divagaran applied. With their aid he built
another temple, made images from the heart-wood of the
forest trees, and consecrated and worshipped them with the
usual ceremonies. He also laid out a flower-garden, and
erected dwellings for Brahmans. The place soon became
celebrated under the name of Ananta puram. It is reported
by ancient tradition, that even before this time temples had
tvvdce been erected on the same spot, but had gone to ruin,
and the site became overgrown with forests."*
The more costly portions of the temple are said to have
been erected by Vunjee Martfmda Vurmah Eajah in 1729,
and the great tower completed in 1779, after many years of
labour in its construction.
In this " temple royal " the great religious ceremonies of
state are observed. Splendid processions feasts, shows, and
royal gifts, tend to attach the people to the worship and
superstitions with which these are associated. The average
annual expenses incurred on account of tlie daily " poojah,"
or worshij), and the periodic festivals and ceremonies in this
pagoda alone are, reduced to pounds sterling, as follows : —
Daily poojah (or worship) ... ... £7,573
Feast of Lights (twice a year) ... 2,750
Eathing Festival (twice a year) ... 4,780
Total, £15,103
— a sum equal, in relative value, to about £90,000 in England.
* Malajalim History of Travancore,
HINDUISM IN TRAVANCORE. 165
In this temple the coronation oath is taken. Immediately
on his accession to the throne, the Eajah proceeds to the
temple with his offerings to the presiding deity. He receives
from the high priest a sword and a belt, a cloth and some
rice, as emblems of protection and power, sustenance and
support, received from the favour of Patmanabhan ; and he
solemnly promises to reign as the vicegerent of the national
god. His Highness is then invested with the first of his
official titles — " Sree Patmanabha Dausa," " the servant or
slave of the holy god Patmanabhan."
The "A'rattu," or bathing festival, occurs twice every
year, in Ajjril and in October. It lasts for ten days each
time, concluding with the ceremony of bathing the idols in
the sea. The first day of the feast is called the " Kodiyettu,"
or raising of the flag of crmison silk on the golden flagstaff
in the court of the temple.
During the first nine days of this festival special offerings
are made, the idol is anointed, and incessant rites and devo-
tions are performed in the temple by the Namburi priests.
The Rajah remains, as far as possible, in a state of seclusion
and partial fasting. At night the people are entertained
with dramatic shows, feats of jugglery and skill, and other
exhibitions within and near the sacred enclosure.
The tenth day is the principal one of the festival, on
which the god Patmanabhan is carried in solemn procession
to be bathed in the sea, at a distance of about two miles
from the fort and temple. All necessary preparations having
previously been made, the royal cortege sets out at four
o'clock in the afternoon, and is saluted by the firing of
twenty-one guns. The procession is composed of the Maha-
rajah, with his personal attendants and body-guard; the
whole of the infantry and cavalry sepoys of the Nair brigade,
their swords drawn, banners flying, and band playing ; the
state elephants magnificently caparisoned, and bearing how-
166 "the land op charity."
dahs of gold, silver, and ivory ; the Brahman priests carrying
the sacred images ; and an immense retinue of attendants,
with banners, flags, • symbols of various kinds, palankeens
and carriages, and all that can add pomp or state to the
brilliant and imposing ceremonial. Multitudes of people
from, town and country are in attendance as spectators.
The whole of the road from the fort to the sea having
been previously strewn with a quantity of fine white sand,
the Eajah marches on foot, dressed in the native " uniform "
— a single piece of white cloth fastened round the loins — and
wearing a handsome cap of blue velvet, embroidered with a
representation of the golden foot of Patmanabhan. His
Highness carries a naked sword and a shield, and, accom-
panied by the first Prince, precedes the images as their ser-
vant and guardian. Behind the Eajah are the images of
Patmanabhan, Narasimha, and Krishna (the first of gold, the
last two of silver), borne on the shoulders of l^amburi priests,
surrounded by a crowd of other Brahmans, as an additional
guard and security. Several images of brass, belonging to
temples in tlie suburbs, then follow. Behind, the prime
minister and other great oflicers of state, all dressed in the
simplest possible garb, follow in the procession. Every fifty
or a hundred yards the procession halts, and the Eajah ti\rns
round and makes a lowly obeisance to the idol, which in
these days of enlightenment and education he cannot but
know is a helpless and lifeless piece of metal (Psa. cxv. 4 — 7).
On reaching the sea-shore, offerings are first made by the
Eajah at the adjoining tem})le. The images are then placed
within temporary sheds erected for tlie purpose on tlie sea-
beach, and i)rettily decorated in native style. Other prayers
are repeated, and garlands of flowers presented. Three
times the priests enter the sea with offerings, Avhich they cast
into the waters ; the third time carrying with them the
whole of the images. Thrice the priests, holding the images
HINDUISM IN TRAVANCORE. 167
in their hands, plunge into the water. But the waves, more
powerful than the very gods so highly honoured, often strike
down both priests and images, so that the latter are only
rescued with considerable difficulty. The Rajah also bathes
at the same time in the sea ; and the festival closes the same
evening, Avith the return of the images to the sanctuaries.
Another ceremony in connection with these festivals is
called " Palli Vetta," or " Eoyal Hunting." The Maharajah
goes in similar procession to another part of the suburbs.
Two or three soft unripe cocoa-nuts being placed at the foot
of a tree, his Highness takes a bow, and fitting an arrow in
it, shoots tliree times into the nuts. This is probably a
relic of great hunting expeditions, in which the sovereigns
of the country were wont to indulge in former times.
Another festival, regarded as of very special importance,
and celebrated at great cost, is that called " Murajabam," or
" customary prayer." This occurs at intervals of six years,
and is supposed to be eminently conducive to the defence of
the kingdom and people, the procuring of a regular supply
of rain, and the general safety and prosperity of the country.
It is designed also to atone for any imperfection, or sins of
ignorance and omission, in other religious observances.
This festival occupies eight weeks, usually in the months
of November and December. The chief priest of the
Namburis, a kind of Hindu Pontiff, travels from the Cochin
country to Trevandrum in great state, to preside at and cele-
brate the various solemnities of the festival. On his Avay he
is accompanied from district to district by numerous followers,
and is attended by the local officials of government. Loud
cries of " Hari Eama," " Hari Eama," are uttered by his
bearers, the sacred shell is blown to announce his approach,
and all persons of inferior caste are warned and driven off to
the prescribed distance.
When nearing the palace, the sacred procession is met by
168 "the land of charity."
the INIaharajali, who, in token of humility and reverence,
officiates for a short time as one of the bearers of the
sacerdotal palankeen. On the high priest's alighting, the
Raj ah pays obeisance to his Holiness by humble prostrations
at his feet. He immediately conducts the Namburi to the
apartment set apart and purified for his reception, places him
on a golden seat, and washes his feet. A small quantity of
the sacred and purifying water used in tbis ablution is drunk
by the Eajah, and the remainder he pours over his head.
During the continuance of this festival the Brahmans are
supposed to be constantly engaged in offering special prayers
for the sovereign and the kingdom at large. From six
to nine o'clock in the morning, from one to three in the
afternoon, and in the evening from six to eight o'clock, about
a hundred of the priests stand immersed in water up to the
Avaist, performing religious ablutions and repeating " Mantras "
and prayers in the sacred Sanskrit language. It is pretended
that the Avater miraculously rises when the Brahmans enter,
and decreases in height when they retire — Avhich of course,
in the natural order of things, must necessarily occur. This
long exposure to the water is often the cause of pain and
disease to the unfortunate and superstitious priests.
It is calculated that about 60,000 persons attend the
Murajabam from all parts of Travancore, and some from
more distant countries. The native Government provides
for them food and lodging, beds, mats, &c., in extensiA^e
temporary booths erected for the occasion ; large presents of
money are also distributed amongst them. The cost of the
Murajabam feast in 1863 was £16,361, besides about j£3,000
(and other sums) spent in preparations ; this is said to have
been less than had been expended on previous occasions.
Much evil arises from the gluttony, disorder, and vice
incidental upon the attendance of these croAvds of sensual
idolaters.
HINDUISM IN TRAVANCORE. 169
Another remarkable ceremony, called " Hiranya GarWiam,"
" the golden womb," or " Patma Garbha Danam," "the lotus
womb-gift," is celebrated only by native kings and princes in
India at enormous expense.
The Maharajah of Travancore, as we have already men-
tioned, is not by bii'tli of the Brahman caste, but a Sudra ;
or, rather, he is of mixed race, the husbands of the Travan-
core Eanees, or princesses, being usually Chatriyas of the class
called Tirumulpad. From the earliest period of its history
the Brahmans have, as we have seen, possessed very consider-
able influence and dignity in Travancore. The country
is still noted throughout India for its marked devotion to the
worship of the gods, its rigid conservatism of caste and other
institutions of Hinduism, and its profuse liberality in the
support of the popular faith. The distinctions of Brah-
manical caste therefore are greatly prized by the higher
classes of the natives.
The object of the "Hiranya Garbham" rite is to raise
the Eajah from the ranks of the Sudra caste, to which
he properly belongs, to the position and dignity of a
Brahman, or as near this as it is possible for him to become.
The Brahmans are the " twice-born " and holy caste. This
ceremony constitutes the second birth of the Sudra prince,
and the title of it might therefore fairly be translated " The
Regeneration Gift." After its celebration his Highness can
no longer partake of food along with the members of his own
family, to whom he is now superior in caste as well as
in rank. He is admitted to the high privilege of being j
present when the Brahmans are enjoying their meals, and of I
eating in their presence. He wins also their admiration for [
piety, devotion, and generosity, and earns in addition to his
other royal titles, the valued one of " Kulaseghara Perumal."
This extraordinary ceremony was observed in July, 1854,
by H.H. the late Rajah Martanda Vurmah. In the following
170 "the land of charity."
account of this festival, tlie statistics and details are derived
from a descrijDtion written at the time by a native writer,
Sreenevasa Eow.
Throughout India the cow is a sacred animal. To die
while holding the tail of a cow, and presenting the animal to
a Brahman, is supposed to insure heavenly felicity. Killing
a cow is still, in theory, according to the ancient laws of
Travancore, an act of murder. To be born of a cow in a
future bu'th is a high honour and privilege. The five pro-
ducts of the cow are the elements of a composition the most
efficacious for purification known to the Hindus. The new
birth of the Rajah then nntst be either from a golden cow,
or a lotus flower. Formerly the form of the sacred cow Avas
made in gold, with a hollow body, through which the Eajah
crept, and was then regarded as twice-born, and holy. The '
flower of the sacred lotus, or water-lily, was, however, the
form selected on this occasion. This is required to be com»J
posed of a quantity of gold exactly equal to the weight of
the Eajah himself, who is therefore placed in scales, and
weighed against the gold for this purpose. This pai't of the
ceremonial is called Tuliibharam — balance weighing. The
golden lotus is afterwards broken up and distributed, in fixed
proportions, amongst his Highness's personal attendants and
the Erahmans and others present at the festival, and to the
treasury of Patmanabhan. The total weight of gold used on
this occasion in the construction of the golden lotus and for
other purposes amounted to 9,070 kalanja of about 78 grains
each — equal to nearly 124 j)ounds troy, and valued at about
£6,000 sterling.
The gold having been duly procured from Bombay, an
auspicious day was appointed for the melting of the metal
and the casting of the golden vessel. This was cylindrical
in form, about six feet in height and four feet and a half in
diameter. The cover was lotus-shaped, with a crown on the
HINDUISM IN TRAVAXCORE, 171
top, riclily ornamented with precious stones. After its com-
l")letion, the sacred vessel was carried in procession around
the palace and the great temple, in an open hall of Avhich —
the Hall of Ceremonies, massive with pillars of sculptured
stone, and dazzling Avith decorations of silk cloths, glittering
ornaments, and garlands of fragrant flowers — it was then
placed in readiness for the subsequent ceremonies.
A week before the day appointed for the principal cere-
mony, the Rajah retired from his ordinary residence into a
separate and consecrated building, secluding himself from
his attendants of the Siidra caste, abstaining from the use of
betel and other indulgences, and abstracting himself as much
as possible from the ordinary duties of state. Here he was
occupied in private devotions and in prayers to his tutelary
deity for long life, happiness, and prosperity.
On the morning of the great day of the festival, the Eajah
in state procession visited the temple, and having presented
to the idol munificent offerings of gold coins and jewelry,
proceeded to the sacred hall. Inside the golden vessel there
had been placed a small quantity of the consecrated mixture,
composed of the five products of tlie cow (milk, curd, butter,
urine, and dung). His Highness entered tlie vessel and re-
mained there for the prescribed period, during which the
officiating priests repeated prayers appropriate to the occa-
sion. Immediately on emerging from the vessel, the Rajah
jjresented to the chief priest the whole of the rich jewels
and ornaments which he had worn while undergoing the
ceremony. At the same time a royal salute was fired by the
Nair Brigade, drawn up in front of the temple. The Euro-
pean officers of the brigade were required to attend on the
occasion of these idolatrous festivals, but tliey have since
been relieved from all such unchristian compliances.
After the completion of the ceremony, the Rajah decorated
himself with a new act of jewels, and walked in solemn pro-
172 "the land of charity."
cession around the temple, accompanied by the members of
the Royal Family and all the great officers of state. Again,
approaching the idol, he offered adoration and prostrated
himself on the ground before the altar. The high priest
then brought forth the magnificent crown, and placed it on
the head of the Eajah, proclaiming aloud three times the
royal titles, — " Xulaseghara " (head of the tribe), and " Peru-
mal " (a name of Vishnu).
Again the brilliant procession wended its way around the
temple, the Rajah wearing the crown and carrying the sword
of state, and again he entered the sacred hall ; this time to
be bathed in pure water. Once more the procession encom-
passed the pagoda, and then returned to the palace, where
it was received with another royal salute of artillery and
musketry.
These ceremonies were attended by several minor rajahs and
their followers, by noted Gurus and expounders of the Vedas
and Puranas, and by about 22,000 Erahmans from various
parts of the kingdom. Por the reception and accommodation
of all these, liberal provision was made at the expense of the
Rajah. Large presents were made to all the nobles and
Erahmans present at the festival, and the whole of the gold
of which the vessel was made was afterwards made into
coins of various sizes, and distributed amongst them. To
this fact the word Danam (gift or bounty) refers.
On the following day the Rajah again proceeded witli a
magnificent retinue to the pagoda, and oli'ered costly gifts
(including a fine elepliant) to the idol. The Dewan also
received from him a state palankeen and a pair of handsome
shawls. The procession then traversed once round the
public streets of the fort.
After tliis the Rajah left Trevandrum to pay a state visit
to the sacred shrine at Tirupappur, about ten miles distant,
Avhere he presented valuable offerings, according to custom.
HINDUISM IN TRAVAXCORE. 173
Thence he went on to A'ttungal, the original seat of the
Royal Family. The idol there is regarded as their guardian
deity, and is the oly'ect of assiduous worship. From A'ttungal
the Rajah returned to Trevandrum, where he was again
received with due honours and demonstrations of popular
esteem. Thus ended this notable and costly ceremonial, an
extraordinary and vain attempt to invent " a royal road " to
regeneration.
It is remarkable, that even in a rite so absurd and idola-
trous in itself as that M'hich we have described, there is a
distinct recognition of the necessity to sinful man of some
great change — some marked advance in holiness and purity.
The people of Travancore view this change under the emblem
of a new birth of the body from the golden cow or the
sacred lily. The Holy Scriptures also speak of a new birth,
not of the body, but of the soul, by the Holy Spirit. May
the present kind and amiable Maharajah of Travancore feel
the need of that regenerating grace from the one true and
living God, and be led to come to Him in simple faith on
the Lord Jesus Christ, through whom alone he can become
truly regenerate, — twice-born in the true sense, an heir of
the kingdom of heaven.*
The TulabliiTram, or balance-weighing, a part of the cere-
monies just described, was recently performed by the present
Maharajah. This is not in general performed immediately
on the accession of a sovereign. Some people archly afllrm
that the delay is to allow his Highness to grow stout, and
weigh as heavy as possible, for the profit of the priests. In
the present case, the delay of nine years since the accession
of the Maharajah arose principally from his natural hesita-
tion to expend such a vast sum of public money solely for
the benefit of the small population of Brahmans, in the face
* This account of the " Hiranya Garbham " ceremony appeared in the
Sunday at Home for July 1, 1870.
1 74 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
of the expostulations and moral dissuasion brought to bear
upon such an observance in the present age. A decision
was at last come to, aud towards the conclusion of 1869, the
Bathing Festival, the Murajabam and Feast of Lights, and,
on the 14th January, 1870, the Weighing ceremony, followed
one another in quick succession ; over three months being
thus occupied in costly and idolatrous festivities.
Midtitudes of Erahmans visited the capital to witness the
performances ; whole boat-loads of vegetables, rice, butter,
and condiments for the guests were daily landed from the
interior, and great boat-shaped wooden vessels, scooped out
of large trees, served as rice and curry dishes. The prices of
all the necessaries of life rose fearfull}'', and extra precautions
against accident and crime were taken. Police were sta-
tioned, in different localities, in sheds erected for their
accommodation by the road-side, to prevent low-caste people
from entering or approaching the fort.
Gold in bars, to the value of over 120,000 Es. (£12,000),
having been procured from Calcutta, the greater portion was
struck into coins in preparation for the great ceremony.
Preparatory religious ceremonies, including repeated bathings
and purifications, anointings and sprinklings of holy water,
the worship of golden images and of the sacred scales, the
feeding of Erahmans, gifts to them, and offerings of
flowers, jewels, silks, and an elephant, were performed for
eight days. On the last day the Maharajah, wearing magni-
ficent jewels, specially made for the occasion, and holding
the state sword in his right hand, and the state shield of
black leopard's skin and a scimitar in his left, walked thrice
round the scales, again prostrated himself before them,
prayed, and then mounted the scale. The sword and shield
were placed in his lap ; then the gold, in coins and ingots,
was put in the other scale till it touched the ground. The
whole quantity of gold placed in the scale was 204 lbs.
HINDUISM IN TRxVVANCORE. 175
avoirdupois, being rather more than the quantity sj^ecially
purchased for the purpose.
In the distribution of the gold, the head priest's share
amounted to nearly 11,000 rupees; other Namburis received
from about 680 rupees to about seventeen shillings, which
was the amount bestowed upon all ordinary ^ffaniburis. Over
43,000 coins were struck and distributed. They were of four
sizes, the largest being worth about 13s, 8d. ; the others being
respectively one-half, one-fourth, and one-eighth of this sum.
The device consisted of the legend " Holy Patmanabhan " on
one side, and on the other the national conch-shell, each
being encircled with a -svreath. The largest sized coins were'
distributed to Canarese Brahmans, one to each adult ; the
third size to all Tamil Erahmans ; and the smallest to the
women and children of the latter.
The total expense of this weighing ceremony amounted to
about 160,000 rupees; but the "Hiranya Garbha " cere-
mony, which will probably cost at least 140,000 rupees more,
is still to be performed before the Maharajah's coronation.
176
CHAPTER XIII.
HINDUISM (continued).
Hindu Temples in Travancore — Car Festival — Interior Economy of Temples
— Free Inns for Brahmans — Cost of Ecclesiastical Establishment — Evils
of this Waste — Ordinary Annual Festivals.
The number of heathen temples in Travancore is estimated
at 3,817. Sacred places, however, such as the remains of
ancient temples and idols, consecrated groves and lioly wells,
and solitary images or symhols of various kinds, everywhere
abound. Many of the minor temples are falling to ruin,
while others are still famous for their extensive tanks, an-
cient buildings, legendary associations, or some other marked
jDCCuliarities.
Of these the temple at Suchindram, seven or eight miles
from Cape Comorin, is said to be tlie largest in the country.
It is dedicated to Tanu-mal-ilyan — Siva, Vishnu, and Braluna
united in one, — and a long legend, in the usual Hindu style, is
related of the miraculous origin of the local worship. About
32,851 rupees are annually expended on the maintenance of
this temple, and it is occasionally visited by the liajali in
person.
The annual festival in December is largely attended by
excited crowds of worshippers from all parts of the country,
" mad upon their idols." The ceremonies on this occasion
cost the native Government about 6,000 rupees. The festival
is maintained for ten days, on the last of which the huge
HINDUISM IX TRAVANCORE. 177
cars are drawn in procession around the temple by men,
assisted, when necessary, by elephants. The chief Minister
of State superintends this operation, and heathens of high
caste are under legal obligation to the Government to attend
the feast, for the purpose of making offerings and dragging
the cars. The Government officials commence by pulling for
a short time the ropes attached to tiie cars, and their ex-
ample is followed by the vast multitude of people assembled.
Government peons may be seen standing along the columns
of men drawing at the ropes, with rods lifted up ready to
])oint out and punish the dilatory or lazy. The cars are in
themselves very heavy, and their weight is increased by a
large number of idle Brahmans and musicians seated u^jon
them. But eager efforts are made ; —
" A thousand pilgrims straia
Arm, slioulder, breast, and thigh, with might and main.
To drag that sacred wain,
And scarce can draw along the enormous load."
Their fanaticism is stimulated and increased by all the acces-
sories of the festival, and deafening shouts and cries of praise
to the god are uttered all day long.
The car-drawing at Suchindram is regarded as of so great
importance to the welfare of the state, that the Rajah him-
self is required to fast on that day until the due completion
of the ceremony is announced to him at Trevandrum, a dis-
tance of above forty miles. The important (and under the
circumstances necessarily very gratifying) message was for-
merly conveyed by mounted troopers. Afterwards cannon
were stationed at intervals along the road and fired as signals.
But since the completion of the electric telegraph from Nager-
coil to Trevandrum, the intelligence has been communicated
from Suchindram to the telegraph station at ISTagercoil by
the report of cannons, and thence by telegraph to his High-
ness at Trevandrum. How singular the contrast between tlie
N
178 "the land of charity."
grovelling superstitions of ancient Hinduism on the one hand
and the achievements of European science and civilization
on the other ! and what an anomaly and anachronism that
intelligent and educated Hindus should use the electric
telegraph to facilitate the worship of the stone idol at
Suchindram !
A Vaishnavite temple, of great reputed sanctity, is that
at Tiruvattar, about halfway betAveen Cape Comorin and
Trevandrum, to which also the Rajah pays occasional state
Adsits. Vishnu is here worshipped under the cognomen of
A'thi Kesavan. The natives believe this shrine to have been
built in the mythological period, before the incarnation of
Parasu Ramen. The great granite walls of this temple are
18 or 20 feet in height, handsomely ornamented with carved
work ; and the edifice itself, with its magnificent flights of
stone steps leading from the river to the temple, is unusually
imposing in appearance.' Numerous Brahmans reside here.
The annual expenditure of the temple amounts to 21,854
rupees.
Another sanctuary of considerable celebrity is that at
Cape Comorin, which contains some handsome stone carvings
of animals. The yearly maintenance of it costs 10,723 rupees.
T'he proper name of the Cape is Kanya Kumari, " the virgin
daughter," a title of the goddess Doorga here worshipped.
A curious kind of white sand, the grains of which are as
large as those of rice, and which is therefore called " rice
sand," is found here. A singular legend is related of the
origin of this sand. " The youngest daughter of the King of
Pandi, named Kanya Kumari, was sought in marriage by a
foreign giant, named Vanasaram. She accepted his siiit and
agreed to marry him on one condition, wliich she hoped he
could never fulfil, namely, that he sliould on the wedding
day give the guests rice to eat which had been sown, grown,
cut, winnowed, and cooked upon that very day. Much to
HINDUISM IN TRAVANCORE. 179
her astonishment the ugly monster performed the task.
Greatly enraged she cursed the rice, which became stones ;
she cursed the chaff, which became sand ; she broke down a
bridge which the giant had placed there for his convenience,
and hnally slew the giant himself."*
Tiruvalla, about twenty miles S.E. of Allepey, is cele-
brated for its richly endowed and antique pagoda, tradition-
ally said to have been founded eighty-three years before the
Christian era. The large temple, encompassed by a high
wall nearly one furlong square, forms the centre of an exten-
sive and tolerably regular town, inhabited principally by
Brahmans and Sudras. The bathing tank is faced with
stone, having bathing apartments jutting out into the water
on the four sides. This pagoda costs 9,356 rupees per annum.
Many other strongholds of idolatry in Travancore might
well be specified, such as the temple at Varkkala, famous for
a remarkable tank, and a resort of pilgrims from distant
countries ; that at Kulattur, oaths taken at which are
regarded as of peculiar sacredness ; the celebrated and hand-
some temple at Yettumanur, dedicated to Vishnu, of which
the annual festival and fair are attended by great crowds of
worshippers ; the famous Saivite pagoda at Vaikkam, on the
borders of the lake, the annual festivals of which are very
largely attended by visitors from all parts of the country; and
many others possessed of respective features of interest and
celebrity.
The principal temples of Travancore, numbering 378, are
under the immediate control of the Sirkar, or native Govern-
ment. The property, in landed estates and other endowments,
belonging to these temples, yielding an annual revenue of
about three lacs of rupees (.£30,000 sterling), was assumed,
with their management, by the Sirkar in 1811. In each
temple there are two officiating priests, or Shanthis, receiving
* Mullen's " Missions in South India," p. Qi.
180 "the land op charity."
monthly allowances in money and grain. These priests are
employed for six years only in some temples, and for three
years in others ; after which they are generally transferred to
another. Some, however, are hereditary priests.
" The office of the Shanthis consists in performing self-
ablution every morning very early, and in going immediately
afterwards to the pagoda to open the doors of the rooms in
wliich the images are kept; to remove the faded flowers, &c.,
with which those images had been adorned on the preceding
night ; to clean the place and adore the image after purifying
themselves ; and then to commence the daily ceremonies,
according to the established ritual. The Shanthis must
abstain from all intercourse with women, and are prohibited
even from speaking to them during their period of office ; and
when they come out of the pagoda, people must retire to a
distance to avoid polluting them."*
Each temple has its manager, accountant, cashier, and
storekeeper, besides inferior attendants employed as sweepers,
laui ,jlighters, &c. In the temples in South Travaucore
;ing girls and musicians attend several times daily. In
North Travaucore only two or three men with drums are
employed in each temple, except in a few instances, where
musicians perform on the conch-shell, drums, flageolet,
and cymbals, for the delectation of the god and his
worshippers.
Presents or ofierings of silk, money, gold and silver images
of snakes, and jewels, are made by the inhabitants to the
pagodas. In some of these there are treasure-boxes for
ofierings, placed in front of the inner shrine, which are not
opened till they are filled to the very brim. Most of the
temples have flower-gardens for the cultivation of oleander,
jasmine, sweet basil, and other sacred flowers used in the
preparation of garlands for the idols. To some pagodas
* " E^cords of Travancore," No. III., pp. 3, 4.
HINDUISM IN TRAVANCORE. 181
elephants, richly caparisoned, are attached for use in the
})rocessions and festivals.
The temple at Trevandrum is under the management of a
committee, of which the Maharajah is a member. The
treasury is hnmensely rich, containing money, gold, images,
.jewels, precious stones, &c. ; so that the managers were able
to lend to the Government, some time ago, the large sum of
five lacs of rupees (£50,000 sterling). Besides the temples
in Travancore, the native Government maintains about
twenty-three temples in other parts of India, including
Cochin, Chellumbram, Eameswaram, and Madura, and one
as far distant even as Benares.
OotooperahSjOrFree Inns for Brahmans,are another peculiar
religious institution of Travancore. These inns are about
forty-two in number, and were originally established by the
celebrated statesman, liamayen Dalavayi, about a century
ago. They are situated at convenient stages throughout the
country, mostly in connection with the principal temples.
In them Brahmans are fed at the expense of the Government
with curry and rice, rice boiled in water, chutney, curd, milk,
fruits, &c. l^either travelling nor resident Brahmans, hoAV-
ever, are allowed to remain in the same Ootooperah longer
than two days ; unless sickness or other unavoidable cause
prevents their leaving the place. In some of these houses
only one meal a day is allowed, while in others meals are
provided both morning and evening. A small quantity of
boiled rice is distributed to poor Sudras daily at noon, and in
two or three instances this is given to all castes indis-
criminately.
The great Ootooperah is at the temple of Patmanabhan at
Trevandrum. All Brahmans resorting hither, and all those
resident at the capital, are at liberty to take their meals here
both day and night. They are fed in several rows round the
porch of the pagoda. In another of the buildings, more
182 "the land of charity."
abundant and expensive preparations are made for the meals
of more favoured guests, and of the Brahman servants of the
palace and the prime minister's court.
The average annual cost of the Ecclesiastical Establishment
or " Devassam," is fully five lacs of rupees, and the Ootoo-
perahs take in addition three lacs ; the whole being equal
to a sum of £80,000 sterling — no less than one-fiftli of the
whole annual revenue of the state.
Is this expenditure true "dharmma" j^ie^y, or is it not
rather wicked and sinful in the sight of God 1 The provi-
dential gifts of God to man, so liberally bestowed in that
rich and beautiful country, are desecrated to the service of
useless and abominable idols. Well may the Almighty
reprove this people as He did the Jews of old, " Thou hast
taken thy fair jewels of My gold and My silver, which / had
given thee, and madest to thyself images of men. My meat
also which / gave thee, even flour, and oil, and honey, where-
with I fed thee, thou hast even set it before them for a
sweet savour" (Ezek. xvi. 17 — 19). The almighty Creator
and Giver of all is thus dishonoured through the very gifts
Avhich He has bountifully imparted — all abused as they are
to idolatrous and profane worship.
Is this true " dharmma " charity, or is it not rather im-
mense waste and injury to the moral and social well-being of
the community, in thus squandering so large a proportion of
the national income on such profitless and demoralizing
objects ] This sum of money would within ten years suffice
to cover the whole face of the country with good roads, well-
built bridges, fertile clearings, and reproductive works of irri-
gation for the prevention of sudden dearth and desolating
famines. Within twenty years the benefits of primary in-
struction might be extended to the lowest strata of the
population (a consummation, however, Avhich most of the
higher classes have shown that they are far from desiring) ; or
HINDUISM IN TRAVANCORE. 183
anyo tner great schemes for the production of material wealth,
or for social improvement, might, with these squandered riches,
be carried out.
As it is, crowds of sensual and dissolute Brahmans are
maintained in idleness, their intellectual and manual labour
is lost to the community, and they are encouraged to continue
to regard themselves as quite a different species of men from
the wretched, down-trodden, low caste population. The
latter contribute their little share to the general revenue
and productiveness of the country, but receive absolutely
nothing in return ; not even the privilege of free access to
the courts of justice. Ignorance and superstition are privi-
leged, endowed, and perpetuated in the country so long as
this system continues in operation. Immorality, peculation,
and the separation and rivalry of class interests, find every-
where abundant scope ; and a might}^ obstruction to the
progress of truth and right is thus established. Whatever
may be the various and opposing views entertained of " dis-
I'stablisliment and disendowment " at home, all must agree
that some such operation is urgently required in Travancore,
and eminently deserves to be carried out in its most stringent
form and to the fullest extent.
In addition to the special ceremonies occurring at occasional
intervals, to which we have already referred, periodic festivals
(rarely fasts) are observed at least once a year in connection
with almost every temple, and are regarded as an essential
part of Hindu worship ; much merit being attributed to their
bountiful and punctual celebration. Many of these are of
merely local interest ; every temple, in fact, has its anniversary
celebration, while others are of national importance.
The religious festivals of India are closely connected with
the systems of astronomy and chronology by Avhich their
periods are determined. But, as most of them are reckoned
by lunar time (like our Easter), they generally fall at dif-
184 "the land of charity."
ferent dates each year; and as these calculations depend upon
the particular data and mode of reckoning that may be
adopted, the times of certain festivals differ in various parts
of India, — just as Easter is kept at different dates by the
members of the Greek and Latin Churches. Hence the high
estimation in Avhich almanacks are held by the Hindus.
The Hindu holidays are numerous, requiring at least thirty -
five days in the year ; but were all of them observed, some
fifty or sixty days, or even more, would be thus spent.
The leading annual festivals generally observed in Travan-
core are ten in number. We commence the list, for conveni-
ence, with the month of January, though the Hindu civil
year begins in August, and the astronomical year in April ;
native calendars. Government reports, &c., embracing a period
of twelve months from 15th August, the Malabar new year.
1. " Fongal"—'' The Boiled Eice Feast" or " Cattle Fes-
tival," as it is called, occupies about three days, from tho
12th to the 14tli of January. In former ages, when the
Sanskrit people inhabited tlie regions north of the tropics,
this was their new year, and celebrateil the sun's reaching
the tropic of Capricorn, which actually occurs on tho 21st or
22nd December, but according to the Hindu computations
about tho 11th of January. This festival is observed with
great rejoicings. Eice is boiled in cow's milk, as an emblem
of abounding prosperity, and offered to the sun. Compli-
mentary visits are paid, mutual good wishes expressed, and
sweetmeats distributed. Cattle are gathered together with
music, washed, adorned with garlands, and worshipped, to
insure their fecundity and welfare throughout the year.
The 6th of January is called " Opening of the (xate of
Heaven," as the righteous who die during the lucky period
from January to June are supposed to obtain immediate
(entrance to felicity, while those passing away at other times
must wait without the gates till this period commences.
HINDUISM IN TRAVANCORE. 185
2. " Shrdddha," ov "~FimeYa\ Offerings" to deceased an-
cestors, are performed for several days after tlieir death, and
thenceforward annually ; presents being at the same time
made to Brahmans. The souls of the dead are supposed to
be greatly benefited and their happiness promoted by the
due observance of the funeral rites and offerings, the favour-
able days for which are the new moons from August to
January.
3. "Siva iJafr/" — "Siva's Watch Night "—occurs in
February or March, and is, throughout India, regarded as of
the first importannce, especially amongst the Saivites. The
whole of this night is spent in strict fasting and vigils,
adoring the lingam image, repeating prayers, bathing, and
many frivolous acts of worship. All sins are thereby ex-
piated, and all blessings are secured.
To illustrate the merit gained by observing this night, an
absurd story is told as follows : —
Once on a time a wicked and licentious archer on this
day went into the forest, and in the evening, being be-
nighted, he climbed a Bael tree for security from wild beasts.
Fearing he might sleep and tumble off the tree, he began to
pluck the leaves one by one and throw them down from the
tree to keep himself awake. There happened to be a lingam
(emblem of Siva) at the foot of the tree, and the leaves being
sacred to this deity, the god was so much pleased with the
hunter's offering, though accidental, that he forthwith sent a
heavenly chariot and took him to his own celestial abode.
4. Bharani, in March or the beginning of April, is in
honour of the goddess Kali, wife of Siva. In Bengal it is
called " Holi," or " Swinging Festival," and enjoyed as a
season of carnival. In Travancore cocks are offered by
Nairs, who generally slaughter them before the door of the
temple of Kali, or Bhilgavathi, sprinkling the earth with
their blood and soliciting immunity from disease during
186 *' THE LAND OF CHARITY."
the year. Drunkenness, fighting, and disorder frequently
characterize this festival.
This was originally a feast in honour of spring, and may
perhaps correspond to the " April Fools " and " Carnivals "
of European nations.
5. Sri Rama Navami, " the ninth day of the god Eama,"
is ohserved at the end of March or early in April, chiefly by
Vishnuites, and commemorates the birthday of Rama. The
image of the hero is set up, adorned, and worshipped ; and
portions of the "Ramayanam" or poetical history of Rama,
his romantic adventures in search of his beloved wife, and
his glorious success in rescuing her from the power of the
giants who had carried her off, are sung to the delight of
large audiences. This feast is regarded as most sacred and
beneficial.
6. " Visliu " (a tropic or solstice), about the 12th of April,
is the astronomical new year, and one of the most popular
festivals of Malabar. Subjects present New Year oflerings
to the Rajah, merchants .settle their accounts, and great
rejoicing, with the deafening din of music in the temple and
fireworks, and the firing of guns in the streets, everywhere
prevails.
7. " Vindyaga Chathurfi," " Ganesha's fourteenth day,"
about the 21st of August, celebrates the birth of the god of
Wisdom and Fortune. (31ay images of this deity, with his
elephant's head, and short, stout body and legs, riding upon
the back of a rat, are made, duly consecrated, and worshi])ped
in houses and families ; they are afterwards cast into a river
or tank.
8. " Onam" in August or September, is a great national
f(;stival in Malabar, more generally observed even than the
A'^ishu festival. Everything is now fresh and green after
the rains, so that tliis almost amounts to a second spring
feast. Houses are decorated with flowers, lamps kept burn-
HINDUISM IN TRAVANCORE. 187
ing, new clothes and earthenware purchased and the old
thrown away, swings are in general requisition, and a jubilee
is kept by all ranks and conditions of the people.
The legend on which the obligation of this festival is made
to rest, is to the effect that a great king, Maha Bali, by his
religious ceremonies and observances, had obtained such
extraordinary merit and authority as to alarm the gods them-
selves, and cause them to tremble for their supremacy.
Vishnu, therefore, taking the form of a dwarf, asked of the
king as much land as he could measure out by three steps. The
request was granted. Immediately, expanding to a gigantic
size, the god took one step half round the world, another
step completed the circuit, and the third was taken by placing
his foot on the head of the unfortunate king and crushing
him down to the infernal regions, where, however, he was per-
mitted to exercise sovereignty. Once a year, on this night, he
returns to earth, and wanders about to see if his people are
thriving. They endeavour therefore to appear as joyful and
happy as possible.
"This is the appointed niglit,
The night of joj and const'crated mirth,
When, from his judgment-seat in Padalon,
By Yamen's throne,
Baly j^oes forth, that he may walk the earth
Unseen, and hear his name
Still hymned and honoured by the grateful voice
Of humankind, and in his fame rejoice." *
9. ^^ Dussera" "the Ten Days Feast," relates to the autumnal
equinox — though it is now supposed to commemorate a victory
obtained by Doorga, the wife of Siva, over a wicked and
ferocious monster. It falls at the end of September or the
beginning of October. During this festival, which corresponds
to the "Doorga Pooj ah" of Bengal, artisans worship their
tools and implements ; scholars their books, almanack, and
* Southey's " Curse of Kebama."
188 "the land of charity."
pens ; and kings their swords and weapons. Public sliows
are also given.
It is at this time that the October " A'rattu " or " Bathing
Festival" (p. 165), and the "Royal Hunting," are celebrated
l)y the Maharajah and his officers of state.
10. "ZJeepayflZi," the "Feast of Lights," occurs in October
or November. It commemorates the killing of a demon by
Vishnu, Avho had not time to perform his ablutions by day-
light, and was therefore compelled to do so, contrary to rule,
at night. This is done by the Brahmans on this day.
Bonfires are lit everywhere, and nocturnal illuminations are
general in the temples, houses, and fields. The dunghill is
worshipped with offerings of fruits, &c., and lamps are lit and
set before it. The crows are also fed as an act of charity.
This observance is probably a relic of the worship of the
element of fire.
Other minor festivals are held in honour of the several
incarnations of Vishnu ; the commencement of the four great
Ages, and of the Seasons ; in remembrance of famous heroes
and demigods, &c., — but upon these it is not necessary to
dwell.
189
CHAPTEE XIV.
DEVIL-WORSHIP.
Alluded to in Scripture — Distinct from Image-Worsliip — Its Prevalence,
Origin, and Resemblance to "Western Superstitions — Names and Cha-
racter of Demons — Madan, Mallan, Sattan — Female Demons — Human
Sacrifices — Pattirakali, Ammen, Isakki — Instances and Illustrations of
this Worship — Spirits of Wicked Men and others worshipped — The
Devil- tree cut down — Minor Superstitions — Witchcraft, Magic, and
Incantations — Dread of them.
In the Sacred Scriptures we find occasional allusion made to
the worship of " devils " — as in Deut. xxxii. 17, " They sacri-
ficed to devils, not to God;" so also Psa. cvi. 37. Whether
the word here translated " devils " (literally " lords ") refers
merely to idols and the worship paid to them, or to the
worship of evil spirits as such, it is not easy to determine.
On the one hand, idols and false gods may be, and in
popular language often are, called devils, as a term of
reproach justly deserved by those who usurp the place of the
Most High in the hearts and outward adoration of His
rational and accountable creatures. Or the term may be
used of idolatry, on the principle that if the images of the
heathen are aught but blocks of wood and stone ; if they are
animated and inhabited by any spirits whatever; those must
be evil spirits, which delight to lead men astray and encou-
rage idolatry and other crimes. So we are taught, in
Ephes. vi. 12, that there are higher powers and wicked,
hellish agencies — " the managers of the spuitual opposition
190 "the land of charity."
to tlie kingdom of God," — earnestly working to support evil
and counteract good. Satan, indeed, appears to have caused
himself to be worshipped by means of idolatry. He insti-
gates and appropriates the worship paid by heathens to false
gods ; so that in this sense those words in 1 Cor. x. 20 are very
striking : — " The things which the Gentiles sacrifice they
sacrifice to devils, and not to God." In accordance with this
view the poet says of Satan, —
" What best pleased him, for in show he seemed
Then likest God ; whole nations, bowing, fell
Before him worshipping, and from his lips
Entreated oracles."
But, on the other hand, the " devils " spoken of in Scrip-
ture as adored by the heathen may refer, in some instances,
to evil and malignant spirits, such as are systematically
worshipped to the present day by many of the natives of
Southern India.
This worship of wicked sphits, or demons, to deprecate
their wrath or appease their anger, is altogether distinct from
that of idols ; which are supposed to represent more or less
benevolent deities, and minor or mediatorial gods. It is a
very ancient and wide-spread superstition, and appears to
underlie many of the more elaborate and complex systems of
paganism. In Africa fetish-worship is constantly practised
to deprecate the wrath of departed souls, and avert the evils
of witchcraft. In Mongolia, Tartary, and China * a remnant
of devil-worship still lingers. In Madagascar, also, I suspect
that the national superstitions — now, thank God, rapidly
perishing before the power of the Gospel — are of this
character; consisting rather in the worship of departed
spirits, and the use of magical charms, than in the adoration
of representative and symbolical images, like those of the
* Medhurst's '■ China; its State and Prospeetf," p. 203.
DEVIL-WORSHIP, 191
Hindus. In Siberia a system of demonolatry called " Sha-
manism " prevails. This was the old religion of the whole
Tartar race hefore Buddhism and Mohammedanism were
disseminated amongst them. The Shamanites acknowledge
the existence of a Supreme God, hut oifer Him no worship.
The objects of their worship are demons, Avhich are supposed
to be cruel, revengeful, and capricious, and the worship con-
sists in bloody sacrifices and frantic dances.*
Yery similar to this superstition is the demon-worship
which prevails in various parts of India and Ceylon. This
is practised by the aboriginal tribes, of whom there are, per-
haps, eight or nine millions — chiefly in the hills, and in
the South of India. These have some vague idea of the
existence of God, but do not believe that He will injure
them, or requires their worship. On the other hand, they
fancy that there are hosts of —
" Demons of the air,
Wicked and wanton spirits, who, where they will,
Wander abroad, still seeking to do ill ; "
flitting through the air, lurking by the road-side, dancing on
the surface of the water, haunting houses and burial-grounds,
dwelling in trees, going to and fro through the earth, and
ever seeking to injure and torment and destroy mankind.
These demons, they imagine, it is necessary to appease or
pacify by offerings and worship. The first i^rinciple of their
religion might be expressed in the words of an old English
proverb, " Keep friends with the devil, and honest men will
do you no harm." They say, " Keep friends with the demons,
offer to them your property, your blood, your service, and
you need not care about God ; He will not harm you."
The origin of this vile and debasing worship is probably
to be discovered in the dense ignorance and superstition of
* " Dravidian Comparative Grammar," p. 520.
192 *' THE LAND OF CUARITY."
early ages. Men were conscious of the fact that sin, pain,
and suffering everywhere abounded ; and the question of the
origin of evil presented itself, as it must to every thinking
mind. " If the Creator be good," they asked, " why so much
suffering in the world 1 Whence, and from whom, does this
spring?" The question has puzzled greater minds than
those of the j^oor Hindus. Some such attempt to account
lor the origin of evil appears to have led to the famous
heresy of the Manicha^ans in the third century of the
Christian era. Perhaps the system of Parseeism, acknow-
ledging two great principles — the one the author of good, the
other of evil — also sprung from an attempt to solve this
difficult problem. The existence and prevalence of disease
and suffering of every kind were, by the original inhabitants
of India, ascribed to the agency of wicked spirits, and these
spirits they thought it wise to propitiate by whatever offerings
and acts of worship appeared to them calculated to effect
this purpose. Probably an instinctive fear of departed souls
is also one element of this worship.
Ignorance, too, of the facts and operations of nature led to
erroneous deductions, which seemed to corroborate these
early guesses as to the existence of mischievous and malig-
nant devils. How sudden and mysterious attacks of such
diseases as cholera, small-pox, convulsions, and paralysis
could, in the established order of things, occur, they knew
not. Dwelling, as many of the early inhabitants of India
did, in the midst of dense forests, and surrounded by innu-
merable living creatures, with the forms, sounds, and habits
of many of which they were unacquainted, fearful phantoms
were conjured wp in the dim twilight, or in the darkness of
night, by the excited and untutored imagination of the
timid inhabitants, which were easily magnified into the
forms and cries of demons. With this agrees a Tamil pro-
verb " Marundavan kannukku irundatheUam pey," " He who
DEVIL-WORSHIP. 193
is bewildered (or frightened) thinks every dark object to be
a devil." Everything that appeared supernatural, painfully
sudden, or inexplicable, was thus accounted for ; while the
beneficent gifts of Providence, and the course of nature,
were expected to continue as matters of course, wuthout re-
quiring solicitude or acknowledgment on the part of their
recipients.
The great resemblance which may be traced between the
general aspects and many particulars of the superstitions
connected Avith demon-worship and those of our own fore-
fathers in Britain, with respect to fairies, pixies, brownies,
and boggarts ; ghosts, apparitions, and fiends ; witchcraft
and magic (with which music and dancing are associated in
our popular superstitions) ; good and ill fortune ; lucky and
unlucky days; the evil eye, omens, auspices, &c., has often
struck nie, and is very remarkable indeed. Happily, these
absurd notions are fast disappearing from our own land.
As the old Lancashire man shrewdly observed, " Owd
Ned [the steam-engine] an' lung chimblies 'ev driven 'em
away — fact'ry folk havin' summat else t'mind nur wanderin'
ghosts un' rollickin' sperrits. There's no boggarts neaw, an'
iv there were folk 'ev grown so wacken they'd soon catch
'em." The subject of the resemblances alluded to might
prove worthy of fuller and more detailed investigation.
We proceed to give a brief account of the characters
and attributes of the demons worshipped in Travancore,
and of the superstitions connected with them.
There are in Tamil three words ordinarily used to express
the general idea of demon or devil. These are " i^c//," a
Dravidian word which bears some resemblance to our English
word " fay," or " fairy ;" another term is " j-Jw^^am," goblin
or fiend ; the third is '^]j/'.msi/,'^ derived from the Sanskrit
language, and of synonymous import. Those spirits called
" putham " are spoken of as haunting the places where dead
194 "the land of charity."
bodies are burnt or buried. Companies of them attend Siva,
Ganesha, and other deities. They are described as dwarfs of
ugly appearance, witli huge potbellies and very small legs.
One of the principal objects of superstitious dread is the
demon called " Madan," a word signifying " he who is like a
cow." He is supposed to be very large and tall, his body
being of a black colour and covered with hair, like that of a
cow.* Images of Madan are never made. He is said to
strike men and oxen with sudden illnesses, and is in conse-
quence greatly feared.
There are numerous forms of Madan, to which many mis-
chievous acts are ascribed. " Chula Madan," or " Furnace
devil," is worshipped by potters, who dread his breaking
their pottery while it is being burnt in the kiln ; " Kumili
Madan," or " Bubble devil," dances on the surface of the
water; " Poruthu Madan" is the "Fighting devil" (too
Avell known amongst ourselves) ; " i^eesa Madan " is the
"Wicked devil."
" Chudala Madan," or " Graveyard demon," dwells in
places where corpses have been buried or burnt. A silly
fable, in the usual style, is related of this demon as appear-
ing dancing in a flame with a turban, cloth, short drawers,
bracelets, trident, javelin, bow, and a large club varnished
with vermilion ; which articles are still found in temples
dedicated to his worship. " He received fi-om Siva many
privileges, such as to be worshipped by all persons living
between Trevandrum and Madura, to receive human and
animal sacrifices, to afflict virgins, to burn down cities, to
break iron castles, to assume any shajie his fancy might
suggest at any time, and to play in deep waters like fishes.
The people, therefore, through fear Avorship him to the
* Compare Lev. xvii. 7; litornlly, "hairy ones,— he-goats." In our
popular superstitions, the cloven foot of an ox is atti ibuted to Satan.
DEVIL-WORSHIP. 195
present day, and present to him offerings of fowls, goats,
fruits, and flowers."
Many children are named after this and other demons, to
Avhom they are dedicated to save them from infantile diseases.
In some families the eldest son is named after the demon
worshipped by the father's family, and the eldest daughter
after that of the motlier's family. I^aturally, therefore, " a
new name " (Hos. ii. 1 7) is given to these devil-worshippers,
on their solemn and public profession of Christianity in the
ordinance of baptism.
Another popular demon is j\Iallan, " the Giant," revered
especially by the tribes wdio inhabit the mountains of Tra-
vancore, and who are supposed to possess great influence
over the demons. Sometimes it is said that two of these
gigantic fiends, sixteen or seventeen feet high, with terrible
countenances and enormous projecting tusks, are seen fighting
together and throwing lighted brands at each other. The
engraving (page 196) gives an accurate representation of
the common clay images of Mallan and his wife, Karunkali,
or " Black Kali," Avho is represented on his right.
" Kutti Sattan," " little Sattan," is a familiar spirit invoked
in performing juggling tricks. The name is almost the
same as the Hebrew word Satan, though there does not
appear to be any philological connection between the two.
If invoked, Sattan is supposed to be w^illing to place his
powers at the service of his devotees, to eft'ect whatever
they desire, to supply them Avith whatever they may wish
for, and to enable them to take revenge on their enemies by
various spiteful means — such as throwing stones on their
houses, breaking their doors, and putting dirt and clay into
their food. I have heard many ridiculous and absurd tales
of the tricks ascribed to Sattan, and have been unable to
persuade even intelligent Hindus that these must have been
either accidental or managed by human agency, in trickery or
196
*' THE LAND OF CHARITY."
through spite. On one occasion it was said that stones,
cocoa-nut shells, and earth Avere thrown on the roof of a
catechist's house, while several of his friends were on the
watch; and that they were unable to detect any human
KAEUNKALI AND MALLAIf.
agency in the affair. In a town called Puthukadei stones
were said to be continually falling down on one of the
houses through the tricks of a demon.
There is now, in connection with the Trevaudrum Mission,
DEVIL-WORSHIP. 197
an excellent old Christian, who was eminent some years ago
as a native physician, especially in cases of poison, and as a
professed exorcist, magician, and devil-priest. He Avas a
worshipper of Sattan, in whose honour he had built and
maintained at his own expense two temples, in which he
performed daily rites and offered sacrifices on stated occa-
sions. His elder brother had cherished Sattan as his familiar
spirit, but afterwards professed to transfer the demon to this
man, who continued to invoke him for twelve years until his
conversion.
Doctor Krishnan, as he was called, stated, and I believe
really imagined, that he had often seen this demon in human
form, though only about two and a half feet high, with two
tusks like those of an elephant, covered with hair like a cow,
and with a sling and stones in his hand.
Another demon is called " Muchandei Muppan " — " the
old man of the three roads." He is said to lurk at places
where several roads meet, watching his opportunity to frighten
and injure the passers by.
The demons worshipped in South India are supposed to
be of both sexes, but the female demons appear to be still
more malicious and cruel than those already noticed. Some
of these are forms of Iviili, a goddess worshipped under
various names and representations throughout the whole of
India. She is fabled to be the wife of Siva, the god of
destruction and lord of demons. She delights in blood,
cruelty and lust. Human as well as animal sacrifices were
offered to her. It is in honour of Kali that Hindu ascetics
cut, pierce, and torture their bodies, or are swung on hooks
attached to a lofty rotating beam. She is represented as being
pleased for a thousand years with the blood of a human
being.
One of the Mackenzie Manuscripts states that an annual
human sacrifice of peculiar atrocity was accustomed to be
198
"the land of charity."
oiFered in former times at a fane of Bhagavathi, or Kali, in
the Tiru valla district. A young woman, pregnant with
her first child, was selected, and brought in front of the
PATTIRAKALI.
shrine. She was then beheaded with one blow of a sword,
so that the head rolled up in front of the image, on which
t'^e blood of the victim was also sprinkled. A similar sacri-
DEVIL-WORSHIP.
199
fice is said to have been offered till a.d. 1 744. In the year fol-
lowing a possession of the goddess came upon a bystander, when
the saciitice was aboi;t to take place, directing that it should
be discontinued. Since then it has been wholly set aside.
VBKBAPATBAN.
The posterity of the woman and child spared on this last
occasion are now called " Adichamar," and live together in a
small community of forty or fifty souls. They receive tho
200 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
offerings made to the shrine, and are exempted from Govern-
ment taxes. A public sacrifice of a sheep is now annually
offered.
In Southern India this goddess is represented as the
queen of the demons, and is called Pattirakali, as being the
wife of Patran or Siva. It is obvious that in this, as in other
instances, a portion of the Brahmanical mythology has been
mixed up and incorporated Avith the aboriginal demon-wor-
ship. Krdi is properly a Brahmanical goddess, but has been
adopted in the system of demonism as a principal object of
worship. Kali signifies " black," and she is represented in
Bengal as of a black, or dark bkie colour. Images of Patti-
rakali are usually made and placed in the devil temples.
She is often represented by the hideous figure of a woman
with an infant in her hand, which she is in the act of
devouring and crushing between her teeth. This terrible
image is habitually worshipped by thousands of poor ignorant
mothers of India. She is also called " Eanapatra Kali " —
"goddess of war or of hatred."
The engraving on page 198 represents the image of
Pattirakrdi, and that on the opposite page her husband,
Veerapatran, formerly worshippetl together at a temple near
Mandikadu,* the annual festival taking place at the same
time as the Ammen-worship at that place. Tlie temple and
most of the images were destroyed, and a Christian congre-
gation formed by Mr. Mead at the same place, in 183G.
Closely related to the worship of Pattirakali is that of a
class of female demons called " Ammen," or " mother," —
awful desecration of the sacred term ! The principal Ammen
appears to be a personification of the small-pox, the seeds of
which she is said to sow upon the bodies of human beings ;
she is hence called " IMuttaramma," " the mother of jjearls."
When small-pox prevails, unceasing worship is offered to the
* Missiuiiarj/ Chronicle, September, 1837.
DEVIL-WORSHIP. 201
Ammen. Her ignorant and fanatical worshippers object to
take medicines, or use any means for the cure of small-pox,
imagining she will be excited to greater vengeance if deprived
of her expected prey.
In the village of Tiruvaram, in Trevandrum district, there
were two demon temples. One was dedicated to Madan, and
contained no image, but only the painted sticks with iron
rattles at either end, used in devil-dancing. Once or twice a
year, or oftener in case of sickness or distress, sacrifices w^ere
made to propitiate the demon. The other temple was dedi-
cated to Eena Etchi, a female demon who was supposed to
molest and kill women during the period of pregnancy, and
was therefore worshipped by them esjDecially, in order to
conciliate her. When I visited this temjile, after the people
had commenced attendance at one of our chapels, there
were in it earthenware images of the demon and her three
children — one on either side and one in her arms. As soon
as a woman thought she was in danger of being injured by
Eena Etchi, she made the usual offerings of sheep, fowls, &c.
Once or twice a year a female officiated as priestess, dancing
before the idols. The idols, with the exception of one which
I have in my possession, were shortly afterwards destroyed ;
the temples are now used, one as a shed for manure, the
other as a stable for cattle. The people are diligent in their
attendance on the means of grace, and are making j)rogress
in the knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ.
Another female demon much worshipped by women is
Isakki, Yekki, or Chakki. She also is supposed to possess
and injure women. An instance of this superstition, and of
overcoming it by Christian faith, is recorded by Eev. G. 0.
Newport as follows : —
" The daughter of Yesudial, a church member, had been
married some few months, when being seized suddenly with
violent pains, she was brought home to her mother's house.
202 "the laxd of charity."
Tlie native doctors were called in, and they said that the
woman had been seized by the demon Isakki. Ofierings
must be made, or the devil would most certainly destroy her
unborn child and perhaps herself. The father of the girl,
overwhelmed with grief, assented to all this, and was about
to sacrifice to the devil, when the mother, with tears streaming
down her cheeks, cried out, ' What ! do you know no better
than to consent to this devil-worship 1 ' Then turning to
her sick daughter, and stroking her hair fondly, she said, ' Ko,
my darling, they shall not make offerings to devils, either for
you or for your child. We are in God's hands ; let Him
do what seemeth Him good. If you die, I shall be childless ;
but God will be my portion, and you will be with Him.'
Having said this she fell sobbing on her daughter, and the
whole family cried together, so much so that the heathen
doctors said one to another, ' Why do we say such things to
these people 1 Are they not Christians ] Is it not a great
shame to grieve them in this way 1 In future we must only
say these things to our own people.' Prayer Avas made for
the sick woman, and God heard it and graciously restored
her to health."
The image of Paramasattee (Heavenly Power), represented
in the opposite engraving, was worshipped above thirty
years ago at a village in I^eyoor district.* It was committed
to the flames by the people on their embracing Christianity,
but was rescued by one of the missionaries. It was sent to
!England, and placed in the museum of the London IMissionary
Society, where it may now be seen. It was usually kept
concealed except on. great occasions, when it was brought
out to be worshipped.
The image is of wood, with numerous projecting iron
spoons, used as oil lamps for illuminating the idol on special
occasions. Several mystic letters are graven on the front of
* Missionary Chronicle, October, 1837.
DEVIL-WORSHIP.
203
the figure. Thougli worshipped as a female demon, with danc-
ing and other rites, this image is rather connected with the
Erahmanical superstition than with the aboriginal demonolatry.
PAKAMAhAlTfcE.
The spirits of wicked men, or of those who have met with
a ^.violent death by drowning, hanging, or other means,
204 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
are supposed to become demons, wandering about to inflict
injury in various ways upon mankind. Hence arose a
strange custom in the execution of murderers by hanging.
It was supposed that their spirits would haunt the place of
execution and its neighbourhood, to prevent which the heels
of the criminal were cut with a sword, or hamstrung, as he
was thrown off. This j^ractice was abolished by the native
Government in 1862.
In numerous instances the sj^irits of wicked men are
actually worshipped after death. A noted robber, named
Palaveshum, was long the object of worship in Tinnevelly.
A more extraordinary case still was the worship of an
Englishman, practised till lately in a part of the same British
province. His name was Pole, a cajDtain in the British
army. He was known to have been a mighty hunter, and
at his tomb offerings of cigars and brandy were made by the
people of the neighbourhood, to propitiate his favour and
invoke his continued aid against the wild beasts.*
An instance of mothers propitiating the spirits of their
daughters who died before marriage, is referred to by liev.
E. Lewis as follows : —
" The catechist conversed with a number of women on
the inability of devils to save men. He said, ' Do you not
perform worship to the devil Kanni [a virgin] 1 ' they
replied, ' Yes.' ' Do you not, when you get ill, make vows
to offer milk, fruit and cakes, silk, and coloured cloth to
Kanni, in case you recover 1 ' ' We do,' said they. ' ]]ut
are not these virgin demons your own unmarried daughters,
who are now dead?' They acknowledged that it was so.
Then the catechist expostulated with them, saying, ' How
silly and degrading a thing it is to bow down and express
your sorrows, with the hope of obtaining relief, before your
own children, whom you reared, who were subject to you
* " TLe Tinnevelly Shanurs," p. 43.
DEVIL-WORSHIP. 205
and afraid of you, and who even when alive were unable to
afford you comfort when they saw you weeping ! Can you
think for a moment that such children have power over your
lives now that they are dead, any more than when they were
living ] ' They assented to his reasoning, and acknowledged
their foUy."
The following is another authentic instance of the worship
of departed spirits : —
Vallavan and his wife were bigoted heathens and devil-
dancers, most scrupulous in their observance of the customary
sacrifices and offerings. His mother-in-law was also a devil-
dancer, so that there were three in that one family. " Val-
lavan made annual offerings to the extent of two hundred
fanams ; and for this purpose he would buy a fat red goat,
some large fowls, cocoa-nuts, plantains, betel, rice, and
various odoriferous substances, and garlands of flowers.
Having procured all these, he would make to himself a god
of well-trodden clay, and on a Friday afternoon would cut
open the cocoa-nuts and set them in order, with the betel,
plantains, and the flower of the cocoa-nut tree * before the
newly made god. In the meantime his friends would boil
two large potfuls of rice, and another of water, with the
pulverized odoriferous substances dissolved in it. The
barbers also would beat their tom-toms, whilst the women
would utter a shrill cry. Then Vallavan would jumi) out
and dance, saying that he was inspired by the demon. He
would take three handfuls of the scum rising from the
boiling water and put it on his head, and afterwards take a
large bunch of the cocoa-nut flower from the presence of
the god, dip it in the boiling water, and shake it over his
head, that the water might run down his head and body.
While thus dancing he would te dressed in a fine cloth, and
adorned Avith the jewels which had been consecrated to the
* See Ixontispiece.
206 "the land op charity."
god. The persons present would tell him their wants, and
seek his miraculous aid. After this the goat and all the
fowls would be sacrificed, and then consumed by the
worshippers as their evening meal."
At one time Vallavan decided that his mother, who had
died long previously, had become a mischievous demon, and
would injure them unless propitiated. They accordingly
purchased a fine cloth for her, put it in the apartment which
she had occupied, and oftered there cakes, plantains, betel
leaves, and other things known to have been agreeable to her
when living. At such seasons Patmasuri, Vallavan's wife,
would enter that room, dress herself with the cloth, and
dance in honour of her mother-in-law. Supposing herself
possessed at the time with- the spirit, she would address her
husband and say, " My son, am I not your mother 1 Ee
assured that I shall make you happy." Immediately he
would reply, " Yes, my mother, it is so ; preserve us and bless
us," and would worship her^ calling on all his children and
friends to do so likewise.
This family were afterwards led to accept the truth of
Christianity, surrendered the instruments and emblems
of demonolatry, and became consistent and earnest Clu'istians
in connection with the Santhapuram district.
Some of the demons are supjiosed to reside in certain
trees,* at the foot of which a rough stone is placed as an
image, or emblem, on which turmeric powder is rubbed. No
one Avill pass by these places after night. Such trees are
usually very large, old, and well grown, as it is considered
sacrilegious and dangerous to hew them down. In some
parts of the country these trees are quite common. In one
of the mountains of Travancoro grew a noble timber tree
which our assistant missionary, Mr. Ashton, wished to secure
for use in the erection of the large chapel at Neyoor. The
* Coinparc Deut. xvi. 21.
DEVIL-WORSHIP. 207
trunk was so large that four men with outstretched arms
could not compass it, and the branches were as thick as
ordinary trees of that species. This tree was supposed to be
the abode of a very powerful spirit, who exercised rule over
the mountains and wild beasts, and to this circumstance its
enormous growth was attributed. Several rude stones of
small size were placed at the base of the tree and worshipped.
It was the blood and ashes and other manure deposited
there on sacrificial and festival occasions that had nourished
and so wonderfully enlarged this colossal tree. Even the
native Government had refrained from cutting down this
monarch of the forest for their public works. While en-
gaged in the work of felling it, the missionary and workmen
saw a monstrous tiger at a short distance looking at them ;
but on their shouting and making a great noise he Avalked
slov/ly away. Had any of the people been seized by this
tiger, it Avould certainly have been ascribed to the wrath of
the demon ; but the providence of God graciously preserved
them from all danger. The mountaineers firmly refused to
assist in cutting down the tree, so that they had to bring
Christian Avorkmen from a considerable distance. At last
the tree fell with a terrible crash, which echoed amongst the
surrounding mountains, amidst the screams and cries of the
heathen, who from that time seemed to listen more readily
to the exhortations of the missionary. Much of the wood-
work of the chapel was made of this single tree ; so that what
had formerly been used in the service of the devil now became
subservient to the worship of the one true and living God.
The minor superstitions connected with demon-worship
are well-nigh innumerable ; they enter into all the feelings,
and are associated with the Avhole life, of these people.
Every disease, accident, or misfortune, is attributed to the
agency of the devils, and great caution is exercised to avoid
arousing their fuiy. We shall give a few illustrative details.
208 "the land of charity."
Certain hours of every day are supposed to be unlucky
and dangerous. At noon, as well as at midnight (especially
on Fridays), evil spirits are supposed to be roaming about,
waiting to seize on those who wallc out of their houses into
lonely places. Iron rings on the fingers or toes, or an iron
staff, are supposed to afford protection from such attacks.
At night the demons are supposed to call loudly, in order to
allure people out of their houses into some distant jungle,
where they can slay them. Hence calls at night are never
responded to until the fourth repetition, devils being sup-
posed to call only thiice.
At the period of puberty, and after childbirth, women
are supposed to be peculiarly liable to the attacks of demons
— the cause of convulsions and similar disorders. Dr. Day
speaks of a female patient of his, Avho asserted her belief
that a curvature of the spine from which she suffered was
caused by a demon. She was then about thirty years of
age, and stated that when she was about eleven, while
walking in a narrow lane after dark, the demon came behind
and struck her a violent blow on the back, occasioning the
curve which continued from that time. Even then, she
added, unless the demon were propitiated by occasional
offerings, she experienced similar attacks.
The sudden illnesses of children and adults are accounted
for in a similar way. An instance occurred in a congregation
under my charge. The son of the elder in this congregation
accidentally trod on a poisonous thorn, which caused severe
swelling and dangerous fever. His parents offered prayer
for his recovery, and the catechist administered medicines
to the youth. But the young man's father-in-law was a
heathen, and he said that this illness was caused by a devil,
and had arisen from treading on the grave of some one who
had died before of a similar illness. For this he said it
would be necessary to present an iron stylus ornamented
DEVIL-WORSHIP. 209
with gold. But the Christian father refused to listen to
such evil solicitations, saying, " Such remarks do not terrify
us. Our God is able to heal all diseases." They continued
in prayer to God, and in the use of suitable means ; and the
patient recovered, to the surprise of the heathens and the
joy of the Christians, who praised God for His mercy.
Our people in Travaucore imagine that occasionally per-
sons are attacked by demons even after their reception of
Christian truth. They would liken this to the last struggles
of the devils before their expulsion by our blessed Lord, when
they threw down the possessed and tare him. A case of ill-
ness attributed by them to this cause, is that of the head man
of one of our congregations, whom I baptized a few years
ago, giving him the name of Moses. This man had been a
]iopular devil- dancer and exorciser of demons from women.
The next day after his first Sunday's attendance on Christian
Avorship, the catechist visited him and found him lying on
the floor of his house, ill in body and distressed in mind.
He complained of illness and of occasional insane desires to
rise up and break all that Avas in the house, to eat clay, &c.
This Avas attributed by his relatives to the A'engeance of the
demons Avhom he had formerly served, and they urged him
to return to his old practices. But, by the grace of God, he
remained firm ; the catechist applied a cooling ointment to
his head, and he speedily recoA^ered. Many of his neigh-
bours have since become Christians through the efforts of
tliis man, and he makes himself very useful in the congre-
gation.
Although Europeans are generally alloAved to be, by their
learning and strength, superior to the malignant influences of
evil spirits, yet their illnesses are occasionally ascribed to this
cause. Some years ago, a valued and dcA^oted missionary,
Avho had been labouring in India for many years, Avas sud-
denly attacked Avith convulsions. This was at once imputed
p
210
THE LAND OF CHAKITY.
to the power of a demon whose temple he had some time
previously assisted in destroying, on the conversion of those
who formerly supported that superstition.
Pretensions to witchcraft, divination, and inagical skill are
made by many of these demon-worshippers. Some pretend
that a familiar sj^irit appears to them in the form of a dog or
jackal. To open a communication with the demon, and to
gain the power of effecting wliatever they may desire by his
assistance, they j^roceed alone, naked, at dead of night to
devil temples, dense jungles and other solitary places, to
offer sacritices and perform incantations.
Serious illnesses and other afflictions are frequently re-
ferred to the malice of enemies, who are supposed to have
bewitched the sufferer ; and counter charms and solemn in-
cantations are used to counteract the malignant influence
supposed to be at work. I have in my possession a manu-
script volume of magical incantations and spells in the
Malayrdim language, giving directions for effecting a great
variety of purposes, such as an ambitious, avaricious, or
profligate heathen might desire. Many of these are fearful
in their malignity or obscenity.
Some of the least abominable are as follows : —
"To remove trem-
bling arising from
demoniacal posses-
sion —
" Write this figure
on a plant that has
milky juice, and
drive a nail through
it : the trembling
will cease."
Others of these are to produce madness ; to bring men or
DEVIL-WORSHIP.
211
women under one's power ; to cause diseases — such as blind-
ness, dumbness, paralysis, mortification, or death to an enemy.
The mere perusal of such a work reveals the corrupting and
debasing influence of these superstitions. Few of them are of
such a nature as to allow of their publication, but here are
specimens of the most innocent.
" To produce madness — write this figure
and bmd it on. Madness will ensue."
" To secure the
favour of a king —
write this figure, and
tie it on the head
before entering the
presence of the Ea-
jah."
\sr
" For all diseases and counteracting enemies — Avriting the
discus (of Vishnu) is excellent." The figure is that on the
reverse of the copper cash, see p. 110.
Sometimes a little image of the person who is to be be-
witched and destroyed is prepared ; nails are driven hito it at
the places indicating the parts of the body to be attacked
with disease, and it is then secretly buried, or deposited in the
house or garden of the intended victim. It is a curious fact
that similar images of clay or wax, pierced through with pins
and needles, are occasionally met with in churchyards and
gardens in Pendle Forest, near Burnley, Avhere they are
212 "the land of charity."
placed for the piirpose of caiisiiig the death of the persons
they represent.*
So firm and enduring a hold has the dread of heing
hewitched upon the minds of the people, that I have known
a lamentable case of total apostasy from Christianity on this
account, — the only instance of the kind, except one, which I
have known on the part of a church member. Yohanan
(John) had been a steady and apparently consistent mem-
ber of the church, and elder in his congregation, for about
twenty-five years. IMost of his relatives remained in hea-
thenism, and when he was attacked with serious illness they
persuaded him that he had been bewitched, and that this
illness had been caused by the devil. Notwithstanding the
protestations and advices of the catechist, Yohanan consented
to the celebration of the usual ceremonies, and sent for devil-
priests to dig up the ground in front of his house, in search
of the supposed hidden charm which had caused his illness.
On hearing of this, J. immediately sent two of our best
native preachers to warn and exhort him, but their visit was
in vain. He certainly denied having consented to the
heathen rites, and assented to all that our catechists advanced,
but the very next day these ceremonies were performed.
The event proved that tliese were useless, for four days after
Avards he died, without giving any sign, so far as we were
aware, of true repentance oi' of faith in Christ. 'J'he fear of
the demons is the last superstition that leaves the native
mind.
* " Lancasliire Folk-lore," bj Ilurlai.d and Wilkinson.
213
CHAPTER XY.
DEVIL-WORSHIP (cOXTINUEd).
Devil Temples, Sacrifices, and Dancing — Demoniacal Possession — ^landi-
kadu Festival — Sect of Muttukutti — Gradual Decline of Demonolatry —
Its Criminality and Dtbasing Influence.
The priests who officiate in the worship paid to evil spirits
do not belong to any hereditary or exclusive class, like that
of the Brahnians amongst the idol- worshipping Hindus.
Any one, even a woman, may act as priest or devil-dancer,
if he or she be but supposed to be duly possessed or inspu'ed
by the demon involved.
" Pey coils" or devil temples, are very numerous through-
out the country. They bear no resemblance whatever to the
Brahmanical idol temples ; being in general mere sheds, a
few yards in length, open at one end, and mostly quite
empty. Indeed, images are no essential element in demon-
Avorship ; where they are found they appear to have been
adopted from the Brahmanical worship.
In front of the devil temple, or sometimes without any
covered edifice, there stands a small pyramidal erection or
obelisk four or five feet in height, generally built of brick
and stuccoed, which is always associated with this worship,
and takes the place of an image ; but it is impossible to ascer-
tain the origin or meaning of this symbol. Two of these
will be observed in the frontispiece to this volume.
Inside some temples are placed the implements and
symbols of demon-worship, — dancing-sticks or Avands, the
214 "the land of charity."
priest's garments, trident, &c. ; and in others, one or more
images of the demon to whom the temple is dedicated.
The devil-dancer's garments consist of a high conical cloth
cap, with tapes hanging down at either side, probably to
represent long shaggy hair ; a jacket with embroidered repre-
sentations of devils worked in red, to denote their blood-
thirsty character ; aiid a pair of short drawers, corresponding
in style, with small bells attached to the border, A thick
club and long wand, prettily painted and having iron rattles
or jingling brass rings at either end, are also held in the
hand while dancing ; with sometimes a trident, sacrificial
knife, bangles for the ankles with brass bells, and occasion-
ally other instruments or ornaments. Most of these will be
observed in the frontispiece.
The offerings usually presented to the demons are very
various, and include most of the articles of food and drink
that are esteemed by the people themselves. Such are cakes
and sweetmeats, parched or bruised rice, roots, fruits, oil,
milk, and arrack, besides flowers, &c. Lut it is a remarkable
fact that the principal feature of their worship consists in
animal sacrifices and libations of blood, to pacify the demons
and secure their favour. They are represented as thirsting
for human blood, but propitiated by sacrifices of the lower
animals. Doubtless human sacrifices were once offered, as
indeed the}' stiU secretly are in the country of the Khonds ;
but the custom in South India is to offer in sacrifice, on
important occasions, sheep, goats, fowls, and pigs. Thus
even these uninstructed heathens recognise, though in a
sadly corrupted and exaggerated form, the great truth — that
"without shedding of blood there is no remission of sins."
Connected with this is what is called devil-dancing, in
which the demoniacal possession is sought. "We have men-
tioned that certain ceremonies are at times observed in order
to drive out and dis^jossess a devil, but on these occasions it
DEVIL-WORSHIP. 215
is desired to bring liim into the soul of the worshipper, who
is then supposed to become his inspired oracle, and to utter
prophecies, and give other information for the guidance of
the assembled crowd of worshippers. These more important
sacrifices and festivals are held annually, or occasionally as
may be considered necessary, in times of prevalent disease,
or in fulfilment of vows previously made. Funds for the
necessary expenses are contributed by all interested. JS^ight
is the season chosen for the principal performances, and the
festival usually continues for two or three days and nights.
As devils are supposed to shrink from the presence and
superior power of Europeans, and as the people also are
ashamed to be seen engaged in these midnight orgies, Ave
have rarely opportunities of witnessing the devil-dancing.
I have seen it but once, and that on a small scale, and Avill
simply relate what I then saw.
Some months after my arrival in India, I heard the sound
of the tom-tom, or drum, and other instruments during the
night, and went over early the next morning to a small devU
temple, within half a mde of the mission bungalow, in order
to observe the ceremonies. The temple had been newly
painted for the occasion, and the walls ornamented with rude
sketches of men, Avild beasts, and flowers.
Assembled in a shed in front of the temple there were
about fifty persons, including women and children — all
Sudras, with one Brahman as " master of the ceremonies."
South of the temple, a cocoa-leaf basket was erected upon
rods, as the residence, for the time being, of the demon, and
a receptacle for the offerings.
A number of those present, with whom I had been pre-
viously acquainted, approaching me, I began a conversation
with them on the wickedness and folly of the worship in
wdiich they were engaged. While we were speaking together,
an old grey-headed man rushed out from among the peoplej
216 "tub land of charity."
and ran about dancing and leaping like a madman. He
was now siipposed to Le possessed by the demon. Those who
were with me only laughed at this. The old man, after
some time, went np close to the side of the temple, writhing
his whole body with horrible contortions, and trembling
exceedingly ; during which several ran to bring the fowls* for
sacrifice. These fowls were taken, one by one, by another
man, and water was poured upon them. After dancing about
with them for a few minutes, this man cast tliem upon the
ground ; when, if they shook the water from their wings, they
were considered suitable for sacrifice, tlie head was cut off
and the blood poured out in front of the basket. He also
was then supposed to be possessed, and danced furiously
round the court of the temple. To excite him still further,
the drum was brought nearer and beaten still faster and
more furiously, while the chanting of songs and tinkling of
cymbals added to the noise. Seizing a bunch of flowers of
the areca palm, and dipping it in sattVon water, the wretched
man sprinkled himself and the people, and then, still leaping
madly, cast about the burning ashes of the fire which was
used for preparing the flesh of the sacrifices. A considerable
number of fowls were sacrificed ; after some time the dancing
ceased, and the devotee went to the neighbouring tank to bathe.
A full and graphic description of devil-dancing is given
by Dr. Caldwell, in his valuable pamphlet entitled " The
Tinnevelly Shanars," which contains accurate and reliable
information upon the whole subject. He says : —
" The officiating priest, M'hoever he may happen to be, is
dressed for the occasion in the vestments and ornaments
appropriate to the particular devil worshipped. The object
in view in donning the demon's insignia is to strike terror
into the imagination of the beholders. 15ut the particoloured
dress and grotescpie ornaments, the cap, trident, and jingling
* " Some cock or cat your rage must stop." — Burns.
DEVIL-WORSHIP. 217
bells of tlie performer, bear so close a resemblance to the
usual adjuncts of a pantomime, that a European would find
it difficult to look grave. The musical instruments, or rather
the instruments of noise, chiefly used in the devil-dance are
the tom-tom, or ordinary Indian drum, and the horn, with
occasionally the addition of a clarionet, when the parties can
afford it. But the favourite instrument, because the noisiest,
is that which is called ' the bow.' A series of bells of various
sizes is fastened to the frame of a gigantic bow, the strings are
tightened so as to emit a musical note Avhen struck, and the bow
rests on a large, empty brazen pot. The instrument is played on
by a plectrum, and several musicians join in the performance.
One strikes the string of the bow with the plectrum, another
produces the bass by striking the brazen pot with his hand,
and the third keeps time and improves the harmony by a
pair of cymbals. As each musician kindles in his work, and
strives to outstrip his neighbour in the rapidity of his
flourishes and in the loudness of the tone with which he
sings the accompaniment, the result is a tumult of frightful
sounds, such as may be supposed to delight even a demon's ear.
" When the preparations are completed, and the devil-dance
is about to commence, the music is at first comparatively
slow, and the dancer seems impassive and sullen, and either
stands still or moves about in gloomy silence. Gradually,
as the music becomes quicker and louder, his excitement
begins to rise. Sometimes, to help him to work himself up
into a frenzy, he uses medicated draughts, cuts and lacerates
his flesh till the blood flows, lashes himself with a huge
whip, presses a burning torch to his breast, drinks the blood
which flows from his own wounds, or drinks the blood of the
sacrifice, putting the tliroat of the decapitated goat to his
mouth.* Tlien, as if he had ac(piired new life, he begins to
brandish his staff" of bells, and to dance with a quick, but
* Compare Psa. xvi. 4.
218 "the land op charity."
wild, unsteady step. Suddenly the afflatus descends ; tliere
is no mistaking that glare, or those frantic leaps. He snorts,
lie stares, he gyrates. The demon has now taken bodily
possession of him ; and though he retains the power of utter-
ance and of motion, both are under the demon's control,
and his separate consciousness is in abeyance. The by-
standers signalize the event by raising a long shout, attended
with a peculiar vibratory noise, caused by the motion of th
hand and tongue, or the tongue alone. The devil-dancer is
now worshipped as a present deity; and every bystander
consults him resj^ecting his disease, his wants, the welfare o
his absent relatives, the offerings to be made for the accom-
plishment of his wishes, and, in short, respecting everything
for which superhuman knowledge is supposed to be available.
As the devil-dancer acts to admiration the part of a maniac,
it requires some experience to enable a person to interpret
his dubious or unmeaning replies, his muttered voices and
uncouth gestures ; but the wishes of the parties who consult
him help them greatly to interpret his meaning."
These ceremonies are repeated annually or oftener, espe-
cially during the prevalence of epidemics. On these
occasions it was sad and distressing to hear the beating
of drums all night, and the shrill and prolonged cries of the
frantic worshippers ; while we knew that the sick were
deserted by their relatives through fear of infection, or were
lying in the solitude of their own houses, perishing of pain-
fully consuming diseases, in physical neglect, and mental and
spiritual darkness and misery.
The question of the reality of any instance of professed
demoniacal possession cannot readily be answered. I my-
self have never seen or known a case in which there was
proved to be aught beyond imposture, imagination, or
disease. Most of our Christian converts, who were once
devil-dancers, only assert that " something came over them."
DEVIL-WORSHIP, 219
Still, one or two learned and experienced missionaries in
Tiunevelly, who have investigated the subject, have heen
compelled to state that they could not absolutely declare that
there is, as a matter of fact, no such thing as demoniacal
possession. And surely, if it is to be found in the present
day, which I think not impossible,* it might be expected to
prevail, if anywliere, amongst those who deliberately, know-
ingly, and systematically worship wdcked spirits, and seek
this infernal inspiration.
One of the principal devil temples in Travancore is that
represented in the annexed engraving, situated at Agas-
tispuram, near Cape Comorin ; which is also the head-
quarters of the Shanar tribe, where their ISTudan, or Chieftain,
resides, who Avas formerly allowed the privileges of having a
fort, riding in a .palankeen, and retaining 100 armed
attendants, which he is too reduced to support now. This is
a temple of jMuttar Amraen, and is said to have been built
in ten days l)y the aid of demons ! The image is of silver.
The rude scaifolding in front of the temple is covered with
cloth, flowers, banners, and other ornaments on festival
occasions.
Another of this class is the celebrated temple at Man-
dikadu, near Kolachal, where a great annual festival is held
in March in honour of the village Ammen. To this festival
a vast concourse of natives assembles from all parts of
Travancore and Tinnevelly. A kind of fair is held on the
occasion, at which commodities are brought for sale from
different parts of India, This is one cause of attraction
to the immense crowds who attend, but thousands assemble
there to fulfil the vows they have made in sickness. This
goddess is worshipped chiefly by Ilavars ; but all castes,
except Pulayars, attend the festival, and have access to the
temple. Brahmans, however, cannot, consistently with their
* See a very suggestive article in Good Words for February, 1807.
220 "the land of charity."
prejudices and ahhnrrence of bloodshed, take part in the
festival "without degradation.
The festival lasts for seven days, six of which are spent in
domestic ceremonies, the last and principal day at the temple.
Hook-swinging was, till recently, practised in connection
with the festival at this and several similar temples in
Travancore. An immense cart is made, with great wheels
and a high upright pole, on the top of Avhich a cross-beam
thirty feet in length is fastened so as to tnrn ronnd. Persons
who are to be swnng in fulfilment of vows, or in token
of gratitude for recovery from sickness, (usually boys, or
a man with a young child in his arms,) are not allowed
for some days previously to eat hsh, flesh, &c., but only
boiled rice once a day, which they must cook with their own
hands to avoid pollution. They bathe twice a day, and live
apart from others. When about to be swung, their ears,
neck, and waist are adorned with golden ornaments, and
a silver belt or chain ; and while swinging they carry in one
hand a shield, in the other a sword.
Strong hooks of gold, silver, or iron, according to the
means of the worshipper, are inserted in both sides, and are
secured with cloth bandages ; the devotee is then fastened
to the end of the horizontal beam, and is drawn up and
swung rai)idly round for ten or fifteen min\ites. Police attend
to superintend the preparations and prevent danger from care-
lessness or neglect. A few years ago a poor wretch, urged by
fanaticism and half intoxicated, took an infant up in his
arms, but, while s^vinging, the spring broke, and both man
and child were dashed to the ground and killed. The
swinging has since been discouraged by the native (Govern-
ment, chiefly on the ground of the accidents which, have
occurred, and it lias in consecpience almost, if not altogether,
ceased, and the attendance at the festivals has decidedly
declined.
DEVIL-WORSHIP. 221
" At this festival a Brahman officiates ; tlie native Govern-
ment defray the expenses and receive the produce of the
gifts presented. Outside of the pagoda on these occasions —
on the roof of the temple, and hung on the surrounding-
trees, will he seen a large quantity of cocoa-nuts and other
offerings ; also a heap of wooden hands, arms, and legs,
offered by those who have been restored from some injury
in those members during the year. Persons wdio are rich
present silver hands or legs, or golden ones, on sucli occa-
sions ; these are carefully put away in the inside of the
temple. In one direction will be observed the swinging
machine, with the victims of superstition being hoisted up
by hooks inserted in the backs ; other persons will be
seen rolling in the dust a considerable distance round the
temple, until they are exhausted by the heat and exertion
which are required to perform this vow in the hottest month
of the year; others, with a thin piece of cane inserted in
their sides, dance along Avith apparent joy, wdiile two persons
in front and behind take hold of the cane, and keep step
with the poor creature at a quick pace for a considerable
distance. Parents and relations are seen bringing little
children of both sexes to perform this cruel rite, in conse-
quence of vows made by them on their behalf in times of
sickness. On such occasions they will say, 'If this child
recover, he or she shall dance before Pattera Kalee with
the sides pierced.' Numerous groups of women are engaged
boiling the sacrificial rice, and when the steam ascends they
rend the air with shrill cries of frantic joy, and offer the rice
to the idol, previously to feasting on it with their families.*
Some are engaged slaying the sheep and goats ; there is also a
cruel custom of sacrificing a cock, by transfixing it on a sharp-
poijited piece of iron placed on an altar of wood ; others, with
* Compare 1 Cor. viii. 4.
T22 "THE LAND OF CHARITY.
considerable pain and risk, hold a pan of fire in tlieir hands
before the idol until it is consumed."*
This festival was visited by Dr. Lowe and the Eev. S.
Zechariah, to preach and distribute tracts, on 4th ]\Iarch,
1862. The latter writes: "About 50,000 people it is be-
lieved assembled there, and were found offering goats and
fowls and performing different vows to the goddess. We saw
hundreds of children of both sexes, some carried in the arms
and others led by their parents to perform some ceremonie.s,
crying out and shedding tears through pain. When we went
near to the pagoda, a boy was brought by several relations,
with tom-toms (drums) and dancing. Then a goldsmith, who
was there ready, with a large needle and small rattans, came
forward and pierced through both his sides with the needle ;
when the boy cried aloud through jDain, all the relations
made a terrible noise. The smith then drew a rattan through
the holes on both sides, bringing it round the back, and gave
both ends of the rattan to them : they then led the boy
round the pagoda."
Truly we may say, in view of these enormities perpetrated
in the sacred name of religion, " The dark ])laces of the earth
are full of the habitations of cruelty."
We have not space for more than the bare mention of a
curious phenomenon in the religious history of Travancore,
which has appeared within the last forty years, — namely,
the rise of a new sect of religionists, who have adopted an
absurd medley of Hinduism and Demonolatry, with a slight
tinge of the Christian element. This superstition was ori-
ginated by one ]\Iuttukutti, a poor Palmyra climber, who
laid claim to be an incarnation of Vishnu, and pretended to
possess miraculous powers ; by these means he attached to
himself thousands of credulous followers. Since the death of
their leader in 1848, he has been worshipped by his followers
* " Missionary Chronicle," Sept., 1837.
DEVIL-WORSHIP. * 223
as a manifestation of the Supreme God ; and this singular
])eople display considerable zeal in the defence and propaga-
tion of their destructive errors.
On a candid and comprehensive review of the whole subject,
however, one is 'hajipy to be able to state that devil-worship,
Avith its accompanying superstitions, is gradually and steadily
declining with the progress of enlightenment and the spread
of Gospel truth. The people are compelled to see at least
that the worship they pay to these imaginary demons does
not insure to them immunity from sorroAv, disease, and
death. Many confessions to this eifect might be cited.
In conversing with one of our native preachers, the chief
man of a village of devil-AV orshippers said, " I am now about
eighty years old, and the money I have spent in the service
of demons knoAvs no limit. I called the name of my eldest
son, Sudalei Madan, and he grew up an able man. The
stories of the demons Avere his favourite study, and by his
own exertions he procured all the wood and stone for the
erection of this temple. I provided him Avith a boAV Avith
bells attached, with Avhich he made music and sang in praise
of the demons. But my Avife and daughter-in-laAv became
ill, and notwithstanding all our voavs to the demons, both of
them died. When I consider this, I am led to the conclusion
that no good can result from the worship of demons." This
old man promised soon to attend the Christian Avorship, and
his wife and son from that time placed themselves under
Christian instruction.
On another occasion, an aged magician and devil-dancer
thus mournfully acknoAvledged : — " I see," said he, " several
signs of the downfall and extinction of all the demons.
Formerly, Avhen I sang but two or three songs and uttered a
fcAV mantrams (spells), I Avas covered, as Avith a thick cloud,
by a dark host of demons ; but noAv I i;tter fifty mantrams,
and that Avith more earnestness than formerly I did, Avitliout
224 "the laxd of charity."
the least success. Demons now-a-days do not appear to my
sight. On some occasions, it is true, I see one or two ; but
even then they stand afar off", and seem afraid to come near.
I should think it is your religion that drives them away. I
clearly see that henceforth my words will not pass current as
truth among the people. We shall have no alternative left
us but to embrace your religion. Your religion must pre-
vail." God grant that these anticipations of a poor un-
instructed heathen may speedily be realized, and the whole
laud filled with the jieace and joy of the Gospel of Jesus.
Of like purport is the testimony of the missionaries at
present in the field. " Kearly all the devil temples of these
parts," says a recent report, " except those supported b}'
Sircar funds, are in a deserted state ; while there is no one
to raise those that are fallen down, and scarcely any one who
thinks of erecting a new one." Another Avrites, " I am
encouraged by seeing here and there the village idols and
their temples left entirely neglected to utter ruin by their
adherents. In one place the village temple, where once
stood theu" idol gods, is now used by the people for keeping
their cows in. In another place the roof of the temple was
pulled down and the implements belonging to the idols given
to me. In another place stands now the prayer-house, where
formerly stood several idols. These are a few instances
among many similar."
We cannot well conceive any superstition more Avicked
and revolting in character, or more degrading and pernicious
in its influence, than the baleful devil-Avorship Avhicli we
have attempted to describe. It is, of course, in a still higher
degree than idolatry, a daring crime against the God of
heaven — a rejection of His authority, and a deliberate attempt
to set up iSatan in the throne which the Most High alone
should occupy. Devil-worshij) is the introduction, as far as
possible, of the kingdom of hell uj^on the earth. May it
DEVIL-WORSHIP. 225
speedily and for ever disappear before tlie briglitness and
beauty of the reign of Christ amongst men.
In contemplating the moral influence of devil-worship it
is evident that it hardens the heart and increases cruelty,
covetousness, worldliness, and other evil passions. The
bloody sacrifices, and all the associations of this superstition,
cannot fail to cherish the spirit and practice of cruelty.
jNor is there aught in it to cultivate the moral faculty or
direct attention to the duties of morality. The inflictions of
the demons are supposed to fall, not on those W'ho are
morally guilty or blameworthj^, but simply according to the
caprice of the demon. The great aim of the devil-wor-
shipper is to deprecate the anger and destructive powers of
evil spirits, — not to seek a blessing, but to secure relief from
a curse. Consequently, he comes to think that temporal pros-
perity is the chief good, that material wealth, health of body
and external comfort, are all that are needed. The only
thought, desire, and suljject of conversation among such is
money and sensual enjoyment.
This vile superstition, therefore, necessarily destroys trust
and hope in God, and all those finer and loftier emotions and
sentiments of man's nature which are so beautifully and
beneficially cultivated by ('hristianity. It knows no such
precepts as " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy
heart, and thy neighbour as thyself." Instead of looking
to the Almighty for aid and supjMirt against the machina-
tions of devils, its devotees only endeavour to a^Dpease them
by offerings ; thus they deprive themselves of the comforts
of true religion, and increase their own wretchedness.
" Their sorrows shall be multiplied that hasten after another
god : their drliilc ajferuir/s of hloud will I not ofl'er, nor
take up their names into my lips" (Psa. xvi. 4).
The natural result of this baneful superstition is the abase-
ment and degradation cf the human mind bv superstitious
Q
226 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
fear and terror. Demon-worshippers are rendered timid and
helpless in the presence of the undefined and unknown
spiritual beings whom they worship. They are, it is true,
naturally timorous and faint-hearted ; and this is not sur-
prising, considering the palpable evils and dangers to which
they have as a people long been exposed, from the tyranny
of the higher classes, from robbery, from wild beasts, from
serpents and sudden disease. But all the physical and
natiu'al evils by which they are surrounded are magnified a
thousandfold by vain and imaginary apprehensions of evil,
from fiends and goblins, sprites, ghosts, and devils. Until
this is overcome, they can never rise even to trv;e manliness
and courage.
Thus, too, is the Lortl of all dishonoured, and the souls of
men destroyed. Have we not reason to bless God for the
converts in India who have been rescued from the power of
the evil one 1 M&j multitudes of faithful soldiers be led,
by the consideration of tlie facts which we have stated, to
enlist themselves under the banner of the blessed Saviour,
in His warfare against the strong man who holds in captivity
so many millions of precious immortal souls.
227
CHAPTEE XVI.
NATIVE MOHAMMEDANS.
Their Numbers — Character — Bearing towards Christianity.
The followers of Mohammed in Travancore niim'ber, accord-
ing to the last census, 62,639 3 or perhaps at present about
70,000. The common designations applied to them by other
natives are " Tulukkan" a corruption of Turk ; " MdpiUei "
(^Moplay), literally, bridegroom (from their marrying native
•wives when their Arab progenitors first reached India 1), or
signifying perhaps " Mocha," " person ; " and " Mettan,'^ a
word the meaning of which I have never been able to ascer-
tain. They themselves are accustomed to say that they belong
to the Fourth IJeligion, or revelation ; acknowledging Adam,
Abraham, and " Isa Nabi " (the Prophet Jesus) as the three
former divinely appointed teachers and prophets — now super-
seded by Mohammed, the last and greatest of all.
A few are settlers of Arab or Afglian lineage, who adhere
strictly to the Mussulman faith and ritual ; but the larger
proportion (called Lubbays) are native converts from the
Hindus, or are the offspring of mixed marriages. They are
an industrious and thriving people, principally engaged in
trade and agriculture, and some are amongst the wealthiest
of the inhabitants. The females are not secluded as in
strictly Mohammedan countries. Their mosques and places
of worship number 254, with apparently about 500 priests.
Their chief priest, or " Tangal," resides at Ponany. The dis-
tinctive observances of iSIohammedanism are but little attended
228 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
to. Being profoundly ignorant of their own doctrines and
sacred writings, heathenish superstitions prevail amongst
them; and they are even found joining in the performance
of pagan ceremonies. Yet they are hardened against the
influence of Christianity, and excited to bitter and persistent
opposition by its public proclamation. Holding as they do,
with more or less clearness, several cardinal truths of religion
— such as the unity, personality, and almighty power of the
great Creator — they regard themselves as beyond the claims
and without the necessity for the gospel of Christ. Our
native agents are often positively afraid to address them on
the sul)ject of Christianity, as their fierce and fanatical
character sometimes leads to violence.
"With a few of them, however, we have been personally on
the most friendly terms, and such individuals readily hear
and freely converse with us. One amiable old gentleman,
possessed of large estates, who used occasionally to send us
presents of native dishes, and come to drink coffee with us,
generally taking a small quantity of ground coffee home with
hiin in a paper, was on terms of almost affectionate intimacj''
with the writer. One day he asked in a confidential tone,
" Hoio many Christians do you require "? I have a number
of slaves," said he, " whom I should be happy to hand over
to you as Christians." " Of course," added my friend, " it is
no use merely talking to them ; you and I can go over and
give them a sound whipping, and wo shall soon bring them
round." I endeavoured to make him understand that Ave
wished all men, himself included, to become Christians; but
tliat whipping, as a moans of grace, was of little estoom in our
religion.
Converts from heathenism are not rarely added to the
Mohamm(!dan community. Several hundreds of the out-
cast JMaiadis, of Cochin, recently joined them. Tlioy often
2")i]rchase children from tlieir })areuts, or adopt those who are
NATIVE MOHAMMEDANS. 229
friendless or destitute, -wliom tliey at once formally introduce
into their communion. Other individuals, approving of
their views of the Divine Being, or desirous of the friendship
of this energetic people, embrace the profession of Islam.
It is noteworthy, that from whatever caste these proselytes
have come, they at once merge into the general body, adopt
their dress and manners, enjoy their privileges, and are treated
accordingly by heathen and other outsiders. They secure a
right of way in the public roads, and occupy, in other respects,
the social status accorded to the Mohammedan community.
Xow this is just what we ask for Protestant Christian
converts, — that they shall be treated by the native Govern-
ment simply as members of the Christian community, and be
allowed to occupy a position of their own, whether high or
low, quite apart from the heathen system of caste, which
they have rejected. It would not, Ave think, be unreasonable
to ask that Protestant Christians should be regarded in a
light similar to that in which Mohammedans and Syrian
Christians are viewed, as a body taking a separate and dis-
tinctive position of its own.
A few Mohammedan children attend our mission schools,
but it is a lamentable fact that rarely do Mussulmans in
South India receive the Gospel ; and this state of things, I
am persuaded, will continue until some appropriate special
etforts are directed towards this people. Had we sufficient
means at our command, one or two of our native preachers
might receive a special training, and labour, with some hope
of success, directly and almostly exclusively amongst thi.^
class of the poj^ulation.
230
CHAPTER XVII.
NATIVE ROMAN CATHOLICS.
Introduction of Eomanism by Xavier — Native EnniHn Cjit holies — The
Schismatic Party — lioraish Arguments agninst Piutestantism — Eccle-
siastical Arrangements.
That zealous Jesuit missionary ami extraordinary man,
Francis Xavier, visited India in 1542, and sought to intro-
duce Christianity amongst the natives of the "Western Coast
and South India, where he laboured for about three years.
He was wholly ignorant of the language ; but having first
committed to memory the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, Ave
Maria, and the Decalogue, he itinerated through the fishing
villages, bell in hand, and taught the people to repeat these
formulas, baptizing all who submitted to do so. Many, in
several parts, had professed themselves Christians before his
arrival ; and Xavier Avas largely aided by the influence and
prestige of the Portuguese Government, then all-powerful in
India. Like others in his day, Xavier believed that the
authority and force of the magistrate might be used to induce
men to profess Christianity. According to his published
letters, it appears that large sums of money were expended
by the Portuguese Vicei'oy to secure the ;ittendance of the
natives at the sound of the bell ; and doubtless there Avas a
feeling amongst the people, that tliis new religion Avas far
superior to the gloomy and unsatisfying paganism of former
ages. Xavier thus founded many congregations, and built a
NATIVE ROMAN CATHOLICS. 231
number of cliiirches. He said that often his hands failed
through the fatigue of baptizing, for he had baptized a whole
village in a single day,
Xavier was evidently, notwithstanding his doctrinal errors,
a devoted, eminently pious, and self-denying man, and his
letters show that he repudiated the miraculous powers attri-
buted to him by his biographers. But, with regard to his con-
verts, there was no questioning as to whether his words were
correctly understood by the people, — there was nothing beyond
the missionary's utterance of an unknown tongue, and the
response in a prescribed form. Xothing was said about
the Holy Scriptures, and little to exalt Christ or honour the
work of the Holy Spirit.*
Xavier's former dwelling-place and principal church at
Kottur, where wonderful miracles are recorded as having
taken place, are the annual resort of multitudes of Roman
Catholic pilgrims. Hundreds and thousands of men,
women, and children from distant parts come to worship
there. The embalmed remains of the saint were exhibited a
few years ago at Goa, where they are enshrined and carefully
preserved as relics.
The native Eoman Catholic Christians are chiefly Mukka-
vars and Paruvars, fishermen and liine-burners. The whole
coast is fringed with their churches ; tlie fishermen everywhere
being the earliest and most numerous converts.
Of the native Romanists over 80,000 are Romo-Syrians,
formerly connected with tlie ancient Syrian church in Tra-
vancore ; but who, in 1599, at tlie Synod of Diamper, under
Archbishop Menezes, were induced by force and fraud to
acknowledge the authority of the Pope, and adopt the creed
of the Church of Rome. They are allowed to retain the use
of the Syriae ritual and language in their public services.
A serious feud or " schism. " long raged amongst the priest-
* Venn's " Life of Xavier."
ZO'Z " THE LAND OF CHARITY.
hood and members of the Eomish Church in India. Tlie
Portuguese Government having been the first European
power in India, enjo3'ed the right of patronage in the
appointment of bishops, which was vested in the King
of Portugal in the sixteentli century. Afterwards, when
both the means and the zeal of the Portuguese diminished,
numerous missionaries, priests, and vicars apostolic were
sent ont direct by the Popes ; but tlie bishops and priests
appointed by the Portuguese, under the authority of the
Archbishop of Goa, refused in some instances to render
submission to the vicars apostolic, and were then pronounced
schismatical. The adherents of the Portuguese See were
excommunicated, and the validity of marriages and sacra-
ments performed by them denied. A lamentable state of
confusion and dissension ensued. TJiese dilliculties Avere
healed by a Concordat, in 1857, between the Pope and
the King of Portugal, by which the Pope at last reluctantly
recognised the Portuguese right of patronage to Indian
bishoprics, subject to his approval. The two parties now
work together, with a few excejttions, on friendly terms ;
though there is still considerable 1)itterness of feeling about
the conduct and failure of complete submission on the ])art
of the Goanese priests.
The mass of the native Pioman Catliolics possess little solid
scriptural knowledge, and this necessarily leads to supeisti-
tion and error. In the Tamil language only have the Gospels
and Acts (with the Authoi-ized notes) been translated and
published, and the volume is sold at what is, to an ordinary
native, a high price. ^No jiortion of the Holy Scriptures has
been translated into !Malaya,lim by the Eoman Catholic mis-
sionaries. Indeed, I have never actually seen a copy of the
Gospels in the hands of their people, though a few no doubt
possess them. Much of their literature is devotional and
liturgical, or controversial in character. In a controversial
NATIVE ROM AX CATHOLICS. 233
catechism against Protestantism Avidely circulated, tliey charge
Luther, and Calvin, and other eminent Protestants, with the
most barefaced hypocrisy, profanity, licentiousness, and Satanic
inspiration ; the coarse and inlldel statements of Cobbett are
quoted as the testimony of a Protestant historian, and it is
actually asserted that in countries where Popery prevails,
there science and arts flourish, popular education stands
higher, and learning spreads, l)y the benign influence of
the Church of liome, to a far higher degree than in
Protestant lands !
They ingeniously interpret the English word " protestant "
as " objector," and show that thus, according to our own
account, w^e are mere deniers of the truth, instead of pro-
testers against corruption and error. And, taking advantage
of the careless and inaccurate use of the word " catholic," as
applied by many Protestants to the Church of Eonie, it is
argued that they are acknowledged, even by their opponents,
to be the Catholic, the universal and true Christian Church.
Protestants are also charged with despising and calumniating
the Blessed Virgin and the saints of God, and are generally
designated by such terms as " Yetha purattar," " Bible
twisters" or "falsifiers," and " Pathithar," " apostates " or
" traitors." In this catechism, the use of images in religious
worship, the veneration of relics, and all the other corrupt
doctrines and practices of the Church of Rome, are warmly
and zealously defended.
Many of these people are extremely ignorant and super-
stitious, and some are not far removed from heathenism ; but
many, we trust, possess sufficient knowledge of Christian
truth to be the means of salvation to all who place their
confidence in the Divine Eedeemer, rather than in their own
fancied merit, or in outward forms and rites.
Converts from heathenism are occasionally added to the
Eomish Church, though but little attention is paid to evan-
234 "the land of charity."
gelizing operations amongst the heathen population. Indeed,
they would have sjiecial difficulties in pursuing sucli a work
as open air preaching, as appears from a circumstance which
occurred to one of oiu' native missionaries. A friend of his,
a well-educated Koman Catholic catechist, Avas persuaded to
accompany him one evening to preach to the heathen. Those
who collected together on the occasion, struck with surprise
at the sight of the new preacher, asked him, " JSir, are you
also come to preach ? Do you also venture to tell us that
idol-worship is sinful 1 Did we not, some days ago, see your
people carrying your idols round your church 1 " Confounded
at their words, the poor catechist in vain attempted to show
that it was not idols that they carried, hut images, which are
kept with a view to make a deep impression of good things
on the minds of the ignorant, and that by bowing down to
them they do not mean to worship them, but God only.
" It is for the very same purpose," replied the heathen
idolaters, " that we keep idols ; what is the difference
between your images and our idols 1 Are they not identically
the same?" There was no more venturing out to preach
after this.
The Romish churches directly connected with the see of
Rome are distributed into two vicariates apostolic. One of
these, including most of the Syro-Roman churches, is under
the spiritual government of the vicar apostolic of Malabar,
whose head-quarters are at Verapoly, Avhere a large monastic
establishment of the Carmelite order exists, founded in 1673.
The other is under the vicar apostolic of Quilon, who is
assisted by eleven European and twelve native priests, super-
intending 59,350 native Christians.
Those connected with tlie Archbishopric of Goa are under
the superintendence of the ])ishop of Cochin, who resides in
Quilon. Their converts number about 12,000. The total
number of native Roman Catholics in Travancore, as far as I
NATIVE ROMAN CATHOLICS. 235
can ascertain, is probably about 140,000 ; and their places of
worship are 196 in number.
Of late the management of the Roman Catliolic Missions
has much improved. A few 3'ears ago, in consequence of
instructions from Eome, many of the churches "were cleared
of the images. The seat of the bishopric has also been
removed from Quilon to Trevandrum, which is now occupied
by Euro})ean priests ; and improved plans and increased
instrumentalities for disseminating their doctrines amongst
the people are coming into operation.
>3G
CHArTEPt XVIII.
THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS OF MALABAR.
Tlicii' Early History — Persecutions by the PorlUJuese — Synod of Diain per
— Two Parties arise — Churches and Eeclesiasiical Order — Doccrinal
Views — The Jacobite Patriarch — Visit to a; S\rian Church, and De-
scription of the Service — Liturgy — Syriac Theological Terms — General
Appearance and Character of the Syrians — Eeoent Party Disputes.
Ajiongst the green liills and fertile valleys of North Travan-
core and Cochin, the venerable churches and quiet dwellings
of a remarkable Christian people are found in large numbers.
They have been there from a very early period of the Chris-
tian era, and have for some centuries, with more or less
clearness, borne their testimony in a dark land for God and
Christian truth. Ld^e the Waldenses, they have been sub-
jected to bitter persecution from the Churcli of Eome, and
while many have succumbed to her powei', others have re-
tained their independence. They are a most interesting
remnant of ancient Christianity long surviving in a heatlien
land, shut out from the aid and sj'mpathy of the Christian
world. Though fallen fi'om tlie purity of scriptural doctrine
and practice, reforms, both from williiu and from without, are
beginning to appear ; and there is reason to hope that the
.Syrian Christian Church in Malabar shall yet again arise and
shine foith witli ])rimitive s]il('n(lour and ]»ower. What a
mighty inlluence for good might those Christians exert, as
tlieir forefathers once did, in Persia, India, and China, were
the Syrian Chuich but revived, })iu'ilied from error, and
THE SYRIAN CIiniSTIANS OF MALABAR. 237
zealously engaged in labour for the glory of the Lord amongst
the heathen in India and throughout the nations of the East !
These people are called by the Hindu natives " Suriani,"
"Syrians," or " A^azrdni," " JSTazarenes ; " and by Europeans,
" The Christians of St. Thomas," or more appropriately, " The
S\Tian Christians of jSIalabar." Their own traditions attri-
bute their origin to the apostle Thomas, who visited India,
they say, about a.d. 52, and preached the Gospel there,
making numerous converts, who Avere joined some centuries
afterwards by other Christians from Syria. The accuracy of
the tradition of this apostle's visit to India_ and of his
martyrdom there is exceedingly tp;estionable, though there
is reason to believe tliat the Gospel was preached in India at
a very early period. It is probable that the Syrian Chris-
tians were, in the first instance, a small colony from Antioch ;
})erliaps driven thence by violent persecutions about the
middle of the fourth century.
A favourable reception was given to these early Christian
colonists by the Hindu kings of the Malaljar coast, on whicli
tliey landed. Extensive privileges were granted tliem. ac-
cording to the inscriptions on copper })lates which are still in
the possession of the Syrians, preserved in their college at
Cottayam ; fac-similes * of which, taken by Dr. I3uchanaii,
I have seen in the Public Library of the Cambridge Univer-
sity, along with copies of similar grants to the chief of the
ancient Jewish colony at Cochin. The Syrian plates are
nearly ten inches in length and four in breadth, with large
letters distinctly graven on both sides. The character is
very ancient, and was once common to both Tamil and
Malaytllim. Other old copper plates and deads of temples in
Travaucore are extant, of several of which I have takeu
copies, but have not as yet succeeded in deciphering the
Avhole.
* Certaiiilv not the original plates, ua some liuve supposed.
238 "the land of charity."
These grants confer upon the Syrian chieftain possession
of a village, with permission to use certain ornaments and
musical instruments, and emblems of authority ; to collect
particular taxes and duties allotted to him ; and to exercise
jurisdiction over his own tribe. The dates of these important
documents are expressed in such wmbiguous language that
it is difficult to determine the exact period. Different
writers have assigned to them various dates, from the second
to the fifth century a.u.
The Syrians proved serviceable allies to the native princes,
and were therefore treated well, and attained to considerable
political influence. They Avere allowed to bear arms, and
were regarded as equal in caste to the I^airs. For some time
their own chieftains ruled over them, till eventually tlie
power passed into the hands of one of the Hindu Eajahs.
In a.d. 547, the Christian Church in Malabar was visited
by Cosmas, an Egyptian merchant, who gives some account
of their discipline and woreliip. It is also asserted, in
ancient Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, that in a.d. 883, King
Alfred sent Sighelm, Bishop of Shcrburn, to India, to visit
these Christians, and present gifts at the shrine of St. Thomas,
near Madras, He is said to have successfully performed this
great enterprise, and to have returned laden with gems and
spices. Still it is difficult to determine whetlier Sighelm
actually reached the South of India, or merely tlie countries
adjacent to India on the north-west.
After the arrival of the Portuguese on the Western coast
of India, early in the sixteenth century, the Romish priests
soon discovered these people, and determined to effect their
subjection to the papal authority. At first, measures of
conciliation were pursued. In 1545 Franciscan friars were
sent by the Archbishop of Goa to open a seminary for
Syrian youths, who were afterwards ordained as priests ; but
the Syrians refused to admit these to their churches.
THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS OF MALABAR. 239
Eesolved to effect their purpose, stronger measures were
now resorted to. Plots were laid to seize Mar Joseph, the
Syrian Metran, whose influence against Eome was very great.
He Avas made prisoner and sent to Portugal in 1558; but
promising to bring over his people to the Church of liome,
he was allowed by the Queen to return to India. On his
arrival, however, he threw off his disguise, and again taught
the old doctrines. He was again captured and sent to Eome,
where he died.
Another Metran, IMar Simeon, who had been sent to
India by the Patriarch of Mosul, was decoyed to Cocliin,
sent to Eome, and tried as a heretic by the Inquisition.
There is every reason to believe he ended his days in the
dungeons of the Inquisition in Portugal.
In 1595 Alexis de Menezes, who Avas about to proceed to
Goa as Archbishop, received a brief from Pope Clement VIII.,
directing him to make strict inquiry into the ftiitli and obe-
dience of the Syrian bishop and his flock, and to prevent
any bishops or priests from Syria from reaching Malabar.
Early in 1599 Menezes, attended by Portuguese troops,
reached Cochin, and summoned the Syrian Archdeacon
George (the late Metran being now dead) to appear before
him. The Archdeacon at first boldly refused allegiance to
the authority of the Church of Eome, but Avas at last tired
out by the perseverance and zeal of Menezes and the threats
of the Portuguese poAver, and induced to sign an acknow-
ledgment of the Pope's supremacy. Menezes visited in
person many of the Syrian churches, but they refused to
submit to his authority ; Avith the exception of a fcAv Avhom
he Avon over by denunciations, bribery, and fraud.
The assembling of a Council, or Synod, Avas noAv resolved
on, that there might be an appearance of legality in the
tyrannical and cruel proceedings of Menezes. This Synod met
at Udiamperur, or Diampei', near Cochin, on 20th June, 1599.
240 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
It was attended by the Eomish Arclibisliop, the Syrian
Archdeacon and 153 Cattanars, many Eomish priests, and
some chief persons among the Portuguese. Here the Areh-
bishoji gained his own way. By most nnrigh teoiis means
decrees were passed confirming the doctrines of Rome,
and repudiating those whicli had hitlierto been held and
proclaimed by tlie Syrian Church. The Romish sacraments
and celibacy were established, the ancient and invaluable
records and historical documents of the Syrian Church
(doubtless including copies of the Syriac Scriptures) were
destroyed, and a Latin bishop was appointed. But it was
found necessary to consent to the continued use of the Syriac
language in public worsliip. Thus iniquitously Avere the
Syrian Christians reduced to a nominal conformity to the
Romish Church, and brought in reality into subjection to
the Portuguese power.
This state of things continued for about fifty years, till the
iron yoke of oppression ultimately became insufferable to
those who still adhered to the early faitli. In 1003 many
of the Syrians revolted from the Romish power, excluded
the Romish priests from their churches, and appointed their
Archdeacon as Metran, until they could obtain a bishop from
their patriarch. When the expected bishop, ]\Iar Attala, at
last managed to reach the shores of India, he was ensnared
and sent to Goa, where he was consigned to a dungeon
in the Inquisition, and at last cruelly burnt as a heretic
A.D. 1654.
A few years afterwards the Dutch seized upon Cranganore :
thenceforward the Portuguese power declined, and tlie
Syrians enjoyed freedom from external violence. Still many
continued to adhere to the Church of Rome, while others
remained under theu' own Metrans connected with the patri-
archate of Antioch. In this way arose the two great bodies
that now exist,— the Syrians proi)er, who retain to a large
THE SYUIAX CHRISTIANS OF MALABAR.
241
extent the doctrine and ritual of the ancient Church, but to
whom the Eomish party have succeeded in attaching the
title " Pidtan Jiuttu" — the neio set ; and the Eomo-Syrians,
who are under the authority of and directly connected with
the Cliurch of Rome, governed by the bishop of Yeriipoly,
and who call themselves " Paraija Icuttu," — the old set :
after all tliere is something in a name !
The i?o»?o-Syrians in Travancore number, according to the
census of 1854, 81,886. The Syrians in the same province
STKIAN CHCBCH.
number 109,123, with 8G churches. Tliey themselves state
the total number of their people on tlie Western coast,
including those in the Cochin state and about Calicut, to
be 197,000, or even more; but 1 suspect that this estimate
has been very loosely made, and is much too large. The total
number of their churches is 14G, with probably 800 or 900
priests.
The Syrian churches are solid, ancient-looking structures,
B
242 " THE LAND OF CIIAUITY."
long and narrow, with gable ends surmounted by the cross,
forming large, conspicuous objects in comparison with the
native dwelling-houses near Avhich they stand. The higli
Avails are often supported by plain, sloping buttresses ; the
windows are small and few, and the roofs tiled. One pecu-
liarity is that the external roof of the chancel is higher tlian
the nave, instead of being lower, as with us. The inner
ceiling of the chancel, however, is decidedly lower. Porch,
pillars, pilasters, and other architectural ornaments in brick
and plaster, adorn the fronts. Attached to or surrounding
the central edifice are open sheds, cookhouses, and other
buililings for the accommodation of the people on festive
occasions, or sometimes a small chapel consecrated as a place
of burial. In front of the churcli stands a pedestal on which
a handsome stone cross is elevated ; the Avhole being some-
times as much as twenty feet in height. The dark, ill-lighted
interior is in general far from cleanly in appearance ; possibly
this is permitted that it mny present a gratifying air of
antiquity. At the western end a Avooden gallery, or loft,
contains a fcAV simple articles of furniture for the accommo-
dation of the bishop on his visits to the church, and is also
used as a store-room. The church bell hangs inside to do
honour to the host. Crosses or crucifixes, and sometimes
curious paintings of their patron St. George, adorn the Avails
and chancel. In every church three altars of stone or wood
are found. — one in the centre of the chancel and the others
on either side. The honoured dead arc buried in tlie floor
of the church, near the entrance. A lamp is kept burning in
front of the altar day and night.
The Syrian hierarchical order and ritual system bear some
resemblance to that of the Copts, or native Egyptian Chris-
tians. They are governed by a " nuitran," or metropolitan
bishop, Avho is appointed by the patriarch of Antioch. The
" cattauurs," or priests, perfonu the services of the church,
THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS OF MALABAR. 243
celebrate marriages, "bury the dead, &c. They do not receive
stated pay, but derive their support from the contributions of
the people on festival days, and from marriage and burial
fees, &c. The " deacons " are often mere boys appointed by
the bishop for the sake of the ordination fee which, he
receives. The ordinary dress of the priesthood is a long
white coat of cotton cloth, tied or buttoned in front, and
loose white trousers. The hair is shaven in the form of a
tonsure, and the beard is usually worn long.
Previous to the Jesuit crusade against the Syrian church,
they rejected many Papal errors and corruptions, such as
the dogmas of Papal supremacy and the authority of traditions,
tlie doctrines of transubstantiation and purgatory, &c. They
had no images in their churches, nor were extreme unction
or auricular confession practised by them. The sacraments
they regarded as three, viz. — Baptism, Orders, and the Lord's
Supper. The clergy were allowed to marry ; the bread was
dipped in the Avine, and the communion thus administered
in both kinds. But after tliat disastrous attack upon their
faith and liberty, the Syrians were led to receive many errors
which are still retained, though the authority of the Church
of Eome is repudiated. "J'ransubstantiation, the worship of
the Virgin Mai'y, the invocation of saints, and even prayers
for the dead, are now allowed. The Lord's Supper is re-
garded as a mass, and the prayers are offered in Avhat is, to
the generality of the laity, an unknown tongue. Still there
is this important difference from the Church of Rome, that
the authority of the Inspired Word is recognised, and its
perusal is not opposed ; so that there is now a reforming party
within the Church itself, anxious for Gospel light and privi-
leges, and earnestly opposing the superstition and formality
into which, the Church has fallen.
Baptism is jierformed by placing infants in the stone font,
and pouring water over them with the hand. Adults are
244 "the land of charity."
placed in the font, and a vessel of water poured over them.
The sign of the cross is marked upon them in oil, and thrice
the words are uttered, " Forsake the devil — receive Christ."
A layman or deacon who has once married, and whose wife
is alive, may become a priest ; but when an unmarried deacon
is once ordained a priest he may not get married, nor is a
priest whose wife has died allowed to re-marry.*
The Syrian Christians are sometimes, though erroneously,
called Xestorians ; that is, the sect who maintam that Christ
was two distinct persons as well as natures. It appears that
this was their doctrine in the sixth and seventh centuries ;
but in the eighth century a Jacobite, or INIonophysite, bishop
came from Alexandria, and the Syrian Christians thus
became dependent on the Jacobite see of Antioch. The
Jacobites (so called after Jacobus Baradtmis, an able opponent
of Kestorianism in the sixth century) contend that in the
liedeemer of the world there is but one nature, the human
nature being absorbed in the divine, not, say they, like oil
and water, but like water and wine, which become mingled
and united ; an error in tlie opposite extreme to that of the
JS'estorians. This, however, was readily adopted by the
Syrians of JNIalabar, who thus veered round from one extreme
to the other. In the Nicene Cieed, which they acknowledge
and receive, they reject the addition respecting the procession
of the Holy Ghost, " and from the Son," wliich was inserted
in that creed by the Latin Church, and which thus became
partly the occasion of tlie schism between the Eastern and
Western Churches.
The patriarch of Antioch, to whom the Syrians profess to
render obedience, is one of the four great Catholic patriarchs,
viz., of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem ;
of whom the first is supreme. Tliere are no less than three
prelates in Syria that claim the title and rank of j^atriarchs
* " The Sjrian Christians of Malahar."
THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS OF MALABAR. 245
of Antioch ; but the head of the Asiatic Jacobites is he who
resides generally in a monastery not far from the city of
Mardin in Turkey, in I^. Lat. 37° 15' ; E. Long. 40° 40'.
His spiritual dominion is extensive. He has an associate in
the government, to whose care, under the general direction of
the patriarch, are entrusted the more distant eastern churches,
and who resides in a monastery at Mosul in Mesopotamia,
near to the ruins of Xineveh. All the patriarchs of this sect
assume the name of Ignatius, and their associates that of
Basil.
I have at different times visited and inspected several of
the Syrian churches, and occasionally obtained permission,
on week days, to preach in them. On Sunday, 23rd February,
1868, I paid a special visit, to observe the form of worship
in one of their principal churches at Kunankulam in the
Cochin country. Borrowing from the native magistrate a
" manjeel," a square of canvas on which the traveller lies
down on his back, and which is swung to a wooden pole and
carried on the shoulders of two bearers behind and two in
front, we started very early in the morning from Chowghaut,
and passed on the way the churches at A'rthatty. The
Romo-Syrian priest was standing outside his church, and I
attempted to enter into conversation with him, but he
seemed nervous and unfriendly. The church was built of
very hard laterite bricks, not stuccoed. Close by the Eomo-
Syrian church stood that of the Syrians proper. It was
very large and plain, with little ornament about it. Attached
to the church on each side were open verandahs with rooms
above. Over the chancel rose a square tower, with sloping
tiled roof.
In front of the church was a large enclosure, with a good
wall and a residence and outhouse in a roAV near the gateway.
None of the people were in attendance ; the service was to
commence at nine o'clock.
246 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
Farther on, tlie country looked beautiful and well
"wooded, with abundance of cocoa-nut and jack trees,
though nearer the coast it had been rather flat and un-
interesting.
Kunankulam is a large Christian town and bazaar, with
some good houses and shops, and a population of perhaps
2,000 souls. The church here is a kind of out-station or
chapel to that at A'rthatty, which may be regarded as the
cathedral, and with which five or six cattanars and two
deacons are connected.
Passing hastily through the town, I entered the church,
and found that the morning service had not yet begun. The
priest, a very respectable-looking elderly man, was standmg
within a railing in front of the chancel, chanting in the
ordinary native style a Malayalim poem on sacred subjects.
Attendants were preparing water, oil, &c. The brass lamp
was burning in the centre of the railed space in front of the
chancel, and here also some of the people stood during the
service.
The church was not nearly filled, but the prevalence of
small-pox at that time in the bazaar may have aftected tlie
attendance. There were about fifty or sixty men and twenty
females present ; I observed a Cattanar also in the priest's
gallery at the west end of the church. The men were mostly
dressed in the ordinary Hindu style. One or two more
respectable persons wore a long blue cloth coat, with gold
embroidered belt, and a red cap with tassels. One man
retained both cap and shoes in the church, agreeing in this
respect with neither Hindu nor Christian forms of reverence.
The women wore neat white jackets, with long tight sleeves,
some handsomely embroidered, and the ordinary cotton cloth
worn round the waist by all classes of the Hindu women. A
light muslin cloth is thrown over the head as a veil, and falls
gracefully down the back. The chancel was elevated one or
THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS OF MALABAR. 247
two steps, and from the arch a curtain was hung, so as at
will to exclude the view of the chancel and altar from the
worshippers in the church. Ths baptismal font consisted of
a large granite basin about two and a half feet in diameter,
set on a pillar, and covered with a wooden lid.
During the time of the service all the people stood, the
women rather behind the men. Indeed, these buildings are
not provided with seats or benches. One by one they com
menced to read or repeat prayers in ]\[alayalim, frequently
crossing themselves, touching the forehead, then the shoulders
from left to right.
The principal altar, or " throne," as it is called, in the
centre of the chancel, was covered with a neat white cloth,
and decorated with handsome carvings in wood ; but no
pictures or images were seen, except two or three ornamental
cherubim in the plaster work. On the altar stood a cross,
and another, with circular hangings beneath, at the railing
in front of the chancel.
At the commencement of the service the Cattanar ascended
tlie steps into the chancel, where he proceeded to robe him-
self in the various parts of his official vestments, repeating
prayers suitable to each act. He put on, one after another,
a pair of sandals, a long blue coat over his ordinary white
cotton dress, a blue cap, a long white robe with waist-belt
and cope, scarf and sleeves of eml^roidered silk. The shoes
were again put oil' in certain parts of the service.
Two or three boys, in ordinary native dress, chanted the
responses. The service was lengthy and highly ritualistic,
including frequent genuflections, kissing and pei'fuming the
altar, signing the cross, the ringing of bells, elevating
and incensing the host, and the minute and multifarious
ceremonies prescribed in the Syriac rubric. A consider-
able portion of the service was in Malayfdim, the remainder
in Syriac. The curtains were drawn down several times
248 "the land of ciiaritv."
during the performance of the most solemn parts of the
ceremonial.
At first the people seemed careless and inattentive, but
afterwards, especially at the consecration of the host, the
veneral)le appearance and dress of the priest, the loud ring-
ing of hells, the waving fumes of the incense, and the loud
and apparently earnest prayers ofiered by the people, appeared
to me under the circumstances very affecting and impressive.
'No one communicated on this occasion except the priest.
He pronounced the benedictions with exquisite grace.
The incense was once carried round the congregation,
those who received the benefit bowing to the youth who
bore the censer.
A curious ceremony called " giving the peace," probably
intended to answer the same purpose as the kiss of peace in
early ages, was performed before the consecration of the
elements. The deacon who carried the censer took from it
a double handful of the smoke, which he smelled, and then
appeared to hand to the priest, who received it with both
hands. Going to the 2:)eople he gave it into the hands of
two or three of the nearest, who put it to their faces, and
then pretended to pass it on to others, till it went round the
whole congregation. One of the good people came np to me
where I was standing and said, " Do you Avaiit this peace,
sir ? This is the sign of peace." " Yes," I rei)lied, and gave
my hand, which he took in both his and slightly stroked.
This I thought a very 'pvettj observance.
Aft(ir the conclusion of the service some of the people
invited me to a neighbouring house, a good building with
chairs, neat coloured grass mats, and a table covered with a
white cloth, on which Avere placed bread, fruits, plates, tea-
cu})s, &c., in imitation of the European style. Here the
Cattanar, Jacob, shortly joined us, and Ave entered into con-
versation at breakfast respecting their church and customs.
THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS OF MALABAR.
249
Xo one, he informed me, in that part of the country preaches
to the people, hut only a few of the priests farther south. I
procured copies of their prayer-books, and had the pleasure
of preaching in Malayalim at eleven o'clock, in the mission
church belonging to the Church Missionary Society, to a
most attentive and interesting congregation.
The ancient liturgy in general use throughout the Syrian
churches, called St. James's Order, has been translated more
than once into English, and may be found entire in Hough's
" liistory of Christianity in India." Some of the prayers
are beautiful and sublime, but many include invocations of
the Virgin and saints, and prayers for the dead.
The small jNIalaycllim prayer-books' used by the Syrians
contain j^rayers for several occasions, and short prayers to be
offered in the course of the public service ; but no translation
of the prayers olfered by the Cattanar in the celebration of
the mass.
Though the Syrian Christians speak and write Malayalim
as their mother tongue, the style of their religious Avorks in
this language is very peculiar, being interlarded with Syriac
Avords in a pure or modified form. Their technical and
theological terms are all Syriac, and the compound of Syriac
and Malayalim seems rather strange to the unaccustomed
ears of a Hindu IMalayrdi. A few of the principal terms
are as follows : —
Gospel
=
Evanfjelion.
Doctor
=
Ramban.
Epistle
=
Enkratt.a.
Angel
=
:Martk.
Psalm
=
Masumi'ira,.
BHptisLQ
=
Mammodisa.
Apostle
=
Sleeha.
Masa
=
Kurubana.
Prophet
=
Nibya.
Unction
=
Uprisimii.
Deacon
=
Meshamshana.
Chancel
r=
Madublia.
Priest
=
Cattantlr.
Nave
r=
Haykala.
Parish Priest
=
Kashisha.
Holy Ghost
=
KuhadaEu'lislia,
Bishop
=
Mar.
Jesus Christ
=
Eeso Mashiha.
Sexton
=
Kappiara.
Father
=
Lart'a.
250 "tiik land of charity."
There is reason to believe tliat in many instances very
serious corruptions, and even heathenish practices, have been
allowed to prevail in some of the Syrian congregations.
Several of the festivals and fasts are in some places con-
ducted in a manner little better than those of the heathen.
Certain ceremonies performed for the dead are even called
by the Hindu title of similar observances, and there have
been instances of heathen songs having been sung in churches
for the amusement of the people, besides other degrading
and unchristian acts of compliance with heathen sentiments
and practices.
The Syrian Christians are generally respectable in appear-
ance and dress, and are comparatively fair in complexion.
JNIany are engaged in trading and agricultural pursuits, and
some are possessed of much wealth. Their houses are often
spacious and good, with neat wood carvings and other
decorations in the Malabar style. On the whole they are
intelligent, and display considerable intellectual activity as
well as commercial industry and capacity. Several of their
number occupy good positions as English teachers, astronomers,
lawyers, and clerks. One of this race translated into INIalay-
rdim, for the writer, a number of popular Tamil Christian
lyrics, which have been published, and are very well received
by native Christians. Another Syrian youth, connected with
the Church ]\Iission, ]\Ir. T. C. Poonen, 15. A., has been
awarded the GoverRmcnt of India Scholarship, and is now
studying in England ior the bar. An able and devoted
native minister in connection with the Church Mission, Rev.
George INIatthan (lately deceas(;d), published some years ago
a valuable and original grammar of the Malayfdim language,
and was a very scholarly and accomplished man. A
history of the Syrian Christians in Malaya,lim, a transla-
tion of Shakspere's " Comedy of Errors," besides several
original poems and other works, have recently been published
THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS OF MALABAR. 251
by various individuals connected Avitlx this interesting
people.
The personal disputes and party contentions which have
occurred in the more recent internal history of this remark-
able church are most painful to contemplate. Rival priests
have visited the distant patriarch of Antioch with their
ex-parte statements and representations, or misrepresentations,
as the case might be, afterwards returning to Malabar to
carry on their jarring disputes in the very bosom of the
Church. At various periods several bishops have simulta-
neously put forward antagonistic pretensions to primatial
authority. In 1848 there were no less than hve bishops in
Malabar, each decrying the others as unauthorized intruders.
Hence arose scandalous disputes and confusion.
At present there are two metrilns, bitter and avowed rivals.
A third, Mar Joseph Coorilos (Cyril), is Bishop of Anjoor,
near Calicut, where he has been for twenty years. He ac-
knowledges his suboidination,as suffragan, to Mar Athanasius.
jVFar Athanasius, the recognised metropolitan of the Syrian
Church in ]\lalabar, resides at Cottayam. He has appointed
his brother, j\lar Thomas Athanasius, to be his suti'ragan
and successor. A native of Travancore, Atlianasius ob-
tained a good education in the Church Mission College
at Cottayam, and was one of the Syrian deacons who
adhered to the missionaries at the time of the separation.
He was afterwards dismissed, however, as unfit for the
ministry ; and then started for Antioch, and visited the
patriarchs at Mosul and Mardin. Although well aware that
there was a metran in Travancore, he induced the patriarch
to consecrate him, and returned to Malabar in 1843. for a
long time he was not well received, but his position has
gradually improved and his influence strengthened. He has
been recognised by the native Government as in possession of
the supreme ecclesiastical authority and of the churches
252 "the land of charity."
belonging to the Syrians. As the result, probably, of his
early connection with the Protestant missionaries, as Avell as
of the circulation of the Scriptures in Syriac and Malayfilini
amongst his priests and people, this metran favours the
reforming party — who seek to have the services conducted
wholly in the vernacular, partake of both elements in the
sacrament, and have discontinued the invocation of saints
and prayers for the dead. Great improvements have there-
fore taken place during the last twelve or fifteen years within
the bosom of the Syrian Church. The chief stumblingblock
still is communion in both kinds.
The opposing metran is Mar Dionysius, who is at the head
of a small conservative and ritualistic party. He is a native
of Kunankidam in the Cochin state ; his mother is a Ro-
manist, and his own proclivities lie in this direction. He
has little learning, but belongs to a wealthy and influential
family.
When disputes were going on in India, Dionysius visited
Antioch, where he professes to have been consecrated in 1867.
Mar Athanasius, he affirms, was at the same time deposed by
the Patriarch. The documents of consecration and letters
patent of deposition which Dionysius produces have been
subjected to official scrutiny, and pronounced to be of very
doubtful genuineness. Nor does it appear that the ecclesias-
tical canons confer upon the Patriarch the right, thus readily
and without examination, to depose Mar Athanasius. Dio-
nysius threatens, if necessary, to carry on liis litigation
respecting " vested interests " before the British Parliament
itself.
253
CHAPTER XIX.
THE CHURCH MISSI0:N' IX TRAVAN'CORE.
Sketeli of the History of the Mission — Its Successes, and Present
Position.
The Cliurcli JMissionary Society commenced its operations in
Xorth Travancore in -1816, about ten years after the com-
mencement of the London Mission in the South. Intense
interest had been excited in England by Dr. C. Luchanan's
glowing and unconsciously exaggerated account of his visit
to the ancient Syrian churches in Malabar ; and Colonel
Munro, then British Resident at Travancore, applied to the
Church Missionary Society for English clergymen for their
instruction. Accordingly, Messrs. Bailey, Baker, and Eenn
were sent out to labour amongst the Syrians, while JMr.
!N^orton opened a mission station at the imjiftrtant seaport of
Allepey, amongst the heathen and Roman Catliolic popula-
tion. For some time the Syrian metran and priesthood
worked cordially with the English missionaries, admitting
tliem to preach in the Syrian churches, and to instruct
candidates for the ministry. Considerable reforms were thus
effected, and much light infused into the Syrian Church.
But in 1838 a change took place. The metran then ruling
discouraged the preaching and efforts of the missionaries
amongst his people, and ultimately dissolved all union with
the Church missionaries. It was then decided by the
missionaries that their work should be carried on as a
254 "the land of cnAUiTy."
mission of the Church of England, and that proselytes from
the corrupt Syrian Church, as well as converts from heathen-
ism, should be received into their communion.
The principal station of the Church Mission is Cottayam,
which may be regarded as the head-quarters of the mission.
Seven European missionaries are now earnestly and success-
fully prosecuting their labours in Xorth Travancore and
Cochin, in connection with whom there are thirteen ordained
native ministers, and eighteen native catechists and readers.
" The Mission converts consist partly of Syrians who
have renounced either the Romanist or Jacobite communions,
partly of a few converts from the !Nairs, Brahmans, and
other castes, with a large proportion of Chogans, a class
similar in standing to the Shiinars, together with some
increasing bodies from the slave castes and the Hill Arrians.''
Altogether, connected with this mission in IS^orth Travancore
(including also Cochin) there are 12,092 native Christians,
of whom 2,847 are communicants.
The movement towards Christianity amongst the slave
castes in IM'orth Travancore commenced about 1852, and has
rapidly spread. Many of these poor people have exhibited
in a striking degree the renewing power of the Gospel, and
have proved devout, earnest, and simple-minded believers,
zealous also for the spread of knowledge and truth amongst
their own people, " Sir," said the head man of a Syrian
metran to Mr. Baker, " those people of yours are wonderfully
altered. Six years ago I employed clubmen to guard my
paddy while being reaped. Now, for two or three years, I
have left it entirely to your Christians, and they reap it, and
bring it to my house, I get more grain, and I know these
very men were the fellows Avho robbed me formerly." This
was unsought-for testimony. On another occasion, in dis-
cussing with a Siidra, a native missionary was one day
arguing that " if ignorance were a sufficient plea to rid men
256 "the land of charity."
of responsibility, the poor ignorant slaves "wlio lie, cheat,
steal, and " The Sudra at once interrupted him, saying,
" Nay, the slaves don't lie or steal, or get drunk or quarrel
now ; they have left off all these since they learned tliis
religion." "What a noble testimony to the reality of the
change from the lips of a heathen on the spot !
The remarkable work amongst the Hill Arrians, who d^vell
on the western slopes of the Ghauts, was commenced in 1848
by the Eev. H. Baker, jun., whom several heads of villages
had invited to visit and instruct them. " You must know,"
said they, " that we know nothing right ; will you teach us
or not 1 We die like beasts, and are buried like dogs ; ought
you to neglect us 1 " Amidst many difficulties and dangers
from deadly malaria, Avild beasts, and hostility of heathens,
the work was begun and carried on, and the people proved
to be eager and willing learners.
The hill station of Mundakyum thus established, now
numbers 893 adherents, of whom 710 are ba^itized Clmstians.
257
CHAPTER XX.
ESTABLISHMEXT AND EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION
IN TRAVANCORB.
Eingeltaube proceeds to India — Providential Invitation to labour in Travan-
core — His Operations and Success — Messrs. Mead, Mault, and Knill —
Great Increase of Professing Christians — Establishment of Mission
Station at Quilon — Missionary Plans — Visit of the Deputation, and
Commencement of Neyoor District — Persecution ; its Causes and Oc-
casion — Oppression of Native Christians providentially overruled — Mr.
Thompson's Labours at Quilon.
The first enterprise upon which the London Missionary
Society entered immediately on its establishment in 1795,
was the mission to the islands of the South Seas, which have
since been the scenes of glorious triumphs of the Gospel. A
few years afterwards, as the means at the disposal of the
directors of the Society and their experience in the work
gradually augmented, they began to take into consideration
the propriety of extending their efforts to the vast continent
of India, at that time the field of great and exciting contests
between the British forces and those of the Mysore, Mahratta,
and other native powers. The original design and constant
aim of the Society was, as far as means and opportunity
should afford, to " preach the gospel to every creature ; " and
as to the particular mode of effecting this great purpose, it
endeavoured to exercise a wise and enlightened judgment,
seeking at the same time the guidance and direction of
Divine providence.
The attention of the Missionary Society had been dra'vvn
258 "the land of charity."
to the strong claims jiresented by the beautiful island of
Ceylon, and to the necessity of endeavouring to restore and
instruct the multitudes of nominal Christians there who had
been induced to conform to Christianity chiefly by the
political influence and patronage of the Portuguese and
Dutch Grovernments, but were then destitute of religious
instruction, and, as might be expected, were fast relapsing
into heathenism. The claims of varioiis parts of continental
India were also discussed ; but in those days of slow com-
munication and defective information respecting distant
lands, it seemed difficult to come to a decision in London
upon so important a point as the particular localities and
stations to be occupied in the establishment of new missions
in India. After much thought and deliberation, the ultimate
decision of this question was very wisely left to the mis-
sionaries themselves, who were placed at liberty to act as
seemed best, under the advice of Christian friends on the
spot, and the intimations of Divine providence.
Amongst other devoted and useful labourers raised up for
the service of God in this emergency, appeared one remark-
able man, William Tobias Eingeltaube. Born in 1770, at
Scheidelwitz, near Brieg, in the south of Prussia, he studied
at the University of Halle, and was ordained to the ministry
at Wernigerodu in 1796. The Society for the Promotion of
Christian Knowledge then sent out Eingeltaube as a mis-
sionary to Calcutta, but somehow he soon tired of the work
there, and returned to England in 1799. This is the more
surprising as he was a clever man, and was afterwards very
active in the service of the London Missionary Society.
While in England, Eingeltaube urged the claims of the
heathen in India, associating chiefly with the Moravians,
or United Brethren. In 1803, however, he accepted the
invitation of the London Missionary Society to form a part
of the proposed mission to India.
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION IN TRAVANCORE. 259
On the 20tli of April, 1804, the missionaries for India and
Ceylon, Messrs. Eingeltaube, Desgranges, Cran, Vos, Erhardt,
and Palm, sailed from Copenhagen for Tranqnebar in the
Danish ship King's Packet, the only means of communication
with India then open to missionaries.
They reached Tranquehar at the end of the year, and were
most cordially received and encouraged hy Christian friends.
Three of the brethren shortly proceeded to the island of
Ceylon, and two to Viziigapatam ; while Ringeltaube re-
mained for above a year at Tranquebar, diligently studying
the Tamil language, and deliberating as to a suitable sphere
of labour. In a letter written to the Society at this time, he
expresses his firm trust in Providence, and his confidence in
the ultimate success of his work, in the following noble
words : — " The operations of Providence are slow but sure.
The tooth of time seems to gnaw incessantly here as else-
where, and God will finally lay rocks in the dust. The
missionary aspect of the country is so changed since the
English came into these parts, that, the Lord helping His
servants, we need not despair of final success. I am one of
the greatest cowards that ever went forth shod Avith the
preparation of the Gospel, but the Lord in mercy comforts
my wretched Parian heart more and more as I approach the
field of action. He has indeed appeared for us ; whom shall
we fear 1 And if we fall in the heat of the battle, before
success decides m favour of our beloved Leader, Ave sliall
only be sorry that we cannot die ten times for Him."
While thus diligently engaged in the work of preparation
and waiting for providential openings, Ringeltaube's atten-
tion was directed to the Shanars of South Travancore. His
interest in that remarkable people had been already excited,
when one day, as he was sitting alone, an individual of this
tribe came suddenly before him and exclaimed, " Paraharan-
ukku stottiram," " Praise be to God." Gladly embracing the
2G0 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
opportunity, Eingeltaube entered into conversation with tlie
Shanar respecting liis people and their customs; but was
unable, he says, to get any satisfactory or sensible answers to
his inquiries, owing to the stupidity of his visitor.
Eut the earnest cry of the people of Travancore, " Come
over and help us," was soon, in the most distinct and un-
mistakable manner, brought to the ears of the servant of
God, by a pilgrim from that country named Maha Easan.
He was a Pariah of some education and good character, a
worshipper of Siva. Eecoming dissatistied with the worship
conducted in his native village, Meiladi, he proceeded on a
pilgrimage to Chillambram. Here he performed the usual
ceremonies, but without obtaining the peace and satisfaction
of mind that he sought. He afterwards visited Tanjore and
other places. On one occasion, passing by the mission
church at Tanjore, he came to the door of the church, where
he stood and listened to the sermon which was then being
delivered by the Eev. J. C. Kohlhoff. Eecognising the man
by his garb as a religious pilgrim, Mr. Kohlholf specially
addressed him in the course of his sermon ; the poor man's
attention was arrested and his heart touched. He remained
in Tanjore for some months as an inquirer, listening atten-
tively to the instructions of the missionaries. Then he
returned to Meiladi to his friends, showed them his Christian
books, and built a small hut, which he set apart for the
Avorship of the true God.
After a few months Maha Easan again visited Tanjore to
endeavour to induce a European missionary to come to Tra-
vancore. No missionary could be spared ; but a catechist
with his wife and family accompanied the convert to Meiladi,
and preached there for some time. Eingeltaube, however,
heard of these circumstances, and rightly regarded them as a
providential call to him to labour in the Travancore terri-
tory, whither he determined at once to direct his steps.
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION IN TRAVANCORE. 261
Col. C. Macauly was then the British Resident at the
Court of Travancore, and proved a kind friend to Ringel-
taube and his work. He procured a passport for the mis-
sionary, and offered personally to defray his travelling
expenses. Accordingly, on the 13th of April, 1806, Eingel-
tauhe set out for the principality, and soon reached the
Southern frontier. But while the natural scenery on which
he gazed was most beautiful and inviting, he was made to
feel deeply the bigotry and inhospitable character of the
people. "As soon," he says in his journal, "as we had
entered the Ghaut, the grandest prospect of green-clad
precipices, cloud- capt mountains, hills adorned with temples
and castles, and other picturesque objects presented them-
selves. A noble avenue of immense banyan trees winding
through the valley adds greatly to the beauty of the place.
My timid companions, however, trembled at every step,
being now on ground altogether in the power of the Brah-
mins, the sworn enemies of the Christian name ; and, indeed,
a little occurrence soon convinced us that we were no more
on British territory. I lay down to rest in the caravansary
appropriated for Brahmins only, when the magistrate imme-
diately sent word for me to remove, otherwise their god
would no more eat. I reluctantly obeyed, and proceeded
round the southern hiUs to a village called Magilady, from
whence formerly two men came to Tranquebar to request me
to come and see them, representing that 200 heathens at this
place were desirous to embrace our religion. I lodged two
days at their houses, where I preached and prayed. Some of
them knew the Catechism. They begged hard for a native
teacher, but declared they could not build a church, as all
this country had been given by the King of Travancore to
the Brahmins, in consequence of which the magistrates
would not give their permission. I spent the day most un-
comfortably in an Indian hut, in the midst of a noisy, gaping
262 "the land of charity."
crowd which filled the house. I had expected to find
hundreds eager to hear the word ; instead of which I had
difficulty to make a few families attend for an hour. On
Monday a catechist from a neighbouring congregation
arriving to sj)eak with me, I committed this infant flock to
his charge, and he is to come once a week to see them."
Eingeltaube reached Trevandrum on the 30th of April, 1806,
and was most kindly received by the British Resident, who
promised to procure permission from the Eajah for the purchase
of land and the erection of a church for the Christians at
Meiladi, and ofifered his own personal contribution towards
this object.
A fortnight afterwards Eingeltaube paid a visit to the
Dewan, in furtherance of his object.
" Of what religion are you 1 " asked the Minister.
" Of Colonel Macauly's religion," answered the missionary.
" I never knew there was such a religion," was the reply.
Eingeltaube endeavoured to explain what it was, but with
little success. The Dewiin told him frankly the thing was
not to be done, as it was an innovation on established
customs.
Some time after this interview, the requisite permission
was obtained from the Eajah through the intercession of the
English friends of the mission, notwithstanding the evasions
and opposition of the Dewan and the Brahmans.
Many difficulties still standing in the way of making a
permanent settlement in Travancore, Eingeltaube took up
his head-quarters for the time at Palamcotta, in Tinnevelly,
about sixty miles from Meiladi. In tliat province there were
then about five thousand Christians under the care of thirty
native agents, supported by the Society for tlie Promotion of
Christian Knowledge, and a strong impression in favour of
Christianity prevailcnl amongst several classes of the heathen
population. Eingeltaube undertook the charge of these
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION IN TRAVANCORE. 263
native Christians in Tinnevelly, agreeing that all the increase
there should belong to the Christian Knowledge Society, for
whom he acted, while the congregations in the native State
should belong to the Missionary Society, with which he was
more immediately connected. He travelled about from place
to place, preaching the word and administering the ordinances,
and writes ^that " he had reason to bless the Lord of the
harvest that He had graciously owned his feeble labours."
He rightly regarded these fields of labour as ripe with the
promise of a glorious harvest.
On his second visit to Meiladi, Eingeltaube had the
privilege of baptizing in one day forty persons, Avho had been
instructed and led to the truth by the catechist whom he
had left in charge of the work there. Eingeltaube made
these converts promise that they would jjerform the ac-
customed Government services, and obey the king and magis-
trates as before. Among those baptized was Maha Easan,
whose name was changed to Vethamanikkam, and who was
appointed catechist of Meiladi ; the former teacher returning
with Mr. Eingeltaube to Palamcotta.
This first convert in Travancore continued faithful and
consistent till his death many years after. During the war
between the Dewan and the British in 1809, a party of
Sudras, instigated by hatred and ignorance of Christianity,
resolved to kill Vethamanikkam, charging him Avith having
been the means of bringing the English into the country.
A friendly Sudra, however, informed the Christian teacher
of the conspiracy against his life, and advised him to flee
He escaped to the mountains and concealed himself for some
time, returning to his house after the excitement had sub-
sided. His grandson, Eev. G. Masillamani, Avas ordained to
the Christian ministry in 186G, and is now the respected and
efficient pastor of the church at Dennispuram.
For three or four years Eingeltaube travelled diligently in
264 "the land of charity."
South Tinnevelly and Travancore as an itinerant missionary,
preaching and teaching the word of the kingdom. In
Travancore he preached regularly in six or seven villages in
which he had erected chai:>els, distributed the Scriptures, and
employed five or six schoolmasters, " for it is in vain," said
he, " to print and distribute the Bible if there are none
to read it." He also trained several native youths for
evangelical labours, and was assisted for short periods by two
country-born youths, Messrs. Fleury and Wheatly.
In 1808 Ringeltaube's labours were much interrupted by
the war in Travancore ; but in 1810 he settled in Oodiagerry,
and in 1812 in Meiladi. The work continued to prosper,
and the light of divine truth to spread around. Eingeltaube
was privileged to baptize in all about 900 persons. His
spirit and manner will be seen from the following extract
from a letter written in 1810 : — " At A'tticadu, after preach-
ing to a considerable number under a mango tree, I baptized
an old man from Covilvilei, of ninety-seven years of age,
whom I called the Patriarch Jacob, and who, leaning on two
of his sons, shed tears of joy for their conversion as well as
his own, for they were baptized at the same time with him-
self. But a more interesting figure, if possible, in this group
was a schoolmaster, crippled in both legs by a fall from a
tree, who had been brought ten miles on men's shoulders to
hear the word. ' Since,' said he, ' I lost the use of my legs,
I have nothing but heaven in view.' After preaching on
the latter part of the second chapter of the First Epistle of
Peter, I took occasion to exhort the people t» be obedient to
their masters, and particularly to the magistrates, and to
waive all views of temporal advantage by professing Christi-
anity, and not to imagine they would be exempt from the
cross, or discharged from the obligation of their relative
duties."
But after twelve years of labour in South India, failure of
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION IN TRAVANCORE. 2G5
health, through incessant toil and privations, ensued ; and
early in 1816 Ringeltaube relinquished his connection with
the mission, and went to Ceylon and the Cape of Good
Hope. Various accounts are given of his subsequent his-
tory. One statement is to the effect tliat he went to Batavia
in 1817. Another report is that he was killed on a journey
into the interior of Africa before 1820. But we have no
certain knowledge of the time, place, or manner of his death ;
there was even at one time a legend amongst some of the
Christian natives, that as Enoch for his piety was trans-
lated, that he should not see death, so was Mr. Ringeltaube
for his self-denying labours. He left behind him six or
seven principal stations with chapels, five or six schools,
900 baptized converts and candidates for baptism, — all the
fruits of his earnest and devoted efforts.
This founder of our Travancore mission was an able but
eccentric man. He laboured devotedly, assiduously, and
wisely for the conversion of the heathen and the edification
of the Christian converts. Those whose motives appeared
worldly and selfish were rejected by him, and all profess ■
hig Christians were warned and instructed as to the
spiritual character of the religion of Christ, and the per-
manent obligation of all relative and social duties. He was
most generous and unselfish in regard to money, and is said
to have distributed the whole of his quarter's salary almost
as soon as it reached his hands. His labours were abun-
dantly blessed, and his memory is precious and greatly
honoiu'ed in connection with the foundation of this now
flourishing native Christian church.
These ten years, from 1806 to 1816, may be regarded as
comprising the first period in the history of the mission — its
establishment by Mr. Ringeltaube.
In anticipation of Ringeltaube's departure, the Society
had already appouited another missionary, the Rev. Charles
266
"the land of charity."
Mead, who has since been honoured to enjoy great success
in this mission, to officiate in his stead. He embarked early
in 1816 with several other missionaries, including that
singularly devoted servant of Christ, Eev. Eichard Knill,
and reached Madras on 28th of August that year. They
found that Ringeltaube had already left ; but Mr. INIead was
detained by illness at Madras and afterwards at Penang,
-^^
»^*'f»J:ir>
^'^^-'i^^'^^^ifM^-
";£' \'^^^-
^h
MlhhION UUi<GALO\V, HAGtKCOlt
where the vessel in which lie sailed for Travancore called,
and where he lost his devoted wife. Keacliing JMeilfuli at
length in the beginning of 1818, he found that though the
mission had been left vacant for about two years, the cate-
chist left in charge by Itingeltaube had carried on the work
with diligence and success, and the peoi^le had remained
faithful to their Christian vocation. Mead was joined in
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDOX MISSION IX TRAVAXCORE. 267
September, 1818, by Knill, whose health had failed in
Madras, and both went to reside at Nagercoil, about four
miles from Meiladi, which henceforth became their principal
station.
The British Eesident at that time was Colonel Munro,
a zealous and distinguished friend of missions. Colonel
Munro had been the saviour of the country in the recent
period of confusion and misrule, and he was therefore all-
powerful in political matters. He greatly favoured the
mission, and used his influence on its behalf. He procured
grants from the Eanee of the bungalow at Nagercoil, in
Avhich the missionaries resided, and 5,000 rupees for the
purchase of rice-fields as an educational endowment, from the
income of which the English seminary, established in 1819,
has ever since been supported. Similar aid was at the same
time rendered to the Syrian Cliristians and the Church
missionaries labouring amongst that people.
A strange but well-meant experiment was tried by
Colonel Munro, in procuring for Mr. Mead the appointment
of civil judge at Nagercoil, as there were then so few persons
in the country who could be entrusted with such an office.
The duties of this post were certainly discharged with great
efficiency and much benefit to the natives, so as to excite in
their minds strong sentiments of grateful esteem for Mr. Mead,
and make an impression throughout the country highly favour-
able to the external success of the missionary cause. It was
felt, however, by the Society that such a union of offices was
somewhat incongruous, and Mr. Mead accordingly resigned
his civil appointment after about a year.
And now the tide of popular favour flowed in upon the
missionaries. Not only did their message commend itself to
the consciences of the hearers, but there was doubtless in
many instances a mixture of low and inferior motives in
embracing the profession of Christianity. The missionaries
268 "the land op charity."
were the friends of the Resident, and connected with the
great and just British nation. Hopes were perhaps indulged
that they might be wilHng to render aid to their converts in
times of distress and oppression, or advice in circumstances
of difficulty. Moreover, the temporal blessings which
Christianity everywhere of necessitij confers, in the spread
of education and enlightenment, liberty, civilization, and
social improvement, were exemplified to all in the case of the
converts already made. The kindness of the missionaries,
too, attracted multitudes who were accustomed to little but
contempt and violence from the higher classes, and who
could not but feel that the Christian teachers were their best
and real friends. What were these to do with those who
thus flocked to the profession of Christianity 1 Eeceive
them to baptism and membership with the Christian Church,
or recognise them as true believers, they could not and did
not ; but gladly did they welcome them as hearers and
learners of God's word. The missionaries rejoiced to think
that the influence for good which they were permitted to
exert, and the presticje attached to the Eritish nation in
India, were providentially given them to be used for the
highest and holiest purposes. They did not hesitate, there-
fore, to receive to Christian instruction even those who came
from mixed motives, unless they Avere evidently hypocrites
or impostors. And from time to time, as these nominal
Christians, or catechumens, appeared to come under the
influence of the pfmer of godliness, and as the instructions
afforded them appeared to issue in their true conversion and
renewed character, such were, after due examination and
probation, received into full communion with the Christian
Church. Their children, too, came under instruction at the
same time in the mission schools, and became the Christian
professors and teachers of the next generation.
During the two years immediately following their arrival,
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION IN TRAVANCORE. 269
about 3,000 persons, cliiefly of the Shanar caste, placed
themselves under Christian instruction, casting away their
images and emblems of idolatry, and each presenting a
■written promise declarative of his renunciation of idolatry,
and determination to serve the living and true God. Some
of these doubtless returned to heathenism -when they under-
stood the spiritual character and comprehensive claims of
the Christian religion, but most remained faithful and in-
creasingly attached to their new faith.
There were now about ten village stations, most of which
had churches, congregations, and schools, all of them rapidly
increasing. Native catechists were employed to preach and
teach, and these teachers met the missionaries periodically for
instruction and improvement in divine things.
These early missionaries entered upon the work (which one
of them calls " De Propaganda Fide, but tiot without instruc-
tion ") with great spirit and enterprise. A printing press
was soon established. The seminary for the training of
native youths was opened, and plans prayerfully laid and
diligently carried out for the jieriodical visitation of the
congregations and villages.
The congregation at ISTagercoil alone numbered now about
300, and a. large chapel for occasional united meetings at the
head station being urgently required, the foundation was
laid by Mr. Knill on IS'ew Year's day, 1819. Striking
evidence of the strong faith and hope of these early labourers
is seen in the noble dimensions of the chapel, the erection of
which they then commenced. It is, perhaps, the largest
church in South India, measuring inside 127 feet in length
by GO feet wide, and afibrding accommodation for nearly
2,000 persons, seated, according to Hindu custom, on the
floor. Had this line building not been erected, Ave should
have since grievously felt the lack of accommodation for the
great aggregate missionary and other special meetings of our
270 "the land op charity."
Christian people, wliicli we are now privileged to hold within
its walls.
Early in 1819, a coiintry-horn youth named George
Harvey Ashton, Avho had heen carefully trained by the Rev.
J. C. Kohlhoff, at Tanjore, was employed as an assistant
missionary ; he lived to render faithful and valuable service
to the mission, in many forms, for the long period of forty-one
years.
Mr. Knill's health again failing, he was compelled, after
about a year's zealous and affectionate labour in Travancore,
to return to England. The mission was again reinforced by
the Eev. Charles Mault and Mrs. Mault, who laboured
together uninterruptedly for thirty-six years.
Another missionary, the Rev. John Smith, reached Nager-
coil in May, 1820, and remained there for several months,
studying the language and the details of mission work, and
deliberating on various plans for the future. As the capital
was not at that time open to missionary efforts, it was
decided to occupy the large and important military station
of Quilon, about thirty-eight miles IST-W. of Trevandrum.
Quilon has a population of at least 20,000. It is situated
on a sandy plain, close to the sea and to one of the back-
waters, with numerous ramifications, and thus has easy water
communication with both K^orth and South. The Nagercoil
missionaries had previously made tours as far as Quilon, but
it Avas first occupied as a principal station by Mr. Smith, in
February, 1821. He was accompanied and assisted for the
first few months by Mr. Ashton. Smith hired a house at
Tangachery, a British suburb of Quilon, and commenced the
study of the Malayalim language, and educational and evan-
gelistic operations. Substantial aid Avas rendered by the
British Resident, Colonel Newall, and by the chaplain and
several military officers resident at the station. But the
results were small. IS^o such success was experienced as
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION IN TRAVANCORE. 271
in the South, and after three or four years Smith returned to
England on account of ill-health. Before his departure, the
Rev. William Crowe reached Quilon, but his health also
failed, almost from his arrival, and he also returned to
England within two years, without having been able to effect
much. This mission was then left from K'ovember, 1825, in
the hands of Mr. Ashton, aided by the occasional visits and
general superintendence of the Nagercoil missionaries. There
were then ten schools in operation in this part of the
country, with about 400 scholars, and with five catechists
labouring in the surrounding district.
Meantime the work in the South, in the hands of Messrs.
Mead and Mault and their helpers, was vigorously prosecuted
and flourished greatly. The good hand of their God was on
them for good, and constant accessions to the Christian com-
munity took place. In 1822 it Avas reckoned that 5,000
persons had since the commencement of the mission embraced
Christianity. The congregations then numbered twenty-two,
amongst whom seventeen native teachers were labouring,
while twenty village schools were in operation. The next
year seven additional congregations were formed, and a
boarding school for girls was opened by Mrs. ]\Iault with
twenty-seven boarders. The efforts of the brethren were
united, their consultations frequent and harmonious, and
their plans effective and encouraging. In all their work
suitable means and instrumentalities were employed, and
they had reason to expect the promised blessing of God upon
their prayerful and indefatigable efforts. Vernacular and
itinerant preaching was systematically practised, in order
to reach, as far as possible, the mass of the adidt population.
Kative agency, the best within reach of the missionaries at
the time, was availed of, while a better educated class of
agents was under training in the seminary, in which they
had now thirty-eight pupils. Scriptural education Avas
272
THE LAND OF CHARITY.
afforded to the children both of Christian and heathen
parents in the village day schools. Great attention was,
from the first, paid to the suhject of female education, for the
training of schoolmistresses and furnishing suitable wives
for the catechists. The manufactui'e of lace* was taught in
the female boarding school by Mrs. Mault, and school-
lack wokker with pillow.
mistresses were afterwards employed to teach the girls
of the village congregations. It cannot be told how much
the cause of female education in Travancore owes to the
devoted wives of missionaries then and since. The printing
press was also in active operation. Thousands of copies of
tracts, periodicals, and (Christian books, on a variety of
* See page 68.
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION IN TRAVANCORE. 273
important subjects, were printed and distributed from year
to year. A new version of the Tamil Scriptures being
prepared by Mr. Rlienius, who had settled at Palamcotta in
1820, the I^agercoil missionaries largely assisted in the work
of revision, and great numbers of copies of the Holy Scrip-
tures were printed and circulated in the South of India.
In 1824 the number of congregations was nearly doubled,
rising to 48, under the care of 27 native teachers, while 47
schools were in operation, with a daily attendance of 1,300
scholars. And although during the succeeding year hun-
dreds of the people were carried off by cholera, yet others,
deej^ly impressed by this visitation, renounced their idolatries,
and placed themselves under Christian instruction.
The visit of the deputation- from the Society, Messrs.
Tyerman and Bennett, in August, 1827, was the occasion of
an important modification in the plan of the mission. It
had been felt that the Western congregations laboured under
great disadvantages in consequence of being so remote from
the missionaries. It was therefore decided to divide the
mission into two distinct districts, each under the charge of
a European missionary. Xeyoor, a small village at a distance
of about ten miles west of ISTagercoil, was selected as the
head-quarters of the Western clividon. Though in itself an
unimportant village, it was situated in the midst of a dense
population, and lay close to the large towns of Iraniyal, the
head-quarters of a Tahsildar, or county magistrate, and
Tiruvithangodu, an ancient but decaying capital of the
kingdom, where great numbers of blacksmiths and other
branches of the Siidra caste and native ]\Iohammedans
resided.
Mr. Mault remained at Nagercoil in charge of the Eastern
division, with the seminary, assisted by Mr. "W. B. Addis,
who came out from England during this year as a schools
master, but was ordained after about three years' useful
T
274 "the land of charity."
service in Travancore, and then founded, and long and suc-
cessfully laboured, in the important mission in the town and
province of Coimbatoor. Mr. Mead removed to the Wester7i
division, taking up his temporary residence in the meantime
at Mandikadu, on the coast, until the requisite buildings
should be completed at Neyoor. He was assisted by the
liev. William Miller, who also arrived about this time.
The two districts were nearly equal as to the number of
schools, chapels, congregations, and native teachers. Alto-
gether there were 26 chapels, with 2,851 native Christians of
all ages (of whom 535 were baptized), 33 native teachers, or
catechists, 95 schoolmasters, with 1,916 children under
Christian instruction. Very discriminating but encouraging
testimony was borne by the Deputation to the character of
the work then in progress. "We had several opportunities,"
they wrote, " of seeing all the native teachers, as they
assemble once a week at Nagercoil to report to the brethren
their labours, and to receive instruction and seek encourage-
ment and admonition, such as it may be deemed necessary to
give. Nearly the whole, it is hoped, are pious and consistent
men and efficient labourers, possessed of good common sense
and a competent knowledge of theology ; they appear to be
much devoted to their work, and we had every reason to be
satisfied with their qualifications and their labours. They
are essential auxiliaries to this vast and extended mission.
With them is the superintendence of the schools ; they like-
wise assemble the people in the chapels on Lord's days and
other occasions, and read and explain to them the Word of
God, and go from house to house catechising men, women,
and children. The schools we found in general to be in good
condition. The girls' school under the care of Mrs. Mault
is in an excellent state, and does her much credit. Twelve
of the (forty) girls learn to make lace, some of which is
exceedingly well done ; the children in this school and the
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION IN TRAVANCORE. 275
seminary are entirely supported, clothed, fed, and educated
from the proceeds of land given for this purpose, and the
sale of the lace made by the girls. The seminary contains
thirty-one boys ; this institution is in a good state. The
printing establishment appears to be conducted with efficiency.
We are most highly gratified with the general aspect of this
mission. The whole is exceedingly encouraging."
But the remarkable progress of the Gospel, the increase of
agencies, and the formation of new congregations and mission
stations, now attracted the attention and awoke the opposition
of the enemies of Christianity, and the fires of persecution
soon began to rage. Throughout the whole history of the
Travancore mission it has been found, that as each step of
marked progress was achieved, the attention of the heathen
was necessarily drawn to the fact, their jealousy and hatred
were aroused, and attempts were made to put a stop, by
violence and outrage, to the spread of divine truth.
The question has been asked — "Why do the disturbances
which have arisen in connection with the spread of Protestant
Christianity in Travancore not occur between Roman Catho-
lics and heathens 1 The reply seems to us obvious. There is,
in the first place, less difference between Eomanists and
Hindus than between Protestants and Hindus. The Eoman-
ists are by no means so well instructed, either in scriptural
or secular knowledge, as our people are. Tlie native Eoman-
ists are admitted much more readily to baptism and com-
muiiion with the church than are those who apply to us.
In common with Hindus they practise image-worship,
processions, and pompous ceremonies. They observe caste to
some extent, and have often separate chapels for worshippers
of dilferent castes. Hence they do not excite the jealousy of
other castes by rising in the scale of enlightenment and
civilization, but have remained for nearly three hundred
years stationary in these respects, while our converts have
276 "the land of cpiarity."
mostly escaped from the power of liard masters, and have in
fifty or sixty years risen amazingly in cliaracter and position.
Nor is there anything like the active converting agency at
work amongst Roman Catholics that is carried on in our
mission. Very few are added to their ntimhers from heathen-
ism, which therefore has not much cause to fear them on
this ground. The Eomish congregations, too, are chiefly
situated in the maritime districts, where they have existed
for so long a time that they are looked on as a familiar
and established class, and as an integral portion of the
population.
In the early period of our mission history some of the
converts were slaves, and these, at the period of which we
write, were being educated and enlightened, so that it was
evident to their masters that it would soon be impracticable
to hold such persons longer in a condition of servitude. One
of our principal catechists was a slave all his life, but some-
how after his conversion his master never claimed his
services. Sudra ascendency appeared to be about to diminish,
and fcAver opportunities and means of oppression remained
to them. As the Shanar and other Christian converts ad-
vanced in education and enterprise, and improved in Avorldly
circumstances, it was most natural that they should not so
tamely, as before, endure the injustice and oppression to which
they had been exposed from the higher castes. The Sudras
could not brook the advancement of the inferior classes,
who were now rising through education and religion to
an equality with themselves. In the persecutions which
followed, heathens, Eomanists, and Mohammedans, all
alarmed at the progress of Christianity, united against the
rising Christian community. The Sfidras, however, were
foremost in action, the Brahman s and others standing behind
the scenes and appearing but little in the matter.
Attempts, too, had recently been made by Mi*. Miller to
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION IN TRAVANCORE. 277
establish a mission in Trevandrum, but permission to do so
was refused by tlie Government. Still it was feared that
this polluting Christian religion would, unless severe measures
were used, ultimately find its way into the sacred capital
itself.
CHEISIIAN FEMALE, WITH JACKill AND DPPEB CLOTH.
The specific and ostensible subject of dispute, however,
was the wearing of certain articles of dress by the Christian
women. To maintain the laws of caste, it had been found
necessary to enforce several arbitrary and indecent restrictions
respecting dress, as well as distance and deportment ; other-
278 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
wise, a person of low caste, dressing and wearing ornaments
like those of the high castes, might approach them nearer
than was permitted, or even pass, in the courts, markets, and
other places of public resort, as of the higher castes. It had
therefore always been forbidden to Shanars, and others of
inferior caste, to' cover the bosom or to wear any clothmg
whatever above the waist.
But the truer and better instincts of humanity had been
aroused by Christianity, and the Christian females were
accustomed and taught to wear a kind of plain loose jacket
with short sleeves, devised by one of the missionary ladies.
This of itself was displeasing to the Sudra aristocracy. And
in addition to the jacket (which is not worn by the Sudra
females) some of the Christian women, without the consent
of the missionaries, and even in several instances in opposition
to their advice, had taken the liberty of wearing an additional
cloth or scarf laid over the shoulder, called the "upper cloth,"
as worn by the Sudra women, and this the latter interpreted
as an infringement of their peculiar and exclusive privilege.
On the whole, then, it was determined that by some means,
or by any means, a stop must be put to the progress of Chris-
tianity and to the spread of the reforms and innovations
already in progress and impending.
The persecution commenced about the middle of 1827, and
continued till 1830. The storm raged chielly in the Western
division of the mission, although a part of its fury extended
to the Eastern division. The opposition to the truth com-
menced in threatening language, and afterwards proceeded to
overt acts of personal assault, annoyance, and public outrage.
Threats were uttered that the missionaries would be assassi-
nated, and their chapels, schoolrooms, and houses set on
fire; the erection of the Neyoor mission-house, then in
process of building, was forcibly hindered. It became neces-
sary to guard the mission buildings night after night. Several
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION IN TRAVANCORE. 279
cliapels and school-houses were actually burnt down to the
ground by incendiaries, and the erection of new ones pre-
vented by the threats and violence of the Sudras. A native
gentleman of high caste, Raman Tambi, who had proved
himself friendly to the missionaries, and had ventured to sell
them the ground on which they were erecting the mission-
house at JSTeyoor, was seized and imprisoned on false charges,
and was not released for seven years. The native converts
were falsely accused, thrown into prison, and sometimes
removed from place to place for months, so as to conceal the
place of their confinement. Heathen Shanars and Pariahs
were sent, under the guise of inquirers, to act as sj)ies and
carry their rejiort to the persecuting party. Some of the
schools were interrupted, and the books torn and cast into
the sti"eet. Menaces were used to deter the native Christians
from attending public worship ; men were seized on the
Sabbath, and compelled to work on that day ; women were
insulted and beaten in the bazars ; and alarm and terror
spread amongst the timid people in every direction.
Among the Christians seized at one jDlace were the school-
master and the principal man of the village, who had recently
embraced Christianity ; the house of the schoolmaster they
first plundered and then burnt. The house of another
respectable native, whom, with others, they had falsely
charged with murder, they broke open, robbed, and, he
himself being absent, seized his three sons. At length their
outrages became so alarming and intolerable as to render it
absolutely necessary to apply for military aid, which was at
once aftbrded, and was the means of checking for the time
the further violence of the assailants.
One poor man was tied to the hind leg of an elephant,
and ill-treated for refusing to do forced labour Avithout pay.
Mr. Ashton had to accompany several women, who had been
shamefully beaten, and whose clothing had been publicly
280 " THE LAND OP CHARITY."
torn off, to the Dewan, Venkata Eow, who had been sent to
investigate into these disturbances. They went, wrote
Mr. Ashton, to a large buikling in the fort at Palpanabha-
puram, where the Dewan held his court. The Sudra Sepoys
would not allow the women to pass the gateway covered, so
they had to remove their cloths and reclothe themselves
after entering. They found the Dewan ■ surrounded by a
large guard in full uniform, together with the Government
officials {all of high caste) and the head men of the Sudra
villages, all filled with rage at the unfortunate Christians,
and awaiting their arrival. The tumult was great, but the
missionary was kindly received by the Dewan, who recom-
mended the Christian women to place their cloths across the
bosom instead of over the shoulders. After a few inquiries,
he advised all to live at peace together and maintain the
ancient customs without change, promising that a proclama-
tion with regard to the use of the upper cloth should soon be
issued.
This proclamation appeared on 29th February, 1829, but
afforded no relief to the Christians, nor any extension of
liberty as to the use of decent and convenient clothing. In it
the Christians were blamed for desiring to wear the upper
cloth "contrary to orders and ancient customs," and were
charged with refusing to perform the Government service.
The use of the upper cloth was absolutely prohibited, the
jacket only being allowed. Exemption from Sunday labour
and from employment in idolatrous service was granted. An
appeal was made to the precepts of Christianity, as " incul-
cating humility and obedience to superiors; " totally ignoring
the fact that the whole genius of the Christian religion leads
to advancement in civilization and decency, and destroys the
possibility of slavery and tyranny. The regulation as to
obtaining the i)ermission of Government for the erection of
chapels, &c., was repeated, and strong hints given against the
EARLY HISTORY OF THE LONDON MISSION IN TRAVANCORE. 281
interference of the missionaries, who had sought to aid their
people by constitutional means in bringing their grievances
before the notice of the Government. Promises were made of
redress in the courts of justice ; but these were presided over
at that time, almost without exception, by corrupt and partial
Brahmans and Sudras, so that the poor had no access to
them on just or equal terms.
Eut again the providence of God overruled the vile pas-
sions of mau for His own purposes and the advancement of
His kingdom, so that the cause of Christianity was eventually
a gainer. Even while this severe persecution was going on,
and the violence and cruelty were at their highest pitch, the
people flocked to the Christian congregations from all direc-
tions, voluntarily demolishing with their own hands their
shrines and idols, some of them bringing their gods of gold,
silver, brass, and wood, and the instruments of idolatry, which
they surrendered to the missionaries. " So mightily grew
the word of God, and prevailed."
Meanwhile the Quilon Malayalim Mission had again been
resuscitated by the Eev. J. C. Thompson, who arrived in
November, 1827, and at once commenced the study of the Ian-
guage and established several additional village schools. Mr.
Thompson continued to toil on steadily amid many trials,
discouragements, and difficulties, for twenty-three years, until
his death in 1850. He was joined in 1832 by Eev. William
Harris, but within a short time he also was compelled, by
failure of health, to return to England. During Mr. Thomp-
son's lifetime, boarding schools for boys and girls, village
schools, and the printing press were in operation. There was
a gradual though slow increase of converts. In 1837 a
church was formed, composed of six individuals, in reference
to which event Mr. Thompson wrote in the church book,
" Praised be God that even after ten years' labour in India
I see a few subscribing themselves on the Lord's side." At
282 "the land of charity."
his death there were about 200 persons under Christian
instruction in the district of Quilon.
In 1834 the Eev. Charles Miller (not related to William
Miller) arrived at Neyoor to assist Mr. Mead. Charles Miller
died in 1841, after seven years' faithful labour in the service
of the Lord.
The twenty years from 1817 to 1837 may be regarded as
the second period of the history of the mission, including the
labours of Messrs. Mead, Mault, and others.
283
CHAPTER XXL
EXTENSION AND PROGRESS OF THE MISSION.
Reinforcement of the Mission, and Occupation of New Stations — Descrip-
tion of Trevandrum — Medical Mission — Sudden Death of Mr. Leitch.
A NEW era — that of extension and rapid progress under the
third set of missionaries — commenced in 1838, with the
arrival of six new brethren and their wives appointed to
reinforce the important and flourishing mission in Travan-
core. Mr. Mead had paid a visit to England, and success-
fully pleaded the cause of the Travancore Mission ; and now
returned with the Eev. Messrs. Ahbs, Cox, Eussell, and
Pattison, missionaries, and INIr. A. Ramsay, a medical practi-
tioner, as an assistant and medical missionary. These
brethren reached their destination at the end of March,
1838. Scarcely had they landed ere the mission suffered a
serious loss in the death of William IMiller, of Nagercoil,
who had been suffering to some extent for nearly three years
previously. Arrangements were at once made for extending
operations, and increasing the number of mission districts.
The district of Nagercoil was therefore subdivided, and the
eastern part of this district, including a number of congrega-
tions in Tinnevelly connected with the Travancore Mission,
was placed under the charge of Mr. Paissell. He erected a
bungalow about nine miles east of Nagercoil, close to the
frontier, and established a Christian village which he called
Jamestown. The surrounding country closely resembles
284 "the land of charity."
tliat of Tinnevelly, being flat, sandy, and dry, with numerous
palm forests and extensive rice-fields. Here Mr. Eussell
laboured with characteristic energy and affection, for the
lengthened period of twenty-three years.
Mr. Abbs took up his residence for about seven years at
Neyoor, but with the special charge of the north-western
portion of that district. In 1845, however, he removed to
the bungalow which had then been completed at Parey-
chaley, about fifteen miles from Neyoor. This village thus
became the head-quarters of a mission district which has
prospered and increased to a marvellous extent, containing
at the i^resent time ninety-three congregations, and 10,999
native Christians under the charge of one European mis-
sionary, — probably the largest mission station in the world.
Parej^chrdey is a small village on the highway from Tre-
vandrum to the Cape. It contains a Hindu temple of some
antiquity and importance. The surrounding scenery is most
delightful. "The house," wrote Mr. Leitcli, "is situated on
the top of a hill, and overlooks one of the most lovely land-
scapes which I ever saw. HiU and dale enriched and
variegated by the richest vegetation, the sun of the tropics
pouring a flood of light on the scene, and the cooling breeze
from the adjoining coast, rendering the situation of the
beholder comfortable, left nothing to be conceived of as
much grander or more pleasing." Here Mr. Abbs was privi-
leged to labour incessantly and devotedly for twenty-two
years. An interesting narrative of his experience during this
period has recently issued from the press.*
Medical missions have long been valuable auxiliaries to
missionary agency. Attracted by the benevolence and skill
exercised in healing their diseases, the heathen are prepared
to lend a willing ear to the truths of the gospel proclaimed
* " Twentj-two Years' Missionary Experience in Travancore." London,
Snow & Co.
EXTENSION AND PROGRESS OF THE MISSION.
285
to them at the same time. And no form of Christian effort,
perhaps, more closely apjjroaches in spirit and character to
the life-work of our blessed Lord himself. Yet, of course,
this is hut one of several forms of evangelistic agency, and
should not be exalted to the exclusion of predicatory and
educational efforts, to which it can in practice be but auxi-
liary. No form of Christian labour has been neglected or
left untried by the London Missionary Society. Mr. Eamsay
SEMINAKT AT NAGEBCOIL.
opened the medical mission at Xagercoil, and during the
first three months treated upwards of 1,500 new cases. He
drew up an appeal for assistance to procure medicines and
erect an hospital, which was liberally responded to by the
native and European communities. This work for a time
seemed full of promise. " I am happy to say," wrote
]\Ir. Eamsay, " that people of every caste, even the Brah-
mans, flock to me for advice. I have now free access
286 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
amongst them, and have great reason to believe that much
good Avill be done. When the people are in health it is
difficult to get them at times to listen to what is good, but
when laid on a bed of sickness and conceiving themselves to
be dying, then I find they will listen attentively, and I have
been told by several on their recovery that they have thought
of what I said, and have felt anxious to know more of the
Christian religion."
But, unhappily, after about two years Mr. Ramsay accepted
a secular engagement, and relinquished his connection with
the mission, so that this important department of effort was
allowed to fall into abeyance until again renewed by Mr.
Leitch in 1853. The handsome building erected by Mr.
Ramsay at Niigercoil for an hospital, is now appropriated to
the use of the English seminary.
Trevandrum, the capital of Travancore, is situated in
li. Lat. 8° 30'; E. Long. 76° 59'. The time at Trevandrum,
therefore, is five hours eight minutes later than GreenAvich
time. A telegram sent in the evening from Trevandrum, if
not delayed, would reach London at noon of the same day.
The town lies within two miles of the sea-coast, and a little
west of the Karamana river. The site is low but uneven,
being much intersected by brooks and streams, with level or
terraced rice-fields on either bank. Occasionally the ground
rises into little eminences to the height of between one and
two hundred feet above the level of the sea.
The town consists of a Fort with the houses immediately
surrounding it, and several suburbs. The Eort is about half
a mile square, and is surrounded by a high Avail, principally
of mud, and in some parts of granite, but of no strength as
a defence. Its only value to the Brahmans and other high
castes who reside inside the Fort is to prevent the ingress of
j)ersons of low caste, the gates being carefully guarded by
Sepoys, and no low caste people allowed to pass. But the
EXTENSIOX AND PROGRESS OF THE MISSIOX. 287
walls hinder the fresh air from circulating in the narrow
streets and badly ventilated houses on the low and swampy
grounds which they enclose, so that the more intelligent and
wealthy classes now find it necessary to have houses in the
country, to which they can retire for the benefit of the pure
air and fine scenery. Within the Fort is the Palace (built
partly in the European stjde, and richly furnished with
European furniture, paintings, clocks, &c.), with its various
detached dwelling-houses, outhouses, gardens, and courtyards.
Here also are situated the Government offices, the oflicial
residence of the Dewan, the mint, the jail, and last, not
least, the temple of Patmanabhan, with its lofty tower
and sacred tank. In the streets within the Fort there are
878 houses, with a high caste population of 4,557, nearly all
Brahmans.
East of the Fort and immediately adjacent lies the " Chdlei
Bazar" the centre of the native town. The principal
street is formed by rows of shops, open at the front like those
of greengrocers in England, in which rice and other grains,
curry stuffs, roots, fruits, and provisions of every kind,
cloth and ornaments, boxes, brass and tin ware, books,
stationery, &c., are exposed for sale. The close and impure
atmosphere is laden with vile smells of every conceivable
description. Crowds of people constantly pass and repass to
and from the Fort, and are engaged in making pui'chases and
transacting business.
Manacaud, on the south, is to a large extent the Moham-
medan quarter ; here the royal stables are situated. The
" Pettah," on the north-west, contains numerous houses and
gardens of East Indians, — Portuguese and Dutch descendants,
— most of whom are Roman CathoKcs, and in poor circum-
stances. The East Indians in Trevandrum number 458
individuals of all ages.
North-east of the Fort lies the " Caiitotwietd" formerly
288 "the land of charity."
occupied by British troops, and now by the I^air Brigade
and their European officers. Here also are situated the
English church, in which the chaplain of the station offi-
ciates ; the observatory, recently closed ; the civil hospital,
museum, and botanical gardens ; and in this locality the new
range of public offices has recently been erected. To the
east of the cantonment, the British Eesidency and lines for
the Sepoy guard are situated.
The public roads are now in excellent order, and within
the last few years very considerable and striking improve-
ments, in public buildings and the general appearance of the
town, have been effected. Viewed from a little distance,
nothing is visible except the tops of the waving cocoa-nut
trees and of the jack, mango, and tamarind trees with which
every house is surrounded, and perhaps the towers of the
great temple and of the English church, and the roofs of
some other public buildings.
Such is Trevandrum of the present day. By the census
of 1865 it appears that the population is 51,718, of which
5,700 are Brahmans, 23,000 Sudras, 3,500 native Christians
of all sects, 4,600 Mohammedans, 70 Europeans, and the re-
mainder low caste Hindus.
Between the town and the sea extends a beach of white
sand, about three quarters of a mile in width, dry, arid, and
barren, in some parts covered with the bleached remains of
the friendless and pauper dead buried in the sands, and too
often dug up again and devoured by the jackals. Close to
the sea is the small village of Valiatory, the port, such as it
is, of Trevandrum, with a custom-house and granary. The
inhabitants of this hamlet are fishermen and Shanars,
mostly Itomanists. But a small congregation of Protestants
was formed here in the year 1823. After permission had
been refused to William Miller to settle in Trevandrum
itself, it was thouglit tliat a missionary might perhaps be
EXTENSION AND PROGRESS OF THE MISSION. 289
permitted to reside at Yaliatory, and thus ojoerate ultimately
on the capital. Mr. Addis had accordingly been appointed
to this station, and procured a piece of ground and attemjjted
to settle ; but even this was decidedly forbidden by the
native Government, which at that tune opposed every effort
that was made to establish a Christian mission at or near
the capital.
In 1838, however, Mr. Cox succeeded, through the decided
patronage of General Fraser, the British Eesident, in obtain-
ing from the Eajah a grant of a piece of waste ground on
which mission premises were erected. " Mr. Cox found in
the whole district about forty professing Christians, of whom
two were baptized. He found also a relative of the Eaj all's
family, named Samuel Tumby, who was baptized by Mr.
Eingeltaube, and maintained some profession of Christianitj^ ;
enough to subject him to the deprivation of his propertj',
but not enough to cause his light to shine as a decided
follower of Christ. He continued to attend occasionally
on the instruction of the missionary, but at last disappeared
in a manner wliich could never be cleared up. By the
end of the first year the number of professors had increased
to 107."
At this station Mr. Cox laboured witliout intermission for
twenty-three years.
Mr. Pattison joined Mr. Thompson at Quilon, where he
laboured until recalled by the Directors about seven jeavs
afterwards.
Thus several new stations Avere opened, the mission in-
vigorated with new life, and evangelizing operations actively
carried on during the period under review.
Other missionaries, too, shared for a time in the working
of the mission. Eev. J. 0. Whitehouse arrived in 1842, and
for fifteen years had charge of the seminary, in which he
laboured with great success in the training of a native
u
290
THE LAXD OF CHARITY.
agency. Many useful and well-tiualitied native teachers, now
in the mission, were trained by Mr. "VVhitehouse during this
period.
In 184G, Rev. Ebenezer Lewis removed from Coinibatoor,
where he had been labouring for several years previously,
and undertook the charge of the western portion of the
]S'^agercoil district. A handsome and well-finished bungalow
Avas built at Sa,nthapuram about five miles south-west of
KBTOOK DISPBNSABT.
INagereoil, and in this district IMr. Lewis spent about sixteen
years, until compelled by ill-health to return to England.
He was one of the most elo(p;ent preachers and best scholars
in the Tamil language in South India.
About the middle of 1852, Eev. C. C. Leitch, M.E.C.S.E.,
arrived at Neyoor to recommence the medical mission estab-
lished by Mr. liamsay, and to take the superintendence of
EXTENSION AND PROGRESS OP THE MISSION. 291
the Xej'oor district. Mr. Mead having now retired from
active participation in mission work, Mr. Leitch devoted
some months to a preliminary study of the language and
people, (fee, and to the erection of a dispensary at K"eyoor,
which he opened in March, 1853. Here he laboured with
singular zeal and unremitting energy; and was joined in the
following July by Eev. Frederic Eaylis, who had previously
had charge of the English Institution at Madras for three
years.
But in the midst of his activity and usefulness Leitch,
like Spencer of Liverjjool, was suddenly cut off. On the
morning of 25th August, 1858, Messrs. Baylis and Leitcli
resolved to go down to Muttam* on the sea-coast, about
six miles from jSieyoor, where Mv. and Mrs. Lewis were
then spending a few days. In the evening the colleagues
went together to bathe in the sea, in a place where
Leitch had been accustomed to bathe on former visits to
the place.
" Being remarkably quick in all his movements," wrote
Mr. Baylis, " he was at the place and in the water several
minutes before I was ready. We were behind some rocks,
so that I could not see the part of the sea where he was till
I had gone out into the water myself. I then saw him for
a moment among the waves a little way out, not farther than
we had both been when bathing there a few weeks before.
As I was hastening to join him, in passing round the corner
of a rock, a strong wave rushing past from behind threw me
down, and was, as I felt in a moment, carrying me out with
considerable force. I immediately struck out for the shore,
and gained a footing again witli some difficulty. "When I
recovered from the wave and looked about, I could nowhere
see Mr. Leitch. For a moment I fancied he might be
hidden from sight by a wave, but the next moment I felt
* See vignette on title-page.
292 "the land of charity."
that he must have been carried out and had sunk. I knew
that it would be in vain for me to attempt to do anything
alone, so I ran up the beach and called to Mr. Lewis to come
quickly, as I saw him coming in the distance. He was soon
on the spot, and three or four fishermen coming at the same
time, they immediately ran into the water, according to our
directions, and dived about in the place where Leitch had
been ; a boat also which had been summoned came to render
assistance ; but though the search was kept up, as well as the
force of the Avaves would allow, for nearly two hours, till it
became dark, nothing could be found. As we returned to
the little bungalow where we were staying, it Avas almost
impossible for us to realize the fact that our dear brother
Avho had been amongst us that day, happy himself, and
striving to make others happy, Avas indeed taken from us.
Though every means have since been used the body has not
been found."
Thus was this promising and talented missionary in a
moment removed by an inscrutable ])rovidence from his
people and his Avork. During the few months from the
opening of the dispensary till his death, he had attended to
2,0G9 patients, and performed eighty-tAvo oi)orations. He
was greatly beloved by the natives of all classes, and long
and deeply mourned by them, as a bright and sparkling gem
of Divine grace, Avhich had sunk in the depths of the sea,
but Avhicli should yet rise again resplendent and glorious, to
shine like a star in the kingdom of God for ever.
One of our native Christian preachers and poets wrote on
the occasion an elegy in Tamil, entitled "The Diamond lost
in the Sea." The folloAving brief (not quite literal) transla-
tion of a fcAv of the ver.-es Avill give some general idea of the
style of this ode : —
EXTENSION AND PROGRESS OF THE MISSION. 293
Introduction.
We will shed tears and mourn over the death of Mr. Leitch, saving, —
CnoRcs.
Alas ! alas, thou sainted and precious one !
When shall our minds be comforted, thou beautiful Pearl ?
Vekses.
Leaving parents and sisters and friends in thine own happy land,
Thou didst come through the deep raging sea to be our Teacher and Friend,
Alas ! alas ! &c.
And we said, " Now shall prosperity come to our lanrl."
Thou didst heal our diseases and sorrows, gavest medicine to all who came,
and clothing and food to the distressed. Why dose thou now hide thyself
from our sight?
Alas 1 alas ! &c.
Thou didst build Hospitals and Almshouses:
Hadst thou, our Benefactor, lived but a few years more, our poverty would
fly away and disappear.
Alas ! alas ! &c.
Thou didst feel the value of our souls, and speak with loving words the Doc-
trine of Life : —
We weep for thee, our golden Jewel.
Alas ! alas ! &c.
We joyed to think that thou hadst come instead of Mr. Miller, who was cut
oif from our midst ;
But now we mouru for thee also.
Alas ! alas ! &c.
Thou wert beautiful in face and form, ever diligent and useful :
Hast thou been taken to heaven, like Enoch and Elijah ?
Suddenly thou hast gone, and we cannot find thee, O our Treasure.
Alas! alas! &c.
If ihou hadst told us the time of thy departure, we should have saluted thee
with both hands and kissed th}- feet;
But thou hast been removed from us for our wickedness ; thou art moat
happy, but we mourn,
Alas! altts! &c.
294: "the land of charity."
Thy dear aged parents and pious sisters shall weep for thee with streaming
tears !
Let us follow the exhortation and example of our holy teacher, and meet
him in Heaven !
O heavenly Lord ! the Source of life ! do Thou send another missionary to do
good to the people !
Alas ! alas ! &c.
Tliiis amid difficulties and discouragements, loss of mission-
aries and occasional opposition from the heathens, the
Christian congregations continued to increase and spread, so
that in 1858, when other important events affected the state
and jjrosperity of the mission, there were seven principal
stations, with seven European missionaries; 210 congrega-
tions, with 16,939 native professing Christians, of whom
2,195 were baptized, and 980 in full communion witli the
church. Amongst these, 394 native catechists and school-
masters were at work.
295
CHAPTER XXII.
RECENT HISTORY OF THE MISSION.
The " Upper Cloth " Eiots — Their Origin, Progress, and Settlement— Suffer-
ings from Famitie and Cholera — Movement towards Christianity amongst
the Slave Castes — Resuscitation and Success of Medical Mission under
Dr. Lowe — Recent Changes in the Mission — Extension of Native
Pastorate — Labours of Missionary Ladies.
Towards the close of 1858 the poAvers of darkness, error,
and paganism again came into direct collision with Christian
truth and social freedom. The causes of the disturbances
which then occurred had been in continuous operation for
many years previously, and there had been occasional and
isolated outbursts of fanatical hatred towards the Christian
converts. The marvellous spread of Christianity amongst
the Shanars, Pariahs, Ilavars, and others excited the jealousy
and envy of the higher castes, and attempts were again and
again made to put a stop to the progress of tlie Christian
religion. The missionaries had often had to complain to the
native Government of the oppressions practised by the Siidras
on their timid and helpless converts. Complaints were made
especially in 1855, when the oppressions and lawlessness of
that caste had become well-nigh intolerable. Mr. Cos
brought forward the case of Devasagayam, who, with his
wife and several others, were seized and put in confinement
for refusing to sign an agreement to perform certain work at
the palace without pay. The unfortunate man was shockingly
ill-treated, and died from the effects of the torture. His widow
296 "the land of charity."
and the others were released after six days' coiifliieiuent in
the stocks.
A number of Ilavars in A'ttungal, the estate of the Eiinees
of Travancore, had enahraced Christianity. They were there-
fore severely persecuted by the local officials, who declared
that they would not suffer any Christians to remain there.
One man, Thomas Paul, was assaulted in his house, beaten
and dragged till he was insensible, and then taken to prison,
where he was kept many days, and released only when he
became so ill that they were afraid he would die. Another
man Avas stopped by the persecutors one Sabbath morning
while he was on his way to divine worship, reviled for being
a Christian, and beaten so severely that he lay ill in the
chapel for some days.
Mr. Whitehouse reported the case of Arumeinayagam, a
converted slave, who was beaten by his master, Madan
Pillei, and another Sudran for attending Christian worship.
Although the serious injuries inflicted on the poor man were
certified in detail by the Court physician. Dr. Reed, a mere
nominal fine of only five rupees each was inflicted by the
magistrate on his assailants. But an appeal being made to
the Madras Government, the fines were increased to seventy
rupees, and the Travancore authorities were reproved for their
unjust lenity.
Other cases of oppression and cruelty were represented in
detail to the Government of Madras, and a petition was
l)resented detailing facts which proved the political condition
of Travancore to be deplorably bad. 'J'he police, it was
shown, was an engine of inicpiity and op})ressi()n. Subjects
were seized and imprisoned without any specific charges
being brought against them, or were detained in confinement
without investigation, and perhaps eventually acquitted
oidy after an imjtrisonmcnt extending over several years.
Bribes were accepted to let off culprits, and tortures inflicted
RKCENT HISTORY OF THE MISSION. 297
to force confession. The character of the high officials was
slaown to be bad, some having even been before their ap-
pointment convicted as criminals. The courts themselves
were corrupt. A system of forced labour for Government
supplies existed, which opened a wide door for oppression.
Monopolies in pepper and other articles prevented the de-
velopment of free trade and the material resources of the
country. These and other prevalent evils were fully exposed.
Early in 1856, the Eajah was addressed upon the subject by
Lord Harris, then Governor of Madras. His Highness
acknowledged that there was some ground for complaint,
and stated that he was endeavouring to improve matters
as far as possible.
The Rajah, however, was more devoted to superstition and
asceticism than to the study of political economy. Though
personally kind and well meaning, he was not possessed of
sufficient firmness and courage to carry out needed reforms
in opposition to tlie obstacles which lay in his way. The
Dewan, too, who died in 1858, had been a most corrupt and
unscrupulous character. The Lritish Kesident, General
Cullen, who had occupied this important post since 1840,
though kind and courteous in manners, generous in his gifts,
and scientihc in his tastes, was completely under the influ-
ence of Brahman favourites, adopted their views, and saw
no necessity for missionary labours, or the Christian instruc-
tion of the poor. He was thoroughly " Hindooized " by an
uninterrupted residence of nearly fifty years in India.
Another element of irritation on the part of tlie Sudras
was the liberation of the slaves in 1855. Although these
have not had the s])irit and courage to avail themselves of
their legal rights to any considerable extent, yet those of
them who had embraced Christianity necessarily became
more intelligent and industrious, and generally sought their
freedom.
298 "the land of ctiAniTY."
Perhaps, too, some of the expressions in the proclamation
of the Queen's supremacy and direct rule over India, de-
claring that " none should be in any wise favoured, none
molested or disquieted by reason of their religious faith or
observances," and enjoining "all those who may be in
authority that they abstain from all interference with the
religious belief or worship of any " of the people, were either
erroneously or wilfully misinterpreted by the Sudras, as for-
bidding missionary efforts and the public proclamation of
Christian truth.
The great questions in dispute were those connected with
the Christian and Hindu religions, caste and progress, rigid
conservatism and liberal reform. But, as on former occasions,
the immediate and ostensible subject of dispute was that of
dress, especially the use of the " upper cloth ;" and on this
occasion heathen and Christian Slianars were united in
opinion and sentiment. A whole race of men were not for
ever to be retained in such a condition of prostration and
subservience as that in which the Shunars had been kept.
Many of this caste in the south of Travancore emigrate with
their families to the British province of Tinnevelly, in search
of employment during certain seasons of the year. There
their women are quite at liberty, and are accustomed to clothe
themselves above the waist decently, and on their return to
the native state naturally retain that covering.
About October and November, 1858, indications of the
general ill-feeling of the Sudras towards the Christians
became more marked. A Christian woman was assaulted in
the public market at N'eyyattunkara, and her jacket torn.
The case was proved in the police court, yet the offender was
let off with so slight a punishment by fine that he soon
afterwards committed several similar crimes. Next the
Sudras gave out that an order had been issued by the
Government to strip the woiueu of their jackets, and tliey
RECENT HISTORY OF THE JIISSIOX. 299
threatened that they would soon carry it into effect ; crowds
in the markets hustled the Christians, and spat and threw
earth on them. But after the visit of Lord Harris, Governor
of Madras, to the Eajah in the beginning of December, and
the reading of the Queen's proclamation in the middle of the
month, the violence of the Sudras increased. Reports were
circulated to the effect that Lord Harris had given over the
entire management of the kingdom into the Eajah's hands,
no longer to be controlled by the British GoA^ernment, and
that, consequently, the Eajah would not tolerate Christianity
in his territory, and that the Sudras and others would be un-
checked in any opposition they miglit show to Christianity.
Accordingly, on the 25th December, the Athigari, or sub-
magistrate of Pareychaley, being remonstrated with on the
illegal cutting down of a tree, exclaimed that the missionary
had been deprived of authority, as the country was " nv
Invger under the poiver of tlie Company from whom he derived
his salary." Shortly afterwards another Athigfiri went to a
market near Pareychaley, and declaring that he had authority
from the Government to do so, insulted several Shanar
women, and took off their cloths and jackets. These
examples Avere followed by others. The most extravagant
reports were circulated respecting the extinction of the
British power, and the liberty which had been given to
murder Europeans and destroy their property. The agitation
continued in the Pareychaley district for about twenty days ;
during which time three chapels and three smaller places for
worship Avere set on fire and destroyed.
In tlic district of Keyoor, adjoining that of Pareychaley,
opportunities were taken to rob and ill-treat many of the
poorer classes. Among others, one of the catechists, Guru-
patham, had a large mango tree yielding fruit cut down by
some of the officials, witliout any compensation being made.
He complained to the authorities, and an impiiry was
300 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
promised, "but a few days after they came to cut i;p tlie tree
for firewood. The son of the catechist, who happened to he
present, remonstrated, and was well heaten for doing so.
His cries hrought his father and mother to the spot, when
they were seized and heaten till they were insensible. The
poor woman, who had recently heen contined, long suffered
from the cruelty inflicted on her, and her hushand appeared
to have sustained some internal injury, and has not heen
well since. The Tahsildar refused to attend to the case, hut
it w^as, on the representation of Mr. Baylis, taken up hy the
Peishcar, fully proved, and sent to the Criminal Court.
Some of the guilty parties were at last fined and removed
from Government employment.
On 25th Decemher, some Government officials, with their
attendants, seized four of the Christians at Kallankuli, on
pretence of taking them for Sirkar work, and tied and heat
them severely. The men were carried off, kept for some
days in confinement, and then dismissed. Two days after,
the chapel there was burnt down during the night.
A fortnight afterwards, in the ]S"eyoor market, a numher
of heathens, led hy the police sergeant of Iraniyal and his
men, heat many men and women, plundered their goods,
money, and jewels, and then hound a numher of Shanars,
who were peaceably engaged in their usual occupations in the
market, and took them to the prison. The disturbance
appears to have commenced through some heathen Shanar
Avomen wearing the upper cloth. Other acts of violence
were committed in the Christian village at Neyoor. The
police sergeant was, on examination, suspended from office,
and a few of the rioters merely fined and 1)0und over to keep
the peace. On the same night another chapel at Vadakkan-
karei was burnt down, and a third a few nights afterwards.
Charges against the jiarties accused of burning these three
chapels, and threatening to burn others, were laid before the
RECENT HISTORY OP THE MISSIOX. 301
Criminal Court at l^agercoiL Every effort Avas made by
the clerks of the court to get their Sudra friends acquitted.
The first judge openly sided witli the accused parties. They
were let out on bail, while Shanars charged with com-
j)aratively trifling offences were kept in confinement and in
fetters before trial. The Sudras were allowed, in open court,
to bully and threaten the Avitnesses and pleaders for the
complainants. Except in one case, that of burning the
Gunamkadu school-house, where the criminals were sentenced
to hard labour for periods of from one to three years (half the
term of sentence was afterwards remitted), the accused parties
were, as might be expected, acquitted on the ground of the
Avant of sufficient evidence, though a few were bound over to
keep the peace for a year or so on suspicion.
In the Santhapuram district the Athigari sent police to
apprehend the catechist of Kulattuvilei on Sunday, 23rd
January, 1859, while the congregation were assembling for
divine worship. The teacher pleaded exemption from seizure
on account of the day ; but, although the peons said there
was no charge against him, they compelled him to accompany
them to the Athigari. This official furiously reviled the
Christian teacher and the missionaries, had the clothes
stripped off the catechist and torn to shreds, and then had
him put in tlie stocks and beaten very severely. He was
kept in prison for a week before he was set at liberty.
But it was in Nagercoil district that the rage of the Sudras
burst forth with the greatest violence.
On January 4th upwards of 200 Sudras and others entered
the houses of the Christians at Talakudi, armed with clubs
and knives, &c., and attacked the inhabitants, stripping the
jackets off the women, tearing their clothes, and cruelly
beating and kicking them. They also laid plans to destroy
the catechist and schoolmaster of the place, and to burn
down their houses and the mission chapel. Consequently
302 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
the chapel was closed for some weeks, and the village
deserted hy the Christians.
Three days afterwards a mob of about 500 Sudras, lieaded
by Government officials, came by day to Kumiirapuram, armed
with clubs, swords, &c., in search of the Christians, and of
the catechist and his wife. The latter had, however, made
their escape ; but another catechist, on a visit to his friends
in the village, was seized, cruelly beaten, and sent into con-
finement. The mob forcibly entered the houses of the
Christians, broke and pillaged the furniture, and dragged the
poor defenceless women out of doors almost naked, tearing
their cloths and jackets, and committing the most insulting
acts.
Similar attacks were made on the Christians at A'rrimbuli
and Sembanvilei. At the latter village the mob pulled down
the house of the catechist, plundered the money, jewels, and
furniture which they found, belonging both to the catechist
and to the other Christians, tore up the books, and beat the
schoolmaster and some of the people in a most cruel manner.
The next day, Sunday, the same crowd entered the chapel
at Kfittuputhnr during the time of service, drove out the
catechist and congregation, tore the books to pieces, and
locked the chapel and took away the key. On tlie niglit of
the 10th a small bungalow at Nagercoil belonging to the
Government was burnt down. Shortly afterwards several
Shrmar liouses at Tittuvilei, and seventy-nine houses of
Eomanists at Kottar, were burnt down.
On the 29th a chapel near Nrigercoil, and on the 31st
another chai)el in one village and three houses of Shiinars in
another, in the Jamestown district, were burnt. Altogether
nine chapels and three school-houses were destroyed. JMany
of the surrounding villages were now wholly deserted by the
Christians. Congregations were deprived of their native
teachers, and the public services therefore ceased ; the roads
EECENT HISTORY OF THE MISSIOX. 303
by which the Christians "vvent to tlie markets and other
public places were closed against them, and terror every-
where prevailed. In all these scenes of lawless violence it
was observed that the minor officials of Government and
the police took a prominent part.
Agam the missionaries, as the main cause of the intro-
duction of Christianity into the country, were threatened
with assassination. Gross abuse was lavished upon them
even by the inferior servants of Government. Their houses
were to be burnt and themselves driven out of the country.
They and their families were thus kept in a state of constant
alarm. They were obliged to have guards at their resi-
dences, and were unable to venture into some parts of the
country to visit their people and schools. " Fifteen and a
half parts out of sixteen of your religion are gone," boasted
the heathen, " and the remaining portion will very soon fly
off, like cotton wool at a single blow of the mouth." " Your
God," said they, "has taken His flight."
On December 27th, soon after the commencement of these
troubles, a proclamation was made by the Dewrm in reference
to the disturbances, intimating that " it is clearly wrong to
violate ancient iisa(ip without authority," and that " whoever
does so in future shall be severehj piiniHlind. Shanars are to
hear this, and act accordingly," while " Sudras and people
of the higher caste are not to do anything themselves agamst
the Shanars, or to break the peace. If they do so, it will
become necessary to inquire into their conduct." The gross
and unconcealed partiality indicated by the different ex-
pressions used in this proclamation towards the Sudras and
the Shanars was carried out in the whole proceedings, as far
as the minor officials and inferior courts were concerned.
While the case of the Sudras, accused of the serious crimes
of incendiarism, riot, and assault, was speedily disposed of,
that of the Shanars, accused of " threatening to raise a rebel-
304 "the land of charity."
lion," was protracted by various means for months, during
which time tliey were rigorously imprisoned and fettered.
And in the discussions which followed this eventful period,
the native officials, and even the British Resident, endea-
voured to throw the blame of what had occurred as much as
possible upon the Christians themselves. It Avas evidently
taken for granted, a j^riori, that the Christians must be the
parties in fault.
Early in February a petition from the missionaries was
presented to H. H. the Rajah, but this having produced no
satisfactory result, the entire case was eventually referred to
the investigation and decision of the Madras Government ;
and through the prompt and effectual interposition of Sir
Charles Trevelyan, Governor of JNIadras, the right of the
Shanar women to observe the rules of decency in their attire
was at length partially and grudgingly recognised by the
Travancore Government.
" I have seldom," Avrote Sir Charles to the Resident, " met
with a case in which not only truth and justice, but every
feeling of our common humanity are so entirely on one side.
The whole civilized world would cry shame upon us if we did
not make a firm stand on such an occasion. If anything
could make this line of conduct more incumbent on us, it
would be the extraordinary fact that persecution of a sin-
gularly personal and delicate kind is attempted to be justified
by a royal proclamation, the special object of which was to
assure to her INIajesty's Indian subjects liberty of thought
and action so long as they did not interfere with the just
rights of others. I should fail in respect to her Majesty if
I attempted to describe the feelings with wliich she must
regard the use made against her own sex of the promises of
protection so graciously accorded by her."
" It will 1)6 your duty to impress these views on his
Highness the Rajah, and to point out to him that such pro-
RECENT HISTORY OF THE MISSION. 305
hibitions as those contained in the Circular Order of May,
1814, or in the Proclamation of the 3rd of February, 1829,
are unsuited to the present age, and unworthy of an enlight-
ened Prince."
Thus urged, the native Government promised " to abolish
all rules prohibiting the covering of the upper parts of the
persons of Shanar women, with the simple restriction of the
same mode of dress that appertains to the higher castes."
This concession was accepted by the Madras Government
" as a practical earnest, on the part of the Rajah, of his
desire to put an end to the barbarous and indecent restric-
tions previously existing on the dress of the Shanar Avomen."
The long-expected Proclamation at last appeared, on 26th
July, 1859. It ran as follows, translated literally : — "Inas-
much as we have been informed of the grievance occasioned
by the Proclamation of the 23rd of Magaram, 1004, on the
subject of the u]iper cloth of Shanar women, and it is our
will and pleasure to treat all people, as far as we can, in such
a manner as none shall feel aggrieved ; we hereby proclaim
that there is no objection to Shanar women either putting
on a jacket, like the Christian Shanar women, or to Shanar
women of all creeds dressing in coarse cloth, and tying them-
selves round with it as the Mukkavattigal (low caste fisher-
women) do, or to their covering their bosoms in any manner
whatever ; but not like women of high castes."
A similar Proclamation was in 1864 issued with respect to
the females of the Ilavar and all other inferior castes. Still
the necessities of the case with regard to the Christian
females have been but very partially met by this regulation.
The Protestant Christian community now occupies a good
position in Travancore, socially and morally. ]\Iany of the
women are well educated, and trained to habits of refinement
and comfort. Some are Avealtliy and accustomed to wear
good clothing, white or coloured. A number have learnt to
X
306 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
work embroidery or l:)eautiful lace, for wliicli medals have
been given at some of the great Exhibitions. Yet even such
women are forbidden to wear anything but a coarse cloth ;
and this should be tied horizontally across the breasts, leaving
the shoulders bare, in the fiishion of the fisherwomen — a
caste whom the heathen Shanars regard as several degrees
beneath them. There is no probability of the Christian
women consenting to adopt this unseemly dress. Such mis-
taken attempts on the part of a Government to regulate by
law matters of dress and social economy, in the face of
advancing civilization, have ever failed in practice. The re-
striction, too, of so large a proportion of the people to the
use of coarse materials is obviously a suicidal policy in respect
to the development of commerce and manufactures. The
state of the law is therefore still most unsatisfactory, and
there is reason to fear that contentions will not wholly cease
till all classes of the community are allowed, as in Tinnevelly
and all parts of British India, full liberty to folloAV their own
inclinations and tastes in matters of dress and personal
adornment and comfort.
Again was the operation of divine Providence manifest in
controlling and overruling the efforts of the heathen to
obstruct the onward march of Christian truth. Even during
the continuance of the riots and after their cessation, large
accessions were made to the numbers of the Christian com-
munity, especially in the districts of K'eyoor and Pareychrdey.
Mr. Baylis was visited by the head men of several villages,
who requested to be received, with their people, under the
spiritual care and instruction of the missionaries. Many
devil temples, large and small, were demolished, the images
and other symbols and implements of idolatrous worship
being destroyed or surrendered to the missionaries, and new
congregations formed where hitherto the Gospel had made
but little progress. During that and the succeeding year
RECENT HISTORY OF THE MISSION. 307
about 3,000 persons shook off the trammels of heathenism,
and put themselves under Christian instruction.
While the hand of man raised against the church quickly
fell palsied, and no weapon formed against her was permitted
to prosper, trials more directly from the hand of God him-
self, in sore visitations of famine and pestilence, next fell
upon the people.
The rains of the S.W. monsoon in May and June, 18G0,
failed ahnost entu^ely, and in consequence the rice-fields were
to a large extent left uncultivated ; the esculent roots, pulse,
and other dry crops, perished ; the palmyra yielded little
juice ; even cocoa-nut and other palm trees Avithered ; food
became scarce and rose to famine prices. In October, also,
the rains nearly failed, and when a partial crop was in
promise, a black caterpillar, before unknown to the peojile,
appeared simultaneously in all the rice-fields, and devoured
nearly all the standing crops. As the j^ear advanced the
distresses of the poor increased. Strong men Avere reduced
to mere skeletons, and became unequal, through want of
food, to sustained exertion, even when employment Avas
obtainable. They disposed by degrees of theu- few articles
of property and household furniture, and afterwards of their
tools and garments, to buy food, and were at last compelled
by hunger to eat the most unwholesome substances. Many
sold their children for trifling sums to ]\Iohammedans and
others, in the hope that they would thus be fed and kept
alive, while otherwise they must die of starvation before the
eyes of their parents.
Soon fever, dysentery, and other diseases, appeared. About
the middle of August, cholera commenced ; and whether on
account of the want of rain, the intense heat, or other pecu-
liar condition of the atmosphere, or the deiiciency of food, it
rapidly increased to an alarming and unprecedented extent.
Its ravages were most severe in the Pilreychrdey and IS'eyoor
308 "the land of charity."
districts, tliougli not confined to these. Within three months
there were 460 deaths out of 4,500 native Christians in the
Neyoor district; and 14< native teachers and 578 others
out of 5,000 in the district of Pareychaley ; hundreds besides
were registered in the neighhouring districts. Altogether,
about 1,500 of the native Christians were cut off, notwith-
standing the exertions and care of the teachers and mis-
sionaries ; and probably a much larger proportion of the
heathen population perished. In some villages as many as
twelve or fourteen of the Christians, besides heathens, died
in one day. Several of our smaller congregations were
wholly extinguished. Terror everywhere prevailed ; some of
the villages to which Ave went to preach were found deserted,
the people having fled, leaving several of their relations lying
ill of cholera. Many of the dead were left unburied, or
simply buried in holes dug in the floor of the house where
they had died, so that the Christian teachers were often
occupied in burying the dead ; being compelled for this
purpose, in some instances, to dig the grave themselves. It
was no uncommon thing to see men or women lying dead or
dying in market-places or by the road-side, wliere their
remains were devoured by jackals before there was time to
bury them. Thousands of widows and orphans were left
desolate : —
" In the marsh's parched anrl tjapinpf soil,
The rice roots by the searching sun were dried;
And in lean groups, assembled at the side
Of the empty tank, the cattle dropt and died;
And famine wasted wide
The wretched land, till, in the public way
Promiscuous, whore tlie dead and dying lay,
Dogs fed on human bones in the open light of day."
Tliis have I seen ; I jiray that I may never be called to
witness such scenes again. In this emergency appeals for
RECENT HISTORY OF THE MISSION. 309
aid "were made to the native authorities and to English
friends, to which a speedy and hearty response was made.
Liberal personal contributions were given by the ^laha-
rajah, Dewan, and other native officials. Cooking-houses, at
which meals of boiled rice were distributed, were opened in
various localities. Beneficial public works were commenced
to give employment to the labouring classes, several of the
missionaries undertaking to superintend the makiug of new
roads near their stations, at which thousands of the weak as
well as the strong were employed, according to their respec-
tive capacity, to provide for their immediate wants. The
friends of the mission in England, India, and elsewhere, also
forwarded considerable contributions for charitable purposes,
by means of which food, clothing, and medicine, were sup-
plied to those unable to work through want and disease.
Multitudes of lives were thus preserved, that otherwise must
have fallen victims to hunger and disease. This proof of the
sympathy of the people of England with the suffering poor
of Travancore was highly appreciated by all classes of the
jjopulation. " JSTothing," wrote the Dewan, " can be a nobler
spectacle than that of a people, thousands and thousands of
miles remote from India, extending their warmest spnpathies
so far, and contributing so liberally, to the relief of suffering
here. I have heard with admiration of the munificent sums
Avhich each successive mail has been bringing out to India
for the sufferers. The spectacle is as instructive as it is
nolile. AVith such sympathies pervading the world, what
splendid results may not be expected ! "
Again were large accessions, amounting during 1861 to
above 4,000 individuals, chiefly of the Shanar caste, made
to the members of the Christian community. This was
traceable, in part, to the awe produced in the minds of the
heathen by the hand of God, evident in the solemn visitation
of cholera, and in part to the incessant labours of the cate-
310 "the land of charity."
cliists, and to increased prayerfulness and effort on the part
of the Christians generally. Many also were attracted and
led to serious reflection by the kindness and personal
influence of the missionaries and native teachers in their
works of faith and labours of love.
Towards the end of 1862, a movement towards Christianity
amongst the slave castes, principally Pulayars and Pariahs,
commenced in the Pareychaley district. There had often
appeared a general willingness on the part of these long-
degraded and enslaved people to hear and receive the glad
tidings of salvation. In 1862 two small congregations, and
in the siicceeding year six additional congregations of this
class Avere formed. These new adherents evinced great desire
to hear and understand Christianity, and though rather dull
in learning the elements of religion, were nevertheless
remarkably persevering and painstaking. This work culmi-
nated in 1867, when, besides the addition of above 1,000
persons of various classes in the Neyoor district, 12 new
congregations, with 2,649 new adherents, were gathered in
the district of Pfireychilley. The total additions from
neathenism to our Christian congregations in Travancore
during that one year amounted to nearly 4,000 souls.
Though generally of the lowest class, these made rapid pro-
gress in learning the truths of Chiistianity, and in exem-
plifying them in theii- daily lives. The writer made a tour
amongst these newly gathered congregations in September,
1867, and found a remarkable spirit of earnestness, diligence,
and attention amongst these poor people. Scarcely had he
time, on entering the chapel in each village, to partake of
some necessary refreshment ere the building was filled with
people ready and waiting to hear the word of life.
They had, however, to endure a great deal of petty annoy-
ance and persecution from the higher castes. In one instance
a number of Pulayar Christians, who had been attending the
RECENT HISTORY OP THE MISSION". 311
markets, and using the privilege of travelling on tlie public
roads, were, along with their catechist, assaulted and beaten
by a number of Sudras and others of high caste. The latter
immediately went off to the police station, and brought a
formal charge of assault against tlie Christians, and being
first in the field, and belonging to the dominant caste, they
had eight or nine of the Christians and the catechist thrown
into prison. Here they lay for a month before a decision
was come to by the native courts ; they were then dis-
charged. Their enemies had gained their point and escaped
without punishment or loss, while all the Christians in the
surrounding congregations were for a time thoroughly terri-
fied. They remained faithful, however, and are now mahing
fair iH'Ogress in knowledge, piety, and liberality.
The medical mission at I^eyoor, which had been left vacant
since the death of Leitch, was happily revived hj Eev. John
Lowe, M.RC.S.E., who arrived at the station on 21st
November, 1861. The mission hospital erected by Leitch
was shortly after reopened, and for seven successive years
Mr. Lowe was privileged to labour with much success in
this interesting sphere. During those seven years, above
37,000 patients received medical and surgical aid, besides
over 11,000 individuals who were vaccinated. This exten-
sive work was conducted free of cost to the funds of the
Missionary Society, — at least, as far as medicines, instru-
ments, hospital expenses, &c., were concerned ; liberal annual
contributions having been given by H.H. the Maharajah and
other Hindu nobles and gentlemen, besides the British Resi-
dent and other Europeans in the country.
Patients of all ranks and castes applied for relief, and were
heartily welcomed. All who came received the benefit of
skilful medical aid, and were lovingly addressed by the
missionary and his assistants on the subject of Christianity ;
many prejudices were removed, inquiry was excited, and hearts
312 "the land of charity."
were opened to the saving reception of the truth. It was
often a most interesting and delightful sight to observe
persons of different and antagonistic castes thus induced to
come together and listen to the Gospel message. " There
might have been seen from time to time, sitting side by side
under the same roof, the Brahman, Sudra, Shanar, and
Pariah, the devil-Avorshipper and the worshipper of Siva, the
Mohammedan, Roman Catholic, and Protestant Christian, —
men, women, and children of all castes and creeds, listening
attentively to the reading of God's word and the preaching
of the Gospel. Hundreds have heard the sweet story of
redeeming love, who otherwise, in all human probability,
would have lived and died without once having heard the
glad tidings." Dr. Lowe writes again, — " There lived to-
gether in the same room in the hospital for nearly two
months a young Brahman and his motlier ; a Sudra, his
wife and brother ; and a Shanar boy and his mother ; be-
sides patients of other castes who were admitted for shorter
periods. The Brahman youth had a compound fracture of
the right leg, and a simple fracture of the left leg ; the
Sudra had fracture of the skull, with a severe scalp wound ;
and the Shanar boy had a compound fracture of the thigh,
and simple fracture of both arms, the result of a fall from a
palmyra tree. Por the time being, at least, broken bones
levelled their caste distinctions, and created a bond of sym-
pathy between them. They all made good recoveries, and
left the hospital very thankful for the attention and kindness
they had received."
In November, 1864, a class was commenced for the study
of medicine and surgery, and for the training of a few native
young men as medical assistants or dressers, to take charge
of branch dispensaries in the mission districts. Prom each
mission district an intelligent youth, well educated in
EngHsh, was selected and sent to Neyoor, and was care-
RECENT HISTORY OF THE MISSION,
3i;
EECEN'T HISTORY OF THE MISSION. 315
fully instructed and trained for three years and a half by
Dr. Lowe, assisted for some time by Mr. Eaylis, in teaching
Latin and chemistry. The medical students made up the
prescriptions, performed minor operations, and received in-
struction in the various departments of medical science, so as
to combine practical work with systematic study ; and the
scheme has proved, so fir, entirely successful. Before Dr.
Lowe was compelled, by the illness of his excellent wife,
to leave Travancore, he opened three branch dispensaries at
Agateespuram, Santhapuram, and A'ttur, and left the work
in the hands of his native assistants.
" In order," he writes, " to test the efficiency of the
dressers for the responsible duties which would devolve
upon them, I gradually withdrew from the ordinary routine
of dispensary work, and, for a few weeks before I left,
allowed the dressers themselves to do most of the work,
merely watching them, and, as opportunities were presented,
making suggestions for their future guidance. The result
was most gratifying. In the daily dispensary practice I saw
these young men judiciously and skilfully applying the
instruction they had received, often in cases of no little
difficulty and danger. I saw them amputate and perform
successfully serious obstetrical operations, reduce dislocations
and fractures, both simple and compound, and attend to the
patients till they were discharged cured. I saw them excise
tumours, and perform all the minor surgical operations Avhich
are daily required in ordinary dispensary practice. I saw
them going in and out among their patients, gaining their
confidence by their kindness ; and, while endeavouring to
relieve their wounded or diseased bodies, seeking at the same
time to lead sin-stricken souls to the Great Physician. I saw
all this, and I felt amply repaid for my toil."
During the year 1869, these native dressers, or medical
assistants, attended, in the absence of Dr. Lowe, to no less
316 "the land of ciiakity."
than 13,698 patients, exclusive of 3,160 who were vaccinated
also during the year. We sincerely trust that this valuable
and benevolent Christian Institution will continue to com-
mand the attention and support of the Society and the
friends of the mission, and that a work established at such
cost of labour and means may not be allowed to fall to the
ground, for want either of European medical superintendence
(still essential to its perpetuity) or of pecuniary assistance.
Other modifications in the staff of missionaries and the
internal circumstances of the mission took place from time
to time, any detailed relation of which the limits of this
work forbid. We can do no more than allude to the Rev.
J. J. Dennis, who was somewhat suddenly removed to the
better world in 1864, after eight or nine years' residence in
India. His labours, especially in the superintendence of tlie
printing press, and tlie improvement of native Christian
literature, were of great service to the mission. Rev. J. F.
Gannaway also laboured for tliree years in Jamestown Avith
much energy and encouraging success, and Rev. G. Mabbs
for about a year at Niigercoil.
We cannot omit a brief reference to the important changes
in respect to native church organization which took place
on the occasion of the visit to Travancore of the Rev. Dr.
Mullens, in the beginning of 18G6, as special deputation
from the Missionary Society, before returning to England to
enter upon the responsible and onerous duties of Foreign
Secretary. Some of the measures then carried out had been
in contemplati(Jn previously, others were decided on in the
course of the consultations which took jjlace between Dr.
Mullens and the district committee.
With a view to the establishment of a native pastorate on
a sound and permanent basis, four of the native evangelists
were ordained, one as an assistant missionary, and three as
pastors of churches which undertook the responsibility of
RECENT HISTORY OF THE MISSION. 317
their support. These were Messrs. C. Yesudian, the long-
tried and learned head master of the seminary at Nagercoil ,
Devadasen, a Brahman convert, of singular purity of cha-
racter and spirituality of mind ; Zechariah, the ahle and
devoted evangelist in charge of the Neyoor congregation ;
and Masillamani, the grandson of the first Christian convert
in Travancore ; — all men of tried character and abilities, Avho
had proved themselves successful preachers and evangelists
during many years of steady service. These were all
ordained at Nagercoil on 13th February, 1866. Corre-
sponding alterations "vvere made in the geograjihical classifica-
tion and boundaries of the mission districts. The northern
portion of the Nagercoil district, containing twelve congrega-
tions, was jilaced under the charge of Yesudian ; while the
churches of Nagercoil, Neyoor, and Dennispuram unani-
mously chose as their respective pastors the other three
brethren. It had been long felt by the missionaries that
it Avas unnecessary to retain Santhapuram, in such close
proximity to Neyoor and Nagercoil, as a separate district
Avith a European missionary, considering the urgent claims
of the populous district of Quilon, which had been left
x:noccupied and comparatively neglected for sixteen years
after the death of Mr. Thompson. The Rev. F. Wilkinson,
of Santhapuram, accordingly consented to remove from that
well-organized and flourishing, though, geographically, rather
confined district, to undertake the more difficult and uphill
work of resuscitating the Malayfdim mission at Quilon. The
congregations in the three southernmost districts were re-
distributed, and the boundaries rearranged, so as to require
but three instead of four missionaries in the extreme South.
At Trevandrum, too, additional premises in the canton-
ment were purchased for the accommodation of a second
missionary, long promised to this important station. Arrange-
ments were also made for the ordination of seven other native
318 "the land op charity."
preachers as pastors, or assistant missionaries, and this mea-
sure was carried into effect early in 1867.
It is to be regretted that our limits do not admit of
dwelling at some length upon the important subject of female
missionary labours, — a subject Avhich deserves a whole volume
to itself, and the discussion of which would throw much
light upon one aspect of the missionary enterprise in India.
The Travancore mission has been remarkable for the assiduous
and fruitful efforts put forth on behalf of the females by
Mrs. Mault and her daughter Mrs. Whitehouse, Mrs. ]\Icad,
Mrs. Lewis, Mrs. Abbs, Mrs. Cox and her daughters, Mrs.
Baylis, and others, the periods of whose residence in the
country were more brief, besides those still in the field,
whose loving and praiseworthy labours are well known to the
readers of our missionary reports.
An opinion has recently been strongly expressed by per-
sons sincerely interested iir missions, but for the most part
destitute of practical experience in India, to the effect that it
would be of great advantage to the mission work for the
missionary to remain unmarried for the first few years of his
course abroad ; and this is urged by the consideration that
several useful missionaries have from time to time been com-
pelled to retire from the foreign field, after a few years, on
account of the illness of their wives.
But, on the other hand, it should bo remembered that a
much larger proportion of men Avould certainly break down
in health if they go out to India unmarried, without the
domestic care and companionship of an affectionate and
jiious partner ; the dangers to character and reputation in
such a country as India would be infinitely increased ; and
certain departments of our work, such as female schools
and classes, and visitation, must come to an end, so flir as
the unmarried missionaries are concerned.
The difficulties, too, in the way of obtaining a suitable
BECENT HISTORY OF THE MISSION. 319
partner in India, and at the age of say thirty to forty, would
he very considerahle, and great temptations Avoiild be pre-
sented to form unequal and inconvenient unions.
Moreover, it is hy no means the rule that married mis-
sionaries labour with less spirit, travel less zealously, or are
more encumbered in tlieir work, than are bachelors. All
this depends rather upon the constitution and temperament
of the individual, than on his domestic circumstances.
In short, our experience in Travancore is decidedly and
unhesitatingly in favour of the missionaries (excepting, of
course, those who deliberately and intelligently prefer a celi-
bate life) being married. Our mission could not have been
what it is but for the co-operation and effective efforts of the
missionary ladies. Indeed, the wife has sometimes proved
the better missionary of the two.
NOTE ON r. 34.
"EESULT OF MR. LEE'S APPEAL."
Since the first sheets of this work were printed reliable information on
this point has been received. It appears tliat the Madras Government
reviewed the whole case, and administered a just rebuke to the native
Government for the inadequacy of the sentence in question, but they I'efrained
from reversing it on the ground that Travancore is a native state, nominally
independent.
The Sirkar is also severely handled fur yielding so much to caste, and
a statement is rcquirtd tvhi/ caste restrictions as to the use of public roads
&c., should not be abolished, and idi^t/ the native state should not conform
to the customs of British India in thise matters.
320
CHAPTER XXIII.
MISSIOXARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS.
Valup of Genernl Inforraation rpspectingf the Mission Fiold — Plan and
Working of the Travancore Mission — Mission Houses — Mode of
Travelling— Chapels and Public Worship — Superintendence of Native
Teachers — Their Duties — Character and History of Native Ministers
and Catechists — Pieaeliing to the Heathen — Stupidity — Misconceptions
— Arguments — Pretended Miracles — Abuse^ — Difficulties of a Sincere
Hindu — Wit and Humour of Native Controversialists — Indirect
Results of Missionary Labour — Decline of Idolatry, and of Opposition
to Christianity — Secret Believers — Position of Educated Hindus — Their
Moral Enlightenment.
While we have dwelt iii the preceding pages at some length
on numerous topics of general interest in connection with
Travancore, our main object throughout has been to seek, by
supplying information which cannot properly be given in
ordinary missionary reports, to excite, on the part of our
readers, a thoroughly intelligent and practical interest in the
great missionary enterprise carried on in that country. It is
right that a Christian missionary should be acquainted with
the topography, the history, the animal, vegetable, and
mineral products, the ethnology, the languages and litera-
ture, and the superstitions of the country for the improve-
ment of which he is called to labour. Such studies wiU
often prove a needful and innocent relaxation from more
severe duties, and the possession of such general information
will assuredly command the respect of the natives with Avhom
he comes in daily contact.
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 321
"Without detailed and accurate information as to the
various fields of missionary labour, and the circumstances
of each, the friends of missions at home cannot possibly
be expected to take such a deep and comprehensive interest
in particular spheres of effort, nor to be able to direct their
liberality and prayers to the most urgent and important
objects.
But it is not, after all, these subjects that chiefly secure
the attention and excite the interest of the Christian mind.
It is not to obtain an acquaintance with these matters of
general but minor interest that the missionaries of the Cross
leave —
" Eindred, home, and ease, and all the cultured jojs,
Conveniences, and delicate delights
Of ripe society ; "
and devote their life, their strength, their talents, to earnest
and self-denying toil in distant lands. "VVe would not sink
the character of the Christian missionary in that of the mere
traveller.
1^0, the accurate comprehension of the circumstances and
general condition of a country forms but a preparation for an
interest in its inhabitants, and tends to awaken our desire to
benefit them in some practical way. Our deepest sympathies
must centre in the people, — the sentient and immortal beings
who inhabit the country, and who are there living and
labouring, desiring and enjoying, struggling and achieving,
.suffering and rejoicing, living and dying. They are created
by the same great God and for the same sublime end, are
preserved by the same beneficent Providence and redeemed
by the same holy Saviour as ourselves. It is, therefore, the
moral and spiritual condition of the human family that excites
the warmest sympathy and loving efforts of the Christian
heart. In Travancore, we have idolatry and demon-wor-
Y
322 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
ship in their worst and most corrupting forms. In that
little and obscure corner of India we find above a million of
heathens in dense spiritual darkness. There we find the
Brahman priests and the Sudra lando'wners oppressing the
poor cultivators, labourers, and slaves, and a large proportion
of the population sunk in a condition of extreme poverty and
abject wretchedness, groaning under the burdens of slavery
and caste. There many of the better educated classes are
proud and ungodly ; the wealthy sensual and depraved ; the
young rising up into life without the knowledge of God and
of salvation ; the old hardened in the practice of sin and in
hatred to divine truth ; the people deceived and priest-
ridden. " The prophets prophesy falsely, and the priests
bear rule by their means, and the people love to have it so."
There we see women superstitious, and degraded from their
true social position, and multitudes of souls, saturated with
superstition, suffering continual misery through the dread of
demons and of magical arts. All are dead in trespasses and
sins, without true peace of conscience, without the knowledge
of God, without any light upon their path to the eternal and
invisible world.
" They read no promise that inspires belief;
They seek no God that pities their complaints ;
They find no balm that gi^-es the heart relief;
They know no fountain when the spirit faints."
In seeking the conversion of Travancore to the Redeemer
we have had, as will be evident from previous remarks, to
contend not only with the natural power and love of sin in
the human heart, and with the unwillingness even of many
who are intellectually convinced of the truth to obey and
follow it out in their lives, but also with special and peculiar
local difficulties, arising from the strength and extraordinary
hold of the prevalent superstitions over the minds of the
people — the debasing habits and extreme degradation of
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 323
many classes — the wealth and prestige of the ecclesiastical
establishment supported by the rulers and nobles of the
land — occasional outbursts of violent hostility to the progress
of Christianity — and all the traditions and prescriptive
usages of the system of caste arrayed against the Gospel.
But, notwithstanding all these obstructions, the Gospel has
already won its conquests in that land ; and is progressing,
we are persuaded, to its final and universal triumph.
We shall now proceed briefly to describe the plan and
WORKING of our mission in South Travancore.
The 2G0 congregations connected with the mission are
divided, according to geographical position, into seven dis-
tricts as follows, commencing from the South : —
Congre-
gations.
Native Teachers
of all kinds.
Native
Christians
Kottaram
.. 29 ...
... 58 ... .
.. 4,440
Nilgercoil
.. 34 ...
... 72 ... .
.. 4,848
Tiituvilei
.. 13 ...
18 ... .
. 1,478
Neyoor
Pareychaley .
Trevandrum .
.. 59 ...
.. 93 ...
.. 29 ...
... 84 ... .
... 121 ... .
... 32 ... .
.. 8,176
.. 10,999
.. 2,428
Quilon
.. 3 ...
260
... 11 ... .
396
377
32,746
Of these native teachers, 24 are schoolmistresses and
18 female assistants, or Bible women.
Tlie Tittuvilei district is under the sole charge of a native
ordained missionary, Rev. C. Yesudian ; tlie others are super-
intended by the European missionaries, llev. Messrs. Baylis,
Wilkinson, Newport, Lee, and J. E. Jones ; three others, Eev.
J. Duthie, Rev. J. Lowe, M.R.C.S.E., and the writer, being
at present in England through unavoidable circumstances.
The mission-house generally occupies a good position on a
324 "the land of charity."
healthy, elevated site in the centre of the district, and is
surrounded by the necessary outbuildings, chapel, school -
house, and separate dormitories for the boys and girls of the
boarding schools. When at home, the missionary preaches
in the home chapel, but as frequently as possible spends the
Lord's day and one or two of the week days in his congrega-
tions, visiting daily two or three villages ; so that, if he
preaches in each of his chapels about once a quarter, care-
fully examining while on the spot into the various matters
connected with the welfare and prosperity of the congrega-
tion which demand attention, this is as much as can reason-
ably be expected, in addition to his other work of occasional
teaching, study and composition, correspondence, dispensing
medicine, deciding disputes and difficult cases, preparing
plans and estimates for chapels, and so forth. I have never
been able to conduct more than about thirty services in a
single month, — usually between that number and twenty,
when in health and undisturbed by incidental interruptions.
Our means of locomotion are various, according to choice
and circumstances. On the backwaters, we travel about in
boats or canoes, and this is exceedingly pleasant, especially
on fine moonlight nights. In cases where the exposure to
the sun can be borne without danger to health, riding on
horseback is pleasant and speedy. Where there are no roads,
palankeens are necessary ; they are carried by eight to twelve
men, or light palankeen chairs with cloth hoods by four to
six bearers ; and twenty miles is not an unusual distance
for a single journey at the rate of about 3g miles an hour.
I have once gone forty-two miles during the night with a
single set of bearers. Each man is paid a chuckram per
mile for his work.
On the main roads, Avhich are generally kept in good con-
dition, we indulge in the luxury and magnificence of a
" carriage and pair " — the " pair," however, it must be con-
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 325
fessed, not graceful, liigh-stepping carriage horses, but stout
hidlocJis, secured and driven by strong ropes running through
the nostrils, instead of the conventional silver-plated harness ;
and the " carriage " destitute of steel springs and morocco
lining — in fact, a common cart or "bandy," covered with
matting for protection from sun and rain.* To compensate
for the absence of springs, the bottom of the cart is filled
with straw, and over this a light mattress is laid, on which
IU^VJlLLING chaib.
the traveller reclines. Bed, food, and all necessaries are
carried in the cart, for our native Christians have neither
accommodation nor means to receive and entertain us in.
their houses : at night we sleep on the mattress in a corner
of the chapel, or in a small shed attached thereto. A boy to
cook rice and curry, prepare tea, &c., sits at the back of the
cart, the front seat being occupied by the driver, who twists
* Sue bullock cart in engraving opposite page 326.
326 "the land of charity."
the tails of the bullocks, coaxes, threatens, exhorts, and
beats them, so that I have seen them rush along at the rate
of 2^ miles an hour; 2|, however, is the average speed.
Our chapels are very plain, unpretentious buildings — too
often mere sheds, — but a few of the best are neat, well built,
and commodious, and suited to the climate. We have not
above a score of really good chapels of sufficient size. This is
the great want of the period in the Travancore mission. The
Lord has poured out a blessing which there is " not room to
receive " — not room in our chapels and prayer-houses and
schoolrooms for the rapidly increasing multitude of Christian
inquirers and converts and their children. One sometimes
longs for the grant of just as much money as has been ex-
pended on but one of the noble and graceful spires which
adorn our places of worship at home— an amount which
would relieve the extreme pressure on the means of our j30or
people, and provide for them in perpetuity fifty decent and
comfortable village chapels, urgently needed as they are in
many of the congregations.
The morning service commences at seven o'clock, and
another service is held at eleven in the forenoon. Meetings
are rarely held in the evening, on account of the discomfort
of walking in the dark, the danger from snakes, and the
necessity for the natives preparing food for their evening
meal. Except in our town chapels, which are provided with
benches, the people sit cross-legged on matting spread on
the floor.
Public worship is conducted very much as in England,
with singing, reading the Scriptures, and prayer. Before
preaching, the people are made to repeat the text several
times, and throughout the service their attention and interest
are maintained by frequent questions from the preacher on
the subject of discourse. Were it possible occasionally to
adopt some such practice at home, would it not do much
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 327
good in some congregations 1 A quiet doze in church
is a privilege and pleasure never enjoyed by our poor
native Christians, for the close questioning puts a stop
to all that. After the conclusion of the service the weekly
offerings are collected, the list of names of all the members
of the congregation is read over, and their attendance
marked, as is done in Sunday schools at home ; then each is
individually asked to repeat the verses of Scripture, or ques-
tions of the catechism, appointed as the lesson of the month,
and the congregation is dismissed, each making his salam, or
salutation, to the preacher as he leaves.
The sacraments of Baptism and of the Lord's Supper are
administered by the missionary, or ordained native minister,
as often as convenient. It is hardly practicable to dispense
these ordinances montlily, but I endeavoured, as far as pos-
sible, to do so once a quarter in several principal congrega-
tions in different parts of my district ; so that all our people
might witness and be instructed by these solemn and delight-
ful ordinances, and that aged and infirm members might be
accommodated.
The instruction, superintendence, and guidance of the
native preachers and teachers is, however, of at least equal,
if not superior, importance to the duties of visiting and
preaching to the congregations. It is upon these brethren
that responsibility must eventually rest ; and we deem it,
therefore, better by far to train and accustom them to fulfil
the work of the ministry and pastorate than that we our-
selves should officiate merely as pastors of Christian congre-
gations. In the present stage of our mission we occupy, in
fact, the position of superintendents or bishops — using the
word somewhat in the sense in which the term is applied in
England — having our local diocese, our numerous clergy, and,
for the present, necessarily, extensive powers and authority as
the result of our peculiar position in reference to the Euro-
328 "the land of charity."
pean churches whose messengers we are, and to the native
churches who look up to us as their fathers and founders.
The native agents of each district visit the mission-house
on " report day " — generally Thursday — for the transaction
of mission business of every kind, for theological and scrip-
tural or occasional literary instruction, and to report their
efforts — successes — difficulties in their various spheres of
labour.
The Catechists, Native Teachers, or Eeaders, as they
are variously denominated, conduct divine service and
preach in the respective congregations to which they are
appointed, visit the sick and inattentive, instruct the Chris-
tians from house to house, receive their contributions, cele-
brate marriages, preach to and converse with the heathen and
distribute tracts, superintend repairs of chapels, and attend
to the miscellaneous duties of a religious and benevolent
character which constantly devolve upon them. They are
practically village pastors ; and, on the whole, we owe much
to the labours of these devoted men ; the work of the mission
could not be carried on without them, and they are yearly
increasing in efficiency and capacity, as the result of the care-
ful and continuous special training bestowed upon them, as
well as of the general progress of the Christian community.
It has often been remarked how God has again and again
raised up extraordinary men for the service of the London
Missionary Society (as well as other kindred institutions),
such as Vanderkemp, Moffat, and Livingstone in Africa,
"Williams in the South Seas, Morrison and Medhurst in
China, Ellis in Madagascar, Knill and Tidman at home, and
many others who have been singularly gifted for the spheres
which they have been called to occujiy. In like manner wo
have reason to acknowledge His gracious providence in the
lives and labours of many remarkable native preachers raised
up at various periods for His service in Travancore. The
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 329
personal history of many of these good men strikingly ex-
hibits the influence and operation of divine grace.
One of the most devoted, godly, and consistent ministers
of the Gospel I have ever had the privilege of knowing is
Eev. N. Devadasen, pastor of the large church at Nagercoil.*
His "vvas a remarkable conversion, and it excited much
interest at the time. A brief sketch of his life, given by
himself, has several times been published, but the following
extracts will be read with interest : —
" I was born," he whites, " in a village in Tinnevelly, in
1815, and learned Tamil in a heathen school. At the age of
seventeen, having resolved to go on pilgrimage to Benares, I
stole four cloths belonging to a friend, and proceeded as far
as Seringham. Tiring of the journey, however, I returned
home, and concealed by various stratagems my having stolen
the cloths. One day, having gone to see a mission school,
my attention was arrested by the novel sight of maps hung
on the wall, and children engaged in reading printed books-
That was the first time I had seen or heard of Christians or
their books. I conversed with the schoolmaster, who w^as
my nephew, about the salary, and thought I should like
some employment of this kind.
" Some time after I came to my fatlier in Travancore, where
I managed to obtain the situation of accountant in a pagoda-
While here, I Avas led into much evil, and caused vexation
and annoyance to many.
" Being somehow desirous of obtaining employment as a
secular teacher in the mission, I applied to Eev. Mr. Miller,
who kindly took me into a Preparandi class for instruction.
I found it difticult to commit the appointed lessons to
memory, and was on one occasion seriously reproved by
Mr. Miller, who said that my mind w^as as hard as a piece of
stone.
Long supported, under the name of T. M. 'White, by friends at Morden Hull.
330 "the land of charity."
" After four years' training as a schoolmaster I was married
to my present wife, then five years of age, and shortly after-
wards employed by Mr. Mault to teach a village school.
(At that time heathen schoolmasters of good character were
occasionally employed, in default of a sufficient number of
Christian teachers.) During the five years in which I held
this situation I regularly worshipped the idols, performed
daily ceremonies, such as reciting a Mantra in praise of
Vishnu 500 times, and another in honour of Siva 250 times.
To show uncommon zeal I smeared my body with the sacred
ashes from head to waist, while others made merely a few
mai'ks on the forehead and breast, and wore rosaries of
sacred beads around my neck and Avaist. Yet, in spite of the
rigid performance of all these ceremonies, anger, revenge,
fraud, lasciviousness, covetousuess, and other vices had full
sway over my sinful and corrupt heart.
" On one occasion, taking offence at the conduct of a
Government messenger and his companions, who, contrary to
usage, heedlessly stepped into the rest-house where I (a Brah-
man) was taking my meal, I instantly rose from food and
went to the magistrate, addressing frequent petitions to
Government until the poor man was turned out of his
employment ; and I was also imprisoned fifty days for my
harsh and obstinate litigation.
" Soon after my release Mr. Mault again took me into my
former situation, but I engaged in it with other and more
tender feelings. I read in private the Christian Scriptures,
and my attachment to idolatry began to decrease. My new
views were strengthened by the remarks of an intelligent
Brahman to the effect that the Puranas and the Ramayanam
were but mythical legends. Daily I perused the Bible,
praying to God in the words of the 119th Psalm, till at
length I was resolved, by the grace of God, to embrace the
Christian religion."
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 331
Fearing the consequences of making an open profession of
Christianity amongst his own people, Devadasen at first
suggested that he should he sent to some other mission
station, where he should be out of reach of their persecution.
At last, however, he made up his mind, being iinable to feel
peace till he avowed his determination at all hazards to
declare himself a Christian convert. Previously to his leaving
his village he called his scholars and friends together in the
schoolroom, and told them he intended to become a Chris-
tian ; and to show them that he was in earnest he broke off
the sacred string, the mark of his caste, and threw it from
him, after which he knelt down and prayed with them. His
friends attempted, both by persuasion and force, to hinder his
profession of Christianity, but in vain. He partook of food
with Mr. Mault, thus breaking caste, and shortly afterwards
received Christian baptism. " Still, said he, " the conflict is
not yet over. Oh, it has been hard work ! Satan has tried
hard to get me back. He has brouglit up all my old sins,
and made them look so dreadful, and many that I had for-
gotten he has brought up against me, but I have peace now."
His conversion made a great stir in the neighbourhood.
Some of the heathens said that he was mad, some that the
decision he manifested was the result of deep reflection, and
others that it was the work of God, and was wonderful.
As the Brahman wife to whom he had been betrothed
when a heathen (she being then about five years of age) was
not allowed by her relatives to accompany him after his con-
version, though he waited a long time for her, he married a
pious Christian woman of the Pariah caste, who lived
happily with him for ten years till she died. Some time
after her decease, the first wife sent him word that she was
Avilling to become a Christian ; he accepted her, was duly
married to her in Christian form, and she is now an afi'ec-
tionate and pious partner in his faith and labours.
332
THE LAND OF CHARITY.
The congregation of Nagercoil, over which he presides,
now numhers 739 adherents, of whom 152 are communicants.
It is entirely self-supporting, having its native deacons and
church organization complete, with Bible classes, weekly
prayer meetings, mothers' meetings, and local benevolent
associations. A Bible woman is also supported by its fimds.
The contributions in 18G9 amounted to 885 rupees.
EKV. C. TBSTJDIiN.
Eev. C. Ycsudian is a man of quite a different mould,
culture, and temperament from Devadasen. Born in the
(Christian community he has, by incessant study and the
cultivation of his talents, become possessed of high literary
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 333
attainments in English, and more especially in Tamil classical
literature; on which subject I have heard him lecture to the
admiration and delight of manj'' learned and influential
native gentlemen and students at the capital. He is also a
man of independent and original mind, — a rare thing amongst
Hindus. Another of our ordained native ministers is an
eloquent and powerful preacher. Others have long fulfilled
the practical duties of the ministry, and proved themselves
efficient and successful evangelists and pastors, " workmen
that need not to be ashamed," since God has been pleased to
place the seal of His approbation on their earnest and prayer-
ful efforts for the conversion of souls. In their case, fruits
unite with gifts and graces in testifying their divine call to
the ministry.
Two of the younger ministers in whose training it has
been my privilege to take some part, I have found it neces-
sary often to restrain from overworjv, advising them to take
reasonable care of their own health while zealously and ear-
nestly engaged in the service of their Lord and Master.
Our native teachers or catechists are many of them, we
confess, greatly defective in education and rhetorical power,
but we seek to appoint to this office godly, earnest, intelli-
gent men, who have at least capacity to deliver plain and
suitable Scripture expositions and exhortations ; and not-
withstanding the comparative deficiencies of some in ability,
and even in application, their co-operation is indispensable ;
we must work with the best tools we can secure, while we
strive incessantly to improve these, and to prepare or procure
better ones. The worst of these men are certainly feeble, and
of little value ; the best of them are noble, devoted, efficient
Christian workers.
A fair and steadily increasing proportion of our native
teachers have received careful and lengthened training and
preparation for their duties in the boarding schools at the
334 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
head stations, or in tlie l^fagercoil Seminary. Their wives,
also, have in most cases enjoyed similar advantages in the
girls' boarding schools under the care of the missionary ladies.
Some of our native preachers were once noted as religious
devotees and ascetics, or devil-dancers and professed magi-
cians. One instance must suffice.
" Meshach was a man of the Chetty caste, and originally
an officiating priest in a heathen pagoda. He was very
zealous in his devotions, fasted twice a week, ate, not with
his hands, hut by picking his food from the temple floor with
his mouth, and showed himself in real earnest with his
religion. While thus engaged that loathsome disease leprosy
seized upon him. In his distress he called upon the goddess
whom he served for relief; but none came, although he
redoubled his sacrifices and services. As the heathen believe
that bodily health must result from the worship of the gods,
and as in his case such health did not appear, he ceased to
perform his customary sacrifices, and turned his attention to
Christianity, of which he had some previous knowledge.
He soon made a public profession of his new faith, and grew
still more zealous in it than in the old. He was admitted
to the church, and employed as catechist and schoolmaster
by Mr. Abbs. His disease, however, gradually undermined
his constitution, and by depriving him of his toes and fingers
prevented him from doing anything. Even then, however,
he would creep to the road-side and preach the Gospel to the
passers by. This he did even to the last. He was accom-
panied in this Avork by a blind man who had been brought
to Christ by his means. The blind man and the leper sat
by the wayside, and exhorted all men to believe in Christ.
And when one of them was removed by death, the other was
inconsolable for his loss, and soon followed. On his death-
bed Meshach was asked if he were afraid to die. He rej)lied,
*^o, I have been always ready to obey the voice of Jesus in
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 335
everything.' "When he was spoken to of his bodily health
he said that he was better off than Lazarus, who had no
home, no food, and no bodily comforts. Three days before
his death he invited fifteen of his Christian friends to a
feast, and to pray for him, as the last token of love they
could show each other in this world. In calm reliance on
his Saviour he breathed his last, March 1st, 1866."*
I knew this good man well, and shall never forget his
affectionate disposition, purity of character, prayerfulness,
and zeal. Many other most interesting cases of a similar
character might be related did space permit. Several of
those who were once devil-dancers and devotees have be-
come most prayerful, humble, and diligent teachers of the
way of life to their fellow-countrymen.
In PREACHING TO THE HEATHEN the missionaries and native
teachers come in contact with every variety of intellectual
capacity and culture, of general disposition and moral cha-
racter, and of religious opinion and experience. We have
there, side by side, a few men of the highest literary and
scientific attainments and practised talents, with others well-
nigh savages, sunk in the grossest stupidity and ignorance,
— unable to tell their own age or to reckon above a dozen, —
hardly capable of conversing rationally and connectedly in
their own language upon topics in the slightest degree above
their every-day animal life.
We have, side by side, the moral and well-meaning heathen
(too few, alas ! in proportion to the great mass of the people)
and the drunkard, the profligate, the man of lust and crime.
There is the IMohammedan to whom we can appeal as a wit-
ness to the existence and unity of God, but who turi;is away
in contempt and abhorrence from the precious name of Jesus ;
and the devil-worshipper, who altogether ignores the existence
and authority of the Creator. We meet with some hardened
* Eev. G. 0. Newport's Eeport for 18C6.
336 "the land of charity."
against all religious impressions, — fools who make a mock at
sin; others doubting, hesitating, trembling, half convinced,
or anxiously solicitous to find the way of salvation. We
have to deal with young and old, male and female, rich and
poor, learned and ignorant, with their various histories,
emotions, hopes, modes of life, — devotees of manifold systems
of superstition and error. Well may we exclaim, " Who is
sufficient for these things 1 " Who is able to lead all these
to truth and righteousness, and to God 1
We shall attempt to classify some of these cases.
1. Take the following illustration of extreme stupiditTj, exist-
ing even after enjoying some measure of Christian instruction.
" Among those who presented themselves as candidates
for baptism was an old man of about sixty-five. He first
placed himself under Christian instruction in the time of
Mr. Eingeltaube, some fifty years ago, but afterwards disso-
ciated himself from the Christian community for years
together, without, however, relapsing into idolatry. For
many years past he has again been a regular attendant ; but
he is one of those who are ever learning without coming to
the knowledge of the truth. Among the questions put to
him was, what he thought of himself as a sinner before God;
to which he replied, ' I am a great sinner. I have committed
every sin. I have even heaten cows.'' Perceiving that his
views of sin were still those wliich he held when a heathen,
and not those entertained by Christians, I had no hesitation
in refusing to baptize him." *
To such persons we may speak of God, but the hearer
thinks of the sun or some local divinity ; of sin, and some
trivial or absurd breach of the ceremonial law recurs to his
memory ; of the soul, and he thinks of mere animal life ; of
heaven and hell, and ideas altogether foreign to those intended
by us are suggested to the mind of the hearer. We must
* llev. E. Lewis's lleport for 1859.
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 337
therefore be continually on our guard to make sure that our
meaning is rightly and fully apprehended.
2. It is only after lengthened experience that the Euro-
pean evangelist is prepared to calculate the probable shape
which the multiform errors and misconceptions of the unin-
structed heathen mind will assume. On one occasion I was
preaching to a crowd in the cantonment of Trevandrum,
when several Sepoys, just dismissed from drill, came up and
stood to listen. One of them, a clever and talkative man,
thus objected : — " Sir, you need not speak to us about be-
coming Christians ; we cannot think of such a thing, for
we should then be obliged to eat beef, and such a practice
is most revolting to us." I reminded him that there is no
great difference between our custom of eating the flesh of
the cow, and theirs of using the milk and butter, which
may in some sense be called the essence of the beef ; and I
endeavoured to show the spiritual nature of Christianity,
which neither requires nor prohibits the use of such articles
of food, and consists " not in meat or drink, but in righ-
teousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost."
" To-day," said a Brahman on one occasion, " I have seen
that Christianity is declining and losing its strength. Up to
this time you were giving us large books ; now you have
begun to bring books of a single leaf."
" Wliat is the use of becoming Christians 1 " said a heathen
to a native teacher, " you also die as we do."
" Where there are so many religions," said another, " how
can we know that Christianity is the true one 1 "
3. All kinds of specious excuses and arguments, sometimes
rather ingenious, for refusing to embrace Christianity, are
brought forward. The example and authority of the Maha-
rajah are appealed to. " Are we wiser than his Highness 1
Convert him, and we shall all become Christians." The
terrible consequences of loss of caste and of the means of live-
z
338 "the land of charity."
lihood are pleaded. *' Each shall be saved by his own religion,"
says one. " Christianity is too good a religion : it is impossible
to act up to its pure and strict requirements — to live vfithout
cheating and lying," exclaims another. " Idolatry is neces-
sary to remind the vulgar and uneducated of God and of
spiritual things," argues a shrewd, learned Brahman. The
inconsistencies and wickedness of nominal Christians, espe-
cially of some of our countrymen in India, are cast in our
teeth ; and then we are lieartily ashamed of those who act so
little in accordance with the precepts of the holy religion
they profess — who are indeed a reproach and " a curse
amongst the heathen." Others lay the blame of their un-
belief on fate. Daring and pantheistical objections are pro-
duced. " I am God," blasphemously declares a would-be
philosopher : " God is the author and efficient agent of all
things, and it is therefore He who causes me to sin or to
do good."
Now-a-days a few read Colenso's and other sceptical or
infidel works, and are thus becoming confirmed in their rejec-
tion of the truth by ingenious but trifling objections to the
Sacred Scriptures themselves.
4. On the other liand, the superstition of many is sincere
and intense, indeed, insuperable except by divine grace.
Tales of the agency of the demoi;s and the potency of
magical arts are urged with all tlie natural eloquence and
force which spring from honest and sincere belief in them.
Pretended miracles are appealed to. " Six months ago," said
a worshipper of Muttukutti or Narayanan, " a pot of boiled
rice was presented to the god, which is still as warm and
fresh as ever, and will continue so for some time to come;
after which it will ferment. And there are many other
miracles pcirformed in the temple."
At a village near Nagercoil a great image of the god Suran,
about twelve feet high, is made yearly of straw and wood
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 339
covered with blue cloth. A ball of mud, filled with water,
mixed with red colouring matter, in imitation of blood, is
inserted in the breast of the image. In the midst of the
festival the priest plunges an arrow into the figure, when the
hidden fluid gushes out in streams ; and this is hailed with
acclamations as a wonderful miracle.
Yet some of the priests and religious mendicants, on being
remonstrated with on their criminal decejition of the igno-
rant people, confessed that they only do these things *' to fill
the stomach." " By these means we are supported. You
cannot paint," say they, " without a surface to paint upon —
the body first ; then only can we attend to the concerns of
the soul."
6. Others, though more rarely, resort to misrepresentation,
mockery, and coarse abuse. In one place, where many of the
slaves had come to the determination to place themselves
under Christian instruction, the masters spread a report
among these poor people that two ships had arrived at
Trevandrum, in which these slaves would be sent to England
to be given as food to the tigers which the white men keep,
and the demons that dig out gold for them. Our schools are
sometimes emptied by foolish and lying reports of a somewhat
similar character.
" If you do really desire, as you say, the good of us poor
people," said some rude men to a native teacher, " why do
you not give us large bmrgalows, a carriage and horses, and a
white lady for wife 1 " On another occasion, — " You need
not be sorry for us ; soothe your sorrow by striking your
heads against the trees and perishing at their foot." "Do
not speak of God to me," said a police officer, in reply to
remarks on the duty of gratitude to God for His mercies. " I
cannot bear to hoar the word uttered ; it acts on me as if a
red-hot pin were thrust into my ears. The wealth and health
I have abeady obtained are the only heaven I desire." \
340 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
6, Pride and prefudice appear in the self-righteous Brah-
mans, who contemptuously repudiate the idea of being
sinners, and in the higher castes, who occasionally hurst into
explosions of wrath at the idea of being addressed on religious
subjects by preachers of lower caste than themselves. " How
dare a man of your caste," said a wealthy Sudra, " presume
to speak to me on the subject of religion 1 "
And while many of the higher classes oppose Christianity,
because it has freed the lower orders from their power, and is
taking away their opportunities for oppression and unjust
gain, some of the poorer classes also set themselves against the
progress of the truth amongst their own people, when they
perceive that the Gospel aims at no less than the destruction
and complete abolition of their licentiousness, theft, and
drunkenness, and their abominable devil-feasts.
7. The difficulties which really suggest themselves to the
mind of a thoughtful Hindu are, after all, not dissimilar to
those that have puzzled inquiring minds unenlightened by
divine revelation in every age. This will be evident from
the following list of questions, presented in writing to one of
our native missionaries, in the coui'se of a lengthened and
interesting discussion at Kottar.
Questions of a Hindu.
1. Is God spirit or matter ?
2. "What are the properties of spirit, and what of matter 1
3. If God be a spirit, how could He be capable of thouglit,
so as to create ?
4. If He has a form, what form is that 1
5. Is God possessed of omnipresence, omnipotence, and
omniscience ?
6. Did God form His creatures when in possession of these
erfections ?
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 341
7. How do you account for creatures being capable of moral
good and evil 1
8. What is sin 1 and what is virtue 1
9. If sin is the transgression of a command, did God know
that man was capable of transgressing 1
10. Are all living beings created by Him 1
11. And what are their properties'?
12. Are living creatures possessed of the attributes of the
Creator 1
13. Had God a desire to create the living creatures, to
preserve, destroy, or save them 1
1 4. And what produced that desire 1
15. Who tempted the first man to sin?
16. And who created him that tempted?
17. Was God destitute of omniscience, so as not to know
the nature of man and of the devil that tempted him 1
18. Were there no thorns in the earth before the curse?
&c., &c.
Our native teachers and Christians generally exhibit
remarkable forbearance, good temper, and ingenuity in re-
ligious discussions with the heathen, overcoming violent
opposition or wrath by mildness, gentleness, and polite
address. Wit and humour, learning and poetry, are not
unfrequently brought in on both sides ; and I have listened
with delight and admiration to the touching appeals, the
quick replies, the ready wit, the apt poetical quotations and
apposite illustrations of our best controversialists. When, for
example, the list of questions above given was presented
to the Christian teacher, he required his disputatious opponent
to answer another question, viz.. What other better plan
might God have adopted in the creation of intelligent beings,
so as not to have given room for the commission of sin ?
When the next meeting took place, the man sent an apology
342 ** THE LAND OF CHARITY."
for non-attendance, with his reply in a couple of lines written
on a small piece of palmyra leaf, " It would he right if God
created man incapahle of sin." The heathen present were of
course disappointed with this reply of their champion, and
were thus prepared to listen to the exposition of these weighty
topics from the lips of the Christian preacher.
" A Christian weaver who frequented Kottar for the pur-
pose of selling his cloth, used to speak ahout Christianity to
the merchants who were dealing with him, and Avho, on this
account, made him an ohject of derision wherever they met
him. But the pious weaver generally siicceeded in silencing
them by calmly replying, ' What benefit can you derive
from falling down before a dumb idol which cannot answer
your petitions 1 what assistance can you receive from a poor
bird which steals away young chickens, and robs poor women
of the little fish they carry in their hands ? But if you be-
lieve on Jesus, the Son of the ever-living and almighty God,
you will obtain endless bliss.'
" Ashamed and vexed by such repeated defeats, they were
eagerly watching for an opportunity to expose him and his
religion to ridicule, when, upon a certain day, a Brahman,
reputed as a great scholar in the Shastras, and revered as a
Guru, came to the town. They then took the Christian
before him, and said. Here is a Vedakaran ; whereupon the
Shastri asked him if he was not of the Padre's (missionary's)
Veda (Bible or religion) ; and being answered in the affirma-
tive, turned to the man and said, with an air of contempt,
* Do you know, man, what is padre ? it is a tree ' (punning
on * padre,' a priest, and 'pathiri,' the name of a large tree) ;
• and so is his religion.' ' You are quite right, sir,' replied
the Christian. * Our Padre is indeed a tree ; he is a banyan
tree, — a tree with wide-spreading branches, whose fruit feeds
many, many living creatures, and under whose boughs many
a weary traveller of my description finds a cooling shade,'
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 343
Struck with astonishment at this unexpected answer, the
Shastii requested him to read the little tract in his hand
entitled 'The Way of Salvation.' On his cheerfully com-
plying with his demand, the Shastri dismissed the man,
politely remarking, ' That also is one way.' " *
Besides the direct and obvious fruits of the preaching of
the Gospel and other evangelical instrumentalities in the con-
version of individuals, the formation of Christian congrega-
tions and churches, and the introduction of Christian life into
the community, there are great and important indirect results
of evangelical effort, of European education, and of the general
enliglitenment which is being gradually diffused throughout
tlie country, — all, we hope, unitedly contributing to prepare
the way for the ultimate universal reception of the Gospel.
Heathenism itself is not what it was ten, twenty, or thirty
years ago. It is daily losing ground. Its vigour is dimi-
nished, its darkness less dense, its external character less
abhorrent. The influence of the Brahmans and devil-dancers,
anf] of their superstitions, is most decidedly and manifestly
on the wane. Many fundamental truths of religion and
morals are now well known and freely acknowledged by
heathens, and even supposed to be component parts of their
own systems ; but they were evidently first made known or
revived in their minds solely by the efforts of missionaries
and the diffusion of European Christian learning.
We meet, too, with little active opposition to Christianity,
and observe a marked change in the Brahmans and others,
who now receive and peruse our tracts with pleasure, instead
of exhibiting disgust and hatred as formerly. Many copies
of portions of Scripture are purchased from the colporteurs
employed under the auspices of the Bible Society. Some
who were once determined enemies to Christianity now seem
rather well disposed towards us.
* Jiev. C. Yosudiau'e Keport lor 18G5.
344 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
Many of the people have become acquainted with the
character and claims of Christianity, and readily acknowledge
its surpassing excellence, and the blessings it confers on man-
kind. The conviction that Christianity is true, and that it
shall and m.ust j^revail, apj^ears to he gaining ground amongst
nearly all classes. As our divine religion becomes more
widely known, it is, though not practically received by all,
yet regarded with increasing respect, as exhibiting a high
standard of morality, setting forth in the best possible
manner the duties of man to man, and authoritatively incul-
cating doctrines, some of which are regarded as incontestably
true and su^Dremely important.
Numerous instances might be adduced in which religious
impressions are made on the minds of high caste and edu-
cated Hindus. But the good seed is choked by worldly
cares or riches, or by fear of the sharp trials, persecutions,
and worldly losses to which persons of respectable position
would inevitably be exposed by openly embracing Christi-
anity. " It is all true," they admit, " there is but one God,
the idols are but works of men ; but what can a single person
do, while all his relatives and friends are still addicted to
heathenism 1 " Still, a few are known to be, in secret,
prayerful readers of the word of life, and avowed believers
in the Lord Jesus Christ. Several conduct family prayers
in their own houses, when they read a chapter out of the
Bible, and pray to the Christians' God, Some invite the
mission agents to visit their houses and pray with them ;
while others, not quite so bold, will visit the catechist at
his own house, and there unite witli him in jjrayer. Some
have even ventured to compose verses on the folly of
idolatry and in praise of Jesus, a translation of a few of
which, written last year, is given by Eev. C. Yesudian.
The following was composed by a learned Sudra in the
neighbourhood of Tittuvilei, who kindly permitted Mr. Ye-
MISSIOXART OPERATIOXS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 345
sudian to carry on religious discussion in the court of his
house : —
"'Tis a fun that people should buy
Lumps of stone and brass for money,
Should name them Siva and Sakthi,
Wash and perfume them thoroughly,
Deck them with jewels and garments,
Offer them rice, cakes, and plantains,
Eing bells and burn lamps before them,
Though they are lifeless, blind, and dumb."
By the same author, on another occasion : —
" We say our gods must in water be washed ;
If so, how can our sin by them be cleansed?
Or how can they make our souls meet for heaven ?
Let not your minds, by folly, be driven
To self-conceit, but bow before the Truth;
Let Jesus wash our souls from sin and filth."
AVe add one stanza more, which is the production of
another Sudra : —
"Jesus is the Ladder to ascend heaven.
To cross the sea of sin the Life-boat given,
The best Inheritance that kings can hold, —
Gracious Jesus is the finest Gold."
I have no doubt that were it not for timidity and fear,
and the opposition of relatives, several hundreds of the higher
classes in Travancore are ready sincerely to embrace Christi-
anity, of the truth of which they are already in heart con-
vinced.
^fuch more, however, certainly requires to be done to
bring the Gospel into contact with the minds of the higher
castes ; and especially of the new and rapidly increasing class
of natives well educated in English, intelligent and inquiring
in an intellectual point of view, and exemplary in general
conduct. These appear, as a rule, to have lost confidence in
346 "the land of CnARITY."
the national superstitions, to be ashamed of idolatry, which
some even venture openly to repudiate, and to recognise the
truths of natural religion and the obligation of morality,
though compelled by the force of circumstances outwardly
to conform to Hinduism. The work of placing the claims
of the Gospel before these minds would of itself fully occupy
the time, and ultimately reward the efforts, of the most learned
and laborious missionary.
The minds of many of the educated native youth are in
a kind of transition state. Tliey are unable to produce
satisfactory objections to Christianity, yet unwilling to be
persuaded of its truth. Conscious of the errors and absurdi-
ties of Hinduism, they are yet anxious to avoid trouble
and annoyance by conforming, or appearing to conform,
externally to its requirements. In this dilemma they are
anxious to put the question aside, as one on which it is
difficult to come to a decision. They say in effect, " Our
religion is good enough for us, and we shall be no worse off
than others if we but follow it sincerely. And the Christian
religion is very good for those who profess it. Let us avoid
discussion on tliis perplexing subject, for we shall never come
to a satisfactory conclusion. In fulfilling social duties — act-
ing honestly, uprightly, kindly — we are doing our best, and
cannot be far wrong."
Apologies are sometimes made for Hinduism, which they
seek to refine of its grossness, and to represent as similar in
its real essence and spiritual purport to the Christian reli-
gion. May the educated natives of India soon be enlight-
ened by the Spirit of God to distinguish between the forms
of religion and its vital power — between false religions
which deceive and destroy the soul, and that which alone is
true, inspired, and divine !
The indirect and unacknowledged influence of Christian
European learning on the higher ranks of Hindu society, in
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 347
correcting the views of moral obligation, in expanding the
intellect, in dissipating the grosser prejudices, and in preparing
the way, we trust, for the triumph of divine truth, is patent
to all who are acquainted with the present circumstances of
Travancore. Take a very striking instance of this in his
Highness the First Prince, brother of the Maharajah, and heir
apparent to the throne.* The Prince speaks and writes
English remarkably well, has published essays on "Benefi-
cence," &c., in his native language (Malayalim), and is an ex-
cellent Sanskrit scholar. In December, 1865, he delivered
at Trevandrum a lecture, in English, on " Human Greatness,"
at which the British Eesident, the Bishop of Madras, the
Dewan, and a large assembly of Eiiropeans and educated
natives were present. We were much gratified on this
occasion by the correctness of the views enunciated, and the
liberality of sentiment in referring to Wilberforce, Howard,
Mrs. Fry, and Livingstone as examples of truly great persons.
Indeed, the lecture was almost such as a Christian might
deliver.
On another occasion, in a speech delivered at the examina-
tion of the High School at Trevandrum, in the presence of
the late lamented Bishop Cotton, the Prince gave utterance
to the following remarks : —
*' Every object in this wonderful creation of God, whether
within you or around you, is calculated to afford you that
knowledge which teaches humility to man, and which also
bids him to love and revere his beneficent Creator. That
which I would urge on you more emphatically than anything
else is the necessity of moral culture. A refined intellect
without refined moral faculties cannot but be viewed with
the greatest abhorrence and disgust. The deplorable fact
that in India the uneducated portion of the people is noto-
rious for mendacity and general depravity cannot be denied.
* See portrait in engraving opposite p. 68.
348 " THE LAND OF CHARITY."
It is not scholastic tuition alone that can remove this evil.
You should view the task of your moral improvement as a
most sacred one ; you should sincerely feel and desire to
grow in the fear of God, the love of truth, of justice, and of
universal charity."
The propriety and excellence of the sentiments here ex-
pressed we claim as the result of Christian and European
influences, which are arousing and educating the conscience,
and spreading right views of morals amongst the leaders of
advanced native opinion in India.
I have heard, too, the Dewan of Travancore, Sir Madava
Ptow, a singularly able and liberal-minded Brahman, lecture
in English, amongst other subjects, on "Astronomy." In
the course of his address he stated that he had himself gone
over and verified many of the calculations connected with
the European system of astronomy, and could therefore
assure his audience of their accuracy, and the consequent
folly and futility of the common Hindu belief in astrology
with its related superstitions, which he showed to be con-
trary to all the investigations and conclusions of true science,
and which he urged them wholly to abandon.
What a remarkable scene was that ! — a man of high rank
and birth — one of the ablest native statesmen in South
India — actually exhorting his countrymen to renounce their
belief in one of the most popular, j)otent, and wide-spread
superstitions of India. And what a contrast does this
present with the former state of things in Travancore, when
Christianity was persecuted, justice administered according
to the i)r('judices and passions of the dominant class, and
everj'^ possible obstruction brought to bear against the pro-
gress of enlightenment and Christianity !
The oiitward and visible changes which are taking place
in this Slate through the introihiction and operation of
Christian agencies and im2:)uLscs are patent to all, and are
MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, AND THEIR INDIRECT RESULTS. 349
the subject of wonder and admiration even to the heathen.
The beneficial effects of Christianity, as exemplified in the
case of our Christian people, are a most lucid and compre-
hensible argument in its fovour. This may be illustrated by
an anecdote related by Mr. Yesudian. A Sudra in his
district called out to a Brahman one day, " Sir, have you at
all directed your attention to a wonder of the present ageV
" A wonder ? " the Brahman replied ; " what is it ? " To which
the Sudra responded, " Don't you know, sir, first that the
lightning struck the temple of Palpanabhan within the royal
fort, and broke the sacred lamp 1 Then the holy car tum-
bled at Palpanabhapuram, and killed the Brahman lad.
Thirdly, the lightning again descended on the revered temple
at Tirupathisaram, and tore off the right ear of the god
Vishnu. What should I say more 1 Listen : the Brahman
is become a dealer in oil and fish, while the Shanar, or
Pariah, goes about as a Brahman or teacher of the country.
The Brahman woman spends her day in cooking, eating, and
sleeping ; while the Sh[inar or Pariah women are found in
the streets Avith their Veda in their hands, pretending to
teach their neighbours. Is not this a wonder 1 Indeed the
world is turning upside down ! "
350
CHAPTER XXIV.
DIRECT RESULTS OP MISSIONARY LABOURS IN TRAVANCORE.
Direct Eesults of Missionary Labour — Character of Native Christians —
History of Remarkable Conversions — Testimonies of Native and Euro-
pean Authorities — Liberality of Converts — Self-Support of Native
Churches — Need of Further Effort — Future Prospects of Christianity
in Travancore.
In Soutli Travancore, mission chapels, prayer-houses, and
village schools are now scattered over the whole country.
The sound of the church-going hell at the various villages at
the hours of public worshij) will he heard ; and our Christian
converts, distinguished generally by their clean cloths on
Sunday, and the decent jackets of the females, may be seen
hastening to their places of worship. A large measure of
external prosperity, at least, is at once perceived by every
visitor,.to have attended the efforts of the Missionary Society.
Let us endeavour to estimate the exact intrinsic value of
these fruits of earnest toil.
Not all those whom we have hitherto spoken of in general
terms as " native Christians " can be regarded as in the
highest sense " Christian believers," nor have all been bap-
tized. Of the 32,746 native " professing Christians " or
^^ adherents," but 9,910 are baptized, and only 2,5G8 are
church members or communicants. The unbaptized adher-
ents, or professing Christians, are members of the congrega-
tions — regular and willing heareis and learners of God's
word, and attendants on our ministry; in fact, catechumens.
DIRECT RESULTS OF MISSIONARY LABOURS IN TRAVANCORE. 351
They have given up their heathenism and immorality, and
are under regular Christian instruction and discipline. They
contribute towards the maintenance of the means of grace,
and their names and attendance at public worship are care-
fully registered from week to week ; tliey submit in every
respect to the strict rules of the mission, and are called at
times to endure persecution and trials for the name of
Christ.
Although a much smaller proportion of our people are
baptized and admitted into communion with the church than
is usual in the adjoining missions of iSTorth Travancore and
Tinnevelly, this is not, I apprehend, because our people are
inferior in knowledge or sincerity to those alluded to, but
because we administer baptism not to mere professors or
learners of Christianity, but only to those who show by their
lives and conduct, as far as Ave can judge of them during a
lengthened probation, that they are actuated by love to
Christ, and are living not merely in the practice of external
morality and obedience to the requirements of Christianity,
but in faith and holiness as true children of God. Were we
prepared to administer baptism to the same class of persons
as are admitted to this rite in other missions, the mass of
our people would receive this holy ordinance with respect
and joy. Most of the brethren prefer, however, by the
present system to maintain the purity and high standard
already set up for the churches committed to our care.
As might be expected, some of our hearers actually do,
even after a period of Christian instruction, apostatize or
backslide, or are led astray by evil influences. Choked by
the thorns of worldliness, or scorched by the sun of tempta-
tion, plants which had promised well fade away and perish.
Those who fall into immorality or sin, even though they
continue to attend public worship, at once cease to be recog-
nised as professing Christians, and their names are expunged
352 "the land of charity."
from our congregational lists. They are no longer reckoned
in the statistics of the mission. We are glad to see them
present at divine service, and in company with the Lord's
people, where they are still in the way of receiving good,
hut we do not consider them, as even in the very lowest
sense. Christians until they have given up all known sin, and
act in accordance with the laws of Christian morality and
rectitude.
There are amongst the native professing Christians in
India, as in every land and age, some who, though outwardly
well conducted and attentive, and sincerely convinced of the
truth and excellence of Christianity, are hut hearers of the
word, not doers of the same ; who have the form of godliness,
but manifest little or none of its power ; who know the truth,
hut do it not ; grudging in gifts, wavering in zeal, unreliable
in temptation, negligent of spiritual duties, litigious, apathetic,
worldly. Our constant prayer and effort for such is that they
may be led to Christ, renewed in heart, and saved by divine
grace. We instruct them in the great and vital doctrines of
repentance toward God, and faith in. our Lord Jesus Christ,
as well as in the necessity of holiness in heart and life ; and
we trust that some are being, and many shall hereafter be,
turned truly from darkness to light, and from the power of
Satan unto God. We use the appointed means, planting and
watering the seed, and look to the Holy Spirit to send the
increase.
Very diverse accounts are given by different writers of the
cliaracter of the native Christian converts in India. The
fact is, there are two sides to this, as to most other subjects.
A very dark picture might be drawn of the worst of those
who call themselves Christians. Trutlifully depict the ex-
cellences of the best of the Hindu Christians, and a lovely
and attractive picture will be presented.
Of course those who have more recently come under in-
DIRECT RESULTS OF MISSIONARY LADOCRS IX TRAVANCORE. oOo
struction, as is the case of many in Travancore, are for some
time very defective in their acquaintance with Christian
doctrines and privileges. They are "but hahes in Christi
anity, and too much should not be expected from them.
There are many, again, of whose spiritual condition we can
speak with little certainty. It is often difficult to decide
(nor, indeed, do we attempt the task) how far the heart is
really under divine and saving influences. Uneducated
persons, unaccustomed to mental introspection, may be
unable to state their spiritual experience in distinct and
intelligent terms ; yet they may love the Lord, and it is
not our part to reject their credible profession of faith in
Christ. Some are weak and fall into various temptations,
yet we would hope they have, on the whole, a little spiritual
strength. They are not unlike the members of the primi-
tive churches founded by the apostles, — often possessing
great excellences, yet requiring to be warned against falling
into grievous sins. We would hope the best of these classes.
We would not quench the smoking flax, nor break the
bruised reed. We woidd conij^are them, not with what
mature Christians ought to be and might be, but with
what they Avere but lately, — devil-worshippers and slaves to
the most degrading vices ; and remembering the polluted
moral atmosphere in which they live, and the hindrances to
their spiritual life and growth, we would gladly acknowledge
the progress Avhich they are making in knowledge, purity,
and strength ; and trust that the good seed may be grow-
ing in their hearts, silently and slowly, but with irrepressiljle
vigour and life.
On the other hand, many of our people, indeed the great
body of our church nirmhers, are persons of Avhose Christian
experience and life and genuine conversion we can bear our
testimony with confidence, and whom we regard as true
believers — ^childreu of God and inheritors of eternal life, —
354 "the land of charity."
iuid as our " cruwn and rejoicing in the day of the Lord."
[nforniation respecting some of the modes and variety of
circumstances in which the providence and grace and Spirit
of God unite in leading these to the knowledge of the truth
will interest our readers,
1. Many o£ the ijouiuj have, while attending our mlsslun
f^rJioolg, been trained in the knowledge of Christian truth, and
led to give their hearts to the Lord.
" Supeian, a little hoy of the Kattuputhur school, on being
asked by his father to accompany him to the rice-lields to
perform the annual ceremony of sowing on the day lixed
upon by the Sirkar, desired to know what he himself woidd
have to do in the matter. The fatlier replied that he would
understand it on reaching the spot. He next bade him to
wear the sacred ashes. The boy refused to do so. The
father then forced it on his forehead with his own hand.
Instantly the boy wiped olf the ashes, telling him that he
did not like his forehead to be thus soiled. So they came
to the field. The father, amongst other ceremonies, set up a
ball of cow-dung in representation of the god Gauesa, and
seriously asked the boy to bow down before it to invoke a
blessing upon their future crop. ' Father,' cried the boy,
should I worship this cow-dung? How could we believe
that a ball of cow-dung can bless us with a plentiful crop 1 '
The father felt sorely vexed, and finding no proper reason to
punish his only boy, he stood greatly perplexed."
" In the school at Kannakuritchi there is a boy whose
father is a rich Alavan, and contributes one-third of the
rice and money I'cquii'ed for making oti'erings in the temple
adjoining the schoolroom. One day this lad, seeing the door
of the inner temple left open, entered within, took up a small
stone image of Pilleiyar which stood in front of tlie large
idol, ran away ■with it, and threw it into the tank. The
schoolmaster asked him if it was true that he had done so.
DiUECT KKSULTS OK Mi^^>l()XAi;V LAUOUliS IX Tl'.AVA.M Ui;E. O-J.)
He replied, ' Yes, sir, but I was only able to tlirow away
the little one. I cannot lift the larger one ; if I could I
Avould throw that away also.' ' Are j'ou not afraid to act
thus 1 ' ' Xo, for the idol has no life, it is nothing but
stone, why should I be afraid of a stone ? ' ' Will not the
peoj^le punish you 1' 'What can they do] ]\[y father
scolds me a little sometimes, but he will not beat me.'
' You say you are not afraid of the god ; of whom, then, are
you afraid ] ' 'I fear the Lord only.' "
Many similar instances are known, in which the children
Avho are instructed in the mission schools have conscien-
tiously declined to join in idolatrous ceremonies; and often
have they been the means of leading their parents to reject
idolatry, and unite themselves Avith the people of the Lord.
In some instances, where the parents are utterly ignorant and
illiterate, these dear children read a short portion of the
Scriptures every evening, and offer their simple prayers with
the parents at the family altar. INIany of the young have been
led to God in our schools, and some have died expressing their
love to the Saviour, who has said, " Suffer little children to
come unto ]Me, and forbid them not : for of such is the king-
dom of heaven." These are now, we are sure, in the number
of that great multitude of all nations, and kindreds, and
people, and tongues, who stand before the throne and before
the Lamb. Others have grown up and become godly, con-
sistent, prayerful church members, teachers, and preachers of
the Gospel to their fellow-countrymen. Some of our people
are the grandchildren of the early converts, and exhibit in
their life and character the influence of three generations of
Christian teaching and privileges.
2. We have had many instances of persons who first
commenced attendance on Christian worship from inferior
or even ivronf/ ^natives, but after instruction, eventually be-
came earnest and sincere believers. Somewhat like those
SnG "the land or charity."
"wlio " came to mock, but stayed to pray ; " they came be-
cause invited by the preacher, or induced by their friends
and relatives, or by the heads of tlie viUage, to do so ; or
even with some undefined hope of gain, in the form of help
under trials, protection from oppression, the friendship of the
missionaries, or jDarticipation in the improvement in knowledge
and outward circumstances which Christianity necessarily
produces. Such was the case when in former times whole
villages were brought over to Christianity, but we never
thought of at once baptizing these, or receiving them as true
converts.
One by one, as they seemed, through the blessing of the
Koly Spirit, to come under the converting power of the grace
of God, and to be sincerely actuated by Christian principles,
they have individually been received to the enjoyment of
(Jhristian communion and church privileges.
3. The gracious (lenUiifis of Pracidence with the souls of
men in leading them to turn their attention to spiritual sub-
jects, have often been most evident and notewortliy. Indi-
viduals have, by singular combinations of circumstances, been
led to listen to Christian instruction and exhortations. Sore
trials have been the effective means, in the hand of God, of
subduing the iirejudices and softening the hearts of heathens ;
and Ave have been comj)elled to feel that the wise and Avonder-
Avorking providence of God Avas on our side, and poAverfuUy
operative on behalf of His Gospel.
A respectable man Avas exhorted by a native teacher to
receive the Gospel. " Shall I," ansAvered he scornfully,
"learn your Vedam 1 No, never;" and he turned aAvay.
Three days afterAvards, Avhen on his Avay to consult an
astrologer, he passed a river, and accidentally falling in,
Avas droAvned. After this sad event his poor Avife's heart
Avas touched, and her conscience Avas aroused. She came
Avith her children to the Christian teacher, asked to be taken
DIRECT RESULTS OF MISSIONARY LABOURS IN TRAVANCORE. 35"
under instruction, and they became regular attendants at the
chapel.
Porutheiyudian, of Tiruvaram, was the patriarch of the
Trevandrum mission, and at the time uf his death, in 18C0,
Avas about 100 years old. Formerly he was a zealous devil-
dancer and devotee. On one occasion he was seized with
severe illness, and lay apparently at the point of death, lie
ordered additional offerings and sacrihces t(^ be presented to
the demons, but in vain : no relief to his suti'erings was
experienced. In this state he dreamed one night that a man
approached, informing him that he should not die at this
time, and advising him not to call upun uiarnj names, but
upon uue name alone, in which he should hud salvation.
This he regarded as a divine message. In the morning,
feeling wonderfully recovered, he rose up, related his strange
dream, and made inquiries as to what Avas meant by the
" one name." That very day jNfr. Mead visited the village.
Porutheiyudian sent for him, made many inquiries about the
way of salvation, and at once gave up his idolatry, and put
his trust in the one name of the Lord Jesus Christ. He
and his wife Avere baptized by Mr. Miller, and for nearly
twenty-five years they Avalked faithfully as followers of
Christ, and exercised a good influence on their ow^n con-
nections and neighbours. At the time of his death he
spoke in an animated and collected manner of going to the
presence of his Saviour. One of his sons is now elder of the
same congregation, and another an able evangelist in the dis-
trict of Quilon.
4. Others are led liy the (llsappointment of tin'! r hopes and
crpedatlons from the observance of their own superstitions
to inquire into and to accept the Christian religion.
"A noted devil-dancer was much sought after by the
heathen in those parts, and he received a good deal of money
for his advice and for performing ceremonies. The teacher
358 "the land of chatjity."
souglit to instruct liim in the way of salvation for a period
of five or six months, hut he would not agree to anything
that was said. One day, the catcchist, hearing that liis
daughter was very ill, paid him a visit. As he entered the
house he found the poor man wounded and Weeding, in the
art of performing some religious ceremony. The folly of
tliis was urged, but in A^ain. The next morning his daughter
died. Then he was made to feel the worthlessiiess of his
foolish rites. Hastening to the teacher, he begged him to
bury his daughter in the Christian manner, and confessed
his error in not having given heed to the advices which
had been given him. lie and all his followers became
Christians."
The history of a native doctor, whom I had the pleasure of
baptizing in 18GG, is jDeculiarly interesting. His heathen
name was Krishnan * (after a Hindu god), changed on his
baptism to Pararaananilam (heavenly bliss). He was then
seventy years of age. When a heathen he possessed two
temjiles of his own, in whicli he dailj' offered prayers and
performed various ceremonies. He was Avell skilled in native
medicine and heathen learning, sorcery, and charms. At first
when tlie teachers visited him, he paid no attention to their
words. But several years ago his wife was seized with a
dangerous illness ; he tried every means for her recovery ;
invoiced his gods, and made costly offerings to them. But
all was in vain, and his wile died. Thus lie came to feel
that his deities were unable to assist liim in time of need, and
lie lost all confidence in them. Prociiring a Bi])le be searched
it daily with care, and was at last convinced ; and accepted
the God of the Christians as the true God. He joined the
congregation, and tliough aged and infirm, is alwaj's most
punctual and regular in attendance at worship. He j)rays
much, and earnestly exhorts all to serve God. His sons are
* See pp. 106-7.
DIRECT RESULTS OF MISSIONARY LABOURS IX TRAVANCORE. 3.l9
clever men, and inveterate enemies of Christianit}'. Tliey
took possession for a long time of all his property, depriving
him even of his bed. He was reduced to such want that he
once declared, " Had all these troubles come upon me when
I was a heathen, I should haAC died through vexation and
distress of mind. Hut God's word and prayer," added he
" sustain my mind, and I look for happiness and spiritual
riches in heaven above." He speaks Avith much humility of
his own unworthiness, and of his trust in the Saviour. This
man's conversion Avas regarded by all the people as almost
miraculous.
5. The kindness and sLuJI of the medkal mlsslunanj and
his assistants have in many instances secured a favourable
hearing for divine 'truth, which has then made a lodgment in
the heart, and brouglit individuals and families to the know-
ledge of the way of salvation.
A most interesting case of this kind is related by Vtv
Lowe, as follows : —
"An outdoor patient, a man of much influence and
respectability, having many in his em[)loyment, was seized
with a severe attack of rheumatic fever, and at his request,
being too ill to be carried to the hospital, I visited him at
his own house. Though dangerously ill, and his case con-
sidered hopeless liy his native physicians and friends, the
Lord blessed the means used for his recovery, and at the
same time subdued his heart, and induced him, his wife, and
several of his friends, to lend a willing ear to the truths of
the Gospel.
" He was soon out of all danger, and with the exception of
a stiff knee joint, which has since yielded to treatment, he
made a slow but satisfactory recovery, and loud, and I believe
sincere, were the proofs and expressions of gratitude which
the patient and his friends sh(Dwered upon us ; but more
pleasing than all such expressions of gratitude was a message
360 " THE LAND OF CHAIUTV."
Ave received I'rom the patient, inviting nie, my assistant mis-
sionary, and dressers, to come to liis house on a certain day
to receive from him his devil ornaments, cloths, and clubs,
and to demolish a devil tera2Dle which he had lately built on
his property, as he had no longer any confidence in his idols,
and had resolved, along Avitli his wife and several of his
relatives, to join the Christian congregation in their village.
" We of course gladly accepted this invitation, and went
to our ])atient's house, where we met Avith a cordial reco})-
tion. Having gatliered a goodly congregation Avithin the
court, Ave held a short religious service, and then set to
Avork, — hearers, dressers, assistant missionary and myself;
and Avith pickaxes, hatchets, and spades, Avorked like naA'vies
till we liad the devil temple level Avith the ground. Many
l)(ior superstitious heathens stood around, trembling Avith
i'ear, and proi)hesying all kinds of evil; tlie patient's poor
Avife, too, Avas very nervous and fearful that some dreadful
calamity Avould befall them tiiat very night ; but her husband
Avas very bold, and from the cot on Avhich he lay Avatcliing
(lur Avork of demolition, he denounced tlic foolishness and
vanity of his former confidences, and expressed his deter-
mination before all, almost in the language of Josliua, that
henceforth ' as for me and ni}' liouse, Ave Avill serve the
Lord.' "
This man lias siuce coutinucil, Avith liis whole fuuily, very
stedfast, and has been a great hel]) to the catecliist ol' tlie
place in his Avork. He and his Avile, Avith his elder brother
and his Avife's father, afterwards applied for admission to the
cburcli. b'xeept Taraiurman hiiu liiiiisclf, they Avere sonie-
Avhat delicient in knoAvledge, but so sincere and earnest tliat
they Avere at once received, and will, there is every reason to
believe, prove a blessing to many around them.
G. Direct conversions in answer io prayer, and througli
the more immediate agency, Ave belie^'e, of the Holy Spirit,
DIRECT RESULTS OF MISSIONARY LABOURS IX TRAVAXCORE. 361
are not wanting in connection with our work. The facts of
one case are recorded by Eev. W. Lee as follows : —
" In the village of Santhayadi, a rich heathen Shanar was
a confirmed drunkard. On one occasion, when I went to
the village, as a little child of his was being educated in our
school, I called to see him. I found him locked up in one
of the rooms of his house with his feet in fetters to restrain
him from gratifying his frightful propensity for drink. I
induced his sons to knock off the fetters, and couie with
him to the sanctuary. His case was made a subject for
special prayer by the congregation, and he was induced to
make a solemn promise that lie would lienceforth a])stain
from drinking. More than a year has elapsed since then ;
sufticient to test the reality of his reformation, and he has
not even once yielded to temptation, and has continued
regularly to attend the services of tlie sanctuary."
Anotlier remarkaT)le instance of the power of prayer is
eloipiently narrated liy Kev. J. Duthie in the JareiilJe J//.v-
niouanj MiKjiaute for February and ]\larch, 1SG9, to which
Ave must refer our readers, and from wliich the illustration
on the next page is borrowed.
One of our native jjastors was out on a preaching tour,
accompanied by several ("hristian friends, when they came
unexpectedly to a new and handsome temple, perched on the
summit of a high rock, and just finished for the worship of
Pattirakrdi. Tlie building was unoccupied, and not yet
dedicated. In simple faitli the Christian believers knelt
down, and offered earnest and fervent ])rayers that this
temple might become a house of God. iVext morning they
met a most venerable-looking old man Avith Avhom they
entered into conversation, and sdou discovered that he Avas
the owner of the devil temple in Avhich they had offered
prayer. Confessing to the old man Avliat they had done,
they expressed their desires for his salvation, preached Jesus
3G2
THE LAND OF CHARITY.
to him, and boldly urged him to relimiuish his demon--\vor-
ship, and decide at once for God. The word came with
power to liis heart : " The words I have heard from you arc
Avonderful," said he ; " the story of Jesiis is indeed good ;
let lis dedicate this house whicli I have biiilt for Paffiyn'lcrill
to the TRUR AND LIVING GoD." At oncc they proceeded to
tlie temple, of which they took possession in the name of the
Lord Jesus. The old man, now ninety-eight years of age?
wrote a deed transferring the huilding, upon which lie liad
Di.vir, TKMpr.r, xow vsfi) as a mission cinrii,.
spent a thousand fananis, to the mission ; and it is now a
house of God, crowded with worshippers, "whose fear of
demons has been banished, and in whose hearts is the hojie
of heaven through Jesus Glnist."
We cannot dwell at length upon the consistent life, the
resolute resistance to temptation, the faith in God, tlie
liumility and submission under trials the zeal for the salva-
DIRECT RESULTS OF MISSIONARY LABOURS IX TRAVAXCORE. 363
tion of others, the liberalit_y manifested by some of these
Christians, nor describe in detail their peaceful and happy-
deaths. "While we feel that we and our people greatly
need the blessed revivinp;, quickening, and sanctifying in-
fluences of tlie Holy Spirit ; and while we have often to
mourn over the instability, Aveakness, defects, and falls of
Christian professors, much might also be recorded of the
bright side of their character. " The fruit of the Spirit is
love, joy, peace, long suffering, gentleness, goodness, foith,
meekness, temperance ;" and eacli and all of these graces
might be illustrated hy specific examples, drawn from the
lives of these Hindu converts.
The following gratifying testimonies from two very dis-
tinct quarters will indicate the estimation in which th(^
Christian community is held liy tlie most right-thinking and
intelligent of their own Hintlu countrymen, and by Euro-
peans callable of forming an impartial and accurate judg-
ment ; other testimonies to tlie same effect respecting our
Avork in TraA'ancore are in the possession of the Avriter.
In rejily to an address presented to the First Prince on
31st August, 1867, on the occasion of his A'isit to the !Xager-
coil Seminary, his Highness observed : —
" The reception that you have given me this day Avill,
I assure you, be long and endearinglj^ remembered by me.
The class to Avhich you belong, and Avhich you represent,
viz., that of native Christians of South Travancore, has, as a
rule, been characterized for loj-alty, peaceableness, and moral
worth, and as such it Avill not fail to be vicAved Avith interest
by me.
"The progress Avliidi you liave made in your studies, as
manifested this day, has much gratified me, and no less
so is the discipline and general good deportment Avhich is
remarkedly observable in you. Continue to make the best
364 "the land op charity."
possible use of the valuable gift of God, your OAvn minds,
and you may be sure that every inch of your jDrogress will
open out to you brighter and brighter prospects.
" I have only to wish you success in your education, ami
that every good may be yours which God in His infinite
wisdom and in His immeasurable mercy may vouchsafe
to you.
(Signed) "Eamaii Vurmaii, First Prince of Travancore."
Again ; on the occasion of the visit of his Excellency
Lord Napier (of IMerchiston), Governor of ISIadras, to
Xagercoil, in Oct., 18G8, his lordsliip thus spoke : —
" I need not assure you that I have been deeply gratified
by my visit to this numerous and flourishing community of
Protestants, living in security and prosperity under the tole-
rant sway of an enlightened native prince, and under the
guidance of zealous and benevolent pastors, who have dedi-
cated their lives and energies to the prosecution of a holy
cause. I have heard the record of your past exertions in
promoting the evangelization, education, and industrial
development of this people with the sincerest interest. I
trust that the future may not be less prosperous than the
past, and that your labours may be abundantly rewarded in
the increase and Avelfare of those Avho commit themselves to
your spiritual charge. You may be assured of the sym]iathy,
and, if it were ever necessary, of the protection of tlie Govern-
ment of Madras, (Signed) " K'apieu."
Tlie (|uestii)n of liberdlll ;/ in i\u\ finpp()rt of Christian ordi-
nances is one Avhich, from its practical bearing upon the
suppoi-t of missions by friends at home, demands some
notice. Our work in India, it is well known, has demanded,
and will yet, we fear, require, a larger proportion of expendi-
ture on native agency than in otlior parts of the world. But
DIRECT RESULTS OF -MISSIONARY LABOURS IX TRAVANCORE. 365
it sl)ould be remombered that in the South Sea Islands and
Madagascar, and most other fields of labour, the people are
homogeneous ; and kings and nobles and the wealthier classes,
as Avell as the common people, have received the Gospel, so
that tlie Christian community have been able to provide for
the support of their own native teachers. But in India, where
the fearful system of Hindu caste, isolating class from class,
prevails, a very small proportion of the higher ranks have
united themselves to the Christian Church ; and the small
farmers, farm labourers, trades-people, and slaves, who con-
stitute the body of native Christians, are as yet unable to
support the ordinances and ministry of the Christian religion
as both we and they Avould desire. Hence the necessity for
the sujDport of native teachers in India in connection with
all the missionary societies.
Still it is reasonable and necessary, as well as desirable,
that the expenditure of Euroj^ean funds on the instruction of
native Christian converts should be reduced to a minimum,
by the latter contributing, according to their ability, for the
incidental expenses of Christian worship and the support of
native pastors and teachers. This is just what we have been
teaching them to do. During the year 18G9, over .£20,000
were raised and expended at the mission stations of the
London ^Missionary Society in various parts of the world,
the larger portion of which was contributed by native con-
verts. And in Travancore we have endeavoured continuously
and steadily to train our native churches to independency of
action and feeling, and to liberality in the support of
Christian ordinances.
In estimating the contributions of native Christians, the
relative value of money should be taken into account.
The rate of pay of a labouring man in Travancore is now
about 5 chuckrams = A^d. jier day, about ten shillings per
month — not a great sum with which to meet all demands, —
.■>r)() "the land op charity."
and many of our poorer Cliristians receive no larger income ;
yet tliey contribute readily in money and kind according to
their aljility — on the whole, perhaps, in larger proportion
than most Christians in England.
Occasionally large contributions are made by the wealthier
members of our congregations. In 1867 one of our native
Christians, Nathaniel, a silk-weaver and deacon of JS^agercoil
church — a very remarkable man, who speaks of the great
salvation by Jesus Christ to every person, T believe, whom
he meets — contributed 700 rupees for the erection of a
single chapel. He bore the whole expense of its erection,
and it stands in a position highly favourable for the
preaching of the Gospel to thousands of pilgrims and
visitors to Cape Comorin and Suchindram.
Others pi'esent plots of land as sites for mission chapels, or
bring contributions of rice during harvest season, and of
sugar, cotton, and other i)roduce of their industry, or articles
of property. Some of the women are accustomed to lay
aside a handful of rice as a contribution to the Lord's Avork
every time they cook a meal of food.
I have seen amongst these poor black Christians what I
have never witnessed in England. T have known them
take off rings, bracelets, and other ornaments of silver and
gold, and place them in the plate when theyAvere desirous to
contribute more than they could afford in the form of money.
On one occasion, an account of the extraordinary liberality
and zeal of the Nestorian Christians in the cause of the
Gospel was read at the monthly missionary prayer meeting
at Nagercoih " During the reading of the paper a very
powerful imi)ression seemed to be made upon the meeting.
The person who conducted the meeting was himself also
much moved by the intelligence then given, and proceeded
to address the people on the necessity of greater self-denial
and liberality, and called upon them to make special ell'orts
DIRECT RESULTS OF MISSIONARY LABOURS IN TRAVANCORE. 307
to support tlieir own catecliist witliout delay. It Avas a
Avui'd spoken in season. On finishing his speech he took
fruui his linger a gold ring ; and, placing it on the ta1)le
Let'ore him with great enijdiasis, said, ' This is my contri-
bution — those willing to consecrate of their substance to the
Lord, let them come forAvurd.' The silence that followed
Avas broken by one and another moving toAvards the pulpit,
some Avith donations of money, others Avith jeAvels taken
from their persons, after the example set by the speaker.
Eut the people generally did not come prepared for any-
thing so unprecedented and sudden as this, and the scene
that folloAved Avas a A^ery remarkable one. The majority
having nothing to offer in the Avay of money or other
valuables just then, the entire congregation dispersed to
their respective houses, and having gathered together jeAvels
and ornaments of various descriptions, earrings, turbans, cloths
kept for special occasions, brass cups, cocoa-nuts, lamps,
umbrellas, a coav, and various other articles, the value of
Avhich amounted to 117 rupees, it Avas resolved by the people
themselves that this sum should be appropiiated toAvards
the support of the catechist. Their example had a powerful
influence for good upon the surrounding congregations."
The churches at ISTagercoil, IS'eyoor, Dennisjiuram, i^'c,
are noAV either Avholly or to a great extent self-supporting.
The native contributions have been rising from year to year,
and in 1869 amounted to no less than 12,047 rupees, or
,£1204 14:S. ; a sum practically equal in value to i: 7,000 or
ii8,000 contributed by English Christians.
Such are some of the results, very succinctly and certainly
very imperfectly stated, of the preaching of the (lospel and
of missionary operations in Tra vane ore. Surely Ave have
reason, in the review of the as hole subject, to " thank God
and take courage." But let it not be imagined that the
country is noAV Christianized, and that little remains to be
3G8 " THE L.VND OF CHARITY."
(iffocted. We have tried tliroughout this work to present
to our readers Loth sides of tlie (juestion — a comprehensive
tliongh necessarily very condensed view of the entire hehl.
On the one hand, we have, it is true, nearly 33,000 native
professing Cliristians under instruction, besides some 13,000
in connection with the C/hurch IVIissionary Society ; but
Avhat are these amongst a mlUion of idolaters and devil-
worshippers, still unenlightened and unsaved 1 There is still
a great work to be done for the conversion of the higher
classes and the general enlightenment and reformation of
the country. INIoreover, the conversion of the Shanars,
Pariahs, and Pulayars has rather tended to set the higher
castes in opposition to the Gospel, and has placed additional
difficulties in our way.
The mission, having had of late years to struggle with
sudden and severe retrenchments, is in several respects
rather going back than otherwise, as evidenced by recent
reports of the missionaries. Drought, famine, and cholera
have again appeared in the South of Travancore. More
European labourers are required — additional native agents —
special efforts for special classes of the population, and con-
tinuous, loving, patient care in the training of the native
churches and congregations. " The harvest truly is plen-
teous, but the labourers are few ; pray ye therefore the
Lord of the harvest, that He will send forth labourers into
His harvest." "Let us not be weary in well doing : for in
due season we shall reap, if we faint not."
In conclusion, wo who have personally engaged in the
work, and are ac(piainted with its history and details, have
no doubt as to tlie ultimate result of this blessed and
glorious undertaking. "We engage in this warfare certain
of victory. We sow the seed of life, assured by the Divine
promise of an abundant harvest. God is working by His
Spirit and His word. Providence is on our side, overruling
DIRECT RESULTS OF MISSIONARY LABOUKS IN TRAVANCORE. 369
evil, and favouring the progress of good. "We trust in the
power of God's truth to save — of the blood of Jesus to
cleanse the vilest and most polluted — of the Holy Spirit to
convert and save the most hardened and obstinate sinners.
In Travancore we see fields white already to the har-
vest. The night is far spent — the long, dark, cheerless
night of idol-worship, devil-worship, and serpent-worship, of
Hindu philosophical speculation and unbelief — is far spent,
and the day — the glad and joyful day of Gospel light and
privileges — is at hand. We look forward with hope, con-
fidence, and joy to the time when Travancore shall be
wholly Christianized, and every blessing — material, intel-
lectual, and social, as well as spiritual — shall follow in the
train of religion.
We rejoice to picture to ourselves the period when the
material resoiirces of that rich and beautiful country shall
be developed, when manufactures shall be introduced, and
national commerce and intercourse with other countries
be widened and extended — and all consecrated to Christ ;
when the talents and energies of the rulers and states-
men, the poets and historians, now devoted to the ser-
vice of false gods, shall be imbued with revealed truth, and
used to the glory of God and the highest good of man ;
when woman shall occupy her due position in society, and
the marriage relationship be sanctified and honourable in
every home; when caste feeling shall be qualified and
turned into attachment to law and order — the rich kindly to
the poor, and the poor afiectionate and grateful towards the
great and wealthy ; when the various castes and peoples of
India shall be fused into one great people, exemplifying as
a whole the various excellences which even now glimmer
forth in particular classes — the commanding mtellect of the
Brahmans, the shrewdness and business capacity of the
Sudras, the humble laboriousness of the Shanars and
2b
370 "the land op charity."
Pulayars, the self-denial and devotion of the ascetics, the
simplicity and hospitality of the hill tribes, the indomitable
vigour and courage of the Mohammedans ; when the religious-
ness and liberality now evinced in the support of the temples
and worship of false gods, and the punctual attendance on
religious festivals, shall become true holiness and practical
piety ; when kings shall be nursing fathers and their queens
nursing mothers to the church.
Then shall Travancore indeed be what she is now fanci-
fully denominated by her people, Tiru-varunrj-kodu — the
Sacred, Prosperous Kingdom ; Vanji Bliumi — the Treasure
Land ; Dhabmma Bhumi — the Land of Piety, Charity, and
Truth.
the end.
J. AUD W. EIDEK, PUIHTUUS, LOUDON.
DEDICATED (BT SPECIAL PERMISSION) TO THE
DIRECTORS OF THE LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY.
Beautifully illustrated, 6s., and elegantly bound.
The Pioneers :
A NARRATIVE OF THE
PLANTING OF CHRISTIANITY IN BENGAL.
WITH REMINISCENCES OF
THE MISSIONARY FATHERS OF THAT PRESIDENCY.
BY
EEV. GEORGE GOGEELY,
Of the London Missionary Society.
Illustrated with numerous Engravings, and with Photo-Medal-
lion Portraits of Henry Maktyn, Bishop Heber, Bishop Wilson;
Drs. Carey, Duff, Yates, Marshman; Rev. Messrs. Townley,
Lacroix, Ward, &c., &c.
The Standard of the Cross was planted in Bengal in the face of
opposition the most determined, of fanaticism the most fierce, and
of discouragements the most disheartening.
Strangely, in these days of enlightenment and science, does the
record read of the opposition experienced by those evangelistic
efforts of scarce fifty years ago. And strange, too, the tales of peril
and cruelty then to be encountered; when river-pirates infested
the streams, and roadside Thugs waylaid their victims, and the
piercing cries of immolated widows rose from blazing funeral
piles.
Mr. Gogerly's narrative is chiefly a record of the Pioneer work
accomplished by the Agents of the London Missionary Society;
but it also alludes to the labours of those noble men, belonging to
other sections of the Christian Church, who so largely helped
forward the same great work.
The book is filled with thrilling incidents of Missionary adven-
ture and enterprise, and is profusely illustrated with engravings.
LOXDON : JOHN SNOW & CO., 2, IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW.
STORY OF THE ZENANA MISSION.
New Edition, 2 s., elegantly bound.
The Dazvn of Light :
A STORY" OF THE ZENANA MISSION IN INDIA.
BY MARY E. LESLIE.
With Introductory Preface by Rev. E. Stoeeow.
Miss Leslie's beautiful story illustrates the earnest cravings
after truth and happiness of the Female population of India at the
present day ; also of the success which has attended the visits
of European Lady-missionaries to the private apartments (or
Zenanas) of native women.
A simple story, told with tender touches of womanly pathos, it
appeals directly to the heart, awakening pity towards those for
whom Miss Leslie pleads. No volume could be better adapted to
kindle a sympathizing love in the hearts of English girls towards
their downtrodden sisters of India.
©pinions of tlje 5i3rrss.
" A graphic and touching picture of the life and position of Hindu -women,
and of the mode in which ;i better hope is gradually dawning upon their
darkness. Many branches of Missionary labour may be more shi)wy than the
Zenana Mission, but none is more really important. The futtire of Christi-
anity in India depends, under God, upon the evangelization of the
women." — Christian Advocate and Review.
" A beautiful picture of Indian scenerj^, and a faithful portraiture of the
interior family life of Hindu society, especially as regards women, to -whom
Miss Leslie has had access in her Mission work. The chai'acters in her tale
are real, though the incidents are fictitious. English readers cannot but
be charmed and benefited with the book." — Missionary News.
" We have read ' The Dawn of Light ' with great interest, and most
heartily commend it. Miss Leslie has had unusual ojiportunities for becoming
acquainted with the character, habits, and wants of Hindu ladies, and has
depicted them with great accuracy. But her book is not only valuable as a
faithful portraiture of Himiu scenery, character, and custom ; it is yet more
so as illustrative of the methods by which light and truth are now-
penetrating the dark and dreary recesses of many a Zenana." — Christian
JFitness.
" In this little volume (and every reader will say, Would that it were
larger !) a 7iew world is opened to us." — Freeman.
" This book, in a short compass and a very attractive manner, sets before
its readers the distressing po.-ition of the heathen female population of India
of the higher classes. Miss Leslie writes well, and with an intimate
knowledge other subject." — Missionary Chronicle.
LONDON : JOHN SNOW & CO., 2, IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW.
REV. W. ELLIS'S NEW WORK ON MADAGASCAR.
Beautifully illustrated, 7s. 6<i., and elegantly tound.
The Martyr ChtLrch of Madagascar,
A NAERATIYE OF
THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY IN THAT ISLAND.
BY EEV. WILLIAM ELLIS,
Author of " Three Visits to Madagascar" ^c.
Illustrated witli Engravings, fi-om Photographs taken by Mr. Ellis.
" Its narration of the progress of religioa in the island, especially of the
fearful persecutions and the noble character of the people under them, f )rins
one of the most interesting and thrilling narratives of mudern Church
history." — Sunday Magazine.
"It unfolds a history thrilling and marvellous — a history which surpasses
in interest any other in the Church since the early triumph of Christianity
under the Roman emperors. We wish for it a reception as wide as that
which was accorded to Williams' ' Missionary Enterprises,' and Moffat's
' Missionary Labours.' " — Evangelical Magazine.
"We question whether anything more M'onderful than the spread of
Christianity in Madagascar has happened — we do not say since the age of
the Apostles — but even since the day of Pentecost itself. Mr. Ellis's book
is a deeply interesting record of that history — a narrative of one of the most
marvellotis triumphs of the Gospel of Christ that the world has ever seen."
— Freeman.
" The intrepid and now venerable missionary whose name is so intimately
identified with the Madagascar ilission, gives in this volume a complete
history of the work of the Gospel in the island — a work which, in its testi-
mony to the grace of God, will take its place with the Martyrologies of the
Primitive and lieformation eras." — Record.
" Mr. Ellis deals with a vast abundance of facts, of which, for the most
part, he was an eye-witness ; and he presents them with a simplicity, frank-
ness, and fervour-, which give to his narrative an absorbing interest."
— Watchman.
" The narrative is very instructive, showing how the protracted labours
and sufferings, hopes and fears, of half a century, were needful to educate a
people, who now realize, moie than any other, the Scripture expression, 'A
nation shall be bom in a day.' "^Edvihurgh DaiUj Review.
"It is difficult to make quotations from a book so fascinating." — Literary
World.
LONDO]!f : JOHN SNOW & CO., 2, IVY LANE, PATEENOSTER ROW.
NEW WORK ON HOME MISSIONS.
Crown 8vo., price 5s. 6d., cloth, red edges.
Notes and Incidents of
Home Missionary Life aiid Work.
BY EEV. WILLIAM O'NEILL.
The Tolume refers to numerous matters respecting the Committees,
Missionaries, Evangelists, and Supporters of Home Missions, — Local
Preachers, — Superintendents, Teachers, and Friends of Sunday and Day
Schools, — Social Reformers, — Di^tributor8 of the Holy Scriptures, Tracts,
and General Literature, — Church and Chapel Extension, — Free Churches,
and Civil and Rehgious Liberty, — Temperance, — Tenants' and Labourers'
Eights, &c.
It contains also many instructive Narratives of Conversion to God, —
Fidelity to Conscience,— Death-bed Scenes, both of ungodly and btlieving
persons. The whole dlustrating the necessity, the practical working, and
the many-sided usefulness of Home Missionary operations.
REV. H. J. BEViS'S SERMONS.
Crown 8vo., price 6s. 6<i., cloth elegant.
Ser7nons Preached in Ranisgate.
BY REV. HENRY J. BEVIS.
Content^: — -New Things in Christianity — New Revelations of
Olu TuuTHts — The Influence of the Unseen — The Stecial Meaning
OF Common Things — A Visit to the Potter's House — The Opfosites —
Illustrations of Life — The Law of Nature and of Life — Temple
Views of Winter— God's Greatness in Small Things— Entertaining
Strangers — Man's Nekds and God's Wealth — The Saint's Estimate
op God's Lovingkindness— Trumpet Voices talking with us — Spiri-
tual Introspection — Making an Idol— The Woman's Argument —
Honey out of the Dead Lion— Strength Lost and Restored — Men
Endeavouring to be like the Heathen — The Counterbalancing of
Agencies — Rain on the Mown Grass— Nicodemus — God's Thoughts —
The Decease at Jerusalem— Life a Book.
" A volume of simple, unaffected, yet elegant sermons." — Daily Telegraph.
" This volume of Pulpit Discourses will take rank with the best that any
of the working clergy, Free or Established, have sent forth to the world.
The discourses are thoroughly abreast of the times, both in matter and in
form, and evince a chastened thouglitfulness, and are characterized by
a grace of expression, that are very relreshiug." — Literary World.
LONDON: JOHN SNOW & CO., 2, IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW.
THE FATHER OF AFRICAN MISSIONS.
"With Portrait, 3s. 6<iv handsomely bound.
A Lifes Labo2L7^s in South Africa
THE STOEY OF THE LIFE AND WOEK
OF
ROBERT MOFFAT,
APOSTLE TO THE BECHUANA TRIBES.
■WITH PHOTOGRAPH PORTRAIT OF MR. MOFFAT.
Half a century has elapsed since Robert Mofpat entered upon
his Missionary campaign, to become the Pioneer of Christianity,
civilization, and commerce, among the barbarous tribes of Southern
Africa.
The commencement of the present year saw the close of these
labours; failure of health necessitating the return of the veteran
Missionary to his native land.
But the work accomplished by Robert Moffat remains, an
imperishable witness of his love for the benighted sons of Africa.
KuRUMAN, the creation of his own hands, stands out a bright oasis
in the vast African desert ; while the Holy Scriptures, translated
by his unaided efforts, in the language to which he himself first
gave a written form, is the medium through which is now made
known to the Bechuana Tribes the glorious Gospel of the grace
of God.
A beautiful Photograph Portrait of Mr. Moffat, with Fac-simUe
of his signature, forms the frontispiece of this volume.
LONDON: JOHN SNOW & CO., 2, IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW.
THE STORY OF ALEXANDER PEDEN.
Eew Edition, 3s. Qi,, handsomely 'boimd.
P eden the P r ophet :
A TALE OF THE SCOTTISH COVENANTERS.
Founded on Fact.
BY EEV. DE. BROWK.
Though nearly two centuries havepassed away since Alexander
Peden was gathered to his fathers, his name is still, and will be
for generations to come, a household word in Ayrshire and other
parts of the South and West of Scotland.
He was looked up to by all the truly pious Scotchmen of his
day as something more than human ; to this the remarkable
fulfilment of many of his predictions respecting persons and
events — which earned for him the title of " The Prophet " — seemed
to add something of reality.
If men have seldom suffered more severelj^ for conscience' sake,
the history of the world contains no instance of martyrs to a cause
suffering more heroically than did Alexander Peden and his
companion Covenanters of Scotland. His is a noble model of
thorough and unswerving Christian consistency to set before the
youth and rising manhood of the England of to-day.
©pinions of tljc ^rcss.
" A thrilling story, exceedingly -well told. A popular narrative of the
faith and persecution of the Covecanters was mnch wanted for the Christian
youth of the present day ; and by throwing his materials into the present
form, Dr. Brown has been able to produce the very description of work that
was }:eq\iired."-^C/i}istian World,
"One of the most vivid descriptions ever given of the times and of the
men." — Nonconformist.
"We have read the work with intense interest. "While the book is
emphatically one of facts — facts the most astounding in the annals t .'
Scotland— it has all the fascination of fiction. He ought to have a rapid
run, for never did Scottish martyrs liud a more _ faithful and judicious
historian." — Glasgow lixaminer.
" * Peden the Prophet' possesses the great merits of earnestness and style.
Written obviously by a man who has studied Macaulay, Walter Scott, and
other masters. It is a work to be proud of." — Literary Gazette.
LONDON : JOHN SNOW & CO., 2, I7Y LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW. y
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