•■ 
 
 *\ 
 
 +*■■ • ; 
 
 
 . *r\ 
 
 * 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 ~^i ^..-^^ ^J ■ ':-&■ 
 
fTURY. 
 
 E, 
 
 3 the Colloquial 
 Jotes. 
 
 GE. 
 
 in one volume of about 300 pages 8vo., at a price not exceeding 12. 
 
 tIAIl OF THE EASTERN HINDI, 
 
 lR OF EASTERN HINDUSTAN AND WESTERN BENGAL, 
 
 COMMONLY CALLED "GANWARI." 
 
 ies with the- Modern Bengali, High Hindi, and Manithi, and its derivation fr< 
 ancient Prakrit and Sanskrit. 
 
 HE REV. A. F. R. HOERNLE, Ph.D. Tubingen, 
 
 Sanskrit at Jaynarain College, Benares, M.G.A.S., B.A.S., etc. 
 
 ar of that Hindi which is generally spoken in the eastern half of Hindustan a 
 ;. though of tin' aame type in the whole of that area, differs slightly in different di 
 [ally of that dialect which is current in the Benares district; and which appear; 
 ■ it' 'lialects. There is another group of Hindi dialects which is current in the w 
 Eastern Punjab, and of which the Braj Bhaah& is the most distinct type. As thi 
 pdern Hindi of literature, so that other type of Hindi of which this grammar ti 
 fications is the source of the modern literary Bangalf. This is shown by the fa 
 1, by which it is distinguished from the literary or Western Hindi, are also those 
 (well-known fact that the oldest Bangalf hears a close likeness to the present ] 
 Jin Eastern Hindi' is this, that it has preserved, in its system of conjugation esp 
 lie, indeed, and nearer to Prakrit than even those of the Marathf; it is, then 
 logical purposes. A Grammar of the Eastern Hindi, therefore, it is hoped, w 
 as that dialect throws light on the oriLrin of Bangalf and Hindf, and by i 
 em-rally. H may be mentioned that throughout the grammar the derivation c 
 ,'ikrit and Sanskrit has heon discussed, as well as its affinities with the corresj 
 anguages, especially Bangalf, Marathi, and Western Hindi. It is hoped, besid 
 1 or science, but also to civil officers and missionaries. For, though the Higl 
 1 known in all towns, it is only with difficulty understood by the rural populat. 
 is Eastern Hindi' dialect is, at present, next to unintelligible to a European 
 ieahle to augment the number of the languages of India by the literary cultivr 
 
 t add to the usefulness of those who labour for the g 1 of the people of that 
 
 the dialect which is spoken by them. Very little attention has been paid as 
 •n. Several irra miliars of the western and literary Hindi' dialects have been pub 
 illou ing is a rougb summary of the contents of the grammar : — 
 itic Permutation in Inflexion — ditto in Derivation — ditto of Vowel — ditto of Cons 
 riinarv — ditto Secondary — Roots — On the Noun and Pronoun — Substantive — Its 
 itpositions — Paradigms of Declension — Adjective — Its Forms — Terminations — Ge 
 nder — Declension — Pronominal Adverbs — On the Verb — Its Tenses — Moods — Ge 
 merals — Cardinals — Ordinals — Others — On Adverbs — Specimens of Eastern E 
 
 TRUBNER & CO., 57 and 59, LUDGATE HILL. 
 
A 
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 GAUDIAN LANGUAGES 
 
 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE 
 
 EASTERN HINDI 
 
 ACCOMPANIED BY 
 
 A LANGUAGE-MAP AND A TABLE OF ALPHABETS 
 
 BY 
 
 A. F. RUDOLF HOERNLE 
 
 
 LONDON 
 TRUBNER & CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL 
 
 1880 
 
 ( All rights reserved} 
 
TO 
 
 KARL STEFFENSEN 
 
 PBOFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN BASEL 
 
 IN 
 
 GRATEFUL REMEMBRANCE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 YEARS OF STUDY PASSED UNDER HIS GUIDANCE 
 
 mf\B iJoiunw 
 
 IS 
 DEDICATED. 
 
 Calcutta, Spring 1880. 
 
 11518193 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In order to account for the perhaps somewhat unusual ar- 
 rangement of this hook, I must explain, that my original plan 
 was merely to write a Grammar of the Eastern Hindi accompanied 
 hy short notes, pointing out its Gaudian affinities. Gradually 
 these notes grew to such an extent as to change almost entirely 
 the character of the book, which in its present state is rather 
 a comparative grammar of the Gaudian languages than a simple 
 grammar of the Eastern Hindi. The two subjects have been kept 
 apart as much as possible, so as to enable the reader to use the 
 book ad libitum for the study of either, the Eastern Hindi only, 
 or the Gaudian generally. For this purpose the comparative 
 matter has been mainly distributed in the paragraphs headed 
 „ Affinities" and ,, Derivation " ; the others refer to Eastern Hindi. 
 To further increase the usefulness of the book an index of such 
 Gaudian words as are explained in the Grammar is in course of 
 preparation and will shortly be published. 
 
 The amount of information contained within this volume, 
 is very much more than may appear at first sight. An idea of 
 its extent may be gained by a glance over the index of subjects. 
 Putting aside the information about the Eastern Hindi most of 
 which is original, the book not only goes over nearly the entire 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 ground, covered by the volumes of Mr. Beames' Comparative Gram- 
 mar, but also adds a not inconsiderable quantity of additional 
 matter, especially in regard to the derivation of Gaudian gram- 
 matical forms from the Prakrits. It was not easy to compress 
 all this mass of information within one comparatively small vo- 
 lume to which, for various reasons, it was necessary to confine 
 the work. This necessity will account for the perhaps excessive 
 conciseness of diction and the extensive use of abbreviations ; an 
 inconvenience for which, I feel, I must crave the indulgence of 
 the reader, but which, by the help of the prefixed list of ab- 
 breviations, I hope will prove no serious difficulty. 
 
 As regards the sources of my materials for the grammar 
 of Eastern Hindi, in the absence of all literature (except in the 
 Baiswari), I had to rely almost entirely on the information, partly 
 obtained through long personal intercourse with the people, but 
 especially supplied by native scholars or (in a few cases) by 
 Europeans intimately acquainted with the country people. Among 
 the former it gives me great pleasure to acknowledge the very 
 efficient help rendered me by the kindness of Pandit Gopal Bhatta, 
 Professor of Sanskrit at the Jay Narain's College in Benares, who 
 to a scholarly knowledge of Sanskrit adds an intimate acquain- 
 tance of the Vernaculars as spoken by the people, representatives 
 of whom, from every part of India, may be met with in Benares. 
 
 As regards the comparative portion of the book, every work 
 that I could think of as bearing on the subject has been con- 
 sulted. Most of these will be found mentioned in the list of 
 abbreviations. A few works, such as E. Miiller on the Jaina 
 Prakrit, Jacobi's edition of the Kalpasiitra, A. Grierson's Maithili 
 Grammar, unfortunately came into my hands too late to be tur- 
 ned to account. Most of the Prakrit Grammarians (such as Mar- 
 
PREFACE. 7 
 
 kandeya, Subhachandra, Kramadisvara. Trivikrama, Simharaja etc.) 
 are quoted from MSS. in my possession; but Vararuclii and He- 
 machandra are generally cited from the excellent editions of Co- 
 well and Pischel respectively. 
 
 The publication of this volume, begun in Germany in 187 8, 
 has been so long delayed through my absence from Europe, which 
 necessitated the sending out of the proofsheets to India. I fear 
 this had the further evil consequence of many misprints remaining 
 undetected, for which I hope the kind reader will make allowance. 
 I do not think any serious misprint has escaped correction. 
 
 R. II. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 page 
 
 INTRODUCTION I 
 
 On the Distribution and Af- 
 finities of Gaudian ... I 
 Eastern Hindi Literature . XXXVI 
 The Terras tatsama, tadbhava, 
 
 etc XXXVIII 
 
 FIBST SECTION. On Letters 
 
 and Sounds 1 
 
 I. CHAPTER. The Alphabet 1 
 
 1. Vowels 3 
 
 Neutral and short . 4 
 
 Nasalization .... 6 
 
 2. Consonants 8 
 
 Pronunciation of pa- 
 latals 7 
 
 Pronunciation of ce- 
 rebrals 8 
 
 Nasals 10 
 
 Semivowels .... 16 
 
 Sibilants 24 
 
 Foreign Sounds . . 25 
 
 3. The Visarga and Anus- 
 vara 26 
 
 Visarga 26 
 
 Anusvara 27 
 
 II. CHAPTER. Euphonic Per- 
 mutation 31 
 
 1. In Pronunciation and 
 
 Inflexion 31 
 
 Vowels 31 
 
 Single Consonants . . 34 
 
 Conjunct Consonants 35 
 
 2. In Derivation .... 
 
 a) Changes of Final 
 Sounds 
 
 b) Changes of Medial 
 
 Sounds 
 
 rc) Single Vowels . . 
 /?) Vowels in contact 
 y) Single Consonants 
 
 aa) Softening . 
 bb) Reduction . 
 cc) Vocalisation 
 dd) Elision . . 
 ee) Hardening . 
 ff) Miscellaneous 
 J) Conjunct Conso 
 
 nants 
 
 aa) Dissolution . 
 bb) Simplification 
 cc) Elision . . 
 dd) Miscellaneous 
 
 c) Changes of Initial 
 Sounds .... 
 «) Vowels . . . 
 /?) Single Consonants 
 y) Conj. Consonants 
 
 SECOND SECTION. On Suf- 
 fixes and Roots . . 
 I. CHAPTER. Suffixes. 
 
 1. Pleonastic Suffixes 
 
 2. Second. Derivatirr Sufi 
 
 Improper Suffixes . 
 
 3. Prim. Derivative Suff. 
 
 page 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 42 
 47 
 57 
 60 
 65 
 67 
 69 
 72 
 72 
 
 75 
 77 
 79 
 85 
 87 
 
 90 
 90 
 91 
 93 
 
 95 
 
 95 
 
 96 
 
 111 
 
 1^7 
 
 136 
 
10 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 page 
 
 II. CHAPTER. Roots ... 159 
 
 Affinities 1G0 
 
 1. Primary Boots .... 1G1 
 
 Phonetic Permutation 161 
 In corporation of Class- 
 suffix 162 
 
 In corporation of Pas- 
 sive-suffix .... 164 
 Change of Class ... 164 
 Change of Voice . . 168 
 Addition of Pleonastic 
 Suffix 170 
 
 2. Secondary Boots . . . 171 
 
 Derivative Roots . . 171 
 
 Denominative Roots . 172 
 
 Compound Roots . . 173 
 
 Undetermined Roots . 177 
 THIBD SECTION. Inflexion 
 
 of Nouns 179 
 
 I. CHAPTER. The Substan- 
 tive 179 
 
 1. Forms of the Substant. 179 
 
 2. Gender 181 
 
 3. Number 185 
 
 Affinities 186 
 
 Derivat. of Plur.-Signs 189 
 
 Derivat. of Obi. Termin. 192 
 
 Orig. of the Obi. Form 202 
 Distribut. of the Prak. 
 
 Gen. Suffixes ... 204 
 Orig. of the Gen. and 
 
 Obi. Suffixes ... 209 
 Derivat. of the Direct 
 
 Termination . . . 212 
 
 4. Case 216 
 
 Active Case .... 217 
 
 Genitive Case .... 220 
 
 Affinities 221 
 
 Derivat. of Dative Aff. 224 
 Derivation of Abl. and 
 
 Instr. Affixes ... 227 
 
 page 
 
 Derivation of Gen. Aff. 230 
 
 Derivation of Loc. Aff. 241 
 
 5. Paradigms of Declension 242 
 
 II. CHAPTER. The Adjective 247 
 
 1. Forms of the Adjective 247 
 
 2. Gender 248 
 
 3. Declension 249 
 
 4. Comparison 250 
 
 III. CHAPTER. The Numeral 250 
 
 1. Cardinals 251 
 
 Affinities ...'... 253 
 
 Derivation 255 
 
 Declension 262 
 
 2. Ordinals : 263 
 
 3. Multiplicatives .... 264 
 
 4. Collectives 265 
 
 5. Beduplicatives .... 267 
 
 6. Fractionals 268 
 
 7. Proportionals .... 270 
 
 8. Subtractives 271 
 
 9. Distributives 271 
 
 10. Definitives 272 
 
 11. Indefinitives 272 
 
 IV. CHAPTER. The Pronoun 273 
 
 1. Personal Pronouns . . 273 
 
 Affinities and Derivat. 273 
 First Person. Pron. 274. 275 
 
 Sec. Person. Pron. 276. 280 
 
 A few Peculiar Forms 281 
 
 Declension 282 
 
 2. Correlative Pronouns . 284 
 
 Affinities 285 
 
 Near Demonstrative . 285 
 
 Far Demonstrative . 286 
 
 General Demonstrat. 286 
 
 Relative 287 
 
 Interrogative .... 288 
 
 Indefinite 289 
 
 Derivation 289 
 
 Declension 299 
 
 3. Reflexive Pronoun . . 302 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ll 
 
 page 
 
 4. Honorific Pronoun . . 303 
 
 5. Pronominal Adjectives . 303 
 
 a) Possessive Pronouns 303 
 
 b) Correlative Pron. . 305 
 
 Quantity .... 305 
 
 Quality 307 
 
 c) Indefinite Pronouns 309 
 
 6. Pronominal Adverbs . 310 
 FOURTH SECTION. Infle- 
 xion of Verbs .... 316 
 
 I. CHAPTER. Forms of the 
 
 Verb 316 
 
 1. Kinds, Trans, and Intr. 31G 
 
 2. Degrees 317 
 
 Simple Causal .... 317 
 
 Double Causal ... 321 
 
 3. Voices 322 
 
 Compound Passive . . 322 
 
 Potential Passive . . 324 
 
 4. Moods 326 
 
 Infinitive 326 
 
 Adjective Participles . 326 
 
 Prayoga 326 
 
 Adverbial Participle . 328 
 
 Conjunctive Participle 328 
 
 Nouns of Agency . . 330 
 
 II. CHAPTER, Tenses ... 331 
 
 1. Radical Tenses .... 331 
 
 Pres. Conj. and Imper. 331 
 
 Precative 339 
 
 Present Indicative . . 341 
 
 2. Participial Tenses . . 345 
 
 First Preterite Indie. 345 
 
 Plusperfect 350 
 
 Second Preterite Indie. 350 
 
 page 
 
 Preterite Conjunctive 353 
 
 Future Indicative . . 355 
 
 3. Periphrastic T&Mea . . •!">'i 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs . . . 361 
 
 III. CHAPTER. Conjugation . 367 
 
 1. Defective Auxiliary . . 367 
 
 2. Weak Complete Auxil . 368 
 
 3. Strong Complete Auxil. 369 
 
 4. Defective Negative Aux. 370 
 
 5. Regular Active .... 371 
 
 6. Typical Regidar Active 375 
 
 7. Irregular Active . . . 378 
 
 8. Regul. Compound Pass. 381 
 
 9. Irregul. Compound Pass. 381 
 
 10. Potential Passive ... 382 
 
 11. Irregular Potent. Pass. 383 
 
 12. Simple Causal .... 383 
 
 13. Double Causal .... 384 
 
 14. Passive of Causal . . 385 
 
 15. Irregular Causal . . . 385 
 IV. CHAPTER. Compound 
 
 Verbs 385 
 
 FIFTH SECTION. Indecli- 
 
 nables 389 
 
 1. Adverbs 389 
 
 Particles of Affirm. . 392 
 
 Particles of Emphasis 393 
 
 2. Postpositions, Affixes . 394 
 
 3. Conjunctions 395 
 
 4. Interjections 398 
 
 SIXTH SECTION. Specimens 
 
 of E. Hindi 398 
 
 1. Vocables and Phrases . 398 
 
 2. Dialogues 400 
 
 3. Folklore 404 
 
 Map of the Languages of North India; opp. Title page. 
 Table of Alphabets; opp. page. 2. 
 
 Note: See also „Affinities" and derivation" in the Index of Subjects, p. 407. 
 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 A. Gr. = Translation of the Adi 
 Granth by Trumpp. 
 
 A. Mg. = Ardha Magadhi Prakrit. 
 Ap. or Ap. Pr. = Apabhramsa Pra- 
 krit. 
 
 Ap. Mg. = Apabhramsa Magadhi 
 
 Prakrit. 
 Ap. Sr. = Apabhramsa Sauraseni 
 
 Prakrit. 
 
 B. = Bengali. 
 
 B. H. By. = Bate's Hindi Dictio- 
 nary. 
 
 Bh. = Bhojpuri. 
 
 Bhag. or Bh. = Bhagavati. 
 
 Br. = Braj. 
 
 Bs. = Beames' Comparative Grammar 
 of the Modern Aryan languages. 
 
 Bs. or Bid. = Baiswari. 
 
 Cw. = Cowell's edition of Vararuchi's 
 Prakrita Prakasa. 
 
 D]c. = Dakskinatya Prakrit. 
 
 BH. = Delius' Radices Pracriticae. 
 
 E., in conjunction with other ini- 
 tials, = Eastern ; e. g. E. H. = 
 Eastern Hindi, E. Gd. = E. Gau- 
 dian, E. Bj. = Eastern Rajputani. 
 
 Eth. = Etherington's Hindi Grammar. 
 
 G. = Gujarati. 
 
 Gd. = Gaudian. 
 
 Gli. or Gto. = Garhwali. 
 
 Gl. = Sg. Goldschmidt. 
 
 H. = Hindi; or, in conjunction with 
 
 other initials, = High; as H. H. 
 
 = High Hindi, H. B. = High 
 
 Bengali. 
 H. C. = Hema Chandra's Prakrit 
 
 Grammar (ed. Pischel). 
 
 J. A. S. B. = Journal of the Asiatic 
 Society of Bengal. 
 
 J. G. 0. S. = Journal of the Ger- 
 man Oriental Society. 
 
 K. I. = Kramadisvara's Prakrit 
 
 Grammar. 
 Kf. = Kafiri. 
 
 Kl. = Kellogg' s Hindi Grammar. 
 Km. = Kumaoni. 
 Kn. = Kanauji. 
 Ksh. = Kashmiri. 
 Kth. = Kaithi. 
 
 Ld. = Panjttbi Grammar printed in 
 
 Loodiana. 
 L. Bh. = Lakshmi Dhara's Shad- 
 
 bhasha chaudrika. 
 Ls. = Lassen's Institutions Linguae 
 
 Pracriticae. 
 
 M. = Marathi; or, in conjunction 
 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 l:; 
 
 with other initials, = Modern; as 
 M. Gd. = Modern Gaudian, M. 
 M. = Modern Marathi. 
 
 M. M. = Max Muller's Sanskrit 
 Grammar. 
 
 M. W. = Moniers William's Sans- 
 krit-English Dictionary. 
 
 3Ia)i. = Student's Manual of Ma- 
 rathi Grammar. 
 
 Mcch. = Mrchchhakatika (ed. Stenz- 
 ler). 
 
 Md. = Markandeya's Prakrit Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 Mg. = Magadhi Prakrit. 
 
 Mh. = Maharashtri Prakrit. 
 
 Mh. Sr. = Maharashtri - Sauraseni 
 Prakrit. 
 
 Mr. or Mw. = Marwari. 
 
 Bis. = Mason's Pali Grammar. 
 
 Mth. = Maithili. 
 
 N. = Naipali. 
 
 jy. Gd. = Northern Gaudian. 
 
 0. = Oriya; or, in conjunction with 
 other initials, = Old; as 0. H. = 
 Old Hindi, 0. W. H. = Old We- 
 stern Hindi, 0. P. = OldPanjabi; 
 0. S. = Old Sindhi, 0. Gd. = 
 Old Gaudian. 
 
 P. = Panjabi. 
 
 PI. = Pischel's Dissertatio Inaugu- 
 
 ralis. 
 Pr. = Prakrit. 
 Pr. or Pars. = Persian. 
 Pr. P. = Prithiraj Rasau by Chand 
 
 Bardai. 
 Ps. = Paisachi Prakrit. 
 Psh. = Pashtii. 
 
 Bj. = Rajputani. 
 \ R. T. = Rama Tarkavajisas Prakril 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 5. = Sindhi. 
 
 S. C. = Subha Chandra's Prakrit 
 Grammar. 
 
 S. Ch. = Shama Charan's Bangali 
 Grammar. 
 
 S. D- = Sahitya Darpana. 
 
 S. Gd. = Southern Gaudian. 
 
 S. Gdt. = Sg. Goldschmidt. 
 
 S. L. = St. Luke translated into 
 Naipali. 
 
 S. B. = Simha Raja's Prakrit Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 Slcr. = Samskrit. 
 
 Sn. = Sutton's Oriya Grammar. 
 
 Spt. = Sapta Sataka (ed. Weber). 
 
 Sr. = Sauraseni Prakrit. 
 
 St. G. = Stanislas Guyard's Gram- 
 maire Palie. 
 
 T. D. or T. Das. = Tulsi Das' Ra- 
 in ay aD. 
 T. V. — Trivikrama's Prakrit Gramm. 
 Tr. = Trumpp's Sindhi Grammar. 
 
 Ved. = Vedic. 
 
 Vr. = Vararuchi's Prakrit Gram- 
 mar (ed. Cowell). 
 
 W., in conjunction with other ini- 
 tials, = Western; as W. Gd. = 
 Western Gaudian, W. H. = We- 
 stern Hindi, W. Bj. = Western 
 Rajputani. 
 
 Wb. = Weber's edition of the Sapta 
 Sataka (Spt.) and of the Bhaga- 
 vati (Bh.). 
 
14 
 
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 abl. = ablative. 
 
 ace. = accusative. 
 
 act. = active (case or voice or verb). 
 
 adj. = adjective. 
 
 adv. = adverb or adverbial. 
 
 aff. = affix. 
 
 auxil. = auxiliary. 
 
 C. g. or com. gen. = common gender. 
 C. R. = Causal Roots. 
 
 C. V. = Causal Verb. 
 cl. = class. 
 
 comp. = compound. 
 
 Cp. R. = Compound Roots. 
 
 cond. = conditional. 
 
 conj. = conjunct or conjunction or 
 
 conjunctive mood, 
 conj. cons. = conjunct consonant, 
 cons. = consonant.- 
 constr. = construction, 
 contr. = contracted or contraction. 
 
 D. R. or Dm. R. = Denominative Roots. 
 dat. = dative. 
 
 Db. C. V. = Double Causal Verb. 
 dem. = demonstrative pronoun. 
 der. or deriv. = derivative. 
 dir. === direct. 
 Dr. R. = Derivative Roots. 
 du. = dual. 
 
 emph. = emphatic, 
 euph. = euphonic, 
 exc. = except or exception. 
 
 f. or fern. = feminine, 
 fut. = future. 
 
 gen. = genitive or general. 
 
 imp. or imper. = imperative mood. 
 
 ind. or indie. = indicative mood. 
 
 indef. = indefinite or indefinitive. 
 
 inf. = infinitive. 
 
 instr. = instrumentalis. 
 
 inter, or interrog. = interrogative 
 
 pronoun, 
 intr. = intransitive. 
 intr. V. = intransitive Verb. 
 
 lg. f. = long form, 
 loc. = locative. 
 
 m. or masc. = masculine. 
 
 N. = noun, 
 n. or neut. = neuter. 
 nom. = nominative, 
 num. = numeral. 
 
 obi. = oblique, 
 orig. = original. 
 
 P. P. = past participle. 
 
 P. R. = Primitive Roots. 
 
 part. = participle. 
 
 pass. = passive. 
 
 pers. = person or personal. 
 
 pi. or plur. = plural. 
 
 pleon. = pleonastic. 
 
 postpos. = postposition. 
 
 prec. = precative. 
 
 pret. = preterite. 
 
 pron. = pronoun or pronominal. 
 
LIST OF ABHKKVIATIONS. 
 
 L6 
 
 qual. = quality. 
 
 qual. pron. = qualitative pronoun. 
 
 quant. = quantity. 
 
 quant, pron. = quantitative pronoun. 
 
 R. = root. 
 
 red. f. = redundant form, 
 refl. = reflexive pronoun, 
 rel. = relative pronoun, 
 resp. = respectively. 
 
 S. = suffix. 
 S. R. = Simple Roots. 
 S. V. = Simple Verb, 
 sg. or sing. = singular. 
 
 sh. f. = short form. 
 st. f. = strong form, 
 subst. = Substantive, 
 suff. = suffix. 
 
 tbh. or tadbh. = tadbhava. 
 term, or termin. = termination, 
 tr. = transitive. 
 Tr. V. = Transitive Verb. 
 ts. = tats, or tatsama. 
 
 voc. = vocative. 
 
 wk. f. = weak form. 
 
 An asterisk (*) prefixed to a word means a conjectural or theore- 
 tical form of a word. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE LOCAL DISTRIBUTION AND MUTUAL AFFINITIES 
 OF THE GAUDIAN 1 ) LANGUAGES. 
 
 Seven languages of the Sanskrit stock are usually enume- 
 rated as spoken in North India, viz. Sindhf , Gujarati, Panjabi, 
 Hindi, Bangali , Oriya, Marathi. Of these H. is commonly said 
 to be spoken over an area of more than 248000 square miles 
 and to be the language of between 60 and 7 millions or fully 
 l /i of the inhabitants of India. This statement is true only in 
 a very limited and special sense. It is true if by H. we under- 
 stand the literary or High-Hindi (including under this term Hin- 
 dustani or Urdu); but it is quite incorrect if it be understood 
 to imply that only one language is spoken generally by t he- 
 people inhabiting that' area. It is, a priori, extremely impro- 
 bable and contrary to general experience that one and the same 
 language should be spoken by such large numbers of people over 
 a tract of country so widely extended. As a matter of fact, 
 two entirely different languages are spoken in the so-called 1 1 i n < 1 i 
 area; one in the western, the other in the eastern half. For 
 the sake of convenience, these two languages will be called in this 
 treatise Western Hindi and Eastern Hindi; but the terms are not 
 altogether good ones, as they give too much of an impression that 
 Western and Eastern Hindi are merely two different dialects of 
 
 1) I have adopted the term Gaudian to designate collective^ all 
 North-Indjan vernaculars of Sanskrit affinity, for want of a better word; 
 not as being the least objectionable, but as being the most convenienl one. 
 
 a 
 
II INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the same (Hindi) language. In reality, they are as distinct from 
 one another, as B. in the east and P. in the west are supposed 
 to be distinct from what is commonly called Hindi'. Indeed the 
 likeness between E. H. and B. is much closer than between E. II. 
 and \V. II.; and on the other hand, the affinity between W. II. 
 and P. is much greater than between W. H. and E. H. In short 
 W. IT. and E. H. have as much right to be classed as distinct 
 languages rather than different dialects, as P., H., and B. 
 
 It is impossible at present, accurately to define the limits 
 of the various Gaudian languages and dialects. It is a subject 
 to which little attention has been paid hitherto. Moreover, it 
 seems probable, that in most cases adjoining languages and dia- 
 lects pass into each other so imperceptibly, that the determination 
 of the limits of each will always remain more or less a matter 
 of doubt and dispute. At present, we can only fix with certainty 
 the centres of their respective areas. The following remarks and 
 the accompanying map which attempts to show their local distri- 
 bution, must be understood with this proviso. The area in which 
 H. (commonly so called, i. e. E. II. and W. H.) is spoken, occu- 
 pies the central portion of North India. It extents in the north 
 to the lower ranges of the Himalaya mountains ; in the west 
 to a line drawn from the head of the gulf of Kachchh in a 
 north-easterly direction to the upper Satlaj near Simla; in the 
 south to the Narmada river or the Vindhya range of mountains; 
 in the east to a line following the course of the Sankhassi river 
 to its junction with the Ganges and thence in a south-westerly 
 direction to the Narmada. The H. area is bounded on the north 
 by those of Gw., K. , and N. ; on the west by P., S., and G. ; 
 on the south by the M. area, and on the east by 0. and B. 
 
 The Garb waif, Kumaoni and Naipali are apparently dialects 
 of one great language, the area of which is bounded on the south 
 by that of Hindi, on the east by the upper Satlaj, on the west 
 by the upper Sankhassi, and on the north by the higher ranges 
 of the Himalaya. The Garhwali is spoken between the Satlaj and 
 
INTRODUTCION. [[I 
 
 Ganges, the Kumaoni between the Ganges and GrOgarf, the Naipali 
 between the Gogari and Sankhassi. In the following pages these 
 three dialects will be designated by the collective name of Northern 
 Gaudicm. 
 
 The area of the Panjabi nearly covers the province from which 
 it derives its name, extending from the Hindi area in the east 
 to the Indus in the west, and from the lower ranges of the 
 Himalaya in the north to the junction of the five rivers in the 
 south. There are apparently two principal dialects of this lan- 
 guage; viz. the Multani spoken in the Southern Panjab about 
 Multan, and the dialect of the Northern Panjab. P. is spoken by 
 about 12 millions of people distributed over 60000 square miles. 
 
 The Sindhi area lies on both sides of the lower Indus. It 
 meets the Hindi area on the east, and that of the Panjabi on the 
 north, and is bounded by the Kela mountains on the west. The 
 language comprises three principal dialects; the Siraiki spoken in 
 the upper Sindh, north of Haiderabad ; the Lari or dialect of the 
 lower Sindh spoken in the Indus delta and on the sea-coasts; and 
 the Thareli spoken in the Tharu or desert of Eastern Sindh (see 
 Tr. Ilj. It is spoken by about 2 millions of people and over 
 90000 square miles. 
 
 The Gujarati area comprises the provinces of Kacch and 
 Gujarat or the country around the gulf of Kambay. The Kacelif 
 is a distinct dialect, and its true affiliation, whether to Sindhi 
 or Gujarati appears to be still doubtful. Gujarati has seemingly 
 no marked dialectic divisions. It is spoken over 50000 square 
 miles by about 6 millions of people. 
 
 The Marathi area is bounded by the Vindhya mountains on 
 the north, where it joins that of Western Hindi. At their eastern 
 extremity it meets the Eastern Hindi area, whence the line of 
 demarcation runs in a south-westerly direction to the sea-coast near 
 the city of Goa. There are two principal dialects: the Konkani 
 and Dakhani. The former is spoken in the west, in the Konkan 
 or narrow strip of country between the mountains and the 
 
IV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the latter in the north-east in the (so-called) Dakhan or Central 
 India. In the south-east, about Satara and Kolhapur, there is 
 apparently a third variety (Bs. I, 104). Marathi is spoken by about 
 13 millions of people and over 113000 square miles. It should 
 be observed, that in the neighbourhood of the upper Narmada Ma- 
 rathi is contiguous to Eastern Hindi. One gradually merges into 
 the other, and it is impossible, at present, to say exactly where one 
 begins and the other ends. It is certain, however, that E. H. is 
 spoken about Jabalpur. On its south and south-east, respectively, 
 Marathi has the Dravidian languages, the Kanarese and Telugu. 
 
 The Oriya area is bounded on the north by the Subana- 
 rekha river and in the west by a line drawn from the sources of 
 that river in a southerly direction to about Ganjam on the east-coast 
 of India. According to Beanies (I, 118, 106) it is rapidly supplan- 
 ting the old non- Aryan dialects, spoken in the vast tract of moun- 
 tains, lying between its western boundary- line and the eastern 
 limits of the Marathi area. It is spoken by about 5 millions of 
 people over 6 6000 square miles. 
 
 The Bangali area ist nearly coterminous with the province 
 of Bangal , being Jjounded by the Eastern Hindi area on the 
 West. Four princijial varieties of the language are said to exist 
 (Bs. I, 106); one in Eastern Bangal about Silhet and Tipara, an 
 other in Northern Bangal about Dinajpur; one in Southern Bangal 
 about Midnapur and Calcutta, and the principal one in Central 
 Bangal. It is spoken by about 3 6 millions of people over 90000 
 square miles. 
 
 Within the area of Hindi, as previously defined, many diffe- 
 ring dialects are spoken. Their exact number is, at present, un- 
 certain. Eight principal dialectic varieties, howerer, may be distin- 
 guished. Namely, beginning in the West; first, the dialects of Western 
 Rajpiitana* as far as the Aravalli mountains. The principal one is 
 the Marwari or the dialect of the country of the Mars, a Raj- 
 put tribe, spoken about Jodhpur and Jaynagar. Secondly, the dia- 
 lects of Eastern Rajpiitana, spoken about Jaypur and Kotah, on 
 
INTRODUCTION. V 
 
 tin; high lands between the Aravalli mountains and the river Betwa. 
 Thirdly, the Braj Bhasha or the dialect of the upper Doab, spoken 
 on the plains 'of the Jamna and Ganges, about Agra, Mathnra, 
 Delhi, etc. It is so called from Vraj „cow-pen", the name of the 
 district round Brindaban and Mathnra, the birth-place of Krishna. 
 Fourthly, the Kanauji spoken in the lower Doab and Rohilkhand . 
 It takes its name from the old city of Kanauj on the Ganges. 
 Fifthly, the Baiswaxi or dialect of the country of the Bais, a 
 Rajput tribe ; spoken to the north of Allahabad. Its district is 
 nearly coterminous with the province of Audh, whence it is also 
 called Avadhi. In a slightly modified form it is also spoken to 
 the south of Allahabad, in Baghelkhand , the country of the 
 Baghels, an other Rajput tribe. Sixthly, the dialects of the country 
 lying north and south of Banaras, and spoken to beyond Gorahh- 
 pur and Bettiah in the North and to about Jabalpur in the South, 
 where their area is contiguous with that of the Marathi. The 
 principal one is the Bhojpiiri, which is current in the central 
 portion of this tract on both sides of the Ganges between Ba- 
 naras and Chapra. It takes its name from the ancient town of 
 Bhojpur, now a small village, near Buxar, and a few miles south 
 of the Ganges 1 ). Seventhly, the Maithili or the dialect of the district 
 of Tirhut, spoken about Muzaffarpur and Darbhanga. It is called 
 
 1) „It was formerly a place of great importance, as the head- quarters 
 of the large and powerful clan of Rajpoots whose head is the present 
 Maharaja of Doomraon and who rallied round the standard of the grand 
 old chief Kunwar Singh in the mutiny of 1857. Readers of the enter- 
 taining iSair-ul Mutakherin«. will remember how often the Mahomedan 
 Soubas of Azimabad (Patna) found it necessary to chastise the turbulent 
 Zemindars of Bhojpur, and how little the latter seemed to profit by the 
 lesson. It is remarkable that throughout the area of the Bhojpuri lan- 
 guage a spirit of bigoted devotion to the old Hindu faith still exists, and 
 that the proportion of Mahomedans to Hindus is very small. Rajpoots 
 everywhere predominate, together with a caste called Babhana (aTORJ 
 or Bhuinhars (iTJ^Tr = landleute) who appear to be a sort of bastard 
 Brahmins, and concerning whose origin many curious legends are told." 
 Beames J. R. A. S. vol. Ill, p. 484 (new series). 
 
VI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 so after the ancient city of Mithila, the capital of Videha or 
 modern Tirhut (Tirahhukti). Eightly, the Magadh or the dialect 
 spoken to the south of the Ganges between Gaya, Patna and 
 Bhagalpiir. It has its name from the old district of Magadh, 
 now better known as Bihar. 
 
 These dialects naturally divide themselves into two great 
 groups, according to some very marked peculiarities of pronun- 
 ciation and inflexion, etc., which will be noted presently. The first 
 group comprises the western dialects; viz. those of W. and E. 
 Rajputana, of the Braj and ofKanauj. The second group includes 
 the dialects of Banaras, Tirhut and Bihar. The central dialect 
 of Audh and Baghelkhand is of uncertain affiliation. In some 
 points it agrees with the western group (e. g. , in having the 
 W. II. past part, in a or ia, see § 302); but as in most 
 others (e. g., the E. H. future in ah) it exhibits the same 
 peculiarities as the eastern dialects, it appears more appropriate 
 to class it, for the present, with the latter. The eastern group 
 of dialects constitutes, what I have called, the Eastern Hindi lan- 
 guage; the western group the Western Hindi. The latter language 
 is that which most nearly resembles what is commonly known as 
 Hindi, namely the literary or High-Hindi. This latter is merely 
 a modified form of the Braj dialect, which was first transmuted 
 into the Urdu by curtailing the amplitude of its inflexional forms 
 and admitting a few of those peculiar to Panjabi and Mar war i; 
 afterwards Urdu was changed into High-Hindi. The H. II., as 
 distinguished from the Urdu or Hindustani, is a very modern 
 language; but Urdu itself is comparatively modern. It originated 
 during the twelfth century 1 ) in the country around Delhi, the 
 centre of the Muhammedan power. In that spot the Braj dialect 
 comes into contact with the Marwari and Panjabi; and there 
 among the great camps (urdu) of the Muhammedan soldiery in their 
 
 1) The great battle of Panipat near Delhi was fought A. D. 1192. 
 It put an end to the Hindu and established the Muhammedan empire of 
 Delhi. The last Hindu ruler (Prithircij) fell in the battle. 
 
[NTRODUCTION. VI! 
 
 intercourse with the surrounding populations ;i mixed Languagi 
 grew up, which, as regards grammar, is, in the m;iin. Brajj though 
 intermixed with Panjabi and Marwari forms, while as regards 
 vocabulary, it is partly indigenous Hindi, partly foreign (Persian 
 and Arabic). For example, the final long d of strong masculine 
 nouns, where the Braj has au and the Marwari o, is a bit of 
 Panjabi; again the affix lie of the active case is a contribution 
 from Marwari "). Where the Braj has alternative forms, one only 
 was adopted by the Urdu. Thus Braj forms the future either in 
 tiiaum or in av/mgau (1 st pers. sg.); Urdu has retained only the 
 latter in the form umgd, on account (no doubt) of its similarity to 
 the Panjabi dmgd. It was only in the sixteenth century, chiefly in 
 the reign of Akbar, that Urdu was reduced to a cultivated form. 
 With the extension of the Muhammedan power, its use spread over 
 the whole of the Hindi area; but it remained the language of those 
 exclusively who were more immediately connected with that power, 
 either in the army or court or the pursuit of learning; it never 
 became the vernacular of the people. The High-Hindi dates only 
 from the present century. It is an outcome of the Hindu revival 
 under the influence of English Missions and Education. Naturally 
 enough, Urdu, the dominant and official dialect, came to hand in 
 this movement and was Iluidiiised or turned into High-Hindi by 
 exchanging its Persian and Arabic elements for words of native 
 origin (more or less purely Sanskrit). Hence Urdu and High-Hindi 
 are really the same language; they have an identical grammar 
 and differ merely in the vocabulary, the former using as many 
 foreign words, the latter as few as possible. 
 
 It appears , then , that there are three different forms of 
 speech current in the Hindi area; viz. the H.Hindi or Urdu, the 
 W. Hindi, and the E. Hindi. The first of these is nowhere the 
 vernacular of the people, but it is the language of literature, of 
 
 1) The affix of the active case was originally a dative affix, winch 
 ^s in Mr. nc, in P. yum, in Br. kaum, see § 371. 
 
VIII INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the towns, and of the higher classes of the population ; and it 
 takes the form of Urdu among Muhammedans and of Hindi among 
 Hindus; though the difference between these two forms is less 
 marked in the mouth of the people than in the books of the 
 learned. On the other hand, both the W. H. and E. II. are ver- 
 naculars of the people generally. Their boundary line may be 
 roughly set down at about the 80 u degree of E. Longitude. In 
 the area lying to the west of that line and containing about 
 150000 square miles W. H. is spoken by about 40 millions of 
 people, in some one or other of its above mentioned dialectic forms. 
 Among these the Braj Bhasha is the most important, as it is the 
 best known variety. It is not only the source of the Urdu and, 
 through it, of the modern literai-y Hindi, but it has itself received 
 some measure of literary cultivation (see pg. XXXV). In this 
 respect, indeed, the Braj occupies an unique position not only in 
 the W. II., but amongst Hindi dialects generally. In the following 
 pages, whenever W. H. simply is spoken of, the Braj , as being 
 its typical form, is especially intended. 
 
 The E. PI. area, lying to the east of the 80* degree, con- 
 tains about 100000 square miles and a population of about 
 20 millions. Among the various E. H. dialects spoken by these 
 people, that of the Banaras district or the Bhojpuri is the most 
 important. It is the one which is especially referred to in this 
 work by the term Eastern Hindi, and the grammar of which 
 forms more prominently my subject. It must be considered the 
 typical dialect of the E. H. ; for it exhibits all the peculiar fea- 
 tures of that language in their fullest number and most marked 
 form. This is much less the case with the other E. H. dialects. 
 The more westerly, the Baiswari, in some not unimportant points 
 shows the distinctive marks of the W. H. (see pg. VI). On the 
 other hand the easterly, the Maithili especially, exhibit unmistake- 
 able similarities to the neighbouring Bangali and Naipali. Indeed, 
 I am doubtful, whether it is not more correct to class the Maithili 
 .as a Bangali dialect rather than as an E. H. one. Thus in the 
 
INTRODUCTION. I \ 
 
 formation of the past tense, Maithili agrees very closely will) 
 Bangali, while it differs widely from the E. II., Bee § 503. 
 
 Taking, then, the Braj and the Bhojpuri as the two typical 
 dialects of the two great W. II. and E. H. groups respectively, 
 and comparing them with each other, without entirely excluding 
 from consideration the others; a number of very marked peculia- 
 rities present themselves. These, it will be seen, arc so important, 
 especially when considered in their relation to the non-Hindi (i. e., 
 other Gaudian) languages, that it appears perfectly justifiable to 
 consider the W. H. and E. H. as being as completely distinct lan- 
 guages as the other North-Indian languages are universally allowed 
 to be. The following enumeration of differences is not an ex- 
 haustive one. I shall only mention the most important. There 
 are many others which the reader will not fail to note for him- 
 self, as he goes through the grammar. I shall arrange them 
 under the following heads: 1) pronunciation, 2) derivation, 3) in- 
 flexion, 4) construction, 5) vocables. 
 
 Firstly; as to pronunciation: 1) E. H. has a tendency to den- 
 talise cerehral semivowels; thus E. H. often has r and rh for W. II. 
 r or rh; it has also r and sometimes n for W. H. I (see §§ 16. 
 29. 30. 31). 2) While sometimes W. H. omits medial h, E. 11. 
 inserts an euphonic h 1 ). 3) While E. H. never tolerates, W. II. 
 sometimes adds euphonically an initial y or v 2 ). 4) E. II. has 
 the short vowels e, at, o, au which are unknown to W. H. (see 
 §§ 5. 6). 5) E. H. generally prefers to retain the hiatus a'i 
 and aii, while W. II. always contracts them to ai and rat') (see 
 § 68). 
 
 Secondly; as to derivation: 1) the strong form of masc. 
 nouns of the a-base has in E. II. a final a, and of the short form 
 of pronouns a final e, but in W. H. a final au or o (see §§47. 
 
 1) e. g., E. H., dihal he gave, but W. II. did or diyd. 
 
 2) e. g., E. H., e me in this, o me in that, but W. H. yd mem, V& mem. 
 
 3) e.g., E. H., bdithai he sits, W. II. baithe; E. H. aiir and, W.H.aw. 
 
X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 48. 433. 437,4)'). 2) The singular possessive pronoun has in 
 E. II. a medial o, but in \V. II. e or a (see §S 449. 450) 2 ). 
 3) E. II. prefers the weak form in (quiescent) a of masculine 
 nouns with an a-base, W. H. the strong form in au or o 3 ) (see 
 § 205). 4) E. II. prefers the long form (of subst.) in avd or cm, 
 W. H. that in ayd or ai (see § 202) 4 ). (5.) While W. II. uses, 
 as a rule, only the short form of the pronouns, E. II. has gene- 
 rally also a long form in na (see §§ 436. 437, 3) 5 ). 
 
 Thirdly; as to inflexion; and here both as regards declension 
 and conjugation. As to declension: 1) E. H. does not possess the 
 active case of the W. H. formed with the affix ne (see §§ 3 70. 3 71) 6 ). 
 2) The oblique form singular of strong masculine nouns in a 
 has in E. II. a final a, but in W. II. e (see §§ 3 63, 5. 3 6 5, 3. 6) 7 ). 
 Next as to conjugation: 1) the present tense is made in E. II. 
 by adding the auxiliary participle Id to the ancient (Sanskrit) 
 present; in W. H. by adding gd or hai or clihai (see §§ 500. 501) s ). 
 
 2) The past tense is formed in E. H. by means of the suffix al 
 or il, in W. H, by the suffix yau or yo (see §§ 502. 505) u ). 
 
 3) The future tense is made in E. II. by means of the suffix 
 ah or ib, in W. H. by the suffixes ih or as (or, what need not 
 concern us here, by adding the auxiliary participles gau or go 
 to the ancient present) (see §§ 508. 509) ,0 ). 4) While E. H. 
 
 1) E. H bhald good, W. H. bhalau or bhalo; E. II. je which, W. H. 
 jau or jo. 
 
 2) E. EL mori (fern.) mine, but W. H. inert or mdri. 
 
 3) e. g., E. H. bar great, W. H. barau; E. H. mor mine, W. H. merau; 
 E. II. det giving, W. H. (Mw.) deto, E. II. partial read, W. II. parhyau. 
 
 4) e. g., E. II. iram'vd or ramau Ram, W. II ramayd or ramai. 
 
 5) e. g., E. II. se or tavan he, W. H. only so. 
 
 6) e. g., E. H. a kailcs he did, W. H. vd ne liyau. 
 
 1) e. g., E. II. gen. ghord hai, W- H. ghore kau of nom. ghord horse. 
 
 8) e. g., E. BE. twld lie becomes, W. II. haigd or hvaihai or hvaicliliai. 
 
 9) e. g., E. H. rahal he remained, W. H. rahyau. 
 
 10) e. g., E. II. tcarabom I shall do, W. H. karihaum or karamm (or 
 kevraumgau). 
 
INTRODUCTION. \! 
 
 possesses the infinitive in ab or ib in common with W. 11., it does 
 not share with it that in an (see § 261) *)• 
 
 Fourthly; as regards construction, there is one great differ* n< e, 
 that, in the case of the past tense of transitive verhs, E. II. 
 possesses a regular active construction with a proper active past 
 tense, whereas W. H. uses a passive construction with the help 
 of the active case (in ne) of the subject; (see §§ 371. 487). 
 
 Fifthly ; as regards the vocabulary, some of the commonest 
 and most important vocables are altogether different. Thus the 
 (so-called) substantive verb is in E. H. 3. sing, present bdtai he is. 
 past rahal he was, in W. H. pres. hai (or chhai), past tho (or ho 
 or chho); again the prohibitive particle is in E. II. j'ni, in W. II. 
 mat', again the causative post- position is in E. II. bade or bare 
 for the sake of, in W. II. liyc. 
 
 These differences are sufficiently radical in themselves, to 
 establish the claim of the E. II. to be considered a distinct lan- 
 guage from W. H. But their importance will be seen still more 
 clearly, if we now examine them in their relation t to the eastern 
 and western Gaudian languages; setting aside, for the present 
 those of the north (Naipali) and south (Marathi). To the east of 
 the combined E. II. and W. H. area are Bangali and Oriya; to the 
 west Panjabi, Gujarat! and Sindhi. On comparing these languages 
 with W. H. and E. H., it appears that B. and 0. have in common 
 with the latter all those peculiarities in which it differs from the 
 former; and that P., G. and S. share with the former all (or 
 nearly all) those peculiarities in which it differs from the latter. 
 Thus all the languages of the former class (i. e. E. II., B., 0.) 
 show a preference for n over /; and of at and ail over at and au\ 
 they do not tolerate an initial y or v; and possess the short e 
 and o\ their short pronouns have a final e and their possessive 
 pronouns a medial o; most of their pronouns have an alternative 
 long form in na, and their masculine nouns of the a-base, gene- 
 
 1) e. g., E. H. karab doing, W. II. karabaum or karanaum. 
 
Ml INTRODUCTION. 
 
 rally, the weak form in 5; they have no active case ; their oblique 
 form singular of strong masculine nouns in a ends in a\ their 
 past tense is made with 11 and their future tense and infinitive 
 with lb\ and lastly they construct actively tiie past tense of tran- 
 sitive verhs. Only in the present tense do 13. and 0. differ from 
 E. II. in that they form no compound tense like it, but only use 
 the simple ancient present tense; a form which they have in 
 common not only with E. II., but (as will be shown further on, 
 pg. XXXII) with all Gd. languages. 
 
 The case of W PI. in respect to P., G. and S. is precisely 
 similar. They all prefer r, I, to r and n\ and al and an to at 
 and au\ in certain cases they make use of initial // and v, but 
 have no short e and o; their strong masculine nouns and short 
 pronouns end in o ); their pronouns have no long form in na 2 ), 
 and, as a rule, their masculine nouns have the strong form in o 
 or aw, they have an active case made with »e 3 ), and an oblique 
 form singular in c 4 ) of strong masculine nouns in o (or P. a) ', 
 they make their past tense with the suffix ya or ia, and an in- 
 finitive with an ; lastly they all construct passively the past tense 
 of transitive verbs. Besides, G. and P., like W. H., form the pre- 
 sent tense by adding the auxiliary verb chkai or hai, and the 
 future by the suffixes ill or as\ and their singular possessive pro- 
 nouns have, as in W. H., a medial c or a. In these three points S. 
 follows a way of its own, different, however, from both the others. 
 
 Although , therefore , the agreement is not quite perfect 
 within each of the two groups 5 ), yet it is complete in the most 
 
 1) Exc, P. strong masc. nouns end in d) G. short pron. end in c, 
 exc. so who. 
 
 2) Exc. relat. pron. Icon in W. II., P., G., but not in S. 
 
 3) Exc., S. and Mw. use no affix with the active case. 
 
 4) Exc., G. and Mw. and partially Br. and Kn. in a. 
 
 5) The agreement is much more complete in the E. than in the W. 
 group. This circumstance is significant, on account of its bearing on the 
 probable history of their respective immigration into and occupation of 
 North-India (see pg. XXXII). 
 
INTRODUCTION. XIII 
 
 important points. These are the six following, of which the fivo 
 first are morphological and the sixth syntactical; viz. 1) the form 
 of masculine nouns of an a-base, whether weak or strong; 2) the 
 termination of such strong masculine nouns, whether in a or o; 
 3) their oblique form singular, whether ending in d or c; 4) the 
 suffix of the past tense, whether al or ya\ 5) the suffix of the 
 future, whether rib or ih (or as); 6) the construction of the past 
 tense, whether actively or passively. Even in regard to the minor 
 points, the divergences are mostly confined to S., which is the 
 most outlying of the Gaudiau languages. 
 
 There are two conclusions which are obviously suggested by 
 that agreement. In the first place; E. H. has evidently a much 
 closer resemblance to B. and 0., than to W. H.; and on the other 
 hand, W. H. is much more nearly allied to P., G. and S., than 
 to E. H. Whence it follows, that since B. and 0. are accounted 
 separate languages from E. H., and P., G. and S. from W. H., 
 a fortiori E. H. and W. H. must be considered as distinct lan- 
 guages, and not merely as dialects of one and the same. Indeed, 
 the only two points of any importance, in which E. H. agrees 
 with W. H. rather than with B. and 0. are; 1) the oblique form 
 singular in c of strong masculine adjectives in a (see § 38 6), 
 which adjectives the latter do not possess at all; and 2) the first 
 preterite tense made with the past participle in ya or ia (see 
 502. 503), which they form a little differently 1 ), but which, strictly, 
 belongs not so much to E. H. , as to the intermediate dialect, 
 the Baiswari. 
 
 The second conclusion is, that the languages whose affinities 
 have been hitherto discussed, divide themselves into two large 
 groups or two great forms of speech; the one extending over the 
 eastern half of North-India and comprisingE.11., B. and 0.; the 
 other covering its western half and including W. II., P., G. and S. 
 
 1) e. g., E. II. porhy&m I read, 15. parMydchhi, O. parhiacKhum, bat 
 
 W. H. parhyau. 
 
XIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 These two great forms of speech I designate in this ti-eatise the 
 Eastern Gaudian and the Western Gaudian speeches or groups of 
 languages. The close resemhlance of the various members of these 
 two groups among themselves clearly points to a time, when those 
 two forms of speech were nothing more than distinct languages, 
 and what we now know as separate languages, were merely their 
 different dialects. 
 
 We have now to consider, what relation the two remaining 
 Gaudian languages, viz. Marathi and Naipalf, hear to those two 
 great forms of speech, the E. Gd. and the W. Gd. On examining 
 their affinities with respect to the points discussed above, it will 
 be found, that they each occupy a distinct position , yet so that 
 Marathi is rather more nearly allied to E. Gd. ; and Naipali to 
 W. Gd. Their position as forms of speech distinct from both E. Gd. 
 and W. Gd., is founded chiefly on these two facts: 1) that with 
 respect to some of the points, in which E. and W. Gd. differ 
 from one another, M. and N. sometimes agree with one, some- 
 times with the other; and 2) that in some other points they 
 agree with neither, but follow a line of their own. 
 
 Thus as regards Marathi, it agrees with E. Gd. in the fol- 
 lowing points: 1) the termination d of the strong masculine nouns 
 of the a-base (see § 48); 2) the final d of their oblique form 
 singular 1 ); 3) the formation of the past tense by the suffix al 
 (see § 505); and 4) the formation of the future by the addition 
 of the auxiliary participle la to the ancient present (see § 509). 
 This last point requires a word of explanation. It will be remem- 
 bered (see pg. X and VII) that this compound form, which serves 
 in M. as a future, is used in E. H. as a present, and that a 
 similar compound form, made up of the auxiliary participle (ja 
 and the ancient present, is used in W. H. as a present tense, 
 and in P. (and H. H.) as a future (see § 501). Now these circum- 
 
 1) e - £•> g en - ghodyd did of ghodd horse; vichvd chd of vichi'i scor- 
 pion; pdnyd chd of pn'ni water. 
 
INTRODUCTION. X V 
 
 stances show, that the compound form in ga is W. Grd., and the 
 other in hi E. Grd. 
 
 On the other hand, M. agrees with W. (id. in the following 
 points: 1) the pronunciation generally (see §§ 11. 1 6. 18); 2) the o 
 termination of the short pronouns (see § 43 7, 3. 4); 3) the ab- 
 sence of the pronouns of a long form in na\ exc. the interog. 
 pron. kon who; 4) the strong form, generally, of masculine nouns 
 of the a-lmsc (see § 2 05); 5) the long form in ayd of the same 
 nouns (see § 202); 6) the active case formed with nc (see § 371); 
 
 7) an infinitive made with the suffix an (see § 3 20); and lastly 
 
 8) the passive construction of the past tense (see § 487). It will 
 be observed that of those six characteristics which have been 
 noted as being the most important points of difference between 
 the E. Gd. and W. Gd., M. agrees with the former in four, and 
 with the latter only in two. Having regard to this circumstance, 
 M. must be considered to rank with the E. Gd. rather than with 
 the W. Gd. group. Moreover, of the two points in which M. 
 agrees with W. Gd., one is syntactical, while all four points which 
 it has in common with E. Gd., are morphological. This shows still 
 more clearly the E. Gd. character of M. ; for languages are classi- 
 fied according to their morphological characteristics *). 
 
 Further, the points which are peculiar to M. are the fol- 
 lowing: 1) its pronunciation of the palatals, as ts, dz, etc. (see 
 § 11), and its disaspiration of a medial aspirate (see § 145.exe. 2., 
 e. g., vicMt scorpion for vichhii) ; 2) its possession of a peculiar 
 form of the singular possessive pronoun (see §§450.430, 5)"); 
 
 1) This is illustrated by an observation which Bs. I, 102 quotes from 
 a native author (Shastri Vrajlal Kalidas in his History of the Gujarat i 
 Language pg. 50): „If a native from the North (speaking W. Hindi) comes 
 into Gujarat, the Gujarati people find no difficulty in understanding his 
 language; but when people from the South (speaking Marathi) come to 
 Gujarat, the Gujarati people do not in the least comprehend what they say." 
 The reason simply is, that although syntacticelly G. does not differ either 
 from M. or W. H., yet in its morphological characters it differs widely 
 fi*om M., while it agrees very closely with W. II. 
 
 2) e. g., M. mdjhd mine, but E. Gd. mor, W. Gd. merau or m&ro, 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 3) of a distinct oblique form singular of all nouns (see § 3 63) 1 ); 
 
 4) of a peculiar present resembling closely in form that tense 
 which, in common with all other Gd. languages, it uses as a pre- 
 terite subjunctive (see § 501); and 5) of a peculiar conjunctive 
 participle in iin (see § 4 91). For these reasons, as well as be- 
 cause, with respect to the points before referred to, M. is neither 
 decidedly E. Gd. nor W. Gd., it must be considered to constitute 
 a group by itself. This third group will be called in this trea- 
 tise, the Southern Gaudian speech. 
 
 The case of Naipali (including Garhwali and Kumaoni) very 
 much resembles that of Marathi. It agrees with W. Gd. in the 
 following points: 1) the final o of the strong masculine nouns of 
 the a-base (see § 48); 2) the final o of the short pronouns (see 
 § 43 7, 3. 4); 3) the medial e of the singular possessive pronouns 
 (see §450); 4) the preference of the strong form in nouns of 
 the a-base; 5) the possession of an active case made the affix le 
 (= ne of the W. Gd., see § 371); 6) the formation of the pre- 
 sent by adding the auxiliary verb ehha to the ancient tense (see 
 §5 01); 7) of the past by the suffix yo or iyo (see §§ 3 05. 503); 
 and 8) of the infinitive by the suffix an (see § 320). 
 
 On the other hand, N. agrees with E. Gd. in the following 
 points; 1) the pronunciation generally 2 ); 2) the final a of the oblique 
 form singular of strong masculine nouns of the a-basc (see § 3 63) 3 ); 
 and 3) the formation of the future by adding the auxiliary par- 
 ticiple Id to the ancient present tense (as in the M. future and 
 the E. H. present, see pg. X, XIV and § 509); and 4) the active 
 construction of the past tense of transitive verbs (see § 487). 
 Here again it will be observed that of the six important points 
 before mentioned, N. agrees with the W. Gd. in three, and with 
 the E. Gd. in three; but while of the former all three, of the 
 
 1) e. g., ghard of ghar house; Icavi of kavi poet; guru of guru teacher; 
 ghodyd of glmld horse; vichvd of vichil scorpion; pdngd of pant water. 
 
 2) e. g., often n for 7; short e and 3. 
 
 3) e. g., gen. sg. Jcurd Jco of fcwo^word. 
 
INTRODUCTION. XVII 
 
 latter only two are morphological characters. It follows accor- 
 dingly that N. is more closely allied to the W. Gd. than to the 
 E. Gd. group of languages. 
 
 Further, N. stands hy itself in the following points: 1) the 
 aspiration, in certain cases, of a medial consonant ) ; 2) the sof- 
 tening, occasionally, of an initial hard consonant 2 ); 3) the active 
 affix Ic. These are not very important matters; hut taken to- 
 gether with the other fact, that in the six main points N. is di- 
 vided in its affinity between the W. and E. Gd., they show that 
 it must be looked upon as constituting a separate group of its 
 own , which I shall call in this treatise the Northern Gaudian 
 speech. Perhaps the circumstance which brings out most clearly 
 that b,°th M. and N. are really separate forms of speech as well as 
 the W. and E. Gd. is this: that, as regards the past tense of tran- 
 sitive verbs, M. agrees morphologically (suffix at) with E. Gd., 
 but syntactically (passive constr.) with W. Gd., while on the other 
 hand N. agrees morphologically (suff. ya or ia) with W. Gd., but 
 syntactically (active constr.) with E. Gd. 
 
 The result, then, so far arrived at is, that there are four 
 great forms of speech, occupying the whole of North-India (viz. 
 N. Gd., W. Gd., S. Gd., and E. Gd.). At a former period each 
 constituted a single language. They have gradually broken up 
 into varieties which in the W. Gd. and E. Gd. have already 
 become distinct languages, while in the N. Gel. and S. Gd. they are 
 as yet no more than dialects. Further, it has appeared that these 
 four great forms of speech naturally divide themselves into tzvo 
 greater groups: one comprising the N. Gd. and W. Gd., the other 
 the S. Gd. and E. Gd. This circumstance, then, points to a still 
 more remote period in the glottic history of India, when there 
 
 1) Apparently only when there was originally a double consonant; 
 e. g., N. dphu self, for H. dp, Pr. appd\ N. dghi before, for II. age, Pr. agge; 
 N. bdlakh child, for H. bdlak, Pr. valaJcko; N. majhad for II. mdjat, Pr. 
 majjanto, etc.; see S. Luke 1, 17. 24.41. 11, 39. 
 
 2) e. g., root gar to do for l;ar. 
 
XVIII I N TRODUCTION. 
 
 were only two great varieties of speech current in North India, 
 which divided that country diagonally between them; the one 
 occupying the north-western, the other the south-eastern half. 
 These two greater glottic divisions I shall designate, for reasons 
 to be explained presently, the Sauraseni Prakrit tongue and the 
 MdgadM Prakrit tongue respectively. 
 
 The oldest Prakrit grammar, which we possess (that of 
 Vararuchi, 1 st cent. B. C.) enumerates four varieties of Prakrit; 
 viz. the Prakrit proper, the Sauraseni, the Magadhi and the 
 Paisachi. /The first of these is commonly called the Maharashtri 
 (now Marathi); the Sauraseni (now Braj) and Magadhi (now 
 Bihari) take their names from the provinces which form the cen- 
 tres of the W. Gd. and E. Gd. areas respectively; the Paisachi is 
 ascribed by some later Pr. grammarians ') to Nepal among other 
 places. Hence it might be thought, that those four ancient Prakrit 
 varieties are coordinate forms of speech and correspond to the 
 four Gaudian speeches. This view, however plausible at first sight, 
 is certainly erroneous. The whole subject of the relation of the 
 Prakrits, as learned from the old native writers, to the Gaudians, 
 as known to us by actual experience , is involved in much con- 
 fusion and obscurity, partly because of the sometimes uncertain, 
 sometimes (seemingly) contradictory statements of those authors, 
 partly on account of the apparent discrepancy in phonological aud 
 morphological characters between the Prakrits and the Gaudians. 
 The most probable account of the matter seems to be the fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 There are in reality only two varieties of Prakrit. One in- 
 cludes the Sauraseni and the (so-called) Maharashtri. These are said 
 to be the prose and poetic phases of the same variety, and even this 
 distinction is, probably, artificial. The other is the Magadhi. The 
 relation of Paisachi to these two varieties may be roughly de- 
 scribed as that of Low or Vulgar to High-Prakrit. The latter 
 
 1) e. g., by Lakshmidhara in his Shadbhasha Chandrika, see Ls. 13. 
 
INTRODUCTION. \l\ 
 
 was used in literature, and never strictly ;i spoken language; it was 
 more or less artificial from the very beginning, and became still 
 more so in course of time. On the other hand, the Low- Prakrit 
 (or Paisachi) was the spoken language of the people; that is, pro- 
 bably in the beginning, of those aborigines, who fell under the 
 domination and influence of the Aryan immigrants, and in whose 
 mouth the Aryan vernacular was distorted into Paisachi. For that 
 name is a term of contempt; the uncouth dialect of the savages 
 or cannibals, as the Aryans called it. It is ascribed by the native 
 grammarians to the tribes, bordering on the Aryan area in the 
 north (Himalaya, Nepal) and south (Pandya, Dakhan) '). Again 
 the most striking feature of the Paisachi is its change of the 
 Aryan n, I and the sonants into n, I and the surds respectively, 
 which latter are peculiar to the Dravidian languages. According to 
 Caldwell (Cp. Gr. p. 102 — 105) those languages had originally no 
 sonant mutes. The Dra vidians, therefore, when adopting Aryan 
 speech, would naturally mispronounce its sonants as surds. All this 
 time, of course, the Aryan immigrants had their own vernacular, 
 understanding by that term the spoken language of the people as 
 distinguished from its literary form. Gradually as the aboriginal 
 population were amalgamated by the Aryan immigrants, the pecu- 
 liarities of its Paisachi speech would naturally die out 2 ); and the 
 Aryan vernacular, incorporating whatever in the Dravidian speech 
 was capable of assimilation, would remain the sole occupant of the 
 field. This Aryan vernacular is called by the Pr. grammarians 
 the Apabhramsa Prakrit, as being in their opinion a corrupted 
 language in comparison with what they considered the purer, the 
 
 1) e. g., Lakshnn'dhara in the Shadbhasha Chandrika says: pisacha- 
 desas tu vrddhair uktah, pandya kekaya vahlika saliva nepala kuntalah, 
 
 sudesha bhota gandhara haiva kanojanas tatha. Ls. 13. 
 
 2) None of the Gaudians show any trace of the Paisachi change of 
 sonants into snrds though some have the n and Z; nor is any 8] icimen oi 
 Paisachi found in the Pr. plays (Ls. 388); the ancient Brhatkatha of Gu- 
 nadhya is supposed to have been written in a Paisachi dialect (see Pischel 
 Diss, inaug. 32. 33). Pais, clearly died out at a very early period. 
 
XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 literary Prakrit (i. e., the Mh.-Sr. and the Mg.). In reality it was 
 merely the illiterate vernacular of the people spoken hy the side 
 of the literary Sauraseni and Miigadhi, and certainly more ancient 
 than the literary Maharashtri 2 ). It follows, then, that the verna- 
 cular of the Aryans when spoken by themselves is the Apabhramsa, 
 and when spoken hy the aborigines, the Paisachi. The Apabhramsa, 
 however, of the Pr. grammarians exhibits the Aryan vernacular, as 
 it was at a rather later period than that in which it became 
 Paisachi in the mouth of the aborigines 2 ). Of the oldest Aryan 
 vernacular (the Ancient Apabhramsa, as I may call it) which was 
 the contemporary of Paisachi and probably not greatly different 
 from it, we have no record ; unless , indeed, it he the Pali. In 
 order of time, therefore, Ps. comes first, next the Ap. Pr., lastly 
 Gd, ; but in order of descent the series is: Anc. Ap. (or Pali), 
 Ap. Pr., Gd. 3 ). 
 
 1) Compare e. g. the past part. pass. Sr. and early Ap. kadhido or ka- 
 hido, Mg. kadhide or kahide, Mh. kahio, later Ap. kahiu ,.said'. 
 
 2) In the time of the later Pr. gramm., at all events, the knowledge 
 of what Ps. really was, had become lost. Though, following old tradition, 
 they all give the rules of Ps.; yet when they treat of its relation to the 
 Ap., they are constantly confounding the two, and sometimes even invent 
 an altogether new signification for Ps. , making it equivalent to certain 
 (more or less pure Skr.) styles of Ap. (e. g., R. T. in Ls. 23. & Exc. 6). — 
 The chronological succession of the Pr. gramm. is still far from settled 
 (see PI. Diss.), but Hemachandra in the 12 th century A. I)., is probably the 
 earliest grammarian, who mentions the Ap., while the first who notices 
 the Ps. is Vararuchi in the 1 st cent. B. C. (see Cw. VI), if not earlier. From 
 this fact, however, it must not be concluded, that no Ap. existed in the 
 time of Vararuchi. For the Ap. Pr. (even as known by H. C.) has some 
 older forms than the Mh. Pr. , and the latter is already treated of by 
 Vararuchi. The reason of his omitting all mention of any Ap. was pro- 
 bably, that he intended to treat merely of the high or literary Pr. varie- 
 ties; and, of course, there would be a literary Ps. Pr. variety, whenever 
 the aborigines had to deal with High-Prakrit. 
 
 3) Pais, or Pal. or Anc. Ap. kathito, Ap. Pr. kadhido or. kahido, 
 W. Gd. kahio or kahyo said; Ps. rutito. Anc. Ap. rudito, Ap. roido, W.Gd. 
 ro'io or royo wept; Pal. gamito, Ap. Mg. gamide or Ap. Sr. gamido, E. Gd. 
 ga'il or geld or W. Gd. gaio or gayo. 
 
INTRODUCTION. X \ I 
 
 I have spoken of the Apabhramsa or Aryan vernacular. But 
 it must not be supposed that it was everywhere identical. The 
 Aryan immigration gradually extended over an area, too wide to 
 remain the home of one single form of speech. Accordingly the 
 term Apabhramsa must be understood to be the collective name 
 of several Aryan vernaculars, spoken in various parts of North 
 India. It is invariably used in this sense by Pr. grammarians. 
 They always define it to mean the language of „the Abhiras and 
 other similar people" 1 ), i. e., briefly, of the lower orders, which 
 constitute the mass of the population everywhere. In their enu- 
 meration of the various Ap. , each of the provincial languages 
 (as we now call them) occurs; e. g., Abhiri (Sindhi , Marwari), 
 Avanti (E. Rajputani) , Gaurjari (Gujarati) , Bahlika (Panjabi), 
 Sauraseni (W. Hindi), Magadhi or Prachya (E. Hindi), Odri (Oyiya), 
 Gaudi (Bangali) , Dakshinatya or Vaidarbhika (Marathi) and 
 Saippali (Naipali?) 2 ). 
 
 It will be noticed that in the above list the same Saura- 
 seni and Magadhi Prakrits are enumerated by the Pr. grammarians 
 as Apabhramsas or vernaculars, which they elsewhere treat of as 
 literai'y or High-Prakrits. On the other hand, it will be noted 
 that the (so-called) Maharashtri Prakrit does not occur in this 
 list at all; nor, indeed, is it found in any list of Apabhramsas 
 or vernaculars. This shows plainly that the Mb.. Pr. was not 
 looked upon as the vernacular of any people, and that it did not 
 take its name from the Maharashtra (or Maratha) country. In- 
 deed, it is doubtful, by what right that name is given to the 
 particular form of Pr. , which commonly bears it. In the oldest 
 Pr. grammar of Vararuchi it is never so called, except once in- 
 
 1) Thus L. Dh. in the Sh. Ch.: apabhramsas tu hhdshd sydd abhird- 
 digirdm chayah (Ls. 12). The Abhirs, or Ahirs as they are now called, are 
 a tribe, members of which are found in every part of North -India. They 
 are cowherds hy profession, but are considered by the natives to be a 
 „good" (Aryan) caste, a sort of inferior Rajputs. 
 
 2) See the lists of K. I. and R. T. in Ls. 18. & Exc. 5. 7. 
 
XXII INTRODUCTION. 
 
 cidentally at the end of the chapter on Sauraseni 1 ). Again it is 
 to he remarked that the great grammarians of the West and South, 
 Hemachandra, Trivikrama and Subhachandra, who must have been 
 familiar with the living Marathi vernacular, avoid the name alto- 
 gether. The dialect in question is called by them simply the 
 Prakrit. They, probably, felt that the name was misleading. It is 
 only in the Pr. grammarians of the East, Kramaclesvara, Markandeya, 
 Lakshmidhara, Ramatarkavagfsa, etc., that the name Maharashtri i.s 
 distinctly given to the dialect and connected with the Maharashtra 
 country 2 ). This goes far beyond what is justified by Vararuchi's 
 incidental use of the term. The probability is that they misunder- 
 stood his meaning. For he seems to use the term not as a proper 
 name, but as a laudatory or descriptive expression, meaning „the 
 Prakrit of the great kingdom" (i. e., of the famed country of the 
 Doab and Rajputana, see note 1 on p. XXV) and therefore the 
 principal Prakrit. According to this view the term Maharashtri 
 is not far from synonymous with what we now call Western Hindi. 
 At all events, whatever interpretation may be given to the term, 
 there can be no doubt that, as a matter of fact, the dialect so 
 called is Western Hindi, and has no one point in common with 
 Marathi, in which the latter differs from Western Hindi (or W. 
 Gaudian generally). Thus the Mh. Pr. past participle is made 
 with ia (or ya) as in W. H., not with al as in M., the future 
 is made with ilia as in W. H., not with the auxiliary participle la 
 as in M.; and the same is true, as will be shown afterwards 
 (p. XXVII), in regard to the termination of masculine nouns with 
 an a-base and to the oblique form or genitive singular. Thus in 
 
 1) After finishing his remarks on the Sr., he says: „the rest of that 
 dialect is like the Maharashtri" (sesham mdhdrdshtrivat Vr. 12,20); whence 
 it is rightly concluded that by the name Mh. he refers to that Pr. dialect, 
 which he had before treated of simply as the Prakrit. 
 
 2) Thus K. I. or rather his commentator: „the Prakrit of the Ma- 
 harashtra country is the principal Prakrit" {prdltrtam mahdrdshtradesiyam 
 prakrshtabhdshdyam); in Ls. 17. 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXIIT 
 
 four out of the five important morphological points Mh. Pr. agrees 
 with W. H., and not with M. ; the remaining point (the strong 
 form of masculine nouns of an a-base), being common to both 
 W. H. and M., is of no account in the question. It appears, then, 
 that the Mh. Pr. is" merely a particular form of ancient W. H., 
 or rather since W. H. has become a distinct language in more 
 recent times, of W. Gd. And Sr. Pr., as its name indicates (Sii- 
 rasena being nearly the same as Braj), is another form of the 
 same. Together they represent tho old W. Gd. speech. This fact 
 is iudicated by the peculiar manner of their use in the Pr. plays. 
 For they are not employed as the languages of different peoples, 
 but of different kinds of composition, Mh. for poetry, the Sr. 
 for prose 1 ). 
 
 It has been already remarked that Pr. grammarians enu- 
 merate among the Apabhramsas or vernaculars a Magadhi and a 
 Sauraseni Apabhramsa. The two great Pr. varieties, the Magadhi 
 and the Sauraseni -Maharashtri, are simply the high or literary 
 forms of these two low or Apabhramsa ones. They are, probably, 
 to some extent artificial ; yet there can hardly be a doubt — as the 
 following comparison will show — that they have retained the 
 leading peculiarities of the two vernaculars, of which they are 
 the refinements. 
 
 The fact that these two vernaculars, the Mg. Ap. and the 
 Sr. Ap., have furnished both the substratum and the name for 
 the two great High-Pr. varieties, proves that they were the two 
 leading vernaculars of North-India, typical of all the others. Ac- 
 cordingly we find that Pr. grammarians (as Markandeya, etc.) 
 arrange the eastern dialects in a great group around the Mg. Pr. 
 as their type. Among those which they name as its members, 
 the following are the most important: the Magadhi, Arddhama- 
 
 1) Thus Visvanatha Kaviraja in the Sahityadarpana says: „noble and 
 educated women, speaking in prose, are to use Sr., but Mh". in speaking 
 in verse" (see Ls. 35). 
 
XXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 gadhi, Dakshinatya, Utkali, and Sabari ). Magadhi is the speech of 
 modern Bihar and (western) Bangui, and corresponds generally to the 
 present Bangali (inch of the E. H. dialects, the Mtigadh and Mai- 
 thili). Arddhamagadhi is described as a mixture of Magadhi and 
 Sauraseni (or Maharashtri) 2 ) ; it follows that it must have been 
 spoken to the west of Magadhi, that is, in the Banaras district; 
 it corresponds, therefore, to the Bhojpuri or the E. H. proper. 
 Dakshinatya is the speech of Vidarbha, the modern Berar 3 ) and 
 adjoining districts. It corresponds, therefore, to the Dakhani, one 
 of the principal dialects of the present Marathi, and thus to this 
 language generally 4 ). Utkali is the speech of what is now called 
 Orissa, and corresponds to the modern Oriya. Sabari is the name 
 of the dialect spoken in the country lying between that occupied 
 by Dakshinatya on the one side and Magadhi and Utkali on the 
 other (about the town of Ratnapur and the Mohar mountains). 
 It will be seen, then, that the Mg. group of the Pr. grammarians 
 consists of wbat we call now the Bangali, Eastern Hindi, Oriya 
 and Marathi languages, at a time when, probably, they were still 
 dialects only of one great speech. Or, in other words, the old Mg. 
 group includes both (what I call) the eastern and southern Gau- 
 dian speeches. Accordingly I have given to the two combined the 
 name of the Magadhi Prakrit tongue. 
 
 In like manner, the same grammarians arrange the western 
 dialects in a great group around the Sr.-Mh. Pr. as their type. 
 
 1) So R. T. in the Prakrit Kalpataru; see Ls. 21. 
 
 2) Md. quotes a saying of Bharata, that it is like Sr. (saurasenyd 
 aduratvdd iyam cva arddhamagadhi iti bharata; 12 th pada, fol. 49); and 
 K. I. 12 (see Ls. 17. 393) connects it with the Mh. (mdhdrdshtrimisrdrddha- 
 mdgadhi). The description of E. H. as Arddhamagadhi, i. e. half magadhi, 
 is a very good one ; for E. H. has affinities with both Bangali (= Magadhi) 
 and Western Hindi (= Maharashtri-Saui'aseni). 
 
 3) So in the S. D. : ddkshindtyd vaidarbhi (see L. 3(3. 20). 
 
 4) Dakshinatya is used to the present day in North India as a syno- 
 nym for Marathi; e. g., Marathi Brahinans are generally known only as 
 Dakshinatya Brahinans. 
 
INTRODUCTION. XX V 
 
 The most important members of this group are the Miiharushtri, 
 Sauraseni, Avanti, Prachya, and Sakki. The Maharashtri and Sau- 
 raseni togetlier represent W. Hindi: but as the future in ih is 
 peculiar to Mh., and the fat. in is to Sr. (see Ls. 3 5 3, 4.), and 
 on the other hand the Br. and Kn. have the fut. in ih, but Mw. 
 the fut. in as (or is), it appears that Mh. corresponds to Br. and 
 Kn., to which may be added Eastern Panjabi, while Sr. corresponds 
 to Mw., and also to G. as having the same future in as (or is) 1 ). 
 Avanti is the speech of Ujjain and Eastern Rajputana. Prachya, 
 as its name indicates, is the most eastern member of the group 
 and, probably, corresponds to Baiswari 2 ). Sakki is, probably, the 
 speech of Sindh and the Western Panjab 3 ). Thus it appears that 
 the Mh.-Sr. group consists of what we now call "Western Hindi, 
 Gujarati, Panjabi and Sindhi. To these, for reasons previously 
 stated, Naipali must be added. In other words, the Mh.-Sr. group 
 represents the Western and Northern Gaudian speeches ; and accor- 
 dingly I have called the two combined the Sauraseni Prakrit tongue. 
 
 1) Siirasena is the name of the country about Mathura or of the 
 Vraj; but it must be remembered that Sr. an&Mh. are with the Pr. gram- 
 marians not exactly the names of local, but of prose and poetic dialects. 
 Vararuchi (or Kafyayana, the author of the Vartikas on Panini, see PI. 12), 
 in whose Pr. grammar the term Mh. first occurs, lived according to Hindu 
 tradition about 56 B. C. at the court of the „ great king" Vikramaditya 
 (see Cw. VI), whose dominions included the whole of N. W. India. The 
 principal ^speech of that great country" or Maharashtri, as t Vr. calls it, 
 was taken by him, and after him by all Pr. grammarians, as the standard 
 Prakrit. 
 
 2) Prachya is explained in the S. D. as being equivalent to Gaudi 
 {prachya gaudiyd, see Ls. 36) or, apparently, Bangali. But, on the other 
 hand, Md. makes Prachya to be an offshoot of Sauraseni (prdchy&siddhih 
 saurasenydh 10th p ada, fol. 47); while, according to Dandi (seeLs.33), the 
 Gaudi follows the Mg. type. Besides, in another place, in a list of Apabh- 
 ramsas, both Md. and R. T. (see Ls. Exc. 7) distinguish the Pracha from 
 the Gaudi. If, then, the Gaudi is of the Sr. type, it can hardly be anything 
 else than the Baiswari, the intermediate dialect between E. Gd. and W. Gd. 
 
 3) Sakki is apparently the language of the Sakas (lat. sacae, Scythians) 
 who overran W. India and were defeated in a great battle by Vikrama- 
 ditya. In Sindh, many names of villages and towns contain the name Saka ; 
 e. g., the town Sakkar on the Indus. 
 
XXVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Mg.Pr., then, coincides with S.-E. Gd. and Sr. Pr. withN.-W. Gd. 
 in their geographical limits. It remains to he shown that they do 
 so philologically also. It must be remarked in limine, 1 ) that the 
 particulars noted by the Pr. grammarians with resj>ect to the va- 
 rious Apabhramsas are extremely scanty and, for the most part, 
 only phonological. From this it may be justly concluded — what, 
 indeed, is probable a priori — that the Aps. did not materially 
 differ from their respective High-Pr. forms in their great mor- 
 phological and phonological features; 2) that the silence of the 
 Pr. grammarians as to any particular peculiarity, now found in 
 modern vernaculars, does not necessarily prove its non-existence 
 in their time; for they note only those peculiarities of Pr., which 
 they could, satisfactorily to themselves, trace to a Skr. origin; 
 all others they simply left unnoticed as being desya (see p. XXXVII) : 
 3) that the dialect which is treated of by Pr. gramm., such as 
 Hemachandra, simply as Apabhramsa , probably occupied in the 
 western division a position analogous to that of the other which is 
 spoken of simply as Prakrit; i. e., one is the Apabhramsa as the 
 other is the Prakrit 1 ). But, as in the case of the Pr., so also in 
 the case of the Ap. it must, no doubt, be understood, that its 
 rules, unless where the contrary is expressly stated, extend to all 
 other Aps. also. 
 
 "We now proceed to the examination. Of the already men- 
 tioned six important characteristics, the syntactical one (regarding 
 the construction of the past tense) must be at once set aside. 
 The Pr. grammarians never refer to this point at all; and from 
 Pr. writings very little evidence is to be obtained on the subject; 
 
 1) With Md. this chief A p. is called Nagarapabhramsa; he expressly 
 connects it with the Mh.-Sr., the'Vv. of the western division (ndgaram tit 
 mdhdrdshtrisaurasenyoh pratishthitam); e.g., respecting conjugation: atra 
 cha karei dhare'i ityadau tasya svaraseshatvam mahdrdshtryasrayena karedi 
 dharedi ity ddau datvam saurasenydsrayena mantavyam (17 th pada, fol. 
 53. 55); its identity with W. Gd. is shown by the fact, that Md. gives the 
 characteristic W. Gd. possess, pronouns merd, terd, to the Nag. Ap. {tvadiye 
 teram, madiye meram 17 th pada, fol. 56). 
 
introduction: wvii 
 
 though what little there is makes in favour of my theory (aee 
 § 371). There remain, then, the five morphological points. In 
 regard to these, there is a striking coincidence between the evi- 
 dence of Pr. gramra. and plays on the one hand, and the result 
 of our enquiry concerning the difference of Mg. and Sr., on the 
 other. Thus, first///: Pr. gramm. state that nouns with an a-hasc 
 end in o in Sr. P., hut in e in Mg. ; our enquiry shows that in 
 W. Gd. and N. Gd. they end in o (or an) , hut in S. Gd. and 
 E. Gd. in d, which vowel appears to he a modification of the 
 Mg. e (see §§ 47. 48). Secondly: according to the Pr. gramm., 
 the Western (cf. note on pg. XXVI) Ap. Pr. has a genitive singular 
 (= ohlique form, § 3 66) in ahe, the Mg. Pr. in aha; according 
 to our enquiry W. and N. Gd. have an oblique form in e, the S. 
 and E. Gd. in a; here e is a , modification of ahe and & of aha 
 (see § 3 65, 1.6). Thirdly; from our enquiry it appears that W. 
 and N. Gd. use almost exclusively the strong form (in o) for 
 a-bases, while as to S. and E. Gd. , it is used almost exclusively 
 in M., much less in E. H. and very little in B. and 0. (see § 205). 
 Now the existence of special rules in Pr. gramm. about the use 
 of the strong form (in ao ~ Skr. akah) in the Mh. and Ap. Pr., 
 and its common occurrence in Pr. literature (see Ls. 288. 4 60. 
 47 5. Wb. 69) prove its extreme frequency in the great Mh.-Sr. 
 vernacular. As to the other great vernacular, the Mg., there is only 
 the scanty evidence of Pr. literature; and from this it would 
 appear that the strong form was very frequent in the southern 
 Mg. vernaculars, the Sakari, Sabari and, by analogy, Dakshinatya 
 (cf. Ls. 431), but rare in the northern, the Arddhamagadhi (cf. 
 Ls. 413, 7). There is, then, a sufficiently close agreement in this 
 case also. Fourthly; in Gd. the past participle passive is used to 
 make the past tense active. According to our enquiry, the X. and 
 W. Gd. use the past participle in ia or ya, and the E. and S. Gd. 
 a past participle in al. Now Pr. gramm. state that the past par- 
 ticiple in ia is peculiar to the Mh.-Pr. (Vr. 7, 32. Ls. 363). As 
 to the Mg. Pr. they give no general rule ; hut in the few cases, 
 
XXVIII INTRODUCTION. 
 
 where the past participle is expressly noted, it ends in da (see 
 Vr. 11, 15), and from another rale on the nominative it would 
 appear incidentally, that generally the past participle ended in ida 
 (Vr. 11, 11. cf. Ls. 396, 4. 6. 400, 3 and H. C. 4, 260. 302). 
 From Pr. literature it appears further, that in the Low-Magadhis 
 d and d were apt to be changed into I (see Ls. 412. 423). Here 
 again, considering the scanty evidence, the agreement is sufficiently 
 striking 1 ). Fifthly, our enquiry shows that N. and W. Gd. use a 
 future in ih or as, but E. Gd. in ab or ib. The latter is simply 
 the future participle passive used in an active sense, precisely as 
 E. G<1. employs the participle past passive to form an active past 
 tense (see § 487). The W. Gd. future in ill, however, is also used 
 in E. H. (see § 509); and it is to be noted that both future 
 forms are promiscuously used in it in the sense of the impera- 
 tive (or precative) and the future (§§ 498. 508, note). Now 
 according to the Pr. gramm., the future in ih or iss is peculiar to 
 the Mh.-Sr. Pr. (H. C. 3, 166—170. 4, 275), and from Pr. lite- 
 rature it appears that the Mh. form in ih was used in Mg. also 
 (see Ls. 413. 4 34); while the future in ab was confined to the 
 lowest kinds of Mg. (Ls. 4 22; j^ar you will give). The latter fu- 
 ture form was evidently considered very low. I know, indeed, only 
 of that one instance of its admission into Pr. literature ; but under 
 the circumstances, it is sufficient to establish the agreement in 
 question 2 ). 
 
 1) It is quite possible that while the High-Mg. had the termination 
 ida (or ida) the Low-Mg. vernaculars generally changed it into ila (or aid), 
 but that the latter was considered by the Pr. Pandits (supposing that the 
 change of d or d to I had already taken place in their time) altogether 
 too vulgar to be frankly admitted into literature, excepting a few rare 
 cases, such as kale for kade or kadc „done'. Though it is also possible 
 that the universal change of the termination ida into ila may have taken 
 place after their time. 
 
 2) The compound forms of tenses (e. g., the M. future) which con- 
 stitute another morpholog. character, afford us no help here. These cu- 
 rious formations are neither found in the Pr. gramm. nor in Pr. liter. 
 Either they were considered too vulgar to be noticed, or more probably 
 
INTRODUCTION. \\l\ 
 
 As regards the morphological characters, then, my contention 
 that E. and S. Gd. together correspond to the old Mg. Pr., and 
 W. and N. Gd. together to the old Sr. Pr. appears to he fully 
 borne out, considering the kind and amount of evidence, that is 
 available on the subject. It now remains to examine the phono- 
 logical characters which, according to the Pr. grammarians, distin- 
 guish the Mg. Pr. from the Sr.-Mh. Of these the following four 
 are the most important. Mg. changes 1) s into s (Vr. 11, 3. 
 H. C. 4, 288); 2) r into I (H. C. 4, 288) ; 3) j into y (Vr. 11,4. 
 H. C. 4,292); and 4) ksh into sk (Vr. 11,8. H. C. 4, 296). As 
 to the change of .9, r, j into s, I, y respectively see §§ 16. 18. 20. 
 As to the change of ksh into sk, according to the Pr. gramm., ksh 
 changes in Mh.-Sr. Pr. into kkh (Vr. 3, 2 9. H. C. 2, 4), but ex- 
 ceptionally also into chchh (Vr. 3, 30. H. C. 2, 17). Now accor- 
 ding to the analogy of all similar changes (e. g., of st into tth 
 or tth Vr. 3, 11. 12), kkh presupposes a form sk , and chchh a 
 form sch. It follows of necessity that at some period of the Indo- 
 aryan vernacular ksh must have been pronounced sometimes as sk, 
 sometimes as sch. But the link between these two forms sk and 
 sch is sk; for the Mg. speaking people, according to their custom 
 of turning s into s, would pronounce sk as sk, and the palatal s 
 of the latter would gradually palatalize the conjoint k into ch, 
 making sch ; finally sch would change into chchh. Now in the 
 change of -ksh into kkh there are two steps; viz. 1) ksh into sk, 
 2) sk into kkh; but in the change of ksh into chchh there are 
 four steps, viz. 1) ksh into sk, 2) sk into sk, 3) sk into sch, 
 4) sch into chchh. It is plain that if these changes proceeded, 
 on the whole, pari passu, the Mg. speaking people would have 
 got only as far as sk, when the Mh.-Sr. speakers had already 
 arrived at kkh. Now this is almost exactly what Vararuchi states 
 
 they did not exist at all at that time, i. e. 6 or 7 centuries ago. It appi-ars 
 that the verb as „to be u was the only verb used enclitically iu Pr. times, 
 and that the employment of the verb achh , ; to be" and the participle gd 
 „gone" and Id „come" in this manner is of later date. 
 
XXX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to have been the case in his time; viz. Mh.-Sr. had llh, but Mg. 
 had sk. Here sk must be, probably, interpreted as sk by the 
 general rule regarding the change of sibilants in Mg. 1 ) (cf. Ls. 3 98 I. 
 But the form sk was only a passing step in the phonetic evolu- 
 tion, the end of which has been reached long since, and now for 
 some centuries already ksh is pronounced chchli or rhh (see § 3 6). 
 As the change of S into .9 is general in B. , partial in M., and 
 *are in E. H. (see § 2 0), it is, accordingly, found that in most 
 old tadbhava words B. and M. have ehh for ksh, but E. H. has 
 kh or even It'). The rule is not quite strict; nor, indeed, has it 
 ever been so ; for many instances exhibiting the Mg. change of 
 ksh to chchh occur already in the Mh.-Sr. Pr. (see Vr. 3, 30). 
 
 Thus it appears from philological considerations not less than 
 geographical ones, that, at some former period of its history, North 
 India was divided between two great forms of speech, which I 
 call respectively the Saurascni tongue and the Mdgadhi tongUBi 
 Roughly speaking, their areas occupied, one the northwestern, the 
 other the southeastern half of North-India. Their boundary line 
 coincided with that which now divides the areas of the N. and 
 W. Gd. from those of the S. and E. Gd. speeches. But there is 
 reason to believe that at a still earlier period the limits of the 
 Mg. area extended further towards the North West. For l) the 
 following morphological characters of the Mg. tongue are found 
 in different parts of the Sr. area; a) the termination a of 
 the strong masculine nouns with an a-base in P. and, to a 
 certain extent, in Br. and Kn. ; b) the termination d of the obli- 
 
 1) Pr. literature, apparently, has no example of sk or sk (cf. Ls. 408- 
 428); but it has numerous examples of st, where II. C. gives st (see Cw. 181). 
 H. C. and T. V. have the conjunct hk with the jihodmuliya visarga for s, 
 except in the case of preksh „to see", where, curiously enough, all the steps 
 are actually given: viz. prekshate and peskadi (or peskadi) in T. V. 3,2.34 
 and peschadi or pechchhai in T. V. 3, 2 32 (cf. H. C. 4, 295. 297). 
 
 2) e. g., B. kdchhe ..near", ..at', E. EL kdhi (Skr. kakshe); or B. mdchhi, 
 M. mdsi, E. H. mdkhi (or mdchhi) „%" (Sk 1 '- makshikd); or B. dachhin, M. 
 dasin, E. II. dakhin (or dachhin} ..south- or ddhin ..right ' (Skr. dakxhinah). 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXXI 
 
 que form singular iu G., M., E. R. and, again to some extent, in 
 Br. and Kn.; c) the genitive affix, which is not only in E. Gd. 
 (kai, kar, er, ar), but also in Br. and Kn. (Jcau) and probably in 
 M. (chd or old M. chiyti) a modification of the Pr. JcaHo (Ski-. 
 krtah), while G., P. S., and, probably, Mw. use one of a different 
 origin (see § 377); d) the compound future in Id (or lo) which 
 is possessed by N. and E. R. by the side of the Sr. future in ih 
 (see § 509, 4); e) the past participle in al which is found in E. R., 
 in as much as it is contained in the enclitic Id of the compound 
 future, which is a curtailment of the past participle aild .,come" 
 (see § 509, 4). Again 2) there occur in the Sr. area the follow- 
 ing phonological characters of the Mg. : a) the change of I to n 
 is found in N. (in the compound future see § 509, 4) and in 
 G. and P. (in the active affix nem, num, see § 37 5); b) the 
 change of I to r is found also in S. (see § 16, also § 14 on h). 
 It is also worth noting that the Pr. writers themselves supply 
 indications of the partially Mg. character of E. R. and G. ; the 
 latter (called Abhiri), though generally classed with the Sr. group, 
 is once included by R. T. in the Mg. (see Ls. Exc. 3); and as to 
 E. R. or Avanti see Ls. 417.419 1). 
 
 Generally speaking, it will be observed, that the Mg. characte- 
 ristics, beginning with a very few and isolated traces in the far 
 West, increase in number, as we proceed towards the East, till at 
 last at the present frontier of the E. and S. Gd. areas they pre- 
 dominate so as to constitute the Mg. tongue. These circumstances 
 seem to disclose the fact that sometime in the remote past the 
 Mg. must have reached up to the extreme western frontiers and 
 been the only language of North India ; but that in course of time 
 it gradually receded more and more towards the South and East 
 
 1) Still the general character of the Avanti or E. R. is Sauraseni; 
 thus Md. calls it expressly ,.a mixture of Mh. and Sr." (avanti si/an mahd- 
 rrishtrisaurasenyos tu samkardt, anayoh samkardd avanti bhdshd siddhd sydt 
 11 th pada fol. 47 b ); and afterwards he says that Bahliki is allied to it 
 (dvantydm eva vdhliki ibid. fol. 48°); sec also Ls. 435. 43G. 
 
XXXII INTRODUCTION. 
 
 before the advancing tide of the Sr. tongue, .leaving, however, here 
 and there in the deserted territories traces of its former presence. 
 What the eastern and southern frontiers of the Mg. may have been 
 in those early times, when it reached to the far West of India, 
 it is impossible to say. Very probably, as it receded before the Sr., 
 it may have conquered fresh territories in the South and East which 
 had uot been before occupied by any Aryan tongue. The head- 
 quarters of the Sr. tongue, whence it gradually spread toward 
 the North-East and East, appear to have been in western Rajpii- 
 tana. It is possible, in some measure, to trace the direction and 
 extent of its advancing tide. Thus a) traces of its past participle 
 in ia are found as far east as in B. and 0. (see §§ 305. 503), 
 but not in M. ; b) traces of its oblique form in e are found 
 as far east as in the Bh. and M. ; c) traces of its future in ill 
 are found as far east as in Bh. It will be seen, that the tide 
 is fullest in the West (especially in Sindh, the Panjab and Western 
 Rajpiitana), but gradually grows weaker and narrower as it ad- 
 vances eastward , mainly following the course of the broad valley 
 of the Ganges, and working itself like a wedge into the Mg. 
 area, which overlaps it on its southern and northern banks, 
 in the E. R., G. and N., in which the Mg. relics are most 
 noticeable. 
 
 From these indications it would appear that the Mg. tongue 
 is the older of the two; that is, that its occupation of North India 
 preceded the developement and extension of the Sr. Perhaps this 
 may be taken to point to the fact that two great immigrations of 
 people of the Aryan stock into India took place at different periods, 
 both speaking essentially the same language, though in two dif- 
 ferent varieties. For there can be no doubt that the two varie- 
 ties, the Mg. and the Sr., whatever their differences may be, are 
 essentially the same language, of which the Sanskrit variety, being 
 its literary or high form, preserves on the whole the oldest phase. 
 Thus one of the most striking points of identity is the ancient 
 Skr. present tense active, which is preserved to the present day 
 
INTRODUCTION. WXIII 
 
 in all Gd. languages of North-India alike (see §474) 1 ). Even in 
 those cases where the outward shape or grammatical use of a 
 particular form widely diverged, the original unity can he traced 
 by easy and natural steps. Thus as to outward shape, the E. Gd. 
 future in ab or ib can be traced back (see § 314) to the ancient 
 participle future passive in tavya (or itavya), and the E. and S. 
 Gd. past tense in al or il to the ancient past participle passive 
 in ta (or ltd), which, in an other direction, has given rise to the 
 N. and W. Gd. participle in ia. These two instances are also 
 examples of a change in grammatical use. For in E. Gd. the 
 two participles, which had originally a passive sense and indeed have 
 it still in S. and W. Gd., are used to form active tenses, viz. the 
 participle future passive in itavya to form the future active in ab 
 or ib, and the participle past passive in ita to make the past 
 active in al or il. Here the intransitive * verbs , the „ passive" of 
 which naturally becomes a „ middle voice", afford the connecting 
 link (see §§ 303, note. 309. 371. 487). 
 
 We have traced the Mg. tongue back to the extreme western 
 frontiers of North India. Beyond that line lie the areas of the 
 Pashtu and Kafiri languages. They immediately adjoin that of the 
 present Panjabi. Trumpp in his essays on those two languages ) 
 has called attention to their many affinities with the Gaudians. 
 Among these there are some with both of the principal varieties 
 of Gd., the N.-W. Gd. or Sr. and the S.-E. Gd. or Mg. But what 
 is, perhaps, more remarkable than the mere fact of their affinity 
 is that, in some of the oft-mentioned great test-points, they — 
 and more especially the Pashtu — exhibit decided Mg. characteri- 
 stics. Thus a) the masculine strong form of a-bascs ends in Pashtu 
 with ai, corresponding to E. and S. Gd. a, Mg. Pr. ac\ b) the 
 past participle ends with alai (strong form) or al (weak form) 
 
 1) Modern M. is an exception in using this old pres. tense as a 
 habitual past; but old M. retains it as a present tense. 
 
 2) See J. G. O. S. vol. 20 pg. 377 and vol. 21 pp. 10 ff. 23. 
 
 c 
 
XXXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 corresponding to (strong form) aid in M. and (weak *form) al in 
 E. H. ); c) the Kafiri has a compound future made with the 
 enclitic participle la, just like the M. future and the E. H. pre- 
 sent 2 ); d) the auxiliary verh has in Pashtii an initial s, like 
 the initial s of M., which is a modification of the E. Gd. chh'w 
 e) Pashtii like M. has a douhle set of palatals, viz. ch and As, 
 j and dz. Lastly f) Pashtii has the dative affix I ah, like the M. 
 Id, and the dative affix vatah, like the E. II. bate or bare. 
 
 It would appear from this, that the Mg. Pr. and the Pashtii 
 and Kafiri were once in close connection, perhaps one language; 
 and that, at some time in the remote past, they became separated 
 by the Sr. Pr. tongue, like a wedge, cleaving them asunder and 
 gradually pushing the Mg. farther and farther away towards 
 the east. 
 
 Accordingly four periods may be distinguished in the lin- 
 guistic history of India. First, when the Mg. tongue, in some 
 form, was the only Aryan vernacular in North India. Secondly, 
 when the Sr. tongue existed there beside the Mg. Thirdly, when 
 these were broken up, each into two speeches, the W. and N. Gd. 
 and the E. and S. Gd. Fourthly, when these four speeches were 
 subdivided into the several Gd. languages. The last period is that 
 now prevailing. As to the date of the first period we know 
 nothing. The earliest Pr. grammar of Yararuchi (1 st cent. P>. C. 
 or earlier) already discloses, in the second period, the two great 
 
 1) e. g., weak form Tsh. krai = E. H. kayal, B. laril — Ap. Mg. 
 *karide, Skr. kriah; and strong form Psh. karalai = M. held (for kaild 
 = karild) = Ap. Mg. *karidae, Skr. krtakah. — The other, i.e. the Sr., form of 
 the past part, also occurs in Psh. It ends in a quiescent 'weak form) or in cti 
 (strong form), precisely as in \Y. and N. Gd.; e. g. , weak form Psh. fear 
 or hrdh ..done", 0. II. kar or Jcari = Ap. Pr. Tcariu, Mh. Pr. *kario, Skr. 
 Irtah; strong form Psh. karat = Bs. lard or Br. karau or kar if an = Ap. 
 Pr. kariau, Mh. Pr. *kariao, Skr. krtakah. But it should be remembered 
 that the E. Gd., too, has both part., to make the first and second preterites, 
 see §§ 503. 505. 
 
 2) e. g., Kf. S. sg. baldje ..he will say :i = M. bolel, E. II bolatld. 
 
 3) e. g., Kf. si ..he is'- — M. ase. 0. chhe or achln'. B. ehhe or dehhe. 
 
INTRODUCTION. WW 
 
 divisions of the Sr. and Mg. in occupation of North India. The 
 earliest Gd. literature exhibits the third period already existing; 
 for in the Western Gaudian poet Chand (end of 12 th cent. A. D.) 
 "\V. II., P. and G. are indistinguishable; in the Southern Gaudian 
 poets Namdeva and Dnandeva (end of 13 th cent. A. D.) M. is see- 
 mingly separate; in the Eastern Gaudian poet Bidyapati (middle 
 of 14 th cent. A. D. v ) B. and E. H. are as yet one language. The 
 later Gd. writers of the 15 th , 16 th and 17 th cent, (as the W 
 Hindi Kabi'r, the E. Hindi Tulsf Das, the Bangali Kabi Kankan, 
 the Oriya Upendro Bhanj , the Marathi Tukaram, the Gujarat i 
 Narsingh Mehta; see Bs. I, 82 — 9 6) show the modern division 
 of the Gd. languages already existing. 
 
 Note. I believe, it will be found on closer examination 
 of the W. II. that its two dialects, the Mw. and Br., must, in 
 reality, be classed as two different languages of the W. Gd. 
 group, in the same sense as P. and G. For Mw. and Br. differ 
 from each other in the same degree, as either of those two from 
 P. and G. Thus in declension: 1) the termin. of the obi. form 
 sg. of strong masc. nouns of the a-base is a in Mw., but e in Br.; 
 here Mw. agrees' with G., but Br. with P.; e. g., Mw. ghord ro, 
 G. ghodd no „of a horse"; Br. ghore Jcait, P. ghore dd\ 2) Mw., 
 like S., uses no active case-affix; but Br. has nan, corresponding 
 to P. nai', e. g., Mw. ghorai, G. ghodde, ,,by a horse"; Br. ghore 
 nem, P. ghore nai. In conjugation: 1) Mw., like G., forms the fut. 
 ind. with the suff. as, but Br. with ///, ; e. g., Mw. karasl, (i. 
 h<ir>t?e but Br., karihai „he will do"; 2) the auxiliary verb has 
 chh in Mw. and G., but h in Br. and P.; c. g., Mw. chhai, G. chhe 
 „he is"; Br. and P. hai\ etc. 
 
 1) Or, according to Beamcs (Ind. Antiquary Febr. 1873), middle of 
 the 15 th cent. 
 
XXXVI 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Literary. 
 
 Class. Skr 
 
 Table of Affinities. 
 
 High = Vernaculars = Low. 
 Ancient Sansk. 
 
 Pali 
 Mh.-Sr-., Mg. 
 
 Anc. Ap. 
 
 Ap. Mg. Ap. Sr. 
 
 , \ „ ^^Ji^r 
 
 E. Gd. S.Gd. W.Gd. N.Gd. 
 
 H.B.,H.H.,etc. 0.,B., E.II. M. W.H., P.,G.,S. N. Urdu. 
 
 Semi- 
 aryan. 
 
 Pais. 
 
 EASTERN HINDI LITERATURE. 
 
 As regards E. H. literature, there is very little to be said. 
 In the E. II. proper or the Bhojpuri there is, apparently, no lite- 
 rature whatever, either prose or poetry. All my inquiries on this 
 subject have been alike fruitless. I have heard people say, that 
 there are a few poems in the more easterly dialects of the E. II., 
 as the Maithili. But I suspect the reference was to the well known 
 religions songs of Bidyapati and others of the Vaishnava school. 
 These, however, belong to the earlier period, in which E. II. was 
 not yet separate from B. The only specimens of literature of the 
 strictly E. H. period are the writings of Tulsi Das, especially his 
 great work, the Ramayan, a Hindi version of the well known 
 story of Rama, though not by any means a translation of Val- 
 miki's famous Sanskrit work of the same name. The language of 
 Tulsi Das, however, is not E. H. proper or Bhojpuri, but the 
 Baiswilri, which is a dialect formed by a mixture of W. and E. II. 
 (see pp. V. VI). Tulsi Das was a native of Hajipur, a village near 
 the celebrated hill of Chitrakuta in the state of Riwa, about 
 50 miles S. E, of the town of Banda in Bandelkhand. He lived 
 from 1541 to 16 24, Once he made a journey to Brindaban 
 (and Delhi?); but for the most part he lived in Benares as mi- 
 nister of the Raja of that town. For some more, mainly legen- 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXXVII 
 
 dary particulars of his life, see Garcin de Tassy's histoire de la 
 litterature Ilindouie vol. 3, pp. 235 — 244, where also some other 
 less known works of his are enumerated. 
 
 All the other celehrated Hindi ports wrote in some dialect 
 of W, H., generally Br. or Kn. The oldest of them is Chand 
 Bardai, who was a native of Lahore, hut lived at the court of 
 Prithiraj, the last Hindu ruler of Delhi, at the end of the 12 th 
 cent. He is the author of the Prithiraj Rasau, au epic poem re- 
 counting the exploits of that monarch. He helongs , however, 
 strictly speaking, to the pre-Hindi period, when W. H. was not as 
 yet separate from P. and G. Next to him come Kahir of Benares 
 in the second half of the 1 5 tu cent., the author of the Ramainis 
 and Sabdas. After him are Sur Das of Mathura , Nabhaji and 
 Keshava Das of Bijapur, the authors respectively of the Sursagar, 
 the Bhaktamala and the Ramchandrika, etc. They flourished in 
 the 1 6 cent,, during the reigns of Akhar and Shah Jehan, the 
 Augustan age of North India. Then follow Bihari Lai of Amb li- 
 near Jaipur, the author of the Satsai, and Lai Kavi from Bandel- 
 khand, the author of the Chhatra Prakas, in the 17 th cent. For 
 further particulars as to the lives and works of all these poets, 
 see the respective articles in Garcin de Tassy's hist, de la litt. Hind. 
 They all were natives of Western Hindustan, except Kabir, whose 
 sect (the Kabir-panthfs) still numbers most of its adherents in the 
 E. H. area. He was born in or near Benares, and died and is 
 buried in Magahar near Gorakhpur in the Benares district. Yet 
 his writings are certainly not in E. IT,, but in W- H, The fact 
 is strange and has not, I think, been sufficiently noticed, Though 
 he afterwards became a Hindu and even the founder of a Hindu 
 sect, he was brought up originally by his Muhammedan foster- 
 father in his own religion; and apparently he spent some part of 
 his life in or near Delhi at the time of the emperor Sikandar 
 Lodi, Perhaps one or both of these facts may be the reason of 
 the peculiarity. 
 
XXXVIII INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE TERMS TATSAMA, TADBIIAVA, etc. 
 
 The term fafsama means lit. „the same as it" or Sanskrit ir. It 
 denotes properly those Gaudian words which have retained exactly 
 the same form as they wore in Sanskrit; e. g., E.H. bhrdtd „ brother", 
 rdjd „king". But practically it includes all words which have hcen 
 reintroduced into the G<1. directly from the Skr. , though in the 
 process they have undergone slight phonetic changes, analogous to, 
 but not so thorough as those which have been suffered by the 
 tadbhava words (see §§ 4 ff.); e. g., E.H. chhamd „ forgiveness", 
 for Skr. ftshamd; E. H. dgyd „ command", for Skr. djhd ; E. H. 
 bisnu „ Vishnu", for Skr. vishnuh; E. H. 7cripd „ mercy", for Skr. 
 ftrpd; E. II. haram ,,work", for Skr. karma; E. H. pidar „son", 
 for Skr. pwtrah. These might be called semitatsamas. 
 
 The term tadbhava means lit. „ having the same nature as it" 
 or PrdJcritic 1 j. It denotes those Gd. words which, though the same 
 in substance as in Skr., are considerably different in form. Practi- 
 cally it includes all those words which have come into Gd. 
 from the Prakrit, and not from the Skr. In the E. H. these 
 
 1) Pr. Gramm. distinguish two kinds of tadbhavas; thus S. R. (fol. 1 H ) 
 samskrtabhavds cha dvidhd, sdddhi/amdnasamskrtabhavd* siddhasamskrtabha- 
 Vds chcti ; i. e. ..there are two kinds of words which have the same nature as 
 in Sanskrit; viz. those which must be shown to be so, and those which 
 arc admittedly so." It is not quite clear, however, wherein the distinction 
 exactly consists, as no examples are given. Probably such forms are re- 
 ferred to, as rdC and ratti ,.nigbt" (H. C. 2, 88), both for Skr. rdtrih. The 
 latter (ratti) is a siddha tadbhava, for its identity with the Skr. rdtrih is 
 evident and follows from the general rules (viz. H. C.2, 79. 1, 84); but the for- 
 mer (rdi) is a sdddhyamdna tadbhava, because its identity must be established 
 by a special rule (viz. H. C. 2, 88). It will be seen that the distinction is 
 analogous to what in Gd. I have a distinguished as semitatsamas from the 
 proper tadbhavas (as putar and put ..son"), or to Beames' distinction of 
 late and early tadbhavas (see Bs. I, 13— 17). But our ..semitatsamas" or 
 ..late tadbhavas" are not identical with the Pr. Gramm. siddha tadbhavas; 
 for the former ex hypothesi have not come through the Pr. at all, but are 
 directly resuscitated from the Skr. at various periods. For this reason, 
 and because they are clearly nearer in form to the pure tats, than to the 
 pure tadbh., I have preferred to class them as a subdivision of tats, rather 
 than (as Bs.) of tadbh. 
 
INTRODUCTION. \ \ X I X 
 
 words are generally obtained from the A.Mg. ; but sometimes from 
 the Sr. Tims compare the following prakritic words with the 
 ahove list of sanskritic ones: E. II. bhdi „brother a for A. Mg. bhd'ie; 
 E. Elrdy „king" for A.Mg. Uydoxldd; E. II. Met „field" lor A.Mg. 
 khettam (Skr. kshetram)\ E. II. ddhin „right" for Pr. ddhinam 
 (Cw. 100. Skr. ddifShinam) ; E. II. dn „order" for Mg. amid (II. C. 
 4, 293); E. II. Jcdnh „krishna" for A.Mg. kanhe (Skr. krishnah)-, 
 E. II. kisdn „ husbandman" for A. Mg. lisdnc (Skr. Irshanahy, E. II. 
 Mw „ work" for A.Mg. kammc; Yj.W.pid „son" for A.Mg. putte; etc. 
 It should be remembered that the Gils, are not descended from the 
 high or literary (Mh.-Sr. and Mg.) Pr., but from the low verna- 
 cular or Ap. (Sr. and Mg.) Pr. This fact explains, why some Gel. 
 tadbhava words show a higher state of preservation than that ob- 
 served in the corresponding words of the High-Pr. ; for, in some 
 instances, the latter had suffered a greater amount of decay than 
 those of the Low-Pr. Generally speaking, the Low-Pr. is more 
 tenacious of medial consonants than Iligh-Pr. (see Ls. 39G. 4 57). 
 Thus E. H. rdti „night", Ap. (Mg.) Pr. latti (cf. II. C. 4, 330), but 
 High-Mh. Pr. rdi (Vr. 3, 58, but also ratti); E. II. khdtt „eaten", 
 Ap. (Mg.) Pr. l-haida, but Mh. Pr. khdlo. Sometimes the more and 
 the less perfect forms exist side by side; as E. H. galis (= ga : i + S 
 „thou wentest"), for Ap. (Sr.) Pr. gain si or ga/ido si or gamido si 
 (Vk\i gamito si, High-Mh. Pr. gao si or gado si) and E. II. gaiUs or 
 ga'iles „thou wentest", for Ap. (Mg.) Pr. galda si or gamide si. Hence, 
 in some cases, it will always be doubtful whether a particular form 
 must be considered as prakritic or sanskritic. Thus E. II. has both 
 utiir (or nayar) and nagar „town"; the former is clearh a tad- 
 bhava for A.Mg. nayalmn or naalam; but the latter may be either 
 a tatsama for Skr. nagar am or a tadbhava for Aip."M.g.nagalam. 
 Native grammarians add the desya, as a third division, to 
 the tatsama and tadbhava 1 ). The term desya means lit. „ belonging 
 
 1) Thus S. R. (Col. 1") iha prdkrtasabdds tridhd, mmshrtasamds so- 
 vidrtabhavd desyds eheti; i.e. ,.there are three kinds of Prakrit words, nz. 
 the same as Skr., of like nature as Skr., and provincial (or country born).' 
 
XL N INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to the country", i. e., provincial or perhaps aboriginal. They designate 
 hy this name all those words which they are unable to derive 
 satisfactorily to themselves from some Skr. word and, therefore, 
 consider to have had their origin in the country (i. e., ritre or 
 provincia). In *vvhat way exactly they suppose them to have ori- 
 ginated is not clear; namely whether borrowed from the abori- 
 gines, or invented by the rustic Aryans themselves in post-sanskri- 
 tic times (Beanies I, 12), or so corrupted by their common parlance 
 from a Skr. original as to make them unrecognisable. The last 
 seems to me the most probable, to judge from the sentiment 
 of modern Pandits on the subject. The results of modern research 
 tend towards diminishing the number of these desya words, by 
 discovering, through means unknown to native grammarians, their 
 real origin and tracing them back to Pr. and Skr. In so far, they 
 make in support of the opinion of those grammarians. But the 
 question, as to whether they are or are not Aryan, is by no means 
 decided thereby. A word may be Prakritic or Sanskritic, and yet 
 may not be Aryan, Whatever non-Aryan elements there may be 
 in the Indo-aryan languages, they must have been incorporated in 
 the earliest times; i.e., at the period, when Paisachi and the Ancient 
 Apabhramsa were spoken by the subject aborgines and their Aryan 
 conquerors respectively, and when old Sanskrit was the Aryan 
 high language; a period which was anterior to that of what is 
 now commonly called (classical) Sanskrit. 
 
 Natives distinguish between the theth or gdmrdri and the 
 Marl or ndgari bhdshd. Theth means genuine or pure and gamvari 
 means rustic or vulgar (from gao = grama „ village"); again khari 
 means standard and nagari urban or (idfiratcd (from nagar „to\vn"). 
 The relation of these two bhashas is analogous to that of English 
 or rather of the South-German dialects as spoken in the towns or 
 by the educated and the same as in the mouth of the village 
 peasantry. The difference exist mainly in the pronunciation and 
 in the vocabulary. Thus, in the theth bhasha the auxiliary verb 
 is pronounced bdrai or bdrai, but in the khari bhasha bdtai. Again 
 in the latter, tatsama and even Urdu words are much more fre- 
 quently employed than in the former which is almost entirely desti- 
 tute of them. The specimens of E. II. appended to this grammar, being 
 written by a Pandit, are rather in the khari than in the theth bhasha. 
 
ALPHABET. 
 
 FIRST SECTION. ON LETTERS AND SOUNDS. 
 
 1. CHAPTER. THE ALPHABET. 
 
 1. The E. H. is commonly written in the Kaithi (aFfTr or 
 9ff4uft) alphabet. Its name is derived from Kayath (Skr. 3?nrer), 
 the designation of the writer-caste among the Hindus. Though 
 it has a general resemblance to the modern Devanagari, there are 
 but few of its letters, which do not exhibit some points of dif- 
 ference ; indeed, as will be seen by a reference to the table, all 
 the vowels, and the consonants kh, ch, jh, bh, d, dh and r differ 
 entirely in the two alphabets; and the horizontal top -line is 
 omitted by the Kaithi in all letters alike 1 ). It will be further 
 noticed, that in Kaithi the consonants k and ph, p and dh, r and I 
 very closely resemble each other, being distinguished in each case 
 merely by the addition of a hook or curve to the latter; again, 
 that there is only one sign for each of the following groups of 
 Nagari letters: 1) <1 (properly = n) for the nasals 5 h, or w, 
 trr n, ^ n\ 2) $1 (a combination of s and s) for the sibilants es, 
 ST s, cr sh; 3) =* for the labials 51" b and ^ v; 4) ?r (properly =j) 
 for the palatals fr j and <T y\ and also that of the two forms of 
 ch one is very much like to one of the two forms of dh, the 
 other to one of the two forms of y. For the vowels Kaithi has 
 only four fundamental signs : H «, 4 t, 6 w, 3 e. The others 
 
 1) Sometimes a series of lines is first ruled across the page, and 
 the letters are afterwards hung on to them. These lines must not be con- 
 founded with the top-line of the Devanagari, and in native writing the 
 two are easy to distinguish. 
 
 1 
 
2 ALPHABET. § 2.] 
 
 are distinguished by diacritical marks, as shown in the table. 
 In Manuscripts the initial i and u are rarely distinguished from i 
 and u or the medial u from u. It will be seen that altogether 
 the Kaithf alphabet has only twenty nine distinct signs. It is used 
 in printing as well as in writing ; but owing to the preponde- 
 rance of H. H., which has adopted the Devanagari, the latter is 
 much more common in books. I shall adopt it in this work also, 
 as the more generally known of the two. 
 
 2. Affinities. Four principal types of alphabet are used 
 in North-India; the Kaithf, the Bangali, the On'ya and the Gur- 
 mukhi. The Kaithi is the most widely spread ; it is used in wri- 
 ting not only in Eastei'n, but also, slightly modified, in Western 
 Hindustan, Maratha and Gujarat. In G. and sometimes in E. H. 
 it is adopted also in print. The Bangali, Ol'iya and Gurmukhi 
 are used in Bangal, Orissa and the Panjab respectively, in wri- 
 ting and printing. The Gurmukhi probably takes its name from 
 being originally used in committing to writing the oral traditions 
 of the Sikh Gurus (Nanak, etc.). The general likeness of these 
 four types to one another as well as to the older Kutila and 
 Gupta is unmistakeable, though their exact relation among them- 
 selves, their origin and age are matters not as yet fully elucida- 
 ted. For some account of them see Bs. I, 54 ff. Besides these, 
 
 i 
 there are two sub-types much in use in the area occupied by the 
 
 Kaithi, to which they are the most nearly related. These are the 
 Nagari or Devanagari and the Mahajani or Kothival. The first 
 is an improvement, the second a corruption of the Kaithi or of 
 its more ancient original. The exact meaning of the term Deva- 
 nagari (divine city alphabet) is uncertain ; but it suggests its 
 being, as it certainly is, a caligraphic (polished or sacred) wri- 
 ting. The Mahajani (mercantile) is, as its name implies, the short- 
 hand writing of the merchants and bankers, their Kothival or of- 
 fice-writing : and is still commonly used by them. The Devanagari. 
 on the other hand, is the type adopted for printing in Hindi 
 and Marathi ; and as it is exclusively taught in the schools, it 
 
§ 3.] VOWELS. 3 
 
 will probably in course of time entirely supersede the Kaithi ; 
 perhaps not altogether an advantage, as it can be written with 
 less rapidity and ease than its rival. 
 
 1. VOWELS. 
 
 3. The E. II. possesses fifteen vowels; a neutral and four- 
 teen distinct ones. The latter consist of seven pairs, each con- 
 taining a short and a long one. They are — ; d, d; i, i; u, u\ 
 e, e\ o, 6\ ai, ai; au, au. Five of these, the neutral vowel and 
 the short e, d, ai, ad are, according to the usual view, unknown 
 to the Sanskrit phonetic system, and therefore have no place in 
 the native grammatical scheme of sounds and characters. But in 
 order to avoid the inconvenience of two different sounds being 
 denoted by the same sign, I have ventured to introduce into the 
 E. H. alphabet, used in this treatise, five new characters. For 
 the short e, d, a% au I shall adopt the Gurmukhi or Bangali 
 forms of the ordinary Nagari signs, which differ from the latter 
 mex-ely in having a serpentine form ( and ) instead of a slightly 
 curved one (^ and ). For the neutral vowel I shall adopt a 
 dot ( • ) placed after the consonant in the same manner as a 
 stroke (i) is placed after it to denote -the long a; in translitera- 
 ting I shall use the apostrophe. Accordingly the signs of the fif- 
 teen E. H. vowels are as follows: 
 
 Initial: — 3o md \i \i 3u 3w X[e %e srto ^6 ^at T[ai mau mau 
 Noninit.: - — Tp^T ^ *t TT 
 
 Note: The neutral vowel requires no initial form, as it 
 never occurs in the beginning. The short a has no non-initial 
 form, as it is inherent in the consonant, which could not be pro- 
 nounced without it. When it is necessary to indicate the mere 
 consonant, an oblique stroke, called the virdma or stoppage, is 
 appended to the consonantal sign; thus 5J kd, but 57 k. The 
 manner of writing the non-initial signs may be seen from the 
 following examples ; 3P" k\ 5? kd, 5TT kd, fe M, tt ki, & k", T, kd, 
 w» ke, 57 ke, crt ho, 3iT kd, T, kdi, 37 kai, m kau, m km. 
 
4 VOWELS. § 4—6.] 
 
 4. The neutral vowel is the shortest possible vocal ut- 
 terance, and very obscure in its character. It may be compared 
 to the English u in but; but it is shorter and more indistinct; 
 like the vowel in the final syllables ble or tre, as in amiable, centre. 
 It resembles the Hebrew Sh'va mobile ; just as e is like the Hebrew 
 Khateph Segol, and 6 like the Hebrew Khateph Qamez. 
 
 5. The five special E. H. vowels are principally met with 
 in the following places: 
 
 a) the neutral vowel is pronounced: 1) often in rustic speech, 
 at the end of a word, instead of the quiescent a. (see § 24), as 
 sjt~ ghar' house, for 2T£ ghar\ and 2) in the penultimate of any 
 word having more than two syllables and ending in a heavy one ; 
 as ErpcTT gharvd house; sftT^T ghofvd horse; ^"MrT&ar'fo if I did; 
 ^^%^ r ^ parlilo I read, etc. A compound consisting of two poly- 
 syllabic words is treated as if the words were distinct. 
 
 b) the short e, o, at, au occur 1) always in the antepenul- 
 timate; e. g., srfjTJT betiyd daughter; q^ferT parosiyd neighbouring; 
 crfte^aT lot'vd vessel; STTcfTTcirT boldvat calling; 2) optionally in the 
 genitive affixes £FT he and 97 hat as SI^ cfi ghar he of the house (see 
 §372); 3) in the short pronominal forms in !f (see § 433), as 
 ^W ^1 3%h kar of which (but ir gqr je har) ; 4) in the conjuga- 
 tional suffixes ^TT es, J^[^ en and ^ ai (see §§ 504. 506); as 
 37^~rrq Jcartes (if) thou didst; q^^KT partiles he read ; j^-^lrah'les 
 thou remainedst; ^J^^kar'ten (if) they did; q^ - ^ parh 'len they 
 read; ^J~n" har'tcTi (if) they did; ^T T ^ a parJi'lcu they read; 5) in 
 the suffix ^ e of the conjunctive participle (§ 490), as 9?^ 9? Jcahe he 
 having said; 6) in some frequently used words, as ?TT"£ aiir or 
 m au and (see § 2 6). 
 
 6. Affinities. The short vowels (they are not diph- 
 thongs) e and o must have existed in Pr. already; thus before 
 conjuncts, as in tn^T (or fm^T for fa^T Vr. 1, 12), m| (for ^tj 
 Vr. 1, 19), £r# (for WU Vr. 1, 3 5), S??TT (for wm Vr. 1, 5), 
 &SfTj Tf% (for rrarT, ^n Vr. 3, 58), etc.; and JTTWT (for ^T Vr. 
 1,20), jftoTui (for JTT5TT Vr. 1, 41), FT^T^; (for hifarU Vr. 3, 58), etc. 
 
§ 6.] VOWELS. 5 
 
 See Ls. 14 5. 14 0. Cw. XVIII. Their existence, however, is, I be- 
 lieve, nowhere distinctly noticed by Pr. Gramm., except in the An. 
 Pr. by H. C. (4, 410) and T. V. (3, 4. 68), thlQ^<ld\ swrprraoW i 
 i. e., after consonants e and o are usually pronounced short. — 
 Both the short vowels e, o, di, au and the neutral vowel are 
 peculiar to E. Gd. The subject, however, has been as yet little 
 attended to by Gd. Grammarians. As regards the short vowels, 
 B. shows the short e, e. g., in ^7 ek one, and short u in rftq^ gum 
 wheat, STPrT bole he speaks, etc. Oriya, generally, follows the example 
 of B. (see Bs. I, 69). It is usual, apparently, to substitute a for o 
 in writing; thus B. JT^, SR?T ; the same as occasionally in E. II. 
 (see § 2 6). It is probable, that originally all Gd. languages pos- 
 sessed e and o ; S. has still preserved the e in some cases, but 
 ordinarily it reduces e to t, and always u to u (see Tr. X — XIII). 
 The other W. Gd. languages always substitute t and U for e and 
 o (as to e and o in P. see Ld. 4) ; even the E. Gds. do so occa- 
 sionally, see § 26 (cf. S. Ch. 330). The Psh. has both e and o (see 
 Tr. J. G. 0. S. XXI, 33 — 35). — In B. the final of the weak ad- 
 jectives, is pronounced like o, e. g., 5ju boro great; but it must 
 not be confounded with the real o which is a shortening of ^T 6, 
 while this o is a modification of ^ a; as shown by 0., which 
 pronounces a; e. g., 5T3 bard. E. II. agrees with the W. and S. 
 Gds. in dropping the vowel a at the end of all words; see § 24. 
 On the other hand, both the Psh. and Kf. still retain it (see 
 Tr. J. G. 0. S. XXI, 3 3. XX, 393). — In tatsamas with a conjunct 
 q or q^ before the final 5", the latter is commonly pronounced, as 
 nf*n yogya worthy, ftpst tatva substance. 
 
 Note: The elision of a medial neutral vowel produces a con- 
 junct consonant. Consequently in II. H. and in M. a conj. cons, 
 is sometimes written, as H. H. fe^rt binti for IsW "eft birfti petition, 
 H. H. arcf^T dtdhd for r^~U dnVhd bridegroom, M. jj^m rdmyd for 
 7jq-m rani yd Ram, or etttjtt gliodyd for Ernr^iT ghoqVya of a horse 
 (obi. form). It would be well, if this system of phonetic spel- 
 ling were carried out uniformly. 
 
6 VOWELS. § 7—10.] 
 
 7. The E. H. does not possess the four vowels W. ri, 
 & ri, tfT Iri, 5T Iri of the Skr. phonetic system. Even in Skr. 
 they occur rarely and are more or less artificial. In Pr. they 
 had already disappeared ; consequently they could not well survive 
 in the modern Gd. In Hindi certainly, whether E. or W., they 
 are never pronounced. In H. H. it is customary to write %i ri in 
 tats, words; but in speaking the syllable f|" ri or even ^ ir is 
 always substituted ; thus Skr. 5*^ ambrosia is always pronounced 
 atnrit 0*f*pO or amirt (^ftrr); Skr. ^crr favor Jcripd (Rprr) or Mrpd 
 (f%<rf). Perhaps it would be well to follow the example of the 
 old Prakrit Grammarians and apply their system of phonetic spel- 
 ling to our modern H. H. also. In any case it is incorrect to 
 enumerate these four vowels or any of them as parts of the 
 Hindi phonetic system. 
 
 8. Nasalisation. In E. H. a vowel is pronounced in 
 many words with a nasal tone, precisely as n or m in such French 
 words, as compensation. This tone is indicated by the symbol (»), 
 called the arddhachaudra (half moon) \ the tone itself is called 
 ammdsika (co-nasal)', see §23. I shall transliterate it by a circum- 
 flex. It generally occurs with a long vowel, rarely with a short 
 one or with the semivowels 0" and 5TJ e. g., TJprTT rail to, ^HT lei, 
 Vhfl( ko'i, ^17 hbth, Tf«[ nid, or ^ft^t chalala, ^%7 Jcmr, cMHT^T 
 huari, ?nff jay, frfs^jav. 
 
 9. Derivation and affinities. The anunasika generally 
 (except occasionally before f and ^, see § 67) indicates the elision 
 of a consonant, i. e., of a nasal, when it occurs between two vo- 
 wels (§§ 127.128), and of the first part of a conjunct when it 
 stands before a consonant (§ 149). The first case alone occurs in 
 later Pr. ; neither of them in earlier Pr. or in Skr. ; both are 
 common in all Gds. ; see § 23. 
 
 2. CONSONANTS. 
 
 10./ The E. H. possesses thirty five consonants. They con- 
 sist of twenty consonants proper or mutes, five nasals, nine semi- 
 
§ 11. 
 
 CONSONANTS. 
 
 vowels and one sibilant. They may be further classified according 
 to the organ of utterance into gutturals, palatals, cerebrals (or 
 murdhanya), dentals, labials, and according to the degree of audi- 
 bility into surd or hard and sonant or soft ones ; as exhibited 
 in the following table. 
 
 
 Consonants proper 
 
 Nasals 
 
 Semivowels 
 
 Sibi- 
 
 
 surd or 1 sonant or 
 hard soft 
 
 sonant 
 
 sonant or soft 
 
 lants 
 surd 
 
 
 unasp. aspir. ,unasp. 
 
 aspir. 
 
 unasp. 
 
 unaspirate 
 
 aspirate 
 
 unasp. 
 
 guttural 
 
 3T 7t 
 
 i&Mi 
 
 K9 
 
 *Lffh 
 
 I * 
 
 — 
 
 & h 
 
 — 
 
 palatal 
 
 %^ch 
 
 W tilth 
 
 '*J 
 
 ifijJl 
 
 oj^M 
 
 ^U 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 cerebral 
 
 *t 
 
 5 th 
 
 zd 
 
 *l dh 
 
 HMi 
 
 ~E r 
 
 ^ rh 
 
 — 
 
 dental 
 
 nj 
 
 vjh 
 
 l d 
 
 U^dh 
 
 ^ n 
 
 ^ r or c?T I 
 
 W_rh or v$1h 
 
 I s 
 
 labial 
 
 *j^p 
 
 ^2^ 1 
 
 SJ^& 
 
 i{J>h 
 
 *L m 
 
 a^ v 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 11. The E. H. palatals are pronounced like the English. 
 Natives, generally good judges in such matters, do not seem, as 
 far as I could learn from them, to have observed any difference 
 between them. I believe the same is the case in B. and 0. On 
 the other hand, it has been often observed, that the W. H. pa- 
 latals are rather more dental than the English ; i. e., rather more 
 like ts, dz 1 ). This is probably true of all W. Gd. palatals ; ex- 
 cepting, perhaps, Sindhi 2 ). In M. they are distinctly semidental, 
 and are pronounced as ts, ts + It, dz, dz + h 3 ). It appears, there- 
 fore, that the E. Gd. palatals are mox'e distinctly and truly pa- 
 latal than the W. and S. Gd. This seems to have been noticed 
 already by the Pr. Grammarians. It is noticeable that both the 
 true palatals and the semidentals occur in Psh. and Kf. 4 ). In M., 
 
 1) Thus, e. g., Kl. 11. 
 
 2) See Tr. 14. His meaning is not quite clear; he seems to identify 
 them at the same time with the „common Indian" (that is, apparently, 
 the W. Gd.) and with the English palatals. 
 
 3) The true palatals occur also; but apparently only in tatsamas and 
 before palatal vowels; cf. Bs. I, 72. 
 
 4) See Tr. J. G. 0. S. XX, 393. XXI, 20. 23. 
 
8 CONSONANTS. § 12.] 
 
 i 
 W is almost universally pronounced and written ^T or (generally 
 
 before palatal vowels) SFj e. g., M. yfcr^ bear, E. II. J^; M. srf^ 
 
 knife, E. H. §rffr; M. mart fly, E. H. rrr^T (see Bs. I, 218). In 
 
 Mw., both =^ and s£ are pronounced (but not usually written) ST/, 
 
 e.g., Mw. STcjiT wheel for E. H. ^gjrf ; Mw. m^ buttermilk for 
 
 E. H. ^T^ (see Kl. 14, 25). Also G., S., P. and B. pronounce 
 
 (and write) occasionally 15 as ot ; e. g., G. 5TT who for S. ^T (see 
 
 §438,6); B. cFTST or cRTf near (Bs. I, 218); S. m for Mth. $ 
 
 we are, P. snr^ for N. §pr_ they are. 
 
 Note: Both the true reading and the true meaning of the 
 Pr. Gramm. rule, however, are doubtful. Vr. 11, 5 (MS., see Cw. 89) 
 has ^SITPsr ^T£7TT rFrraT^crr:, which is explained by Bhamaha ^cJTTT 
 zraT $*Tg^^ rT'TtWT^tTfV U5rf?T i. e. ,,the palatals are so pronounced as 
 to be distinct' 1 . My MS. of Md. (1 2 th pada, fol. 48 b ) reads =^J?n^qw?T : 
 ^ETTrT^i 0"cFTl[T7PT ! I fi^j i ?qw ii If the examples can be trusted, the 
 true reading would seem to be =5T^n^ 3Qf\ 3"- WTrT^ i. e. „ya is 
 to be written above (i. e., as first part of a conjunct) the pala- 
 tals and labials; this ya is an (inorganic) addition; e. g., ychiram 
 long, ymda (?)" J ). My MS. is a Nagari copy of one in Oriya 
 characters, in which a^ and Q"^ and again W^ and f^ would closely 
 resemble each other. K. I. 3 (in Ls. 3 9 3) reads WWzrmrFA ^rrrrwTOT:, 
 which would yield a sense similar to that of M(l s . rule : ,,the labials 
 and palatals in conjunction with ya are slightly pronounced"; or, 
 perhaps, rather: „ya in conj. with 1. and p. is slightly pron." 
 This is confirmed by the example given in the rule on the Voca- 
 tive (Md. 12, 2 2, fol. 49 a ); see § 4 8, note. 
 
 12. The cerebrals are pronounced by striking the tip of 
 the tongue against the centre of the hard palate, the dentals by 
 striking it against the edge of the upper teeth. It has been a 
 matter of much controversy, whether or not the former are ori- 
 ginally Aryan sounds. They constitute a prominent feature of the 
 Dravidian languages, whilst among the Aryans they are peculiar 
 
 1) ymda mother (mata) or illusion mayal 
 
§ 12.] CONSONANTS. 9 
 
 to India. Hence it has been commonly assumed that they arc an 
 importation from the former. This, however, is by no means cer- 
 tain. I am inclined to agree with the opinion of Beanies (I, 23 2 — 
 234), that cerebrals of some kind belong to the original stock 
 of the Aryan phonetic system. It is a well known fact that the 
 (so-called) dentals of all the Aryan languages of Europe, especially 
 of England, when referred to the standard of the Indo-aryan (true) 
 dentals are not real dentals at all, but cerebrals of more or less 
 purity. They are formed by striking the tip of the tongue against 
 the anterior part of the hard palate or the gum of the upper 
 teeth ; and therefore are semi-cerebrals. To natives of India, whose 
 ears are quick in detecting differences of pronunciation, they sound 
 like real cerebrals and in transliterating English words, they al- 
 ways represent our dentals by cerebrals, as 3"^3>rj director, JnT^frftncFr?: 
 certificate (cf. § 2l). The pure dentals, therefore, are as peculiar 
 to the Indoaryan languages as the pure cerebrals and might with 
 equal reason be adjugded non-aryan. It is far more probable that 
 the original Aryan sound was a semicerebral (if not a pure ce- 
 rebral) which has in India only, for reasons peculiar to that, 
 country, varied in two directions so as to become the true cere- 
 bral and the true dental respectively. It is deserving of notice 
 as making for this view, that the old Indoaryan (Sanskrit) cere- 
 bral 7 and rjr^ have also been dentalised in various parts of India. 
 The truth seems to be, that the whole class of original Aryan 
 cerebrals has been undergoing in India a process of gradual de- 
 cerebralisation. The first to be affected were the consonants pro- 
 per and ^ which had already in Skr. times become to a great 
 extent dentals l ). The next was the semivowel 7 which was den- 
 talised in the times of Mg. Pr. Finally the nasal UT^ became 
 dental in the comparatively modern times of Gd. As the dentals 
 
 1) The old (Vedic) Skr. still preserves the old Aryan cerebral t. 
 
 Cp. vedic ^1 gracious with Skr. ITT gentle ; also R. XT or **?. with JJrt" ; 
 
 r 
 RT with HrT : :TT with ^T, etc. 
 
10 CONSONANTS. § 13.] 
 
 are softer and smoother sounds than the cerebrals, it may be 
 supposed that the enervating climate of the great North Indian 
 plain was, at least, one of the causes determining that process. 
 On the other hand, it is quite natural also, that in those forms 
 of the Indoaryan languages which were current among the com- 
 mon people, i. e., the Prakrits and Gaudians, the original Aryan 
 cerebrals should to a great extent have not only stood their 
 ground, but even been more intensely cerebralized. For most of 
 those people belonged to or, at all events, were most in contact 
 with the aboriginal Dravidian population whose language, like 
 their own, possessed the cerebrals. It is noticeable, that just as 
 in Skr. times the old Aryan semicerebral consonants were often 
 made fully cerebral, so in Pr. times in many cases the old (se- 
 midental) n^ 1 ) is cerebralized to rjT^, and in Gel. times by the side 
 of the old semicerebral rr a fully cerebral 7 has been formed. — 
 It may be added as some evidence against the Dravidian theory 
 of the cerebrals, that though the Gd. languages have now been 
 for centuries under the influence of Arabic and Persian, yet none 
 of the sounds peculiar to the latter have been imported into them 
 (see § 21). 
 
 13. The nasal 3 n, I believe, never occurs in E. H., ex- 
 cept in conjunction with a following consonant of its own class, 
 as ^f^JTT angiyd bodice. The others may occur by themselves. The 
 o^w and trr^W, both initial and medial, are occasionally heard in 
 the more vulgar (theth) forms of E. H. ; thus onfT ndlit no, 
 gfnoTT agi'iid fire, ur^f^ narsmgh manlion, rnrrnT ndrain Ndrdyan, 
 mrrft pdni water. But in the higher forms of E. H. they are 
 always changed to :T n, as =TTfT ndhi, T^fsfff narsihgh, etc. ; even 
 in tatsama words with an original in », as 3iT7-\ kdran cause for 
 Skr. mjm Jcarana. Hence the Kaithi alphabet has no special signs 
 for ol n and OT^M; and following its practise, I also shall limit 
 myself in this work to the use of =T n. When any of the five 
 
 1) The Europeo-aryan r and w are semicerebral or semidental. 
 
§ 14.] CONSONANTS. 11 
 
 nasals are used as the first part of a conjunct, they are always 
 indicated by a dot placed over the preceding consonant ; as "T3T 
 pemk mire, ^ft^ ant end. This dot is commonly called aunsvdra, 
 hut it must not he confounded with the real Skr. anusvara which 
 does not exist in E. H. (see § 23). 
 
 14. Affinities. The two nasals 3 and 57 (as non-con- 
 juncts) had already heen lost in the Mh.-Sr. Pr. (T. V. 1, 1. 1. 
 H. C. 1, 1). The latter (or), however, is expressly mentioned by 
 Pr. Grammarians (Vr. 10, 9. 10. T. V. 3, 2. 37. 3, 4. 61. H. C. 
 4, 2 93, 294. 39 2), as occurring in Mg. Pr. (and also in Ap. and 
 Ps. Pr.), where the Skr. conjuncts ^U ny and rj?T^ ny change to 
 ooj un. Agreeably with this, oj occurs in E. Gd. (especially in the 
 respective theth bhdshds) before or after the palatal vowel (^) or 
 semivowel (u ) ; thus E. H. ^frroTT fire for sfnf^TT, Mg. Pr. ^frrfrjrn" 
 (see Ls. 244 ^fmiTT), Skr. wfr^qi : ; orr|V" not for ~0T^t' = ^ + 9T^f ' 
 (^ for q-orqT, as in B., see S. Ch. 3 31); B. snfrroTT order (see S. Ch. 10) 
 for (0. H.) ^Tf?Frr (Skr. gr?rr). So also in N. errfoT at, by S. Lk. 
 10, 29. 40 (H. er w ) for Ap. Pr. mfm or ennr, Skr. mik; fersiT taken 
 (S. Lk. 19, 8) forW. H. Sfcrr (=f%rrr)i). S. which generally fol- 
 lows E. Gd. phonological practices (cf. §§ 16. 18) keeps even more 
 closely to the Mg. precedents; thus S. qoT virtue, Mg. Pr. <To"5f, 
 Skr. tpnf ; S. ?T3j tvoman's milk, Mg. Pr. eioor, Skr. SrFtf ; S. 5T3T goes, 
 Mg. Pr. 5T3o7^ (H. 4, 294), Skr. 5rcm (§18); S. trsr heeds, Mg. Pr. 
 *T3oT3\ Skr. q-drl, etc. In these instances the E. H. follows the old 
 Ardhamagadhi which has "^ nn 2 ) (see Wb. Bh. 402. 403); thus 
 E. H. <t^ virtue, A. Mg. Pr. qj ; E. H. srSr is made, A. Mg. Pr. 
 &?j; E. H. itpt heeds, A. Mg. Pr. *&?. It is noticeable, that S. 
 has also preserved the guttural nasal J (Tr. XVI. XVIII), as 9J 
 
 1) Apparently it inserts even an inorganic oT^ after J: as ZJT^T feared 
 for T^T^T (T^TOT); first! was for JWT; £fT3?T money forTTKT^T; see S. Lk. 
 19, 21. 23. 24. Such forms as xfqoTT money, ^fjTo?T order, however, I have 
 heard also in theth Panjdbi. 
 
 2) The Mh.-Sr. Pr. has w nn for rr?J ny (cf. H. C. 1, 66. 2, 159); but 
 ^nn for ^ ny (cf. H. C. 2,25.44. 1,213. 3, 58— 61, etc.). 
 
12 CONSONANTS. § 15.] 
 
 aim bod//, JTSiTT mcmanu ask (E. II. ritual ) ; and apparently 0. too 
 (see Sn. 18), as 3kT kehu who, Qg jemt which. This would seem to 
 indicate, that perhaps 3 also was not quite extinct in Mg. Pr., 
 though I believe that it id not mentioned as present by any 
 Pr. Gramm. I do not know of any instance of its occurrence in 
 E. II. and B. As regards HT^ and n^, every UT^ changes to ^T in Ps. 
 Pr. (Vr. 10, 5. H. C. 4, 306) ; vice versa, every medial ^ and optio- 
 nally every initial ^become rjT in all other Prs. (H. C. 1, 228. 229. 
 T. V. 1, 3. 52. 53). AgreeahJy to this, t!T is found as a medial 
 in all Gd. languages, and as an inilial occasionally in theth Hindi. 
 It is, however, now confined more or less to the theth or low 
 forms of the Gds. In Urdu, H. H., H. P. and II. B., especially, HT 
 (even when originally existing in Skr.) has uniformly given way 
 to ^T 1 ). Thus E. H., etc. STorr, M. qnrfT water, Pr. qT%g (Vr. 1,18), 
 Skr. QTTtgir , but H. H., etc. qvrt ; E. II. tjTr^qr or :rrpT Ndrdyan, 
 Mg. Pr. TJTTTT5HTT or ^TTTOirr, Skr. ^t^tjtijt:, H. H. ^rrpi; or ^tjjpt . 
 As regards ^, it is uniformly preserved in the' earlier Pr. ; in 
 later Pr. it is in a few cases elided, nasalizing the following vo- 
 wel, as sTJUTT Jamna for Skr. JT^T (H. Or 1, 178. T. V. 1, 3. 11). 
 In the Gds. this practice is rather common, see §§ 23. 127. 
 
 15. E. H. possesses four new consonants, which do not 
 exist in the Skr. phonetic system ; the semivowels J r, W rh, ^f 111 
 and ^ rh. The ^ r is a pure dental like c^, which explains their 
 facile interchange (§ 3 0. 1 1 0); 3" and v& are their respective aspirates, 
 pronounced as r + h and Z + h, as S^[ barhai grates, 3?TcrF kollu'i 
 
 1) Ps. Pr. possesses only ^; the other Prs., as a rule, only HT. The 
 high Gds., then, follow the Ps. It is a curious coincidence, that the area 
 of the modern Ps. practice is nearly coterminous with the area of direct 
 Mohammedan, i. e., foreign influence; see Introd. — Vr. 2, 42 does not yet 
 admit any option in the change of the initial :T; it is allowed only by the 
 later Gramm. H. C. and T. V., who moreover do not admit the change of 
 H" to rn^at all, if it is the resultant of a Skr. conjunct, as Pr. HT9T (not 
 HTT^T) for Skr. ~?JTT : This circumstance — unless Vr's silence as to the 
 option be merely an oversight — would seem to indicate the commence- 
 ment of the modern Ps. practice. 
 
§ 16.] CONSONANTS. 13 
 
 SltgarmiU. The ^ , pronounced r + h, as ^f^OT burhiyd old ivoman, 
 is the aspirate of 7 which is a pure cerebral, and, therefore, is 
 equivalent to the Skr. 7 r. For the latter is said by Skr. Gram- 
 marians to be a cerebral, not a dental *). In fact, it is not, as 
 commonly supposed, the cerebral 7 r which is the new letter, 
 but the dental !jr r. The old Skr. 7 has assumed a new sound, 
 while its old one is represented by 7. To avoid the inconvenience 
 of diacritical marks, I shall adopt the Gurmukhi forrfl 1 for 7 
 and ^ for JJ, and the Gurmukhi cerebral 1 for the Skr. cerebral T. 
 The aspirates ?r rh and vf> Ih are single sounds in the same sense 
 as 35 rh ; all three are in certain cases interchangeable with £ (Ih, 
 precisely as X, 5T_ and 7 with 7 d. 
 
 16. Aff in Hies. Vedic Skr. has a cerebral £j and ss ^ Ih, 
 which in certain schools take the place of an original medial 7 4 
 and ig dh (see M. M. 4). These complete the series of the semi- 
 vowels. In genealogical order they follow thus : from 7 and £ 
 arise (cerebral) £ and s^eT, then Skr. or W. Gd. (cerebral) 7 or 7 
 and z$, then (dental) c^ and ^T, finally E. Gd. (dental) 7 and g\ 
 Most words which in W. H. contain a non-initial ^, have in E. H. 
 an j^, as 0. H. «T7^" fruit for W. H. qr^T ; E. H 37?[ it grows up for 
 W. H. 3^7!?. Indeed the affinity between these two sounds is so 
 close and the transition so easy that E. Hindus seem to be hardly 
 conscious of saying J instead of ^. This proves, firstly, that the 
 E. H. ^ is a pure dental sound, and secondly that it is more 
 modern than 5T , of which it is, in fact, a comparatively recent 
 modification 2 ). Hence it follows that wherever E. H. has its 
 
 1) The Skr. 7 is, perhaps, not a full cerebral, but a semicerebral, 
 like the English so-called dentals; only in so far, can the modern full ce- 
 rebral 7 be called a new sound. 
 
 2) It existed, however, already in the A. Mg. of the Bhagavati (see 
 Wb. Bh. 393). It may be noted, that while the Mg., treated of by H. C, 
 has «T_for 7 (H. C. 4, 288), £ for FT^ (H. C. 4, 260. 302;, and if^or | for ^ 
 (H. C. 4, 207. 302), the Mg. of the Bhag. has, precisely like E. Gd., 7 for 
 c^, elides £, and uses only £ (cf. Wb. Bh. 410. 428. 429), e. g., in H C. 
 cfi^rf^, in Bhg. 5T7T, in E. H. Zfif he docs; in H. C. mTTT'tf or fTTtrr^, in Bhg. 
 
14 CONSONANTS. § 16.] 
 
 dental J, there must have been formerly a gr. This exactly agrees 
 with what, the Pr. Gramms. tell us, was the case in their time. 
 They say (see H. C. 4, 288. T. V. 3, 2. 3 6 and the examples in 
 Vr. 11, 8. 10. 12. 13), that Mg. Pr. changes every Skr. 7 into c^, 
 that is, it turns the cerebral 7 into the dental v^. The E. H. 
 has gone a step further and has converted every dental c<T^ into 
 dental £; e. g., Skr. ifn: night, Mg. Pr. ^wt, E. H. JT^; Skr. 
 TJ : »irt>/,IMg. Pr. ^t9t, E. H. ^. There are, however, a few 
 exoeptions, as E. H. ^sfft for Mg. Pr. *^TsTf^gr (with pleonastic 
 %gT = frcRT) = Skr. j^, E. H. ^ he quarrels, Mg. 5fT^, Skr. jzfn 
 (see § 110). These bear out the statement of the Pr. Gramma- 
 rians. But further, that dentalizing process of E. H. is still at 
 work in the present day, turning most W. H. 7 ( = Skr. cere- 
 bral 7) into dental J, as E. H. <f^" he breaks for W. H. rrn? ; and 
 occasionally the intermediate (Mg. Pr.) c^ is still preserved, as 
 in the W. H. pleonastic suffix IT which is in E. H. vH and ^"T; 
 e. g., W. H. qit goat, E. H. ^ or ^ft (Skr. $nft, Ap. Pr. ^mfesrr), 
 or W. H. :rr§t watercourse, E. H. JTT^rt or ^rrff *). Again the very 
 same process, by which the E. H. has already changed all dialectic 
 Mg. Pr. ^ into (dental) T, it applies in the present day to all 
 non-initial original (Skr.) c^ also ; as Skr. q7c?T fruit, Mg. Pr. <TT^f, 
 E. H. <qr; Skr. 5F$«TqFj:, Mg. Pr. TOrer^r or &mi[, E. H. £F^T. Initial 
 original c<^, it is true, are exempted, as Skr. ^fsj" : long, Mg. ^fa 1 
 
 sTTTT^;, in E. H. sTPTsf yon know. It appears, then, that the change of 7 
 to ^T_ belongs to the most ancient period of Mg., and that the present 
 phonetic state (ofjfor^) existed already in the Mg. period of the Bhag. 
 In the phonological part of the present work, however, I shall generally 
 give the ancient Mg. equivalents (with ?Tj of E. H. words; for this rea- 
 son, more than any other, to keep before the student's mind the fact of 
 the change of the Skr. 7 to E. H. !£, through Mg. ?TJ 
 
 1) Apparently in these exceptional cases the ^was already present 
 in Skr.; cf. the Skr. pleon. suff. c<T and ^5 and Skr. =TC or ^<T, Ved. rrj: 
 tubular reed, bone, artery, etc., whence perhaps ^[1 man ; and Skr. TT2n or 
 rrTcfTT toatercourse, whence, perhaps, RT^t water. 
 
§ 16.] CONSONANTS. 15 
 
 or cFT«T (see § 18), E. H. ^m (W. H. STSTT), yet the tendency to 
 the change is shown in the occasional substitution of rjrr^ or ^ in 
 the place of 5T^, as in the pleonastic suffixes HTT or TT for cTT 
 (e. g., amrrr or E<JTr own, cf. M. 3j<TofTr); a substitution which is 
 still more common in B. and 0. (see Bs. I, 7 5); for the cerebral 
 rjj contains the sound of r, being somewhat like rn. Again the 
 trustworthiness of the Pr. Gramnis. is shown by their noting the 
 remarkable agreement of S. with E. H., on which point see be- 
 low. Thus Md. and R. T. say, that S. which is called the pdschd 
 dialect, is distinguished by the interchange of I and r 1 ). It is 
 also noticeable that in the Kaithi alphabet, proper to E. H., the 
 sign for the dental r (j) is different from that originally used 
 for the Skr. cerebral r (l) and still preserved in the Gurmukhi 
 for the P. cerebral r ; it is, in fact, a slight modification of the 
 original sign for ^T (^r) made by omitting the semicircular stroke (7), 
 and improved into the modern Devanagari (j). According to the 
 Pr. Gramm. the change of 7 to ^ does not obtain in the Mh.-Sr. 
 Pr. ; i. e., the latter does not change the cerebral into a dental. 
 This agrees with the fact that to the present day in W. Gd. 
 (i. e., W. EL, P., G., excl. Br. and S.) J is more or less distinctly 
 cerebral ; and accordingly they do not interchange their c^ and ^, 
 nor have they a cerebral 7 r~), but on the other hand they 
 possess a cerebral £ I. The same is true of the S. Gd., which like 
 its original, the Dk. Pr. (Ls. 415), follows the W. Gds. (i. e., Mh.-Sr. 
 Pr.). In fact their system of semivowels is very much the same 
 still as in (Vedic) Skr. P. shows a tendency to change its ce- 
 rebral J to 7, and rarely its ^ to J; hence, probably, its ^[ is 
 not fully cerebral. S., on the other hand, agrees with E. H. in 
 
 1) Md. <IT3IT?JT pTaTrTHJ'-T (18 ,h pada, fol. 56); and R. T. qPOTrWT 
 vTT^ fcTOJJTUT (Ls. Ap. 5). 
 
 2) Their 3- is always d, not r; and their r is equivalent to 3 r\ 
 whence, e. g., W. H. 5T^^T wild hog, probably written for ^<rTT = 3"^TT 
 from Skr. 5T^ -f pleon. cf?T; W. II. ^TiTT? or iTsTT^ for Skr. rrnTTf:. 
 
16 CONSONANTS. § 17.] 
 
 every respect; it has the dental ^ and cerebral 7, the inter- 
 change of 5T_ and X, and no £; so also Br., except that it does 
 not usually interchange 5T and !£. N. and B., again, agree with 
 E. II. in the dental T_ and cerebral "3, and the want of T.; and 
 though they do not interchange c^ and ;jjT, they have the ana- 
 logous change of c^ to trr^ or ^T . The same is the case with 0., 
 except that it possesses the £ ; this is strange ; I juspect that 
 its £ is not a pure cerebral; for sometimes it has both £ and 5T_, 
 e. g., iftoT and rrtl ball; sometimes it has c?T_, where the W. Gds. 
 have 3E, e. g., G. E£or, M. r£irr w , but 0. cf^T^TT to confound. To sum 
 up : W. Gd. (excl. S.) and S. Gd., like the Mh.-Sr. Pr., keep the 
 cerebral "J; but E. Gd. and N. Gd. dentalize it, like the Mg. Pr. ; 
 S., like the old Pascha, follows the E. Gd. practice. 
 
 17. In E. II. the semivowels 5^ and 3[ are never organic, 
 but always euphonic, i. e., either simply inserted, or produced by 
 sandhi in order to prevent a hiatus. Thus sTTO" he lives for ?u + ^ 
 (Pr. £\i3$) ; wni^ eaten for wr^FT_ (Pr. m^z) \ 3TU^ cf having gone 
 for 5TTc cFT ; iff Jr. they may go for siT -f- V ; again ^Tof to take for 
 5^; ffop^ he wept for i[T + ^^l; sfo^srr horse for ar^ffT; rfsr 
 I may go for jTTsrf, etc. It follows that they can never oc- 
 cur at the beginning of a word. It should be remembered, how- 
 ever, that in Kaithi, a^ is always written for g^, and a^ not 
 uncommonly for sT^. Whenever such apparently organic U or 3^ 
 occur initially, they must be pronounced 5^ or 5T^ respectively ; as 
 *ftJT^ or ?fln^ jog worthy; Win or ^fsTrT^ sanjut joined; cTTrj^ or srn^ 
 bat word; uit or uib bdtai he is; ^^ or ststf^ samba t year. This 
 applies even to tatsamas as JJT5TT jdtrd pilgrimage, «r^rcr dchdraj 
 preceptor. The sound of a^ is very peculiar ; it is neither distinctly 
 b nor v; of the two it is nearer to b; but in many cases it is 
 difficult to say which it is. This is especially the case in the 
 fheth bhdshd; in the khari bhasha, it is, as a rule, distinctly b. 
 The same remarks apply to B. and 0. — Nor does an organic 
 ff or Ef ever occur in the middle of a word ; it is always voca- 
 lized and commonly combined with the adjacent vowels, as HTpT^ 
 
§ 18.] CONSONANTS. 17 
 
 or TT^T^T Ndrdyan (Pr. ^TTTW) ; 3!«k4 PW& (Pr- <L°KI^). This 
 applies also to tatsamas, as ^cTrTT deota (^TrlT) idol. In tatsamas 
 it is the usual, though not the universal practice to write £T and 
 5T ; but the Pr. Grammai'ians' practice of phonetic spelling would 
 be greatly preferable ; and for clearness 1 sake I shall observe it 
 in this work. 
 
 18. Affinities. This subject is involved in some obscu- 
 rity. According to the Pr. Gramm. an initial U always changes 
 to s in the Mh.-Sr. Pr. (Vr. 2, 31. H. C. 1, 245. T. V. 1, 3. 74), 
 but in the Mg. Pr. it not only remains unchanged, but even 5T 
 (whether initial or medial) changes to ^ (H. C. 4, 292. T. V. 3, 
 2. 3 9. cf. Vr. 11, 4. K.I. 5 inLs. 3 93); e. g., Skr. JTTsR^, Sr. jftiTtrf, 
 Mg. srVsrrrf. But not only is the modern E. and S. Gd. practice 
 precisely the reverse of that of Mg., and the same as that of 
 Mh.-Sr. ; but even in the contemporary (Mg.) Pr. literature the 
 Sr. Pr. almost uniformly prevails ; e. g., in the Bhagavati (see 
 Wb. Bh. 394; also Ls. 406. 411. 425). It seems impossible to 
 admit that the Pr. Grammarians should have deliberately foisted 
 on a language, and that in some cases probably their own ver- 
 nacular, a rule the opposite of which they knew to be the truth. 
 And it seems to be an equally impossible supposition — it is, 
 indeed, as just stated, contradicted by the Pr. literature — , that 
 a revolution so complete in the pronunciation of Mg. should have 
 taken place within the last few centuries, as the accustomed in- 
 terpretation of their rule would involve. Yet if the q^, which 
 they mention, is understood in the sense of the ordinary semi- 
 vowel y, there seems no escape from one or other of these two 
 improbable alternatives. The solution of the difficully appears to 
 me to be the admission of the fact, that in the old Mg. Pr. 
 times there must have existed an obscure sound, intermediate be- 
 tween a and j, and doing duty for both these two ; precisely ana- 
 logous to the obscure sound which took the place in Pr. of the 
 two sounds v and b and which still exists in E. H. (§ 17). These 
 two obscure or neutral sounds I shall call the semicoqsonants q^ 
 
18 CONSONANTS. § 18.] 
 
 and a^. The palatal semiconsonant y still appears to exist here 
 and there in isolated cases. It has been noticed by Beames to 
 occur in the Panjab *). But from the Pr. Gramm.' statement, it 
 is probable that it once universally prevailed in the Mg. Pr. 
 The two cases, of JT^ and 5T^ on the one side and of 5T and 5T on 
 the other, are closely analogous and serve to elucidate one ano- 
 ther. The existence of such semiconsonants Q^ and a^ is, apparently, 
 nowhere expressly noted in the Pr. Gramm. ; but it follows al- 
 most of necessity from the fact, that side by side with them 
 Pr. possesses an euphonic q^ and s^ 2 ). The latter are very common 
 in modern Gd. ? and are pronounced precisely like our ordinary 
 semivowels y and v\ whence it follows, that the organic a^ and sr 
 must have had in Pr. more of a real consonantal character, and 
 are, in fact, semiconsonants, i. e., neutral sounds between the full 
 semivowels and the full consonants 3 ). It is this semiconsonant 5T , 
 
 1) „The Hindi holds fast the correct pronunciation (of sT ), but Pan- 
 jabi rather finds it a stumbling-block. When a Panjabi says *TcK majh "a 
 buffalocow" the sound he produces is something very odd. It might be 
 represented by tneyh, a very palatal y aspirated; perhaps in German by 
 much, or rather, if it may be so expressed, with a medial sound correspon- 
 ding to the tenuis cV (Bs. I, 71). It is probably the sound, given to g (as 
 in lebendig) in the Rhenish Provinces. 
 
 2) Thus K. I. 1, 45. ^f%^5f 5TT II JTWr rRTdt STT II 46. cFff%H" STrST 37 i 
 ^p?5T ^[SIT 5TT ii i. e. sometimes (when a consonant is elided) an euphonic 
 y or v is inserted, as gayanam for gaanam (Skr. gayanam), suhavo for 
 suhao (Skr. subhagah). Again H. C. 1, 180. ^STCTTT tfqfFT. ; and T. V. 1,3. 10 
 ZRXm': I mjj- ii in the place of an elided consonant between the vowels a 
 or d an euphonic y is pronounced; as nayaram (Skr. nagaram), etc. Md. 2, 2. 
 has g:TTBT5^ grSTIT cJTJTT qfSrTSqT I JTcFrT^STf^fFT qTSfWT II (MS. fol. S a ). - 
 See also Wb. Bh. 399. 
 
 3) The Pr. Gramm. themselves note a distinction in the sound of 
 the two sets; thus T. V. 1, 3. 10 calls the euphonic y ^UQUrrnjU^JJ 
 „pronounced with smaller effort"; in the same rule among the examples 
 of the euphonic 5^ the Pr. UTOTrf eye for Skr. ^Spf is given; this would 
 have no sense, unless the organic (Skr.) U was pronounced in Pr. diffe- 
 rently from the euphonic U . Again U and a^ are in Pr. sometimes voca- 
 lized and, by combination with the adjacent vowels, form ^ and 9T; this 
 
§ 18.] CONSONANTS. 19 
 
 which according to the Pr. Gramm. is sometimes substituted for 
 a single medial Skr. Q^or SJ^, but as a rule elided, both in Mh.-Sr. 
 and in Mg. Pr. *). They give no rule as to the substitution of 
 the semicons. a^ for an initial or a conjunct Skr. 5Tj whence it may 
 be concluded, that in the Mh.-Sr. Pr. the latter remained un- 
 changed. This conclusion, indeed, is indirectly supported by the 
 fact that the Skr. conj. *5J^ nib does not change in the Mh.-Sr. 
 Pr. into «J^ mm, as it would do according to Vr. 3,8, if it were 
 pronounced in Pr. *a^»M> with the semicons. a^ 2 ). Thus Skr. sTS5T , 
 Pr. !TJor J or %° (Spt. 19 2); Skr. fW 3 , Pr. faW or fw° (Spt. 
 252) ; Skr. TO°, Pr. TO or ??5r (Spt. A. 3 2) ; Skr. Bnsf, Pr. fro 
 or fsfsf (Spt, 208); also Pr. TO or sfef (Vr. 3, 53, for Skr. m) ; 
 
 occurs, as a rule, in declension and conjugation, and it will be observed, 
 that the ?T^ and a^ thus treated are always the euphonic semivowels; thus 
 Skr. SWfrT of f?T + ^ffT is Pr. ?rf^, Skr. nafff of J^-f %ffi is Pr. ^TfJ£, 
 Skr. rT^aT of rPT -f- j is Pr. rnjT^T, etc. ; on the other hand, the organic se- 
 miconsonants ^ and a^ are not vocalized, but as a rule elided; thus Skr. 
 ^ZPT is Pr. rrfgrjT (T.V. 1, 3. 8); Skr. iyTTadSf is Pr. vTTsrer (T. V. 1, 3. 8). 
 In short, the euph. semivowels 3^ and a^ are treated like vowels; but the 
 semicousonants ?T_ aud a like consonants. Again note the change of Skr. 
 %un to Pr. s^T (Vr. 2, 18). 
 
 1) Vr. 2, 15 i\ a: v takes the place of p; H. C. 1, 237. T. V. 1, 3. 61 
 STtoT: v takes the place of b; Vr. 2, 2 °q?iaT ffraT sTta: I Md. 2, 2 CTTtT: 
 °qa?Tat c?rta: (MS. fob 8 a ) „as a rule v etc. are elided'". These rules are 
 given on Mh., but they apply to Sr. and Mg. too (by H. C. 3, 302. 286). 
 It is noticeable, that they do not apply to the^ Ap. Pr., which possesses 
 the full consonant 5T ; thus H. C. 4, 396 SRT^T 53^^* Ml 5»<iTfTO<T<fit 
 rra^yavfT: „mcdial single p, ph etc. become b, bh etc.". 
 
 2) While conjuncts consisting of a semivowel with an antecedent nasal 
 are assimilated in Pr. (Vr. 3, 2. 3), those consisting of a consonant with 
 an antecedent nasal are not. Hence the second part of the conjunct in the 
 examples must be pronounced 5^ b, not a v; otherwise the forms ought 
 to be ?T«T , etc.; as, indeed, they were probably in Mg. The rule Vr. 3, 3 
 does not apply to the consonant 5T b, but only to neutral ofj the example 
 wftefTl" for Skr. c?T5yqi: does not prove that it does, as Sj^ would be assi- 
 milated, in any case, by the analogy of the rule Vr. 3, 1. 
 
20 CONSONANTS. § 18.] 
 
 Skr. ^rsrffT he kisses, Pr. =5F^ or tJst^ (H. C. 4, 23 9). On the other 
 hand, it is very probable, that both the initial and the conjunct 
 Skr. ST were pronounced in the Mg. Pr. as the semiconsonant EJ\ For 
 the following reasons: first///, while the W. and S. G<1., the de- 
 scendants of the Mh.-Sr. Pr., show, like the latter, the cons. S^ 
 in the place of the Skr. conjunct *aj the E. G(L, the descendant 
 of the Mg. Pr. (and S. which generally follows E. Gd. practices, 
 cf. § 16), shows ^ which postulates in Mg. a conjunct n^ 1 ) and 
 hence the pronunciation ^ for Skr. rq ; thus Skr. sT^q:, Mh.-Sr. 
 !T^, M. ?rw , G. STT57, but E. H., B., 0. jtt^, S. ?rrg, Mg. *5T«^; 
 Skr. fer., Mh.-Sr. fwsft, W. H., M., G. ^ : %, but E. H., B., 0. 
 RT* , Mg. *frr^; Skr. f^Tc*:, Mh.-Sr. f%rST*T, W. H., M., G. f^J , 
 but E. H., B., 0. qr^, S. ftrc or %it> Mg. *f^Y; Skr. <?ra:, 
 Mh.-Sr. ^csft, W. H. <y.r^T, but E. H. sn*T , Mg. *wfl?r; S kr - ^J* i 
 Mh.-Sr. ^rsf, W. H., P. ?ra , M. 5^T, G. snsiT, but E. H., B., 0. 
 3R , S. ST*rt (also ^), Mg. *^nf ; Skr. Frmq , Mh.-Sr. FTSsi, W. H., P. 
 
 (TOT, M. rTt'ir", G. rTtsf', but E. H., B., 0. rTFT or FTmT, S. CTJTT, 
 
 Mg. *ftkt (cf. Ls. 24 6); in Skr. cF?5n?r: W„„/, T /, Mg. *ch«7ft, E. H. 
 cfisqtfT (cf. § 143 exc.) the original Mg. *«T^ is preserved; Skr. 
 W^m, Mg. *r7zqscH^, E. H. ^F 2 ). Secondly, while E. Gd. (and 
 Br.) possesses the initial semiconsonant 5T , the other Gd. languages 
 have either the semivowel cT^ or the consonant 3" (see Bs. I, 2 5 2. 
 Kl. 11. 13) at the beginning of words. Thirdly, while the Gur- 
 inukhi (i. e. Panjabi) and Gujarati alphabets possess two separate 
 signs for v and b, the Kaithi (inch Devanagari), Bangali and Oriya 
 have only one, namely cj^, to denote both sounds v and b, and 
 hence, for distinction's sake, they place a dot under (E. H. £T) or 
 over (0. of) it when it has the sound of v\ as E. H. "^TcPT^ Bdvcm, 
 
 1) The Mg. semicons. ST seems to have a tendency to change to JT^, 
 e. g., Mg. tn^m for oTTf CTT (Skr. sTP^Ttn) ; Mg. 5TOJTOT for ot^57 HT (Skr. sWoTqT) ; 
 see Wb. Bh. 414. 415; also see § 134. 
 
 2) In the last instance W*I the assimilation "T appears to be com- 
 mon to all Gds.: cf. Bs. II, 108. II. ^T<nTrTT, G. ^TTsTrTt, M. rRsTFT . 
 
§ 18.] CONSONANTS. 21 
 
 ^tsr^kavan who; but srasr. bachan word, aFT. ban wood 1 ). On the 
 whole the case appears to stand thus: In Mh.-Sr. Pr. the Skr. 
 semivowel cj^ and consonant 5£ remain unchanged at the heginning 
 of words, but become the semiconsonant 5T_ in the middle. On the 
 other hand, in Mg. they are pronounced as the semicons. El in 
 every case whether initial or medial. In E. Gd. the Mg. initial 
 semicons. ^ has a tendency to be hardened into the consonant ST , 
 and the Mg. medial semicons. 51 has a tendency to be softened 
 into the semivowel ST and vocalized and combined with the ad- 
 jacent vowels; thus Skr. span, Mg. st?^, E. H. stot he knows; 
 Skr. SFFTtf , A. Mg. J^Tsr^, E. H. ^tf. The case of ar and 5T is 
 precisely analogous. It is the semiconsonant U^, to which the Pr. 
 Gramm. rule refers 2). From this rule it appears, that just as 
 the semiconsonant ST was pronounced in Mg. Pr. for both the 
 Skr. semivowel ET^ and consonant 5T^, so the semicons. ^ was pro- 
 nounced in it for both the Skr. semivow. U^ and cons. sT ; and 
 that, again, in every case, both in the beginning and middle of 
 a word. Moreover, just like the Skr. conjunct ssr^ mb is pronoun- 
 ced in Mg. *a mv and changed to «T^ mm, so the Skr. conjunct 
 ^ nj is in Mg. pronounced * osr^ nij and becomes 33T nu 3 ). Once 
 more : as the Bangali and Oriya alphabets have only one cha- 
 racter for both v and b, so they have only one sign for both 
 sounds y and j, and hence, for distinction's sake, they place a 
 dot (B. jt) or hook (0. u) wider the q^ when it has the sound 
 
 1) This proves, that the semicons. ST was felt to be more like b than r\ 
 for otherwise the dot would be used, when it signified b; as indeed it is 
 in Devanagarf, the alphabet of W. H.andM.. whore ST^(i. e. ST or dot within a") 
 signifies b. 
 
 2) Thus Vr. 11, 4 ?TT u: y takes the place of j; II. C. 4, 292. T. V. 
 3, 2. 39 siwn m y takes the place of j, dy and y. 
 
 8) Thus H. C. 4, 293. T. V. 3, 2. 37 -Jrrjsrfn^rt 3oT: nn takes the place 
 of v) etc.; as tfo^qiT for Skr. ^5WT, yq733T^ for Skr. 5*:T¥ff: , <T33P^ for Skr. 
 tf'racT: straight; none of these words, I believe, have survived in the mo- 
 dern Gds.; nor do I happen to know any other instance in B. or 0.; in S., 
 perhaps, there is TJT3T marrow for Skr. *JTT^T (see Tr. XXVII). 
 
22 CONSONANTS. § 18.] 
 
 of y '). On the other hand the Gurraukhi and (in this case also) 
 Kaithi have two separate signs for y and ,;', just as in the case 
 of v and b 2 ). Finally as in the case of the Mg. semicons. 5T , 
 so here too the Mg. init. semicons. q has heen hardened in the mo- 
 dern E. Gd. into the fyill consonant ^, and the Mg. medial se- 
 micons. q^ is softened into the semivowel q^, vocalized and com- 
 bined with the adjacent vowels; thus Skr. ^PTTfrT tie knows, Rig. 
 mmz, E. II. ?TTn- ; Skr. Jjpft night, Mg. juvni, E. H. ^^frr or |f^r. 
 To judge, however, from the evidence of the A. Mg. Pr. of the 
 Bhagavati, where ry and rj as a rule appear as yy, but j re- 
 mains unchanged (see Wb. Bh. 394. 389), and from the fact that 
 the Kaithi has separate signs for y and j, it is possible, that 
 the A. Mg. never possessed the single semicons. q^, but only the 
 double semicons. Jq^, following in the former respect the Mh.-Sr., 
 in the latter the Mg. In any case, in its modern representative, 
 the E. H., the semicons. q^, whether single or double, has become 
 a full consonant. — This theory of the semicons. q^ is confirmed 
 
 1) This shows again that the semicons. q was in Mg. Pr. more like 
 j than y. — It is noticeable that Bhamaha in his Comm. on Vr. 11,4 does 
 not use the term SZ|Tn" (he says sT^r^ST ?T3TTjV *T5rfrr), which he employs 
 in all other sutras where an actual phonetic change is enjoined; thus on 
 Vr. 11, 3 he says dqiTT^TcRTfJn": J?7T'T 5TgiT"(V JTafpT; and so even on Vr. 11, 7 
 n'aRT'^sTcjiT'^Jrt: ^JT^T IU1 HoriTT i. e. yy for rj and ry. Now in the Bhaga- 
 vati rj and ry, as a rule, change into yy, but j does not change (Wb. Bh. 
 394. 389). This curious coincidence would seem to show, that the diffe- 
 rence in Bhamaha's terminology, if it was intentional, was meant to indi- 
 cate, that in the case of j the change was one in writing only, but in the 
 case of rj and ry it was one both in writing and pronunciation. In other 
 words: in Bham'. time the semicons. U had already hardened into the full 
 cons. 5T^, though it was still written fl^ (as in modern B. and 0.), but the 
 double IU was still both written and pronounced as semicons. The latter 
 would naturally hold out longer. In modern E. Gd., however, it too has 
 hardened to «j\ 
 
 2) It may be remarked, however, that in Kaithi, too, a dot is placed 
 under q^, when it signifies an organic y in tatsama woi'ds; thus ^TFq true; 
 which shows, that formerly q^ (without dot) signified j, the Pr. substitute 
 of the Skr. organic y. 
 
§ 18.] CONSONANTS. 23 
 
 by and elucidates the treatment of the Skr. conjunct ?T ju in Pr. 
 and Gd. According to the Pr. Gramm. ?r changes to w nn in 
 Mh.-Sr. ») (H. C. 2, 4 2. T. V. 1, 4. 37. Vr. 3, 44), toooTjmin Mg. 
 (H. C. 4, 293. T. V. 3, 2. 3 7) and to "^ nn in the A. Mg. (Wb. 
 Bh. 402. 403). The Gds. show no trace of the form ooT Tin, but 
 have always ^ n or rjj^ n ; as Skr. ^rjrf queen, Pr. Twt or prt, 
 E. H. TPrt or TTnft, N. TT^rt, M. G. P. S. 7TOTt; Skr. zr^rrraTpf 
 sacrificial thread, Pr. *iiwriHff or sPnfsra (cf. Vr. 4, 1), G. sTTTj, E. H. 
 sR3 (forsrctesee § 2 6. 12 2), M. jrst, S. frarar, W. H. s£r3; Skr. 
 ^TtTT order, Pr. ^TrjiT (Vr. 3, 55) or ^FTT, H. WFTj Skr. ^m, Pr. TETT 
 or stct, H. stft^ sign\ Skr. farsrrfqcFT, Pr. fsrsrflraT or fErqfwgT, H. 
 fsrnrft respectful information, petition ; Skr. ^ixfffq-gir, Pr. ^Turfe^T 
 or ^rflrsT, H. *HHfft instead (lit. killing) 2 ). If !T_ was pronounced 
 as a semicons. (q^), it would easily be assimilated to the succee- 
 ding nasal. Besides from the form ^ nn it appears, that this 
 palatal semicons. JT had a tendency to pass into the dental class. 
 There are, however, traces in Pr. of another modification of tJ^, 
 beside that into "ET or ^. The Skr. base "^TfT king becomes in 
 Ps. Pr. 7Tf%^r (Vr. 10, 12) and in the later Mh. Pr. jr^m (H. C. 
 3, 50 — 55. K. I. 237. 238. Cw. 45. Ls. 315). The latter pre- 
 supposes a Sr. form * fiflriTF or * 7jf?TC or Mg. * Tjnref. Here, 
 evidently the conjunct 5T has been dissolved into f^TQT or f?r:T, 
 which the Ps., as usual, changes to f%^T. On the same principle 
 the E. H. word *T^ or ST^T hint (also S., see Tr. XXXIV) is formed 
 from the Pr. *ST?n-rT or *STT%rjTT, Skr. tffrr 8 ). Instead, however, 
 
 1) They state, however, that fT of the R. tTT "know always becomes 5T^ 
 (Vr. 8, 23); this is born out by Gd., which has sTHTj they also say that ST 
 of derivatives of the R. ?TT optionally becomes 5sT^ (H. C. 2, 83. T. V. 1, 4.82. 
 Vr. 3, 5); but Gd. shows no trace of this. 
 
 2) Also ^STPT or £oTFrT mad, Vr. £SST8T^ (H. C. 2, 83) or *|cF*, Skr. 
 5cRT: (lit. inspired); and ^sR^or ETPTT seeing, Pr. *f5njT^or *fsr-:T, Skr. f?TfT: 
 (lit. knowing) ; these two words, however, are probably introduced from the 
 Persian, which accounts for their metaphorical meaning. 
 
 3) H. has both <TFT^ and ST^ hint, but only "^TTT queen, not V^TT; pro- 
 bably to avoid confusion with T^rt night for Skr. 7JRT. 
 
24 CONSONANTS. § 19.] 
 
 of 5T^ being elided, it generally appears in the modern Gd. either 
 as CT g (E. and W. Gd.) or ^ d (S. Gd.). This can be naturally 
 explained, if the original sT be supposed to have been at first 
 pronounced as the semicons. ?T^. The latter, as already stated, 
 has a tendency to pass into the dental class, but it passes even 
 more easily into the guttural ; i. e., original f^T becomes flT^T or 
 fl^T. Next the nasal was suppressed and the two hiatus-vowels of 
 fn^ contracted to nr. This is still the common practice to the 
 present day in regard to tatsamas in P. and H. ; e. g., P. frt^PT , 
 H. xot^ knowledge for Skr. m^r ; P. srrfjt^T, H. war order for Skr. 
 ^TtTT ; but it must have existed already in the Ap. Pr., as evi- 
 denced by the modern H. sTJTi^ or sTTJT^ sacrifice, which presupposes 
 an Ap. Pr. form sTirf in which the conjunct rq^ gy has become sub- 
 ject to the ordinary Gd. laws on the treatment of conjuncts (see 
 § 144. 147. 150); so also the S. STofnj omniscient for *earar (Tr. 
 XXXII). — In G. tatsamas °tTPT° is changed to 7~U gnya; and 
 M. has zju dnya for °f^\°\ e. g., Skr. tTHT is in G. gnydn, in 
 M. dnydn. It is usual, however, to retain in writing the Skr. con- 
 junct fT jn in the place of the modern awkward triple nexus. — 
 It has been already noted, that traces of the insertion of the 
 euphonic semivowels U and 5T are already found in Pr. The practice 
 is far more general in Gd. ; in E. II., especially, these euph. let- 
 ters are regularly employed in the formation of the long form of 
 nouns (see § 203). 
 
 19. E. H. does not possess the two sibilants ST^ s and ® sh 
 of the Skr. phonetic system. Even in tatsama words they are 
 always pronounced as ^s, as fsTST siu. (l%3) Siva. Already in the 
 A. Mg. Pr., the original of E. H., they had uniformly given way to 
 the latter (see Wb. Bh. 393. 415. Ls. 411). In writing the sym- 
 bols ST and q^ are commonly used ; but they are always pronoun- 
 ced s and Ich respectively (as GTST^JfcMs happy, pers. (jij.3»), and, in 
 fact, are the E. H. (Kaithi) signs of those two sounds. To avoid 
 misunderstanding, however, I shall employ in this work the usual 
 Devanagari characters ^ s and ^ Ich. 
 
§ 20. 21.] CONSONANTS. 25 
 
 20. Affinities. The sound of Q^ had been already lost 
 in all Prs. ; that of OT in the Mh.-Sr. and that of q^ in the Mg. 
 (Vr. 2, 43. 11, 3). Accordingly none of the Gds. have isf, the E. Gd. 
 (exc. E. H.) has no q , W. and N. Gd. no Sj^. S. Gd. and E. H., 
 follow, like their prototypes (the A. Mg. and Dk. Pr.), the example 
 of the Mh.-Sr. and have, as a rule, no 9T^. In other words, like 
 their respective originals, E. Gd. (excl. E. H.) pronounces all three 
 Skr. sibilants alike as s ; W., N., S. Gd. and E. H. as s. In H. EL, 
 however, and in the other literary forms of W. Gd. both q^and 5T^ 
 are sounded^ in tatsamas, but alike as palatal s ; thus fsisr and fmor 
 are siva and visnu. — In writing, the character cr , more .or less 
 modified in the different alphabets (see the table), is preserved in 
 all Gds., and used as a symbol of ^ Ih. Similarly E. Gd. uses 
 SI^, and W. and N. Gd. q^, and S. Gd. q^ and GT^ indifferently, as 
 a symbol for their one sibilant. In the literary or high forms 
 of the various Gds., the use of all three characters sr, ST, cr (not 
 of their sounds), has been reintroduced ; chiefly in tatsamas; in 
 tadbhavas, owing to an imperfect knowledge of their derivation, 
 they are sometimes wrongly employed by native writers. 
 
 21. Such foreign sounds as do not occur in the E. H. 
 phonetic system, are assimilated in the following manner: 
 
 1 ) The semigutturals (arabic) o q, ^ kh, £ gh and -* or a h 
 become respectively the pure gutturals cF , w^, rr and e?; as 3TP5T 
 for i3^s agreement, m^t ^^> only or empty; nfte^ v^/* 1 poor; 
 ^T^T jlo state; ^r S> every. 
 
 2) The semipalatals (arabic) >-> i, ; z, \J& z, Js z become 
 pure palatal s^; as qrirra^ (0. H. ^nrr^) jjM paper; xTT^fi^ ^^) 
 more (see Bs. II, 54); fsTfqsr^ JO^±*j landholder; ?rrfir^ o^° su ~ 
 rety; ?ni%^ ^.PUb manifest. 
 
 3) The semicerebrals (english) t and d become pure cerebral 
 eT and J respectively ; as Qn&zez\ collector, cFTlT lord. 
 
 4) The semidentals _b t and (sibilants) cy s, i^p 5 and \J^ sh 
 become pure dental FT^ and S^ respectively ; as nmj ^s ready ; 
 snfsir^ ojIj' proved; srrf%5T v_o>l/o master, sir; wg. lA>> happy. 
 
20 VISARGA. § 22.] 
 
 5) The semilabial l_J f becomes pure labial fTT, pronounced 
 ph, not f as in W. H. ; e. g\, QT5T phaidd for slXjIs faidd profit. 
 
 6) The spirants c r/ and (sometimes) ^ « are dropped, and 
 if they were medial, the hiatus-vowels are contracted ; as JTTrTiT^ 
 for *jkxA known, nrfejT for oislys like. 
 
 3. THE VISARGA AND ANUSVARA. 
 22. The E. H. does not possess the Visarga (:) or unmo- 
 dified sibilant (see M. M. 4) of the Skr. phonetio system. Already 
 in Skr. the visarga had ceased to be pronounced in certain cases 
 and was assimilated either to the preceding vowel or to the fol- 
 lowing consonant. In Pr. this became the universal practice (cf. 
 Ls. 14 2. 2 29. 230). It follows that none of the Gds. can possess 
 the visarga ; on the contrary, they further subject the assimilated 
 vowel or consonant of the Pr. to the disintegrating action of 
 their own laws. Thus compare the following examples: Skr. WUT-sfq 
 also another, A. Mg. Pr. g^r far, E. H. ^3 or 3RT; Skr. frsTTcTP^ 
 glorious, A. Mg. Pr. srarsffr or sRTcJFr, E. H. sTtTsfrT ; Skr. <T5T5T: weak, 
 Mg. <£cpr, E. H. ^sq[; Skr. fqrfer: thoughtless, Mg. Priwr, E. H. 
 fNrto ; Skr. fq^FTorrm he pours off', Mg. ftfZTTccT^, E. II. famf ; Skr. 
 f^n^i fruitless, Mg. f^q^, E. H. TrfH^T ; Skr. sjfrr; fire, Mg. mnt, 
 E. H. mfn; Skr. £:w pain, Mg. jcRf, E. H. £W; Skr^g^Tigfrnif 
 conscience, Mg. ^rruj^ruf, E. H. arTcRT^; Skr. fnwTrRiiH expels, Mg. 
 fogfi 1 ^' E - H. fteFTST; Skr. friSTT^: breath, A. Mg. frwm, E. H. fen^N 
 It will be seen from this, that the spelling with a visarga , (as 
 Q%j ^frTicjiflTT^), affected by Hindi purists (especially foreign lexi- 
 cographers), is indefensible. A sound, which had disappeared in Pr. 
 already, could not have survived in Gd. As a matter of fact, no 
 Hindu pronounces or writes l ) it, even in tatsamas ; they say dukh 
 not duhkh, and antaharan not antahkaran. The latter is even 
 
 1) I have seen a native writer use the visarga to indicate a sonant 
 final a, as WiJvX: bar aba {you wi'fl do) ; the practice, however, is not to 
 be commended; as little as the use of the auusvara to indicate nasalization 
 (§§23.8); both are abuses of the Skr. symbols. 
 
§ 23.] ANUSVARA. 27 
 
 sometimes pronounced anfkaran, where the quiescence of the a, 
 which could not be unless the a were final (see § 41), clearly 
 proves the absence of a visarga. 
 
 23. The E. H. does not possess the Anusvdra (•) or un- 
 modified nasal (M. M. 4) of the Skr. phonetic system. The anus- 
 vara should be carefully distinguished from the ammdsika {). 
 The former is a separate sound (like the visarga or like any 
 vowel or consonant), while tke latter is merely the nasalization 
 of a sound. If the breath is emitted wholly through the mouth, 
 the pure sounds, whether vowels or consonants ), are produced ; 
 if a part only be thus emitted, while the rest is allowed to 
 escape simultaneously through the nose, a nasalized sound, whe- 
 ther vowel or consonant x ), is produced ; if the breath is expelled 
 wholly through the nose, the mouth being shut, a pure nasal 
 sound (unmodified by any organ of speech in the mouth) is the 
 result. The latter is the anuswara, which, therefore, is called by 
 native Grammarians nasikya, because pronounced in the nose only. 
 The second group, the nasalized sounds, are called by them anu- 
 nasika or co-nasals, because they are pronounced through both 
 mouth and nose at the same time. The pure nasal, monopolising 
 as it does the whole of the breath, cannot be pronounced to- 
 gether with, but only after an other sound. Hence it is called by 
 the native Gramm. anusvara, i. e. after-sound. — Now any sound, 
 whether vowel or consonant, may be nasalized, except ^ r, sr_ s 
 and eT h 2 ) ; but only five of these, when thus nasalized, are writ- 
 ten with separate letters ; viz. the nasal consonants or, briefly, 
 the class-nasals, 3 n, ^ n, tn n, :r n, JJ m. The nasalization of 
 the rest (i. e. tf , c^, S^ and the vowels, which I shall call, briefly, 
 the ammdsika) is indicated by the sign («), called arddhachandra 
 (halfmoon) ; thus c<T I, n^ij, q^v, srf a, Z ' 7. ~t u, etc. (§ 8). The pure 
 nasal (or anusvara) is denoted by the sign ( • ), called bmdu (dot) ; 
 
 1) Modified in the mouth, according to the organ of speech, into 
 gutturals, palatals, etc. 
 
 2) In Skr. also ST^ s and U^ sh; and in Gd. also ~3 r. 
 
28 ANUSVAKA. §. 23.] 
 
 thus si dm is the vowel a succeeded by a nasal tone, while 
 9t a is the nasalized vowel d. The latter is but one sound ; the 
 former are two successive sounds. The two cases, therefore, are 
 quite distinct. — The anusvara has the nearest affinity to the 
 class-nasal JT m ; the latter is formed by a momentary, the for- 
 mer by a prolonged contact of the lips. — As to the use of these 
 three kinds of nasals (the class-nasals, the anusvara and the anu- 
 nasika) in Skr., Pr. and Gd. respectively, the following general 
 laws may be laid down. First!//, as regards the nasal in the 
 body of the word. 1) In Skr.: a) a nasal standing before ^ 8 
 (srr., 6T.) an( i 1^ ^ must be the anusvara; b) before any consonant 
 proper it must be the respective class-nasal ; c) before nasals, 
 semivowels and vowels it must be one of the three, rjj or n^ or 
 it (cf. M. M. 5. 7. 5 9. 6 0). 2) In Pr. : a) a nasal standing before 
 g (Mg. ct) must be the anusvara; b) before eT and any cons, 
 proper it may be either the anusvara or the respective class-nasal ; 
 in the latter case f changes to ^ (H. C. 1,264. T. V. 1, 3. 86); 
 c) before nasals, semivowels and vowels rjj^, ^ and >T remain, as 
 a rule, unchanged *) ; but occasionally JT before JJ may be changed 
 to anusvara, while before vowels it may become 5T^ with or without 
 anunasika or be elided 2 ) (cf. ad a. b., Vr. 4, 17. H. C. 1, 29. 30. 
 T. V. 1,1. 47. 48 ; ad c, Vr. 3, 2. 3. 43. 44. 53. 2, 3. T. V. 1, 4. 
 78. 79. 37. 48. 49. 3, 2. 37. 44. 3, 3. 3. 1, 3. 11. H. C. 2, 42. 
 56.61.78.79. 1,23. 4,397. 1,178). 3) In Gd.: a) the nasal 
 is never anusvara under -any circumstances; b) before g^, g", and 
 any cons, proper it may be either anunasika or the respective 
 class-nasal; if anunasika, the preceding vowel is almost univer- 
 sally lengthened ; if class-nasal, If becomes s^; c) before semivowels 
 
 1) Unless the conjunct is dissolved ; as Skr. SRTcRT tamarind, Pr. 
 W^ST, H. c*Tc<TT (see § 167). 
 
 2) Occasionally :t before vowels is changed to anusvara or anunasika 
 inPr.; as Skr. JTfTfrjT houses, Pr. STTTf or ST^rf (H. C. 3, 26. T. V. 2. 2. 31), 
 M. EJJ \ 
 
§ 23.] A NITS VARA. 29 
 
 and vowels it is often changed to anunasika, in which case the 
 hiatus-vowels are generally contracted. Compare the following 
 examples : ad a. h) Skr. ^T: goose, A. Mg. ^e, E. H. ^;to or ^H ; 
 Skr. f^Tf: Hon, A. Mg. fr% or fkr$ (or fsr%), E. H. ^fr or *x\-n or 
 f^ 7 (or f^ § 13); Skr. crj: mud, Mg. q$F or q^, E. H. qTqr or 
 q^F (or qqr § 13); Skr. g^FFr eyescdve, Sr. wuf or ^rrf, E. H. 
 ^ilT^r or 'SWTj, Skr. wrzzf;: thorn. Mg. #;rp" or cRi?;^, E. H. cRTTT 
 or ^iurr; Skr. =5"?:: moow, Mg. =^ or =5^, E. H. ^f? or =5PT; 
 Skr. ^jiqfH he trembles, Mg. #>q^" or cRrq^, E. H. ^ffq or cfijq; 
 ad c) Skr. <tgu*t virtue, A. Mg. qquf or q^, E. H. q:r; Skr. JreiFr 
 7*e /?ecf7,9, Mg. rpr^, E. H. jtft ; Skr. jtctft ft passes, Mg. ift^ - , 
 E. H. xft; Skr. sUskri: rosea pple, Mg. si^^T or *5T«i^ (§ 18), E. H. 
 sTTOT,; Skr. ^q-JT mango, Mg. ^si or *srnr (§ 18), E. H. gia ; 
 Skr. 5Tnra?r is &orfl (Den. R.). Mg. ^qj (H. C. 4, 13 6), E. H. ^ 
 or?w; Skr. ^nrfcK: lee, Ap. W3J3, E. H. ifr~7T; Skr. em^^ lotus, 
 Ap. ^joT^f, E. H. ^jsr^r ; Skr. 5P7TJ: prince, Mg. cj^iM or ^?q^ 
 (H. C. 4, 302. 1,67), E. H. ««j or cpqr; Skr. ^T^ <// (a place), 
 Mg. eiTirr or (Ap.) enfcrr, E. H. V; Skr. qwr=TSTFT thirty five, Mg. 
 qWfftHT or qtrm^TT (of. H. C. 2, 174. 43), E. H. q^rTTCT (for qsffffa ). 
 There are a few exceptions; 1) in Pr. : «) occasionally the anu- 
 svara is optionally dropped, in which case the preceding vowel 
 is generally lengthened (Vr. 1, 1 7. 4, 1 6. H. C. 1, 28. 29. T. V. 
 1, 1. 4 6. 48) ; /?) occasionally an anusvara is substituted for a con- 
 sonant proper forming the first part of a conjunct (Vr. 4, 15. 
 H. C. 1, 26. T. V. 1, 1. 42); y) the nasal preceding a consonant 
 proper which is not dsanna (T. V. 1, 1. 4 7), i. e., between which 
 and itself another consonant has been dropped, must be anusvara 
 (H. C. 1, 2 5. T. V. 1, 1. 41); 6) a nasal, preceding ^ by trans- 
 position, remains, as a rule, unchanged ; very rarely it is elided 
 and the preceding vowel lengthened (Vr. 3, 8. 32. 33. H. C. 2,74. 
 75. T. V. 1, 4. 67 — 70. H. C. 2, 73. T. V. 1, 4. 64). 2) In Gd.: 
 « and /3) the Pr. practice is retained and extended, only substi- 
 tuting anunasika for anusvara : y) in this case also anunasika is 
 substituted for anusvara ; 6) either W is elided and the preceding 
 
30 ANUSVARA. § 23.] 
 
 vowel lengthened or the conjunct is dissolved. Compare the fol- 
 lowing examples: ad a) Skr. fcfsTTTT: twenty, Pr. 5TRTT, E. H. 5TFT ; 
 Skr. i%f : lion, Pr. m^T or RffFV, E. Ii. mz or STT~eT, etc. (see above) ; 
 Skr. TfaiT flesh, Pr. jtth or JTO, E. H. m^T or qm or JT^T ; Skr. 
 rf^rtH fee collects, Pr. ^c or ^"FS (T. V. 3, 1. 13 3), E. H. ^'7: 
 Skr. <H«r£f before, Pr. rfqi[ or srrr?r, H. 3m"q% or 3Rq% or fft^t "; 
 Skr. ti6^T readmg, Mg. qssr, E. H. cr^=r ; Skr. tiw. together mth, 
 Mg. ^ or 3^7, E. H. ^r? ; ad (f) Skr. SRRJT , Pr. cTcF, E. H. srf"gR [: 
 Skr. ^5T^7!T /crt;% Pr. g^T^f, E. H. sf^T : Skr. Wr?m true, Pr. ?IW, 
 E. H. ein=r ; Skr. m^T sleep, Pr. fqr^T, E. H. zft\, etc. (see § 149); 
 ad y) Skr. qfjF: row, Pr. <TFrt, E. H. qflrr ; ad 6) Skr. %R? S^», 
 Pr. rau^ (H. C. 2, 5 0), E. H. T=fcr or %TfT; Skr. gn^TUT: Brah- 
 man, Mg. sir^nr, E. H. ^nq^T or sr^; Skr. mim: Krishna, Mg. 
 cfitlir, E. H. 5»Tq or qFFR[ (as in aFfFT^X Caiv/qrur and cR^ST aTT5T 
 Kanhaiyd LdT); Skr. wr, A. Mg. ^^;, E. H. ^x^ice; Skr. ^cjttut:, 
 Mg. cfV^ft, E. H. aft^r; Skr. jpr , Pr. g^°, E. H. ft^t your. 
 Secondly, as regards the nasal ij at the end of a word: 1) in Skr. 
 a) before consonants it may become anusvara or the respective 
 class-nasal: b) before vowels it remains JJ (M. M. 2 9). 2) In Pr. 
 a) before consonants it must become anusvara; b) before vowels 
 it generally becomes anusvara or remains unchanged ; but it may 
 occasionally become anumisika or be elided (Vr. 4, 12. 13. H. C. 
 1, 23. 24. T. V. 1, 1. 39. 40. S. C. 1, 1. 39. 40. H. C. 3, 25. T. 
 V. 2, 2. 3 0). 3) In old G(l. it becomes anunasika if preceded by 
 a long vowel, and is elided if preceded by a short one ; this is on 
 the whole preserved by M., G. and S. : in the other modern Gds., as 
 in EL, B., etc., it is always elided. Compare the following examples: 
 Skr. qv?T snrsfFr or T>^cjlcvfa he breaks fruit, Pr. Hrrf FTTC^, E. H. 
 qFiljr Ffr? ; Skr. rFrf cFT^TT or q^c^TFT he takes fruit, Pr. Q7?T vT^ or 
 5^, E. H. rjTJ f?t; Skr. q^^cTfTfa he gathers fruit, Mg. Qvrf tt^Z 
 or UTviqor^T^, E. H. qqr (£t^j) ; Skr. ^fyr curds, Pr. gff or ^FfT 
 or 5i%; Skr. ^fvsnr , Pr. 3T|#, M. 3^f, E. H. 5^. This in- 
 duction clearly proves two things. Firstly, that in the main a 
 gradual attenuation of the nasal has taken place. The nasal 
 
§ 24.] ANUS VARA. 31 
 
 consonant of the Sanskrit becomes anusvara in Pr., and anumisika 
 in Gd. ? and finally drops of altogether 1 ). In one instance, however, 
 a consolidation of the nasal has taken place; namely the Skr. 
 anusvara before g\ and sf has become in Pr. a nasal consonant 
 before f[, and in Gd. before both *T and W. Secondly, that Gd. 
 possesses no anusvara. This fact has been much obscured by 
 the objectionable modern practice of writing and printing the 
 anusvara, instead of the anunasika, as JT* I for *T~ , ^T5" lip for 
 ^T"5\ etc. The correct practice, which is still generally followed 
 by natives of the old school in their writing and printing ), 
 is to use the anusvara, just as in Skr. (M. M. 5. 59), only when 
 the full nasal consonant ought to be written and must be pro- 
 nounced. Here, of course, the dot is not the real anusvara, 
 but merely a sort of stenographic sign for the class-nasal, used 
 for the sake of more expeditious writing and not affecting the 
 pronunciation in any way. The anunasika, on the other hand, is 
 used whenever a vowel is to be pronounced with a nasal tone. 
 Thus natives write and pronounce either ^(\\ chad or ^^ cJiand, 
 but not ^tci". It would be well, to revert generally to this older 
 and more correct practice. In the present work the distinction 
 will be carefully observed. 
 
 2. CHAPTER. EUPHONIC PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. 
 1) IN PRONUNCIATION AND INFLECTION. 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 24. If any word ends in a short U a, that % a becomes 
 quiescent, that is, it is not pronounced; and such a word may 
 practically be considered as one ending in a consonant. The 
 
 1) H. C. (4, 411) and T. V. (3, 4. 67) have a rule on the Ap. Pr. winch 
 seems to indicate such an attenuation of the final nasal (anusvara); r5T"?Tje 
 ^Hi qV£T"rT STrFrnTCT f^F^J *3Tti7l i^lJVriitjci irafFT QTU\» i. e. the anusvara 
 at the end of a word is usually pronounced slightly. 
 
 2) In writing the anunasika commonly appears as two dots ('•)? the 
 second being merely an abbreviation of the semicircle (u). 
 
32 CHANGES OF VOWELS. § 25. 26.] 
 
 quiescent a will, for the sake of clearness, be indicated in this 
 work by the virdma (cf. § 3, note). Thus 5TTT7 bdgh tiger (not 
 bdgha) ; enn bat word; ^ctft chalat walking; ^t^shotb we shall be. 
 Exception. It is always pronounced in the 2 nd pers. plur. 
 in conjugation ; thus l^sr hoiba you shall be (not hoib), rX\z bat a 
 you are (not bat). 
 
 25. An antepenultimate ^T a is always made 3f a which 
 with a following J j or 3 u optionally, yet generally, combines 
 to ^ ai and ?3T au. Antepenultimate ^ i, 3 u, ^ c, 3STTo are shor- 
 tened whenever followed by a consonant (excl. euphonic U and a" ). 
 Thus ^TPcrr ram'vd long form of 7T^ ram llama ; fiTfeFHT gidh vd 
 of ma gidh vulture; Errf~srT ghorvd of ^rtjl ghord horse; ^jz-stt befvd 
 of 5r£T beta son; fMf-effl mifkd of irfcr m#d sweet; ^rsstj nauvd or 
 ^TT^T ?w?w of :TT3 »«« barber; W$m bha'iyd or «3T bhaiyd of iTTJ 
 &Mi brother; ^rfrrar bat i yd of snn 7>oi word; w\~^T suflo 1 st pr. 
 sg. pret. of UcT^siitab to sleep; W^Wl kha'ibo or w^ khaibb 1 st pr. 
 sg. fut. of <ptt^ &M?& to ea£; gr^jrfr Tear auto or ^jftrfr karauto 
 1 st pr. sg. pret. conj. of SiTT^S* kardib to cause to do (for a^TcFrft 
 karur'to, see § 34); but qfafTT" (if) I drank ; swfr or ©sr^Tf 7 
 touched (see § 65). 
 
 Exception. The long vowel of a transitive (or causal) root 
 is never shortened ; e. g., JTT^"~c^t mdrlb I killed of HT^"^, caus. of 
 JT^"5T to die. 
 
 Note: There are traces of this law in Pr. ; e. g., Ap. Pr. 
 FT^ft for *m$m (H. C. 4, 403. T. V. 3, 3. 10) = Mb. Fnf^fl, Skr. 
 
 26. The short u" e and u en are sometimes reduced to ^ i, 
 and short 5T o and ^37 a« to 3 « ; or, more often, all four to 9 a. 
 Thus: grfrOT ft>&#<f or firfrffT bitiyd daughter; ^ kahe or ijff^ MM 
 having said; TWFj^gailen or rrc?T^ gailan they went; aR gaUa% or 
 JTr?r <?ai£a ///r// went; ^fror totiyd or srfen ///////r/ ^;v/.s.s vessel; i^TfsraT 
 parosiyd or qyrciqT parasiyd neighbouring ; sRt3 jariou or stt? janau 
 brahmamcal thread; m au or a a awd; sriy awr or ^ ar and; 
 rrwrwt or rfnTT^T honey-bee ; =cT5rTf^g' or ^ToTTfew forty four, etc. 
 
§ 27. 28.] CHANGES OF VOWELS. 33 
 
 Note: There are traces of this law in Pr. ; e. g., oT«rijTT or 
 fsr^nn pain (Vr. 1, 34); ^fcrr^fr Saturday for Skr. SFrarp, E. II. 
 rpft^ (II. C. 1, 149. cf. Vr. 1, 38); JRW^rni one hundred and sewn 
 for Skr. srqrWJSTrTJjr. (Wh. Bh. 4 2 7); 5^ or ^^ mutual for Skr. 
 st^Vjtjt (II. C. 1, 15 6); srit drunk for Skr. gnrrr. (Vr. 1, 44); Ap. 
 cFonrr who (H. C. 4, 3 95. cf. 4, 4 08) for grsroT = sf?5tt (lit. of what 
 sort, see § 438, 2). 
 
 27. A final anunasika is often omitted ; thus FT tic or FT 
 tit- you; n tai or FT tai thou; *T mat or T mai I; *T me or jt 
 me in; :rnft" nahi or ^TT^t ndlu not; sTPTT Jrfwt or jtttt jdni we 
 know, etc. 
 
 28. To avoid the hiatus of two contiguous vowels, ^ 2/ is 
 inserted after m a, ^ i; and optionally 5T^ v, after 3 ii, Oft o and 
 u e. But neither ct nor 5^ can be inserted, if the second vowel 
 be 3" t or ^ /; in this case the hiatus, as a rule, remains, though 
 nr§ a'l may and ^"J it must be contracted to ^ ai and ^ « re- 
 spectively, if they are followed by a heavy syllable. Thus: t%JTT 
 -f b^= fearTHT^ khiydyal it was eaten; sTjr + $ = srra" to go; <tt 
 + g^= qT35^j%«& to drink; ^t + ^ = $Ui piyai he drinks; again 
 =^oTH chuvat or ^r^chitat dripping from ^+ WT ; ^ chuoai or ^r 
 <7</'w/ ft efo^ps from ^-f- £; TtoTH rovatf or TTSfT ro«£ weeping from 
 7/T + 5FT ; fter rot'rti or "^r ror/i Ac weeps from ft + ^; ^if cft ?eiwi fee 
 or ^ 3T ?eai /ce to ta&e from oT 4- ^. But wt + ^ = leTTS M$ to sfc«# 
 eat ; <^t + ^t = wt^cftt M<S#d *t>c ea£; <n + z&t = crt^T pi'dd tve 
 drink; ^ + f = w$ chid it will drip; =f + |crTT — =f^TT cM#d 
 /rr ,/>v>; irT^ 0o* Ac wrafl sow, sni^T &0#<£ wfi sow, £J del he will 
 give, ^^T deild we give; again ^^sr lha'ihai or iprsr khaibai we shall 
 eat from »3T + 2sh <TT3T pibai we shall drink from <rt 4- ^5T ; ^5T : 
 khdib we shall eat from m + ^r ', ft^piit (if) we drank from 
 trr + ^r ; =3^ chuibai and =^ar^ chuib we shall drip; sfr^T boibai 
 and ^ft^ &oi& we shall soio; v^rf fe# (if) W took from <5T + ^H . 
 
 Exception 1. The suff. \ (3. pr. sg. fut. ind.) may optionally 
 combine with a preceding ^ to ^ ; thus <rt + 3" = ^Tr I''' '"' 
 <tt i>; //c vr/7/ drink', ?rr 4- i == m ,/' or ^ ./' ; to "*# /; ' r - 
 
34 CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. § 29—32.] 
 
 Exception 2. The initial ^ of the suffs. of the fut. ind. 
 (viz. 9sft u etc.), of the pres. part. {w\ ) and of the pret. conj. 
 (viz. ^FtY etc.) combine's with a jireceding ^T or $7, and with ^3T 
 of the verb ![T to become to 5T, ^, m respectively; thus ^TT + 
 sj^t" = <pTT^rr khdho I shall eat; <£ + ^Y" =\^i k " debo I shall 
 give; ^T + W&t''' = irtsn" hold I shall be; ^T -f- wj — mn kJidf 
 eating; ^ + *RT — <£<J. det (jiving; ffr + ^ft = f^fT /*o£ &e/>///. 
 
 SINGLE CONSONANTS. 
 
 * 
 
 29. .J r is generally substituted for "J r; thus E. H. mf he 
 breaksiorW.ll.hu; E.R.^JJ he joins (or W. H.%T%; E. H.STTftr/r^v/'r;/ 
 forW. H.stffr-; E.U.^tJ^wife forW. H.%; E.II. RTfi" artery for W.H. 
 m"fr, etc. Sometimes also fT rh for^ r/*; as E. II. -Tiir bdrhai he grows for 
 orra (W. II. sra) ; E. II. mf #<?r/mi /*e &eate mfo form for W. H. rrre. 
 
 30. ^ r is almost universally substituted for a non-initial oT /; 
 thus E. Hi trqr fruit for W. H. tr^I ; E. H. mfr ate: for W. H. nT<m; 
 E. II. xrf he -walks for W. H. ^r; E. II. 3lf he throws for W. H. zm; 
 E. H. 5Fif|a"T black for ^jf^TffT, etc.; but never TftT for ^rfJT people, etc. 
 
 Exception. The 3T of the suff. g?r of the past tense never 
 changes; e. g., rTCT^ </o/?e, not nJTF; q^ff / read, not tr^ft". 
 
 31. ^ I and :j n, if initial, are sometimes interchanged; 
 thus c^ for n" in ^fferr dark blue or Tlw (Skr. :frF?) ; and ^ for 
 ^ in ^TPJ salt or ^ftn - (Skr. ^5ftn, cf. Vr. 1, 7); ^fift?: waistcloth 
 or cHJTtz: (Skr. f§Tjqj:, Mg. f^frrsj^") *)• 
 
 3 2. ^[ h may be dropped; 1) always final, thus sTf 37 or 
 sT sr o/" whom; ^rt% sft or ^T £F o^ ///a/; ^f^ or 7??t aila you nunc; 
 ^ITJTer or cF?7/T karata (if) v/o?t rfuZ. 2) sometimes medial (see § 12 6); 
 as r?f or rT^r! there, 8RH? or cF^f where, ?rf or sT^rf wheresoever, T 
 or it'' or JTT^T W within; 5> or (0. II.) qmrT towards; JT7T5T or JTT^rsT a 
 Mardthd; wn /WZ brother for *^xt^T (see § 120); f^sn #a# for 
 *f^oi^T (see § 134, note). 
 
 1) Not from :TJT, Skr. ^TJT naked, as Bs. I, 248; the original ^ of 
 f^rfJT u is preserved in the U of 15. ^'ntx. 
 
§ 33—38.] CHANGES OF COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 35 
 
 33. A medial 5[^ v, followed by ^ or T, is always elided; 
 and further ^ (but not "$) combines with a preceding m a (or 
 n a by § 25) to ^ ai; thus urn + J^r" (= <i + ^sfT) = ~im' 
 I shall find', m& + ^ar = ^sr thou ivill come] fwrrsr + z&z = 
 K^Mg you will cause to cat. But qtst + ^ = m^ he will find; 
 jjTor + &* = %t\ w u' e come; feqTor + ^tt = feqT^T we cause to eat. 
 
 34. A medial U^y or U 'v, containing a neutral vowel (see 
 § 5, a), are vocalized to J i and 3 u respectively, and optionally 
 combine with a preceding 9 a (or originally m d by § 25) to 
 ^ at or m an. Thus iTtT^ + ^ (= JTJF'cTO gay'les) = JTjcTO ga'iles 
 or n?ro gailes thou wentest; fcrar + a^ (= Pw U '• <j"ij^ piyay'lyu) = 
 fqiiicr^ piyatlyu or fared 1 piyailyu I could be drunk; ZRJTS -\- i3n\" 
 (=r cfi^cPTTT^ karav'to) = ^>73fTT w IcaraTdo or gif Trfr w Jcaraido (if) J caitscd 
 to do; =3fTsr_ -|- 5jcTO^ (= ^ST"^ 5 ? charav'les) = =373^r charaTdes 
 or ^jl^^ char aides he caused to walk. 
 
 35. Affinities. There are instances of this change in Pr. ; 
 thus gT^-srT or graf\m = Skr. €?TW: (H. C. 1, 7 3); SR5T for *cF^fT 
 for aRSRFT = Skr. cFr^iT (II. C. 1, 167); vij for *srjr for *5joTf = 
 Skr. ^5JJT (H. C. 1. 17 0); VVZJS for *93^^ for ¥5nr^ = Skr. 
 g^ffa (H. C. 1, 17 2); crrr^ = Skr. gra^^(H. C. 1,175); 3^V 
 or SFT^t = Skr. 5TGTU: (H. C. 1 , 1 3 3) ; also in inflexion as irf? = *5Tjfr 
 = Skr.srcrirT; ^Ti^=*^3f2;=Skr.iT5ru%, etc. ; see § 18, note 3, p. 18). 
 
 COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 
 
 36. ttT Jcsh is always pronounced and written W chh; thus 
 ^TST chhotd small (Skr. W^:?); ^rT""7J chhat'ri a rhhatri (Skr. 
 riQil:); ^IT chhanid forgiveness (Skr. ^TT kshamd). 
 
 37. ^iw is always prouounced and generally written w gy; 
 as nn^r r///<m knowledge (Skr. ?JT^ jnana); srrrnjT dgryrf conntuont 
 (Skr. 5T?TT djnd). 
 
 38. % w/i is always pronounced and generally written Hj ligft 
 (or ^ ngh); as ^tsr sa;)r//« collection (Skr. ffq;: samhah); STHTff saugliut 
 collection (Skr. ff^TFT: samhtdah); f^singh lion (Skr. f^rq;:); fWTCFT 
 sii'/ghdsan thron (Skr. f^TTT^JT ), etc. (see §159). 
 
3G CHANGES OF FINAL SOUNDS. § 39—43.] 
 
 3 9. ^ms is always pronounced and written 1 FT ns (i. e. ^ET ns, 
 cf. §§ 13. 23); as^fa (orsr^) bans race (Skr. cfsr: vamsah); sfffhr.y 
 (or SF^tvy) bcmsidhar a name (lit. flute-holder, Skr. srsfhf^: vam- 
 sidharah); f^TT (or f^TT) Timed slaughter (Skr. f\m himsa); W 5 ? 
 (or ^^) hans goose (Skr. ffST: hamsah), etc. (see § 159). 
 
 Note: It has become the fashion in modern times, to resu- 
 scitate the writing of fT and % ; but the pract ice of the older, 
 native school is more correct and preferable. 
 
 2) IN DERIVATION 1 )- 
 a) CHANGES OF FINAL SOUNDS. 
 
 40. In limine, it should be observed, that Skr. and Pr. 
 nouns pass into Gd. in the form of the nominative singular, the 
 final sound of which undergoes the following changes: 
 
 41. A visarga or anusvdra is dropped, and a preceding *? 
 becomes quiescent; thus E. H. TfT^ son (a tats.) for Skr. c[3:; E. H. 
 aFifir poet for Skr. a&fe: ; E. II. 7\j; teacher for Skr. jt^: ; E. H. ipTE 
 manifest, Skr. ScfiriT ; E. H. sr^T forest, Pr. sraf (Vr. 4, 12), Skr. 
 5FT«t ; E. H. jet or *w hundred, Mg. wi (Wb. Bh. 4 27), Skr. gm^ ; 
 E. II. ^HT field, Pr. W# (II. C. 2, 17 $#), Skr. SEPT; E. II. STTfy 
 focrfer, Pr. snfj or arTpf or oTTf^' (cf. II. C. 3, 25), Skr. snt^; E. H. 
 iTU honei/, Pr. rry; or qtr or JTtf (cf. II. C. 3, 25), Skr. q^, see § 23. 
 
 42. Pr. masc. or fem. ^T or ^ becomes quiescent g; thus 
 E.II.:tV-£ sleep, Ap. ft^ (II. C. 4, 418), Pr. fnr^T (Vr. 1, 12), Skr. 
 f^T (fem.); E. H. oiTg; arm (also srff), Ap. SIT^ (II. C. 4, 3 29), 
 Pr. ejt^T (H. C. 1, 3 6. 4, 3 29), Skr. STT^T (fem.); E. II. Gffi^word, 
 event, Pr. sraT (Vr. 3,24), Skr. 5TTWT (fem.); E. II. JQ prince, 
 Ap. jm (H. C. 4, 402), Pr. £TOT (H. C. 3, 13 6) or Jjm (Vr. 5, 3 6), 
 Skr. ^TsTT (masc). 
 
 43. Pr. masc. or fem. J or ^ becomes ^ or quiescent ^; 
 thus E. II. ^r or frfr sight, Ap. f^fj (II. C. 4, 330) or Pr. f^ft 
 
 1) This list of sandhi-laws lays no claim to completeness, a quality 
 unattainable in the present state of our knowledge of Gd. derivation; but 
 it contains, perhaps, all the more important and more general phenomena. 
 
§44—46.] CHANGES OF FINAL SOUNDS. 37 
 
 (H. C. 1, 1 28), Skr.;rfo (fern.); E.II. sr% or srf|fr sister, Ap. orf^ftrr 
 (II. C. 4, 35l)orPr.a%I^(H.C. 2, 1 26), Skr. uf?R* (cf. § 132, note); 
 E. H. *m or mfJT/?>-« (fern.), Pr. mirt (Vr. 5, 18. fem.), Skr. afij: 
 (masc); E. H. srfw or gfr% e#e (fera.), Ap. *fg^r (cf. II. C. 4, 39G), 
 Pr. sr^t (Vr. 4, 20. fem.), Skr. srf% (neutr.) ; E. H. itt or rrfr sage, 
 Ap. 5% (cf. H. C. 4, 341) or Pr. grift (cf. H. C. 3, 125), Skr. gft: 
 (masc); E. H. fsrftE or fircR tlmrsday, Pr. fd^uh^ (H. C. 1, 138), 
 Skr. cJ^qfd: (masc); E. H. aT^r or §nf?r sage, Pr. sTTOTT, Skr. 
 tTTT^ (masc). 
 
 44. Pr. masc. or fem. 3 or 3 becomes 3 or quiescent 5T; 
 thus E. II. qr or ^ tree, Ap. rT£ (H. C. 4, 370), Pr. nff*. (H. C. 
 1, 17 7), Skr. FT£: (masc); E. H. rrr§ H&, Pr. TO (H. C. 1, 26), 
 Skr. qsf: (masc); E. H. <=PT or rPT body, Ap. FTHT (H. C. 4, 401) 
 or Pr. fTOT (cf. Vr. 5, 18), Skr. fft: (fem.); E. H. qrftf or q?ftf 
 daughter-m-law, Pr. ^wa - ^ (cf. Spt. 122), Skr. q^srn: ; E. H. mn or 
 era mother-in-law, Pr. srra^ (Spt. 339), Skr. to. 
 
 45. Pr. masc. ^ or ^ becomes p or ^ or quiescent ^; 
 thus E. H. jttjt road, Mg. TfnT or rnrr (Mchh. 96, 20), Skr. mn:; 
 E. H. ^l man, Mg. q% or ^ (H. C. 4, 288), Skr. *x; E. H. 
 sftti^, Mg. qrfnr or ^r (Wb. Bh. 4 20. masc), Skr. ejnf (neutr.); 
 E. H. 3T}TT doing, Mg. cfi<?ffFT or ch^'ld or ^TTT (Mchh. 108, 18), 
 Skr. cFcTT ; E. H. T^^ or ^"f^T kept, Mg. Frf^wPs" or crdwi^ (Mchh. 
 112, 6), Skr. jf%rT:. Also in locatives; as E. H. c?rm or crTTfrt till, 
 Ap. cFrfriT or cFTJTT (H. C. 4, 334), Skr. ^rr; and in conjunct par- 
 ticiples, as E. H. w;w or ^?i% or 5lf kahe having said, A. Mg. 3T^ 
 (see Wb. Bh. 43 5) or Mh. <*%*, Skr. cjffeT (see § 49 0, 491). 
 
 46. Affinities. The terrain. ^ or 5 is Mg. Pr.; the 
 Mh.-Sr. is ^T and Ap. 3 (H. C. 4, 332) and both become in W. 
 Gd. 3 or quiescent ^ ; in 0. H. and especially in S. the Ap. 3 
 is still preserved; thus W. H. ^qr, 0. II. and S. ^7 (Tr. 33) man, 
 Ap. rr^ (H. C. 4, 3 6 2) or trr^ (K. I. 9) or Pr. nft or xnfi (H. C. 
 1, 2 2 9); W. H. cFFT, S. ^5 (Tr. 33) work, Ap. eRnj, Tr. 5Jnrt 
 (Vr. 4, 18); W. H. jttjt, 0. H. »TTTJ, S. JTJT road, Ap. *ttit (II. C. 
 4, 357), Pr. qrm (Vr. 3, 50); Kn. mjH , Br. cr^r f7o/; ^' A P' *t3' 
 
38 CHANGES OF FINAL SOUNDS. § 47. 48.] 
 
 Sr. ST^rTT or ch^'rTi. — It will be observed that just as Mh.-Sr. 
 ST is reduced to Ap. 3, so Mg. U is reduced to $". This is ex- 
 pressly stated by Vr. 11, 10. K.I. 12 (cf. Ls. 393. 402) and 
 Md. 12, 20 (fol. 49 a ) <=TT g^OT^TTTi jfa *JT qy Scrtt; yf^m STTrTTJTI 
 i. e., masc. nouns in a have a nom. sing, in c or i. The form 
 in ^ (like that in 3) was probably Ap. Mg. It only occurs ex- 
 ceptionally in the Bhag. (see Wb. Bh. 416). II. C. (4, 287) and 
 T. V. (3, 2. 30) do not notice it; which, perhaps, shows that 
 Ap. Mg. ^ was pronounced like short y e (cf. H. C. 4, 410. and 
 see § 6). — In the Gds., especially in their literary forms, the 
 final ^ and 3 generally become quiescent, and hence are omitted 
 in writing, and thence again have come to be practically identical 
 with quiescent S. — Occasionally E. H. has Ap. Sr. forms; as 
 siw ivound, Ap. STT3 (H. C. 4, 346), Sr. stts"t, Skr. STTrT:. 
 
 47. Pr. masc. S^ becomes ST; thus E. H. snyT horse, Mg. 
 vtzy, Skr. EftecF: ; E. H. ^T^TT good, Ap. imt (H. C. 4, 3 51), Mg. 
 iT<5T$7, Skr. H^cr: ; E. H. a^T pitcher, Mg. 91Y> Skr. ajrar:. 
 
 48. Affinities. The term. s^7 is Mg. ; the Mh.-Sr. is ss>. 
 and Ap. S3 ; the latter -contracts in the W. and N. Gd. to ST or 
 (Br.) ST; thus Br. ntH, ireft, enrT ; Mw, G., S., N. stttt, w<?tt, sr?T; only 
 P. forms an exception in having the E. H. term. ST, and hence 
 it has got into Urdu and H. H. ; thus P., U., H. H. srt^T, IT5TT, EOT. 
 Again M., B. and O. have ST like E. H. It will be seen, then, 
 that while E. and S. Gd. have ST, W. and N. Gd. have ST or ST ; 
 again Mg. Pr. has 9TO", Mh.-Sr. Pr. has 55T; hence it may be 
 concluded, that the E. and S. Gd. termin. ST is a modification of 
 the Mg. Pr. S^r, while the W. and N. Gd. S> or ST is a modi- 
 fication of the Mh.-Sr. SST. The Ap. Pr. has both SST and S3 
 (H. C. 4, 33 2). Probably the Br. ST is a contraction of the Ap. 
 S3; as Ap. Hi5T3, Br. U^rr good; while the Mw., G., S., N. ST is a 
 contraction of the Ap. SST, by the quiescence of S; as Ap. i-ISTSt, 
 Mw., G., S. iTrFTT (i. e. ^<5TS>). The Ap. Mg. form, corresponding 
 to the Ap. Sr. S3, would be SJ (cf. § 46); this is still preser- 
 ved in the Psh. \ (Tr. J. G. 0. S. XXI, 37), as Psh. FT<£ talai bottom, 
 
§ 48.] CHANGES OF FINAL sol'Mis. 39 
 
 E. H. rTTJ or rT^TT, S. rT<?n, Ap. Mg. rToT^ or FRcT?, A p. Sr. rT^3 or 
 FTcflST, Skr. <T^=rcFT: ; but the Psh. has also occasionally the E. (jcL 
 form OT; as Psh. cFrfnsT <tj)/>lied. P. ^tttst, Bs. and II. II. c?mT, Ap. 
 Mg. vrtms^ or ^ffTii^, Skr. ^rugi: (lit. *^frrrTcFi;), Ap. cFrtrnss, 
 Br. ^tut, Sr. ^frjTSST, S. ^rfiTST or ccrnn. The Psh. ^ ai, then, 
 corresponds to Br. ST aw; being contractions of (Ap.) Mg. SJ[ AM 
 and Ap. (Sr.) S3 ail respectively; on the other hand, E. and S. 
 Gd. ST corresponds to W. and N. Gd. ST, heing contractions of 
 the Mg. S^7 and Sr. SST respectively, by the quiescence of S. It 
 appears, then, that the termin. ST is distinctly Mg., and merely, 
 a (comparatively modern) modification of the old Mg. ^"; and 
 not, as it is usually assumed, of the old Sr. ST. There are, 
 however, some traces of the term. ST in Pr. ; moreover, they 
 seem to be distinctly connected with Mg. Pr. Firstly: Vr. (11-, 17) 
 expressly gives t%STc?TT as a Mg. by-form of fsTSTcrr jackal (E. H. 
 forqr). Secondly: Vr. (11, 13) and K. I. (Ls. 3 93) state that the 
 Mg. vocative ends in ST, and Md. (12, 21. 22. fol49 a ) adds also ^, 
 as %5f^ or %cFTST (E. H. %7T) oh! disciple 1 ). That is, the nom. 
 
 1) Vr. 11, 17 STJTTvTST TSTSTcrTT TSTST^ fSTST^TcFT: II and Md. 12, 21 
 
 q^TTTT sTEsfrsjrr crrcr: i qf% ^tsfryrr T^tm - mm\ \ \ 5rs% i f cTssrt i ctrtt i^uncn 
 
 i| JllOgri i IT UTTST^TST " i- e., the voc. of masc. nouns in a ends in e or o, 
 as, he coamse, he voamso (Skr. oTOTdT); and Md. 12, 22 STST^" i gjt% SFSJ^T 
 sgrrj st ott^ sra^r i s^r ^r ?=5t^st i g^nTm i jasr^ i ra^TST 11 i. e., the voc. 
 
 of masc. nouns in a, in the sense of rebuke, ends in a; also in e and o. 
 Neither H. C. nor T. V. give these rules in their chapter on Mg; 
 but they have an allusion to the voc. in ST in their chapt. on the Ap. 
 (H. C. 4, 330. T. V. 3, 4. 1); e. g., £T«TT q# fjj aif^ST *TT cFf <£t^T mUX] this 
 is Bs. ^^T^rT^F ^TTJ^HoFTr^CT ^ i. e., lit. boy! I have forbidden 
 you, do not make long sulkiness!; again fsirto" *TZ iTttTTS cp| TT cFTjhT S^J 
 f^ty, = Bs. irft ^ w ut^T <T 5F? qFT 5FT£ 5TT'q?t £rV i. e., lit. daughter! I have 
 told you, do not make a coquettish look. It is to be noted, that K. I. 
 (16. 18. cf. Ls. 450) gives both ST and ^ as the termin. of the voc. in Ap. 
 Pr. In the present day, E. H. has a voc. in ST, but W. H. in ^; as E. H. 
 ^ %7J, W. H. f %i?r oh disciple. This, perhaps, explains the silence of H. 
 C. and T. V. as to the Mg. nom. and voc. in ST; they have relegated it 
 into their chapt. on Ap., in which as, perhaps, indicated in II. t. 4, 447 
 
40 CHANGES OF FINAL SOUNDS. § ( 49. 50.] 
 
 sing, in U is used in Mg. as voc, and the form in ?TT is but a 
 slightly worn down by-form of the nom. (as usual with Pr. 
 voc, cf. H. C. 3, 38. T. V. 2, 2. 42 1 ). The latter form, which 
 was at first (in Mg.) confined to the voc. -nom., is in Gd. extended 
 to the nom. generally. Thirdly : H. C. gives several instances 
 of a nom. in OT in the Ap. Pr. ; e. g., i^tt f^T s[ rnf^T ^ffrftrr 
 iTfT^T cFfTI (4, 3 51); this is A. Mg. Ap.; the corresponding Sr. 
 Ap. is in *FT ^73 ^% tf%7 f^t T73^ jTTOi (4, 3 58); the 
 former is Bs. (a kind of semi E. Gd., see Introd.) U^rr f^T 5T 
 JTTTT 'srf^T *nTT 3TTCT, i. e., it has happened well, sister, that my 
 husband has killed ; the other is Br. (W. H.) ^?f'Fr JT77 ^oft f^l^r 
 "H^I sTTCT i. e. surely friend! with whom my husband is angry 2 ). 
 
 49. Pr. masc. ^r and 3^" become z and 3T respectively; thus 
 E. H. ft# oilman, Mg. ft%^ (cf. H. C. 2, 98), Skr. afsTCF?:; E. 
 H. JT1W gardener, Mg. rnf^, Skr. TrfsTcR: ; E. H. ^r%fTz: (W. II. 
 iJVlTZ) sister's husband, Mg. 5rf|frJT5r^, Skr. irfrprtafTTcF: ; E. H. 
 rrnft grandchild, Pr. rfkm (H. C. 1, 13 7), Skr. rrerefj:; E. II. mf 
 brother, Pr. *m^T (cf. H. C. 1, 13 7), Skr. iTTrTcii: ; again E. II. fsf^ 
 scorpion, Mg. fsf^ (Vr. 1, 1 5. 3, 41, T. V. 1, 4. 18), Skr. afw.; 
 E. II. *r$ a Jcind of siveetmeat, Mg. o^7, Skr. ^^: ; E. II. mi 
 ivhcal (H. II. JTpr), Ap. Mg. iftjir («f. H. C. 4, 39 7), Mg. iffeir, 
 Skr. JTTfcfT:. 
 
 50. Affinities. These contractions into i[ and 3 are com- 
 mon to all Gds.; but in W. and N. Gd. they arise from the Mh.- 
 Sr. termin. Z&t and 3Sft respectively; as W. II. FT^TT, Sr. FTf§T5TT: 
 W. II. iTToft, Sr. mfmdt; W. H. m^, Sr. HTfrrfrrT^gT (cf. II. C. 
 1, 190); W. II. fira, Skr. fsfsat; W. II. <?TJ, Sr. c?rpn; W. H. 
 ntf , Sr. i?Tf jtt. But M. and S. have UTS brother, Dk. UT3^ or UT3^T 
 
 and T. V. 3, 4. 71, rules of various Ap. dialects would seem to be mixed 
 up (see also Ps. IX). * 
 
 1) The voc. in Mh.-Sr. Pr. is either like the nom. ^ =BTcfft or worn down 
 ^ %cfT; so in Mg. either like nom. ^ =^T, or worn down ^ ^cfTT. 
 
 2) It is also like P., which shares the nom. in ^T with E. Gd., iTc?rr 
 ^im sTT JTrf^gT 5T%T ^J\ eFTTff I. 
 
§51—53.] CHANGES OF FINAL SOUNDS. 41 
 
 (H. C. 1, 131); Wf^grandsoto, Pr. nwm (II. C. 1, 137). This con- 
 traction as well as those noted in the following paragraphs, may 
 be explained by the apparently Pr. tendency of lengthening the 
 antepenultimate ^ (see Wb. Bh. 438) and 3; while at the same 
 time the final U and srt have a tendency in the Ap. to be shor- 
 tened to J and 3 (see § 46), and in Gd. to be cast off altogether 
 (see § 45); thus Mg. rlf^|Y, Ap. ""^f^, *&5?t^, Gd.FTsft, Sr. Frf^Tm, 
 Ap. Hprji, *Ffc<T(3, Gd. F^Th, or Mg. cFT^T, Ap. *c?F^, *tflfS, 
 Gd. ^f , Sr. vTpft, Ap. cFTj3, *^T33, Gd. cfTj (cf. § 6 5, note). 
 There are some traces of this contraction in Pr. ; thus Pr. crarrr 
 traveller (T. V. 1, 2. 48) or dTsrra (H. C. 1, 44. T.V. 1, 2. 10) or 
 moTFraT (H. C. 1, 95) = Skr. amm (or qHT^gr:); Pr. Uciuur om- 
 niscient (H. C. 1,56) for *'=rsrijrjmT (= Skr. ^ra"?T^?:); and other words 
 in Utrr . 
 
 51. Pr. fem. J^T and 3^T become t" and 31 respectively; 
 thus E. H. mft mare, Pr. sfrir^T, Skr. srtix^T ; E. H. jtttt earth 
 (W. II. faff), Pr. qrfj^r (H. C. 2, 29), Skr. njwm; E. H. ^tt^ 
 club, Pr. cfrff^T (cf. H. C. 1, 24 7), Skr. dw; E. H. mm mo- 
 ther's sister, Pr. irnjf^raT (H. C. 1, 134. 2, 14 2), Skr. qm^cFT ; 
 E. H. mj mother, Pr. *qT^rr (see § 6 3), Skr. trirjcFT; again E. H. <mif 
 son's wife, Pr. n^STe^T (cf. Spt. 3 5). Skr. q^jsrcicFr ; E. H. m^ sand, 
 Pr. STT^T, Skr. STTcrpiT. 
 
 52. Affinities. Here all Gds. agree; as do also all Prs. 
 But M. has qT3T mother, Pr. JTT3m (H. C. 1, 131), Skr. JTTFpiT. The 
 steps of change are probably these (see §42); Pr. aifjtil, Ap. 
 sfrfz* (H. C. 4, 3 30) or *srrfhr, Gd. sfrft; Pr. sn*J3T, Ap. oTT^rs or 
 *5TT?T5r, Gd. ^PrT , etc. 
 
 53. Pr. neut. *J#, ^J and 3^ become m, ^ and 3% re- 
 spectively; thus E. H. mm gold, Pr. srtirara (cf. Spt. 194) or 
 nsnrrjT^ (cf. H. C. 1, 2 6), Skr. gprarenrj E. H. fttut eqpper, Mg. 
 *ftht^ (see § 18) or FFsra 1 (cf. Vr. 3, 53), Skr. FIFpOTj E. H. c%T 
 iron, Pr. ?<T^n?, Skr. <5TT5[cfi^; again E. H. H clarified batter, Pr. 
 f&9 (cf. Spt. 22), Skr. SJFW ; E. H. m^rt water, Pr. crrfrim (Vr. 1, 18), 
 Skr. crrefaq^, E. H. ^ft curcte, Pr. %$%*, Skr. £fire;w ; E. H. tftm 
 
42 CHANGES OF MEDIAL SINGLE VOWELS. § 54. 55.] 
 
 pearl, Pr. JTTf%5, Skr. qTfarcfiJT ; again E. H. 5T^ tear, Pr. 5H5 
 (cf. II. C. 1,26), Skr. ^cFW/, E. H. ^ yoke, Pr. §ra, Skr. qiFT ; 
 E. II. m^ potato, Pr. 5T^5, Skr. m^cFTJ^. 
 
 54. Affinities. As regards the forms in 5T, B., 0. and 
 also P. agree with E. H. ; thus B., 0., E. II. mm, P. rTTSTT. M. has 
 #; as fTT5T w . The M. nouns are neuter, hut the corresponding 
 E. Gd. ones are masc. ; compare the masc. forms in § 47. In Mg. 
 Pr. neuter nouns either end in 55 or (hecoming masc.) in 5^7 
 (cf. Wh. Bh. 41 6. Ls. 3 9 9). From the Mg. 55* or with the fa- 
 vorite euph. a^, &u, which form still occurs occasionally in 0. H., 
 arises the contracted M. U. From the Mg. masc. 5£ arises pro- 
 hahly the E. Gd. 5T. On the other hand, the corresponding ter- 
 min. in G. is lor3; as (TT5T or rTTsr; in Mw. 5T or 5T, as rTTSTT 
 or cTTZTt ; in Br. 57 or 5T (or also 5T) ; in S. 5T, as CT*ft. The 
 forms with anunasika are neuter, those without it are mascu- 
 line. These W. Gd. forms have arisen from the Ap. (Sr.) Pr., 
 which has the neut. termin. 5T5 (H. C. 4, 3 54. T. V. 3, 4. 26). 
 This contracts in W. H. to 57 or 57, and is shortened in G. 
 to 3. By dropping the final anunasika, the neuters would, na- 
 turally, hecome masc, through identity of termination; see § 48. 
 This masculinizing tendency is seen already in the Ap. Pr., where 
 the neut. termin. 5 sometimes becomes masc. 3 (Ls. 460. 47 6. H. 
 C. 4, 331. 44 5; as m. 5T^T water for n. 5Tvf, cf. H. C. 4, 3 95), and si- 
 milarly neut. 53 would become masc. 53. As regards the forms 
 in ^ and 3, they are alike in all Gds., except in M., which adds 
 a final anunasika (as mmt water, 5^ tear) and treats them as 
 neuters, while the other Gds., having dropped the original anu- 
 nasika, treat them as masculines. 
 
 b) CHANGES OF MEDIAL SOUNDS. 
 
 «) SINGLE VOWELS. 
 
 5 5. 5 becomes 3" or £; rarely; thus E. H. fffsT~77 cage, A. Mg. 
 
 7?TFT5 (cf. Spt. 225), Skr. <TsTT^ (also PqdJth^ ? M. W. 5 7 2, 3); 
 
 E. H. ffh^fyq splashing, Skr. <hJ^M/, E. H. <JJ?r^T memory, A. Mg. 
 
§ 50.] CHANGES OF MEDIAL SINGLE VOWELS. 43 
 
 qT^njf (cf. H. C. 4, 426), Skr. ^rjqrrir ; E. II. fin i ng - - fi one hundred 
 and five, A. Mg. q^^e?r (cf. Wb. Bh. 127), Skr. trsmownT ; E. II. 
 f%^ sparrow, Pr. WZ^m (cf. II. C. 4, 445?), Skr. ^rfe'TTT ; K. II. 
 
 fwora - he feeds, Pr. wrrsq, Skr. ^t^ttt (*ipr^Tq?T<H); E. II. f^r 
 moment, Pr. ^uft (H. C. 2. 20), Skr. wrm: ; E. II. fec^^rft alum, 
 Mg. *t*ifjcj,Tfear (or*fe > : cj;,i^ ¥T cf. H. C. 4, 17 7), Skr. nfifTcfiTfT'TTT ; 
 E. H. f?FTFT5T ninety nine, Pr. *:wrnTcpr, Skr. ^STCcTtH: (see § 397); 
 E. H. f^TTf^W forty six for 0. ^nf^ra^ (see § 15 2). Especially 
 before f[ ; as E. II. fi£f[7qr seventy si.r, Mg. ^wt%T (cf. Wb. Bh. 
 4 26), Skr. Grc^TTH: ; E. II. f^^TtH^^r one hundred and six, A. Mg. 
 ^TW^^i (cf. Wb. Bb. 4 2 5), Skr. q-TTrjSTrTT ; E. H. %^c^ taken, 
 Mg. *crrf|^ 1 ), Skr. ^rsy. (*crrfiTrT:); E. H. f^rT^ given, Skr. zyr. ; 
 E. H. fi?rft^ thou tookst, 0. H. fifl^, Ap. Pr. *c*f|srt%, Skr. 
 cframfe (*vrfu?ft-sf%) ; E. H. f§rf%^T they took, 0. H. f^r , Ap. 
 Pr. *^T%3f^, Pr. *c<Tf|^fFr, Skr. cfToUT: ^FT (in active sense) ; E. H. 
 i^f^y^ thou gavest, f^tlrn; they gave ; E. H. fif>rl[^ thou didst, 0. II. 
 f&%T for *3R^, Ap. * cFjff^f^T, Skr. ^rft-sfe 2 ); E. II. faR%r they 
 did. Again £ in ftt^ flax, Skr. *?!TOT (cf. § 17 2). 
 
 Note: W. H. fi£r he counts, Pr. mrr^ (H. C. 4, 3 58), Skr. 
 rrmq-fH ; W. H. f^rn forgiveness, Skr. WTT ; W. H. fqs^TT or qfg^TT, 
 Ap. Pr. qf^rrs (Skr. QW&:) ; but E. H. rnr, ^TT and qTf%^ or 
 crf^^TT. 
 
 5 6. ^ becomes ~S or 3 ; very rarely ; as E. II. t^T^t straio, Skr. 
 qcfTT^TT; E. H. it© (also *TT£, see § 57) mustache, Pr. Tn (II. C. 
 2, 86 or *if£? cf. H. C. 1, 2 6 5), Skr. sw; E. II. W^ itch, Ap. 
 Pr. *<PTS5TtTB (Skr. &%). 
 
 Note: W. H. vrrmt finger, Pr. **nt%ST (cf. II. C. 4, 333), Skr. 
 sr^f^RFTT ; 0. H. jjtr^ bird (Chand), Ap. Pr. ^tijot, Skr. m^pr: ; but 
 E. II. ^utt, ^rrra . 
 
 1) cf. Spt. 146 vTtlrsm = Skr. *5Tftf5rT or STSfeSTT; and P. past part. 
 
 2) Regarding the forms f§T^T , f^rf^^T , fl?ltlpT , t%t%T , etc. see 
 §§ 307. 501. 503. 
 
44 CHANGES OF MEDIAL SINGLE VOWELS. §57—60.] 
 
 57. 5 becomes $T, £, m or ^, ^, sit; rarely; E. H. q^r (or 
 q§jt or q^Tfo ) woman, Pr. q%?q (Spt. 48), Skr. q%?rr; E. H. 
 ^on^ for #)5Trfr) rtoor, Pr. chdlil, Skr. ^nr: ; E. H. =^rg- fceo/fe, Pr. 
 *=5rf Skr. w: ; E. II. qrf vui.sfachr (see § 56), Pr. q^ (H. C. 
 2,8 6), Skr. sq^g; E. II. g\Me (in a wall), Pr. wt (cf. H. C. 
 4, 430), Skr. ef^tf: ; and others see § 148. 
 
 58. ^becomes 9; rarely, E. H. ^rRT this much, Mg. ?fw?^7 
 (cf. H. C. 2, 15 7), Skr. ^TrTcF:, cf. S. ^fT, G. ^?TT; E. H. FT?™ 
 so much, Mg. qf%^-, Skr. rTTsrfitfF: ; E. H. jirrRT how much soever, 
 Mg. irfw^, Skr. ^Jidfd^: ; E. H. cfcrTqT, Mg. irtw^, Skr. faFfqfrT^?: ; 
 E. H. c?rcfte waistcloth, Mg. f^friolT, Skr. f^^Tj: ; E. H. yj^i earth, 
 Mg. fef%f%ST, Skr. yfjf^TT; E. H. qrfSTT fathom, A. Mg. q?f^ref 
 (cf. H. C. 1, 111. 4, 287), Skr. q^rcfiq; and optionally E. H. q^W 
 'or qfpr he examines, Mg. qfswar, Skr. gjt-dd ; E. H. c Wr or 
 °<^ suffix of past part,, Mg. ^ Skr. ^ft: ; e. g., E. H. q^<T or 
 qfer read, Mg. qfss;, Skr. rjfsn: ; E. H. C W or °-^suffix of in fin if., 
 Ap. ^ (K. I. 50. Ls. 4 68), Skr. ^rl'c*jy/, e. g., E. H. q^or qfi^sr 
 to read, Ap. qfesi, Skr. qfsTTcJTq . 
 
 iVofc: Also W. H. jt^t deep, Pr. qf^- (H. C. 1, 101), Skr. 
 STiftpj ; W. H. sr^ d«ww&, Pr. £T%> (H. C. 1, 187), Skr. srfaf:; 
 W. H. cft£*t trouble, Pr. f^TOT (H. C. 2, 106), Skr. sran; W. H. 
 ^11 .%> Pr. ^f^ (H. C. 2, 105), Skr. ^r: ; W. H. c^g rain, 
 year, Pr. orf^f, Skr. mq ; W. H. tK|^ touch, Pr. qq^eT (cf. H. C. 
 4, 18 2), Skr. jqsT:. But E. H. jt%£, srf^, %^ , ^e , srffsr., 
 qrf^g" . The Pr. form ^"f%c?f or (in some MSS.) ^f^<r| is pi*obahly 
 a curtailment of p"f?rqc?f, composed of ^'fwS' and pleon. sufF. c?T 
 (or oT), and curtailed just as Ap. ^sr from Mh.-Sr. ^^, e. g., Ap. 
 qfeof for Sr. qfegef. 
 
 59. ^ or z becomes 3 or 3; very rarely and optionally, 
 E. H. q^v. or q^ff or q^jT watchman, Mg. q^^T, Skr. q^rV, E. H. 
 5j£t or flfrr or ^fT or sr^ drop, Pr. fsfr (cf. H. C. 1, 34), Skr. %J:. 
 
 Note: Compare Pr. qsrpq (II. C. 1, 44) for Skr. qsn^tf sojourner. 
 
 60. 3 becomes #; rarely, thus E. II. ^iqq or 5Tq^T own, 
 Pr. 5Pq<?f (H. C. 2, 163), Skr. mfq^Tq (or ?nrqU5pr), c f. M. ^Tq^TT, 
 
§01—63.] CHANGES OF MEDIAL SINGLE VOWELS. 45 
 
 G. *,mufl; E. II. mrtg son's wife, Pr. g^air, Skr. g5RS£ ; E. II. 
 33tt^t stars, Mg. i^Jiui (cf. II. C. 1, 202), Skr. 33nrrT: ; K. II. crrcFf 
 a fciwd <>/' medicine, Pr. * ^rrf%9T, Skr. cH^f%cFT ; E. II. jTstt ^roop, 
 Pr. *spw, Skr. ^cRJT ; E. II. eFT|T or ^q"|[ in front of, Ap. ^I"T^¥, 
 Skr. sr«[^ (II. II. ^T^pr) ; optionally ^q^ or J<$jT had son, Mg. *3roir, 
 Skr. grot: ; also E. II. ar^ or &p drop, Mg. fsre^", Skr. faF^:. 
 iVofc: Also W. II. inmt finger, Pr. grrf^raT, Skr. ^f^cfrr ; 
 W. H. fsTsl^TT, Pr. fa-^Tf^JT (Vr. 4, 26), Skr. %F^; W. II. ^[ <%, 
 Pr. ^J^fr, Skr. ^=jjp ; W. II. srTaR rosedppletree, Pr. shm), Skr. 
 sN<|5Ti ; W. H. eJTO" he understands, Pr. ^ar^, Skr. i^sntfH ; Mw. 
 cFnrr or cjFfqT tvho (see § 438, 2); but E. II. 9JT^, fimfi', efigjj^, 
 ^Fpr, ^EpK, 3TPT . As regards E. H. ^TCR oww, the change of 
 3 to 9, and c^T to :t appears already in Pr. ^tfrtnTf (H. C. 2, 153. 
 4, 350) = E. H. *(rt, see § 111. 
 
 61. 3 and 3 become respectively T and ^ ; very rarely ; as 
 E. H. nf^r small, Pr. rTm%, Skr. fftcFT: ; fen" or grrr or gn; o^am, 
 Pr. gun or grn; (II. C. 4, 343), Skr. grq; E. II. ^TZ (fern.) wind, 
 Pr. errs (masc), Skr. a"TCT. (or STTfrT: masc.) ; ^ii (fem.) drop, Pr. 
 far (masc), Skr. Q-(i':. 
 
 62. 3 becomes V; very rarely; as grgf^T lungs, Skr. gfgiST:. 
 
 63. =fj becomes 7; very rarely; thus E. II. fgr^rT-T husband- 
 man, A. Mg. *f^iTTTcrr, Skr. cfrgnn: ; E. II. rrhj^ vidturc, Mg. frn? 
 (Mel. 1, 31), Skr. iprj; E. H. m^ mo^er, Mg. mrm (Wb. Bh. 178. 
 cf. II C. 1, 13 5), Skr. qTFT^r; E. II. urf brother, Mg. *iTT^r, Skr. 
 yTrrcji: ; E. H. n??tsTT brother's son, Mg. **rtw?sTff, Skr. ^TTFTsTcfr:. 
 
 Note: None of these words are mentioned in the exceptional 
 lists of II. C. I, 128—144. T. V. 1, 275 — 291. Vr. 1, 28 — 30, 
 enjoining this change instead of the regular one of ^T to 5 (II. C. 
 1 , 1 2 6. Vr. 1 , 2 7), exc. mjm gen. pi. for Skr. qTFitTTTg (H. C. 1 , 1 3 5) ; 
 but Md. gives first and Bh. QTZn ; and it is plain from the ge- 
 neral form of the words, that in all of them the change of *J 
 to 7 must have taken place in Pr. already. In II. C. 1, 128 we find 
 f%frr^T for cjrf^FT: as an analogy for rerrrrnft ; and in 1 , 13 7 qflraT 
 and ^W^V for ^tfTcfi: as an analogy for *rrj^t and iirj^T (II. G. 
 
4G CHANGES OF MEDIAL SINGLE VOWELS. §64—67.] 
 
 1, 13l) = £n7pn ; and in 1, 135 qi^f for nTfTiT^ as an ana- 
 logy for qfesTT — JJTrrsT:. 
 
 64. m becomes ^; very rarely; as rr# or JTTfT, Pr. rfteqt, 
 Skr. jfHp:; but only W. and II. H. ; the E. II. only TTT#'. 
 
 65. Short vowels become long; very rarely; E. H. STviT loose, 
 A. Mg. mfe?T^ (cf. Vr. 2, 28. H. C. 1, 215), Skr. %fecF: ; E. H. 
 <££ or q^ town, Pr. qj, Skr. <Tpr . Corap. H. C. 1,113 JJSRrf, 
 E. II. q^ for Skr. JTO^rq ; especially in the verbal roots m drink, 
 ^ft se«0, =3" leak, & touch, q d*g, 5TT sow, HT &OW, UT roam ; e. g., 
 E. II. qfq, Pr. fer, Skr. fqsrfq; E. H. *%$, Pr. =^ (H. C. 2, 7 7), 
 Skr. STtrifH. 
 
 Note: This is a very common change in M., made for the 
 purpose of compensating the shortening of the ultimate ; as M. 
 ^ftrrT she-elephant for Pr. ^ffqqri" ; and it may explain the origin 
 of the modern long termin. m, ^, 3 (§§4 7 — 49); e.g., E. II. 
 z?!Tt mare for Wtftft = Pr. sfrir^T, etc. It is, also, very common 
 as the result of the elision of part of a conjunct, see § 147. 
 
 66. Long vowels become short; 1) regularly in the first 
 part of a compound ; thus E. H. qqsq;£ watering place, Pr. qifcn^lW 
 (or perhaps Ap. * mftTFTTc^T, eliding 5 as in ^ for 3^5T see § 58, 
 note), Skr. TTTteTSIlW ; E. II. qq=5TgfjT watcrmill Pr. qTftrra=srf|jjsrT, 
 Skr. qTrrifrafefiT ; E. H. q^srrfl' fiowergarden (for q^srrft), Pr. 
 
 *qTcfT5rTf3"«T, Skr. qT^TSTTiTcRT : E. H. swqetfT h<df-ripe (for ??TyqcfiT), 
 Mg. ?C5,<r^u, Skr. ^m^wc. ; E. H. q^tar name of a town in Bengal 
 (for Tr^tar), Mg. qsr£fa^, Skr. qciirfcreji ; E. H. m\£\ honey-bee 
 (for q-FTTWT), Mg. qg"qfw«q, Skr. qyqf%W, etc. 2) rarely other- 
 wise ; thus E. II. fzjn lamp (also ;fhn and ^srr), Mg. £^7 (or 
 * fs:?!^ cf. II. C. 1 , 1 1 qf^rtsrsJ = q^Hqrf), Skr. £tqeF: ; also in semitats. 
 as E. II. qWT^ stone, Skr. qnartn: ; E. H. qrTT^ hades, Skr. qirnwrj 
 E. H. 5X^T sivoon, Skr. q^f; and see also § 2 5, as E. II. T^T 
 weak from jrsq", Mg. 5"5fcr^, Skr. ^"^T^F:, etc.; and § 146, as E. H. 
 q^ all for *^TP5r , Mg. qsr, Skr. qsr:, etc. 
 
 67. Vowels arc nasalized; often optionally before ?r and ^T/, 
 as E. H. q^ or q;s; or *pr month, face, Mg. q^ (II. C. 4, 300), 
 
§ 68. 69.] CHANGES OF VOWELS IN CONTACT. 47 
 
 Skr. u.Ipw ; E. H. rr% or »Tf rain, Mg. *| (cf. II. C. 1, 187), Skr. 
 iTET: (lit. cloud, ?) ; E. II. ^TTf or eT§r oath (fern.), A. Mg. Wf 
 (cf. II. C. 1,17 9), Skr. wr. : E. II. $ff shade, Pr. $T^t (II. C. 
 1, 249) or ^TfT (Vr. 2, 18), Skr. ^RTT; E. H. srfe or ^rrf (fem.) 
 ww, Pr. stt^; or 5TT^T (H. C. 4, 3 29), Skr. clT^T (fern., but 5TTB": 
 masc.) ; E. H. qt%' or Tl^t' or qT^t" within, Ap. rTsOrf^, Skr. qw; 
 E. H. <irraT or WT^t rw^, Pr. WTfosn (cf. H. C. 1, 181), Skr. 
 ^TTfrraiT; E. H. ^rwt or ^T?ft laughter, Pr. frf^jT (cf. H. C. 3, 105), 
 Skr. ^Tft^rr; E. H. arm or stt^ (fem.) grass, A. Mg. sro, Skr. 
 SJTO: (masc), etc. ; rarely otherwise ; as E. H. TTa^ or QT^ foot, 
 Ap. qT5, Sr. TTtfT, Skr. mr: ; E. II. 3J3T or cFSTT or 3T5TT or cFSTT 
 /n-//, Ap. CJT33 or ^3 (cf. H. C. 4, 397), Skr. ^q^r: ; some- 
 times ^ is elided after nasalization, as E. H. srfjf or srff they go 
 (for 5Tiflf), Ap. 5Trf^ (cf. II. C. 4, 382), Pr. frtff (II. C. 4, 388), 
 
 Skr. tfTfcT. 
 
 ■ 
 
 Note: In Ap. Pr., too, sr is sometimes nasalized; as Ap. 
 f^si or sTST how (see H. C. 4, 39 7), E. H. fir/, Ap. tM or ftst' tfms, 
 E. II. &\ 
 
 0) VOWELS IN CONTACT. 
 
 68. The hiatus of vowels is treated in three ways: 1) the 
 two contiguous vowels may be contracted or expanded partly by 
 the ordinary Skr. rules of sandhi, partly by special Gd. rules 
 given below §§ 7 1 ff . Or 2) they may be separated by an 
 euphonic semivowel (§ 28), and the dissyllable, formed thereby, 
 sometimes again contracted (§ 34). Or 3) they may be left in 
 hiatus. On the whole, the third case is less usual, than the two 
 others; even in E. H. ; but certainly in Gd. generally; for some- 
 times, when E. II. preserves the hiatus of the Pr., other Gds. 
 make sandhi; thus E. H. dK\WTof what kind, but W. H. ERST, 
 M. ^TT, for Ap. Pr. effort (H. C. 4, 403); or E. H. JT^ he went, 
 but M. n^FTT, Mg. *JTfqt; or E. II. wr^ eaten, but M. m*n, 
 
 Mg. WT^T. 
 
 6 9. The semivowels, which may separate contiguous vowels. 
 
48 CHANGES OF VOWELS IN CONTACT. § 70— 72.J 
 
 are generally q^ or 51^, rarely eT. About the use of q^ and a^ see 
 § 28. Examples of an inserted euphonic 1[ are probably; E. H. 
 srfr^T or srfrar inferior', E. II. ^ or ssr or ^r //e touches', E. II. 
 f^wT ///it/; for ?T + 5oT^ (probably by analogy to f%T^T taken, cf. 
 § 30 7); E. H. f^f^ he gave for f^ + ^e , and filff^ he did for 
 f% + S^ (analogous to fef|^ he tool; see § 307); E. H. «7f%5rFT^ 
 cognisance for <T5=srT^ (Pr. qf^tiuf, Skr. qf^r^?) ; E. H. °sft^t^ 
 a suffix of agency, Ap. Pr. sftn^JT (see § 321); E. II. ^?rr a 
 pleon. suff., Mg. 9??^, Skr. * g^^r: (§208); E. II. ^r^T or gT3£ 
 a suffix of abstract nouns, Pr. ^^ayt (see § 288). There is, ap- 
 parently, one instance of an euphonic ^ ; viz. E. H. f^TtrTTjrT or 
 f^JlH f^t one hundred and two (made analogously to f^?UFT7^Tt 103, 
 xnsftrq-srr 104, T^TrT-jrm 106); see §§ 394. 397. 
 
 70. Affinities. All three semivowels q^, a^ and ?r are 
 already used iu this way in Prakrit. Thus q is especially men- 
 tioned by H. C. 1, 180. T. V. 1, 3. 10. S. C. 1, 3. 5 and apparently 
 both q^ and 5T^ by K. I. 1, 45. 46 (in Ls. Ap. 41). About e there 
 is no rule ; but it occurs apparently in the words orf^T, Ih^«hT, 
 f%5ft, ^T^T, etc. (for ^qrf?73T, fnTcFcr, f%^^, ^TOT) mentioned in Vr. 
 2, 4. 18. H. C. 1, 186. 24 9. They not unfrequently occur in Pr. 
 literature; especially in Mg. ; thus in the Bhagavati (see Wb. Bh. 
 3 9 7.409.411.415); also in the Saptasataka (see Wb. Spt. 28. 
 29. 4 5); see also Ps. X. 
 
 71. Gtl. scmdki is made in two ways; 1) by contracting 
 the two vowels, or 2) by expanding the second. By expansion 
 I mean the change of ^ or ^ to 3" ya, and of ^T or 3 to 5T va. 
 Peculiar Gd. contractions are : n or m with Z : to ^ ; 9 or m 
 with 3 to 5T; 3" with 9 to ^ or ^ or I or ^; 3 with K to #t 
 or m or 3; ff with 9 or ^ or 3 or ^ to ^; ?rt with 9 to ^T. 
 See in detail § 7 3, etc. 
 
 72. Expansion - sandhi is not unknown in Skr.; but it 
 affects the first vowel; thus ^, \, ill, «> become respectively ^, 
 =mu , ^a , ^T5T , and in certain fiases ^ or c and H or 3 become 
 ^and 33^ (see M. M. 5 3) ; e. g., gen. sing. |-w = JTU: ; flft-«^= 
 
§ 73.] CHANGES OF VOWELS IN CONTACT. l!l 
 
 =TTsr; ; s|r-^ = t%r. ; r?r-sj*T = ^sr:. In Pr. there are traces of the 
 Gd. expansion ; thus ^\ or 3 to 5T in craTt or trat'TT or Q37T = 
 Skr. craFte (Vr. 1, 40); OT5l??r for *araT??T or 5T3?ff = Skr. ^TFTTqiT 
 (H. C. 1, 156); 3 or a to 5f in HT^JTR for *^T fd^H for *rfr3qr<f = 
 
 H H H 
 
 Skr. HT:RqWT (Vr. 1, 22); <g^f for *fofvi or g-^cFf = Skr. (TSFcFW 
 (Vr. 1, 25); at^ft for *35T^> (cf. H. C. 1, 173) for 33^?TT = 
 Skr. 3^Wc?t: (H. C. 1, 17 h) ; STFTT^rr for *?raiTT5fV for e3*TT^T = Skr. 
 ^pTTp (H. C. 1, 171). I do not recollect any example of U or Z 
 to V. Also the contraction of Z + ^ to U and 3 + 5 to m is 
 found in Skr. ; as in gen. sff. ^frr-5RT = gjj: ; Ty-g^T = qyt:. Here 
 the change is commonly explained as a guna of the final 3" or 3; 
 but it may be, as in Pr. and Gd. it undoubtedly must be, ex- 
 plained as an expansion of ^ and 3 to W[^ and nu^ and contraction 
 of the resultant dissyllable SfJT and 55T to U and ^Y; as *^rr?T: = 
 gn: ; *JTy5T: = T^T:. Instances of this change in Pr. are not un- 
 common ; thus 5T5oT for *3tuz^ for fsra^ = Skr. fsr^rfcTfvfiT (H. C. 
 1, 16 6); cFwfr for *cHW?TTT> for cFrfrjrsfTft = Skr. SFftrTsmj: (II. C. 
 1, 168); ^TTTf for *mfw for ^OTfrjt = Skr. ^T*W (H. C. 2, 134. 
 Ls. 12 9); ^rtwsf for * smfesr for *^Eit%w = Skr. ^Hc?^; ^rfw* 
 for *5Rqrfw«r for *f%€rf=r?r = Skr. fenijfrfai^ (H. C. 2, 157); ^j 
 for *nu^ for *T^£f = Skr. *^TT?rST^ (*• e - *^ jn I + 5/tT or 3V3T; 
 cf. Wb. Spt. 59); 5F^ for **U^ for *t%^§;f = Skr. *f%?n5"5T^ 
 (or grfrsT) H. C. 2, 157. Again 3T> for *wz for 35 = Skr. 3fT 
 (H. C. 2, 17 2) ; cf. xt^ for ifel^ — Skr. asr^ffTT (H. C. 1,17 2); 
 <frjt for * craft for * i&rft = Skr. qHf : (H.C.I, 17 0); qfavrf for 
 *<TSfTtTv?f for *q5tffi^ = Skr. qTTQT^TiT (H. C. 1, 170); JETTCTTTft for 
 ♦sTsrarfr for *^WT7J for ^dtH l fl = Skr. JTsrrrr^T^-: (Spt. 194. 
 H. C. 1, 2 6), etc. An instance of the change of 5 + 3" to ^7 in 
 Pr. is ? for tf§ = Skr. srfir (II. C. 1, 16 9); but the Pr. tendency 
 is to produce and retain the hiatus 53J, 53, 513, as £3J^T == Skr. 
 i:??!: (H. C. 1,151), qr3TJ= Skr. ilj: (H. C. 1, 162), <!T3jm = Skr. 
 graTjrTrJT (H. C. 1, 17 5), etc. Somewhat analogous are in Skr. *k^*[ 
 for ^ff/^, PTC: for q3^:, etc. (M. M. 19). 
 
 73. ?! or 5f with 5 or 5T becomes 5T ; as E. H. ^t here, 
 
50 CHANGES OF VOWELS IN CONTACT. § 74—77.] 
 
 Ap. Pr. 0^,- Skr. fjTST (scl. WFT, see § 467); E. H. FTt^T^ yours 
 (W. II. rT^rfT), Ap. Mg. *rj^rf^ or *r[r^%7 or Fp^lpT (cf. H. C. 
 2,99.147. 4,422), Skr. tjgjttcTW; E. II. WTI^ eating, Mg. mwt, 
 Skr. 'pTT^^t ; E. II. srefy^ (fem.) bad odour, Pr. *frf3^wr, Skr. 
 ♦grf^rTiTftr: (cf. II. C. 4, 219); E. H. JT3^ name of a caste, Mg. 
 *cfTTW3W, Skr. TTsT^TT: ; E. H. ?fe[qr blacksmith, Mg. ^Tr^STT^, Skr. 
 c^^JTf. ; E. H. ^T^ leather -worker, shoemaker, Mg. ^nr^T^r, Skr. 
 ^eFTX' ; E. II. qfjoTT first day of a lunar fortnight, Mg. qfjarar 
 (Vr. 4, 7), Skr. gfrrarT . 
 
 Except mn. Sometimes sr^ is inserted; as in the nominal 
 long forms, e. g., ^1-oiT Rama for Mg. vTFranr, Skr. TTTJTcFjw (see 
 § 369, 2); sometimes a, as in 7^ or JVP^night, Mg. cfrsrqft, Skr. :nrah 
 
 74. S or ^ ivith 5 or ^ becomes ~§; as E. H. qT or qt^ 
 /ie wtfZ rfr/^/t-, Pr. fq^f^, Skr. mtufn (*fof5TKrf?r), W. H. qti| = 
 Pr. *fts^; E. H. <T\sft' I shall drink, Ap. Pr. fii^srj, Pr. f^Sorf*^, 
 Skr. qTrT3T° (*fqfstrl*T ), see § 309. 
 
 7 5. 3 or 3; w?Y/t 3 or 3; becomes 3; as E. H. ^TT twofold, 
 Mg. j"3rn^ (cf. H. C. 1, 94), Skr. f|mn5R:. 
 
 7 6. Affinities. There are some examples of the prece- 
 ding contractions in Pr. ; as Ap. SP^T^T (H. C. 4, 34 5) = *SP^f^JT 
 or *sr^eRfprt, Mh. H^%fT (H. C. 2, 147), Skr. SKinapra (lit. *35tT3irT:), 
 H. H. ^TT7/T, E. II. ^crq-, W. H. ^mft (Br.) or J^jfT (Mw.) our ; Pr. wt^ 
 or jptts^ (H. C. 4, 2 28), Skr. WT^frr, E. H. ®mjie eats; Pr. 7J3^f or 
 |ra3c?r (Vr. 4, 1), Skr. fTsicpw , E. II. JUJ, W. H. ^T3^ a title 
 of honor; Pr. mrjf or UTW, Skr. ithft^ (H. C. 1, 2 67) vessel] Pr. 
 e>tnT^° (Spt. 194) for ^Tsrcnrq- , Skr. Hornf^T^ , E. H. rfcrq gold- 
 smith ; Pr. jJWTfT or epraift (Vr. 1,4), Skr. spicRT^:, E. II. th)\q, 
 W. H. ^fT^ potter; Pr. qTsnf^raT for qm5m%?JT (Spt. 16 2), Skr. 
 STqFrrf^cRT guardian of a well ; again 3^TCTT for *33^TSTT for 3^TOT 
 (H. C. 1, 173, see § 34), Skr. 3q^TJET:, E. H. 3<TTH (perhaps a semi- 
 tatsama) fasting, etc. See Wb. Spt. 32. But as a rule, Pr. pre- 
 fers to preserve the hiatus; see Wb. Blu 408. Skr. has similar 
 laws, seeM. M. 14. 52. 
 
 77. w with ^ becomes \, if antepenultimate, but ^ or ^m ay a 
 
§78.] CHANGES OF VOWELS IN CONTACT. 51 
 
 or ^''T ay, if penultimate, optionally ; as E. II. twp^ or n^r or n^r 
 gone, Mg. nfo^ (see §§ 307. 109), Skr. n?T:, W. H. rcrr, P. n^rr, Ap. 
 Pr. *rrirrer3; E. H. uu?t or u^t or iW been, Mg. *;Tf5nr (see 
 § 307), Skr. iifT:, W. II. WT, P. ^T^T, Ap. Pr. nfzrzi or ^fsreo 
 (cf.^H. C. 4, 401); E. H. sr^ or 37 ftaviw^ tfawc for sf^, W. II. zrfj, 
 Ap. Pr. qffff (H. C. 4, 357), Pr. sRfpr (H. C. 1,27), Skr. cpn; 
 E. II. qr^ir or q-5" 7*e enters, Pr. u^j^ (cf. H. C. 4, 444), Skr. *trf5rcH7T 
 (see §352); E. H. w^«iY" or §vrT w late, Mg. <?TT^sf% Skr. MiQriisffir 
 (see §487); E. H. nr^Y" or n-jTT " / went, Mg. nfq^sfr^r, Skr. nrftsfer ; 
 E. H. rT^PT or n'^ such, Ap. Mg. rT^fw (see § 1 1 1), A. Mg. rrrfrir 
 (H. C. 4,287) or rrrf^ir (Ls. 115), Skr. rTT^ST:. 
 
 Exception. The terrain. ^ and J?" of the" 3. pr. sg. and 
 pi. pres. and of the gen. -affix 5F> are always thus contracted; e. g., 
 E. H. =sr?t he walks (not =3^ or ^^ra^), Pr. =^c, Skr. ^rfff; 
 E. H. zxr* they do, Ap. sr^ (H. C. 4, 382), Pr. <xffn, Skr. fsff^T; 
 E. H. 5R of (lit. done by) = 0. H. qrff, Ap. *5Fifj3 or *^ff¥T or 
 ^JfT (H. C. 4, 422), Skr. cpT:. In the oblique form of the singu- 
 lar and in j^ostpositional locatives W? becomes generally V or ^ ; 
 as E. H. u^r obi. form of U^T good, 0. H. ^cfri%, Ap. Pr. Hvf^;, 
 Skr. U^m (see § 365, 6. 3 67, 4); E. H. qi^ w or m^ or tjr^'" or <ni$ 
 after, G. <TTfT, Ap. Pr. q=^<r (H. C. 4, 334. 420; for <r^ff, see 
 § 3 6 7,4) or Tc^ff (§§ 3 67,5. and 3 78), Skr.q^; E. H. mn before, 
 Ap. Pr. ^ttj (H. C. 4, 3 91), Skr. mi ; E. H. qr|' or qrT^t" (cf. 
 § 67) within, S. *f<3T, Ap. Pr. q?cFf^ or q?<Kf|;, Skr. qwr; E. H. m^n' 
 near, by side of, Ap. a^wf^, Skr. <rar; E. H. ^nfr or c?rrr w&fe, /or, 
 #B, M. cftti?T, Ap. ^rnTf%, Skr. crrrr. 
 
 78. K with 3 becomes m, if antepemdtimate, bid m or s"5T ava 
 or 5cT av, if penultimate, optionally \ thus E. H. =grhr^ or =9^^ or 
 ^171 fourth, Mg. =^3r^ (Wb. Bh. 4 2 5), Skr. =5TjW. ; E. II. WFJI or 
 ^3?tt fowr&> Mg. =33?^ (cf. Wb. Bh. 42 5), Skr. TiHdatK: ; E. II. 
 arhr^or 5H^ Me province of Oudh, also ?r!TUT (W. H. srsprr semUats.), 
 Mg. *v%5\ or *ai|3T, Skr. srararr; E. II. frjl or <"3^T a honorific 
 title, you (cf. §25), Mg. <m3*T£ (cf. Vr. 4, 1), Skr. 3TsTO9RF:; 
 E. H. ^cffcTtrTT or ^7cFT3r?T (or srcFT or °tf) only-bom son, Mg. ^1^37^7 
 
52 CHANGES OF VOWELS IN CONTACT. § 79.] 
 
 (cf. Wb. Bh. 4 3 9) or °JJ (cf. H. C. 2, 16 5. Vr. 12, 5), Skr. 
 ^chciH'T^cFr: ; E. H. 5T<ri?T or src3fT^ son of husband's elder brother, Mg. 
 few (cf. Wb. Bh. 315), Skr. jwpi:. 
 
 Exception. The termin. s?T or Wf of the 1 st pr. sg. pres. 
 is always thus contracted ; e. g., E. H. 3i"^T or Zfift I do, Ap. 
 cR"^ (cf. H. C. 4, 3 85), Pr. sr^ftr, Skr. 6h(1PJ ; Ap. Pr. *T3 hundred 
 is in E. H. ^rt beside 5RT, ^TST , ^T3 ; Skr. STfT^. In the postposi- 
 tional locatives ^3 becomes 3 ; as E. H. m% behind, Ap. Pr. qxSir, 
 Skr. cpn, etc.; see § 3 67, 5. 
 
 79. Affinities. In Pr. 93" and ^3 generally remain in 
 hiatus, but sometimes become P" and WT; thus 2"cf and <£3cf /ate 
 (H. C. 1, 153), Skr. |sm, but E. H. Jsy Ap. ^> o/ 1 what 
 hind for *aFrr^t or * grrf^ft, Skr. grl^ST: (cf Ls. 4 5 5); Pr. 5Frf 
 for * effort or cTkRT (H. C. 1, 167), Skr. W,ZJ^, also E. H. #^T 
 plantain ; again Pr. ^TTcrf for **FT3qT or FfTcnri sa^ (H. C. 1, 171), 
 Skr. c?T5rnm, also E. H. oTTn^ or ^T^r ; Pr. ^TTcrrft or ^TSoTTft shed, 
 court (H. C. 1, 171), Skr. grfSTTf:, but E. H. ^rsrqr; Pr. ^Tr^t or 
 ^SFm (H. C. 1, 171), but E. H. =aft2r. Only in one exceptional 
 case ^ becomes ^, viz. Pr. ^ for * %■§ = Skr. afg 1 (II. C. 1, 169). 
 These remarks refer to the Mh.-Sr. and Ap. (Sr.) Pr. ; perhaps 
 the Mg. even more strictly preserved the hiatus ; for thus it may 
 be explained why on the whole the E. and N. Gd. have ^7 and 
 STT, while the W. and S. Gd. have U and ^f and occasionally 
 even modify U to ^T (just as the Mg. nom. sing. term. ^ ; see 
 §§47.48), or exceptionally (shortened) to ^ ; thus E. H., B., 0., 
 also M. =grW, N. (also Br.) =afmT fourth, but G., S., Mw. =^terr ; E. II., 
 B., 0., N.. also M. =3tVt or #T^f fourteen, but Mw., G. xTT£ (or €t^), 
 S. ^3^ ; again E. H. ir^ gone, but M. 3T5rTT ; E. II. 5F^ done, 
 but M. 5R5TT; E. H. tj^been, but M. Trfvn (for *iw, *fTT?TT); 
 E. H. Jebff I ate, M. wt^V; E. II. ^n* I came, M. w^fT; 
 E. H. rra^T such, M. FT^T. The contraction of the Ap. Pr. loc. 
 term, ^f^ to ^' J is quite regular in M. ; see Man. 28, 2. 3 ; as 
 M. vft" in a house, Ap.s^f^(K. I. 12, 2 7. in Ls. 451. see § 367, 5), 
 Skr. jt|; M. qrgf by the side of, Ap. Pr. qrof^ (cf. II. C. 2, 92), 
 
§80—83.] CHANGES OF VOWELS IN CONTACT. 53 
 
 Skr. TO ; M. WJ" for (affix of dative), Ap. Pr. sjjf^ (cf. H. C. 
 2,3 2), Skr. mn • M. 5lf" in (Man. 12 7), Ap. STUifij (cf. II. C. 
 4, 16), Skr. s^FT, etc. 
 
 80. tf with ^ or 3 becomes \ or wi^ and m or sq^ re- 
 spectively ; optionally ; as E. H. ^T^r or ^r% or Svi^q^ kanhai 
 (krishna) ; E. H. zrjj, or EJ"§T or EO^ pitcher, redundant forms of 
 3iT^ or cFFT^T (W. H. ^TFf;) and STJT, see § 356. 
 
 81. ^ with ^, ST, see § 9 7. 
 
 82. ST wvY/?. ^ or j; and with 3 or 3 remains in hiatus; 
 thus E. H. idiisj^ we shall eat, Ap. 'pTT^cTT (scl. -sif), Pr. 'eTT^cn'sr^t, 
 Skr. WTi^rToUT: ^T: (with active sense, see § 309); E. H. WT^ /«c 
 u-ill eat, Pr. ot% (H. C. 4, 2 28), Skr. !=rTtt^f?T (W. H. im| = 
 Pr. *^TTf^); E. H. m^ mother, Mg. m^rr (see § 61), Skr. JTTrjcjn- ; 
 E. H. srrf ivind (see § 61); E. H. JU^ you, Mg. c?TT3^r (cf. Vr. 
 4, 1), Skr. :n?raT?T: ; E. H. ^TT3 barber, Mg. znfst^ or rj^rfsr^ (cf. 
 H. C. 1, 230), Skr. rrrftcr:. 
 
 Exception. The suff. 3 of the 2 nd pr. sg. imper. combines 
 with gT to st; as E. H. sTT #o //tott, Ap. 5TT3 (cf. H. C. 4, 387. 
 Ls. 4 6 7), Skr. ?TTf% ; E. H. left eat thou, Ap. WT3, Skr. wr^. 
 A final ^ or 3 optionally becomes q^ and ar ; as E. H. ^Ttf or 
 <3T£ having eaten, Ap. WTJ (cf. H. C. 4, 439), Pr. wt^s, Skr. 
 ^TFTrSTT; E. H. ?TTq^ or sTT^" having gone, Ap. jTTJ, Pr. 5TT^, Skr. 
 arfsn"; E. H. srfa^ or srr| they go, Ap. snf^ (cf. H. C. 4,382), 
 Pr. ?rriH, Skr. aTfrr; again E. H. STTST^ or STT3 wound, Ap. ETT3 
 (H. C. 4, 346), Pr. STT^T, Skr. EHFT: ; E. H. QT^ or «Tfsr_ or <TT3 or 
 crT3 /W, Ap. <TT3, Skr. ms:: ; E. H. ^T5^ or JV5 a title of nobi/i///, 
 prince, Pr. ju (as if Skr. 7T5T:) ; E. H. WT^ J eai, Ap. ^T3 (cf. 
 H. C. 4, 3 85), Pr. ^Tfa or WT^ft - , Skr. tfiajfq ; sometimes also pen- 
 ultimate j or 3 ; as E. H. wtjTq^ or <=rrj^ eaten, Mg. ^T^:, Skr. 
 ^Tf^rT; ; E. H. JVZ^ or ^"T3^ .yon (see above). 
 
 83. j with 13 becomes ?; as E. H. 3^ or ^ one and a v 
 half, for *f%B%, Mg. f&q (Wb. Bh. 190.411, and §416); some- 
 times optionally ; as E. H. f^raj or ^qr near, Mg. t>33, Skr. f?T'7rT^; 
 when final, ^ is shortened to ^ or ^, as E. H. mf or ^fiff/ ha dug 
 
54 CHANGES OF VOWELS IN CONTACT. § 84—91.] 
 
 done, Mg. srfsrs (H. C. 4, 302), Skr. crf-tt; E. H. ^m", 0. H. =et^T3, 
 Ap. *x[%9S (see §505), Pr. ^%g:; i%, Skr. ^f^TrTT-sfriT. 
 
 Exception. The nominal termin. ^a contracts to "§; as 
 E. II. <rraY water, Pr. mfllT^; see § 53. 49. 50. 
 
 84. 3 with % becomes tEtY; as E. H. W~m sweet scent, Mg. 
 §SWT£ (cf. Spt. 13), Skr. STCFtfcR:. 
 
 Exception. The nominal termin. 39 contracts to 3; as 
 E. H. srfar fear, Pr. ra; see § 53. 49. 50. 
 
 85. Affinities. Both the above contractions are not un- 
 common in Pr. ; thus Pr. £r^ he takes for *f%^ or vT^ (H. C. 
 4, 33 5), Skr. mm, E. H. <?r (cf. E. H. past part. fe^J ; Mg. 
 9T?ht^ (cf. H. C. 1, 173) magician for *39s<Fr^7 or Sor^FT^, Skr. 
 s^nmn-., E. H. sW; Mg. ^tft for *??wr or j-sfrT (cf. H. C. 3,180), 
 Skr. iToTT, E. H. ^H, etc. (see § 72). They are common alike 
 to all Gds. 
 
 86. ^ or 3 with m become ^ui and 35rr; optionally ; the 
 insertion of CT is usual, that of a unusual ; thus E. H. f%TT or 
 f|r9T heart, Pr. f|w, Skr. fSIJPT ; E. H. fsrcrTsT marriage. Mg. fsraTf, 
 Skr. fsrsrr^:; E. H. farw thirst, Pr. ^tot (cf. H. C. 4, 434) or 
 ferFIT (Wb. Bh. 274), Skr. fqqTOT ; E. H. <prT3T or (rarely) ^SfTcff 
 straw, Pr. *CMIvi), Skr. ticrn^Ti'; and regularly in the nominal long 
 forms, as srrf^JTT or (rarely) sftf^T mare; sff£9T or (less usually) 
 sft{jcir wife, see §§ 195. 199. 
 
 Exception. In the nominal short forms, ~§m and 39T are 
 always contracted to J and 3 respectively ; see § 51. 
 
 8 7. ^ with 3 or S, becomes ^u and ^; optionally; the 
 hiatus is more usual ; as E. H. f%3 or fw /Siva, Ap. fiJT3, Pr. 
 fwT, Skr. fsrsr: ; E. H. fo3 or fqn^ sweetheart, Ap. fq^3, Pr. f<7wr, 
 Skr. fercfi:. 
 
 88. 3 m$ Jor J remains in hiatus:, as E. H. g^n needle, 
 Pr. I^&T, Skr. ^f%^»T; E. H. ^ parrot, Pr. ^5JT, Skr. srf&rcfiT. 
 
 89. ^ or 3 wo7& ^ or ^V, see § 98. 
 
 90. ^ or s with 9; see § 97. 
 
 91. ^ with any other vowel inserts q^; as E. H. fcfarr daughter, 
 
§92—97.] CHANGES OF VOWELS IN CONTACT. 55 
 
 Pr. Vtm (Vr. 4, 33), Skr. sft^r or j%T; E. H. mm Sitd, Pr. 
 mm, Skr. efrn (seniitats.) ; E. II. mn rfnmft //wh. Ap. fn~5 (see 
 § 6 5), Pr. fqsr, Skr. fqsr ; E. II. ^ Ac 'dHtofts, Pr. fawj (II. C. 
 4, 10), Skr. fefTT; E. II. ^sfY" or qfaV I drink, Ap. flras (cf. 
 H. C. 4, 3 85), Pr. fogfa, Skr. f^nf*. 
 
 92. 3C «0#7* «rT, ^ and ^ remains in hiatus', as E. H. tnrf 
 smofre, Ap. tfsrj (cf. H. C. 4, 3 9 7), Pr. yjreT, Skr. w*Rf: ; E. H. 
 =g^" they will leak, Ap. -^^^P^ (cf. § 65), Pr. ^^fir, Skr. ^TfTrRrfrfT ; 
 E. H. «f earth, Ap. irPar^t (cf. H. C. 4, 3 97), Pr. Jffw, Skr. 
 arf^TSFT ; E. H. e^ weerfZc, Pr. I^T, Skr. 5jf%3TT. 
 
 93. 3: wvY/i U, j£, zrt and m becomes 3^r, 3;a", 35JT, 3C^t ; 
 optionally ; the hiatus is more usual ; as E. H. g^r or goj" it leaks 
 (W. II. g^or^), Pr. Qgsr^ (H. C. 2, 77), Skr. srfcrlH; E. H. r$T 
 or g"?rV or =gcfr" or ^etT I leak, Ap. =^33, Pr. ^afa, Skr. SjtfTT^. 
 
 94. ^ o>- sjY w?7/i ft, ^ awril 3; see § 97. 98. 
 
 95. jj or ftl with a long vowel remain in hiatus ; less usu- 
 ally sr^ is inserted after fti ; as E. H. ^ he will take, Pr. !5Tf|f|r^, 
 Skr. ffwt (*vrf^szrfH) ; E. H. ^f he will be, Pr. ^jf* (H. C. 2, 180) 
 or ^rf^ (H. C. 4, 3 88), Skr. irfsnEifH; E. H. srtijr or sr^ - he soivs, 
 Pr. oior^, Skr. sroirT; E. H. aforr" or ^hftY or GCtsf or srtefT I 
 SOW, Ap. 5T5T3, Pr. 5T5rfcr, Skr. oiqifa. 
 
 96. ?" or ftJ wraflis aw^ voweZ insert q^and ar ; optionally; the 
 insertion of CT is usual, but not that of 5[ ; as E. H. uorr or iT^TT 3i 
 (see § 7 7) of brothers, Pr. UT^Emn, Skr. ^TFTeETTCTW ; E.H. iW or U^IT 
 6rotter, Mg. mzftJ^, Skr. ^Trjcfijsr (see § 3 6 9, 2) ; E. II. mft* or ^T3^ £ 
 (see § 78) o/ barbers, Pr. ^TTfsrsmFT, Skr. 4lRjHHUJU E. H. mftl or 
 TBrT or :T39T or ^r35rr barber, Mg. ^lf=raT^, Skr. ^fari^s ; E. II. mj 
 fc ewB 6om?s Pr. mk^j or -lEjf^ (cf. H. C. 4, 158), Skr. ^fmufn; 
 E. II. mftf / &ow, Ap. ^5Ts\ Pr. ^Hrr, Skr. :WTfa ; E. II. JT%" 
 or tt£ w $e# &ow, Ap. qsrF^ (H. C. 4, 3 6 7), Pr. STcfffT, Skr. swf^f. 
 
 9 7. g fcefore or a/fer a Zo;?£/ vowel is often elided; before; 
 E. H. jjsit^ cooA% A. Mg. sraaT^, Skr. J^nfirj: ; E. H. tffffr^ scented 
 oil, Pr. <R*T^if, Skr. tK*riW»T : r//?<?r; E. H. ?% or *frq crfd, damp, 
 Pr. aW (cf. H. C. 4, 343. Spt. 53), Skr. ifflcWItt ,; E. H. «ftj or 
 
56 CHANGES OF VOWELS IN CONTACT. § 98.] 
 
 qtaj yellow, Pr. <?lw (H. C. 1, 213), Skr. qfarW ; E. H. ^ or 
 ^1 hog, A. Mg. sw, Skr. STcRT/:; E. H. mj or tiT^t little (W. 
 H. ??nrT), Pr. m^i or ?TTg35r (cf. H. C. 2, 125), Skr. SfffeK^or Wl«htW£_. 
 But never in conjugation; e. g., E. II. oWr^ drinking, Mg. fa^rr, 
 Skr. fasra ; E. H. ofra^ solving, Mg. s^fir, Skr. oioFT . 
 
 iVb/e: Tt^TfT , sfrarT., e ^ c * are n °t rea l exceptions; for their 
 J, OT, etc. are merely subsequent G(l. lengthenings (cf. § 65); nor 
 friTT being, <f ft giving, c<Trj taking, for these are not contractions of 
 ^T-snr , etc., but of Mg. Pr. jbtft, ^tt, ^ (cf. H. C. 4, 307). 
 
 98. ^ or ^ awcZ 3 or ot after a vowel often become ?T ya 
 or ^ y and sr va or sr^ # respectively, thus E. H. n^ or jt^fjt 
 #om<j (see § 7 7); E. H. y*T having put for y^, Ap. fcrf^, Pr. yf7^, 
 Skr. ^FcTT; E. H. mm^ or WT^ol eaten (§ 82. exc.) ; E. H. tn£, 
 having found for crr^, Ap. <Trfa\ Pr. mfsrg, Skr. jttgjt; E. H. =^ 
 having leaked for =a^ or =337, Pr. =3^, Skr. sjfrfroTT; E. H. ^ttf 
 he is, Pr. ^ (H. C. 1, 9) or ^ (H. C. 4, 60), Skr. raft; E. H. 
 ^ra^ having been for ^ or <rr^, Pr. ^f%% (H. C. 4, 2 71), Skr. 
 vTrsiT ; E. H. cjrrzq- or cFT^r cuckoo (W. H. sR^r ), Mg. srV^t, Skr. 
 chlf^ctH : ; E. H. ^ifpqr cocoanut (W. H. ^TfpjST ), Mg. nifo^M, Skr. 
 Trfj-i^r. ; 0. H. OTTO order (in Tulsidas), Ap. OTTO^, Pr. OT^TT, Skr. 
 ot^st: ; E. H. =3cin or =531 fourth (see § 78); E. H. erra; or 5JT3 
 wound (see § 82. exc); E. H. sr'fC I go, Ap. ?TT3, Pr. sTTf^r (H. C. 
 2, 204), Skr. zrrfa. 
 
 Exception* The suff. 3" of 3 d pers. and 3 of 2 nd pr. sg. 
 pres. and imper. is always dropped after the roots ?5T, c£ ; thus 
 <?r he fakes, Pr. ^ (H. C. 4, 23 8, see § 85); E. H. £ he gives, 
 Pr. TJ (II. C. 4, 2 3 8), Skr. ^frf; E. H. $; take thou, Ap. ^3, 
 Skr. i;i%. Again the nominal term. Mg. ^ and 3{7 (or Sr. ^OT, 
 3OT) are contracted to ^ and 3T ; see § 4 9 ; the expansion of 
 final p (or OT) to JT or ^ would naturally tend to lengthen the 
 preceding ^ and 3; and the resultant g after X and 3, would 
 drop off, by §97; e. g., nf^7, ?rf%ra or ft^Y^, rf^TT oilman. 
 
§ 99.] CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. 57 
 
 y) SINGLE CONSONANTS. 
 99. Medial single consonants in E. II are of two kinds, 
 original and resultant. The former are those which have passed 
 as such into E. H. either from the (A. Mg.) Pr. ; as in the 
 tadhh. E. H. WT^ whole, A. Mg. srra", Skr. ^57^:-, E. II. qf^srr 
 first day of a lunar fortnight, Pr. ifToTgT, Skr. yfwMd ; or from the 
 Skr. ; as in the tats. E. H. ^"TslT king, Skr. ^"TiTT, or in the semi- 
 tats. E. H. f^qrr mercy, Skr. ^rr. The latter are those which 
 have arisen either from the simplification (§143) of a conjunct 
 consonant by eliding one, as in the tadbh. E. H. <TTf?t letter, Pr. 
 crfw^T, Skr. qf^cfiT; E. H. mm head, Mg. tTr^, Skr. JTSrTcFr., or in 
 the semitats. E. H. fgsrt, Skr. T^l": E. H. ^sTtfT, Skr. WTWTT; or 
 from the dissolution (§ 138) of a conjunct by inserting a vowel; 
 as in the tadbh. WTH devoted, Ap. *iTcF<T, Skr. IT37:, or in the 
 semitats. sTnPr effort, Skr. Ucf:. Tatsama single consonants, whe- 
 ther original or resultant, may, of course (as in Skr.), be of 
 any kind, whether surd or sonant, aspirate or unaspirate ; they 
 never suffer any further change in E. H. ; for sone doubtful ex- 
 ceptions see §§ 102. 12 9. Tadbhava resultant single consonants, too, 
 as may be seen from the examples in §§ 138, 14 3, may be of any 
 kind ; but the tadbh. original can only be sonants, never surds, 
 because already in Pr. every original single surd cons, has been 
 made sonant, if it be not wholly elided (cf. § 101). Both tad- 
 bhava classes, the resultant and the original, are liable to fur- 
 ther changes in E. H. These may be of five kinds: l) sonant 
 consonants proper (i. e. cerebrals and dentals) are softened to se- 
 mivowels ("3 or ^ or c<T and ^ or ^ or ^f ) cf . §§ 102 — 115; 
 2) aspirate consonants proper (except palatals and cerebrals) may 
 be reduced to the simple aspirate (§"), cf. §§ 1 1 G — 120; 3) semi- 
 vowels (viz. s and sQ and the nasal (^) may be vocalized (^ and 3), 
 cf. §§ 1 21. 1 22 ; 4) semivowels (viz. lt, ST, £, f) and nasals (viz. *T 
 and =rj and occasionally double consonants (viz. cfj, ^, ^, *$, 5T, <*!,) 
 may be elided, cf. §§ 123 — 128 and 151 — 157; and 5) semi- 
 
58 CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. § 100.] 
 
 vowels (viz. inland 5[J may be hardened, cf. § 129. Besides, there 
 are isolated instances of changes of a miscellaneous kind. See in 
 detail § 97, etc. 
 
 100. Affinities. All these five kinds of changes exist in 
 Pr. already ; but modified partly in character, partly in frequency. 
 Thus in Pr. they affect as a rule (exceptions see § 116, note. 
 §145, exc. 2. and § 142) only original single consonants; in E. H. 
 also resultant ones. Again l) in Pr. surds are softened to sonants, 
 in E. H. sonants to semivowels; e. g., wig., Skr. WTCQH: cloths, 
 Mg. ^qt^, E. H. ch^tt; Skr. cfrf^rT: said, Mg. grfy^, E. H. atfi^ 
 or 5FT^rr/, result, Skr. cfraf^cjrr, Mg. BP5rf|OT (cf. H. C. 2, 3 6), E. H. 
 97rft, W. H. ^?rit. This rule refers only to cerebrals and dentals, 
 which alone are capable of the change. But something analogous 
 takes place in the case of the other classes ; thus in Pr., labials 
 (tforsQ are softened to cJ (H. C. 1, 2 31.237); in E. H., <* is 
 vocalized; e. g., Skr. surer: oath, A. Mg. H5W or STcrir, E. H. sfr\ 
 (for ST3I[ ) ; in Mg. Pr. for gutturals (ai, n ') and palatals (^, sQ 
 is substituted the euphonic u (cf. Wb. Bh. 397); in E. H., tf is 
 vocalized ; e. g., Skr. -Ulj*^ town, Mg. JTOrf , E. H. ^ ; Skr. TcTTT 
 night, Mg. cFronTi", E. H. 7"f^. There are, however, traces of these 
 changes in Pr. already, see §§ 35. 105. 109, note, etc. Then 2) in 
 Pr., aspirate consonants are changed to sonant aspirates or redu- 
 ced to the simple aspirate ^ (see H. C. 4, 267. 302. Wb. Bh. 41 0) ; 
 E. H. allows only the simple aspirate and occasionally extends the 
 rule to resultant aspirates; e. g., Skr. aiTST you make, Mg. aFT^Ttf 
 or 3v?rf , E. H. aFfT/er; Skr. <m, Ap. d3W^, E. H. errfr (for qt<£T)- 
 Traces of its extension to resultants, however, occur in Pr. also, 
 see § 116, note and Wb. Bh. 410. Again 3) in Pr., q^ and 3 
 are sometimes vocalized (§ 3 5); in Ap. Pr. also JT (see § 122, 
 note); but in E. H. the process is far more common; see exam- 
 ples above (No. 1). Next 4) in Pr., unaspirate consonants proper 
 and CT and ^ only are elided (Vr. 2, 2. H. C. 1, 17 7) ; E. H extends 
 the practice occasionally to ^, c^, If, *T :T , though traces of 
 the latter exist in Pr. also (see §§ 125, note, and 127, note). 
 
§ 101.] CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. 59 
 
 Lastly 5) in Mh.-Sr., initial ^ is always hardened to sT^; E. Gd. 
 extends this practice to both initial ^ and 5J^ (see § 17), even 
 when they become the initial of a syllable by the dissolution of 
 a conjunct; e. g., Skr. ^Trag, E. H. 97T"pr; Skr. qsirr:, E. H. cr^nr. 
 As to the Gds., they all agree generally in regard to the four 
 last kinds of changes. With respect to the first, the E. and S. 
 Gd. agree ; but W. and N. Gd. do not change ^ to oj , but elide 
 it ; and have a tendency to preserve 3 or change it to "3, but 
 not to ^. 
 
 101. With regard to tadbhava original consonants proper, 
 the following may be stated generally. In Mg., as' in Pr. gene- 
 rally, 37 and JT^ were usually elided ; exceptionally cF was changed 
 to JT^(H. C. 1 , 177. cf. 4, 3 9 6); ^ and 5T were, as a rule, elided (not 
 mentioned at all in E. H. 4, 3 96 ; one exception in H. C. 1, 17 7); 
 r and Z were never elided, but r softened to T (H.C.I, 19 5); 
 in Mg. (but not in Pr. generally, cf. H. C. 1, 1 77) f^ and Z were 
 not elided, but FT softened to K (H. C. 4, 260. 302. cf. 4, 396); 
 in the later Mg., however, (as in Pr. generally, cf. H. C. 1, 17 7) 2[ 
 must have been, as a rule, elided, except in the past part. pass, 
 and in a few other words ; in the Mg. of the Bhagavati, in- 
 deed, there appears to be no difference between Mg. and the or- 
 dinary Pr. (cf. Wb. Bh. 3 98. 428. 43 3) ; but E. H. (and E. Gd. 
 generally) agree with the Pr. Gramm. statement, as above mo- 
 dified (see §109). In Mg., a3 in Pr. generally, q^ and 5^ are sof- 
 tened to5^(H. C. 1, 231. 23 7). Again in Mg., as in Pr. generally, 
 ^ and a^ were, as a rule, reduced to f; (only a few exceptions 
 in H. C. 1, 187. 188. cf. 4, 3 9 6); §[ and <F were always left un- 
 changed (being not mentioned in H. C. 1, 187. 4, 3 9 6); and 
 2T was always changed to £, but S7 left unchanged (H.C.I, 19 9). 
 In Mg. (but not in Pr. generally H. C. 1, 18 7) BT was changed 
 to tf, and ^optionally reduced to f (H. C. 4, 2 6 7. 302. cf. 4, 39$). 
 In Pr. generally, 97 was always changed to ^, and i{ optionally 
 reduced to ^ (H. C. 1, 236. 187. cf. 4, 396). Thus it follows, that 
 E. H. can possess only the following tadbh. orig. cons, proper, 
 
60 CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. § 102—104.] 
 
 to which it applies its own laws of phonetic change. Of un- 
 ■ aspirates: exceptionally n; regularly 3; in the past part, and ex- 
 ceptionally in other words <T ; regularly ^ . Of aspirates : exceptionally 
 W/, regularly W, 37 and £; optionally U^ and *T^. The unaspirates 
 ^ and ?j^ are never present; in words like E. H. *T3 it rots, ^ it 
 sounds (§ 143) they are resultant, owing to a doubling (w , jfiTj in Pr. 
 
 aa) Softening. 
 
 102. 3? becomes jt/, rarely; 1) original; thus E. H. 3/>TJT 
 croiv, Ap. 37TJT, Skr. 3TT37: (but usually cfiSTT, Mg. tjTT^, or 37TSTT 
 (for ^^cTstt), Mg. 3rra^); E. H. ^nrr vegetable, Ap. *ttjt, Skr. 
 5TTcFT!T ; E. EL *3TT% cart (W. H. srrre), A. Mg. enr (cf. Wb. Bh. 
 248), Skr. ST37?tt; E. H. ^tjt^ whole, Ap. rm^f, Skr. j=TcFc<tjt ;; 
 E. H. smrc bird, Ap. snTtTT, Skr. «pfr: ; E. H. ^n^ir eleven, Ap. 
 *^nr^(cf. H. C. 1, 17 7), Skr. ^T^ST; E. H. q^rrr manifest, Skr. 
 ar^Tirg (semitats.). — 2) residtant ; thus E. H. fornFT or snTfT indi- 
 vidual, Skr. sow. ; E. H. ^rrf^ salvation, Skr. TTWi: ; E. H. WTrT 
 devotee, Skr. u^r: ; E. H. wirt jftw$, Skr. nfa7: ; E. II. iTJTnri rfe- 
 votedness (cf. § 2 20) = Skr. uffifTT; E. EL -pnr Woo<7, Skr. p>3T. 
 Not always; as E. H. =sraq[ wheel, Ap. Pr. ^ (cf. H. C. 4, 3 98), 
 Skr. =Era>JT; E. H. srctrff she-goat, Ap. st%^t, Skr. crfesrr. 
 
 Note: Probably in most or all of these words, the change 
 took place in Pr. already ; for it is expressly mentioned by Pr. 
 Gramm. to occur in exceptional cases; see H. C. 1, 17 7. cf. 4, 3 96; 
 as Pr. $rrft, Skr. ^:, Pr. ^TSTTp, Skr. gT3FTT^":, etc. (cf. Ls. 202); 
 and in Gel., too, it occurs only as an exception. As a rule 37 
 is elided in tadbh., both in Pr. and Gd. ; and in tats, it remains 
 unchanged. 
 
 103. Z becomes \or - T; very rarely; always resultant, as 
 E. H. fhuil or frrsTTT; he accomplishes for *ftyi£, Pr. fr<=f|^ or 
 frcTpr, Skr. frrsrafffFT; E. H. ere or cq - tree for *q? (see § 148), 
 Pr. qfr, Skr. q=ft (?). 
 
 104. J becomes \ or ^; as a ride; ^ is more usual; 1) ori- 
 ginal ; thus E. EL zmjT or 37<rer cloths, Mg. cF<xrj^, Skr. 37^637: ; 
 E. H. 5R5nn[T or crareT door (§ 57), Mg. 373TT^, Skr. cFqT?;efi: ; 
 
§105.] CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. (il 
 
 E. H. Vj or ET3 he ' fashions, Pr. sn^ (H. C. 1, 19 5), Skr. orafFT; 
 E. H. f^ bird (cf. § 55), Pr. ^zzm, Skr. =gr%^T, H. H. f%f^T; 
 E. H. mf or rTTl he breaks, Pr. FTlT^ or fTtTj, Skr. ;ftraf?T ; E. II. 
 qqr or ^n a hind of reed, Mg. q? (cf. II. C. 1, 19 5), Skr. ryr.:\ 
 E. H. qj or <rk he falls, Pr. VT$ (Vr. 8, 51), Skr. crprfpr ; E. H. 
 qfjsiT /Srsd da# o/' a lunar fori night, Pr. qfssror (Vr. 4, 7), Skr. 
 gfFFTTT; E. H. qfto neighbourhood (cf. § 12 2), A. Mg. qfssrrsr or 
 gfrir^, Skr. gfnsmr: or qfFrasr. ; E. H. <ncq[ or qiq-^ cake, Mg. 
 qrcrj, Skr. qqr: ; E. H. srrff or srm garden, Pr. onf?^, Skr. 
 STTfxcfiT; E. H. iq[ or nz large boat, Mg. ut (cf. H. C. 1,19 5), 
 Skr. il?: (?) ; E. H. crrf^cRT or ^rf^TT bog, Mg. *^fr^^" from Skr. 
 cfT" (cf. § 252. 334. 353), H. H. ^cFfT; E. H. cFTT; or cfrl he 
 quarrels (makes uproar), Mg. mz^, Skr. izfa (cf. § 1 1 0, exc.) ; E. II. 
 5| or OT it rots, Pr. STT^ (Vr. 8, 51), Skr. 5T5JnT ; generally in 
 the E. H. pleonastic suffixes ^ or T, "3T or jt, 337"? or 5T^, ^r^T 
 or 3EJT7T, Ap. Mg. T, Z%, W&, ^33^ (cf. H. C. 4, 4 29. 430); thus 
 E. H. mi or JTti foot, leg, Ap. nsrj (cf. H. C. 4, 3 9 7), Pr. JFTjt 
 Skr. rrq: (lit. going); E. H. efrj or ill little ( cf - § 97 )> Ap. Mg 
 efteT, Skr. frTTcFT: ; E. H. ^Vt;^T or SjfcRTT Wtflfl _piere, Ap. Mg 
 *5Tfjj3Y (cf. H. C. 2, 125), Skr. mfa: ; E. II. =5PT7T or =amiT fearer 
 Ap. Mg. "z&ttz, Skr. =gq ; E. H. st^7> or sr^ ca//; Ap. oFz^n 
 Skr. g>TT: ; E. H. u*|"| or ^ToR^r a hundred, Ap. Mg. HJTfftl'^, Skr 
 STrTcFT? ; E. H. irs^T efcfes*, Ap. Mg. sTjm Skr. sew. ; E. H. qfi^dij 
 or qf%5Ti"3 or 5TTJT hindmost, Ap. Mg. *qf^oi*ri' or ST^tf or 
 qf^raS or iT^f3Y, ^1". q ^ IJTaF7: 5 E. H. qSjTjl" or q^T'ift (scl. "jwt) 
 hind-rope (for tying horses 1 hind-legs), Ap. q^g^fj^T, Skr. w^m°\ 
 E. H. grn"fjt or lanrit fojre-rope, Ap. grnsfijsT, Skr. ar^cF , etc. — 
 2) resultant ; thus E. H. cjftTJ or 3ffrft cowrie, Pr. cRsri^T (H. C. 
 2, 3 6), Skr. rf^cST, etc. 
 
 105. 7 becomes 3T; only original; very rarely; thus the 
 E. H. pleonastic suffix st or 5TT, Ap. Mg. 3 or 3^ (cf. II. C. 4, 429), 
 e. g., E. H. q"^T or °*n idterior, Ap. Mg. q^T3" or °3^, Skr. qj: ; 
 E. H. qfrS! M Ap. Mg. **ftp or *%p, Skr. »TW: ; E. II. H3^ 
 mother, Ap. Mg. * qT3f75T, Skr. qTrTcfiT, etc. ; also otherwise, as 
 
62 CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. § 106—109.] 
 
 E. H. f^rtrtpTT or °m, Ap. Mg. *5|W^T?i or *$*iwj*m (cf. Wb. 
 Bh. 4 26), Ap. Sr. *$ j*TW3, Skr. crprfSFPT . 
 
 Note: This change is not uncommon in Pr., see Vr. 2,23. 
 H. C. 1, 202; in such cases E. H. optionally, hut usually changes 
 5^ to J-, as Skr. w\T% sixteen, A. Mg. stt^tft (Wh. Bh. 426), E. H. 
 J^r-jir or j^it; Skr. FTZTcFT: tank, Ap. ft^t:? (cf. H. C. 1, 2 02), E. H. 
 FT7T3 or rT("ra^ or !WTra" *, Skr. ^IT^ a kind of reed, Pr. ^TZ or ^R<f 
 (H. C. 1, 202), E. H. rqr or :m or ^ ; Skr. ^TfefTT sfoflfc, Pr. 
 ^TTfz^T or ^T%9T (H. C. 1, 202), E. H. mft or rrrc<ft or :rrit. 
 
 106. 3 becomes :t; o»j?(/ original; very rarely; thus E. H. 
 rra^r or FTyr or rTFT Ma/ 1 (lit. of tf<7? kind), Ap. FT5TJ (H. C. 4, 407) 
 or *FTSliT, Pr. H^t (cf. H. C. 2, 15 7), Skr. 7HF3J: (see § 43 8, 2); 
 E. H. sToPT or sryr or 5TPT which (lit. o/" which kind), Ap. sToTj 
 (H. C. 4, 407), Pr. ir^ft, Skr. or^sr: ; E. H. cRcTT or cFTJ^ or cFR 
 who (lit. o/" w/?a£ &mrf), Ap. cfisnrr (H. C. 4, 3 9 5) or craj (H. C. 
 4,408), Mg. JRsrf^r (Wb. Bh. 422), Pr. w,^, Skr. tftrsr: (see 
 § 26, note); cf. also E. H. mrzr or ?mm mouth (of a horse, etc.) 
 from erta^ mouth. 
 
 107. ^becomes ij or ^; ver// rarely; always resultant; as 
 E. H. ^Tf^fs" or sTwfs' or erT^rf?: sixty seven, Pr. fT^Trft (cf. Wb. 
 Bh. 4 26), Skr. ^qTT%:. 
 
 108. Z becomes ^; very rarely; always original; thus JTrn"fl 
 waterpot, Pr. nrnf^OT (cf. Vr. 2, 13), Skr. ndr^iT; E. H. ^r?qr se- 
 venty, Pr. snrft (H. C. 1, 210. Wb. Bh. 24 8) for **TW^, Skr. Wifa: ; 
 E.H. °^ ten, Pr. °^ (Vr. 2, 14) or °^r (Wb. Bh. 426), Skr. £*r; 
 e.g., E. H. ^Tf^ tivelve, Pr. ^T^ (H. C. 1, 219) or srr^ (Wb. Bh. 
 42 5), Skr. j^sr. 
 
 i^ota: This change, also, is old Pr. ; I know no strictly mo- 
 dern example. 
 
 109. z becomes ™r; only original; always in the E. H. suffix 
 of past part. ^ or s^, Mg. ^ (cf. H. C. 4, 2 60. 3 02. Vr. 1 1, 1 1), 
 Skr. ^H: ; e.g., E.H. rr^T^ or n^ or JTO"^ gone (see §77); E.H. 
 lT ^L or ^ or ^^ oeen ( see § 77); E. H. y^^ or \r^ or UOvT^ 
 put, Mg. *rf%£ (cf. H. C. 1, 3 6. ferf^fh Spt. 241), Skr. 5JFT: ; E. H. 5B^ 
 
§110.111.] CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. G3 
 
 or 5Rc^ or mm done, Mg. *cF%3;, Skr. ffirT: (see § 307); K. 11. 
 WT^SL or ®VJ^ eaten (see § 82.exe.); E. H. qT^c^ or TFTciT found 
 (cf. §§ 3 3. 12 3), Mg. qTfat; (cf. H. C. 4, 387. qifeg), Skr. my ; E. II. 
 ^Tjr?^ or ^niciT^ come, Mg. arfci^, Skr. STq": ; E. H. q:^^ or qfe^r 
 rcatf, Mg. qf£2", Skr. qf?n=r; ; E. H. =sr^ or ^f^ walked, Mg. 
 ^i%^, Skr. yfoHH:, etc.; rarely otherwise; e.g., E. H. ^TcfT^ hundred, 
 A. Mg. *^, Skr. SlHJT . 
 
 Note: This change is especially Mg., e. g., cFT^T, IT^T or c?i^, 
 n^ (in Md. 12, 28. optional with qRT, JT3\ Vr. 11, 15), Skr. 37rT:, 
 ttft:; Mg. sharer (Sak. 3 7, 13) for *cFf^gg, Skr. frTepw; A. Mg. ^f^rsr 
 for *^f^ST, Skr. t^ST (cf. Lss. 417. 4 23); rarely in Pr. generally, 
 as Pr. qferw (H. C. 1, 221), Skr. KeOjj^ , E. H. q*?^ a %/*/, eaw^e; 
 Pr. cri^Tcrf (H. C. 1, 212) for *qf^5;, Skr. qf^rTO, E. II. qf^T. or 
 q<??^ mud; Pr. 3^ (H. C. 1, 211) for * *j^, Skr. Srflft, E. H. 
 ^c?reri linseed. 
 
 110. ^ becomes ^; as a rule ; see §§16.30; thus E. H. n^r 
 maw, Mg. q^r (H. C. 4, 288), Skr. rrj:; E. H. Jinking, Mg. 
 <?miT (H. C. 4, 302), Skr. TTJTT, etc. 
 
 Exceptions. E. H. ^srft cord, (Ap.) Mg. *c?f^f3OT, Skr. t^; 
 E. H. cTf; or SO he quarrels (S. 7V), Mg. ^3^, Skr. iKfn (cf. 
 ^zfn or ^zin) ; but E. H. Tjfj or 7jf% quarrel (noisy contention), 
 Mg. crrrfl', Skr. jTir: ; E. H. ST^" or Slf he throws, Mg. *3T^ or 
 5T<?q, Skr. STJffirr (also ST^ffr) ; E. H. im or ijj he forgets, 
 Ap. Mg. * usrmz or *iTJT^T3-, Skr. Hxrpjfn (?) ; E. H. nfewrar or nf^Ta - 
 he abuses and m^t or mfi abuse, cf. § 142; E. K. PrcFT^T or 
 f^ir^ he ejects, cf. § 115, note; E. H. ^cdM^I one hundred and 
 four, Mg. ^gtri^ J (§ 397), Skr. xTfr^TSTrm; E. H. er^r or 
 J^TTST he supports, cf. § 120; E. H. ^rf^TW forty, Mg. =3W^TnT 
 (Wb. Bh. 42 6), Skr. ^rsnfjsf^; E. II. STwTT branch, Mg. 3T5W (cf. 
 H. C. 4, 445), Skr. SJjaff*. 
 
 111. ST becomes ^T; sometimes; in the E. H. pleonastic 
 suffix :t or ^TT, Mg. ^ or ^; e. g., E. H. snip roseapple -tree, 
 A. Mg. *ir"T% (see § 18) or srejsj, Skr. jna5T: ; E. II. ^rFTT so 
 waw?/, Mg. ^f=Tc?T£ ( c f. H. C. 2, 157) or Ap. Mg. ^pf^ (cf. II. C. 
 
64 CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. § 112—114.] 
 
 4, 408), Skr. ^nfm>: ; E. H. rTrRT so many, Mg. Frfec^ or HtT^, 
 Skr. rTT^frr^i: ; E. H. SrPTT as many, Mg. sTfw^ or d^crl^' (H. C. 
 4, 407), Skr. aTsrffTcH: ; E. H. cFrFrr hoiv many, Mg. ~fif%?T^ or 
 ira^, Skr. %oirrcFr. ; E. H. ^t^t or stjft or skjtt or g<pT 
 own, Mff. ^cr^i or 3aTc<T5f (cf. II. C. 2, 163), Skr. ^Trm?UT or °?I^it ; 
 E. H. 3J*t:t or ^t^ of that kind, Ap. Mg. *?qfw (cf. II. C. 4, 
 403. 2, 16 r 4. Wb. Bh. 437) or *W^[ (cf. H. C. 4, 429), Skr. 
 £^ST: ; E. H. FT^FT^ or ft^tt o/" that kind, Ap. Mg. *FT^fwr or *rT^T^J, 
 Skr. rTT2"S[r: ; E. II. sT^rrq or ?re;r of whichever hind, Ap. Mg. *5Tcfirr?T 
 or *sT^^T, Skr. 3T2~ST. ; E. H. cfi^q or ^^jof what kind, Ap. Mg. 
 *£firfwr or *SFT?fT^r, Skr. apttTST:, see also § 31. 
 
 Note: There are a few optional examples of this change in 
 Pr. ; see H. C. 1, 256. 257 ; as nfaref or ^fiT^f, Skr. cfTJcfW plough. 
 
 112. tjr^ becomes :t ; as a ride; see § 13; thus E. H. qrrt 
 (or theth qTtrrt) water, Mg. qifoTsr (II. C. 1, 101), Skr. tn^fepr, etc. 
 
 113. S becomes ^; verv/ rarely; only resultant; thus E. H. 
 effc^ ^ro.s// for *ctfT£, Pr. <JJJ (or sftf cf. II. C. 1, 116 or aftf?), 
 Skr. cR^rr-, E. H. ^35 angry, Mg. 3$J (or ^J?), Skr. Jg>; E. H. 
 ttrfm^ thirty eight, Mg. ^jtttot (Wb. Bh. 4 2 6), Skr. tf^fifgrff. 
 
 Note : This change is possibly Pr. ; as the Skr. conjunct ST 
 has a tendency to change to J in Pr. ; see § 114. 
 
 114. ^becomes ^or IT; as a r?/£e ; ^ is more usual; thus 
 1) original; E. II. w&^l or sfT^t a &md o^ gourd, Mg. oRJTE^ 
 (cf. H. C. 1, 199), Skr. sutssft: ; E. H. rraT or q^T sfeetf, Mg. q<^7 
 (cf. H. C. 1, 19 9), Skr. qS"^: ; E. H. cpjt smaK JempZe, Pr. qi%OT, 
 Skr. qf^cFT ; E. II. £& he reads, Pr. qfc^, Skr. qsf?? ; E. II. qfcsr 
 sfooZ, Mg. qfe^, Skr. qtscF:. 2) resultant; E. H. 3=rns or 3?f^ he 
 draws, Pr. Uff^ (H. C. 4, 187), Skr. graft (lit. » twmfri) '; E. H. 
 oT^ he encloses, Pr. 3|^ (Vr. 8, 4 0) or kjj (H. C. 4, 51), Skr. ir^H 
 orsrgTjfrT; E. H. sra fee #rows, Pr. stj^ (Vr. 8, 44), Skr. cfuh; E. H. 
 3T5§ or sr^ or 5*7^ (cf. § 138) carpenter, Mg. STf^", Skr. STuf^: ; 
 E. H. g^T oW man, Mg. Ejj£ (cf. H. C. 1, 131), Skr. zc&^\ ; E. H. 
 i^Jt old women, Pr. srf|sn- (cf. II. C. 1, 13l), Skr. SffefiT; E. H. T$ 
 or 2^5 owe owtf a half, Mg. f^orz - (Wb. Bh. 190), Skr. ^sf|rmr: 
 
§115.116.] CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. 65 
 
 (see § 416); E. H. %^r§ two and one half, Pr. ^jgj^T, Skr. m;nmm 
 (see § 416); E. H. era one half more, Pr. e^°, Skr. mi?. 
 
 115. ?[ becomes cf?[ ; very rarely, only original; E. II. crf^TTT 
 axe, Mg. ^t^ (cf. H. C. 1, 199), Skr. ^euw,: ; E. H. eRcffTft 
 smaU axe, Mg. cFCT'few, Skr. cpnfj^T; E. II. <rww mill (for ma- 
 king sugar or oil), Mg. cE£^T, Skr. cFSTK (a post round which the 
 mill stone moves). 
 
 Note: E. H. ?^^n bridegroom, f^T^t or jrc?ri%q" &r/rfe (spelled 
 H. H. JTcf^T, id^T^ see § 6, note) are Mg. 5"c<T^7, S'Frf^T (cf. H. C. 
 4, 3 38. Ls. 2 2 7. 228). Skr. jc<Wcfi:, ^ft^T (lit. difficult to obtain, 
 dear), not Skr. 3TTST, 3£ET (as Bs. I, 2 71.24 5). And E. H. PTcFFT^T 
 is Pr. fr^T^r^ or f^lJjT^fJ, Skr. f^fatfTcrrerfTT (of R. cFFct^; perhaps 
 caus. or denom. of ^?), not Pr. facjij^, Skr. fqcgrafn" (as Bs. I, 354). 
 As to ^T^, the Mg. chtcd might be oFT^^f in Ap. Mg. (cf. vulgar 
 B. WiZ^axc for Mg. cjFPST^T, see Bs. I, 270), and thence (eliding^) 
 cFH^r, mG or ^T^% (cf. §§ 49. 12 5); there is Skr. cFST^:, Mg. 
 ^7£T^T tree {post ?), which might also produce WiT^W . An instance 
 of this change in Pr. is ^'cfW 3 for * g^T^f (H. C. 1, 200; cf. 
 V'&TZ and q^fr^ H. C. 4, 200), Skr. 9^T5-°. 
 
 hb) Reduction. 
 
 116. <3^ and ^become f> ; generally when original; as E. H. 
 Jjs or iffr mouth, Pr. g^ (H. C. 2, 164), Skr. *T<prJT; E. H. *T!| or 
 rr% rain, Mg. q|" (cf. H. C. 1, 18 7), Skr. JW., etc.; sometimes 
 when initial in a compound; as E. H. "TT^ father's family, Pr. 
 fe^j (H. C. 1, 13 4) for *fq3^, Skr. f^fTJT^T; E. H. ^^ wife's 
 mother's family, E. H. ij^qr idol temple, Pr. *\ymf, Skr. 5;5JJT^; 
 2) rarely when resultant; as E. H. ^ he lasts, stays for * J W, 
 Mg. cftcfw^, Skr. :jwt (pass.) ; E. H. m^T by the side of for *<rraV, 
 see § 7 4. exc. ; 0. E. H. sf# or ^fT# by the side of for *3i<a[ or *57T^, 
 Ap. * ch*<rtj , Skr. cr% (cf. § 378, 3). 
 
 Exceptions. Sometimes W^ remains unchanged; probably 
 either to avoid confusion, as in E. H. fe?Wr^ written, not *fVK'H 
 Mg. f^rf^ (cf. H. C. 1, 187 fer^), to distinguish from E. H. 
 fisn^fo&ew for *<yT^J Mg. ^f^TT ; or to suit analogy, as in E. II. 
 
66 CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. § 117—119.] 
 
 W3 pleasure (Pr. ^ H. C. 1, 187) like 5"W pain, Pr. Trap?* (H. C. 
 2, 72); but generally words with W^ are tats.; as E. H. >3Wf 
 friend, etc. 
 
 Note: The change of original W and a^ to e[ is Pr. (H. C. 
 1, 187); there are also examples of g" for resultant W^ and ST ; 
 as Pr. rT<%07T or ^fWqn (H. C. 2, 7 2), Skr. ^fw:, E. H. ^ft^T. 
 right, but 3^r or ^ffJT so^M; Pr. J"^ or JW (H. C. 2, 7 2), Skr. 
 Ji^JT, E. H. only J"W pa*»- Pr. rt^t or fijTsft (H. C. 2, 91), Skr. 
 ^rsr: long, E. H. deest. 
 
 117. qr becomes ^; very rarely; only resultant; E. H. JTf^T w 
 or m^t" amidst for * qTOvT, Ap. Pr. JT??fii% Skr. qw. 
 
 iVo/e : Probably ^ represents the Mg. serniconsonant 0^ = 5., 
 as in Pr. fT^T for Skr. ^TOT (Vr. 2, 18), see § 18. 
 
 118. £ becomes f ; mv/ rarely; only original; E. H. qf%?^ 
 or q^r^ first, Ap. Mg. *<T£^?[, Mg. q^rq^T (Wb. Bh. 437), Skr. 
 a^TT: ; E. H. q^n"^ or ^TT mountain-range, Ap. Mg. ^fs^gj, 
 Skr. crmrT^f: (lit. spread out) ; E. H. q?njT or q^rsi Me mtdfi/il (ra- 
 tion table, Ap. Mg. * qfe^^Y, Skr. qferrTcFT. (with pleon. 337, see 
 § 217); the ^ is absorbed just as in B., 0., H. H. ^^%\ read, Mg. 
 crfeg^", W. H. q^rr, Ap. qfesjs. 
 
 Note: The root q^ or qs^ shows this change in Pr. already; 
 e. g., Pr. ws£\ or q^srt or TZ<5\ (H. C. 1,216. 88. 131), Skr. 
 qfwr or Tltti earth, 0. H. q'ssfq; Pr. fq# or qf beside fro or TO 
 (H. C. 1, 188), Skr. TO5F; Pr. ftpi, Skr. qgvPT fiM (Spt. 313). 
 But perhaps there was an Ap. form q$J . The only other in- 
 stances of the change of ^ to ^ which I know, are the Pr. 
 fq^ir or fosfr, Skr. fq«^: pot (II. C. 1,201) and the G. and S. 
 g^lfr axe, Pr. cFTSTfT (H. C. 1, 199), see Bs. I, 27 and § 115. 
 Perhaps also in Pr. srr^Tsnrft or cji^Torqfl - (H. C. 2, 71) for *cF» , > loiuPl, 
 Skr. cFfraTqcrr: or cRqTqtn: ; cf. Pr. cFJ^ = Skr. Z®fn (H. C. 4, 187). 
 All Gds. have q^vT , S. qffr w , see § 401. 
 
 119. w becomes eT; always when original; as E. H. cR^; he 
 speaks. Mg. 5F^f£ or awft; (H. C. 4, 26 7. 302), Skr. cReraffr; E. H. 
 ^Tf a title of merchants, Pr. ^T§; (H. C. 1, 187), Skr. ^TO: ; E. H. 
 
§ 120. 121.] CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. 67 
 
 srf|j deaf, Mg. orf^r (cf. H. C. 1, 187), Skr. vftn: ; E. II. 5^T 
 curds, see § 53; also when initial in a compound; as E. II. rrff 
 Heard, aligator, Pr. intft, Skr. rfrfy: ; E. II. ift# wheat, see §64; 
 2) very rarely when resultant ; as E. H. 3>^T or ^ ^T J JOr ^ er > 
 Mg. W^STT^" (cf. II. C. 2, 4 or *£FiraT^r, cf. H. C. 2, 5), Skr. ^ftu^O:. 
 
 120. ^ becomes IT; always when original; as E. H. JTf[ lie 
 strings, Pr. n^ or nuj (H. C. 1, 23 6), Skr. jprfFT, E. H. JETTft or 
 ^fT a hind offish, A. Mg. ^f^W[ (cf. H. C. 1, 2 3 6), Skr. OTTrfjcRT ; 
 E. H. JJulr it looks well, Pr. sn^ (H. C. 1 , 1 8 7), Skr. sttuft ; E. H. n%7 
 deep, Mg. xrf^r (cf. H. C. 1, 101), Skr. mlb": ; E. H. ?j|t^r herds- 
 man, Mg. ^T^T$JT, Skr. STTirhT: ; also when initial in a compound, 
 as E. H. JjWTf?! pearl, Pr. JTWT^yf (H. C. 1, 2 3 6) for *Jm^<5T, Skr. 
 sraTTtJTcfw; E. H. tt^v^ jack fruit, Mg. *mz^i^, Skr. cFrrrcwfi^: ; 
 E. H. g^TJT good fortune, Pr. Jj^m (cf. H. C. 1, 160), Skr. ^TTUmnr; 
 2) , rarely when resultant ; as E. H. ^T^ or cFtF^t^ - potter, Mg. 
 cFfzm^T or ^TiTJJT^ (cf. H. C. 1,8), Skr. cFWSFrj: ; E. H. JEP^T^ or 
 warn he supports, Mg. jewt^, Skr. ^TTroffT ; E. H. setitt full 
 brother for * JETJTfT or * ^TmTT, Mg. ^TJT5^, Skr. STrUTcR: ; also op- 
 tionally, as E. H. ^T^r or €t^tongue, Pr. ^u^T or fasiTT (H. C. 2, 57), 
 Skr. fwT. 
 
 Note: Words with original W are tats, or semitats., as E. H. 
 nirrar or tmrs disposition, Skr. WTor:, Pr. jet^iht (H. C. 1, 187). 
 
 cc) Vocalisation. 
 
 121. o^ becomes Ef and combines with the adjacent vowels ; 
 thus 1) n" ya to ^, asE. H. Hrrnr individual, Skr. 5'ETcfi: (semitats.); 
 2) WX aya to \ or ^, as E. H. ^orH hundred, A. Mg. TO, Skr. 
 STrW; E. H. JET*! or to time, A. Mg. TOO", Skr. TOO": ; E. H. 35; 
 or 3% rising, Skr. 3$7T: (semitats.); E. H. ^ or ^ town, Mg. 
 TO?r (cf. H. C. 1, 180), Skr. JTuqj E. H. ^T or ^t eye, Mg. TOdf 
 (H. C. 1, 180), Skr. TORJJ.; E. II. ^T or ^T «i»/7tf, Mg. SKHITT (cf. 
 H. C. 4, 401), Skr. Uspfr; E. H. cTftt /bo< 0/ r< ted, Mg. <tt?tto (cf. 
 H. C. 3, 134) or q?JTO, Skr. qT£PrT9F: or q^FTOi: ; 3) ^T iya to ^, as 
 E. H. V^TlJiaclcyard, Ap. Mg. * mF^Jh or qf%sp£r, Skr. qf%JTT7T:, etc.; 
 cf. § 77. 
 
G8 CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. § 122.] 
 
 122. ar becomes 3 and combines mfh the adjacent voivels; 
 thus 1) 5T va to 3, as E. H. f%3 or fiFTST Siva, A. Mg. 'fair, Skr. 
 foci: ; E. H. £3 or £cr ^od, Mg. ^sr (cf. H. C. 1, 17 7), Skr. JcT: ; E. II. 
 ^3 or ^tsr foundation, Mg. ^rir, Skr. '^r: ; 2) fsr w to 3, as E. H. 
 RT^ Ac mtcS tow for *:T33\ Pr. :rfiri%^ or ^Frf^c (cf. H. C. 4, 158), 
 Skr. ^msofft; E. H. ^off or f[HshT I am for *^3?rf, Ap. %fd«4 , 
 Pr. ffa^ f*f, Skr. wfrsfer; E. H. rum or =T3*jt barber, see §96; 
 E. H. ?FT3 or * 5T^it3 sacrificial thread, Pr. * sT-rrsrfsr^ (see p. 2 3 and 
 H. C. 1, 101), Ski\ zr^TtasftrTJT ; 3) ^sr ava optionally to m; as E. H. 
 m$ or ^3^ o*w?, Mg. 5sr?f, Skr. wptj E. H. sfrfcr or ar^r or 3t5t;t 
 w/jo, see § 106 ; E. H. cRTfr a kind of shell (see § 103) ; E. H. jjrt 
 wife, Pr. ^T5ii%gT (cf. Spt. 7 8), Skr. eqiTpiT ; E. H. iTTjl humble-bee, 
 Ap. IT5T7J3 (cf. H. C. 4, 3 9 7), Skr. wq*R\ ; E. H. dSTrfT or qAdrrt * 
 //" Z send, Ap. *qrpfrT3, Pr. qpfrT^Rf or CTTTSTrTsfrf (cf. H. C. 4, 3 7), 
 Skr. HWPUnrfer ; sometimes to 9T ; as E. H. ^t~^ oath, see § 100; 
 E. H. 37T - ^T a hind of gourd, see § 114; sometimes to 3; as E. H. 
 ojfr^ or c<TR^ or ;t^ or ^TT^ (see § 3 1 ) salt, Pr. ^rYcrf or r*5rai , Skr. 
 ^srnw/, E. H. tp?r or ^j he forgets, Ap. Mg. *v&fer^ or *w*r^, 
 Skr. yrrjjjfpr; 4) -^ iva to ^t; as E. H. sjfept^, see §'49; or 
 to "Si, as E. H. TeF^ back-yard, Ap. Tfi^ofFT, Skr. ifwH^f: ; E. H. 
 ^JiraT or ^rraT leader, guide, Ap. Mg. *gfrncr^", Skr. ^f&J77T3T: ; 5) ^srr 
 or jsr to SIT; as E. H. wh^ neighbourhood, see § 104; E. H. QTjra" 
 he distributes, A. Mg. qf^rsp^", Skr. gnirEpJTff ; 6) stst dva optionally 
 to ^t; as E. H. q^ifl or ^C^^L or rr^TcTri^ elephant- driver, Ap. 
 *T^T5h|, Skr. jt^totst:, etc.; cf. § 34. 78. 
 
 Note: It will be seen from some of the above examples, 
 that Skr. ^ is in Pr. s^ (H. C. 1, 2 3 1), in Gd. 3; and Skr. it in 
 Ap. Pr. it or sr (H. C. 4, 3 97), in Gd. 3 or 3. Traces of these 
 changes are found in Pr. ; as Pr. oTRfi or ^ranf, Skr. c^oTtrnr (Vr. 
 1, 7), E. H. c?fR salt] Pr. ^T?<FTgV or 35T?'1TraT, Skr. 3<JT«TT<r., 
 E. H. srrnTT magician; Ap. <T£3 (cf. H. C. 4, 3 8 5) for *^faf, 
 Pr. q^m or T^rfa, Skr. TSlfq, E. H. <t£t or ^^ I read, see 
 §497, 2. 
 
s 
 
 § 123. 124.] CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. G9 
 
 dd) Elision. 
 
 123. & before ^ (or z) is elided; as a ride (cf. § 3 3) ; only 
 original ; thus E. H. j^f^Jtwenty one (W. H. ^sttstJ, A. Mg. Pga^T 
 (Wb.Bh. 426. H. C. 1, 28), Skr. ^jffsrsrfH: ; E. H. sn^r twenty 
 two, A. Mg. ensrra (Wb. Bh. 4 2 5) or ot^TT (Wb. Bh. 426. T. V. 1, 
 4.7 9), Skr. grfsrerfn: ; E. H. FT^r, twenty three, A. Mg. rartef (Wb. 
 Bh. 4 2 5) or rater (H. C. 1, 16 5), Skr. sBJMdlutrt i ; E. H. q=% 
 twenty five for *q^j, A. Mg. *qr?crrcT or °srr (cf. Wb. Bh. 4 25), 
 Skr. iraUfsrin: ; E. H. mfr§&twenty seven, A. Mg. ewTOT^T (H. C. 1,4), 
 Skr. erjfifsrfFr: ; E. H. ssr^s twenty eight, A. Mg. sirrah (Wb. Bh. 
 4 2 6), Skr. wifsJSTfTT: ; E. H. w^z^nineteen (W. H. 3^), A. Mg. 
 3;cnaTeT or ^gTcnsmTT (Wb. Bh. 42 6), Skr. STTfafsifFT: or othVifd^fr i: ; 
 E. H. u^v^been, q'T^rf found, mr^v^come, see § 109; E. H. ms^sf 
 or ossft* I shaM send. Ap. *<rrfircr? or * Qrrfsrsrj, Pr. tTrrfsr^sT'Sfe, 
 Skr. 5T^Jiiqr)?fT-sf^T; E. H. qTT^ he shall send, Pr. qnpfirf^T, Skr. 
 jrencrfircafFr ; E. H. tr^flY or qkcfrT 1 have sent, Mg. qjTfsrsjsfr^, 
 Skr. CT'^Trfq'FlT-sf^T, etc. The resultant a, being always hardened 
 (see §129) is never elided. 
 
 Exception. A few exceptions, see §122. 
 
 Note: In the numerals all Gds. elide ar , exc. M., G. and 
 S. ; thus 21 M. ^eRsrta, G. ^Fsrfrrr (S. ^^); 2 2 M. snsfcr or 
 sraW, G. snsRw, S. snsrt^ ; 2 3. M. ftstNt , G. srsfhrr , S. zzrr^ ; 25 M. 
 trgsrta, G. cRrfrr , S. trashy or <rar^, etc. 
 
 124. J {= Mg. ct) before ^ is elided; sometimes:, only ori- 
 ginal; thus E. H. m^havmg done for *^, 0. H. 3?fr, Mg. gif^ 
 (H. C. 4, 302) or Mb. spf^* (H. C. 4, 272), Skr. fFSTT; E. II. fcltf 
 //^/■; / / / / pZaced for *sf^, 0. H. fcrff, Mg. tf%*, Skr. &j?cJT; E. II. 3? 
 suffix of genitive for *sff|, 0. H. srfj;, Mg. *3>f^ or *cFff^r, Skr. 
 3jrT: ; E. II. "t wpow, Ap. Mg. trfsr, Mg. d£r, Skr. qr; E. H. *q however, 
 Mg. qf^r or q^, Skr. tjjt ; E. II. vz^placed and S^r. (force, see 
 § 109 ; E. II. a^TT or ^.§wA (see § 111), Ap. Mg. *eyf^[ (cf. 
 H. C. 4, 4 03), A. Mg. ^rcr° or Mb. ^fpr° (H. C. 1, 14 2), Skr. 
 f-CT ; E. H. g^n- or &^of what kind, Ap. Mg. **r^r£j (cf. H. C. 
 4, 403), A. Mg. £rfW or Mh. ^>f^T° (H. C. 1, 142), Skr. ^51°; 
 
70 CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. § 125. 126.] 
 
 E. H. FT^T^or iWr of this Icind, Ap. Mg. *cTcf^T, A. Mg. rTTf^ra or 
 mf\^° (H. C. 4, 287), Skr. FTTrtV; E. II. jt^t r ^R of which 
 hind, Ap. Mg. sT^%c?r, A. Mg. 5nf^° or ^\^° (Wb. Bh. 4 22), 
 Skr. 5HT5F: ; E. H. ^T like, A. Mg. rrf%^ or ^fr^q", Skr. STSrsR: 
 (see § 292). 
 
 Note: Pr. has an instance of the elision of ^T before ^ in 
 sr^fr butt (H. C. 2, 174), Skr. srfoat:. 
 
 125. sT after 3 is elided; rarely, only original; thus E. H. 
 craTcrf strati: Pr. *qw?TT, Skr. ToTT^TT (cf. Skr. q^TTcFT) ; but perhaps 
 for qoTT^ or qTcTT^= Pr. qraSTTcTT, Skr. qT7qF5TT litter, bed of straw; 
 E. H. 5? s ^5rr or efc^-oiT earth-worm, Mg. firapr^, Skr. i%Wcfr: ; 
 E. H. cjrtc^r sugar -mill, see § 115. 
 
 126. e[ before or after J is elided ; sometimes ; thus in the 
 E. H. suffix of 3. pers. sg. fut. s (for *3T), Pr. ^t or ^f^, Skr. 
 Zmfn; e. g., E. H. ^ he will be, Pr. ^ft (H. C. 2, 180) or 
 ftfts (H. C. 4, 388), Skr. irfsnarfff ; E. H. #?T or f^T (§ 67) he 
 will laugh, Pr. <faf^ (H. C. 3, 15 7), Skr. ^morm ; E. H. |" (for 
 *^f) suffix of 3. pers. pi. pres., Ap. Pr. ^flf, Pr. sifrT, Skr. ^FT ; 
 e.'g., E. H. cjrf they do, Ap. w^f? (H. C. 4, 382), Pr. cF^fcf 
 (H. C. 4, 3 7 6), Skr. thdPrf ; E. H. *&" or ^T they laugh, Ap. 
 ^iPf, Pr. ^m (H. C. 3, 14 2), Skr. ^ftrf; E. H. ^' or £ or ^* 
 suffix of locative (see § 77. exc), Ap. xf% (K. I. 12, 27), Skr. £; 
 e. g., E. H. qr^" or qrijf behind, Ap. <T^f^, Skr. qir ; E. H. ^ suff. 
 of the obi. form sing, of adj. (see §386), 0. H. ^f%, Ap. Pr. 5%, 
 Skr. wr ; e. g., E. II. Jrfr sweet, 0. II. »rtef%, Ap. for|;, Skr. 
 fq'^Ul ; E. II. ^ suffix of 1. pers. pi. pres., Pr. ^T, Skr. gm: 
 (§49 7,4); e. g., E. II. f^T we laugh, Pr. qfiPT, Skr. ^TUT: ; 
 E. H. <?r he tales, Pr. crfj (H. C. 4, 238) for *%f^ or <?t^ (H. C. 
 4, 335), Skr. cFTiTrT: E. II. <?f they take, Pr. <?tf^ (H. C. 4, 387) 
 for *f^fpf or crf^^r (H. C. 4, 34l), Skr. vnT^FT; E. H. fsrcFf or fo^K 
 thursdag, Pr. fsr^qr^ (H. C. 1, 138), Skr. sr^qfrT., see also § 3 2. 
 Sometimes otherwise ; as E. H. ift (^) of me, Ap. Pr. *Tf" (H. C. 
 4, 379), see §430, 1. 
 
 Note: In W. II., 9T or ^t suffix of 2. pers. pi. pres., Ap. 
 
§ 127.] CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. 71 
 
 9?- (II. C. 4, 384), Skr. SSR, see § 497, 5; e. g., W. II. TTUT or 
 qfm you dd\ Ap. wnz (II. C. 4, 3 8 7), Skr. JTTriW. ; .also W. G(l. 
 sff' or gt" or 9"f or f suff. of the obi. form pi., Ap. Pr. «r# or 
 ^ or af^, Skr. STRTJ^, see § 3 65, 7 ; e. g., Br. T^*, II. II. ^7J , 
 S. TTT or ^ w we», Ap. nrjjj or UTJ^ or TTff^, Skr. jt^tttto ; S. 
 £ suffix of 1. pers. pi. pres., Ap. W (H. C. 4, 3 8 6), Pr. snr (H. C. 
 3,155), Skr. WT:, see §497,4; e. g., S. ^ we go (Tr. 314), 
 Ap. xjtrtd, Pr. =^T*T, Skr. ^PrJFT:. About the elision of e[ in Ap. 
 Pr. see Ls. 484; also Pr. tjf[«l| (H. C. 4, 3 00) for * m1]<i| , Skr. 
 ^SITtJTTO, E. H. fit, see § 124. 
 
 12 7. 3j before ^ and before or after 3 is optionally elided; 
 often; generally with anunasika; thus E. H. nraT^ or iftwrl' 
 monk, Ap. imTTfas, Skr. iftecntqcFr: ; E. H. mf or m$i master, Ap. 
 mf^3 (H. C. 4, 409), Skr. J^rrfe ; E. H. ?£#£ or ^sq 1 or cfisq 
 ;>W;/rc, Ap. Pr. cE5T}7 or gq£ ,( cf - H. C. 4, 3 9 7. 1, 6 7), Skr. JTTf.; 
 E. H. ^nsf^ or afiolT^ or 9J*n^[ ?/owtfj, prince, see p. 29 ; E. H. 
 cFtf'fft or ^rsTTfr or oFJTTTjt virgin, princess, Ap. 37^Tfj?JT or ^TTf^T, 
 Skr. cpnfprT; E. H. $£" or ^, Pr. iffon, Skr. wfcFT ; E. H. 
 ira"f or tfcTT .swo/.-f, Ap. 5J5T3 or y*T3, Skr. yq^: ; E. H. cFTT or cRT^ 
 waterlUy or jaclfruit, Pr. wg^srT (cf. H. C. 2, 18 2), Skr. gJg^T; 
 E. H. JETT^T or ^r^T in front of, Ap. Pr. ^f^ (cf. H. C. 1, 29) 
 or H^f< (see §126), Pr. ^^t«T, Skr. e^; E. II. fz. hair of 
 the bod//. Mg. 5T&, Skr. Ttq ; E. H. fhsrl or ftsrl hair of the body, 
 Mg. oTfrnJ, Skr. TfcWT . Rarely without anunasika ; as E. H. JT^^T 
 or rr^ gone, see § 7 7. 
 
 Note: Four instances of the elision of JT before 3 are men- 
 tioned by H. C. 1,178 (Vr. 2, 3); Pr. sT3HTT, Skr. tftpT Januni: 
 Pr. =5rrT3T, Skr. ^FHTJT Durga: Pr. cF>T3?r>, Skr. cFTgcfi: a certain 
 plant ; Pr. ^fnrf fft, Skr. srfnriTFrr:j>JT a certain shrub. None of these 
 occur in E. H. ; here they are tats, or semitats. ; e. g., E. H. 
 sP-fTT, not tadbh. *fn^T; perhaps to distinguish from ^foreigner. 
 Pr. sTorofr, Skr. ZToR':, as in E. H. sft^^ Jaunpur, Skr. Jia^gX^- 
 In Pr. ^ before ^ might become 5T by H. C. 4, 397 ; and such ^ 
 too, would be elided in E. H. by § 123. 
 
72 CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. § 128—131.] 
 
 128. :t before or after ^ or before 3; with or without amt- 
 ndsika\ very rarely; thus l) original, as E. H. 5T3"' or JT3 or ZT3 
 or 5TH place, residence, Ap. 5T3 (H. C. 4. 3 3 2) or 5TOT (H. C. 4, 
 3 62), Pr. 5Tdf (H. C. 4, 16), Skr. vn^j ; E. H. m™ from for *i?Tf 
 (N. eiTfsr), Ap. mfen, Pr. mm (cf. H. C. 4, 16), Skr. J^r, W. H. also 
 FT W , rT^'", rTTi"; E. H. STTOfr flute, Pr. ?THt!TT%?IT, Skr. UUUTlf^FiT ; 
 2) resultant, as in the E. II. conjunct rn for 0. II. fjT^r, cf. §§ 18, 
 p. 24. 139, note. 141. 
 
 Note: E. H. has also 5TJT , hesides STTc?, 77T3 \ and this rather 
 points to a Pr. word STJT, S"TJT (cf. §127); II. G. has nm (H. C. 
 4, 267), perhaps Skr. WFFJ. 
 
 ee) Hardening. 
 
 12 9. ?J a nd a^ become ^and sjj only resultant; thus E. H. 
 JFTi;^ wo>7c, Pr. *cfiTfY??f (cf. H. C. 2, 67), Skr. cFTTCJJT (or semitats. ?); 
 E. H. *9=3T7J^ teacher, A. Mg. *g"raTf7J?T, Skr. ^r^TRl: (or semitats.?); 
 E. H. WJ^ wonderful, Pr. ^x^fjlct (H. C. 2, 67), Skr. smtFiq;; 
 E. H. =5T3fe^ or =enfira^ or =gorflr^ twenty four, Pr. =^35rtef (cf. H. C. 
 3, 137. Wb. Bh. 425. 426), Skr. ^TcTflrsTfrr: ; E. II. ajf^or ^fem 
 twenty six, A. Mg. ^srter (Wb. Bh. 425), Skr. tffTSTTTT: ; E. H. cr^TrT 
 mountain, Skr. ^5irT: (semitats.) ; E. H. ^^ eastern, Pr. <TKci (Ls. 
 183), Skr. dfir. 
 
 ff) Miscellaneous. 
 
 13 0. ^ or ^ become it or 'j or T; in E. H. 3"? or m 
 7»e fashions, Pr. srr^ or ite^" (H. C. 4, 112), Skr. stctt; E. H. fcm'i 
 or f^nra it is spoilt, destroyed, Pr. fsrn'S'^ or f&snr^, Skr. f&ZTTT, also 
 iT^ or qr becomes ^ or ^ ; as E. H. tjtt fee touches, Pr. tfiffT^ 
 (H. C. 4, 182), Skr. wsnrfFT ^denom.) ; E. H. srsq-cF fate, Skr. mfcFTJT 
 (semitats. cf. § 1 3 2). 
 
 131. cf or jt^, r, ^ and ^become optionally 9^, 5, or and 
 ^respectively; in E. H. ^srr or Tfrr?: manifest (see § 102); E.H. 
 fTf|c?TT?7T or qf^Trr firstborn, Mg. *q&ft<rjii$)' (see § 118), Skr. 
 q-trotrsnE: ; E. H. J^ or qq rt#am, Ap. qrij (H. C. 4, 343), Skr.^qr; 
 E. H. iq or ^nr r/?/, Mg. sr£j\ Skr. srsr:. 
 
 iVote: In the seventies the aspirate is produced by the 
 
§132.133.] CHANGES OF SINGLE CONSONANTS. 73 
 
 suppression of the neutral vowel; E. II. ^"'S'WJ seventy one for 
 ^3Tfw;jr; E. II. q^rj seventy five for q^^jqr ; E. II. w?r% se- 
 venty seven for STrP"t{?3^r ; E. II. ftttj seventy eight for g^" 7 ^^. 
 13 2. Aspiration is transferred; in E. H. gsr7W^ or i3~ijzFi 
 tah, Skr. mr^m/ (semitats.) ; E. H. ^JTTJ or ^JT our (H. H. ^TT7T), 
 Ap. Pr. SP^TJI (II. C. 4, 34 5), see § 73 ; E. H. ^m fathers sister 
 for *fq3^T, Pr. fqs^T or fqjfesTT (II. C. 2, 14 2), Skr. fafTOeT; also 
 E. H.\ qjqrt; E. H. qr<r flower, Pr. 3^ (H. C. 2, 53), Skr. gwjJT; 
 E. H. 3WTY or 3<ernr he plucks up for *3cRT^;, Pr. 3Ǥftf^ (cf. H. C. 
 
 4, 18 7), Skr. 3rqrofr7; E. H. muT^ or f^Jl'^" he accomplishes, Pr. 
 feT%j, Skr. fiJl^atri ; E. H. r^^ buffalo, cf. § 17 7. 
 
 Note: There are instances in Pr. ; as off^trn" or J-T^tjtT sister 
 (H. C. 2, 126), Skr. nfifcft, E. H. 5rf|fr ; Pr. JTS^ or ST3^ fee 
 fas// ions (H. C. 4, 112), Skr. stctt, E. H. rih or nra or rfij or mi' 
 (§130). It is frequent in S. ; as tfyf or q^f/^ fifteen, also M. qyyT; 
 
 5. 3JET this for *^t; 337T Mrtf for *3srfr (§438,4); ^f fmrc 
 for *cfi^7, ^ /o for *cFf (§ 3 7 5) ; xTT^ITT/T /brfy/ for * ^^Tr^TfT ; «TT^ 
 or qT^TsTT own for *qT^sTT (§4 51). 
 
 133. Consonants are transposed; in E. H. qi%7 he puts on 
 (clothes) for *qffi;, Mg. * qfi^T or *qf?W^ or * qfef^ (cf. Cw. 
 99,21), Skr. qfj^-rrfn ; E. H. ^rfq- and qipl he arrives, Pr. qf ^ 
 (H. C. 4, 39 0, 419), Skr. qqrqFJJTT (Mg. q^Tsnar) ; also a£te or 
 cnt^J and =^TcK or ^^J mud (Skr. f^ffi*") ; ^Itor^TT and ^ram Lucknotv ; 
 ra"7jJT and feirrj sick (persian jI**j) ; also W. H. 7frr and ?[7^T 
 merriment, E. H. ^ff^ see § 58; II. II. 33", E. II. ^3 he sinks, 
 Pr. ^p (H. C. 4, 101), Skr. ttfn (i. e. JT^fcT). 
 
 Note: Also in Pr. ; as STTW'nT (Wb. Bh. 412. H. C. 2, 116), 
 Skr. STTTTtrFrr, E. H. ^my^ Benares; Pr. sJ^Frj (H. C. 2, 118), 
 Skr. g^rTtrp^, E. H. gc?TSlT (for * ZKrnsjf) Alwar ; Pr. JTf^t (H. C. 
 2, 119), Skr. H4I|I$^, E. H. ^J^K or qTT?7 Maruthd, see §32; 
 Pr. ^ (II. C. 2, 12 0), Skr. f^:, E. H. £f deep ivater; Pr. ^T%gTfT 
 or ^ff^Tcrrr (H. C. 2, 121), Skr. ^frm^: ; E. H. ^ffmj green; 
 Pr. ^5* (for ^Jcff) or <?Tir# (H. C. 2, 122), Skr. ^rprsT, E. 11. 
 ^5Ta?, H. II. ^crTcFn- light. 
 
74 CHANGES OP SINGLE CONSONANTS. §134.135.] 
 
 134. Consonants arc interchanged] viz. 1) sr and =r , in 
 E. H. p-mrra" ninety nine, Pr. *q-gTmg-|, Skr. RcRctIh: ; 2) q^and 
 *r , in E. II. Rj-ii'iioTt clayey sail. Pr. ■ra^rn^qrt', Skr. f%c£tiF*rrrra: ; 
 and vice versa in E. H. ^fPT earth, Pr. Tersn (H. C. 1,131), Skr. 
 lf\; E. H. frpiJTT earth, Skr. qriwr (semitats.); 3) ^ and 5", in 
 E. II. £^ft or ckrf* lion, A. Mg. cjraf%^ (cf. II. C. 4, 335. Wb. 
 Bh. 2 5 5), Skr. ^srfj^:. 
 
 iVofc: The latter in Pr. optionally, in 2^ or ~J\ ten (H. C. 
 1, 2 6 2), Skr. ^71, E. H. TH or g^; Pr. fScTft or TT5TOT day 
 (H. C. 1, 2 63. Wb. Bh. 3 7 8), Skr. f^ra:, E. H. f^T or f^P? 
 (see § 3 2); Pr. °<rj~ (H. C. 2, 15 7) or °ff^ (H. C. 1, 14 2. Wb. 
 Bh. 4 2 2) orfr*f (for f^ cf. H. C. 4, 3 00 and § 12 6, note), Skr. ZX 
 like, E. H. °^r (in ?r^PT §124); Pr. °^rff (Wb. Bh. 4 2 6) se- 
 venty , Skr. °^TrrfpT: , E. H. °^^- The change of a^ to ^ is not 
 uncommon in B., 0. and G. ; e.g., 0. cFf^fsr or cfif|f^r I shall do 
 (Sn. 28), 0. itiRT^ how for *575FFr/. B. cfjt^ /t02<? = Ap. Pr. Sierj; 
 G. ^n^TTST /'or/// four = E. H. grrcjrn>W ; W. H. rpn one ami a 
 quarter = E. H. Frsrr (§ 416). For examples in Ap. Pr., see 
 H. C. 4, 401. 396 and § 122, note. 
 
 13 5. Consonants are interpolated; viz. ^ in E. H. ^PTff, 
 fifteen, Pr. qi^ (H. C. 2, 43) or T^Ti (Wb.Bh. 426. II. C. 3, 123), 
 Skr. cna^ST; again T in E. H. 3?fqr or Zfifn ten millions, Ap. 
 3Ttf> (cf. II. C. 4, 3 9 9), Mg. cFim (Wb. Bh. 4 2 7), Skr. cjrtfr. ; E.H. 
 W(m^ curse, Ap. Pr. *mj (H. C. 4, 399), Skr. siTd: (semitats.) ; 
 again q^ in E. H. $rnjT7f[, Tr. * ^Trr^ or ^sfcTTtT (Wb.Bh. 4 2 4), 
 Skr. ^ttst; E.H. £chjid ^ fifty one, Pr. *^idt»i, Skr. ^niT?Trr ; 
 E. H. ^tt*t eighty one, Pr. *^T^rj (cf. Wb. Bh. 4 2 6), Skr. 
 ^'TircrrfH: ; E.H. ^n^ ninety one. Pr. *^c£Ttn"5rT, Skr. $73PTafH: ; 
 E. H. frn2iPT% or PTTRir ninety nine, see § 134. 
 
 Note: E. H. has a word cfn~^ or 5Rrit, but it means score, 
 twenty (see § 405). — Perhaps E. H. ^n£ and ym° stand for ^nu p 
 and ^1£?T, Skr. ^T~fi°. — Occasionally £ is interpolated in Ap. Pr., 
 see H. C. 4, 39 9; as $m or strt, Skr. am?: Vydsa. 
 
§ 136.] CHANCES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 75 
 
 6) CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 
 13(i. Medial conjunct consonants in E. H. are of two kinds, 
 original and resultant. The former are those which have passed 
 as such into E. H. from the Pr., as in the tadhh. q^T ripe, A. Mg. 
 crf^, Skr. qcF<j>: ; E. H. <j??q stone, A. Mg. Qrzr^T, Skr. srcrnr: ; E. H. 
 ^W£ seventy, A. Mg. *rafj, Skr. eqfn: ; E. H. fafr*n worthless, 
 A. Mg. frip^, Skr. frricFJT^?: ; E. H. cFPf Krishna, Mg. w,n^, 
 Skr. cFrenT: ; or from the Skr., as in the semitats. fsJ^TT 5 ^ belief, 
 Skr. fesrrar:, E. H. f&^Tr^ householder, Skr. rr^zr:. The latter are 
 those which have resulted either a) from the contraction of con- 
 tiguous vowels, as in the tadhh. ^vuf I walked, Ap. *=gf^TO3, 
 Pr. =gf^ra-sf% Skr. ^f^rTT'Sfer, or in the semitats. mrm order, P. 
 mfnm, 0. H. «Tf?RT, Skr. OT?TT; or h) from the suppression of 
 an intermediate vowel, as in the tadbh. f^cli petition for fsFTm, 
 Pr. fsrwfw^T, Skr. f^TTftreiT ; E. H. Z^WJ bridegroom for Jc^T, Mg. 
 £vt^V, Skr. pfocF?: ; E. H. fztm a measure of land (the 20. part.), 
 Ap. Mg. sn^TEr^ or srterq^, Skr. fsf^rr^^T: ; E. H. mn ass for n^j, 
 Mg. -T^7, Skr. J\%?m\ ; E. H. 5T55TT hog for oT^^wTT, Ap. Mg. 
 *5f^Tf|^^, Skr. 5Tj[T^:, etc. These latter are not uncommon in 
 the khari E. H., though very rare in the theth (e. g., in the 
 numerals ^WW^ seventy one, sftw^ seventy seven, etc., see § 131, 
 note); in H. H. they are the rule (see § 6, note). Of the resul- 
 tant conjuncts, those arising from the suppression of a vowel 
 may be of any kind, strong, mixed or weak *), homogeneous or 
 heterogeneous ; but those arising from the contraction of vowels 
 must be heterogenous and either mixed or weak. Neither kind 
 of resultant suffers any further change in E. H. As to the ori- 
 ginal conjuncts, the tatsamas may be of any kind, but the tad- 
 bhavas can only be either homogeneous (as gfj, t^, PT , «T_, etc.) 
 or such as consist of a consonant proper preceded by a nasal 
 (as ^-, ^p, J, etc.) or of W following a nasal or semivowel (as 
 
 1) These useful terms of classification 1 have adopted from Beames 
 I, 281. 
 
76 CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. § 137.] 
 
 i 
 
 -eT, fgf, vlf, |[, £?r = :?); for these are the only conjuncts to- 
 lerated in Pr. (see §137). Both original classes, the tadhh. and 
 tats., are, as a rule, liable to further change in E. II. This may 
 take place in three ways: 1) they may be dissolved by the in- 
 terpolation of a vowel (#, 7 or 3, §§ 138 — 14 2); or 2) they 
 may be simplified by eliding one consonant (see §§143 — 150); 
 or 3) they may be elided altogether (see §§ 151 — 157). There 
 are, also, isolated changes of a miscellaneous kind (see §§158 — 16 6). 
 13 7. Affinities. These three kinds of changes exist in 
 Pr. also; thus the conj. is dissolved in Pr. ^T^TT^T (H. C. 2, 101), 
 Skr. 5TTSTT, E. II. ^Tf praise; Pr. faft (H. C. 2, 104), Skr. sift, 
 E. H. faff prosperity; Pr. zmj (H. C. 2, 112), Skr. £T7q^; E. II. 
 R~5rr.J door. Other examples see § 142. The conjunct is simplified 
 in Pr. i^rft or ^rft (Vr. 3, 58), Skr. fsTj:, E. H. ^=q lord; 
 Pr. mm (H. C. 2, 105) for *5nsn, Skr. srsrf, E. H. °5TTO ram 
 (cf. §283); see also § 150. The conj. is elided, either undissol- 
 ved, as in Pr. Jl\ or jwt (II. C. 2, 88), Skr. nf%:, E. II. jrfn 
 night; or after dissolution, as in Pr. J^m (Vr. 3, 60) for TTTijf, 
 Skr. 7fri^, E. II. t^tt gem; see also § 157. The former kind of 
 elision is not uncommon in E. H. (see § 151 — 156): the latter 
 is exceptional, both in Pr. and E. II. (see §§ 141. 14 2). — 
 Generally speaking, however, the treatment of conjuncts is this, 
 that while Skr. admits almost any kind of them, homogeneous 
 or heterogeneous, Pr. makes them, as a rule, homogeneous, and 
 E. H. further reduces them to single consonants either by disso- 
 lution or by the elision of one. The only heterogeneous conjs., 
 tolerated by Pr., are those consisting of a nasal or anusvara pre- 
 ceding a consonant proper (see H. C. 2, 9 2. 1, 30 ; e. g., 'cFHT or rn;<T7T, 
 Skr. SFWJT, E. H. TT<TT evening), or of ^ following a nasal (see 
 II. C. 2, 74. 75; e. g., Pr. gro^t, Skr. ^mm:, E. H. grrr Krishna; 
 Pr. ST^TTTT, Skr. STT^Trn:, E. II. ^FFT brdhman) or c?L (see II. C. 
 4, 26. 200. 2, 76; e. g., <r^r^ (cf. Wb. Bh. 409), Skr. * tjtcft^, 
 E. H. <TcrPT he turns over). In the Ap. Pr. also the conjunct of 
 a cons, proper with a following ^ may occur (see H. C. 4, 398. 399; 
 
§ 138. 139.] CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 77 
 
 e. g., Ap. fir? or firj, Skr. fer: beloved; Ap. 5IKJ or arej, Skr. 
 STRT: 17/'' s '"): in E. H., however, this kind of conj. is as a rule 
 dissolved; see § 1 38. 185. 1 86. 
 
 aa) Dissolution. 
 
 13 8. n is interpolated; often; E. H. ^r^it tamarind, Mg. 
 sjrrfcT?rr (cf. Wb. Bh. 3 7 7) for Pr. * aftf*T*T (cf. II. C. 2, 106), Skr. 
 srigc&T; E. H. sr^TSFT beautiful, A. Mg. q^rjw (cf. H. C. 2,105), 
 Skr. y^-iM': ; E. H. £7SR interview, visit at a shrine, Pr. ^ffTtuf, 
 Skr. ster*; E. H. srrft peacock, A. Mg. sd^f^ (cf. H. C. 2, 104 
 but cf. Ls. 14 2), Skr. srP^cF: ; E. H. tjjwj^r consideration, A. Mg. 
 QTJPrffir (cf. H. C. 2, 105), Skr. ct^titst: ; E. H. eaqr or ^ft^white, 
 Pr. efSrrf (H. C. 2, 106), Skr. sppr (or spri) ; E. H. mjT mango, 
 Pr. SPTTW (cf. H. C. 2, 5 6), Skr. «weRJT; E. H. tfq*T s<wr, Pr. 
 gfrpf (H. C. 2, 106. Wb. Bh. 415), Skr. wjtjt; E. H. ^7W stupid, 
 A. Mg. jt^cFW (cf. H. C. 2, 112), Skr. jtw: ; E. H. rrjgjT sivoon, Skr. 
 n^T (semitats.) ; E. H. ^^7^ wonder fid, ^TTf^" work, «^T7^ teacher, 
 see § 1 29 ; E. H. ^T^i or st^j or 5T^r carpenter (see §114); E. H. 
 snrf^ or snspr brahman, Mg. sn^iir (H. C. 2, 74), Skr. stt^tot: ; E. H. 
 37^31 or ^7-%<TT Krishna, Mg. cFTU^ - (cf. H. C. 2, 7 5), Skr. 3Tcrj7cl7: ; 
 E. H. e^qr thousand, Ap. Pr. ^w, Skr. ^t^t ; E. H. =5raqr wheel, 
 STcFrfr she-goat, see § 102, etc. Very commonly in semitats., as E. H. 
 fir?^ mountain (§ 12 9), Skr. qsTFT: ; E. H. fsFTjcrr mercy, Skr. OTT; 
 E. H. njrrm praise, Skr. cFtf?r: ; E. H. sR?T birth, Skr. jf^T ; E. H. 
 "TrFT #em, Skr. Tjpr ; E. H. sTrR effort, Skr. Uct: ; E. H. feiTr^ in- 
 dividual, "rrnT &?oofZ (cf. H. C. 2, 10 Tjn°), unfr^ devotee, imm fa^fe, 
 ^TrTTcT devoted uess, nnm salvation, see § 102; E. H. ofrfai but, 
 Pers. srfesfi (^j). 
 
 13 9. 3" is interpolated; sometimes; thus E. H. sfnfq or 
 ^TTPr or ^Tfrt fire, Pr. gfjnrri' (Ls. 244) or snTirrt (H. C. 1, 102) or 
 grrrr (Vr. 5, 18), Skr. ^frr: ; E. H. mf^nr or fq^q - a brahman fa- 
 mily-name, A. Mg. *mfj=T7 (but qra mixed Wb. Bh. 173. H. C. 
 2, 170), Skr. fer: ; E. H. w^ or srra^ come, 'TT^L. or ira^L, 
 attained, see § 109; E. H. f^rffi? *ree, Skr. spsT: ; E. H. ^r^ sign, 
 see § 141. 
 
78 CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. §140—142.] 
 
 Note: The E. H. conjunct rcr gya, 0. II. Ttft gma is to be 
 explained by this rule; e. g., E. II. ^"TTjft, 0. II. pm^, Skr. 
 7-T^T; see § % 18, pp. 23. 24. 
 
 140. 3 is interpolated; rarely, thus E. II. t^t , W. II. 
 J^sr, Pr. g^a (Ls. 183) or gpf (H. C. 4, 323 or ^T/f?), Skr. 
 qcjJT; E. II. e^n fop, point, but ^~jt ftorw and efrr s/;ear, Pr. 
 f^frf or mi (II. C. 1, 13 0), Skr. STJJT; see also § 187. 
 
 141. Dissolved consonants arc treated like original single 
 ones; thus 37 becomes jt (cf. § 102); e. g., in E. H. nrnrr ;, jrrn , 
 UTTrJ, etc.; see § 138; sT^ is elided (cf. § 101); e. g., in E. H. 
 ^^ or £nr^ sign, Pr. * J^nrr or * ^nTT, Skr. STo^r, cf. Pr. 7/t^htt 
 (H. C. 3,51) for •■^r&qrr, Ps. Pr. ^ri%sn (H. C. 4, 304), Skr. ^TtTT; 
 7 becomes ^ (cf. § 109) or is elided (cf. § 101); e. g., in E. H. 
 sj^dY" or mu\^ I came, Mg. snfar^-s f% or mfsr^sfr^, Skr. ^FTfafwr, etc. ; 
 a^ is elided (cf. §123); e. g., in E. H. q^f or <imf I obtain ett. 
 Mg. TTfsrs^fj^r or errfsrasfj:^, Skr. qTqfcfsrr; ^ is elided (cf. § 128); 
 e. g., in the E. H. conjunct °J"q"° for 0. H. °fTPT°, see § 139, note. 
 
 Note: The participial examples, as %Zvf[ , ^FTf , etc. and 
 Pr. rlfsr^t (H. C. 2, 105), Skr. rTQ':, are scarcely quite apposite, as 
 their ^ is a connecting (suff. ^ + FT), not a dissolving vowel. 
 
 142. Affinities. Examples of dissolutions are not uncom- 
 mon in Pr. Probably many of the above instances, though not 
 recorded by Pr. Gram in., existed in Pr. already. In some cases 
 the dissolving vowel has been changed . in E. H.; as in E. H. 
 ^T 5 ^ for Pr. ^ent ; other examples see in §§138—140. Other 
 examples, in which E. H. has preserved the Pr. dissolving vowel, 
 are: Pr. mjri (II. C. 2, 100), Skr. STlf 1 ^ E. H. ^TT(T^6o/r ; Pr. srf^T, 
 ^f^^TT, CFjfrjn, see §58, note. Some more Pr. examples, see in H. C. 
 2, 101 — 114. Vr. 3, 60— G6; most of them do not seem to have 
 survived in E. H. In one case, apparently, E. II. does not dis- 
 solve, but simplify; Pr. irf^T (H. C. 2, 104), Skr. JT^T, but E. II. 
 tu ft or ittc<tI- abuse = A. Mg. *nn?^rr or *nf^r, Skr. nP^cFTT; but it 
 
 dissolves in STfTJTTsr or niwrar he aliases for *nf^T5T, A. Mg. *7Tf^^Tor^ 
 or Pr. *nf^T5T^, Skr. JT^qlw (or den. JT^Tq^fnr). Pr. examples of 
 
§ 143.] CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 79 
 
 i 
 
 the treatment of dissolved cons, are: 1) elision of cons, proper 
 in juni or jvm gem (Vr. 3, 60. H. C. 2, 1 01) for *7rTtrf, Skr. ^FFT, 
 E. H. cleest to distinguish from E. II. 7^R^ or ipr^ night \ Pr. oTcj 
 thunderbolt (H. C. 2, 105) for *5rf?r|, Skr. etjw, E. H. deest to 
 distinguish from sq[ enmity, Pr. 51"^" (H. C. 1, 15 2), Skr. SJtj; hut 
 E. H. sr^qr (semitats.) ; Pr. ^rf white (H. C. 2, 166 or sjjf-T^f), Skr. 
 st^jt, E. H. deest; Pr. rT&m hot (H. C. 2, 105) for *nf§r^T, Skr. 
 FTi:, E. H. deest, hut it has mff = Pr. FmV; Pr. crsq fo/zts (Vr. 
 3, 6 5) for *qr*f, Skr. cr^TJT ; E. H. deest ; Pr. 7T^UTT by a Icing for 
 *7TfjrtlTT (see § 141), etc.; 2) retention in ^mjft /ire hy H.C.I, 
 17 7 ; 3) doubling in §%vf M^&e (H. C. 2, 106), Skr. sjjfw , E. H. 
 5RR53J Pr. QTVof forward (Ls. 183) or «t75T (H. C. 4, 3 23), Skr.iJcPT, 
 E. H. QJyZ or ^T/^ 1 ) ; 4) reduction of aspirate in Jprf (H. C. 2, 101) 
 or Tern (H. C. 2, 1 1 3. 1 , 1 1 8. Wb. Bh. 4 6. 4 1 0) for *ewr, Skr. s^ft . 
 bh) Simplification. 
 14 3. The first consonant is elided; as a rule; thus 97 in 
 E. H. e^f he can, Pr. q^ (H. C. 4, 86), Skr. sranffT ; E. H. qWT or 
 3cF?t f/n/, A. Mg. 58F^ or §^£ (cf. H. C. 2, 5. Wb. Bh. 2 89 — 29 1) ; 
 r^ in E. H. itth^ roarf (see § 45) ; E. H. srra^ tiger, Mg. arar (cf. H. C. 
 2, 90), Skr. siTEr: ; =a^ in E. H. ensr 27 is digested, Pr. ciw^, Skr. 
 q^JTT; E. H. m^t fly, Pr. q-fif^T (H. C. 2, 17), Skr. qi%aFiT: ; ^ in 
 E.H. ^ra^ to-day, Pr. g??r (H. C. 1, 3 3), Skr. wz; E. H. ^F 7?e under- 
 stands, Pr. srscrr^ (H. C. 4, 217), Skr. mvh; 7 in E. H. rTC - # treats, 
 Pr. crr§ (H. C. 4, 2 3 0), Skr. izufn; E. H. <nfr &ac&, Pr. ftft (H. C. 
 1, 35), Skr. q^iT or Ved. erf?": ; J in E. H. sprit or SRtft, see § 104 ; 
 E. H. sri^ it grows, see § 114; ?r in E. H. STTfT event, word, 
 Pr. 5TtTT (H. C. 2, 3 0), Skr. 5TTWT ; E. H. ^vihand, A. Mg. ^r, 
 Skr. ^rT: ; «£ in E. H. n^T ass, see § 136; E. H. £U milk, 
 Pr. 5"5 (H. C. 2, 89), Skr. "JOT; <T in E. H. f<rg or ^t a Ariwd 
 of verse, Mg. $trnr (cf. H. C. 2, 7 7), Skr. QUi^: ; E. H. STTtH 
 steam, Mg. gtt^ ( c f. H. C. 2, 7 0), Skr. 5fTcg: ; ^ or ^ in E. H. 
 
 1) yfcjirrf and <T7°f seem to he correct readings; as shown by the 
 E. II., which has 5T for 5T, not for 5T (cf. § 129). 
 
80 CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. § 144.] 
 
 ^5T all, A. Mg. *T3T (cf. H. C. 3, 58), Skr. srdr: ; E. H. aw tongue, 
 Pr. feiTT (H. C. 2, 5 7), Skr. f?np; 7 in E. H. UM^ a paZaw- 
 ry/f/'//. Tr. q^ifosiT ( c f. H. C. 2, 68), Skr. cpgf^cjTT or q^nfipiT; ^ 
 in E. H. 0*%^ fifty, Pr. *cNrrcf (see §397), Skr. q-nwr ; ht in 
 E. H. m? sign, Pr. srcn (H. C. 2, 83), Skr. frtt; E. H. mt^ 
 jackfruit, see § 120; ^ in E. H. sri^ other, Mg. ^t (II. C. 3, 58. 
 Wb. Bh. 403), Skr. vru: ; E. II. ^Tr? laughing, A. Mg. ^k (cf. 
 H. C. 3, 181), Skr. ^TTj *T_ in E. II. aFTT^ work, see §45; ^ in 
 E. II. g^T he turns over, Pr. ^T\ (II. C. 4, 200), Skr. qztkriu frf 
 (den.) ; e in E. H. ge^ the month December- January, A. Mg. <tot or 
 <TO" (cf. Vr. 3, 5 8), Skr. gc?T:. Sometimes in foreign words; as E. H. 
 sfT% but for srfi^T, Pers. *.£b ; E. H. sttc for .the sake of for srrcr, 
 Ar. JoJij (?). 
 
 Exception. Rarely both cons, are retained ; as E. II. ggfiT 
 or QcRT ripe, thorough, g^T or *TWJ[ stone, f^TcFrqT useless, see 
 §136; E. H. =g^r or =5TcjTr or ^tsrt wheel, Pr. ^ipf (H. C. 2, 
 79), Skr. ^^q^JT ; E. H. e^ or sra^ or HTO" or ST^ true, 3W or 
 3v^ fe^fe, see § 149, 2 ; E. H. SRs?T or ^^T (§ 145, exc. 2) or ST^T 
 or sr=5rr ?/ow'«7, Mg. sr^r (cf. Vr. 3, 40), Skr. sh^tcF: ; E. H. qrr or 
 QTT title-deed, Mg. qr^, Skr. gp7: ; E. H. sm^ seventy, see §108; 
 E. H. fjTS or JTTy^ vulture, see § 63 ; E. H. crkt^ blanket, see p. 20 ; 
 As a rule, when the first is a nasal ; thus E. H. gar (i. e. gjjF § 13) 
 or <7T% mad, and other examples, see p. 29; cf. also §149. 
 
 J. 44. The second consonant is elided; only g, a; and op- 
 tionally f[; thus u in E. H. graT teacher (cf. §173), Skr. 3gwn<l: ; 
 E. H.'-srsru Owdfe (cf. § 7 8), Skr. sztthit; E. II. qfir Mrcifeiw, Skr. 
 jtot; E. H. g^Tn; Allahabad for *qwT, Skr. train: ; E. H. gfTsnr 
 necessity for *qgfsnr, Skr. ggm^rg ; E. II. g"rjf%r?^ penance for 
 *gdrf%rL, Skr. OTgfSjTnr^ (all semitats.). Again 5 in E. H. =aR fee 
 &«sses, Mg. =^s^ (cf. H. C. 4, 23 9), Skr. ^csrfpr ; E. II. 5FT7T mango, 
 WFrH sour, see § 138; II. II. sTFpT^ rose-apple, see §111; E. H. 
 cfTW lo>ig, Mg. c?n5r, Skr. v\z&: ; E. II. SRU7 fee understands, Mg. 
 SFgstRT, Skr. SP^WTrT, and others, see § 18, p. 20 ; E. H. fg^zft eartft 
 (also fg^ggt see § 13 2), Skr. qgt (semitats.). Again s in 5TTg^ or 
 
§ 145.] CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 81 
 
 STP^T or sr'T^T^ Brahman, cfiT^ or cFTFeT Jcrishna (e. g., in ^T^FJ^ 
 Catcnporc), see § 136; E. H. H~^ daughter -m -law for *^p^, Pr. 
 *HtT5^T or *e>tj^r (cf. Vr. 2, 47. H. C. 1, 261), Skr. ecn (or **TtieUT ; 
 cf. Pr. JTT39T for JTTrTT, § 52); E. H. J=FTT^ or ezcTM' or H*iTT<^ he 
 supports, see §120; E. H. <J*m he turns over, see § 137; E. H. 
 aFTTcT or cffiW sugar-mill, see §115; E. H. JTTctfr abuse for *JTT^ift', 
 see § 142. 
 
 Exception. Rarely ^ is elided before W, as E. H. sTTfr he 
 regards, looks, Pr. sTttT^ (cf. H. C. 2, 7 5), Skr. *;dWrfFT (denom. R.). 
 
 14 5. The remaining consonant is treated like an original 
 single one ; thus 3 as a rule becomes "3^ or X ; 'e. g., in E. H. oFT^i 
 or * i Ji cowrie, see § 104; <?j as a rule becomes ^ (§110) as 
 in E. H. sufi" or JTTc?rf abuse, see § 142", <5j_ sometimes becomes ^, 
 as in E. H. WTT^ own, see §111; HT^ always becomes ~r_ (§ 112), 
 as in E. H. cFTC ear, Mg. cjnsr, Skr. cw: ; E. H. J^FT , 5T^ see 
 § 143; cfiT^T, JFHT see § 144; S as a rule becomes ^ or ?r, as 
 in E. H. srs he groivs, see § 114; a^ always becomes s^(§ 12 9), 
 as in E. H. ^T^ all, see § 143; for a few rare cases, see §§103. 
 107. 113. 116. 117. 119. 120. Otherwise it remains unchanged; 
 as E. H. =5-^ or =^^T ivheel, Pr. =srf^5T, Skr. ^fecm" ; E. H. ^Tsj^ 
 shame, Pr. <rTs5TT, Skr. ^t?jtt ; E. H. mf^r seventy, Pr. wft, Skr. 
 cri%:; E. H. 7TH night, see p. 14; E. H. jfT^J - elephant, A. Mg. 
 ^f?^, Skr. ^RrT^: ; E. H. STVT half, Mg. 53^ (cf. H. C. 2, 41), 
 Skr. sj&h":; E. H. arc father, Pr. ^.m (Mchh. 119, 5), Skr. swt ; 
 E. H. zn^heat, Mg. spar, Skr. sro: (cf. H. C. 4, 3 2 7); and other 
 examples in §§ 143. 144. 146. 147. 148. 
 
 Exception 1. Sometimes 3 and £ preceded by a nasalized 
 vowel remain unchanged ; as E. H. *TT he shaves, irr^T stool, see 
 § 149. 
 
 Exception 2. Sometimes aspirates are disaspirated ; thus W 
 in E. H. cq-eF or crrlr he tests, see § 58 ; a^in E. H. ^ji^high-priced, 
 M.-J7if[rir (Spt. 16 9), Skr. jt!|tst: ; y^ in E. H. wf^r or crrhrT shoulder, 
 A. Mg. ^u^ (cf. H. C. 2, 4), Skr. *wF4m ; f in E. H. wa^jomderful 
 for *5^^n, see § 129 ; E. H. sraT or at^T young, see § 143. exc. ; 
 
 6 
 
82 CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. § 146.] 
 
 E. H. TEFTrar or q^rra" he repents, Pr. q^^Tsrr, Skr. q^jMiqirm 
 (denom.); E. II. qg; or 3T# heard, see § 56; E. H. =^Tf or ^T^ 
 he desires, Pr. T^T^J (cf. H. C. 2, 21), Skr. SreT^rfrr (denom.); 
 5" in E. H. 97TH?r or ^lirra or fn%f?m thirty eight, see § 113 ; 
 E. H. ^TrTTf%H or aifTTf^TCT or ^^mi^Tg forty eight, Pr. gr^wr^i 
 (or mmHh Wb. Bh. 426), Skr. g^rcrrPJSR ; E. H. gwfc or g^rrfs" 
 sv'.//// eight, Pr. ^T^rft, Skr. ^oti%: ; i? in E. H. 3TT #rea£ for 
 *5T^r, Mg. 5T|Y (orcTS Vr. 1, 2 7), Skr. ^5cR-. ; E. H. k\enclosure 
 for *£rs, Mg. a-j (cf. Vr. 8, 4 0), Skr. sre: ; E. H. nf or vr\ or 
 rr?; /*c fashions, fsrny or fSrrrJ <7 &s spoilt, see §130. 
 
 Note: There are traces of this disaspiration in Pr., as W^ or 
 *ppf dry (H. C. 2, 5), see § 143 ; Pr. Qmjj (H. C. 4, 200 for *<T*f3^) 
 or qcr^rT^ he turns over, see §§ 13 7. 143 ; Pr. fsrEfsrT (H. C. 2, 16) 
 or flfpft- (Vr. 3, 41), E. H. f£rE£ or %>, M. fsra^ (Man. 36); Pr. 
 37T (cf. H. C. 2, 34), see §149, 2; it is quite the general rule in 
 M., and less so in B. and 0. ; thus M. ^T^ hand, B., 0., E. H. 
 ^m (§143); M. fTFTT elephant, B., 0., E. H. ^wT (§145); M. 
 wt^ evening, B., 0., E. H. sriqr (§ 14 9, 1); M. 5rf<r hole in a watt, 
 E. H. e~tf, see § 57 ; M., B., 0. srft ladder, E. H. erit, Pr. *Rrft, 
 Skr. £sft (?); M., B. *re 2V 2 ; M. £b, B. £? 1 »/ 2 ; B. arcftsEr., 
 M. SRrTter or 5?r??ta 38; B. ^T^fersj 48; M. 33T great, £73T cw- 
 doswre, etc. (see Bs. I, 27 3). It is worth noting also, that the 
 old Mg. has ST, 5fT, 5T for \, ^ and xf (see H. C. 4, 290. 291. 
 2 95) ; e. g., Mg. c*i>JTTnTvf. Skr. gftETiTTf/ g ;; Mg. saf^;, Skr. 3qiwr. ; 
 Mg. y^jfd., Skr. q^f?T, etc. 
 
 14 6. T/?e preceding vowel remains short; sometimes:, thus 
 always in E. H. ^fT suffix of part, pres., Mg. %H (cf. H. C. 3, 181), 
 Skr. SFT (^ft°); e. g., E. H. ^hemg, Mg. fY?T (cf. II. C. 3, 180), 
 Skr. U5r:T; E. H. cFj^H doing, Mg. cF^h (cf. H. C. 4, 431) or sr^tft, 
 Skr. aToTT, etc.; always E. II. cpsr /Swe, Pr. q^", Skr. qu in com- 
 position; e. g., E. H. q=^tfT twenty fwe, see § 123; E. H. q^rn^ 
 fifty five, Pr. * q^T;j, Skr. q^q^l'ildj sometimes otherwise ; as 
 E. II. 3~<?f pain, see §116, note; E. H. JTfvFT pregnant, Pr. ^fsunrr 
 (cf. II. C. 1, 208), Skr. nf^m"; E. H. wx, q^, ^q;r, jet^, q^^, 
 
§ 147. 148.] CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 83 
 
 qcTTE", e^, see § 143; E. II. SPJ&, <l«m, see §144; E. H. STS, 
 see §114; always in the tmtepetwdUmate (cf. §25); thus E. H. 
 sft, but WfT mango, see § 138; E. H. gsqr, but ^sijT weafc, 
 ^'w, see § 22; E. H. 3<rf he descends, Mg. 3W?T3\ Skr. 3^Ti7t ; 
 E. H. n^T, q?r'r, see § 143; E. H. 5Rc?n, 35$, see § 144; 
 and others. 
 
 Note: Similarly M. has ^ suff. of 3. pers. pi.., Pr. sffflf, 
 Skr. «fcr (§ 4 9 7, 2 f.) ; as M. ^TrT Me# were iw the habit of going, 
 Pr. ^crffH, Skr. =5R?TPrr; both M. and B. have the part. suff. ^FT_ or 
 SIT, but qW 3 in comp. ; e. g., M. qxTsfta, B. qf%ST_, E. H. q€ta. 
 
 147. T/«e preceding vowel becomes long; as a rule; thus n 
 in E. H. mz eight, Pr. srr, Skr. ^e ; E. H. p^fr gwecw, see p. 23; 
 E. H. Win^ivith, Pr. ^r?T, Skr. e>ro, etc.; ^ in E. H. i?fr^ or 
 life 6Zms, Pr. fug^TT (cf. Wb. Bh. 19 7. Spt. 312) or fe^T (Spt. 16 3. 
 cf. H. C. 2, 17. 19), Skr. fir^TT; E. H. ft© or ft^bear, Pr. ff^t 
 or f^Ftft (H. C. 2, 19), Skr. ^ttT: ; E. H. ^tfs sight, see §43; 
 E. H. et^ boiled rice, indigo, Pr. fefzf (H. C. 2, 7 7), Skr. fsr^zrir; 
 E. H. FTtft or fffcT three, Pr. ffrfw (H. C. 3, 121), Skr. |*%, etc.; 
 3 in E. H. ^thread, Pr. ^# (H. C. 4, 287), Skr. ipr*; E. H. 
 3* wool, Pr. 3THT, Skr. 3OTT; E. H. ^ /is*, Pr. *rft (H. C. 2, 34), 
 Skr. :ri%: ; E. H. QH^ SOW,, Mg. q%, Skr. qsfl, etc.; ^ in E. H. ^ 
 bedding, Pr. £r??rr (see § 6), Skr. mm ; E. H. qir fotmp, Pr. qut 
 (Vr. 1, 12), Skr. fqrriq; E. H. ^-=srr crooked, Pr. *$y*, Skr. 
 tfferTCRiT/, E. H. £cE owe, Pr. ^ (cf. H. C. 2, 99), Skr. ^5RJT, etc.; 
 m in E. H. q\ hip, Mg. * q)T, Skr. qfa: ; E. H. sft^ fee sa#s, 
 Pr. sft^ (H. C. 4, 2), Skr. sr^fn; E. H. mm book, Pr. qtf&raT (cf. 
 Vr. 1, 2 0). Skr. qf^rr, etc. See other examples in §§143 — 146. 
 
 148. The preceding voivel becomes tj or m; rarely; thus w 
 in E. H. ^5£jr or cfcrft cord, see § 1 1 0. exc. ; it~s^ hole in a tvall, 
 see § 5 7 ; E. H. q-j tree, see § 1 03 ; E. H. Ern^egg-plmt, Mg. sfrrtrr, 
 Skr. 5T3^r: ; E. H. ^ft or ^ft heel, Pr. ?, Skr. afj: ; E. H. J^ 
 crooked, see §147; E. H. cpr^T or cfrsrjr cm&, Mg. ^£3^, Skr. 
 g75R6iR: ; E. H. cFT^ft or 3rigqfo shin of a snake, Pr. cF^f^T (cf. 
 H. C. 2, 2 5), Skr. c?nei%:F7T; again E. II. Jrr% or 4& moustache, 
 
84 CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. § 149.] 
 
 ■ell ■< , " 11 ' see § 57 - Again ^ in E. II. WK<m middle, A. Mg. q#H?r^ 
 (Wb. Bh. 43 7), Skr. mu: ; E. II. jT-doll earth-worm, see § 125; 
 E. H. ^ Me, Pr. f|| (Wb. Bh. 174. Spt. 14 6), Skr. f|^r; E. H. 
 sw bean, Pr. irrar, Skr. f$Fsrr. Again 3 in E. H. ztfft he is angry, 
 Pr. mz$ (H. C. 4, 23 0), Skr. ^QTHT; E. H. ^Jcprosy, see § 1 1 3 ; 
 E. H. cRTW belly, Pr. chcHef), Skr. cfj%: ; E. H. jetYt ginger, Pr. eff^, 
 Skr. Sjfns":. 
 
 Note: The change of 5T to ^ or ^T is probably to be ex- 
 plained by a transfer of the succeeding vowel I or 3 into the 
 preceding syllable. Similarly the ^ in the E. H. iriqr woman (see 
 § 57) and in the Bs. 5^T thou art, 0. II. g^TT is formed. 
 
 149. The preceding vowel is nasalized', 1) as a rule after 
 the elision of a nasal ; thus m in K H. sT^Jeg, Pr. sfsn, Skr. sT"p; 
 E. H. srfqr barren woman, Pr. cffliT, Skr. 3R0T; E. H. ^tttf evening, 
 Pr. ftott (H. C. 2, 92), Skr. spun ; E. H. tTT£ moow, see p. 29; 
 E. II. jfft footpath, Pr. zfisrr (cf. H. C. 1, 217), Skr.acffoeRT; E. H. 
 uf-^T jpo^ Mg. 43^7 (cf. H. C. 4, 4 22. 12), Skr. 1TTO337: ; E. H. 5RF7 
 7?e trembles, see p. 29; etc. Again ^ in E. H. irf% /?e rubs, Pr. 
 BfsT^, Skr. spdH; E. H. ^"If he irrigates, Pr. ftra^ (H. C. 4, 239), 
 Skr. fstwfH, etc. Again 3^ in E. H. SO elephant's trunk, Pr. ?T3T, 
 Skr. sprer; E. H. jtI /te shaves, Pr. JT3J (H. C. 4, 115), Skr. ^nifn. 
 Again ^> and ^T in E. II. 3~tf , F^T, sj' 1 "*!^, etc., and ^T 5 ^, ^X~W , 
 see § 148. 2) Sometimes otherwise; thus ^T in E. H. wif^eye, 
 see §43; E. II. jttjt he requests, Pr. ^ (II. C. 4, 23 0. Spt. 71), 
 Skr. JTm^fFT; E. II. gt^ flame (fem.), Pr. * wt, Skr. ^f^f : ; E. H. 
 STTET^ £n«e, Pr. snf (rf. H. C. 2, 13), Skr. ?rere; E. H. srfq^ serpens, 
 A. Mg. ST^T, Skr. STq - :, etc. Again ^" in E. H. ^-^ or ^W siajar- 
 canc, Pr. 3W ^ (H. C. 2, 17), Skr. ^s\ ; E. II. pr or ^7 &j 7r/\ 
 Pr. sTT (II. C. 2, 34), Skr. ^8J; E. H. jft\ or iftrT wall Pr. TWT, 
 Skr. firfw: ; E. 11. qi~^ or TIT steep, see § 4 2. Again 3 in E. H. 
 3<3 or 333^ sugarcane, Pr. *33 7 W cr 3^ (H. C. 2, 17. Vr. 1, 15), 
 Skr. jfp; E. H. jot a tend of pulse (fem.), Mg. jjtJt (cf. Vr. 3, 1), 
 Skr. 35: (masc); E. II. $e^Mgh, Pr. 3^ (cf. H.C.I, 154), Skr. 
 3W^; E. H. 3X camel, Pr. Tp (H. C. 2, 34), Skr. 3?:. Again ^ 
 
§150.151.] CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 85 
 
 in E. H. ZFTZFJT or $&qi crab, see § 148. Again ^T in E. H. 
 ^rs or ^ts; Up, A. Mg. mj (cf. Spt. 22), Skr. srte:. 
 
 150. Affinities. 1) The general law of the treatment of 
 conjuncts may be stated thus: Pr. elides the first of the (Skr.) 
 conj. and doubles the second; Gd. (exc. S. and P.) elides the 
 first of the (Pr.) conj. and doubles (i. e. lengthens) the prece- 
 ding vowel; e. g., Skr. tf^ toiled rice, Pr. uw (H. C. 4, 60. Wb. 
 Bh. 214), E. H., W. H., B., 0., M., G. HTH, S. Ucj ; Skr. *ro seven, 
 Pr. W% (cf. H. C. 3, 123), E. H., etc. STFT^, S. WT, P. ^w; Skr. n<E 
 eight, Pr. *j (cf. H. C. 3, 123), E. H., etc. 5T5;, S. 35", P. aj; Skr. 
 pft: night, Pr. y#t (H. 0. 2, 7 9), E. H., etc. ^rfi7 or 7/TFi^, P. J*, 
 S. 7/fH. S. usually preserves the short vowel, and P. the conjunct. 
 2) Sometimes Pr. exhibits the Gd. process; especially when one 
 of the conj. is ^ (or Sj^or ^); e. g., Pr. c<TFT (H. C. 2, 92) for 
 *«TC*f (cf. H. C. 1, 84), Skr. <?nWT , E. H. <?TT^ dance; Pr. ^q7 
 (H. C. 2, 9 2) or ^rfT (Vr. 3, 58), Skr. T%J:, E. H. £sq lord', 
 Pr. mm (H. C. 1, 28) or sNr| (Ls. 3 2 0), Skr. PsrgTff or fsfSTlTT:, 
 E. H. c?tH hvcnty; Pr. ste (H. C. 2, 9 2), Skr. sftro , E. H. ^ 
 head; Pr. crraT (H. C. 2, 105), Skr. ststt, E. H. *5ITO^ ram (in <w^ 
 violent burst of rain, see § 2 83), etc. ; also otherwise, as Pr. WTtTTT 
 command for *S"BTr, see p. 23; Pr. i^rt or f^TSJT long, see § 116, 
 note, etc. ; see Ls. 2 74. 3) Sometimes in Pr. the preceding vowel 
 optionally becomes ^ or m ; see II. C. 1, 85. 116. Vr. 1, 12. 20; 
 e. g., Pr. 5Jc?f or fsrcff, Skr. firroTn - , E. H. 5R?r wood-apple ; Pr. 
 $&r®ft, Skr. <TGcFTf :, E. H. ^^ pond ; Pr. qVlST, Skr. QST^:, E. H. 
 qtaT; Pr. qTrrrjt, Skr. ^f., E. H. ^tn^ mallet, etc. 4) Sometimes 
 in Pr. the first of the conj. becomes a nasal, analogous to the 
 nasalization of the preceding vowel in Gd.; see § 158, note. 
 5) Sometimes in Pr. the second of the conj. is disaspirated, see 
 § 145. exc. 
 
 cc) Elision. 
 
 151. gjj is elided; very rarely; in E. II. my ft headman, 
 chief for *=bt5T (§ 6 9), *=efs°, A. Mg. =3^7/^, Skr. =3SWf7>>: (lit. 
 discus-holder; from °fp^-f- cr). 
 
86 CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. § 152. 153.] 
 
 152. I is elided; rarely; in E. H. ^TsnfcrPFr or ^3^Tf^TO[ 
 forty four (B. ^T'7T%5T), A. Mg. ^UTT^^t (Wb. Bh. 4 2 6), for Pr. 
 *=5T3^7Tic<iT^T (cf. Ls. 259 onf = 5l), Skr. ^g^TrsrrnJgiFT ; E. H. 
 f^?jTi%Tq forty six (cf. § 55), Pr. :,: ^sT^rterr, Skr. UK^roiifjyH ; 
 E. H. rTrrrfsTST (0. Frarfesr), A. Mg. ?t*?Tc<ttstt (II. C. 2, 174 or 
 fffJJT^T Wb. Bh. 4 2 5) for *rT^WT^?Tr, Skr. 3Qmro(\rJWJ . 
 
 Note: In composition the ^ of ^rj^T and £[_ (or ?:) of cpa^ 
 (or cr?r) are, as a rule, assimilated, but sometimes elided ; thus 
 ass. in =33^ (H. C. 1, 171 for ^HJ + ^st) or ^ejlfV (H. C. 1, 171 
 for =3(HJ + oTTTj) ; again ^WT (H. C. 2, 7 7 for cr? + q^;) or ^^T 
 or ^5° (Vr. 2, 40. H. C. 1, 2 5. 30 for GTT + »pr), ^nnn> (Ls. 240 
 ford?: + HUT). But el. in xr337qfr (H. C. 1, 171 for ^^ + mn) or 
 ^35TKT (H. C. 3, 137 for W£[ + fsfarfH), ^J (H. C. 4, 331 for 
 =cB^r + *m) ; again ^wfj (f + ^rf^ for qr + Wife) or i^ftf (Wb. 
 Bh. 42 6. 2 34 for GT£ + fsxT). Hence the above mentioned num. may 
 be derived from the Pr.-forms: ^B^JW or (eliding ^T, see § 101) =3353tT ; 
 j^TtT or s^EW ; and similarly f?T^r or fFF5JW° (Skr. fsraVorrPJsirT^). 
 
 153. w^ is elided; sometimes; in E. H. 5T3 and gpr^ suff. 
 of abstract nouns for Ap. Pr. 5^3 or ^feijT, Pr. WW or g^ui or 
 55g# or wwut, Skr. f5W or fsptjt , see §227 ; E. H. =3Tf7J four for 
 *sraTf7/, A. Mg. srarfj (Wb. Bh. 4 2 5. H. C. 3, 12 2), Skr. ^rsrrft ; 
 E. H. ^Tfwr forty, see § 110. exc. ; .E. H. srcrrf^ra forty two, A. 
 Mg. srnncTRf (Wb. Bh. 4 26) for *5Tra7TT3?H Skr. ^MwllPJ ggj E. H. 
 =goTT%H or ^sttt^t^ or xT35T%^ forty four (cf. § 2 6) and E. H. 
 %rrf%g; forty six, see § 152; E. H. ^frrsr thirty seven (0. ftt^st) 
 for *$° or rr#°, A. Mg. swfof (Wb. Bh. 42 6), Skr. *rof=fsir^; E. H. 
 JrFrTTf^TCT forty seven for sto° or e#\ A. Mg. * nTT^TorffrT, Skr. 
 UJf-eirollDlUrjj E. H. "fra^ or ftz^ to weep, Pr. fltt (H. C. 4, 
 212. Vr. 8, 55 or f^iff Spt. 258 or Ap. Pr. J^), Skr. f l f^Hc^ ; 
 E. H. fzT3"T friend (a respectful address), Mg. fqs^ or fjTi^r (cf. 
 Wb. Bh. 3 98. Vr. 3,58), Skr. fectf; ; or after simplification, in 
 E. H. m\ wet-nurse, Pr. vt^jt or *yrf?raT or trfw^T (cf. H. C. 2, 81), 
 Skr. VTf^3>T ; E. H. £T;[ foster-mother, wet-nurse, Pr. * ^TmOT or 
 ^fw^T, Skr. gnrfsrartT (lit. giver, scl. of nourishment) ; E. H. £T3 
 
§154—158.] CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 87 
 
 appellation of a father or elder brother (lit. giver of sustenance), 
 Mg. *3TF^7or *3^ (cf. H. C. 3, 44), Skr. STFTcF: ; E. H. mi brother. 
 Mg. * J-nfFT^ or * ufi^r, and E. H. jtt^ mother, Pr. *qTfFT5TT or *jtI%3T, 
 see §63; E. H. STTff he is for *57T^, Pr. cHT^, Skr. cra?T. 
 
 154. cq^ is elided; very rare///; in E. H. =ST3^T or =^3TT 
 fourfootcd. Mg. =^3^^ or ^S^rr^ (see § 15 2, note), Skr. ^frfon^;: ; 
 E. H. =arrwrr or =33%^ fifty four (M.^fax), Mg. *=^3^ or *^3«t4 
 (see § 152, note), Skr. ^ :cr ^ TSTf l- 
 
 155. sr is elided; rare!//; optionally in E. H. u suffix of 
 
 the oblique infinitive, for *%$ or *^r for *5|[ or *^ar, Ap. *3°r^ (see 
 §§308. 365, 6), Pr. ^sraw, Skr. ^rTSTOT; e. g., E. H. xf^ or 
 ^cfr^r (cf. § 129) to go, Ap. =5ri%T5j%, Pr. =g#r^^r, Skr. ^fWTEzrar ; 
 E. H. mu (for *<arr/^) or ^T^or or ferrar to eert, Ap. <aT^pr, Pr. 
 WTTSTSre^. Skr. ^Tf^FToJT^T. 
 
 15 6. ^ /s elided; rarely; in E. H. <T~fH^ thirty five (0. 
 t||fdUI, B. TOf^ST for <T25T°), A. Mg. qn-prtef or quarter (Wb. Bh. 4 2 5), 
 Skr. cr^f=fsnr -, E. H. q-FnfFrw forty five for cphsft , A. Mg. crrsrawi'tn' 
 (Wb. Bh. 42 5 or qqT?JTc<Tte), Skr. q^irenfjSIr^ ; E. H. qnsrfs' sixty 
 five, A. Mg. ^cr^rft, Skr. T^crfe. 
 
 15 7. Affinities. In Pr. also, there are a few examples 
 of the elision of a conj.; thus some instances of ^ see in § 152, 
 and of W_ in § 153; others of =3" are, Pr. 7T3" or pri" night, Skr. 
 7Ti%: (H. C. 2, 88. Vr. 3,5 8), but E. H. 7/TfJT; Pr. 37T3OT having done 
 (Vr. 4, 23) for *cjnHirr or *9FfC!T (cf. Vr. 10, 13), Skr. cfircTT (or 
 *cHrsrrr), E. H. deest; Pr. *i4fei (Spt. 229) what is to be done, 
 Mg. wrtuz (Wb. Bh. 3 98) or ern^cf (Vk. 6 7) to be done for *sfttft^ 
 or *cfiwsf, Skr. SRffepT , E. H. tfeestf (it forms ap?"^? .) ; Pr. sn^rasr 3 
 (Spt. A 5 3) companionship, Skr. ETtR'jarfroT . An instance of ^j is 
 Pr. FT^rra- or Hfojlfg tffte flferee worfcfe (Vr. 3, 58), Skr. srcflcbJ^, E. H. 
 rfeesf; and of m, Mg. frnro devotee (Wb. Bh. 3 9 7) or PTTiizr, Skr. 
 fro?*:, E. H. deest, See also Wb. Bh. 398. Ls. 273. 274. 
 dd) Miscellaneous. 
 
 158. §£, tjt , ra , 3^, ^a? become ^, 3", ?, ^, ogr respectively ; thus 
 "§£ in E. H. cF?^ limestone, Pr. **^}(, Skr. 9»«^4J E. H. #^rfl^ 
 
88 CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. §159.160.] 
 
 a hind of gourd, Ap. Pr. ttig^vj (cf. H. C. 4, 4 29), Skr. WKT: 1 ); 
 again m in E. II. rinnaked, A.Mg.VxHcf. Wb. Bh. 185. H. C. 2, 78), 
 Skr. ^ttt:, and in its derivatives as =T7rr, ^Jm naked, tfnTS nahedness, 
 etc.; again W in E. H. <iw wing, A. Mg. QcFW (cf. Wb. Bh. 4 2 7. 
 H. C. 2, 106), Skr. fT5T:, and in its derivatives cf<3T, gipfT faw, <T<?»7T 
 or tra^t flower-leaf (Ap. w<?riT*n), »rwt &ird (from Skr. <rf%^) 2 ) ; 
 again 7a - in E. H. «T^rr high-priced, see § 145. exc. 2; again ^ in 
 E.H.riwi bird, Pr. uF^tfl, Skr. <ri%57: (from crf%rr + 5F>), and in its 
 cognates tf^Mi tail of a paper-kite (Ap. **}'-e.f%T6) from Skr. ^r tail' 6 ). 
 Note : There are instances of this change in Pr. ; as Pr. ofcF, 
 Skr. 5TSTJT , E. H. wtt crooked ; Pr. tin , Skr. gsr, E. H. sjto tear : 
 Pr. JTO , see §56; Pr. tfir, Skr. trssu , E. H. tfs tatf ; Pr. w , 
 see § 44; Pr. JTSTTlj^, Skr. m^TTf:, E. H. JTsTT^r cat, etc., see H. C. 
 1, 26. Vr. 4, 15 ; but E. H. fst^ or &if scorpion (M. flfaj for Pr. 
 fsr%rt or fsraaV (H. C. 2, 16), Skr. cjfe:. 
 
 159. %_ and i §r become ^ awrf ^ ; always ; thus ^ in E. H. 
 fpr^ or ^fsr f/oose, see p. 2 9 ; E. H. *T^ or zilST or TTH flesh, see 
 p. 30; E. H. f^TT slaughter, see § 39, etc.; again % in E. H. 
 frra^ or ^rt"^ Zio«, see p. 2 9 ; E. H. ^T^ collection, Pr. dsiTTT or 
 STfTfr (H. C. 1, 264), Skr. ^\J\, etc. 
 
 Note: The change of ~e[ to T is optional in Pr. already, see 
 H.C.I, 2 64. As to the spelling of % and %, see §§3 8. 39; and 
 of tj^ see § 13. 
 
 160. ^ and ^become J and ^j rarely \ thus ^ in E. H. 
 tFHTc^ (i. e., ch^T^, see § 13) destitute, Mg. * #73RT^r (i. e., S>^-M, see 
 H. C. 1, 3 0), Skr. Si^T. (lit. skeleton, see Bs. I, 9 8); E. H. tin* 
 bracelet, Pr. cFcFTtif (Spt. 68), Skr. ^07^; E. H. <t^jt 'bed, Mg. crsjeF 
 (cf. H. C. 2, 68), Skr. crt^f: ; E. H. qr?rrr"^(" or T^fnTT smaS bedstead, 
 Ap. n^NrfjaT, Skr. rrnf^qTT; E. H. TTn or TTq? mud, see p. 29 ; E. H. 
 
 1) But E. H. cjTcJT^T or 373r§T cuctimber, Pr. TPjfjfz'^T, Skr. cFraFfilch'l. 
 
 2) Also regularly crfa , tTTWT, crf^, cf. § 149. 
 
 3) tf^t and cf^T^TT might be corruptions for Q^t, 4^1^11, from Pr. <T^, 
 see note. 
 
§161 — 166.] CHANGES OF CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 89 
 
 TTJTT salt (obtained from sea-mud), Mg. <T^T, Skr. <i^f;t: ; E. H. <rrrfrr 
 row (cf. §§ 102, 2. 13 8, usually cniTr p. 3 0), Skr. TfJ: ; E. II. sHtt^t 
 high ground, Ap. cjcFi, Skr. ^^fT (lit. curved) ; again w in E. H. 
 cj# fcev, Pr. * cRf%^T, Skr. cfifeiFT. 
 
 O ^ ^ 
 
 161. ^T and ^r become ?| <wd ^; optionally; thus 5T in 
 E. H. 3tTc^ or cftw^ yesterday or to-morrow, Pr. 3Tc<T (H. C. 2, 18 6. 
 Spt. 46), Skr. g^cffPT ; E. H. =5T>c^ or =£rtcr?r kite, Mg. f%^, Skr. 
 1%<5T: ; E. H. =sr><?q[ or ^^ louse, Ap. f%5T'3\ Skr. f%^: ; E. H. 
 <T*qr or gc?f^ testicle, Ap. Wt (cf. H. C. 4, 143 <T3T$), Skr. <T^W , etc. 
 Again ^ in Bs. ^TT or ^^ given, A. Mg. f^r (cf. Wb. Bh. 402) 
 or f^W (H. C. 4, 302), Skr. £?T: ; Bs. cfrto or cFT^ done (Ap. Pr. 
 f^rs H. C. 4, 329 '?), Skr. ctfrT: ; Bs. <5Tter or cfTf-g taken for *f%R, 
 Skr. m&C.', E. H. ^ or ^T or 0. H. ^f% suffix of 3. pers. pi. 
 for *yf% or *^T, Pr. c^fo, Skr. SfT^rT (see §§497,6. 503); 
 e. g., E. H. qfer or Q^rr^ or 0. II. qV% they read for *<rf^f?r, 
 Pr. <lfe#f?t, Skr. *qfSrrf?rT (denom.); E. H. xrpr or 0. H. =^f^ they 
 
 walked for *=3n?rafn", Pr. gfcnjm (Skr. =5riwrr Wcrfsrr), etc. 
 
 Note: In Pr. ^m (H. C. 2, 6 8) and m?^ri (H. C. 4, 2 58), 
 Skr. <t?twt; Pr. ^frj^ (Vr. 4, 33) for ^fw (Ls. 12 9), Skr. ^rft^. 
 
 16 2. ^r becomes 5T_; rarely; as E. H. fsr^^x husbandman, 
 householder, Mg. °gjFT (cf. H. C. 4, 291), Skr. rrgw. (semitats.), 
 and its derivative f&gJE?Tl' husbandry. 
 
 16 3. rjj becomes "«[ or n - ; rarely; E. H. it^tt or rp^T or 
 jf?3T sugarcane (lit. having joints), Mg. rf?^", Skr. rrajaFr. ; E. H. 
 ri^jT or iT^ft joint of sugarcane, Ap. JT3"^f§T^T, Skr. nrj3cfi . 
 
 164. |£ becomes =?rj i-ov/ rarely; E. H. aprr tfo# (G. ^?q\), 
 Ap. aigJ^T, Skr. eFfJjJ: (usually E. H. ttfij or ^>!£^) ; and its deri- 
 vative E. H. a»?T^v. puppv. 
 
 16 5. ?q^ and W become ^ or rT^ awd 3 or y^ respectively ; 
 very rarely ; thus E. H. frw or f^TFT , A. Mg. ftw (cf. Wb. Bh. 414), 
 Skr. $mx\ E. H. qftr, 0. H. qft, Skr. qfeff; but see § 144. 
 
 166. ^t and fT_ become £5 awd n^; always in semitats.; see 
 §§ 36. 37. 
 
90 CHANGES OF INITIAL VOWELS. §167—173.] 
 
 ■ c) CHANGES OF INITIAL SOUNDS. 
 a) VOWELS. 
 
 167. ^ becomes ^; rarely; E. H. ^mr or gq^rr tamarind 
 (cf. §138), Mg. sprfsTHT (cf. Wb. Bl). 3 7 7), Skr. %frm. 
 
 168. ^t becomes g; sometimes] thus E. H. jgpgTT^ teacher, 
 Skr. m^m: (§ 12 9); E. H. 13=31$ or grsrq- conduct, Skr. 9T5TJ: ; 
 E. H. wrr or WJJT command, Skr. gT?rr (all semitats.). 
 
 169. ^ becomes ^; rarely; E. H. g^i^TT solitary, A. Mg. 
 ^Up?T^ (cf. H. C. 2, 16 5) or *^f%jpm, Skr. ffawrar:. 
 
 170. ^ becomes 3[; sometimes; as E. H. ^jui^ or ^nf^ 
 eleven ; ^sriToPT^ or ^5EncPT_ /?/ty 0%e, see §13 5; and other com- 
 pounds of ^"3T. 
 
 171. ^ flwd ^t become u and sr respectively ; sometimes ; thus 
 ^ in E. H. OcF or ^cF or ym one, Mg. ^%j (Wb. Bh. 424), Skr. 
 ^F»! ; E. H. Vf or ^r ( r ^) he, this, Ap. ^ or ^jr (H. C. 4, 3 62), 
 Skr. ^TSj: ; again ^T in E. H. oTeT or OTf; (or 3) he, thai, Ap. 
 *^ir^ or *^ijg- (see § 43 8, 1. 5), Skr. *{7oTT?sr: (= ^dfolfef:) ; E. H. 
 cFT^T or gFT^TT^ nineteen, see § 123 ; and other compounds of 3FV; 
 cf. § 98. 
 
 17 2. n is elided; sometimes; thus E. H. ^^ within, A. 
 Mg. afeiirTr (Wb. Bh. 206), Skr. s«p?T{»tj E. H. i!m fee is af- 
 flicted with grief, Pr. *af5W?fT^, Skr. ^spott (pass, of ar) ; E. H. 
 iitir fee is we£, Pr. *tffsu??n[, Skr. ^WTTeTtfrT (denom. of ^T£ wet) ; 
 E. II. <ET"3 fee sweeps, Pr. *«lstBf^, Skr. m?T37Tf?r (caus. of flrr) or 
 Skr. mmmfn (caus. of ^Z roam, cf. Pr. fntr? H. C. 4, 161); E. H. 
 <fut ?////>r>- garment, A. Mg. ^??K7T^\ Skr. mv^T,: ; E. H. trrfnar 
 child's vest, Pr. *??T7fiT*fT, Skr. mvf^Tj; E. II. TqT or ^T^?T water- 
 wheel; E. II. (T^TT /7r/.r, see §§ 55. 109, note. 
 
 Note: Such elisions occur especially in A. Mg. ; see Wb. Bh. 
 4 05, as jursrt, Skr. sjfm:, etc. 
 
 173. 3 is elided; sometimes; thus E. H. ^r he desires, see 
 § 145, exc. 2 ; E. H. krs or sr^l he sits, Pr. Sorfirj^, Skr. *3«-lfe'<;i?r 
 
§174.175.] CHANGES OF INITIAL CONSONANTS. 91 
 
 (denom. of 3cr&y, cf. Ap. Pr. sqp H. C. 4, 444, see § 352); 
 E. H. 7 upon, see § 124; E. H. tmrT teacher, see § 144. 
 
 Note: For such elisions in Ap. Mg. see Wb. Bh. 406 ; e. g., 
 
 <?!H^, Skr. 3<Tor^T, etc. 
 
 p) SINGLE CONSONANTS. 
 
 174. ft and e[ become ?r awd ?; rarely, thus ?t in E. H. 
 g£ or m: it breaks, Pr. Hjz (II. C. 4, 230), Skr. %zufo; E. H. 
 7TJ or FTt jJOwy, Mg. *rT|Y (cf. H. C. 3, 44. 1, 131), Skr. fTWcR: (of 
 R. ?T; cf . FTfrr horse) ; E. H. fter or rr^JT (fern.) sectarian mark on 
 the forehead, Skr. frTc<TcR: (rnasc), cf. § 125 ; E. H. sVs; or ST7J &ea& 
 for *ri£, Pr. frYj (Vr. 1, 2 0), Skr. Fjtri^ . Again £ in E. H. 
 fte or ^T?7 or ^tfe sight, see § 43 ; E. H. znfr or 5T^t beard, Pr. 
 5Tfe?JT (cf. H. C. 2, 13 9), Skr. ?%^t (also ^ifw) ; E. H. J\^ or 
 375 foo^fe, tosfc, Pr. £T£T (H. C. 2, 13 9), Skr. F£gT; E. H. jq or 
 IM or 5T3T^ brancJi (fem.), A. Mg. 3T5TT, Skr. 3Tjt; E. H. 3T7T 
 or 3Tc?n branch, A. Mg. *3T5T$r or *3T^ (cf. H. C. 4, 44 5. Ap. 
 TTsTJ), Skr. 5;TJ^: ; E. H. 3T7^ or TT^T branch, A. Mg. STTf^T^T, 
 Skr. £ifj3iT; E. H. z^ or ^ or 3or:| or ?xsra one and a half, 
 see § 114. 
 
 Note: Instances in Pr. are; Pr. 3T^fT or (TTc^T, Skr. ZJ^{T, 
 E. H. TTJ or ?TT7J cord, whence E. H. TfaTT or ZtviT, TTc<TT or rfrcfTT 
 a swing, a dooly, Pr. ZTc?rgT or iYf^WT or £°, Skr. ?£tefra>: or ^Tfe^n" ; 
 Pr. ifi or ?rjt, Skr. 37W:, E. H. 3T^T 6wrw<, /?re (Skr. SjUffP. ?); 
 Pr. jfj or 5jV, Skr. ^7j, E. H. 3^ or £jr fear ; Pr. TT^t or 37^7, 
 Skr. fXT^:, E. H. TTc[ malice, jealousy and 77?^ burning; Pr. Z^in 
 or 5^T (Wb. Bh. 293), Skr. 5?f:, E. H. 3IW Jcusa-grass ; Pr. 3e^, 
 Skr. 2;5rfrT 7*e fc#es, E. H. 3TT ; Pr. ift or £jt, Skr. 5^; bitten, 
 oppressed, whence perhaps E. H. ZTTT threat, T(Z or TIT 7*e threatens:, 
 see H. C. 1, 217. 218; but E. H. 5^ ** &«wws, Mg. 5^ (cf. Wb. 
 Bh. 155), Pr. Tfj (H. C. 1, 218), Skr. ^frT; E. H. 5?i arrogance, 
 Pr. :jiTT or 3>1T, Skr. SJ^T:. 
 
 17 5. qi, r, 3 become w, ?^, £, respectively; very rarely; 
 thus 3? in E. H. ®im cough, Pr. cfiTfwT (or <arf?T?JT ? cf. H. C. 1, 181), 
 
92 CHANGES OF INITIAL CONSONANTS. §176—181.] 
 
 Skr. Ihltwhi ; E. H. sq; beak for * tfj, see §174; E. H. k~^n 
 bug, Pr. TcFTTiraT (S. C. 1, 3. 13 0), Skr. JTFcjrarcF:. 
 
 Note: Pr. examples are: W<lt (II. C. 1, 181), Skr. oF'TT/ 1 ^, 
 E. II. wqr skuU, tile; Pr. wt^r^> (II. C. 1, 181), Skr. m^wr., but 
 E. H. ^tcfrr nail; again Pr. $rt% or ^cf or n^ (H. C. 1. 204), 
 Skr. d-c^'q^, E. II. %W mean; again Pr. <hflcHT or STfz^ff (H. C. 
 1,19 4), Skr. jrf?^:, E. H. deest. 
 
 17 6. i\ becomes tjr; rare///; E. II. ^fj or htj pot, A. Mg. 
 IT3 (Wb. Bh. 274), Skr. UTO?:. 
 
 iVbife: In Pr. ^ (H. C. 4, 6 0), Skr. uzfn, E. H. ^in he is. 
 
 17 7. Aspiration is transferred; E. H. r^r^ or ir% or JTi%^ 
 or 5rf|* buffalo, A. Mg. ufifik, Skr. *T%r:, see § 178; E. H. UWT 
 hungry for *3 - jwt, Mg. smfsF^ (or u^ Wb. Bh. 2 90?), Skr. 
 5mf%rT: ; E. H. HSjfH or wfa rtsAcs of cowdnng, Skr. fejfFT: (semitats.); 
 E. H. iift or rnqT or 5TTqr steam, see § 143; E. H. WT or ^tn 
 flower, see § 132. 
 
 17 8. JT becomes 5T/, wry rare!//; in E. H. srf^^ or Tf^H 
 buff (do, see § 177. 134. 
 
 iVote: In Pr. umifr (Vr. 2, 39), Skr. qnrei:, E. H. deest. 
 
 179. c^ becomes ^; very rarely, E. H. ^tpt or stpt salt, 
 Pr. vfnif (H. C. 1,171), Skr. ^^cmr, see also §§31.111. 
 
 Note: In Pr. OTT^rr, Skr. crn^c?T., E. H. ^T^J tiger; Pr. tjfn^T 
 plough, xjin^ tail. Skr. ^T^cW , criT^cTW, but E. H. effing and 
 ^r'fn<?r , see H. C. 1, 2 5 6. 
 
 180. n" becomes ^; very rarely: E. H. ?rt^ or =ffc^ dark- 
 blue (§ 31), A. Mg. sftw (Wb. Bh. 16 0. H. C. 3, 3 2), Skr. ^c<T:; 
 E. II. c?rfi" or Tvft a kind of parrot; E. H. ^rta^ or =rta lime-tree 
 (S. f§TT or f^nr), see p. 20. 
 
 Note: In Pr. fsrcsft or frrar (II. C. 1,23 9), Skr. fro:; but 
 E. H. T^ Nhnb-tree. 
 
 181. q^ and ^ become sj^ and a^ respectively >; always; thus 
 U in E. II. sTFT^ effort, Skr. OH: (semitats): E. H. sTTrr^ worthy, 
 Mg. zffirr (cf. Vr. 3, 2), Skr. tfirn: ; E. II. tn'k he knoivs, Mg. JJT^ 
 (cf. Wb. Bh. 394, note) or Jmrrf?; (H. C. 4, 292), Skr. arT^TJTT (see 
 
§182 — 185.] CHANGES OF INITIAL CONSONANTS. 93 
 
 pg. 22); etc.; again E. H. snw, see § 143; E. H. srrar or S& 
 it is sounded, Pr. 5T?jT^ (H. C. 4, 406), Skr. 5T5FT, etc.; also as 
 initial of the second of a compound; as E. H. q^-sjTOT citizen, Skr. 
 q^oTTSrl' (semitats); see § 17. 
 
 182. e^ becomes 5; very rarely; E. H. ^P% or w\^ he 
 sprinkles, see § 149. 
 
 Note: In Pr. SjWorwt (Vr. 2, 41), Skr. 5=Tgqnf:; E. H. deest. 
 
 183. ^ is prefixed; very rarely; E. H. f^TT lip, see § 149. 
 Note: Frequently in S. ; as yff or iTTt so large, girt or ^TTt 
 
 so large, ^fhft or iHnfV so many (Tr. 2 24), ^3T or ^raF one 
 (Tr. 157), ^{h or f|[frr here (§ 468, a). Sometimes in B. and M., 
 as B. rpqr or ^m here, gteiT or ^TTT there (§ 4 68, a); M. <rqrT or 
 %iS fctffeer (§ 468, b). 
 
 184. Consonants are elided; only in alliterative phrases; 
 thus J in 7"Trf *2t£i meal (lit. bread, etc.) ; or W in "fTPTT ^TTT 
 dinner; very commonly q^, as qrrt m^T ivater; ^ra^ QTO^ c?ose &?/; 
 3cfT^ qj^r topsy-turvy; s^fTrsr T^rTTsr /je repents deeply;- etc. 
 
 y) CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 
 
 185. ^ is interpolated; often; thus E. H. ^pt bathing, 
 Ap. Pr. nfTUT (H. C. 4,3 99), Skr. spm; E. H. ^jr^he bathes, 
 Pr. q^ (H. C. 4, 14), Skr. mfa : E. H. ^TT he flees, Pr. *U^, 
 Skr. *^Rrra"fH (denom. of part, ^rl); E. H. ^ft^ carriage, Ap. 
 gsr^uf (cf. H. C. 4, 3 9 8) or Pr. QoT^df (Mchh. 109, 18), Skr. HoT^n*; 
 E. H. u^nt or ct^trt manifest, see § 102; E. H. O^itto clearness, 
 Ap. Pr. uttth (cf. H. C. 4, 3 98), Skr. crcFTgr: ; E. H. upTO fee d«s- 
 jptays, Ap. Pr. arrraj or nrrr^, Skr. q-cRTSFrfpt ; E. H. qr^FT pleased, 
 Ap. Pr. n^nsr, Skr. OtPT: ; E. H. T(t^T leathern ivatcrbucJcet, Ap. Pr. 
 Hcff3 or Udi^i (cf. H. C. 1, 68), Skr. gsr^cF: or qorr^r: ; E. H. fTTjl; 
 he praises, Pr. e^T^j (cf, H. C. 2, 101), Skr. main ; E. H. ^TfT^r 
 praise, Pr. ^T^rri, Skr. spi^; E. H. ?T^ grfote (lit. adhesion), 
 A. Mg. f^rir (cf. H. C. 2, 106), Skr. gpsr: (or Pers. xrif" sirish?)] 
 E. H. q^rr^ faded, Pr. fenri (H. C. 2, 10 6), Skr. m^Tj and in 
 semitats; as E. H. Ssfte verse, Skr. STtaR: (Pr. f^TcrfT^Y H. C. 2,106. 
 
94 CHANGES OF INITIAL CONSONANTS. §186—188.] 
 
 Ls. 183); E. H. <T77?nT necessity, TfTJT Allahabad, er;rri%i7 penance, 
 see § 144. 
 
 Note: In Pr. ST^T (H. C. 2, 101), Skr. 5TWT, E. H. 5T^ 
 praise. 
 
 186. "^ is interpolated; sometimes; thus E. H. fn^FT fifty 
 three, Ap. Pr. * f^qw (cf. H. C. 4, 3 98), Skr. ftdinsnT ; E. H. f^fs" 
 s?a% flfcree, Ap. Pr. *fira"| :: j', Skr. f%cri%: ; E. H. fFTf^TT or fwfi\ triad, 
 see § 408; E. H. fn^^r eclipse, Ap. Pr. st^ut, Skr. sr^nnr/, E. H. 
 fqcFfft spleen, Pr. *fgc?rf| : gT, Skr. srH^aFTT; E. H. fnrrnft" fatigue, 
 Pr. *frr§Troft (cf. H. C. 2, 106), Skr. rsrrfq-:; E. H. mfjuj woman, 
 Ap. Pr. *fwr, Skr. %5RT. 
 
 Note: In Pr. ftrjr^Y (Wb. Bh. 405. Ls. 18 2) or ^tJTirt or 
 JT^fr (H. C. 2, 102), Skr. ir^:, E. H. fifcte or e^Tf or %W love; Pr. 
 fefr (H. C. 2, 104), Skr. sft, E. II. firf^ prosperity; Pr. faffm 
 (H. C. 2, 104), Skr. faWT, E. H. fipf^TT Orttf; Pr. f^^T^ft (H. C. 
 2, 106) trouble, see § 58, note. 
 
 187. 3 i's interpolated; rarely; thus E. H. yfapr^ or ^X^ 
 recollection, Ap. Pr. SfTf/tn ( H - C - 4 ' 426, cf - 4 ' 74 )' Skr. J? T tITI l- 
 
 188. The first consonant is elided; always; thus E. H. irtrT^ 
 within for siroqr, A. Mg. sHiur^- (§ 17 2), Skr. miPrT^; E. H. 
 ilfa, <Fr£, sfTJTT, ikfnqr, for &rth, &&Y3, sdrnT, sjjrfnnr, see § 172; 
 E. H. ^jtt forgiveness for *=5^jtt, Skr. ^TTT, see §§3 6. 191; E. H. 
 ^T^ he desires for *^Ti[, see § 17 3. 
 
 Exception. rtf remains, as E. H. ror^T knowledge, Skr. tTFPT , 
 see §191; in the lehari bhdshd optionally also £ following a cons., 
 as Gnz or qfnr manifest, § 185. 
 
 Note: In Pr. also; as a rule, see II. C. 2,89. Yr. 3, 50; 
 thus Pr. c-fiT<TT (H. C. 2, 2 6), Skr. HTFP£; Pr. <KU3i or %TT*> for 
 *sfHTOT or ST^V (H. C. 2, 2 7), Skr. feSTfT: ; Pr. ^TT or WTt for *=e^tt 
 or *^(pTJTT (II. C. 2, 18 gives 5*TT in the sense of earth and WJTT as 
 patience or forgivenes; but in E. H., the latter does not exist, and 
 the former means forgiveness or patience), Skr. ^FTT; Pr. 5HTT or 
 error for *Tnri or *r?rraf (H. C. 4, 16), Skr. sztfpt ; etc.; but A. Mg. 
 apparently has occasionally ?<K ; as fniTOT (Wb. Bh. 315. 319), 
 
§189-192. SUFFIXES. 95 
 
 Skr. KTPT ; or FKi%WT (Wb. Bh. 295), Skr. mnfejT, etc.; see Wb. 
 Bh. 389. 390. 
 
 189. The second consonant is elided; only f; thus E. H. 
 TT5 barber, A. Mg. tj^Tfe^ or ^it&^ (cf. H. C. 1, 23 0), Skr. rrrfaFT: 
 (or *<TTfcr5r:). 
 
 Note: In Pr. ^T (H. C. 2, 102) for *U^t (not for *^Tas 
 in H.C. 2, 77), Skr. ^:, E. H. hf love, oil; Pr. £r3 (H. C. 2, 109) 
 for *frj^s\ Skr. feryrr , E. H. deest. 
 
 190. ^ or ^ vs prefixed tq ^ preceding any consonant; only 
 in semitats; tbus E. H. wrfa or "o^fn praise, Skr. ^f^: ; E. H. 
 wrr^ bathing, Skr. ^jT^; E. H. ^rir fcwe, Skr. £r^:; E. H. ^T~fr 
 woman, Skr. 5§rt; or in foreign words, as E. H. ^3t^ or J^3T^ 
 school; E. H. S^is^ sponge; etc. 
 
 Note: A curiosity is the E. H. ^^Qc^ restless for Skr. =5rq^i: 
 
 191. rT_ and ^ become W and raj only in semitats; see 
 §§ 3 6.37. In tadbh. g^ becomes sTj e. g., E. H. sTPTJ" or sTPT sage, 
 Pr. sfnrrl" (H. C. 2, 83. Vr. 3, 5), Skr. fTFTt; but as a semitats. it is 
 E. H. raw. 
 
 SECOND SECTION. ON SUFFIXES AND ROOTS. 
 
 FIRST CHAPTER. SUFFIXES. 
 
 192. The E. H. suffixes may be divided into two great 
 classes, which I shall call the pleonastic and the derivative. The 
 former are those, by the addition of which the meaning of a noun 
 is not changed, thus T?7 and fJgT board, Slfn and ^frrar fire, ^TPT^ 
 and ^emjT leather, J7T?r and f^S^TT sweet, etc. The latter are those 
 which change the meaning of a noun. These may be subdivided 
 into two classes ; the primary and secondary. The former are those 
 which are added to (verbal) roots and form primary bases; e. g., R. 
 Wi eat, <3T3; or WTfrr^r eater, glutton; ^ laugh, f^t laughter; 
 5T^ grow , ST^rTf growth , etc. The latter are added to the bases 
 
96 PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. § 193. 194.] 
 
 of nouns and form secondary bases; as 5T3T old, cJ^iqR old age; 
 ^rer light, *5/rK»i£ lightness; soTTc?^ Bengal, STrrreft a man of Bengal; 
 JT3 ram, idr!" ewe; etc. 
 
 Note: The pleon. suff. are called by Pr. gramm. rsrr^ or Sonf"?T37 
 (cf. H. C. 2, 164. 4 2 9); and the deriv. suff., irar (cf. H. C. 2, 163). 
 
 — In Skr., the primary suffixes are called krt and the secondary 
 taddhita. The pleon. suff., as being added to nouns only, would 
 belong to the taddhita class. 
 
 193. Affinities. In Pr. it had already become customary, 
 and is now almost the rule in E. H. (and Gd. generally) to augment 
 verbal roots (called dhdtus in Skr.) by the denominative suffix 5TFT 
 (Pr. grfsr or 3JT5T, E. H. ^ra^or 5T) and nominal bases (called prdtipddi- 
 Jcas in Skr.) by the pleonastic suffix 37 (Pr. and E. H. ?&). It is the 
 coalescence of the original (Skr.) krit or taddhita suffixes with 
 this radical or basic increment, that — besides the usual effect of 
 phonetic decay — accounts for the difference, which, in many cases, 
 appears between them and their modern representatives; thus Skr. 
 ^fs growth from R. sry^ and suff. f?T, but E. H. sn^frr of R. siyTq^ and 
 suff. fn - (cf. § 3 25); or Skr. 3WHT height from base 3W and suff. fit, 
 E. H. 3wd[ from base 3W5 and suff. J9T (= 3^37-f?TcFT cf. §223). 
 
 — Many of the Skr. suffixes, however, have been long since disused 
 both in Pr. and E. H. as suffixes; though, of course, they may 
 be met with in E. H. words (especially in tatsamas) as nominal 
 terminations and variously modified by the effect of phonetic laws; 
 thus the Skr. suff. frf, in E. H. zjfo sage, Skr. qfr; suff. ipt_ in 
 E. H. W,J^ (tats) or grr^ (tadbh) for Skr. cfirjq ; suff. fir, in E.H. 
 Wfni earth for Skr. yff=rt; or in E. H. jm^ night, Skr. ^Tfsr; etc. 
 These will not be noticed in the following lists. Most of the 
 other Skr. suff. , which are still used as such in E. H., are ex- 
 pressly mentioned also by Pr. grammarians. 
 
 1) PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. 
 
 194. The E. H. pleonastic suff. may be divided into two 
 groups, the elementary forms of which are: 1) 37 or 8 and 2) 1 
 
§ 19"). 196.] PLEONASTIC! SUFFIXES. 97 
 
 or f or 5?T or ^T. Their other forms are reduplications or com- 
 binations of these. 
 
 First Group. 
 195. Set. Masculine. 
 
 1. ^T, Z, 3; or ^f. 
 
 2. 55J, ^, 337; or ^|ji, 3~|£, 35JJ. 
 
 3. 9^?T, ^W, 35FT; or ?Tc£T, t^T, 3"^T. 
 
 4. ^STT, J5TT, 35TT; or ?J^T, ^Srf, 35T7. 
 
 5. g^ar, ^aFjsrr, sarar; or agjjsrr, T^stt, 3^stt. 
 
 6. aTSTT, ^TSTT 1 ), 355TT 1 ); or gWf, ZJTSrf 1 ), 33CTT 1 ). 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 1. £, i, 3; or ^3. 
 
 2. ^c£, ^97, 337; or ^§£, ^fjj, 3ff?. 
 
 3. 53>t, ^37^, 3^t ; or ^^T, T^T, 3^. 
 '4. ^JTT, ^JT, 35TT; or ^TT, ^IT, 35rt. 
 
 5. srfgraT, ^faFTor, sfafianr; or aftprr, 4'fgjjy, 3f|fpn. 
 
 6. ^TOT 1 ), ^TT 1 ), 353T 1 ); or ^STETT *), ^tfoTT 1 ), S^STT 1 ). 
 2Vb/e: Observe in adding these suffixes, that their initial 
 
 vowel always supersedes the final vowel of the word. A long 
 antepenultimate is shortened (see § 2 5). The semivowels 3^ and 5T^ 
 may or may not be inserted after 7, 3 and ST (cf. § 28); e. g., 
 35JT or 3OT, ^OT or ^m. 
 
 196. The first set may be added to either subst. or adj. The 
 forms thus made I shall call their strong forms; those without 
 the suff. their ivcak forms. The suff. 5T (m.), $ (f.) are added to 
 nouns in % (quiescent). As to adj., all may take them; thus m. 
 wrsi or ^rraT true; f. srf^T or ^rr^t; or m. JTte or ^tsr sweet, f. in? 
 or JTTCT; but the strong form is generally used with fern., while 
 with masc. the weak form is rather the more common. In the case 
 of subst., the usage is more or less fixed; some occurring only in the 
 
 1) Sometimes pronounced s^T, 35JT or ^oTT, 35Tf; contracted like 
 SJTcTT for *SJSniT § 203; and see §§ 83. 84. exc. 
 
98 PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. § 197. 198.] 
 
 weak form, others only in the strong, while many again may be 
 used in both; on the whole those in the weak form preponderate 
 in E. H., as compared with W. II. Thus m. sqr house (not a"JT), 
 f. sttft event (not STTfTl'); m. mjT (or sn^T) horse, f. mft mare 
 (not srtjr) ; but m. TT or q?:T hoard, f. ^7 or ifft sheep, etc. The 
 suff. J and 3 (both gen. com.} are added to nouns in T and 3 
 respectively; but in most cases, at present, only one of the two 
 forms exists. Thus adj. occur only in the strong form, as *njl 
 heavy, rT^v heavy, ^r light, slow (not UTf|", rr^r, ^c<t). Subst. as a 
 rule, have either the one or the other; e. g., TTWT gardener, ^raT 
 elephant, srr^ sand (not qrf^T, irrfer, 5TTc?r) ; on the other hand tfTfJT 
 fire, srfo sage, n$ teacher (not ^Tift, jttJ", tij^). There are, however, 
 a few examples of the existence of both forms; as sfrf^ or 5TTTf 
 sage, srfffR' or srf^4V sister, fTrftg' or cnrte son's wife, etc. See also 
 §§42 — 53. 
 
 197. The suffix 33 (com. gen.) can be added to adj. in ^ 
 only; as m. f. HT^T or ^rf^f heavy. The form in ^f I shall call 
 the uncontractecl, that in 3" the contracted. 
 
 198. The second, third and fifth sets can be added to adj. 
 of the weak form only. The forms made by the two former I shall 
 call their long forms. Those in fJTT, cRt or cjir, cfTl" contain the 
 suff. OT, ^ of the first set and are therefore strong, while those 
 in 97 or cfj are weak. As a rule, the strong long forms only are 
 used in E. H. Thus m. fq£-cFTT or fts^T, f. f*15~£t or ftigjjt, of 
 JTTS; siveet; ^T~9tT, ^Z~^ or ffa"|£T, ^t£"|fi", of ^tz small; ufpTT, 
 ilf^cFf or ^f^ffjT, wf^g^" heavy, of *iTTf^ (only used in the strong form 
 ♦IT^T, $ 19 6); ^T97 or ^^^ (gen. com.) or f^^TT, ^ch) or <<yj^»r, 
 l^lf^ light, of *^?T (only in the strong form ^5T^ § 19 6). In a 
 few cases the long form alone exists; as rrf^ or FTf^rgTT small, 
 of *rT^[ (see § 61); 7"f%3i small. As to the forms in 95>5rr, etc. 
 of the fifth set, see § 199. 
 
 Exception. There are a few subst. with the suff. q», 5JT, 
 as filfgi beggar beside f?W ', STTcfTciT (or srr^^iT) child beside ^Tcf^ 
 and STT^fr ; ^tetJT boy, ^rsaft girl beside ^7, ^tft, from *^aFf° or 
 
§ 199. 200.] PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. 99 
 
 *^t° (= Skr. 5TT5T°, Pr. fToT° Vr. 2, 41) with the pleon. suff. JT, ft 
 superadded. — Such nouns as ^f^FT boy (H. H. ^T^TT), «Tf5"3TT or 
 sifsrai scat (H. II. sis - ^), etc. contain not the pleonastic, but the 
 derivative suff. WT (see §§ 2 52. 334). 
 
 Note: The forms in gjjT, igt have the accent on the syllable 
 immediately preceding it ; as fo5"§JjT m/thakkd, uf^"piT bliarikkd, ^vzfi 
 hidukkl; but the others on the first syllable; as ^rgfi hdluM, 
 ^cH*'l hdlukd. ^ti '• ch I chhofkl, etc. 
 
 199. The fourth set may be added 1) to any subst. of 
 the weak form, 2) to any adj. of the weak long form; in the 
 latter case resulting in the fifth set. The forms thus made will be 
 called, in the case of subst., their long, in the case of adj., their 
 redundant forms. The suff. ST5JT (m.), ^TT (f.) are added to nouns 
 in ^, and the suff. ^OT and 35TT (both gen. com.) to nouns in ^ 
 and 3 respectively. Thus, subst., m. st:£ or sr"p^TT house; f. srir^or 
 dfddi event; m. srtjj (wk. f. sffr^) or sft-poTT horse; f. sfrfi (wk. f. srqr) 
 or sfrf^in mate; m. JTTcfft (wk. f. rn#r) or q%<Tr gardener; f. sttjj. 
 (wk. f. *sn^f) or sjcFTorr s««£?; f. grfjr or ^fmrT/tre; m. n^" or 3T^T 
 teacher, etc. Again »$'., m. ^crf^or ^T^oTT %A/; f. ^^qr or ^f^OT; 
 m. ^rr^aFT (wk. f. ^irar ) or ^t?;-^5rr S'WoJZ; f. ^trifct (wk. f. ftegj;) 
 
 or ^t'F^jilT. 
 
 JVofe: Bs. II, 40 and Bates H. Diet. 67 give the form 
 "Sm for srsrr; and Bates 58. ^ for JUT. If these be not mere- 
 ly inaccurate spellings, they must be considered as local pecu- 
 liarities. 
 
 200. The sixth set can only be added to subst. of the 
 weak form. The forms thus made, I shall call their redundant forms. 
 The suff. m. WoTT, f. '£"ffcjr (or c5TT) are added to subst. in 5, and 
 c. g. ^(USTI and 3^3T (or 3^TT) to subst. in ^ and 3 respectively. 
 Thus m. sqr or srfraT house; f. srTr^ or ^rfpracrr (or srdldi) event; 
 m. eft^T (wk. f. m^) or sfrfToTT /wse; f. sfrfi (wk. f. **nj) or snf^JIorT 
 ware; m. JTT^ft (wk. f. *rrr%) or Jrf^racTT (or q^tsn) gardener; f. srT^ 
 (wk. f. * ; srn^) or sTcTrasrr (or 5t^oTt) sand; f. wfrr or sfrraErr fire; 
 m. JT£" or JT^TsarT teacher. The suff. frtsrr and 3^oJT may be con- 
 
100 PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. § 201. 202.] 
 
 tracted to €n; e. g., sftTToTT or sftJT; sPrT55TT or sr^TT. The suff. 
 ^nrr may be also contracted into 93; as ETt^Torr or sff^X 
 
 Note: The contracted suff. STT always takes the accent; as 
 sft^"T ghoraii, not gliorau. 
 
 201. All these suff. are, generally speaking, very commonly 
 employed. The sixth set, however, is very vulgar. As a rule, they 
 change in no way the meaning of the word. Occasionally, those 
 of the fourth and sixth sets may imply contempt or affection or 
 smallness, and those of the second and third sets the compara- 
 tive degree (see §3 88). 
 
 202. Affinities. The existence of these sets of pleonast. 
 suff. in the various Gd. languages has been hitherto but little ob- 
 served by grammarians; if, at least, we exclude the first, which 
 is very common in them all. It consists, in E. and S. Gd., of 5T, J 
 and 3; in N. and W. Gd. of ^\ (or st), 3" and 3; see §§ 49 — 54. 
 As to the others, I have not been able to learn whether or 
 not they exist in N. and W. Gd. ; excepting the W. H. In this 
 latter and in E. and S. Gd., some of them certainly do occur; 
 whether or not all do, it is impossible to say at present. The 
 fourth set is in B. (m.) «J, $7, Wt contracted for E. H. ^STT, 5?TT, 
 3^t; as B. ttot, E. H. T^^oTT Ram; B. ^y/, E. H. ffprt Hari; 
 B. gfuV, E. H. pw^t Sambhu; (f.) B. ^ contracted for E. H. ^n; 
 as B. JTvft, E. H. jfiJUJ Rddhd, etc. There are, however,/ many 
 anomalies 1 ). See S. Ch. 71. 7 2. In M. the fourth set has (m.) 
 %<n for E. II. gsn and (f.) ^ for E. H. ^TT; as M. j[*n (for 
 "(TiT-aTcf. § 6, note), E. H. -pr^orr Ram; Mg. Jiff, E. H. jf&n Durga. 
 See my V th Essay on Gd. Gramm.in J. B. A. S. XLIII, 3 6. The W. 
 H. has WU, J£UT, 5^", ^ for E. H. gsn", ^Tar, 53J, 5JT of the fourth and 
 sixth sets respectively; e. g., W. H. eF^zn, tt^m, *-^, mz%krishna*)', 
 
 1) E. g., sometimes T migrates into the preceding syllable, as in B. 
 JJTTST or SiST for E. II. gifarar Jidsi (abbreviated for ledsindth). 
 
 2) By way of illustration compare FTcTOT pond = Mg. rTc?TT?nr = Skr. 
 rTJTcF^: of FI3T57, with cF^JTT = Mg. cHtT^JT = Skr. *^fGCTf^;: of SjUHIT. 
 
§ 203.] PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. 101 
 
 uferT, rnjzn , n^t", rr^ pit; etc. In II. II. these pleonastic 
 forms, being more or less vulgar, are not usually employed; 
 but there are a few exceptions, such as 5r^5rr calf, cfiUoTT or cFr^oTT 
 hi f fry: etc. 
 
 203. Derivation. The original of all these suff. is the 
 suff. 3FT which is sometimes employed in Skr. to form diminutives, 
 as cra^7: Uttlc son, but is more often merely pleonastic. In Pr. 
 it is still more extensively used in the latter way; see Vr. 4, 
 25 in Cw. 140. H. C. 2, 164. Ls. 258. Wb. Spt. 69. 70; espe- 
 cially in the Ap. Pr.; see H. C. 4, 429. 430. Ls. 341. 475. 
 E. H. employs it, in some cases (cf. § 2 04), even more frequently 
 than Pr. In the latter the suff. 5R generally becomes 5T, but 
 sometimes remains unaltered. The latter is especially the case 
 in Ps. Pr. (cf. H. C. 2, 164), in Sr. and Mg. Pr. (K. I. 12, 1 
 in Ls. Ap. 50. cf. Ls. 378. 396), and in Ap. Pr. (K. I. 13, 3 
 in Ls. 44 9. 4 57). The Mg. Pr., moreover, — particularly in its 
 lower types — has not only a tendency to retain cR, but even 
 to prolong the preceding vowel *), thus making the suff. 5T3i, 3cR, 
 3SR Md. 12, 16; cf. Wb. Bh. 348. Ls. 431) 2 ). In one case, Mg. 
 shortens the preceding ^T and compensates it by doubling 37; 
 viz. in ^3% heart (Md. 12, 13. Vr. 11, 6. K. I. 11, 3 in Ls. 
 3 93), for *^3T3i, Skr. f^^pr , Ps. f|?racR (Vr. 10, 14) or f%FT*R 
 (H. C. 4, 310), but Mh. f^mri (cf. H. C. 2, 164). Further the 
 suff. 3» is sometimes reduplicated in Pr. , thus making it ^ 
 (for cFTcF, H. C. 2, 164. 4, 430) 3 ) or in Mg. £R* or miFiV, 
 
 1) Thus in the Mchh. the Mg. form cRcT^i is much more common 
 than its alternative cFJ^T^T. It may be remarked, that since the natural 
 tendency in Pr. is to elide hard consonants, the effort to retain them 
 would tend either to their being doubled or to the lengthening of the 
 preceding vowel. 
 
 2) Md. 12, 16 cR £tsrf =JT I cRdRnT <T^ Ooff ^3T cTT ^TTrT II i. e. „the 
 vowel preceding the suff. 3J may optionally be long". The MS. reads 
 y5H<iyf (?); the example is: crTTTen'tR i c?rT3tTT3FT (?). 
 
 3) The example in H. C. 2, 164 is z&m, E. H. STS^srr. 
 
102 PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. § 203.] 
 
 T379, 3379. Thus in Mg. the suff. 37 may have the following 
 forms (in the nom. sing. incl. final of base): 1) 9£, tt, 3p" by 
 elision of 37; 2) 937, ^37, 337 or 9T37, ^"37, 3<37 by retaining 37; 
 3) 937$r, i<37{7, 337^T or 9T37^", ;^7, 337$T by reduplicating the suff. 
 and retaining 37; 4) 99^7, ^9^7, 39^7 by reduplicating the suff. and 
 eliding 37. In E. H., the first Pr. set is either contracted to 9T, 
 ^, 3^ (of. §§47. 49. 98, exc), or separated (by inserting CT or 
 ^ § 69) into 951T, ^TT, 35TT 1 ); the result being the l Bt and 4 th 
 E. H. sets. Exceptionally the Pr. hiatus is retained in E. H. T3, 
 which is apparently the same as the Ap. Pr. termination J3. 
 The second Pr. set becomes in E. H. either 937, J[37, 337 (cf. § 4 5) 
 or 9o£j, jojj, 3U; by doubling 37 and shortening the preceding vowel ; 
 thus forming the E. H. 2 nd set. The third Pr. set again is in 
 E. H. either contracted to 937T, ^37T, 337T and 9|JTT, ^g£T, 3§£T, or 
 separated into 937517, ^cRSIT, 337517 and 9gJ75rT, ^g£5TT, 3^5JT ; thus 
 producing the E. H. 3 d and 5 th sets. Finally the fourth Pr. set be- 
 comes in E. H. gTSiT (contracted for *95r r 5rr, cf. § 34), A'usrr (or J95rr 
 or contr. ^5TT § 83, exc), 395TT (or 3Sr5TT or contr. 3517 § 84, exc.) 
 by inserting tf or 5jj thus constituting the E. H. 6 th set. E. g., Skr. 
 a7?737: horse, Mg. mj^ or (gen.) sJ739T^ (§ 369,2), E. H. sft^T or 
 STT^STT; Skr. *sft2T3737:, Mg. (gen.)sit399Te[, E. H. EftfTcTT (for * ETTf 5rsn) ; 
 or Skr. ^^37: sweet, Mg. frr^ or f%T37 or fjT|737, E. H. JTt<7T or fqg^7 
 or ftS"^; Skr. *fa?5R5R:, Mg. faj37^ or fqTT37^, E. H. fq5"37T or 
 f*T5"l£iT or f?T5375fT or fJT5"|£5rr, etc. Similarly in the feminine: 1) Pr. 
 ^9T and 3WT =11. H. ^ and 3 (§51) or ^m and 3517 ; 2) Pr. 
 *937T, *^37T, *337T 2 ) or 9T37T, ^37T, 337T = E. H. 937, ^37, 337 or 
 g i£> \l&i 3"^ (§ 43); 3) Pr. 9T379T, 37379T, 3f379T or 9Tf379T, 
 ^f/379T, 3f%9T = E. H. 937T, ^37T, 337T or 9|£jt, ^|jjt, TZfit or 9f37?TT, 
 ^fiRJJT, 3f37?n or 9^07, ^f^?TT, ife^Ul; 4) Pr. *^99T, *399T 2 ), 
 (= *^3737T, *33737T) = E. H. ^ToTT, 395TT (or 35T5TT). Thus Skr. 
 
 1) For an explanation of the final 9T of these forms see §§ 365, 1. 369, 2. 
 
 2) When 3jT is retained or the suff. reduplicated, the fem. appears 
 to have been formed irregularly. 
 
§ 204. 205.] PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. 103 
 
 nmaFTT earth, Mg. rrfpn" (cf. H. C. 2, 29), E. H. mrt or irfelT; 
 Skr. *it%3T37T, Mg. rrfyH^T, E. H. qf^O-SfT; or Skr. fasr or fkrzzKT 
 sweet, Mg. fq-|T or fqfj?JT, E. II. *?te or rftst or fqfSJTT; Skr. 
 *fafech), Mg. fajgrt or f^jT^, E. H. fqScF or ftr^ ; Skr. *frref%5F?T, 
 Mg. ftrfe^T or f^TT%5ErT, E. H. fcT5"^T or fasifjt or fqTrfiEJTT or 
 fiTSfijprr; etc. 
 
 2 04. Origin. The original of the suff. W! I am inclined to 
 believe to be the past part. pass. a^T done for the following 
 reason. There are two main elements 5? and 3 or 3T. Each of 
 them exists in a twofold use, as a pleonastic or a derivative 
 suffix. It will be shown, that the latter (~5 or ^t) in its two 
 uses is essentially the same element and has the same origin (Skr. 
 £ST), see §§ 218. 244. 248. 251. The same, probably, is true 
 of the former (37) also. It will be shown in §§ 280. 338 that 
 the suff. 37 — as a derivative one, at least — has originated 
 from the part. ajfrT; and in § 3 77, that the genitive affix qr has 
 the same origin. 
 
 205. Origin of the pleonastic forms. Skr. possesses bases in 
 5?, J and 3. The declension of the bases in 3" and 3 is intricate ; 
 at least, as they form a very small minority, it was much less 
 familiar, than that of the 9-bases. Hence the custom sprang up 
 in Pr., of adding the suff. 37 to the ^"- and 3-bases, in order to 
 turn them into ^-bases; and from habit, it was extended to the 
 9-bases themselves; thus tending to produce a uniform kind of 
 declension. We shall observe (§34 7) a similar levelling tendency 
 of Pr. in regard to the treatment of the verbal roots whereby 
 the diversity of the Skr. conjugation was reduced to a uniform 
 pattern. In E. H., this uniformity of declension has become an 
 established fact. In the meanwhile, however, the result of the Pr. 
 habit of adding the suff. 37 was, to produce a double set of forms 
 of the same meaning; the weak forms in ^7, 3", 3, and the strong 
 in (Mg.) w^, 3^, 3^7. This must have been felt to be inconvenient. 
 In Gd., therefore, the custom grew up of using only one set; 
 and in the struggle for existence, thus ensuing between the two 
 
104 PLEONASTIC si lTiXES. §206.207.] 
 
 sets, the hardier one (i. e., that of the strong forms), will natu- 
 rally survive. The tendency to extinction of the weak forms is, 
 indeed, unmistakeable in Gel. In E. and W. H., the weak forms in 
 J and 1 (probably from having suffered longest the addition of 
 the suff. 3i) are altogether extinct in adj., and, to a considerable 
 extent, in subst. also. The case of the weak form in sr, in W. H., 
 is not very different from this. But the E. H. has more nearly pre- 
 served the older, i. e. Pr., stage, particularly in regard to adj.; though 
 it also shows signs of the same general tendency, in preferring 
 strong fern, in ^ and strong long forms in qrr, cRT (see §§ 196. 198). 
 — Another reason for the frequent addition of the suff. 3i in 
 Pr. was its preference (common to all popular languages) for the 
 use of diminutives. This habit continued in Gd., in whose more 
 uncultivated forms, like the E. H., it is very marked. But as the 
 Pr. strong (or diminutive) forms in 5C", ju, 3T7, in their contracted 
 Gd. forms OT, ^, 3^, had been generally substituted in Gd. in the 
 place of the (more or less) extinct Pr. weak (or non-diminutive) 
 forms, Gd. was obliged to distinguish its diminutive (but, in vulgar 
 speech, pleonastic) forms by some new device. Accordingly ?T and a 
 were inserted in the Pr. strong terminations, and thus were pro- 
 duced the long terrain. ^cTT, c^TT, 35TT of the E. H. The excess of 
 this popular tendency is exhibited in the reduplication of those 
 forms in the redundant terminations 3JT5TT, ^?T5TT, 3^5TT. 
 i Second Group. 
 
 206. Set. Com. gen. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1. W 9!|T ^Ft 
 
 2. gr^r — — 
 
 The forms of com. gen. are weak, the others containing the suff. 
 5T, ^ of the 1 st set 1 st group are strong. As to the way of adding 
 them, see § 195, note. 
 
 2 07. These suff. are sometimes added to adj. or subst. of 
 the weak form: Thus: 9f[ in t\t$ or n^ fort, from rrj enclosure; 
 U^J in rrj^T (or n^r), from JTO or ttst cavity: m. 5f3f^T, f. °^t, 
 from 5T3J or m. ^TSJT, f. °ft mad (W. H. arsr^r or snayii); m. 
 
§208. 209. | PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. 105 
 
 f^npfT^T, f. ?^t feeble (also fSrfcFE^T). from n^? monkey (?) ; again 
 ^TF in in. f. snj^Tff mad. 
 
 2 08. Derivation. These suff. are closely allied to those of 
 first group. Their original is the Skr. pleon. suff. 37, the 37 of 
 which is elided in Pr. and replaced in Gd. by IT (see § 6 9). Thus 
 we have in Mg. Pr. (in the nom. sg., and inch of the final 5 of 
 the base) W£ (i. e. %m:), in E. H. 5eT (for ^i[) ; or adding pleon. ST 
 (= ep, i. e., doubling s?) we have Mg. fa. 39{T, E. H. 5T^T, Mg. f. 3^ST, 
 E. H. 5^t, In Mg. the vowel, preceding 5R , may be lengthened, 
 m. 9T^i, f. %l£t, or (eliding 3») m^, mz ; whence, inserting F, 
 arises E. H. m. f. ^TF (= OT^, m^t). E. g., Skr. JTH37:, Mg. J1|JF 
 or JT^\ E. H. CT3f[ or n^; Skr. oTTrprcF?:, Mg. 5TT3t?TTeR or 5rT3?nv, 
 E. H. oT37TF; or Mg. m. arTZvigwr or srravrer^, E. H. zfsj^j, f. Mg. 
 Brrasi^aT, E. H. 5T3^. By way of illustration compare E. H. srf^TT 
 inferior, low-priced, Mg. srfr^, Skr. STf^FTcFf:. 
 
 Tliird Group. 
 209. Set. Com. gen. Masc. s 
 
 ^JT or *T£T 
 
 9^-. or 5"? 
 
 ^"T or ^TT 
 
 mp - or ^aVlT 
 
 5cm" or ^T 
 
 ^cFTT or yjT 
 
 icFTT or 3JT 
 
 ^vTT or -rjX 
 
 m^TT or ^T 
 
 3^TT or 3TT 
 
 3^TT or 3"£T 
 
 €FTT 
 
 yn 
 
 The forms with 7 are properly W. H., and are rarely used in E. H. 
 (see § 29). Most of the forms with 5T maybe, and commonly are 
 pronounced with 7 (see § 3 0); some, however, have always qc^, 
 others always X. All forms of com. gen. are weak, the others con- 
 
 Set. 
 
 Com. gen. 
 
 1) a. 
 b. 
 
 sqr or ^1 
 
 2) 
 
 n or U 
 
 3) 
 
 WJ or ^7 
 
 4) 
 
 9c^ or &J 
 
 5) a. 
 b. 
 
 jjUT or ^7 
 
 i^ or i^r 
 
 c. 
 
 *"L or ^f 
 
 6) a. 
 
 STcfT_ or ^tj 
 
 b. 
 
 3^ or 37 
 
 c. 
 
 3ST^ or 37^ 
 
 7) a. 
 
 3=T 
 
 b. 
 
 3^ 
 
 i 
 
 Fem. 
 
 ■ft 
 
 or 
 
 UTt 
 
 «r^ 
 
 or 
 
 
 it 
 
 or 
 
 ^ 
 
 mfi 
 
 or 
 
 wtii 
 
 &mt 
 
 or 
 
 ■ft 
 
 $7c£t 
 
 or 
 
 # 
 
 r ^ 
 StfTT 
 
 or 
 
 tf 
 
 ^t 
 
 or 
 
 ^ft 
 
 WK$t 
 
 O] 
 
 - srrft 
 
 3^ 
 
 or 
 
 3rft 
 
 3^ 
 
 or 
 
 
 5TT 
 
 
 
 7ft 
 
 
 
106 PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. §210—213.] 
 
 taining the pleon. suff. of the 1 st set 1 st group are strong. The forms 
 9^ or *T3 , contracted from Ap. Pr. %T3 = *«TJ^T:, are properly 
 \V. H., and occur only exceptionally in E. H. As to the manner 
 of adding them, see § 195, note. 
 
 210. The first set occurs in subst. and adj.; often; thus 
 m. JT5"^r or UTjjj, f. °jt, of ttik (or jtst) bundle; ^TTJ, of ^im^leather; 
 ^tznj (or a^Nqr), of €tcF (or a?raj mud (cf. § 13 3); (erssfrjj, of ws^ 
 glutton; ttJT, f. °ffr, of £cR (Skr. stTcf;) piece; qqr, f. °ft, of <TT 
 (or q77T) board; <7cFTJT7T, f. °7jt, of TcrflT bedstead; sr^fT, f. °f^ or m. f. 
 ^jc^ calf, colt, of 5iaP (or or5>T) young; W&J, of J-TW^ (or wr) hungry; 
 iToT^r^, of ^37 forgetful; *fte*^T, of qTr bundle; JT^fTfe--, of it^ - wo- 
 man; etc. Sometimes the original word is disused; as ^T^T7T a 
 hundred, of * irer (A. Mg. snrf£, Skr. STFT3i) ; rtofT basket, of *??r37 ; ptYjj 
 or iTffT, f. °ft Kftfe, of *zft (Pr. effer, Skr. sfrgr, cf. § 9 7) ; ^tcFTJ or ^T7/T 
 boy and ^tcFjjt or ^fi girl, of *3^ter or *^T (see § 198 exc); ^7T, 
 f. ^ goat, of *^ (Mg. ^ttT, Skr. g^m); ^Tnft front, of *smTT (Skr. 
 9?j); Q^Tft back, of *qr^T (Skr. <F5l) ; q^T^[ mountain and ^T^TTT, 
 multiplication -table, of *<7^t (Skr. trf^rT extended, see § 118); etc. 
 See also § 104. 
 
 211. The second and third sets occur in subst. and adj.; 
 very rarely; thus sj^T colt, &^ft fdly, of 5HF (or sisfT) young; 
 'zkj or STT7J, f- °fl", of eft^ mw/i; rriiTT, of jttj (or jttt) p#. - 
 
 212. The fourth set occurs in subst. and adj.: often; thus 
 
 iftevTOT nfo&i, f. °*ft, of mr (or trtu) fat; stefT, f. °f*\ of irs; (or ircr) 
 eldest; 7/ST7J, f. °jt, of *7TH or 7JHT cord; ^JJ vanguard, ^f\ 
 cuff, bore of a gun, of jt<[ mouth; ^7^ or fWji, of ^FT or |[st 
 handle; ^H^n or STFTTJ, f- °f^ string, of e^ thread; Tprr, f. °oTl', of 
 QTJJ beyond; etc. Sometimes the original word is disused; as ^iTnTT, 
 f. ^tt former, of **m (Skr. w?i; Ap. Pr. tJUM ' i H. C. 4, 341); 
 *T3P?T mother, of M. jtts;, E. H. qif (Skr. IJIH, cf. § 63). 
 
 213. The fifth and sixth sets occur in subst. and adj.; 
 rarely; thus the 5 th set in qfftc^or TFTTcfn or qf?T3TT, of QTrT^ pot, pan; 
 ^ q t^L' °f ^1 (oriST^T) ftfe (see § 175, note); 27/c?TT, of TfT$ peacock; 
 wr^n, of srr<^ snake; miFrr, ofZTU^onehalf; tT^FTT, of crrtf a quarter ; 
 
§ 214. 215.] PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. 107 
 
 95T5TT or ^kc^T, of ^c?7 one, solitary. The 6 th set in S^rferr, of m^ 
 snake; ^r^^TT, of $\&J (or cF^"^t) gourd; sirrr^T, of ^TFT talk; 
 si TuolV or sj'Th^ 1 flute, of srfa^bainboo (see § 128); srfgr^T swaggerer, 
 of ST'f^ fop; etc. Sometimes the original word is disused; as in 
 gfncFTT foremost, of sm (Skr. a-cr) ; JTOTcTTT or rrfSr^TT or TcHWfT middle, 
 of *iTTCFr (Skr. qwr); qfi^or °c?iT Zrts/, of *qrg[ (Skr. <T5T); q%^or 
 °^TT /M (cf. § 1 1 8). 
 
 214. The seventh set occurs in pronouns and sometimes in 
 nouns ; thus pron. ^^T^ of this kind, rT^ST^ of that kind; ^^T^T 
 of which kind, W^f^ of ivhich kind, of *^^t^, *fT^ ? etc.; see 
 §§ 111. 456 — 458; $7^rr, f. °TT this much, star, f. °^TT tta< 
 much; HrMl, f. °:ft so much; cfc^rT, f. °:rr /iM# much; rTrT^T, f. °^" 
 os WMcA, of ^H, rTFT, etc.; see§§ 111. 452 — 454; mo-^or mq^ 
 or 5<pTT or gcj^T, f. °:rr own, of *^ft (Skr. ■^Trirra'), see § 111; ftsr^, 
 f. <TS^\ he, that; 5F5PT , f. 5?3^t w/jo; 3T5PT , f. sT3Tl" wM$, of *FTa^, 
 *5f^, *rra^, see §§ 106. 438, 2. Again nouns: ^FTT, f. ^ni young 
 of an animal, from *gff, see § 210; IJZPTT, f. °:rr, of vt^mouth of 
 an animal; STFR, of siro rose-apple, see § 111. 
 
 215. None of these suff. alter the meaning of the word; 
 though sometimes they restrict it to some particular application; as 
 5T5 or srgjT is any young animal, hut 5T^"T is a calf or colt and 9^7 
 a colt; it^t)" or iTtEt^Tl' a kind of carriage of middling size; feft 
 a particular kind of sweetmeat; etc. Sometimes, they imply small- 
 ness, as J T^TT a peachick; iqtcfrr a young snake; %Wf\ a wink, lit. 
 a small 9TW or eye. Sometimes, again, they express likeness, in 
 which case they are more properly to he considered derivative suff., 
 see §§ 241. 24 5; thus fit^t a certain jewel of copper color (lit. like 
 rTFT or copper); ^mf\ a false stone resembling a v?T^ or ruby; ^^ 
 or mr^j thin, weak, lit. like a <7TrT or leaf. Sometimes both; thus 
 ^Ji or gTrrT, f. °fr or °^ft idol, doll, lit. a little or like a "^ son; 
 ^ftvfj or ^tv^" louse, lit. a small or like a =3^ hawk. — It should 
 be remarked, however, that in the nouns in f^ or cm' which imply 
 smallness, as rrsft, q<rUl(\, QZJT, ?7Sfffr, rfaifr, *rtzft, T^f^t, MrfcrTl, 
 TTffl", etc. (cf. §§210. 213), that quality is denoted by the gender 
 
108 PLEONASTIC SUFFIX ES. §216.217.] 
 
 (cf. §§ 2 5 6. 257), not by the suffix; for their corresponding mas- 
 culines always imply largeness; e.g., IT5TT large bundle, HZ ft small 
 bundle, etc. / 
 
 216. Affinities. All Gd. languages possess this group of 
 pleon. suff., see Bs. II, 1 1 5 — 122. As to S., especially, see Tr. 71. 
 7 7 — 79; as to M. see Man. 3 4. 113.114. Their forms do not 
 materially differ in any of them from those in use in E. H. But 
 S. has always ^f[ for ^TT; *M. has sometimes £ for 3 (§217), 
 and S. sometimes 3" for ^T , as in f^T^T writer from f^TW^t, hut 
 generally ?T, as fjSTjT seen from fl^T (Tr. 71). Here S. uses the 
 pleon. c<T or J to turn part, into adj.; in the same way G. uses 
 vft (Ed. 113) and M. ^TT (e.g., J7<5TT part, or rr^^TT adj. dead, 
 Man. 63, 2. 64, 2). For the same purpose Mw. uses it and N. 3TT, 
 though more in the manner of an affix; e. g., Mw. f^fT'fjft part, and 
 nriipul'iY adj., N. f^Heat or f^rfwff part, and fereOT^rt adj. written. 
 
 217. Derivation, All these pleon. suff. occur in Pr. (H. C. 
 2, 164. 165. 166. 173); more especially in Mg. Pr. (Wb. Bh. 437) 
 and Ap. Pr. (H. C. 4, 4 29. 43 o). Here (in the Ap. Mg.) they have, 
 in the nom. sg. and inch of the final of the base, the following 
 forms: l) m. #3", f. W§t (H. C. 4,431) or, with the pleon. suff. 
 ^ added, m. stl^, f. srfr^T. These change into the first E. H. set, 
 m. f. srs or sqr and m. 5"3T or SIJJ, f. STWt or Sift ; e. g., Ap. Mg. 
 ifsr (Skr. iro H. C. 4, 120), E. H. jts^ ; Mg. ifes^, E. H. n^TJ; 
 Mg. risrfj^T, E. H. Tj%ft. 2) The same, with the pleon. Si added 
 to the base of the word, m. SISTZ, f. ^WTt and m. sistiv, f. g^fr^T. ' 
 These, by inserting q^ (§ 69) and contracting sin to U (§ 121), 
 result in the E. H. second set, m. f. ^"3 or ^ and m. J^Tt or ^JT, 
 f. J^~Jt or ^fh, or by inserting 5^ (§ 69) and contracting Slol to 
 sft (§ 12 2) result in the E. H. third set, m. f. sfrg or shj and 
 m. sftn or sftjT, f. shift or sftft; e. g., Ap. Mg. zimsiJ or grrrcnj, 
 E. H. ett^; Ap. Mg. oRf^^r or ofr^ttty, E. H. SR£jT; Ap. Mg. 
 oT^vfzm or srxg^rJTHT, E. H. &^ft; again Ap. Mg. 7T§SH!£ or 
 JT^3^ (Skr. JTFT H. C. 2, 3 5), E. H. Hi); I. 3) Mg. m. St^t or 9^", 
 f. St^ft or Sttfft or, with pleon. si added, m. Sivi^ or 9^T7, f. ^jTOT 
 
§217.] PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. 109 
 
 or af^raT. These produce the E. H. fourth set, ra. f. a^ or a^[ 
 and in. aFTT or a^T, f. a^ or ujt; thus Mg. rh^t new (H. C. 
 2, 165. Skr. to), E. H. tost; Mg. ^^? (H. C. 2, 165. Skr. j^r) 
 solitary, E. H. ^sTT or ^"T; Mg. ^f^T, E. H. ^fi^fr or ^ft; 
 again Mg. qTacf^r yeBow (H. C. 2, 17 3. Skr. qfa), E. H. mmj or 
 q>fT (§9 7); Mg. ay^ 5few? (H. C. 2,17 3. Skr. a^y), E. H. au^TT 
 or a*qT; Mg. q^crf dfcft (H. C. 2,17 3. Skr. en*), E. H. qw^ or 
 qrq; Mg. fsGsrfgreT Ughtning (La, 2, 194. H. C. 2, 173. Skr. farwr), 
 E. H. tsrsT^f^ or fsr?rf^; Ap. Mg. srira^ anterior (cf. H. C. 4, 141. 
 444. Skr. an), E. H. axTcrTT. 4) Mg. ra. J^T or ^<?T, 1. ^ft or ^T^ 
 or, with pleon. a added, m. ^3T$r or JsT^, f. ^f^jaT or ^f^raT. 
 These constitute the E. H. fifth set, m. f. ^T^ or ^T_ or 3^ and 
 m. ^cfTT or 3"5TT or ^W, f . ?sTfr or 3"^ or ^ft; thus Mg. m. irfstJioT^ 
 or qf?^^ middle (Wb. Bh. 43 7. Skr. qw), E. H. q<KcrTT or qftfcrTT; 
 Mg. f. irf^frraT or qrl^f^ai, E. H. q%^t or qfwr; Mg. qsrfq^r 
 (Wb. Bh. 43 7. Skr.q-^q), E. H. q|^ or qf|^(§118); again Mg. 
 nfe^r (cf. H. C. 2, 157 see §§ 58.111), E. H. RrT^TT, G. htvfi, S. 
 ctfrift ; Mg. f. Frfwfwr, E.H. ^FFrf, G. re*rt, S. rifrtp; again Mg. 
 qf|rc?ra or qfo^a dish, vessel (Skr. qr*), E. H. q??T^rr or qJTToTT, etc. 
 5) Mg. ra. 3^T or 3^T, f. 3^T or 35?T or, with pleon. a added, 
 m. 3^77 or 3c<TC", f. 3f^rar or 3feraT. These give rise to the E. H. 
 sixth set, m. f. ar^ or 3^ or 35fT , and m. alc?TT or 3^TT or 3^TT, 
 f. at^rr or 3;c<?t or 3^rt; thus Ap. Mg. m. q^^ middle (Skr. 
 qw), E. H. JTOTcrn; Ap. Mg. f. q?ffoaT, E.H. Wr#; Mg. qwa 
 (cf. H. C. 2, 164. Skr. qw), i E. H. inpT vanguard; Mg. ^pqfejT 
 (cf. H. C. 2,164. Skr. ^m) handle, E.H. ^ft or ^rfr; Mg. a^ 
 (see§§ 6 0. Ill), E. H. anrq or %V*l} Ap. Mg. Ffip^ (cf. H. C. 
 4, 43 5., see §§ 58. Ill), E.H. HrPTT; etc. 6) with pleon. a added, 
 m. nr^r, f. fuTaT, n. qra. These become the E. H. seventh set, m. 
 qT, f. qt; thus Mg. acqqr^ (§ 60, note), E. H. aqqT; Mg. acqfcTaT, 
 E. H. aq^t. I believe this is the only example of the pleon. 
 suff. qT in Pr. A comparison with E.H. shows: 1) that the Pr. 
 B«nna(H. C. 2, 153) stands for *aarora = acovra (H. C. 2, 163); 
 and 2) that the q of this set is a substitute for an original gT^ 
 
110 PLEONASTIC SUFFIXES. §218.] 
 
 (or c<t), as in E. H. fTPT^ (see § 111). Further a comparison of 
 the various sets tends to show, that the Pr. suff. 3"c3, J^T and 3oT, 
 35T are modifications of original forms ^=r and 5rYc?T, and that the 
 latter are contractions of 9JPrT and ^clotT, formed, by the insertion 
 of 0^ and 5T , from 99c<T and , by the prefixion of the pleon. 9, 
 from the simple suff. %v1. The latter (9^T) itself is , probably, 
 a mere modification of 93, through the common interchange of 
 J and c^ (H. C. 1,202); as shown by the S. fsftfTt lightning for 
 Pr. fcjskrft 1 ). As to the origin of %3, see § 218. Of the change 
 of 93" to %H, now almost universal in W. Gd. ? there are appa- 
 rently a few examples in Pr.; viz., Pr. £tf|j or ^r long (H. C. 2, 171. 
 Skr. 3Tsr), E. H. 5^r a long while ago; Pr. 5rrf|;^ or sttP^; external 
 (H. C. 2,140. of Skr. ST%Tj, E. H. m. f. 5TT^, m. 5TT%T, f. °ft. 
 For it should be remembered that the old Pr. ^ is a cerebral 
 (= t, see § 15), not (like the E. H.) a dental. The Skr. suff. c<T and 
 J (i. e. ~j), sometimes (espec. in later Skr.) used pleonastically, 
 are, no doubt, identical with the corresponding Pr. ones. — The 
 Skr. pleon. suff. 5" (as in 3737: or 3T3T7T: or arsFT?:^: crab, Pr. 37cfrft 
 or ST'ljrj^f, E. H. SR J c*>' ^ or cft^^T) is prdbftbly a hardening of the 
 Pr. suff. J, and adopted into Skr. in the ancient period of the 
 Ps. Pr. With this would seem to agree the fact, that Psh. and, 
 occasionally, S. possess a diminutive suff. ^TtZ or 33T (Tr. 7 7. Bs. 
 II, 1 2 2). There are a few nouns of apparently similar forma- 
 tion in H. ; but they may well be compounds; e. g., ^nrf a strip 
 of leather = Skr xpf + qfiroFiT; stt^tet young brahman = Pr. 
 ^^rrr + fsrr^T (brahman's son) ; fljunn fawn = f^JQi + 5^- B. 
 has vit (S. Ch. 100) and M. Z (Man. 114). 
 
 218. Origin. The original of these pleon. suff. I believe 
 to be the Skr. suff. (properly a noun) !£ST like, which is added 
 both to nouns and pronouns. In Pr. it appears as 5^ ; e. g., in T?T£$. 
 (H. C. 2, 15 7) = Skr. %snr (lit. *^JTnrr = 3^1+ ^ET); and in 
 
 1) Thus: Skr. mu<3F>° (or qvjJT ), Mg. *qs<ES»3' = **7?iK^ = *HithiM 
 = *J7rT7orT = TfelToT or Hi7<hcd, E. H. 3TtI>Q<T or qffKvl . 
 
§219.] SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. Ill 
 
 Ap. Pr. it occurs as Tt or 3; e. g., in ^oil or ^stj (H. C. 4,407) 
 = Skr. *£5J13"ST. (from Ved. ^5J7T or Skr. ^^rj. These Ap. forms 
 Tt and J are, evidently, contractions for *T^J and Jg" resp., where 
 T would easily arise from the Skr. £ (just as Pr. f from Skr. ^ 
 H. C. 2, 3 6. 3 7) and °^ D would be suppressed, as e.g. in S. JFT 
 or ^r here = Ap. ^ (H. C. 4,436., see §§ 468, a. 469). 
 And the Ap. suff. it and J, being once established, would be 
 treated in their further evolutions precisely as any other suff., 
 and thus .produce all the alternative sets, enumerated in § 209. 
 Their initial T would be (as usual) liable to change to 7 or ^, 
 pT or 7 , and ^. In the Gd. pronouns it actually has undergone 
 all these changes; see §§ 104.105. 106. 438,2.4. 454. — In 
 confirmation of this theory, it is to be remarked : 1) that as shown 
 in §215, the original meaning like of the suff. 1 or c?f may still 
 be traced in some words; 2) that a suff., meaning like, would easily 
 come to be used diminutively and thence pleonastically, as may be 
 seen in such English words as such and such-like, kind and kindly, 
 or in the German froh and frbhlich, krank and kranklich; the inter- 
 mediate diminutive sense is more often preserved in S. and M. (see 
 Bs. II, 1 1 7. 1 1 8) ; 3) that such a suff. may easily become a derivative 
 one; as in the English kingly, i. e., like a king or belonging to a 
 king, or in the German tbdlicfi, i. e., full of death, mortal, peinlich, 
 i.e., full of pain. Accordingly, as will be shown in §§ 241.245. 
 24 9., all these pleon. suff. occur also as derivative ones in Pr. 
 and Gd. ; 4) that in M. the suff. sometimes have the forms &r, £t 
 (for 3T, ft), which have preserved the original ?f of the Ap. Pr. 
 *^t, *sft, as in M. FT5TCT (Man. 12 5) for Ap. Pr. FTSTI. 
 
 2. SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 
 
 219. The secondary derivative suff. may be divided into 
 eighteen groups. Of these the eleven first consist of suff. which 
 already existed as such in Pr., the remaining seven contain those 
 which have become such in Gd., but were full nouns in Pr. 
 
112 SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §220—223.] 
 
 First Group. 
 
 220. Set.. 1. Fem. gf. Set. 2. Fem. m\. 
 
 Both, containing the suff. ^ of § 196., are strong forms. As to 
 the manner of adding them, see § 19 5, note. 
 
 221. These suffixes are used to derive abstract nouns from 
 adjectives. Weak and long forms take the first, strong forms the 
 second set. Thus 9*", in <^5fcc lightness, of <^tj^ ; light', EEjT cold- 
 ness, of &i£ cold; ^w^T simplicity, of ^^T simple ; uf^rr heaviness, 
 of nf^OT heavy; etc. Again gT^ - , in n^rr? goodness, of h^tt r/ocxZ; 
 5TJI J greatness, of 5T3T #> - eatf ; firST^ sweetness, of JffiTT swee£ ; moTT^ 
 roundness, of JTTcTr round; etc. 
 
 2 2 2. Affinities. These suff. exist in all Gds., though 
 in M. they appear to be considered as non-indigenous and intro- 
 duced from Hindi (see Man. 112). As to S. see Tr. 58. In P. the 
 suff. is occasionally added also to the long form of adj. in 51", not 
 only (as in E. H.) to that of adj. in 3. That long form ends (as 
 inW. H. see § 202) in 50T, and 5'7T is vocalized to J5T (cf.§12l); 
 thus 5T3T greed, lg. f. 5T3JTT, whence srfl^T^" greatness (see Ld. 13. 
 Bs. II, 7 9). The 5T in such forms is anomalous for 5, as will be 
 seen by a reference to §221; unless we suppose the base to 
 have been the redundant, not the long form of the word. W. H. 
 and H. II., too, have the anomalous m; but E. H. has regularly 5; 
 e. g., W. H. rr^m^, but E. H. 21^4," heaviness. The H. H. often 
 superfluously adds ST3" to tats, or semitats., which contain already 
 the identical suff. FTT; as H. H. gTFTc?TrTT^ comeliness; unudl^ or 
 sTTTTfTT^" worthiness, etc. 
 
 223. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 taddhita FTT (fem.), in Pr. ^T or m (Vr. 4, 22. H. C. 2, 154). 
 With the pleon. 3> superadded, it is Skr. fFT37T, Pr. fJ£5T or j[5T 
 or, inch of the final 5 of the base, H-^T, and Grd. %Z (§ 51). 
 And with pleon. 5 (= cjj) added to the base we have Pr. 55^51", 
 contracted in Gd. 51"5. Thus Skr. fq^rTT or *ft' , giH5JT, Pr. frrj^T. 
 E.H. ft5^; and Skr. *m^cjrf7re7T, Pr. PTZST^n, E.H. iw^"; again 
 Skr. * FmpRffraiT, Pr. *mp9^5T, E. H. QW5TZ; etc. This derivation is 
 
§ 224- -227. 1 SECONDARE DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. ' 113 
 
 illustrated by E. H. 9^T^" two and a half, which is contr. from Mg. 
 Hcvzm (cf. Wb. Bh. 4 2 5. H. C. 1 , 1 1 and § 4 1 G), Skr. g%=B?TT. 
 
 Second Group. 
 
 2 24. Set. 1. Masc. 5T3 or5T5T. Set 2. Masc. sjti. 
 Both sets are weak forms. As to the manner of adding them, see 
 § 195, note. 
 
 2 2 5. These suff. are used to derive abstract nouns from a 
 very small number of adj., expressive of dimension; viz., 37373 
 or 3^ra^ or 3^1"^ height, of 33T high; nf^T3 or nfi>jra^or JTfljT^T 
 th'jiflt, of nf^p deep; gT r 3T3 or g'TZTa' or m^^r depth, of 5T~3T 
 deep; =31713 or ^TTTH or ^T^PT breadth, width, of ^TTT (H. H. =3TTr) 
 broad, wide; ^t5TT3 or cH^ia^ or erjisrR^ length, of ^STT long. The 
 forms in 9T^ are properly and generally masc. ; but are some- 
 times used as fern. 
 
 Note: There are also the ordinary forms in 9T3" (§ 229); 
 
 as 3v3T^\ rrf^r^, c<wr^, etc. 
 
 2 2 6. Affinities. These suff. are not strictly E. H., but in- 
 troduced from the W. H.; and occur in all W. Gds. See Bs. II, 80. 81. 
 Tr. 5 9. In S. they are fern., in G. neuter, and in P. masc. The 
 fem. gender in S. is a Gd. formation, like that of the suff. "TJ - , Q'tnT 
 §§ 228. 230. The tendency of abstract nouns is to become fem.; 
 also in Mg. Pr. there is fem. =3T or neut. # for Skr. neut. roTJT , 
 see Wb. Bh. 437. S. appears to have occasionally 9T^ftn for 9TfnT, 
 the former of which, probably, stands for gjnfl and is to be ex- 
 plained like the P. ^\ for mj, see § 222. In S. the suff. gT^ 
 may be used with any adj. expressing an inherent quality; as 
 g^rfnT whiteness, eF^Tnn blackness, sriifm greatness; etc. 
 
 2 27. Derivation. The originals of these suff. are the 
 Skr. (neut.) taddh. rcT or (vedic) r=^T (cf. Wb. Spt. 68. 69). They 
 become in Pr. (nom. sg.) # or WUT (Vr. 4, 22. H. C. 2, 154) or, 
 inch of the final n of the base, 5# or g^nf or (eliding W, see 
 § 153) wi or n^m (see Spt. A. 5 2.5raW9^crr = Skr. srarnwa^) or 
 in Ap. Pr. 53 or snurr (cf. H. C. 4, 3 3 1 ). Now the Ap. form 93 or, with 
 pleon. 9 added to the base, 593 contracts in H. to 9T3 or 9T3^; 
 
 8 
 
114 SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §228—230.] 
 
 and the Ap. form ^grrj contracts to H. ^T^T . E. g., Skr. "SWT.c^rj 
 height, Pr. 3^9# or S^S'ST, Ap. "JW^3, E. H. S-41A or dforsrj again 
 Skr. *3^r5FTJ^, Pr. S^WUT or 3WSITrf , Ap. SW^m , E. H. 3NnT. 
 S. has , apparently, preserved the =3" in nfrafrTcrT *) rf^/// o/' a JT<pfT 
 headman (Tr. 61), hut not in ^TnEjir boyhood, which is probably 
 a comp. of =gte>^ and 5TF (Ap. for Skr. ^3"^). 
 
 2%w*d Group. 
 228. Set. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1) a. tfTT b. <^or TT — 
 
 2) a. <xft h. q^T or crt q^TT 
 
 The suff. in ^T and J are strong, the others are weak forms. Those 
 with or are added to weak, those with q to strong hases ; but 
 qTT, q:rf to either. 
 
 2 29. These suff. are used to derive abstract nouns from 
 subst. or adj. The forms ccnr or qr^, however, are those com- 
 monly employed. Thus q^ in 5n?TPT old age, of ^^T old; ^TT or QT 
 in q^T^T old age, gfrT^qT or ^t£TqT small ness, of ^177 or ^ITT small; 
 3ff6 r -TT or qTITOT fatness, of iTtr or mu fat; j"&m widowhood, of 
 J1Z widow; etc.; ccft or q^ in srswPTor STTWFJ^ greatness (cfH. C. 
 4,43 7), of snirorsrjT great; '^Tq^r simplicity, of sgyT simple; n^japr 
 or JTT^q^ heaviness, of *nx or XT^V- heavy; £rr^ejiq:T childhood, of 
 strftcf cMd, etc.; q^T or q^T in ^"q^T small n ess; vVsmFn or 
 cd-cT-gnT profligacy, of vi& profligate; sTFi~Q^I' ki/owii/gm's*, knowledge, 
 of jTPT (Skr. fTPTl" § 191) knowing; iraW profligacy, oi m$t pro- 
 fligate, etc. 
 
 i^o/e : Exceptionally the suff. appears to he added to a verbal 
 root, as in *g5Tcc[Tq^ itching, from <^Tc7TTS[^ fo /iW/; but in reality it 
 is added to the noun *WsT5TT (cf. M. OTsTJT Man. 1 1 5) itch, which, 
 however, is now used only as a fem. W^FTt. 
 
 23 0. Affinities. These suff. occur in all Gds. ; though 
 they seem to be less common in B. and 0., than in the others 
 
 1) It is more probably the Ap. Pr. suff. rPJT (see H. C. 4, 422, 20); 
 viz., Ap. Tf%rTCTT scl. 5T~. 
 
§231—238.] SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 115 
 
 (see Bs. II, 73). M. has gtg n., ggTT m. (Man. 112); S. q fern., 
 T7 in.: q-)F f., QT f., CTJT m., qun m. (Tr. 5 9 — 61); G. QT m., 
 gur^ m., Tiff n. (Ed. 14); P. QT m., qgT or mm m. (Ld. 13., e. g., 
 S^^goTT business of a S^gfjT picl-j/ochet); B. has g=T m., g-lT or 
 (Bs. II, 71) anomalously QFTT; 0. has TOT m., gfgrar f. (e. g., 
 UTTqniJ^T roguery). B. and 0. have more commonly PT (or OTTO); 
 as crfHTUT profligacy, JTTTTTg roguery, feofTTW laziness of £HW , see 
 Bs. II, 7 7. 
 
 231. D erivat io n. The originals of these suff. are the 
 Skr. (neut.) taddh. F5T or (vedic) r5R (see § 2 2 7). They become 
 in Ap. Pr. (nom. sg.) eg or cgrri (H. C. 4, 43 7. Ls. 4 60) or, with 
 pleon. ^ added, <g# or eggr^. The Ap. eg and «J^ become in E. H. 
 q^ and cgr or QT respectively; and the Ap. cgtrr and eggr^ become 
 E. H. egg or gg and qgf, whence E. H. makes fern. ggt. Thus 
 Skr. c*3rcTO, Ap. ^zcq (cf. H. C. l,13l), E. H. spiq/, Skr. 
 *a-3r^*, Ap. snpw, E. H. ST^qT or ST^TqT; Skr. *^3rcPTg, Ap. 
 ^|rgijf, E. H. ^S^g^ or ?JpTqg; Skr. *^5f5Rcfi I T , Ap. ^|tgrjT#, 
 E. H. spTgTT or 5T^rggT; etc. The m in the E. H. forms STTT, 
 ^rgn^ might be the usual result of the simplification of the con- 
 junct nr^, but is more likely to be the strong termination of the 
 base, as shown by the M., which changes that OT to U, as iT^rq'Tr^ 
 goodness (Man. 112) for E. H. gcHTqg; i.e., M. adds qg to the 
 strong form iTcg = HvTO" = Pr. ^3" = Skr. H£3i. In the B. and 
 0. Tg the V has been apparently softened to g. 
 
 Fourth Group. 
 
 23 2. Set. Com. gen. Fern. 
 
 1) sfr?^ or cF^ ^rTT or cTfTT 
 
 2) gn^ or g<T gFTT or qFTT 
 
 The forms of com. gen. are weak, the others are strong. Strong 
 masc. forms (ac cfrFT, etc.) do not exist. 
 
 2 3 3. The weak suff. are used to derive posscssional adj. 
 from subst. of the weak form. Thus of?T or 5J7T in ygsfrj or *MHg 
 (m. f.) wealthy, of tfg wealth; WrTSfrX or °^ faithful, of imnfaifh: 
 FTTnHFT^ or ' ar^T sorrowful, of em sorrow; ggsffT^ or sin virtuous, of 
 
116 SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §234—230.] 
 
 tgfyirtue; diicjrj^ or 5irT victorious, of 5W we/ ory ; qTTcTr^or °5JH proud, 
 of qr^r pride; ^TJTcirT^ or °cT?t fortunate, excellent, of '*ttt^ fortune, ex- 
 cellence, etc. Again JTrT^ or JTrT in fefpTr}^ or fwpTrT^ (m. f.) excel- 
 lent, of fef^ excellence; spnTrT^ or °*Tr^ monkey, of ^r /aw; iTf^rfrT^ 
 or qTT devoted, of MTW devotion ; t^itft or °J : 7rT virtuous, of TH" vir- 
 £«e; etc. 
 
 2 34. The strong fern. suff. are commonly used to derive 
 abstract nouns from their respective possessional adj., as vm^TR 
 tvealthiness, of wisit^WBaMhy; ^aMoirft fhoughtfulness, of ^sfs^ihought- 
 ful, of ere thought, etc.: see §§ 2 56. 2 57. 
 
 23 5. Affinities. These suff. exist in all Gds., exc. S. 
 See Bs. II, 106. As to M. see Man. 114. H. H. and the H. Gds. 
 generally are fond of using the tats, forms, m. cTFT^ f. oTrTT; as 
 yrq^TPT^ leant i fid, f . ^$J6id) ; ^Fiarr wealthy, f. vnoTrrt ; ;£?TT5rPT merci- 
 fid, f. ^dloldl, etc. In E. H., however, as distinguished from H. H., 
 the tats, forms do not occur, except in a few proper names, as 
 iBToTPT God, irnoFTi - the goddess Gaudi, etc. ; IpTTFr^ the monkey-god, 
 etc. S. has the suff. 5TFT m., arrpT f. (Tr. 76.99), asm. y|<?iolk4, 
 f. etcJHakTt, E. H..m. f. ^ToffT^ or °5r?T; H. H. m. FTT^SIT^, LsUv&fti 
 amiable. This S. form has in exceptional cases crept into the other 
 Gds. ; as H., M., G. JTritsrnr^ or nWcTT^ coachman (see Man. 113. 
 Ed. 14). 
 
 236. Deriv at ion. The originals of these suff. are the 
 Skr. taddh. clfT^and JTrT^, which become in Pr. sffT and JTrT (Vr. 4, 3 5. 
 H. C. 2, 159). Whence in the Mg. nom. sg. in. STFT and JTFT, f. oftft 
 and rffff; in E. II. m. f. oftr^ and JTff (§§4 3.4 5) or aH^ and TrT^ 
 (§§ 143. 14 6). Or with pleon. *J added, in Mg. f. sffiTOT and 
 3TTH9T, E. H. 5rm" and jfrTt or zmt and ^JWt (§ 51). Thus Skr. m. 
 y^ar^r , Mg. ytnafr, E. H. feFTSKT or °^r^; Skr. f. y^srrrt, Mg. ymcffrt, 
 E. H. feRcfa or °5FT;, again Skr. f. *y^T5rf7rarr, Mg. tnjT=ffH^T, E. H. 
 y-TcfHT or 5rnT (scl. m^ condition). The S. apr, f. stt^tt, though, 
 probably, ultimately connected with the Skr. suff., are independent 
 of the Pr. m. 5JHT, f. ofrTT; for they exist also in Pers., and there 
 are no forms *TPT, q"RT in S., corresponding to Pr. ifrft, JTrft. 
 
§237—240.] SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 117 
 
 Fifth Group. 
 
 237. Set. 1) Com. gen. STT^ (§ 82). Masc. ^rTT or ^cTT. 
 
 Fem. asr^TT or ^fft- (§§ 25. 7 7) 
 The suff. of com. gen. is a weak, the others are strong forms. 
 
 238. These suff. occur only with a very few subst. from 
 which they are used to derive possessional adj. ; and from the 
 latter abstract nouns are derived by means of the fem. strong 
 form (see §2 57). Thus ScTTS^T shield-hearer, 5e?l£7Tt or ScrTrTT off ire 
 of sh.°, from £T^t_ shield; y \%\ ^ri_ spearsman, of srT^T spear; cfi"3WT^7T 
 warrior-bard, of 'ptwt ivar-song; f^fiTTjfT a ling-worship)>er, of f^frr 
 phallus; ^7=^37^ talker, of ^f^TT talk; :tftt^ft kinsman, of TTFTT kin; 
 cjjjrcfT^ or ^I'^riT or cTj^rTT the name of a very poisonous snake, of 
 3iT[T or TfT^T black; T^rrjc^ robber and ZST^Tft or JSFnrt profession 
 of robbery, of 3T37T robbery ; 5TfrTT?rT (fem.) abundance, of EJ^H^mueh. 
 
 23 9. Affinities. These suff. are properly W. Gd., more 
 especially S., whence they have exceptionally passed (mostly in 
 technical terms) into the other Gds. In S. they are: 1) m. ^TrTt, 
 f. ^TTi' (for *5j?ft, *^^?ft) added to weak bases, as 5£?rt having a son, 
 of 25" son ( Dase 5£> Skr. dsr); and 2) m. ^T^rfr, f. mj?{t added to 
 strong bases, as oTTTJ^rfV opportune, of oTTT/Y time (base oTT^T = 5TT^"5", 
 Skr. oTT^T). P. has occasionally the form ^T*rT or ^rV ( see g s \\^ \ 02). 
 
 240. Derivation. These suff. may have been originally 
 connected with those of the fourth group. For in Vr. 4, 2 5. H. C 
 2, 159 the Pr. originals ^«T or ^W are mentioned in close con- 
 nection with ofrT and itrT. The latter, inch of the final ^ of the 
 base, would be 'gcTcT and g^fT or (eliding 5T and ^jj) ^7T, or (in- 
 serting q^, §69) 9?irT, or (vocalizing^, §121) ^rT, or (again de- 
 taching the n of the base) f <T. Thus Pr. JTTtntTTT or qTm^WT proud (H. 
 C. 2, 1 5 9) would be = rTTUTSfrTT = qTUT^FTT, qTCTTSfFTT = Skr. UTTcTFT.. 
 With pleon. n added to the suff., they are Pr. m. ^cW^T, f- 9st%^T; 
 S. m. ^m, f. ^fft. Or with pleon. W added to the base, Pr. m. a^wt, 
 f. W^wt, E. H. m. or f. mjTfj, and with pleon. 9 added to both the 
 base and suff., Pr. m. S^^^rar, f. 5^f?rarT; S. m. mZ^T, f. OT^m; 
 E. H. in. ^^WT or ^TTT, f. g^rft or ^fr. — There are, however, a few 
 
118 SECONDARE DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §241.242.] 
 
 words of a similar form, such as ^T^lTrT^ or ^^jTTT or ^ttt rider, 
 trooper, ^rrr^rr or f. irrrjiffr or ^nnT quarrelsome, %T,~3T^n swaggvrer, 
 etc., which seem to require a different explanation. They are 
 clearly primary derivatives of the Rs. ^5 mount, rTTrr quarrel, 
 %sFT3 strut; viz., prohahly, part. pres. of the denom. verba ^^ToT , 
 ^rrra" , gsmc^ (see §§ 34 9. 3 5 2). The suff. of such part, would be 
 in Skr. m<W?T , in Pr. gTST'rfV or ^TSTFTT. The latter would change 
 to gmFTT, STTJJrTT, Hi hi! or ?JTJWt, and in Gd. STTStT. Possibly the 
 first mentioned derivatives, also, are to be explained in this way, 
 as denominative participles, instead of possessional adj. This is the 
 explanation suggested by Ls. 28 9. 2 90. It is favored by the fact 
 that both examples in Vr. 4, 2 5., viz., TTTTTTrTT angry and fnrnrjrTT 
 alive, end in WTttt with long d. Those in H. C. 2, 15 9., viz., STar^iT 
 poetical and qw^Wt proud, indeed, end in ^JWT with d\ but this 
 need be no objection; as Pr. may, optionally, shorten the denom. 
 suff. m<3 to gsr, see H. C. 4, 3 7. Wb. Spt. 65. 
 
 Sixth Group. 
 2'41. Set. Com. gen. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1) 9Tc^ or 9T^ ^TcfTT or STfT 9T^?t or ^jft 
 
 2) «TrT or SJT^ mm^ or 5T^V- 5Tc^ or 9TJ«- 
 The forms of com. gen. are weak, the others are strong. As to the 
 manner of adding them, and the use of the alternative forms with 
 c^ and T, see § 195, note. 
 
 24 2. These suff. are used to derive possesional adj. from 
 subst. In some cases, the word has been restricted to some par- 
 ticular secondary meaning. Thus the first set in ^"57^ or rTT~?j;TX 
 or m. °[T, f. ft pot-bellied, of rffr belly; J^vf^ sugar-cane or mango- 
 tree (lit. juicy), of J^ juice; q^T^r f. or qrwiJT or °^T m. a large 
 double water-bag of leather carried across a bullock's buck, with one 
 half suspended on each side of it (lit. two-sided), ofirws/rle; ^"tTT5n 
 sandy, of jn^sand; ^TC£ or 5;ur^ milch-cow, of j^mitJc (M. ^ui^T ), 
 etc. Again the 2 nd set in ZtfWf or dlllcrj^ m. or f. merciful, of 5^ 
 (Skr. jjtjt) mercy ; cfTsnvr or ?T5rr?T bashful, of enrr shame; perhaps 
 also tjrrr^T quarrelsome of <Tin^T quarrel; but see §§308.312. 
 
§ 243—245.] SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 119 
 
 Note: In some words the suff. is probably pleonastic (cf. § 2 09), 
 as in ^^ or&^T^c woman; ETTT orsrf^nr i'. oraf^IT^or ^fjOTJni. clock, 
 (/on;/. In others, where the suff. exists only with "£, it is probably of 
 a different kind, as in i%"^T^ acquaintance, etc.; see §§ 27 2. 27 3. 
 
 243. Affinities. These suff. occur only as an exception 
 in the E. Gd. and P. , but are very common in S. and W. Gd. ; 
 especially the second set. M. has, as a rule, g, sometimes 3T; thus 
 cKrrTT or grsrrj: hairy, Wgrz frolicsome, see Man. 114. G. also has £; 
 as THT^ or 7FTT3E sandy, S. has 3T or ijT, like E. H., and some- 
 times :? (Tr. 66. 69); as umnj~. herdsman, sToTT^ [wheat) mixed with 
 barley; nTsTTT right-handed. P. has £ or c?T ; as 3^TT£T woollen, £RSTT5TT 
 distressed; see Bs. II, 90 — 94. 
 
 244. Derivation. The originals of these suff. are the Pr. 
 suff. 9T^r and 9Tq?t (Vr. 4, 2 5. H. C. 2, 15 9). They occur, however, 
 especially the latter, in Skr. also. The suff. ^T^T becomes in Mg. 
 (nom. sg.) m. ^T^T, f. m^H and, with pleon. ^ added, m. ^Tc^, 
 f. tnk-i^T, whence arise the E. H. first set m. or f . OT^ or ?JTo^and 
 m. mjl or STPrTT, f. Wtp or %mt. E.g., Skr. T^TRrT:, A. Mg. T^T^T 
 (cf. H. C. 2,15 9), E. H. J^TT^ or J*K£; Skr. jryTwrr, Mg. J^T^T 
 or °c^t, E. H.pricT or °£; Skr. ^"^cFT: (cf. nf^ M. W. 3 78, 2), 
 Mg. ri i < |q^ (cf. H. C. 1, 116), E. H. rrr\TXT; f. Skr. *^Ti%eRT, 
 Mg. FTTTf^gr, E. H. FlY^Tfi". The suff. «T5T becomes in Mg., nom. sg., 
 m. or f. 9F5T and, with pleon. 5 added, m. ^T?ro, f. ^ToT^T, whence the 
 E. H. second set, m. or f. mm and m. or f. SIT^T. E. g., Skr. £<3Trp, Mg. 
 ZJTTtrl (cf. H. C. 2, 159), E. H. ^T^ or °£; Skr. 5!kITvTcRT, Mg. 
 vifiTT^T (H. C. 2, 159), E. H. 5T?TTcJ, or °Je^. As to the origin of 
 the suff. m*\ and ^T^T, they are probably derivatives of the Skr. 
 suff. ?5T like ; see §251. 
 
 Seventh Group. 
 245. Set. Com. gen. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1) g^^ or %<;j ^TiyfT or OTT ^^Tf or ^ 
 
 2) ^ or ^r ^c?TT or ^7J ^ or ^ff 
 
 3) *I3c^ or 93^ €JT^TT or WTTT ^T^T or flnrffr 
 
 4) 3^ or 3"[ 35^T or 37J 3^ or 3 ft 
 
120 SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §246—248.] 
 
 The forms of com. gen. are weak, the others are strong. In the 
 two first sets qFT is commonly used, in the two others^; for the 
 rest see § 195, note. 
 
 24 6. These suff. are used to derive possessional adj. from 
 subst. Sometimes the word is restricted to some particular meaning. 
 The first and third sets are those commonly used. Thus the 1 st 
 set in £it^t m. or f. quarrelsome, of httt quarrel; nir^rr, f. °??T knotty, 
 of ni^knot; q^^T, f. °c<rt' swampy, of tftt water; mrr0i m. or f., or 
 trzr^rn", f . oft fuU of stones, of nor stone; fcfi'rTT having a sting, of 
 Tf^T sting; ^^\Z^ a t Red house, of ^mjl tile; <sH\xh§tf beast of burden. 
 of sftqr load; %vrz^[^ milch-cow, of gfcf milk; etc. Again the 2 nd set 
 in }fdoHT, f. ^H" sand//, of ^rT sand; yYfihoi. loaded, of ornK load; etc. 
 Again the 3 d set in *TQ3^ m. or f., or wr{T, f. Q Jlfidl of stones, of 
 tW£ stone; ifarsj m. or f., or fsTTfT, f. °ft having a sting, a wasp, of 
 Tf3T sting; <«a^ m. or f., or 7^T"^T, f. °j\ juicy, of fe 'juice; srrTT^T or 
 y^iicii prickly heed, of snn^ warmth; sjchMI 7?oorf and cJchlcHl greew 
 caterpillar, of 5j"f^; a &e>?tf; etc. Again the 4 th set in crnT^" moth, 
 of <rnr (Skr. tnr) «7;w/; ^ITrT^ or ^rfff jircsfiftitr, of (TTff (Skr. <JTsT) 
 vessel; UTtT^ weafc (H. H. qn^TT; lit. leaf -like), from qp? Zed?/; 5TT3^" 
 or ST3TT, f. °-^- mad (H. H. ciioicdT), of eTTff w/»r? (lit. inflated). 
 Occassionally, the suff. expresses relation generally, as in SPTcjTT, 
 f. vrr wild, savage, ofsrj a wood; srfc<TT, f. °^tt tame, of sr^ 'house; 
 ^WTp" or cF7<p) i <rTi tumour in the armpit, of cfiT^r armpit. 
 
 247. Affinities. These suff. exist in all Gds., but in the 
 W. and S. Gd. they have an initial ^ or ^ for JT, and m or 3 for «T, 
 and in H. H. also ^ for ^ or 3. The M., G. and 0. have ^, and S. 
 often £ for ^. Thus W. II. ^^nr or T*fr, II. H. ^ftt or Z^T or 
 g^FTT, M. $f£T or z^T, G. ^t or ^V, S. ^T or $T^t, £crft or £fY, 
 ^T (Tr. 67). The interchange of ^ and 5T_, however, occasionally 
 occurs in all Gds., and, indeed, already in Pr. (see § 248). Thus 
 H. H. ifCTcrTT, W. II. f^teft knotty; W. H. wrim, M. ept^ prickly 
 heat; H. II. ^ricni M/>2, "pr^TT sandy; etc.; further examples see in 
 Bs. II, 95 — 101. 
 
 248. Derivation. The originals of these suff. are the Pr. 
 
§249—251.] SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 121 
 
 suff. ^ and 3^ (Vr. 4, 5. H. C. 2, 159) -or, with the pleon. * 
 added to the base, 5^rT and S357 ox', with pleon. ?J added to 
 the suff., J5T*7, *?3r?T£, StfTS', 535TO, whence the E. H. suffixal forms 
 regulary arise. Thus E. II. ^ 7 JJT^= A. Mg. <7P7vr^oT ; E. H. qsT^o<TT = 
 A. Mg. u&i{ $$?', E. H. ^73^ = A - M £* ^^3^; E. H. qsr^TT = 
 A. Mg. q^c?T3^"P" ; E. H. qn^t = A. Mg. crafi^T, etc. From the Pr. 
 these suff. were probably adopted into the Skr. as taddh. with 
 one 3$j thus ^"c^ in Skr. 3"f^5f Imotty; 3^L or 3^ in oJTcp* or 
 STTiT^T gouty; ^ft in rrnTr^TT raw sugar, etc. The Pr. taddh. ^ 
 (H. C. 2, 145. Vr. 4, 25), which occurs also in Skr., may, per- 
 haps, be identified with the Pr. J?rT (or ^vf), by the interchange 
 of cFj; and ^ (see §110); in S. it occurs as ^7 (see § 247); but E. H. 
 has no suff. J7J, except as an alternative of ^T. — As to the 
 origin of the suff. ^5T and 3cT (probably from Skr. TSl), see §251. 
 
 Eighth Group. 
 249. Set. £om. gen. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1) a. UT or ^ ^7J or TflT ^ft or ^Tt 
 b. yjc~~ or ^T^ T£J^ or ^TJ 
 
 2) a. m^ or snj srrjT or ^Vst sjtft' or W\i\ 
 b. mj or In injT or fft"3T SfT'fi' or SfHt 
 
 The forms of com. gen. are weak, the others strong. Those with 1J 
 are properly W. H. As to the way of adding them, see § 195, note. 
 
 2 50. These suff. are used to derive possessional adj. from 
 subst. ; but the derivatives are few in number and always restricted 
 to some particular meaning. Thus the first set, in WJJ1 or ^TOUT 
 snake-catcher, of *TPT snake; SIETT palings, of wriTJ thorn; q®^-bird, 
 of trppT wing. The second set in 5T7OTJT or cFJ"3*l^l parents, of 
 wtfpRT chUd; "mtp shoulder-blade, of<nw side; ^Hp or ^Tt^t ham- 
 mer, of ^T?r handle; ^>7^7T tax-gatherer, of 3>^r tax, etc. 
 
 251. Affinities and Derivation. I believe these suff. 
 and their derivatives are, strictly, W. Gd. , and only introduced 
 into the E. H. from the W. II. To this' group belong the suff., 
 S.^Tt (Tr. 7 0) and M. ZTFit (Man. 113); e.g., S. ^ffjsh walker, 
 of <T£ or <qr foot, STTETZST guide, of o[JZ way. — On comparing 
 
122 SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §252.253.] 
 
 this group with the sixth find seventh, it will he seen, that there 
 are. in each, identical suff. containing rf or T or "3; thus, sixth 
 group, E. II. mm or s?T^, M. ott or sit . S. €?T3" or M. %U ; 
 seventh and eighth groups, E. II. ^"crTT or T?*n or ^ITT. M. t73TT; E. 11. 
 STT^TT, m^T, W. II. ^T^TT or WT1T, M. ST^T. Further, on comparing these 
 with the third pleonastic group (S 209), it will be seen that the 
 suffixes in the two classes are identical. Hence it appears pro- 
 bable, that they have the same origin and are derived from the 
 Skr. suff. TST, as explained in § 218. Skr. JTST^: would, in Ap. Pr., 
 become fz^3, whence, eliding IT and contracting the hiatus-vowels, 
 the forms 33ft and ZUT would arise, as contained in S. saiTl and 
 M. T5T7JIT. The initial vowels of the latter must be accounted for 
 by the addition of the pleon. ^ to the base, just as in pleon. 
 l^TT, ^W, -;^TT, etc. (see §218). — That the Skr. suff. ?ST like 
 would easily lend itself to derive possess, adj., may be seen from 
 the German peinlich, i. e., painful, or from the English lively, 
 prickly, sprightly = full of life, pricks, spirit. 
 
 Ninth Group. 
 2 5 2. Set. Com. gen. Masc. Fein. 
 
 1) % — ¥& 
 
 2) ^cK ^WT \fc or ^ 
 
 The suff. ^3? and cf^f are weak, the others strong forms. As to 
 the manner of adding them, see § 19 5, note. 
 
 2 53. These suff. are used to derive adj. expressing, in a 
 general way, possession or relation from subst. The first set is 
 the one commonly used; sometimes in its long form ^JT (see § 19 9). 
 Thus, 1 st set in ^im or fTSFrt friend, companion, of e-x or ^fsTX 
 companionship; ^jft or ^% enemy, of t3T^[or5R«[ enmity; ^w^itf 
 or sJrftfiflU ' l or Vc\fom a talkative person, of ^g=?aT«[ or <s>iril«yi« talk; 
 ^it happy, o£ mi happiness; z&t miserable, ofz^pain; v& wealthy, 
 of tfX wealth; FTcft oilman, of iWr^ oil; m^t gardener, of m^ or 
 jtp?tt garland; vtsft washerman, of feftsr (§ 311) washing; f?n<rt or 
 ^Trfeai craftsman, of ^mzi handicraft; s?i[f^qT huntsman, of sng" 
 shooting; nrfjSTT shepherd, of rrj fold, etc. And ffpj^ belonging to 
 
§254— 257.] SECONDARE DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 123 
 
 a Hindu of f%^ Hindti; ^jiii bek /" <i Mardthd of ^titt Mardthd 
 (man or country > ; sfcren English of ?nj?r Englishman or England, 
 etc. Again the 2 nd set in irfq-^r or ufrcHT, f. °crt wealthy, of fc^r 
 wealth, etc. 
 
 2 5 4. Derivatives in j are gen. com., when used adjectively; 
 hut when used as suhst., they form a fern, in ^T or 3"Tt", on 
 which see the next group (§ 2 5 6). Thus oillTwfl' iTTWT Bangdli 
 langtitage; srffp fflffm" foreign woman; but sfmfcrrt^r or ^rf^^ft 
 a woman of Bangdl, ^rf^rfrfq' or srfirfpri' a woman of a foreign 
 country. 
 
 2 5 5. Affinities and Derivation. These suff. exist in 
 all Gds.; see Bs. II, 83 — 8 9., where examples will he found. — 
 The original is the Skr. taddh. suff. ^c?t; in Mg. (in the nom. sg.) 
 ^7" or ^cF (or :p£ § 2 03, footnote 1) or, with pleon. sr added, 
 JcR^; whence E. H. J or ^cF7 or T^- Thus Skr. £Tf5f3>:, Mg. tfftn^ 
 or amnir or uf^T^, E. H. iFVt or ^fara? or fcriqw>T. Skr. JT^T7T%37:, 
 Mg. ^7^% (cf. H. C. 1, 69. 2, 119), E. H. JTT/Tst (cf. §32). In 
 the latter and in similar words, the original suff. may also have 
 been the taddh. ^JT; practically it makes no difference, as Skr. T£T 
 would be Mg. £tf, E. H. J. As to the origin of the fein. suff., 
 see §§ 256 — 262. 
 
 Tenth Group. 
 256. Set. 1) Fern. — £ Set. 2) Fern. ^T or ?5\ 
 
 3) „ 9T5=t or m^rt „ 4) „ — stptt 
 The suff. ^PT and ^T-^T are weak, the others strong. As to the 
 manner of adding them, see § 195, note; but observe that the 
 final 3 of a base is not elided, but changed to 3; flp~3f?f or 
 f^rs^n a Hindu ivoman of f|^j Hindu. 
 
 2 5 7. These suff. are used to derive feminine from masc. 
 nouns; and it may be remarked, that, with inanimate objects, the 
 fern, generally expresses diminuti/eness, while in many other cases 
 it forms abstract nouns. Thus inft hillock, of 37HT hill; ^FTT copse, 
 of rx^wood; srfsrt flute (lit. smtMpfeci of bamboo), ofsrfsr bamboo; 
 sftsft bidlci, globule, of m^T ball; frff string of TT^T rope; =^TT 
 
124 SECONDARY DERIVATIVE .SUFFIXES. § 258. 259.] 
 
 bodice, of =^tt waistcoat, etc. Again FTP3of?TT thoughtful ness, of srrgcFT 
 thoughtful; j*sw\ft guarding or guardianship, of 7WciT^ guardian; 
 £^rm shieldbearership, of tt^tt^tt shieidbearer ; f=r-fTT7T acquaintance, of 
 f=5F^T^[ aw acquaintance; q^frr^rfr reading or reinlersh/p, of T^f^T^ 
 or °^"T reader; etc. 
 
 2 5 8. The first set may be used with any adj. or subst. 
 in ^T. Thus adj.; t1t3T true, ofm.^rf^T; STren" crooked, of m. STTSfjT; 
 JTtpr)" sweef, of m. Jnsi; iiwt hungry, of m. «wr; srfi' great, of m. 
 STJT, etc. Or subst., ^"fi" or ^ttfift or cfrf^rf" girl, of ^TfT or ^T^TT 
 or crffjcFTT boy; srrfr daughter, of STePf .sow; cfjt^t paternal aunt, of 
 mj^ paternal uncle: ^tttt maternal grandmother, of ^IPTT mat. grand- 
 father; sraFT^ or ^ft she-goat, of 5r?R^T or ^"^t he-goat; srT"^" more, 
 of sftfT horse; VT"iT g*pe, of J41T mm; ^FT^i' feew, of 5>cjT^T coc&; etc. 
 Occassionally the corresponding masc. in ^T is not in use (cf . § 19 6); 
 as etor^i' fern, goldsmith, of *^rt"^t or ^"^t^ m. ; ^nrf f. leather- 
 worker, of *xliTT"^T or ^mTJ m.; cfT^t^, f. potter, of *Uil^T or 
 Sffr^qr m. ; ^T^t", f. porter, of *cfi^"T or ^[rf m. ; ^TriTfr, f. car- 
 penter, of *^rTT)'T or ^rTT^ m. 
 
 Note: In a few cases the long form in 707 (see § 19 9) is 
 exclusively used; as in 3Tf%TT fem., of 5RWT dog; fjfsrar small box, 
 of fen box, 5rf^;?JT old woman, of 57^T old man; but the short 
 forms cfiWl, fj^n, sizft also occur. 
 
 2 5 9. The second set can be added only to subst. in 5 
 or 3" or ~3,, expressing animate objects ; never to adj., except when 
 used substantively. Thus in ^ ; persons ; JTPTTf^fn or fpTT f. gold- 
 smith, of ^TT^r m.; ^qif^f^ or °fj$t f. leather-worker, of ^LJ m.; 
 ifrsttfeifrr or jraf or rj° f. cowherd, of htstt^ m. ; arsnferfr /Vrr//- 
 ivoman, of ST?:5rT^m., etc. Or animals; qFrffRT f. moth, of TT^ in. ; 
 ^Tmfr or crfsFri' tigress, of srm %er; ^""raft" or Pefinft lioness, 
 of ^"sr £io». Again in §"; persons; TpfrTf^T or °f^TT f. neighbour, 
 of cr^Tet m.; ^TfTTTrfar or °f?nft f. ascetic, of fel(u!t ; m%f^T or °^" 
 f. gardener, of 5TTc?TT m. ; ytfsrfr or °^\ washerwoman, of 5jY^Y v m.; 
 ctfTf^fn' or °rKt f. leper, of cJTnit, etc. Or animals; ^Tf%fSr or ^f5"^t 
 f. elephant, of fTPr!" m. Again in ~s, ; <T3jf?r or ^T3^Tf f. barber, of 
 
§260—202.] SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 125 
 
 =TT3 m.; u^^^fSr or °Tt watchman' s wife, ofcr^v, etc.; see § 2 5 6. 
 Occasionally the masc. is not in use, as silld^T or srftpr^ or ^rf^Trr 
 sister (masc. nrj brother). 
 
 2 60. The third and fourth sets are confined to some par- 
 ticular words, as qin^r or nT wife of a tfiTt a kind of brahman; 
 ^rar^r woman of the ^Tsr caste; 5"^i^^ woman of the gsi (m.) caste; 
 6JH^"T57r lad// of 3T37:$r lord, chief; =^T^7T^ wife of a =5TTyft head- 
 man] tffTffT-r^ wife of a ^ZT priest; rv^wc^^wife of a nj; teacher; 
 ^jfZrn^iirife of a ^firj scholar ; 5rfR"'TT<TT woman of the ^ fan trader- 
 caste; <{^\\\r\\ m A\ wife of a q^rf^f^ family priest. 
 
 Note: These suff. are used even with foreign words, as iT?[rT^~RT 
 or iTipT^T^JT wife of a JT^r^ (pers. ~*^) sweeper ; ^fer wife of 
 a SfTT^ (arab. — j^) groom. — With names of castes or profes- 
 sions the fern, signifies either the wife of a man of the caste, 
 or any woman of that caste, or any woman following that pro- 
 fession. 
 
 261. Affinities. These suff. occur in all Gels. But P. and 
 W. H. have ^J and g^ri" after nouns in sr ; thus E. H. irfsf^T 
 wife of a ^ merchant, W. H. £r5^, P. £re^ or irS^T, S. ^rfs'ciT 
 or Jarftftrr or £rf?rufr; but E. H. ^rrf^f^r wife of a aFtf^ - weaver, 
 W. H. cF>>f%rT, P. cFrfiFTJT, S. mtfjiin o^ffrjrt (Tr. 9 9 — 102. Ld. 
 13,41. 4 2). M. has JOT as fTS^tn^ cFrrarfcn^, ztTZTtm^ (tigress), see 
 Man. 24. G. has ^crr or w^ as cj7T£tn^ or grnferji^, srTSJ'cn^ or ^TOUT^, 
 sn^rr^ or UTsrnT (washerwoman), see Ed. 2 6, 9. B. has ^ft or n^ 
 or gpft, as srrfiFTr, fcfterFTt, efiTqT^T (a fern, blacksmith), see S. Ch. 
 36.40.41. For further examples, see Bs. II, 1 63 — 1 70. 
 
 262. Derivation. The original of the E. H. suff. ^ is the 
 Skr. taddh. scjiT, which becomes in Pr. "§m, and is contracted in E. H. 
 to ^, as explained in § 203. It is , in fact, identical with the 
 pleon. fern. £ of the 1 st set, 1 st group. — The original of the 
 E. H. second set is the Skr. taddh. ^fi" or, with pleon. 37 added, 
 iPlch'l, in Pr. ^un or ^fmgT, E. H. ^ or Z^t ', thus Skr. base 
 rrriw^, m. jtt^tI', Mg. qT*rr, E. H. deest (* mfe) ; fem. Skr. rrrf^RT, 
 Mg. JTTi%T]fr, E. H. JTT%f?T, or with pleon. a added, Skr. *TTi%^: 
 
126 SECONDARE DEEIVATIVE 8UPFE5ES. §263.264, 
 
 (i.e., JTT%:t + m), Mg. qrf^7, E. II. m^J: fern. Skr. qTRrifrrctfT 
 (i. e., JnfvT^t + 9»T), Mg. mfcrRrraT, E. II. Jjrf^Rh It should be 
 observed that, while in the case of the fern. E. H. preserves both 
 the weak form TTR?rf?r and the strong form *TTf%:rr, on the other 
 hand in the masc. it has only the strong form JTPylt, but not a 
 weak form *ITT^ or *qTH?T (see § 196). Again E. H. W^TTJ has 
 two fern., JTrrnft and .eVrrffft" or 3 f^:ri" ; the former is = A. Mg. 
 *Tr3TtfTf%TOT, Skr. S|5raTSnfieRT fern, of ^rifcFrrjcjv. pleon. for cFT7: ; 
 but the latter is = A. Mg. ^TW^Tf^tlTT or J TWrrraT = Skr. 
 ^EHncETfrtnt or (pleon.) °fjfoTgiT, fern, of ^cTUTcRTTr (base °5RTnPT ). 
 The latter masc. form exists in E. H. only in the weak form 
 ^TPTqr, not in the strong eWft ; though E. H. STT^T.J might and 
 probably does also stand for the A. Mg. mw^Tc?T, Skr. ^srafcFrj:. 
 It is not necessary to assume an anomaly in this and similar words 
 as to the use of the fern. suff. ^fr in E. H.' ; but it appears to 
 be anomalously employed in such words as STTHTFT tigress from m. 
 «U«j for which fern, form there is no foundation in Skr., which 
 has m. SJTTar:, f. snTZTT. — The E. H. suff. WT^T arises in various 
 ways. Thus in ^TeTT^r it arises from Pr. =a3f ^tJTT, Skr. ^iff^ ; 
 in "TST^T and tffjJTT^ it is added anomalously to q'TTT, qfZTT, 
 Mg. qf&%, Skr. qfrj3?T5r:, etc. — The E. H. suff. m$t is a tats. 
 for Skr. snrrt, as in Skr. jF^rffr wife of Indra. — The E. H. •jwl" 
 string is a regular fem. of the E. H. m. JWT, which is derived 
 from the Skr. masc. jf&: or pleon. ^fsiT3T: (or ^s*re>: of ^W?^, 
 see M. W. 83 5, 1)'; not vice versa, the E. H. masc. f^TT formed 
 from the E. II. fern, ^pffr (as Bs. II, 14 9), which would be an 
 unique anomaly. 
 
 Eleventh Group. 
 
 263. Com. gen. sra^. Masc. m or ^35T t. Fem. Sts"* 
 The form ^5T is weak, the others are strong. As to the manner 
 of adding them see § 195, note. 
 
 2 64. These suff. are used to derive ordinal numbers from 
 the cardinals, with the exception of the four first and the sixth, 
 which are formed differently (see §§ 2 6 9. 401). Thus m. or f. crasr , 
 
§265—267.] PLEONASTIC DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 127 
 
 in. q^rr or q^ar, f. q=a3" fifth, of n^fivc; m. f. ^STa^ or m. £ht 
 or 5^J5rf, f. 3^ fetttffe, of 5;^ fen ; m. f. STTT^oT or m. aT^ar, 
 f. 5JT^£ twelfth, of stt^ twelve, etc. They are added pleonasti- 
 cally to the following: Jf^TfT or ^ ja or S^at second, of Z^ two; 
 th^jt or faa^a or ffTO^cif third, of Frff^ Mree; "znm or 5 aNl , s[ or 
 =apqa"f fourth, of =5nff /bw ; ^ST or ^5cT or ^?75TT sixth, of ^ $/#; 
 aT^TT or area or araa'f twentieth, of aTS^ twentij, etc. 
 
 265. Affinities. These suff. exist iii all Gds. ? with very 
 slight differences: thus B. m. m, f. J* (S. Ch. 19 5); M. ^ar, f. SJat, 
 n. ^a" or (from 19 th ) STTaT, mat, Km* (Man. 4 2. 44); H. H. wat, 
 f. JasrT ; W. H. 5?aV, f. gaV ; P. sra'T or girt, f. gaV or girl"" (Ld. 
 82 — 85): G. (and 0. H.) SRT, f. gift, n. 55 (Ed. 4 8); S. sf , f. $*; 
 
 e. g., B. qraT, f. qT^i"; M. q-taar, f. qf^srf, n. qTaa", but faaTar, 
 
 f. ta^raV, n. faaTa" twentieth; W. H. qfaaT, f. qfwf; P. rjsfoti 
 
 or qWf, f. cf?TaV or qwf '; G. qraqT, f. qfaqT, n. qrt%i|; S. qirV, 
 
 f. <t?r. 
 
 26 6. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 taddh. it or, with pleon. 37 added, JTopf; whence nom. sg. (incl. the 
 final ^ of the base) gqqi:, f. gfqr-TfT, Mg. grr^, f. gfq-gT, Ap. Mg. 
 ga^r, f. ara^T (cf. H. C. 4, 3 9 7), E. H. gar or (contracted, after 
 eliding JT or a) ^T : f. W§ w (cf. §§ 33. 47. 51). Thus Skr. q^rroR:, 
 Ap. Mg.q"=a^ or qaaV, E. H. q^T or qaa'f; f. Skr. q^m=F7T, Ap.Mg. 
 cf^rfrT^T or crafasrT, E. H. q=ai"\ The M. form ^TaT may be a 
 contraction of the Skr. gfHrTJTiJT: ; e.g., fasrfHrm-Ti:, Mg. aTajgqY 
 (cf. Wb.Bh. 47 6); or it may have arisen by adding the pleon. ^ to 
 the base and be = Skr. *fasn'3iiT3i:, Mg. *5mT5fJTtf. In the latter case 
 the addition of the suff. ^TaT would be pleonastic , as the Skr. 
 fasT itself means twentieth ; but so it is in E. H. and all other 
 Gds. in =aTWT, s£5cTT, srfaaT, etc., the regular forms being ^FTT, 
 ^ST, ataT, etc. 
 
 Improper Suffixes. 
 
 2 67. The suffixes of the following groups are in reality 
 curtailed nouns, and their derivatives modified compounds. This 
 appears from the following facts: 1) that in some cases the base 
 
128 SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §268—272.] 
 
 does not exist in E. H. ; e. g., cRT—^rqr potter of *5Ri§[ (Skr. cR^u, 
 E. H. <jnrj; ^~^JJ porter, of *cprf (Skr. ^^tr, E. H. gnw); (""tot^t 
 lachrymose, of *JTZ (Skr. fisj; 2) that the various suff. (exc. ^T^r) 
 are, severally, found only in a very small number of words ; 3) that 
 the terminations of their derivatives are not recognised as suff., 
 and their etymology in many cases unknown to all but Skr. scholars. 
 
 Twelfth Group. 
 
 2 6 8. Com. gen. ^or ff|. Masc. ^T. Fern. ^ft. 
 
 The forms of com. gen. are weak, the others strong. 
 
 These suff. are extremely rare, and occur only in numerals ; 
 thus m. f. jJ^T.J, in. JTSTfT, f. °ft second (lit. twice removed, i. e., 
 from Nro. 1), of 5"^" two; m. f. frteqr, m. fa^T, f. °ft third (lit. 
 thrice moved, i.e., from Nro. 1), of rft^r three; m. xfrer or =53^ or 
 f. =3TO^T a field four times tilled (lit. four times moved or turned). 
 
 27 0. Affinities. This curious formation of the second 'and 
 third ordinal numbers is confined to the E. and S. Gel. and H. H. 
 The W. Gds. have the regular ordinal forms : 0. H. JsTT or £j!T ; 
 P. gslT or £*T = Pr. J^grefr or d <* * > (H. C. 1, 94. 209); S. sNt 
 or vm, G. srteft, Pr. fSr^rafr (H. C. 1, 94) or zftmrt (H. C. 1, 248) 
 or fsr^fsWT (H. C. 1, 248); again W. H. tfNrT or fTtsfl, P. ffWr or ffhrr, 
 S. ffilft or psft, G. msTT, = Pr. FT3WT (H. C. 1, 101) or fT^ssrat (cf. 
 H. C. 4, 33 9). But H. H. and M. j*p, ffoqr. 
 
 271. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 past part. pass. ^H: moved, in A. Mg. ^rf^T^" or ^fijTO, which in Gd. be- 
 comes ?T^ by the successive quiescence of the final ^ and Z (cf. §§4 5. 
 302), and q by the elision of £ (cf. § 124). Similarly the E. H. ^ 
 is = A. Mg. e%g$7, Skr. iSFTtfi: ; and f. srff = A. Mg. ef%T^T, Skr. 
 rrfrrgiT. E. g., Skr. *JT^TcT: (i. e., f^": + tf?r), A.Mg. gjrf%£, E.H. jqj. 
 Thirteenth Group. 
 
 2 7 2. Set. Com. gen. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1) ^ or ^ ?f^T or' ^T 13 ft or fi" 
 
 2) sgrqr myi mfi 
 
 The forms of com. gen. are weak, the others strong. As to the 
 manner of adding them, see § 195, note. 
 
§ 273— 276.] SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 129 
 
 2 7 3. These suff. are used to derive adj. expressing (geni- 
 tive) relation from subst. or pronouns ; but they occur very rarely. 
 Thus in the possessive pron. ; m. f. ^TTJ or m. ^JT, f. °fi our 
 (lit. of us), of ^Mcc; m. f. ffT^qr or m. FlY^T, f. °f^ your (lit. 
 of you), of rjrir you; m. f. jtt^ or m. wtjx, f. °jt mine, of *jtt I; 
 in. f. rTT^ or in. rff^T, t° ft thine, of *cH thou. Again in nouns; e.g., 
 m. f. iTcrnjr or in. JTcT^T, f. °^t rustic, vulgar, of rrfe village ; m. f. 
 f%^T^" or m. f%'^TY T an acquaintance (lit. of a mark, marked), 
 f. f%"^rp acquaintance; fiT^T^ beggar, of *rh^ alms; perhaps also 
 frf^ar^ tools, weapons, of ?fqm small handle; m. srrewijT, f. °^V 
 grassier, of Jiiwr (or sjw) grass; nf^Jn^r, f. °^ innkeeper, of uf&qr 
 (or VIST) hearth, inn (Skr. ire"). 
 
 274. Affinities and Derivation. These suff. are identical 
 with the gen. affixes cji^r, ^JJ, ^ft, see § 3 7 7, where their deri- 
 vation will be fully explained. The full suffix apfT still exists in 
 the M. rrfsicFqr villager (Man. 113), Wfjefq" (H. mf^) mischievous, 
 of i^ti (Man. 114); ferq^fsqr a man of Chiplun (Bs. II, 181), etc. 
 The curtailed suff. ^, WT[, etc. are employed in B. and 0. as 
 their ordinary gen. affixes; as 0. SJJ^ domestic or of a house, of 
 ^ house. H. H. has ^TT^"T our, ^^TTJ your, ^TcH"^ villager. 
 Fourteenth Group. 
 27 5. Set. Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1) m\ mj\ mft 
 
 2) — sfTf^fr mft arf^ft 
 
 3) cFT^ cKT(T a^ff 
 
 The forms in ^T and ^ are strong, the others weak. As to the 
 manner of adding them, see § 195, note. 
 
 27 6. These suff. are used to derive nouns, expressing 
 „ workers of something". They are of a limited number. Thus the 
 1 st set in ufaTif , f. tftrrrfr or °f^r or °fpt goldsmith, of JJRT gold ; 
 ^f"fT^, f. °fi or °f^ or °fj$t potter, of £p]^ pot ; cF^, f. °ft or 
 ff;fr or °fpTT porter, of qify^ shoulder ; ^T^, f. °ff or f{"fa or 
 °f\5i leathcr-ivorkcr, oi ^m^ leather; wrq, f.°ft or fj/fn" or °fpT 
 carpenter, of^n^thrcad; sf'tfT^ or ^mqr^ or mnyr, f. °fl", or ^mJTT^T m., 
 
130 SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §277—280.] 
 
 f. 0w ^t dark or darkness, of mu dark. The 2 ud set in QZlft, 
 f. QsTrf^f^t or °fjzft worshipper, of OsTT worship. Tlie 3 d set in 
 jpT^T^ or °^T or °ft deliverance, of Wtt delivered. 
 
 277. Affinities and Derivation. The original of those 
 suffixes is the Skr. noun W,TJ or STTrpTj e. g., Skr. cFWcfnp or 
 "ft-, Mg. epTar^r or °^ft or *ut& or °<5Tf, E. H. srff^q (cf. §120); 
 Skr. qjjTT^TfpFT. (i. e., °fpT + 5>), Mg. gjRTTf^, E. II. <Knfl, N. 
 Q^TT^Tf^", (S. Lk. 1, 5). These and similar words occur in all Gels. 
 As to the fern., see § 25 9. 
 
 Fifteenth Group. 
 
 278. Set. Com. gon. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1) cFT cfiT £\ 
 
 2) £ — 
 The forms of com. gen. are weak, the others strong. 
 
 27 9. These suff. are used to derive adj. expressing relation 
 from a suhst. Thus cfiTS'cF or 5FT5^ or cUTS^T, f. °mt wooden, of 
 ^IT?7 wood; STfaR or a^STT, f. °cfft domestic, of uj home; 5PW or 
 ^in^TT, f. crt wild, of sr^ forest; etc. 
 
 280. Affinities and Derivation. These suff. are iden- 
 tical with the common genitive affixes; and their derivatives are 
 really genitives of the respective bases. This can be seen from the 
 fact that all the various Gel. gen. aff. may be used in this way; 
 thus M. ^r in M. srplT domestic (Man. 113. Bs. II, 110), in S. 
 mr,^\ of the same village, of if T?r ; snsr^rr of the jungle, of srf^ 
 (Tr. 91); again Konkani 5TT in M. FTT^nr of (hat place, of nrV "there 
 (Man. 113); again G. nfr in S. HTTjnfT thievish, of ^ thief, 
 or ^TTrTrTTT oral, of 5JTfT moidh (Tr. 7 2. 7 3); again II. cRT in M. 
 ^TTcrTcHT eloquent, of dW word (Man. 107), mjTif given to herding, 
 of *rq" heating (Man. 115), gift^d^ office of a mf£^ village ac- 
 countant (Man. 113); in F. fq3cFT paternal, of fas father; in S. 
 qrfjcFn' relating to a ^rffr peasant (Tr. 71); again Mw. ft in M. 
 *3T5TTT itch-producing, of ^TsT^ (Man 115); and, of course, each in 
 its own language. — As to the origin of all these affixal forms 
 see § 3 7 7. — The vowel U before xtf in S. is not (as Bs. II. 110) 
 
§281—283.] SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 131 
 
 the inflected termination of the noun; for the ohl. form of rftS" 
 is not iffe but TTtK ; similarly of 5lf^ it is not sr^t, but Eff^ (Tr. 
 123. 128); but all these long vowels in S. , viz. ^ in ^^t, ^ 
 in ^T, m in ^rrqtt or mf (Tr. 7 0), 3 in 3XlfV, St in Wteftt (Tr. 71), 
 have probably arisen by the suff. being added to the strong form 
 (in W( or 731 or 55t or 3ST, contracted to {7, ^, etc.), just as in 
 M. ttcfT^nit goodness, of H^ft + <TOT (see § 2 31). 
 Sixteenth Gwup. 
 
 281. Set. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1) ^ff 
 
 2) srrat STjft 
 
 The form ST^ is weak, the others are strong. As to the way of 
 adding them, see §195, note. 
 
 282. Of these suff. the first set is used to derive subst., 
 expressing „ desire of anything", and the second set to derive adj. 
 meaning „ desirous", from an other subst. The number of such 
 derivatives, however, is small. Thus f. f^t 5 ^ desire to sleep, slee- 
 piness; m. prfsTTTt, f. °^ sleepy, of nt~«[ sleep; 3STFJ sleepiness, °m 
 m., °fxt f. sleepy, of 33^ sleep; ^rtt^ f. desire to make water, °^tt 
 m., °^l' f. desirous of d'°, of JTr^ urin; ^itt^ desire to stool, °Vrt m., 
 °5=tt f. desirous of d'°, of ^rr excrement; =5157^ f. lascivioiisness, °stt m., 
 °JTf f. lascivious, of ^t^ copulation', T?7t^ glutton)/, of <T?r belli/; 
 ctrrFTT m., °^t f. inclined to bite, snappish, of ctrr?; ?>i/c. Sometimes 
 the base is not in use, as in ^tst^ f. inclination to weep, ^terat 
 m., °^t f. tearful. In a few words the suff. has come to signify 
 abstract nouns, as fast^ f. sweetness (lit. desire or tendency to be 
 siveet), of r^T, sivect; 3=aftg; f. height, of 3% high; sT^T^ coldness, 
 of 5T^ (II. H. irs ) cold. 
 
 283. Affinities and Derivation. These derivatives are 
 found also in W. II. and P. (see Bs. II, 82). In the other Gds. 
 the (so-called) suff. is probably better preserved in its nominal 
 form. It is merely a curtailment of the nouns oTI^or 5Ttf[ (fem.) 
 desire = Skr. srro^T, and cTTOt or 5rt3>t desirous = Skr. oTT^ctr:, 
 as may be seen from the alternative form ^ScTTTt MbidinOKS. In 
 
132 SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. § 284—286.] 
 
 the suff., 5[^ is elided and the hiatus-vowels contracted to 5T. Thus 
 Skr. f^TSTTofT, Pr. Pi^d^i, E. H. f^W ; Skr. (\dlo^eh ': , Mg. 
 ?<Traci^7' or o=fr^^^, E. H. ^t^T^TT. The change of 5 to tf is very 
 common in M. and Mw. , and, though less so, in P., whence it 
 has sometimes passed into the other Gds. (see §11. Bs. I, 218). 
 ■ — Shakespear's (II. Diet.) identification of the suff. with the Skr. 
 noun ^rrcsn hope is not tenable; neither is the theory of their con- 
 nection (as Br. II, 81) with the Skr. desiderative. The latter is true 
 only of E. H. fame f. thirst = Skr. faTTeT, Pr. fagraT, and E. II. 
 fatneT m., °m f. thirsty = Skr. faqTfa<73>: m., °iH3prr f. (not, as Bs., 
 Skr. faqFTcfi:, which would be H. fame ). It exactly corresponds to 
 E. H. W? f. hunger = Skr. &}Xm, Pr. gWWT, and E. H. itwt m., wm f. 
 hungry = Skr. sjvrf%rTcF: m., fncFiT f. — The two words <wft f . 
 and <J7ETe m. violent hurst of rain do not belong to this group, 
 but are compounds of 37tr or 3i?7 quick and Pr. srraT f. or 5TT r f n. 
 ram (see H. C. 2, 104), = Skr. WXT and spot. 
 Seventeenth Group. 
 
 284. Set. Fern. Fern. 
 
 i) y K?L or ^^k ^^ 
 
 2) OTsnr^ m$i 
 
 The forms in 7 are strong, the others weak. As to the manner 
 of adding them, see § 195, note. 
 
 285. The first set is used to derive abstract nouns from 
 adj. The form ^r^TT is the one commonly employed. Thus *:Mi^; 
 or e^TSTCT or e^rl" truth, truthfulness, of e^ or eeT true (— e=snT 
 §220); fasTfTT sweetness, of »?te; stveet; nj^n^z warmth, of irp^ 
 (Pcrs. fS) warm; ^{Tf?T purity, of &JX pure; fFTrTT^T: bitterness, 
 of rrTr^or fT^fTT hitter; f%cFRr^? smoothness, of f%5PTT smooth; (TWl^r?: 
 roughness, of T?^ rough; cm^Tfrr bitterness, of crj^t bitter, etc. 
 
 28G. The first and second sets occur in a few words, which 
 are derived from subst., and express relation generally; as =3"H^ Idrf 
 or =EPT^ra77 perquisites of a man of the ^PTT^ caste; WTHT patrimony, 
 of 5iT<T fath er; ^miv( flesh, animal food, (probably) of em kin, related 
 {== Skr. emr of the same origin, hence animal as opp. to vegetable 
 
4} 287. 288.] SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 133 
 
 (cf. § 120); f^-fiHT humility, supplication, of crr^r destitute; ^nrf 
 handicraft, dexterity, of qTT hand. 
 
 287. /iff in if ids. These derivatives are properly W. G<1. 
 and have been introduced into the E. II. from the W. II. In the 
 latter and in P. they are very common; also in S., which has the 
 contracted forms ^TK or 5TrT (or 9c[) or 5T5T (probably for *^TTt), 
 all masc, see Tr. (30. 62. 68. 74.; e. g., xftfg^Tg boyhood, of fefl*7 ] 
 fzwiuTft debtor, of fi^orf debt; irirj; porter*, of u^t load; mmn&t 
 damp, of rrrrrTT water, etc. Also occasionally in M. ; as TJ'TSf'k. 0( ^ on ~ 
 ging to a desert, of £FT (Man. 113), or contracted to ^r (= *mnr: ) 
 as in ^"TJTl'77 angry, of ^"rn_ (Man. 1 1 4). 
 
 288. Derivation. The originals of these suff. are the Skr. 
 nouns crf% fem. or ETW neut. , and oTTWT fem. or EJT3' neut.; all 
 meaning condition, state, mode of life, earnings, etc. (see M. W. 9 5 7. 
 958). The two former become in Pr. oTp or 5TJ (II. C. 2,29), 
 the two latter oTWT (or sryr) and srw (II. C. 2, 30). Next Pr. srrr or 
 srrr and, with pleon. ^ added, orfr^T become in II. 5T?r and 3Tt, or, 
 with pleon. 5" added to the base, 5T3T6 and mrt (contracted for wstttT 
 or 53rr, cf. § 78, for tfT5T£T, § 25) or, with «g; substituted for E£ (see 
 § 69), 5JT^?7. Similarly Pr. sTfTT or Bim^T become in II. ^ToW or 
 jgrTcTl". Thus Skr. *Hc r rqv5rf%:, Pr. FTW^srft or JrassrfT^T, E.II. tf^Tsr?: or 
 STxnrh again Skr. =g*TcjiT^cfi^f%: or °5rrWT, Pr. gnrgr^orft or °5TWT, 
 E. H. =EPTf Par or °srrT^ (for *=^TT7T5f^, cf. § 25). The S. m. mc arises 
 similarly from the Skr. neut. ^T J T. — Those suff. which form 
 adj., as S. ^TrJ, M. srar, arise from the Skr. m. cJtT. orsrrw:, Pr. 
 sjyt or stsT. Thus E. II. nsrfrrTT or rr a beetle found in old cow-dung, 
 from jffgj + 5JW37: living in gobar or cow-dung. — In the E. II. 
 fy*qiar or °5IH (fem.) clayey soil, there is probably an exchange; 
 of *T and 5T , see § 134, 2; E. H. also f%57^rt stt^. — The suff. 
 of this group should be carefully distinguished from those of the 
 fifth group (§ 3 2 2) which are primary, and have an altogether 
 different origin. Practically they are often confounded, and the 
 dental FT^, which is proper to the primary group, given to the 
 secondary, the proper cons, of which is £/, and vice versa. 
 
134 SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §289—201.] 
 
 Eighteenth Group. 
 
 289. Com. gen. J^. Masc. er. Fern. *rt. 
 The form tf is weak, the others are strong. 
 
 290. These suff. occur in a very few nouns, which more or 
 less distinctly imply „ likeness". Thus WTOjJF. (H. H. STcp? ) kindred 
 (lit. like self); especially in the phrase m^h" among themselves, 
 of ^ft self; <im m. a copper coin, the fourth part of an anna, 
 of QT^ or<TT^ a pice (lit. like the pdda or quarter of a weight of gold, 
 cf. M. W. 5 64); q:roT m., qrrat f. msipid (lit. like water), of ctrt 
 ivater; m. fa^j, f. °m similar, identical (lit. like one), of ^ one. 
 
 291. Affinities. These suff. exist, in all Gels, in the above 
 mentioned words (cf. Bs. II, 330). — In M. they may be added, 
 as a pleon. or dimin. suff., to any adj. in the following forms: 
 m. m, f. srt, n. ^ or, less curtailed, com. gen. sqr; e.g., STTU^qr, 
 c. g. blackish, f 3»T£T black; m. ^^rcn, f. °srt, n. V" littleish , of 
 vT^T^ little (Man. 114). For the same purpose m. ^T, f. STT are 
 used in W. H. (H. II. m, Wt), but as an affix, not as a suffix; that 
 is, the adj., to which they are added, is itself inflected ; thus II. II. 
 3=5ir m <7<rn? a rather high mountain, R^it ^rt f^fwT rather blue birds, 
 SHJ ?? aft rather large horses (see Kl. 91) ')• — In W. H. and H. II. 
 the same aff. is also commonly employed to express resemblance; 
 as T^T eT zjn a condition like mine; 5^ ht <tt<7T a sinner like me; 
 TfifT mi m stWtt speech like (hat of a pandit (examples of Kl. 91. 
 Eth. 58). In E. H. STT, *TT are not employed as affixes; in their 
 place it uses ^T^ such with subst. (e. g., ^mT ^TT^ like an elephant, 
 TJTSTTT ^t^ like a man) and fa one or ^^ such with adj.; as 
 ffr fa^ (usually spelled ^fa) or ^Tr ^T^ rather little (cf. German 
 etwas klein); <T^"37 or srqr ^T^ rather few, some feio; STf^r or 
 5T5H J^f^r rather many. 
 
 1) The examples are from Kl. The aff. never denotes intensity, as 
 KL, Eth. (II. Gr. 48) and Bates (H. Diet. 740) state. It expresses the 
 English rather, not very. It has no connexion with the Skr. STT like, 
 still less with the Skr. suff. SFT fold (as Kl. 91, a). Bates gives the correct 
 derivation. 
 
§292 — 295.] SECONDARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 135 
 
 292. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 SITST like, as evidenced by the E. H. use of IJ^T, which is the same 
 as Skr. ifST (§§ 111.458). Skr. ^ST: becomes in A. Mg. ^f^TT 
 (Wb. Bh. 422, cf. H. C. 1, 142) or sfjfc (cf. H. C. 4, 300 for srf^, 
 with a as in FT^f H. C. 2, 157 or in FTf = *rT^*J" H. C. 4, 402 
 = Skr. FTl^ST:). The latter becomes in Gd. *?rf^, *^rf^", whence 
 M.KJ or, by eliding ■£ (cf. Ap. cT^rt H. C. 4, 403 == Skr. rTT^sj:, 
 see § 124) and dropping ?, E. H. ^T. Similarly Skr. m. £T?T3TcF7: = 
 A. Mg. Tf^TT^" or Ap. Mg. *^T^", contracted *ST^5T or (dropping S" and 
 contracted) E. H. STT; fern. Skr. ^rfsicjTT, A. Mg. STf}-fwr, Ap. *^^T, 
 E. II. contracted *?TJ3" or £h. Precisely similar are E. H. ITT or iTJU 
 or uj^T been = Mg. ufSpff^, Skr. ijrT: ; E. H. itt or rraT or it^t, Ap. Mg. 
 st^-^, Skr. CTrT:; E. H. 37T (§ 278) == S. ttft = Ap. oR^3, Skr. ^ft:, 
 see § 307 ; E. H. tf or ^q = A. Mg. srfj?, Skr. ^H: (§ 268). — The 
 E. H. use of ^a* may be compared with its analogous use in the 
 indefinite numerals (§425), as 5^7=5 about ten, some ten. 
 
 Nineteenth Group. 
 
 293. Com. gen. siq- or oTTST. Masc. 5IT7T or sjt^tt. 
 
 Fem. 5rrfr or STTcfTT and oTTftjPr or oTTfeif^. 
 The forms in ^T and ^ are strong, the others weak. 
 
 294. These suff. are used to derive nouns implying pos- 
 session or relation generally, from subst. Thus JTtsrr^ or JTTcTT^ 
 c. g. or {[STT^ or °c?TT m. or noTTTJ or °c<Tf or rTorTf^f^t or °Rrff?r f. COW- 
 keeper, cowherd, of rft coiv; STJTcrq^ or °5nc^c. g., °5TTfr or °c<Ti' or °fjfo 
 or ^^ f. wharf -keeper, wharfinger, of Wtlanding-placc; TraTciT^T or 
 °oTT m., °ji or wTT f. boat-keeper, boat-man, of :?raY boat; m. cfitorsn^T 
 or 5rTT, f. 7Tor°^TT cloth-keeper, cloth-merchant; f^TTEn^T or °tfTT m., 
 °fV or °vfT f. belonging to or native of Delhi, etc. Even with foreign 
 words; as STSFqcJT^T or °*n m., °^ or °effr or °f\f^r or °f^rftr f. 
 box-keeper, pedlar. 
 
 2 95. Affinities. These suff. are not properly E. or S. Gd., 
 but W. Gd., whence they have been introduced into E. H., B. (see 
 S. Ch. 88, cf. 1 54 ; spelled m. 'SUJ^l, f. jdlcfl ; e.g., B. msa^T 
 holding or wearing a rfa cap) and M. (see Man. 113, 2; e.g., 
 
136 PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §296—300.] 
 
 ZVotWH milkman). In W. Gd. they are very commonly used. S. has 
 STTTfr m., oTtft f. (Tr. 76, 36); e. g., sTTsriyr owner of a house; G. 
 has cTT^t m., cTTXT f. (Ed. 14); e. g., anasnsfr, rtftmxt. 
 
 296. Derivation. The original of these suff., certainly in 
 the two first examples, prohahly in all, is the Skr. noun <TTrT keeper 
 or, with pleon. 37 added, TTrTgi. Thus Skr. m. nFTT^r: or c?TcF:, 
 f. °%3iT, Mg. m. msn^r or °c?T7, f. °%33T, E. II. m. imnj or °^T, 
 f. 7j. Practically, however, these suff. are confounded with I lie 
 primary suff. ETTc^T, cfTT (in ^ToTT^TT, c?TT), see § 315. — The fern, 
 in f^rfJT is prohahly an anomalous formation, see §§ 2 59. 262; 
 though it might he referred to a Skr. hase Trfwj . 
 
 3. PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 
 
 297. The primary derivative suffixes may he divided into 
 eight groups, traces of all which already existed, more or less 
 distinctly, in Pr. 
 
 First Group. 
 
 298. Com. gen. wr. Masc. ^<TT. Fern. ^Frf (or ^frr). 
 
 The forms in OT and Z are strong, the others weak. The masc. 
 strong form is not much used in E. II., except in the oblique 
 form W\, as an adv. part., see § 488. 
 
 Note: Ohserve, in adding these suff., that ?T is inserted after 7, 
 and optionally 3" after 3 and 5Tt; and ^ is elided after 5T and Q 
 and after R. ^t he. 
 
 299. These suff. are used to derive the participle present 
 from any root. Thus ^JSrJ^la/ugMng, of R. ^W laugh; zn&jrca<iii/</, 
 of R. *t:£ read; 'Tt'OrT drinking, of R. qr drink; ^^l or ^STf^ drip- 
 ping, of R. ^ drip; fra;^ or ftoTFT weeping, of R. "p weep, etc. But 
 <pTTfT eating, of R. wt cat; \r{ giving, of R. <Z give; ifTrT being, 
 of R. s|t be, etc. The fern, in JT is only used as a component part of 
 the pret. conj.; as cE^fTTfT (f.) thou didst, of cftjJH + ST; see §507. 
 
 300. Affinities. These suff. exist in all Gds., with very 
 slight modifications; thus B. ^7T_ (only in the ohl. f. ^rT, S. Ch. 14 8); 
 
§301.302.] PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 137 
 
 0. *sff (only in the obi. f. 3FT, Sn. 28); II. II. m. *FTT, f. SFTT; W. II. 
 m. ^TFT (Br.) or STrft (Mw.), f. *?TT; P. m. ^T or *3T, f. 9*7 or 
 *j£t (Ld. 24), N. «r^, f. a^; S. 3^ or r^t, f. ti£j or ^ (Tr. 
 268.269); G. m. 37TT, f. *frr, n. ?jft (Ed. 1 13, 53); M. o. g. *ft 
 or m. *ftt, f. 9fTT, n. aar(Man. 63.73); 0. EL m. gm or wr (Kl. 
 222.240.241). The 0. has also 3 (e.g., 3T£ domg, Sn. 28). 
 
 301. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 krit *ft (or ^FT); in Pr. *JFT (Vr. 7, 10. H. C. 3, 180. 181), or 
 occasionally in Sr. Pr. X£ (II. C. 4, 2 61. cf. Ls. 3 62). Hence 
 nom. sg. Mg. *ni. SH, f. 9fTT (II. C. 3, 182) or, with pleon. 5T 
 added, m. gpr^, f. ^frf^T; and E. II. in. f. 9FT or m. 9FTT, f. SJrfT 
 (cf. §§ 143. 14 6). Thus Skr. m. ^T7, f. ^FrTT; A. Mg. ^OrT, 
 f. ^fc?T; 0. II. m. f. ^ffT ; E. H. ^FT ; again Skr. *^F?T^:, A. Mg. 
 ^tft^, E. H. ^tftt; fern. Skr. *^rfcTcF5T, A. Mg. ^ftTrerr, E. H. ^nft. 
 — The S. *?27, P. 95T, N. ^^T, Gw. w%t or ^ (Kl. 215) are 
 similarly derived from the Sr. Pr. B^T. — The 0. 3 has, perhaps, 
 arisen from 9=3" (or ^ft) by the elision of =3^? (see § 153). — 
 The E. H. mm is = Mg. m or WT^rT (cf. H. C. 4, 2 28); E. H. 
 57^ = Mg. rH (cf. II. C. 2, 206. 4, 379) = *^ft, Skr. ^sj .(of 
 *C^tO; E. H. ^t = Mg. ^frr (cf. H. C. 3, 180) or ^srt or. heft 
 (cf. II. C. 4, 60), Skr. U5T7 . 
 
 Second Group. 
 
 302. Set. Com. gen. Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1) JoTor^ ^f§T or 9% ^r?T or WTT Saftor^TT 
 
 2) s* or Z * ^ ^ T t 
 The forms in 9T and 3" are strong, the others weak. The masc. 
 strong forms in 3TT are not much used, except in the obi. f. 3^T 
 or 9^, as adv. part., see §488. The forms with ^cr{ c are pecu- 
 liar to the Maithili and Magadh in the eastern, and the forms 
 (m.) 9 or 9T, (f.) 3" or Z to Baiswari in the western part of the 
 E. II. area. The latter (Bs.) dialect does not use the first set 
 at all; the other E. II. dialects use both, see §3 03. 
 
 Note: Observe, in adding the suff. beginning with 5, that q^ 
 
138 PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §303 — 305.] 
 
 is inserted after m and 3", and optionally a^ after 3 and ?ft; be- 
 fore those beginning with ^ neither ?T^ nor sr is inserted. 
 
 303. These suff. are used to derive the past participle 
 from any root. Thus ![^T or ^fy^ laughed, of R. ^r laugh', 
 ^I4cH or qffef^ read, of R. *F% read; <rra"?T or <Tr^^ d runic, of R. 
 <TT drink', gro^or 'arsprT^ or ^35* dripped, of R. ^ drip; "^wr or 
 ytc^or (V^si, wept, of R. ji weep; <?n7c^ or tprrcic^ eaten, of R. wt 
 cYtf, etc. The derivatives of the second set, and those of the fem. 
 sf^T are never used by themselves, but only as component parts 
 of the pret. indicat. (exc. in Bs), see §§ 502. 504, thus f^n" 
 I laughed, of ^fe^ + 3 ; OT^H thou eatest, of ^TJ + FT ; again 
 ^nf^fH (f.) thou laughedst, of ^rf% + *t , etc. But in Bs. fr^TT m., 
 ^rr f. laughed; t^t m., tn£t f. read; wtot m., mz f. eaten; etc. 
 
 Note: This part, is used passively in the formation of the 
 passive voice, but actively in that of the pret. tense active. 
 
 304. Exception. The following part. pass, are formed 
 irregularly: R. qqr do, P. P. 1) cFT^c?r or *"ac<H or $Jc^, or 2) 
 f%j^° or f%f%° or Bs. oR?tt or ttm done; • — of R. fcqr place, P.P. 
 1) yr^r^or ya^ or ^ or 2) y^° or fyf|° or Bs. yJTT; also 
 regularly yf^c?^, yjj, etc. pAaced. — R. *qr die, P. P. l) *r^^ or 
 ng^ or 2) 2^9° or *t^° or Bs. rpffT; also regularly ^f^"^, T^T 
 d/ed, etc. — R. §rr #0, P. P. 1) n^T or rrao^ or rrc?^ or 2) jt^et 
 or ITS or B. n?TT gone; also regularly sTTSc^ or frnr^T ^ (§ 4 7 9. exc); 
 
 — R. ^t &e; P. P. 1) HTsT or iWc^ or aW or 2) U^° or U^° 
 or Bs. UCTT or H^T &em; also regularly ^t^cfT or ^T?J^T (§ 479. exc). 
 
 — R. £ give, P.P. 1) f^CT or 2) f^a° or f^f| or Bs. ^T or 
 %rr given. — R. ^r take, P. P. l) f^r^g; or 2) f£q?i or f%f|° 
 or Bs. ^wt or f^m taken. — R. ^T^ come, P. P. l) W^c^ or 
 gra^T or 2) m\^° or mz° or Bs. 5TOT or 5JT5TT come. — R. <7T^ 
 obtain, P. P. -l) crr^T or ot?t^ or 2) miyP or VY^ or Bs. QTJJT 
 or tTTcTT obtained. 
 
 305. Affinities. The second set occurs in all Gels., exc. 
 M.; but the first set in the E. Gd. and S. Gd. only. Thus 1) 
 both sets; in B., wk. f. ^c^ (only in the obi. f. ^T as a cond. part., 
 
§ 30fi.] PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 139 
 
 S. Ch. 148), and wk. f. 3?T (only in the obi. f. 3^TT as past part, and in 
 the pret. tense, S. Ch. 148. 144), or st. f. 3ST m., "^ f . (only in the 
 pass, sense and to form the pass, voice, S. Ch. 14 8.142); in 0., 
 st. f. ^cFTT (e. g., crfscfTT fallen, Sn. 29) or wk. f. 3^ (only in the obi. f. 
 3/c^ as a condit. part., Sn. 28); and wk. f. J (as past part., Sn. 28) or 
 3^ (only in the pret. tense, Sn. 30), or st. f. ^T m., J f. (as past part., 
 Sn. 30; and in the pass, voice, Sn. 3 9). — 2) Only first set; in M., 
 st. f. ^vfT or 3FTT in., g^rl" or 3oTT f., g^r" or 3c<t" n. (Man. 63. 
 64. 67. 68, note; e. g., ^vil or ST^T = E. H. fE^ or %fim 
 and M. *Tlfz5TT or mz^T = E. H. ^r^ or ^rf^r). — 3) Only se- 
 cond set; in 0. H. (Chanel), wk. f. ^?T (— Mg. 3^T, 3^) or ^ 
 (= Ap. c3) or st.f. ^(= Ap.3^3), seeKl. 213. 215.; inll.IL, 
 st. f. ??T m., §f.; in W. H., st. f. dl or m m., f f.; in P., st. f. 
 ■§m m., ^ f. (Ld. 24); in G., st. f. jit m., 3 f., zjjn. (Ed. 113. 50); 
 in S., wk. f. J3 or 3^ or 3" (Tr. 289), or st. f. ?m or ui m., 
 ^ f. (Tr. 271. 289); in N., wk. f. ^ or ^ or 3, or st. f. ot m., 
 3" f. In all W. Gds. the P. P. is used in the pass, sense only, 
 see § 487. — It is worth noting, that both sets exist in Pushtu 
 (see Tr. J. G. 0. S. XXIII, 116); e. g., wk. f. har or Tcrdh (== ^cT:); 
 st.f. Jcarai (= 5>rra>:); and wk. f. Jcral (= *^;fpT:, B. cFsf^r ), 
 st. f. karalai (= *cfif^TT37:, 0. cRf|w). Trumpp distinguishes the 
 weak and strong forms as part. pret. and part, perf, but these 
 names, being the same in import, do not explain the difference. 
 
 Note: Some Gds. add. a pleon. suff. to the past part, in order 
 to make it more of the nature of an adj.; viz., M. adds c^T (Man. 
 63. 64), G. *tt (Ed. 50.113), S. *r or ir (Tr. 272. 69), Mw. it 
 (Kl. 209, 393), N. 6RT (see §216). The term, of the part, suffers 
 various modifications before these suff., which may be seen from 
 the following examples: M. cr^^TcrTT, G. q^crTT, S. <lf^c?T or crf^^^T, 
 Mw. crofoT or tl.it ir, N. tr^TT^T read, from the resp. part. M. 
 n^FTT, G. tTSTJTT, S. qfpETT, Mw. <n$&t, N. q^ft. 
 
 306. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 krit FT or, with the connecting vowel 3 added, 3JT. The addition 
 of 3^ is very common in Pr., even with such roots, as do not take 
 
140 MMMAKY DEBIVATIVB SUFFIXES. §306.] 
 
 if in Skr. (see Vr. 7,32. H. C. 3,156. Ls. 363. Wb. Spt. 05. 
 Wb. Bh. 43 2.433V In Gd. it has become almost universal; though 
 there arc a very few exceptions, as P. f^TT or flTT seen (Pr. f^T^T, 
 Skr. r?cF:), but also regularly }-fwr (Ld. 6 6); G. ?ft5T seen, <T5T 
 entered (Yr. *t$j%t, Skr. qtsnscR:); S. fj?ft seen, ^rtt entered, stut 
 obtained (Pr. vizm II. C. 3,134., Skr. ST5UcR:), and some others, 
 see Tr. 2 7 3—279. Ed. 50. — The suff. JFT becomes in Pr. either 
 ^ which is the older form preserved in Sr. (II. C. 4, 269), Mg. 
 (see Vr. 11, 11. II. C. 4, 291.292) and old Ap. (II. C. 4,396), 
 or c* which is the later form of the Mh. (Vr. 7, 3 2. II. C. 3, 156) 
 the A. Mg. (Wb. Bh. 433) and the later Ap. (e. g., ^t%3 II. C. 
 4,396. = Mli. ^frjsit; Ap. yf?5T3 II. C. 4,439 et passim; com- 
 pare the treatment of the similar suff. ^FTST = Ap. Z%T3 II. C. 
 4, 438). The (older) Mg. form ^ further changes in E. and S. Gd. 
 to $ST and ^ST (§ 109). The only instances of this change of K 
 to cS in Mg. are: cfRT for ^ (H. C. 4, 290. Skr. ^H:) done, 
 JTST for nt; (II. C. 4, 302. Skr. JT7T.) gone, and J7ST for q?T (cf. 
 Ls. 423. Skr. JTrT:) died 1 ) and, moreover, they are confined to the 
 lower (or Ap.) types of Mg. (e.g., the Sabari 2 ) and Avanti, Ls. 417). 
 This tendency of the Ap. Mg. has become the general rule in its 
 descendants, the E. and S. Gd.; though side by side with the 
 special Ap. Mg. forms in 3ST they have preserved also the general 
 later (A. Mg., Mb., Ap. Sr.) Pr. forms in 3^. There are, then, 
 the following forms, in the nom. sg.-: l) Mg. m. ^, f. ZZ1, and, 
 with pleon. 13 added, m. ttV, f- jf^T; these result in the E. II. 
 
 1) It is commouly supposed (Ls. 412. Bs. I, 238) that e[ first changed 
 to T and then to ST; and it is true that Vr. 11, 15 gives the three Mg. 
 forms cFZ, ITT, T3"; but Md. 12,28 gives them only as alternatives besides 
 ctf?£, JTrt", qr. Seeing that the general tendency of the languages of the 
 Mg. class is towards dentalisation (see §§ 15. 16), it seems more probable, 
 that 7, changed at once to (dental) ST , than that it first became cerebral Z, 
 and then reverted to the dental ST . 
 
 2) It may be remarked, that O. which is closely allied to the Sabari 
 (see p. XXIV) preserves the three forms sfiST done, JTST^ gone, TcT died. 
 
§ 307.] PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 141 
 
 m. Jc^ or ^1, f. ^fer or ^fe or ^5^ or S5TJ and m. ^TT or 9c?TT, 
 f. ^qTfr or g^TT. 2) Mg. in. ^7, f. ^5T, and, with pleon. « added, 
 in. ^5^, f. 3^9T, whence the E. II. m. f. ^ or (dropping g) $, 
 and in. cm or (suppressing 5") ^T, f. ^ or (contracted) ^. E. g., 
 Skr. ^Rttft: walked, Mg. =5ri^Tj:, E. H. ^fer^r or ^5T35/, or A. Mg. 
 vfa% (Wb. Bh. 215) or Ap. ^f%T3, 0. II. =sif??Tq; or ^fefJJ 1 ), E.II. 
 =srf^?r or =3%, Bs. =gf% or =ei^t (chala). Again Skr. ^fiyTfrrsfor I walked, 
 A. Mg. xrf^r i%; or ^R^ fcf , Ap. ^f^r^3 (see § 503, 1. a), E.II. 
 =Err?n". Again Skr. ^fwirsfir #&o« walkcdst, A. Mg. =3fi?^7 fa or Ap. 
 a) =gf&n?m or b) gfsraf^ (see § 503, 1. b), N. a) ^zh^or ^n%1, 
 E. H. #5^, S. b) ^f^r. Again Skr. -dicHH^?: walked, Mg. =srfw^, 
 E. II. and M. ^vtmi or =5ff%<^T, 0. =5rf^<??T; or A. Mg. =5jfeW£, 
 T. gf^r^T, Bs., H. II., B., 0. =5P?tt; or Mh. ^rfergsfr, Ap. ^n%sr3, 0. II. 
 =5T^Tcr or ^rfegt or =Efc?dt, W. H. ^vOT or =^ft, S. =5n%ST or =5T^IT, 
 G. and N. =^c?dr. 
 
 307. Affinities and Derivation of the Exceptional 
 Forms. Cognate forms are denoted by identical letters. 1) R. m^ 
 eat; ~Skr. (a and c) ^Tf^TT: or (b and d) WTf?7r^:, Mg. (a) m^Z or (b) 
 wrZZjrp or A. Mg. (c) wr*g or (d) m^S^, E. H. (a) WT^r or (b) <a$cni 
 or Bs. (c) WTT or (d) WTOT (for *wq^T), B. and 0. (a) WT^ or (b) 
 (pfT^fiT or (c) wr^ or (d) fwn (for *®m = *W$m, see below fn?TT gone, 
 cf. Sn. 4 0), M. (b) WF&T (Man. 80), H.H. (d) mm, P. (b) cFT^T (with 
 euphon. y, § 69) or (d) mm (Ld. 66); again Ap. Pr. (b) <5TT^3 
 or (d) WTJWJ, Mw. and G. (b) mm (for *<eTT^T or mfz>zi with eupli. 
 f;, as in P.), W. H. (d) mm or mm. — 2) R. <stu talcc; Skr. («) 
 5T5tf: or (/?) vWUmu Pr. («) cr?3T (ll. C. 3, 134) or (/?) 5T5^, S. (0) 
 wm (Tr. 2 78); or Skr. (a) *v^m\ or (b) *<?rteH:, Mg. (a) vf^ or 
 (b) 5lf|cC^ or A. Mg. (c) crff^ or (d) cfrfipr$7, E. II. (a) f^T^T or (b) 
 fwT^W or (c) fc?Tl% (in the pret. tense, cf. § 502 exc, for *c?rf%) 
 or Bs. (d) ^rsrr (contr. for v\cm with euph. ^, cf. § 69, El. 224) or 
 vim or f^JTT (like ff\m gone), B. (a) m^ (in the past tense and 
 
 1) M., as usual (§ 65, note), changes ^3 or ^5T_ to ^aj e.g., STT^c^ 
 bound or built, from R. GfiH^bind (see Man. 107. 114). 
 
142 I'KIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. § 307.] 
 
 condit. part., S. Ch. 190), or (d) fJfclT (S.Ch. 190), 0.(a)**T or(b) 
 *<m or (d) srar (Sn. 3 6), M. (b) smsn (Mn. 80), II. H. (d) fmm, 
 P. (d) crT^TT or f^raT (Ld. GG) or (b) ^Trm" (perhaps contr. for a 
 Ps. Pr. form *c<T^7 or *5lf|rT^, or made after f^T given, Ld. 66); 
 again Ap. Pr. (b) c?T%3 or (d) ^f|«3, W. II. (b) Mw. sf^T (contr. 
 for *' q<frO ) or 5Thsft (contr. like cFP-H eaten, Kl. 213) or c^Plt 
 or ^T^t (with =T or "f for K or y , cf. H. C. 1, 208 nfsiTUTt = 
 Pr. *nfiu^T = Skr. nftTrf:, Pr. vfmin<i = Pr. *af?[37W = Skr. 
 ^ffTJTcJTcfiiTj or (d) ^r^T (for *ctT^t) or Br. (d) crrai or fwr, G. (b) 
 c?rhft (as in Mw., Ed. 50). — 3) R. ^^ give (substitute for £7 
 or UT); Skr. («) %r: (for *fy?T:) or (0) %TcH:, Ap. (a) °f%j (H. C. 
 4,4 4 6) or (fi) °%I3 (H. C. 4, 3 9 5), Gd. dccst; again, formed 
 strictly analogous to the P. P. of R. §W, Skr. *3;fyrT:, Mg. (a) 
 *^or(b) *5!^or A. Mg. (c) *^r or (d) *5^a^ E. II. (a) 
 fit^L. or (b) f^yTT or (c) i^% (in the past tense, for *3J%) or 
 Bs. (d) ^5TT (Kl. 2 24) or ^TT or f^ir, B. (a) fg;^ (in the past 
 tense and cond. part., S. Ch. 190) or (d) f^TT (S. Ch. 19 0), 0. (a) 
 "^ or (b) 573T or (d) "^r (Sn. 3 6), M. (b) %rr (Man. 80), 
 II. II. (d) f^TT, P. f^WT (perhaps for Skr. Zjl, or formed like 
 STtelT taken, cf. Ld. 66); again Ap. Pr. (b) *sfe3 or (d) *^ft?J3; 
 W. II. (b) Mw. ^ or f^yT or ^fr or £t^T or (d) ^t or Bs. (d) 
 Zjn or f^rt, G. (b) $tifr (Ed. 59). — 4) R. y #Zoce; Skr. yFT:, 
 Gd. deest; or Skr. *yf^cT:, Mg. (a) yferz; or (b) nfm^ or A. Mg. (c) 
 «f^7 (cf. II. C. 1, 3 6. vffm) or (d) trf^Tir^, E. II. (a) y^ or yf}"c<T 
 or (b) y^TT or yff^TT or (c) y^T or yfj or Bs. (c) y^ or (a) y^T, 
 B. and 0. (a) yf^yT or (b) yff 5TT or (d) yTJ, M. (b) yjvff, II. II. (d) 
 yjT, P. (d) yf^rr; again Ap. Pr. (b) yf^ or (d) yf^rj, W.II. (d) 
 y?iT or ysf, G. (d) yor, S. (d) yff'fft or yyf. — 5) R. srr do; 
 Skr. (a) c^rr: or (/?) ER7T3is, Ap. («) fej (H. C. 4, 446) or (/S) fo*3 
 (II. C. 4, 371), S. (/S) f^wf (Tr. 277); again Skr. *c^FT:, Mg. (a) 
 s^fer^ or (b) t hi^o or A. Mg. (c) &faq or (d) cm%^r or Ap. (d) 
 felT (II. C. 4,396; see II. II. below), E. II. (a) *r^(§§ 1 09. 1 24) 
 or (b) cFT^crTT or (c) f%f^ (in the pret. tense, § 502 exc, with 
 euph. ^, for *fqr^ == cFT^" — cfiij, formed after fejf^ taken, f^f^ given) 
 
§ 307.] PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 143 
 
 or Bs. m\ or (d) SifT, B - an(1 °- ( a ) ^t^l. or 00 ^T^ 1 ' ( in tne 
 past tense and condit. part., S. Ch. 144. 14S. Sn. 27) or (d) cRJT 
 (S. Ch. 148. Sn. 39), M. (b) sn^TT (for *3>^!T, Man. 80), H. H. 
 (d) fgF7?TT (for *370T = ^JJTT, see S. below, formed after f^or given, 
 f^rcrr taken, fn<n gone), P. (d)cRTrTT (perhaps for *cR^rT^", like ^tptt 
 taken, q. v., Ld. 66); again Ap. Pr. (b) cfif^3;3 or (d) 'Tft^TJ or 
 fitiTS (II. C 4,378 = W$m, see below W. II.), W. H. (b) Mw. 
 gRT^t or cFHrt or amrqT or q?F^T (formed like vTtZJ, etc., q. v., Kl. 213), 
 or (d) 37af or (d) Br. 5JJrf or fqvTT (for *cfi?n = oR^SfT, see below S.), 
 G. (b) M (Ed. 50) or (d) BB9f, S. (d) grar (for *^*t, Tr. 27 7) 
 or (b) ^rTfTT (see above P.). — 6) R. Wjo; Skr. («) n>T. or (/?) 
 iTrTcfi:, Mg. («) JT£" or 57? or (/?) JT^ or JTJ$T, 0. (a) 5T^ or (/S) JTsTT 
 (in the pret. tense and condit. part., Sn. 34); or Skr. (a) *nfsTcT., 
 Pali (a) rrfrTrfr (Ms. 131), Mg. (a) Jlfq^ or (b) nfa^ or (c) mq^ 
 or (d) rrfqg^ (cf. Wb. Bh. 405 Tlkm% = *irfq?KTT$7 = *JTfi7rTg : igT), 
 or Ap. (d) HUT (II. C. 4, 37 6. see II. II. below), E. II. (a) JT^ 
 or (b) tt^TT or (c) JT^ (in the pret. tense, § 502 exc.) or Bs. (d) 
 rFTT (= JT<"?fT, see below P.) or contr. JTT (Kl. 225), B. (a) nofj 
 (in pret. tense and cond. part., S. Ch. 144. 148) or (d) fnJIT 
 (S. Ch. 148, for JT3T, see below P.), M. (b) iW (Man. 80), 
 II. II. jwt (== jt^wt), P. it^T orfrpgT (Ld. 66); again Ap. Pr. (d) 
 nfq73i or tjz^I or contr. JPI3 (II. C. 4, 422. 20., see W. II. and 
 above P.), W. II. (d) Br. mfr or Mw. ipft or JTTJTr (Kl. 213.? fjtfTT?), 
 G. (d) nqr (Ed. 5 or jtjtcTT Ed. 83., see § 216), N. TOT. — 
 7) R. it he, Skr. itft:, Pr. gST (II. C. 4, 64), Gd. deest; or Skr. 
 ♦ufsfrT:, Mg. (a) iTfsnr or (b) ^k\ or (c) jfait (cf. H. C. 4, 60) 
 or (d) ufsrc^ or (e) ^fsr^ or (f) dfd<^' or (g) ufsr^ or (h) ^fsr^ 
 (of. II. C. 4,401 trij^fW = qfpTrT ) or (i) STST^ or (k) iffsT^ 
 or (1) ^fa-^7 or (m) ffar^, Ap. (m) gm (II. C. 4, 3 51, for f c^T, 
 see below II. H., and compare Ap. JTOT and T^t), E. II. (a) H^SJ^ 
 or (d) iT^T or (g) iT^ or im (§ 123) or (h) f3 or fT (in the 
 pres. tense, § 514, 3, for *^k, § 122) or Bs. (k) iTSTT or iFTT 
 (= iT^m) or contr. UT, B. (b) ^^fT (in the condit. part., S. Ch. 
 144. 148) or (l) ^jtt (S. Ch. 148), 0. (c) ^CT or (f) ^t^TT 
 
144 PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. § 307.] 
 
 (iu the pret. tense and eondit. part., Sn. 3 5) or (i) ?riT (Sn. 35) 
 or (m) jfSTT (Sn. 66, see II. II. below), M. (e) <TT^T (Man. 80, 
 for *^T^T or *^Tr), II. II. (m) J^T (lor J^STT, see P. and Km. 
 below), P. (m) ^3T (Ld. 26); again Ap. Pr. (k) qfirsrj or (1) 
 ^fsrars or (m) |"f£ra3, W. II. (k) Br. uar (for *wc?n) or qqnr (= H7*n) 
 or contr. MTT or Km. qETT or q?ft or VTT (Kl. 205) or (l) Mw. f^dr 
 (suppressing n between ^fir ) or jrtqt (? Kl. 236) or (m) ijsn or 
 um (Kl. 210, for jr^rt) or contr. ^T (Kl. 200), G. (l) ^srt (Ed. 6 9) 
 or (m) ^TSTT (Ed. 69), S. (m) &m (Tr. 2 98, see H. II. above), 
 N. (k) mi (= q^m), Km. (m) j^sq (Kl. 2, 2 37), Gw. (m) ft?fr 
 (Kl. 23 6). — 8) R. jj die; Skr. qq:, Mg: (a) ^ or (/?) ^ (Wb. 
 Bh. 15 6) or (/) qj (Vr. 11,15) or Mh. q«T (Spt. 144 et passim), 
 O. (a) q^; or Skr. *qf7JT:, Mg. (a) qf^; or (h) ^f^ or (c) 
 qf%3;^ or (d) qf^TS^ or (e) qf^r or (f) 5%^" or (g) qn?T^ or (h) 
 qf%ST£, A P- ^ f ) 3^ ( H - c - 4,367.419., eliding ^= ^, § 124) 
 or contr. (h) *m (H. C. 4, 442., see H. H. below), E. II. (a) qf^ 
 or (b) q^ or (c) qf^TT or (d) q^rq or (e) qf^ or (f) q^ or (g) 
 Bs. qp or (h) 3«T, M. (c) 'mm (Man. 80, for *q^5TT>, II. II. (h) 
 rr^T (for q^T, see Ap. Mg. above); again Ap. Pr. (g) qff^3 or (h) 
 q^3 or contr. q^3T (H. C. 4, 442, for *q^&3, Bee Ap. Mg. above 
 and W. II. below), W. H. (g) qqf or mn or (h) q«rV or ^m (for 
 *qc*n), G. qeft (Ed. 50), N. (g) qfpt or irof, S. dto. — 9) R. 
 m<* come and qrq (= q + ^Tq ) obtain: Skr. arr: or grq:, Pr. mil 
 or qm (cf. H. C. 4, 332), Gel. deest; or Skr. **qfqq: or *gTfqq:, 
 Mg. (a) mf^ or (b) ^Tfsr^ or (c) mfk% (cf. II. C. 4, 387 uTfarw, 
 and see Ap. below) or (d) ^n'sr^, E. II. (a) flT^yT or (b) g^T 
 or (c) m^ or mu^ or (d) Bs. mm (cf. §423), B. (a) S?T^T^ (in the 
 pret. tense and cond. part., S. Ch. 1 88. 1 89) J ), M. (b) m<m (Man. 80, 
 for *4ll^rll), II. II. (d) mm (for sqjqT), P. (d) mjm; again Ap. 
 Pr. (c) mfal or mT3 (II. C. 4, 422) or (d) fnfsrsre (cf. II. C. 4, 432 
 Bombay Ed. sjt3^jt = mfsrsq?), W. II. (d) mm or mm (for m$m), 
 
 N. mot. The . forms of CTTQ^ are strictly analogous throughout. 
 
 1) The other B. forms ^ifq^T , etc. are derived from the R. mz*3 = 
 Pr. ?qf5ra^= Skr. mfsm^entcr (m -f- fircnQ. 
 
§ 308. 309.] PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 145 
 
 Third Group. 
 308. Set. Com. gen. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1) ^or gsr * ^sin or * ^tt jfir or ^fsr 
 
 2) OT^or mu^ man ^stt^ or m^ or ^ToTT 
 
 3) 53S5T or ST5I — — 
 
 4) gsrjJTT or a^JTT — — 
 
 5) ^ETT^r or ScTT^ g^T^T or WIW srsnfr or 53T^ 
 
 6) ^T^- or OT^ — — 
 
 The forms of the fourth set are redundant (§§ 200. 202); of the 
 others those in ^T, J and 3 are strong, the remainder are weak. — 
 The forms with initial J are not commonly employed, except 
 with Rs. in OT and causal or denom. Rs. in 5Tcj^(or ^T hy § 33). — 
 The masc. strong forms of the first set are never used, exc. in 
 the ohl. form ^ST or 55T or (by elision of ^) contr. J7. — The 
 suff. 3&T5T?7 is sometimes wrongly spelled ^T^£, owing to a con- 
 fusion with the suff. ^T^T of § 284. 
 
 Note: Observe in adding these suff., l) that in the first 
 set the initial ^ is elided after Rs. in ^T, ^ and R. ^t be, and 
 ^ after Rs. in ^ ; 2) that before the suff. of the second and 
 fourth sets, the terrain. ^Toj^ of caus. and den. Rs. is elided, and 
 final radical ^T and U are shortened. For the rest see § 298, note. 
 
 309. Meaning. These suff. are used to derive 1) part, 
 fut., both pass, and act., and 2) verbal nouns, both of act and 
 agency, from any root. Originally their derivatives were part, 
 fut. passive only ; but in the neuter gender they naturally came 
 to express verbal nouns of act and thus were used as the (so- 
 called) infinitive ; for the "it is to be done" of a thing is equal 
 to the "doing" of a thing. Next the pass, sense was dropped, as in 
 the case of the past part. pass. (§3 01, note), and the part, used 
 actively (e. g., in the formation of the fut. tense act. cf. §509,3); 
 and thus it came to express verbal nouns of agency. The latter 
 process was facilitated by the addition of pleon. suff., see § 314. 
 With some intrans. verbs, as ^V^ to be, the part. fut. pass, ne- 
 
 10 
 
146 PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §310.311.] 
 
 cessarily has an active sense; and this may have led the way to 
 the general practice of using this part, actively. 
 
 310. The first set is used to form the part. fut. or the 
 inf. Thus ^T^ or ^fer^ what is to be laughed at or to laugh, of 
 R. ^ laugh ; t:^ or qfer what is to be read or to read, of R. 
 ^ read; ^"^ or ^rf^ what is to be done or to do, of R. cF^ do; 
 ^i*q^ or §^^ or p?^ what is to be touched or to touch, of R. f 
 touch ; srte^ or -rfora^ or sfl^ what is to be sown or to sow, of 
 R. 5Tt soiv. But <prT^^ or <aw w/w/ is to be eaten or to eat, of 
 R. wt cat ; w;jiz^ or 37^rar what is to be caused to be done or to 
 cause to do, of C. R. ^tst^ cause to do; oto^ or ^W wftod is to 
 be drunk or to drink, of R. "rl" fZriwZ; ; £5^ or £^^ what is to be 
 given, debt or to give, of R. 5; give ; ^W or ^t^ what is to be, 
 future, possible or to be, of R. ^t be. Thus art £» or rfr ^ 3; srpT, 
 sni: &?/ we tfjoi is to be done, or actively »T eR^srT (= st^st + 3") 
 J s/mK do. The fern, in ^ is used only as a component part of 
 the fut. tense act., as cf^fsl*r (fem.) thou wilt do for cF^"f§T 4- ^, 
 cf. § 509, 3. 
 
 311. The second set is used to form nouns of act. Thus 
 %zn\ coming, of R. ?rra come; sTsni going, of R. jtt go; w^rj 
 eating, of R. <?TT errt ; <pna^ or spT^ or ^FToT?: seeing, of R. srjr 
 see; fegwor f%=5TT^ or fe=STT5j£ irrigation, of R. «ifo irrigate; stena^ 
 or 3Wl^" or TteTTsr?: movement, of R. ft^ more ; vT^ or ^T|THT 
 fighting, of R. <?q or *T£ fight; ^ms^ dispatch, of C. R. ^ira 
 cause to go. Very commonly the fem. expresses the wages or price 
 paid for doing a thing, as |W5TT^ or -(m\ wages for keeping, of 
 R. ^ keep ; ch^dii wages for cutting, of R. 3>T£ ; spraT^ or ^nr 
 orsPTrar making or #»**<# /or making of C. R. SRia^wofte; f^r^oii^ 
 or f^TWT^ wa#es /or writing or dictation, of R. f^l^wrfte or C. R. 
 f%T<jTra" dictate. The masc. strong form is very rarely used and, 
 as a rule, has some special meaning; thus crf^JTOT dress (lit., 
 tvhat is to be put on), of R. crf|^ ptit on, wear ; 5?WST a call, of 
 C. R. sjcrtioi call, but sn^cnj, or^rar calling ; fwTHT mixture, of R. 
 fw ww«; ^¥T5TT sacrifice, of C. R. ^^ToT sacrifice (lit., erwse /o ascend). 
 
§312.313.] PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 147 
 
 312. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth sets are used to 
 form nouns of agency. The fourth set is the one commonly em- 
 ployed. Thus <eTT^ or <pfS5^ glutton or wsr^OT or ^srjt eater, of R. 
 Wt cat ; Z^rsi or 3^55^ or 3^7^ or 3^5TTcFTT or 3^cT^?TT timid, coward, 
 of R. 3^ fear ; ^Wcrq" or ^TaSTTfT or ^rWEqqr or J^\m guardian, 
 of R. J^hccp; tKniT^ or QiJTjT^ quarrelsome, of R. T\*\\ quarrel; 
 %5C$zn thatclier, of R. fT thatch; f^r^or giver, of R. £ give; ^r^orjqr 
 rider, of R. ^ mount; ^prar^aT observer, of R. £vj^ see; ^pa^rr 
 listener, of R. sro hear ; srcsr^JT maker, of C. R. sr^TTc^ mr/fte, etc. 
 The fern, makes nouns of act., as "^pTonyl' guarding. 
 
 313. Affinities. The first and second sets occur in all 
 Gds. as suff. of the part. fut. pass, or of nouns of act. (i. e., of 
 the infinitive), exc. in P. *). Thus the first set in B. (wk. f.) ^sr_ 
 (in the fut. tense act., S. Ch. 14 6) and (st. f.) ^STT or (by eli- 
 sion of sQ contr. OT (as "gerund or verbal noun", S. Ch. 14 9, 
 i. e., as part. fut. pass, and inf.) ; this same ^T or (uncontracted) 
 ^zr (= T5T = ^jf) is used also in an active sense as a suff. of nouns 
 of agency; e. g., srra^tlTT a grass cutter (S. Ch. 154. 149). Simil- 
 arly in 0. (wk. f.) ^ (in the fut. act. Sn. 27) and (st. f.) ^SlT or 
 contr. m (Sn. 3 0). Also in W. H. (as inf. and part. fut. pass.) 
 (st. f.) Br. «sfT or Wcfr or ^5?T or ^STT or Mw. wf or WT or ^sft" or 
 C^fr (obi. f. gir or Z&, as in E. II.). In G. it occurs as the suff. 
 of a part. fut. pass., ending in (st. f.) m. i3^\, f. ^sft, n. ^, and 
 forms the so-called "potential" (Ed. 57) ; e. g., TTf ^f3cTt ^rTT lit., by 
 me he should be delivered; also as suff. of the infinit., viz. (st. f.) ^ 
 neut. (Ed. 5 0. 112); e. g., ^t3H to deliver. Also in S. it occurs; 
 though never to form an inf., but only a part. fut. pass, in ^sn" 
 (in the fut. tense pass. Tr. 3 3 6), and strangely also a part, present 
 pass. (Tr. 54); e. g., ^f3©ft pres. being given up (Tr. 331) or fut. 
 he shall be given up (Tr. 33 6). Perhaps it exists also in the M. 
 inf. termin. 3, a strong form, contr. for ^3; = ^(Man. 61, 5. 7l) ; 
 
 1) The so-called P. „gerund" (Ld. 24. 45. 81) ending in 3^T m., ^ f., 
 is identical with the past part, pass.; see the § on compound verbs. 
 
148 PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §314.] 
 
 e. g., sfljf to loose (for *^tf|^ = Mw. ^iQyV, G. fT35[) x ). — 
 The second set, which now forms in E. II. and similarly in W. 
 II. verbal nouns only, is still used in M. to form the part. fut. 
 pass., ending in (st. f.) 573" neut. (called "supine" in Man. G2. 
 61, 5), with an obi. f. ^TSTOT (= E. H. ^5T) or (by eliding a^) 
 contr. mm (= E. H. ^, B. ^u). It also occurs in M. with the 
 sense of a part. pres. pass, in the formation of the pres. conj. 
 tense, ending in ^T5JT m., 5T5TT f., ^Tsr" n. ; e. g., M. •ft rrZTsrr 
 I may be loosed (lit. I am to be loosed), or isrt Tr3T5rr I may loose 
 him (lit. by me he may be loosed or by me he is to be loosed); 
 see § 509, 3. — The other sets occur also in W. H., except that 
 there is no change of ^ to X in the 5 th and 6 th sets; e. g., 
 W. H. T^ersiT^ or °vft, f. °^Tt; dTniI5^. The 5 th set occurs in 
 M. as ^5lTJ or ^srre (see Bs. II, 60; e. g., cfi^crnK pitiful, of 
 R. ciT^T moan) ; and in G. as gcTPTT (commonly used to form the 
 fut. tense act.; e. g., s^TToTPtV he shall deliver, of R. ^T3 Ed. 61), 
 the original pass, sense of which may be seen from its use in 
 the so-called "potential" (Ed. 57); e. g., zrij ^T3oJTTT ^TTT lit., 
 by me he should be delivered. The sixth set occurs in M. as nxj 
 or m&_ (see Man. 114. Bs. II, 60; e. g., W3ETZ frolicsome, of R. 
 W^ play ; Tp?TsTT3^ itching, of R. WT^ itch) ; in S. as gi"^t or 3TT7o. 
 (Tr. 53 ; e. g., snTT^rt or stttttv- pedlar, of R. ETiqr seclc; <rtoT7j 
 cotton-carder, of R. fira card). 
 
 314. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 krit cfZTJ forming the part. fut. pass. It is often added with the 
 connecting vowel ^; thus ^rTar. The addition of ^ is general in 
 Pr. (Vr. 7, 33. H. C. 3, 157) and universal in Gel. The suff. ^rar* 
 (nom. sg. neut.) becomes in Pr. ^5J or ^5T (il. C. 3, 157) and 
 in Ap. *%zi or ^sf (H. C. 4, 438. K. I. 53 in Ls. 469, 5) or ^ 
 (K. I. 50 in Ls. 4 68, 3); finally in E. H. ^ or 95^. Similarly, 
 
 1) If it were not the long vowel 3, it might be taken as a contr. of 
 
 the Pr. ^3 or^j = Skr. c^T^H. C - 3 > 157; like tlie M " con J- part in 
 3Tn — Pr. ^3tTT or ^CFT, Skr. *^FSTFr^. 
 
§314.] PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIX ES. 149 
 
 with the pledn. % added, Skr. ^rTai^fg , Pr. ^a^r or v^fp*, Ap. 
 Sr. (a) Ff? (H. C. 4, 43 8. 4, 3 54) or Ap. Mg. (b) ^oTT (= *^r 
 or *$j r 5p, of. §54), W. Gd. (a) ^srV or wf or E. Gd. (b) ^5IT 
 or ^sn or S. Gel. (b) gTsf (= *^|J5r)- Thus Skr. qT^rrr (or 
 *37fj7T3m ), Pr* 5fijw=f or ^gof, Ap. *ZRT& or ^T°f or ^T 5 *' 
 E. II. S?f^ or eff^; again Skr. cJvfejcFir, Pr. ch|*Jojg or cfifjrg^g, 
 Ap. (a) *^pf5 or (b) Zhj&i or (c) cFT^oTT ; Gd. (a) M. cfi^Tsr", (b) W. 
 II. cFfpaV', (c) 0. cFfj5JT. It should be remarked, that H. C. ex- 
 pressly gives the neut. wk. f. {7cf (II. C. 4, 44 1) as an inf. suffix, 
 while the corresponding st. f. ^cT? and ^"5!T (II. C. 4, 438) • are 
 mentioned as suff. of the part. fut. pass. — The suff. SlotT^ is 
 a comp. of the suff. g^ or 5TTa^ + suff. gr^ of §220; and the 
 suff. «cJ'^Jl a comp. of suff. ^T^ -+- pleon. suff. ^TT (of the re- 
 dundant form, § 202); and the suff. ^srqr or ftoCfJl a comp. of 
 suff. OT5T -f pleon. suff. %J or VJ1 (§ 209); and the suff. grar 
 a comp. of suff. ?Mor + 77 . The nature of the latter element (?) 
 is obscure. Perhaps it represents the Skr. suff. FTT of abstract 
 nouns (§ 2 2 0, also contained in the suff. %o(r§) or F3PT (or fem. 
 *r5TT in Mg., seeWb. Bh. 4 3 7); thus Skr. ^cTSTcTT or °rofff = Mg. 
 Ziaswi or Ap. * ^oi i I , E. H. grar ; the change of W to T (as in 
 erruf for ^W1 II. C. 2, 2 9) may be owing to a confusion with the 
 suff. 5T5IT or gT^r (§ 284) derived from the Skr. ^WT = Pr. 5T|7. — 
 Again the suff. mz, g^TT and gT}V (or ^T^) are contr. respectively 
 from the suff. gsTTJ, gcT^TT and g5n^T (or goTT^n"), by the elision of a^; 
 just as the E. H. obi. f. ^ is contr. for B. ^sr (= ^ir), and the 
 M. obi. f. graT for gisrar (§313). — The suff. rTST, in course of 
 time, lost its originally pass, sense and became active, as in B. 
 m and ^jt (see § 313); in the other Gels., this process was fa- 
 cilitated by the addition of the pleon. suff. ^*TT and g^T = Ap. 
 Pr. ggg (= gcFTSF) and ^3^, the 3" of which latter suff. changed, 
 as usual in Gd., to zc or 5<t or ^ or ^. E. g., Ap. ^ojtiij 
 (Skr. J%Tar.), W. H. |WcTTc?TT or E. H. °J\ ; Ap. 5 Mo}«43 , M. 
 *^^TcTnj or contr. ^TT7 . Similarly the originally pass. suff. WTttn 
 (of the part, fut.) and ^TT (of the past, part.) have become active 
 
Set. 
 
 Com. gen. 
 
 1) 
 
 s:t 
 
 2) 
 
 snoPT or «T^r 
 
 3) 
 
 «f%T£ 
 
 4) 
 
 — 
 
 150 I'KLMAliY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. § 315—317.] 
 
 in Gel. (see §§ 31G. 305). It is a remarkable fact, that the suff. 
 FTcT lias suffered a precisely analogous change in the Latin finis. 
 Its derivatives occur very rarely in classic Latin, and, as a rule, 
 «,re used passively, as captivus "prisoner", votivus „ dedicated"; but 
 stativus "appointed" or "stationary" is both pass, and act., and 
 fugitivus "fugitive" is active. But in the later (low) Latin they 
 are very common, and, as a rule, used actively; as effectivus „ ef- 
 fective", operativus, contcmplativus, negalivus, etc. 
 
 Fourth Group. 
 315. Set. Com. gen. Masc. Fern. 
 
 E3^TT or SrHT ?J3TT or frfcfl 
 
 cjrrsn^T or °c<TT ^STlff or °^T 
 The forms of com. gen. are weak, the others strong. The second 
 set, on being added to caus. and den. roots in 5T3j^, supersedes 
 that termin. For the rest, see § 298, note. 
 
 316. Meaning. These suff. are used to derive 1) part, 
 fut., both pass, and act., and 2) verbal nouns, both of act. and 
 agency, from any root. The nouns of agency are, i-n fact, part. 
 fnt. act., implying the habit of doing a thing. As to the change 
 of the sense from pass, to act., see § 3 09. The verbal nouns of 
 act., formed by these suff. and used as infinitives in W. II. and 
 the other Gds., are seldom or never employed so in E. II. 
 
 317. All these suff. (exc. the strong femin. of the third 
 set) are occasionally used to form the part. fut. pass., and gene- 
 rally have some particular meaning. Thus ^TL. or K 7 ^ or 3/*t what 
 is to be given, a debt, of R. £ give ; ^T or efRT or c?rt what is 
 to be taken, a receipt, of R. ^f take, as in the phraso v^t gTj 
 intercourse, traffic ; srTsPT or 5T5RT what is to be played, a musical 
 instrument, of R. 5isr_ be played; a\^TT or ^T^Tt what is to be put 
 on, a cloak or sheet, of R. ixts put on, %vear\ flr^TST^ or fir^TT 
 or fSi^Ml or f. °^t what is to be spread, bed-clothes, of R. fsisP 
 or fsi^ra^ spread ; Wcrf3^TT or ^cfTRT, f. °^t what is to be played 
 
§318.319.] PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 151 
 
 with, a toy, of R. <3cf^ play ; it^3^tt or nfvrt what is to be loaded, 
 a load, of R. wj}°^ load ; cK^)4t (II. II. ch'^i-ft) ivhat is to be said, a 
 story, of R. cFe[ speak; <rf^jT5Fr or T^^ft what is to be put on, 
 <jar mods, of R. <T%^ put on; ^3=rr or ^rrt encampments, barracks (lit., 
 what is to be thtdched), of R. ^T thatch ; cn^ or q^fi' what is to be 
 read, spell, charm, of R. ^^^ read. Again 1TPTT, f. ^n, or m. f. 
 ^)Rr^r^T or m. °^T, or m. iftacnjT, f. ^ what is to be, possible, fu- 
 ture, and t^Hl impossible, of R. ^V (but *{l^ ^.1 fi" possibility, futurity). 
 
 318. The third and fourth sets (exc. the strong femin. of 
 the former) are used to form part. fut. act. or nouns of agency. 
 Thus m. f. cfi^fqfrqr, m. °jt one who is going to do or a doer, 
 of R. SFq - do; m. f. cn^f^rT^ or m. MibPf^l^l or tr^Ton^T or vlT, 
 f. °"^t or °sri' one who is going to read, a reader, of R. Q^ read; 
 in. f. i;^flT^ or m. °^T or m. ^TOTcfTT or °^T, f. °c<Tt or °"^" one 
 who is going to give, a giver, of R. £ give, etc. Occasionally also 
 the strong forms of the first and second sets form nouns of 
 agency, as ^W\l, f. °^fr jester, of R. ^fo laugh ; T^3TT or 3^ FIT, f. Ti" 
 coward, timid, of R. T^ fear ; M^iM I or J pTTT, f. °^t pleasing, of 
 R. ST^TcT please; fsFTJ^TT or faqVn, f. °^t disgusting, of R. fa^lTS^ 
 nauseate; <lf^r&Tt or ^rf^l^Tl' a tire-woman, of C. R. <1^JT3^ attire. 
 The fern, in ^Tf often signifies an instrument, and the masc. in 
 %vj a place ; thus fern, wt^fft a spade (lit., digger}, of R: *31Z 
 dig ; 9r<ppft style, pen, of R. ^rw write, engrave ; Qctf^\ scissors, of 
 R. 3T?T^ cut ; uh41 sense of hearing, of R. ^PT^ hear, etc. ; and masc. 
 35TT^ area, court, of R. 3?r rise ; sTtFT^ place for ensnaring, of R. 
 5TRF or sfthldL ensnare; fs^iPT halting-place, of R. fr^_ halt. 
 
 319. The weak forms of the first and second sets and the 
 strong femin. of the first, second and third sets are commonly 
 used to form nouns of act. Thus m. cfi^pT or f. aFT^rl' speaking, 
 speech, of R. cF^r speak ; ^R^ or u^-ft hearing, of R. <jT^ hear ; ^pt^ 
 or cfTR^ taking, of R. ^r take; ^"p^ or ch^HT ') action, of R. 3?^ do; 
 ■^r^or -^ft l ) existence, living, of R. ijir remain, live; %^ 1 ) occur- 
 
 1) Also eh^H-^, ^rTS^, #TrTsJ or ^tf^T^, which are clearly part. 
 
152 PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §320.] 
 
 rence, accidence, of R. ^t be; wkiu^ direction, advice, of R. f^ftst 
 show; Wid^agreement, respect, of R. srrr respect or ^Ris^ persuade \ 
 oTsT^" dispute, of R. SEjJigM ; %W^rt writing, of R. f^" wnte ; fwicTT 
 instruction, of R. f^WTa^ /ew//, etc. Especially the suff. 5T^; as 
 3TPT flying, of R. 37 /7/y; 3i$TT leaping, of R. ^ 2eap; : et^t^" 
 ascent, riding, of R. xTS mount, ride; 3tvPT or TTcrira movement, of 
 R. 31^ mwc; sr^ypr sitting, session, of R. sr^s [sit; 'sT^nj holding, 
 of R. &qr TtoZcZ ; ^rar^T^ seizure, of R. o^q" sei^e; f*F$tt irrigation. 
 of R. srte^ irrigate ; 3?t:t rising, of R. 3?T rise ; ^ciTPT clearance, 
 of R. =^crJTq dispatch; cFttpt fighting, of R. c?nj /?#M, etc. 
 
 JVb^c: "31\\flying, etc. may be also 3"3Ta^, T3TJ, 3"3T5nr, etc.; 
 see § 308. — The derivatives of the 1 st and 2 nd sets must not 
 he confounded with those of the Skr. suff. ^=7, which are not 
 E. H. formations but received from the Skr. as tats, or tadbh. 
 The suff. tt no longer exists as such in Gd., nor apparently did 
 it do so in Pr. Its derivatives in E. II. can be often recognized 
 by the fact of the non-existence of their roots in it. Thus E. II. 
 QT^ beverage, 3TC giving, jtpt respect, nsr^ or xtt^ going, israTSFT 
 presents, etc., whose roots *qrr, *7J, *jtt, *n T L., *5rOTT , etc. do 
 not exist in E. H., at least in this particular form. But some- 
 times it may remain doubtful, whether an E. H. word is an old 
 tadbh. deriv. of the Skr. suff. 5R or an E. II. formation of the 
 present group. 
 
 320. Affinities. These suff. occur in all Gds. ; but those 
 of the 4 th set are not properly E. II., nor generally E. or S. Gd. 
 (cf. S. Ch. 154. Man. 113, 2), but introduced into them from the 
 W. Gd., especially from W. H., P. (Ld. 24, 80) and S. (Tr. 76 
 ^TOT^T or *mo<i ^i). — The third set is that commonly used in 
 E. H. ; it occurs also in W. H., P. (Ld. 24, 80) and S. (Tr. 75); 
 in G. it is contr. to ^T^ (forming the fut. act. tense, Ed. Gl), 
 also in M. ^HTT^r or 5grnT77 (forming the fut. part. act. or nouns 
 
 fut. pass, and thus disclose the etymological character of the words in 
 
 the text. 
 
§321.] PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 153 
 
 of agency, Man. 63, 3. 64, 1). — The first and second set is 
 used in all Gels, in the same way as in E. II. ; moreover, the 
 iiiiisc. strong form commonly serves as the (so-called) infinitive in 
 W. II. (*FtT or SRT in Br. and %^f or ^TT in Mw.), V. (^utt or s^TT 
 Ld. 24,80); also in M. (neuter) mn" (called "gerund" in Man. 
 61, 100. 62); and, in the weak form, in B. ^T or ^f?t or 5TFT or 
 srrfa (S. Ch. 149. 186), 0. gur or *?TUT (Sn. 3 0, 3 8), W. II. (Br.) 
 af^r, S. ^ttt or ^ut (Tr. 54. 2 51), N. &r. The strong form exists 
 also as a suff. of the part. fut. pass, in W. H. m. grift, f. ^Tf, 
 and S. m. WT or JUTT, f. wrt or Jtrfi" (Tr. 2 7 9. 55). 
 
 3 21. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 krit «Rhr, which in Pr. becomes ^rjTtsr (Vr. 2, 17. II. C. 1, 248) 
 or gfing (as in qTOTTST or mfuiw water = Skr. iJVTtu Vr. 1, 18. 
 n. C. 1, 101) or *?UT* (or STOW Wb. Bh. 418. H. C. 4, 443. 441). 
 The latter form has already dropped the passive signification and 
 become a suff. of act. or agency. From the Ap. forms ^fnT^ or 
 ^rrra, by the addition of the pleon. suff. 3 or 33r or ft! or STS^, 
 arise the forms ^nra;? or ^uraTS', which become WTqr or ^TT^ or 
 ^CTTTTT or %?nf\ in M. and G. ; and the form Ztm^lV, which 
 (inserting euph. 5[J appears in S. as ^RcTT^t, W. H. ^TSITW ; and 
 the forms ^ftJTWi or ^ftn^3^, which (inserting euph. f) appear 
 in E. H. etc. as ^f^n[T^r or srf^T^T. The simple Ap. form ^nra 
 (H. C. 4, 443) appears in E. H. etc. as ^TT. The simple Ap. 
 gm^, which forms the inf. (H. C. 4, 44 1) appears in the W. H. 
 infinitive in ^7t or ^tt ; and the Ap. inf. suff. ^tnf^r (H. C. 4, 
 441) in the W. H. inf. suff. %m or shortened ^f^T. — It is pro- 
 bable that in the popular usage the two krit suff. 5=7 (pleon. 
 ^T3T = Pr. wra) and ^^rhr have become confused, so as to make 
 a correct allotment of their respective derivatives a matter of 
 difficulty. But as there can be no doubt, that the passive suff. 
 RHT has become an active suff. of act. and agency (see §314), 
 it is extremely probable that the same change has occurred in 
 the case of the similar suff. g^TW, the modern derivatives of which 
 exhibit remarkably analogous forms and meanings to those of the 
 
154 PEIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. §322—325.] 
 
 stiff. fT5?T. — The secondary suff. oTT^TT or oTT^T (§ 293) have con- 
 tributed a further cause of popular confusion. 
 
 Fifth Group. 
 
 322. Set. 1) Fem. 9B or ^rTT. Set. 2) Fem. 5JToTrTor sfcrt. 
 The forms in J are strong, the others weak. As to the manner 
 of adding them, see § 298, note. 
 
 323. Tliese suff. are used to derive nouns of act. from a 
 root ; but they exist only in a limited number of words. Thus 
 the first set in ychH or y<*>rn settlement, of R. =55? finish; =^TrT 
 plaiting, plaits, of R. =^T plait; sreTrTl' dwelling, village, of R. sra^ 
 dwell; njTTt filling tip, enlistment, of R. W^ fill; ^5m rising, gain, 
 of R. =33S rise; srarfT increase, of R. sra increase; sirm" decrease, 
 of R. sir decrease; vWHT belonging, assessment, of R. c<Tn belong. 
 Occasionally the root is not in use, as in 9^rT^ commission (lit., 
 increase), of R. *^3T, fcMri) it/ formation, petition, of R. *f§pr . 
 The second set in ^piToTrT^ or utithltff explaining, of R. ^Tmcmc^ ex- 
 plain; wrtfft release, of R. WZJ^ release; Jj-flHt security, of R. hhI<* 
 ermse to fr^s/. 
 
 324. Affinities. These suff. exist in all Gds. Those of 
 the second set, however, appear to be extinct in B. and 0., see 
 Bs. II, 108. In M. they are 3^T and tfoilrfl ; in G. ^T?rt or 3rTt ; 
 in P. and W. H. ^ToTr^, 5T»rt. Thus W. H. and P. ^RTHt, G. 
 W^t, M. SWsTH; W. II. and P. JTqTrTT, G. JTHTfTt ; W. II. and P. 
 =a^rTT, M. -^<*ic<rii . S. seems to have only the first set in ^frr 
 (Tr. 49). 
 
 325. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 krit 1h (fem.), added to the caus. or denom. radical suff. 9Tn^ 
 (§ 34 9); thus aTf*T or, with plcon. 37 added, 9Tfq"cFT; and in Pr. 
 gwt or gf^-^rT, in. E. H. ^ft^ or girt". Thus Skr. fEi^Tfyshi, Mg. 
 fsref^T, E. II. f^Md! ; or Skr. *5rsrTf<p?T (of R. ^uj, Mg. SqfwSTT, 
 E. II. srasft; or Skr. *mrTfa: (of R. mQ, Mg. sqw\ (cf. T. V. 
 3, 1. 13) 1 ), E. II. zem , M. 93?i, 0., B., G., S. *T3c7 (see Bs. 
 
 1) According to H. C. 4, 81 Pr. substitutes m^ for the Skr. R. 
 
§ 326—329.] PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 155 
 
 II, 53). — By the dissolution of the conjunct T, the forms Pr. 
 #T5TrTT or «T5rfff*3T, E. II. ^oFT or gTFTT might arise ; thus Skr. 
 *!T^TfwT, Mg. * mJTTcTffT^T, E. II. rRTrTT (for JTRaTfTT or q:73m, §§25. 
 34. 78). 
 
 Sixth Group. 
 
 3 2 6. Com. gen. g. Masc. m. Fern. £. 
 
 The form g is weak ; the others are strong. As to the manner 
 of adding them, see § 298, note. 
 
 3 27. These suff. are used to derive nouns of act. from 
 any root. As a rule they are fern. Thus e<K sight, of R. ejTsee; 
 STOqr f. draggling (W. H. ^j), of R. vWJ draggle; xwr f. or ^U 
 m. a slap, of R. WJK slap; ^rcf^ m. or f. play, of R. WST play ; 
 =3Tc^ f. tvalking, conduct, custom, of R. ^Tc<^ or =3^ walk; QWtJ f. 
 seizure (W. H. a^rs), of R. vzf;^ seize; ^ m. f. or #stt m., ^tt f. 
 laughter, of R. f*r laugh; Z^i f - or 5T^T m. or %T§T f. running, 
 race, of R. 3~J"3 run; Trnr f. or jtui m. rubbing, of R. frnr rw6; 
 ffi^ m. or tf?^T m. or tfift f. turning, circumambidation, of R. <fij 
 turn; 37^ m. pressure, force, fear, of R. 5T^i?rcss,- srf^r m. or 
 &Tl<y?t f. speech, dialect, of R. srt^ speak; a^rlTo^ m. or q^FTraT m. 
 repentance, of R. M^HH repent, etc. 
 
 328. Affinities. These suff. exist in all Gds., with very 
 slight differences: W. H. has m. f. ^, and m. STT or W, f. ^ ; S. 
 m, 3, f. 9 or J, and m. *T, f. Z (Tr. 46, 47); G. m. f. ^, and 
 m. STT, f. £; M., B. and 0. have the same as E. H. Thus M. 
 aW, SHc^T speaking, language (Man. 107); srt^, sn^T binding, 
 embankment, of R. srtu^ (Man. 107), etc.; S. ilt?T f. error, E. H. 
 iTc<T , of R. ijcfTj S. snfr f. or snfY m. decrease, of R. 377; S. tfi£ m. 
 turning (Tr. 46. 47). Further examples see in Bs. II, 51. 52. 
 
 329. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 krit g, which (in the nom. sing.) forms m. 9:, f. SIT and, with 
 pleon. 3? added, m. STcfi:, f. J37T. These are in Mg. m. ^, f. ^T, 
 
 3TPT; T. V. 3, 1. 13 gives smrj; thus H. C. SIT^, T. V. 5^^- The 
 derivation is obscure ; but it seems rather to be connected with the R. =Rtf . 
 
156 PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. § 330—333.] 
 
 ami m. 3£, f. ^8Tj whence E. II. ni. f. 9 (cf. §§4 2.4 5) and 
 in. 3T, f. i (of. §§ 47. 51). Tims Skr. Sfifc: or ^T3T (or ^TT), 
 Mg. ^ or ^T (of. II. C. 4, 382), E. II. SRjT ; again Skr. ^T: 
 or ^f%cprr, A. Mg. ^rr or ^frrar, E. II. |fo or ^n, etc. 
 
 Seventh Group. 
 
 3 3 0. . Com. gen. 3T or ?TT3. 
 
 Both forms are strong. Causal roots in 33T3T take the suff. 9T3 
 which supersedes the caus. termination ; that is, 3C is added to 
 ^Ta^, the 5^ of which is elided. 
 
 3 31. These suff. are used to derive nouns of (habitual) 
 agency from any root. Thus 3T in WT3 cater, glutton, of R. WT; 
 3=5JT7 vexatious, of R. 3=^TC vex ; JTTTJ^ fighter, beater, of R. JTT^ 
 fteatf,- zrj ascetic (lit., owe w&o shaves his head), of R. j|t shave; 
 3iT£ cutter, biter, of R. cRTr cm/, &?Ye; 3TTjc- sweeper, broom, of R. 
 <ttt£ sweep (W. H. <ktij) ; ?rrn^ vigilant, of R. ?fTn^ wa7ce; firrm spoiler, 
 of R. f^fJTT"? s/joi?, etc. Again «T3; in <hil jli> quarrelsome, of R. 
 nrrnr quarrel; 3"JT3I spendthrift, of R. 3TTo^ squander (lit., «mse to 
 /?#) ; 3TOT3; laborer, bread-winner, of R. cr^ra^ Za&or, earn ; fzcfiT3; 
 stationary, of R. fr^» 6%; ; RjcH3, saleable, of R. fsr^ sell (intrans.) ; 
 rKe^T3 coaxer, tempter, of R. qr^crfTcj^ coax. Occasionally the root 
 no more exists in E. H. as 3ff> or TTfr robber, of R. *TT^ &ite 
 or overpower. 
 
 33 2. Affinities. These suff. are not properly E. H., nor 
 E. Gd., hut W. Gd., whence they have been introduced. W. II., 
 r. and S., like the E. H. (Tr. 51), have 3 and ^T3 ; G. appears 
 to have a weak form in 3, as *pJT3 cater, 0TT3 broom, etc.; see 
 Bs. II, 3 7 where other examples will be found ; it may, however, 
 he strong; for G. has a tendency to shorten a strong final 3C 
 or m ; e. g., Ap. Pr. JTTBT3, Mw. J^TT is in G. etn; or sfrr gold 
 (Skr. earncfiJT ). 
 
 333. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 krit FT or, with pleon. cFj added, FTcF; the 5Z of which has a ten- 
 dency to change to 3 in Pr. (cf. II. C. 3, 44), also in Pali (see 
 Ms. 40. Bs. II, 57). Whence (nom. sing.) Pr. 3 or 3^T (= *fj: or 
 
§ 334. 335.] PRIMARY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. 157 
 
 *FTSi:), W. Gel. 3 or 3; e. g., Skr. UWT husband (base UH), Pr. 
 irw (H. C. 3, 44), Gd. deest (E. II. lias n?rqr, Pr. itwt^t II. C. 3, 44) ; 
 Skr. faTT /after (base fq?r), Pr. fts; or ft39T (H. C. 1, 13l), P. 
 fqf3 or fqre: ; Skr. mm brother (base tfTTT), Pr. UT3 or UT3^T (II. C. 
 1,131) or Ap. 2*T3 or yrT33 (cf. II. C. 4, 398), P. m3 or HT3; or 
 *T|T3 or U^T3 (cf. Ld. 10, 30), S. UT3, M. UT3. Similarly Skr. 
 ^crcii: (of R. 3^ or STj^) one who bites or overpowers, Pr. 3gf}Srr (cf. 
 H. H. 2, 2 T^T = Skr. £?: fo'ften), Ap. 3^3, W. Gd. 3T37 roMer. — 
 The suff. FT was often added in Skr. with the connecting vowel ^; 
 thus c[rT. This was, probably, generally done in Pr. (see the ana- 
 logous cases of the suff. ^FT and ^rTHT §§ 306. 314). and univer- 
 sally in Gd. Whence we have in Pr. S3 or ~S3Wt and (with ab- 
 sorption of -0 in W. Gd. 3 (G.) or 3 (W. H., P., S.). Thus Skr. 
 wrf^TiT eater (base ^rrf^fr), Pr. wt^3; or Tprr^rr, G. WT3 or W. H. 
 WT3; ; Skr. irrij?7 beater, Pr. mfj& or mrp^T, G. 17177 or W. II. mj^, 
 etc. — The suff. 5T3; contains the caus. or denom. suff. ^T<Tj thus 
 Skr. cFfqmfer worker, Pr. cRHTT5T3?rV or cfiW715r35JT, W. Gd. cRqi3, 
 where ST is elided and the hiatus-vowels contracted, as usual in 
 caus. or denom. verbs (e. g., W. II. part. pres. gT^^TFT working = 
 Pr. grnrToim or srujioi'hI). 
 
 Eighth Group. 
 334. Set. Com. gen. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1) 5cF nm SfcfiT 
 
 2) OTcJT 9TcRT ^Tcfit 
 
 The forms of com. gen. are weak ; the others strong. As to the 
 manner of adding them, see § 298, note. 
 
 3 3 5. The first set forms nouns of act. In many cases the 
 original root is no longer in use ; and the derivative itself, in 
 its weak form, is employed as a root. The weak form is, as a 
 rule, fem. Thus 51^6^7 f. or srsScfirT m. sitting, seat, of R. ST^y sit; 
 cr^t^ f. pain, of R. ^r^ tighten ; FOcF f. cracking, cleft, 7\Jtt day- 
 break, of R. *?qr or FT^cF (W. II. rOcF) crack; tETcF f. or n7iT3TT ra., 
 °c£t f. glittering, of R. *nr*T^ (tvave) or firqcfi glitter; T\^&1 f. glitter, 
 tRv&Kt f. glance, of R. *soT5?T, or qTcriqT glitter; <FT3I f. or °cfiT m. or 
 
158 PRIMAKY DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. § 336—338.] 
 
 °3rf f. snatch, tvinJc, of R. *<JTC be quick (Skr. mnyy); 37£gr f. or 
 °cjtt m. twiUh, of R. * HT7; fre gw£e£ (Skr. 3WIT ?) ; TTJ^J f. palpitation, 
 tm£t partition, screen, of R. tftTl split; rrnrqi; in. pafe, of R. tfiTT 
 spZ#; T33i_ f. food, of R. JtT3~ join?, etc. 
 
 33 6. The second set is used to derive nouns of agency 
 from roots. Thus ^JW> m. or f. an animal that grazes, of R. 
 =5qr graze; ^cFTT^ m. or f. active, clever, =gw^TT f. cleverness (see 
 §257), of R. =3^T walk, move; ^"31* m. or f. runner, racer, of 
 R. 53J5 rw»; crr^re? m. or f. or °3TT in., °£t f. Quarrelsome, of 
 R. c?qr (W. H. ^re) fight; 3"?T^_ m. or f. capable of flying, fledged, 
 of R. 33 fly; <T^"T37 swimmer, qrp^ft orf or ori of swimming, of 
 R. <i^r swim, etc. 
 
 337. Affinities. These suff. exist in all Gds.; but the 
 W. Gds. have final £t or ST for E. Gd. m; and S. has m^ or 
 gT37 for E. H. ^T^ or 5T5FT (Tr. 52, 9). Examples, see in Bs. 
 II, 31 — 33. 42.43. They are exactly the same as in E. II. 
 
 338. Derivation. The original of these suff. is the Skr. 
 krit ^37, which is really a compound of the krit suff. (or nomi- 
 nal termin.) ^ and the nominal base & (probably = ^rT^ doing, 
 ofU.ZKdo) meaning doing, agent. On this subject see § 353. The 
 derivatives of the suff. 95F, therefore, are really compound words, 
 made up of two nominal bases, one ending in ^, the other being 
 cF7 ; e. g., Skr. cjwqr = 37cr + cp? lit. making a tightening, E. II. 
 STST^. An initial ^ of the second part of a compound has a ten- 
 dency to be preserved or even doubled in Pr. ; e. g., gr^gi^" or 
 w^l!T (H. C. 2, 99 = s?J^ + 8Bf), tfr^ or qfzf^f (H. C. 2, 93 
 = vm + ffjerr), 5^t or jpit (II. C. 2, 99 = q^-f cR lit. made fast, 
 i. e., dumb). Hence the preservation of it in the Gd. suffixes. — 
 The second set, probably, contains the denom. suff. 3TO, and is 
 equal to Skr. «Tq3F»; thus Skr. 35W9R, Mg. 3|T5T5F? or 3|TSJafT, E. II. 
 33T7T, with elisiou of 5^ and contraction of the hiatus-vowels. 
 
§339.340.] ROOTS. 159 
 
 SECOND CHAPTER. ROOTS. 
 
 33 9. The usual rule in Hindi grammars for ascertaining 
 the form of the root is, to reject the suff. of the infinitive. This 
 rule holds good for the E. H. also. The root is obtained by 
 detaching the suff. ^35j^or ^3^ (§ 3 08). Thus R. <T% from inf. cr^l 
 to read; R. ^<F from inf. ^jFsr^ to knoiv; R. 'pTT from inf. WTs^ 
 or WTSj^ to eat. In some cases, however, a J or J must be either 
 supplied or omitted ; thus R. crra^ from inf. m^5[^ to obtain (for 
 * crTfsjsT § 3 3); R. at from inf. £fcra to live; R. =^ from inf. =3cT5^ 
 or ^5^ to drip; R. "^f from inf. flsr^ or ffel^ to weep, etc. It 
 will be found that with a few exceptions (about 25) which have 
 a final vowel, all E. H. roots terminate with a consonant. 
 
 340. The same result, however, is obtained by taking the 
 3 d pers. sing. pres. conj. (see § 495) and detaching from it the 
 termination ^ (or u) ; thus R. T^ , from cp£ he reads; R. agf, 
 from 3TF7 he knoios; R. ms^, from qra' he obtains; R. '3T, from 
 wm^he eats; R. ar, from ?rhx he lives; R. =3, from ^ he drips; 
 R. *^t, from "^r or jis he weeps. Moreover, this, unlike the or- 
 dinary method, presents the E. II. root in the most convenient 
 form for comparing it with the original Skr. root which it re- 
 presents. Thus while in such cases as that of the inf. CRS^ to 
 read and 3. sg. pres. conj. *T% he reads, both forms lead equally 
 well to the original Skr. root TeT, through their respective Skr. 
 and Pr. equivalents (viz., inf. Ap. Pr. qfessf, Skr. qfSrTSFT^ and 
 pres. Pr. Wo^, Skr. TSffir) ; on the other hand, in such cases as 
 ■sJoie^ to know, it is only the 3. sg. SKFT he knows, which leads 
 through its equivalents, Pr. SfstK^, Skr. 3«IrT (i. e. STtf^JT-rT), to the 
 original (Skr.) form of the root STU^ ; for the inf. ojTfisT can, by 
 no possibility, be an equivalent of the Skr. sfffifrTcZPT . Its Skr. 
 equivalent would be, if it could exist at all, some such form as 
 *GjffeijrtoiiH^ Such inf. as ajnaT , in fact, are purely Gd. formations, 
 made from a previously changed radical form i^jF. For the ex- 
 planation of this and similar radical changes, see §§344 — 349. 
 
160 ROOTS. §341.342.] 
 
 341. Affinities. On the whole, the Gds. show a very 
 close agreement with one another, as regards roots ; especially 
 the E. and W. II. The differences are, in general, only phonetic. 
 Thus E. H. uses ^[ and c?^, where W. II. has "3 and sT (see 
 §§ 2 9. 3 0); e. g., E. H. cq fall, W. II. qir, E. H. ^J walk, W. H. 
 =^^. Or E. II. has ^ where M. has ^ (see § 11); e. g., E. II. ®T 
 be loosed, ^T"3 loose, M. 5T£, ^TT. Or E. H. has an aspirate, where 
 M. has a tenuis (see § 145, note); e.g., E. H. %W or m^learn, 
 M. fsicF , etc. Sometimes the difference is greater, and is either 
 phonetic or due to different derivation ; e. g., E. H. 5RT^ sif. X. 
 sra, P. 5Tfr, S. fsr^ (Skr. jcrfsrsi^, cf. §173); or E. H. ^ sleep 
 (den. of the Skr. part m, §352), W. H. ^ (Skr. R. *5rqJ. Some- 
 times the same root, though it may exist in hoth languages, is 
 common in one, but uncommon in the other; e. g.. E. H. JTT^Ta^ 
 call, W. H. crsFT^. There are, however, a few roots, especially in 
 S. and M., which do not exist in E. H. ; e. g., S. <i^ see, M. 
 qTeT see, hut E. H. f|;e^ or 5;^, which are also S. and M. 
 
 34 2. If the E. H. roots are examined, they will be found 
 capable of division into two classes. Firstly, those which, though 
 disguised more or less by phonetic modifications, are direct re- 
 presentatives of old Skr. roots (single or compound) ; secondly 
 such as, though ultimately connected with Skr. roots, are not 
 directly traceable to any of them. Examples of the first kind 
 are: E. H. xRF^, Skr. 'sps^walk; E. H. PTQ^, Skr. m^be hot; E. H. 
 rTFT^, Skr. m know ; E. H. ^q-, Skr. 5» do; E. H. sft, Skr. of^sow; 
 E. II. wr, Skr. WTs eat; E. H. =5, Skr.SgrT leak; E. H. cjfa, Skr. 
 cF?q^ be angry (§ 148); E. H. srt^, Skr. ar speak; E. H. jt^ ; Skr. 
 JJ5 rub; E. H. nr or ££, Skr. 3Z brealc (§ 174); E. H. sra, Skr. 
 m^ rub; E. H. <rfj^, Skr. wfi^ touch (§ 58, note); E. H. <lfps, Skr. 
 qfrfsna^ distribute (§ 122, 5); E. II. ^w, Skr. ^s£_ see; E. H. 35", 
 Skr. 3?!TT rise; E. H. wfT, Skr. mar sweep (§ 17 2), etc. Of the 
 second kind are: E. H. W^ forget, cf. Skr. £ra^; E. H. ^Tff wish, 
 cf. Skr. 3?*T^ (§173); E. H. sqs sit, cf. Skr. jfjfsrs (§173); 
 E. II. i^ enter, cf. Skr. gfsre ; E. II. jhtt sleep, cf. Skr. nq- ; E. H. 
 
§ 343. 344.] PRIMARY ROOTS. 161 
 
 feTc! or f^TO eject, cf. Skr. fts&rg (cf. §§113.114); E. H. sirTTsr. 
 make, known, cf. Skr. ^rc^r; E. II. <i*n; or m&\tum over, cf. Skr. 
 gaVr (§143); E. II. <JcR cook, cf. Skr. qras; E. H. qf|=^T^ recognize, 
 cf. Skr. q ffo dHH^ (§ 69); E. H. qrl^ spy, peep, cf. Skr. mr $; 
 E. H. *Jt~3^ wni/7, cf. Skr. cPT 5>; E. H. TO wad", rumble, cf. 
 Skr. cfi£ 3»; E. II. *^f^ Wow, cf. Skr. &p 37, etc. The first class 
 of roots I shall designate primary, the other secondary. 
 
 1. PRIMARY ROOTS. 
 
 343. The phonetic disguises which affect the primary roots 
 and make them differ more or less from their Skr. originals, are 
 generally owing to the following causes: 1) phonetic permutation 
 of the radical consonant or vowel; 2) the incorporation of the 
 Sanskritic „ class-suffix " into the root; 3) the change of the 
 Sanskritic „ class" of the root; 4) the addition of the pleonastic 
 radical suff. gift. Not unfrequently several of these causes act 
 together. On the other hand a few roots, favored hy peculiar 
 phonetic circumstances, remain altogether unchanged so as to he 
 identical in E. H. and in Skr. 
 
 3 44. Phonetic permutation. 1) Final radical consonants 
 are principally exposed to this cause of change, because through 
 the accretion of the (so-called) „ class-suffix " , they generally he- 
 come medial, and then, in their progress through Pr. and accor- 
 ding to its laws, liable to permutation or elision. Thus E. II. 
 WT eat for Pr. m, Skr. WIT; as 3 d sing. pres. Skr. *dl<iJH, Pr. 
 wra^ or WT$ (Vr. 8, 2 7), E. II. WUJ^. Sometimes, however, a root 
 contains a final consonant which Pr. tolerates, and thus identical 
 roots arise; e.g.-, E. H. ^^ walk for Pr. =3^, Skr. ^^; as Skr. 
 xTcrriH, Pr. =^FT^, E. H. =r^\ Hence, when the E. H. exhibits an 
 (apparently) identical root with Skr. (as E. II. rVJjbc hot), containing 
 a final consonant, which would ordinarily be liable to change in Pr., 
 the identity is open to suspicion, and is, probably, to be accoun- 
 ted for in a different way, namely by the incorporation of „the 
 class-suffix", see §345: — 2) Initial radical consonants are rarely 
 
 11 
 
162 PRIMARY ROOTS. § 345.] 
 
 liable to change, and, indeed, never change, unless they are com- 
 pound consonants or a prefix is added, when the initial cons., 
 being now medial, is either changed or elided in Pr. ; but such 
 roots are of unfrequent occurrence in E. H. ; thus E. H. ^ leak 
 for Pr. =3; (=€rr), Skr. mn or 'egn ; as Skr. SzfrrTtff, Pr. *m$ (H. C. 
 2, 77) or =5r7^, E. EL ^; or E. II. <77/P^ offer food for Pr. <rf(sra;, 
 Skr. nf^iiPT (cans, of qtj-fsroj ; as Skr. qf^ipsRTfFT, Pr. M^dU^ or 
 Tf^oRT^, E. H. qffa (§ 12 2,5). Very exceptionally a real single 
 initial cons, is changed; e. g., E. H. ^7 be for Pr. 5>5T, Skr. iT^ 
 (§ 17 6, note), as Skr. UsrfrT, Pr- f ^ or ^TJ (Vr. 8, 1), E. H. ^fcr 
 he is ; but the original *T is preserved in the E. H. past part. 
 iXZmbeen. — 3) Radical vowels occasionally suffer a change; some- 
 times through the vocalisation of an adjoining semivowel (o_ or 3^, 
 §§ 121. 12 2); thus E. H. ^t be for Pr. f 5T or ^sr, Skr. ^; E. II. 
 iifa moisten for Skr. ^wrr^ (§ 172); sometimes by the ordinary 
 phonetic laws; thus E. H. T^ rub for Pr. q^, Skr. *T«[, as Skr. 
 q^frT, Pr. q^ (H. C. 4, 126), E. H. J*m (§ 109); or E. H. ft? 
 or rr break for Pr. jJT, Skr. *6, see §§ 143. 147. 174; E. II. 
 3n<T be angry for Pr. 5T^, Skr. cjrq^, see §§143. 148. — 4) Ex- 
 ceptionally the initial vowel of the prefix of a compound root is 
 elided; as E. H. ^m wish for Pr. *3^Tf, see § 173; or E. H. 
 3RTjF sweep for Pr. m<b%, see § 172. 
 
 345. Incorporation of the „class-snffix". Skr. roots 
 are divided into ten classes, according to the suffix which they 
 assume for the purpose of forming the conjugational base for 
 the four principal tenses or moods (pres., imperf., potent., impcr.). 
 In all other tenses these „ class-suffixes" are rejected and the 
 root used alone. Already in Pr., however, it had become the 
 custom, sometimes to incorporate the class-suff. and to use the 
 root, thus amended, as the conjug. base in all tenses (or moods) 
 and derivative verbs (passive, causal, etc.). In Gd. this usage 
 has been still more extended. Thus E. H. has R. sTPT know for 
 Pr. srrnj and JIT, Skr. tTT, through incorporating the suff. TT of 
 the IX th class, as Skr. jTRTfrT, Pr. sTTUTTT (cf. H. C. 3, 154. Ls. 
 
§ 345.] PRIMARY ROOTS. 163 
 
 348 = sTT + mr + j) or ?rrai^ (Vr. 8, 23 = sTTTrr + ^ + j); E. II. 
 sTPT; or E. II. =aPT. gather for Pr. =3UT or f%tl^ or f%, Skr. f%, 
 through incorporating the stiff. :t of the V h cl. ; as Skr. f%:rtfH, 
 Pr. fwq (cf. Ls. 347 = f%r-UTT-^) or f%rrq or tJUT^ (Vr. 8, 29. 
 II. C. 4, 238 = f%tn or =j=m^+ w + 70, E. H. ^; or E. H. nTO 
 dance for Pr. TTW , Skr. 37^, through incorporating the suff. ?T^ of 
 the IV th cl., as Skr. XftfTt, Pr. unr^ (Vr. 8, 47 = nra + w + ^), 
 E. H. 3T%, etc. It should be noticed, that the incoi-poration of 
 the class-suff. is more or less optional in Pr. and, indeed, ex- 
 ceptional as regards the so-called „ general" tenses and derivat. 
 verbs (cf. Wb. Spt. 59); but in Gd. it is absolute. It may be 
 surmised that, while this was the case in the literary Pr., in the 
 more vulgar Ap. dialects, from which the Gd. took its immediate 
 origin, incorporation was the usual, perhaps the general, practice. 
 That it was a real incorporation of the suff. into the root, even 
 in Pr., can be seen clearly from those forms in which according 
 to Skr. usage the class-suff. could have no place; such as snfnT^f 
 (lit., Skr. * ?rrf?rrTiT ) hnoivn, but also regularly mm (H. C. 4, 7), for 
 Skr. tTTtTJT/, or Pr. sTTfnr3W (lit., Skr. *snt^rorr) or regularly rjTT^trr 
 (H. C. 4, 7), for Skr. ^TTTSTT having known; or Pr. sTrnTTa - ^ (H. C. 
 3, 14 9), for Skr. fTTTJTfrr (lit. *5rRTqqf?r) he caused to know; or 
 Pr. f%ftTf^ or f%%f^ (H. C. 4, 243), for Skr. ircrfir (lit. *ftrfrrarf?T 
 or *fepcjcqf^, i. e., f%^ or t%T-^&r{Tt) he will gather; or Pr. f^fT^ 
 (H. C. 4, 242), for Skr. =gTUH (lit., Skr. *t%sm or Pr. *f%nr^) 
 it is gathered; or Pr. jpr^ (Spt. 4 6) or spnfs^ (cf. II. C. 4, 302. 
 Dl. 24, lit. *f3&), but also regularly §51^ (H. C. 4, 242), for Skr. 
 3J3H (lit. *spj?r) it is heard; or Pr. gfrrraqT (lit., Skr. *^f^fSn) 
 or regularly ^TTStn (H. C. 4, 241), for Skr. SHSIT having heard; or 
 Pr. Uhellfa^ (II. C. 1,3 3), for Skr. zr PrirnPl (lit. *^Jlftdlfr) cau- 
 sed to dance; or Pr. eRf^g 1 (lit. *3Ff?T) or regularly cRT^ (II. C. 4, 
 2 7 2), for Skr. 5ir5rr having done, etc. In E. H. this incorporation 
 is so thoroughly established, that the old radical forms have 
 entirely disappeared, and their places have been taken by the 
 new ones, even, e. g., as the base for the formation of the ver- 
 
164 PRIMARY ROOTS. §346.347.] 
 
 bal noun in g^T which is the source of the modern infinitive 
 (§§308 — 314); thus E. II. JTFT5J to know for Skr. TTTrTai? (lit. 
 * sTTfafraroJ ; E. II. ^g? to dance for Skr. ^rfrTrism (lit. *^fmnm^), 
 etc. This process explains why many Skr. roots ending in a vowel 
 terminate in E. H. with a consonant. 
 
 Note: In most of the above examples there is not only an 
 incorporation of the class-suff., but simultaneously also a change 
 of the „ class"; see § 347. 
 
 3 4 6. An exactly analogous process is the incorporation of 
 the passive stiff. TJ, by which means a few intransitive roots are 
 formed in E. II. from Skr. transitive (active) roots ; e. g., the 
 Skr. R. ^c^ is trans, press, but the E. H. R. ^<T is intrans. be 
 /)iit down, he abashed, and equal to the Skr. pass. R. ^2T; as 
 Skr. pass. z $vin he is pressed, Pr. ^"J^", E. II. =3tr, etc. Some- 
 times both the Skr. and Gd. Rs. are intrans. ; e. g., E. II. ^TjjT 
 (W. H. ^T^tJ and Skr. =3sT walk, as Skr. pass. -^crdH (but act. ^oTITt), 
 Pr. xjoj^ (Vr. 8, 53, but act. xRT^ H. C. 4, 23 1), W. H. =5rr£ or E. II. 
 =^lj (but act. W. H. ^T, E. H. ^), etc. In rare cases both are 
 trans.; e.g., E. II. sfrg; and Skr. f^ST irrigate; as Skr. pass. fereirT 
 (but act. firaffT), Pr. fira^ (H. C. 4, 2 30, but act. ftix^ H. C. 4, 23 9), 
 E. H. srN 1 (but act. ^i"^), etc. Other examples, see § 34 8. 
 
 Note: In most cases of this kind also a change of „ voice" 
 from pass, to act. takes place; see § 348. 
 
 347. Change of „class". The Skr. distribution of roots 
 into ten classes had already in Pr. become, to a considerable 
 extent, obliterated. In Gd. it has disappeared altogether. While 
 Skr. has ten classes, of which the I st (inch VI th ) and the X tb 
 (incl. denom. and causal) include by far the largest number of 
 roots, Pr. has, in the main, only two, of which one corresponds 
 to the Skr. VI th (or I st ) and the other to the Skr. X th cl. The 
 remaining classes occur in Pr. only in extremely isolated and ex- 
 ceptional cases; but as a rule, roots belonging to them are trans- 
 ferred into the VI th1 ) (or occassionally X th ) class, either 1) by 
 
 1) It is usual to say the I st cl. (cf. Wb. Spt. 59. Ls. 334); but it seems 
 
§347.] PRIMARY ROOTS. 165 
 
 substituting the suff. ^ of the VI th (or X th ) for their proper 
 class-stiff. (3 of the V th , * of the VII th , 3 of the VIII th , ^TT of 
 the IX th , V of the IV th ), see II. C. 4, 239; or 2) by incorpo- 
 rating the latter with the root and, when necessary, eliding and 
 changing the final vowel of such class-suff. (3, ^t) into ^, the 
 characteristic of the VI th and X th classes (cf. Wb. Spt. 5 Off. Ls. 
 33 4); or 3) by interpolating the suff. ^ of the VI th class. For 
 example ; R. f% gather is in Skr. of the V th cl., base f^j, hence 
 3. sg. pres. f%TffH, but in Pr. it becomes of the VI 11 cl., by 
 incorporating ^r and changing 3 to 5, hence base f%tiT, 3. sg. 
 pres. i%UT^ (Vr. 8, 29); or again R. fTP^ obtain is in Skr. of the 
 V th cl., hence base qTg, 3. sg. pres. grrtfrT, but in Pr. of the 
 VI th cl., by substituting the suff. * of the VI th for 3, hence base 
 <TT5T, 3. sg. pres. moq (H. C. 4, 23 9); or again R. ^ break is 
 in Skr. of the VII th cl., hence base JT^, 3. sg. pres. n^fe, but 
 in Pr. of the VI th cl., by incorporating ^ and eliding its ^, hence 
 base H^T, 3. sg. pres. tfsT^ (H. C. 4, 106); similarly in Pr. qrof^ 
 or ftfH^; (Ls. 34 7), for Skr. fq^H%, there is a transfer of the R. 
 fm^ from the VII th into the X th cl. ; or again R. & do is in Skr. 
 of the VIII th cl., hence base &r$, 3. sg. pres. cFrfrfrT, but in Pr. 
 of the VI th or I st or X th cl., by changing the suff. 3 of the VIII th 
 to 5, hence base °1£ (i. e., sfi") or cR^ or cjr^ (i. e., cFTjOi 3. sg. 
 pres. °|^ (as in W^ Spt. 173 = Skr. <<JrcfifYf7T) or ar^ (Vr. 8,13) 
 
 to me, on the whole, that the form which such Pr. roots take, is more 
 accurately described as that of the VI th cl. The I st differs from the VI th cl. 
 by gunating and accentuating the radical vowel; the VI th does not gunate 
 the radicals and accentuates the suffixal vowel. Now in many cases Pr. 
 does not gunate the rad. vowel; e.g., in fem^, ^xn^, where if they were 
 of the I st cl., it should be ^HT^, rnm\\ for the Rs. are, practically, f%Q7o 
 nrr^. Again in many other cases the final rad. sound is a comp. cons., 
 which precludes the gunation of the rad. vowel and thus renders it im- 
 possible to determine the class by this sign; e. g., in UsT^", TrW^. Here 
 the class could only be determined by the accent; but as Pr. (and Gd.) is 
 devoid of the old Aryan accent, this aid to determine the class also fails. 
 Thus circumstances are in favor of its being the VI class. 
 
166 I'KI.MAWY ROOTS. §347.] 
 
 or cjr^ (H. C. 4, 337); or again R. Wf know is in Skr. of the 
 IX pi., hence base jTRf, 3. sg. pres. sTT^TTfH, hut in Pr. of the 
 VI th or X th , by incorporating ^TT and changing ^T to ^, hence base 
 sTTtn or sTTTTT (i. e., W^n), 3. sg. pres. sTTUT^ (Vr. 8, 23) or %nm^ 
 (Dl. 15); or again R. 3JeT seize is in Skr. of the IX th cl., hence 
 base it^t, 3. sg. pres. JT^tIh, but in Pr. of the VI th or X th , by 
 substituting their suff. n {wi) for TT, hence base JTTi| or vr^ (i. e., 
 Jr^rff), 3. sg. pres. JT^ (Vr. 8, 15) or rnffjt (Dl. 90); or again 
 R. HH dance is in Skr. of the IV th cl., hence base ^r?T, 3. sg. 
 pres. nHrfa, but in Pr. of the VI th or X th , by incorporating U, 
 hence base xnw or Utw, 3. sg. pres. Ul^SJ (Vr. 8, 47) or Ul^h\ 
 (Dl. 50); or again R. ^ weep is in Skr. of the II nd cl., hence 
 irregular base ^rf^;, 3. sg. pres. "ftf^fH, but in Pr. of the VI th 
 or I st cl., by substituting their suff. ^ for the irreg. ^ of the 
 II nd cl., hence base ^ or ^t^, 3. sg. pres. jj%r§ or £5T^ (H. C. 
 4, 226. Spt. 311 or contr. ft^ II. C. 4, 368) or fm$ or ftsr^ 
 (H. C. 4, 226); or again R. m go is in Skr. of the II ud cl., 
 hence base JIT, 3. sg. pres. znfrf, but in Pr. of the VI th cl., by 
 interpolating its suff. ^, hence base sTP?, 3. sg. pres. sTra^ (H. C. 
 4,240 or contr. sTT^ H. C. 4,240. 350). Moreover, there was 
 already in Pr. a tendency to run its two (remaining) classes, the 
 VI th and X th , into one, either by transferring the roots of the 
 VI into the X th ; or far more commonly by reducing the roots 
 (whether primitive or denom. or caus.) of the X th into the VI th , 
 through changing the X th class-suff. ^ into the VI th class-suff. g 
 (see II. C. 3, 15 8. 14 9. Wb. Spt. 6 0. Ls. 341. 34 2. 344). Thus 
 1) change of the VI th cl. into the X th ; e. g., ^r (H. C. 3, 158), 
 for ^ (II. C. 3, 158. Skr. ^Hh) he laughs; ^\\ (II. C. 4, 337), 
 for 37^ (Vr. 8, 13) he docs; ^ (Dl. 50), for ^ (Vr. 8, 4 7) 
 he dances, etc.; 2) change of the X th cl. into the VI th ; e. g., 
 cf^ (II. C. 4, 2), for ap% (Spt. 3 5. cf. II. C. 4, 2 67), Skr. mvufa, 
 from R. ^j^ speak; or fifrq (II. C. 4, 422), for fW^ (Spt. 156. 
 cf. H. C. 4, 2 65) he thinks; or <^ (Spt. 260), for STif^ (Spt. 188), 
 Skr. smralH, from R. ^TTU^ accomplish; again in causals: ^f^^ 
 
§ 347.] PRIMARY ROOTS. 167 
 
 (H. C. 3, 14 9), for sfjrsrs, Skr * SW^^i lrom K - ^EL SCfi *' or OT^Tsr^ 
 (II. C. 3, 14 9), for ^T5q- (II. C. 3, 14 9), Skr. cFT^t?r, from 11. 
 77 <l<>\ or ^TT5T^ (II. C. 3, 149), for ^TT5T^ (H. C. 3, 149), from 
 R. ^e laugh; or iwh^ (II. C. 3, 151), for WTsrs: (II. C. 3, 151) 
 he causes to roam, from R. 2*>T , etc. In E. II. (and Gd. gene- 
 rally) this process reaches its natural conclusion by all roots what- 
 soever (whether primitive or derivative) having been transferred 
 to a single class, which practically corresj)onds to the VI h of 
 Skr. While, therefore, in Skr. roots belong to ten, and in Pr. 
 (in the main) to two classes, they all belong in E. H. to one 
 and the same. Thus (see the above examples) E. II. ^^T = Pr. 
 3IJ •, E. H. qrar = Pr. msr^ ; E. H. if^ = Pr. ifsTj ; E. H. cft^T 
 = Pr. <TT^ or ffcr^; E. II. ^ = Pr. ST^; E. H. sTPT = Pr. 
 ?tttit^; E. H. jt| = Pr. n~^; E. II. Rra = Pr. ^^; E. H. 
 fiy = Pr. fhr^; E. II. sTTCT (W. H. ?TTff) = Pr. JTT^T (or sTTsq) ; 
 E. H. ^ f* Pr. ^r^; E. II. ^ = Pr. qT^ ; E. II. fiiFT = Pr. 
 Fznz; E. II. qT^Ta- = Pr. 5F^Toq; E. II. ^TT5T = Pr. ^TT5T^, etc. 
 Some E. H. roots ending with an anomalous long vowel, as <rt 
 drink, H drip, are probably to be explained on the principle of 
 the interpolation of the VI th class-suff. ?r ; just as in the case of 
 the above mentioned R. 5TT go. Thus E. H. <rfa he drinks pre- 
 supposes a Pr. form *f^?f5Erj or *fqw^", instead of the common Pr. 
 fqa^ (H. C. 4, 10) or fq?r^ (II. G. 1, 180), Skr. fraffT, which would 
 be in E. H. either *<TT^" or *fqrr; similarly E. H. ^ it drips = Pr. 
 * : 5^^, for the ordinary Pr. ^^ (II. C. 2, 7 7). 
 
 Note: Some Skr. roots are conjugated in several classes, one 
 of which is the usual one, while the others are either rarely 
 used or confined to the Vedas. It will be found, that some Gd. 
 roots which have apparently changed their Skr. class, have really 
 preserved such an unusual or vedic class. Thus R. cFT be hot is 
 in Skr. both of the I st cl., FPT, and also, but rarely, of the IV th cl., 
 (T3T. The latter is the modern E. II. rT<T (Pr. nm). The former 
 would have become in E. H. rTcT or rTT, through Pr. FToT (cf. rT3^ 
 H. C. 1,231). Again R. it die is in Skr. of the VI th cl., t*fer, 
 
168 PRIMARY ROOTS. § 348.] 
 
 but in the Vedas of the I st cl., T7. The latter is preserved in 
 the E. II. qj, Pr. qf (Vr. 8, 12 q^, E. II. qf). It is possible 
 that other modern Gd. roots, which have apparently changed their 
 class, have really preserved an ancient traditional one of colloquial 
 use, even though in many instances no evidence of it has survi- 
 ved either in Skr. or Pr. literature. 
 
 348. An exactly analogous process is the change of „v<n<t". 
 In the case of some simple roots, their passive radical forms, 
 made in Skr. with the suff. U , are used in Pr. in an active 
 sense and substituted in their place (cf. Wb. Spt. 64. S. Gdt. in 
 J. G. 0. S. XXIX, 49 2). By this process, practically, such roots 
 are transferred in Pr. from their proper Skr. class into the VI th 
 (or X th ), and in E. H. into the VI th . Thus R. q^ break is in 
 Skr. of the VII cl., hence base qqsT, 3. sg. pres. qqf% ; its 
 pass, root or base is qsff, hence 3. sg. pres. q?OTT he is broken. 
 Now Pr. treats this form, as if it were an active one of a R. 
 q^ of the IV 4 cl., and, by incorporating the (really passive, but 
 practically IV th cl.) suff. <J, makes the root to be of the VI th ; 
 hence base q?sf, 3. sg. pres. q??f^ he breaks (cf. Spt. 1 6 8 qssfrT^T, 
 Dl. 42 %qs?r). Again R. EST hinder is in Skr. of the VII th cl., 
 hence base ^n^, 3. sg. pres. ^mfi' ; but in Pr. it is of the 
 VI th cl., by incorporating q and eliding its ^; hence base ^y, 3. 
 sg. pres. JW§ (Vr. 8, 4 9). The Skr. pass, base is ^W, hence 3. 
 sg. pres. ~XWH he is hindered; in Pr. this becomes ^n^ (or Tsq^O 
 and is used both in its proper pass, sense (he is hindered H. C. 
 4, 245. 248) as well as in the act. sense (he hinders H. C. 4, 218); 
 that is, Pr. transfers the R. £U into the VI th cl., by incorporating 
 the pass. suff. 0" and employing it in an act. sense. Examples 
 of this kind are not uncommon. Thus R. 5T=F can forms Pr. y^^, 
 for Skr. STcjrqq (Vr. 8, 52. II. C. 4, 230). Now clearly e^ is 
 the equivalent of the Skr. pass. UicWH, used actively. The real 
 equivalent for the Skr. (V cl.) STcFtHcT is the alternative Pr. form 
 ^T^tirfT (cf. Dl. 36 ^Tgjiqfrfq). Again R. ^tjt belong forms Pr. crrrn^ 
 (Vr. 8, 52), which cannot be = Skr. (I st cl.) -ymfrT, but = Skr. 
 
§ 348.] PRIMARY ROOTS. 169 
 
 pass. crtJUH ; again R. FHT burst forms Pr. rFy$ or HnZZ (Vr. 8, 53). 
 Of these, evidently, the former = Skr. pass. WiiilH, the latter 
 = Skr. act. (VI th cl.) Wiifrl. Again R. fflR' sprinkle forms both 
 firer^ (II. C. 4, 230) = Skr. pass. fenH, and fthl^ (II. C. 4, 239) 
 = Skr. act. (VI th cl.) fwfa. Again R. ^T hill forms cither ^nq 
 = Skr. pass. ^-Ucl and used both as an act. (Vr. 8, 4 5) and as 
 a pass. (II. C. 4, 244), or ^rjT^ (Dl. 72) = Skr. act. ^fcr. Again 
 the R. fsilITt sell (i. e. fcT-^) forms both fsrgfj^ and fsrfpiilT^, of 
 which the latter = Skr. act. fsrarfrirfrT; but that the former = 
 Skr. pass. fsraiTnTT is shown by the E. H. f%5FT it is sold which 
 is still used exclusively in a pass, or intrans. sense. This Pr. 
 form lol^, by showing that the termin. 0"^ may represent the 
 Skr. pass, termin. ^UrJ, throws light on some strange Pr. forms, 
 which thus are shown to be passives, used actively. Thus Pr. U 1 ^ 
 he places, of the R. $JT, is the same as Skr. pass. yWrT ", for from 
 the usual Skr. act. (III d cl.) SiJlfHT it cannot be phonetically de- 
 rived. Thus also 3^ (Cw. 99) Tie gives, of R. ^T, is probably the 
 Skr. pass. ^m\ and Pr. 4r^ he gathers (T. V. 2, 4, 72), of R. f%, 
 is the Skr. pass. =5rtacr rather than an assumed new I st cl. -cfafn 
 (as Wb. Spt. 60); and Pr. °5T or °^ (Ls. 34 5) he stands, of R. 
 ^TT, is the Skr. pass. ^rhTFT rather than an assumed new I s cl. 
 srnrfFT, of R. & (? as Ls. 13 5); and Pr. 3jj he flies (Cw. 99), 
 of R. 3^-3T, is the Skr. IV th cl. 3ffa?T (in reality a pass, form) 
 rather than the Skr. I st cl. 3£<UH. All these last mentioned forms 
 in ^, as regards their termination, resemble the Pr. X th cl., which 
 likewise ends in ^, as Pr. ^T = Skr. STpHjIh; and thus they 
 come to be treated as if they were really X cl. formations, 
 and may all be optionally transferred into the VI th cl. Just as 
 5?%^ may change to sf»^, so 5? to 3^f (Spt. 216), °?T^ to 5^ 
 (H. C. 4, 17), and, no doubt, the others similarly, though in their 
 case the Pr. evidence is wanting. But the fact is proved by the 
 E. H., which here again makes the change absolute and trans- 
 fers all pass.-act. roots to the VI th cl. Thus E. II. fi^F = Pr. 
 fsrip: or fbl|fc^; E. H. °i| (in qf^" he put son, see § 133) = Pr. 
 
170 PRIMARY ROOTS. § 349.] 
 
 °iT? or °^; E. II. 5§| =* Pr. ^ or ^j; E. H. T3 = Pr. 
 "3T§ or 3JS"; the only exception is E. H. Z (or ^?T ) for Pr. 5;^. 
 Again E. H. st£ = Pr. ^j; E. II. ?m == Pr. ^; E. II. JKE 
 = Pr. jy^; E. II. xTrf or W. II. tJt£ = Pr. =q^; E. II. ^ 
 = Pr. fw^. 
 
 Note: The cause, no doubt, of this confusion in Pr. of the 
 pass, and act. was the great likeness between the form of the 
 (active) IV th cl. and that of the passive. Even in Skr. they can 
 only be distinguished by the accent, which in the IV th cl. is thrown 
 on the radical, but in the pass, on the suflixal vowel ; thus act. 
 =T^nfT nahyate he binds, but pass, -i^d nahydte he is bound. In 
 Pr., where the accent is disused, the identity becomes complete. 
 In this way some passives became associated in the popular mind 
 with the IV th cl. and came to be used as actives. Most, if not 
 all, the facts might be explained, by supposing a transfer in Pr. 
 of certain roots into the VI th cl., but such a change of class is 
 otherwise quite unsupported; and the exjdanation by means of a 
 change of voice seems much simpler. 
 
 349. Addition of the pleonastic suffix mfa. In Skr. 
 the causal roots are occasionally formed by adding the suff. 5Tf<7 
 (Pr. gTfsr, E. II. i^Tor) instead of the ordinary causal suff. ^; e. g., 
 caus. R. a«nf<T (3. sg. mqwrfn he teaches), of 11. wt (i. e., ^ftf-^) 
 read', see other examples in M. M. 217. 218. In Pr. any C. R. 
 may be formed at pleasure with either of these suff. (Vr. 7, 2 6. 
 27. II. C. 3, 149. Wb. Spt. 64. 65. Wb. Bh. 436); e. g., Pr.cfif^ 
 or cRTTcl^ he causes to do — Skr. ctfrrjrfH or *cfi(|Uijfrl. In E. H. 
 the C. R. is alivays formed with ^Tft; the original 0. Rs. for- 
 med with ^, so for as they have survived, having become primi- 
 tive transitive roots (see §§471 — 473). Thus E. II. ^ij\k he 
 causes to do, not *37TJ, which does not exist; again E. II. q~}Tcr 
 he causes to die (i. e., causing death indirectly), but RT^r he beats 
 or he kills. Now it has been shown in § 3 47, that, in Pr., roots 
 of the VI cl. are occasionally transferred into the X th cl. (H. C. 
 3, 158), i. e., practically are formed like causal roots with ^ ; 
 
§350.351.] SECONDAUY ROOTS. 171 
 
 and hence they also occasionally assume the (caus.) suff. mfa, 
 which in their case, of course, is practically pleonastic (cf. II. 0. 
 3, 158STOTT3 perhaps contr. for mil Id 4 or gmToT?) ; e.g., Pr. has 
 the pleon. R. ^prfir = Skr. *rw or *^^rf^ (3. sg. M^I61^ Spt. 
 1(3 9), E. II. H^ra^. In E. II. these pleon. roots are still more 
 common; e. g., -^lc^ steal, Pr. *^X^' ^ SXm 5T' ^. **• n ft q " r ? r 
 abuse, Pr. * JTf^T^rfsj", Skr. JTc?f , etc. See the List of Roots. There 
 can be little doubt, however, that such Gd. pleon. Rs. as well 
 as their Skr. originals are in reality denominative roots (see § 352). 
 
 2. SECONDARY ROOTS. 
 
 3 50. Secondary roots may be divided into three classes, 
 according to their origin. I shall distinguish them as 1) deriva- 
 tive, 2) denominative, and 3) compound. 
 
 3 51. Derivative Moots. In E. II. there sometimes exist 
 pairs of roots, of which one member is intrans. and corresponds 
 to the Skr. simple or (sometimes) passive root, and the other is 
 trans, and represents the corresponding Skr. causal root. In these 
 cases the intrans. has a short and the trans, a long vowel. Thus 
 E. H. sqr issue intrans. = Skr. S. R. ^, and E. H. m:j[ accomplish 
 (lit. cause to issue) trans. = Skr. C. R. snij; or E. H. T^r die 
 intr. = Skr. S. R. *T, and E. H. rrqr kill trans. = Skr. C. R. 
 JTTff; E. II. stj sink intr. = Skr. S. R. 5TT and E. H. sftJ im- 
 merse trans. = Skr. C. R. sTtfj, etc. In a similar manner, by 
 shortening the radical vowel, E. H. sometimes derives new intrans. 
 from trans, roots, when, on phonetic grounds, only the latter can 
 be shown to have an equivalent in Skr. or Pr. ; vice versa, in 
 a few cases, by lengthening the radical vowel, E. H. derives trans, 
 from intrans. roots, when only the latter exist in Skr. or Pr. 
 The latter process is resorted to only very exceptionally, because 
 E. H. has its own special means of forming causal (or trans.) 
 roots with the suff. gTST (see §§ 349. 474). Thus E. H. possesses 
 a number of new pairs of roots, of which one member is origi- 
 nal, while the other is derivative. Thus E. II. f^TT? accomplish 
 
172 SECONDARY ROOTS. § 352.] 
 
 is trans, and equivalent to the Skr. C. R. f^Tcrrfir, of the trans. 
 S. R. f^taeT; from fTt^TTo E. II. derives an intrans. R. f^rsTf be 
 accompli sited, which cannot, phonetically, be derived from the Skr. 
 pass. R. f^Torp or Picii^u ; for these forms would become in Pr. 
 f^cpfK, and thence E. II. *f?F3l<F . Again E. II. R^T bathe is equi- 
 valent to the Skr. S. R. W\ (Pr. u^t). From it E. II. derives 
 the intrans. R. ^ flow, for which Skr. offers no equivalent. It 
 is, as if ^T were a trans. C. R., and JTeT is to it, as W$ do is 
 to cF^t (or cffTJej ) cause to do. On the other hand, E. H. J=i?r or 
 U£ combine is intrans. and equivalent to the Skr. intrans. S. R. 
 FRTT (Pr. ST5T or ^TS"). From it E. H. derives a trans, (or caus.) 
 R. ^rf?T or ^TT£, which cannot be derived, phonetically, from the 
 Skr. C. R. Jrerrfq - , Pr. JET5T5T, etc. 
 
 3 52. Denominative Roots. Nouns which are used as 
 roots for the purpose of forming new verbs, are called denomi- 
 native roots. The practice of thus using nouns is very ancient. 
 Even among the recognised Skr. simple roots, there are many 
 which are really denominative. Pr. and Gd. have considerably 
 added to their number. Theoretically the power of using nouns 
 as roots is unlimited, and a great variety of nouns are actually 
 thus employed upon occasion in Skr., Pr. and Gd. ; see examples 
 inM. M. 227 — 230. Wb. Spt. 60. 65. Wb. Bh. 429. 437. I speak 
 here, however, only of such nouns, as are formally recognised 
 and treated as roots and enumerated as such in dhdtupdthas (or 
 lists of roots). Such radical nouns or denominative roots 1) al- 
 ways end in ^ ; 2) may be either common nouns or participles 
 (see also Wb. Bh. 4 29); and 3) belong, as regards Skr., gene- 
 rally to the X th class, but occasionally also to the I st . In Pr., 
 with its tendency to obliterate class-differences (see § 34 7), they 
 are all made optionally to belong to the VI th cl., to which they 
 belong without exception in E. II. Thus, e. g., the following 
 roots are derived from common nouns in Skr. : R. TTsj^ scour, from 
 JTTsT scouring, a krit-derivative of the S. R. *T?T scour : or R. nTJT 
 seek, from JTTJT seeking, a krit-deriv. of the S. R. tjt. seek; both 
 
§ 35^.] SECONDARY ROOTS. 173 
 
 preserved in E. H. as JT'isj^ and THT . Again Skr. roots derived 
 from participles are amongst others : R. 5T2T surround, from 5T? 
 enclosure, perhaps a past part. pass, of S. R. fari]^ or fsrq^ with 
 sufF. ft; or R. efi?r pull from cits' pulled, a past part. pass, of 
 S. R. 3Frq^ (or efwj r«&, £M#I with suff. FT; hoth preserved in E. H. 
 as sr^ and cTTqs (cf. Cw. 99. "Wh. Spt. 107). Examples from the 
 E. II. and Pr. are: 1) roots derived from common nouns: R. 
 stfT germinate, from Skr. sFT birth, a krit-deriv. of the S, R. sFT 
 be born; thus 3. sg. pres. Skr. *3F*TtTfFT, Pr. 5W^ or sT^ (H. C 
 4, 136), E. H. sTJT; again R. VTif or ^qr or £Tc<T powr, from Skr. 
 *KJ flowing, prohably connected with the S. R. UTcl^ run ; Skr. 
 *irrprfFT, Pr. UTJ^" or tnT§ (T. V. 3, 1. 14, where it is said to be 
 a substitute of Skr. frr:*Tl[fH), E. H. UT^" or £TJ he pours. Again 
 2) roots derived from participles : R. qvT?T or qcrizr turn over, 
 from Skr. cj?reT turned xwer, the past part. pass, of the Skr. Cp. 
 R. Tf^-^^ turn over with suff. ft; Skr. *cnrcrralH, Pr. ^TcTjT^ or 
 ToF^rZI^ (H. C. 4, 26. 200), E. II. tmz or <mv he turns over; 
 again R. qrTr bent, from Skr. fw beaten, the past part. pass, of 
 the Skr. S. R. fqw &m£ with suff. FT; Skr. *fzrzufn or fqjlTTH 
 (?, Spt. 173. Comm.), Pr. fqj^ (Spt. 173 for *fqT^) or fqy^, 
 E. H. mz he beats: Examples, from the E. H. or Pr., of deno- 
 minative roots, formed with the pleonastic suff. of the X th cl. 
 gT<T'T (Pr. grar, II. ^ToT, see § 349), are the following. One root 
 derived from a common noun is ^T^TST^ be pleasant, from Skr. W& 
 pleasure (said to be a compound of rj good and *eT a, mine, a krit- 
 deriv. of the S. R, GPT dig), Skr. JpraffT or *g<mwfrT, Pr. 5^Tc7^ 
 (Spt. 169) or ^T5T^, E. H. ST^Tci it is pleasant. A root, derived 
 from a participle is f%FTTa^ make known, from Skr. f%3 known, 
 the past part. pass, of the Skr. S. R. t%rT^ knoiv and suff. FT; Skr. 
 * f%7rr<r*7frT, Pr. *t%WTar^ or *t%WT5T^, E. II. t%TT5r he makes known. 
 353. Compound Roots. The great diversity and intricacy 
 of the old Skr. system of radical „ classes" must always have 
 formed a formidable obstacle to its being adopted in the language 
 of the common people. An evidence of this fact has been already 
 
174 SECONDARY ROOTS. § 353.] 
 
 noted in § 34 7, in the decided tendency of Pr. and still more 
 of Gd. to reduce the ten Skr. classes to one. But they made 
 use, besides, of an other remedy, viz., instead of inflecting the 
 root itself, they took some very simple form of a noun derived 
 from it and construed it with the inflected root 37 do. This is 
 still a common practice in modern II., where numerous verbs are 
 formed from (especially foreign) nouns by construing them with 
 the verb 37"^ to do; thus sTOT 37}"5^ to collect, 5T«r ^"^ /o s ^> 
 5^ 37^ to boil, trp^cfi"^ to pass an examination, *T^37^ to mix, 
 «rn^37^ to meditate, firsTT^ gr^Sr. to think (for fsrarq^r , as in Eng- 
 lish to make answer for to ansiver), etc. Even in Skr., paraphra- 
 sed roots of this kind are often found; thus -?T37 + 37 make low, 
 degrade, 1%^ 3J maJce long, delay, etc. (see more examples in M. 
 W. Skr. Lex. under Art. 3j). In fact, any suitable noun might 
 be thus turned into a verb. But it is not of these, that I speak 
 here, but of a special and small class from among them, in which 
 the construction of the noun with the R. 37 has become so firmly 
 established by more or less obscure causes, as to produce, through 
 constant usage, a coalescence of its two component parts (N. -f- R.) 
 into one single simple form, and the recognition and treatment 
 of this compound form as a simple root. Such roots I designate 
 compound roots. Thus there is in Skr. a paraphrased verb StTTrT 
 + 3J or TkT + 3J bloiv, whence OucFffVfH lie blows ; this appears in 
 Pr. as 'JlftS' or Jl^T and in E. H. as tf737. In Skr. the two com- 
 ponent parts, N. fTTrT and R. 37, are still separate and clearly re- 
 cognisable, but they have already in Pr. and still more in E. H. 
 coalesced into one form, Pr. tficg, E. H. 0737 which is now re- 
 cognised in E. II. as a simple root ; in reality it is compound. 
 This process of amalgamation must have been already at work 
 in old times, for among the recognised simple roots of Skr. are 
 found several, which are clearly compound ; as sTg£ baric (cf. H. C. 
 4, 169) = ^ or 5T£ + 37; fcrfft destroy = felcfi ; + 37 or 5£HT + 3? 
 (ace. sg. neut. of N. 5er or $£W); q^ swell = ^FTT + 3j; i%g£ 
 pain = =E[fT -f 37; £37 bind = fT^ + 37, etc. There can hardly 
 
§ 353.] SECONDARY ROOTS. 175 
 
 be a doubt as to the compound character (as above explained) 
 of such roots ', though the exact phonetic process, by which it 
 was produced, may be obscure. The following may be found a 
 probable explanation. It has been shown in § 348, that in Pr. 
 passive roots are often employed in an active sense ; and that 
 sometimes they are recognisable by the termination ^T, which is 
 occasionally reduced to %Z. It is probable, therefore, that the 
 Pr. form 5R^ or ^ (as in Wt^ or wt^[ Spt. 173= Skr. W^l[tl?r) 
 is a passive-active form, or identical with the Skr. pass. fWTrT, 
 used actively. There are in E. H. a few forms which support this 
 view. Thus it has the form ^5 which is both active (he loears) 
 and passive or intrans. (it is worn or it wears) ; the correspon- 
 ding Pr. forms would be 3^J^ or 3^p[; and in Skr. we find 
 the form 3*rfiraH which is both pass, and act. (VI th class). In 
 fact, in this particular case, the properly passive form 3qfsnicr has 
 already in Skr. assumed an active sense; for the usual active 
 form of the R. V is s^fn 1 , of the I st class. Similarly the R. JT die 
 is said to be in classic Skr. an active belonging to the VI th class 
 (frrOrT). It is, however, really passive with an active sense 1 ); for 
 the proper active voice, which has been lost in the classic Skr., 
 but preserved in the Vedic and also in Pr. and E. H., is (like 
 that of R. y) of the I st cl. (t^H). It is precisely the same with 
 the R. 37 do. Its Skr. pass, form fifiOrT has come to be occasio- 
 nally (i. e., in compound roots) used in Pr. as an active (of the 
 VI cl.). Its corresponding proper active form is (like that of 
 the Rs. *T and >j) cfi^rfH, of the I st class, and, though lost in classic 
 Skr., still preserved in the Vedic and in Pr. (cfiTJ) and E. H. 
 (cFrY). ^ u ^ although the Pr. 37^" or cJTT and the E. H. cF have 
 generally assumed an active meaning, their original passive signi- 
 fication is still apparent enough in some cases. Thus E. H. cT^cF, 
 
 1) The change, in this case, was facilitated by the R. *T being in- 
 trans. Besides, as both the VI th cl. and the pass, accentuate the suffixa) 
 vowel, there is absolutely no difference, externally, between the act. VI th cl. 
 nWi mriydte and the pass. twsfrT mriynte. 
 
176 SECONDARY ROOTS. § 353.] 
 
 from E. II. R. 5HT37 stray (i. e., lit. he turned out, scl., of the right 
 path) represents the Pr. *ri%^^ or ^f^gfji and 8kr. orfs^fwntiri ; or 
 E. II. 3^537, of the E. II. root 3^-37 he raised, rise, representing the 
 Pr. 3Wc£^ or 3^%^ and Skr. (Vedic) 3WTf373rT he is carried on 
 high, etc. ). It has been stated already that in such compositions 
 the R. 37 was usually constructed with some simple derivative noun. 
 The simplest form of a noun, derived from the simple root, is 
 the root itself; as Skr. R. jr^ hinder, N. ^v_ hindrance. The 
 next simplest is a noun, formed by one of the krit-suffixes ?T or 5 ; 
 as Skr. R. =e3 cease, N. x^nr ceasing; or R. ER^jptraw, N. 37cr pain. 
 In constructing such a noun with the R. 37, it is, if it has the 
 form of the simple root or is formed with the krit-suff. fT^, im- 
 mediately joined with the R. 3?; as N. ^ffer_ hindrance, ace. sg. 
 neut. ficT, whence Cp. R. £<T_ + ff ss= E. H. ^t37 hinder ; or N. 
 =HfiT_ ceasing, ace. sg. neut. ^TrT^, whence Cp. R. xtfrT^ + ^ = E. H. 
 ^37 cease. Or if it is formed with the krit-suff. g, it is joined 
 with R. 37 by means of a connecting vowel, generally JT; e. g., 
 N. 37GT pain, when Cp. R. 37<ftef = E. H. 37^37 pain' 2 ). It will 
 be seen that in such compounds the initial 37 Tc of the R. 37 or 
 of its inflected form fwirT is preceded either by a consonant or a 
 long vowel ; hence in Pr., according to its phonetic usages, the 
 37 is always doubled, either by assimilating the consonant or shor- 
 tening the vowel; thus Skr. ^fT-f^q"rr = Pr. jf§&\ or ^^" he hinders\ 
 
 1) In the Vedas the R. 37 is also of the H'" 1 cl., thus 3. sg. pros, 
 parasm. 37ffT, atm. 37FT. The latter would be in Pr. ^ and by transfer 
 into the X th cl. (§ 347) ifl^. This may serve as an alternative explanation, 
 if the pass.-act. theory given in the text be not accepted. 
 
 2) This £ is, probably, the debris of an old case-ending. In Vedic 
 Skr. occasionally 5T is used, which is also without doubt an old case-ending, 
 such as we see, e. g., in Skr. STcrTTf37rT: lit. violently treated, forced (STcrTTr?^ 
 abl. sg. of cTcrt violence); thus Ved. 337f5Ff3H he is carried up = Pr. 3*1 ^}4» 
 E. H. 3^137 he rises. As these C. Rs. were probably formed in very old 
 times, it was possibly the connecting vowel UT rather than ^, which was 
 used in them. However, it makes no practical difference, whether it was 
 iff or J; for in E. H. both are equally reduced to 5. 
 
§ 354.] SECONDAKY ROOTS. 177 
 
 Skr. ^rjr-f&TOH, Pr. ^^ or =5ejj^ he ceases; Skr. graTfiFnPf = Pr. 
 cFifsriji^ or ^fagf^ it pains', indeed the doubling of 97 is already 
 insured by the following ijT (in WiJ. In E. H., finally, according 
 to its phonetic laws, the double c£ is reduced to single a? (§ 143). 
 Thus Pr. ^j = E. II. par (§148) ; Pr. ^^ = E. II. f$ (§146); 
 Pr. tTifacjij = E. H. 9tfT5Fr (§ 5 8). This explains the preservation 
 in E. H. of the initial ap» of the R. 57, which, therefore, is an 
 almost unerring indication of the presence of a compound root, 
 in which it now forms the terminal sound : thus E. H. =397 cense, 
 fter hinder, =fi^37 pain. Similarly E. H. ^T97 glitter, 3. sg. pres. 
 Wm, Pr. *^T^f or ^rri]^, Skr. * ^qfrimin', comp. of N. ^TrT 
 (onomatop.) and R. 57 do, etc. 
 
 Note: Sometimes, though a C. R. does not exist in E. H., 
 nominal derivatives of it do. Thus :^§jj degraded, vile, from the 
 unused C. R. =T37, Pr. ^1^, Skr. ^T^ degrade = fo-#5MF. 
 
 ' — c 
 
 3 54. It remains briefly to notice a small number of E. H. 
 roots, which probably belong to the one or the other of the 
 above mentioned two principal classes, but which I am not able 
 satisfactorily to trace to a Skr. origin. They must have been 
 subject to extreme phonetic deterioration. They may be divi- 
 ded into : 
 
 1) such as are, probably, primary roots ; e.g., ZW burst, ZJJ 
 vex, ££ shout, ?Tc^ remove, £5^ sharpen, i\ handle, grope, TT^ cram, 
 t£\ carry, fttt^ stich, Fra^ be parched, f%5^ be congealed, fH|"3 or rTfiS 
 or mts bend, <7jqr drip, <TOT skim, (if? or qffe repose, a^r sharpen, 
 <it or >rra[ or qnr make bread or thread, q^r shut, »J£ acquire a 
 taste, stst bend, c?ir be laden, fsT3 or c^T swallow, &Z recline, 
 5TT?: turn over, return, SPT be mixed, be soiled and tr. FtT^ mix, 
 soil, sffc^ revieiv, ^ be perverse, f^=H loathe, etc. 
 
 2) such as are, probably, secondary roots, and divisible into: 
 a) denominative; as TV^jxq^call, |[^ttt be kindled, etc. ; — b) com- 
 pound] asjfr^sroW, rter prevent, challenge, nra7 go astray, etc.; — 
 c) to these may be added a class of roots which end in ^ or 7 
 
 12 
 
178 SECONDARY ROOTS. § 354.] 
 
 (or j) or r; as- £^^ or z^( walk to and fro (cf. N. r^c^ f. ser- 
 vice, drudgery); Z^p^ or s^r stop, remain (cf. 51[:jr or 77T3^a place); 
 ETcE^t or ygi^r or yg^^r shove (cf. <£ifrr or yfjrr a shove); ^^r^pass 
 agreeably, be amused (cf. R. oTs //w) ; ftp^c?r be dazzled (cf. Pr. R. 
 Ura 11. C. 4, 2 03 = Skr. iTFgJ ; cJTJTS quarrel; WJJ. be draggled or 
 ^Wj draggle; STrTre or vTrl]j (lit. fcicA) insult, exhaust by labour 
 (cf. vlTrT^ or ^irT^ a fticft and ^TrT^ an old shoe) ; OTE^ spring or <T7q7: 
 attach suddenly (cf. W{ quick); =aT£ &fi flattened or ^077 flatten (cf. 
 R. ^ft^ or =£jfg press and N. ^ft a 6ow); 7j<7£ sKp or 7<rr cftase 
 (cf. JVfT or (""fen' aft iron scraper or knife) ; ^1^6 adhere or c<T*Tr 
 enclose, fold (cf. N. ^to; pa2m o/" Me Zw//rf hollowed so as to hold 
 water) ; SRT£ or srf^rr or stftIt <7>yu/ (cf. R. sra^ »•«&) ; «{3nr scratch 
 (cf. ST3J7T or sTgfjT c7aw\ a handful). The forms with a penultimate 
 long vowel are, as a rule, trans. ; those with a short one, in- 
 trans. These roots, however, are not properly E. H. or E. Gd., 
 but introduced from W. Gd. It will be shown (in § 476) that 
 in W. Gd. there are causal roots in ^T^ or 5c?TT (W. H.), STT 
 or 9oTT7 (G.), 13TJ or %jt (S.) ; e. g., W. II. fsrSsTT or fersToT cause 
 to sit, G. ^crri cause to cat (Ed. 1 1 4), S. ferqr cause to give, 
 STTfT cause to wound (Tr. 2 5 6. 2 57). It seems probable, that 
 these W. Gd. causals and the above mentioned (W. Gd.) secon- 
 dary roots have an identical origin. There is, moreover, a curious 
 analogy in Pashtu (see Tr. in J. G. 0. S. XXXIII, 7 ff.). It has a 
 class of secondai-y roots in ed (infinit. in cdid), which are, as a 
 rule, intrans. ; e. g., bahed flow (cf. E. H. sr^Q, mated be broken 
 (cf. Skr. JTZ rubbed) ; ked be done ; but occasionally trans. ; e. g., 
 awed hear, biased torment, pasted ask (cf. Skr. <TE asked). Occa- 
 sionally the primary root exists also, as gang or zanged swing, 
 kr do and ked be done; just as in E. H. ^tq^ and =gtT£ flatten. 
 And further, the causal roots may be made with ed in Pashtu '). 
 
 1) Trumpp explains the Rs. in ed as being compounds with ked be 
 done. This might suit the intrans., but not the trans, and caus. Rs. in ed ; 
 moreover the R. ked itself requires to be explained; for it is clearly a 
 derivative of the R. kr do. 
 
§ 355. 356.] FORMS OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 1 79 
 
 The origin of these roots is very obscure. Possibly they are de- 
 nominative roots, derived i'rom nouns which are themselves again 
 derived from others hy the secondary or pleonastic suff. 5f^T, ^^T, 
 97, etc. (cf. §§ 209. 24 5) or 3T?7 (cf. § 28 5). Or perhaps they 
 may he compound roots, formed from the Skr. R. oTrT (Pr. 5Tj), 
 of which the terminal ZT (or nr: , tf?7, l£l) is the sole remnant, 
 as 37 (of R. 37, Pr. ofj) is in the other compound roots. Thus 
 Skr. m st^ft he is occupied in rubbing', he drags = *mzrzufn den. 
 of *srasrtf, Pr. *gwa^ = *sr^t9|^ = *snsnT|T = E. H. mz: 
 or ST^t?7. At all events, in some cases, these roots have an alter- 
 native form, ending in 37; thus nTQr and <I7<T37 ; =3q?7 and ^37; 
 
 *wz cling and ^pt37 spring ; cf. also E. H. ^rar and 9ra37 suddenly. 
 8 5 5. There is also in E. H. a very small number of what 
 may be called tatsama roots; viz., denom. roots formed from tats. 
 nouns. Some are comparatively modern formations. Thus rrf^iJi un- 
 der (Skr. rnr) ; ?ffm abandon (Skr. j#TJT) ; u^ perfume (Skr. Jjtf) ; 
 iTTJT enjoy* (Skr. *Ttn); <5TW Be i'lHiiinmred (Skr. gfttf), etc. 
 
 7'#/7?P SECTION. INFLEXION OF NOUNS. 
 
 JVifcST CHAPTFR. THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 1. FORMS OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 3 56. Every subst. admits of three forms: the short, long 
 and redundant. The short is the primary form, which is given 
 in dictionaries, and hy which it is generally known. It is, as a 
 rule, the only one admissible in good or literary language. The 
 other two forms are more or less vulgar. They are made by 
 adding to the short form the pleon. suh'. of the fourth and sixth 
 sets of the first group, as explained in §§ 199. 200 (q. v.). E. g., 
 masc. sh. f. m?^ friend, lg. f. PTrTSTT or ' 5l"f, red. f. farTTSTT or °srf or 
 fq?TT; fern. sh. f. <ai?7 bed, lg. f. wfoir or °rn, red. f. ^frOHT or J 5TT; 
 
180 FORMS OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. § 357.] 
 
 masc. sh. f. STTTT son, lg. f. ^ttstt or °ori, red. f. srrfoTT or cTT or sift; 
 fern. sh. f. ^ftrTT Sitd, lg. f. ftlfFTTT or °U1, red. f. ftrf^TcTT or °oTT; in 
 ^ ; masc. sh. f. zrfrr sage, lg. f. ^\m or °zn ; rel. f. rrfrocrr or °5r f ; 
 fern. sh. f. «ff$T eye, lg. f. gfw<JT or °zrf; red. f*. aferOclT or °5T f ; 
 in ^; masc. sh. f. m^" brother, lg. f. iT'JTT or irar or °q"t; red. 
 f. H^ffaT or iTOoTT or °srf; fern. sh. i*. STjt axle, lg. f. gfrarr or C CTT ; 
 red. f. yfpjSTT or */"ftaT or °5rf; in 3; masc. sh. f. r?^" tree, lg. f. 
 FT£3T or °srf ; red. f. rT^STT or rT^cli or °5TT ; fern. sh. f. cr?Ttf 
 daughter-in-law, lg. f. qi-ftdSiT or °Erf; red. f. qmf^srr or cnffeSTT or 
 J 5T'f; in 3:; masc. sh. f. J7T3 barber, lg. f. :T35JT or ^ToTT or °5rf; 
 red. f. H355TT or ^TT^SfT or ^T3^T or °ETT ; fern. sh. f. STF daughter- 
 i it-late, lg. f. ste^t or °5T'f : red. f. 5T^aTT or 5T^5IT or °5rT, etc. 
 
 Note: Sometimes the W. H. long and red. forms are used; 
 as cf^<jt or 3T^5" krisJma, jti or pror limn. 
 
 3 5 7. Many subst. (especially among those in 9) admit of 
 two forms, a weak and a strong. Most of them, however, (espe- 
 cially those in ^ and 3) exist in one of these forms only. The 
 weak form is the original one ; the other is made by adding to 
 it the pleon. suff. of the first set of the first group, as explained 
 in § 196 (q. v.). Thus 1) in ^ or ^T ; masc. W3 or H"3T ram, 
 TTzr or qTTJT forehead, 5TTO^ or ^nm dwelling, stt^ or ificHi chili/. 
 etc.; fern. Hi[ or irjr ewe, ^T^ or c^ttst staff, J777 or *T?rt fist, etc.; 
 in ^ or J; masc. very rare, e. g., sTFT (sTTfr) or sTT^ wise man; 
 fem. sufH or smrt" wick, light, 5rff[PT or STHpTT sister, etc.; in 3 or 
 3; masc. very rare, e. g., Qi^T or <tt<?t elephant; fem. 5T?S" or sr?" 
 daughter-in-law, tftts or Trmr daughter-in-law. 2) Only in w; 
 masc. ^TT^ goldsmith, ZR^JJ porter, H"5T 00d, 5TTar A/V/er, ^c?^ ox, ST^ 
 house, ^w^name, q?^ flower, m*^ stomach, <3ra tree, etc.; fem. 5TTfT 
 word, ev£»£, ^rt^ »ose, ^"2" steep, etc. 3) Only in OT; masc. cFjf^FT 
 or ^IcKyi bog, ^i^TCTT merchant, stt^t //orse, ari'sT thorn, ^wt do#, 
 TH^T footstool, etc.; fem. only tats., as TrrT Durgd, Wt?n Sitd, or 
 semitats., as *%^<TT mercy, etc. 4) Only in J, rarely; masc. gene- 
 rally tats., as JTt^r a Muni, or semitats., as fjfe a Bishi, etc.; 
 fem. gTf?r /Sre, ^ff^r eye, etc. 5) Only in J; masc. iftsR" washerman, 
 
§ 358. 359.] GENDER. 181 
 
 =TTc<?t gardener, FT^ft oilman, ■ ^\?ft elephant, =7Tr?T grandchild, vnz 
 brother, srf^Tr^ brother-in-laic. m^ leper, m^t wafer, JTTiri' pearl, 
 srt clarified butter; fem. sfc^ mare, fsr^ cat, ^rffcrt or ^T7?ft girl, 
 JTT^" mother, rtrrr hat, infr drain, mm fig, etc. 6) Only in 3; 
 rarely, masc. tats. FT^T free, rr^7 teacher, etc.; fem. tfees^. 7) Only 
 in 3;; masc. ^TT3< barber, t^^ watchman, f^^ a Hindu, m^{ po- 
 tato, T?T or erT3; glutton, etc.; fem. q^"p^ ivoman, jT^ «ri/fe, 5T^T 
 Zeec#, sTTc^ srmdf, etc. 
 
 Note: On the meaning of these various forms, see § 201. 
 
 2. GENDER. 
 
 3 58. There are only two genders, the masculine and the 
 feminine. No practically workable rules can be given to recognise 
 the gender of a subst. by its termination ; excepting, that short 
 forms in 9T (exc. tats., like <prr) are always masc; e. g., sn^T 
 horse, ^fjr pot, rnvfT ball, stcfl 'shoe, etc., and that such short forms 
 in i[, as have a synonymous masc. in 9T, are always fem.; e. g., 
 sft"£T mare, ^73T pot, JTTcrff bullet, fTrfV shoe, etc. As a rule E. H. 
 subst. retain the gender which they had in Skr. ; but Skr. neu- 
 ters become masc. in E. H. This affords, on the whole, a safe 
 guide for those who can use it. Where there is a natural gen- 
 der, that of course, determines the grammatical gender also. For 
 the rest, the gender must be learned by practice. 
 
 3 59. The difficulty of determining the gender of E. H. 
 words by their termin., is easily explained. Compare §§4 2 to 53. 
 The termin. ^ and 3 must be uncertain, because they are con- 
 tractions of the Mg. Pr. termin. masc. tt or 3^", fem. jf5T or 
 3^T: thus Pr. fem. mfc^T mare = E. H. zfrfi; but Mg. Pr. masc. 
 rrf^T^" oilman is likewise = E. H. FT^TT; again Mg. Pr. fem. 51T^T*3T 
 sand = E. H. sn^, but Mg. masc. fe^^" scorpion is also == 
 E. H. fira. — The E. H. termin. 5 and 3 must be uncertain, 
 because they were so even in Pr. and Skr., where their nom. sg. 
 in 3" and 3: (Pr.) or 3":, 3: (Skr.) may be of either gender. — 
 On the other hand, since the Pr. termin. SIT, whether masc. or 
 
182 LENDER. § 350.] 
 
 fern., always becomes S in E. II. (e. g., Pr. masc. JTST or fTOT 
 hmg, B. II. JVJ or V; Pr. fern. SJtTT ^oiy/, E. H. oTTFT ), no E. H. 
 short form in ST can lie bin. (always excepting tats., which have 
 not passed through Pr.) ; and since every final E. H. ST of a 
 shui'l form stands for a Mg. masc. sjr, therefore all E. II. short 
 forms in ST must be masc. Similarly, since every final E. H. J 
 of a short form, which corresponds to a synonymous masc. short 
 form in ST. stands for a Pr. fern. ^ST, all such K. II. short forms 
 in 3" must be fern. — Finally the terrain. ST of E. H. long and 
 redundant forms must be uncertain, because it is a contraction of 
 the Mg. Pr. gen. termin. masc. ST^ - , fem. STS (§§369,2.365,1); 
 
 e. g., E. H. ^tvist grandchild = Mg. ^fwsTf (Skr. ^rW., H. C. 
 1, 13 7); but E. H. ^f^-JT old looman is also = Mg. 3TJSTS. — 
 The number of words, which are masc. or neut. in Skr., but fem. 
 in E. H., is limited ; and in the case of most of them the change 
 had already taken place in Pr. Thus (see Vr. 4, 2 6. H. C. 1, 3 5. 
 S. C. 1, 1. 5 3) Skr. n. sf%r eye, Pr. n. *fi$ or f. Sx^t or *s=fwt, 
 E. H. f. stt%; Skr. m. JV&: torch Pr. m. or f. fWT, E. H. f. 
 ■^fr 1 ); Skr. m. S*rt>T: handful, Pr. m. or f. SsT^T, E. H. f. (also 
 pa.) Sfrfcr; Skr. ^JT%: offering, Pr. m. or f. 5RTT, E. H. f. oT^tt; 
 Skr. m. fMy (good) conduct, Pr. m. or f. f&^t, E. H. f. fir^r ; Skr. 
 n. wsm back, Pr. n. fir or f. frrr, E. H. f. <tt?T: Skr. m. er%j 
 6eMj/, Pr. m. or f. cfix^t, E. H. f. etfTI? or cFTO/, Skr. n. xTTtW , Pr. 
 n. xftfjs (Yr. 3, 20) or f. xTTfT/ST (Spt. 210), E. H. f. ifrfr l ). 
 Again Skr. m. ?rf=er: fowrf, Pr. m. or f. 7f?rr (H. C. 1,3 5), E. H. 
 
 f. JTT?r (also m.) ; Skr. in. 5TTf : am, Pr. m. 5TT|f or f. cTT^T (H. C. 
 1, 3 6. S. 0. 1, 1. 5 4), E. II. f. srnr or 5T%J ; Skr. n. S^fw in- 
 testines, Pr. f. sftt (in Ap. S3nn II. C. 4, 44 5. T. V. 3, 4. 6 9), 
 E. H. f. STrT ; Skr. n. sffT or STFT^ &o«e, Pr. n. STTS (cf. 
 Spt. 100) or f. sfr (H. C. 2, 3 2), E. H. f. STST. To these may 
 
 1) The Pr. fem. x7TT^"ST is really a different word, i. e., = Skr. 
 xTrfjcFiT (cf. Wb. Spt, 45); so also the E. H. fem. J&tt is really derived 
 from the masc. J&H; see §§ 257. 262. 
 
§ 359.] GENDER. 183 
 
 be added, as examples of what seem to be purely E. H. changes, 
 E. H. f. snfrr fire, Skr. m. srfrr;, Pr. m. mm (Vr. 5, 18. S. R. 
 fol. 9 b ) ; E. H. f. |f body (but S. ra. Tf), Skr. m. ife:, Pr. m. 
 £^t (Spt. A, 63); E. II. f. m\ oath, Skr. m. srozr. or n. shtjt , 
 Pr. m. *T5^ (Vr. 2, 15) or n. STcl^ (Spt. 3 61); E. H. f. fsf^ or 
 Psj^ or ®Te[ or 5J£T drop, Skr. m. fir^f:, Pr. m. fsf^ or n. Psi;^ 
 (H. C. 1, 34. S. C. 1, 1. 52); E. H. 5Tt| wind, Skr. ra. smr:, Pr. 
 m. 5H3 (Vr. 5, 18) 1 ). The strong E. H. forms f^i^t (or *J£T) and znz 
 seem to be diminutives (Pr. *f5rfr^T, *5rrj33l) and to presuppose 
 Pr. fem. forms *f5T5T, *5TTJTr ; just as Pr. fern. STT^T and masc. STT^ 
 arm. Curious anomalies are, E. H. ofcH thing (S. regularly tadbh. 
 5T?J fem. Tr. 105) and fcfTFT metal (also sfSr^ and fcnrTj, which are 
 masc, but are sometimes used as fem., though they are tats., which 
 always keep their original gender, in this case n. and m. respec- 
 tively in Skr. Of words in which the gender has changed from 
 fem. in Skr. to masc. in E. H., there is, I believe, only one ; and 
 the change took place in Pr. ; viz., Skr. fem. 5T5TCT rainy season, 
 Pr. m. qrjm (Vr. 4, 1 8. H. C. 1, 31. S. C. 1, 1. 50), E. H. m. trr 3 ^ 
 or crToTBJ 2 ). As regards the change of Skr. neut. to E. H. masc, 
 it had already taken jdace in Pr., in the case of all neut. ending 
 in the cons. ^ and ^ (Vr. 4, 18. H. C. 32. Wb. Bh. 404. 420); 
 thus Skr. n. 3?it (base cFT^tJ ivorh, A. Mg. m. m^T (Bh. 16 3. 167) 
 or Mb.. cRTJTt, E. H. m. cFra ; Skr. n. WH: renown, A. Mg. m. ira" 
 (Bh. 4 20) or Mh. sTSTT, E. H. m. sT?S; Skr. n. sj ^ breast, A. Mg. 
 m. 37, E. H. 3J; Skr. n. <ra^ milk, A. Mg. m. <ih, E. H. m. mj 
 or <t; Skr. n. ^n eye, Pr. m. =5Tefw (H. C. 1, 33. S. C. 1, 1. 51, 
 also n. ^T^w), E. H. m. =3<3? , etc. Sometimes also the change took 
 
 1) E. H. f. FrfrT string is not = Skr. m. FFrT: (as Bs. II, 174 after 
 
 Tr. 89 says), but = Skr. f. rTSTT. — The E. H. STTJ wind, however, is more 
 probably = Skr. f. srrfTT:. 
 
 2) The other word mentioned by the Pr. Gramtn., id. STT^T = Skr. 
 f. 5Tf^, occurs in E. II. only as a fern, semitats. ^7J[- — There is, however, 
 also a Skr. m. 5TcTCT:. 
 
184 GENDER. § 360.] 
 
 place in the case of neut. in 5 (Skr. nom. sing. *JJT ; see H. C. 
 1, 33. S. C. 1, 1. 51), especially in Mg. (Wb. Bh. 416. Ls. 399. 
 408. 429) and in Ap. (H. C. 4, 445. Ls. 461. 476); thus Skr. 
 n. ^c?W family, Pr. n. c^jnT or m. ^TT, Ap. m. av?r (H. C. 4, 3 61), 
 E. H. in. cpj; Skr. n. 5":w^, A. Mg. n. zzf£ or m. 3^F3 (Bh. 190. 
 191), E. H. m. 2T^; Skr. n. ^to^pt eye, Pr. n. rrr^oj or rn. trr^urr 
 or UTOrnf, E. H. m. ^n^ or =T^; Skr. n. st-cHit^ wofcZ, Pr. n. sr^uf 
 or m. sraurr or STJlnft, Ap. sratTj (H. C. 4, 387), E. H. WI^ or SPT; 
 Skr. n. crrWl'T eye, Pr. n. ^Trarrf or m. 3?teaft or cFrpjtjTT, E. H. m. 
 *rrWr ; Skr. n. fZJtH^ heart, Pr. n. f|w (Vr. 1,28) or Mg. m. f^r 
 (Bh. 3 94, also ^7%) or Mh. %rat (Urv. 23, 10 in PI. Diss. 5), E. H. 
 m. %IT; Skr. n. &TTJT wealth, Mg. m. fcJUT (Vr. 11,11) or Ap. tfiTT 
 (H. C. 4, 3 58), E. H. m. y* ; Skr. n. fiq* /*ead, Mh. n. far (H. C. 
 1,32), but Ap. m. t%£ (H. C. 4, 44 5), E. H. m. fiq\ In Gd. (exc. 
 M., G. and exceptionally W. H.) the Pr. tendency to change neut. 
 into masc. is extended to all neut. ; thus Skr. n. JTTT (base dR-l) 
 string, Pr. n. ^rtf (H. C. 1, 3 2), but E. H. m. 37PT (sometimes even 
 fern.) ; Skr. n. iTipj house, Pr. n. ST^", M. n. &J, but E. H. m. Eqr ; 
 Skr. n. a^FiiT clarified butter, Pr. n. t%¥, M. n. srr", but E. H. m. srt; 
 Skr. n. ^^PT sour milk, Pr. n. 5;f^J, M. n. 3^T W , but E. H. m. 
 Zyrt; Skr. n. QTqfcp^ water, Pr. n. TT%^ (Vr. 1, 18), M. n. qrFTT', 
 but E. H. m. TPTT; Skr. n. qT%3ii^ pearl, Pr. n. rftfW^ (Spt. 314), 
 M. n. rftfrT, but E. H. m. iTTrft ; Skr. n. rrfercfiJT head, Pr. n. rrffem, 
 M. n. qTrfT, but E. H. m. merr; Skr. n. gsrafsiJT gold, Pr. n. ftWst 
 or JTtenr (cf. Spt. 194), 0. H. sfcm, M. n. J=TpV, but E. H. m. *TPTT; 
 Skr. n. *J5TcFra tear, Pr. n. KWJ, M. n. ^# , but E. H. m. scm 
 (0. H. W^3 in Chand Devagiri 2 2); Skr. a. ^n^ yoJcc, Pr. n. 5TO, 
 M. n. 71 , but E. H. m. ST or strong form 5T9T ; Skr. (st. f.) n. 
 cFiTTcTicFiT doing, Pr. n. gfity^sf, Ap. n. 5fij"cj3 (H. C. 4, 43 8) or cFf^cT?, 
 W. H. n. grf^sfr* or m. grf^aT, 0. m. eRfy^TT, E. H. (wk. f.) m. aif^si 
 or ^7^- 
 
 3 60. Affinities. As regards the gender of nouns, E. H. 
 occupies an intermediate position. The M. and G. have preserved 
 the three genders of the Skr. and Pr. Again B. and 0. distinguish 
 
§ 361. 362.] number. 185 
 
 no gender at all. But E. H. has at least two genders, masc. and 
 fem. Generally speaking it agrees in that respect with W. H., 
 P., S. and N. ; though traces of the old neut. survive in W. H. 
 in the infinitives in S^TT and sSTT or gsJT , as indicated by the 
 final auunasika. — All the above mentioned E. H. instances of 
 change of gender are common to W. H. and, as a rule, to the 
 other Gds. also. 
 
 3. NUMBER. 
 
 3 61. There are only two numbers, the singular and the 
 plural. The plur. of nouns, which signify rational beings, is for- 
 med 1) generally by adding the noun vTTCT^ people, without any 
 change in the sing, noun ; or 2) less commonly by using the 
 same form of the noun as in the sing. Thus disciples may be 
 either ^TcTrrnr^ or less frequently =3?TT, from sing. ^vTT; or daugh- 
 ters 5rrfc<TlT|^ or 5nB\ from sg. orrh The plur. of any other being 
 or thing can, generally, be formed only in the second way. Thus 
 horses is sfljT but not s^TT^r^T ; words is shh , not 5iTcTc?rnT, from 
 the sing, sffrjj and 5TTF^. In such cases, if the noun be in the 
 nom. case, the context must decide its number. The plural, for- 
 med with c?un, I shall call the compound, the other the simple. 
 
 Exception. A few nouns optionally form anomalous plurals, 
 as inr^ man, pi. 5T^r ; t^t^ man, pi. *VT^. 
 
 3 6 2. The termination of the subst. suffers no change in 
 the sing, nor in the nom. and ace. proper of the plur.; but in 
 the oblique cases of the plur. the suff. ^r , ^T , 3^ are added 
 to subst. in 8 or SI, ^ or 3", 3 or 3 respectively. In the case 
 of the comp. plur. they may be added either to the noun itself 
 or, as is more common, to the plur. sign ^ftn^. The form thus 
 made, I shall call the oblique plural; that of the obi. cases of 
 the sing, and of the nom. and ace. proper of the (simple) plur., 
 the oblique sing.; and that of the nom. sing., the direct form. 
 See examples in § 37 9. 
 
 Exception. Subst. in J, signifying inanimate objects, do 
 
186 NUMBER. §363.] 
 
 not make the oblique plur. (with Z^l) in the short, but only in 
 the long and red. forms; see examples in § 379. 
 
 363. Affinities. 1) In E. H. the nora. and ace. proper 
 of the simple plur. of all subst. are identical with the obi. form 
 of the sing.; the reason of which will be explained in § 3 69. 
 The same, in principle, is the case in all Gds., except in 0. and, 
 partially, M. In the latter the fem. and neut. subst. have a 
 special dir. form of the plur., whilst in 0. there is no simple 
 plur. at all (exc. in the plur. sign HT^T, see below Nro. 2. 3). 
 But the B. and N. are peculiar in adding to the obi. sg. a spe- 
 cial case-affix to denote its nom. -plur. -application ; viz., B. JJ, N. 
 ^T; and N. has the further peculiarity of using an archaic obi. 
 sg. in ^ or ^ (see §§ 3 64, 3. 3 6 5, 6). Thus E. H. ob. sg. %vTT, 
 nom. pi. rT^TT disciples, W. H. obi. sg. =3^", nom. pi. =3^ ; B. obi. 
 sg. =^r?T, nom. pi. ^^TT-TT, N. old obi. sg. ^n% or ^rTUr, nom. 
 pi. ^TT^r-T' or gw^-^', etc.; for other examples see §§ 3 64, 3. 
 3 69, 1. — 2) The E. H. has both a simple and a comp. plur., 
 the former for all subst., the latter (as a rule) for those only 
 which denote rational beings. Formerly the 0. also had, for subst. 
 denoting rational beings, a simple plur. which, in the case of 
 ^-bases, ended in £ (see Bs. II, 198; e. g., 3rJTT^~ pi. of 3t*TTJ boy) ; 
 but now the comp. plur. (made with itpt) only is used. For all 
 other subst. the 0. has no plur. at all (see Sn. 14). None of 
 the other Gds. possess a comp. plur. ; B. using the simple plur. 
 for rational beings only (S. Ch. 44. 53); the rest of the Gds., 
 for all subst. alike. The comp. plur. is made, in 0. with 
 ETFT, obi. f. TT^TT, in E. H. with c^TJT^ obi. f. 3TtJrc. Thus 
 nom. pi. E. H. #?TT or -el^l-erfa; disciples, 0. ^5TT-iTT^r ; dat. pi. 
 E. II. ^^rn--^ or irerr-gftiFT-SR, 0. ircfTT-rn^T-37. It should be 
 observed, however, that, for the purpose of emphasizing the plur. 
 meaning, a periphrastic plur. may be formed in all Gds. for 
 any subst. whatsoever, by appending to the sing, some suit- 
 able collective noun, such as JTiJT^ troop, srn^ class, 5=TS»5T_ or ST5J^ 
 all, etc. — 3) All Gds. have an obi. f. of the simple plur. (see 
 
§ 363.] NUMBER. 187 
 
 table, below), exc. the N., B. and, apparently, G. which use the 
 form of the nom. pi. in the obi. cases also. Thus E. H. nom. 
 pi. ^c^TT, obi. %^^; H. H. %5T, obi. %vrt", etc.; but G. nom. 
 and obi. %c?ire or (variously spelled) =5^T3 or i^TaT. However, 
 in G. the final anunasika (Pr. anusvara), which usually distin- 
 guishes the obi. plur. (see § 3 68, 6), may have been dropped. 
 Where there is no simple plur., as in 0., there can be, of course, 
 no obi. plur. But the 0. and E. H. comp. plur. signs TFT and 
 rfffn^ (see Nro. 2) form a regular obi. pi. TFTT and FTTIT^. As 
 to the N. and B., see § 3 64, 2. 3. — 4) As regards the sing., 
 the general tendency of the Gels, is to assimilate the obi. to 
 the dir. form. In tbe E. Gd. the assimilation is complete, no 
 subst. (of whatever terrain.) having its obi. differing from its dir. 
 form. In W. Gd. (exc. S.) and N. Gd., it is almost complete, the 
 only exceptions being strong nouns in aT. In S. the obi. form 
 of masc. nouns in 3 and at, and of com. gen. nouns in ^ and 
 a is different from the direct. In S. Gd. the two forms differ in 
 most nouns of whatever termination. It must, however, in all 
 cases be understood, that the obi. f., though now it may out- 
 wardly be the same as the dir., is not really identical with it, 
 but has a different origin, as will be shown in § 3 65. Thus 
 nom. sg. A. Mg. ^Tfqp or eTfqs = dir. f. M. and E. H. emt, 
 or nom. sg. Mh. J=niwt, Ap. mfe = dir. f. S. eFrt lord; and 
 gen. sg. A. Mg. SJTfqgTf = obi. f. M. m«JT, E. H. (lg. f.) *rf»WT ; 
 or gen. sg. Ap. FiTfra^Y or °^ = obi. f. 0. H. ^rTfta^. S. Trfrra, 
 \V. H. and E. H. STPTT. Again nom. sg. A. Mg. STT3P" or ETTTa = 
 dir. f. M. and E. H. STT3T, or nom. sg. Mh. STteat, Ap. sni3 = 
 dir. f. S. sfT3T; and gen. sg. A. Mg. effSaT^ = obi. f. M. 3TIJ7T 
 (for *En3OT), E. H. (lg. f.) u\jdl ; or gen. sg. Ap. sffT^fT or mzn\ 
 = obi. f. 0. H. snzaf or 0. P. ateaft, G., W. H., E. H. ahT, P., 
 II. H. 3717. — 5) The subjoined tables give a comparative view of 
 the various terminations of the Gd. dir. and obi. forms. Observe, 
 that where a form is not ascribed to any particular Gd., it be- 
 longs to all ; and where no gender is mentioned, it is common. 
 
188 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 § 363.J 
 
 > d 
 
 o 
 
 OD 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 in 3 
 in Z 
 in 3 
 in 37 
 
 in <[ 
 in 3 
 
 Direct forms singular 
 3; exc. S., 0. H., 0. P.jm, 3 f. 
 3[; exc. M., II. H. Z m. n., y or 5 f. 
 3. 
 E. Gd., H. II., P. m m., Br. 37 or 37 m., Mw., S., N. 
 
 37 m., G. 9T m., 3n., M. 37 or 3 m., f or 3 n., 
 
 0. H. 37 or 3tf m. m n. 
 ^; exc. M. ^ m. f., ^" n., 0. IT. ^ m. 
 3; exc. M. 3 m. f., 3 n., G. 3 c. g. 
 Direct forms plural in M. 
 
 F f. 
 
 CS 00 I 
 
 in 5 
 in 
 
 a) 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 in 9 
 
 in ^ 
 
 in 3 
 
 in 3 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 in 37 ^ or ^ n. 
 
 37 f., ^ n. 
 
 deest <£ I in 3 j sit f., or" n. 
 
 Oblique forms singular 
 3; exc. B. 3 or ^, M. 37 m. n., ^ f., 0. H. 3 or 3^; or 
 
 3f|, 0. P. 3 or 3% 
 J; exc. M. Z, 0. H. ^ or J^ or ^f%, 0. P. ^ or jf%. 
 3; exc. M. 3, 0. H. 3 or 3f or 3% 
 r B., 0., E. H., Mw. 37 m., Br. 37 or ^ m.. H. H., P., S. 
 ^ m., M. m or 37 m. n., G. ST m., 37 n., 0. H. 33^ 
 or 337l[ m. n. 
 ^; exc. S.J3, M.jnm. n., nf. orf e.g., 0. H. 3^ or S3f|;. 
 3; exc. S.33, M. STTm. n., 57 f. or3c.g., 0. H.33^or337%. 
 
 Oblique forms pi ton! 
 E. H. 3:7 , H. H. 37", Br. sf or 3:7 or 3ft, Mw., M. 37, 
 
 P. 37 m., ^37 f., G. 37, S. 3T or ^'orgf^rc. g., 3t^rf., 
 
 0. H. 377^ or 3:7 or 3?^ or 37^. 
 E. H. ^t, H. H. ^n", Br. ^rV or f^or jfa, Mw. 07, 
 
 P. J37, G. t-37, M. ^*, S. 3"3t or ^T or ^fr or ^3t"7 
 
 or ^37*7, 0. II. ^Tior ^ or ^^. 
 E. H. 37, H. H. 337", Br.37or3fr, Mw., P. 33'T, G. 
 
 337, S. 3t^7, M. 3, 0. H. 37 or 3^1 or 3f^. 
 N. B., in B., 0., N. deest throughout. 
 
 in 3" 
 in 3 
 
 in 3 
 
 in 3 
 
§ 364] 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 189 
 
 
 in 9T 
 
 co 
 
 
 1> 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 c3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 
 
 fee 
 
 in t' 
 
 a 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 in 3! 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 the rest 
 
 as in the 
 
 weak 
 
 bases. 
 
 
 in 9 
 
 CO 
 
 
 <a 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 cS 
 
 in ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ J 
 
 
 08 
 
 
 0> 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 «*H 
 
 
 o 
 
 in 3 
 
 P.^fm, S.tftor^or^FTm., G. gT^(or^T^) m., 
 
 sf n., M. fff or sf m. n. 
 Br. 3?rY or ^PT_or ^17FT or ^T or ^FT, P. £^f, G. 
 
 \m, M. ?TT or £". 
 Br. 3SrT or 3^ or 39FT or 3^ or 3F>, P. 3IST, 
 S. 35TT or 3f or 35FT or 3FT, M. 5TT or X 
 06?. forms used as nom. plur. 
 B. 9-^T or ^--f T, N.flf >-fi or 3f-£, E. H. sr, H. H. ^ m., {7 f., 
 Br., 0. H. g m., ^* f., Mw.' AT m., 97 f., P. 9 m., ^ T f., 
 S. 5 m., 9T or 3 f., M. ST m., G. U m., 9T c. g. 
 B. ^~JT, N. ^|-£ or ^-£, E. H. |, H. H., Br. ^ m., ^<TT f., 
 Mw. J m., HT f., P.^m., J^TT f., S.^m.,^f., G.?m., J5T 
 c. g., M. ^ c. g. 
 B. 3-<T, N. 3f-£ or 3f-£, E. H. 3, H. H., W. H., P. 3 m. 
 35T f., S. 3 m., 3 f., G. 3 m. or 39T c. g., M. 3. 
 N. B., in 0. deest throughout, 
 in m B. 9T-7T, N. tfTfT-^ or «T^-^, E. H., Mw., S. m ra., H. H., P. 
 i? m., Br. 9T or 17 m., G. OT or SJT3T m., 9'f or gt~cT n., 
 M. ^ or 3: m. 
 B.i-^T, N.^|-?7orff-^, E.H. ^, G.^ft, H.H.|m., -jcTTf., 
 Br. ^ m., Z~ or ^ f., Mw. ^ ra., Ul f., P. ^ m., J%i f., 
 S. ^ m., ju^l, M. ^ m. 
 B. 3>}T, N. 3%-^ or 3^-£, E. H., S. 3T, H. H., W. H. 3: in., 
 3*9T f., P. 3 m., 319'T f., G. 3Brt or 3J c. g., M. 3: m. 
 N. B., in 0. deest throughout. 
 Note: It will be observed, that in W. Gd. the obi. plur. of 
 weak nouns in ^ and 3 generally adopts the obi. termin. of strong 
 nouns in ^ and 3, and vice versa in E. H. the obi. plur. of 
 strong nouns in 9T, 3", 31 the obi. termin. of the weak nouns 
 in 9, ^, 3. 
 
 364. Derivation of the plural signs. 1) The 0. TFT 
 or, shortened, JTFT is, probably, identical with the E. H. plur. *FT^ 
 men (§ 3 61, exc. ; from Skr. JTFToT man ; not TFT measure, as Bs. 
 II, 199), and is a plur. noun with the old termination ?, obi. 
 
 
 in m 
 
 CO 
 
 
 <» 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 in 3" 
 
 to 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 -+J 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 <*i 
 
 
 O 
 
 in 3: 
 
L90 NUMBER. §364.] 
 
 ktt (see § 363, 2). The E. H. ^ft* men (Skr. ^>37 § 102) is also 
 a plur. noun, as shown by its obi. f. certain" (§ 3 3, 2), and, like 
 JTPT, is shortened for cfffrT. The shortened form iTR is not used 
 with rational beings (see Sn. 11). — 2) The B. is generally said 
 to form a comp. plur. with the pi. sign f^TT , which is sometimes 
 (see Bs. II, 200) believed to be none other than the Skr. fs^T 
 region, side. But there can be little doubt, that this identification 
 is a mistake. For a) the B. f^TT ends in (quiescent) *?, while the 
 Skr. TT37 does not; b) a final Skr. 37 would not become JT^ in 
 either Pr. or Gd. ; c) the Skr. fg;37 is merely the nom. sg. of 
 the base f^ST^, while the B. f^rr , if anything, is an obi. f., i. e., 
 equal to the Skr. gen. sg. (see § 366) which is f^ST: (Pr. f^TT or 
 rather f^7, cf. H. C. 1, 19. 3, 3 0) ; d) the sg. f^Sff (or nom. f$m) 
 is not a collective noun and, therefore, could not serve to form a 
 plur.; on the other hand e) in the plur. (like TFT, oTrn) it would 
 be Skr. f^ST:, Pr. f^rn^T, which would not produce the B. f^rr. 
 I am inclined to believe, that fgJT is not a real word, but me- 
 rely a compound of two case-affixes. The ordinary B. gen. pi. ends 
 in 5T« This I divide into <T (base) and J (case-aff.), just as in 
 the gen. sg.; thus ^'5IT^ of gods = 3^-3", just as ^cT.J of a 
 god = 5^T-^ (see § 365, 6). Here ^or£, like TfST, is an obi. f.; 
 its dir. f. would be <T^T (or ^517) ; and, in fact, the two forms, 
 thus deduced, are the same as the P. gen. sg. ^5T-$T and its obi. 
 f. 2cT-5\ It should be observed that the B. uses the gen. sg. to 
 serve as a plur. base (see §3 69); its nom. pi. 7&-J1 gods is but 
 the st. f. of its gen. sg. <£5T-7 of a god. Similarly it uses an 
 other (now obsolete) gen. sg. iroT-^T, t° serve as the pi. base of 
 the obi. cases, which are made by adding certain case-affixes. Before 
 the latter, as usual, the base is inflected, i. e., (CoT-^T becomes 
 g^sr-cT, and with the gen. aff. :jT it is gcT-^-^. With the dat. aft'. 
 37 it ought to be ^cT-^-aF? ; but 37 has a tendency to change to JT 
 (just as in W. H. among the Mairs the gen. aff. are lit, JTT, etc. 
 for 3t\, 37T; in N. rqr to do for 37^) and 5; to become f7£ (just 
 as the B. and E. H. dat. aft\ 37 is in O. fifi) ; hence it is ^-f^-TT 
 
§ 364.] NUMBER. 191 
 
 (or ^af^JTT, as it is commonly spelled, see S. Ch. 58, with two m_, 
 to compensate for the shortening of ^"). Similarly with the loc- 
 aff. FT or cF-FT, it is ^ar-f^-rT-FT (just as, e. g., in II. II. dat.-acc. 
 3«FT-37-FT^" to him, lit. up to him). In course of time this origin 
 was forgotten and an imaginary noun TZJ[ formed, and henceforth 
 treated like a real noun. Thus a dat. fJ£JT-37 and a gen. fJJTT^T 
 was made. The form t^rr^r, however, is, according to S. Ch. 50 
 not commonly used in speaking, which points to a surviving con- 
 sciousness on the part of the people of the unfitness of the for- 
 mation. The occurrence of the ordinary P. gen.-aff. 5;T in B., at 
 the two furthest extremities of the Gd. area, is no doubt remarc- 
 able ; but it is by no means the only fact of its kind. Thus 
 there is the same peculiar auxil. past tense in the 0. efcHT he tvas 
 and in S. f%aT, P. 3T; and indeed the ordinary B. and 0. gen.- 
 aff. J occurs also in the distant Mw. ft (see § 3 77, 1). In each 
 case, these words are almost entirely absent in the intermediate 
 Gds. ; though occasionally TT and 57 are met with in W. H. (see 
 Kl. 70. 157), and ZJT and ftft are the regular forms in H. H. and 
 N. respectively, and 5" occurs in the plur. of N. (see Nro. 3). It 
 will be shown also in § 377, 3, that the B. instr.-aff. f^jn is 
 connected with the gen.-aff. 57. — 3) There is a close analogy 
 between the N. and B. plur. The former is made by adding ^ or 
 ^7 to the sing. But these plur. signs are not, as it has been sup- 
 posed, nouns, but are compounded of the old gen. or obi. termin. 
 ^ or ^ (see § 3 6 5, 6) and the gen.-aff. ^, which is identical with 
 the B. gen.-aff. T, but has preserved the old termin. 3. In fact, 
 the N. plur. termin. ^ is identical with the B. gen. termin. ^r 
 and the B. plur. termin. ^"T ; the latter being the st. f., the 
 other two wk. forms. Thus N. ^51%-^" or s;^-^" gods = B. ^5T-7/T 
 (or gen. ^cf-j). The B. U is but a contraction of the older form 
 %\ or «rff. In the 0. Gd. the gen. or obi. sg. in tff or ^f% 
 or 9l[ or (shortened) ^ was used as a nom. plur. (see § 36 9); 
 e. g., sik men = sPTf% lit. of man scl. multitude ; and in order 
 to make it a plur. base capable of declension, the declinable 
 
192 NUMBER. § 365.] 
 
 gen.-aff. ^ or (st. f.) Jl (a curtailed nomin. base, §377) was added. 
 Thus the N. sTTfr-^r (originally a gen. sg., = Ap. Pr. sTT^t 3T^r) 
 is now a plur. base, which can be regularly declined; e. g., gen. 
 fnTf-^-^Tt of men. dat. sra^-^-^nr to men, etc. Similarly in B.; 
 only instead of declining the plur. base sTT-fT, it substitutes in 
 the obi. cases an other plur. base 3R-5;T or sPT-£, which was also 
 originally a gen. sg. Thus gen. sTH'-^-^ of men, dat. 5T^r-f2[-7T to 
 men, etc. Bat, as in the case of the B. f^7^, the true nature of 
 the N. |t or ^7 is now forgotten, and it is supposed to be a 
 real noun; see also §369,1. 
 
 3 6 5. Derivation of the obi terminations. It will be 
 seen from the table of obi. termin. (§ 3 6 3), that they are divi- 
 sible into two great types, of which those of the M. and S. are 
 respectively most characteristic, and which can be best distin- 
 guished in the sing. In M. the sg. obi. forms end in a long, in 
 S. in a short vowel. Thus M. obi. sg. (wk. f.) m. ^T, f. ^, m. f. ^, 
 m. f. 3, and (st. f.) m. m, SIT, f. U, if; again obi. pi. (wk. f.) m. 
 f. 137, £*, 3?, and (st. f.) m. f. 0"f, oTT. But in S. obi. sg. (wk. f.) 
 m. f. «r, Z, 3, and (st. f.) m. f. «T or ^ (= 9^), ^Bt, 3ff (or in 
 the other Gds. contracted £, 30; again obi. pi. (wk. f.) m. f. %1 
 or f (in W. H. sft*, ^t"), and (st. f.) m. f. ^TT or ^7, 3tflf or 
 3^ (in W. H. Tjfr" or j7Xt", 3*V or 3*T~). To the S. type belong 
 the W. and N. Gds.; to the M. type, of course, the S. Gd. (i. e. M.), 
 though exceptionally, a few forms of the S. type have found ad- 
 mittance into M.; viz., the M. strong obi. forms in ST, j£, X The 
 E. Gds. again are a mixture of both; for their short (inch weak 
 and strong) forms are of the S. type, and their long forms of 
 the M. This double character can be best seen in E. H. — The 
 original of the Gd. oblique form is the Pr. genitive (see § 36 6). 
 The obi. f. of the M. type goes back to the M. gen.; that of 
 the S. type to the Ap. gen. — 1) Deriv. of the My. type. The 
 suff. of the gen. sg. are in Mg. Pr. W (or SST = Skr. m) or f 
 (Vr. 11, 12. H. C. 4, 299), which are added indifferently to all 
 three kinds of bases in %, Z and 3 of whatever gender (see § 3 6 7). 
 
§ 365.] NUMBER. 193 
 
 Before ^ the final of the base is lengthened. Thus there are 
 two sets of Mg. gen. termin.: 1) ^e, ^T, 3W and 2) m^, 
 ff, 3^ or, with strong bases, 1) 3WT, ^<ST, 3^T and 2) WT^, 
 ^Tf, im%. In M. (representing the old Dk. Pr. of the Mg. Pr. 
 type, see Introd.) the 1 st set becomes (§§ 143. 147) gra, ^, 
 3^ or (st. f.) JTT^ (for srsrra; or ^sm), oTT^ (for 3^mJ, and the 
 2 nd set (dropping eT 1 )) m, \, 3 or (st. f.) m (for SJJTT or ^t), 
 5TT (for 3^T). In the E. H. («= old A. Mg. Pr.) only the 2 nd 
 set occurs ; viz., (lg. f.) ^En, ^TT, 35TT (with euph. q^ and a^). 
 Both sets are preserved in the M. dat., which is identical with 
 the old gen. (see Vr. 6, 64); thus M. £37^ or ^ to a God = Dk. 
 Pr. ^cl^r or j[cr% Skr. 3o[W. But, in M., the first set is also pre- 
 served in its proper gen. sense in the so-called post-position Trjfi , 
 which is really a compound of the gen. termin. ST_ and the post- 
 position ^T<rT (= Ap. Pr. ^jfl[, Skr. wi for the sake of) ; thus 
 M. ^oTTOn^r lit. for the sake of God, i. e. SorraraT^T = Dk. Pr. 
 ^sres" %jf%, Skr. ZjSim ^. The 2 nd set is used as the termin. of 
 the ordinary M. and E. H. obi. form, and as such retains its 
 old gen. sense. Thus M. dat. ^STT cfTT^ lit. for the benefit of God 
 = Dk. ^STT^ ^Tfff, Skr. ^srar c?rm ; or (lg. f.) M. ^TH mf§° = 
 Dk. 5crar^; c?TT^f|r, Skr. ^oTsrst ^m; or E. H. dat. 3oT5tt m lit. at the 
 side of God, A. Mg. ^bt^T^ 3?% Skr. ^sreRW mm. — 2) The suff. 
 of the gen. sg. of fern, nouns in ^T, ^ and 3 is in Pr. ^ (= Skr. 
 ?TT*T) or, shortened, ^ or w (Vr. 5, 2 2. 23. H. C. 3, 29. 30). The 
 form 9 is, evidently, the latest, whence it passed into Gd. Thus 
 the latest Mg. Pr. gen. termin. are: m^, ^8, 35" or, with strong 
 bases, Z^TZ, 3*?ra. In M., these become ^ (for mv with euph. qj, 
 f and 3 (dropping 8), and (st. f.) ST, 5T (for ?TT*T, 5TT0") ; and in 
 E. H., (lg. f.) j^n, 35T or 35TT (dropping % and inserting euph. 
 
 1) As to the Gd. tendency to drop a final ^, see § 32. In the 0. H. 
 of Chand shah king is often spelled STT, and sih lion OT; e. g., cfi^T STm 
 ^TT^TST m srfcl ritft, Bevatata 43; or ^T =51H3 irrT^t Devagiri 51 for m^TST 
 SHIT and STrT^ter. 
 
 13 
 
194 NUMBER. § 365.] 
 
 0^ and ST ). These M. and E. H. termin. occur in their obi. 
 forms. Thus M. obi. f. ara of a tongue, contr. for Dk. §Unu or 
 ffrsera or rasiTT^ or fen^r = Skr. rajmrr:, of M. sfo , Dk. ra&TT 
 (H. C. 2, 57), Skr. iwT. — 3) There are some M. strong masc. 
 and fern, nouns in ^ and 3, the obi. form of which ends also 
 in f and 3J instead of in m m. (u f.) and 5TT m. (cT f.). Thus 
 m.fs'Q scorjrion has obi. f. fsracTT or fsf^ ; m. l^t elephant has obi. 
 f. f>7Tf (not ^t?JT) ; f. WtTt mare has obi. f. STtTt, (not 5030"), f. era^ 
 mother- in-laio has obi. f. erasr and era . It is just possible, that 
 here ^ and 3^ may be contractions of zn, u and srr, sr respecti- 
 vely ; but it is much more probable that they "are Ap. Pr. forms 
 which have been mixed up in M. with Dk. Pr. forms (see Nro 6) 1 ). 
 The same remarks apply to the E. Grd. obi. forms in ^T, ^, 3; 
 of short-form nouns in OT, 3", 3T. Thus E. H. obi. f. sn^T of a 
 horse might be contracted from A. Mg. gen. ETtT^T^ ; but it is 
 much more probably a contraction of the Ap. Pr. sftT^Jlfr. — 
 4) The suff. of the gen. pi. are in Mg. Pr. nf or tjt (Vr. 5, 4. 
 4, 16. H. C. 3, 6. 1, 29 = Skr. era) and f (H. C. 4, 300), which 
 are added indifferently to bases in 5?, ^ and 3 of whatever gen- 
 der (see § 3G7), and before which the final of the base is leng- 
 thened. Thus there are two sets of Mg. Pr. termin.: l) ^TtjT, 
 ^HT, 3OT and 2) m% ^, 3lf, or, with strong bases, l) ^TUT, 
 S^THf, 3?mrf and 2) sraTf, ^9T|[, 3^Tf. In M. the 1 st set be- 
 comes srrar, |ra, sttt 2 ) or (st. f.) zrraT (for wre or ^are), srraT 
 
 1) That both the Mg. and Ap. gen. have contributed to the M. obi. 
 forms, can be clearly seen from the following example: Skr. nom. STTScF:, 
 gen. sn?73ieT becomes, in M., nom. 3TJT, obi. sfT3JTT; analogously Skr. oTrae^cfi: 
 should be, in M., nom. cnreTT, obi. se^enT, but it becomes snzejjr-, obi. 
 Enze^"T. The reason is, that the former represent Mg. forms: nom. 373^, 
 gen. 5ft353T^; the latter Ap. forms: nom. bJi*H^3, gen. eye"^B^ or °^t. 
 
 2) These forms are usually divided into ^"f -f- ^T, ^ -f- eT, 3? + ^j 
 and eT is considered to be an aff., and the rest to be the ordinary obi. f. 
 This is possible, as eT might be a modification of the ordinary M. dat. 
 aff. ^rTT, analogous to the G. sg. and pi. dat. aff. e. But in that case, 
 
§ 365.] NUMBER. 195 
 
 (for 3^FT), and the 2 nd set becomes (by elision of ^ and con- 
 traction of the hiatus-vowels) Wl, \'% H or (st. f.) Hi (for %U1 or 
 ^3T), 5i"f (for 3^"t). In E. H. the first set becomes (by shorten- 
 ing the initial vowel) 5*^., ^, 3^, or (lg. f.) SqFJj ^T^, 3S^, 
 and the 2 nd set (lg. f.) aarf, ^rf, 3^T (with euph. a^and u). In 
 0. H. (Chand and Kabir), however, examples of the 1 st set with 
 a long vowel still occur; e. g., irf^TPT of women, ^STT^T of riches, 
 njp\ to teachers (Bs. II, 219. 207. 282). In M., the 1 st set is, 
 just as in the sing., preserved in the dat. (= old gen.); thus M. 
 ^cTRT to Gods = Dk. terror, Skr. <oiMIJT. In E. H. the 1 8t set 
 forms the termin. of the ordinary obi. pi., with the sense of the 
 gen.; e. g., loc. J^SFT it lit. in the midst of Gods = A. Mg. ^sttut 
 irf?*F, Skr. ^cTFTT Jqw. The 2 nd set forms the termin. of the or- 
 dinary obi. pi. in M: and obi. sg. in E. H. x ), also retaining the 
 sense of the gen. ; e. g., loc. M. ^srf 5T^ lit. in the 'place of Gods 
 = Dk. ^snrf 6Turf^, Skr. ^strt ^tt^t, or (lg. f.) M. j£an siz = 
 Dk. ^srarf srtnff , Skr. 5;5T^nFrr ^r°; or (lg. f.) E. H. i;5rcrf jt in a God 
 = A. Mg. ^srarf qfe, Skr. ^arcffPTT m$. — 5) The masc. nouns 
 in ^ and 3, mentioned in Nro. 3 as having an obi. sg. in ^ and 
 3J for 0T, 5TT, similarly have an obi. pi. in ^ and 3;, which might 
 be contractions of Ui and oTT, but more probably are Ap. forms 
 (see Nro. 7). Thus ^WT elephant has obi. pi. ^ttT (not ^??rf), fsf^ 
 scorpion has obi. pi. fcT^Torf or fsra^. — 6) Deriv. of the S. type. 
 The suff. of the gen. sg. are, in the Ap. Pr., ^V and ^ or, shor- 
 tened, J or f| (H. C. 4, 338. 336. 351 and 4, 350. 341. 352. 
 K.I. 30. 34. 36. 35. 29 in Ls. 451. 462), which are added alike to 
 bases in S, ^, 3 of whatever gender (see § 3 67). Thus there are 
 two sets of Ap. terrain.; viz. 1) «^t, ^t, 3^T or SJ", ^J", 3J" 
 
 one would expect TT to be used also in the sg., which is not the case. 
 On the whole, I think it more probable, that the whole is one suff., to 
 which, however, a mistaken popular etymology has given an anomalous 
 final ST; the forms ought to be ST^T, JR", 3vT. 
 
 1) This confusion of sg. and pi. forms may be also otherwise ob- 
 served in Gd., see § 367, 5. 
 
19G NUMBER. § 365.] 
 
 and 2) ^, ^, 3^ or 9% ^j%, 3f^ or, with strong bases, 1) ^ft, 
 ^^T, 3^t or ^f, ^W, 33| and 2) 93%, ^^, 3^ or wffr, 
 ^H% 3^f|. In old Gd. (0. II., 0. P.) the 1 st set becomes ^, 
 ^fT, 3^[ or (dropping ^) sr, ^, 3, and the 2 nd set tff% or ^ (contr. 
 for ^f% = ^), <[t% 3f^, or in strong l)ases, 1) ^^, ^^, 35^; 
 or m (for sw), ^ET, 3W, and 2) g^f| or SIFT (for sra^) or "^ or 
 ^, ^Sitf, 3^f|. The 1 st set (in f ) is still found in the 0. W. H. 
 of Chand, the 2 nd set (in f|) in the 0. P. of the Granth (see 
 Tr. A. Gr. CXXVI), in the 0. II. of Kabir, Tulsi Das, etc. and in 
 the 0. B. of Vidyapati, etc., in their proper sense of the gen. sg. ; 
 e. g., nt^TJ T|^ xiT^ ?j ift^ I a herdsman tends the cattle of an 
 other (Chand 28, 6 2), or sftcrr stVc^ ^foraT^r I you speak a speech 
 of inconsiderateness (Ch. 28, 50), or "-ctesrH^ ara i by the side of 
 the Chahuvdn (Ch. 28, 33). Again jm ^TTJT <5T snrTVT^T •s ^rt ^ ^r tf^TTTfi; 
 qT77 ii i. e., so thou mayest reach the farther shore of the world 
 (Kabir Ram. 75, 3), or ntcrff irpr ST ^ " i. e., of the soul there 
 is no dying (Kabir Ram. 22, 6). Again cnJT3? <J7J ^\T ^rrf^ srirtft i 
 *PTcTT f^T T^ STHfi> =T "rtft n i. e., concerning which the pride of the 
 Lord is not small (Tulsi Das, Bal. 10), or ^f% ^TrTrT ftTJrf| foqr^t u 
 there ivitt he offspring of the beloved one of the beloved (T. Das, Bal. 
 26), or git JTUT ^tcrf^ cjf^" flraTTT ii i. e., who takes account of virtue 
 and vice (T. Das, Bal. 3 0). In the sense of the dat. (= old 
 gen.) f| is very common in 0. II. ') ; thus ^mrsrfr ^ ^Rl< f%W{\ n 
 i. e., he showed all the decorations to the sage (T. Das. Bal.), or 
 wft fior^Tsi^ TfTrft; 213 ii i.e., give the heir-apparentship to Ram (T. 
 Das Ayodh. 5); also in 0. B., e. g., ^Frfir to another (see Bs. II, 
 229). Both ^ and f^ also occur as the termin. of the obi. f. ; 
 e. g., ^jt sett ctft rTrTT^; I he sp>oJce with the Klidn Tartdr (Chand 
 28, 58), or dH\(<^ 3^7^ i upon the Tartdr (Ch. 29, 19); or mf^f| 
 ft ^vsr sraT spr^ he narrated the loholc story from the beginning (T. Das 
 
 1) Also often in the sense of the ace. (= dat. = old geu.); e.g., 
 sr^T fsrfa \VX faTsrf^; U*l<hlcjl i Tf/afrTT Zfij sT^T ^tstt ll i. e., in many tcays 
 Ram admonished Sliiva and narrated the story of the birth of Parvati (T. 
 Das, Bal. 26), etc. See also Kl. 65. 283. 286 and § 367, 3, 
 
§ 365.] NUMBER. 197 
 
 in Bs. II, 21 2). These examples contain also instances of the curtailed 
 form of the gen.; thus jw ^TH" c?r taking the name of Bdma, CTUT3; 
 tf-^r r\j qrfj I salute the men and women of the toivn, ftrarffr ^ffTrT (for 
 friarf^) offspring of the beloved one, etc. In modern Gd. hoth sets 
 occur only in their curtailed forms (with one exception in N., see 
 helow): 1) 5, ^, 3 and 2) ^ or, in strong hases, 1) m, ^5T or 
 J, 35 or 3 and 2) 5Tq^ or ^r or ^. The 2 nd set is still preserved 
 in the B. and 0. dat. (= old gen. ; especially in words denoting 
 inanimate objects; but generally in poetry and theth uhdshd; see 
 S. Ch. 46, 2. 59, 4. 62. 63. Sn. 14. 15); thus B. and 0. et| to a 
 house = 0. Gd. sr^f%, Ap. Pr. et^, Skr. JprsT; B. ^to" to the poor, 
 0. Gd. ^fcrf^, Ap. ^UT^, Skr. ^fcrer; B. cfwiu^ to copper, 0. Gd. 
 rTPTTl^ or rTFT^f%, Ap. rT*oP5^, Skr. rfWcKW, etc. But both sets are 
 used in all Gds. (with the exceptions in Nros 1 — 5) as the or- 
 dinary terrain, of the obi. sg., and as such retain their old gen. 
 sense. They are distributed among the various Gds. in the fol- 
 lowing manner. The contracted weak form ^ is confined to the 
 gen. and loc. sg. and nom. pi. of B. ; thus B. gen. sg. <£cT-F lit. 
 done of God, 0. Gd. ?^af^ ^, Ap. £51% 37^, Skr. ^cf^r ^ht. (see 
 § 377); loc. sg. ^irrT in God; nom. pi. t^r-p Gods, 0. Gd. \&fl[ 
 ejrrj, Ap. 5Iori[ i>7;3, Skr. ~£creT aff?T£F>: scl. ^: (see §3 64, 2). N. 
 has preserved even the full old form (in ^ or ^) in its nom. pi. ; 
 thus N. 5oJf-£ or 5oT^-^ Gods, 0. Gd. ^a^ cF£, Ap. £51% or °^T 
 £^7, Skr. ^oiw ^rT: (scl. W£'.). The contr. st. f. 5T occurs in B., 
 0., Mw. and G. ; E. H. has OT and ^, Br. 5T and ^ (i.e. m in 
 subst., q or U" in adj.); P. and S. have ^; thus gen. sg., B., 0. 
 sfr^T-^r, Mw. SJT3T-7J, E. H. e^t &, Br. etYit girt, G. vtn ^t, P. 
 srtj 5T, S. sift sff of a horse, 0. Gd. Efr351[ or °i% 3F>fT or ttft, 
 Ap. sftr^^t or °% e^"3, Skr. ETtrcfiW ^TrTcjT: ; again E. H. U^" m, Br. 
 im £t of good, 0. H. ^srfir cr°, Ap. ^5% 3>°> Skr. u^aFrar 3T°. 
 The uncontr. st, f. ^5 and 35 are possessed by S. only ; the 
 contr. ^ and 3 by all other Gds. ; thus loc. sg,, E. H. etc. irroT it, 
 but S, frira V lit. in the midst of the elephant, 0. Gd. ^pAtt^ T-ffT, 
 Ap. ^f??TSJ^t ^j^T^, Skr. ^RdchW TWT; or E. H. etc. fajF *r, but 
 
198 NUMBER. § 365.] 
 
 S. f^tf t^ in the midst of the scorpion, 0. Gd. fas?^? q°, Ap. 
 fclxstj^) q , Ski-, EjPiJchUJ 57°, etc. The weak forms ^, ^, 3 are 
 common to all Gds; thus dat. sg., ,0. ^ij cft, B., E. H. ^ 3T, Br. 
 ^- eft, Mw. ^j ^r, G. =tt; ^r, P. T£ ^, N. ^- 5tt^, S. ^ $r lit. 
 by the side of the man, Skr. +\\ya Trft. — 7) The suff. of the 
 gen. plur. are, in the Ap. Pr., ^, W and f^ (H. C. 4, 33 9. 340. 
 337. cf. 347. 351. K. I. 31. 32. 28 in Ls. 451), which are added 
 indifferently to hases in ^, ^, 3 of whatever gender (§ 3 67). 
 Thus there are three sets of Ap. Pr. termin. : 1) Sir, ^, 3^, 
 2) %W, ^, 3#, 3) ^%, rf^, 3f^ or, with strong bases, 1) ^5^, 
 ■z^, 3^f, 2) SJ^f, ^j|, 3W, 3) «raf% ^ff, 3^f^. In 0. H. 
 the 3 d set is still found in the sense of the dat. (= old. gen.); 
 thus TTFrf<7(Tff qfqr jr^r q?r HT5TT this counsel, again, pleased (her) 
 parents (T. Das. in Kl. 286); or 33^ g^fta ^riir ^in^ he gave 
 a blessing to all of happy import (T. Das, Bal.); or sit fttF^ sprr 
 T^ n"g" l lit. i/" to you there is love for your daughter or if there 
 is love of you for your daughter 1 ). In modern Gd., ^ is elided 
 and the hiatus-vowels contracted; thus l) 5"f, ^ u , 3?, 2) ^T*" or 
 5T~, (^f deest), 3;, 3) ^ w or^, ^", (~3f% deest) or, in strong bases, 
 1) ^"f, ^rf or q-f, 3^7 or 5T7, 2) «rT or ^t 1 *, ^m w or jpft/" or 
 ^, 3arT w or 33T 19 or 5, 3) ^ or ^, ^f or j[ w , 3f. Most of 
 these forms serve as the termin. of the ordinary obi. plur., and, 
 as such, retain their original gen. sense. They are distributed 
 among the various Gels., as follows. The forms 5"f (wk. or st.), 
 ^arf or JT7, 3?rf or Erf occur in S., P. and Mw. ; the forms SIT 
 or ^t (wk. or st.), 3?n" or ^?T, 3^ or 3^T in Br. and H. H.; 
 the forms U (wk. or st.), (H7, "3U in S., and the st. forms ^ and 
 3 in M. Thus loc. pi. ; S., P., Mw. =7^"7 JT W lit. in the midst of men, 
 Ap. mjt ^^f^, Skr. ^Ttrrt mu ; Br. ^fT V, H. H. ^ff *T, Ap. 
 
 1) Also often in the sense of the ace. (= dat. = old gen.); e. g., 
 rTST ^"TTf^ fi}tffft% ir^iff then Vaidehi having beheld Bdma (T. Das, Bal.); 
 ^"Prfli is here the plur. majestatis; but the pi. f% is often used for the 
 sg. % see § 367, 5. 
 
§ 365.] NUMBER. 199 
 
 ^f IT ; S. 3^* JT*, Ap. ITf/f^ «T°; or in st. f., S., P., Mw. ETTTT & 
 in the midst of horses, Ap. aTTff^ *TstfiP^[, Skr. EfrrgnTr qwj; Br. 
 sfr-ft" *t~, II. II. eftif it", Ap. sirjsjf *t°; S. ettY *r", Ap. sftesrf^ jt°, 
 etc. Again M. dat. pi. ^ttT vU lit. for the benefit of elephants, 
 Ap. ^f?zmflf cfTTf%, Skr. ^fecjfFTT ^M, etc. The rest of the forms 
 are used as terrain, of the nom. pi.; see §3 69'). — 8) I add 
 a few more examples to illustrate the preceding remarks: Weak 
 bases in 9: masc. or neut., iT^T water; gen. sg., Skr. sTST'ST, l) Mg. 
 Pr. (a) ilcfTS^r or (b) sT^TT^, M. (a) sT^rra^ or (b) sT^fT; 2) Ap. Pr. 
 (c) sTvT^t or (d) sTcrnf, 0. Gel. (c) S*!^ or (d) sTcfjfJ|, M. Gd. (c) 
 sTcrr (in all) or (d) sT^r (in B. and 0.). Fem. f?T3T tongue, gen. sg. 
 Skr. ftnpTT:, l) Mg. Pr. (a) f^TT^ or f%5HT^ or ferra or f^SUTHI 
 (with euph. qj, M. (a) f?M ; 2) Ap. Pr. (b) fel^T or (c) f?iSU%, 
 0. Gel. (b) ato^ or (c) gkf|, M. Gd. (b) atwr (in all) or (c) aft 
 (in B., 0.). Gen. plur., Skr. sT^rFrrq^, fwrrro , l) Mg. Pr. (a) sT^nnf, 
 
 tfTcUTUT or (b) sTcrlTf, tsISHT^, M. (a) sTcrrf^TT, tfTUTTT or (b) sTcFTT, 
 
 ftnrf, E. H. (a) snsi:T , iiu^, Br. (a) sTcft^ or jT^rrq', stWt or sTTuftr, 
 S. (a) fTvHrr, mirfr ; 2) Ap. Pr. (c) sTqFT^, tlrsu^ or (d) sr^jr, iwrf 
 or (e) sTorrP^, t%^f^, 0. H. (e) sT^rf^, felff, S., P., Mw. (c) sT^TT, 
 fwf, Br. (d) srarT, ^hrr", H. H. (d) ^f, aW , S. (d) sr£r", r%^r". — 
 Strong bases in ^: masc. or neut., rTFrar copper ; gen. sg., Skr. 
 rTTJprw, l) Mg. Pr. (a) FTipmr or (b) cPTJITf (with euph. £_); M. 
 (a) HI Kiil^ or (b) (TTSSTT, E. H. (lg. f.) (b) rTTtToTT (with euph. 5rJ ; 
 2) Ap. Pr. (c) FT^^T or (d) rW^|, 0. Gd. (c) rTTSTT^ or (d) rOSITf|, 
 0., E. H. (c) FTTiTT, Vf. H., N., G. (c) yrrWr, B. (c) hfh or (d) 
 rTFTTa^, P., H. H. (d) rrfir, S. (d) 6WT. Fem., see fem. strong bases in ^. 
 Gen. plur., Skr. mrpJFTPT, l) Mg. Pr. (a) FTrpTTtrf or (b) FRffTl, 
 M. (a) FtWttt or (b) FrrWf, E. H. (lg. f.) (a) FTFloFT (with euph. aj 
 or (b) rTFTSTT (but used in the sg.) ; E. H. has also the anomalous 
 short form rTFR^, Br. rTTSFI^ or rTTSlfSr, S. ZVlf^ ; 2) Ap. Pr. (c) 
 FTO^ or (d) rFraj or (e) FT^ff , P., Mw. (c) (TtWt, S. (c) ZTW1, 
 Br. (d) frtsft*, H. H. (d) frtsrV, S. (e) zm" . Fem,, see fem. strong 
 
 1) Some of them are also used to form the loc., instr. and abl. sg. 
 or pi. in S., P. and M.; see §§ 367, 2. 376, 3. 378, 3. 
 
200 NUMBER. § 365.] 
 
 bases in ^". — Weak bases in ^: masc. or neut., 37% poet.; gen. 
 sg., Skr. cJ75T: (lit. cFffaw) ; 1) Mg. Pr. (a) cFffasST or (b) cFfdrt^, 
 M. (a) srsrta or (^) ^^ 2 ) A P- Pr - ( c ) ^ht^ or (d) 37^, 0. 
 Gd. (c) cfrra^r or (d) *faf^, M. Gd. (c) cfifar (in all). Fero. mfe 
 (0O&; gen. sg., Skr. f^TT: or faff: (lit. fvrf^w) ; l) Mg. Pr. (a) fafwSET 
 or (b) for^, M. (a) ift-f?ta or (b) VTKt ; 2) Ap. Pr. (c) ftf^I 
 or (d) fitfw^, 0. Gd. (c) i?ri?r^ or (d) mfnfl. P., S. (c) faf?r, B., 
 0., E. H., W. H., G. iftH. Gen.plur., Skr. sRsrfcnw, fifcfkrPTj l) Mg. 
 Pr. (a) cjrsrrrjf, fa^nf or (b) ^^;, fvT=rt|;, M. (a) ehdT-il, JiTrtPHI 
 or (b) w§f, trPffT, E. H. (a) arfipr, iftfflr^, Br. sjfipT or gifarpr, 
 ^JTT^ or irHTrf^r, S. crrfirfr, firfprf^ or (lg. f.) fvHTrafr or fifn ^ Pi ; 
 2) Ap. Pr. (c) *(d^, fvrtw^ or (d) ^Hh#, fafirer or (e) grfirfl;, f£tf%f^, 
 
 0. H. (e) aFTfsrf^, irHnf^, in M. Gd. ; only tbe long forms occur ; 
 viz. Ap. Pr. (c) oFit%^, filfw^t 01 * (d) ^fsTW, mf%W or (e) 
 
 efffiraff , utfed% Mw., P., S. (c) chfein, Br. (d) Ejrfsizff , H. H. (d) 
 
 oprforar^, i5tf?nTt*, S. (e) 3ifsr^, faf%^7. — Strong bases in ^ : masc. 
 or neut., J7T%^r gardener; gen. sg., Skr. qTfcHcKUl ; 1) Mg. Pr. (a) 
 qTferasST or (b) mfsraT^, M. (a) JCTWTO or (b) rTT^JTT, E. H. (lg. f.) 
 (b) JTlwn; 2) Ap. Pr. (c) qTfsra^t or (d) inf^^, 0. Gd. (c) 
 jtt%^ or (d) JTTf^T^f|, S. (c) mfisra, E. H. etc. (c) qwh Fern. 
 mfichT marc ; gen. sg., Skr. utf?;#i?JT:, Ap. Pr. (a) tflFi^^ or (b) 
 eWte% 0. Gd. (a) eftft^ or (b) Eftfir*% S. (a) sftnu, E. H., M., 
 etc. (a) srrft. Tbe Mg. forms exist only in M. monosyllabic words 
 and E. H. long forms: as f^chl woman; gen. sg., Skr. f^cnmi:, 
 Mg. * i^dl^ or *%tJT^ or *%?m, M. %ar, E. H. f^m (tats.); 
 similarly E. II. (lg. f.) sfff^fTT. Gen.pt/ur., Skr. mf^TfrTFT . yYfSeFTMl^', 
 
 l) Mg. Pr. (a) mf^TgniT, Ertfrsrraf or (b) mfsraTt, srrfrmi, M. (a) 
 
 qT^TT^rr, ETdjTTTT or (b) TTcfZTT, EJh^TT, E. II. (lg. f.) (a) rrfsTZPT, 
 sfrf^PT or (b) rrf^rcn, sfrf^Jnf (but used in tbe sing.) ; Br. (a)mfcHUM, 
 sfrfll'jfvT, S. (a) 3TTf%^f^T or rrrcrjrfSr or qfkHifa or m<rdft, mfjSffq" or 
 Errfrjf^, etc.; E. II. lias also the anomalous short forms mion^r , 
 mf\^, Br. and S. JTT%fr, mftfr; 2) Ap. Pr. (c) qT%^, srtfrsrq; 
 or (d) TrfBr^f , arfzw or (e) m%^ff , sftfz^ftj S. (a) *n#rerT or 
 
 qiWT, ETTf%^~T or sfrgJTT, Mw. (a) mWT, tftrin, P. (a) qTcften, sftTra - ! 
 
§ 365.] NUMBER. 201 
 
 (with anomalous f), Br. (d) rrriwrT, sfrfsTT, H. H. (d) illfHuT, 
 drfznr^, S. (e) mf^r, sjrfj^r. — Weak bases in 3 : masc. or neut., 
 n^ teacher; gen. sg., Skr. jt^V: (lit. n^r); 1) Mg. Pr. (a) h^st 
 or (b) Jprg, M. (a) np:^ or (b) jt/^.; 2) Ap. Pr. (c) n^T or 
 (d) JT^|, 0. Gd. (c) 3]^ or (d) JT^rf|, M. Gd. (c) JT£ (in all). 
 Fern, like masc. Gen. plur., Skr. JT^"^ 1 ^ ' * ) ^S- P 1 *- ( a ) T ^^ 
 or (b) Jpp[, M. (a) n^TT or (b) ijf^, E. H. (a) n^r, Br. (a) n^r 
 or JJ^fSr, S. (a) J]^, fa ; 2) short forms desunt in Gd. ; in then- 
 place the long forms are used : Ap. Pr. (c) JT^^f or (d) JJ^TW 
 or (c) n^ff , P- (c) nprr, Mw. (c) JTorr, Br. (d) n^if\ H. H. 
 (d) JJ^" W , 0. H. (e) rpjft or JT^f^. Fern, like masc. — Strong 
 bases in 3: masc. or neut., aftr^ scorpion ; gen. sg., Skr. ^Rjch-bU ; 
 l) Mg. Pr. (a) fINfsmr or (b) fa^HT^, M. (a) f^=fTO or (b) fa=fT, 
 E. H. (lg. f.) (b) finpiT or feiadl ; 2) Ap. Pr. (c) fa=Ef5T^t or 
 (d) fsr^rir, 0. Gd. (c) fajsr^ r (d) fa^gf^, S. (c) fas^, E. H. 
 (c) fa|[, M. (c) fa^. Fern. aTvTcRT sand; gen. sg., Skr. aToTcFiraT: ; 
 
 1) Mg. Pr. (a) STT^pT^ or STT^^T^ or aT^raTCr, M. (a) STT^T, E. H. 
 (lg. f.) (a) zn&m or ST^cTT; 2) Ap. Pr. (b) SfT^^^T or (c) antral, 
 0. Gd. (b) <sJM«^ or (c) 5TTc<TSr% S. (b) sricrTO, E. H., etc. sric^. 
 Gen. plur., Skr. dHychWlHj l) Mg. Pr. (a) fsp^^nif or (b) fa^^Enf, 
 M. (a) fsTfTTT or (b) fa^T, E. H. (lg. f.) (a) fafSHT or (b) faip-7 
 (but used in the sing.), Br. fa^^R or farf^t^f, S. fbiatjf^r ; E. H. 
 has also the anomalous short form fa^ , Br. and S. fa^'f^T ; 
 
 2) Ap. Pr. (c) id-c^^; or (d) fsR^fff or (e) fa=5f *ff, P. and S. (c) 
 fawr, Mw. (c) fairr, Br. (d) fawT, H. H."(d) fapfT, S. (e) 
 fai^r. Fern, like masc. — G. is peculiar in dropping the final 
 anunasika in the obi. plur. of masc. and fem. nouns; e. g., G. 
 obi. pi. ^oTT Gods for *5cft w , Ap. ^a#; fem. #Htt tongues for *itJTT' y , 
 Ap. fevTf ; again in strong bases : G. masc. obi. pi. sflTTa or SJT3T3 x ) 
 
 1) These forms are sometimes spelled with final 3ft, as ETTTTSrr (so in 
 Ed. 36. Bs. II, 189); the really correct spelling is with 3 or 5^, as written 
 for me by a Pandit. But it is quite customary now in Gd., to spell the 
 same final sound as 3 or a or ^; thus in W. EL £3 or ^a or \w\ god, 
 =a^T3 or =5RETa or ^^[m attack. 
 
202 NUMBER. § 366.] 
 
 horses for *^nri, Ap. sftT^f; fem. owt? looks, Ap. trtf^rw. Ac- 
 cording to H. C. 4, 351, even in the Ap. Pr., fem. nouns have 
 no final anuswara. But G. retains it in neut. nouns; e. g., G. 
 ohl. pi. ^ffcrw or iHM \~5, Ap. SlW^. On the other hand, it adds 
 it anomalously in the sg. neut. ; as G. ohl. sg. UfrTl gold for 
 *^TRT, Ap. STTUTWi^T. 
 
 3 6 6. Origin of the obi. form. 1) The Gd. ohl. f. is 
 identical with the Skr. and Pr. gen. case. For a) it has been al- 
 ready shown (§ 3 65) that the suff. of the former can be phone- 
 tically traced back to those of the latter, b) It will be shown 
 in §§375 — 378, that the Gd. case-affixes are, in reality, nouns 
 (generally in the loc. case) ; as such they must be constructed with 
 the gen. of the noun, which they govern ; hence it follows that 
 the obi. f., in which the latter is always put, when it takes a 
 case-aff., must be the old gen. ; e. g., E. H. ^T^T JT cTTS" he is in 
 the midst of men, 0. H. qp^ rrf^r Ernr, Pr. ^jim jrf?<K 5rr^, Skr. 
 rrpuTT cn*T sTfTTT. c) Pr. Gramm. state expressly (II. C. 4, 4 22. 
 T. V. 3, 3. 56) that the word £F^", which is the same as the E. II. 
 gen. aff. sifT or 3FT}" or 0. H. 5R{", is constructed with the gen., whence 
 it follows that the obi. form, with which those gen. aff. are con- 
 structed, is the old gen. d) It can be shown, that Pr. has a ten- 
 dency to substitute the gen. in the place of all other ohl. cases and 
 to make it the one, universal inflexion. This proves that the obi. 
 form, which is the one, universal inflexion in Gd., must be the 
 old gen. In Pr. this is but an other instance of its general ten- 
 dency to produce uniformity of grammatical forms. Two instances 
 of this have been already noticed; the one in regard to roots 
 (§ 347), the other referring to bases (§ 205). Here we have a 
 third instance, affecting the cases. In Skr. there are, generally, 
 seven cases or inflexions: the nom., ace, instr., dat., abl., gen., 
 loc. In Pr. the dat. has (almost) entirely disappeared, and its 
 place been taken by the gen. (Vr. 6, 64. H. C. 3, 131); but there 
 is a tendency to substitute the gen. for the other obi. cases also, 
 so as to leave only two inflexions, the nom. and gen. This is 
 
§ 366.] NUMBEK. 203 
 
 expressly stated by Pr. Gramm. (II. C. 3, 134. T. V. 2, 3. 39). 
 In the Ap. Pr. that process of substitution is especially marked. 
 Its gen. suff. are expressly stated to form the abl. (compare H. C. 
 4,336. 337. 341. 351 with 4, 338. 340) and the loc. (II. C. 
 4, 340) also 1 ). In Gd. there are ouly two inflexions left, the 
 direct form or nomin., and the obi. form or gen. But in order 
 to obviate the necessary ambiguity of this uniformity, Gd. adds 
 different affixes to the obi. form, to indicate the particular case, 
 in the sense of which the obi. form is to be understood. Thus 
 the obi. form with 3T means the gen., with ^T the instr., with 
 it the loc, etc. In this way the original seven cases are re- 
 established in Gd. — 2) It should be observed, however, that since 
 there are in the Ap. Pr. several gen. suff. for the sing. (f[T and ^) 
 and the plur. (i|, if, f%), several obi. forms are possible in the 
 Gds. and do actually exist in most of them. In the latter case, 
 one of them is used as the general obi. form and always con- 
 structed with case-aff. ; but the other constitutes a special obi. 
 form for one or, at most, two cases, and, as a rule, takes no 
 affix. Thus there is in G. and Mw. the general obi. f. sg. in 
 5T = Ap. gen. in %^i, and the special obi. f. sg. in ^ or ^ = 
 Ap. gen. in ^; e. g., G. instr. sftjT OT or &t£ oy a horse; Mw. 
 loc. am T"T or srnj in a horse. — 3) It is curious to observe 
 that the levelling process noted just now, has a tendency, both 
 in the Ap. and in Gd., to reduce the whole declension to one 
 inflexion, by substituting (§ 3 6 9) the obi. form even for the 
 dir. form or nom. case. The cause, possibly, was their similarity; 
 thus in the Ap. the nom. sg. would be ^cT^T or ^5T3 god (Skr. ^crai:), 
 the gen. sg. ^sr^T or ^cTg" ; whence, by inserting an euph. IT in 
 the nom., the two forms would be easily assimilated. 
 
 1) Exceptionally all these cases are preserved in Pr.; thus the dat. 
 sg. in the sense of „for the sake of" (H. C. 3, 132. 133), as ^STTJT for the 
 sake of god; in the Ap. Pr., the abl. sg. in 5fiT or ^T3 (Ls. 461), and 
 the loc. sg. in ^ (H. C. 4, 334 = Skr. £). The abl. sg. in 3T3 survives 
 even in S. poetry (Tr. 118). 
 
204 NUMBER. § 367.] 
 
 367. Distribution of the Pr. gen. suff. The ordinary Pr. 
 suff. of the gen. sg. is ^r and of the pi. nf. There are also the suff., 
 sg. *r, pi. ^ which are peculiar to Mg., and sg. ^t or ^, pi. ^, W 
 or fl[ which are peculiar to Ap. 1) The ordinary Pr. suff. are 
 derived from the Skr. sg. ^J, pi. ^TJT (i. e. =T 4. ^PT). In Skr., 
 :TPT is added to all three kinds of hases in ^, ^ and 3 ; hut 3T is 
 added only to ^-hases. In Pr. both nf and ^T, and similarly the 
 special suff. ^;, ^, etc., are added to all three kinds. In Vr. 5,8. 
 H. C. 3, 10 SST and nf are apparently limited to a-bases, but the 
 succeeding rules Vr. 6, 60. H. C. 3, 124 extend them to i- and u- 
 bases also ; and this is born out by Pr. literature. Hence there 
 can be no doubt, that the Mg. ^ and ^ and the Ap. f[t, though 
 apparently limited by H. C. 4, 299. 300. 338 to a-bases, in rea- 
 lity belong to i- and M-bases also. This is born out by the evi- 
 dence of modern Gd. ; and, moreover, it is expressly affirmed by 
 K. I. and Md. Thus H. C. 4, 336. 338 gives ^t to the gen. and 
 abl. of masc. (always incl. neut.) a-bases ; and ^ to the abl. of 
 masc. i- and it-bases (4, 341) 1 ). Again K. I. (30. 34 in Ls. 451. 
 4 6 2) gives ^ to the gen. of all masc. bases and to the abl. 
 of masc. i- and M-bases; and ^ (29. 36) to the abl. of all masc. 
 bases and to the gen. of masc. a-bases. Again both H. C. (4, 350) 
 and K. I. (3 5) give ^ to the gen. and abl. of all fern, bases. 
 Lastly Md. gives both ^1" and ^ to the abl. of all masc. and 
 fern, bases ). These conflicting statements really supplement each 
 other, as shown by modern Gd. It should be remembered, 1) that 
 the abl. and gen. are identical in Ap. Pr. (as, indeed, they ge- 
 
 1) II. C. 4, 336 gives g" as the abl. suff. of a-bases, but this is mere- 
 ly a shortening of ^r, which is given by Md. (see next footnote). As to 
 the gen. of i- and ««-bases, H. C. is silent; which seems to indicate, that 
 it may be ^T by the analogy of a-bases, and ^ by the usual identity of 
 the gen. and abl. of cases. 
 
 2) Md. says: 3^TCT ^ ^f =5T 11 3H: senrf ^T ^ W[?H 11 £3^ <Tf3J I 
 (i=R°T^ 11 (^fnTfr) 1 sfTJT^t 11 srTvTT^ 1 sncFTT^ 11 i. e., the abl. sg. has ^ or ![t, 
 as „he is fallen from a tree, from fire, from a girl". On the gen., I cannot 
 find any rule; which would seem to show that it is identical with the abl. 
 
§ 367.] NUMBER. 205 
 
 nerally are even in Skr.), and 2) that the Ap., no doubt, varied 
 slightly in the localities of the different grammarians. The ge- 
 neral result is, that in the Ap. Pr. both ^t and ^ were used 
 to form both the gen. and abl. of all bases in «, i, u, whether 
 inasc., fern., or neut. — The case of the Ap. plur. suff. ^ and 
 If is similar. In H. C. 4, 339. 340 ^ is ascribed to the gen. and 
 # to the abl. (4, 337. 341) of all masc. bases, and # (4, 340) 
 also to the gen. of masc. bases in i and u. Again K.I. (31.3 2) 
 gives ^ to the gen. of all masc. bases and to the abl. (33) of 
 masc. bases in % and u, and ff to the abl. (28) of masc. bases 
 in a. Lastly Md. allows both ?f and ^ to all masc, both in the 
 gen. and abl. '). As regards the fem. bases, both K. I. and Md. 
 are silent, which really means, that their gen. and abl. do not 
 differ from those of the masc. (and neut.). This is confirmed by 
 H. C. 4, 351, who gives to the fem. gen. and abl. the suff. f, 
 which is either the same as the sg. gen. and abl. suff. 5" or ^t 
 (H. C. 4, 33 6. 338), or identical with the pi. gen. and abl. suff. # 
 dropping the anuswara. The general result again is, that in the 
 Ap. Pr. both ^ and W are used to form both the gen. and abl. 
 pi. of all bases in a, i, U, whether masc, fem., or neut. And 
 this is born out by the state of the modern Gds. — 2) As to 
 the Ap. pi. suff. f|, both H. C. (4, 347) and Md. 2 ) ascribe it 
 to the loc and instr. plur. K. I., by his silence (Ls. 4 63), pro- 
 bably implies the same thing ; since ft[ was already the instr. 
 pi. suff. in the Mh. Pr. (Vr. 5, 18). But it appears to have been 
 used also for the gen. plur. This is, perhaps, the true reading 
 
 1) Md. says: Cf v ^ : " i ^T Wy*R STTrlt ii J^F^ dfjS" " QJ^ 
 =^f%J" ll STTJcrqTH l ^^TffrTT I T^^rTl" II *pY 5JT I WTT 5TT I ^f*ft WTrTT li 
 SHUHTf i cWrjrj I ^T^TCTFTTftrZPT i cTumnnj n i. e., the abl. pi. takes ^ or 
 si"; as „it fell from the trees", „he came from foreign (countries)"; also the 
 loc. and gen. pi. take ^ and ^, as „of Brahmans". 
 
 2) Md. says: ft^%^T u f^nqt f^ WU1 I ^f^rf^ I 5TUTfl| I ^ff^ » 
 i. e., all bases in a, i, u take f^ in the loc. and instr. plur., as „in or by 
 men, in or by forests, in or by wifes". 
 
206 NUMBER. § 367.] 
 
 in K.I. 32 (Ls. 451.464), where ^ is givea for the gen. plur. 
 Again both H. C. (4, 340) and Md. (see footnote 1, p. 205) allow 
 the gen. suff. ^ and € to the loc. plur. also ; vice versa, the loc. 
 suff. Hi may have been allowed to the gen. At all events, in 
 0. Gd., f^ is found as a suff. of the dat. (= old gen.) ; and in 
 M. Gd. (S.) it appears as the obi. pi. suff. ^ (contr. for ?rf^)", 
 see examples in § 365, 7. Indeed the term, ^f^ seems to occur 
 in the contracted form ^ even in the Ap. Pr. ; though as a term, 
 of the instr. sing, (see H. C. 4, 343. K. I. 23. 24). The examples 
 in Md. are: oTOT^ by a forest, oTTtrfl^ by a girl, ^frir^ by fire, oirjp 
 by wind ; they would be equal to * srciT^rf^, * 5TTcdi«f^, * gfrrraf^, 
 *cTT3^flt. Here ^ can hardly be = Skr. term. C^T (as Ls. 4 61) ; for 
 the latter would not be added to fern, bases in ST. Moreover, 
 as will be shown in Nro. 3, the sing. term, sf|[ is similarly con- 
 tracted to "U. It may, also, be added that the pi. term, ^f^ is 
 similarly used as a term, of the loc. sing, (see K. I. 26. 27. Ls. 
 451.463), as srjf^ or sjj or srf^ in a house. In Gd., this practise 
 of using the pi. suff. for the sing, is sometimes extended to all 
 plur. suff. ^, W, f^; see Nro. 5. — 3) The Ap. sing. suff. ^T 
 is sometimes shortened to W (H. C. 4, 336. 351); thus H. C. has 
 frcHda , but Md. (see footnote 2, p. 204) ^W^t from a tree or of 
 a tree ; sometimes even to ^, according to Ls 1 . conjecture of K. I. 
 34 (Ls. 462); e. g., ^fnT^rf or sfmf of fire; sometimes even ^ is 
 dropped (II. C. 4, 34 5). In the form J" it still occurs in the 0. P. 
 of the Granth (Tr. A. Gr. CXXVI) and expresses the abl. In the 
 form ^ it is often found in the O. W. EL of Chand, and ex- 
 presses the gen., abl., loc, act., ace. -dat. ; thus gen. in rft^TT" T^; 
 ^Tf ^ sfr^ i i. e., the herdsman tends the coivs of an other (28, 62), 
 or £pt i?taf ^<fj f%f^ra" i i. e., he dispersed the Army of Bhima (38, 
 41), or ^rsdr si; 5FTpr srfvra" 1 i. e., he marched at the rise of mighty 
 Saturn (27, 47), or 5FT ?ra" irrrr fesr^; ^ iTsf I i. e., in the forest is 
 plenty of deer, lions and elephants (27, 13); abl. in or^ tott[ ^ • 
 having adorned the body with floivers (38, 37) or ftst sftft <r;ryfaf 
 t1%2T i i. e., then he ashed good counsel of the Premier (28,8 8); 
 
§ 367.] NUMBER. 207 
 
 loc. ?tft t% ^3iT^ tpt f^/T i just as in the sky the measure of day, 
 i. e., the sun (26, 2 5), or :m$ fTT afT^r ^r tlfifsf i i. e., justice is not 
 done in the Kali age (28, 41) ; art. srtecrifr jm cRJvrnrssr cfiwt i i. e., 
 Visala raja told the ivhole story (1,82) or FTT e ^fs FJ^1> 1 i- e., 
 Me Zfcor has abandoned asceticism (28, 55); ace. ^rnqTwr^; «p=}T^?T I 
 i. e., //e Aas ca?Ze(? Anangpala (28, 9), or siH'JW^ cfT^T3 I i. e., 
 bring ye Anangesa (28, 77). The form without ^ is the com- 
 mon one in M. Gel. ; see § 365, 6. — 4) The Ap. sg. suff. i? of 
 the gen. and abl. is sometimes also used as a loc. suff., e. g., ^WT^ 
 now, lit., in that, scl. time (H. C. 2, 134; the same trST^. is an abl. 
 from that, H. C. 3, 82. 83), or ^fT^t in this, FTW^ in that, scl. place 
 (H. C. 4, 436). But, as a rule, it is shortened to f%, when it 
 expresses the loc. (H. C. 4, 341. 3 52), e. g., =F>T%ft; in the Kali 
 age ; and after a-bases g" may be elided, as q^^" behind, after (H. C. 
 4, 4 20 for *q^f|), an^ before (H. C. 4, 3 9l), ^sr^ thus (H. C. 
 4,4 20), but commonly the term. 55ff[ (or 3^) is contracted to ^ 
 (H. C. 4, 334), e. g., FT^T below for *FT^ or *rRfrff 1 )- In tnis 
 contracted form J7, it is also used in the Ap. Pr. to express the 
 instr. sg. (of fem. nouns) 2 ); see H. C. 4, 349. 333. K.I. 38 and 
 Md. %qT xf ^ =3 ETTrjMi 3T%^ I y^T i HT^ i 5T^^ I STT^n^ I! i. e., fem. 
 bases also take ^ (viz. besides v, as cTRfTT^), as by intelligence, by a 
 cow, by a river, by a wife, by a girl ; contr. for *<^f3^tT|, *m^f|; 
 (Skr. qf^FTOFTj. In the form t% it still occurs in the 0. P. of 
 the Granth, to express the gen., abl., dat. and ace. (see Tr. A. Gr. 
 CXXV) ; also in 0. H., to express the gen., abl., loc, dat. and 
 ace. ; thus gen. in ^Tfrfl; fjjt QJ crrfrT tawr there is a special love of 
 
 1) This U is usually considered to be the Skr. and (Mh. Pr.) loc. suff. ^" ; 
 but that old suff. is hardly likely to have survived so long; and has been, 
 indeed, worn down to <T in Ap. (II. C. 4, 334); e. g., Ap. FTc<T or rlf% below; 
 the former = Ap. rT^rf^, the latter = Skr. FT^T. 
 
 2) This cannot be the Mh. Pr. instr. suff. ^; for that suff. had already 
 in the Mh. Pr. been (optionally) worn down to T or ^, and, moreover, requires 
 the lengthening of the final vowel of the base ( Vr. 5, 22) ; thus the instr. sg. 
 of ^T^t river is in Mh. Pr. iTT^" or UT^ or UT^, but in the Ap. IT^". 
 
208 NUMBER. § 3C7.] 
 
 the king for you (T. Das in Kl. 286); abl. 37t fgrf^ srcrf^r 3^rt 
 (Chand I, 1 67 in Bs. II, 211), or n^f| <r$ ^f\ cFfStfirfy - p-jTT the'king 
 har'ntg enquired from the Guru performed the family rites (T. Das 
 in KL 65); loc. in i%f^ ^>T?T f^ftr graf sr^~f% for what cause, Bishi, 
 hast thou come into the house (Chand I, 4 5 in Bs. II, 211); dat. 
 af fsrffeT ^rf^i% ^T3;"£ <^ in many ways he shoivs honor to the bond- 
 maid (T. Das in Kl. 286); ace. tjfi jwzjf^ tra^T the sage extolled 
 Baghubar (T. Das in Kl. 283); see other examples in § 3 6 5, 6. 
 The contr. form u is used in B. and 0., to express the dat.- 
 acc, loc. and instr. ; as sr^" to or in or by a house (see S. Ch. 
 59, 4. 62. Sn. 15); and in B. even for the nom. (S. Ch. 56, see 
 §3 69). In G. and Mw. it is used to express the instr. (or act.) 
 and loc. ; thus G. v\, Mw. sr^ by or in a house (Kl. 66, a. Ed. 31, 87. 
 34, d); in H., P., S. it is used for the loc; thus %\ in the house 
 (Ld, 12, 37. 77, 133. Tr. 120, 7). — 5) The Ap. Pr. gen. plur. 
 suff. are sometimes used in the sing. Thus in the Ap., the suff. 
 flf (or the term. 5jf^), which commonly expresses the loc. or instr. 
 pi. (H. C. 4, 347) is often used for the loc. sg. ; see K. I. 26. 27 
 (in Ls. 451. 4 62); e.g., ^f^ or ^J or efj in a god; and, in 
 the contracted form U, for the instr. sg. (H. C. 4, 343, see Nro. 2); 
 e.g., ^frn^ by fire for *gfrrT^f^ (Skr. srfrpi^). In 0. H. the suff. 
 f^ is as often used for the dat., ace. and loc. in the sing, as 
 in the plur. ; thus dat. in ^?g" irf^ j^f% zfijf ^TfST, i. e., say, ivhat 
 pauper shall I make a Jcing (T. Das in Kl. 283); loc. in f^sf ^rrcuf^ 
 fsr^r rm £5F^ ^| fwr^i i. e., Brahma, having taught this the gods, 
 went to his own world (T. Das in Kl. 122); ace. in 7"raf^ or wm 
 crrfw ST%r eqfa ^fTT^ i. e. beholding Bam a with affection she called 
 near her friends (T. Das in Bal.), etc. Similarly it occurs in M., 
 in the contracted form ^ w , both in the loc. sg. and plur. (Man. 
 17, 45. 27, 66. 28, 2); as srff" in a house or in houses for 
 *ET^fii; an &> i Q the contracted form ^, in the instr. sg. (Man. 
 17, 45. 28, 66); e. g., W( w by a house for *5*7f^ 1 ). Also E. H. 
 
 1) This explains why the M. instr. in J£ is seldom used except with 
 the postpositions qTTJ^or ^TT^ (Man. 28, note 1); for it is really a gen. 
 
§ 368.] NUMBER. 209 
 
 and W. H. occasionally have it, in the contr. form ^r w or V, in 
 the loc. sing.; as QT^ or qrn^ behind, after for *q^f^ (see § 77, 
 exc). Again the suff. IT (or term. %w) which in Ap. Pr. ox- 
 presses the abl. and loc. plur. (H. C. 4, 340), is used in S. for 
 the abl. sg. in the forms «3 or ^ or 3 (Tr. 1 1 8), in P. for 
 the abl. or, occasionally, loc. sg. in the form ^ (Ld. 12, 37), 
 and in W. H. for the loc. sg. in the form 3:; thus S. ET^f or 
 srfV* or ar^-, P. erft 15 from a house, or P. m^ w , W. H. TT^ behind, 
 after, for *ET^ir, *qx^J. Again the suff. ^ (or termin. ^), 
 which in the Ap. expresses the abl. and loc. plur. (see Nro. 2), is 
 used in M. for the loc. both of the sing, and plur. in the contr. 
 form ^f (Man. 17, 45. 27, 66. 28, 2); e. g., wjfi in a house or 
 in houses, for*a"^; also occasionally in E. H. and W. H. ; e.g., 
 E. H. ^[f, W. H. Off here, lit. in this, scl. place, for *l^r (Skr. 
 S<rsr); in S. it forms the abl. sing. (Tr. 117, 5); e.g., Err? from 
 a house, WFJ from tcithin, for *Msthf^. Lastly the Mg. Pr. gen. 
 plur. suff. ^T^ (H. C. 4, 300) is used in E. H. for the obi. sing.; 
 thus 3t35rT (5R of) a horse, for Mg. erte^r; see § 365, 4. — 
 6) The gen. sg. suff. ^t and ^ are also used in Ap. Pr. and Gd. 
 to express the nom. and voc. sg. or pi.; see § 3 69. 
 
 3 68. Origin of the gen. or obi. suffixes. 1) The Skr. 
 gen. sg. suff. m becomes in Pr. ^T (Vr. 5, 8) according to the 
 usual phonetic laws (Ls. 274. 275; see §§ 150. 137). But though 
 J^T is the common form, yet in the pronouns Pr. already shows a 
 tendency to reduce it to ST and to lengthen the preceding vowel 
 (see § 150, 2); e. g., gen. masc. 3iTO = 3iW of whom (Vr. 6, 5. 
 H. C. 3, 64); neut. q?ta why = *fesr (Ls. 326); fern. cfTh = 
 *f5i^ (Vr. 6, 6. H. C. 3, 64). In Gd. this process is extended to 
 all gen., including those of nouns, as may be seen in M. (see 
 § 3 65, l); in Br. the two pronom. gen. sTRT of which, FTTST of him 
 (Kl. 122. 133) are its only relics. Besides W (K. I. 30 in Ls. 451) 
 
 or obi. form, and as such naturally takes a postposition; see §366,1; 
 if it were, as commonly supposed, identical with the old Skr. instr. in ^T, 
 the addition of the postpos. would be very superfluous and anomalous. 
 
 14 
 
210 NUMBER. § 368.] 
 
 the An. Vr. has ^T or rr: in the latter case with or without the 
 lengthening of the preceding vowel (II. C. 4, 338. 358. K. I. 30); 
 though it is not clear, how the final 3 arose. Traces of this Ap. 
 form have survived in the 0. II. and Br. pronom. gen. FTTH, sTTTT; 
 e. g., c\m fiFiWT ^ cfif%T of him the glory Chanel has told (Chand 
 1, 4 6 in Bs. II, 3 16, see Kl. 122. 133). The 0. W. II. of Chand has 
 occasionally nominal gen. in ^T (perhaps = Ap. ^sr) ; e. g., <T5TT 
 st^T 3^T f^f% i <rf|^T cfnfT era » i- e., a daughter has married in 
 Ujainland, first the son of Pang a (25, 22). The 0. P. of the Granth 
 appears to have a gen. in *fa (Tr. A. Gr. CXXVI). — 2) The 
 Skr. W, however, also changes in Pr. to ^ or f%, with the length- 
 ening of the preceding vowel (cf. Ls. 3 98); the conj. sq^ beco- 
 ming IT, as in the fut. suff. ^TTq, f^ for ^rrfq, ^ifFT (Vr. 7, 12. 13), 
 and the vowel being lengthened by way of compensation. The 
 form ^ is limited to the Mg. Pr. (Vr. 11, 12), and f| to the abl. 
 case (Vr. 5, 6), which is identical with the gen. '). Thus Pr. abl. 
 cT^rflr from a calf (lit. gen. of a calf), Mg. Pr. gen. six^r of a 
 calf, Pr. friftfl; from a mountain, JT7^ri% from a teacher (H. C. 
 3, 124). The Ap. Pr. gen. suff. ^ is, probably, an other modifi- 
 cation of the Skr. ST (cf. Ls. 462), which, because of its final ^ 
 being heavy, does not lengthen the preceding vowel ; as ST^lpr, wTr^, 
 lT^n| 2 ). In 0. Gd. it is shortened to f% (as 5Rff%, tnT7f|, n^ffr), 
 the gen. character of which is shown by its being especially used 
 for the dat. (= old gen., see examples in §§ 3 65, 6. 267, 4) or 
 generally for the obi. in connexion with case-aff. which require 
 the gen. (see § 3 66, l.b). In that particular kind of Apabhramsa 
 (probably Gujarat! or Marwari) which is treated by II. C. 4, 3 50, 
 this shortened obi. or gen. suff. f% was, in the case of masc. 
 and neut. nouns, confined to the loc. sing., probably because the 
 alternative gen. suff. ^T or W (see Nro. 3) were used in the gen. 
 
 1) It may be observed that even in Skr. the abl. takes the gen. suff. 
 WJi in the case of all bases, exc. those in ^. 
 
 2) Exceptionally the vowel is lengthened in Mh. Pr., e. g., ^tTT^ from 
 that (H. C. 3, 82), but Ap. Pr. ^ (H. C. 4, 420) = Skr. ^FT: or £FTFT:. 
 
§ 368.] NUMBER. 211 
 
 (incl. dat. and abl.). — 3) There is an other Ap. Pr. gen. snff. 
 ^ft or shortened f (H. C. 4, 33 6. 3 3 8) *), which, however, has no 
 connection with the Skr. UJ. Its origin is obscure. Ls. 462 iden- 
 tifies it with an assumed Skr. suff. S5T. It seems more probably 
 to be identical with the Skr. abl. plur. suff. ^0^, which in Pr. 
 would regularly change to 5*TT or ?rr (cf. Pr. ?ri"^T or firsirr tongue in 
 II. C. 2, 57 and § 120) and easily serve as a gen. suff. also. In 
 the Ap. of H. C. 4, 351 «f actually occurs as an abl. and gen. 
 phir. suff. The change of „ number" would be analogous to that 
 in the case of the Pr. abl. pi. suff. f^rrfr which is used in the 
 sing, also (see H. C. 3, 8. 9, see also § 367, 5). — 4) The Skr. 
 gen. plur. suff. RTn^ becomes in Pr. rrf or tit (Vr. 5, 4) with the 
 lengthening of the preceding vowel ; as Skr. cTrSfrFrPT , Pr. 3^ttjt 
 of calfs. This form has survived in M., E. H., Br. and S., see 
 § 3 65, 4. — 5) The Skr. gen. pi. suff. :tt*t , however, also changes 
 in Pr. to tj^ or Tj^r, ^ and |[, the last with, the former two 
 without the lengthening of the preceding vowel. The process is 
 quite regular ; a) Skr. ^ is doubled, and the preceding long vo- 
 wel shortened, as in Pr. f?tm = Skr. ^TTtTT:, Pr. ^fn^^T = Skr. 
 FrstrrteT:, Pr. iTc?TT — Skr. vnfft, etc. (H. C. 2, 99, see Ls. 143. 276); 
 b) the Pr. w is changed to tj^; (see § 161 and Ls. 27 1); c) Pr. tr^r 
 nlia is changed to ^ ham (projecting the anusvdra, for mho), or to |f, 
 prolonging, in the latter case, the preceding vowel, to compensate 
 for the loss of the anusvdra (see §§ 14 3. 149). Thus, e. g., Skr. 
 °^TTr^ is in Pr. * ^TJT = grjf = ^ = m^. The form T^ is added 
 in Pr. to numerals only, as cratTf^ of five = Skr. q^TqTJT (H. C. 
 3,123), and exceptionally to pronouns, as ^n^ of hoiv many = 
 Skr. ^f?PTTJj (H. C. 3, 123). The form f is added also to nouns, 
 especially in Mg. Pr. (H. C. 4, 300). The form ^ is used only 
 in the Ap. Pr. (H. C. 4, 339). In Gel. all three forms are used 
 
 1) Observe that in the Ap. of H. C. the gen. suff. ^T (H. C. 4, 338) 
 becomes S" when used for the abl. (II. C. 4, 336); just as the gen. suff. ^ 
 (H. C. 4, 350) becomes f| when used for the loc. (H. C. 4, 352). 
 
212 NUMBER. § 369.] 
 
 with nouns (see § 3 65, 4. 7); though ^ or ^T is limited to E. H., 
 Br. and S. — 6) There is also an Ap. Pr. gen. pi. suff. ?r (II. C. 
 4, 340), the origin of which is obscure. Ls. 4 63, 11 derives it from 
 the Pr. abl. pi. suff. e^rf (Vr. 5, 7). It may possibly be identical 
 with the Ap. Pr. gen. and abl. suff. ^ (see Nro. 3), to which, being 
 both plur. and sing., perhaps an inorganic anusvara was added, to 
 distinguish better its plur. character by making a pair ?f, ff ana- 
 logous to the other two pairs of Ap. suff., sg. <^, pi. ^, and sg. 1%, 
 pi. f^. — 7) There is, lastly, an Ap. plur. suff. f^ (H. C. 4, 347) 
 or I" (K. I. 3 2 in Ls. 4 51). Ls. 310, 3 identifies it with the Skr. pi. 
 instr. suff. f^W. It is more probably identical with the Skr. abl. 
 suff. WPT ), which would regularly change in Pr. to ^ or f^ 
 (for svr or fef), and easily come to be used in the Ap. Pr. for 
 the gen. (K. I. 3 2) and instr. or loc. (H. C. 4, 347) of the plur. 
 Its gen. character is shown by its being still used in 0. Gel. for 
 the dat. (= old gen., see examples in §§ 365, 7. 367, 2.5), and 
 in S. for the act. (= old instr.) and obi. generally; thus 0. II. 
 dat. TTf^ to men, S. act. n^" 01 by men or obi. ^^ w to men. 
 
 369. Derivation of the direct terminations, l) A com- 
 parison of the various Gel. terminations of the obi. sing, anel plur. 
 with those of the dir. or nom. plur. will show at once that the 
 latter are always identical with the former. Sometimes it is some 
 obi. form of the sg., sometimes (apparently) of the pi. ; again some- 
 times it is an obi. form of the same Gel., sometimes of an other, 
 which is thus used for the nom. plur.; but in every case it is 
 some one obi. form. To this rule the M. fem. and neut. nouns 
 form the only exception. For example compare the following 
 weak forms : a) masc, the S. nom. pi. sPT men with the S. obi. 
 sg. iTT man (nom. sg. snr), and the E. H. nom. pi. fnr (§361, exc.) 
 
 1) Even in Skr. the suff. i^TPT^ is used for the instr. and dat. also, 
 similarly the pi. abl. suff. J-'qrr_ for the dat. and, in the modified form ft^, 
 for the instr.; there is also a dat. sg. suff. WPT in Skr., as Fp?J^ to thee. — 
 If sf be rightly identified with STrft, f^ might bo derived from the Pr. 
 abl pi. suff. f^FT> (Vr. 5, 7). 
 
§ 369.] NUMBER. 213 
 
 with the B. ohl. sg. 5TT ; b) fcm., the I3r. nom. pi. ffHr 15 ' or jrtu 
 tongues with the S. obi. pi. f^T w ; the Mw., P. and S. nom. pi. ^Wf 
 or f?wt with the S. obi. pi. f^J-TT ; the S. nom. pi. f?R^ with the 
 abl. sg. (really obi. pi., § 3 67, 5) ftnjj the W. H., P. nom. pi. ftf^gl 
 ivalls with the S. obi. pi. fyrfn^JT; the S. nom. pi. faf^ with the 
 S. abl. sg. (really obi. pi.) frifrfi; (or farp, etc. Again strong forms : 
 a) masc, P., H. EL, M. nom. pi. srtT horses with the P., H. H. and S. 
 obi. sg. sn?; the B., 0., E. H., W. H., S., G. nom. pi. sftrr horses with 
 the B., 0., E. H., W. H., G. obi. sg. sfteT; b) neui, the G. nom. 
 pi. JciWf goldpieces with the G. obi. sg. yM'T ; c) fern., the W. H. and 
 P. nom. pi. srtfelT mares with the S. obi. pi. srlflfrf; the S. nom. 
 pi. feTlQi' with the S. abl. sg. (really obi. pi.) S?rf33; the W. H. 
 nom. pi. cft^T books (Kl. 64, 130) with the P. loc. pi. <rrTT in 
 books 1 ); the W. H. and P. nom. pi. STT^raf mothers-in-law with the 
 S. obi. pi. WlU%rf, etc. It will be observed, that in the cast; of 
 fern, nouns the dir. pi. is identical with the obi. pi., but in the 
 case of masc. and neut. it is the same as the obi. sg. The diffe- 
 rence, however, is probably in appearance only. For, no doubt, the 
 pi. obi. forms when employed as dir. pi. are used as sing., just as 
 in the S. abl. and M. loc. (see § 3 67, 5). There can be no doubt, 
 that these so-called nom. plur. forms are elliptic phrases, which 
 must be filled up by supplying some collective noun, as vTtn people, 
 IPT troup, etc. The E. H. practice of forming the plur. by the 
 addition of such a collective noun, illustrates this theory (§3 61). 
 Such nouns would require the principal word to be in the gen. 
 case ; and this explains the use of the obi. form, which is the 
 same as the old gen. (§ 3 6 6). In B. it is actually the gen. sg. 
 (not merely the obi. f.), which is used to form the plur. ; e. g., 
 B. obi. f. ^sr, gen. sg. ~tjz-\ of a god, nom. pi. ^ST-jr gods ; here 
 ^T is merely the strong form of ^; see § 364, 2. Similarly in N. 
 the plur. is an archaic form of the gen. sg., composed of tho 
 
 1) The form <fterT, both in the nom. and loc. pi., is a contraction 
 for m"f%^ = Ap. 'Ttft'^f^. 
 
214 NUMBER. § 369.] 
 
 gen. -affix £ (for ^7 or mji, § 377) and the 0. Gd. gen. sg. in 
 | or ^ (§ 36 5, 6). Thus 0. Gd. gen. or old. sg. £5rir or ^cTf, 
 N. nom. pi. Z^k.-Ji or t^-?' gods; see also § 3 64, 3. Thus the 
 II. II., P. or S. nom. pi. STTJ horses is really as much as Ap. Pr. 
 sftj^ scl. itot = Skr. iTr<L*^T mrr:, lit. a troop of horse. The nom. 
 pi. of nouns in ^, 3, J, 3 is, of course, of the same character; 
 though it does not come out so strikingly. — 2) The ohl. sg. 
 is sometimes even used to form the nom. sing. Thus always in 
 the long forms : e. g., E. H. nom. sg. ■pToTT or pToT? , M. jmn (for 
 * (iiiui) Rama = ohl. form E. II. }TT5rT or pTsrf, M. jwn = A. Mg. 
 or Dk. Pr. gen. sg. ^IT^l^ or pi. ^Fnanf (see § 3 65, 1.4) 1 ). But 
 sometimes also in masc. short forms; viz. in B. weak forms in ^, 
 and B., P., Br. and H. H. strong forms in ST. Thus in B. the 
 nom. sg. may he 5^5T a god, STTTTq^ a horse (for the usual 3cJ, srnrr), 
 hoth ohl. forms = 0. Gd. gen. sg. 5T5rf%, sft3rf% (§ 36 5, 6); see 
 S. Ch. 56, where these nom. are descrihed as loc. Again P. or Br. 
 or H. H. nom. sg. siVar a horse = 0. Gd. gen. or obi. sg. mzr^ 
 or STTT^r, Ap. Pr. ETTmirl'. "With these exceptions, the nom. sg. of 
 short forms in all Gds. is simply a modified form of the Pr. nom. 
 sg., as explained in §§40 — 54. Thus S., G., Mw. STTTT, Br. STTTT = 
 Ap. Pr. nom. sg. srl33, Pr. ffte«T; E. II., B., 0., M. dtn = Mg. 
 Pr. nom. sg. sftjg or sftl^ or sfrj^ (Vr. 11, 10) = Skr. 5Tl77^7: ; 
 again E. H., B., 0., M. ^sr a god = Mg. Pr. nom. sg. £ST or irfsr 
 or zjk; W. H, P., G., N. £sr or S., 0. W. II., 0. P. ^ = Ap. Pr. 
 nom. sg. J£5T, Pr. Zj&t, Skr. 3oH, — 3) The nom. pi. of fern, and 
 neut. nouns in M. is identical with the old Pr. nom. pi. The suff. 
 of the nom. pi. neut. is in Pr. j (Vr. 5, 26 = Skr. ft), before 
 which the final vowel of the base is lengthened ; in the Ap. Pr. 
 it is also ^, but without lengthening the preceding vowel (H. C. 
 4, 3 53). Hence the termin. are in Mh. Pr. ^T^, ^, 3^r, in Ap. 
 Pr. 9^, ^r, 3^, or with strong bases 59^, ^j, 3^t- These be- 
 
 1) Not = Mg. Pr. nom. sg. 7FT^; for ^ could not well become ^T; 
 and it would not account for the fiual anundsika in E. H. 
 
§ 369.] NUMBER. 215 
 
 come in M. ^ (^j and 3J[ desunt) or, with strong bases, ^ or T^ 1 , 
 u"\ sr". Thus M. &{* houses, Ap. WJ%, Pr. stjt^, Skr. jpnftrr; M. 
 aTg^ 19 calves, Ap. sr^s^, Skr. sr^r ; M. sreTr plantains, Ap. ^cfrs^, 
 Pr. cFPTcnraT^ (H. C. 1, 16 7), Skr. cFf^cRTfin ; M. Juraf'' pearls, Ap. 
 jfHsra^r, Pr. infant, Skr. qVBTcFTf^; M. 5% w (or^5r tt ), Ap. w^f, 
 Pr. WSTJ, Skr. «JETchlfdT. — 4) The suff. of the nom. plur. fern, 
 is in Pr. *n or 3 or may be dropped altogether (Vr. 5, 19. 20); 
 so also in the Ap. Pr. (II. C. 4, 344. 348). Thus M. i^TT tongues 
 (nom. pi. of gftr), Pr. f?T5iTT or f?isiTT3 or f^siTTSiY, Skr. ffJ|TT: ; or 
 M. 5rt3jrT mares, Pr. mftm or srff35T3 or srtfssrrat, Skr. errfr^T: ; 
 or M. fTM (or ^nTTSTT) mother s-in-laiv, Pr. ^Tra^T or £TTWT3 or 
 mrraraT, Skr. UI44'*l:. — 5) The use of the gen. sg. (or obi. form) 
 for the nom. sg. or pi. is expressly taught by Md. for the Ap. 
 Pr. As this is a point of some importance, I will quote his rules 
 on the subject. They are : a) "irU^r. » sp^TrT^ JEOTrni ^PT I JT3 i %fnT3 i 
 T^3, etc. (cf. H. C. 4,3 31), i. e., a-bases have u in the nom. and 
 ace. sg., as moon, king, fire, honey ; b) ^N" n ^^J f[T ^ ^stft^ ii ^W^fr ii 
 i. e., they have also ho (gen. suff., see H. C. 4, 3 38) in the nom. and 
 ace. sg., as tree : c) eT cfSO" ^fT gt ^f%FT n wq\ n i. e., masc. a-bases 
 have sometimes o (cf. H. C. 4, 332), as serpent ; d) ST^ff ^ ^ n ^^ i 
 oji<ni^ ii o-bases have also ^ (gen. suff., see H. C. 4, 3 50) in the 
 nom. plur., as trees, girls ; e) f^TPT^^^ sissreit: n 5TT^TT3 h =5cJTT^T^ 
 ofToTT^; ii i. e., fern, a-bases have u (cf. H. C. 4, 34 8) or ^ in the nom. 
 and ace. plur., as girls ; f ) j :TTO£F ^tert 5TT ii ?[<iwfi 3WIWJ % sn?T_ n 
 nTiT^Err en n 5Hnr| i ofHT^ n *Tp"j i m?\ n i. e., neut. bases have im 
 in the nom. ace. pi., and the preceding vowel may be long, as 
 ivoods, honeys. — 6) It may be further observed, that the voc. 
 sg. and pi. throughout the Gds. is identical with some one Gd. 
 form of the obi. sg. or nom. pi. Thus in masc. ; E. H. obi. sg., 
 voc. sg., nom. pi. alike sttjt (of a) horse, oh horse, or horses; II. II. 
 and P. obi. sg., voc. sg. aud nom. pi. alike Wt~3; voc. pi. H. II. 
 srt"3T, P. Efrfj3 (= *£\3U or *s?te3); S. nom. pi. and voc. sg. 0T3T, 
 voc. pi. sfrjT or STT33 or znii; G. obi. sg. and voc. sg. EJT3T, nom. 
 pi. and voc. pi. eTt3T3 or STT3TH (or fcTt£T$V); M. obi. sg. STt3>JT, 
 
216 NUMBER. § 370.] 
 
 nom. pi. JTTT, voc. sg. sftlOT or ETT3. So also in fern, nouns *). 
 The identity of the voc. sg. and pi. with the obi. sg. and nom. 
 pi. is expressly taught by Pr. Gramm., who ascribe the two 
 suff. of the gen. sg. ^t and ^ to the voc. Thus Md. states: 
 0*5T3I STT % =3 II f^OW ^rCT ^5T II cTTtfTUT l HT^ II ^cFT"}TT ij^l} TfcloM =3 li 
 i. e., the voc. sg. of fem. only takes he. The Mh. Pr. forms 
 would be 5JT?T, tn^. The latter forms alone are enjoined by K. I. 
 17, 18 (in Ls. 450), who does not identify them with the Mh. Pr. 
 forms. In this he is correct; for 5TP?T is a mere 'contraction for 
 clT<rl^ or clTcfTi%; and CCT^ has dropped the suff. ^ or ^, just as 
 in the obi. or gen. sg. (cf. H. C. 4, 345). The form V is pre- 
 served in P. fem. nouns; as f§M oh tongue, msr^ oh mother, $tl£ 
 oh daughter ; but also extended to masc. sg. ; as ml oh horse, and 
 to masc. pi., as <£5T oh gods. Again Md. continues: fiFT^TsRT: h 
 f^TCT sPtft ^t ^TTfT ii ^WlTf I oTCTT^ I ur^l ii i. e., the voc. pi. of all 
 bases in a, i, u takes ho. So also H. C. 4, 346 and K. I. 2 9 (in 
 Ls. 450). In M. Gd. the suff. ^t becomes 3 (for j) or 5 (for ^), 
 which are contracted with a preceding ^ to ^T or m respectively; 
 e. g., P. voc. pi. aiiVi' oh marcs = srrfj^f (with ^ for ^f) = 
 Ap. srrfr^r; or S. ^fl or ^TJl oh men for *^J~3 or *=rjg = * 7 T\& or 
 * ; Tp?, Ap. UT^rf. Gd. extends the contr. form 5T even to the sing. ; 
 e. g., P. voc. sg. 3^oTT oh god, but voc. pi. $3[ oh gods; the former 
 being derived from Ap. ^oi^l, the latter from Ap. ?C5^[. Indeed, 
 as such it is noticed by K. I. 26 (in Ls. 450) as already occur- 
 ring in the Ap. Pr. The general result seems to be, that in the 
 Ap. Pr. both ^ and ^t" or its modifications are used to form both 
 the voc. sing, and the voc. pi. of all bases in a, i, u whether 
 masc, fem. or neut. 
 
 4. CASE. 
 370. There are seven cases, viz. nominative (inch vocative), 
 accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative. 
 
 1) Exceptionally, the voc. pi. is the same as the obi. pi.; e.g., Mw. 
 nom. pi. and voc. pi. JrVjT oh Itorses or (of) horses. 
 
§ 371.] CASE. 217 
 
 The nom. serves also as the voc., and in that case some inter- 
 jection, as if, ^ or %n[, is generally prefixed; e. g., nom. JT^Mdma, 
 voc. ^ pJT oh! Rama; nom. SICT, voc. ^~ ^ZTJ oh! son; nom. rnj, 
 voc. f ?TTT oh! Durgd, etc. The E. H. has no (eighth) case of the 
 „ agent", or (as I shall call it) active case. 
 
 371. The active case. The ahsence of the act. case in 
 E. H. is a point of great importance, as it helps to determine 
 its affiliation or position with regard to the other Gd. languages. 
 This case is one of the main features that distinguish the W. 
 and S. Gds. from the E. Gds. The latter are without it ; the 
 former possess it. E. EL, therefore, as not having the act. case, 
 belongs to the E. Gd. group, and is more nearly allied to B. 
 and 0., than to W. H. — The rationale of the act. case is as 
 follows. The old organic past tenses active of the Skr., mostly 
 very complicated forms, were in Pr. already disused (cf. Wb. Spt. 
 63) with a few fragmentary and rare exceptions (cf. Vr. 7, 23. 
 24. H. C. 3, 162. 163). The inconvenience of this want was ob- 
 viated by the simple expedient of giving to the sentence the 
 passive construction ; thereby turning the subject or nom. case 
 into the instr. case and the past tense act. into the past part, 
 pass. This method of expressing the past act. was already much 
 used in Skr. ; and in Pr. it has become the common one ; thus 
 „they have not devoured that" may be in Skr. FT ^cfi£ R" tn-ci^: or 
 in pass, constr. 7\J OrTj tMI-cTfoT'T/, but in Pr. only the latter FTf^ 
 J£B W\\\$W (cf. H. C. 3, 134). But there is yet a simpler way 
 of using the pass, constr. ; viz., by employing the past part. pass. 
 in an act. sense, whereby the change of the nom. case into the 
 instr. in the subj. becomes unnecessary. This practise may have 
 originated from the use of the past part. pass, of intrans. verbs 
 in an act. sense, which is very common in Skr. ; as ^ HrT: I ivent 
 for gf? sTCTFr. In Pr. it is already found occasionally extended to 
 trans, verbs (cf. Gl. in J. G. 0. S. XXVII, 492), as Setub. 6, 5 1 siTEWT 
 ffrt%3 ftlnfyy^T^TsrT the shadoivs of the night-walkers began to be seen 
 (Skr. f^fsr^fiqT ^»T mjzw.), and intrans., ibid. 8, 3 ^H^r? <73# 
 
 
218 CASE. § 371.] 
 
 w&wkh >r^ the head of the bridge began to he seen, or ibid. 7, 71 
 Ejfrrz rrzm TcirTT the monkeys begem to be taken, etc. Now of these 
 two methods of using the past part. pass, to supply the past 
 tense act., the former, i. e., the real pass, constr. with the siibj. in 
 the instr. case, was adopted by the W. and S. Gds., while the 
 other, i. e., (what I may call) the pass-act. constr. with the subj. 
 in the nom. case, was chosen by the E. and N. Gds., and, of 
 course, these latter make the past part. pass, to agree in number 
 and gender with the subj. Thus „they have not eaten that" is in 
 E. H. icmrr 3 =t w^t , in W. H. ^^ ra rr srf ^ wriri. Here w^t 
 is the 3 d plur. masc. 2 nd pret. (formed from the past part. pass. 
 W5T or <<Hlil<r^, see § 307), agreeing with the nom. ^crTln^ and 
 governing the ace. 3T; while W1?Tt is the nom. sg. masc. (of the 
 past part. pass, taw) agreeing with oTFT and governed by the 
 instr. or rather act. S 7 ^"" •*■ — It has been stated already 
 (§3 66, 1. d) that the tendency of the later Pr. was to substi- 
 tute the gen. for every other case. Thus the example of the 
 gen. in the place of the instr., given by H. C. 3, 134, is rrfrr 
 T£% ^rrny&f, where Frfrf is the gen. plur. (= Skr. ftctpt) for the 
 instr. rtflf (== Skr. frRr:) 1 ). It has also been stated (ibid.) that 
 this Pr. tendency has become in Gd. an absolute law, and also, that 
 the Gd. so-called obi. form is identical with the old Pr. gen. 
 Hence, as regards the W. Gd. and S. Gd., their method of ex- 
 pressing the past tense act. by means of the real pass, constr. 
 with the subj. in the instr. case, may now be stated thus, that 
 they express it by means of the past part. pass, with the subj. 
 in the obi. form (= old gen. -instr.). Now there is every reason 
 to believe, that this was once the universal usage in the whole 
 of the W. and S. Gd. ; that is, that in the pass, constr. the 
 mere obi. form was used without the addition of any affix (^r or 
 
 1) His other examples are: fcftjTW ^T3t for fcimm 3T"3rr acquired with 
 money, or firf^T ^.^J for f^yrjT i-\^\ long delivered; here the gen. -instr. 
 has not the sense of the act. 
 
§371.] case. 219 
 
 Jt*). Thus in the 0. II. (of Chand, Kabir, Behari Lai, etc.) the 
 aff. never or very rarely occurs 1). In 0. S. it cannot have been 
 used ; for it does not exist even in the M. S. Nor was it used 
 in 0. P. (see Tr. A. Gr. CXXVI) ; nor, as far as I can ascertain, 
 in 0. M. (see Man. 138) and 0. G. Even in the modern S. (Tr. 
 113,3) and M\v. (Kl. 6U, 132. a) it is always omitted; also, as 
 a rule, in G. (Ed. 87) and not, unfrequently, in Br. (Kl. 287, 
 543) and P. (Ld. 7, 22. 73, 119). Indeed, it may be said to be 
 really confined to the literary forms of the G<1. languages and, 
 therefore, to be comparatively modern. Such, at all events, is the 
 case with Hindi, where it is confined to the H. H. (or Urdu) and 
 originated at the same time with the literary cultivation of the 
 language. The latter took place in the sixteenth century around the 
 centre of the Moghul empire in Western Hindustan. In the low 
 dialects of those parts the following dat. aff. are in use, G. ^" u , 
 Mw. R! , P. ^r ; and it so happens that in G. the same aff. ^ 
 is also used as an aff. of the act. case in the pass, constr. It 
 may be concluded, therefore, that the founders of the H. H. 
 adopted what they found current as a dat. aff. in their regions 
 for the act. case also. It should be remembex'ed, that the mere 
 obi. f. which originally was the act. case was often outwardly 
 not to be distinguished from the nom. This was too inconvenient 
 for a literary language which necessarily aims at grammatical 
 precision. Seeing, then, two dat. aff. current in different parts 
 of their neighbourhood (viz., etrV or 3TT in Br., ^ or ^T in Mw.) 
 they assumed one (^r) for the act., while they reserved the other 
 (cJTT) for the dat. ; and thus, as will be seen, any confusion be- 
 tween the act. and the dat. in H. H. was avoided. Possibly, the 
 dat. aff. :t was already employed, in some cases, by the common 
 people (as in G.) to signify the act., and thus a precedent was 
 
 1) It must be remembered, that in many cases the obi. f. happens 
 not to differ from the dir. or nom.; thus in Pr. R. 1,49 (in Bs. II, 267) 
 JIT and JT3 are not nom., but obi. f., just as fcFl and f%f% in the other 
 cited verses. 
 
220 CASE. § 372. 373.] 
 
 afforded. The choice of the dat. aff. to supply an affix of the 
 act. must have been felt to be natural; for it has merely the ge- 
 neral sense of „ referring to". An affix, having such a vague and 
 general meaning, might well be employed to express any relation 
 in which a noun may stand in a sentence. — This theory of the 
 identity of the act. aff. with that of the dat., with which I entirely 
 agree, was, I believe, first propounded by Beames (II, 270). The 
 common theory of its identity with the Skr. instr. termin. D"^T or 
 ^TT can hardly be seriously maintained, and has been well refuted 
 by the same writer (ibid. 2 6 6). — It should be mentioned, that 
 G. and Mw. employ a special obi. f. in ^ or U for the act. case 
 sing., their general obi. f. ending in OT, see § 3 66, 2; while S. 
 uses its general obi. f. for the act. case also. — The various 
 act. case-aff. are: H. H. ^T, Br. =7*, M. sg. ^ or pi. iff 9 , P. =T, 
 G. ^T or HT, N. vT. The aff. ?n* in G. and ^ w , ^fr u or Wi™ in M. 
 do not belong to the act., but to the instr. or abl., just as ^T 
 in E. EL (see §§ 37 2. 376). — N. alone has the curious anomaly 
 of using the act. case with <5T together with the act. -pass, constr. ; 
 i. e., of constructing the subj. like the W. Gels., but the verb 
 like the E. Gds. (see §487). 
 
 Note: On the derivation of the act. -dat. affixes see § 375. 
 
 372. All cases, exc. the nom. and ace. {proper) are formed 
 by adding to the obi. form of the noun certain affixes which 
 are the same for both numbers. These are the following : instr. 
 or abl. ^T by, with or from ; dat. 5i to, gen. §7, 3T or 3TJ, aFT^~ of, 
 loc. T in. The ace. proper is identical with the nom. ; but com- 
 monly, as in all Gds., the dat. is substituted for the ace. See 
 paradigms in § 379. 
 
 Note: The following aff. are also sometimes used: dat. 
 cR^, abl. sft^ or sfcr or cf or eft", loc. JT W or *T or rrf or TT<IT 
 or zn% w . 
 
 373. For the gen., there are two sets of aff.: 1) ^J and 
 57, 2) cfq - and 3T^. Of these two sets, nouns (i. e., subst., adj., 
 and numer.) may affix only the former (37, 3>), while pron. may 
 
§ 374.] CASE. 221 
 
 take either pair at pleasure. Of the two members of each pair 
 the former (if!, cfqr) are used when the governing word is in the 
 nom. or ace. proper; the latter (37, cFf) when it is in any obi. 
 case. The number and gender of the governing word make no 
 difference in this respect. Thus sq[ cF jhtjtT STToTr^ STT the master of 
 the house is coming; stt sf TTJTT ^T cF^?r tell ye the master of the house; 
 ar sf tffoT_ 5jrcTn^ ^nz * the people of the house are coming ; sqr sf 
 fHf^TTsibM^ sf q^Tsrer call ye the ivomcn of the house. Again ^ wTcf:£ 
 
 or ^TcF ST^ 5TTT this IS his JlOUSe', 3 ^ 5F7J or ^ 5F STiTJ JT " STTC /iC ?S 
 
 w fe«s feowse ; 3: ^ 5»^ or ^ £F Tt^t srnr" 8 i/wse are his books ; 3; %$£( 
 or ^3F> c^it jt q^c?n 7«c reatfc m 7*^s booh. 
 
 3 74. Affinities. Besides the want of the act. case (§ 3 70), 
 E. H. shows its affinity to E. Gd., as against W. Gd., also in 
 the government of the gen. aff. In the W. Gd. the form of the 
 aff. changes not only with the case, but also with the number 
 and gender of the governing word ; it is for the nom. sg. masc. 
 Br. cFT, H. H. cFT, Kn. cFT, Mw. ft, G. RT, P. 37, S. 5T> ; obi sg. 
 masc. Br., H. H., Kn. 5F, Mw. 7T or ^ G. TT, P. t;, S. ?f; nom. 
 sg. neat. G. *t; obi. sg. neut G. TT; nom. sg. fern. Br., H. H., Kn. 
 cFT, Mw. ft, G. RT, P. ^, S. at ; obi. sg. fern. Br., H. H., Kn. cf>, 
 Mw. ft, G. :ft, P. ^t, S. sT or %^\ nom. pi. masc. Br., H. II., 
 Kn. d>, Mw. TT, G. rt or :TT5^, P. £, S. m; obi. pi. masc. Br., 
 H. H., Kn. £F, Mw. 7T, G. RT or RTa^, P. ^ or f^TT, S. ?T or sTT^t; 
 wow. pi, neut. G. rt or RTa^, oW. ^0.; worn. #Z. fern. Br., II. H., 
 Kn. q!t, Mw. ft, G. RT3, P. ^tet, S. ^ or f?ni; oR £>Z. /em. Br., 
 H. H., Kn. 8RT, Mw. ft, G. %, P. Jten, S. ?T or ftift or gft 
 or t7t??£t or rlrzfr (see Ld. 7. Tr. 1 2 9). The S. Gd. and N. Gd. 
 follow the W. Gd. practice; thus nom. sg. masc. M. =srr, N. cFT, 
 obi. M. % or x?n, N. cFT; worn. s#. neut. M. %", oW. % or =SJT; 
 nom. sg. fern. M. =gt, N. ^rt, oW. M. % or bit, N. ^ft; wow. jpZ. 
 wase. M. %, N. cFT, oW. M. % or =e?TT, N. cFT; nom. pi. neut. M. 
 =it tt ', obi. % or tot; moot. .pZ. /em. M. =srr, N. crt, o^L M. % or =an, 
 N. cFt (see M. 27. 41). On the other hand, in B. aud 0. tho 
 form of the gen. aff. never changes ; not even, as in E. H., with 
 
222 
 
 CASE. 
 
 § 374.] 
 
 dat. 
 
 ace. 
 
 abl. 
 
 instr. 
 
 gen. 
 
 
 loc. 
 
 
 act. 
 
 
 dat. 
 
 ace. 
 
 abl. 
 
 instr. 
 
 gen. 
 loc 
 
 
 act. 
 
 
 the case. — The case-aff. have a great variety of forms in the 
 different Gds. ; they are exhibited in the subjoined table. 
 
 Mw. 
 =t 
 
 obl. 
 
 N. 
 
 ITT 
 ■\ 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 
 
 E. II. 
 
 H. H. 
 
 Br. 
 
 efi 
 
 ^ or f% 
 
 cF 
 
 aft 
 
 clT 
 
 t^FT 
 
 £, ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 St" 
 
 FT 
 
 
 *t 
 
 CRT 
 
 cfTt 
 
 JT 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Sr 
 
 k 
 
 G. 
 
 P. 
 
 S. 
 
 M. 
 
 =t 
 
 
 w 
 
 cFTT 
 
 a 
 
 FT 
 
 m", wt 
 
 S3.. ^X 
 
 TT 
 
 <7 
 
 at 
 
 =5TT 
 
 TT 
 
 ■* 
 n 
 
 
 *(£ 
 
 obl. or R" 
 
 •^ 
 ^r 
 
 obl. 
 
 rr 1 " 
 
 Besides these affixes which are allotted to particular cases, there 
 is a large number of others, which are used to modify the noun 
 in various senses which may, in a general way, be referred to 
 the dat., abl. or loc. These may be divided into two classes, ac- 
 cording as they are or are not added to the obl. form of the 
 noun by means of the gen. aff. In the former case, I shall call 
 them 2' ) °stposit'wns, in the latter, affixes. Many of them, however, 
 belong to both classes, sometimes in the same, sometimes in dif- 
 fei*ent languages; e. g., E. H. srs; is a postpos. in ctt trq[ st?j what 
 for, but an aff. in cjt^ st£ what for ; again cfTcT or fwr is a post- 
 pos. in E. H., W. H. sr^ ctt vffr or fBro" for the sake of the house, 
 but an aff. in S. sqr ^ (Tr. 404). The following list contains 
 most of these aff. or postpos. ; their meanings (indicated by num- 
 bers) generally are; for or to 1, till or lip to 2, with 3, by 4, 
 from 5, m or at 6. Thus a) (Skr. c?rn), B. cfTTiTTfT or 0. B. crnfrr, 
 E. II. crTJT, ^TTT 2, W. IT. cFTTfn 1, S. crfJT or cFTflT 1, G. ^rift 1, M. 
 
 cfmrV" or ^TTafq 1, N. ^ttttt 1 ; b) (Skr. v&u), E. H. twr 1, W. H. 
 
§ 374.] CASE. 223 
 
 cfTCT or crTD" or oTCT or 3JT" or oFTt^ 2, P. c<T^ 1, S. cFTT^ or ^ 1, 
 G. miu 1, M. cttt 1, N. c?n^ 1 ; c) (Skr. Str), B. 5T§" 1, ^TSFf 5, 
 0. 5T-"^ 1, 5T-^T or £ or Eli 5, E. H. srT 5, W. II. qt' 5, G. qt 5, 
 P. srT or qV or 0. P. TTSTf or q~T or erf 5, 57? or qTfq 1, N. TrBr 
 5 or G, M. SJzJ 6 ; d) (Skr. cfiTrf), W. H. 3iq or qiq or cjrTqt or 
 3FrfrjT 1, P. cfirrt 1, G. cFTT^T 1, S. cRTOT or cfqfqT or qvT or cfifq 1, cRTT 
 or cFqV 5 ; e) (Skr. era), B. q^T or qTW, E. H. qTff , W. H. q, 
 P. qr^Y' 5 ; f) (Skr. srar), B. 9n% or #f 1, 0. w or f% 1, E. H. 
 cF or ## 1, Br. 37T" 1, H. H. af?T 1, 0. H. !Ff or cFT# or 5?f or ^TW 1, 
 0, P. 373" or 373" or cFTS or 3ft or 5? or cr 1, S. W 1 or Wl or wY w 5 ; 
 
 g) (Skr. FTf^n?), B. FTcF 2, FT 6, E. H. F7cF 2, FT 5, W. H. FTcF or FTtfTcF 
 
 or FTr| or Frf "' 2, FT or FT K 5, P. FTT^ or FtlcF or FTTcFJ or Frit 2, 
 FT or 3FT1 or 3FTT 5, S. FTTJ or cTTT ^ or rTrft or FTTOTT 2, FTT or FTf* 5, 
 ft 6 ; h) (Skr. soft), E. H. sue 1, S. 5R7 1, oTTrf 5, G. stft 1, N. 
 5JT6 5 ; i) (Skr. 517), E. H. sq- 1, M. sr^rT 5 ; k) (Skr. znu), E. H. 
 otI, 0. H. cfttsT 1 ; 1) (Skr. cttft), S. ef^ or cFf^ 1, M. gpr^^r 5, 
 eht^dt 1 ; 111) (Skr. spt), M. aT5T s ; n) (Skr. srj), B. ?jq 3, E. H. 
 st:t or 5=TT or 3"q or eqt 3, W. H. *?% 1, P. urn 1, S. stSt or 
 srnrf 1, srrn or jetttct 5, N. err 5 ; o) (Skr. sr^sr), Mw. e^or srrj^ 1, 
 S. srrj* 1, G. *tt^ 1 ; p) (Skr. aurar?), W. II. mft 2, S. WT 5 ; 
 q) (Skr. U5Fft°), B. ^FT 5, 0. H. jpTT or grTT 5, N. ^RT 5 ; r) (Skr. 
 cRFsrr), B. cFfjqT 4, E. II. cqr or cFff 4, W. H. mff or cF^cF 4, P. 
 cF|£ 4 ; s) (Skr. ^toTt), B. f^qr 4 ; t) (Skr. qTSj), E. H., W. H. <M 6, 
 P. qTST 6, qRTT^ 5, S. and G. qra 6, M. m€t" J 6, q^5; u) (Skr. 
 qf), B. q.j or q^ 6, E. H. q^ or qf^ 6, W. H. q£ or qf^ or q 6, 
 P. q£ 6, qfT" 5, S. q^ 6, qft or qff' 5 ; v) (Skr. qizr), B. qiq or 
 q«T or rTFlT G, E. H. qt<F or qT^t' or q w or q or iTT or q 6, W. H. 
 T ' or qY or qT or ^1U^ or qj or JTT^ 6, 0. II. qfu' or qfg or qfrrr 
 or qftF or q?37 or qn[ or miff or qT^t or qf^ or q tt 6, 0. P. 
 q or qrf| 6, S. q<if7 or q" 6, q-'f or qt" 5, G. ql 6, 0. M. qntt 6, 
 M. qw tt 6 ; w) (Skr. w-JisfTf), B. fiiq^ or farr| 6, E. II. and W. H. . 
 ^TFT^- 6 ; x) (Skr. srj), M. cFT 6, ^7^5 ; y) (Skr. SRfr), S. qq 6, 
 G. qiT 1, N. qTfq 6 ; z) (Skr. t%^), P.ftjr6, S.fir[6; aa) (Skr. 
 q?cr), W. II. 5ft=5 G, P. faFBT 6, 0. P. f5TF% 6, S. tiR 6 ; and others. 
 
224 case. § 375.] 
 
 375. Derivation of the dat, affixes. 1) In B. there is 
 a dat. postpos. cjn^ (S. Ch. 62, 215) meaning lit. near; and the 
 0. H. has a dat. aff. grf or cf£ or 5>£T or 37TB", which often also 
 means near, by the side of; e. g., ^ra few tiofh n^t SpU?" i 3*rfJT 
 gsitf ^fa ^ wi^" ii i. e., fair rivers of prosperity, success, wealth, 
 overflotving came near to the sea of Avadh (see Bs. II, 253 where 
 some more examples will he found). This points to the Skr. loc. 
 cFTgT at the side of as their source. In the Ap. Pr. it would be 
 3^ (as in B.), or ^cRcFW or *cjf^<eTef (see § 378) or probably *eft% 
 or *qrf% or *ej»^ef (or *3JT^ir, see §116). The latter would con- 
 tract in 0. H. to Wif (or 3FiTf[), and in M. W. II. to cfinf or (with 
 the loss of anunasika) in H. H. cprr. The former, 3>f%, contracts 
 in E. H. and B. to cF (see S. Ch. 49) and is shortened in 0. to fifi 
 (Sn. 13). Similarly the 0. 5F7 (Sn. 13) is a shortened form of the 
 H. II. cFT (= cfTjr). The S. W has arisen from aFf^ or cfif^; by the 
 metathesis of eT, just as in iw buffalo for srf^T or qf^T, JTVT 
 donJcey for n^T (Pr. jt^ H. C. 2,3 7). — 2) Again the G. has 
 the dat. postpos. ^r& for (Ed. 115) and W. H. sfw or crT3" w or ^7 
 (Kl. 273, 508), H. H. f^r, S.^or^ (Tr. 404), P. c?ri These 
 are identical with the past part. G. cThfT, W. H. crrar, II. H. f^TOT 
 (see § 307) = Skr. vTou: obtained, benefited. This points to the 
 Skr. loc. crrsy lit. for the benefit of (lat. commodo) as their source. 
 In the Ap. Pr. it would be * crtf^ or * crrf^f^ or (eliding ![) 
 vT^7 or ^r^^f^, whence contr. W. H. c<7tf or cFTCT 1 " or P. 5T^, and 
 still more contr. 3T or *cfT w . The form c<T exists in N. as an act. 
 aff. (§ 3 71); but ^ and ^T further change to Mw. ^r w and G. =T, 
 which latter is used in W. H. as an act. aff. (§ 371). The change 
 of ^ to ^occurs also in the B. ^"3^ (S. Ch. 189) and 0. JTSTT 
 (Sn. 36) to obtain = H. II. ^TT, E. H. ^T5^. The contraction of 
 cFTET to vT is like that of the Br. HO" or ^p to i-T or i[ they were 
 (Kl. 225, 43 8. 201). Another Ap. loc. would be *^%3jr or *<H$m 
 (see §§ 307. 378, 3) which would contract to *vrfi or cTJ" w or crfr u . 
 The last two forms exist in W. H. in the sense of up to, until. 
 From cfTT u arises the P. dat. aff. ^t . Those forms of this dat. aff. 
 
§ 375.] case. 225 
 
 which have ^T, as N. vTT^, S. ^TTJ, M. ^TT, are prohahly to be 
 referred to the Ap. Pr. loc. crrrf^; or crTTf[, Skr. vTTiT lit. for the 
 benefit of. — 3) There is another set of dat. postpos. which has 
 been much confused with the preceding one, though it is of an 
 entirely different origin ; viz. E. H. oTJT^ or cfrfrf, W. H. ^TTfrr, S. 
 vHT or 5?rfjT, G. cfmt, N. sTTCTt, M. ??TTift w , H. H. <?m. It means 
 up to, until, or on account of, for, and is derived from the Skr. 
 loc. ^rrr lit. in contact with. In the Ap. Pr. it is cFTm or ftttjt, 
 whence the Gd. vTJT or cfrfrr or cfTJT or vTTfiT; or Ap. Pr. cfnrrf^, 
 whence the Gd. cTnft' or ^Trrt' or crfJTT 1 ). P. has also the abl. 
 postpos. ^rnfr' and S. criTcR (Tr. 401, ?^TJT^?) from up = Ap. Pr. 
 abl. crnrref. — 4) The dat. postpos., B. 57^ and 0. Zl-\, are 
 clearly the same as the Ap. Pr. loc. Slfvn or £TOT, Skr. ^TFT in 
 the place of; B. also uses the tats. ^TPT itself. — 5) The M. 
 WTST U (in the so-called postpos. STTst*, see § 3 65, 1) is = Ap. Pr. 
 loc. *J|"F^, Skr. i$ lit. in the interest of. — 5) The B. <TT3i (for 
 TO, see § 145, note), E. H. and W. H. gift* or q, P. <TTf; (Ld. 74) 
 are = Ap. loc. *q^w or *m^ or *qT^f|f, Skr. c^T lit. at the side 
 of (see § 116); B. also uses the tats. TO"; and P. has also an 
 abl. postpos. <TT^T (Ld. 74) = Ap. *<TT^f; — 6) The set, W. H. 
 7;ftTT (Km., see Kl. 69) or tt (Br.) or Sfi^ or cfiPrT (Mw.), P. erm, 
 S. aF^r or grf^r or 3>ft or cFrf^T (Tr. 401. 407), G. cjTTC, which is 
 also used in the lit. sense of at the side of, is = Ap. loc. ^nn" 
 or cFTUrf^ and probably (as Tr. 4 01) = Skr. cFtjr or cRrqf (lit. at 
 the ear or belonging to the ear, i. e., side). — 7) The forms, B., 
 E. H., W. H. ft^ or rrerer, W. H. K$ or m^*, P. FTT^ W or FTTa? 
 or F?Tc|q- or Frfr (Ld. 76. 126), S. m\ or Frtf*' or FrYit or FTTOTT 
 (Tr. 399) meaning up to, till, to, I believe, form one set, together 
 with the abl. aff., W. H. FT, ft", P. h, 3FTT W , 3FTT (Ld. 77), S. Fff, 
 rfV u (Tr. 400), meaning from up to, and the loc. aff., B., P., S. FT 
 
 1) The 0. M. vfnf^ or vTntf^T is the conj. part, of the same verb, 
 
 = Pr. ^Trrn3OT; so also might be the G. c?«Tt = Pr. VH fTl I ** ; but not 
 
 (as Bs. II, 260. 261) the M. crfTnt^, on account of the final anundsika. 
 
 15 
 
226 case. § 375.] 
 
 on, upon (S. Ch. 49. Ld. 77. Tr. 400). I am inclined to connect 
 them with the Skr. past. part. rfftjT (or 3Wff FT, of the R. FT ) 
 passed to, hence iip-io, upon, from-upon. The loc. FrfpT would he- 
 come Ap. rffjjJ or *FT^ (see § 124) and contract to Gd. FT, just 
 as Gel. erf arises from crff^C", etc. (see above Nro. 2). The elements 
 ap, 3> I take to he the dat. aff. fejr, 3FT (as in 0.), and the ele- 
 ments "It, nft to be pleon. suff. (see § 209). — 8) The set, Mw. 
 ST^ or STT^, S. STT^, G. ^7, which mean lit. conformable to 
 (Tr. 400) and thence for the sake of, I connect with the Skr. ^3[ST 
 like, Ap. obi. (or loc.) tff^f or Mffoa (cf. § 292). — 9) The 
 dat. aff., W. H. JtT% (Km., see Kl. 6 9), S. TTJT (Tr. 407), meaning 
 on account of, for, together with the abl. aff., E. H. STT or W* 
 or sr^T or ir^t with, from, P. ^tot ivith (Ld. 74), S. enjT or stht 
 with (Tr. 401), N. stif from, S. srmf on account of (Tr. 407), 
 I connect with the Skr. ^Tjf, which may mean in company ivith 
 (from R. rur + ?Fr) or in attachment to (from R. ST^). The conj. 
 =3^ would readily pass into 'OT or =T, cf. «7W for TIT (H. C. 2, 43. 
 Wb. Bh. 403, see also p. 21). — 10) The W. H. ^t (Kl. 69) 
 up-to, till and S. 5T%rf along with (Tr. 4 01), the former a loc, 
 the latter an abl., I would connect with some derivative of the 
 R. ^TTW (Ap. *SH3' or *^T33), meaning collected, adjusted, whence 
 with or up-to. — 11) The dat. aff., E. H. &it, S. ar (Tr. 402), 
 G. oTFT (Ed. 1 1 5), meaning for or instead, and the abl. aff., N. 
 STTr, S. srrf from (Tr. 402), I connect with the Skr. 5TTW (or oiw 
 or ^w) welfare, Pr. S? or 5r?r (cf. H. C. 2, 29. 30), loc. sttw lit. 
 in favor of, for, whence in place of, instead. — 12) The dat. aff. 
 E. H. st\ and the abl. aff. M. 5T£pr are derived from the Skr. of J 
 boon, advantage. — 13) The E. H. ^rm is the Pr. loc. 3t??t, Skr. 
 S7T0" for the work or sake of. — 14) The S. ^ or Zfifj is con- 
 tracted for *cj;f^ = Skr. cKFT for the sake of, and the correspon- 
 ding abl. aff. is the M. cfi^T; similar is the M. dat. aff. ^ffTTt 
 which is apparently a loc. sg. of the pres. part, (see §§ 3 00. 307). — 
 1 5) As to the relics, in M., of the organic dat. in 9T^, 3*T , 3^ 
 sg. and 3TTCT, T^T, 3RT plur., see § 365, 1. 4. 
 
§ 376.] CASE. 227 
 
 Note : I think the identification of the S. W with * a^ more 
 consonant with Gel. analogy (see § 13 2, note) than Trumpp's theory 
 that W = Skr. 3ri=r, by the loss of ^ and consequent aspiration 
 of 37 (i. e., 3JH = fwr = fw = W Tr. 1 1 5). For this process 
 there is, I believe, no analogy in Grd. The examples, to which Tr. 
 refers (fwn tabor, f^ri heart, for Skr. ^^J- a drum, WZJX heart 
 Tr. V.), are not analogous. For 1) ^ has not disappeared, and 
 2) it has aspirated the folloiving, not the preceding cons. ; whereas, 
 in the case of W, it is the preceding cons., and ^ has disappeared. 
 According to the adduced analogy, Skr. 3Jrf would become WW, 
 not W. There is one really analogous case in Pr. in the adverbial 
 suff. 3, for which Pr. has m (e. g., Pr. ^F?T or ^?zr here = Skr. n?), 
 but the case is unique, and the identification of r^T with ^ (Ls. 
 251) is, to my mind, doubtful, see §4 69. — Beanies' remarks 
 on my theory (II, 258) are founded on a misunderstanding. I 
 hold that both the W. H. 3Tt and the B. 37T3? are the same words, 
 in as much as both are various modifications of the same Skr. 
 words ; and that the H. form represents a later phase of phonetic 
 development than the B. form, in as much as B. has preserved 
 the aspirate cons, of the Pr., while H. has worn it down to the 
 simple aspirate eT (in cfief) and even dropped it altogether (inSTT , 
 cjTT) ; but not, that the one is actually derived from the other. 
 The II. form comes after the B. phonetically, though not historically, 
 only in this sense can one be said to be derived from the other. 
 3 76. Derivation of the abl. and instr. affixes. 1) Pr. 
 has the instr. suff. P^T and ^TrTT (Vr. 5, 7), both in the plur. 
 (H. C. 3, 7), but f|rft also in the sing. (H. C. 3, 8). Of these 
 the former contracts to M. %'\ the latter to E. H., W. H. OT, 
 Mw. ST, G. srf ; similarly as the 3. pi. pres. termin. Skr. ^f^FT, 
 Pr. gfpr contracts in Gd. ff" or 7^ or J* (see § 497, 2 f.). In 
 the Ap. Pr., there is an abl. aff. ^frTST or ^frJ3 (H. C. 4,355), 
 which appears in 0. H. (Chand) as #fft or # FT *). These forms 
 
 1) #fT is a wk. f. = An. Pr. ^TrT or 1JFT. 
 
228 CASE. § 376.] 
 
 are really part. pres. of the verb ^ to be (cf. II. C. 3, 180). The 
 modern B. has still an abl. aff. ^<T, and N. lizj, which are part, 
 pres. (cf. S. Ch. 148, and see § 300), representing the Pr. forms 
 f5frT° and H5TFT or ifrT (cf. II. C." 4, 00 ^cfffT and II. C. 4, 365 m"rf = 
 Skr. itsHh they are). The rationale of this usage may be explained 
 (as Bs. II, 23 7) „by supposing the idea to be that of having 
 previously been at a place, but not being there now, which in- 
 volves the idea of having come away from it" ; thus Ap. FTfTT 
 ^frTj mn^t (H. C. 4, 3 55), 0. H. ft^t Wrft mm, N. <t%t tizi mm, 
 B. ^t^T ^^?T m^j^ from there (lit. being there) he has come. The 
 Ap. and 0. H. forms ai*e direct, i. e., he who is there (lit. the there 
 being) has come', the B. and N. forms are oblique and may be 
 taken as loc, i. e., in being there he has come. Possibly the or- 
 dinary Pr. suff. firm and *3Hi may be also pres. part, of the Rs. 
 U be and mr^ be respectively, slightly modified for ^FTT (cf. H. C. 
 4, 406 ^frf) x ) and wrt (cf. H. C. 1, 3 7). Just as ^m or |m (H. C. 
 
 4, 61) have become f^Fft, so ^FTT or ^fFff may become F^TFrl; and 
 this form appears to exist in the N. f%FT 2 ), and in the S. ST U 
 (Tr. 401), E. H. and H. II. it, G. ST and M. m" or srt* 3 ). The 
 
 5. Wl (Tr. 401) I would similarly derive from em which is still 
 used by S., in the form e^t, as a gen. aff. (Tr. 12 9), or from 
 sfrT which is still used in E. H. as an adv. part, on being (see 
 § 488, note). — The Pr. suff. f%ft and em are used for the 
 
 1) Pr. has a tendency to change ^ to 7 in the suff. ^frf of the 3. 
 pi. and m7° of the part, pres., see Wb. Bh. 404. 428, and B. has ^FT in 
 the pres. part, for E. H. 3TFT (§ 300). 
 
 2) With FT^for m^, as in the M. 3. pi. pres. ^for Pr. ^frT, and 
 in the E. H. pres. part, in W^, B. Sj=T for Pr. mrt (§ 300). 
 
 3) The M. «tT or srf cannot be divided (as Bs. II, 272) into e-f ^*, 
 the former being the termin. of the (Pr.) gen. sg., the latter the Pr. instr. 
 plur. suff. F^; thus M. ^mm" = ^m or |;5rw + f% No doubt, modern 
 M. caso aff. (like ^T in rUltsUI H" by him) may be added to a gen.; for 
 they are relics of what were formerly full nouns. But ^ is not an aff., 
 but the relic of an old suff. ; see at the end of this paragraph. 
 
§ 376.] CASE. 229 
 
 instr. only, but the Ap. aff. ^1'ni for the abl. also ; similarly 
 OTt" K and ^l^ are confined, in M., to the instr., hut in the other 
 Gds. the corresponding aff. express both the instr. and abl. Thus 
 instr. in E. II. ^tf[ ST ^f^T Jl^'cH^ done by him or with it, but abl. 
 in rT^f st ot^ft^ come from there. They never have in E. H. strictly 
 the sense of „in company with" ; thus gone with him is not ^tf 
 st rr^cfT^ but %te 5? sfiT JT^oT. j but they appear to be used so oc- 
 casionally in S. (Tr. 403), e.g., 5T7" ^Tg ST B <TofT^f return ivith Pu- 
 nahii a moment', and, of course, the instr. easily admits of this 
 sense. — The Pr. t%T> (H. C. 3, 7. 8) and the Ap. ^7T3 (H. C. 
 4, 372. 373) are used both in the sing, and plur. ; but f^FTT was 
 in Pr. originally confined to the plur. (Vr. 5, 6. 7), and the M. 
 ^t tt is so still ; on the other hand, both M. and all other Gds. 
 extend STT 1 ", STC, ST, etc. to the sing, also, while the corresponding 
 Pr. sfrTT is limited to the plur. — The M. abl. aff. ^^ or, curtailed, 
 3^ can not well be derived from the Pr. f^rfr (as Ls. 311. Bs. 
 II, 234. 23 6); though it may be (like the 0. H. fn) traced to the 
 Ap. ffr?T3 (or rather the wk. f. *frrf) by the change of SfT to ^r_, 
 as in the S. suff. ^f^r of the 3. plur. pres. for Pr. %fn. Indeed 
 this derivation would hardly admit of a doubt, but for the fact, 
 that in 0. M. the aff. is gf^fr or ?[f^ra"f, which points to its being 
 a conj. part., the suff. of which is in 0. M. ufan ¥ or 3f^ and 
 in M. M. 3vT (see §491). Accordingly it would be equal to ^T37T 
 having been. Similarly N. uses the conj. part, ^fw having seen as 
 an abl. aff. ; e. g., h t^ T S^fw f^KchTl he came ont from there, *rr<F 
 5^ from the midst. But very possibly (as Bs. II, 23 6 suggests) 
 some confusion may have taken place between the abl. aff. *FT 
 and the conj. part. ^T3C^T ; and, on the whole, the identification of 
 f^ with #rft seems most to commend itself 1 ). — 2) As regards 
 the other groups of abl. and instr. aff. or postpos., the B. ?r"T^ 
 
 1) With Bs.' identification (II, 272) of the M. fT with Pr. f^ and 
 of the H. S?T or ST with Skr. SFT (II, 274) and with Ls.' derivation (310) 
 of f^rTT from f^ -f- FTSJ I cannot agree. 
 
230 case. § 377.] 
 
 (S. Ch. 22 9) and 0. 5T-£ or STJ or | (Sn. 13) are derivatives 
 of Skr. ^JT^, &i-[ or 6T (^ is the abl. aff.) being = Ap. loc. FTTfnr, 
 and KTS or JT == Ap. abl. STTiTf. Identical with these, only sub- 
 stituting !T_ for ?T (cf. II. C. 4, 16) is the other set: N. mfsr, P., 
 E. II., W. H. ft" (Ld. 77), G. sft (Ed. 115), all = Ap. loc. TTTfrn ; 
 and 0. P. TTcTf or eft 1 "' or eft, M. P. ?ft w = Ap. abl. ^TTTT^; in the 
 B. vk (S. Ch. 6 2. 23 0) and G. 7Tc£t the aff. 37 and ^T are super- 
 added. — 3) The explanation of the set of instr. aff., E. H. SR , 
 S7T, <t:t, HRT, S. ^TTtTT or £mj with, and of the abl. aff., E. II. h, 
 FT 1 ", P. 3rTi , S. FT! or FTT U , has been given in § 3 75. So also that 
 of the M. abl. aff. cJTJ"^ and 5r£3T , and of the N. 5JTT, S. 5TTT. 
 Others, as M. QTCPT ; P. m^t", and P. <rfT, S. cqrf or <lfr\ and 
 S. 5TT or JTr w or irqrf and S. JTTT, will be explained in § 3 78. — 
 4) There are also some relics of the old organic instr. or abl. 
 Thus M. has an instr. sing. suff. f (Man. 1 7), which is the Ap. 
 instr. sg. suff. ^ (H. C. 4, 34 2), probably contracted for ^f^; (see 
 § 3 67, 5); e. g., M. £5J W by a god, Ap. 3-ar, for *z"af^. Again 
 M. has an instr. pi. suff. J a , which is contracted from the Ap. 
 instr. pi. suff. irf% (H. C. 4, 34 7); e. g., M. JNrT by gods = Ap. 
 ^srf^. Again there are the abl. sg. suff. WT and 93 or %ft* or 3C 
 in S. (Tr. 117, 5) or wr^ in P. (Ld. 12) which are the same 
 as the Ap. abl. plur. suff. ^ and Hf (H. C. 4, 337. 339, see 
 § 3 67, 5); e. g., S. ajT from a house = Ap. Pr. sr^, or S. sr^j 
 or ettt" or Er|k, P. srfT = Ap. sq-j. 
 
 377. Derivation of the gen. affixes. The 0. H. possesses 
 a gen. aff., which in the weak form, dir. and obi., sing, and pi., 
 is 3T^ m., cjrff" f., and in the strong form, masc, dir. sg. zfcp (E. H.) 
 or Sift, cFrfT (W. H.), obi. sg. and dir. pi. srj (E. H. and Br.) or 
 37^7 (Mw.) ; fern., dir. and obi., sg. and pi. ffift. The same forms 
 exist also in 0. P. (Tr. A. Gr. CXXVI) and in 0. G., which latter 
 adds the st. form neut. sg. cF?^, pi. cFjrf (see Bs. II, 283). Thus masc. 
 sg. SFijr in sn ^rtoT cF^~ «ts[ &TT5R, i. e., it is Stigriva's little messenger 
 (T. Das, Lanka) or far =T ??tcT-^ £77 oFf^mT the pain of the creatures 
 is not removed (T. Das in Kl. 72); fem. sg. £rf|" in ^ftrTT cFjf^ 3jJJf 
 
§ 377.] cask. 231 
 
 7<jrarfV, i. e., keep a ivatch of Sitd (T. Das in Kl. 7 2); masc. sg. 
 dir. 37TT in ^sf; Tiff 5T7T 7q<rfrf SFfT, i.e., to have one wife is the rule 
 of Raghupati (T. Das, Lanka), or £77^ in ejrt ft^T Q3 fqm ifsnsft fw 
 j**t im 5?jt, i. e., w/fo is thy son, whose father art thou, (such que- 
 stioning) is a delusion and error of the toorld (Kabir, Suravali 12), 
 or ^j^t in 5T7 rr?r ^ii ^Tfornr ^^ blindly ran the elephant of the 
 Clidhuvdn (Chand 20, 141); masc. sg. obi. epr^" in «TOf 0R7 cTdrT 
 jt 11 sf^ %H 5JT aprfTTr ^577 at the time of the end, oh friend, to ivhom 
 ivill you look up? (in Kabir's Bekhtas) ; masc. pi. dir. cR^" in <T 
 feflZ 5^r#)y7 557 these are the diadems of Ravana (T. Das, Lanka), 
 or 5F7T in STF^sft 5F7T rTpT rnrfr t rTT irf sTT^ && WT5; ^ having left the 
 ivaves of Ganges he goes on to the bank and drinks from a well 
 (Narsingh, Kavyad. 2, 4 in Bs. II, 283); fern. sg. dir. efift in gfr 
 ttrtj awr cFrfrr en^- having heard the stern voice of the monkey (T. 
 Das, Lanka), etc. Some more examples will be found in my Essay I. 
 in J. B. A. S. XLI, 127. 128. Bs. II, 281 — 284. Kl. 72. On refer- 
 ring to the rules for the treatment of adj. (§§ 381. 384. 386) 
 it will be seen, that these gen. aff. aFq" etc., are treated exactly 
 like adj. This remark applies also to the other sets of gen. af- 
 fixes. The 0. H., namely, possesses also another set, which is 
 merely a slightly modified form of the former. It consists of the 
 weak forms, dir. and obi., sg. and plur., cjqr m., Wijl f. Thus 
 masc. dir. sg. sr^ in arta JJT ir sTToT 37t ftt 3T^ ^Tf fsrsRR what is 
 the pleasure of life, of that make investigation (Kabir, Ramaini 24), 
 or ^rf^ snfrf 957 Thar the wrath of the warrior-caste (T. Das, Lanka) ; 
 or plur. st~t cfif wrz gsKf qT5<T srfrn" to day the fruit of the good deeds 
 of all has passed away (T. Das Ayodhya 343 in Bs. II, 279); fern, 
 sg. dir. qrff in q **z e^^Fr fsFT fepra" i ^n fgtfSra- fsrr ttjt 1 w\ *fa^ 
 cfrf^ i%f^?7 11 lit. the warriors without heads he made, the horses he 
 made without men, the army of Bhima he dispersed (Chand, Soma- 
 badha 41). For some more examples, see again my Ess. I, Bs. 
 and Kl. ibidem. This set is preserved in E. H., which adds the 
 corresponding strong forms, masc. dir. sg. effyj, obi. sg. and nom. 
 pi. 3*7, fern. sg. and pi., dir. and obi. Z\ji. They are confined, 
 
232 case. § 377.] 
 
 however, to the pronouns (see § 4 3 9). They occur also in 0., 
 but are limited to the plur., in connection with the plur. sign 
 qT^rr (obi. f. of rrnr § 363, 2); thus gen. J£5r-qFnT-aqr of gods, 
 where a?;£ is both masc. and fern., sing, and plur. ; again loc. or 
 dat. s^-qi^r-ar^" to gods and abl. ^cr-qi^r-a^T from gods, where 
 af^" and aTE" are the regular 0. dat. and abl. of cjqr (cf. 0. ^TH to 
 or in a hand, ![TrT from a hand of irnr hand, see Sn. 1 5). In the 
 sing., 0. curtails a7i£, ^J, Wi^ into !£, J, Ji respectively, e. g., 5Tq-^ 
 of a man, but srq-qFTq-3Fi^ of men; tt-j to a man, fR-^r from 
 a man. Again B., N. and Mw. possess only these curtailed forms ; 
 viz., B. the wk. f. ^ in the gen. (e. g., sg. sPT-^ of a man, pi. 
 sR-3>^r of men; sg. : ^cfn'-^' of a disciple, pi. =^^7-5;-^ of disciples, 
 see § 364, 2), and the st. f. JT in the nom. pi. (e. g., ?HT-^T men, 
 lit. (multitude) of man; =3vTT-rr disciples, see § 3 69); N. the weak 
 f. ^7 in the nom. pi. (e. g., sTT^-^ or iFT^-^" men, y<H!^-^ or =g^T^;-^" 
 disciples, see §3 64, 3); Mw. the st. f. "^t m., "^t f. (e.g., sTq-jt 
 et^ the house of a man, ^n-j vj in the house of a man, sTq-^T 
 sqr-q - to the house of a man, sPT-"^r sr^ the houses of a man, sTq-"^t 
 5TTFT or STTrTT the word or words of a man). Similarly in Mw. 
 and E. R., the conj. part, a>:£ is curtailed to ^ (e. g., T"£-"j[ having 
 died = H. H. 'TT^Ti see § 491) *). On the other hand, ^ may be 
 elided and the hiatus-vowels contracted; whence arise the st. forms 
 a>T or art" or a7T m., a?f f., af or an obi., for aF»"^T or ^ji, etc., and 
 the weak forms a? or a> or shortened far or a> comm. gen. for arf|" 
 or ar^". Thus masc. dir. sg. in UTq ^T-aT £<$ ip£ his life departs from 
 pain (Chand 2 6, 2); fem. dir. sg. in Hqf faiffcrw STiJ-ai ^tR" 1 hear, 
 Vibhushan, the lord's custom (T. Das, Sundara 29 8 in Bs. II, 27 8); 
 masc. dir. sg. a? in crq-ar mn ar^sr st^t a?V^ every one will say (it is) 
 the quality of love (Vidyapati, Pad. in Bs. II, 281); fern. dir. sg. 
 in fq?T otjtct wsr y^T-aT rtarr (to obey) a father's command is the 
 croivn of all virtue (T. Das, Ayodhya 334 in Bs. II, 283); masc. 
 
 1) Similarly ?rq[ and is shortened in E. H. to W^ and curtailed in 
 N. to ^ ; e. g., fwr 7 and they ivere. 
 
§ 377.] case. 233 
 
 obi. sg. 5? in ^f^ sr 33^" flp-37 »rf% llari can save in an instant 
 (Chanel 1, 6 in Bs. II, 283) or 77£<rT srfyfsr cFnrc?r-aR mi the hand/tali 
 has floivered ivith the lotus (Vidyapati in Bs. Ind. Antiq. Febr, 1873). 
 In the E. H., as a rule, the weak forms 37 and 37 only are used. 
 The former, however, is now constructed only with dir., the latter 
 with obi. forms (e. g., sTT 37 a^ the house of a man, but $R 37 ^q[ it 
 in the house of a man) ; perhaps by way of assimilation to the 
 W. H. obi. 37, if the E. H. obi. 37 is not actually identical with 
 it. The st. forms 37T or 37T sometimes occur already in 0, Gd. ; 
 thus 37T in 375"^ 5J"^" ^ 37T i ^FT 37^ft t^orra - u the name of this 
 verse is truly called Kantasobha (Chand 27, 31); fern, 3?t in mm 
 JT3 =3^FT 3?r 5Ffffr they well told the story of Chahudn (Chand 
 27, 2 2); obi. 37 in e^ j^ttr- 37 srar y^ i frt ij^ 37fi- frf^T mjj, 
 i. e., he ivill take the births of a sivine and dog who causes the 
 disgrace of his teacher (in Kabir's Rekhtas). They are the or- 
 dinary gen, aff. in W. H. (exc. Mw.) and H. H. Lastly there is an 
 example of a fem. st. f. fifi^ in 37?TT ftf^ wia^ f^U I ^=T 3717T api^TT 
 fsrcnr fwr i sit jitt Jew mfjix u narrating the story of Sasivritta, 
 he now tells the story in detail, which the messengers of the Icings 
 had told (Chand 25, 41); and the corresponding masc. occurs, 
 e. g., in the 0. P. abl. aff. f%*f (Tr. A. Gr. CXXV) which is 
 a regular Ap. Pr. abl. of f%^t *). There can hardly be a doubt, 
 prima facie, that all these various sets of gen. aff. are merely 
 different modifications of the same original form. Turning to Pr., 
 we find the 1 st set not unfrequently occurring in the following 
 forms: 1) in the wk. f. sg. 37"^ or 377T m,, 37"ft f., 37|" or 37^" n. ; 
 st. f. sg. mjm m., cFTfjsrr f., 3V 5 ? or 3773 n., or (specially in Mg. 
 Pr.) 37"£37T etc. or 37c<T37 etc. They are treated in every way like 
 adj., i. e., they are fully declined in conformity with the gover- 
 ning subst. Thus masc. 37ft in H. C. 2, 147. 148 ; n. 37^ in H. C. 
 2, 99. 148 ; masc. 377^ in ^m 3^ «crf37T"^srr g?sT^T efeprt this surely 
 
 1) It is quite analogous to the above mentioned 0. abl. aft'. 37^", 
 which is a curtailed form of the A p. abl. 37;pf or 37^7. 
 
234 CASE. § 377.] 
 
 is the ornament of the lady (Mrchb. act. 4. Skr. WJT'TT: ^^jtj\) • 
 fern, in *w q^OT jZcXxfam my turn of slaughter (Mrchh. act. 1 0. 
 Skr. mi zr&nft) ; neut. in zim ZFpK ^ yoi^uf ivhose is this con- 
 veyance (Mrchh. act. 6. Skr. 3JST aor^TTTiT) or r|J^ aFJ^j ym your 
 ivealth (H. C. 4, 3 73. Skr. jprrer ot); masc. instr. sg. in §rej SS?^* 
 jr^rrT^ n^jf g-fn rTUTTJ ow account of whose (the lion's) roaring 
 the grass falls from the mouths (of the deer) (H. C. 4, 4 22. Skr. 
 zrei JcFTTTttt) ). It will be observed, that 377/ is here used in Pr. 
 as a gen. aff. precisely as in Gel. For 1) it takes its dependent 
 noun in the gen. (= Gd. obi. form) and agrees with its gover- 
 ning noun as an adj. ; thus compare T. Das' siW^ 377/ 37vT*rr the 
 pain of the creatures or Chand's iffa^ 3>iy e=T the army of Bhima 
 with H. C.'s rj*fi" 377/3" &nrr the weaUh of you ; 2) it is pleonastic, 
 i. e., it has no meaning of its own and might be omitted from 
 the passage without affecting the sense; thus H^^' um and cp^r 
 377/3" ynj 2 ) or 37^T Ud^ui and 37OT dr^^r Mcj^ui are absolutely iden- 
 tical in meaning, just as #TcF^; *cHur or iTta^ irrr would be in Gd. ; 
 3) it is added merely to distinguish or emphasise the gen. or, in 
 other words, simply as a gen. aff. ; just as in Gd., where it is 
 added only to distinguish the obi. f. in its gen. sense from its 
 other senses; this, indeed, is expressly affirmed by H. C. 4, 422 
 gsrfepr: tf^dtHl i. e. ^Fsr° <J7 377/° WoiH: after (or in addition to) 
 the gen. kera and tana are used; and then follows the example 
 sW 377/ 1 etc. (see above). It cannot be doubted, then, but that 
 the Pr. 377/t, etc. are identical with the Gd. 377", etc. and there- 
 fore, prima facie, with the other Gd. sets of gen. aff. Now, ac- 
 cording to old Indian tradition, the Pr. 3»7/ is the same as the 
 Skr. past part. 37rT done, made, of the R. 3? do. I believe, this 
 tradition can be shown to be correct both on intrinsic and pho- 
 netic grounds. In the first place, the phrase done by most easily 
 lends itself to express the gen. sense „of"; thus in H. C.'s example 
 
 1) More exam, will be found in my Essay I. in J. B. A. S. XLI. 129. 
 130, and in an article by Pischel in the Ind. Antiq. April 1873. p. 121. 122. 
 
 2) H. C. 4, 373. 380 expressly states that rP^ by itself is the gen. plur. 
 
§ 377.] case. 235 
 
 the phrase 5TH Jft^ W&iTF~5J£ lit. through the roaring made by whom 
 is equivalent to through whose roariny. It may he remarked here, 
 that in the literary Pr. the word cfif is usually not added to 
 the gen., but compounded with its dependent noun; the gen. 
 construction being confined, as a rule, to the Ap. and the lower 
 Mg. dialects; thus Mh. Pr. 770^77 royal, TT75T7 foreign (H. C. 2, 
 146) or «*^ftV ours, pr^ff yours (H. C. 2, 147. 1, 246. 2, 99), 
 but Ap. Pr. w^iznT? ours, ft*^ 9Tf3 yours (H. C. 4, 373. 3 5 9) 
 or Mg. Pr. sraar JFcrjcFr tohose (Mrchchh. 9 6, 22), rrfsrssTOT^j <jj^T:ft 
 of an ascetic (Mrchh. 15 2, 6), etc. Originally cjr^" cannot have 
 been pleonastic, but must have had a meaning of its own, and 
 supposing the latter to have been the past- part. „done", 3T7 would 
 naturally be first used in the compounding construction ; thus Mh. 
 jm^q- = Skr. 7T?T37FT lit. done by a king, Mh. gr^fiy or ^r%7 
 (H. C. 2, 99) = Skr. ^Wr*"rf done by us 1 ). But the original 
 meaning was soon lost sight of, and zaj looked upon as a mere 
 possessive (gen.) suff. and used in the compound constr., or even 
 as a gen. aff. and, in this case, appended pleonastically to the 
 gen. The former usage is expressly taught by H. C. in his rules 
 on the Mh. Pr. ^jfistt eftf: i. e., kera is used as a possessive suff. 
 (H. C. 2, 147) and crjfTfrvjrf s^fSg^i ^ i. e>; kka, ikka and kera are 
 used as possessive suff. after para and raja (H. C. 2, 148), i. e., 
 like the Skr. possessive suff. TU and dmr. The latter usage is 
 taught by him in his rule on the Ap. Pr. (quoted above) ^ra"f?cj^r. 
 thtriufi (H. C. 4, 422) 2 ). — The identification (by Psch. in the 
 
 1) E. g., Pr. JVI^J oKFT = Skr. fTsT^Ff GF&f lit. speech made by a 
 king, i. e., a king's speech. 
 
 2) The comp. usage probably preceded the pleon. one ; accordingly 
 we find the comp. form Mh. Pr. r^^TT yours contracted in the later 
 Ap. Pr. to rpipTJ (H. C. 4, 434) which occurs in the Ap. beside the pleon. 
 form jTT^ 9ff3 (H. C. 4, 357). Probably the Ap. rT^TT/T is really = 
 *FTJ^[37f^t, see § 73. — The curtailment of ZfiJ, ctffr to J, ffr in B., 0. 
 and Mw. may perhaps be traced back to the original compounding usage. — 
 The Skr. suff. cfW itself may well be derived from the past part. cFirf. 
 
236 case. § 377.] 
 
 Ind. Ant. Dec. 1873, p. 368 and Ls. 118. Wb. Spt. 38. 66) of arj- 
 with the Skr. part. f'ut. pass. 3iTCT is untenable. For 1) the 
 meaning of 3TPT what is to be done would not produce a gen. 
 without a violent wrench (so rightly Bs. II, 28 6), and 2) phone- 
 tically, all Pr. analogies are (not, as Ls. thinks for, but) against it. 
 In all the examples mentioned by the Pr. grainm., it is a short 5f 
 which absorbs a following ^ ; thus Pr. STyiTT, STciTr, <T?jfrTT or qjrTT, 
 jp-fr, ^=^fr, Ejr^irfr are = Skr. SHtfT, 5rfm:, qipm, *fl«<J ;, OT^FJ:, 
 SFfSRT: (Vr. 1, 5. H. C. 1, 57. 58. 59) 1 ). On the other hand Skr. 
 °mu° becomes in Pr. °S?sT° or sTffS° (Vr. 3, 17. 10, 8. H. C. 2, 24. 
 4, 314); e. g., Pr. iTssTT or mffm = Skr. ilTJTT wv/e ; Pr. cERT or 
 cFfrij^ = Skr. grow /o &e done 2 ). — Secondly, the identification 
 of cJTf with 3ifT is supported by Pr. and Gel. phonetic analogies. 
 Skr. roots in 37, as cE, fef, it, ^, etc., become in Pr. cR^", W~^, 3T^", 
 T^, etc. (Vr. 8, 12. H. C. 4, 234) and form their past part, by 
 means of the connecting vowel ^ (Ls. 363), as 3if^T, yff^T (H. C. 
 1, 3 6), qfjat, srfpsrr (H. C. 4, 355 q^fprj == Skr. to<wt). etc. 
 By the transfer of J into the preceding syllable, 37fj^T and the 
 
 1) H. C. 1, 78 gives Pr. n§<Tf for Skr. 5TT^f; but even this single case 
 is no real exception; for Skr. has both IT^J and iii^j ; and the Pr. 3T?<F 
 is clearly the former; just as Skr. IT^Tfrr is in Pr. JTU^ (H. C. 4, 209); 
 that is, Skr. JT^T == *U^J = Pr. JTr^T. — The Pr. JTW or JTW for Skr. qT5T 
 is not an exception; for no ^ has been absorbed; besides the derivation 
 from JTT5T is doubtful; Ls. 128 suggests an original fJT^. 
 
 2) Md. 19, 4 allows to the Ps. Pr. ^ff^ also, but not °^°; viz. 
 
 um ffm qrm^oJT e*t i jjst frw ^tt^i jttcf gra - ^ srr wTrrji nifjm i ufjm » 
 
 cRTJr cH^ =^r Z1UH I 3T# i ^T^iT^TrT cETf^J I 3if^ ^ n i. e., „ry becomes ria 
 and the preceding vowel may be short or long". — Skr. cffRT never be- 
 comes cFTJ in Pr. (as Psch. ibidem); the Skr. cfiT^" is a different word, 
 with an active sense, doing, while ^nJU is passive, lohat is to be done. The 
 B. gen. WT-lchl^, STT%cFJT^, tHcricjnijr do not contain a gen. aff. 3iT^[; there 
 is no such B. aff.; but the forms are regular gen. of ?JTTTT own, ^Tra^iT 
 of to-day, gTcrHFlT of yesterday (gen. WR37T-;£, etc.), which words exist in 
 H. also and may be declined through all cases, both in H. and B.; see 
 S. Ch. 115. 
 
§ 377.] CASE. 237 
 
 st. f. srf^^T become eaft and ^TtfT, just as Skr. OT5TCTJT wonderful 
 becomes in Pr. n^fjti or g=ef^ (Vr. 1, 5. H. C. 1, 58). Similarly 
 Pr. TlJjJT a heap and tj a door are, in all probability, modified 
 from tbe past part. pass. Pr. 3=fcF^*Tl heaped up and zffti split, of 
 the Rs. 3rap» and <T resp. J ). The modified part, forms 37fT and 
 cjr^T are never used in Pr. or Gd. but as gen. aff., while the 
 unmodified forms ^rfj^l and SFff^ET serve both as proper part, 
 and as gen. aff. No examples, indeed, I believe, of the latter 
 two forms in either usage have been found as yet in Pr. lite- 
 rature. But notwithstanding this, their existence would be but 
 in accordance with the general rule of the Pr. gramm. (Vr. 
 8, 12. H. C. 4, 234) that the conjugational base is 3>T (not 3i). 
 And what is more, they do actually exist in Gd. as the ordinary 
 past part, of the verb cF^ to do; see § 307; which §, moreover, 
 will show, that in Gd. the part, forms of 3iT are the same as 
 the gen. aff. Thus the gen. aff. 3>7T or cRT^ m., 5?ft or cFftj f. 
 occur identically as part, in 0. H. (T. Das) and Bs. and, in the 
 slightly modified form 3i7~T m., in Kn., cfiJjf m. in Mw. and crerf m. 
 in Br., effffr f . in all (see Kl. 205,3. 207,390. 213,405. 216,414. 
 
 22 3, 431). The 0. H. gen. aff. f^tu or 0. P. abl. aff. f%af occur 
 as the ordinary H. H. part, fwrr m., fifi^ f. done. The contr. 
 gen. aff. cFT or g? do not, I believe, occur as part., but quite 
 analogous contractions are the part, rrr or JT for JTOT or fjTJJT gone, 
 in or it for HOT been, <TT for muj found in Bs. (see Kl. 225, 438. 
 
 23 0,449) and 0. H.; e. g., rTrfa Fnrfj=r mtici mi i fteT uf{ n gf^TTsT u 
 i. e., in great passion tvere all the chiefs, with wrath was filled 
 Prathirdj (= H. H. vq[ run). The E. H. part. 3?^, M. ifcrjT, B. 
 
 1) Pr. gramm. (H. C. 1, 58. 79) identify them with the Skr. 37cfi7 
 and d i\ , which, of course, can be true as to the meaning only. Ls. 118 
 derives 3"U;7J from a supposed vulgar form 3rcR?T, which shows that he 
 himself felt, that Pr. analogy requires a short 13 before JJ^to produce V; 
 for according to rule (Pan. 3, 1. 120. 124) the part. fut. pass, ought to be 
 3r3Tnr. — The common Skr. past part, is irehTCFT ; but Pr. would form, as 
 usual, 3fcFrf^"rT. 
 
238 case. § 377.] 
 
 cFrf^T° presuppose an original form tpfj^; or cfrfjrT (§§ 109. 307). The 
 st. form cTCTrT m. (= Ap. ?FifjW3) is found frequently in the 0. H. 
 of Chand ; thus f^fs; ^^w, JT^ i cjtjtt sfeF^ m\jw ii of the drops of 
 perspiration made a chain the elephant (Revatata 3); or fprf% ~s^\ 
 ^rnr? i tth j^i^T gtr ^T% H upon this Chdmand made Hussain Khan 
 ready (Revatata 5 8); and the st. form ^ifju f. (= Ap. qrf^m) in 
 cfrffO" ^tjt 3T7T3 the nobles made petition (Revatata 96), or J35T f£rf%? 
 H rrrfi| <Tssn cfifjJT all assembling made adoration of him (Adiparv. 
 9 6) ; again the wk. form efrfy f. in 3ify ^refn^ ^JToT cprf^" they (made) 
 took counsel having made an assembly (Revatata 9 6), etc. — 
 Thus the gen. aff. of W. IL, E. H., N., B. and 0. form a group 
 hy themselves, all heing derivatives of the past part. cfirT. — 
 2) To this group I would also affiliate the M. aff. =^T in., xft f., 
 ^ n. In the 0. M. the forms f%JTT m., %°d. (Man. 13 8) occur, 
 from which the modern forms are contracted, just as M. II. 5fT 
 from 0. H. f%?r. In M. the initial cF has heen palatalised by 
 the influence of the succeeding palatal ?; just as in Pr. f%^TT^t 
 for Skr. fer^TrT: (Vr. 2, 33) and in Pr. g*|wjf ours, <f-^WJ yours 
 (H. C. 2, 149) beside Pr. *P^|fct and fTJ^t (H. C. 2, 99. 2, 147). 
 In fact, in the two last examples we have, in a slightly modified 
 form, the 0. M. gen. aff. f%?n (cf. E. H. nm, but B. ffim gone). 
 According to Pr. grarnm. (H. C. 2, 14 7. 149) W^gri is but an 
 other form of tf^^", which shows that it is = * ^^^ = * *&$<£& 
 = * ^nf}^^) the Z having been transferred into the preceding 
 syllable 5^ and having palatalised it into $7W^. — The M. =^T 
 is sometimes identified with the Skr. suff. F3" (as Bs. II, 289. Man. 
 132, 3). This theory assumes, that an old suff. has in compara- 
 tively modern times changed into an aff.; for the M. =3T is not 
 added to the base (as the Skr. suff.) but to the obi. form, i. e., 
 to the old gen. Such a change would be, as far as I know, 
 altogether unique, without any analogy or evidence to support it. 
 The word W^ (unlike r^r) was never a real suff., though some- 
 times it is practically used like one in Pr. ; but it is a real noun 
 with a meaning of its own, viz. made or done; and this acoounts 
 
§ 377.] CASE. 239 
 
 for its peculiar use as an aff. constructed with the obi. f. On 
 the other hand, the change of 37 to =^ through a following J is 
 supported by the examples above quoted, to which may be added 
 the S. neut. interrog. pron. ^T tvhat (i. e., child = khid = Mild) 
 correspouding to the P. f^T and W. H. 5F3T for *f3T^T (cf. P. obi. 
 •RiT^^T of whom); also the G. STT m., sri" f., ST n. who for *^t, *^t, *W 
 (see§ 4 3 8, 5) 1 ). — 3) The P., S. and 'possibly G. and Konkani 
 gen. aff., I believe, form a distinct group. The P. gen. aff. are: 
 57 in., ^t f. The same aff. occurs in B. as a component part of 
 the plur. sign, viz. ^ or f^ in ^r, f^rr (see § 364, 2), and as the 
 instr. aff. f^HT with which may be compared the P. obi. plur. masc. 
 TZ?3T, see § 3 74. I believe them to be identical with the past part. 
 fi*TJT given of the verb £ to give (see § 3 07), and their origin to be 
 precisely analogous to that of the preceding groups. The past part. 
 given, just like the part, made, would easily produce the gen. 
 sense „of"; e. g., the P. sf=r ^i" cTTOTJ" lit. the sound given by an 
 instrument is the same as the sound of an instrument. — The S. 
 gen. aff. are iff m., ?n f . Here the original initial ^ has been pala- 
 talised by the following palatal T. Other examples of the same 
 change are the P. gf^T or ^tT^T of such sort (Ld. 19) and the S. ^<7vT 
 this (Tr. 1 98, for idhio = idilio, see § 1 32, note) for Skr. hr?J' ; the 
 S. 337T that (Tr. 202) == Skr. *^sre;sr:; the Ap. Pr. ^ssTT^r (Ls. 
 455, for *^^TfT= *VZJ^£t) — Skr. ^m^j: ; the S. 375Trit tvhat 
 (cf . H. 5R5TT whers) for Skr. *aFi5i^3T: (see §438, 4). — The 0. P. 
 has a gen. aff. jr (Tr. A. Gr. CXXVI), where the initial £ has 
 been cerebralised, as in the M. S. fj^T to give (Tr. 2 7 6. H. H. 
 3/TT). The modern G. gen. aff. HT m., =TT f., ^f n. I am inclined to 
 count with this set by the not uncommon change of K or 3 to HT^ 
 or ^(§106). They might be, however, as Bs. II, 287 suggests, 
 curtailed forms of the gen. aff. rTrjfr, FTHTr, rTOT, which occur in 
 
 1) In the Romance languages the change of the guttural into the 
 palatal is very common, even before the vowel a; e. g., lat. camera, french 
 chambre, cngl. chamber; lat. caminus, fr. cheminee, engl. chimney, etc. 
 
240 case. § 377.] 
 
 0. G. and still earlier in the Ap. Pr. (H. C. 4, 422, e. g., ^ 
 W7TT gc^r^ rTiiTT that is the fortune of us). They still occur occa- 
 sionally in Br. (rTTT) and M\v. FTTTT or rTCn^m., emit f., (TOTT plur. 
 (see Kl. G8, 73). — The Mewari gen. aff. £T m., ^ f., 3H" or 3E 
 ohl. (Kl. 68) and Konkani ofr, etc. (Bs. II, 287) I am also in- 
 clined to refer to this group, on account of the cerehral £, which 
 appears to he a modification of the 3 in the 0. P. 2T. They 
 might be, however, identified with the Mw. ~^l, etc. (as Bs. II, 
 287), which occur also in 0. P. (see Tr. A. Gr. CXXVI). And 
 I may add here, that the aff. 3iT, £T^"T, =5[T of the other groups 
 and the S. sTT occur in 0. P. also (see Tr. ibidem). — 4) There 
 is one more peculiar group of gen. aff. ; viz. in Mw. (poetry) 
 f^t m., ^t f. (Kl. 68. 73); in S. sg. dir. ^t m., tf£f f., obi. 
 *i(£ m., ^ff^s f., plur. dir. ST3T m., ^ff^S? f., obi. sfg;^ or ^fJ7 m., 
 ^rf^i^T or Trf^gf^T or Frf^f^" f. ; in Ksh., with a sg. noun, sg. e^ m., 
 ^TfT f., pi. sff^ m., ^fsT f., with a plur. noun, sg. f^ m., flrfr f., 
 pi. fffit m., f^5T f. (see Bs. II, 290) '). Bs. (II, 291) identifies 
 them with the Pr. pres. part, ^rft and WH being of the Rs. IT 
 and %^ to be. This is quite possible. But perhaps an other deri- 
 vation may be suggested. They may be divided into ^-eft, ^-^t or 
 f|r-3J ; the first parts >=T and ^ or f^ being the Pr. gen. termin. of 
 the sing, and plur. resp. (§365, 1. 7), and ^T the gen. aff. as in P. 
 Thus Mw. sR^t or Ksh. sRp^£ of men being really 5TT^ or sRfli 
 -f ^T or 5-; S. sTJT^t and Ksh. sFRTe[ of a man being sHTO-S^t 
 for the Pr. gen. sg. sTUT^T. This would explain the singular dif- 
 ference in Ksh. between the sing, and plur. aff. On the other 
 hand, one would have to assume that S. has lost the plur. and 
 Mw. the sing, forms. But these curious gen. aff. are at present too 
 little known, to allow of any satisfactory theory being propounded. 
 
 1) Bs. transliterates bjJLa* by STsTeT, which is hardly correct. The 
 final h is merely a mater lectionis, to indicate that the word in which it 
 is used ends in a short or, sometimes, long a; e. g., «i = :T not, *J = 
 5T with, 8(A-o = STHJ servant, etc. Hence either ^TsT sanja or STjTT sanjd; 
 probably the former. 
 
§ 378.] case. 241 
 
 3 78. Derivation of the locative affixes. 1) The ori- 
 ginal of the aff. *T etc. is the Skr. loc. mu in the midst of, 
 which in Ap. Pr. becomes JT53T or JrfrTT or JTstpf^. From these Ap. 
 forms arise two Gd. sets, one retaining <fi, the oth*er changing 
 it to f (see § 117). To the first set belong the B. JTRK, S. 4tJ7 
 for Ap. q?8r; the 0. H. qffE or irrar, E. H. JT1<J7 for Ap. jtRje, 
 and the 0. M. JTI^i" (or iTRTT") for Ap. J^fff ; also the S. abl. 
 aff. cjtJTT" or if<"FT from-within for Ap. 3T?3Tef or JT5<T7^[. To the se- 
 cond set belong the 0. H. JTf% for Ap. *rf%, and the 0. H. HT^f 
 or qi^t 1 or TT'|t, E. H. and Br. T~f^T, Mw. qri[ or mT* or JT^ 1 * 
 (for * ^^T ) for Ap. JTs<7if|r ; also the E. H. *T contracted from rrf%, 
 W. H. h' contr. from *JT^t", E. H., W. II., G. JTT, N. JTT similarly 
 contr. from * JT5p = TtJTT (cf. S. abl. aff.) = Ap. qj^ ; and W. H. 
 :tt' for **ls[f = JTOtT (cf. S. abl. aff.) = Ap. JTsSTf. Both, JTT and 
 JTT^, occur in S. also as abl. aff. — 2) Other groups of loc. aff. 
 or postpositions are : a) the M. ST?* = Ap. STrnftf, and the N. 
 TTTfsr = Ap. srrfrjT, for Skr. STPT in the place of; b) the N. ^Tm 
 and S. JTT upon = Ap. Pr. irfT^ or jtft for Skr. JTSfT on the head 
 or top of, and the corresponding S. abl. aff. JTzrf from-upon; si- 
 milar to these are: S. fw}~, P. feT upon = Ap. f%^" for Skr. f*FT7jf% 
 on the head of; c) the B. farqr or fTiFTT/, E. H., W. H. irtcTJ 
 ivithin (see § 17 2); d) in all Gds. cqr or qf[" or Q7J upon, Ap. 
 Pr. <lff (H. C. 4, 43 8), Skr. qj beyond; and the corresponding 
 abl. aff. S. q^l and S. or P. q"7J u from-upon ; e) the S. and 
 G. qTST, P. and W. H. qTO = Ap. crffiT or qTOT, and M. qTtfT = 
 Ap. qraf^', for Skr. vm by the side of; f) the S. T5RT, P. fsra, 
 0. P. fcif%, W. H. STR^ ivithin = Ap. fsrw or fsrfir, perhaps for 
 Skr. a?0" lit. surrounded by; cf. II. C. 4, 421, where the Ap. fsrw 
 is said to be a substitute for Skr. 5IWJTPT ; g) the M. ~n_ mt, as 
 in ETTJ?! in a house, ^srnr in a poet, TJr^ in honey (Man. 3 0. 31), 
 is probably a curtailment of the Pr. ^FTf or 5(H (H. C. 1, 14.60) 
 for Skr. ^^qr ivithin ; and related to it, in all Gds., ^iTjT = Ap. 
 5TrT£ (H. C. 4, 3 50), for Skr. ^FITJJT within. — 3) There are also 
 some relics of the old organic loc. : a) loc. sg. in $ in most Gds., 
 
 16 
 
iMJ 
 
 DECLENSION. 
 
 § 379.] 
 
 for Ap. 3", Skr. ^; b) loc. sg. in ^ or ^ in most Gds., or ^ 
 in N., P., G., for Ap. ^ or 93" or *jt% ; c) loc. sg. in ^r" or ^ 
 in E. H., J U in P., or loc. sg. and pi. in 7 in M., for Ap. sg. 
 and pi. ^fin d) loc. sg. in 3"f in E. H., W. H., or loc. sg. and 
 pi. in 131 in M., for Ap. pi. tf^T; e) loc. sg. in ^ or T, in 
 W. H., for Ap. pi. %g. Examples see §§ 3 67, 5. 3 7 5, 1. 2. 7 7. 78. 
 
 5. DECLENSION. 
 37 9. There is only one declension. All subst. are declined 
 exactly alike ; and the base never changes, exc. in the obi. cases 
 of the plur., where WZj ^T, 3=r are added (see § 3 62). One example, 
 therefore, of a subst. fully declined will be sufficient. But as a 
 matter of convenience, I shall add a list of nom. and gen. of a 
 subst. of every form, gender and terrain., leaving it to the stu- 
 dent to supply the remainder. 
 
 1. Masculines in 5. 
 a) Short form : ^"TJT Earn. 
 
 nom. 
 
 ace. 
 
 instr 
 
 dat. 
 
 abl. 
 
 gen. 
 
 loc. 
 
 nom. 
 
 ace. 
 
 instr. 
 
 dat. 
 
 abl. 
 
 seen. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 TO 
 
 f W_ or J °#7 
 
 7/TJT cF7 
 7TIT ST 
 
 7T3T !T 
 i TO 
 
 TSFoTT 
 
 Simple plur. 
 7T^or 7/TJT^^T 
 
 |Tq^ ef, °£F7 
 
 ;tt>i -cdTrr^ 
 
 Comp. plur. 
 
 or 7Tq:Tc<TtTr_ 
 
 ^TRTcftn^ or rnr cF or \ miy\m^ or 57 
 
 or TTJT^fTTJX 53 
 
 or ^TTt^TTj 37 
 
 or T/Tq^TrfTtrr^ ^ 
 
 or T/Tq^nrfrrr^ 37, 3F7 
 
 or yuTnjriTrR^ *3 
 
 or f (W-ijjftlj, 
 
 (W-qiWr 37 
 
 ^■TJT^cffTIT^ m, °37 
 
 |r 7/fp"^tVt_ 
 b) Long form : ^JT~5fT or ^T^oTT. 
 fq-STT 7/q^TFTm^ or pFa^^TT 
 
 fJT^siT or J° 37 JZT~on orlW^otqjF; yq^T^rirr or°nq 5? or 7;q~5R<?rnTor ^ °37 
 
 ^q~5rr & jq~zi^ *z jq-oti^'ini *k or pr^^fhrr *lr 
 
 717-aT 37 pToFT ^ ^i"-dTc?nrr^ efi or prcFjvrta 37 
 
 jq-sn & 7 i r r 5r r L. sr ^q-^T^frn^ & or pr r sprs?tCT sr 
 
 ■pT~5TT SF, °57 <ij-cl-^ 57, °37 ^M -cJl^TTTr^ 57, °37 or T^'-d-^m 9», °^ 
 
§ 379.] DECLENSION. 243 
 
 Sing. Simple plur. Comp. plur. 
 
 loc. jrr^n ir PJ'-^HL ^ ^•oTicHliw^ jt or jq^n^rrrr^ *r 
 
 voc. it ^"t^stt if ^"stt ^ ^■ ;, oim"ttt or it fq^sPTyrtrT 
 
 c) Redundant form : 'pTTSTT or ^"JTT^fT or "prion or ^"JTHErf . 
 
 nom. ^JTTsrr pTToTT "^"M loTl vfrn^ or pfeFTtfTTJT 
 
 ace. {tfteN or f° 57 ^JTTBTr or °5PT_57 7ifrc7T5FTtrT or °n-:r £F7 or pqicT^tn^or p °57 
 
 instr. ^qT5TT ST I'TTcT^ H ^TTcTTcFTTniT ST or ^jfTcT^FrT^T Jr- 
 
 dat. 'pTTSTT 57 ^cTTcT^ 55 ^JnsncTTrn^ £F7 or ^"iTTSFT^Trr^ 9? 
 
 abl. ipTTSTT ^ ^TcPT sr ^TcTTc?nrrr^ h or pqra^Tfrr^ sr 
 
 gen. (rjloJI 57, °cF7 ^"Trsr^L 5», °5> (4tal«itorj5fi' J °57 or |qT5T^TT7T JF, °5F7 
 loc. 7JTToTT q" ^BT^ IT "TJiTToTTcfTtXT^ IT or ^inST^TST^ IT 
 
 VOC. ^ ^TToTT If prfcTT ^ ^STTciTfJT or ^ fqW^TTU 
 
 Note: The long and redundant forms in ^T may be pro- 
 nounced with a final anundsika (see §§ 195. 3 6 5, 4); thus gen. 
 ■pr^oTT 57 or ^JTTorf 57, etc. — Subst. which do not denote rational 
 beings, can not form the comp. pi. (see § 3 61); thus gen. STpJ^57 
 of houses, smrr 5? of tigers, not srpTrrrpr 57, smrcifrrr^ 57. 
 
 2. Masculines in *JL 
 a) Short form : sfST son. 
 
 Sing. Simple plur. Comp. plur. 
 
 nom. sTCT 5TST ^rrcTrrr^ or grzrnr^fm 
 
 gen. 5T£T 57, 57, etc. srs^r^, ^ ? etc. ^riW7T:T57, 57 or ST^^m 57, 57, etc. 
 
 b) Long form : STTT^oTT or 5T£~5rf. 
 
 nom. ^-3JT ^■^cTT ar^cTT^JT or5T~d-MT5T 
 
 gen. ^-STT 57, °gT, etc. ^^oT^^^etc. ^-5TT^n"^5\, 5\or^~5r^^n^^, 5r, etc. 
 
 c) Redundant form: srrTcTT or SJETorf, etc. 
 
 nom. ■utioi\ =arrirsTT ^■frcTTciTi'n^ or ^rrcT^Trr 
 
 gen. £rrT3T 57, °c?7, etc. srrtepr 57,°^, etc. ^fTSTT^m^T 57,°57 or 5T?rr5rnyrr.X^, °5F7, etc. 
 
 3. Masculines in ^T. 
 
 a) Short form : fjfa" riklii patriarch. 
 nom. f^-Rr tffq- fjfcrcrfpT or ff fg^TTT^ 
 
 gen. fpfqr 57, °37, etc. fpfcj:T 57, °57, etc. f^fwriFT 57,°57, etc. or f^f&:T^rrrrjF, 5>,etc. 
 
244 DECLENSION. § 379.] 
 
 b) Long form : frfcrOT or f^fcrarf. 
 Sing. Simple plur. Comp. plur. 
 
 nora. fjfum f^fcror f^fcrm^Trr or frfatfrprrtTT 
 
 gen. f^f5?Tr ef, °cF7, etc. f^f&q"^^,°^r,etc. (^ Rtm^ l Hi .g*, ^ 0I f\%it^i\llJ f!°Sf;,etc. 
 
 c) Redundant form : frfa?TE7T or f|"fa?TorT. 
 nom. frfcr?Tcn f|-fa?r=rr fffsroawfor orfffara^yfrrr 
 
 gen. f^-fcraorT ef,°cF, etc. f^ftTO5rrJF,°cF,etc. f^fa^oiT^n-^^, ^orf^faa^q^nTg7°^,etc. 
 
 4. Masculines in T. 
 
 a) Short form : JTH[ brother. 
 nom. UT^" lT[^ m^ffST or iTT^fftn 
 
 gen. irr| cF, °cF, etc. iTT^T^, °cF, etc. Ml^liM^gr, °cF or W^lsftoX.Si, °cF, etc. 
 
 b) Long form : iTjJTf or HOT or JT^O"T or ►TtH. 
 nom. Imr "atztt J-T?TTc?ftn^ or SanciYn^ 
 
 gen. WT 5F», °cF, etc. tf*H.eJ», °cF, etc. «<iw")j.l^«, °;F or &PTsftlHF, °cF, etc. 
 
 c) Redundant form : iJOcTT or WTorf . 
 nom. usrsiT jtjtcJT mrar^rtx or wsnTFrtrr 
 
 gen. huzn sf, °sf, etc. hocPtef, °m, etc. waisrfrraeF, °6F or $<UoM^n^, °cf, etc. 
 
 5. Masculines in 3. 
 a) Short form : <T^7 tree. 
 
 nom. rTJFr FT7T 
 
 * COl ^ o^ ^eesf. 
 
 gen. cTf\ cj7, cF, etc. ciT^^F, cF, etc. 
 
 b) Long form : cT^cJT or n^m or rT^STT or rf^^T. 
 nom. rTT^T FTE^T 
 
 > o "\ -^ o *\ cieest. 
 
 gen. rT^T cF, cF, etc. rT^5R=*>, cF, etc. 
 
 c) Redundant form : rT7"H5TT or FranSTTi 
 nom. rT^T95JT rf^STT 
 
 * o^ -*> o*\ cieest. 
 
 gen. rT^5TT ?F, cF, etc. rT^JSTTcF, cF,etc. 
 
 6. Masculines in 3. 
 
 a) Short form : JTT3 barber. 
 
 nom. =TT3 =TT3 tt^^'X or r rr3 : T^T7T^ 
 
 gen. ^TTS cF, °cF, etc. rrns^T gf, °cF, etc. Hl^oHTTFr EF, °ef or qT3^Yrr SF, °cF, etc. 
 
O "\ r- "* O "^ Cl6€St- 
 
 § 379.] DECLENSION. 245 
 
 b) Long form: =73^T or ^\WT or TT5TT or ^7357 etc. 
 Sing. Simple plur. Comp. plur. 
 
 nom. ttctt ^ttcit TraT^ffiT or Trarn^Tm 
 
 gen. TToTT cff, °W!, etc. TT5T^^, 37, etc. :TToTT^rr:r 37, °37 or HToT^TTJT 37, °cFT, etc. 
 
 c) Redundant form: ^TS^ofT or q^rsrr or =Trasrr, etc. 
 nom. nTSTcrr :Tb&5TT ;rraaTc<TfaT or ^^oPTjfftn; 
 
 gen. =rra5JT 37, 37, etc. Tr9or:T3T, qT,etc. ^T^OTsTTrPT 37, °37 or JTTOSR^ftjT 3\,°3?, etc. 
 
 7. Feminines in n. 
 a) Short form: 'sTTFT^ ivord, tiling, event. 
 nom. ^TTTT cJTrT^ 
 
 ^> o^ , ^ o> deest. 
 
 gen. 5TTH 37, 37, etc. oTTFT^or, 37, etc. 
 
 b) Long form: srfHOT or SffTnTT. 
 
 nom. cTTFTTT ^f^TT 
 
 gen. srfFJST 37, °37, etc. sifFnFT 3\ 3f, etc 
 
 c) Redundant form: ojfFnjSTT or STfrT^TSTT. 
 
 nom. crfrrcraT vffnuofT 
 
 c * o-v . c * o^ , deest. 
 
 gen. slldijougi, 37, etc. STTFraSFTSI, 37,etc. 
 
 8. Feminines in ^T. 
 
 a) Short form: 571TT Durgd. 
 nom. ~JTT sttt snTTtfffiT or 5"ifn-^m 
 
 v* vj ^ a ~~ 
 
 gen. rt"JTT 6R, °37, etc. 5-JTT 37, °5R, etc. STTTvTlTFt 37, 3? or rifacfTlTr 5F; °37, etc. 
 
 b) Long form: ^frrar or rftTJIT. 
 nom. jrfTOTT zfr\m 3-fnJTrefhT^ or ^fw^TfftJT^ 
 
 gen . sfrrcn 37, °3T, etc. jrfranr 37, °37, etc. ^FiTmcrfrrR^, °3f or ?:f im^rm 37, °37, etc. 
 
 c) Redundant form: Prfntfsrr or ^frursrf. 
 nom. ^fnOHT ^ftraHT ^fnraTcTTJT OT£fjT?T5R<5TtaT 
 
 gen. Tfiitidi 37, : 37, etc. £fnra:T 3\°3r,ete. ^nT?i^T5TrrT^, ^ or ^f7T0"5rnyfrn;^, o #7,etc. 
 
 9. Feminines in ^. 
 
 a) Short form: gifjl fire. 
 
 nom. 5TfrT mm 
 
 c- «. o^ , n -■ o-\ deest. 
 
 gen. ^TTrr cR. 37, etc. 5Tm^37, 37, etc. 
 
24G DECLENSION. § 379.] 
 
 b) Long form: srfjTOT or tlfTlil T. 
 Sing. Simple plur. Comp. plur. 
 
 nom. ^fmrr ^frrcrr 
 
 r~ a. o*^ i c^ *o"\. deest. 
 
 gen. gfrtOT aF, 37, etc. wro^^?, 3T, etc. 
 
 c) Redundant form : gfrracTT or ^frnTcTT. 
 
 nom. ^frrerar ^frraHT 
 
 r- * o^ r^ -^ o> . deest. 
 
 gen. 3gTTrcT5rT37, 37,etc. wraonrsi, cF, etc. 
 
 1 0. Feminines in T. 
 
 a) Short Form: ^jii staff. 
 nom. cFTTSt cftT^T 
 
 ,-V 0\ Q -^ , V CICCST* 
 
 gen. cfTTST 3T, cR, etc. dees£ (§ 3 6 2,exc.J 
 
 b) Long form: cfrfclT or c^iill'T. 
 
 nom. ^rfsnT cafprnr 
 
 r- « o"\ , r- deest. 
 
 gen. cursor oFJ, 37, etc. ^X7^U^TJ3n, 37, etc. 
 
 c) Redundant form: cTrfPTOcrr or crrfsTTorf. 
 
 nom. ^rfjJIsrr ^fsTTSTT 
 
 gen. crrfs'JTSrT ^T, 37,etc. vrfsZTcFT 37,°37,etc. 
 
 1 1 . Feminines in X 
 
 a) Short form: sTir daughter-in-law. 
 nom. on? srg 5TS"ciTnT or srfn"c?itrr 
 
 gen. srg" 37, °37, etc. srir:} 3f, °37, etc. ST^vTtrR 37, °37 or 5rfr^Tc<Tr;T 37, °3J, etc. 
 
 b) Long form: sr^siT or srirm or 5T!f5rf, etc. 
 
 ° N^ O Si 
 
 nom. vi^m st^t sr^Tcfrftr or STer^^Trrr 
 
 gen. srir^rr 37, °37, etc. srs'^^T 37, °3f, etc. s^^T^TFr 37, °37 or STfT^^Tc'Ttrr 3?, 37, etc. 
 
 c) Redundant form: srg^T or si^^off. 
 nom. cTiT^T ^cnJoTT ST^STT^TlTr orSrf?95P : T'5?TYn' 
 
 £fen. snj^n37,^37,etc. sn^crr 3?,°37,etc. ^twi^rm" 37/37 or ^"ScRcrfm 37, 37,etc. 
 
§§ 380—382.] FORMS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 247 
 
 SECOND CHAPTER. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 1. FORMS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 380. Every adj. admits of three forms: the short, long 
 and redundant. The short is the primary form, which is given 
 in the dictionaries and hy which it is generally known. The 
 other two are more or less vulgar. The latter are made by 
 adding to the weak form (see § 381) the pleon. suff. of the 
 second, third and fifth sets of the first group, as explained in 
 §§ 198. 19 9. Thus, masc., sh. f. mr thick, lg. f. Mt^l or qfcgjT, 
 red. f. uUgfcell or jfteefioTT; fern., sh. f. qfa*, lg. f. ti\ir$ or Jlteqit, 
 red. f. JTtcfg^T or tftnOTl; masc, sh. f. oiifT great, lg. f. ^tt^t 
 
 , or oT"^rr, red. f. ofTpj^T or o7"3cF7=rT: fern., sh. f. 5TTT, lg. f. ^gf^ 
 or ®nT3it, red. f. vmfzffjT or sof^ST; com. gen., sh. f. WT^i heavy, 
 lg. f. masc. *Tf71JjT or uf^rr, fern. ^\JJ$ or uf(cFrt, red. f. masc. 
 uf^Tcjisrr or Uf^RoTT, fern, trfff^ar or ATf^fejT; com. gen., sh. f. 
 JT7V- heavy, lg. f. masc. ny|£T or rr^cRT, fern. Ji^'^t" or rr^^i", red. 
 f. masc. JTyujoTT or n^^oTT, fern. n^f|fj?TT or rr^fSTfTT, etc. 
 
 381. All adj. of the short form in 9 admit of two forms, 
 a weak and a strong. The weak form ends in ^ and is the 
 original one ; the strong form is made by adding to this the 
 pleon. suff., STT m., J f., of the first set of the first group, as 
 explained in § 196. Thus, masc, wk. f. ^ftft long, st. f. ^FTT; 
 fern., wk. f. ^ttjt, st. f. «ri)?T; or wk. f., com. gen., 3^ high, st. 
 f. masr. 3^T, fern. 3^T, etc. Adj. in 7 and 3 exist only in the 
 strong form; their w T eak forms in ^ and 3 are obsolete. Thus 
 st. f., com. gen., ircft heavy, ^c^ light; the wk. f. uiir, ^ or ^t 
 occur in 0. H. (Tulsi Das). 
 
 3 8 2. The adj. of the strong form in J admit of two forms, 
 the contracted and uncontracted. The latter is made by adding 
 the pleon. suff. £3 to the former, see § 19 7. Thus i-nfi or ufpr 
 heavy. Of the uncontracted a long form ^TT^TiT m., uf^33Ti f., 
 may be made, but no redundant form. 
 
248 gender. §§383—385.] 
 
 3 83. When adj. are used as subst. or parts of proper 
 names, their long and redundant forms are made exactly like 
 those of real subst. Thus ^"cTT (not ^""crn"), lg. f. of ^\K a name 
 of a caste (lit. best, Skr. w) ; or fq^oTT ST*T the name of a species 
 of mangoe, but fqr?73iT SFT any sweet mangoe. 
 
 2. GENDER. 
 
 384. Adj., like subst., have only two genders, masc. and 
 fern. Strong and long adj. change, in the fem., the final ST to ^, 
 and redundant adj. S5TT to ^OT (see §§258 ff.). In other adj. 
 the two genders are identical in form. Thus the wk. f. qTS" siveet, 
 ^1x small, etc., and the st. f. mfi' heavy, ^^ light, etc. are gen. 
 com.; but st. f. masc. JTT5T, ^far, fem. *ttst, Wtrt, etc., and lg. f. 
 masc. fq?737T or favrg£T, fem. fq?7cT?T or fqS'cjjT, etc., and red. f. masc. 
 fqsefisrr, fem. f£r?r%?TT, etc. 
 
 385. Affinities and Derivation. All other Gds. have, 
 like the E. H., a fem. in j*f for their strong forms in ST (E. and 
 S. Gd. and P.) or S> or fft (W. and N. Gd.). Thus masc. B., 0., 
 W. H. cFTT^TT, E. H. ERTfT black, M., P. cFT£T, G. ctfT£T, S. mft\ fem. B., 
 0., W. H. cFT^T, M., P., G. c*T£T, E. H., S. mft, etc. But the B. 
 and 0., as a rule, and eveu the E. H. not unfrequently, dispense 
 with the use of strong adj. in ST. In S. the weak forms in 3 
 (corresp. to S in the other Gds.) have a fem. in J or g (Tr. 
 9 9. 152); in all other Gds. the fem. ends in s; thus S. mi half, 
 fem. sy or sfu, but E. H., B., 0., G. masc. or fem. stu^. In 
 E. H., however, the fem. wk. f. in ^ is preserved in the part., 
 when the latter are used to form participial tenses (see §§ 5 02 ff.); 
 thus fem. zfijfrf, of masc. zRJcl^ doing, in the 2. sg. pret. conj. 
 W(fri^ if thou didst (fem.); or 37$f% fem., of 3i^T, in the 2. sg. 
 pret. ind. 37sf^TO thou didst; Wljf^f fem., of ^"5^, in the 2. sg. fut. 
 ind. ^fsP^ thou tvilt do, etc. In H. H. the weak fem. in s and ^ 
 cannot properly be used. In Skr., adj. in S generally form 
 their fem. in ST; but in Pr. they may optionally have a fem. 
 in ST or £ (Vr. 5, 24. H. C. 3, 32), which become s or ^ in Gd. 
 
§§ 386. 387.] DECLENSION. 249 
 
 (see §§ 42. 4 3). As to the derivation of the fern. term. J and 
 -vi see § 262. 
 
 3. DECLENSION. 
 
 386. Adj. are declined precisely like subst., with the fol- 
 lowing exceptions: 1) strong adj. in ^T change it to ^ in the 
 obi. form sg. and pi. — 2) long adj. in 37T or ffTT change 9T 
 to 3 in the voc. sg., and also throughout the plur., if the adj. 
 is used in a derisive sense (i. e. tff^w). Thus, dir. form, nom. 
 sg. ^ ^5T m^r 5TT~ this is a sweet mangoe; obi. form, ace. sg. 3: 
 mr OT*T h <pR^ he ate a sweet mangoe ; dir. f., nom. sg. 3; f^T&^T 
 rnn^^T^ that is a sivcrt mangoe; obi. f., ace. sg. 3 fas^ ^tjt^ 
 Wc^^t he ate a sweet mangoe ; dir. f., nom. sg. m^J ^t a"T7J 5rr~ 
 his is, a good horse; obi. f., loc. sg. 3 asp siTTT ^ ^^1^ he is 
 mounted on a good horse. Again, dir. f., nom. pi. ^ m5T mn^iz 
 these are sweet mangoes; obi. f., ace pi. 3; TT" ^t^ 3T w^r^ he 
 ate sweet mangoes; dir. f., nom. pi. 3 fts^T m^l^nr."' those are 
 sweet mangoes; obi. f., ace. pi. 3 f^fi ^r^cfi Wc^ he ate sweet 
 mangoes; dir. f., nom. pi. ssfaqr ^sT 3T7T Siz" his are good horses; 
 obi. f., loc. pi. 3 si> atr cq - =g^T srTC : they are mounted on good 
 horses. 
 
 387. Affinities. The M. and Br. agree with the E. H. 
 in inflecting, in the sing., their strong adj. in m differently from 
 their strong subst. in m. While the termination of the obi. sing. 
 of subst. is m in E. H. and Br. and OT in M., that of the obi. 
 form of adj. is ^ in all three. In the other Gds. the adj. does 
 not differ from the subst. in the obi. sg. Thus, gen. sg., E. H. 
 5T3 snTT EE of a big horse, Br. sr^f STTTT eRT, M. 5T3 Sfiiur =5T; but 
 Mw. ^m stttt fr, G. sttt srrrr =tt, P. srs srn? 57, S. zn mi at, B. ^tt 
 STTTT-J, etc. In all Gds. the obi. form of adj. is the same in 
 both plur. and sing., except in S., where their obi. f. pi. may 
 be optionally like that of the subst. (Tr. 14 5); thus, gen. pi., 
 E. H. 5r% Ernpr 5? of big horses, Br. a% stttT 3tt, M. 5T3 srlTjrt =5IT, 
 Mw. 5?ir erTTT ft, G. stjt gftsra^, P. srs qtfararif^r, S. srasrr?' srlf 
 
250 comparison. §§ 388—390.] 
 
 or sn siri u 5^, etc. It must, of course, be understood, that if 
 an adj. is used substantively, and not attributively, it is declined 
 in every respect like a real subst. ; and that in all Gds. 
 
 4. COMPARISON. 
 
 3 88. The degrees of comparison cannot be indicated by 
 any change in the (positive) form. The comparative is expressed 
 by putting the object with which another is compared in the 
 abl. (made with the aft', ST), and the superlative by prefixing to 
 the adj. either the adj. itself or the pron. STST^ all in the abl. 
 case; e. g., m^j *TT7; ^^i e cfr^" ^"7 s^t arc my bullock is better 
 than his fat bullock ; wtw^ ft stjt greater than he ; ^ e^ r? fcrssRT 
 ara^srr?; this is the sweetest mangoe, lit., this is a mangoe sweet 
 (compared) with all (others); «=^t ft 5=s=fr fTf^T^T the best vegetable ; 
 a^ ^ g=E^ =STT3J ^7 uttt^ the best (cooked) rice. Sometimes, however, 
 the comp. is expressed by the long form of the adj. (see § 19 8), 
 as it emphasizes its meaning. Thus '7T suttft ^Tt which is the elder 
 one ; 3 ^tZGnJ ^Ji that is the younger one. 
 
 389. Affinities. In all Gds. the comp. and superlat. 
 degrees are formed precisely as in E. H. ; see S. Ch. 83. Sn. 21. 
 Man. 40, 78. note 1. Ld. 15. Ed. 45, 97. 98. Tr. 156. Thus, 
 comparative, E. H. STf ST 5I1T greater than he, B. ?rrfT ^H ST3, 
 0. ftt^t-^ ^"3, M. for^r srjT, Br. 5rr ^ sm, Mw. suT^srit, G. m 
 ZTT 5TTT, P. 3eT ft '5TTT, S. g'^T W7 STjt ; and superlat., E. H. STST^T 5J"?T 
 greatest, B. eaFTc^^jFT 5r°, 0. *re;c?T-£ st°, M. e5TT|FT cj°, Br. ^ht 
 sr°, Mw. ssr a 1 ct°, G. sr*r ^r gr c , P. stst ?r sr°, S. w <=rf sr°. 
 
 TtfltfZ) CHAPTER. THE NUMERAL. 
 
 390. There are various kinds of numerals in E. H., as 
 cardinals, ordinals, multiplicatives, collectives, reduplicatives, frac- 
 tional, beside which there are some others, as proportionals, 
 subtractives, distributives, indefinitives, which are expressed by 
 various modes of paraphrase. 
 
§§391.392.] 
 
 CARDINALS. 
 
 251 
 
 391. 
 
 1. {737 
 2.^ 
 
 3.mfr 
 
 4. ^rf^ 
 
 5. «rra 
 
 6. $ 
 
 7. J^Tff 
 
 8. ots; 
 9.^r 
 
 10. 5^ 
 
 1 1 . $i4ll(tf 
 
 12. STTfg; 
 
 13. n-^ 
 
 14. =afr5^ 
 
 15. q^X^ 
 
 16. ^ttjj; 
 
 17. ^T7i[ 
 
 18. 95T7^ 
 
 19. sto^ 
 
 20. srta 
 
 1. CARDINALS. 
 
 Their forms from one to hundred are 
 
 2 1 . ^37TJ3 4 1 . ^37FTTf?TO 6 1 . {ScfiUrS- 
 
 22. =SITJ^ 42. STJTTf^Te 62.^1^^ 
 
 23. ft^ 43. ft-ftt^^ 63. f^efs - 
 
 24. =grtim 44. grsnfirw 64. =3T-^f?r 
 2 5 . q€r^ 4 5 . q--(=fTf?re 6 5 . q-^f?r 
 2 6.^fi=sr^ 4 6.%it%^ 6 6.^T^f?r 
 27.^rTT^H 47. ^-FTTfee 67. rT7Trf?7 
 28. ^5T^ 48. gi?TT%^ 68. %-mfs 
 
 2 9.^FTfFT^ 4 9.^=5^ 69. srt^rf; 
 
 3 0. frm 5 0. q^ra^ 7 0. sm^ 
 
 3 1 . ^5ifn^ 5 1 . ^ttst^ 7 1 . ^°l7J| 
 
 3 2, ^rfFr^T 5 2. srrsr^ 7 2. ST^^ 
 3 3. R"^^ 53.tHj;qq- 
 34. 'gfpfn^ 54.=^T5r^ 
 3 5 . q-irra^ 5 5 . cfxHorn; 
 3 6. ff%H 5 6. §?«r^ 
 37.^fHH 57. ^rwTsr^ 
 3 8. giiTiCT 58. 5TT5n- 
 
 3 9 . aWnferg 5 9 . *3VT^f?r 
 40. xTTf^re 6 0. ^rrf?r 
 
 73.f^^T 
 
 7 4. =5TT^W^ 
 
 7 5. QlfW^ 
 76,%iq 
 
 7 7 . srzrTqr 
 7 8. 9^w^ 
 7 9. aWt 
 80. *reeT 
 
 the following: 
 
 8 1 . ^cRJUFTT 
 82. SOTrft 
 
 83.f^7T^ 
 84. =gPtrji^ 
 8 5 . <ramt 
 
 8 6. f|*rrat 
 
 87. ^iwt 
 
 88. ?J|7eT 
 
 89. ^isrr^r 
 
 90. ^rssr 
 
 9 1 . ^chJMd 
 
 9 2. sirra" 
 
 9 3. t?rn^ 
 94. ^T^rir 
 9 5. trsrRir 
 96. ^T^iir 
 9 7. ^mT^rar 
 98. srrrasr 
 9 9. f^TRT^rir 
 
 100. ^T 
 
 3 92. Some of the cardinal numbers admit one or more 
 slightly different forms; but those marked with an asterisk are 
 used only in the multiplication table, and those marked with two 
 asterisks, only in the formation of cardinals above a hundred; thus: 
 
 1.037 5. era* or ll.^nnjfor 38. gffroor 54. =3T5^or 
 2. 57* or? 'VTT^L «^tth -<*<M~L 
 
 3 . %T * or 6 . f f * or 15. T^7^ 4 4 . ^oTrfeg' or 55. crgqrr^ 
 rfrr ^sr_ 24. =ci^f%r^or 
 
 4. ^* or 7. H?T* =33fljJ^ 
 =5qr 8. gs 3 0. fa?j* 
 
 =er3*3TR?m 6 7. JFTiefe or 
 48. ^mt%g^or ^FTFrfs" 
 
 si^rnjw 68. sr^fe 
 
252 cardinals. §§ 393. 394.] 
 
 71. $*«£*.( 7 8. 55-^^ or 9 5. qrr^Trra- 100. £**or 
 
 7 5. cF^?qr g?7rr=qr* 99. th^t^ or FTf** or 
 
 7 7. Fjrr^=q- 84. ^stttftt f?r?iT^ir jt?^ 
 
 The final syllables °t%FJ, °fro , °%^ may, optionally, be spelled 
 0? aW , °ntn , °cTfq ; thus 2 4 =^TT5JTr or ^T^TrT , 3 3 n"f?T^or FT-fTT^ , 
 40 =3Tt%ra^ or ^Tc<tNtj but 21 ^"37^1, not ^Frf'Tj 23 only FT£^, 
 not rTJ^T . Again all numbers of the seventh decade may drop 
 the final ^ ; thus 60 ^TTfs" or TT?^, 6 6 ^T^fs" or ^77 , etc. Again 
 the initial syllable m^f may also be spelled cTT^; thus 19 sVtt^T 
 or 5R^, 79 «Vttf?T or 5RWT. 
 
 3 9 3. All cardinals above a hundred are formed by sub- 
 joining the lower number to the higher without any intervening 
 conjunction ; thus : 
 
 101. ^737 ft {737 103. {737 FT iffr 1 5 . {737 FT q-frj^ 210. ^5^^ 
 
 102. ^37 srcp: 104. {HTJlxrqr 200. T^^ 220. ^JlsNj^ 
 
 3 00. ftVtf} 1000. FTfe^r 
 
 400. =5TT^^T i00,000.vTTW 
 
 10,000,000. 37T-7T 
 1874. {737 fj^ft^ «T^ FT =SrT^nf 
 2,154,210. 1737CFT v\m ^Torn^^^ <C^ * £*!> etc - 
 
 3 94. The cardinals between one hundred and two hundred 
 are differently formed, when employed in the multiplication table 
 (T^TIT). Namely up to 120 the higher number is subjoined to 
 the lower one with which it is compounded by means of 3rqr 
 above, the initial 3 of the latter combining with the final sr of 
 the preceding word to ^Y (^TFTj) ; thus 108 is ^TH^rt, i. e., 
 95" + 3«T£ + sft eight- above-hundred. From 120 and optionally 
 from 110 up to 160 and optionally up to 17 0. the connecting 
 vowel «T is interposed, instead of 3FTT, except in the fifth decade 
 where ^rTfer^ forty is curtailed to ^rn5T . In the rest the original 
 form remains unchanged. Moreover, in the second, third and 
 fourth decade the penultimate short vowel is lengthened. The 
 accent is always on the antepenultimate of the whole compound ; 
 
§§ 305. 396.] 
 
 CARDINALS. 
 
 253 
 
 e. g., 161 eksatth&so, 152 bavanndso, 112 barahdso, etc. Thus 
 the forms of these cardinals are the following : 
 101. ^TrT^ft 117. FTFT^ToT^TT 140. ^TsTSTT 170. ^l^J^T 
 
 141. ^FFTTcTOY, etc. 171. ^W { yl 
 
 149. ssfta^erm - 179. atarerhsft 
 
 102. f^nnj/TT 118. ^SfT^raT 
 
 10 3. fd f gt>d^^T) 119. s^JErrcfa 
 
 104. 'srerfcq^ft 120. #eTffr 1 5 o. i^tt 
 
 105. fa#?qst 121. jj*>mul 151. ^srisrt^t 
 
 106. ffrTTrqrsft 122. Sr^?TCTT 152. oTor^TTffY 
 
 107. UHtfTlrl^y) 123. ri^UHl 153. l^pT^T^t 
 
 108. g5TrT^> 124. xTT^met 154. y)o|4IUl 
 
 109. f^iTfTrT^ft 125. craterrcft 155. qrcxrrar^t 
 no. ^m^t 12 6. ijssrtarcft 156. ^mft 
 ill. ^rrTTcqrfT 127. gnerat 157. jjrid^uJl 
 
 112.3^TFT^TT 128. gk^TT^TT 1 58. gSSPTPTr 
 
 113. FT^^m^TV 129. srRfTraT53t 159. g lwM^Hdl 
 
 114. =3pra;C' |TT I^T 1 3 0. JTtaraT 16 0. ^ns^ft 
 
 180. S^T^TT 
 
 181. ^ne^ 
 
 18 9. :T5nstefT 
 
 190. =rssN^ 
 
 191. ^EfiiTJT^fr 
 
 192. 5TFT5WT 
 
 193. fpiTTnsrm 
 
 194. =5TT^FT5raT 
 
 19 5. cftstt^wt 
 19 6. ^FTST<rr, etc. 
 199. f^TRsrcft 
 
 115.q^T7Tfrat 1 3 1 . ^FTtOTef, etc. 1 6 1 . $7cFF^rraT, etc. 200. ^*TT 
 116. Jcify r^iMl 139. sftTrn«TeT 169. str^t^tT 
 
 3 9 5. The following are alternative forms of some of the 
 preceding cardinals : 
 
 101. 3^7*1 113. FrrT^TeV 119. ata^rrat 163. m^^^rt 
 
 102. fsWT/Ht 114. g\l^ m "f 121. ^cF^rrat 164. wmr,^\ 
 
 106. f^arTFT7^fY 115. m<(^) h ^ 155. n-yU^TCrr 165. tr'srsOT 
 
 108. sfftrrrsn 116. sftf^HTSfi 159. sVrarceV 166. ^T^ft 
 
 111. ^H7TrT7^T 117. r^^IF^T 161. ^FfltT^STf 170. Smf^'Tr 
 
 112. 5T7T^TrTT 118. gP77^TFT7^T 162. 5rra5rrr 
 
 3 9 6. Affinities. On the whole the numeral forms are 
 very much alike in all Gds. There are, however, three main 
 points of difference. In the first two the E. Gd. differs from 
 the W. and S. Gd., in the third the W. Gd. from the E. and 
 S. Gd. — Firstly; in E. Gd. the final syllable of the second, 
 third, fourth and fifth decades is short (viz. 5eT , ^H or fim , fro , 
 f^TO) but in W. Gd. it is long (viz. *0 or £§fj i?7 or sfta , fftfT, 
 c^Tg ), G. only being a partial exception ; thus : 
 
254 
 
 CARDINALS. 
 
 § 396.] 
 
 13. 
 14. 
 23. 
 24. 
 32. 
 46. 
 
 13. 
 14. 
 23. 
 24. 
 32. 
 46. 
 
 0. 
 
 -\ 
 
 5Tf%3T^ 
 
 S. 
 
 cfsTrTT^Tl'g" 
 
 B. 
 M. 
 
 FTfT 
 cra^TcfTTJT 
 
 E. H. 
 G. 
 
 CTSTrfT^TgT 
 
 W. H. 
 
 xTT^T 
 
 H. H. 
 
 FTTTT 
 Cr'rTT^t'n' 
 
 P. 
 aff 
 
 STfft 
 
 Secondly, in E. Gd. a final short ^ is retained, while in W. Gd. 
 it is dropped, S. only being a partial exception ; thus : 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 60. 
 
 0. 
 
 B. 
 
 E.H. 
 
 W.H. 
 
 P. 
 
 M. 
 
 G. 
 
 S. 
 
 
 5* 
 
 
 
 frPT 
 
 FfT^T 
 
 ST 
 
 A 
 
 orfsY 
 
 
 
 
 *35 
 
 TITT 
 
 
 
 H.H. 
 
 Fftq^ 
 
 'TIS- 
 
 With regard to ^W^ seventy alone, all Gd. languages agree in 
 dropping the final «[, excepting 0. and S. which have ^TwVf^" and 
 ^f\ respectively ; and E. H. optionally in ^rwf^ ^r seven hundred. — 
 Thirdly, in W. Gd. the syllable =sr, but in the E. and S. Gd. 
 either the conjunct =3^ or the whole increment =3?^ of the Pr. 
 =5rWMI^I forty is always elided in the fifth decade. In this case 
 E. H. occupies an intermediate position; thus: 
 
 M. 
 
 41. 
 
 42. 
 43. 
 44. 
 
 ^-4 1 criW ^cFp=arT%?r ^verf^ 
 
 
 0. 
 
 B. 
 
 rrnTf^TST^ 
 #raTt%T3T 
 
 pfFfTf^sr 
 
 E. H. 
 
 Ff-FfTfFT^ 
 
 
 P. 
 
 ^■cffrlT^T 
 rfFTTo??! 
 
 S. G. 
 
§ 397.] 
 
 CARDINALS. 
 
 25! 
 
 
 M. 
 
 0. 
 
 B. 
 
 E. H. 
 
 45. 
 
 rf=5RrT5?hg- 
 
 q^Tf^TOT 
 
 q^FiTf^TCT 
 
 H — ■ 
 
 q^HllcH^ 
 
 46. 
 
 5T^Tc<TtTr 
 
 ^J"T%TCT 
 
 3 =3%^ 
 
 f^rrrf^^ 
 
 47. 
 
 dNrefte 
 
 rTrraT%JT^ 
 
 
 ^rrrTfee 
 
 48. 
 
 a^TTsfta 
 
 S?F3Tfc?OT 
 
 
 S^FTTf^^ 
 
 s. 
 
 q-TTT^Ti' qsTFTT^q 
 
 eFlrTT^tr 
 
 g?7rIT^ 
 
 sT^T 
 
 G. 
 
 qSTFTTcirftlT^ 
 
 aTirTT^TtgT 
 
 ■sS "V 
 
 Some minor differences are the following: 1) S. and P. change 
 the final ^ of : srN^, fTTST, c?TTO J sTTO into |T, which is generally 
 afterwards dropped hy P. ; thus S., P. cTfc 20, P. fltf or ;rhl[, 
 S. f^ 30, S. z£i^ 2 3, 5lf^ 3 2, P. ^ or a^, 5T^t or si=ft, 
 S. ^T#^, P. ^T^T 40, S., P. qjTTf 50, S. STTSTslTf, P. 5T5IJTT 5 2, etc. 
 Similarly these two languages alone change the initial ^ of ^ffiir 60 
 into W', e.g., 61 P. ^T^£, S. ^^fsr, while P. also changes ?T 
 to r (see § 14 5, exc. 2). With regard to ^T3^[ 70, again, all Gds. 
 agree in changing the initial ^ to S", except 0.; thus 71 B. 
 ^zfimj (= *^^nj = ^rej^qr), E. H. ^<ereq[ or ^F^qr, W. H. 
 ^^^, P. ^F7^q[, S. ^^nf(-, M. ^-7?T^?qr, hut 0. ^gfr (= 
 *^q^flff). -— 2) M., G. and S. alone retain the initial 5^ of 
 smr^ or srter 20 in compounds; see § 123, note. — 3) G., S., B. 
 and optionally P. retain ^r in flTST or 5n"|[ 3 and its compounds ; 
 as 31 B., G. ^5R%1_, P. ^wf or saf#, S. ^jrf^, 3 B., G. 
 fiTST^, P. ai| or iffer, S. ri^, etc. — 4) B. alone doubles ^ in 
 ^f§T5T 4 and its compounds, as D'cfraf^TST 41, etc. — 5) M. alone 
 preserves the semitats. ST 1 ? 60 in compounds, as ^"3i£TS" 61, STT^rS" 62, 
 etc.; but STT?^ 60 (see Man. 43). ■ — 6) P. alone forms optionally 
 W* for ^5T U 90 in compounds, as 3"3TRoT L or J^iTW^ 91, etc.; 
 but JTSoT or JTSoT 90 (see Ld. 8 5). — 7) S. alone preserves the 
 full termination gjf, while the others contract it to 9"! or 5T or 
 shorten it to W or ^ ; thus 1 2 S. 5TT^, but P. 5TTfT (= *5TT^ 
 = *?7Tf^), M. 3777, W. H. STTfT, or E. H. 5TT7/1F, B., 0., G. STTf. 
 
 3 9 7. Derivation. 1. ^"cF regularly for Pr. ^cftf (Vr. 3, 58. 
 § 143); as to the forms n^ , ^"37 and Jcfi see §§ 17 0. 171. Pr. 
 has also the forms ^rft (H. C. 1, 176) and ^fr (H. C. 2, 99); 
 the latter does not occur in E. H., but the former in compounds; 
 e. g., ^rjTTFTTTrr 111 or shortened ^rr , e. g., 37T77FT7/STT 111. — 
 
256 CARDINALS. § 397.] 
 
 2. ?TJ regularly for Pr. §£ (Ls. 318, see § 4 5) or JT5T (Vr. 6, 5 7); 
 the Mg. Pr. has §^ or £> or g^TFT (Wb. Bh. 424. see H. C. 3, 130); 
 the first is preserved in E. H., B., 0. ff?, the second in E. H. 
 HJ (§ 3 9 2), the third in M. fcfcr and S. f (Tr. 15 8); Pr. has 
 also the form 5T (H. C. 3, 120) which is preserved in the G. 5T 
 and S. &; the P. and W. H. have £7. — 3. nTPT regularly for 
 Pr. ffifw (Vr. G, 56. cf. §§ 143. 147). — 4. ^rfj see § 153. — 
 Pr. T5T or ^tf%T, mnjT, ^WTff/ are gen. comm. (Vr. 3, 56. 5 7. 
 58); but they appear to have arisen from the Skr. neut. T <>r 
 *^Tf7, itfrjT, ^ETTtf respectively (see Ls. 318. 319). The Skr. 
 masc. 37 is perhaps represented by the Pr. and Gd. 37. Mg. Pr. 
 has a masc. rT^t (Wb. Bh. 47 5) = Skr. 5TCT: three, but it has not 
 survived in Gd. Pr. has also the masc. =^3T^T (Skr. =3?5nT: nom.) 
 and ^377 (= Skr. =3rT^. ace, see M. M. 124) H. C. 3, 12 2. Wb. Bh. 
 4 2 5, but they do not occur in Gd. ; the latter, however, survives 
 in the Ksh. ^T^ tsor (Bs. II, 13 2). — 5. 77^ or Tra, 7 ^TT<7, 
 8 ^TS regularly for Pr. 7=3, ^T?r, «rj — Skr. 7W, ^T7, WS (see 
 §§ 143. 147); S. and P. have cr?r, V. ST?r, %J, S. STFT, 95", B. mz. — 
 6. f, also Pr. $ (Wb. Bh. 4 2 5. Ls. 319) for Skr. 76, eliding 
 final £ (Vr. 4, 6) and changing 7 to s? (Vr. 2, 41); also W. H., 
 S. and G. ^; E. H. has a form ^ which occurs also in S. ^, 
 M. H^T and Ksh. fgT^ (Bs. II, 13 2) and which represents perhaps 
 the Skr. form GTO , Pr. *^T or *$f with final 9 (cf. Ls. 220. 
 H. C. 1, 19. cf. M. 3^[T 10). E. H. has also a form ^3" correspon- 
 ding to B. ^q" , 0. ^3", W. H. and P. ^?, w T ith euphonic 5£ or 7^ 
 for elided fT; Pr. has also %% see Ls. 3 20. — 9. 77 or 73 re- 
 gularly for Pr. ^T5T, Pr. has also 7^ (Ls. 3 2 0) which does not 
 occur in E. H., but in 0. 7*3 and B. 77; P. 7T" and S. & add 
 an anunasika. — 10. <JT^ regularly for Mg. Pr. <£ST (Wb. Bh. 4 2 6. 
 H. C. 1, 262), Skr. g;sr; Pr. has also cCf (Vr. 2, 44) which is 
 only preserved in P. 3jT (also 5"^), S. T^, M. 5^T, Ksh. 31[ (Bs. 
 II, 133). — As the latter part of the compound numerals of 
 the second decade, Skr. TST becomes in Pr. 51[ or 3^ or Jz[ (H. C. 
 1, 219), in Gd. ^ or 5T^ or j%. Thus 11 Skr. ^7TT3;ST, Pr. *^7T^, 
 
§ 397.] CAKDINALS. 257 
 
 E. H. oiig i Ti=[ or TTOT^ or sui^. As to its euphonic U , see § 135 ; 
 it is more properly W. Gd. ; for B. ^nrrj, 0. ^T^", M. %W>JT have 
 it not; while W. H. nrr^, P. fn^T^, G. ^rfxraTT; have it. The 
 other P. form ^Tfi; (Vr. 2, 44) occurs only in S. ?n^. The Pr. 
 has also STT, ^ (Wb. Bh. 4 2G. H. C. 3, 123), which have not 
 survived in Gd. — 12. Skr. £TS;sr, Pr. ejt^; (Vr. 2, 44), E. H. 
 ^rr^f, B., 0., G. sttt;, M., W. H. sn^T, P. srcp, S. srr^|. — 13. Skr. 
 ^ts^rr, Pr. ar^ (i. e. ttZW for 5T0T: 4- 5^T cf. H. C. 1, 165) *), 
 E. H. FT^; other Gels, see § 39 6. — 14. Skr. =^5T, Pr. =5T3^ 
 (Vr. 2, 14. H. C. 1, 171), E. H. =gfr^; other Gds. see § 3-96. — 
 15. Skr. <T^CT, Pr. ^WT^ (H. C. 2, 43, but <JW7^> Vr. 3, 44), 
 E. H. q^TT^; (§3 92 and in q^TT^wt 115, see § 394); so also 
 B. cnr^ (perhaps rather for the Pr. form TGTrflT, see Ls. 320. Cw. 
 24, note); the usual Gd. form, however, inserts an euphonic ^ 
 (§ 13 5), as E. H. q^, 0. cf^, W. H. q^^T, P. <T£ff, S. q^f 
 or «nr, M. QVfT, G. tf?[J. — 16, see § 105, note, E. H. e>^;, 
 B. eVcrT, 0. Ml^rl (with a strange metathesis), W. H. etelT, M. eteT, 
 
 P. eWr, S. ^>xt, G. eta. — 17. Skr. e^sr, Pr. ^75 (T. V. 
 1, 3. 4 2), E. H. eFT^; other Gds. see § 3 96. — 18. Skr. WT^, 
 Pr. v-pj^ (T. V. 1, 3. 42. cf. H. C. 3, 123), E. H. sr?TT^, G. SET}-, 
 S.a3T| (cf. 38. 48 below); other Gds., as in § 396. — 19. Skr. 
 STrfsfsrfH:, Mg. aqsrtar (Wb. Bh. 42 6), E. H. sfcr^e , W. H. 3^* , 
 B. 3^TCtf , 0. 3tnT^; Skr. has also ^eFfcrfofsifrT:, Mg. ^SRqsrteTT 
 (Wb. Bh. 42 6), only preserved in M. ^cFiirte^, 0. H. ^jpffc^ and 
 n^re , G. gmcnt^; the P. has 3^5 and S. SHT^; or 3%^ with 
 ^for ^ (see§ 396). — As to 21 ^^, etc. see §§ 123. 129. 
 The (apparently anomalous) 5T in eWT^T^ is probably (as Bs. I, 291) 
 caused by the ancient accent of the oxytone saptd. Of all dissyl- 
 
 1) The Pr. form rT^ is explained in H. C. 1, 165 as containing a 
 
 change of the first ^ together with the following cons, and vowel to $T; 
 
 that is, in Skr. a'jff^ST the first ^ together with the following syllable Wt 
 
 (i. e. cons. Q^-\- vow. ^V) becomes V; hence <T^. Cowell's view, therefore, 
 
 (Cw. 121, note) as to the Pr. Gramm. theory is more correct than Beames' 
 
 (II, 135). 
 
 17 
 
258 CARDINALS. § 397.] 
 
 labic numerals only* sapid and ashtd are oxytone, all others are 
 barytone, $ka, pdncha, ndva, ddsa, etc. ; now Gd. has m in y-ai^, 
 ^STJ^, but ^ or ^ (for ^) in ^cF^ (W. H. ^t^) and U-Ji^ 
 (for cra^j^, M. cp^sfNrJ. In Skr. the influence of the accent is 
 seen in g^T^ST, WTfEmfH, wrfsrSTff , etc.; but not in MU^UI, ♦H^fsr , 
 MurWyifT; in Pr. and Gd. both sets show it in the third decade, 
 but neither set in all other decades; e.g., 3 7 e " J frifl , 38«lfHg^ 
 47 Mni^iH, 48 33.3HIMH, and in Skr., too, the accent of WZ 
 only optionally influences the form after the first four decades; 
 e. g., 48 STtf-ckoJir^iH^ or ^CT-cfrdTjuifl, etc. — 20 dm regularly 
 for Pr. Efon (H.C. 1, 28) or^rf (Md. 4, 3. Ls. 320), Skr.f^srfo:. — 
 30 FTfa regularly for Pr. r^TT (H. C. 1, 28) or frtatfT (Md. 4, 3. 
 Ls. 320), Skr.nreTF^. — 32 5*f?T* regularly for Pr. sr^TT (T. V. 
 1, 4. 79), with ^ on account of the following double W^, Skr. 
 £Tf^ST?T. — 3 3 FT~fjTO^ regularly for Pr. rmkrr (H. C. 1, 165, see 
 § 149), Skr. ^(ysiyiH ; M. has H^TTta (Man. 43) beside the regular 
 FTifta . — 35 g-fir* see § 156, W. H. ^ffe, P. "^fft, G. ^P%ct; 
 but M. g^fffe (Man. 4 3, for TOfTta with H for =^, cf. § 11) and S. 
 tfsrftf. — 37 sHn^see § 153, also W. H. ^rTTH, P. ^rt, B. 
 srf^fwsr, but M. ^<rta or SfiTrTfa, G. fnsfirs^, S. tznzfe. — 38. Skr. 
 55f^iHiuifT, Pr. ztj&m (Wb. Bh. 426), 0. 3r?rfFtCT, B. ^T^far^, S. ttit^, 
 P. STSTTi", M. srsfTT^ or ^TrTfa, E. H. sr:sfrFJ (§113) or wsfh^ or 
 ^T^L(§ 145, exc. 2), G. guf^. — 40. E. H. =cTTf*TO see § 153. — 
 41. Skr. ^^forrf|5I(T , Pr. ^^gmcTraT or (eliding xf) * ^F^rST^n 
 and (contracted according to Vr. 4, 1), E. H. ^73iFTTf#m; this de- 
 rivation is proved by the S. ^rnciTi'^, which is contracted from 
 ^rarqHTWil with euph. q^. The usual explanation, identifying °f7Tf§T^ 
 with ^Tf^TO , assumes a changes of ^ to fT ; thus Pr. ^T^WToFmlT 
 = ^cfi^T^fteTT = ^cFrETT^^ = ^cTrTTf%T^; but such a change of 
 =a^ to f^ is not only intrinsically improbable, but also lacks all 
 evidence. Similarly are formed 43 J7~fTTf%ra^(see § 152), 4 9 ¥t^Trnf^T^, 
 45 ^7TT%^ (see § 156), 47 *FTriT%H, 48 srsmfiyW (see § 145, 
 exc. 2). The latter is in Pr. also zizr^k (Wb. Bh. 41 2) ; here both 
 the syllable =^ clia and the conjunct W^ tt are elided; so also in 
 
§ 397.] CARDINALS. 259 
 
 the Gd. forms: 42 snnf^rr., 44 =gftcTTf^, 46 %n^TO (see §§152. 
 153); as to the other Gds. see § 396, 3; Pr. has 42 oTTOT^f 
 (Wb. Bh. 412). — 50. Skr. q^TSKT, Pr. *q=5JTOT, E. H. trarc^ (see 
 §§ 143. 146), also W. H. q^TH, G., 0. q^ra, hut the nasal is 
 preserved in B. <WI<H P. qjTTeF and S. ^Tf^. The common Pr. form 
 is q^mn (Vr. 3, 44. H. C. 2, 43); it is preserved in the M. q^rp^50 
 and in the curtailed form cpr or 5TT of the compound numerals 
 of the 6 th decade of all Gds., exc. P. and S.; thus SPT^ in 52 
 E. H. sncTT , W. H., G. dto., 0. srra^T , B. srr^r, M. ^tspt, Pr. mom 
 (Wb. Bh. 426), Skr. sto^tst*-, 57. E.Hi, 0., W. H., G. Jama-* , M. 
 stwtstc, Pr. *^TWT5rBTT or °uf, Skr. srqqtmWT ; 58. E. H., 0., W. H., 
 G. sr5T5PT , M. ^JTsrc, Pr. *gjsr5f, Skr. wrqwrsrFTj 55. E. H., 0., 
 G. U -dloH^, M. q=3T5T;T, Pr. q=srT5T5TT (H. C. 2, 174), Skr. qi^q^TSTfT; 
 B. contracts STTFTFT 5 7, OTST^r 58, q=3FT 55. The other E. H. form 
 q^R" , which is also H. H., presupposes a Pr. form *q-e|<-qtHI. There 
 is another Pr. form mnsrai (H. C. 2, 174) or qtlTSPT (Wb. Bh. 426), 
 but it has left no trace in Gd. Again q^ in 56 E. H., W. H. 
 ^qq^, 0., G. fcr^, B. ^TTTR-, M. fqR, Pr. *^cqwr, Skr. dgp^TSTcTj 
 
 53. E. H. fdjii^, W. H. fH^q^r or arq^, G. grqq, M. =tcft, 0. fi^t, 
 B. frT-qM presuppose a Ap. Pr. form *i%tq'eTT (°f- H. C. 4, 398), 
 Skr. fsrqmsnr ; the common Pr. form FfSTBTT (H. C. 2, 174) does 
 not occur in Gd. ; 54. W. H., G. =^KR, M. ^tq^ or =3Tq^r, regu- 
 larly for Pr. * gyqun, Skr. ^iq^TSIH ; but in E. H. ^T^T or =^3^T 
 or (with euph. 51^ ) ■eftcFj^, 0. =g35R^, B. -cHUM the conjunct cq^ has 
 been elided (see §154). The unusual Pr. form q^TSTT 50 is pre- 
 served in E. H. 49 ^TC^rrg^ , with the syllable q pa elided, pre- 
 cisely as =3 cha in ^VrrTTi%^ 3 9 (see above) ; thus Skr. 37Tq^TSTrT , 
 Pr. 3Ulci-c)|F{| or SnTq^TtTT, whence B. 3^=31^, G. ^TTUTq-cll^, S. 
 siuid'dlf, P. ZCnsfsTT or SCTTrTT, 0. 3^TCT, E. H. ^^TEmT ; but M. 
 regularly ^UKWH* . Moreover it is used throughout in P. and S., 
 thus S. rofsTT^, P. fdoidi or frr^ohrr 53; S. ^srfiT^, P. ^tsf m or 
 
 tJ^sTT 54 ; S. qjTSfsTT^, P. q^ETfTT 55 ; S. ^ofsTT^, P. f%q^T or f^STsTT 56, 
 etc. - 60. Skr. ufz:, Pr. srft (Wb. Bh. 42 6), E. H. J^fr, B.mfc, 
 M., G., W. H. *TT?T , P. STJ, S. ^fs" ; the 0. mf5% adds a pleonastic ^. 
 
260 CARDINALS. § 397.] 
 
 In the compounds, M. has w, S. ^fs - and P. ^27, see § 396. 
 Otherwise they differ little. But 61 is in P. Z^WC 62 in 0. 
 smmifi with stt; 63. 0., B. nrafir, G. ftftts", W. H. ir^r?r or frryra, 
 M. ira^, P. ft^ or 5T^£, S. T^fc; 6 5. B. q&rfy, M. <mr?, W. H. 
 T%£, P. g-^T, but 0. g^frfe, G. ^m^ , S. tfa^fs ; 6 6. 0. ^srcrfs", 
 M. STras;, S. ifT^fe, W. H. %ras, P. %T^7T, B. ^rfc; 67. E. H. 
 ^rT^fs" or 'rasfs' or SfT^rfs, M. STfTW or SRW, W. H. ST^ST, see 
 § 107; the others retain rT, 0. ^rofs", B. ^TTrTefs", P. ^cTTfT; 
 68. E. H. sr^fe or ^T/^rfg", see § 145, exc. 2, M. ^jsre or iJiMfe , 
 W. H. *u*di or ^TT5\ see § 14 5, exc. 2; but 0. ^ssrf£, S. ^S^fs", 
 P. ^STf?7, B. ^TS^rfs"; 69. B. 3^RTW^, all others regularly °^W^, 
 see § 396. — In the Bh. the following curtailed forms occur, 
 62 cTTsrfj, 64 ^ferjT (but also xijmp ), 6 6 ^isrfj, and even 61 ^nfir, 
 67 ^rafj (Wb. Bh. 42 6), which (if trustworthy) may be explained 
 by the intermediate change of ^ to ef (as in P. and S.) and sub- 
 sequent elision of ir. — 70. E. H. sr?qr see § 108; so also in 
 the other Gds. see § 396. In the compounds there is little dif- 
 ference, but 72 is in 0. srPErrerrf^, B. stt^tw^, S. STT^rf^, M. srr^iqr; 
 73. M. ir^q; or 3JT^?qr, B. ^RTf, 0. flrerf}-; 74. M. =3rnrr^7qr; 
 75. M. <r%i?qr; 7 6. 0. gpEwrff, B. ^fanq", S. ©T^fy;, M. sn^w^ 
 or sr^vqr (see § 5 5); 77. B. snrTnqr, M. erOT^wj or ^TW^qr, P. 
 Srnqr; 78. B. srrsnq, P. ^5"w^, M. ss^rr^q or ^|^w^. — 80. Skr. 
 wH?T:, but Pr. KKTt^ with m (Wb. Bh. 426), and so in B. SJTSjt; 
 but E. H., W. H., P. g^rt with double «^, which explains the m 
 of B.; in S. wl" and 0. «5Tt one ST_ has been elided; as to M. 
 ^STt" and G. iffi, see § 148. In the compounds, which differ very 
 little has all Gds. have m^Tt, exc. M., which gw^; thus 81. E. II. 
 ^cwiy), M. ^wi - ; on the euph. q^ see § 135. — 82. B. fsnnsft, 
 M. sJiwsft, P., S. firanft, 0. -rarsft, B., E. II., W. II. srorat. — 
 86. 0. fsmift, M. srrasft, S. ^rat; 83. M. anngft, G. hm& or 
 iWT; 84. Pr. xT3fTOT(Wb. Bh. 4 26), M. gfcHsn ; 87. M. sarfasft ; 
 88. M. * i $tfMl ; 89. M. qaiTOsrt, E. H., W. II. ^zn$t are Skr. 
 ^TSrnnYf^: ; but M. has also ^cRURoIT, B. 3FRoT^, 0. 3;ut:T3, P. 30TFTar w , 
 S. 3CRT^T5r = Skr. ^5Ffcrcsrf?T.. — 9 0. Skr. JTcriH:, Pr. =73$r (Wb. Bh. 
 
§ 397.] CARDINALS. 20 1 
 
 426), E. H. ^zk, 0. sra-, B. qssr$ M. ^iSoT?, W. H. qasr, S. =75r, 
 P. Rcir or ^Toir; these Gd. forms seem to presuppose a Pr. form 
 * Modfr ; the origin of the final ^ is obscure ; so also is that of 
 the connecting vowel 9T which occurs in all the compounds of ^T5T, 
 and is especially marked in S. and M. ; e. g., 92. S. fsraFtar, 
 M. sorora; 9 3. S. f^m^k, M. 3TTW5T; 94. E. H. ^T-prar, S. ^^ftst, 
 M. -dMUHHoi ', etc.; it occurs already in Pr. rrwFTJ^ 9 7 (Wb. Bh. 
 4 2 6), E. H. 4hhm^ , S. mn^k, M. er?nw5T. — 9 9 is in S. -idi-H, 
 B. fri biHd^ , M. qcuiwsr (with euph. J^see § 135) for Skr. ^oFrsrfrT: ; 
 the E. H. and W. H. R-lMir or f^TFTsr apparently exchange ^ 
 for 3^, though it might be also a modification of 3 in the P. 
 q iVidT or -ifiw^ (see § 3 96, 6) which are probably connected with 
 the other S. forms H^FTar or zarnk ; for these as well as for the 
 P. forms I know no satisfactory explanation. 0. alone has *MHiri^, 
 perhaps for Skr. 37TS!rT^. — 100. E. H., W. H., S., G., P. ST or 
 ijf is the Ap. Pr. J=T3 (cf. H. C. 4, 331), Skr. W^ , and E. H., 
 P. i|, B. sr, 0. srcr, M. sr w is the Mg. Pr. sref or m (Wb. Bh. 426) ; 
 as to E. H. STcrT^ see § 109. — The compounds above 100, formed 
 with 3WJ, occur also in M. (Man. 44) and S. (Tr. 165); in the 
 latter they may be formed up to 200; they are also found in 
 Pr. (see Wb. Bh. 427); in the Bh. the original sit is reduced to 3, 
 but Gd. preserves it; e. g., 107 Ht|t<( *m (Bh. I5 a ), S. erftrT^TT; 
 or Ap. Pr. q^m^T3, S. t idlc^ql i E. H. fq^trT^ (§55); 106. S. 
 3^IH(MI, E. H. %3TrT|rrr or ffcfflHf^T (see § 55); the latter as well 
 as 104 E. H. ^c^rT^TT (for VW(1 , cf. Pr. ^fta 84 in Wb. Bh. 425), 
 S. =srTFtrT7^T, 103 E. H. fdcdld ( ^ or fmf, S. fijffrr^, 102 
 E. H. f^crTld^T or fzrif (see § 69), S. Rlffi^ , M. gST^ST* are 
 formed anomalously; the Skr. would be Gr3W^"5nT, ^r^pr^" , \£3J , 
 ZTZ(°. Very anomalous are the E. H. g?TcfftrT^t 107 (for *?T?ftFT^) 
 and fSnT^frT^^T 119; there seems to be here some confusion with 
 the forms of 111 and 117. — The other compounds formed 
 with the connecting vowel 9T occur also in S., which has ^T ; 
 e.g., 112. E. H. stjt^toY, S. srT^#; 115. E. H. T^T^fr, S. 
 Q^TT^T m, etc. E. H. shortens the first m by § 2 5, and lengthens 
 
262 cardinals. §§ 308. 399.] 
 
 the second ^, probably, for the sake of euphony. The first part 
 of these compounds is probably a collective or aggregate nume- 
 ral; see §§ 404. 405; e. g., E. H. fTfasrT, S. r^t a sum of thirty, 
 whence E. H. ?rWr srf, S. r^rt^T 130, i. e., 100 2)lus the sum of 30, 
 or E. II. rT^lff, S. FT^^t sum of thirteen, whence E. H. ^"I^imi, 
 S. PTf^T sft 113, etc. 
 
 398. Declension. All cardinals can be declined, when 
 used as subst., in which case they are inflected like them; thus 
 gen. pi. qiWn^cfi of five, etc. But 2T two and fftfSr three have a 
 special form in these circumstances; viz. £^Tf or r^T^or 5Vf£^ two 
 and ffcrt three ; thus gen. pi. ^fr cft or r^prsR or <PTenr^37 of two, 
 fThrt 5Ff of three. When they are used as adj., they are not in- 
 flected; thus <nw ?rc^37 of five men, <r^ sT^ttcr of two men, rrrf^ 
 sT^ft 5R of three men. 
 
 399. Affinities and Derivation. M. has special obi. 
 forms ^~^V W , fHlfr w , =5ftiff 1 ' for ^fcr_ two, rTfrr three and =3T^r four 
 (Man. 46). When used adjectively with persons, they are changed 
 to ^tsr m., Z\m f., ^ir w n. two; similarly insr, TTTCTT, 1hsi~ three, 
 =5rra", ■eTTsrl', =gfrsr w four (Man. 46). Otherwise the declension is re- 
 gular; thus gen. ^fiT =5TT of one, i\ '$) a =3T or ^terf =3T of two. — 
 S. has the obi. forms fsrf^T or sft w , fprfn" or rT, =g^f3r or =^ w for 
 sr two, Z three, =5fTf^ /b«r ; otherwise the declension is regular ; 
 thus gen. fijfr at of two, <r?rfrr sfr o/" /we, etc. (Tr. 169. 171). S. 
 inflects the cardinals, when they are used adjectively (Tr. 171); 
 as 8&£t sifff^T w or 5^ B ^\\ ^ to ten enemies; fefa or sn ,,s &fjft W 
 sFT *rffil <?r to two enemies. — In the E. H. form c^Tf*^ the con- 
 junct -IT has been dissolved (see § 13 8). The second 3 of ^e^I 
 is probably euphonic, for *Zj^j\^. In this and the other E. H. 
 and M. special obi. forms the plur. suff. has been apparently 
 reduplicated. The Pr. gen. pi. is ^tn^ or sTUff of two (H. C. 
 3, 119), ftu^ of three (H. C. 3, 118), which are contr. in S. to 
 srT, ft* or slightly modified fsrfr, f^f^T ; but E. H. ^TT or ^<pL» 
 M. ^T^f would presuppose the Pr. form *^ttr^~f or *^Vtj^TT^;, etc. 
 
§§ 400. 401.] ORDINALS. 263 
 
 2. ORDINALS. 
 
 400. The formation of the ordinals from the cardinals 
 has heen explained in §§263 — 266. They are treated in every 
 respect like adj., i. e., they admit of a weak and strong form 
 (§ 381), and the latter has a fern, in J or £ w (§ 384) and an 
 obi. masc. ^ or ^ (§ 38 6). The following are the first seven 
 ordinals of which some are formed peculiarly: First, wk. f. qf^r 
 or q^r c. g., or st. f. <rf|w or tr^cm" or vfWn m., °crfl' or °vFt7t f. ; 
 second, wk. f. gJT^ - or ttj^ c. g., or st. f. 3TT7T or 2"^cTT or 
 J^^n" m., °^ or °^ w or °^^t f. ; third, wk. f. fTNqr or fH^T(^ 
 c. g., or st. f. fH^T or fd^bri or fH^3TT m., °^ or °Jl( a or 
 °jwt f. ; fourth, wk. f. ^TJiT or xhw^ c. g., or st. f. #mT or ^msTT 
 or =grm^ch'T m., °vft or °5T^° or jwf f. ; sixth, wk. f. §^®J^ c. g., 
 or st. f. ^TT or ^Jori m., ^p or ^J^ f. ', fifth, wk. f. cra^ c. g,, 
 or st. f. T3T or cf^HT m., zF&t or crax w f. ; seventh, wk. f. <hih^ 
 c. g., or st. f. STST or eW5TT m., STm or STWJ f. The rest are 
 formed exactly like the forms of the fifth and seventh. Their obi. 
 forms are, e. g., gen. sg. or pi., masc. Tf^T cF of the first, 5TT5T* ^» 
 of the tenth ; fern, qf^cm £F, STTJ £FT, etc. "When they are used as 
 subst., they are inflected like them; thus gen. sg. U i^crl 1 5Ff of the 
 first one, pi. qi%rp^j7 of the first ones-, but qflr^T sW sr of the first 
 man, tiR^ri swj^m of the first men, etc. 
 
 401. Affinities and Derivation. For the derivation of 
 <T%! see §§ 118. 213. B. and O. qfcFTT or qf|cfTT (S. Ch. 105. 
 Bs. II, 142), M. cri^FTT, W. H. ^cftt or qf^rr or °cfft, P. qf|tfTT, 
 G. T^cffV, S. Q^fT or q%jfP or q^?P. The first $r of the G. and 
 S. forms is merely euphonic (see § 5 7). — The deriv. and affin. 
 of J$X and Frteqr see in §§ 270. 271, and for the deriv. of =qT^, 
 see § 78. B. and 0. have ^ (chautho) or =arFTT (S. Ch. 105), M. 
 ^form, W. H. =gfpfr (Br.) or ^m (Mw.), P. ^frcn\ G. ^\m, S. =5rWT. — 
 The E. H. wjT, B. and 0. deest, W. H. %ft or ^ft, G. s^T are 
 derived from Pr. ^ft, st. f. of Pr. %ft (H. C. 1, 2 6 5), Skr. are:, 
 the M. «H^ic<i, P. ^srf, S. l^T are formed anomalously (as if Skr. 
 ♦BTCPT.) from the Gd. cardinals M. ^T, P. i^, S. ^. The E. H. 
 
264 MULTIPLICATIVES. §§ 402. 403.] 
 
 forms fTToTT, S"^T{^ or ^ir^cTT anomalously contain the suff. ^3^ or 
 *J5I"t, see § 264. The forms iiGicHchl, TWcfiT, iTTH^giT contain the 
 pleon. suff. ^3iT (see §198). The form -4W ^ dhJ is formed anomal- 
 ously after the analogy of ik\ (chT, fffFT^afTT. As to the deriv. and 
 affin. of the rest, see §§ 2 6 5. 266. 
 
 3. MULTIPLICATIVES. 
 
 402. The multiplicatives denote how many times a num- 
 ber is multiplied. They are formed from the cardinals by adding 
 the suff. Wt or ^T or gf jj, excepting the first six which are made 
 in a peculiar way. They are used only in the multiplication table. 
 
 1. ^sF or ^Jjt or 5i or cF 6. ^H or s^ffTT or ^fjj or ^TcF 
 
 2. £fft 7. STFT 
 
 3. fnrrT or fsr^rr or fnfpRT 8. ^ or m^ 
 
 or fif-ii or frrf^ or fn 9. ^37 or ^Torff 10 
 
 4. #TcH or =gT^7T 10. c^f or ^ts*', etc. 
 
 5. cf^T or tR or tT[ 
 
 403. The forms 0^> and tf37 are only used in the phrase 
 ^5J ^737 or ^ft j^ once one is one ; and *rzn only in trarr craro /we 
 fjwes five are twenty five. The form oj is used only when the 
 product contains the words T^ or tr"" /we, i. e., when it is fifty 
 or an odd multiple of five (excepting, however, <TT^ five, m^s 
 fifteen and y-^lH^ twenty five). As to the other alternative forms, 
 no strict rule can be given ; the practice varies according to lo- 
 cal or individual fancy. In general it may be said, that the 
 shorter forms, as fpr, OT?T, s£37 or f^raj, are used when the product 
 is polysyllabic. The multiplicative always takes the middle place 
 in the sentence. The following tables are given as examples : 
 
 10 X 1 is 10, etc. 3 X 1 is 3, etc. 
 
§§ 404—406.] collectives. 265 
 
 13 X 1 is 13, etc. 
 
 ft^t ^ft^rr sttspt ft - ^ ^TcTT yH^i^wt 
 
 The table of one is formed in a peculiar manner; thus: 
 ^er $7cr xq[ er =anqr stft Jr st<7 3^7^ 371 
 
 ?; cft ^^ cra^ Tr^r ^ er ^jk 
 
 fr^TERFfcr ^ cr ^ qorf^m" 
 
 The multiples of five are formed thus : 
 
 q^ 5R CTT3 =5TT^ q% ST^ ^THT qj ^jffrTH 3313X ^T^TH 
 
 FThT q% q^Jf; $ q% F?fa ^ qj q :: TTTf^e STTpr^% STTfs", etc. 
 
 404. Affinities and Derivation. The forms in ^ are 
 probably obi. forms or nom. plur. of the resp. nom. sing, in OT, 
 as STFT of SrTT, 5T5" of ^ST, etc. For the rest see § 407. The 
 multiplicatives are identical with the collectives or aggregates; 
 thus Frfr «r?r =^ri^^ means lit. three sums-of -eight are twenty-four. 
 
 4. COLLECTIVES. 
 
 405. The following words are used to express some ag- 
 gregate sums: srT^T or snfl' a pair, 'sfTcrrrr or °ft or ri3T a four, 
 m^t a five, c^rft a score, ^cr^t a hundred, ^T£ a thousand, vnw 
 a hundred thousand, crT^t or cR^qr ten millions. Collectives may 
 also be formed by adding 5T or ^T to the cardinals, so especially 
 ^Nrr a score, Frterr a thirty, ^mim a forty, also ^cRT a one, q^rr 
 a five, wn a seven, wn a eight, z&rj a nine, 3X T a ien > etc - ^he 
 multiplicatives ^ft, frTETT or fsrcRT, =3TrcR or xftcRT, ^TcR or ^|RT may 
 be used as collectives. 
 
 406. All collectives are subst. ; those in % {quiescent) or 
 5T are masc. ; those in 7 fem. ; they are declined precisely like 
 all other subst. 
 
266 collectives. §§ 407. 408.] 
 
 407. Affinities. These numerals probably occur in all 
 Gels., though they are not noticed by all G<1. grammarians. As 
 to S. see Tr. 178—181 (§§ 26. 27); thus j^t or %rt 1, fsnsrV 2, 
 f&cfft 3, -U4dn\ or =33<*r or =5rf^r£l" 4, qirt 5, ^JTT 6, ^m 7, sr^r 8, 
 Traf 9, T^T or 3^T3fT 10, sri^T or di^i(> or far^rfr or errft 20, 
 r^V or r^rfV or Ir^Tft 3 0, -di^^i or -dl^l|> (for *=5Tm1^i(t) 40, 
 q d \ f$) or QsTTfl" 50, Hi<CleKi 60, efsrcrr or 4i I* il 100, H^m or 
 ^m^ 1000 (Tr. 168), 5TTW 100000, 3i\ or ferfrfs 10000000. 
 As to P., see Ld. 85. 86, thus 37T3 or ^TT3 1, jmt 2, mmk 
 or imrra 3, =^tt 4, ttstt 5, ^=jtt 6, mm 7, gT?n 8, =tt^t 9, 
 3T^T or ^i<*T 10, &rrft or yh^ or dRifr 20, m'-hi^i 50, eaFT^T 100, 
 ST^qr or ^5rq[ 1000, vizm 100000, cfift^ 10000000, etc. As 
 toW. H., seeKl. 105 — 107; they do not much differ from E. H.; 
 och'r^ 1, ^TT or J^Tt or mm or sTtit 2, m or ?rtn^3, cfjTT 5, ?PT 
 or mm 9, ^nr^ or s^iir 10, c^rft or drterr 20, h^m 100, st^st 
 or fsTT^ 1000, 3ifbr 10000000; some collectives are formed by 
 adding the fern. suff. §" (for masc. m), as STrTfa^t a thirty two, 
 wmm a fifty, etc. In M. j^f or fsrqr 1000, ^TW 10000, zfiTZ 
 or tm? 10000000. 
 
 408. Derivation. Collectives are derived in Skr. by means 
 of the suff. cF, whence the Gd. forms arise regularly. Thus unit, 
 Skr. ^?SFW, Pr. ^!£^Y E. H. ^TT; triad, Skr. f^cfi^, Pr. fo#, 
 W. H. m, E. H. fn; score, Skr. fsre^JT , Pr. rnmi, E. H. vrtm; 
 hexad, Skr. ®Z*l, Pr. ^§£, E. H. ^T37; quaternion, Skr. xHMi^, 
 Pr. ^?|£, E. H. =afW; pentad, Skr. q^>n^, Pr. <r^, E. H. <raT, etc. 
 Sometimes the pleon. suff. eft (see § 195) is added; thus triad, 
 E. H. fmrf or fsrgRT, Pr. fm£, Ap. Pr. f^ffftf, Skr. %ii5R; qua- 
 ternion, E. H. m&iT, Pr. =^T^, Skr. ^ftccR^ ; hexad, E. H. 
 %W, Pr. ^^^i Skr. cr^^w ; ten millions, E. H. 3TTTT or 5Ft' il Tr, 
 Pr. cKlQt/ , Skr. cfiVfr^rc (or * ZKTr.ZF&J ; sometimes the pleon. suff. 
 ^"T (or m, see § 209) is superadded; as four, E. H. ^{T, W. H. 
 =gWfr, Ap. Pr. tji^ji , Skr. =3rT<^r°; hundred, E. H. s^aFfr, W. H. 
 ^9T3t, Ap. Pr. JHd^vii, Skr. STrT3>°, etc. ; perhaps also E. H. sfr^~r, 
 W. H. sftit, Ap. Pr. *sTJ9?3 (cf. H. C. 2, 15 fsr^f = Skr. f%^), 
 
§§ 409—411.] REDUrLICATIVES. 267 
 
 Skr. fsr^T , though this might be a noun derived from the R. 
 *rr or sfJ join. Sometimes the „ collective" sense is emphasised 
 by making the numeral an abstract noun by means of the suff. 
 «T^ (see § 220); thus W. H. ^^rr^ unit, E. II. ^m^ a nine, JT^ 
 decade, etc. — Differently derived is £^TT m. and j£Tt f. duad, 
 viz. from Pr. £3UTO (cf. II. C. 1, 94), Skr. ftrTOTSFJT . — As to 
 the E. H. ST^q and spf^r see §§ 138. 13 5. — The E. H. JTH is 
 properly a noun, the Skr. mrJ37:, lit. aggregate of four sides (?); 
 so is also the E. H. itt^", lit. the aggregate of the five (ancient) 
 planets (Skr. ai[). — For the E. H. sftft or ^tHR" score I know 
 no satisfactory explanation ; possibly it may be connected with 
 37TTr, (Skr. cFrcg^r) aggregate of twenty shells (?). 
 
 5. REDUPLICATIVES. 
 
 409. The reduplicative numbers are defective. Only the 
 following occur in E. H. ; ^cF^jr onefold, single, 5^T or S^fJT 
 twofold, double, ^jt threefold, triple, ^^T fourfold, quadruple. 
 The rest are made by adding the word SIT^ or sqr time to the 
 cardinal numbers; as Tra srqr or TlWsqr five times, quintuple, etc. 
 
 410. The reduplicatives are adj. and treated precisely like 
 those of the strong form (§ 3 81); that is, they make a fem. in 
 ^ (§ 384), as <£^^, rf^fi, etc., and an obi. form in ^ (§ 386), 
 as <0<) , etc. 
 
 411. Affinities. The reduplicatives exist in all Gds. As 
 to W. H. see Kl. 105. In P. there are 1 ^cfi^JT or chf^l, 2 £\<i{\, 
 
 3 fFT^T, 4 xTl^l or =5T3^"T, 5 qsf^T or ^Z^TT, 6 fN^JTi 
 7 MrTi 1 1 ; and even the „ ordinal" suff. it may be added pleo- 
 nastically ; thus W^iT quintuple, just as <TsIiTf or gfToTT fifth (Ld. 
 88). In S. there are, 1 %^ or ^F»V(, 2 fir^J or fsTfT^, 3 fS^ 
 or ft^JJ, 4 €t^" or -^\l} (Tr. 184). M. adds <1T strip instead 
 of ^JT; thus 1 $Ktf<T£, 2 <£«?£, 3 fff«ir, 4 =arftZ, 10 ZWTZ, 
 etc. (Man. 42). Similarly W. H. adds c?m string, e. g., 3 fdcrOl, 
 
 4 =^T^TT (see Kl. 105). — B. and 0. seem to use tats, forms; 
 as ^FfVT, f^uT, etc. (see S. Ch. 109. Sn. 24). 
 
268 FRACTIONAL®. §§ 412—414.] 
 
 412. Derivation. Reduplicatives are formed in Skr. by 
 the addition of the quasi-Buff, fsry (from fsraT form, manner), which 
 in Pr. becomes fgf[ or, curtailed, f[, whence, probably by the 
 addition of the pleon. suff. ^"T (see § 209, or in S. %r(), arises the 
 E. H. ^7. Thus in the Bh. (Wb. Bh. 425.426) the following 
 occur : 2 ^fof , 4 =33f5^, 5 crafsTf , 6 ^%^, or contracted 1 ^iilf^?T, 
 2 irfi^r, 3 nf^JT (perhaps from Skr. Qf^H past part, of R. fsr-VT). 
 Accordingly Skr. fzfmi° twofold, Pr. ^%° (H. C. 1, 94) or srf§r^°, 
 whence contracted Ap. Pr. S^i'i or s^T, and W. H. O^f 1 or 
 E. H. 5*^"^' ^* ^T£* The S. form f^r^T"^ presupposes an Ap. Pr. 
 d^t*^, containing the pleon. suff. cF and 3. Compare the names 
 of the E. H. metre 3^T masc. (Skr. f^foracF:) and Pr. ^l^ii'dl fem. 
 However, the Pr. ir and Gd. ^" might be also derived from the 
 Skr. quasi-suS. y or UT, as in fsry: (from I^UT in two parts). 
 
 6. FRACTIONAL^. 
 
 413. The following fractional numbers occur in E. H. Those 
 marked with an asterisk are used both as subst. and adj. 
 
 l / 2 *^TyjH* *%Vcn Vie m"^ or ^f|qT 
 
 1 /s f^TT or fnrf^rr or fcri|£rr 1 1 / i *^T5rr or ^rsrri or ^tst^tt or si&tn 
 
 1 /i *<TT3 or *qT5T or 1 V2 *3:s or Z^T or 3^ or 3}5 or 3^r or 5^ 
 
 ymi^ or T-fra^TT or "zmm 2 V 2 *9TST or 9^T^ or g^^IT or 3T^TT 
 V10 5^T^ or 3^3T or ?Jf5JT 3 /4 f TT3^or qFTT 
 
 It is to be noted, that <J3;T or qrFT deducts one fourth, but ^TcTT 
 adds one fourth and ^rk one half to the numeral to which they 
 are prefixed. Thus ^5[ TT3 ^ one fourth of a ser; m\^ or 
 9TUT ^ half a ser ; <T3^or mr^T ^r^[ three quarters of a ser ; srsrr ^ 
 one ser and a quarter; 3^ sr^r one ser and a half; TR" j£^ ^ 
 one ser and three quarters (lit., one quarter less than two sers); 
 ^TcTT <r^ ^r^ two sers and one quarter ; ot^t ^ or ^^r^ sr^r two sers 
 and one half; stt^ (ftf^r sqr three sers and one half, etc. 
 
 414. None of the adjectival fractionals change their form 
 in construction with a subst., except WtfT half which makes re- 
 
§§ 415. 416.] FRACTIONALS. 269 
 
 gularly fem. m$t (§ 384), and obi. form VW (§ 3 86). Thus 
 gnrt Jifo midnight, ^lir *TTn^iT at half -way. 
 
 415. Affinities. These fractionals occur in all Gds., though 
 there are additional forms in some of them. Thus J /4» W. H. mwi 
 or xmil^, P. qT3 or ^TT^ , S. qT3 or ^ or ^T^ or xfan, G. qT, 
 M. qra, B. Tfrfz or fefe, 0. m or qT^- ; Vs, W. H., P. frr^, 
 S. frui", B. fa^; Ya, W. H. ^Ty^or €JTyr, P. ST5 or 53T, S. *s* 
 or wrJt, G. sr^tft, M. mriy B. 5TV or w* or mr^, 0. ^y or tftf 
 or mfcF; 3 /4, W. H., P. qnr^, G. qtnfV, M. cttsw, l / 4 , W. H. ScTT 
 or »=FTT or *Tq, P. STcJT or *3o(TZ or tfoTT^BT, S. ^ToTT^, G. ^T5IT, M. ^T5TT, 
 B. ^331; ll/s, W. H. 3^ or ffcsT or s^HST, P. 3:5 or 3:<f or 3/TT 
 or 33^T, S. 35 or 33;, G. its, M. ^3, B. ^, 0.5££; 2V2, W. H. 
 «^,li or STTT or ST*^, P. £T^ or ST^T or 5TOT, S. ^^T^", G. %Ut 
 or ^3>, B. S^lf, 0. a^; B'/s, W. H. JXT or ^T£T, P. 3:57 or 
 3?7T or 3XT ; 4Va, W. H. e*--%t, P. GT^n (or qHrr?) ; 5 % W. H. 
 q>^T, (P. qf^T ?) ; 6 % W. H. (pr>-=3T ; TVs, W. H. ^fT>-^T. Again 
 mimes V4, W. H., B., 0., P. qFr, S. qnn> or ipt, G. qtinT, M. qT3nr 
 or qTof^r ; p?ws 1 / 4 , W. H., P., S., G. qoTT, M. s^sp, B. <H3?TT, 0. ^3^ ; 
 
 £>ZWS Vs, W. H., P., 0. WFZ, S. m^T (or STHS), G. *TT3T, M., B. <7T3. 
 See Kl. 103. 105. Ld. 85. 86. 87. Tr. 184. 185. Ed. 48. Man. 45. 
 S. Ch. 109. Sn. 24. 
 
 416. Derivation. 3P; or mm regularly for Pr. 5"5t or 
 33srr, Skr. 53: or miffi:. — ft^i, =5fWf , 3^jf , -hY^ are abstract 
 nouns derived with the suff. Z or 5TJ from the ordinal or car- 
 dinal forms (see § 220). The eT in fq^T^ is probably merely eu- 
 phonic, for fn^\\ = nimz = Pr. FT^° (H. C. 1, 101) = Skr. 
 fTfifa . — <TT3 or <TT5J^ (or H. H. qTsff) regularly for Ap. Pr. qT3, 
 Pr. qr^t, Skr. qT^: ; 0. qT or qrq^ or qT^T = Mg. qm or QTU. — 
 ST5TT curtailed from Ap. Pr. «35TT3, Pr. SToTTsff, Skr. WJT^: ; 0. ^T5n^, 
 Mg. ^TcfT^ or ^raw. — STT^ is the obi. form of ?TT^T (which, however, 
 is never used), regularly for Pr. ^fj^t, Skr. WtiZR: from 5f + %V 
 (lit. with a half). — qjq or qrq is the obi. form of qPTT or wk. 
 form crrsq or qr:r , regularly for Pr. qwTqfr, Skr. qTSTT:, from* 
 qT2[ + 3^T, lit. one quarter less. — The forms %*& or 3^T, ^T^T, 
 
270 PROPORTIONALS. § 417.] 
 
 3£T, etc. are made by compounding ay half with the next high- 
 est ordinal; thus 3 72 is in Mg. Pr. a^j° (see Wb. Bh. 425), which 
 is evidently shortened for U&JJ = ms + &2J° = a3 + ^3J° 
 (cf. II. C. 2, 33) = snf + =Ejfp lit. half -fourth. The same shor- 
 tening of at to 3 occurs in Mg. Wtt'l for STWtW^" = Skr. R'TTW^'T 
 (Wb. Bh. 427). Next Pr. a:%° is changed to a^TT° (see § 119) 
 and the initial a is dropped (see § 172), whence arises the W. H. ^teT 
 or #rr or (dropping^) the P. 3^T or ;>5"T (cf. § 145, exc. 2). Again 
 2V2 is in Mg. Pr. ajT^TT (Wb. Bh. 4 2 5), which is contr. for aja^TT 
 or ay + a^ssTT = ay + <T^?sTT (cf. H. C. 4, 339 rT^sSt) = Skr. a3 + 
 fTFmTT lit. half-third. An alternative Pr. form of rT^?5rr is FTJaT 
 (cf. H. C. 1, 101), whence arises Pr. ayasaT or contracted ayr^aT 
 or E. H. a^ or a:5^JT or (dropping initial a, § 172) P. ST^aT 
 or 5T^. Similarly 4V2 must be Skr. a^q^T: half-fifth, Ap. Pr. 
 a^oMJ or contracted a^l'-eTi, whence (dropping initial a, §172) 
 P. £rK%T. W. H. ^t-^T. Similarly 1 V2 would be in Skr. a^fi^i:, 
 Mg. ^£^> (or * a|f3cT^r), and transposing ay° and °^° (or * f^sr), 
 f^oT^, which form occurs in the Bh. (see Wb. Bh. 190.411) and 
 whence is contracted E. H. 5;^ or 33S , M. 3^ or G. JTE or P. 13^.1 
 and Z^T or W. H. ZUSJ. — The forms <fp^T, wVxIl, ^TrTF'^T are 
 anomalous and fanciful forms, made after the analogy of £T -: 3r 
 under a mistaken idea of its true derivation. They have, cer- 
 tainly, no connection with 3=^T high (as Kl. 108). The <^of ^~^T 
 is merely the modern pronunciation of q^ in the Skr. cra^, and 
 shows that the word is of modern origin, without any founda- 
 tion in Pr. — In the W. H. WIT or WJ the 5T^ of ^ToTT has been 
 changed to *T_ (see § 134), as W. H. ^WTT or RiT nine for ^TSTT. In 
 the W. II. £WT or OT*T corresponding to P. OTTT or 6TT the ^ ap- 
 pears to be merely euphonic. 
 
 7. PROPORTIONALS. 
 417. Proportional numbers are made by adding the word 
 nnr time to the cardinal numbers; thus ^^^TTT two times, fTTFT 
 n^rr three times; ^fj urt four times; TT^^'TT five times, etc. 
 
§§418—421.] SUBTRACTIVES. 271 
 
 There are also the contracted forms 3"JT^T twice, frrrr^TT thrice, ^ftrcTT 
 four times. 
 
 418. Affinities and Derivation. The proportionals exist 
 in all Gds. Thus B. J^miT 2, etc. (S. Ch. 109), 0. TFrfrmn 3, etc. 
 (Sn. 24), W. H. cjtrt 2, fru^U 3, ^frJT^lT 4, STrTipiT 7, etc. (Kl. 
 105); P. uses either the full or the contracted forms throughout; 
 e. g., jHJTT or fmf 2, m"3«TTT or TWnUTT 3, x?TCrTT or xfriTqTT 4, q^TiTTT 
 or QsTTCTTT 5, f^gfTCJTT or ^"TUTT 6, STrWt or STrTrTUTT 7, ^TOTT or 
 5J5WT 8, rWt or THTUTT 9, g^TOTT or 3^TJTHTT 10, etc. (Ld. 87). 
 S. has only the contracted forms: thus %aF>XTrt 1, sfrtnT 2, rfairt 3, 
 ^3OTi or gfrcrfr 4, <T?njfT 5, spirit 6, wm\ 7, ^sun 8, -i^urr 9, 
 3^1TT 10, etc. (Tr. 182). S. has also ^f>£t once, srrrr twice, which, 
 perhaps, are contractions of ^T-trJT) - , fsprct, as in M. which uses 
 <76 instead of rrrjr : thus mFmz 1, 5"ccrr 2, ffTtq?; 3, ^(Jf 4, etc. 
 (see § 411). — E. H. ^iprr regularly for Pr. grrura, Skr. fi^UTTciiJT ; 
 E. H. frTipTT for Pr. f?rmiT3J, Skr. %niT3W ; and E. H. xftrrcT for 
 Pr. ^yrmrra, Skr. ^prnqTgTJT . 
 
 8. SUBTRACTIVES. 
 
 419. Subtractive numerals are made by adding 3TJT less; 
 thus 9 9 is ^73T ^3T^ ft one hundred less one ; 4 8 is ^ ^ur <raw 
 fifty less two. 
 
 420. Affinities and Derivation, sftit^ is thus used also 
 in B. (S. Ch. 110), and in W. H., H. H., and probably in all 
 W. Gds., as it is a persian word. B. uses also the Gd. word 
 STT^T (S. Ch. 110). 
 
 9. DISTRIBUTIVES. 
 
 421. Distributive numbers are made by repeating the nu- 
 meral ; thus f ^ ^ by twos, two each ; g;^ gTT^ by tens, ten each. 
 Sometimes distribution is idiomatically expressed by the word TT^ 
 after; e. g., srT^T^gi Z\ Z£ W f^l^n^ or srT^^qii ^ <l fg; 
 he gave the Brdhmans ttvo paisds each. Sometimes ^f\ having made 
 is added to the reduplicated num. ; e. g., <r^ g^ cfirj fg;° he gave 
 hoo to each. 
 
27a DEFINITIVES. §§ 422—426.] 
 
 422. Affinities. This practice of reduplication is common 
 to all Gds.; thus B. H^Sltr or £ST 5^T qif^n by tens (S. Ch. 108. 
 245), 0. J^ eTJ by twos (Sn. 24), and so in all. B. also ex- 
 presses distribution by adding the particle 27 or ST to a single 
 numeral, as 531 rt cfif^n £3 give ten to each (S. Ch. 24 5). 
 
 10. DEFINITIVES. 
 
 423. Definiteness or emphasis is given to a number by 
 adding the suff. ^V or ^t w ; thus STTt srf^Ti^ the two years; <?tnV 
 f^TI^ the three days ; ^irV sn'tpl. ^ IC f our Brdhmans, etc. A final 
 T is dropped before the suff., e. g., =3T^f w of ^Tf^" four, ^TTST U of 
 ^nf?7 sixty, etc. 
 
 424. Affinities and Derivation. This suff. is used also 
 in W. H. (see Kl. 101), to which it more properly belongs. It 
 is the same as the suff. of the obi. plur. (see §§ 362. 363. 365, 7), 
 which is occasionally transferred to the nom. plur. also (see § 3 6 9). 
 
 11. INDEFINITIVES. 
 
 425. Indefiniteness in a number is expressed either by 
 prefixing or suffixing Ccir one to the numeral, as ^"37 5TT about ten, 
 wt ^"^f about one hundred, etc. ; to ^37 itself ^TU^ half is added, 
 ^L ^TU_ about one. Or it may be expressed by joining another 
 number according to the following rules: 1, every number is 
 used with the one immediately following, as rf^j^r HTfy aboid three, 
 2T^^7ZTT^lf about ten, etc.; or 2, ten or any multiple of ten is 
 used with the next following multiple of five or ten; as ST^'T^Xer 
 or 3TT sri^ about ten or any number between ten and fifteen or 
 between ten and twenty ; crta ^^N^ or sifa fTter about twenty ; or 
 3, exceptionally 2 is used with 4, ^ =^Tf^" aboid two, 5 with 7, 
 <rf^m<T about five, 8 with 10, OT?T ^ about eight, 10 with 12, 
 HT^sn^r, 12 with 14, snTT? ^Tstj aboid twelve, 20 with 50, stNt 
 ersnTT^ about twenty. 
 
 426. Affinities. These usages are probably common to 
 all Gds. As to B. see S. Ch. 106. 107, and as to W. H. see 
 
§§ 427—429.] PRONOUN. 273 
 
 Kl. 101. B. also expresses indefiniteness by prefixing one of the 
 particles rrtrr, HTZT, WFi^or TFT^, nTi? to a numeral (S. Ch. 106); 
 0. uses jfTTT (Sn. 24); S. suffixes W^ (Tr. 180). Thus B. or 0. 
 rrterf^ or B. <^T^f%ST^ or S. ft^Tp 'eHJ about thirty. — The B. 
 W[\ or ! TT^, S. <3jT is, probably, the Skr. Wtrn: stake or pos£, 
 which becomes in Pr. ^"PIT^ or ^Tnj^ (H. C. 2, 7) or (pnjT (H. C. 
 2, 9 9). — The B. liter or m£\ is probably the Skr. ifTWJ: or 
 ntfegT: assembly, heap, and JTT^ probably the Skr. iTc^ a progression. 
 
 FOURTH CHAPTER. THE PRONOUN. 
 
 4 2 7. There are six kinds of pronouns, 1) the personal, 
 2) the correlative, 3) the reflexive, 4) the honorific, 5) pronominal 
 adjectives and 6) pron. adverbs. The genitives of the personal and 
 reflexive pron. serve to express the corresponding possessive pron. 
 
 1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 428. E. H. possesses pron. for the first and second per- 
 son only. For the third pers. the remote demonstr. pron. is 
 used. The pers. pron. are alike for both genders. The forms 
 of the 1 st pers. are, dir. sg. JT^ I, obi. sg. JTT or JTt u , dir. and 
 obi. pi. ^JT^?#e; those of the 2 nd pers. are, dir. sg. rT w thou, obi. 
 sg. rTT or rTT u , dir. pi. fl^ you, obi. pi. rTTe[\ 
 
 429. There is a long form of the pers. pron., which, how- 
 ever, now occurs only in the fern. plur. and is made by adding 
 the suff. ^Ti" (see §§ 209. 214) to the obi. plur., thus ^p£t we, 
 rf^prfr you. 
 
 Note: The weak form ^T we occurs in the 0. H. (Kl. 127); 
 the corresponding form of the 2 nd pers. would be *<TfITT you. 
 From these are derived the strong fern, forms ^pRt and rft^Tt', 
 to which would correspond the strong masc. *^MT and *<fnpn', 
 obi. *^^T and *rTT^T. Some of these masc. forms may be in 
 actual use. All alike are very vulgar and almost exclusively used 
 
 18 
 
274 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. § 430.] 
 
 by women, even in a sing, sense 1 ). A plur. fT 1 ^ and even a 
 sing, rT^ actually exists in G\v. (see Kl. 129). See similar long 
 forms of the correlative pron. in § 43 G. 
 
 430. Affinities and Derivation. 1) The first pers. pron. 
 sing. The dir. form is essentially the same in the E., S. and 
 N. Gds. ; thus B. jt£, 0. 3 or qj or 5% E. H. q" (Bh.) or iff 
 or m^ (Bs.), M. qT, N. JT? or qY; also H. H. §". It is quite 
 different in the W. Gds., viz. W. II. #" (Br.) or ^f (Kn.) or 
 |[ (Mw.), P. ff, G. W, S. 573 or STT (dropping w). The other 
 forms, however, also occur dialectically in the W. Gds., viz. W. II. 
 and P. q"", S. ij^or q"T, but, as a rule, they are only used as the 
 obi. form; e. g., abl. sg. Mw. *f~^from me, P. h m' , S. »TWT 
 or JTT *?rf ; act. sg., W. H. and P. q" J , G. q- K , S. ^ or tfi. On 
 the other hand, the proper dir. form 9T is occasionally used as 
 an obi. in S. (Tr. 190), and so also q£ in P. (Ld. 16). This 
 shows that the forms with initial *T are properly obi., and have 
 been anomalously transferred to the nom. sg., as has occasionally 
 happened in the case of subst. (see § 369). — The oil form is 
 essentially the same in all Gds.; viz. B. and 0. qT, E. II. qr (Bh.) 
 or ssrT or rsrtlr (Bs.), 0. H. qtf| or 5% W. H. qrf^ or gf| or 
 qT or q" or q" (Br.) or q^ or q|* or (shortened) *T or ^ or ^"t 
 or J^T or qT (Mw.) 2 ), P. q" or q\ S. ^ or q~t or w£ 3 ), G. *T or 
 m or q' 4 ), M. cr or qt" or *?rf 5 ), N. q" or q- = or qY or q" 6 ). — 
 There are, then, in Gd. two principal types: 1) that of the 
 proper dir. forms «rT, etc.; 2) that of the various obi. form jY, 
 qt, etc., some of which are also occasionally used as direct forms. 
 
 1) I may state here as a general fact, that among the vulgar in In- 
 dia the plur. forms of the pron. and verb are almost universally used in 
 the place of the sing. Inattention to this fact has led to many errors in 
 the statements of Kl. and Bs. as to E. H. 
 
 2) q" and qi or i^T only in the gen. qTT (Br.), qTTjt or *^T(T (Mw.). 
 
 3) q"f only in the gen. q"f sTT. 
 
 4) qr only in gen. qT^T, and Y in the act.; but ace. q" H". 
 
 5) qt and Cfff only in the act., but ace. ^ vTT, etc. 
 
 6) 7J only in gen. q^~t, Y' only in the act. q" oT. 
 
§ 430.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 275 
 
 The dir. forms are modifications of the Ap. Pr. nora. sg. fTJ 
 (H. C. 4, 3 7 5) or f*f (K. I. 3 9 in Ls. 4 51) or ^T (Md. *^T fir 
 q^iT ^TTS" i ^^Trt ^TW-:fiT7/: I ^T urrrfTr ii, i. e., asmad has hamu in 
 the nom. sg. ; here the rules on asmad commence ; hamu bha- 
 nami / speak): The Skr. nom. sg. is ^s^, which becomes in 
 Pr. g^ or ^ (Vr. 6,40) or str. form ST^f (Vr. G, 40) or *^5T. 
 The latter regularly H. C. 4, 3 54 changes to ^3 in Ap. Pr. *), 
 and this becomes in P. «|3, in Br. ^T u , in Kn. ^T , in Mw. IF, 
 in G. g". — The Gd. obi. forms are modifications of the Pr. 
 gen. sg. forms ^ or J^ (H. C. 3, 113) or *Tf (H. C. 4, 379). 
 The form *T^ is used in Mh. Pr. for the gen., abl., instr. and 
 loc. sg. (H. C. 3, 113. 111. 109. 115), and in the Ap. Pr. for 
 the instr. loc. and ace. sg. (H. C. 4, 3 7 7); that is, it has evi- 
 dently become a general obi. form. There can be little doubt, 
 that *T2[ is a curtailment of **rf?[ (see § 12 6) and the three forms 
 **TJ%, ITS' and T^f are evidently made by means of the Ap. gen. 
 or obi. suff. f^, g", ^ (shortened for ^ and ^t, see §§ 3 65, 6. 
 367, 3). In the Ap. Pr. the corresponding pi. suff. flF, |f, ^ are 
 sometimes transferred to the sg. (see §3 67, 5); accordingly we 
 find in the Ap. Pr. also the alternative forms JTJ (for **rf^, cf. 
 § 126), qj and ^ (see K. I. 44 in Ls. 451, and H. C. 4, 377. 
 3, 113)"). Now the Ap. *TJ or * qt% is modified in 0. to Jrtlr 
 
 1) Ls. 330 explains the- form ^?j as = ^Tlfjf, analogous to Pr. rTif 
 and FT or rf (II. C. 3, 90); this seems to be supported by the Ap. from ^q", 
 that form, however, is somewhat doubtful; it might well be a false reading 
 for ^"3". It appears to me more probable that g^ is the regular strong 
 form of 9^, and equal to *a^#F, as shown by the corresponding Mg. ^cfr 
 (Vr. 11, 9) which according to Mg. usage retains the cH; there is also a 
 Mg. form ^5? or ^JT (Vr. 11, 9), which represents a Mh. form *^j and 
 the Ap. ^3; H. C. 4, 354 expressly states that the Pr. strong form termin. 
 ^ (9#?) changes to ^3 in the Ap. Pr. 
 
 2) The Ap. Pr. has TJ according to H. C. 4, 377, but JTJ according 
 to Md. *tz flrrfn-T: i *\Z I qflr JT/TT nt STT'T: II again it has iTf according to 
 II. C. 4, 379, but JTf- according to K. I. and Md. jfaj^TT MsshtfqW^ l | =r?j: 
 
276 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. § 430.] 
 
 or JT^, in B. 55;, in Bs. fsrf% (for *2% i. e. 5T for 3, § 71), Br. 
 JTf^; (in assimilation to Fj^), and contracted in P. to *T or T, M. *TT. 
 The Ap. q^ is in Bs. *T^ or JTCT, in E. II., W. IL, P., N. q 8 , in 
 M. JTT J or r^rf (for q w , i. e. <TT for u, cf. § 71). The Ap. *Tf is 
 in 0. H., B., 0., E. H. in 1 ) (for **3, § 126, cf. FT3 in Nro. 2) 
 or Bs. icTT, and the Ap. JT^ in E. H., N. itY 5 " and in S. Jff 1 (in 
 assimilation to Fj"#) or JT^. The Ap. Pr. *T^ occurs in 0. H. (e. g., 
 ^ ^TT like me, cf. Kl. 121 2 )), and is shortened in M., G., N. to T, 
 in 0. *J, in W. H. T or ^ ; and the Pr. JT^ is in S. TT. Lastly 
 in the 0. H. and in Br. the obi. suff. f|f is pleonastically super- 
 added to the obi. form *ft, making it trif^r. — 2) The second 
 pers. pron. sing. The circumstances here are precisely analogous 
 to those of the 1 pers. pron., with the exception, that of the 
 old Skr. nom. sg. r5T^, Pr. FT or FT or Fj5T or fto (H. C. 3, 90) 
 no trace has survived in Gd. In all Gds. alike, and even in the 
 Ap. Pr., the old gen. sg. or obi. form has taken the place of 
 the dir. form (cf. § 3 69). Thus as dir. forms are used in B. FT^, 
 in 0. fj or fj^ or fjft% E. H. rqf or FT^ (Bs.) or H* (Bh.), N. FT, 
 W. H. n or ft* or ft; (Br.) or ^ or tf (Mw.), P. F£, S. ft, M. F^, 
 G. FT; as obi. forms in B. and 0. rft, E. H. FfT or eft ^ (Bh.) or 
 foTT or F5TT or F5Tf| (Bs.), N. FT* or FT 3 ), W. H. rftf^; or FTT or FT_ 
 or FT or FT (Br.) or err or h* or en or er (Mw.) or FTT^r or F6TT or 
 F5T (Gw., Km.) 4 ), P. FT or FT, S. Fft or FT*# 5 ), G. FT or FT or ft" or 
 
 &: 11 aud in the Ndgara A}). JTJTFJref >rj =3T ^TTFT^ I JT# ST^T ^p^ I ^n^Pt 
 JTT ^T 11 lastly the Ap. has JT^ according to Md. in the above quotations, 
 and the Mh. Pr. has both J7IT and JTlf according to H. C. 3, 113. 
 
 1) In the 0. H. of Chand ift occurs as a gen., e. g., nTT *TT ^TTiT ^ 
 Lord! my name is Chand (Kl. 121). 
 
 2) Or, Chand 25, 28 T^ WIM-I STT crTfrf^ ST 3JJT 11 Iwto will she make 
 my kinship, etc. 
 
 3) FT only in the act. FT c?T by thee. 
 
 4) FT and err only in the gen. FTp' (Br.), ejr^t (Mw.), FT^ and if\ only 
 in the act. in Br. FT JT or FT* rr, but in Mw. generally, e. g., abl. FT ST 
 or er w j| see Kl. 128. 
 
 5) Fpf only in the gen. Fj*^ sTT. 
 
§ 430.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 277 
 
 FTorFTT 1 ), M. FT or rcTT or FT 2 ). All these obi. forms are various 
 modifications of the Pr. gen. sg. forms FT^ or 7JJ, FT3 (modified 
 for *FTf% or *cff%, *FTeT, cf. *Tf in Nro. 1), Fn? or H^, fj'^ 3 ), which 
 are derived hy means of the gen. or obi. suff. f%, JT, f[ or fl|, 
 W, ^ from the bases FT or FT (for Skr. ?5T). To complete the series, 
 the form Frf% must be added, which is preserved in the 0. H. 
 and Br. fjf|r, Bs. F5rt%, 0. FTT% or ft^, B. ft^, Gw. (lg. f.) rppTi; 
 and also the form H^ 4 ) which is preserved in the Br. gen. FTJJ, 
 Mw. Tr^r thine for Ap. *FT^Tf3, just as Br. cr^T, Mw. *nft or 
 J^T^t mine = Ap. zr^rfS (H. C. 4, 3 58) from Ap. gen. qf. The 
 Pr. FT^T or *Frt% appears in P. Ft or FT or (shortened) G. FT, Mw. 
 FT or er; and the Ap. Pr. FTJ or *Frf^ in Bs. Frf or FTtf [, Bh., Br., 
 N. ft", Mw. ?t w , G. FT w , N. ft. The Ap. Pr. FT3 or *ftr becomes 
 
 1) FTT only in the gen. FTTJT, FT° and FT only in the act. FT or FJ ^", 
 
 •\ -\ 
 
 FT or FT in the ace. FT =T or FT R". 
 
 2) M. FT or rcTT only in the act. 
 
 3) The form FT^ is used as an obi. form in the Mh. Pr. for the gen., 
 abl., instr., loc. sing. (H. C. 3, 99. 96. 94. 101) and in the form FT^ in the 
 Ap. Pr. for the instr., loc. and ace. sg. (H. C. 4, 370) and Md. FT^ f^nf^T: I 
 ^tu: ^T qu-JtJJrLrTJ ^TFT^ I FT"| I FETCH 7o(f$ FcTT cTT H The form FT3 is used in 
 the Ap. Pr. for the gen. and abl. sg. (H. C. 4, 372), and Fp[ for the gen., 
 abl. and loc. (Md. fe5%5^t FTScTrFFT&TFTSUr. si: n see also K. I. 44 in Ls. 
 451) and FTfjT for the gen. and abl. (K. I. 44 in Ls. 451); the same form FJ^ 
 and FT1T are also used for the nom. sg. both in the Mh. (H. C. 3, 90) and 
 Ap. Pr. (K. I. 39 in Ls. 451); the form FT/IT is used in the Ap. Pr. for the 
 nom. sg. (H. C. 4, 368. Md. qcq^ 3^ ' S 53 ^ ^rJTttrcFij: i wmzt | FTf 
 STrafsT ii i. e., thou steepest. The identity of the nom. forms Ffi| or FT^ 
 with the gen. forms Fpf or FTf[ has been already pointed out by Ls. 465, 
 and that the nom. form FT^ is really a gen. is shown by the fact of its 
 still being used in S. for the gen. 7T& sTT (Tr. 191. 193). In FT^, FTF, rTS 
 a medial ^ has been dropped, as is shown by the Mw. obi. ^ or T (contr. 
 for *FTf^, *FT^); and the forms in ^ (= *f^), ^, 4 are gen. pi., used 
 in a sing, sense, precisely as in the case of T^", T^, *T# (see Nro. 1). 
 
 4) FT^ is given as an obi. form by De Tassy in his Hindi Gramni. 
 (Kl. 121). 
 
278 IT.KSi ».N A h PRONOUNS. § 430.] 
 
 in O. II., I!., ()., EJ. IT., S. rTT 1 ), and iii Wt II. fTT or m, 15s. istt, 
 and a corresponding Ap. form *fT# is preserved in the E. II. fTT'" 
 or Fsrf, M. B5T7 (cf. § 71). The Ap. p; becomes in 0., M., G. fj 
 and is preserved also in the E. Gil. fTTTT thine for Ap. fTfJTTJ 
 (efi II. C. 4, 434). The Ap. fj^ or <TJ becomes in P., S., G. fj^, 
 Mw. if or er. , Br. fj . Lastly, 0. H. and Br. form fTTf^r by pleo- 
 nastically supperadding the obi. suff. % to the obi. form rTT ; and 
 similarly S. forms the gen. fTf" (!TT), abl. rTTtTT by pleonastically 
 adding the obi. suff. y and ST (or ^r, ^~r). — 3) The first /»/>. 
 pron. phir. The circumstances here are the same as with the 2 n 
 pers. pron. sing. No trace of the old Skr. nom. pi. SPUT has 
 survived in Gd. ; Pr., however, has 5HT or EHT (H. C. 3, 10G). But 
 Gd. and, generally also Pr., use one of the many obi. forms of 
 the Skr. base WT as their direct form. Thus the various dir. 
 forms in Gd. are: B. STf*T or STJT (to the latter, as usual, the 
 pl.-aff. JJ is added, WT-^T), 0. 5TO, E. H. ^T , N. qTJTT (to which, 
 as usual the pl.-aff. f^T or t^T is added, ^rnfW^" or fniTTfTJT), M. 
 STtft, W. H. ^ (Br.) or J% or r|" (Mw.), G. «J* or ^T; and S. 
 and P. sraT*. The various Gd. obi. forms are: B. *TTT, 0. ST»T 
 orPU^T (the latter only in the dat. *»T^), E. H. ^T (Bh.) or ^ 
 (Bs. see Kl. 127), N. ^w, M. WF^T or mx0* (only act.) or 
 5R (only in the gen. ST^^t), W. H. ^ or ^T or ^Tfr or ^Tt' 
 or ^rr w (Br.) or jtt or r^7 (Mw.) or ^jt (Gw.) 2 ), G. 5^ or s*T 
 or ^ (only act.) or WT (in the gen. 5gJTT"Tj) ; P. ?i^tt or eT or 
 ^H or (only act.) BSrt* S. STT or S^nl; 11 or ^TT#. All these 
 forms are modifications respectively of the following Pr. gen. or 
 obi. forms: a) S^ or Slf^r or SP%, b) SJ^TUT, c) 3^;, d) ^J^f^ 
 or W^, which may be spelled also Wc*T° (H. C. 4, 412). Of 
 these the first set ^J% ^F\, 5^ are modifications of the vedic 
 
 1) In the 0. H. of Chand FTT occurs as a gen. sg., e. g., ^pW STlc? 
 FTT rTTrT i having heard the word, thy father, etc. 
 
 2) ^q" u only in the dat. and ace. IpT 1 " §TT; ^TT only in the gen. 
 v^t^t our. 
 
§ 430.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 279 
 
 obi. form WT ; and 5^, W^ are used in Pr. for the gen., instr., 
 ace, nom. (H. C. 3, 114. 110. 108. 106) and SP% in the Ap. for 
 the ace. and nom. (II. C. 4, 376) i ). The Pr. wu or ^% becomes 
 mm in 0., 5*T or ^JT in G., and ^ in Mw. ; and the Pr. *?rf 
 becomes WT in G., ^T in W. II. and E. H., and ^T^ in M. — 
 The Pr. form ^fr^ or ^f«T, though clearly a mere modification 
 of the plur. obi. form W^_ (or 5J«r), has assumed the sense of the 
 sing, and is used for the nom. and ace. sing. (H. C. 3, 105. 107). 
 It is so employed also in one of the Ap. Pr. (Md. ^f^?pf ^fnT^T*TT: i 
 ^fnr ^BlT (V) I $7of ^TJT (?)). It has only survived in the B. srrfrT I. 
 As to the second Pr. set ^^TUf or ^nrnrf, it is the regular gen. 
 plur. of the base W^ or WU (H. C. 3, 114, see § 365, 4) and 
 has survived in the 0. ^WT^ and W. H. ^T^ or iprfn". As to 
 the third and fourth Pr. set W^l, *f r ^i, to which must be ad- 
 ded a form *3J£inf, they are regularly derived with the Ap. gen. 
 or obi. suff. ^;, #, f|r (see § 3 6 5, 7) from the base W^. The 
 form ^J^fl? or (dropping ?r) W^ is limited in the Ap. to the 
 nom., ace. and instr. (H. C. 4, 3 7 6) 2 ), but in Gd. it occurs also 
 in the dat. (= old gen.) ; thus in 0. H. ^rP^ and contracted 
 in Br. f^, H. H. %k\ Mw. J%% M. srcfT or ^, N. iff jfh The 
 form *^r?f is not noticed by the Pr. Gramm., but it appears 
 in Br. as ^*tT, H. H. ^qt M , Gw. ^>T. The Ap. form ^^f, espe- 
 cially mentioned by H. C. 4, 3 80 as the gen. plur., survives in 
 Mw. J^rr or *rf or (dropping the anundsika) in B. wn, M. W^T, 
 W. H., P. ^3TT, G. SRT. — The anomalous P. and S. forms with ^ 
 
 1) H. C. allows both ^[ and ^ c ^' to the nom. and ace. ; K. I. gives 
 ^% to the nom. and ^ L ^\ to the ace. (K. I. 40 in Ls. 451); again Md. 
 allows both %&! and ^^T^ to the nom., but only WUf to the ace., thus 
 *»T^ <"f?T sTS^RWTt I g^T^ ?J^T QcFpT 5TT I 3F> ^ sTCTT ' Wl ^TTIFT I ^3iT7J«[ 
 5UT^ ^ II . 
 
 2) H. C. has only W^t and allows it only to the nom. and ace., 
 but Md. has both ^nrf^; and W^Z and allows them also to the instr., thus 
 
 ^oFTcttPt ll. 
 
280 PERSONAL, PRONOUNS. § 430.] 
 
 cannot have arisen from the ordinary Pr. or Ap. forms, hut must 
 be referred to some peculiar Pr., which changed the conjunct ^ 
 of the Skr. hase 5FJT to OT instead of to rer or J^ 1 ). Otherwise, 
 however, their formation is exactly analogous to those of the 
 other Gd. forms ; thus P. and S. WT 1 is analogous to M. W^ 
 and would presuppose a Pr. form *^wf^ or *5^TJ; and the 
 P. WT, S. *srf to P. f*TT, Mw. J^T, presupposing Pr. * m^t- 
 In the S. 5Frt% w and wfff the obi. suff. ^°, # (for U, 3) are 
 pleonastically supperadded. — 4) The second pers. pron. plur. 
 The circumstances here are exactly analogous to those of the first 
 pers. pron. plur., substituting only the base Fl^fr or rW (= Skr. 
 Jjcq) for W^ or ^»T. A simple enumeration therefore of the 
 various Pr. and Gd. forms will suffice. Pr. and Ap. have : a) ftj^; 
 orjT^(H.C. 3, 91. 93. 4, 369); b) g^nii (H. C. 3, 100); c) cr^ft 
 or rF^ (H. C. 4, 369), d) rjrft ( H - 0. 4, 373) or e) *rfiTf, all 
 plur., and f) jTq (H. C. 3, 9 2. 9 4. 1 Ol) in the sing, (like «fs?). 
 In Gd. there are, l) the following dir. forms: B. <rf^ (f), 0. ppr (a), 
 E. H. (a) ^ (Bh., for FT# ) or ?ftl[ or rfrV or (a) 5*^ (Bs.), W. H. 
 (a)Fnr(Br.) or (a) n or (c) V (Mw., for *rrt or *rT^ 9 , with 9 for 
 3 as in G., S. and P.); G. m (a), M. HJ^t (c), N. (f) f^f^T (like 
 B. rifq) or (c) f?Frt (with ^ for ^ or 3, as in Br. fr^T^T yours), 
 S. (c) rlc^T* or FT5TT " or rT^t* or rT^ or (c) ^c^T or 55JT 11 or %H[t 
 or wf^° or %^' J , P. (c) jwT (for Pr. *<TWf). And 2) the fol- 
 lowing obi. forms : B. (d) rffaT or (a) cVf*l (only in the nom. pi. 
 rrr*T-}"T), 0. (a) RJU or (b) Fpn^T (only in the dat. JJWI^f), E. H. (a) rrteT 
 or r?T% (Bh.) or (a) FTCf (Bs.), W. II. (a) FFT or (e) rP^T or (c) rT^" 
 
 1) The loc. suff. f^T^ admits both changes in the pron. of the or- 
 dinary or Mh. Pr. (H. C. 4, 59. 60, e. g., STcriw or STafnr or Scrf^ for 
 *Mdfci in all), but only i?JT in subst. (H. C. 3, 11, e. g., 5orf«T in god); 
 on the other hand the Mg. Pr. admits a form 1 "f*T msi or Rt si even in 
 subst. (Wb. Bh. 417, as 5"sff% or ^fe). This is noteworthy; for the P. 
 and S. phonetic system shows also in other points (see §§ 16. 18. 14) an 
 affinity to that of the Mg. class of Prs. and Gds. The Pali admits both 
 f^T^ and Pf in subst. (St. G. 62). 
 
§ 430.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 281 
 
 (only in the dat.) or (d) rJJ^TT or f?nrr (only in the gen. rTJ^rfT or 
 JH^np - ), all these in Br., or (e) cm (Gw.) or (b) rprn^(Km.) or (d) erf 
 (Mw., for *cT^f, see S.), G. (d) FTTT (in the gen. rPTTft) or (a) FTO 
 or (a) FIiT (only act.\ M. (d) rf^r or (c) rTJ^t" (only in the act.) 
 or (a) rf^ (only in the gen. FTJJ =31"), N. (f) f?rfa or (c) f?nft, S. 
 (d) dc^T or FTcTT or rT^TT or FTT or (d) %f6^"? or ^cTT or 5^7 or ^"7, 
 P. (d) HOT (for Pr. *fTOT^) or (d) fj^T or nm or (d) mT or (c) hot" 
 (only in the act.). As to the origin of the S. forms ; the 3 of 
 the Pr. fTJ^T is changed to ^ (similarly as in Bs. r5rf|[ to thee 
 for r[f^) and *T is elided, whence S. FTc^t'*, next either ^ or 3 
 is dropped, making H5R or Fnft u ; finally 5T^ or e[ is elided, ma- 
 king rT^*; the other S, set ^o^t", etc. arises in a precisely si- 
 milar way from the Pr. forms derived from the Pr. base ~3*g 
 (H. C. 3, 99. 95). — 5) There remain a few peculiar obi. forms: 
 viz., of the first pers. pron., M. OTf or *TFF or mcbUT (Man. 47. 85), 
 G. T?r, W. H. *T?T, H. H. OTF or ij<F, and of the second pers. pron., 
 
 M. FTH or rFF or rT<FOT, G. FTjT , H. H. rTOT or rT37, P. RH . These 
 obi. forms are modifications of the Pr. gen. OTHT (H. C. 3, 113) 
 or Ap. JTfiF (H. C. 4, 3 79), Pr. F?f<F (H. C. 3, 99) or Ap. <Ttt 
 (H. C. 4, 37 2) or mt (H. C. 4, 3 72). The origin of these forms 
 is obscure. In Pr., the forms *T?<K and FT?3T are treated as regular 
 bases, just like Pr. ^^ and rT% Skr. WT and JTSJT, and declined 
 as nouns. Thus in the gen. sing, the pure base OT3T or W^ 
 (H. C. 3, 113) is used after the Ap. Pr. fashion, i. e., dropping the 
 gen. suff. (H. C. 4, 345); loc. sg. qsqrffcr or ^TOT (H. C. 3, 116), 
 gen. pi. OTtRTUf or ^r^TUT (H. C. 3, 114), loc. pi. JT?<IOT or ??r^T 
 (H. C. 4, 117), etc. In Gd. the gen. sg. (or pure base) *TstK, rj?3T 
 become H. H. Jjqr, rjcF, M. OTf, H^ (with jj^for qr, § 145, note). 
 And Gd. derives from them even regular obi. st. forms, H. H. mi7, 
 ppr, M. OTtf or tot, rT<k or HfFOT (just as H. H. efr?, M. sfflOT 
 of snrr horse). The corresponding direct st. forms exist only in 
 M. OT<ITT m., ott?!' f., »JTFfT n., and fTfFT, rRFJ", Htff . They serve both 
 as the gen. sing, of the personal pron., and as possessive pron. 
 In E. H., also, the possess, pron. are often used in the place of 
 
282 PERSONAL i-konounk. §§431.432.] 
 
 the pers. pron. ; thus abl., E. II. ^7 fit' or ^r;rTsrf, just as M. 
 rTRyTT pT , loc. E. II. 17V7" 3T, M. WlHiTin. It appears, probable, 
 therefore, that the bases JFFT and rT5F are really those of posses- 
 sive pron. and perhaps connected with Skr. Mrflu mine and rcTTta" 
 thine by substituting the Pr. bases T^r, rpr for *T, F5T (or TZ", Far) ; 
 thus T^O" == q^T — jt?tt or FJf^ = <£$J or Fpr (cf. H. C. 3, 91. 
 noin. pi. rPff) = FT'TT. Or they might be referred to the Skr. 
 bases JTT?T5T Jiifee me, rsnTST like thee, which would easily assume a 
 possessive meaning (see §§ 218. 2 51), and which might change 
 in Pr. to Tf^ = C T«K', nfi$:fr = rj>T. It may be remarked that 
 a somewhat analogous process has taken place in the case of 
 the demonstrative pron. ; thus Pr. U^t is both that and sueh-lilce 
 = Skr. f^5T, and S. has JJkV = ^Y = ZT3J- (see § 43 8, 4). This 
 would explain also the P. form FTW, which would be = FpCI[ = 
 rSTPTST, and the ^ in the Ap. Pr. form Ffy might be a remini- 
 scence of the Skr. ^ of <nn -1 ). Ls. connects Wft and rTHT with the 
 gen. sing, of the pers. pron. *WU and *F51W, but these change 
 regularly to jt^t or qf|;, FT^; or Fjf^[ (see Nros 1.2); I believe, 
 there is no example of the Skr. conjunct S?T ever changing to 
 ?<"T[ in Pr. 
 
 431. Personal pron. are declined precisely like nouns, with 
 the exception that in the gen. they use their corresponding pos- 
 sessive pron. (§ 44 9). The weak form of the latter is preferred 
 in the nom., and the st. form in the obi. cases : thus JTT^r STPT 
 or rarely *tY^t sttc my father, but JTf^" wn 5F of my father ; ^rr^ 
 iTT^ - or rarely ^rft" JTT^ our mother, but ^rff mr sft of our mo- 
 ther, etc. 
 
 43 2. A sort of pleonastic declension may be made by ad- 
 ding the case-aff. to the obi. form of the gen. in ^ ; but in 
 
 1) Or again, T37 might be = ^Hf-sT, and rT<JT = rf^-rT and Fry = 
 FT^-^; ?T and £ being the gen. postpositions which occur in 0. H. and 
 0. P., and are still used in M., P. and M. 8. They may have existed in 
 Pr. already, just as the modern gen. postpositions =3T, ERT, 3i"^T lit. done 
 (see § 377). 
 
§§ 432 a. 432 b.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 283 
 
 bhle Jchari bhdshd this is restricted to the loc, as qtq or qty/ q 
 
 in me, uq it or ^qy j? vn us, etc. 
 
 432a. 1. First personal pron. 
 
 a) Simple form : q '' I, ^q we. 
 Sing. Simple plur. Comp. plur. 
 
 noin. q gJT fpTFTTTT^ 
 
 a., d. qtcFforqtcFf ?FL.^> ^-MIIT 3i or eq^nTTq^ 
 
 i.,ablrqt ^TorqYiT fT^ g/q^tJT^ or ^TcFTttT^ST 
 
 gen. qTJ orqt7T,qTfr,qtf ^TTJ/ or gqTT, °ft, °\ $W&TnJk, 5F or ^wrqq m, #T 
 loc. qf q or qT q or qtf it ^tJt or ^qf if gJTF?nTT q or fqcfftqq^q 
 
 h) Emphatic form : q ft " or q f even I. 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 nom. q jft ' q er fq ff w fq p 
 
 a., d. JTT^T cF XTfU 5J7 fq ft ^T fT f 9i 
 
 i.,abl.qfff IT iTTo ^T fqft ST fq |T ST 
 
 gen. qfr or iff?" ft qtff or qff f 1 fqf or fq?" ft f^ft or W*T fE, 
 
 loc. qtffqorqff q qff qorqfffq gTT^q or fqfit fq f q or f qff if 
 or JTT7 ft q or qTy f q or ^rcr^" ft it or fqy' g q 
 
 43 2b. 2. Second pers. pron. 
 
 a) Simple form: h* thou, FT you. 
 Sing. Simple plur. Comp. plur. 
 
 nom. R" u ft rr'crfrrr 
 
 a., d. FTT Jtf or FTT ' 37 FTlf cJT FTcrTTXT 5F7 or Hcdl'i W cfi 
 
 i.,abl. Fit ^T or rft* if FTTir H FTwTTTT £r or rWiWr ST 
 
 gen . Flt^T or FTTfT, FTT ft , rftf HT^TJ 01' cTT^fT, °ft, °f rJ^Vr^T, 5R or rTcfTTTPT Jfi, SFT 
 loc. FTT if or qV q or riff q rTtf? q or FTTff q R crrrrrjt or ff^Tnqjf 
 
 b) Emphatic form : ft ft "" or FT : f even thou. 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 nom. FT ft ' FT f FT fT or FTf J "'' FT f or FTf3 
 
 a., d. qTft 37 rtfg 37 F%3" ; ^ FTTf3 37 
 
 i.,abl.FTTftif ™%^ HW$ W ^ FTTf3; ST 
 
 gen. Frtf or fttj ft rftft or Frtf f qTff or qTft ft qff ft or FTtff f 
 loc. Fttff q or Frtf q rTTfr *t or FTT ft q FTf Z* q or qt^|" q FTT^3 q or q>f ft >t 
 orFTt^^tq orFTifg-q orrft^f ^t"q orFTf^fjq 
 
284 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. §§ 433—436.] 
 
 Note : ^t and f may or may not be spelled ^fr", W ; also 
 ^T and r% may be spelled ^t and rf^r before ffV and T p (see 
 §67); e. g., ^rj- ^t" ^ to us, fj^r T* & to you. — The gen. pi. 
 may also be rftrnj, ^TT7, etc. 
 
 2. THE CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 4 33. By the term. „ correlative pronoun" I here designate 
 the demonstrative, the relative, the interrogative and the indefi- 
 nite. The demonstrative pron. include the near, the far and the 
 general. The forms of the near dem. are : dir. sg. or pi. x (also 
 Hef or emphatic ^ or Jf or ZWS), obi. sg. £ or ^eT (or emph. 
 ^ift), pi. ^^ (or emph. £-<^ ) ; of the far dem.: dir. sg. or 
 pi. 3 (also STe? or emph. ^h^ or 3IT or 3^t), obi. sg. ^V or WT&^ 
 (or emph. sft^t), pi. ^PeT (or emph. ^Vs^P) ; of the general dem.: 
 dir. sg. or pi. rT (or emph. rhr or fcT^x), obi. sg. ir or cTeT (or 
 emph. cT^"), pi. rF?r (or emph. d-^^t") ; of the relative: dir. sg. 
 or pi. ?T (or emph. sT^f or f^![x), obi. sg. 5T or ^F (or emph. snfO, 
 pi. ^![ (or emph. ?r^^V) ; of the interrog. : dir. sg. or pi. 57 (or 
 emph. 5% or fifT^x), obi. sg. sf or 5Fff[ (or emph. ^rft), pi. ^^ 
 (or emph. chr^^T); of the indef.: dir. sg. or pi. 5» or 5Ff|T, obi. 
 sg. or pi. 3T or cFT^ . These forms are alike for the masc. and fern. 
 
 434. The interrog. pron. has a peculiar form in the sing.: 
 dir. 37T, obi. 3iT or 5TH|;, when inanimate objects are spoken of. 
 It is, in fact, practically a neuter. The obi. 37T^ is used only, 
 when no subst. is expressed. Thus cRT zfif ^TfT what do you do, 5FTT 
 W£ jt in what house, 3>t|; *t ^xir with what wilt thou eat it ? In 
 the plur., the ordinary forms are used. 
 
 43 5. The general dem. pron. has an alternative dir. form 
 ^T he, that for both, sing, and plur. It is generally used instead 
 of FT, but has no emph. forms to express which n%, iri^ are 
 used. 
 
 43 6. All correlative pron., exc. the near and far. dem., 
 have long forms, made by adding the pleonastic suff. SPT (see 
 §§ 209. 214). They are treated like adj., i. e., they may be 
 
§ 437.] CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 285 
 
 either weak or strong (§ 3 81), they are alike in the sing, and 
 plur. (§ 386), and they form a strong fern, in ^ (§ 3 84) and a 
 strong masc. obi. in u (§ 3 86). Thus weak forms: dir. and obi., 
 sg. and pi., com. gen., fTcj"^ or cTS^T or FTT^ he, sToFT^ or ?ryT or in^ 
 which, tf^t or cft^T or cjTPT who, cRT^ft any one; strong forms: 
 sg. and pi., masc. obi. rttt or FT^T, fTZ^T or sTFT, cft^T or grr^r ; 
 fem. dir. and obi. rTJ^i" or frVrt", sT3^rt or sTR^, 373Tf or cR^ft. The 
 existence of the strong masc. dir. forms *rT3TT or iTRT, etc. is 
 doubtful. 
 
 43 7. Affinities. In the following list, forms of the same 
 origin are designated by the same letter. Thus a, a denote forms of 
 the same group, a, a or a, « forms of the same variety of the same 
 group, etc. It will be noticed, that the various groups have been 
 much intermixed, the dir. form of a declension sometimes be- 
 longing to one group or variety, and its obi. form to another. 
 
 1) Hie near dem. pron.\ dir. sg., B. (a) ^ or (c) ^fSr; 0. 
 (a) ^ or $rf| or (a) ^ ; (E. H.) Bh. (a) ^ or ^5 or ^ or Jiff 
 or Bs. 9T; (W. H.) Br. (a) 5T?T or ?Tf or ^ or Mw. («) JTt or ^ 
 (masc.) and Ul or m (fem.); P. (a) ^ or ^fT or ^f> or (f) ^FT; 
 S. (a) ft or f (com. gen.) or (a) ^t3 or %5 (masc.) and |fo or 
 f^^r (fem.) or («) J^T or ipft or ^&t or ^^Y (masc.) and ^T or 
 ^T or Jm or ^T (fem.) or (e) 307t (masc.) and ^tht (fem.); G. 
 
 (a) *JT or ^; M. (a) ^T (masc), ^t (fem.), ^f (neut.); N. (a) m. 
 Obi. sg., B. (a) ^ or (a) ^T or (c) S^Tj 0. («) ^fT or ^T or ^f; 
 (E. H.) Bh. (a) ^ or ^ or Bs. (a) m or af|; (W. H.) Br. (a) ^f| 
 or zn or ?rf|; or Mw. (c) ^tn or J^ or (y) JWt or Wit or II. H. 
 
 (b) ^ or (/?) ^T (in the dat. and ace. only); P. (a) ^f or ^ or 
 (b) ^H or ^H or ^ or (c) ^T or ^ or ^ (only act.) ; S. (c) 
 f%T^ or 5^ (or ^rf only abl.) ; G. (a) OT or ^ ; M. (a) ^T or ZTT 
 (masc.) and f% or ^ (fem.) or ^IT^, ^ta (only dat.); N. (a) ^ 
 or (b) u^ or Km. («) u or ^. Dir. plur., B. and 0. deest ; (E. H.) 
 Bh. (a) 5 or ^r or jtjt or ^r or Bs. (a) p or ^r or cprj W. II. 
 (a) JTJT or (a) ff or ir or ^r; P. (a) ^ or ^sr or ^; S. (a) ^t or 
 ^ or (a) ^ or (e) ^E; G. (a) m or ^T; M. (a) % (masc), ^TT 
 
286 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. § 437.] 
 
 (fern.), ft (neut.); N. (a) ^T or j^e . Obi. plnr., B. and 0. deest; 
 (E. H.) Bh. (a) $5gf or Bs. ?Ff[ or ^s or U^ or 3* ; (W. II.) Br. 
 ( a ) 5 s !: or (°) ^^ (° r ^ dat. acc - on b')> or Mw. ( a ) ?rt or ^i" 
 or (c) 7UF7 or *surr; P. (c) ^T or ^~T or ^T7 or (a) g^T or 
 (c) J^rT or ^fT or ^^t or y^t* (act. only); S. (a) ^fo or f|f^t 
 or (c) cpifr or ffprfa or ^ffrr or ^ffr or ^:% '"'; G. (a) ^1 or 
 (c) ^5T^; N. (a) ^-f or ^T or Km. (a) ^ or (c) ^JT or ^ft. 
 
 2) The far dem. pron.; dir. sing., B. (a) ^T or (c) 3f^r ; 0. 
 deest', E. H. (a) 3 or srlir or 5T^ or 35; (W. II.) Br. (a) stf or 
 5Tf or srff or 3i% or («) 5IT or Mw. («) 3 or U (niasc.) and 5TT 
 (fern.); P. (a) 3^[ or dlf; S. (a) g" or 3; (com. gen.) or ^T or 5T 
 (masc.) and f g or 3^ (fern.) ; G. (d) ^TcfTT or m&J (masc), ^Tv?T 
 or Qc'Tl' (fern.), *&Wr or cr^f (neut.); M. deest; N. (a) 3T. OW. sm#., 
 B. (a) m or («) 3^T or (c) 3fT; 0. decs*; (E. H.) Bh. (a) €Tt or 
 ste or Bs. (a) 5rf|; '(W. H.) Br. (a) 31% or srr or 5TTf| or (b) 3^ 
 or fsrer or (/j) 3^ or fsrir (dat. acc. only) or Mw. (c) 3UT or St" 
 or (y) 3TrrT or arart; P. (a) 3!T or (b) 3q^ or (c) 3^ or «T^ (only 
 act.) or (f) 3?^; S. (c) J-:t or 3^ or 3PT^ or 3f^ or 3-| (or 
 ^TT or 3^rf abl. only); G. (d) m^n or crftt (masc), etc.; M. deest; 
 N. (b) 3^ or Gw. («) ar. D»\ plur., B. and 0. deest; (E. H.) Bh. 
 (a) 3: or srtw or off; or 3e[ or Bs. (a) ^T or 3^ ; W. H. (a) 5ff 
 or («) sr or k; P. (a) 3eT or srff ; S. (a) g; or ^t or (a) B^ or 
 3^> or ^ or 3^; G. (d) ot^t or <Tc?tt (masc), etc.; M. deest; N. 
 (c)3^ or 3^. Obi. plur., B. and 0. deest ; (E. H.) Bh. (a) afc^ 
 or Bs. (a) 3^ or 3^; (W. H.) Br. (a) 3^ or 3T^r or (c) 3^" or 
 (a) fsR or ferfr or (c) fsr^Y' (or 3^' or fsp^ dat. acc. only) or 
 Mw. (a) 5TT or EETT or (c) 3HTT or ann ; P. 3TT or 3^7 (or 3=tT 
 or 3^t " J act. only) ; S. (a) ^t or 3T^t or (c) s^f^ or 3^1 or 
 3^fr or 3f^fr; G. (d) «Tc?rraT or <WfT5T; M. deest; N. (a) 3^ or 
 3^T or Km. (a) 3 1 or (c) 3H" or 3^. 
 
 3) Tlie general dem. pron.\ dir. sing., B. (a) ?T or (a) m^rr 
 or (c) fptft" or ffef ; 0. (a) ^T or £rf% ; E. H. (a) FT or ^r or n^ or 
 f?rff[ or (c) rrsr^ or rrj^ or rfr^r ; W. H. (a) ^t; P. (a) *tT; S. (a) srr 
 (masc) and HT (fern.); G. (ajrr; M. (a)rTT (masc), fTT (fein.), h" (neut.); 
 
§ 437.] CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 287 
 
 N. (a) Fat or (c) fft . Obi. sing., B. («) FTT^T or (c) FT%T; 0. (a) ftt 
 or («) ftt^T or FTT^i or fTlfin (E. H.) Bh. (a) FT or R^ or Bs. (a) FOT 
 or ruffl or (c) rT5TT or (y) rT3^T or FTPT; (W. H.) Br. (a) FTT or rfrf|; 
 or mf^ or fFTf or (b) FTT^ (gen. only) or H. H. (b) m^ or (/?) frt^T 
 (dat. ace. only) or M\v. (c) fnerr or fFlHTT or FT«3Tt; P. (a) fFT^ or 
 (b) f?W or (c) frT^ (act. only) or (f) fFTFT ; S. (a) FTp^ (or FT^l abl. 
 only); G. (a) Ft; M. (a) mj (inasc.) and frT (fem.) ; N. (a) rr or rft 
 or (b) rf^ or (c) FT^ or Km. (a) FT^ or ft. Dir. plur., B. and 0. 
 deest; E. H. (a) ft or Ffjf or Pt^ or (c) RETT or FB^or efcr; W. H. 
 (a)fTT; P. (a) ^T; S. (a) £r; G. (a) cf or FT^V; M. (a) FT (masc), ?m 
 (fem.), ftt" (neut.); N. (c) fpr. Obi. plur., B. and 0. deest; (E. H.) 
 Bh. (a) FFo or (c) FfFJ^ or (y) FTFT or Bs. (a) rJI-gr or FJT^ or FTT/, 
 (W. II.) Br. (a) fFPT^ or frtPr or (c) TFRrT (or TFT-^ dat. ace. only), 
 or Mw. (a)rJTT or FT? or (c) fFrnrt; P. (c) frPTT or frt^ (or ppfT 
 or frTRT ' act. only) ; S. (a) PtPr or FTpT or (c) frRpt or TFTprPr or 
 Pf^Pt or PrP^Pr; G. (a) Frat or (c)ft^; M. (a) RTT; N. (a) fn^ 
 or fnFTI? or Km. (a) ?U or (c) FR" or FH^. 
 
 4) The relat. pron.; dir. sing., B. (a) K or (a) m^T or (c) PrPr; 
 0. (a) v or Jig - or (c) ST* or zr§ or uf; E. H. (a) it or stir or fstff 
 or (c) sTSPT^ or sT3^ or sfta ; (W. H.) Br. (a) sfr or sTT or (c) sffcr 
 or Mw. (a)sdt; P. (a) STT; S. sit (masc.) and 5TT (fem.); G. (a)ir; 
 M. (a) sit (masc), sTT (fem.), it" (neut.); N. (a) sit or (c) sR. Obi. 
 sing., B. («) jjt^t or (c) JTT^T; 0. (a) m or JTTpf or m^j; (E. H.) 
 Bh. (a) st or stir or (c) sTT^ or (y) sTtr or Bs. (a) SETT or s^ff; (W. H.) 
 Br. (a) 5TT or sTjf| or stf|; or II. H. (b) Pw or (/?) Pw (dat. • ace. 
 only), or Mw. (c) pTUT or if or sfUT or sTqrt ; P. (a) frt^ or (b) fstq^ 
 or (c) Pr (act. only) or (f) fsTFTj S. (a) #F|- ; G. (a) st or (cjstsnr; 
 M. (a) nrr or sTT or sT (masc), t% (fem.); N. (a) sT or sTT or (b) sTH 
 or (c) sTT or Gw. (a) sT^ or st. Dir. plur., B. and 0. deest; (E. H.) 
 Bh. (a)st or stf; or Ptf or (c) sT5R^ or sT3^ or sTFT or Bs. (a) Fter ; 
 (W. H.) Br. (a) in or sTT or (c) sTR or Mw. (a) aft; P. (a) sit; S. 
 (a)ir; G. (a) st or srat; M. (a) st (masc), ?JTT (fem.), sfT (neut.) ; 
 N. (c)spr or (a) t%f. Obi. plur., B. and 0. deest; (E. II.) Bh. 
 (a) sFf or Bs. (a) stf^ or s?R or sVr ; (W. II.) Br. (a) pR or PrPr 
 
288 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. § 437.] 
 
 or (c) fa^T*' (or f^i[ w dat. ace. only), or M\v. (a) i?TT or ST? or 
 (c) firtniT or ?Ttrrf; P. (c) flrc-f or f?r^~t (or f%rft' or fir^f act. 
 only); S. (a) f%fSr or sTPr or (c) m^TPT or fjrfcffr or f?Frfr or firmft"; 
 G. (a)k^T; M. (a) jff?T; N. (a) ffPf; or spif or Km. (a) rtf or (c) 
 
 jTT or sT^FT . 
 
 5) TJie inierrog. pr<m.\ clir. sing., B. (a) &; (com. gen.) or 
 t% or 37FT (both neut.); 0. (a) cF or cRf or (c) fcTT| or cjrj or cHT 
 (all com. gen.) or (a) fifT or (b) fifPGr or (c) cFrjr (all neut.) ; E. H. 
 (a) 3» or cfieT or fiffeT or (c) cFoFT^ or cTTFT^ or c^FT (com. gen.) or 
 (a) 37T or trnir (neut.) ; (W. H.) Br. (a) ^t or ^f or (c) qrfr^ or 
 3TFT or Mw. (c) 37tiT^ or 3Tir^ or ennr^ (all com. gen.), or Br. (a) cRT 
 or cTi^T or 3FH1 or Mw. (a) cFTT^"' or apr^' (all neut.); P. (a) fiJnTST 
 or (c) cRTUT^ (com. gen.) or (a) 5FT or firraT (neut.); S. (a) 5F7![T or 
 ZfiWt or (d) ^»^t or 3F»^"^t or eff^ or (e) cFSTTTT (all com. gen.) or 
 (a) ^T or ZfiW or 5fi*eT (neut.); G. (a) sft (masc), SfT (fern.), ST (neut.) 
 or cwr (inasc.), 5FT^ (fern.), cR?j (neut.) or (c) SfTTqj^ (com. gen.); M. 
 (c) gpTTrjr^ (com. gen.) or (a) crrra^ (neut.); N. (a) srt or (c) afvT^. Obi. 
 sing., B. (a) 5f?Tl[T (com. gen.) or (a) t% or (b) ferra (both neut.); 
 0. (a) cRT or («) cfiT^T or 5frrP|[ (all com. gen.); (E. H.) Bh. (a) off 
 or cFsT (com. gen.) or (a) 35T or cFT^ (neut.) or Bs. (a) cwr or cftf^ 
 (com. gen.); (W. H.) Br. (a) sft or cFTf!? or fifiiir or Mw. (c) sfitt 
 or crrrjj^ or cfV or cTJOtt or emrrt or H. H. (b) f£rra_ or (/S) T%r^T (dat. 
 ace. only) com. gen., or 6f?TI| (neut.); P. (a) fcTi^I or t%^ or (b) f%^ 
 or (f ) faFFT^ or (c) fijvT^(act. only) com. gen., or cFTS^ or cFTF (neut.) ; 
 S. (a) cT% or (d) spf"^ or apf^ or (e) cFsTT% (com. gen.); G. (a) cF 
 or (c) cTTttrr^ (com. gen.); M. (c) cFniTT or cFTCUJT or cFTCTT (or cKTUtV 
 instr. only) com. gen., or (b) cF^" or cFerr or cFSTT or sfsjjt (all 
 neut.) ; N. (a) sf or cFT or (b) iw or (c) cTvT or Gw. (a) sfj or SF. 
 Dm plur., B. and 0. dees£; E. H. and W. H. like sing.; P. (a) fiFfrs 
 or (c) sfttitj S. (a) sf^t or (d) efT^T or trr^" or (e) £F5TT"3T (com. 
 gen.); G. (a) cTJ^t (masc), 5F3" (fem.), cwf(neut.); M. and N. like 
 sing. Obi. plur., B. and 0. deest; (E. H.) Bh. (a) cjf^r or Bs. (a) chJ-<^ 
 or cfiFr or cF^ or fer ; (W. H.) Br. (a) t%^ or fcfit^T or (c) fJF^ij 
 (or ffcT^I; ' dat. ace. only) ; Mw. (c) EFUn or cwn ; P. (c) %T"T or 
 
§ 438.] CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 289 
 
 f§v^-f (or f%rrT or fafT^T act. only); S. (a) a?J^T or (d) ^T^T 
 or (a) %f^ or 5nftr or (c) fe^T or fifif^ft or Qi-lH-l or fefafo ; 
 M. (c) cfTkrrr (corn, gen.) or (b) Sn^n or anSTT (neut.) ; N. (a) cFR[ 
 or Gw. (a) 5F3 or Sn^T or 3vTT . 
 
 6) The indefinite pron.; dir. sing., B. (a) iff;; 0. (a) srf|; or 
 (c) cfWh or cjT3trTf% ; (E. H.) Bh. (a) W>f or (c) afpTT or Bs. (a) cFTS 
 orSnT3; W. H. (a) afTtj or cfrra or (c)^T^; P. (a) <37T^; S. (a) art 
 or 3nT^ (masc), 55T or 3nT^ (fern.), £t (neut.); G. (a) ^tj; M. (c)aTrnft 
 or grtti^; N. (a) aftft. Obi, sing., B. (a) cft^T; 0. (a)cffT^T; E. H. 
 like dir. ; (W. H.) Br. (a) ttm or (b) faR^ or f&T^t or (c) 3TFTT or 
 Mw. (a) art" or (c) aroft or cntrft; P. (b) foffir or fwf; S. (a) afPf 
 or er^T; G. (a) s^; M. (c) aftuTT or arm^T; N. (a) a?tfi| or (b) a^. 
 Dir. plur., B. and 0. dccst; E. H., W. H., P. like sing.; S. (a) at 
 or 5f7^ or ar^ or ar^; G. (a) a?^; M. (c) arVorl'. Obi. plur., B. and 
 0. deest\ E. H. and W. H. like sing.; P. (b) fare or farjft or (c) 
 far^i; S. (c) far;? or arir or ar^ or ar-^T; M. (c) aftn^f. 
 
 438. Derivation. It will be observed tbat in tbe prece- 
 ding list there are six principal types of forms, which I have 
 severally marked with a, b, c, d, e, f, and the characteristic fea- 
 tures of which are the letters IT (occasionally elided), H_, 3T_ (or 
 TT 0> ^L ( or T)> ^ ( or 5.)» *L respectively. The derivation of these 
 forms is involved in many difficulties, the explanation of which, 
 however, in most cases (I think) will be found to be the fact, 
 that the forms which are now used as simple pron. were origi- 
 nally those of pron. adj. of quality or quantity. 
 
 1 ) The pron. of quant, are in Skr. ^OH (or Ved. ^oTfT ), 
 FTTcTrT , JJTcJr^, fara?^ (Ved. SnToTrTj so large or so much, etc. In Pr. 
 these become ^sr, ftst, fT5T, aisr (cf. H. C. 4, 407. 408) or ^xt, ?rer, 
 ?TT, aw (K. I. 10. 11. 12 in Ls. 4 50. 451), or slightly modified 
 ^5T, frcT, firsr, farsr or ^JT, f?m, ffTT, f%JT (K. I. 10. 11. 12); some- 
 times they are variously spelled ^51" or fcT, etc. (II. C. 3, 3 97. 
 401) or ^rsr or ^rsr, etc. (cf. H. C. 4, 418); again they may be 
 shortened to ^, ?r, ir, ar (see Wb. Bh. 4 22). Thus the Ap. Pr. 
 uses the first set ^sr, etc., with the addition of the pleon. suff. ^, 
 
 19 
 
290 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. § 438.] 
 
 as quant, pron., ^5TT, hotj, etc. (H. C. 4, 407. 408 and see § 218), 
 and S. and P. similarly use the shortened forms ^, FT, etc. with 
 the pleon. suff. Tf or 3T ; viz. S. ^fr, rTjt, etc., P. ^TT, FTTT, etc. 
 Again G. uses the set ^5T, FT5T, etc., itself without adding any 
 pleon. suff., as qual. pron., $75IT, FToTT, etc. But already in the 
 Ap. Pr. these quant, (or qual.) pron. had come to be commonly 
 used as simple pron.; so especially the bases ^T he or this 
 (II. C. 4, 361. 3, 72; it is also so used in Skr. in the obi. cases 
 of ^t) and fsFT what (K.I. 13 in Ls. 4 50); again as pron. adv., 
 viz. ^5T, ft~st thus, etc. (H. C. 4, 401; ^sr or ^oFT , an ace. sg., oc- 
 cur even in Skr.), or ^rsr^ so, thus (H. C. 4, 4 20, a loc. sg. cf. 
 H. C. 4, 334) and %torf% now (H. C. 4, 4 20, also a loc. sg., cf. H. C. 
 4, 3 57). Again the shortened bases (t%7 etc.) occur in the Ap. Pr. 
 abl. sg. fif% (H. C. 4, 3 56, with the abl. suff. ^ of nouns in ^, 
 cf. H. C. 4, 341), and perhaps in the pron. adv. fcT^, t%^, fifi^ 
 (H. C. 4, 401, lit. abl. sing, with suff. f, shortened for i[). Again 
 the shortened forms ir (ft?), H are mentioned by Md. as nom. 
 
 sg. (ir £r ^r j^-tt *rat<T5;t ' ^ T ^ ^ ir ^ ^r ^ ^ si: i ft (?) jfr^rt 
 irf^cFTT 5rqf 5TT i ^5T sr ^ET n). The latter are used in all E. Gds. and 
 in G. as nom. sg. ; thus E. H. ^, FT or ST, ir, £». By adding the 
 regular obi. sing. suff. ^ (shortened for Ap. ^t or J", see § 365, 6) 
 the E. H. obi. forms ^ef , FT^, rTf;, 5ReT are derived and by adding 
 the regular obi. plur. suff. ^ (see §§ 3 65, 4. 3 68, 5) the plur. 
 obi. forms ^eT, fIf^, etc. The older form in J" is occasionally 
 met with, as fcT^" (Kl. 137, e). The corresponding obi. form made 
 with the gen. or obi. suff. tl[ (shortened for Ap. ^;, see §§ 3 6 5, 6. 
 368, 2) is found in Bs. and Br. ; thus Br. mf^ (for *^f%) or ^ff, 
 FTtlr or tfff^, etc., Bs. nf| (for *^f%), F?rl% (for *frri%), etc. Again 
 (just as with nouns, see § 3 65, 6) the obi. suff. | or f| may be 
 dropped in E. II. ; thus Bh. $7, FT, etc., Bs. JTT, FJJT (=-• %, ft), etc., 
 Br. m, FTT, etc. In the obi. pi. of Bs. the suff. ^ usually drops 
 the g; (as in E. H. and Br. nouns, see § 3 68, 5); thus Bs. ^eT 
 or JF^ or ^^ or JPT^, etc. In Br. it optionally ends in ^; e. g., 
 Br. ^T or ^, f?r^ or fFrfSr, etc. (cf. 0. H. <*»id-$. or ff>tarf^;, Br. 
 
§ 438.] CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 291 
 
 cfifaFT or 5)firRr, obi. pi. of ^rfar poet). In P., also, the short obi. 
 sg. forms in eT occur; e. g., ^T, fFF^T, etc.; and, on the other 
 hand, in S. the short obi. pi. forms in f?r; as ^T or ftH?t (trans- 
 posed for *jfN>), f?rf^r or rlfn" (with ^ for ^, see § 26). As re- 
 gards the S. obi. sg. "^T or f^T , etc. and the Br. obi. pi. ^^T 13 , 
 etc., P. ^TT or ^frf, etc., see below Nro. 2. — Just as the 
 forms of the near demonstr. pron. have arisen from the shortened 
 form ^ of the old quant, pron., so those of the far dem. pron. 
 have originated from the long form of the quant, pron. Thus 
 the E. H. obi. sg. ^ef is a contraction of *95r^, shortened (see 
 §26) from the Ap. Pr. gen. *^" or *^t. The other E. H. obi. 
 form ^t has dropped the final f[ . The dir. sing, g) or 3; is a 
 contraction of the Ap. Pr. nom. sg. *tfsr or *oh. In G. the 
 latter contracts to «T that (abl. 5T erl" from that). There is, also, 
 in H. a fuller obi. form 5TT|" (Kl. 13 7, d) for *srT|" = *^5Tf ; and 
 in Br. there is the obi. form 5TTf|r for *^f|; = Ap. *^crf|; or *^sr^. 
 And so forth as to the rest of the forms of the far dem. pron. 
 and their derivatives; they are exactly analogous to those of the 
 near dem. pron., as explained above. Here, also, must be mentioned 
 the S. neut. interrog. pron. 3Tt^ or ^ what, why (Tr. 208); it 
 is an obi. form and contracted form *w,^g for Ap. *9>5Tf or *^5T^t. 
 2) Among the Ap. Pr. quant, pron. ^5TC, FTcTJ, 5T5TJ, #f5T3" 
 (H. C. 4, 407. 408, see Nro 1) the last one is already used in 
 the Ap. as a simple pron. But it shortens ^"sr to g=T (cf. § 26 
 and Nro 1, p. 2 91) and changes I to rjr (cf. § 106), and thus be- 
 comes qi^nj (H. C. 4, 3 67). In E. H. it appears as ^.SFT or cF3^ 
 or cfTTT , in W. H. WJ^ or 37t:t , P. 37frj^, G. and M. cRTTTT^, Mw. 
 cFtrf or cficr^, N. c^T. Similarly Ap. irar becomes in G. ?T5F^, in 
 E. H. 5T3rn- or sT3^T or snR , W. H. srbr , N. 3FT ; and Ap. FT5TJ 
 becomes in E. H. rra^T or FT3^ or rir^, N. FPT^. E. H. makes a 
 regular obi. form 37T^or 3TFT, representing the Ap. gen. sg. cfrsrtjT 
 or cE^rrr| (H. C. 4, 4 25) with or without the gen. suff. f. The 
 Ap. ^3T gives rise to the B. 3fSr that; the intermediate forms 
 G. {T^t , P. ^r or yr , Mw. 3OT occur only as obi. forms sing. ; 
 
292 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. § 438.] 
 
 Mw. has also the alternative obi. sg. 3nrf or cTnrt' beside 30]^, 
 just like E. H. ^frr and 37PT. Mw. possesses also the correspon- 
 ding plur. obi. forms 31T T or 5PTTT ; and similarly in the other 
 pron., as obi. sg. oprn^ or 370T or ^>rjft or cficfrl', obi. pi. cRtiT"f or 
 3TITTT. The latter are regularly contracted from the Ap. Pr. gen. 
 pi. STcTtJT^, etc. These obi. pi. occur, also, in P. Z^ri or 3^TT, 
 Br. 2F^T (= Ap. gen. * ^gr^rtjr# = ^sr3J), S. 3^H?r or 3^T or 
 (with ^ transposed) tT^Tf^r. The Br. possesses also as plur. obi. 
 forms 3^ u (used only in the sense of the dat. and ace), in 0. H. 
 3^rflf which are made by the Ap. obi. pi. suff. ff[ (see § 3 67, 2). 
 Corresponding to the Ap. quant, pron. V3J, etc., S. has the shorter 
 forms ^Tt, rT3T, ?T3T, 3T3T. Just as the Ap. ^cTJ becomes in B. a 
 simple pron. 3f^T, so CTT, rT3t, sT3T by changing 3 to rjT^ give rise 
 to the B. simple pron. ^T, fTrf^, fsrfa (read f?TPr) *). This set exists 
 also in P. ^T^ or 3^, Mw. ^HT^, S. -pr, etc., which, however, oc- 
 cur only as obi. forms sing. There are, also, the fuller obi. sg. 
 forms, Mw. ^trft or guft, S. ^f^ (also spelled ^f^^ or ^ift) or 
 J^fT (for *^Tf'), N. cpr^; or 3^[ (in the plur. ^T^-^T or 3^-^r, 
 also spelled ^f-^", ^E"?' retaining the obi. suff. ^ or jf, see 
 § 3 64, 3) 2 ). There are, also, the corresponding obi. pi. forms 
 Mw. ^tn"f or gurf, Km. 3/T^ or ^rV, P. j^rf or y^f or J^TT or 
 ^[7, Br. ^^T 11 , S. 3^^ w or ^^f^T or ^fn" or f^^Pt (probably 
 with an anomalously transposed ?T, for s^rf^T, cf. § 3 68, 5). Mo- 
 reover, Br. has a dat. ^f, 0. H. ^^f, and P. an act. ^^ 
 or o^t. The obi. forms in ^7, "^T \ 3^ contain the Ap. Pr. 
 gen. pi. or obi. suff. if, jr, Ptf respectively (see § 3 65, 7, being 
 contractions of *n^f, * : 7ff, *^f^). These remarks apply, mutatis 
 mutandis, also to the analogous forms of the relat., interrog., 
 and gen. dem. pron. in Mw., P. and S. — Even the original 
 forms ^3T, rT3T, etc. occur in S. as simple pronom. adv. ; viz. in 
 
 1) It should be noticed that here, again, the far dem. 3f^T is foun- 
 ded on the longer form ^5T3, but the near dem. on the shorter ^3. 
 
 2) S., also, has an obi. sg. f%T which stands for *3 ;r f[ = ^T^. 
 
§ 438.] CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 293 
 
 the obi. form ^73 or ^3^ or ^3#' hither, FT3 or rT3^ or 7\^U thither, 
 zfcz or 3i3^ or 373£r ivhither *). Some of these exist, also, in E. H. 
 (with the usual change of 7 to ^r), j^t hither, ft^t thither, ?pt whither- 
 soever, £Fnr ivhither. 
 
 3) The Ap. Pr. quantit. pron. ^sr, FTcT or fricT or FT^T, ST5T 
 or f^cT or sW, etc. (see Nro 1) seem to have also produced the 
 following Gd. simple pron. ; viz. 0. TT§, 3TS. G. 5T5T, FT5T (also 
 spelled ?T3, FT3 or ir^T, FT^t) or fTT, Fiq" which, however, appear 
 to be used only as obi. plur. forms (see Ed. 41. 4 3); also G. 
 ZRm m. (ai3 f., cft? n.), probably for *cR^t, shortened from the 
 strong form ^fclt, which occurs in G. as a qualit. pron. ; S. has 
 SiOT m. (^ f., Tr. 209); the corresponding weak form *cR3 oc- 
 curs in Br. cRT or 3TT, N. 5TT, and is used alike for masc. and 
 fern., sing, and plur. (just like Ap. ^"J", see Nro 6). Similarly N. 
 has RTT (for*msrT) and sfr, Mw. ?qT or 5TT, Br. sH, P. sTT; M. also 
 has masc. sft, but makes a regular fem. ^t and neut. 5T U , and 
 obi. sg. s?TT or 5T, obi. pi. sJTT, dir. pi. if, SOT, ^FT ; a fact which 
 points to their origin from the strong forms *sH3T, *5T^, *5TCf. 
 To the M. obi. pi. ?rf corresponds the Mw. obi. pi. s?rf, Gw. 
 sU^. The S. has m. sff, but a rather anomalous f. 5TT, pi. 5T c. g. 
 Exactly analogous are M. sg. rft, F?T, FT W , pi. FT, F3T, FT^; obi. sg. 
 FOT, frt, pi. F0~f, Mw. F0~T, Gw. F^. The G. neut. §T3 was used 
 already in the Ap. Pr. as pronom. adv. 5R3 why (H. C. 4, 416). 
 Also FT3, 5T3 are mentioned as Ap. Pr. ace. (= nom.) and gen. 
 sg. forms by Md. in the following two sutras : fT^T^t^ ^JTT sT3 FT3 i 
 WU ^ o^T^ 5T3 FT3 ^TTFT^i sT3 innfe FT3 ^fq - n i. e., yat tad become 
 jaii tail in the ace. sg. ; e. g., what thou askest, that I give ; 
 and jfTTFTOTT §T3 FT3 ^ I JTSTTJ 37*^ ^5T l ^cRl^TR q?T qT^rTSrFT^U i. e., 
 yat tad become jaii tail in the abl. and gen. sg. or they have 
 the regular Pr. forms 2 ). I believe, N. is the only Gd., which 
 
 1) The forms in ^, ff are, properly, obi. plur., but used as sing. 
 
 2) My MS. reads JTS^t JTT 5T3f ifrTC I 5?m ^ n^^VsTJ FT3 WTFn sT3 q° 
 FT3 <t 5 there can be little doubt, that sT3, FT3 (or perhaps &3, FI3) is the 
 true reading as shown by the succeeding sutra, where the MS. reads &3, 
 
294 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. § 438.] 
 
 admits sft, rfV as obi. forms ; viz. in the abl. sg. sft 5NT or ^t 
 ^if from which, rft *nz or FTT &T from him. — In Gr., ^JT, )m 
 thus, etc. occur also as pron. adv. (Bs. II, 33 6, 3 3 7); so also 
 in 0. II. cfiq or ira hoiv, etc. 1 ). B. adds the pleon. suff. ^^ 
 (§§ 209. 214); thus ^r or ^rfq- or {T^R, Hq^ or Fwfq- or ri*FT 
 $ws, etc. (see S. Ch. 216). 
 
 4) From the Ap. Pr. quantit. pron. ^cT7, FT5T3, etc. are also 
 derived the G. far dem. pron. ^T^ft or crcrff he, that and the pro- 
 nom. adv. 533T or ^% notv, fT3^ or ?ta% there, etc. by the change 
 of 3 to off. Thus Ap. ^jsriY becomes *^off[, *5B5fcrTT or contr. ?TTc?rr 
 or qw (for ST^rT with an anomalous hardening of 5T^ to <t). The 
 N. ^3#r or ^r^ (for *?^T!r) is a loc. (or obi. form) sing, made 
 with the obi. suff. ^ and is = Ap. Pr. ^5T3^ (see § 469). The 
 Pr. loc. sg. m^TT there, sTTcftt where, cft^tt where (H. C. 3, 65) 
 are probably to be explained in a similar manner. Possibly the 
 S. interrog. cFT^T who may be identified with the short quant, pron. 
 373 by the change of 3; to ^; but it may be also (as Tr. 206) 
 the curtailment of the Ap. qual. pron. *^f^~f, a slight modifi- 
 cation of the ordinary Pr. SFf^ff, Skr. ^frfST:. The Ap. strong 
 form *3Rf^T becomes in S. the simple pron. ^f what (usually 
 spelled cFfTfjV with transposed f ). Substituting in cfifjlft the long 
 Ap. form wm for 3F?°, and the original g[ for ^, we obtain sfTcjRj^t 
 (cf. Pr. ^nfsrrt Ls. 116); and similarly ^orfs^t or ^"f^^t for the 
 ordinary Pr. ^f\^t or *^f3JTT, Skr. ^7ST:. Here the palatal vowel 
 ^ changes ^ to ?r , 'and thus in S. the Ap. *^i^V and *^f^t 
 become the simple pron. ^q?V this (for *^f?;|ft, just as S. cfiirf for 
 cfffT^t) and 3<FT that respectively; the one being the near, the 
 other the far dem. pron., corresponding to the short and long 
 
 <T3. In the original MS., which was in the Oriya characters 3 (or 3) would 
 he hardly distinguishable from 3. 
 
 1) E. g., Chand Pr. Raj 25, 28 cffi^ tjj sff" jt^I 5TJ qrf i Tf mVFl 
 STT cfifjrf^ ft WiJJ n i. e., says the king to the actor, full of affection: how 
 will she make kinship with me? or 1,82 sTjV <TP7 3ifTV 5FTT =reer I i. e., I 
 am hot with fever; how can I remove it, oh Lord? 
 
§ 438.] CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 295 
 
 qual. pronominal forms. Similarly the S. cfnTTTT what stands for 
 the Ap. *cF5ri^^T3 (with the pleon. suff. WS~S, see § 217, II. 0. 
 4, 429). In H. there is a pron. adv. 5R?TT where. In the Ap. 
 there is a qualit. pron. ^TsrfTg" snch-liJce (K.I. 5, see Ls. 449, 455) 
 = Skr. ^TnTST. In P. there is the qual. pron. af^T or SsT^T of 
 this sort (Ld. 19, 56). 
 
 5) The pron. of qual. are in Skr. ^TST:, FTT^ST. such-M7ce, etc. 
 They become in the Ap. Pr. J£W, ffig, ITS', dfjr (H. C. 4, 402) or 
 (in the st. form) Ulfr, cR^T etc. The first of these ^^T or ff"g- or 
 D^ was already used in Pr. as a simple pron. he or this (H. C. 
 4, 3 62) *), and it occurs in most Gels, as the dir. form of the 
 near dem.; thus P. j£W or ^ef , Br. ^1? or q"f or JTsf, E. H. ^ 
 or J (for *^s dropping f^) or U"?T. 0. has ^ff[ which appears to 
 be founded on the form *tt? mentioned by K. I. 8 in Ls. 449, 
 and is Ap. Mg. (see § 46). The S. fr or !? or f|;3 (for ^, ipr, 
 ^"f ) transposes the F ; and the S. ^T (for J^t) elides it ; so does 
 also the N. ?ft (for ^t) and Mw. JIT ; and the Mw. ^t drops the 
 initial q^ of ?JT. In M. the initial ^ or U is dropped ; thus ^T m., 
 ^t f., ^ n. (for Ap. *^[3, *^t%^T, ^rtf, all st. forms) with a 
 regular obi. sg. ^TT, pi. ^["f, and dir. pi. ^ m., ^Tr f., ^T^ n. The 
 Ap. Pr. qual. pron. cF^T occurs in S. as the adjectival simple 
 pron. cFift (fem. 37^t) or (eliding ?r) cjr^t which (Tr. 209); so also 
 in G., where, however, U is shortened to 3*, thus G. cFS?t (fem. 
 3t1[, n. cFH'). But perhaps these S. and G. forms are rather to 
 
 1) H. C. limits all three forms to the nom. and ace. sg., but Md. 
 only ^T and ff"f, while he appears to allow D"^ for all cases; thus cfZyj^ 
 
 4r^ shtt i wij e^; ft^t (^srrir rr^r?) ^: WTrT i ^f srurr oir^n Brtrf Err i ^^^tf^ 
 
 Mdlch ^Ijhji i. e., tad in declension becomes eha or (ima) as before men- 
 tioned. The reading in brackets is doubtful; perhaps it is to include the 
 pron. 5^TTj as in the succeeding rule : ^^t ^^oPTUlt I SoPTWJT ^ rTST^TT^ 
 ^t £j=T =5T F3TFIT I ^T et|^ £cFW 5TT I ^ STTUFT I ^FT <JS?jfrT I ^of ^"J" I ^cRTlTTr^ 
 "TcIT^i =cT ii i. e., in the nom. and ace. sg., tad and adas become clio or elm 
 or as before mentioned (eha). Md. is correct; for eha, being a pure base, 
 may serve as an obi. form, while D'^T and (TIT are proper nominatives. 
 
296 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. § 438.] 
 
 be connected with the base crst (see Nro 3). In P. the pleon. 
 suff. "3T is added, thus cfi^JT which, sT^TST whichsoever (fern. °-ft). — 
 Connected with the Ap. Pr. ejrffr is also the W. H. (so-called) 
 neut. interrog. pron. <3Tf[T or P. fifiET what, with 7J shortened to 
 J and ?r. They are really obi. forms. The P. t%^T stands for 
 *feh'^f and is contracted in H. H. to 3OT. S. transposes e[ (i. e., 
 f%^T kind, § 13 2, note) and changes % Jchi to ^ cJih by the 
 influence of the palatal ^", thus making ^T (Tr. 208). Similarly 
 G. changes *f£i7in, *t%^t, *Bi# into siY, STT, ST (for ^T, ^T, §, 
 see § 11, for *%^T, *fej, *fwri). — Here is also to be men- 
 tioned the peculiar E. and W. Gd. (exc. G.) general dem. pron. 
 ST or STT, 0. also srffT that, which I am inclined to derive from 
 the Skr. ^ST: like. It would become in the Ap. Pr. *ST^T or 
 *ST?r or *^, just as Ap. Ulfr, ^rg", ^ for 3T5T: ; and it would 
 easily acquire the meaning of such-like in correlation with the 
 relat. pron. 5T or sTl". It is commonly (Bs. II, 314) identified with 
 the Pr. nom. sg. srt (H. C. 3, 3) or the Pr. gen. sg. ST (H. C. 
 
 3, 81). But the Gd. ST is never an obi. form; and both the 
 Gd. ST and STT are used indifferently in the nom. sg. and plur. 
 Besides the S. Sit forms a fem. STT and plur. ST ; and the 0. srt% 
 seems to be an analogous form to 0. ^"f%. Possihly the E. H. 
 nom. sg. and pi. FT, sT, cfi may be identified with the Ap. qual. 
 pron. FTS", 5TJ", fe (H. C. 4, 402) or F% ?% cR^, by dropping the 
 final ?T ; for a form ft^t, etc. appears in the emphatic forms Hf[, etc. 
 
 6) The same Skr. qual. pron. ^?TST:, etc. also become ^STT, 
 rT^TT, sT^TT, ctf^STT (H. C. 4, 403) or ST^ST, FT^SJ, etc. (cf. H. C. 
 
 4, 331. 332) in the Ap. Pr. In Gd. %Z is changed to 7 or ^ 
 or J or 5; thus strong forms : W. H. ^TSTT, FTSTT, P. and H. H. TOT, 
 FTSTT, N. TOT (for *^STT or *to>, see §§ 71. 171), FTSTT, M. WSTT, 
 FTSTT, etc. But the weak forms TO or sTSJ^, TO or Fra^, etc. also 
 occur in Br. (see Bates' Hindi Diet.) and 0. H. Thus Chand in 
 Pr. Raj 24,52 m^ fJFT T£ 33" 1 ^ Fm 3^JT m^j 11 i. e., from place 
 to place men fly up (i. e., like birds), such a simile has Chanel 
 devised. In modern Gd., however, the weak forms have become 
 
§ 438.] CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 297 
 
 simple pron. Thus P. ^TO or ^T^ or 3^, frT^, N. Jra^, rFr he or 
 this, etc. They are found only as obi. forms. The corresponding 
 fuller obi. forms in {7 also occur; thus H. H. has ^T, fn^T (as 
 dat. ace. to him or him) besides 3^, irrr^, etc., (just as E. H. 
 crtt^ and cFPT, see Nro. 2 ; contr. for Ap. ^srf^ or ^^T^;, see 
 §365, 6). B. has the gen. sg. fifi^T-^r of what, dat. loc. fifi^T to 
 or in what (S. Ch. 122; just as B. %&-T of god, zjz to or in 
 god of ^51^). M. has not only the sing. obi. cF^TT or cFT^TT (= Ap. 
 Mg. gen. cFj^n^ or qT^TJTTf, Skr. cfifcsi^T or c^STcRST, see § 3 65, 1), 
 but also the pi. obi. sh^TT or cjrwf (= Ap. Mg. gen. SFjeTif, etc., 
 § 365, 4) of whomsoever (see Man. 54; just like M. obi. sg. e^STT, 
 pi. ZjTT of 5^ god). The existence of these fuller obi. forms 
 shows that the shorter ones (fn^, f?TH , etc.) cannot, probably, 
 be identified with the Pr. gen. FT^T, sT^T, Skr. rT^T, JT3T, etc. (as 
 Bs. II, 315). 
 
 7) Again the before mentioned (see Nro. 1) Skr. quant, pron. 
 jSr^, rTToT^, etc. are changed in the Ap. Pr. to J^fwi (H. C. 4, 341), 
 nrf%3, irf%3, $ifw3 (cf. H. C. 4, 383) or, in the strong form, to 
 ffiat, FTfw, etc. (H. C. 4, 3 9 5, cf. 2, 15 7, for *^rarj, etc.). The 
 latter become in W. H. ^?rr, ffiwi, etc., H. H. JWT, frTWT, 0. ^TT, 
 FTFT, etc. (Bs. II, 332); the former in S. %fn°, rrf?T , etc., G. ^T°, 
 FT?7 , etc., W. H. and P. ^T°, fFTrT°, etc., E. H. ^cT°, F>cT°, etc., 
 B. ^t, FTrT, etc. (S. Ch. 8 5). As a rule, these weak forms add 
 some pleon. suff. (^T or ji or cFTT) ; thus P. J'fTTr, fcTrRT, etc., 
 S. ^iHTT, FTfH7>, etc., G. ^Tc?ft, etc. (see §§ 452.453). But the 
 plain weak form is used in P. as a simple pron. ; thus ^7T^ fcTrT 
 he or that, f^?r which, fififT who (Ld. 22, 66) ; it occurs, however, 
 only in the obi. sing. (e. g., gen. frTrT 7J of this). Both these 
 shorter obi. sg. and the corresponding fuller obi. sg. forms are 
 used as pron. adv. ; thus Br. jfT or ^H here, frTrT or frTFT there, etc., 
 P. ^rsr, fFTrzr, etc., S. ^frr or ^?T or ^f?% or zm, fofrT or THFT or fr7fr?T 
 or frTrT, etc. The forms ^f??7, $r?T, etc. are contracted from ^wffr 
 or 3^, tFTwf^; or frTWir, etc. These are loc. sg., made with the 
 Ap. Pr. obi. suff. ^ (see § 3 65, 6), and occur even in the Ap. Pr. 
 
298 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. § 438.] 
 
 itself, as ^sr^ here, rr?ri[ there, etc. (II. C. 4, 436) 1 ). By the side 
 of the shorter forms {rf%^, crffwsr, etc., Pr. uses also the longer 
 forms ^sri%^, cHcrf^^, etc. (see Wb. Bh. 422); and as Pr. ^f%9T 
 originates the W. H. near quant, pron. ^WT, so Pr. ^crfwf (shor- 
 tened *3sr5rfwr, *?ftfwr) becomes the far quant. W. H. 3^TT that 
 much, H. H. 33T. The corresponding weak forms are S. 5rrfrT°, 
 G. mz°, W. H. and P. 3rT°, E. H. wm°, B. snr (S. Ch. 85, see 
 §§ 452. 4 53); and the pron. adv. are, Br. 3FT^ or 3FT, P. 3PT, 
 S. 3% or 3?T or 3fpT or 3Fzr; and P. uses 3H^ as a simple pron. 
 in the obi. cases; e. g., 3r^ST of him, of that. 
 
 8) The following Gd. pron. forms appear to be remnants 
 of the old simple pron. The Skr. gen. sg. <TCT, qw, etc. become 
 in the Ap. Pr. FT^T, fR^r or FTPFF, ?mT or nm (also FTS^T H. C. 4, 419), 
 5TTH (H. C. 4, 3 58. 3, 63). In 0. H. the following instances of 
 the latter two kinds of forms occur, ftto or FTTTT and sTT^T or 5TTFT 2 ), 
 in Br. only FTTCT and iTT>jT (Kl. 122, a); and P. has cET^ as the 
 obi. form of the neut. interrog. pron. (of ivhat, Ld. 20, b). But 
 in the Ap. Pr. the gen. or obi. form is also made by adding 
 the ordinary obi. suff. ^t" or jf, before which the vowel may be 
 either long or short; thus fT^, cR^; (H. C. 4, 3 59) or FTTf, 3>T^ 
 (H. C. 3, 65), £w4 (H. C. 4, 436) or ?wn| (H. C. 3, 82. 2, 134); 
 again fTT^T, WiT^J or FTT^, W^, etc. 3 ). Some of the forms with 5U 
 
 1) Perhaps the Ap. Pr. forms UFQ here, FTFZT there, etc. (H. C. 4, 404) 
 may be similarly explained as contr. from V^W, FTWf , etc., made with the 
 abl. or obi. suff. §■ (FT. C. 4, 336, see § 365, 6); and the Ap. Pr. forms sTW 
 where, FTtT there, etc. (H. C. 4, 404) as ace. neut. in 3 (H. C. 4, 331) or as 
 containing the abl. suff. fft or FT (= Skr. FTCT ). Some of these Ap. forms 
 have been received into the literary Pr. ; viz. $7FZT (for ^W^ = VHW) or 
 %m^ or ^?TT, see H. C. 3, 82. 83. Vr. 6, 20. 21, where they are expressly 
 described as being abl. sing. ; and sTFT, FTF3T, Wicn, see H. C. 2, 161 and 
 Wb. Bh. 422 (3FFZT and ^?zf = *^| abl. pi., § 365, 7). 
 
 2) Thus Chand, Pr. R. 25, 16 FTTST J\3 emij I X^T^ firsrr 3^T^ n 
 i. e., near that king I remain to practise the art of the aetor. 
 
 3) Md. says: ^TSTT -S ^r ^j I^rr^ST l ^TctRtft J^TTST prrt (i. e. feFtfTWST) 
 ^Tgf 5TT 33TuX • <™% < ^Tl ' 3?FT I ^H • «RTf l ^of OtT^": II ^ I cF^T I ?T^T II 
 
§ 439.] CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 299 
 
 are preserved iu Gd. ; thus rTrf%, siTf%, chlf^ (for *FiTf[, etc.) and 
 rTTg", iTTf, cRTJ" (for fTTfT, etc.) in Br. (Kl. 122. 226) and, as the 
 obi. form of the so-called neut. interrog., cfiTi[ in E. H. and Br., 
 and 3TTF in P. ; in 0. H. also HT^ or PIT J ). The Ap. Pr. loc. sg. 
 is rff^, srf^, 5ff^ (H. C. 4, 3 57); apparently these have become 
 general obi. forms in S. frflf, $fw, cfHir, and with 5TT in 0. fTTf^, 
 sTTflf, fchlf^, and perhaps serve as neut. interrog. pron. in Mw. 
 cfrf^ tt ' or dfe ,B (dropping ir) and also in the Ap. Pr. cfir^ (II. C. 
 4, 367) and ^ (H. C. 4, 426). 
 
 9) The indefinite pron. are made by adding the emphatic 
 particles 3 or ^ (see § 5 50) to the interrog. pron. Thus E. H. 
 fe any one = cRg" -f- 3 Jcehic -\- u and cfftt = efiFT + ~5 Joanna + u, 
 M. cjrrrjfT = amriT + z ikon + i, H. H. art^ = ctrr + ^ lco-\- i. 
 
 439. Declension. Correlative pron. are declined regularly 
 like nouns, with the following two exceptions: 1) those of the 
 short form (^, 3, fT, £r, cF7, § 433) may optionally use in the gen. 
 the aff. ofT^r or cR^T. This affix is treated precisely like an adj. ; 
 i. e., it follows the gender, number and case of the governing 
 noun. Thus ZFJ is the weak form, of com. gen. and incapable of 
 inflexion, but ZFiJT is the masc. st. form (§ 381), making a fern, 
 cfffr (§384) and obi. masc. cFf| (§386), fern, cfift, both in the 
 
 i. e., ka, ya, ta may become Ted, yd, td before the gen. suff., exc. when 
 the latter is ssa. — It will be observed, that ^ is a general obi. suff.; 
 for in H. C. 4, 359 (FTf) it is a gen. suff., in H. C. 3, 65 (m%) and H. C. 
 4, 436 (^) and H. C. 2, 134 (%m\) it is a loc. suff.; in H. C. 3, 82 
 (C7TT5O it is an abl. suff. Moreover, ^ may be shortened to f% and ^, see 
 H. C. 2, 161 (Fff|, JT^); and ^ or m is an abl. suff. in H. C. 3, 82 (^PT = 
 *^Wf), but a loc. suff. in H. C. 2, 161 (cTrZT = *rTW^). 
 
 1) Thus Chand Pr. Raj 25, 36 T[ =T ^T WJ ^T q ^0" FTTf H i. e., neither 
 his soul nor his felicity was firm; again 25, 16 rTT 37^ ^T <3TS ^TSFT JT^T 11 
 i. e., in his house is a daughter of many virtues. — It may be observed, 
 that the so-called neut. interrog. pron. is, in reality, merely some obi. 
 form of the common interrog. pron.; thus M. has 5RT^ (for *cfiTi% = 
 *cffT^); Bs. has cFTf[ and Bh. cfiT (for iRTer) lohat. 
 
300 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. §§ 440. 441.] 
 
 sing, and plur. (§ 386); but 37(" may be used, though anoma- 
 lously, as a fem. obi. The strong forms are not commonly used 
 in the nom., nor the weak forms in the obi. cases. Practically, 
 therefore, the aff. are; dir. form 3»:j[ c. g., obi. 37^" m. or WJi f . ; 
 just like 3> and 37. It should be observed also that the latter 
 aff. only (but not aF^, 3if) can be used with the full pron. obi. 
 forms in W (viz. C^r, ^Tf , nfT, 5TIT, 3>f ) and with the emph. obi. 
 forms in ^t (as ^T, 5T^t, etc. § 43 3). Thus dir. form sg. or pi. 
 sft 37^ zqr or 3^ 3> sq[ or rarely 37 3T"7T w% ivhose house or houses ; 
 3> 3F^ q^ or ^f^ gF» jt° or rarely 3> 3?fT q° whose wife or wives ; 
 obi. sg. 3? 3>^" sqr *T or 3Te[ cF7 sr^ T or rarely 3> cjr^" sqr ^ in whose 
 house ; 37 37;rr it^ £r or 37^[ 37 q^T ^ or rarely 37 cFT^r or 37 37^" it ST 
 /row* w7jose wi/e; obi. pi. 3? 3>j st^t^t or 37ST m STprir m w/iose 
 houses ; 37 37^t M^|'«i_ sr or 37e[ 37 it e 1 or rarely cjt 37^" q st from 
 whose wives, etc. — 2) There is no ace. proper, identical with 
 the nom., but only the (improper) ace. formed with the dat. 
 aff. 37. Thus whom is 37 37 or 37?[ 37 or 375T;t 37 or 3FT 37, but 
 not simply cF or 375PT. 
 
 440. Optionally a sort of pleon. declension may be made, 
 
 by adding the case-aff. to the ordinary obi. form of the gen. 
 
 in U. In the Jchari ohdshd, however, this is not commonly done, 
 
 exc. in the loc. ; e. g., sg. m m\ *T in him, pi. «Vl[_ 37^ *T in 
 
 them, etc. 
 
 / 
 
 441. 1. Short form. 
 
 a) Simple form : ^ he, this. 
 
 Sing. Simple plur. Comp. plur. 
 
 nom. f f isfTJT 
 
 ace, dat. % 37 or ^g 3? ^e[ 37 ^eT ^TiT^ 37 
 
 instr., abl. ^or^TST ^f.^ ^^ttxpt^ 
 
 gen. $r 37, 37 or ^g" 37, 37 $7"f 37, 37 ^ef 5TriT^37, 37 
 
 or ^ sqr, 3ffr, 377 or ^f; 3?^, 3rfr, 377 
 
 loc. ^JTor^eTJT ^L* 7 ^_5tWt»T 
 
 or ^ cFT| it or ^?r 37^" *T 
 
§ 442.] CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 301 
 
 b) Emphatic form : ^ or ^T even he, even this. 
 
 Singular, 
 nom. ^ or ^^ ^> or ^^ 
 
 ace, dat. ^Tlft if CI?" if 
 
 instr., abl. Uj^t ^r jm ^r 
 
 gen. ^t cF or $7^T cjqr uj[ if or Cjr 3ȣ 
 
 or ^ qij or y cF^" ^t or ^ &>JT or J7 cF^" g" 
 
 loc. Ujft JT or ^ cF^ - q- ^rror^ cFfr JT 
 
 or UJ 3T^~ ^t n" or ^ ^tij |T *T 
 
 Plural, 
 nom . ^ir or ^^ ^[ f 
 
 ace, dat. ^r ^V' if ^[ # cF 
 
 instr., abl. ^^ ^t ST U^f[ W & 
 
 gen. ^f ^T if or ^ fT 3T£ ^ f ^ or ^ f cF^r 
 
 or ^ EFT^ or ^ ^ fT or ^^ zfifj or ^r cfij fr 
 loc. ^[ ^T q- or §^ 37^ q- ^r ifzj or ^"^ 3f^T ST 
 
 or ^g; cf^ ^t w t or ^?r cf^" # q 
 
 JVbfe: Like ^ are declined 3 that, <T he, ?T which, if w/w; 
 only substituting 3f, 9T, 3, m and FT, in, fir, etc. for J, ^, ^, ^ 
 respectively. — All forms with y or «T may, optionally, be 
 spelled with J or 3; e. g., ^ if or ^ if to these, and afc^ if 
 or 3F^ cF /o i/wse, etc. 
 
 44 2. 2. Long form: rT3F^ or PT3^ or FTFt^ he, this. 
 
 Sing, and simple plur. 
 Com. gen. Fem. 
 nom. rTSFT rFS^T 
 
 ace, dat. rTFT ^f rTFTT $7 
 
 instr., abl. nVrir rTT^T £r 
 
 gen. FTTH" if, if rTTTT if, if 
 
 loc. ?rtq" >r rfr^r it 
 
 Compound plural. 
 Com. gen. Fem. 
 
 nom. HI-1<yfrJT rfpTT^n^ 
 
 ace, dat. mTRFrfrT if or rfprcrftiFT if fTRTfcFTtn m or nVilcHTiTn' if 
 
302 REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. §§ 442a— 445.] 
 
 Com. gen. Fern, 
 
 instr., abl. FTFRiTlTT^r or fTFr^rrprjrr m^rfc<TlTr^ orHfcft^TfrFT^ij' 
 gen. (TFRrftJTcF, CTormHcftfrpT&,9> rh^crfTCTcF, SF or HT^^TIFT5F,eF 
 
 Note : Like rlcl"^ are declined sToFT^ which and ^TSPT^ who ; also 
 «TTtn^ own (§ 449). — Their forms may, optionally, be spelled 
 with ^5T or W5 or 3T according to §34; e. g., rT3^T 37 or rTFT cF 
 to tfiW. 
 44 2a. Short form: eft or EFsT. Long form: chl-U aw?/ one. 
 
 Sing, and simple plur. Compound plural, 
 
 nom. cF 57S" ^FTT cFTcrTTIT ZRW c<ft5T *MI c<fnT 
 
 a., d. 5F w; ^s - cf cfVtt cf |#t vfhr ir gr^m - ^ft cFhrt^m £F 
 Labi. d> sr sW & cfftt £t \ or sf cffnTT 37 ^soTrxnr jf ^RTcffmn- 37 
 gen. 37 37,37 376 37,37 3TR7 37,37 etc. etc. etc. 
 
 loc. 37 JT 37S" T chJHl q - 
 
 iVbte: Like 37?? is declined ir^T^" whosoever. 
 
 3. THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 443. The reflexive pron. self is 5T<T- It is alike for both 
 genders, and is declined regularly like a subst., but has no plur. ; 
 the sing, form being used for both numbers ; dat. sg. and pi. 
 gT^37 to himself and to themselves. 
 
 444. Affinities. W. H. and P. use the same refl. pron. 
 sm; 0. has «ntr or ^rcrtjT, B. uvifo (with obi. gFTTr), M. «nwj 
 while in S. it is men; H. H. has in the dir. form ^T<^, but in 
 the obi. 5TC or atFT. The M., B. and 0. forms mom and H. H. 
 obi. wft are properly the corresponding possess, pron. (own), see 
 § 449 ; it is in fact a sort of pleonastic declension, see §§ 440. 43 2. 
 
 445. Derivation. The original of the refl. pron. is the 
 Skr. subst. ^wr (nom. sg. of «T?^) sold or self. In Pr. it be- 
 comes 9«tt or *?" (H. C. 2, 51. Vr. 3, 48) or Wr (H. C. 3, 56) 
 or Ap. Pr. gccr (or st. f. sr^r? H. C. 4, 4 22). In Gd. it is WTtr/, 
 in 0. H. and Br., also, ?TT<T. The Pr. form ^irr, I believe, has 
 left no trace in Gd. In Pr. the pron. also assumes a long form 
 
§§ 446—449.] honorific pronoun. 303 
 
 gctnofT (H. C. 2, 51. 3, 5 6), Ap. Pr. *j«ttot (H. C. 4, 396), which 
 survives in the S. <TTtJT with the loss of the initial 5 ; 0. H., also, 
 has it as m. ^TT^T, f. gcrrfn" (Kl. 124, 231). Cw. 4 6 mentions 
 also a Pr. form ^?TTtrfT, which, however, has left no trace in Gd., 
 and is, probably, a false reading. 
 
 4. THE HONORIFIC PRONOUN. 
 44 6. The hon. pron. is substituted for the pron. of the 
 2 na pers. sg. h* and pi. FT , in respectful address. It is, in the 
 wk. f. T/TSfif or ^T3£ c. g., in the st. f. J3\T or frp m., ^3ft 
 or "^T^T f. It is declined regularly like a subst. (§ 3 7 9). But 
 the refl. pron. arg^ may also be used as a honorific; and in that 
 case it always forms the comp, plur. ^FT^c^ftn^ when applied to 
 more than one person, 
 
 447. Affinities and Derivation. The use of JT3% as 
 a hon. pron. seems to be confined to E. H. ; but OTQ^ and its 
 cognate forms are used so in all Gds. ; thus B. uses ^Taf^f (S. Ch. 
 114. 115. note, with obi. f. tfTtRT or 3TWFTT), 0. 5TOHT (Sn. 18), 
 W. H. gro, P. sjft (L.d. 2 0, 58), etc. — The original of JTS$ 
 I believe to be the Skr. noun 7T$T:Fc<T (or ^'TsT^icfn') royal, Pr. 
 {W4n\° or TT3*T° (Vr. 4, 1. H. C. 1, 2 6 7), see § 78. 
 
 5. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 448. By the term. pron. adjectives. I designate the posses- 
 sive pron. (as mine, thine, own), the correl. adj. of quantity and 
 quality, and the indefinite pron. all, whosoever, some. 
 
 a) Possessive pronouns. 
 44 9. Possess, pron. may be derived from the first and 
 second pers. and from the refl. pron. Those of the first pers. 
 pron. are: wk. form irt^r c. g. mine, or st. f. *TT7T m., *Tt"(T f. ; 
 and wk. f. ^rrq[ c. g. our, or st. f. ^T^T m., ipft f. Those of 
 the second pers. are : wk. f. FTT^ c. g. thine, or st. f. rTT^"T m., 
 FTTft f. ; and wk. f. rTT^T^ c. g. your, or st. f. rTT^T m., frt^ft f. 
 Those of the refl. pron. are : wk. f. am c. g. own, or st. f. 
 
304 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. §§ 450. 451.] 
 
 gqrrT m., iJZFTt f. They are declined regularly like adj. of the 
 corresponding form (see § 386). The possess, pron. of the third 
 pers. is identical with the gen. of the near or *far dem. pron. ; 
 viz., wk. f. ^"^ or ^fa^ c. g. his or her, or st. f. ^7JT or ^ter^T m., 
 ^ f. ; and wk. f. ^[^[ or sfr^cfi|" c. g. their, or st. f. ^^ch^r 
 or gt^tfTJ in., °ft f. 
 
 Note: The following bye-forms also occur: ^TT^T our, (TffT^T 
 your, fern. °^t. — The adj. f?lsT^ own is also frequently used as 
 a refl. pron. 
 
 450. Affinities. The forms of these pron. do not differ 
 materially in the Gds., exc. in M., S. and, partially, P. They 
 are: of the first pers., B. ifr^, tn*nj; 0. jfrjr or m^r, S»q"; 
 W. H. ^, ^TTfr (Br.) and mff or i^rfV, qfft or t^ffT (Mw.) ; 
 
 G. rrrfr, a*nfY; N. *ift, WJ^'i hut P- ^T T ^ ^sttit or wrsv, M. qran", 
 
 ^TJT^T; S. JT-s?l" or JTf-srT, tfef-STT. Of the second pers., B. tTT^, 
 rTtqT^; 0. rft^, cl 3 ^; W. H. FT7J, ^ Z ^f J 0r ^ T f T ( Br and ^^ 
 
 (orfrrasT), erlfr (Mw.); G. FTTft, rFTTfl"; N. Fff>, fn-JTT; but P. fTfT, 
 (TOT1T or rTSTTTt M. rTCRT or ftit-^t; S. rft-sfr or !T#-5rr, fwf-jrr or 
 5cff-sTT. It should be observed, that B. and 0. use ^TTT^", ^ u ^ 
 and rTTJTT^, fW^ as sing, mine, thine, and form new plur., B. 
 SfFTT-^ and even *ft-5^[ our, rftar-jqr, FTT-iq[ your, 0. swrrPT^qr, 
 rpTirr^cFq-. Similarly also N. fTJTt|^-cF?r, fafai^-cfiT or fPTjft^^-cjrt. 
 B. forms also gTJTTf^JT^ or mm^-;^ or giTT^-f^TT^T and similarly 
 rTmTf^jqr, etc. — Of the refl. pron. : E. H. sttcft or ^crt, 0. H. 
 ^FT^T or Scr^T, Br. Sjcrqft or OTCRT, M. ^TtTcfTT, P. ^FTOTT, N. ^TQT^TT, 
 G. ^Tcrcrfl - , but also SJFT^-Tr, 0. 91WTT, but also ^TQnT-^ (Sn. 18), 
 S. TT-sTf or qf^f-sTt. — The possess, pron. of the third pers. are 
 made in all Gds. in the same way as in E. H. 
 
 451. Derivation. It will be observed that these adj. pron. 
 are made by simply adding the gen. aff. (see the list in §§ 3 74. 
 377 also§§ 272 — 280) to their corresponding subst. pron. In some 
 cases the aff. still remains a separate word ; thus in S. JJ^-fTT mine, 
 M. ^TJT-^ our, P. tot-it your, S. TT-sfl" own, Mw. «FT-ff own, 
 0. gTTOT-^ own. In others it has coalesced with the base into one 
 
§ 452.] PRONOUNS OF QUANTITY. 305 
 
 word; as E. H. nr^ mine, Ipnf our, etc. The latter contain two of 
 the ancient gen. aff. 3T7J and ar^r, on the derivation of which see 
 § 377. The former appears in the ordinary Pr. possess, pron. of the 
 plur. m*^pif\ our, rTf^Fifi your (H. C. 2, 14 7); in the sing., however, 
 the ordinary Skr. forms seem to have been used, thus Pr. Tc^ mine 
 = Skr. U^fcT (H. C. 2, 147). The aff. SFpr always elides cF, and 
 coalesces with the base; thus in the Ap. Pr. iT^T^S (II. C. 4, 3 58) 
 or T^ITT (H. C. 4, 4 34) mine (for *JT^37}"5 or *JTia77T, Tf being 
 the gen. of V[3 I, cf. H. C. 3, 113), or contracted in the Nagara 
 Ap. trfr (Md. &£)$ FT|" i Jrfto" ^7 n) ; so also in Br. T^TT or in Mw. 
 mft or J^fT^T. The E. H. jft^r is founded on a form *qg"gT^Y (from 
 gen. *Tf, H. C. 4, 3 7 9) or has been assimilated to rn^r thine. Again 
 Ap. Pr. rmrfx (cf. H. C. 4, 434) thine stands for *H^3»S" (from 
 gen. fT^, H. C. 3, 9 9) and is contracted in E. H. to rTt^\ The 
 Br. FTTT and Mw. *nft presuppose an original form *rT^cF^"T (from 
 gen. rTf[, see § 43 0, 2) or have been assimilated to JT^"T, ^T^t. 
 Again Ap. Pr. g^TfT (H. C. 4, 434) our (= * 5*^3777, from gen. 
 or base 9^ H. C. 3, 113. 114) becomes, by transposition of j?, 
 H. H. ^TTTT, W. H. ^TTTT; or, by elision of f\ B. WW J, G. wrfC; 
 or, by elision of ^, Mw. J^TT^T; or, by shortening ^T, 0. «^(", 
 E. H. e^TT. Similarly Ap. Pr. rp^TTT for rT*cT3i7T, whence H. H. 
 rfCfTTT, E. H. rTT^"T, etc. — The P. form g^TT-lT (or m-HT with 
 loss of 5, just as in Mw. e^tjtY), HTTT-1T or rT<?T-'3T are made with 
 the old gen. aff. T( (= M. P. gT, see § 3 7 7, 3); as to the ^ 
 of ^TT, FT^TT see § 43 0, 3. 4. It will be observed that in P. and 
 M. the plur. only, but in S. both the plur. and sing, are made 
 by a separate gen. aff. As regards the M. forms , JTT<FT, FTCfiT see 
 § 43 0, 5. — As to stout or skptt, see §§ 60. 111. The Mw. srorfr 
 contains either the gen. aff. ji, or the ^ is a modification of the 
 Pr. wjl of anjvjr (H. C. 2, 16 3). — The S. qTfr-sft appears to 
 contain the old gen. *<TPT^; (Ap. ^ r -TTTrr^V), contracted to ctfeT = 
 qf| (see § 132, note). 
 
 b) Correl. pron. of quantity and quality. 
 45 2. The pron. of quant, are: ^fit or ^rFTT this much, 
 
 20 
 
306 PRONOUNS OF QUANTITY. §§ 453. 454.] 
 
 FTFTT or FTrPTT that much, sTrfT or ^rTHT OS much, 3TrTT Or cFcFTT JlOW 
 much. They are strong forms, and consequently are treated pre- 
 cisely as adj. of a like form; that is, they have a fern, in Z 
 (§384, as ^FTi or ^rFTt, etc.), and an obi. form in ^ (§3 86, as 
 gen. ^"fT 5F or Crf-r 3i of so much, etc.). Sometimes also the forms 
 i£rT37 or ^"fHcF or PrT37 or ^HcFT ^frlcfi or ^n^ or ^rfcfi, etc.; 3FTcE 
 or 3ffTcF, TlrTcFf or faRrTcR or 5RrfcF? or cfifrTcF or fefifrrar or ferTcE, and 
 so forth of §T(T , FTrT , are met with (see Bs. in J. R. A. S. vol. Ill, 
 490 and Kl. 141), see § 2 6. I have also met with the forms iTST 
 or srTTiT as much, 37T?tt how much. 
 
 45 3. Affinities. Nearly the same forms are used in all 
 Gels. ; thus B. ^rf, S7FT, FTFT, ?FT, S>rT or ^T3T, SKTcFr, etc. (S. Ch. 84); 
 ^"FT, etc. are sounded eta, etc., but $>TT37 etak\ hence gen. ^rT-^", but 
 ^71^-^. 0. ^H, FfiT, 3rT, #TFf, W. H. (Br.) 4#T or ZH^T, 3#\ or 
 3fTTT, fftWT or ffTrRT, etc. or (Mw.) Zjjft, 3Fffr, fctrlft, etc., P. ^TFTT, 
 3rT^T, fFTrTRT, etc., G. ^TTcrtt, snT^f, FT?7^T, etc. (Ed. 44), S. ^faff 
 or %frrfY, ^tfnfT or ftfrrfl - , Frfrrft", etc. (Tr. 2 24), M. ^TTiRT or 
 ^TTcFJTorTT, fFTFT^TT or frTrToFTcrTT, etc. (Man. 52; also fwi" or fifing? 
 
 as Tr. 2 2 3), N. erfn", sfcf, Fjfrf, sTfPT, cFfrf. 
 
 4 54. Derivation. The quant, pron. in Pr. are ^fif^ff, 
 FffPrat, irfwst, ^fi^T (H. C. 2, 15 7) or Ap. Pr. ^f%3 (IPC. 4, 341), 
 5F»fW3 (H. C. 4, 383), etc.; and in the strong form: Pr. ^m^T, 
 etc., Ap. ^"f%S3, etc. The Mg. Pr. would have wk. f. ^f^" or 
 ^fw^ or ^%g (Vr. 11,11) or st. f. £%^ or ^fw^ or ^fw^qr^ 
 (see § 202), etc. Now Mg. ^f?ra contracts to 0. ^r>, N. ?rfrf, etc.; 
 Mg. $ri%^ to E. H. $m-, Mg. ^raii to E. H. ^Frqr or ^frrar or 
 ^FTcE, B. ^FTq?; Mg. ^fw^^ to M. zmn. In Pr. the pleon. suff. 
 cFTf may be added: ^f%'<5TT (for ^fw^cfTT, see § 58, note) or Ap. Pr.. 
 D^^TT, etc., whence (r. DT5TT, etc. (with ?7 or T for r^ or =3^, as 
 in Pr. <JTTIT for Skr. <TW^T H. C. 2, 2 9), S. ^fFT7~Y, etc., E. H. ^TT 
 (see §§ 58. 111. 214). In M., the pleon. suff. ^=TT may be super- 
 added to the pleon. suff. cRT, thus ^rMYMI, etc. (lit. Ap. *^fw^afT^T3). 
 The Gd. forms 3%, 3FT5J or 3frT37, ^Tfrf^t, etc. are similarly de- 
 rived from the Pr. $75rf%^T (see Wb. Bh. 4 22), as explained in 
 
§§ 455—457.] PRONOUNS OF QUALITY. 307 
 
 § 43 8, 1. 7. — The Pr. forms ^iWr, rlQtt), etc. are in Skr. 
 coIttcF:, msrfFnFr:, etc. — The E. H. forms ^srW, smiT or 9r?7T are 
 perhaps derived from a^rfFTSr, sTSJTFT^ with an anomalous aspiration, 
 as in M. 375TST, and cerebralisation, as in G. sT£3Tr. 
 
 45 5. Cognate quant, forms. By the side of the forms 
 ^"WSTT, FTW^rt, etc. The Ap. Pr. has the forms F5JT, FfcTJ, irSTZ", SF5TT 
 (H. C. 4, 4 07. 408), made by adding the pleon. suff. T to the 
 quant, pron. ^ToT, FfoT, 5T5T, cFTST, in Ved. Skr. $5IH, ^T3FT . M. has 
 them in the strong form EcTST or (with pleon. STT) D'51'S'T^riT, FTcI£T 
 or rf^CT^TT, etc. (Man. 52); so also G. ^srrr, «T5riY, rToTTT, etc.; 
 S. also has them, hut in the shorter form DTT or ^TT, srtit or 
 ^tit, FT3T, etc. (Tr. 224), made by adding the pleon. suff. 37 to 
 the short quant, pron. $7, FT, sT, cR (see § 438, 1), so also P. wk. 
 f. ^7 or ^rj, FTC or FTT, etc., and st. f. ^3T, FT3T, etc.; also 0. 
 V3, rT3", WI, 3T3" (Bs. II, 3 3 6). In this form the quant, pron. usu- 
 ally expresses size, i. e., so large, how large, etc. In S. the di- 
 minutive suff. "ft may be added, as ^TTJT or ^"fT3T, ^Tfrff or irrfjTT, 
 FTTZTT, etc. (Tr. 224), meaning .so small, etc. — The W. H. has 
 also FT, IT, 3FT which are derived from the Skr. quant, pron. FffFf:, 
 JrfrT:, ektft:, Pr. Fri, ?ri (H. C. 1, 17 7), ef^ (H. C. 1, 180?), Ap. 
 Pr. Fq, sT^, cF;T (H. C. 4, 3 7 6). 
 
 4 5 6. The pron. of qual. are: ^3^T^ or {/Tirr of this hind, 
 FT^TT or fp^t of that hind, sT^PT or irSPT of which hind, 37-^PT^or 
 tE^PT of what hind. They are the same in the masc. and fern., 
 and are declined regularly, like any adj. (see § 3 8 6). But they 
 may also take the strong obi. forms ; viz. in the sing., m. ^PT, 
 f. ^TPTT, etc., in the plur. m. ^R?¥ (or ^PR[), f. ^ef^eT, etc. 
 
 45 7. Affinities. There is much difference among the va- 
 rious Gds. as regards these pron. There are four main types, 
 the characteristics of which are: 1) ^T, 2) f[, 3) 5T or ^ and 
 4) 1 or J or ST. To the first or ^type belong : E. H. ^PT , 
 ft^pt and in Bs. also ^TT_ or 5^ or 5TCT , FTe^ or FFT^, etc.; W. H. 
 ^TT, iraT, FP=TT (Br.) or ^ft, swt, fFren (Mw.), etc. ; M. SFTT or 
 *PPc<Tr or grraT^TT, FRIT or FPPtTT or FP^PyfFrn", etc. (Man. 52); and 
 
308 PRONOUNS OF QUALITY. § 458.] 
 
 N. cr^ft, 3*ft, rWt, etc. Of the second or ^-type are : P. ^T or 
 ^T or ^f^T or sir^T, FT^T or fr^TT, etc., S. ^TT or f^TT, fpr^TT, 
 etc. Of the third or sr-type are : G. ^"srt, 5FJT, rfoTT, etc., B. 
 U^FT^ or S^FT^, rTTFT_ or FR^T , etc., 0. P*T^, rFP7T_, etc. Of the 
 fourth or 1-type are : Mw. jrit or ^JT, 5Tjt or srfY, r("jV or 
 <T^I, etc., Gw. ^TT or ^ or ^T^, cFTT or 5FT , PT^ft or FR^, etc. 
 (Kl. 141). 
 
 4 58. Derivation. The qual. pron. in the Ap. Pr. are 
 either *^sft, Fr^TT, sl^TT, CFJHT (H. C. 4, 403) or ^"J - , FT|-, 5Tf, 3tJ 
 (H. C. 4, 402) or in the strong form, ^[3 or (contr.) ^T, etc., 
 (K. I. 9, in Ls. 449). The former set produces the ^T-type, the 
 latter the l[-type. M. ^R^TT, etc. and E. H. ^TR , etc. add the 
 pleon. suff. oT or 3T, see §§ 111. 214. M. even reduplicates the 
 suff. c^T in ^T^TTc^T, etc. The S. 3^TT, etc. add the pleon. suff. 3. 
 The P. ^f^[T preserves the l[-type in a more complete form ; for 
 it stands for a Pr. form uf^Sjf = Skr. ^TST: (see § 43 8, 4). — 
 The Skr. qual. pron. are JJW-, rTFTST:, OTS'ST:, cirlTST:, which be- 
 come in Pr. $rt^TTT, rfTfjTfT, snff^fr, SFff^rt (H. C. 1, 14 2) or ^t;eT, 
 rTri^^rr, etc. (see Ls. 115). As a rule ^ (or z) is elided (see 
 § 124), whence the Ap. Pr. 5^rt, etc. (see § 25, note); and ^ 
 (or 5]^) is changed to IT, whence Ap. ^V, FTlft contracted for *9^t, 
 *FT^rl', etc. (see Ls. 4 55). It may be observed, that the P. and 
 S., which alone have the ^"-type, similarly change the FT_ (or srr) 
 of Pr. aWr 20, ft^tt 30 (Skr. fsrsrfrf, fsrarrrj into ?r , P. drhr, jfter, 
 S. 5TT^, rtf[. — The forms of the sr- and 3-types were originally 
 quant, pron. The Skr. ^TcT^ (Ved. ^snrj, FTT5R , etc. become in Pr. 
 ^oT, FfcT, etc. or DTr, R'q, etc. (cf. Wb. Bh. 4 22. Ls. 4 58), whence 
 G. ^ciT, ftstV, etc. and B. U^R^, ^R^ etc. (with pleon. suff. 5^", 
 see §§ 209. 214) ; and the 0. O^-H^, B. ^Trj^, etc., perhaps, are 
 based on the Skr. £?TFTaF7:, etc., Pr. * ^cFFraT, and probably con- 
 tain the suff. Skr. 5HT, n*, Pr. ETC*, *RT (see §§ 23 2. 236). — 
 The Mw. U~J\ or jrrt, etc. are identical with the S. quant, pron. 
 ^3t, P. ^"2T, etc. ; and so also the Gw. U^Tt, where 3 has been chan- 
 ged to =r (see §§ 106. 438, 2) — The forms, Br. am and Gw. 3R> 
 
§§ 459— 462.J INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 309 
 
 are founded on the Ap. Pr. forms * pcTjeT (= Skr. * ^fonTST.) and 
 75TJT respectively. 
 
 c) Indefinite pronouns. 
 
 4 59. The indef. pron. all, every one is g^ or STU or emph. 
 ^ra - or eu. It is the same in both genders, and is declined re- 
 gularly like any other adj. of the weak form. But when plurality 
 is to be emphasised, it has an obi. form 5W^ or m-sT^hj, thus 
 gen. wz^ or w 5F of all taken as a whole, but ^i^r or ^T^n^ar 
 of all taken severally. 
 
 •4 60. Affinities. The forms of this indef. pron. are 
 nearly alike in all Gds. Thus B. ^, 0. ^, W. H. ?ra or *ra£, 
 P. s-i-T, G. W\ or esr (Ed. 44, 1), S. SW m., ?=W f., or ^TU^T m., 
 °m f., M. ^TST, N. ST5N S. has the emph. forms ^Z and ftraot^ 
 or fa iY-f . — E. H. also uses *T3>;jr or ^nj and STT^T all, whole. 
 
 461. Derivation. The original is the Skr. esT:, which 
 becomes in Pr. JJTcofr, in the Ap. Pr. «53 (H. C. 4, 3 66) or *^ (cf. 
 H. C. 4, 3 99, see § 135, note). The former becomes 0. SH, E. H., 
 N., Br. s^ , the latter Br. ^TcT^ (emph. garf"). The form SW has 
 an anomalous aspirate (see §131), perhaps analogous to N. ^T^T 
 self for 9T<J, grfir before for ^TfTT, etc. — The S. evTcFT adds the 
 pleon. suff. 37T. — The G. and M. ST5T is a semitats. — The 
 strange S. f^Wff or f^Tl^, I believe, to be merely a curtailment 
 of the emph. wftj or ^T5Tt^. The final ^ is the emph. particle ; 
 the initial ^ of the remainder fi\Tt stands for 5T (see § 134); 
 the final ^IRIT or ^i\ is a pleon. suff., the same as in S. T^rt 
 or^kjr' first (see §§118. 213), mfjij very little (Tr. 7 9), yffift so 
 small (§ 4 55). In S., ^ often changes to F (see Tr. XXX); hence 
 ^T5T° may have become ^3T° or ^T , next ?p (by suppressing ^), 
 next tT° (cf. Mw. c^ffr or qtfr our for Br. ^nfr). — The E. H. ^xqr 
 is the Skr. e^c?r (see § 102); and mjl is, perhaps, really the 
 past part, of ^nj^ to complete, the causal of the R. ^ (= Skr. 
 part. JTrfpT:), or it may be the Skr. STTcT:. 
 
 4 6 2. The indef. pron. whoever is sT^TF which is both masc. 
 and fem. ; and ?rf%^ whatever, which is used with things only. 
 
310 PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. §§463—467.] 
 
 They are compound forms, made of sT and cfitT or few, and are 
 declined regularly like their component parts; thus gen. sing. 
 ii3ifr 37 of whomsoever. 
 
 463. Affinities and Derivation. This pron. is formed 
 in the same way in all Gds. by compounding the relat. with the 
 indef. pron. Thus S. iicJTT m., fTsprr f., 5TcJ7> n. (Tr. 213); B. zfew 
 or ircHT^T n. (S. Ch. 127), etc. As to its derivation, see § 438. 
 
 4 64. The indef. pron. some is cFfrPTT or cF"^ which is masc. 
 and fem., and few or 3T® or ciT^ which refers to things only. 
 They are declined regularly like adj. Thus gen. cFFPT crffrT^cfi of 
 some men, 37j srrj^ ^> of some horses, few orFr^ t> of some thing. 
 When cfirRT is used independantly, it forms the obi. ^rT^T^, and 
 to 37^ the pleon. aff. ^cjf (§ 289) is added; thus gen. #JrFT:T 9F 
 or ^^ SF of some. 
 
 4 65. Affinities and Derivation. The impersonal indef. 
 pron. is in B. few, 0. fef%, Br. mw, H. H. mw, M. cFrf|T, Mw. 
 cF'fj 19 or 373" w , S. cR^i - , P. cfij£. I know no satisfactory derivation 
 for few, perhaps it is Pr. *f^?f%j = Skr. Rhfci HJpPrf. 
 
 4 6 6. Here may be added the E. H. sjt^t or JQJ or 93^ 
 or 07"r^ another, and T^J^^ one another. 
 
 Note: m^ is the Mg. 3FT (cf. H. C. 3, 5 8), Skr. SF*T: ; — 
 5J3^[ is the Mg. 95l9r, Skr. WT: ; — <T7J^ seems to be connected 
 with the Skr. qj^W. ; it also occurs in the Ap. Pr. QJTZ (H. C. 
 4, 350) or TfWT (H. C. 4, 376). — On gjqr see § 271. 
 
 6. PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. 
 467. The E. II. pron. adv. are the following: a) of place, 
 Xf[ or ^T or ^5TT or ^S"' or ^KX or ^"br or $5FT^ or \&\ here; 
 fif or Fl| or rRTT or FTfoTT or rTS"t or rTpr^ there; sTT or FTif or 
 fr^T or sT^oTT or ?r"pr where; 9TT or 37f or ER^rf or cfr^crt or 37f:T_ 
 where? The same in emph. form are: pTST^ or ^T?T U or ^^T^T 
 even here; FT^a"" or Frets'' or n^tzi even there; st^st* or sT^ttt' 
 or siftet evcrc where; cfT^sT or ^^77* or cFf^VTT evew where? 
 
§ 468.] PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. 311 
 
 b) of direction, $iqr or ^d|" hither] ^r^f or ^T^sr^ M'iH" 1 "- 
 ft^t or ft^h^ thither; ^[ or ^sq" wither \ ep^ or cFf^sqr wither'} 
 
 c) of time, ?r^T now, rFZthcn, sf&.when, ^ig when? In emph. 
 form : asr^T or a=rfi[a tt cwm now ; Fre|V or H&ii^o"'" even then ; 
 srsr^"^ or ;r5if|TT tf> even when ; tE^r^t'" or cTrsrf|rjr w e#m when? 
 
 d) o/" manner or cause : U^ or $73 or ^T^ or ^^T or ^T m 
 (Ms manner or /or //«'s cause; F^ or TO or rraT u or FT^T or ftst 
 thus or therefore, also $m; s^or iTJ or ?rm" or sT^T or "ster m 
 /r/^V// manner or /or ^tf7Mc/^ cause, also when; ^f^ or cR3 or cH^t"" 
 or 37^T or 5iir how or why or cet|t «%, cFfT cFT^ or cET^; 5[£- wfcflrf 
 fore, 5>T^ w% wo£? 
 
 468. • Affinities. Forms of the same origin are designated 
 by the same letter. — a) Adv. of place; B. (a) ^"IT or ^?TT, ^raT 
 or ^TCT, FFTT or iraT, um (i. e. sWT), 3TRTT or (h) $7 WR, m W°, 
 £r !?T , u <eT°, amR W°, or (d) ^ here, or (/) |;fr here. 0. («) ^"51", 
 fT?7T, 5T5T, cfiTST, or (h) $7-5T-7/ , uf 51J, 5FT3 or cRT* 5T7/, etc. Bs. 
 («) ^JTT or ^5^T, «T5JTT or ateff^, FT5JT or FTSZTT , etc., or (b) 3^ 
 or 3f T or 3^5rt, ^f , etc. (as in E. H.) ; (W. H.) Br. (a) ^T or 
 ^rT, 3<T or 3rT, frTFT^ or frtrT, fr%<T or t?TrT, flifT or fifirT or 57rT , or 
 
 (b) fT^T or JTT, ST^t or 5TT, FT^T or ?rf , ?r^T or srl , 3T^T or 3TT ; 
 Mw. («) %6 or g£t or ^~6", 35" or 35T or 35", ste" or sTST (or 3T5?), 
 ^75" or 3R5T or E&^i? or 3TT5" (also SJ3, ?T3, etc., Kl. 265); P. (a) ^T, 
 3i%, fFTW, ffTF^T, fiRFer; S. (a) ^frT or f%ffT or JFT or {%rr or ^T, 
 
 3TH or sffrT or 3FT or sFT or 3F2T, frffFT or FTTH or faffST or frTrT Or 
 frTFZT Or FTFT, t%frT Or fMpT or sTTTT or f%FT Or t%F2T or sTFT (also sTTFT 
 
 or JTTfV), t%f?T or t%f?>T or q^TTT or f%?T or t%?^r (Tr. 3 9 2. 3 93); 
 G. (b) f^TT, ^"ffr w , ??rt or FTfT or FT%T, sJTT or ST^f or sTT^-f, 
 cErf or cFjfr 1 or cfri^f (Ed. 115. Bs. II, 336. 337); M. (a) w", 
 rw"*, ffk" or fm, ZFW* or («) cFT?7 w (Man. 100); N. (b) fH"T or Off 
 
 or ff-f^T or oTT^T, oT^T or Sn^T, rT^"f or rTTfT, sT^f or sTTC 1 , ^^^ 
 or art^"f. 
 
 b) Adv. of direction; B. (c) ^rqir, ^jt^, ^tft; 0. (y) ^r, 5W; 
 E. II. (c) ^-^ or ^f5T-^", etc. ; in some parts also (/) ^T or 
 
 (c) ^-l or (y) ^Tf-£, etc. (cf. Kl. 26 6); W. H. ^q, OT^r, frT^, 
 
312 PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. § 468.] 
 
 fcvj, fern P. unknown; S. (y) ^1 or ^7 or DTf[ or ^T^r or ^73ef 
 or ^Jef, mZ or ^t3T or ^T3^[ etc., rTT or FT3lf or FTT^, 5TT etc., 
 era etc. ; G. (y) JErTOTT-JTJT, rraft-iPT (cf. Bs. 33 6. 3 37); M. (c) Ztt 
 or f|cF7 (Man. 127), m-FT, Ptttt, PfisRT; N. (b) ?rfff, orfff, rriff, 
 5T"tr5, crnftf. The adv. of place may also be used in all Gds. ; 
 generally with the dat. aff. added ; e. g., E. H. rT^TT ejT, 0. ST7TT cfi 
 thither, etc. 
 
 c) Adv. of time; B. (c) ^ir, ftst, jrsr, crst (S. Ch. 2 07) or 
 (h) ^-iaR, ft-w^, zHppt, cF-w^r ; O. (c) ^r, nir, arsr, er%; E. II. 
 
 (c) 9^, FT^, sT5T^, cfvSTj W. H. (c) 33§T or *5T, rT^" or rTT (= rfc*), 
 5T5T or Sn", 3t5T, or (d) sT^ or ?T£ or sT^T or FTjT , rTrf or FfiT, 37^ or 
 5R^ or T,Z1 or cFi^, or (e) gf, <Tf ; 0. H. (c) FTPT, ?rrq; P. (d) FT^, 
 sr^, ^?; S. (c) rTT, srf, or (y) rrfijfr", sTt^fT, gfifrfT; M. (c) ^c^f, 
 ffsr or rTc^T, sfsr or irs^T, 375^7 (Man. 100. 12 5), or (a) OTfrf then 
 (Man. 100); N. (c) ga^, na^, ste^, cjt^, or (c) gjc?r or ffs%, ft^t 
 or FTcF^, sT^^T or sTc?^, crT^crf or 5fRF^, or (e) sTT, Ff^. 
 
 d) Adv. o/' manner; B. (y)^T^, bfft^, or (c) ^T or ^JTFJ^ or 
 pipT or {T^TT or ^JTrT, g^Pt, FfTT or rTiTT etc., OTFT or ?T*TtT etc., 
 cFJTrr or ERJTrT or t%HH etc. (S. Ch. 21 6. 21 7. 21 8) ; 0. (c) ({pRT, 
 ^T^rT, JTJPfT?), cFTrFrT or f^TCTT or ERTpf-SR or cFITfT-TJ; 0. H. ^JJ or 
 ^Pr, FT*T or Prft, 3PT or Prfq, cRq or PrPt ; P. (c) ^f, rdf, sTJ, cRTf; 
 S. (c) 3""^ or ^t"^ or ^5 or P^3" or ^T, 3:^ or p% or 3% or 
 ITS or 3^ or J^, F?T~g or Prfo or fkf, sTT~^r or Psfo or Pr^7, cht~il 
 or Rr% or PcR^r; G. ^, gpr, FPT, §T»T, apfJT ; M. (f) sw "', Fra - *, 
 sTsT, crT^r" (Man. 101. 12 6); N. (f) s«l, ft^, st£t, cfpct, or urn, FTCrT, 
 ?PtT, crsft, or (h) Erert-rTf^~, rWT-rrf^, etc., cfott why. 
 
 I may add here, that pron. adv. implying from or up-to are 
 made in all Gds. by adding abl. or loc. aff. to the above men- 
 tioned pron. adv. Thus 0. 37-5" whence, E. H. cFirf-ST or ct^-si 
 whence, cR3r-J=r since when, chst-ftcR or cR^rt*-rra» how long, S. cR-rrr 
 orSfiT-eV or cR-tft-g or EF-HT^ W how long (Tr. 3 94); N. *T^T-^nr 
 or 6h'T^"f-^fw whence, etc. But in P., M., Mw., S. and occasion- 
 ally in the other Gds. they may be made by giving to the adv. 
 of place or direction a different (abl.) inflection ; thus P. (a) ^PTT 
 
§ 469.] PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. 313 
 
 hence, w" thence, etc. (Ld. 70. 103); M. (a) ^r (Man. 126) 
 or WEfuT^henee, f^^J^T thence, etc. (Man. 100, 2. d) : Mw. (a) s?5T 
 rr hence, ^SJ ^ whence, etc. ; S. (a) ^ftt or JFTT3I or ^FTp; or ^Jf 
 or (y) ffTT or ^373; or £T|r or ^37f[ ftmce, etc. (Tr. 3 94. 39P); 
 0. 5>t# ivhcnce. 
 
 469. Derivation, The case of the pron. adv. is similar 
 to that of the pron. themselves (see § 4 38). Here also, there are 
 six different types, marked a (or «), b, c (or y), d, e, /"respectively; 
 and the adverhs are in reality obi. forms of what were originally 
 qual. or quant, pron. adj. Thus: l)'the Ap. Pr. uses the obi. 
 form (or loc. sg.) in ^ of the quant, pron. ^f%5T, etc. as pron. 
 adv. of place (as explained in § 438, 7), ^W^;, ft^t, etc. (H. C. 
 4, 43 6); in P. and S. they are contracted to ^T (for *2[rg), 
 frTm or (eliding f) W. H. ^FT, frTrT or S. ^F>, frTrT or (shortening 
 the final £) ^frT, T~FffFT, etc. The M. m*, m", etc. are similarly 
 contracted from Ap. Pr. ^rff, Fmflf (with the obi. or loc. suff. 
 f^ H. C. 4, 3 57, see also § 3 7 8, 3); and the B. ^JT, FTTT (also 
 ^TTO, FTOTCT, see S. Ch. 214. 2 22), etc. from the Pr. ^*T% (H. C. 
 3, 8 2. 2, 134), etc. There is also a series of by-forms of this 
 rt-type (marked a) which substitute Z for ST.; e. g., Mw. ^7T, sliT 
 (like S. ^), E. H. $&", R77" (like M. aw*), 0. ^TT, £r5T (like B. ^tt), 
 etc. ; analogously to the change in the pron. adj., G. ^?7??u so many 
 for E. H. ^FRT, S. ^frVft, etc. It appears, that some confusion 
 originated at an early period between the terminations £JT and ?7T, 
 BT and 5 -19 , 3" and 5" and the nouns (loc.) m^ or 5FT^, eJT^ or 
 ST^ in a place. The E. H. emph. forms ^r-&T^ w or ^-5" ' , etc., 
 and the 0. zrf-ST^T, adr-STS" can hardly be explained on any other 
 theory. Indeed, the real phrases, E. H. ^ m^ in this place, FT ?n^ 
 in that place, etc., B. ^"^ft, ft IpTPT (with w^for was in Pr. ^rnrr^ 
 for Skr. ^mrr:, H. C. 2, 7) are not unfrequently used. — Again 
 2) Ap. Pr. uses the loc. sg. in f^ or j of the quant, pron. j^ 
 as a pron. adv. of time and manner: ^clf^ now (H. C. 4, 4 20) 
 and ^=sr^ or ^5 thus (H. C. 4, 421.420). In B. and 0. they 
 are contracted to C5T or tf5T, and in W. H. shortened to w now, 
 
314 PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. § 469.] 
 
 0. II. jjfiT thus (for*$rf*r), S. ^thus (for *■&' or *^£r""). Similarly 
 the W. H. r\k(, 0. H. frrpq", S. fhi?, etc. postulate an Ap. Pr. rrr-rili 
 or fte^T, etc. The Ap. Pr. also uses the plain obi. form (without 
 suff., II. C. 4, 34 5) £C5T thus (H. C. 4, 4 20), h\ or hz or faq- or 
 fnsr thus, etc. (II. C. 4, 401. 3 97). They become in 0. H. and 
 G. ^T, rPT, etc., in S. ITS, Ft? (changing 5T WAS to 3) or ^5T, i?raf 
 (eliding JT^ or aj or f""^, m~5, etc. (wither, perhaps, to compen- 
 sate for the elision of the conj. JS^), in W. H. contracted JTT', oTT , 
 etc. or E. H. n^, m^ (for *JT3, *rri) thus, etc. ; but also as adv. of 
 time M. rTcT then, E. H. and H. H. ^si^ now, ci^then, N. ^3^, na^, 
 etc. B. adds the pleon. suff. 5^, thus ^R or ^♦rPr or ^^PT^ f/ws, 
 etc. (= Ap. Pr. *^rcT3"s); so also W. H. ^5FT thus, etc. B. also 
 uses these forms as adv. of place or direction, thus ^PT here or 
 hither. N. adds to them the pleon. suff. cT and uses them as adv. 
 of time; thus &5% (= Ap. Pr. *^f5TFri[) or STc^ (= Ap. *^faoTS), 
 etc. The 0. H. and E. H. use the shorter form $r, etc. for TTot or 
 ^5T, etc., and add the pleon. suff. rr (= Ap. 3") ; thus ^r here or 
 hither, etc. (for B. ^pr, Ap. Pr. *^aj^); so also S., which pre- 
 serves the original 3T; thus UJ~ hither, etc. S. also uses the obi. 
 or loc. suff. |r and w (H. C. 4, 340, see also § 3 78, 3) instead of TJ; 
 thus jrs% or JTTW hither, etc. These last forms are purely Ap. Pr., 
 exc. that in that language they would be loc. plur. Similarly 
 the obi. suff. |[ is used in the M. T^c^n noiv, etc. (for *^c^r with 
 transposed IT for *^5T^). In the M. forms J^nT hither, etc. (shor- 
 tened for * ^cF2") both the pleon. suff. 57 and 1 have been added. 
 The simpler forms PfrarY, fri^TT (without ?) occur in Mw. (see Kl. 
 13 2). This seems to me more probable, than the assumption of 
 a compound S + cRT on this side from the subst. OffS side (as 
 Man. 127). S. also uses the obi. or loc. suff. ff (II. C. 4, 347. 
 3 57), probaby confused with the emph. aff. 5 or in, in rTT3^T 
 then, etc. — The Ap. also uses the forms rTPT, sTPT (for rm, 5T*T 
 = Skr. (TT3H, OT5I7T, H. C. 4, 406) as adv. of time. They are in 
 0. H. (Chand) FTUT,. sTTT and in S. FTT, STL — The E. H. ^r 
 hither, etc. (lit. ^-^) contain the loc. suff. ^ (shortened for ^", 
 
§ 469.] PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. 315 
 
 as in 0. sfrT-f *W the hand) and the obi. form ^"eT (on which see 
 § 438, 1); similarly E. II. ^oT^ (transposed for ^snrij"), ^TfT^ or 
 ^^^j ^^T or ^[^ hither, etc. contain the obi. forms ^5T|r or 
 TOe^or TOeT of the bases TO or TO or TO/. — Again 3) the Ap. Pr. 
 has the pron. adv. rltrf, sT^T, 3ieT"7 (H. C. 4, 3 5 5). They are stated 
 by H. C. to be abl. forms in the phrases rTcT~f ^TrT^ mJT^T he came 
 thence, etc. That phrase means lit. he came being there, i. e., from 
 there. In fact, eTTO^ is the abl. aff. added to the adv. of place 
 rTcp, just as in 0. II. FT^i W<Tf, E. II. FT^f ST (see §§ 376, 1. 468, 
 p. 312). Those Ap. Pr. forms are still used as adv. of place in 
 E. H. and W. H. F^rf there, etc. or, slightly modified, in G. and 
 N. (TT^T, etc. They are, I think, derived by means of the obi. 
 suff. e? (forming gen., abl. and loc. in Ap. Pr., see § 3 76, 4) from 
 the qual. bases Ap. Pr. $7e7, rH?, etc., but shortening ^ to ^ or g; 
 thus Ap. Pr. to^, E. H. ^~f (for *3"f#), W. H. Serf ; Ap. Pr. F^f 
 or rT|T"f, E. H. rT^rf (compare Ap. Pr. n^ipr cTTO^it mnzi he came 
 from you, H. C. 4, 3 73). Similarly the Ap. Pr. obi. or loc. suff. f^; 
 is contained in the G. rnft J there, etc. (for Ap. *rT^f|[) and perhaps 
 in the N. fttP^ thither, etc. — Again 4) the forms M. TO*, N. 
 TO, E. H. TO thus, etc. are obi. forms of the Ap. Pr. qual. pron. 
 HjeT, etc. (H. C. 4, 403, the Ap. instr. would be ^TO*, loc. ^TO^" 
 or *tft H. C. 4, 34 2. 3 34, but see § 3 67, 2. 4 on such obi. forms). — 
 Again 5) the W. H. forms ZW^ hither, etc. are perhaps contracted 
 for s5[^-^ and connected with the Pr. qual. pron. ^<p[, etc. (H. C. 
 2, 15 7); the medial ^ being suppressed and the loc. aff. ^ (for ^) 
 added. To this type belong' the B. ^ here (S. Ch. 215) for *^T 
 or * TO^ = Pr. loc. sg. ^£eT, and the W. H. adv. of time z^ or 
 jIST or fl£ or si"^ when, ft£ then, etc. for *^^ (eliding w) or Pr. 
 sl^el, etc. Similarly W. H. has 3"3^[ hither, etc. by the side of 
 ^U^, etc. — Again 6) the Mw. cif, sT|", N. rT^, sqr then, when 
 are, perhaps, connected with the Skr. HT%, ??fl[ ; or they may be 
 of the same origin as the P. ir:r whither, FT3" thither (see Nro. 2 
 changing J or -j to t); and the B. ^^t here (S. Ch. 215) also 
 belongs to this type. — Lastly, the B. u <pnr^ nolo, etc. are com- 
 
316 FORMS OF THE VERB. §§ 470. 471.] 
 
 pounds of u this and W^r moment (Skr. vim, Pr. ^ut H. C. 2, 2 0), 
 and the N. ?ittV riff thus, etc. of tot such and nff having done 
 (conj. part, of the R. efqr to do, for cFtfjr') ; just like B. ^ wft_ /tere 
 (see Nro. 1). 
 
 FOUETH SECTION. INFLECTION OF ^VERBS. 
 
 FIRST CHAPTER. FORMS OF THE VERB. 
 
 4 70. There are two kinds of verbs, the transitive and 
 the intransitive ; two degrees, the simple and the causal, of which 
 the causal is always transitive; two voices, the active and the 
 passive, of which the intransitive verb possesses only the active, 
 but the trans, has both ; four moods, the indicative, conjunctive, 
 imperative, infinitive, to which may be added as a fifth mood 
 the participles. 
 
 1 . KINDS. 
 
 471. A trans, verb is formed from an intrans. by length- 
 ening the radical vowel, viz. n to m, ^ to ^ or ^, 3 to 3 or 
 9T ; and vice versa an intrans. from a trans, by sbortening the 
 same vowel. Thus from the intr. 3>?/^ to be cut comes the trans. 
 qTT773^ to cut ; similarly rr&s^ to be buried, rvii^ to bury ; **J^ to 
 die, n\r ®^ to kill ; 5^5^ to be laden, cHr<^ to load ; foris^ to be 
 mixid, JTviq^ to mix ; f^era^ to be seen, £<pT5^ to see ; f^T5r_ to be seen, 
 £te^ to see; t%i«7^ to be smeared, ^ftiisi to smear; 'f^TST^ to be 
 opened, "pflvra^ to open ; W€^ to be loosed, ^T^sr to loose ; rwrq^ to 
 be plaited, rm^ to plait Again from the trans. WOoT^ to pluck 
 up comes the intr. 3*pT"^ to be plucked up ; likewise JT^TCTS^ to bathe, 
 ^l^S[ to flow, etc., see also §351. Trans, and intr. verbs are con- 
 jugated alike, except in the 3. sg. 2 nd pret. ind., where they 
 have different forms (see § 504); e. g., tr. cF^cTOW*e did, but intr. 
 JT^cfT^ he went. 
 
§§ 472—474.] degree. 317 
 
 47 2. Affinities. In all Gds. these sets of trans, and 
 intr. verbs occur ; but in M. and S. the trans, root may option- 
 ally end in ^ ; thus M. qr to get loose, but STTfj to loose; S. *qr 
 to die, but mf\ to kill (see Tr. 48); e. g., M. m^t" I get loose, 
 but ^rrf3rfr a I loose or (in Konkani, see Man. 68, note) rrt3<fr L ; 
 again Hc^tt it got loose, but ^rtfr^TT he loosed; again *xZc^ getting 
 loose, but ^TfrT^ loosing, etc. ; again S. T^nj to die, but Trf^HT (or 
 in Lari) ^H"^ to Mil ; again ^ die thou, but rrrff Mil thou ; again 
 crr^T dying, but ^jftcj killing ; again S. ^fq - or ^TT hear thou, ^pT57f 
 or MHT<0 ' hearing, etc. But E. H. ^tT, WZ^\ 5E?t ; T^, *qr, ^fJ^J, 
 and so also ^rsfrT, ^resfT, ^tlFT/, TIJST., ^rqr, ^T^L' W 1 --' 1 W 1 ^' 
 
 473. Derivation. As a rule, the E. H. intrans. and its 
 respective trans, verb correspond to the simple verb and its resp. 
 causal in Skr., where the causal is made by lengthening the ra- 
 dical vowel of the simple verb with guna or vrddhi. In some 
 cases, however, the E. H. trans, and intr. verbs correspond to 
 the Skr. act. and pass, verbs ; see §351. The originally causal 
 character of such Gd. trans, verbs is shown by their possessing 
 the Skr. causal suff. ^ in M. and S. 
 
 2. DEGREES. 
 
 474. The causal is formed from the simple verb by adding 
 the suff. ^T5T to the root (see §§ 339. 349). To the causal root, 
 thus formed, the infin. suff. ^^ or ^s^is reattached. If the simple 
 root contains a long vowel it is shortened ; viz. OT to ^, ^ and 
 ^ to ^ (or ^), 37 and sJT to 3 (or srt). Thus S. V. cRfSL. or cjdjar_ 
 to do, S. R. SET, whence C. R. ^<TH , inf. cF^l^C (eliding a^ by 
 § 33) to cause to do; or S. V. fa^ra to mix, S. R. f^r, whence 
 C. R. f^nw , inf. fq^T^s^ to cause to mix ; similarly S. Vs. Tterar 
 to drink, c?ra^ to take, 355^ to turn, srWrq^ to speak, whence C. Vs. 
 fooT^J to cause to drink, %nT^5T or muj^s^ to cause to take, spT^ 
 to cause to turn, sprrr^ or ciWr^ to call, etc. 
 
 Exception. <?rra^ or <pTT^ to eat, R. WT, forms its causal 
 fwn^s^ to cause to eat for *<praTj5T (cf. § 55). 
 
318 DEGREE. § 475.] 
 
 Note: Observe that, according to §§25. 33. 34, the suff. 
 STcT may, in certain positions, undergo various changes, viz. 5T is 
 elided before 3 or 3 ; m, when antepenultimate, is shortened to 
 S, and 5j^ vocalised to 3, while S + 3 may change to ^7 and 
 s + 3 to 5JT. Thus =5icfrT3 he will cause to walk (for *^g? ;: n'5rT) ; 
 ■eM4<sTr or xfcrtsiV I shall cause to walk (for ^^cfTTfsr^t") ; s cT5»3rTt' e 
 or -cicrilrT) / cause to walk (f or * =3^UoTrfT ' ) ; but ^^TTcfn" he causes 
 to walk (not ywfjfl^). 
 
 4 7 5. Affinities. The causal is formed nearly in the same 
 way in all GUIs. ; but B., 0., H. H. and S. use the cans. suff. ST, 
 as C. R. <T^T teach of S. R. q*s read; E. H. and G. have sra^, as 
 ^Tci ; W. H. has STa^ or ST3, as q^TET or <T^T3; P. and N. have 
 ST3, as q^T3; M. has sfsr, as Q^fcT. The shortening of STc£ to 
 S5£ (as in M.) also occurs occasionally in Hindi (poetry), as |TsT3^ 
 for rjsno^fill (see Kl. 207) and <77;sr for <7jra fill (Kl. 228); so 
 also the contraction of STST^ to ST, as fTJTT for TJSTTcJ^ he angry 
 (Kl. 2 28); and H. H. optionally contracts ST5T^ to ST in 35rt or 
 3STT immerse of R. 3^, and faift or fijnT (for fumsT ) moisten of 
 R. inrr; also in P. firrft (Ld. 6 7); M. accasionally changes ST5T to 
 S5T in trans, verbs, as JJffjsr or STT3f5T Zoose (Man. 7 8, note. 110), 
 and sometimes retains STET , as sff^TTtsr or STTc^fe call (Man. 109). — 
 Monosyllabic roots, ending in a vowel, form in most Gds. irre- 
 gular caus. ; thus the C. Rs. of R. m eat are in B. OTSTJTT (S. Ch. 
 129), 0. wst (Sn. 3 7), E. H. fierarra, W. H. wsttet (or ®cn Kl. 
 207. 217), P. *3ST3 (Ld. 67), M. <°Holfd (Man. 77), G. W5TT3 (Ed. 
 114), S. mjJ (Tr. 2 57), H. H. firm Again of R. 5; give they 
 are in B. 3St?TT (S. Ch. 12 9), 0. %T (Sn. 3 7), E. H. TZJIT^ (also 
 Bs. f^sra), W. H. 5orra^ or fsjTcT (Kl. 214), M. £5rfar or ^feTcr 
 (Man. 118), G. ^STT3, S. T3ST7- (Tr. 25 6), H. H. f^?TT. Exactly 
 analogous are the C. Rs. of the Rs. 5TT go and ^=T take ; but H. H. 
 has f^ToTT cause to take, not *t%c?lT. Similarly formed are the 
 C. Rs. of qt drink, m sew, ST live; thus S. fasTj, famj (Tr. 25 6), 
 G. etsrT3 (Ed. 1 1 4), H. H. fw?T, f^^TT, fwr ; but E. H. regularly 
 t%nar , fwra;, fwrw . Also of the Rs. =5 leak, 'Tf sleep, fi weep, 
 
§ 476.] DEGREE. 319 
 
 yV wash, ^t carry, sfi" sow; thus II. II. ^cftt, n^T, ^cftt, sj^rr, E^IT, 
 G. ciETTT (but H. H. Tsftm), S. ^nj (Tr. 2 5 6). Some roots which 
 end in consonants, form irregular causals in the same manner ; 
 thus R. frn?j^ or ^rtw learn has in II. H. iw^TT, S. e<3T^ (Tr. 257) 
 teach, but regularly in E. H. and W. H. fawra^, N. raWTj, M. fstcfifar 
 (Man. 7 8), B. and 0. (also optionally H. H.) fasTT ; again R. ^^ 
 see in H. H. optionally f^3W or f^WT, P. fc^Tc^ or f^<er??n3 (Ld. 
 67), S. 3-^TX (Bs. I, 242) show, but regularly E. H. and W. II. 
 f^WTcl^, N. £!pJT3, etc. Again R. Wi^SjJCak in H. H. optionally 3T^W 
 or STfjTT (be called, in pass, sense, see § 3 54, 2), G. cFnfcTST (Bs. 
 I, 243), but regularly in E. H. cR^TST.. Again R. 5Tf[ or fsiif sit 
 (Skr. zqfsrcn^) in H. H. sr^T (in the sense of amuse, lit. cause 
 to sit), P. sr^T^ (Ld. 87), S. fsr^r (Tr. 256). Again R. 5f6 sit 
 (Skr. Stffirs") in H. H. optionally firs^TT or 5T5"T^ or ST5T; and R. 
 <7?7 enter (Skr. JTrsrg") in H. H. gsTc^ (Kl. 18 6). Again R. <JT&; see 
 in M. crT^srfar (cf. Man. 7 5); R. fw write in M. fm^srfar (Man. 
 77); R. site regard in H. ^rq[ salute (lit. cause to be regarded); 
 R. 3T^ be excited (cf. H. C. 2, 5 7) in H. 3HT| excite; R. 3^ me 
 in S. 3^ (Tr. 2 57); R. ei^f sleep in S. SP^Tf; R. fxq^ &e afraid 
 in S. fcpnj; R. fof%r^ bathe in S. fsrfjpnr (Tr. 2 57); R. sPT^ eat 
 in G. sTJTT? (Ed. 50); R. sir diminish in G. STCTST (Bs. I," 243), 
 and others. 
 
 4 7 6. Derivation. Caus. verbs are formed in Skr., as a 
 rule, by adding the suff. ftU (or ^) to the S. R., but exceptionally 
 also by means of the suff. ^FTO" (or ^Tfa), as ^TTTJlfH' he causes 
 to tremble from S. R. ^TTCJ^; ^viufh he causes to collect from S. R. 
 f%, etc. In Pr. these two suff. become U and BT5T resp. (Vr. 
 7, 26. 27); in later Pr. (by a change of class, see § 347) ^ and 
 ^TH, and finally in Gd. ^-quiescent and gra^ (see § 349). Besides, 
 while in Skr. the formation with *3mu is exceptional, in Pr. the 
 two modes of formation with U and 5T5T are equally common ; 
 and finally in Gd. the formation with ^TET^ (or ST3 or w) is the 
 exclusive one, while the other is only preserved in the trans. 
 verbs (see§§ 4 71 — 473). Thus Skr. S. R. V die, C. R. mpi (or 
 
320 DEGREE. § 476.] 
 
 inff) hill, Pr. my or mj, E. H. 3TT.7; again Skr. 37 do, C. R. 
 cFTfO" (or *^FI7T), Pr. Wa\ or W,1J or eFT7T£T or tFT^TST, E. H. ST^TST', 
 or in the 3. sg. pres. ind. Skr. nTTaf^r, Pr. TiT^ or 'TTJJ, E. H. 
 jttt; Skr. cF?T^T(H, Pr. TJTZ or a»T^ or ^Tjaj or SfTTcT^, E. H. 
 377TST. — The Gel. suff. m^ changes a to 3 in N. and P. (cf. 
 §34) and drops it in B., 0., H. H. and S. ; it also shortens 9T 
 to ^ in M. The Pr. suff. ^TST becomes in M. ^fir or 93" (cf. 
 §47 2); the former is trans, and forms causals, the latter is intr. 
 and forms potent, pass, (see § 483). — The irregular monosyll. 
 verbs appear to use the double causal (see §§ 477. 4 7 8) in the 
 place of the ordinary one; compare e.g., M. '^TSrfsr cause to eat 
 (for *wrsrT%), B. ^Tsrrar (for *m&i with muft for stst.), W. H. ^srra^, 
 0. W^T (with 3 for «r? ) with M. ft'Torfa' or f^nrfsra" cause to cause 
 to slekp (Man. 109); again S. <eTTTT cause to eat (contr. for*<preT7T) 
 with S. "TTfT^T cause to cause to turn (Tr. 2 58). The G. ^praTJ 
 cause to eat is transposed for * <pT5T3T ; the original form is pre- 
 served in G. 3*^snjT cause to speek from R. gpTf , and the suff. ^5T3T 
 or ^5TT3 belong to the double causal, as may be seen from the 
 M., where roots in IT, as a rule, take the double caus. suff. gcjfsr 
 (Man. 7 7); e. g., f^arfsr cause to write from R. fwTsf. Similarly 
 the S. suff. mj or mjl (for *g5TT7 or *sraTja), H. H. SJTcf^ or 
 ^ToTT are double causal suff. The origin of these strange forms 
 °3T, °TT, 0; 5TT which are confined to the W. Gels, (espec. G. and S.) 
 is very obscure. The identification of ^ with the q^ of the Skr. 
 caus. suff. %U (as Bs. I, 24 1) is hardly correct; for the H. ^T as 
 well as the S. T_ are modifications of the G. 3T (or it) '), but 
 the Skr. q^ could not possibly change into 3". It should be ob- 
 served, that there is a remarkable similarity between the Gd. 
 caus. formation and that of Psh. The latter language forms cau- 
 sals by means of the suff. ^5T or CT ; the former corresponding 
 to the M. illfk, G. 9To^, S. *JT ; the latter to the G. OT3, S. ^Tf, 
 
 1) Not vice versa; 3 sometimes changes too^, see § 105; but never 
 cfr to 3". 
 
§§ 477. 478.] DEGREE. 321 
 
 H. II. ^T^T. See also the remarks in § 3 54, 2. A few instances 
 of caus. in 5R occur in the Pr. ; e. g., iUTTT^ or Mnii^ (besides 
 the regular irPT^ or iPTTa^ or wra^) of R. WTroam (II. C. 3, 15 1) ; 
 also rPTTTj[ (H. C. 4, 30. see also II. C. 4, 161); 'dmjj he looses 
 (H. C. 4, 91). 
 
 47 7. From the caus. verb an other causal may be formed, 
 precisely in the same way, by adding the suff. 13TS to the caus. 
 root, the long OT of which is shortened to ^. Thus S. V. m-*^ 
 to read, S. R. ^ , C R. cr:5Ta^ cause to read (i. e. teach), whence 
 other C. R. M4oJ id^, inf. M^dl^sJ to cause to cause to read (i. e. 
 to cause to teach). This I shall designate the double causal. It 
 may, obviously, be formed from the simple verb immediately, by 
 adding to the S. R. the compound or reduplicated suff. ^STIH . 
 These double causals are conjugated in every respect like the 
 ordinary causals. 
 
 Note: The double caus. of a trans, verb implies that some- 
 thing is done by the intervention of a third person; as ^>"^L 
 means to do, zftji?^ to cause an other person to do it, but cF^i^ 
 to order an other person to cause a third person to do it. In the 
 case of an intr. verb, the double caus. has the sense of an or- 
 dinary caus., and the ordinary caus. the sense of a trans. ; as 
 ^t^t^ to be made, cHi^ to make, oRoTT^ to cause an other per- 
 son to make it. 
 
 478. Affinities and Derivation. The double caus. pro- 
 bably exists in all Gds., and it is formed in the same way by 
 reduplicating the ordinary caus. suff. Thus E. H. has ^srra^, W. II. 
 srsnH or nmi, P. srsrre, M. srsrflr or sn%5r (Man. 109), G. sjsrra 
 (or STcJTT), S. mjl (Tr. 257), H. II. (and probably B. and 0.) StoTT. 
 Thus of R. <7^ read, double caus. R. in E. H. qn^ric^, W. H. 
 cr^rra^ or q^rrs, P. q^srrs, M. q^srfsr or tr^fsrsr, G. tr^srra^, S. 
 <T^T[T, H. II. q^oTT to cause to cause to read. The principle of the 
 formation of the double caus. seems to be analogous to that of the 
 redundant forms of subst. (see § 203). As there the pleon. suff. £F, 
 so here the caus. suff. mfq is reduplicated (i. e. *WT[fa or *WFTn). 
 
 21 
 
322 voice. §§ 479. 480.] 
 
 3. VOICES. 
 
 479. The passive voice is formed by adding to the past 
 part, of the act. verb the auxiliary sTT^sT , which is the same as 
 the intrans. verb sTT^s^ to go and is conjugated in the same man- 
 ner. The past part, undergoes no change whatever may be the 
 gender or number of the subj. Thus act. 'pTT^sr^ to eat, pass. 
 <#m<^ ?rrjST to be eaten ; or q^FTT he reads, pass. q:^Ff siTcHi it is 
 read. This I shall call the compound passive. 
 
 Exception. The pass, of the verbs sTT^r^r to go and ^t^T^ 
 to become is not formed with their ordinary past part. JTJT^ and 
 WIc^ but with the special past part, forms sTRJc^ and ^t^^T (see 
 § 304). 
 
 Note: Observe that the comp. pass, is very rarely used in 
 E. H. or, indeed, in any of the Gds. It is commonly paraphra- 
 sed by means of compound verbs ; e. g., to be beaten is TTf OT^sr , 
 lit. to eat a beating, not J7T77 sTT^s^. 
 
 480. Affinities. All Gds, form this pass, by composition 
 with the verb sTT^, except S. and optionally Mw., N. and P. 
 In the latter it is made by adding some suffix to the root; viz. 
 S. ^?T, Mw. ^5T (seeKl. 214), N. ^r, P. i. But P., Mw. and, pro- 
 bably, N. also use the comp. pass. The B. and 0. do not use 
 their past part, in ^^ but that in 5T in the formation of the 
 pass, base, after the manner of the W. Gds. The E. H. and M. 
 alone use the part, in ^crT (or ^5T) for the pass, (see § 303). 
 Thus E. H. q^Fj or Tf^c^sTTq; it may be said, M. qf^TT (or q^rtt) 
 fTT^ it was wont to be read (Man. 99); but B. q^T ?TTff (S. Ch. 
 142), 0. q^TsTTJT (Sn. 39), H. H. qr^T sTT£ (or STT5T), W. H. qf^ sTT^ 
 or q^fr or q32rT sTT^, P. qf^STT sTTST (Ld. 60), G. msu\ sTTff; but 
 S. qte (Tr. 259. 331), Mw. q*&, N. qf^r, P. q% '). The 
 latter kind of pass, is occasionally preserved in H. and M. ; thus 
 
 1) Thus in the 3. sg. fut. pass. Mw. q:£&c<Tt it will be read, N. qfejsTT, 
 P. M-ii^ill. 
 
§481. 1 voice. 323 
 
 in the II. H. respectful imperatives : cfr& (cf. S. f^TsTnT to be done 
 Tr. 260), £&, <?&, c£fo, sftir, Jpr, |T?r lit. let it be done, given, 
 drunk, taken, scivn, died, been (cf. Kl. 164, d); also H. H. Wifju, 
 qfer, etc. let it be done, read, etc., W. H. cF^iir or zfijh, q^tsr or 
 q^?r, etc. (Kl. 212, a); again in the M. qTf%?r it is wanted (Man. 
 90). In 0. E. H., 0. W. H., 0. P. and 0. M. they are also often 
 met with; in 0. M. sometimes even in an active sense (Man. 13 9). 
 Thus in 0. E. H. (Tulsi Das) cfifjtf or zfifjv or cF^ir let it be done 
 (Kl. 220. 422), cfrfpm being done (part, pres., cf. Kl. 220, a), 0. P. 
 cFT^t^ or ^"ffarT ; in 0. M. grf^sf let it be done, ^jf^irrft it is being 
 done, cfif^sTcrTT it has been done, ch'f^sfofT it will be done (Man. 13 9). 
 Similarly in S. ^fer it may be given tip, ^feprl' it is being given 
 up (Tr. 301. 333). 
 
 481. Derivation. The origin of the modern comp. pass, 
 can be distinctly traced. In Skr. the pass, is made by the suff. q - . 
 In Pr. this becomes £* or ^?sT (Vr. 7, 8. H. C. 3, 160), and in 
 Gd. ^r or ^ or ^sT or ^sT or ^5T. Thus Skr. qsjrT it is read, 
 Pr. m&Yyj or qf&jy^, whence P. q^' or N. qfzfi or Mw. q-if-rt 
 or q^ir or S. qfer. Again Skr. f&mn it is done, P. f%ssT^ (H. C. 
 1, 9 7) or cFftjsTj (H. C. 4, 250) or efffhr^, whence H. H. W&, 
 S. foir, Mw. efffr^ or 377;^, 0. M. ERf^, P. srf^r, N. vtfjv. In 
 0. H. and M. H. (Bs. or Br.) the pass, forms qf^ STTtf, ^ifj STTtf 
 are used. This shows that the old forms qfsk, cFf^iT began to 
 be looked upon as compounds of the past part. qf%, &f\ (= Pr. 
 qf^, cftf^, Skr. qfsH, cTFT, see § 302) and the verb ?T (contracted 
 for ?TTtf , Pr. m^, Skr. mfn) it goes. This misunderstanding, being 
 once established, naturally led to the further step of using the 
 ordinary past part, (in g^T and UJ or OT) in conjunction with the 
 verb 5TT to go to form the pass. ; thus qfer became qflb srra^, q^ST 
 or q^ft or q^cr^sTni . It is probable, however, that the old Skr. 
 suff. u itself is a curtailment of the R. 0T (= Gd. sTT) to go; 
 so that the language has merely reverted to the point whence it 
 started. It may also be observed, that there is a tendency in 
 Pr. to shorten a final radical OT, which would facilitate the con- 
 
324 voice. §§ 482. 483.] 
 
 fusion of the R. ?T (= 5TT) with the suff. !T. Tims Pr. lias iffrT 
 they go (II. C. 4, 388) for Skr. mfa ; Pr. 3rT^ Ac mes (H. C. 
 4,17) from R. 3rTT (= *4<*JlfH); Pr. 8RT^ /*e mises (II. C. 4, 357) 
 = Skr. ^TTOrf?T; Pr. 5^ fee gives (Wh. Spt. 59) from R. 51; etc. 
 
 482. Besides the comp. pass., made with sTTS^ (§ 4 7 9), 
 E. II. possesses an other pass., the root of which is made by ad- 
 ding the suff. ?TT to the root of the act. verb. If the latter 
 contains a long vowel, it is shortened, precisely as in the for- 
 mation of the causal (see § 4 74). These pass, roots in OT are 
 conjugated precisely as any other intrans. roots in 5T. Thus act. 
 R. <T3; read, pass. R. q:^T be read, inf. T5TX^ to be read, just like 
 inf. ?rr^sr^ to go of the intr. R. 5TT go\ again act. R. a^ turn, 
 pass. R. ar*TT be turned, inf. 5JJTT^©^ to be turned, etc. Though 
 this pass, may be used in the same sense as the comp. pass., 
 yet properly and generally it has a peculiar, viz. a potential, 
 signification. Hence I shall call it the potential passive. Thus 
 M-iMT means it can be read, while cns^srr^TT means it is read. 
 
 Exception. The R. WT eat makes its pot. pass. R. f<k?TT 
 be eaten. 
 
 Note: As the pot. pass, may have the sense of the ordi- 
 nary pass., so the comp. pass, may have that of the pot. pass. 
 Thus cr^^sTToTT may mean it can be read, and M-iicni it is read. 
 
 483. Affinities. The pot. pass, also exists in M. and G. 
 I think it probable that other Gds. also possess it, but it does 
 not seem to have attracted the attention of grammarians. In M. 
 it is formed by means of the suff. ^5T or ^oT5T, and in G. by the 
 suff. m or ^cTT. The longer suff. ^gsra" and 5oTT are used with 
 monosyllabic roots and roots ending in IT . Thus E. H. $f<-JTa^ it 
 can be loosed, G. ^Uid^, M. sftea ; again E. H. ch^id^ it can be said, 
 G. cF^crn^, M. cW^olol. This pass, is called in the Man. 75 „the 
 potential verb" and in Ed. 54 „the first potential mood", in 
 Ed. 107 „the passive verb" and in Ed. 51, d apparently „the 
 deponent". It is constructed in E. H. and G. with the instr. case 
 of the agent, but in M. either with the act. (classically) or 
 
§ 484.] voice. 325 
 
 the ace. (colloquially), see Man. 75, 128. note, where, however, 
 the case is erroneously called the dative. 
 
 484. Derivation. A comparison of the suff. of the pot. 
 pass, with those of the causals (§§ 474. 477) will at once show 
 their identity. Thus the E. H. and G. pot. pass. suff. 5T is iden- 
 tical with the B., 0., II. II. and S. caus. suff. 9T, and the G. pot. 
 pass. suff. gsrr with the H. II. double caus. suff. goTT; again the 
 M. pass. pot. suff. ^ and 5oT5T are the same as the M. caus. suff. 
 5rfSr and double caus. tloffol, even as regards the shortening of 
 the original 5TT of the suff. STST or ^oTJcT. Again the pot. pass, 
 suff. and the caus. suff. have precisely the same influence on the 
 root ; thus in E. H. the R. WI eat becomes fwn in the pass, and 
 fwora^ in the caus. (see §§ 474, exc. 482, exc). Lastly the longer 
 pass. suff. 95TT and ^STor and the double caus. suff. #dl©L and ^orioT 
 are used precisely in the same way ; viz. they are added prin- 
 cipally to monosyllabic roots. So far, then, there can be no 
 question as to the identity of the forms of the pot. pass, and 
 the two causals. But the sense and mode of construction of the 
 pot. pass., also, prove that identity. In fact, it is merely a caus. 
 with a peculiar reflexive sense. Thus E. H. caus. jt l qro^ <J4>icrtV 
 might be translated : I caused (some one) to read the book, or 
 briefly, I caused the book to be read. Similarly the E. H. otfit <4& Itfvi^ 
 is either the book caused (some one) to read itself or the book 
 caused itself to be read (by some one). It will be seen at once 
 that, practically, this is the same as the pass, the book was read. 
 It will also be noticed, that the agent who reads (some one or 
 by some one) may be expressed either by the ace. or the act. 
 case. Accordingly both cases may be used in M., JTc?TT (ace.) or 
 qi'KU'T^" (act.) ^tfit N^cJcrFt by me the book teas read, lit. the book 
 caused me to read itself or the book caused itself to be read by me. 
 In E. H. and G. the instr. only is employed; thus E. H. *rt ^T 
 crHrt <J4.lil<y^ or G. qTTJ fit* fitfit M4>liTl. This pass, is now commonly 
 used in a potential sense, by me the book coxdd be read; but that 
 sense is not really inherent in the peculiar form of the verb, 
 
326 mood. §§ 485—487.] 
 
 but only attached to it conventionally. For even the ordinary 
 comp. pass, may take that meaning; thus HT *T <TT7TT <j-j<yj^j|ti^ by 
 me the book could be read. On the other hand, the pot. pass, 
 may have the ordinary pass, sense; see § 482, note. 
 
 4. MOODS. 
 
 485. Infinitive. The infinitive is made by adding the 
 suff. W3 or 7^, obi. ^sr or ^5T or ^ to the root of the verb, 
 as explained in §§308 — 310. Thus T^^ to read of R. cn^; 
 q^or ^T or <T^ 5?r by reading; again <ST^sr or WTsr^ to eat of R. '3T; 
 W^sr or *3si" or tpTTsr or ®vt *k by eating, etc. 
 
 Note: For affinities and derivation, see §§ 313. 314. 
 
 486. Adjective participles. The pres. part, is made by 
 adding the suff. WT c. g., and the past part, by adding the suff. 
 ^L 01 ' ?^L c - 8' to the root of the verb, as explained in §§29 8. 
 299. 302. 303. Thus cns?]^ c. g. reading, *t^ft c g. read; WR^ 
 c. g. eating, <?TTJc^ or *aT*j^ c. g. eaten, etc. The fut. part, is 
 identical with the infinitive, see §§ 310. 485. 
 
 Note: For exceptions see §304; and for affinities and de- 
 rivation see §§ 300. 301. 305 — 307. 
 
 487. Prayogas. The past and fut. part, are used with 
 a pass, sense in the pass, and the infin. respectively, but with 
 an act. sense in the past and fut. tenses act. Thus E. II. T j^TTc<t 
 sn^rT I am loosed, it ^tw sn^T* I am to be loosed, but srlyr gr 
 (or sflyr) *t w iafhscdV I did loose the horse, etV^T 5R ^ ^t&sft™ I shall 
 loose the horse, or qtzit ek (or <TT?TT) T B q^TT c ' I did read the book, 
 q° 5Fi jt w q^aff 1 * I shall read the book. The latter usage (with the 
 part, in the act. voice and the subj. in the nom. case and the 
 obj. in the ace.) is what I have called (§ 3 71) the pass.-act. 
 construction, or the ZRclff qulij^ of the native grammarians. It is 
 peculiar to all E. Gds. Thus the above sentences are in B. : 
 %lfo (or IT^) ^TTT sTTJ, but WTTT 3T (or Erm) 5TTfq ftRjcrlTH^ and ET° 
 9f m° g^Pjsj ; qPTT 5fl %lfq qferiFr and ST° ER ^T°qrfer; in 0. ^1% 
 ^tTT sTTT, but ETT3T ^ gf^ ^tt%f^T (or WW ^tfl^) and 9T° ^i T ^ttirfiT 
 
§ 487.] mood. 327 
 
 (or g° ^iHwr) ; Vtnt 5F gf% trf^sf^T and q° cF *l qf^fsr. On the other 
 hand, the W. and S. Gds. always use these participles in the 
 pass, sense, and, in consequence, where they are employed to ex- 
 press the pret. ind. and pres. conj. (see § 509, 3) tenses act., 
 they take the suhj. in the act. case and the obj. in the nom., 
 and agree with the latter in number and gender. This usage I 
 call the 2MSS- constr. ; and it is the cfiq'fq' q*ftn^ of the nat. gramm. 
 Thus M. Jri" srtfjcrTT iTTrrV w I am loosed, but srtrr *rt tt ufi<rii I did 
 loose the horse (lit. the horse was loosed by me) or ^t^\ ^ orrf%c(Tr 
 I did read the booh (lit. the booh tvas read by me), etttt jtT ^tJTorr 
 I may loose the horse (lit. the horse may be loosed by me), or q° 
 jtT srr^TEri' I may read the booh (lit. the book may be read by me). 
 The same in W. H. ^"~ ^!^ ^TcfT, but sft^T JT* ^T ^h^ft, ^T§i T^ 
 ^r zrHct ; or in S. wf& ^fzzrt ^f%rf *), but writ *£_ ^fihrt, *rftft ^ 
 cnir ; or in H. H. JT W WtU jTTrTT f , but EThfT sr" ^ ^\S\, ^Ct Jr" fr cnft. 
 There are, however, a few verbs in M., which take the E. Gd. 
 pass.-act. constr.', as v^m* to read, cnoP7T w to obtain, four* to drink, 
 STTcFTnT" to speak, vftn w to take and others (see Man. 32); thus m 
 qVft qn^tffT I did read the book, not itT qterl' ^^%$Tt. — There is 
 a third kind of constr. which is also confined to the W. and 
 S. Gds. . It is likewise a pass, constr., but differs from the ordi- 
 nary one, by having the obj. in the ace. case, and the part, in 
 the nom. sing. masc. or neut. It is, in fact, a sort of imper- 
 sonal pass, constr., and is called by nat. gramm. the WT^ qtftn^. 
 Thus in this constr. the above sentences would be: M. STTJOT oTT 
 jft 1 " 1 ^frf^T° lit. as to the horse, it was loosed by me, q^t cffT *rt w 
 5rrf%^r u lit. as to the book, it tvas read by me ; W. H. (Br.) srlrr 
 
 qf^at. — Lastly there is a fourth constr., which, I believe to 
 be confined to the N. Gd. (N.). It is pass.-act, but differs from 
 
 1) Here, the part. ^QoTl is in the pass, voice, but in the pres., in- 
 stead of the fut. tense, see §313; but S. has also the old pass. ^TJ g^feff 
 eft, see § 480. 
 
328 mood. §§ 488—490.] 
 
 that common in E. Gd. by having the subj. in the act. case, 
 with which, however, the verb (i. e. past part.) agrees in number 
 and gender. Thus the same sentences in N. are : srt"jt *T 5T ^tfwt 
 lit. as to me, I loosed the horse, <Tf?ft h tfl 5T ^rfefr lit. as to me, I 
 read the booh; or with a fern. subj. ntit ^ft '<& ^Tjt lit. as to the 
 woman, she loosed the horse. 
 
 488. Adverbial participle. This part, is the same as 
 the obi. of the strong form of the adj. part., and ends, accor- 
 ding to the tense (see § 486), in ^<T, wr (or 3^r), ?T# (or ^sr). 
 The pres. adv. part, commonly takes the emphatic particle 3", 
 which coalesces with its termination to 9fT. In order to distinguish 
 more clearly the resp. time, some noun or case-affix is often ad- 
 ded ; thus ?r»t time after ^fT, ST from after wr, 5> to or 5TE for 
 after 5^r. Thus ^wt or ch^ft or ^3$k WJ on reading or during the 
 time of reading ; cn^T or t^ft st after reading or on condition of 
 reading; T^sr or cn^sr £F or ^^J 5TT for reading or for the pur- 
 pose of reading or on the point of reading. 
 
 Note: The pres. adv. part., as a rule, expresses coincidence; 
 the past, precedence or condition ; the fut., imminence or object. 
 The distinction between the pres. and past, however, is not very 
 strictly observed. — The past adv. part, and the conj. part, 
 may be interchanged, as *TTzrt qfis *HUrj^ or <TtTf U^<r\ ^ gpj^ he 
 came, having read or from reading the book. — Instead of ^trT 
 on being wj is sometimes used. 
 
 489. Affinities. These adv. part., as a rule, exist in all 
 Gds., and are used in the same manner, as in E. H. Their ter- 
 min. are: in B. ^F>, ^9r (S. Ch. 148. 184. 185), 0. 5rT, ^T 
 (Sn. 28), M. sktt (or emph. ^rrl^T, Man. 63. 64), H. H. «ff (emph. 
 a?rfr), ^, SR (Kl. 311, 2. 3. 309, d. e), P. a£, ^ (Ld. 79, 146. 
 78. 139), S. *£, ^ (Tr. 485. 487). See S. Ch., Kl. and Tr. for 
 syntactical observations and examples. They apply equally to E. H. 
 
 490. Conjunctive participle. This part, is made by ad- 
 ding the suff. U" or ^ to the root of the verb. It is, however, 
 usually changed to ^, after a vowel, and dropped after a con- 
 
§401.] MOOD. 329 
 
 sonant. In order to emphasise the part, the aff. ^f is commonly 
 superadded. Thus <T^ or T^ or <nf or 1^5; or crf^ 37 or <l^,jf; 
 hamng read from R. <H£; mz or <?TTff or WT^ ^> or <=TTCT3J having 
 eaten; irfa^» etc. having been from Rs. ^T, ^t. The simple conj. 
 part, without i> is especially used in the formation of compound 
 verbs (see § 537), as ^ 5®^ or ^5^ to inform, WfUvVq^ to eat 
 up, mu^ srr^ to come on, etc. 
 
 491. Affinities and Derivation. The suff. of the conj. 
 part, in Skr. are U or r5TT. The former is used for comp., the 
 latter for simple roots ; but in the Ved. Skr. 0" may be used for 
 either kind. In Pr. (both in Sr. and Mg., H. C. 4, 2 71. 302) they 
 become ^ and 3TOT respectively. Both are preserved in Gd.; so, 
 however, that ^3 is common to the E., W. and N. Gd., while 31T 
 is confined to S. Gd. and, optionally, E. R. Thus B. has ^TT (S. Ch. 
 148), 0. ^ (Sn. 28), E. H. ^ or ^ or quiescent, W. H. ^ or quiescent 
 (Kl. 202, 378. 209, 3 94), P. ^ or quiescent (Ld. 79), G. ^ (Ed. 
 113), S. ^or <7(Tr. 280. 281), N. f ; but M. 37L, E. R. 3FT (Kl. 
 209, 394). Thus Skr. gpn (orcref) having done, Pr. Sr. cFf^* (H.C. 
 4, 272), E. H. oFT^ or ^f\ or gpqr, N. nf*, etc., or Pr. cRff/STCT, M. 
 sn^pTj E. R. ^r^r. Or Skr. mm having obtained, Pr. <rrfoT5T, E. H. 
 crr^ or QTq^, N. rrr|, etc., or Pr. mlsT^'UT, M. TI^T , E. R. m^r. I 
 know no satisfactory explanation of the final ^" of the E. R. form 
 37T. Similar are the 0. M. forms ^Vf^T or ^tf^prf (also 3^" or jf^RTT, 
 see Man. 138. 139, as 5»^tf^TT or cfifrfrr having done), and the 
 Mg. Pr. form 37% (Vr. 11, 16, as^f^rfrjT; also Md. 12, 17) 1 )- Ana- 
 logous to the latter, there might have been a Pr. form *£%, from 
 which rather than from the Mg. STfrjT the modern M. and E. R. 
 forms appear to be derived. Both Pr. forms ^I'ftll and |TJT (or 
 3;tn) are modifications of the Ved. Skr. and Pali rSTFT, a by-form 
 of the ordinary Skr. roTT (see Wb. Bh. 435), which occurs in the 
 
 1) Md'« sutra seems to be, art srfrjra ^TTrn qfsJHTfrJT 1 q^T <rfw 11 
 i. e., having asked; but both H. C. 4, 272. 302 and T. V. 3, 2. 10. 27 omit 
 (jjlui and replace it by £TTT. 
 
330 mood. § 492.] 
 
 Pr. of the Bh. as WHIT, just as Skr. F5TT becomes in Pr. WT (Wb. 
 Bh. 435) or gs (II. C. 4, 27 2). If OTW be (with Ls. 289) the 
 ace. sg. of a base roTPT (or F5PT), the Pr. STfijj or Gd. ^TPT, 3PT 
 might be a loc. sg. for *^m\ or *rTijr (cf. II. C. 3, 56); and the 
 Gd. STT^nrf might be an emphatic form of the same '). — Of 
 the Pr. form 2"^ (as in aRT^ having done, JT<£H having gone, H. C. 
 4, 271) no traces, I believe, have survived in Gd. — The aff. cfi 
 is itself a contraction of the E. H. conj. part. §T?£ having done of 
 R. 5R^. It also occurs in P. S» (Ld. 24, 79), in Br. SF or 5Ff or 
 cqr or Zfifj (Kl. 202); in E. R. it is curtailed to £ (for eqr); 
 e.g., TTX'T l iav i n 9 beaten for qr^-cFf^; m-J^ having eaten for WT- 
 cqr (Kl. 209, 394). Mw. has the aff. 3" for if; e. g., 8R^-^ having 
 done = Br. m^-k (Kl. 209, 394). The two aff. are related to 
 each other precisely as the G. gen. aff. TT is to the W. H. 37T 
 or 37T (see § 377). In H. H. the aff. is reduplicated, aFT^-gr; e.g., 
 ^rqr-g^-^ having beaten; similarly E. R. reduplicates a?PT (Kl. 
 209, 394) and N. cFPT (shortened for ir-^r) ; e.g., N. rr(lch^ ha- 
 ving done, iprr^-aFPT having eaten, spfr-ofPT having sat, etc. 
 
 492. Nouns of agency. This is made by adding the suff. 
 STP^r^T^ c. g. to the root of the verb, as explained in §§ 315. 
 316. 318. Thus <j-*fa«^ a reader from R. q^; t^iPl^l| eater 
 from R. <3T, etc. According to circumstances, these nouns may 
 have the sense of a pres. part, or a fut. part. ; thus cr^f^T^' 
 may mean one who is reading or one who is going to read. 
 
 Note 1: The masc. strong form in ^PT^TJT is also used oc- 
 casionally; likewise the W. H. suff. ^noTTT/T (for *WdlcHl), fem. °ft; 
 but the fem. strong form in gf^rft only forms nouns, expressing 
 an act ; thus ^ft^T^T a (male) reader, but cn^irr^t the act. of 
 reading (not female reader), see § 319. 
 
 Note 2: For affinities and derivation see §§320.321. 
 
 1) Ls. 400 supposes 5JPJT to have lost a final anuswara (for *57fuf) 
 and to have changed the 5 f *5TTTT = WPTT to ^. 
 
§§ 493—495.] tense. 331 
 
 SECOND CHAPTER. TENSES. 
 
 493. There are three tenses, the present, past and future, 
 each of which may be either simple or periphrastic (see § 510). 
 The indicative mood possesses all three; the conjunctive has only 
 two, the pres. and past ; the imperative has only one, the present. 
 Every tense possesses two numbers, sing, and plur. ; and three 
 persons, first, second and third ; and also, though with the ex- 
 ception of the pres. conj. and imper., two genders, masc. and fern. 
 
 494. Some of the tenses are formed from the root of the 
 verb, others from the participles. From the root are formed the 
 three pres. tenses of the ind., conj. and imp.; from the part., 
 the past and future tenses, viz. the first and second preterite 
 ind., the past conj. and the fut. ind. Tenses made from the root 
 will be called radical:, those made from the part., participial. A 
 third class, made by adding an auxiliary verb to a participle, 
 I shall call periphrastic. 
 
 1. RADICAL TENSES. 
 
 495. Present conjunctive and imperative. These are 
 identical in every respect, and are made by adding to the root 
 the subjoined suff., according to the number and person (but not 
 gender) of the subj. In the 2. sing, the suff. may optionally 
 be omitted. After roots in UJ the forms of the suff. are slightly 
 modified by coalescence with that letter. 
 
 Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 
 
 1. pers. 5T U ^ oj T^T^ %T*f 
 
 2. pers. 3 or quiesc. ^ W or ^ u * < ^[ or %T WT¥ or 5T 
 
 3. pers. ^ ^■ w "3 l^ra^ 5Tq^ 
 
 Note 1: _ The pres. conj. is occasionally used in the sense 
 of the fut. indie. 
 
 Note 2: The 2. pi. ends throughout the conjugation either 
 in ^fcTeT ah or 9 a. The latter (g), being the resultant of the drop- 
 
332 RADICAL TENSES. § 496.] 
 
 ping of the final | of 3|, is always sounded (see § 24, exc). It is 
 important to observe this circumstance, as, in the future tense, it 
 forms the only difference between the 1. pi. and the 2. pi., and 
 affects the vowel combination. Thus Q^sr parhab xoc shall read, 
 but <n$5T parhaba you will read; ®vs^ Jchdb we shall eat, but wi&( 
 Jchdba you will cat, or <e)T^ hhdih we shall eat, but W^T Jchazba 
 or wsr Jchaiba you xoill eat (see § 5 08). So era parha read you, 
 but <ra parh read thou. Again q"^^r parhaila you read, not T^b^ 
 parhail (see § 500). — In Kellogg's Hindi Grammar (p. 201. 
 233 — 241) the forms of the 2. pi. are given, by mistake, as 
 forms of the 2. sg. Colloquially the plur. is commonly used in 
 the place of the sing. This practice, probably, has been the cause 
 of the misapprehension. 
 
 49 6. Affinities. The E. H., I believe, is the only Gd. 
 language, in which the pres. of the conj. and of the imper. are 
 completely identical. In W. Gd. the two tenses are also alike, 
 with the exception of the 2. sg. But in S. Gd., N. Gd. and E. Gd. 
 (exc. E. H.) the differences are more numerous; viz. 2. and 3. sg. 
 differ in B., 2. and 3. sg. and pi. in N., and 1., 2. and 3. sg. 
 and 2. and 3. pi. in M. — The tense, which is noiv the pres. 
 conj. in E. H., exists in all Gds., but in some of them it has 
 slightly modified its original meaning. It was originally the same 
 as the Skr. and Pr. pres. indie. ; and this sense it has preserved 
 in M., though it is now used only in a special case, viz. as a 
 historical present or what practically amounts to a habitual past 
 (see Man. 59, 3, e. g., rft sr^ f^rsr he sallies forth = he used to 
 sally forth) ; but in 0. M. it is employed for the ordinary pres. 
 indie. (Man. 138). Again in B., 0. and G. it is both a pres. 
 indie, and a pres. conj. (see S. Ch. 13 6. 142. Sn. 27. 32. Ed. 54). 
 On the other hand, in E. H., W. H., P., S. and N. it is only a 
 pres. conj. (see Tr. 284 — 287. Ld. 23, 74. 53) 1 ). As a natural 
 
 1) Even in these languages it may still be heard occasionally as a 
 pres. ind., e. g., E. H. n^7 ?rt^ ^f srfvrra' the teacher calls you; see also 
 Tr. 287, note and Kl. 206. 212,402. a; and in 0. H. it is still the ordinary 
 
§ 406.] 
 
 RADICAL TENSES. 
 
 :;:;:: 
 
 consequence the W. and N. G<1. and E. H. form a new pres. in- 
 die, by adding to the old pres. some auxiliary verb (see §§ 500. 
 501). On the other hand, M. employs, for the purpose of ex- 
 pressing the pres. conj., the part. fut. (called supine in Man. 62, 
 see §§ 313. 509, 3), ending in the sing, in 5T5JT m., 9T5ft f., WPa^n., 
 in the pi. OT5T m., tflSJI f., ^1H^' n. G. may do the same; there 
 the termin. are 9cTt m., gsft 1'., ^5T n. (called second pres. of the 
 second poi. in Ed. 54, see § 509, 3) 1 ). — In all W. Gels, the 
 pres. conj. (i. e., the old pres. ind.) may be used as a future. 
 Such was the case in O. M. also (Man. 5 9, 3. note); but it is not 
 so in modern M. In 0. M. it was also used in the sense of the 
 habitual past (Man. 59, 3. note), as it is in modern M. (see above); 
 but of this usage there are traces even in Pr.; see Wb. Spt. 63; 
 e. g., K$m UT \^fk{ thou ivast not wont to enjoy (Spt. 91), or r\zm 
 rjr irrf^r thou wast not wont to direct (Spt. A, 38). — The following 
 table shows the various Gd. termin. of this tense : 
 Present conjunctive or old pres. indie. 
 
 S. 
 
 ? 
 
 In the pres. imper. : 1) ^ quiesc. ; 2) I or 3; 3)3; 4) ^T or 3; 
 5) st; 6)?nrT,or3H; 7) 3 (orB.35F); 8)3^; 9)^rTor3cT; 10) sfa^. 
 
 
 M. 
 
 N. 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 
 
 E.H. 
 
 H.H. 
 
 Br. 
 
 Mw. 
 
 P. 
 
 G. 
 
 1. 
 
 f 
 
 3,^ 
 
 
 z,^z 
 
 *" 
 
 3 
 
 m" 
 
 3,3 
 
 gf 
 
 3 
 
 2. 
 
 ^t,^ 1 
 
 ^>?' 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 1 
 
 3,*q. 
 
 ?' 
 
 v 
 
 ?* 
 
 f 
 
 ?' 
 
 3. 
 
 *f 
 
 ^10 
 
 ^ 7 
 
 ^^ 7 
 
 1 
 
 ? 
 
 •N 
 
 I 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 4. 
 
 3 
 
 **> 
 
 ^ 
 
 tl 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 
 
 ST 
 
 
 ST 
 
 5. 
 
 srfs 
 
 sr>,^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ?nr,W 
 
 «t 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 9T 
 
 m 
 
 0. 
 
 WT 6 
 
 ^T,^ 8 
 
 ^J 8 
 
 gfn 9 
 
 't' 
 
 i 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^TJT 
 
 ? 
 
 pres. ind. i'KI. 221, 224). — In the various Gd. grammars this tense is called 
 by a great variety of names; thus second potential or optative by Ed. 54, 
 potential by Tr. 284, indefinite future of the pot. mood by Ld. 53, con- 
 tingent future by Kl. 158. 163, prospective conditional by Eth. 73; but pres. 
 subjunctive by S. Ch. 136. Sn. 32. 
 
 1) With trans, verbs the karmani prayoga must be used (see § 487), 
 because this part, is properly pass.; but with intrans. verbs the kartari 
 prayoga ; in the latter case, M. adds in the 2. pers. the suff. ^T sg. and 
 FT^ pi., but the first and third pers. are alike. Thus M. ff STCTSTRT^ tlwu 
 
334 RADICAL TENSES. § 497.] 
 
 497. Derivation. 1) The Gd. pres. conj. and pres. imp. 
 are the same as the Skr. pres. indie, and pres. imp. respectively. 
 But in the same measure as the Skr. pres. indie, assumed a conj. 
 sense in Gd., it also became capable of doing duty for the pres. 
 imp. and was, consequently, confounded with it ; hut so, that, as 
 a rule, the pres. conj. superseded the pres. imper., while in the 
 2. pers. the imp. took the place of the conj. It will he ob- 
 served that M., in which the pres. indie, has fully preserved its 
 original indie, sense, possesses both tenses (pres. ind. and pres. 
 imp.) in a complete form, and in B. and 0., where its indie, 
 sense is predominant, the greater part of the two senses is pre- 
 served ; while in W. Gd. and E. H., where its sense is almost ex- 
 clusively conj., the amalgamation of the two tenses is more or 
 less complete. This amalgamation had already begun in Pr. '). 
 Thus in the Ap. Pr. the suff. of the 1. sg. 3, 2. sg. fir and, 
 possibly, 2. pi. W of the imper. are optionally, though commonly, 
 substituted for the suff. fk of the 1. sg., f% 2. sg. and ^ 2. pi. 
 pres. indie. (H. C. 4, 383. 384. 385; e. g., Ap. ctfp or cjrrfa / 
 cut = Skr. chHdlfa, E. H. cFrrfT or ^r\ a ; Ap. ^5% or ^?rRr thou 
 tveapest = ved. Skr. ^'fa ; Ap. ^-c^s or 4^"^ you wish = Skr. ^f*r). 
 On the other hand, even in the Mh. Pr. the suff. srt and ^ of 
 the 1 st and 2 nd pi. pres. ind. are also used for the imper. and 
 conj. (H. C. 3, 176; e. g., M. |THI[ you laugh or you may laugh = 
 Skr. ^Wf or ^TrT or ^TrT; Mh. ^TFTt we laugh or we may laugh = 
 Skr. ^rnr: or ^TFT or ^Tir). — 2) Pres. conj. (= old pres. ind.) : 
 a) The termin. of the 1. sg. is in Skr. mfk, Pr. OTfa or gf*r 
 (H. C. 3, 141. 154. Vr. 7, 3. 30), Ap. Pr. vfo or *3 (H. C. 4, 385). 
 
 mayest get loose, but FSTT srtUT UUlcTI thou mayest loose the Iwrsc (lit. by 
 tliee the horse may be loosed); again ^ or rft Mi" I oil I or he may get loose. 
 
 1) Analogous is the occasional use in Pr. of the pres. ind. as a 
 (pret.) conj., of which Wb. Spt. G2. 82 gives a few examples; thus Spt. 326 
 jT^" trr ^Trf^ if they were not (= Skr. uf^ =7 UoHh). The Gds. do not use 
 the old pres. ind. in this manner, but express the pret. conj. by means 
 of the part. pres. (see §§ 506. 507); thus E. H. 5Tt * ^TH^. 
 
§ 497.] RADICAL TENSES. 335 
 
 The former is preserved in the 0. 9f, M. ^, B. 3f; e. g., Skr. 
 qffrfq- / read, Pr. qETTq or qsfa, 0. q^f , M. q*f , B. and 0. qfe. 
 The latter becomes in 0. II. %$, Br. 9T W , E. H. $t°, II. H. 3, 
 Mw. 3 or 3, G. 3, N. 3; thus Ap. Pr. «TS3 / read, 0. II. <T53, 
 Br. q*T, E. II. q^T, H. II. and Mw. cr| , G. qj, N. q^. The 
 S. and P. 97, as q^ST, must he a modification either of 93 = 9T 
 or 9^ = V. The Psh. and Pers. have 9q . — h) The term, of 
 the 2. sg. is in Skr. afsr, Pr. 9% (H. C. 3, 140. Vr. 7, 2), Ap. Pr. 
 9f?T or 9T~^ (H. C. 4, 384). The former is preserved in the 0. II. 
 9fe or (by transfer of ^ into the preceding syllable, see § 148, 
 note) ^T, M. 9ST or ^, B. and N. (by shortening of ^) ^r_; thus 
 Skr. qsfsr thou reddest, Pr. q£T%, 0. H. q^T or q^H , M. q^PJ. or 
 q^T , B. and N. qf^y^. The latter becomes in 0. H. 9f|r (still used 
 in Br., see Kl. 202, 380) or 3^, W. H. £, H. H. and G. ^; also 
 P. tf and S. {jr or j?*', but with an anomalous anunasika ; thus 
 Ap. Pr. q^f|, 0. H. tnsft or ^> w - H - "$i H - H - and G - ^» P - ^ ' 
 S. q^ w or q^t\ The Psh. has ^ and Pers. ^. As to the E. H. and 
 0.3, 0. H. 3 or 5 (Kl. 218, e.f), see Nro. 3, h. — c) The term, 
 of the 3. sg. is in Skr. 9f?T, Pr. 9^ (H. C. 3, 139. Vr. 7, l), which 
 is preserved in the 0. H. 9? (also 9f|[ with anomalous er), 0.9^, 
 but generally contracted to U" in E. H. and W. H. or ^ in the rest ; 
 thus Skr. raff* he reads, Pr. q£^, 0. H. q^, 0. <T%Z or q^, E. H. 
 and W. H. q|, B., M., N., H. H., G., P., S. q^. The Psh. has £ 
 and the Pers. 9«[. — d) The term, of the 1. pi. is in Skr. 9T*T:, 
 in Pr. 9TqV or am or 9Tq or 9qT or 9*T or 9q (H. C. 3, 144. 155. 
 Vr. 7, 4. 31) or ^TT or ^T or jq (H. C. 3, 15 5. Vr. 7, 31), Ap. Pr. 
 ^q etc. or W (H. C. 4, 386). The form 9JT, probably, contains an 
 euph. ?[ for 93 for Pr. 9q (see § 127, note), perhaps to distinguish 
 it from the 1. sg. 93 (for Pr. 1. sg. imper. 5PT, see Nro. 3, g) and 
 to assimilate it to the 1. pi. 9f^ l ). It becomes in N. 9T , M. and 
 
 1) Compare also the 0. H. 3. sg. 9ff beside 9^ (Nro. 2, c). — Cw. 
 XXIX and Ls. 335 give optional 1. pi. termin. 9^t, 9^ (e. g., ^m*-^), 
 ^H*^ we laugh). These, if correct, would account for the e^ in the Ap. 9J" ; 
 but I know no authority for them ; H. C. 3, 147. Vr. 7, 7 give only c^t, 
 
336 RADICAL TENSES. § 497.] 
 
 S. 3, 0. 3 or 3 ; thus Skr. q?7TT: %'C read, Pr. <J5>I*ft or mb\H or q£?J, 
 Ap. Pr. q£f, N. cnsY", M. and S. <TS , 0. g| or H?. The Pr. form ^n 
 or ;pT contracts in E. II. to ^ (see § 127), B. and 0. (shortened) 7; 
 thus Pr. qftw or qi%JT, E. II. Qst^. The intermediate form would 
 he *PJ, which may either contract to ^" u (like M. 'J I U?i ' toatcr, for 
 Pr. <TTftJT#, § 83, exc.) or drop iinal ^ (like E. H. ztfif having done, 
 for Pr. cFrfp?, § 4 91); hence E. II. <TCT , 0. <rfe But apparently at 
 an early period, it also hecame transposed to SJ and modified to 
 ^flf, in assimilation, prohahly, to the 3. pi. gflf. Both «f and ^flf 
 occur in 0. H. and are contracted to ^ u in Br. and u in H. H. ; 
 thus 0. H. tn?f or *nsfl[, Br. Q^, H. H. ti^. In the strange G. and S. 
 form ?r, there seems to be a reminiscence of the original intermediate 
 form *2 1 5f ; thus G. and S. <£?JT, perhaps for *crf^t or *crf^| : . The 
 Mw. ^T is a modification of the N. ^t'" or the Br. {7^, similarly 
 as in the case of the P. and S. 1. sg. 5T (see Nro. 3, a). The 
 Psh. has 3, the Pers. ^qr . — e) The term, of the 2. pi. is in 
 Skr. W(, in Pr. a^ (H. C. 3, 143. Vr. 7, 4) or ^ (with euph. 
 anusvara, see H. C. 1, 27. Ls. 3 3 6), in Ap. Pr. ^ or 53" (II. C. 
 4, 384). The former is only preserved in E. H. WeT or W, B. and 
 0. ^, and M. ^n (for ^) ; thus Skr. <T6"?T you read, Pr. m5^_ or 
 ms^, E. II. cnjsr , B. and 0. q:?, M. tn^T. The latter, I am inclined 
 to explain as identical with the Skr. W\: of the 2. dual; it would 
 regularly become in Pr. * 9^t or W *). In 0. H. it becomes ^W 
 or ^3, in Br. and N. Wt, in the rest W( ; thus Ap. Pr. tr^j", 0. H. 
 <TJf or <T53, Br. and N. q^T, E. H., H. H., Mw., P., G., S. T^V. 
 The Psh. has ^, the Pers. ^T; the latter is represented by the 
 Pr. ^m (H. C. 3, 143 as ^iwr you laugh) which, however, has left 
 no trace in Gd. — f) The term, of the 3. pi. is in Skr. ^fcr, 
 in Pr. *fjr (H. C. 3, 142. Vr. 7, 4), in Ap. Pr. *jf% or xf% (H. C. 
 
 J^ for the Skr. ^T: we are, where *![ is perfectly regular for ^ by H. C. 
 2, 74. Vr. 3, 32. 
 
 1) Just as 1. pi. Pr. %T*ft or aw for Skr. 3FT:; see also Nro. 3, 1; 
 Ls. 468 identifies it with the Skr. fcSPT of the atman. 2. pi. imper., but this 
 would have changed to Pr. 5, as felt by himself, p. 336. 
 
§ 497.] RADICAL TENSES. 337 
 
 4, 3 82). The former is only preserved in 0. 9f?T and M. WFT 
 (see § 14 6, note); thus Skr. gsf^T they road, Pr. q^frr, 0. q^ffT, 
 M. «rSfT. The latter becomes in 0. II. tfff or wf, E. H. and 
 Br. u", H. H. ^, also Mw. ^ and G. ^ with loss of anunasika; 
 thus Ap. Pr. qd% 0. H. q^Ff or q^f, E. H. and Br. ens", H. H. 
 q^ w , Mw. q:?, G. q^. The origin of the Ap. form ^ff is dis- 
 closed by the 0. H. termin. gF^ or ^f^ (for *^f%) of the pret. 
 tense (see § 503). It appears that ^TT was changed to *?fr, then 
 to gf^r and finally to ^f^; (see § 161). The 0. H. wf^ is preserved 
 in the S. sf^t, B. D^T (with transfer of Z into the preceding syl- 
 lable, § 148, note), P. *0T , N. 3^. Thus S. Q^f^T, B. qi&T, P. q^rrr , 
 N. q:?^. The Psh. has J and the Pers. %~Z (softened for SFrTj. — 
 3) Pres. imper.: g) The term, of the 1. sg. is in Skr. ^Tfr, 
 which, however, is a peculiar suff. and does not exist in Pr. The 
 latter has the regular suff. STJ or ^ (H. C. 3, 17 3. Vr. 7, 18); 
 in the Ap. Pr. it becomes ^3 (see§l27) 1 ) and becomes, a suff. 
 of the pres. conj. (or indie, H. C. 4, 385, see § 497, 2, a). In M. 
 it contracts to 3?, but remains a suff. of the 1 . sg. imper. ; 
 while in E. H. it contracts to ^ and passes to the pres. conj., 
 and so in all W. Gds. and in N. Gd. On the other hand, B. 
 and 0. have lost it, and use the suff. ^ of the pres. conj. in- 
 stead. Thus (Skr. qsrfar), Pr. qETg or q£JT let me read, Ap. Pr. 
 q^3 I may read or I read, M. q^ let me read, E. H. q^t* I 
 may read or I read, etc. — h) The term, of the 2. sg. is in 
 Skr. 5f|[ (suff. f^) or 5; Pr. has preserved the regular termin. 
 WH besides sf| and * (H. C. 3, 173. 174. 17 5. Vr. 7, 18), and 
 the Ap. Pr. has, besides wff[, also $7 or 5 or 3 (H. C. 4, 3 87. 
 K. I. 62 in Ls. 4 53). The term. ^FT must have existed in the 
 Ap. Pr. ; for it is still found occasionally in 0. H., both in the 
 sense of the imper. and the pres. conj. (see Kl. 21 8, f. 220, 1). 
 Similarly the term. $rf|r is used also for the pres. indie, in the 
 Ap. Pr. (II. C. 4, 383) and for the pres. conj. in W. Gd. (see 
 
 1) I prefer this explanation of the origin of the Ap. term, gz to 
 that previously given in §122, note. 
 
 22 
 
338 RADICAL TENSES. § 497.] 
 
 §497, 2, b), but in the 0. II. is still occurs both for the imper. 
 and the pres. conj. (Kl. 204). The Ap. terrain. ^ is a contraction 
 of g<T (of the X 1 ' class or causal imper.) and represents the Skr. 
 and Pr. term. 5, while the Ap. term. ^ is a curtailment of ^", 
 and the term. 3 perhaps a corruption of the ^. This is clearly 
 shown by the S., which has preserved both Z and 3, and uses 
 the former for trans, verbs (which correspond to the old caus. 
 and X th class verbs, see §§ 4 7 2. 4 73), while it adds the latter to 
 intrans. verbs (Tr. 2 51). The term. 3 is preserved also in 0. H. 
 (see Kl. 218, e. 220, 1), E. H. and 0., but has assumed also the 
 sense of the pres. conj. ; while throughout Gel. (exc. S. and 
 optionally 0. H. and E. H.) it becomes quiescent (i. e. 9 qu.) when 
 used in its proper sense of the imper. Thus Pr. Q£H read thou, 
 but 0. H. cr^r read thou or thou may est read; or Pr. q£% read 
 thou, Ap. Pr. q^i% read thou or thou readest, 0. H. cr^f% read thou 
 or thou mayest read or thou readest; or Skr. tJS" read thou, Pr. <TC, 
 Ap. qj, 0. H. and E. H. q^ read thou and thou mayest read, 0. cr^ 
 thou mayest read, E. H. q:s read thou or thou mayest read, all other 
 Gels. (exc. S.) q^ read thou. Again Pr. q£ (cf. H. C. 3, 15 8) read 
 thou, Ap. qF or qfe, S. qfe. — i) The term, of the 3. sg. is in 
 Skr. 5FT, in Pr. €?3 (H. C. 3, 173. Vr. 7, 18) and becomes in M. m 
 or 3;, 0. 3, B. 3-aF7, N. 33T-^ (or after vowels 3"-^). The ad- 
 ditions, W> in B. and ^ in N., are pleon. suff. of obscure meaning 
 and origin ; perhaps they are enclitic pronouns, viz. indef. ^> or 
 3. pers. £t (see § 503). Thus qzn let him read, Pr. q£3, M. q^V 
 or q^ , 0. qj, B. q:s<37 , N. q^ra^ (or sTCSW let Mm go). — k) The 
 terrain, of the 1 . pi. is in Skr. ^FT ; but Pr. substitutes the 
 termin. WTT or vwt (H. C. 3, 17 6. Vr. 7, 2 0) or f3*T and Ap. 
 Pr. W (K. I. 64, in Ls. 4 5 3) of the pres. indie. The same is 
 also done in all Gels. ; thus (Skr. q^m), Pr. q£>*Tr or q^g let 
 us read, Ap. ms§, N. q^T - , M. q^, etc., see § 497, 2, d. — 
 1) The termin. of the 2. pi. is in Skr. ^FT ; but Pr. substi- 
 tutes the termin. «^ (H. C. 3, 176. Vr. 7, 20) of the pres. 
 indie. The Ap. Pr. has *3 (K. I. 63, in Ls. 4 53) which is 
 
§ 498. 499.] RADICAL TENSES. 339 
 
 the same as W of the pres. indie, (see § 497, 2, e), but, has drop- 
 ped fT 1 ). It occurs also in all W. Gds., and after vowels in N. ; 
 while the Pr. IT is preserved in the E. Gds. and M., and also, after 
 consonants, in N. Thus (Skr. q<TcT), Pr. qc^ read you, E. H. q^f 
 or q^; (parha), B., 0. and N. q^, M. q^T (for *q^si = q^) ; but 
 Ap. T^3, Br. T^T, Mw., G., P., S. q^rr, in fact identical with the 
 
 2. pi. pres. conj. (see § 49 7, 2, e). — m) The term, of the 3. pi. 
 is in Skr. g^, Pr. *?rj (H. C. 3, 176. Vr. 7, 2 0), it is preserved 
 in the 0. ^FT or 3rT^ (by transfer of 3 into the preceding syllable, 
 § 148, note), M. sliTor 37^, B. and N. 3=T . Thus Skr. q^rT let them 
 read, Pr. qs?T, 0. t^ft or q^rT, M. q£frT or q^fr , B. and N. q:^ . 
 The change of 3rT^ to 3^ is analogous to that of a?T_ to ^^T (see 
 § 4 9 7, 2, f). The other Gds. substitute the 3. pi. of the pres. 
 conj. — 4) As regards the contracted E. H. terminations, they 
 will be understood from the following examples : Skr. PT^fTT he 
 eats, Pr. wraj or WT<- (H. C. 4, 2 2 8), E. H. m^; Skr. WTSTfa I 
 eat, Pr. wrafq- or mfa, Ap. Pr. <jrr3, E. H. to, etc. 
 
 Note: It may be observed, that B. uses the termin. of the 
 
 3. pi. for the 2. pi. in respectful address: thus pres. B. T^H"^ 
 you read (lit. they read), pret. qf^^r^ you read or qfejT^ you 
 have read, qfeif^T^ you had read, fut. qft^T you will read, etc. 
 In M. this is always done in the 2. pi. of the pres. conj. (see 
 § 509, 3), the termin. of which gTSTFT^ m., ^TaTTF^ f., ^T^TT n. 
 really belong to the 3. pi. See also § 501, footnote on p. 342. 
 
 4 9 8. The pres. imper. may optionally add the following 
 suff. in the 2. person.; viz., sing. ^% and plur. ^ ; e.g., qf^ 
 read thou, qfi^r read you. This is a respectful form of the imper., 
 implying request or prayer rather than command, and may be called 
 a preeativc. Sometimes it is used in the sense of a simple future. 
 
 4 99. Affinities and Derivation. These suff. are iden- 
 tical with the corresponding suff. of the old Skr. and Pr. future. 
 The use of the fut. to express the imper. is easily intelligible. 
 
 1) Ls. reads 3^, which is probably a false reading for 3 or g". 
 
340 RADICAL TENSES. § 499.] 
 
 The corresponding Skr. termin. are : sg. ^rfe, pi. Z*® 7 !, in the 
 Ap. Pr. sg. ^f% and pi. J^E or 3^f, in E. H. sg. Z% (for *3^T = 
 ^^), pi. ^r (for *^^) *, in 0. S., and occasionally M. S., pi. <^t (for 
 *^3); e. g., nrf^T^T seize ye (Tr. 26 6). — The corresponding suff. 
 in W. H. are: sg. 3?T and pi. 3"?jV; that is, the medial fT is elided, 
 and the hiatus filled up by the connecting semivowel U^. P. has 
 sg. ^, pi. Z^ (Ld. 44); B. has pi. ^eh (S. Ch. 14 7); and S. has 
 sg. jffT or ^"f?T or <T?TT or J5TT3", pi. ^sTf or £"sTT or $5TT3 or J?TT1[ 
 (Tr. 2 6 6. 2 67); G. sg. S?T, pi. ^sft ; Mw. sg. tt or i?r or S3T, 
 pi. WT or i?fr or HsZtT (Kl. 211. 212); Br. sg. 3^ or $OT or i?T 
 or ^ or £§T, pi. -^TT or Jim or ^37 or ^STT or JsTT (Kl. 204). I 
 am inclined to think, that the W. Gd. forms are really passive, 
 hut used actively. Thus (Skr. TPTOTr), Ap. Pr. q:ffaf|; or qfe?Ff% or 
 qres5lf|; (H. C. 3, 17 5), Br. q^ or qf^J, P. q^, or Mw. qETfir, 
 S. qf^T or q^, G. q^ ; plur. (Skr. QKUv), A. Pr. q£Ttf|- or qfeiTf , 
 Br. q^fTT, P. q^i"^T, Mw. q^jfY, S. qf^TT or q:krr. The increment 
 3?sT or JfsTT or ^"?5T or £"i?tt is found also in Pr. All verbs in Pr. 
 may use it in the 2. pers. of the imper. (H. C. 3, 17 5), while 
 the verb iff (Skr. U ) to be and others ending in a vowel (H. C. 
 3, 17 8. K. I. 315, in Ls. 3 57) may adopt it in any tense. This 
 shows, I think, that these forms cannot well be identified with 
 the single Skr. precative (or benedictive) tense (as Ls. 3 57) *), but 
 constitute a regularly conjugated passive verb which, however, has 
 assumed an active sense (see § 348). Thus prrs. tense, Pr. ^V^ or 
 ^T?5T$ he is (H. C. 3, 17 8) = Skr. tfsifff or (pass.) '*mn. There is also 
 a longer form ^r?sTT£, where the tendency of the pass. suff. U to re- 
 vert to its original radical state UT (which is fully developped in 
 the Gd. pass., see§48l) already shows itself; for Pr. ^ftsfrrT is, 
 as it were, a compound of ^ + mfrT lit. he is yolng to be ; com- 
 pare the real II. H. compound ^t fTT^ he becomes, E. H. ^fa 5TW. 
 Again in the imper., Pr. ^3" or ^treTS let him be = Skr. U5FT or 
 
 1) It is probable, however, that the Skr. pass, and prec. are formed 
 on the same principle, by compounding the auxil. verb £TT to go with the 
 root; e. g., 3. sg. Jprir^jnay he be = R. IT and 2 nd aorist ?rmN 
 
§§500.501.] RADICAL TENSES. 341 
 
 (pass.) iTOrrr (lit. *JT?TfT, for the Pr. prefers the parasm. suff., see 
 Ls. 3 33); also Pr. ^TssTTJ (H. C. 3, 17 8) = *ȣ + um. Again in 
 the fui., Pr. <fri%fa or ^r?jrfi|f% thou wilt be — Ski-. urercfrirT or 
 (pass.) irfa'&ra (lit. *iTJreirr, for Pr. incorporates the pass. suff. 5T, 
 see § 346) ; also Pr. ^ fe n f^fe (H. C. 3, 1 7 8) = *W + UKufa. Again 
 in the imper., Pr. ^Pj or ^T?sPj laugh thou (II. C. 3, 17 5) = Skr. 
 ^JcT or (pass.) ^TCcT; also Pr. ^TTfrrf^; or contr. ^TssT (H. C. 3, 17 5), 
 whence S. ^Flf^ or ^ftrf?T. S. has also a longer form ^eSTT^ or 
 fTWr^ lit. = *^^+ ?JTf%. Similarly S. pi. ^wf or ^fwf laugh ye 
 presuppose a Ap. Pr. (not mentioned by H. C.) ^TssTf . In Pr. all 
 the personal suff. may he dropped, and that, in all tenses alike; 
 thus leaving the mere increment ^ssT or ^??T as a universal ter- 
 mination ; and this curtailed form may be used with all roots, 
 whether ending in a vowel or consonant ; thus Pr. ^tssT or ^TjsTT 
 may mean : he is or he may be or let him be or he was or he 
 has been or he mil be, etc. ; similarly ^*3 or <T£??T may mean : 
 he reads, he will read, or let him read, etc. (H. C. 3, 17 7). Of 
 this usage, however, I believe, there is no trace in Gd. 
 
 500. Present indicative. This tense is made by adding 
 the following suff. to the root of the verb according to the gen- 
 der, number and person of the subj. 
 
 Sing. Masc. Fem. Plur. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1. ^cfft w (or(^rr tt ) f^n^ ^cfTT ?^T 
 
 2. ^T or ^cTO ^cTi" or ^feq £oT or ^f" (or ^We[) ^^ 
 
 3. ^TT ^ ^<T' 5 or^^ ^MV" or ^fer^ 
 
 Optionally the initial ^ may be changed to 5 (§2 6); thus 
 masc. ^cfrt 11 , fem. 5c?^, etc. ; but 1 . pi. only ^vTT. After roots in 
 m or ^ and the R. ^7, the initial ^ or W (but not Z) is dropped. 
 Thus 1. sg. masc. v\i w , fem. rf U , etc.; but 1. pi. always ipfTT. 
 
 501. Affinities and Derivation. 1) It has been stated 
 in §§ 496. 497 that the old pres. indie, has been changed into 
 the pres. conj. in E. H., N. and the W. Gds. Accordingly these 
 languages (exc. P. see Nro. 2, p. 343) form a new pres. indie, by 
 adding to the old tense some auxil. verb, viz. in Bh. ?tt , Mth. 
 
'M2 RADICAL TENSES. §501.] 
 
 fr, N. f, Br. fT or §f (Kl. 206, a), Mw. i or f (Kl. 212, 402), 
 G. i (Ed. 54), S. m (Tr. 2 93). Tl ie Mth., N., Br., Mw. and G. 
 forms 15T, Sp or §> , ^ or ^T are those of the pres. tense of the 
 auxil. verb to be (see § 514, 4. 5); but while Br., Mw. and G. 
 simply add them to the unchanged terrain, of the pres. conj., 
 Mth. and N. first reduce the latter to the uniform type V and 9 
 respectively. Thus Br. Wijj' ^J or 3T^V € , Mw. BF7V- £ or ar^ # , 
 G. cF^f i, but Mth. cFyafi", N. 7\j a? or nj # 7 do; Br. 3^ |, Mw. 
 aFT^ ^ or EF"^ ^, G. cr^- 15, Mth. cR^- g? w , N. 7\j gj^T //wm does/, etc. 
 The S. form srf is the past part, of the auxil. verb f^crr /o 6e 
 (contr. for f?T?rt, Tr. 305, see § 514, 6), and is simply added to 
 the pers. terrain, of the pres. conj., but agrees in gender and 
 number with the subj.; thus S. masc. cFfr^T vft I do, fem. cFf^aT' ttt, 
 pi. masc. cFf^j ?TT we do, fem. cFfj[3 fe£, etc. The E. H. form c?TT 
 is the 2 n pret. of the auxil. verb ^ra^ to come, curtailed from 
 ^TT L (see § 509, 4). It is conjugated regularly (see § 504), with 
 the exception of the 3. sg. and 1. pi., where it has 5?TT for *c^ 
 and *3Tt (i. e., 3. sg. ^^ or WT^, 1. pi. ^ft) ; and the pers. 
 terrain, of the pres. conj., to which it is added, are not the or- 
 dinary ones but a uniform type in U (as in Mth.) or in 9 (as 
 in N.), with the exception of the 1 . pi. which preserves its re- 
 gular term. 3" '). It may be observed, that in Gw. the forms, 
 sg. 5H, pi. v\T, are used as an auxil. verb, in the sense of he is, 
 they are, etc., by the side of the ordinary W. H. ir, 15, §5, etc. 
 (Kl. 198, 200); e. g., Gw. cFT^ 5?t> or cF>i 15 or cFTj | or cFT^ 15 
 
 1) The uniform U"-type can easily be explained. In Br. the 2. and 
 3. sg. pres. conj. ends in JT, the 1. pi. in U u . In O., the 1. sg. ends in ^ 
 which would easily contract to B". Lastly in Br. the, 3. pi. D"^ is also used 
 in the 2. pi. (see S. Ch. 142 and § 497, note; e. g., 3iT^ they do and you 
 do); this is sometimes also done in Bs. (e. g., ^^ u or ^^they are or 
 you are; but the proper 2. pi. "H^f or ^ or S^T is also used); similarly 
 the E. H. 3. pi. ^ would intrude into the 2. pi. Final anunasika is drop- 
 ped. According to these analogies every person of the E. H. pres. conj. 
 might end in U". The ^-type of the N. is but a shorter form of the ^7-type 
 (see § 26). 
 
§ 501.] RADICAL TKNSKS. 343 
 
 is there any one? In E. H. the forms of the pres. indie, are 
 sometimes used in the sense of a future indie. ; e. g., E. H. mz 
 aTSTrr HSHNTicrtT i. e. when mother comes, then we shall eat. Now 
 it will be shown in § 509, 4, that the fut. indie, is made pre- 
 cisely in the same way (by adding the auxil. part. c?T come to 
 the pres. conj.) in Mw., M. and N. ; and it may be observed, 
 that in the Br. and P. their fut. indie., which is made in an 
 analogous way by adding the auxil. part, n gone to the pres. 
 conj. (§ 509, 5), is also used as a pres. indie, in the case of 
 the substant. verb to be ; thus compare Br. and P. ^ or ^TTT (^sii) 
 masc. he is, fem. % or ^itt with Br. ^wtt, H. II. ^Tht, P. ^TsrnT 
 masc, °m fem. he or she will be\ again Br. ^ u or ^~JT masc. we 
 ate, fem. if or ^"irr '', P. masc. ^t or ^r~nT, fem. ^"f or ^"firnerf 
 with Br. ^fratr, H. H. ^T~Jt, P. t^tcrfjT masc. we shall be, fem. Br. 
 °JTT U , H. H. °nT, P. °nt^"T, etc. Again the presence of a long vowel 
 in the antepenultimate, as E. H. STfT^TT" I sleep (of R. ^TrrJ, proves 
 the composite character of the forms of the pres. indie, (viz. 
 *T?T + 3TT"); for otherwise, if they were single words, such a 
 vowel would be shortened by the rule of § 25. Lastly these 
 composite forms naturally yield the sense of a pres. indie. Thus 
 Hrivi)" which means lit. i" have come (that) I may sleep or I have 
 come to sleep, may easily pass into I am sleeping or I sleep. Li- 
 terally these forms express, that the action is the present result 
 of preceding events; e. g., „ I have come to be happy" is equal 
 to „I am happy" now. — 2) The H. H. and P. and, optionally, 
 the Bs., Br. are peculiar in adding the auxil. verb |T, ^"f, ^3, 
 ^T u resp., not to the old pres. tense, but to the pres. part, in 
 rff) 5Ti <X., 3 resp. Thus sing. Bs. STTTrT ^"J masc., °m 9° fem. 
 (El. 241), Br. w,jn f or °FTT ^T m., °fn or °n\ f or fT f. (Kl. 
 
 202, a. 204, 283), P. cfifST C* m -> °f T Wl f - ( Ld - 29 - 37 - 46 )' 
 H. H. ^7HT# m., °m if- I do; plur. Bs. aFf^fT a^T m., °irt sft f., 
 Br. 5F|H i" or °fT | B m., °f?T or °rTT ^" f., P. m^ ^f m., °£hrf ^T f., 
 H. H. ZFijn ^ " J m., °rtT ^ B f. tve do, etc. Sometimes the auxil. verb 
 is omitted ; but in that case, the forms are properly those of 
 
.ill 
 
 RADICAL TENSES. 
 
 § 501.] 
 
 the pret. conj. — 3) In M. the old pres. indie, has assumed 
 the sense of a habitual past (§ 4 96). Hence it forms a new pres. 
 indie, by suffixing the ordinary personal termin. to the pres. part, 
 in *3FT^ (Man. 6 9. 72), in the same way as in the E. H. pret. conj. 
 (§ 50 6). Thus M. 3Tf7jrT m., cfifTTtf* f., grfpf n. J do; Wiffw^ja., 
 cfrfyfTTfT f., cjrf^Fl~^n. thou doest, etc. — 4) In B., 0. and optionally 
 in G., the old pres. indie, having retained its original indie, sense 
 (§ 496), is still used as such (S. Ch. 142. Sn. 27. Ed. 54). Thus 
 B. cfifr;, 0. zsji;, G. sr| I do; B. sFf7/*L> 0. cr^, G. vij thou doest, 
 etc. — 5) I add a comparative table of the terminations: 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 
 
 E. H. 
 
 Mth. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 e 
 
 ^ , ^<?fT 
 
 \vf$ 
 
 
 N. 
 
 s. 
 
 M. 
 
 Bs. 
 
 1. 
 
 
 m jtT 
 
 5JFTt tt 
 
 33rT^3J^-J 
 
 2. 
 
 33 ^ 
 
 fm 
 
 3?FTrer 
 
 sfj^^L 
 
 3. 
 
 *$ 
 
 ym J STTl' 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 
 
 E. H. 
 
 Mth. 
 
 1. 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 i ^t 
 
 vwf 
 
 2. 
 
 *3 
 
 33 
 
 ;?5Tfr 
 
 \$ 
 
 3. 
 
 ^l 
 
 #fn 
 
 ^^L 
 
 ^ 33ft 
 
 
 N. 
 
 S. 
 
 M. 
 
 Bs. 
 
 1. 
 
 *# 2 ) 
 
 3TI 
 
 57FTT 
 
 33FT 33^7 
 
 2. 
 
 33 ^T 
 
 5jr^TT 
 
 33FTT 
 
 33R 5fs[ 3 ) 
 
 3. 
 
 ?3 ^J 
 
 afazTT 
 
 «rIIH 
 
 ?nr ^^ 3 ) 
 
 Br. 
 
 Mw. 
 
 G. 
 
 33T^T 
 
 
 3, f f 
 
 Br. 
 
 H. H. 
 
 P. 
 
 snr#i) 
 
 *3rTT # 
 
 33£T !p 
 
 ^f 
 
 53<=rr ^ 
 
 33*TfT 
 
 *3^ 
 
 •* 
 
 33RT f 
 
 •^ 
 
 Br. 
 
 Mw. 
 
 G. 
 
 
 33'f ^f , * ! lyf 
 
 0", 0" ^1 
 
 33T^T 
 
 ?rr ?fr, 3jr ^t 
 
 5jr, ?jt ^r 
 
 "\ 11' "Si IS 
 
 
 ?,?* 
 
 Br. 
 
 H. H. 
 
 P. 
 
 
 33FT t 
 
 5J5! WT 
 
 33?T ^T 
 
 3JFT ^t 
 
 33^ !H 
 
 
 - •• • 
 
 *t^I 
 
 J« the fern., S. changes ^ and 3T to eft and feh3?, Br. S?T 
 to 3jf7T, H. H. 53FTT and 337T to 53FTJ-, P. 3337 and 3j> to 3j£t and 
 
 53TT53"T; M. Sg. 1. 53FHT' or 53H", 2. Wrlje Or 53FT^T Or 53^^, 3. 53rft 
 
 1) Or, masc. 33FTT ^[T , fem. 55T?rl" ^l" * , etc. 
 
 2) Or, 53 J?. 
 
 3) Or, 2. 33r^33^T, 3. HrTtf^". 
 
§§ 502. 503.] PARTICIPIAL TENSES. 345 
 
 or *37U or bh ; pi. fern, like masc. — In the nciif., M. has sg. 
 1. 5?t , 2. 5rT~£T , 3. 5(7 ; pi. neut. like masc. 
 
 2. PARTICIPIAL TENSES. 
 
 5 02. First preterite indicative. A past tense indie, 
 which I shall call the first preterite to distinguish it from the 
 other form of the past indie. (§ 504), is made by modifying the 
 termination of the past part, in Jf3 or ^ (see § 302) in the fol- 
 lowing manner according to the number and person (but not the 
 gender) of the subj. 
 
 Sing. 1. aY, 2. ^, 3. ^. Plur. 1. m, 2. m, 3. ^. 
 
 There is no difference in meaning between the first and se- 
 cond preterites ; they only differ in usage ; the first pret. is said 
 to be confined to the language of towns (ndgari bhdshd). 
 
 Exception. As to some verbs which use an irregular past part, 
 see § 3 04. E. g., 3T^L to do uses the forms t%JT (for fipir^) in the 
 1. sg. and 1. 2. pi., and f5if|[ in the 2. 3. sg. and 3. pi. ; thus 
 sing. 1. fifijfr, 2. f%f|;^, 3. Rj>%Tj plur. 1. fsRJJT, 2. t%?rr, 3. %i%n^. 
 Like cF?"j[^ are conjugated VJ^l to place, £51^ to give, 5?f5^ to take. 
 
 5 03. Affinities and Derivation. This tense exists in 
 all Gds., exc. M. ; but it is formed in a variety of ways. — 1) In 
 
 0. H., E. H. and N. it is made by adding the suff. of the pres. 
 conj. to the weak past participial form in ^or 7 (§ 302). These 
 suff. (after subtracting the initial 5 of the terminations, see § 497) 
 are: 1. sg. "5 or ^ (as in O: H. ST^ST, 0. cfr^ir / do) ; 2. sg. fir 
 or f| or 3 (as in 0. H. ^jfa or 3^f|; or E. H. 3T^T thou docst); 
 3. sg. 3" or (with anomalous ^) f% (as in 0. H. 37"^ or aR1[f% 
 he does); 1. pi. "i (as in N. ar^r" we do for *^j~i or N. $nf we 
 go) ; 2. pi. g" (as in 0. H. vrj^ you do) ; 3. pi. f% or Pt (as in 
 S. cfifr or Sifrfq they do, Tr. 287). The part, termin. ^ is ge- 
 nerally contracted to £" and, sometimes, to 5 in 0. H. — a) The 
 
 1. sg. suff. 3 occurs in 0. H. and E. H. ; thus qf^J + "i = 0. H. 
 and Bs. cr^f or q*E3, Bh. Q^uY I read; the 1. sg. ^ in N. ; e. g., 
 tjfija -f- | = N. <t% w I read or fw + ^ = N. ear" or fW I ivas. — 
 
346 PARTICIPIAL TENSES. § 503.] 
 
 Again b) the 2. sg. % or 3 occur in 0. H. ; thus Tf^ST + f% = 
 0. H. insffi 01 * <lfe* + 3=0. II. q:*3 or q^S thou readst\ the 
 2. sg. m in 0. II. and Bs., thus crf^^r -f- m = 0. II. q^f%, Bs. 
 qfeRr; in E. H., N. and, optionally, in Bs. it is shortened to q , 
 Bs. q^, Bh. and N. qfi^T , or m^ + fa = N. eater^ or f^m Mom 
 was^. — Again c) the 3. sg. suff. f^ occurs in 0. H. ; thus qfes' + 
 ff = 0. H. q:^f% he read. The 3. sg. J does not exist in this tense. 
 The E. II. adds the aff. ST , which in the longer form f?T, occurs 
 also in 0. H. and Bs,; thus qf^g + aff. fa = 0. H. q^fa, Bs. qfefa 
 or q^T ;_, Bh, qfi^T he read. Though these 3. sg. forms outwardly 
 resemble those of the 2. pers., they can scarcely have the same 
 origin ). The same 3. sg. aff. ^ exists also in P.; e. g., qfe^fa 
 he read, £\ff\*^he did (Ld. 6 9); and also in N., though not in 
 the pret. but the imper. (see § 497, 3. i, p. 338); e. g., q^fa let 
 him read. It is possibly a shortened form of the 3. pers. pron. n, 
 enclitically attached in a manner similar to the more general S. 
 practice of affixing curtailed pron. forms to the verb (see Tr. 
 345 ff.); thus S. qfe-fa he read, fqrflHS-fa he turned round (Tr. 
 3 68). The N. adds in the 3. sg. no suff. at all, but uses the 
 strong instead of the weak part, form ; thus N. masc. q^ff or 
 qferT he read, fern, q:ir she read, or masc. Kit or fzrar he was, 
 fern. f£n[ she was. — Again d) the 1. pi. 3 occurs in N. ; thus 
 qft?T -f 3 = N. q^ or rc%n we read, or fira + 3 = N. fzT3 or 
 2^ or m we were. The 0. H. and Bs. use (just as in the pres. 
 conj.) the suff. of the 3. pi. f% or fa, thus qfes + P^ (for f^Fl) = 
 0. H. q:$f% Bs. qf^f?r or q^. The E. II. (Bh.) 1. pi. termin. uj 
 is, perhaps, a modification for *U~i, containing the same l.pl. ter- 
 min. ^q as the 1. pi. of the Mw. pres. conj. (see § 49 7, 2. d, p. 3 3 6) ; 
 thus E. II. q^T we read for *q^?rf = qfi^ -+- sri. — Again e) 
 the 2. pi. J", occurs in 0. H., E. H. and N. ; thus qfe^r -}- J" === 
 
 1) 0. II. has, in the 3. sg., forms in ^3 or ^3 resembling those of 
 the 2. pers., e. g., q^3 or q^3 he read, but here 3 is, probably, not a 
 conjugatiomil, but a pleon. suff. = Ap. Pr. qffc^H, Pr. qfe^sgT, Skr. qfafT^:, 
 corresponding to the S. 3. sg. qf^^rr, N. q^dt. 
 
§ 503.] PARTICIPIAL TENSES. 347 
 
 0. H. *JZ3, N. qfei, or q^fr, Bh. <rzzn, Bs. qf^;3 you read, or 
 N. f^ra + & = f^3 or ^T /yon were. — Again f) the 3. pi. f^f 
 occurs in 0. H., as q^f?![ they read, and Pr in Bs. qf^f?T and :r 
 in E. H. and N. <T^, Bh. qf$^. The N., however, has more 
 usually a suff. U, which is perhaps a modification of *U or *n , 
 containing the same 3. pi. suff. U or ^ as the 3. pi. of the G. 
 and H. H. pres. conj. (see § 49 7, 2. f, p. 3 3 7); e. g., N. q^ they 
 read for *q3£r or *q^?T = qf^sr + jjr, or N. m or v they were. 
 Sometimes N. omits the suff. altogether, and uses only the strong 
 form of the past part. ; thus N. q^PTT they read, f^JTT or ?m they 
 were. — It will be observed, that this mode of forming the pret. 
 indie, practically amounts to treating the past part, as a deno- 
 minative verbal root. The treatment, generally, of past part, as 
 denominative roots is not uncommon in E. H. (see § 3 5 2), and 
 existed even in Pr. (see Wb. Bh. 4 2 9). In this particular case, 
 no doubt, the practice originated from the similarity, in Pr., of 
 participles, used denominatively, to participles accompanied by the 
 auxil. verb ^^ to be. Thus compare the denom. form, 1. sg. Pr. 
 qi%^fq, Ap. Pr. qffesns" (= Skr. *qf57rrfa) I read with the com- 
 mon compound form, Pr. qfe^ fr^r (H. C. 3, 147) = Skr. qferTT-s 
 feT. — 2) In B. and 0. this tense is made by adding the pres. 
 tense of the auxil. verb mf% or ^f^ I am to the past part, in 
 ^5 or ^ resp. ; thus 1. sg. B. qfcnff / read for qfeff or qft + 
 mfg, 0. qf^gf^ = qf^ + sf^; 2. sg. B. qf^rr^, 0. qf^JJ? thou 
 readst, etc. — 3) S. combines these two methods in the forma- 
 tion of this tense; viz., in the 1. sg. and pi. it adds (like the 
 B. and 0.) the auxil. verb ffT I am and ^rT we arc (for fi$ and 
 ^T, § 11); e. g., 1. sg. S. ^f^Ta-fjJT masc, ^f^W-f^T fern., or (in 
 poetry) ^%^T-I% m., ff^T3rT-fe f. I went (= 0. ^f^f^X pl- masc. 
 ^f%raT-sft'\ fem. ^f^3;-srr we went (^%3 being the masc. and ^#ra 
 the fem. nom. sing, of the weak and ^rf^TOT, ^[nh^T of the strong 
 form of the past part.). In the 2. sg. and pi. it adds (like the 
 E. H.) the person, term, of the pres. conj., sg. ^ and pi. 3; thus 
 2. sg. ^fm^ masc. (i. e., base ffem + suff. f|;), ^fe^r or ^f§T^-r 
 
348 PARTICIPIAL TENSES. § 503.] 
 
 fern, thou wentest; pi. masc. ^?U3 (= E. H. y^'Ji), fem. ^rfi?T3 you 
 went. In the 3. sg. and pi. it adds (like the N.) no suff. at all, 
 but uses the strong instead of the weak participial form ; thus 
 3. sg. irfer^t masc, ^T fem. he or she went (= N. ^f^rdr, =3^); 
 pi. masc. ^TOT, fem. frfers; they went (= N. ^m, =£T?n). These 
 remarks, however, apply only to intrans. verbs. In the case of 
 trans, verbs, S. never adds any suff. or auxil. verbs, but uses 
 only the strong past part, form ; that is, in effect, trans, verbs 
 have in S. only a 3. pers. sg. and pi. (but no 1 st and 2 nd per- 
 sons) 1 ). It is a circumstance in which all W. Gds. agree with S., 
 and which explains the peculiarity, that for the 1. and 2. pers. 
 they can only employ the Bhdvi prayoga or impers. pass, con- 
 struction (see §48 7); e. g., the disciple left me is in Br. =3W =r iff 
 3tV ^hrpT, S. =3^r ^<3 ^fzm lit. by the disciple in regard to me it 
 was left, „me" being either masc. or fem.; but not the Karmani 
 prayoga or personal pass, contr. %oTT ^T ^T ^T3"dr masc. or i[Y ^ITT 
 fem., S. =^5T ^rra ^fz^T masc. or srn: ^Tt fem., lit. by the disciple I 
 was left. On the other hand, for the 3. pers., both the Bhavi and Kar- 
 mani prayoga may be used; thus the disciple left that book may be in 
 Br.%!?TT n- ^TeT at*?!' ^V ^nrar, S. %^r ^trteri" W ^fjsjT lit. by the disciple, 
 in regard to the book, it was left (Bhdvi) or Br. =3^tt ^ 3J ttstt ^rit, 
 S. %^ f qfvt 3>ft lit. by the disciple that book was left (Karmani). — 
 4) With regard to intrans. verbs, the W. H., P. and G. use (like S.) 
 the past part, in the Kartari prayoga, but (unlike S.) they do not 
 add any suff. or auxil. verb; thus I walked is in W. H. ^T ^dr m., 
 iffH^Tt" f., G. i ^vUT m. or =FT^?rt f., but S. 513; ^fi?T3iTT m. or 
 5[feiwf f. — 5) I add a comparative table of the terminations: 
 
 1) It should be recollected that, in W. Gd., trans, verbs admit only 
 of the pass, constr., which converts what, with us, is subj. into the obj. 
 Thus our 1. pers. sing. „I left him" becomes, in W. Gd., 3. pers. sg. „by 
 me he was left". Accordingly, in W. Gd., there could be a first person 
 only we should have the accus. of the 1. pers. pron. as obj.; e. g., our 
 3. pers. „he left me" ought to become, in W. Gd., 1. pers. „by him I was 
 left". But even here W. Gd. has no first pers., but employs the impersonal 
 constr. „by him in regard to me it was left". 
 
§ 503.] 
 
 PARTICIPIAL TENSES. 
 
 349 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 
 
 0. H. 
 
 E. H. 
 
 N. 
 
 S 
 
 
 intr.&tr. 
 
 intr.&tr. 
 
 intr.&tr. 
 
 intr.&tr. 
 
 intr.&tr. 
 
 intr. 
 
 1. 
 
 frrtV) 
 
 ^Wf% 
 
 r 
 
 *r 
 
 t 
 
 ^fn 2 ) 
 
 2. 
 
 $m 
 
 v*§ 
 
 ^f% 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^L 
 
 $ 
 
 3. 
 
 Z^m 
 
 z&$z 
 
 ^-fa 
 
 *-«L 
 
 at 
 
 ^srr 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 ^srr 
 
 
 P 
 
 > 
 
 G 
 
 
 W. 
 
 II. 
 
 H. 
 
 
 intr. 
 
 tr. 
 
 intr. 
 
 tr. 
 
 intr. 
 
 tr. 
 
 intr. 
 
 1. 
 
 ^T 
 
 
 zf¥ 
 
 
 <fr 
 
 
 STT 
 
 2. 
 
 ^m 
 
 
 ot 
 
 
 or 
 
 
 m 
 
 3. 
 
 ^m 
 
 ^5T 
 
 dr 
 
 dr 
 
 ■a 
 EH 
 
 
 SIT 
 
 tr. 
 
 m 
 
 Plural. 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 
 
 0. H. 
 
 E. H. 
 
 N. 
 
 S 
 
 intr. & tr. 
 
 intr.&tr. 
 
 intr.&tr. 
 
 intr.&tr. 
 
 intr.&tr. 
 
 intr. 
 
 ^rrf^ 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 ^ErraT 
 
 ZVTZ? 
 
 \*Q 
 
 Sf 
 
 &t 
 
 
 S3 
 
 
 zy^fa 
 
 ^ 
 
 *t 
 
 ST 3 ) 
 
 ^ST 
 
 tr. 
 
 
 p. 
 
 ( 
 
 i 
 
 W. 
 
 H. 
 
 H. 
 
 intr. 
 
 
 tr. 
 
 intr. 
 
 tr. 
 
 intr. 
 
 tr. 
 
 intr. 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 
 ? 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 e 
 
 tr. 
 
 1) These B. term, are, ordinarily, pronounced DT%, D1£, etc.; thus 
 cFrfftiiH^ is pronounced cfryf^ karechhi, not Variydchhi. In fact, the old 
 way of spelling has been retained, though the pronunciation has changed; 
 just as in English we still write „night", but pronounce „nite". The old 
 past part. 37TJ-5 is contracted to 37^" (just as in E. H. the conj. past cfff^ 
 becomes 37^", see § 491); and ^i% curtailed into f%. The older forms 
 C?nf^, etc. may occasionally be heard in solemn addresses (sermons, etc.). 
 The cons. ^ chh is always pronounced ts, or even s (as in M. and Mw., 
 see § 11); e. g., cf7fprr% (or rather cF7T"f%) is pronounced karetsi or even 
 Tcaresi. — Similarly the B. term, of the conj. part. JOT is ordinarily con- 
 tracted into ^T; e. g., cJTf^TTT having done is pronounced 3TJ"« 
 
 2) Or Z^fa m ., J^rrfe f. 
 
 3) Or ^T^or U com. gen. 
 
350 PARTICIPIAL TENSES. §§ 504. 505.] 
 
 In the fern, sg., N. fft, S. pj't, P. %m, G. fft, W. H. m and 
 H. II. m are changed to ^; and S. has 1. jmt{, 2. Zl£ or ^srf; 
 fern, pi., N. 5TT, P. ^, G. err, W. H. and II. II. ^ are changed to ^ <a , 
 and S. has 1. 53Kn <9 , 2. and 3. S3. 
 
 Note : The plusperf. is a periphrastic tense in E. H. (see 
 §510, 7), exc. in Mth. which, like the B. and 0., forms it by 
 adding the past tense of the auxil. verb, Mtb. ^TT , B. OTf^rlTJT , 
 0. erf%T I was, etc. (see § 514, 6) to the past part, in ^ or ^. 
 The part, termin. ^ is contracted in Mth. to V, Thus 1. sg. 
 Mth. q^^TT", B. crf^iT%?TTi^, 0. q-fe^fe I had read, etc. The 
 resp. termin. are: 2. sg. Mth. US^ W , B. OTf^f^T, O. J^T; 3. sg. 
 Mth. ^r, B. snf®%, 0. ^wr ; 1. pi. Mth. ^^V, B. ^if^m , 
 0. ^rsjr; 2. pi. Mth. ^vlV, B. mf^m, 0. ^<?r; 3. pi. Mth. 
 
 F^TfT, B. «T%^^, 0. 3W. 
 
 504. Second preterite indicative. This tense is made 
 by modifying the termination of the past part, in fJrT or ^oT 
 (§ 3 02) in the following manner according to the gender, num- 
 ber and person of the subj. 
 
 Sing. Masc. Sing. Fern. 
 
 1. ^c^rT (or SvOT*') ^<?n^ 
 
 2. *^ST_ (intr.) or ^m W%^ or S^ft 
 
 3. nm (intr.) or 9^ (tr.) ^^ (intr.) or ^cTO (tr.) 
 
 Plur. Masc. Plur. Fem. 
 
 1. %£t U?$t 
 
 2. iZ^W or 5^T (or ftvUi? ) a^T 
 
 3. ^^ or n^\' gfwr or ^rl L 
 
 In the 3. sg., trans, verbs take the suff. ^<rT J T, while the. 
 intrans. take W*\ . Again in the 2. sg. masc. the suff. 9?f^ is 
 confined to intrans. verbs. The other suff. are common to both. 
 
 Note: In the eastern parts of the E. H. area the termin. 
 are pronounced with ^, as ^f^, ^ET , etc. — The forms enclosed 
 in brackets are less usual. 
 
 505. Affinities and Derivation. 1) This tense exists 
 only in E. and S. G<1. It is made, like the first pret. indie, by 
 
§ 505.] PARTICIPIAL TENSES. 351 
 
 adding the personal suff. of the old pres. indie, (see § 503) to 
 the weak form of the past part, in 55^ or ^5T^, except in M., 
 which adds them to the strong form in g^TT. It should be re- 
 marked, however, that B. and 0. omit the suff. in the 3. sg. 
 of all verbs, and E. H. in the 3. sg. of intrans. verbs. Again 
 M. omits the suff. in the 3. sg. and pi. of intrans. verbs and 
 in all persons, sg. and pi., of trans, verbs 1 ). E. g., he read 
 the hook is in E. H. 3 grzft T^^g;, B. m tfrerr qfer , 0. sr crfzft 
 qf^cdl, M. ?<rr ^r w mnt STTf%^rt (Man. 6 5, 2, or exceptionally PTT QT^ 
 q^cfTT Man. 81, 13 3),. On the whole the pers. suff. are added 
 quite regularly. Thus a) 1. sg. 3 in E. H. and M. ; e. g., wk. 
 form, masc. cr^^r + 3 = E. H. q^cfrV I read, fern. Q^f^T +3= 
 E. H. *T&?<i ; here the final 3V is anomalous; it is possibly foun- 
 ded on the strong form m?,<m = T^fera + 3. Again strong form, 
 masc. q^rTT + 3 = M. y^ityit"' ; but in the fern. M. adds the 1 . sg. 
 suff. ^; this may be clearly seen in the pres. indie; e.g., T^FTf 
 = q^mi^ (Skr. cr5"PrTcHT) + f = M. q^?ar w or cn^' I read ; simil- 
 arly Q^cTT = q^firt^ + z = q^nT I read. In the neut., M. uses 
 either 3 or J; thus cr^ft' or T^ft'. 0. shows the same 1. sg. 
 terrain. J (a shortened form of %f), as in its pres. indie. ; thus 
 qf^i% / read, just as si^f or ^f% I am. The B. has the 1. sg. 
 terrain. 5UT , which appears to have preserved the original pres. 
 indie, terrain, wrfif (see § 497, 2); thus qfevn^ (= Mg. *<rfe37f*T 
 denom.). — Again b) the 2. sg. suff. % or, shortened, ^ occurs 
 in E. H. and M. ; thus wk. f. masc. ^fST + fij = E. H. |^^with 
 transfer of 3 into the preceding syllable; fern. ^l[f^J +^=E. H. 
 ff%g^ thou remainedst ; or st. f. masc. q^rrr + e_ = M. q^m , 
 fem. cr^rt + ^= M. Q^wTT^, neut. ^^' J + ^= M. q^?T~SL with 
 an anomalous anunasika ; for the suff. *j_ is anomalously added 
 to the nom. sg. neut. Q'&rt instead of to the neut. base T^T 
 
 1) M. whicli constructs transitive verbs passively, like the W. Gds. 
 (see § 487), not actively, like the E. Gds., follows the usage of the former 
 languages (see § 503, 3, p. 348) in adding no suff. to the past part, of such 
 verbs. 
 
352 PARTICIPIAL TENSES. § 505.] 
 
 (= *q:^wr = Mg. crf^q- = Skr. qf77rT37). The 2. sg. f^ is found 
 in E. II. and B. ; thus wk. f. masc. q^;^ + % = E. II. q^r or 
 (shortened) B. qf^f^T; fern. q3FfcT + f% = E. H. q^riT thou readst. 
 The 2. sg. 3 is peculiar to 0. ; thus qf^cjT, just as in the 0. 
 pres. indie, ^^% (see § 497, pp. 335. 336). — Again c) the 3. sg. 
 f% occurs in the E. H. q^fT . But there is no suff. in M., B., 0. 
 or in intrans. verbs of E. H. ; thus M. q^T m., q^TT f., q^r?r u n. 
 he read, n^TT m., tt^t f., n^r'" n. he went, 0. qf^n, n^rr c. g., 
 B. qf^c?^, n^ c. g., E. H. rra?r c. g., but q^ro^. — Again d) 
 the 1 . pi. 3 is found in M. and 0. ; thus M. q^Y c. g. or 
 (shortened) 0. M^H c. g. we read. The E. H. shows the same 
 1. pi. terrain. J (but without anunasika) as in its pres. conj. 
 (§ 4 9 7, 2, d, p. 3 36); thus E. H. q^^t c. g. we read just as q:£t 
 we read. And the B. has preserved the original pres. indie, terrain. 
 ^T^; thus qfi^TTJT (= Mg. *qfe£Tq denom., or *qfe^T^). — Again 
 e) the 2. pi. f is preserved in the E. H. fern., thus q^f^f + S> or, 
 perhaps, st. f. q^firW + f = E. H. q^^ you read. Otherwise 
 the 2. pi. ^ or fT is used ; thus wk. f. masc. q^cT -|- ^ = E. II. 
 q^n=f|^ or (dropping ?r, § 3 2) nz&& parhala, 0. qf^r c. g. ; the B. 
 qfi^T c. g. apparently contracts final ^ aha to U or stands for 
 q^?T , properly a 3. pi. form (see § 4 97, footnote and 0. 3. pi. qf^r). 
 Or st. f. q:#r?T + ^ = M. q^crTT c. g. — Again f) the 3. pi. fa 
 or, shortened, ^T is preserved in E. H. and B. ; thus wk. f. masc. 
 q^T -f- fa = E. H. qz^r^T , B. qf^T^T with transfer of final ^ into 
 the preceding syllable; fern. q:jf% + =7 = E. H. qsf^T . The E. H. 
 also shows the other 3. pi. terrain. U" in the masc. q^Y they 
 read and, slightly modified, in the fern, q^u , just as in the 
 E. H. pres. conj. q^ they read. 0. omits the anunasika, qfc<T for 
 *qfe^T . M. uses the strong form, but without any suff., q^F^T. — 
 
 2) As regards the E. II. optional forms, 1. sg. «WI" W and 2. pi. 
 ^c?JT?T, they contain probably the strong part, terrain. ^tW, with 
 euph. U for WrlK ; thus Skr. denom. *qf?TrT7nfa (= qftTFrart-sfar), Mg. 
 *qf^gfq or *qfer?lfq, Ap. *qfe?7T3, E. H. qfi^rf or q^FJlt". — 
 
 3) I subjoin a comparative table of terminations: 
 
§§ 506. 507.] 
 
 PARTICIPIAL TENSES. 
 
 353 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 
 
 1. 
 
 S«TPT 
 
 rfe ' 
 
 2. 
 
 ^% 
 
 TO 
 
 3. 
 
 FL 
 
 ^m 
 
 Singular. 
 E.H. 
 ^Tf L m., 5c??T f. 
 ^c^rrr m., ?lfvF^f. 
 
 ^c^H C. g., WC. g. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 55TJ' C. g. 
 
 gears' m., g^?j f. 
 
 The B. and 0. forms are of common gender. 
 506. Preterite conjunctive. This tense is made by mo- 
 difying the termination of the pres. part, in 3&FJ (§§ 2 9 8. 4 86) 
 in the following manner, according to the gender, number and 
 person of the subject. 
 
 Note. 
 
 X o 
 x^ 
 
 M. 
 
 WlV m., ^crr" f., 9oTT " or n~-l n. 
 SoTTCMn., 9c<TfrT f., 9^-q n. 
 g^TT m., U^Vt f., 5c=t" n. 
 
 5ciTf w c. g. 
 ^c??T c. g. 
 WT m., if^Tn f., g^rt' n. 
 
 Singular. 
 Masc. Fem. 
 
 1. M" (or wT) Wr?|; 
 
 2. ^iTO" or ^FT ^frT^or J37tt 
 o. 9rT or 9rT ^FT or ^FT 
 
 Plural. 
 Masc. Fem. 
 
 SrTt" or 3rT^ ^rft or ^ 
 
 9rTeT or tfrT (or ^rJTeT ) 13rU 
 
 %tt or gfT " gfTT^r or sift" 
 
 Note: The forms enclosed in brackets are more usual in Bs., 
 than in Bh. — Occasionally this tense is used as a pres. indie. 
 
 507. Affinities and Derivation. 1) This tense exists 
 in all Gds., with the exception, apparently, of S. But while 
 W. Gd. uses the strong form of the pres. part, without addition, 
 to express the pret. conj., the E. and S. Gds. make it by joining 
 to the same part, the personal suff. of the old pres. indie. These 
 composite forms are made exactly on the same model as those 
 of the second pret. indie, see § 505, where the matter has been 
 fully explained. The E. Gds. use the weak, but M. the strong 
 form of the part. Thus 1. sg. masc. 0. H. V^f or cn$rTJ, E. H. 
 <T%mi' or ^eff (if) I read, B. qf^rTTJT (S. Ch. 14 7), O. q£f?T (Sn. 
 3 2), M. cT^rTT (Man. 6 0, 4. 7 3); but W. H. Q^fTT or ^rT>, H. H. 
 <J^?ff (Kl. 167, a), P. cr^T (Ld. 37. 4 6, etc.), G. OTt (Ed. 54); 
 fem. 0. H. q^frT3 or enztt, E. H. q:??# , B. and 0. like masc, 
 
 23 
 
354 PARTICIPIAL TENSES. § 507.] 
 
 M. g^FT", but W. H., H. H., G. cr^ft, P. <r^; neut. M. tnjFTt w , 
 but G. cnSrT, etc. ; see the table of termin. below. The optional 
 E. H. terrain. ^FT^ of the 1. pi. is, evidently, an intrusion from 
 the B., where the pros. part, ends in Z<1, instead of in SrT (see 
 §3 00). — It will be observed, that the M. termin. of the pret. 
 conj. are nearly identical with those of its pres. indie; the only 
 difference being in the 3. sg. and plur. (e. g., 3. sg. masc. conj. 
 ^FTT, but indie. 3JFTT ; 3. pi. masc. conj. %cl, but indie. ^rflrT ) and 
 in the 2. sg. masc. (viz. conj. gFTT*T, but indie. ^rTT*r). The indie, 
 has more nearly preserved the old Pr. forms ; and moreover, pro- 
 bably, uses the weak form of the part. Thus the M. 2. sg. indie. 
 Q^Tra^ t1io\% readest is the same as the Pr. Q^rTT f^T ; while the M. 
 2. sg. conj. Q-d.rikj^ (if) thou readst is rather a denom. formation 
 cr^riT + frr = Pr. * q£rTSJ-fiT ; see the remarks in §503,1, p. 347. — 
 In the other Gds. the pret. conj. itself may be occasionally used 
 as a sort of indefinite pres. indie. *). Examples of this usage, of 
 expressing the pret. conj. by means of the part. pres. with or 
 without the auxil. verb ^^ to be, are already found in Pr. (see 
 Wb. Spt. 62. 63). Thus Spt. 2 6 sq smrirrrsfa tit siurm if thou 
 knewest, thou wouldst not do. This would be in M. sr^r sTT-'fnm ^T 
 cRpTTq^, E. H. irr sTT^FF^ =T cHfTO . Of the two Pr. methods, that 
 which dispenses with the auxil. verb appears to have given rise 
 to the W. Gd. form of the pret. conj., while .the other which 
 uses that verb apparently led to the S. and E. Gd. denom. forms 
 of the same tense. The fact that the Gd. pret. conj., and the 
 analogously-formed tenses of the 1 st and 2 nd pret. and fut. indie, 
 have different forms for the several genders, is thus explained by 
 the Pr. For the part, with or without the auxil. verb, must, of 
 course, agree with the subj. in regard to gender. — 2) S., ap- 
 parently possesses no special pret. conj., but uses instead of it 
 the ordinary pres. indie, (see Tr. 501). — 3) I subjoin a com- 
 parative table of terminations : 
 
 1) Called indefinite imperfect by Kl. 167, 323, frequentative by S. Cb. 
 147, first present subjunctive by Ed. 54. 
 
§ 508.] 
 
 PARTICIPIAL TENSES. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 
 
 4 r "1 
 
 5fFT 
 
 ^fal 
 
 5FT 
 
 5* 
 
 5F7T 
 
 G. 
 
 5m" m., gfft f., an; n. 
 dto 
 dto 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 
 
 ^ FTTI L 
 
 *5 
 
 jn 
 
 5FT 
 
 z^ 
 
 9?T 
 
 Singular. 
 E. II. 
 
 5<iV ill., 5r?T^f. 
 
 grrq m., ^frr^f. 
 5?r c g. 
 
 W. II. 
 
 ^FtI" m., 5rTl' f. 
 dto 
 dto 
 
 Plural. 
 E. H. 
 
 5m or ^(T^ c - g- 
 
 5cT^Ul., 5r5T^f. 
 
 5HR m., 5fmr f. 
 
 M. 
 
 gFrT m., 5^ f., wT n. 
 armr^ni., grrfq^f., grr~q^n. 
 
 5rTT m., ^ f., a?T w n. 
 
 H. H. 
 
 5rTT m., 5FH f. 
 dto 
 dto 
 
 P. 
 537 m., 5?^ f. 
 dto 
 dto 
 
 M. 
 
 5rTT W C. g. 
 5FTT C. g. 
 5?T m., 5r?TT f., «TfTT 11. 
 
 G. 
 
 5rTT m., 5r?t f., 5rrtll. 
 
 dto 
 dto 
 
 H. H. 
 
 5FT m., 5f?t f. 
 dto 
 dto 
 
 53; m., 55^5"f f. 
 dto 
 dto 
 
 W. H. 
 
 5FTm., 5FrTf. 
 dto 
 dto 
 
 5 08. Future indicative. This tense is made by modifying 
 the termination of the fut. part, in 55T or '^ (§§ 3 08. 48 6) in 
 the following manner, according to the gender, number and per- 
 son of the subject. 
 
 Singular. 
 Masc. Fem. 
 
 1. Baft* 1 55#^ 
 
 2. 55TH or 55T gf^TCT or wt 
 
 3. ~f f 
 
 Plural. 
 Masc. Fem. 
 
 55T or 55£ 
 55TcT or 55T 
 
 551 or 13*2 
 550" or 55T 
 
 With the part, termin. J5J precisely similar suff. are formed ; 
 thus ^5Tt w m., £5J? f., etc. As to the manner of adding them to 
 the root, see § 3 08. 
 
 Note: Optionally the masc. termin. may be used with a fem. 
 subj. — Occasionally this tense is used in the sense of the im- 
 perative. 
 
356 PARTICIPIAL TENSES. § 509.] 
 
 509. Affinities and Derivation. The fut. is formed in 
 six different ways in Gd., the distinguishing marks of which are 
 the following consonants: 1) eT, 2) ^ or ST^, 3) a^ or a^ or ^, 
 4) ^ or !T , 5) n^, 6) T,. — 1) The first two types are de- 
 rived from the old Skr. and Pr. fut. In Skr. the fut. is formed 
 by the suff. ^&T (i. e., 51 with the connecting vowel 3"), which 
 changes in Pr. either to 3W (Mg. 3W) or to 3^f% or ^ (Vr. 
 7, 12 — 15. II. C. 3, 166—169, see also Wb. Bh. 431. Ls. 349 — 
 3 53). The Pr. 3jf^ or ^r becomes in Gd. sflr or ^ or 9^, and the 
 fut. of this %-type is preserved in 0. H., W. H., and the 3. sg. 
 and pi. of the E. H. Thus 3. sg. Skr. TfjKrfTT he trill read, Pr. 
 (a) Tfef%5" or (b) *qf£l>^, whence 0. H. (b) qf^^ or q"f^f%; (with 
 euph. ^§§69.503, 1, p. 345), Br. df^|, Mw. (a) Q^t, E. H. T^T 
 (contracted for *<rf^ for *qf^^); 3. pi. Skr. trfseorfcr they will rend, 
 Pr. (a) qfeP^TTT or (b) *qf%f JH, whence 0. H. (b) qrf^f^, Br. and 
 E. H. qf^T, Mw. (a) qzft (for *qsfT)* The forms of the 2. 
 sg. and pi. of this type also occur in E. H., but only in the 
 sense of the precative (§ 498). — 2) The Pr. 3W becomes in 
 Gd. 3"^ or ^7 (or ^ST_ or ^IT^), and the fut. of this ^-type is 
 preserved in 0. P. (see Tr. A. Gth. CXXVI), Mw. and G. Thus 
 1. sg. Skr. qfewrrfa, Pr. (a) dfetTfa (H. C. 3, 167) or (b) qlw 
 (H. C. 3, 169) I shall read, 0. P. (a) q*ST, Mw.d^e(= Ap.fr. 
 *qfewj), G. (b) cr^tST; again 3. sg. Skr. qfsTSlfTT he trill read, 
 Pr. qfi^Tj, 0. P. q^TT, Mw. q'^T\, G. q^sr. — The remaining 
 four types of the fut. are purely Gd. formations ; thus 3) the 
 fut. of the S-type is confined to the E. Gds. and is made by 
 adding to the fut. part, the personal suff. of the old pres. ind. 
 (§ 503), exactly on the same model as in the case of the se- 
 cond preterite (see § 505). In 0. the sr_ or a^ may be changed 
 to JT^ (see § 134, note). Thus 1. sg. masc. E. H. qwf I shall 
 read, B. qfe (S. Ch. 146), 0. qfefsr or qfeft (Sn. 28); fem. 
 E. H. q^^, B. and 0. like masc. In B. and 0. the 3. sg. and 
 pi. also are of the 5^- type, while in E. H. they are of the ^-type 
 (see Nro. 1); thus 3. pi. B. qnsifrr, 0. qf^T or qfipr, but E. H. 
 
§ 509.] PARTICIPIAL TENSES. 357 
 
 qf^jf. A tense of the 3^-type also exists in M. and G. ; but it 
 is used as a pres. conj., not as a fut. indie. Moreover it is con- 
 structed passively (see § 4 9 6, p. 3 3 3). Thus M. rjr'f STTTTarT (Man. 7 3), 
 G.m^^TZoTT (Ed. 54) / may loose (lit. by me he may he loosed) = 
 E. H. JriftlfSrV I shall loose. There is apparently in Pr. an in- 
 stance of a fut. (or imper.) of this type, mentioned by Ls. 4 2 2, 
 ^5T you will give or give ye; the same in E. H. would be ^J 
 deba. — 4) The fut. of the vjj-type exists only in M., Mw. and 
 N. (inch Gw. and Km.) and 5) that of the ^-type only in Br. (inch 
 Kn.), H. H. and P. Both types are formed on the same principle, 
 viz. by respectively adding the past part. D"cT (wk. f.) or ^c<TT (st. 
 f.) come and trtt (or JTCTT) gone to the old pres. indie. (= habit, 
 past in M., and pres. conj. in the others, see § 4 96) and, for this 
 purpose, curtailing DT^ and U^l to ^c?T_ or ^ and ^lt respectively 
 and contracting rrar to ITT (or JT>7T to JTT). M. uses the weak form 
 ^c<T or c^, Mw. the strong form oTT, and N. either of the two. Mo- 
 reover, N. sometimes adds the personal suff. of the old pres. (§ 503) 
 or the auxil. verb W I am (e. g., *l^tkw we shall read) ; on the other 
 hand M. omits the part. 5T in the 1. pi. (e. g., tr^F we shall read). 
 Lastly in both M. and N. the characteristic c<T is sometimes changed 
 to ^T . A tense of the c^-type exists also in E. H., but it expresses 
 the pres. indie, (see § 500). Similarly the auxil. verb # I am forms 
 in Br., Kn. and P. a tense of the JT- type with the sense of the 
 pres. indie. (Kl. 200. 197, 367). Thus 3. sg. masc. trk-^ or -5TT 
 = M. q:*^, Mw. q:|c<Tr, N. q^T (with T^ for q:^, cf. § 5 1 , 1 , foot- 
 note, p. 3 4 2) he will read, but E. H. q:W?T he reads; fem. M. t^^, 
 Mw. q^T, N. q^^fT she will read, but E. H. trsm she reads; or 
 3. pi. masc. M. q^f?T + 3^1 = q^TR^, Mw. T^TT, N. q£c?TTq^ (st. f.) 
 or qp$^T^ (wk. f.) or q^^ (= q^ + S=r or c^fT -f- =r) they ivill read; 
 fem. M. q^m^T , Mw. T^^ft, N. q^TPT^ (st. f.) or Q^T^ or q^Tn^ 
 (wk. f.). Again 3. sg. masc. q:| + ifr = Br. q^m, H. H. and P. 
 q^m he will read; fem. Br. q^m, H. H. and P. T^nt; or 3. pi. 
 masc. Br. q^rr, H. H. q^JT, P. q^tnTT they will read; fem. Br. 
 q^TTrt, H. H. q^-Jtt, P. cr^TTTrrNrT, etc. But 3. sg. Kn. i|rfT, P. 
 
:;:,s 
 
 PARTICIPIAL TENSES. 
 
 § 509.] 
 
 |rrT he is, 3. pi. Kn. ^rr, P. ^ttt they arc, fem. sg. Kn. and 
 P. i|jTt, pi. Kn. l[~nt, P. ^piftgt; P. has optionally ^ he is, ^r^ 
 they are', H. H. has %, f", etc.; but fut. H. H. ^tnr m., ^trft f. 
 he (she) ivillbc, pi. ftTTm., ^nrftf. they will be, Kn. fT^ft, ^ttritm., 
 °JTr f. ; P. ^tirm. ^ttnit m., °nt, °JTtg't f., etc. Literally, these fu- 
 tures mean: ^ : zm he is gone (that) he may read, a^ or q^rr 
 he is come (that) he may read, etc., compare the English: he is 
 going (or coming) to read. — 6) The fut. of the ^-type is con- 
 fined to S., and is formed by adding to the pres. part, in gT 
 or z\ the same termin., as are used for the first pret. indie, 
 (see § 503, 3. 5). Thus 1. sg. masc. ^T£ + fa = S. fsfrfs, fem. 
 ^rrf^gnt I shall go; 2. sg. masc. f^", fem. fcftf^" or ^rff^Vf; 
 3. sg. masc. ^yf^t, fem. ^^f^t. This fut. lit. means: I may be 
 reading, etc. — 7) I subjoin a comparative table of terminations: 
 
 Singular. 
 
 G. 
 
 t^ 
 
 gST 
 
 Br. 
 
 ST-TTT 
 
 ^rft 
 G. 
 
 SST 
 
 gsit 
 
 git 
 
 Mw. 
 
 gpf or g# 
 
 get or g^t 
 
 get or g^t 
 
 H.H 
 
 3JTT 
 ^JTT 
 
 p. 
 
 g^in 
 
 flTT 
 
 Mw. 
 
 get or g^rt 
 get or g^t 
 get or gift 
 
 Br. 
 
 ^ IB 
 
 M. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Plural 
 
 Br. 
 
 •Si, la 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Br. 
 
 H.H. 
 
 P. 
 
 M. 
 
 grit 
 
 grit 
 
 gtit 
 grit 
 
 3 
 
 gT^ 
 
 
 fit 
 
 gtTTiT 
 
 grft^ 
 
 E. H. 
 
 gsft or ^5rr w 
 gsie or ^sre 
 
 r 
 
 N. 
 3^T or gel? 
 
 g^ne or gee^ 
 gc??T or ge^ 
 
 E. H. 
 
 gir or Z^J 
 g5Te^ or ^cia 
 
 N. 
 S^T or 3e# 
 gcff3 or 3e^T 
 gcTR or gee 
 
 B. 
 
 s. 
 
 gj;fe 
 
 g'^T 
 
 B. 
 
 ssn 
 
 S. 
 g^eet 
 
 g^3 
 g^T 
 
 0. 
 
 0. 
 
 In the fem. sing., Br., H. H., P., N. final gt or gT changes 
 to \, as Br. fft^nt, P. sit, etc.; plur. Br., H. H., N. (7 or gT 
 
§ 510.] PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 359 
 
 changes to ^, and P. ^" to ^5T, as Br. ^""JTT, N. 3c<TT, P. afnTg'T, 
 etc. For the E. H. fern, form see § 508. S. has fein. sg. 1. ^fnifn, 
 2. tffltf or sJf^Vf, 3. 9^"; pi. 1. 9^4) w , 2. and 3. iffi^s. In 
 the rest, the forms are com. gen. 
 
 3. PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 
 
 510. Ten additional tenses are made in E. II., by adding 
 the pres. indie, or conj., or the pret. indie, or conj., or the fut. 
 indie, of an auxil. verb to the pres. part, in SfrT^ (§ 2 98) or to 
 the past part, in 5^ (§ 302). These tenses are the following: 
 
 1) The definite or durative present indicative, made by adding 
 the auxil. pres. indie, to the pres. part. ; as q^fT^ir or Q^fT jricr 
 he is reading. 
 
 2) The future conditional, made by adding the auxil. pres. 
 conj. to the pres. part. ; as T^r^ifta^ (if) he be reading. 
 
 3) The definite preterite or the perfect indicative, made by 
 adding the auxil. pres. indie, to the past part. ; as cr^T cut or 
 cr^rT frier he has read. 
 
 4) The future exact conditional, made by adding the auxil. 
 pres. conj. to the past part.; as Q^rT ^TO" (if) he have read. 
 
 5) The durative or habitual preterite or the imperfect indi- 
 cative, made by adding the auxil. pret. indie, to the pres. part.; 
 as cRF^T/l^ he was reading. 
 
 6) The durative present conditional, made by adding the auxil. 
 pret. conj. to the pres. part.; as qz^irtFT (if) he ivere reading. 
 
 7) The pluperfect indicative, made by adding the auxil. pret. 
 indie, to the past part. ; as t^t 7/^t he had read. 
 
 8) The preterite conditional, made by adding the auxil. pret. 
 conj . to the past part. ; as q^T ^?r (if) he had read. 
 
 9) The durative future indicative or present dubitative, made 
 by adding the auxil. fut. indie, to the pres. part.; as q^T^l^ 
 he ivill be reading. 
 
360 PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. §§511.512.] 
 
 10) The future exact indicative or preterite did/dative, made 
 by adding the auxil. fut. indie, to the past part. ; as q^?r ^fj 
 he /rill have read. 
 
 Note: For the purpose of expressing the present conditional 
 the pret. conj. (§ 506) is used. Thus T^rT (if J he rend. This 
 completes the series of tenses of the condit. mood, which is me- 
 rely a special application of the conj. 
 
 511. If the verb is a trans, one, the termin. of the past 
 part, assumes the form #^T, instead of SoT , in the formation of 
 the additional tenses ; but if the verb is intrans. the termin. is 
 51^, as usual; e.g., trans. cn^T znzf I have read, but intr. 7^T. 
 5TT?Tt / have remained. The termin. of the part, never suffers 
 any change ; but that of the auxil. verb changes in agreement 
 with the number, person and (where possible) gender of the subj.; 
 thus 1. sg. masc. i^hjztzi ~, fern. cr^T^cj'PJ I am reading; 3. pi. 
 masc. cr^rT 5ncr u , fern. H4>ci ^ L the// have read. 
 
 Note: The form in g^r is really the adv. part, (see § 4 88), 
 i. e., the loc. or obi. form of the past part. Thus T^rT ^TCT 
 means lit., on having read I am. Similarly B. uses the adv. pres. 
 part.; e.g., B. qf^ f^ lit. on reading I am, i. e., I am reading; 
 B. qfi^FT f%<7iTJT^ lit. on reading I was, i. e., / teas reading. 
 
 512. Affinities. Periphrastic tenses exist in all Gds. 
 and are made in the same way as in E. H. But while B., 0. 
 and, in the case of the past part, of trans, verbs, E. H. add the 
 auxil. verb to the adv. part. (S. Ch. 13 5. 194. Sn. 3 0. 31, see 
 §511, note), N. and, generally, E. H. add it to the weak, H. II., 
 P., G., S. to the strong, and W. H. to either form of the adj. 
 part, (see Ld. 3 7 etc. Ed. 54 etc. Tr. 316 etc. Kl. 167 etc.). Again 
 M. adds it to the weak or strong form of the adj. part, or to 
 one of the ordinary tenses (Man. 9 2 — 9 6), somewhat analogous 
 to the formation of the pres. indie, in E. H. and the W. Gds. 
 (see § 501, 1). They also vary as to the particular auxil. verb 
 which they employ (see §§ 513. 514). Thus 3. sg. masc. pres. 
 definite: 0. q^ 9^ he is reading, B. qf^fT % or q°gi%; but E. H. 
 
§§513.511.] PERILMIKASTIO TKNSES. 361 
 
 q^rj jziit or ^riH, N. q^i^, Gw. q^ or q^^V^, Br. q^g ur q^ftt u, 
 Mw. q^rftgj, H. H. q^HT ir, P. T33T f , S. oxtail;, G. q^T^ra^; 
 again M. q^^Ttr or q^TT 9t| or q^TWER^T (Man. 9 3, 1. 2. 3); 
 fem. 0., B., E. H., N. like masc. ; Gw. q^^ or q5E ^t §j, Br. q^FcT 
 or q^rr I, H. H. q^rft |, P. q^; £t |, S. ^^%^t cmr, G. i^h\ ^rcn?, 
 M. q^n^gT% or q^irt 91% or q^^^it. 
 
 513. The auxil. verbs which are employed to form the 
 periphrastic tenses are the following: 1) 5TT?; or 5TT?7 he is, 2) T^r^ 
 he ivas and 3) ^ToT he is. The verb SITE is defective ; there exists 
 only the pres. indie. The verb 7"^r is the ordinary second pret. 
 indie, of the regular verb ^^ to remain; but it is used as the 
 past tense of the defective SIT?;. The verb fTPST is a regular verb 
 with a complete conjugation, from which the remainder of the 
 defective tenses of the verb 5TTeT are supplied. Examples see in 
 §510. 
 
 Note 1: When the past tense "^c<T_ is used as an auxil. 
 verb, it expresses past action generally, „he was", precisely like 
 TT in H. H. But according to circumstances, it may retain its 
 ordinary meaning „he remained", as the past tense of J^3 to 
 remain, and express past action as enduring, precisely like ^fiT 
 in H. H. Thus E. H. ^^ ^E^L he had said = H. H. cj^rr m, or 
 he remained saying, he kept saying = H. H. ^T j^j. 
 
 Note 2 : The past tense tfSerT^ or Hff^ of the verb ^Ta - to he 
 is never used as a mere auxil. verb, but always has its full 
 meaning „he became", and expresses the commencement and con- 
 tinuation of an action (§ 538, g). Thus E. H. cR^pOTtfrfT he began 
 saying, but 37?pT^n|c^ he ivas saying. The corresponding Grl. forms 
 are: W. H. hot (auxil. en - ), M. m<?\l (aux. ^TFTT or 3^), G. ^cfV 
 (aux. ^(TT). 
 
 514. Affinities and Derivation. The various verbs which 
 are used as auxiliaries in Gd. are the following: 1) The verb ar?7. 
 It occurs as a defective auxil. in E. H. and B. ; in both only in 
 the pres. indie. ; but in M. and S. it is a principal verb with a 
 complete conjugation, and is used to form compound verbs; viz., 
 
362 PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. § 514.] 
 
 M. ettttjt' to appear (Man. 92 ; in W. H. in the denom. form oTFTTTT ), 
 S. stftut to continue (Tr. 344). It is derived from the Skr. R. sra^, 
 Pr. 5TrT^ or 5T£. The B. pres. indie, (sg. 1. 5rfr, 2. olfiHj 3. 5T7T; 
 pi. 1. 5rfz, 2. STC, 3. STE^) is, as usual, identical with the old 
 Pr. pres. indie, (see § 501, 4). Thus 3. sg. Skr. sTtTtT, Pr. 5TT^, 
 B. oTcT. From the other Pr. form SPST comes the E. H. 5TPT^ (for 
 STTj) or 3TT by the elision of W (§ 153). As regards the other 
 E. H. forms ^177, STTET , etc. which are different for the two gen- 
 ders, it is more probable that they are denominatives, made by 
 adding the personal suff. of the old pres. indie. (§ 503, 1, p. 345) 
 to the part. Skr. aw, P. eij (H. C. 2, 29) existing (of R. air). Thus 
 1. sg. masc. Skr. aw> s for, Pr. ar fcf , Ap. Pr. *aj3\ E. H. airt w 
 I am; fern. Skr. (st. f.) afwsrrfST, Pr. afysrTfr^, Ap. Pr. *afp?f% 
 or *afr^3, E. H. 5TT^, etc. — 2) The verb ^5j^ is used only 
 in E. H. as an auxil., and only in the 2 nd pret. indie. Other- 
 wise it is in E. H. as well as in all other Gds. a regular prin- 
 cipal verb, „to remain". It is commonly (in E. H., W. H., P., 
 S.) used to make a kind of (continuative) compound verb (see 
 § 538, b). — 3) The verb l[t^a to be occurs in E. H. as well 
 as in all other Gds., both as an auxiliary and as a principal, 
 with a complete conjugation. It is derived from the Skr. R. JJ ; 
 thus 3. sg. pres. conj. E. II. fto , Pr. ^ or fa^ (H. C. 4, 60), 
 Skr. ^afflT. As an auxil., however, it has in E. H. a special pres. 
 indie, which is made by adding the personal suff. of the old 
 pres. indie. (§ 503, 1) to the part. Skr. UrT, Pr. ^fsra (§ 307, 7) 
 being or been. Thus 1. sg. masc. Skr. iiHtsfOT, Pr. ^fH^f%, Ap. Pr. 
 *^fsra3, E. H. ^jsT or fraV or ^TaT (§§ 122. 69. 28) ; fern. Skr. 
 iTfTTf«T, Tr. ^fsraTf% Ap. Pr. *^fa?rj, E. H. ^5 or ^ (§ 123) 
 I am, etc. On the other hand, as a principal verb, it has a re- 
 gular pres. indie. fr^TT* I am, etc. (see § 500). There is in E. H. 
 a peculiar pleonastic form of this verb, which may be used op- 
 tionally for its simple form, both when it is an auxil. and when 
 it is a principal. It is made by adding the increment <pT to the 
 root ^t; and the pleon. R. ^to, thus made, is conjugated regularly. 
 
§ 514.] 
 
 PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 
 
 363 
 
 Thus infin. ^\WZ^io bc\ pres. indie. 2. sg. masc. ^TW?^ or 5T, 
 fem. ^twi%^ or °^t; 2. pi. masc. ^WcfTfT or c?T, fem. ^, etc. 
 (see § 517). There is also a peculiar negative form of this vcrh, 
 which exists, however, only in the pres. tense and is the same 
 for all three moods. It also shows the peculiar increment &', 
 thus 3. sg. masc. =r$r he is not, fem. ^iw or ^i^ she is not, etc. 
 (see § 518) 1 ). The origin of these fox-ms is obscure. Perhaps they 
 are derived from the Skr. R. U by means of the inchoative suff. 
 v[ or ^7. Just as the R. ^^ to be forms in Pr. an inchoative 
 s?^ (= g^ = Wfi), so the R. i^ or Pr. fsr or «|5T or ^t (cf. H. C. 
 4, 60) might form in Pr. an inchoative *¥&3F& or *^5T^W or 
 *^fW (= ug - or H^f), in E. H. ^W. The negative form ^m ap- 
 pears to have arisen by incorporating the negative particle ^f not. 
 There are similar negative verbal forms in M., see Nro. 4. — 
 4) The verb ^r or 5T% or i[ he is. It occurs in the S. Gd., 
 N. Gd. and W. Gd. (exc. G.), but not in the E. Gd. (exc. Bs.) ; 
 and it exists only in the pres. indie, (see Man. 88. Tr. 300. Kl. 
 201. Ld. 2 5), as shown in the following table: 
 
 Singular. 
 
 O.H. 
 ^?or^t L 
 ^JTT or 9^% 
 
 or ^ 
 ?T^ or ^ or 
 
 9^f^ or ifPjf I ft^t 
 9^"f or^rg" 
 
 Bs. 
 
 M. 
 
 s. 
 
 Br. 
 
 Mw. 
 
 P. 
 
 N. 
 
 ^^ or ^t* 
 
 
 9Tf|?JT 
 
 *" 
 
 
 cr 
 
 f 
 
 a^Hor ^ 
 
 9T%H 
 
 or ^T^" 
 
 ■% 
 1 
 
 
 
 TO? 
 
 *k 
 
 ^Tf 
 
 m\ 
 
 •^ 
 ^ 
 
 •5i 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 % 
 
 *? 
 
 H.H. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 oTo 
 
 or<,.<> 
 
 or 3Tg 8 
 
 ^^ or g^fr 
 
 or 9^ w 
 ^^Tor ^ 
 
 9T^T 
 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 cf 
 
 i? 
 
 ^T^T 
 
 gT%rr 
 
 * 
 
 $ 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 UT^Sl 
 
 «Tf%f^r 
 
 or gT|tft 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1) Beames in J. R. A. S. Ill, 495 mentions a negative form TTW he 
 is not and an affirmative W he is, and Kl. 199, 373 follows him. But my 
 authorities deny the existence of either form. 
 
364 PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. § 514.] 
 
 The origin of this auxil. verb is uncertain. It is commonly iden- 
 tified with the Skr. R. W to be (e. g., Tr. 3 00. 304). This 
 view must assume a change of *T to eT, and also a change of 
 class; for the Skr. R. ^r^ is of the II. cl., while the Gd. verb 
 is of the VI. cl. ; e. g., 1. sg. 0. II. ^k represents a Skr. form 
 *TOTft, Pr. *gffr, Ap. **^3 (see H. C. 4, 385); or Gd. *| = 
 Skr. *g^rf7t, Pr. *^!T^". None of the Pr. gramm., however, as for 
 as I am aware, notice any such change in the R. 9H . There 
 would be also a difficulty in accounting for the initial 9T in M. 
 and S. On the whole, therefore, I am inclined to identify this 
 Gd. auxil. verb with the pres. indie, of the R. *T to be. This 
 root may become in Pr. ^ST (H. C. 4, 6 0) and in Gd. «r ; thus 
 3. sg. Skr. nsrfrT, Pr. f5T^, Mw. % (Kl. 23 2). The form I would 
 easily become %. On the other hand, instead of suppressing 9, 
 it (or rather IT, see § 13 2) may be transposed; thus the Pr. R. 
 ^5T might become in Gd. gg" and thence 5T^, with m as com- 
 pensation for the elided ST/, e. g., 3. sg. Pr. %o(Z = *%$'$ = Bs. ^ 
 or M. gn[, etc. It may be observed, that the Skr. 3. pi. UsifrT 
 is even in Ap. Pr. contracted to iifrr or ^TH (H. C. 4, 406.416), 
 which would regularly become if in W. H. (see §497, 2. f, p. 337). 
 The M. possesses a negative form of this verb. It is defective, 
 occuring only in the pres. ind. ; viz., sing. 1. TT^T , 2. TT^TTT , 
 3. =TTff; plur. 1. RffifT, 2. ^T^T, 3. =lTfr-r[ . There is an other 
 defective negative verb in M., which occurs only in the pres. and 
 pret. indie; viz., pres. sing. 1. ^T5^", 2. ^Tcim or ^cfTST , 3. =Tct[; 
 plur. 1. JTc^T or ^Tcf, 2. ^T5^f or ^Tcf ft , 3. ^T£^ or =Tc^H; pret. 
 sing. masc. 1. n^rft', 2. ^c^rTTO, 3. ^Tc^FTT; plur. 1. ^TTt\ 2. ^icfrTT, 
 3. =To^rT. See Man. 88. 89. This negative form, however, really 
 belongs to the verb ft^sr. (M. ^Trrr"), see Nro. 3. Besides M. has 
 a complete negative form of the verb ^HUT (see Nro. 5), which 
 is made by changing the initial 5 to ^T ; e.g., inf. ^STTrj ; 1. sg. 
 pres. ind. -IMhY I am not, from K^Tt* I am, etc. See Man. 89. — 
 5) The verb 3$? or ^ or ^ he is. It occurs in the S. Gd. and 
 N. Gd., in all W. Gds. (exc. Br.), and in all E. Gds. (exc. Bh. 
 
§ 514.] PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 365 
 
 and Bs.). In M. it has a complete conjugation (Man. 84 — 80), 
 even in a negative form, see Nro. 4 ; in B., Mth., Mw., P., Km. 
 it exists in the pres. and pret. tenses ; and the rest have it only 
 in the pres. tense. In S. even the pres. is fragmentary. In M., 
 P. and S., ^ is changed to q" (see § 1 1). In B., though f is written, 
 ^ is commonly pronounced, see footnote on p. 34 9. The following 
 comparative table shows the various forms of this auxil. verb : 
 
 
 
 'IE 
 
 o 
 
 % <% 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 bo 
 
 bo 
 
 It- 
 
 o 
 
 .-IP to, . fc 
 
 ^ % Ir 
 
 s 3 « 
 
 1° 
 
 1° E 1$ 
 
 k 
 
 & 
 
 IF 
 
 - a 
 
 a 3 
 & ° 
 
 IP IP IP 
 
 ip ip ip 
 
 IP IP 
 
 IP 
 
 IP 
 
 ip 
 
 oo iB I I 5 ° ^unaap ^unsap 
 
 
 
 X <fe <fe 
 
 3 
 
 rto x»— 
 
 •« TOO TOO < IDJ 
 
 bo 
 
 Ip 
 
 
 i— 
 
 "3 
 
 .-fr .-& r-lT 
 
 
 
 ^unsop 
 
 ^unsap 
 
 
 a 
 
 ! iao-rieri?ie>- 
 
 1 i6i | o^ : Ifir reft" 
 
 ler 'i© ^i© 
 
 1© 
 
 
 1© 
 
 !© I© I© 
 
 13 
 
 ' l£V lev lev 
 [tax ItaJ IbT 
 
 15 
 
 i 
 
 fcr' 
 
 i 
 
 d© 
 
 ■junsap 
 J© 
 
 (I© 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 i— i— ►- 
 
 to to to 
 
 iff (J^T (& 
 
 bo 
 
 g 
 
 ^ttt- ^ ^ 
 
 ^unsap 
 
 "5 
 
 CO 
 
 
 «& ,V f 
 
 tff' (ff%i© 
 
 1© 1© i©- 
 
 ft) 
 
 d©'^ (1© 
 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 (^ tr .1© 
 ip Ip B 
 
 l& l©.) 1© 
 
 
 ijjf j©,j© 
 
 IP IP IP 
 
 dE 
 -{&•) I© - •i© 
 
 
 J- 
 
 ip 
 
 >— 
 
 ip 
 
 
 £' to/ h-/ 
 
 IE <|E 'IE 
 
 (jw' (1© d© 
 
 IP IP BJ 
 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 lev ^ 
 
 iff ha? ler 
 ip ip ip 
 
 
 M©<> 1© •!© 
 IP IP IP 
 
 
 
 ^imsap 
 
 i 
 
 
 •junsap 
 
 »-» <M CO 
 
3G6 
 
 I'Kli'II'HRASTIC TENSES. 
 
 § 514.] 
 
 The forms of the pres. have assumed in M. and P. the sense 
 of the (habit.) past (see § 496); thus M. *&{*, P. WT I was 
 (Man. 84. Ld. 25). The forms of the pret. sg. Km. %TT, Mw, ^T, 
 P. SIT are masc. and change in the fern, to ^T and Sn; they are 
 really past part. ; those of B. and Mth. are of com. gen. and 
 made according to the 2 nd pret. ind. (see § 505). In M. the pres. 
 ind. (also used as pres. conj.) is ^T7n , etc. (conjug. regularly, see 
 § 501, 3. 5); the pres. conj. WTcrr, etc. (see § 496); the imper. 
 9^T , etc. (see § 496); the fut. 9^PT , etc. (see § 509, 4. 7). I have 
 observed in N. the 2. sg. fut. |pTO = M. 9^5^ (see § 509, 4. 7). 
 The infin. is in M. asf or WIT^ (see § 313. 314); the pres. part. 
 ^TrT (see § 4 86); the adv. part. g^iTT, which I have also found 
 in N. as gJSJ on being (see § 489). — This verb also exists in 
 Pr. (H. C. 4, 215. Ls. 34 6); e. g., 3. sg. n%$ he is, etc. The 
 R. ^ (= ^T or ^^7) is jjrobably an inchoative form of the 
 R. 9^ to be or (according to some MSS. of H. C.) gra to dwell, 
 exist. — The only remnant of the original R. W which has sur- 
 vived in Gd. is the S. 3. sg. and pi. Wi = Pr. OTFST, Skr. gfrrr. 
 It is, however, used only in conjunction with pronom. suff. (Tr. 
 3 49), as vnfn it is or they are to me. Even in Pr., ^ffT is used 
 for both numbers and all three persons (H. C. 3, 14 8); e. g., 
 ^jf^r =^t I am, ^fcr tjt^ we are, etc. — 6) The verb trt_ or fn? 
 he is. It occurs only in the W. Gd. and 0. In G. and S. it has 
 a complete conj. (see Ed. 7 2 — 81. Tr. 305 — 3 1 2). In the others 
 it exists only in the pret. indie, tense (or past part., see Sn. 26. 
 Ld. 2 5. Kl. 200), as shown in the following comparative table: 
 Preterite. Singular. 
 
 1. 
 
 O. 
 
 erfer c. g. 
 
 Naip. 
 fzrei or T c. g. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 TrT c. g. 
 
 T^TT C. g. 
 
 fzrari^or fzrar c. g. 
 , fziZTT or z?fr m., fTTT f. 
 
 
 
 H. H. 
 
 P. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 ?TT m., TTt f. 
 
 TT m., m f . 
 
 
 2. 
 
 eTT m., eft f. 
 
 ZTT m., tfl" f. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 m m., OT f. 
 
 TT m., en f. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 B 
 
 [n. 
 
 RrjH m. 
 
 ferae f. 
 
 en m. 
 
 , q*f. 
 
 ^ m. 
 
 fwf f. 
 
 eft m. 
 
 , ^f. 
 
 f^jwt m. 
 
 eft f. 
 
 eft m. 
 
 , af. 
 
 
 G. 
 
 
 sTJTT m., 
 
 ercrtf., ejffn. 
 
 
 7UJJ m., 
 
 ?PJT f., t\Q n. 
 
 
 TOT m., 
 
 era^f., q 
 
 
 
§ 515.] 
 
 CONJUGATION. 
 
 367 
 
 0. 
 
 T^T C. g. 
 Tc?T C. g. 
 ToT C. g. 
 
 Preterite. 
 Naip. 
 f?J3 or ejt c. g. 
 f^un or ^5JT c. g. 
 ftjr or st 
 
 Plural. 
 
 c. g. 
 
 S. 
 
 H. II. 
 
 n m., ?5t f. 
 er m., fii f. 
 T m., nt f. 
 
 fznaraT m., fsrs^T f, 
 fwj ra., fin! f. 
 fwr m., f^^ f. 
 G. 
 
 WU m., enrt f., STST n. 
 
 um m., ernT f., Tjui n. 
 
 TOT m., ?T?JT f., Wl n. 
 
 En. 
 
 *T m., JTT f, 
 T m., 
 ZT in., 
 
 (T>f. 
 
 «TTf. 
 
 T m., ?7T^'T f. 
 
 *T m., stWt f. 
 
 KT m., erWf f. 
 
 The pres. conj. is: 1. sg. G. err?, S. fWT; 2. sg. G. Tra^, 
 S. fir^r or efT; 3. sg. G. erra , S. f^r^ ; 1. pi. G. t?t or erar, S. fadi?; 
 2. pi. G. srrat, S. fasT; 3. pi. G. «rw, S. fron or m^. The 
 pres. indie, is in G. TT-r 5, etc., S. f?J5T PIT, etc. (see § 501, 1. 5); 
 the fut. indie, in G. ^TST^, etc., S. ^fjT^T, etc. (see § 509, 2. 6. 7); 
 the imper. G. 3T or zJTsT, etc., S. W\T, or srisT, etc. (see §§ 4 97. 
 49 9); the infin. in G. era', S. firatTT ; the part. pres. in G. TrTt, 
 S. *TT^t; the adv. part, in G. q"fT or EJrrf, S. qfs;. — The ori- 
 ginal of this verh appears to be the Skr. R. ^T stand, exist, 
 which in Pr. becomes ST or m (H. C, 4, 16); e. g., 3. sg. Pr. 
 5T^ (H. C. 4, 436) or en^, G. <m ; 3. pi. Pr. erfyr (H. C. 4, 395) 
 or *fTTff (cf. H. C. 4, 3 8 2), G. ma . The S. firanir to &c is de- 
 rived from the R. ^TT, just as S. ftraor to drink, from R. m\ S. 
 fr^iJT to #we, from R. ^T; i. e., it is founded on a reduplicated 
 radical form * fWT (for the ordinary Skr. frV8), analogous to tqoT, Z£. 
 
 THIRTII CHAPTER. CONJUGATION. 
 
 1. THE DEFECTIVE AUXILIATY VERB. 
 
 515. There is only a pres. tense; the pret. is supplied 
 from the verb j^jq to remain and the rest from the complete 
 auxil. verb ^fe to be (see §§ 513. 516). 
 
368 AUXILIARY VERBS. § 51 C] 
 
 a) Present tense : I am, etc. 
 
 Sing. Masc. Fern. Plur. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1. snct* 1 ) ^vi ^ttttt srrrt 
 
 2. srr&sr or mt ^nfui or ^rrrf snTS" or ^t?; ^jra 
 
 --* *■* -x c- 
 
 3. srrr or 5tt?t or *7T sn^orsrrfforsrr srrs srTrfr* 
 
 b) Preterite tense : / was, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. Fem. Plur. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1. ^crlT T^C <"^^ 1^^ 
 
 2. ^^ra^or "^^ T^fo^or "pr<m ('^criS or ^c?r J^vQ. 
 
 2. THE WEAK COMPLETE AUXILIARY VERB. 
 
 51G. This verb is complete with the exception of the pret., 
 
 which is supplied from the verb ^~^L t° remain, to dwell ; see 
 
 § 513, note 2. 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 a) Present tense : I am, etc. 
 
 
 Sing. Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Plur. Masc. 
 
 Fem 
 
 1. 
 
 ffWf 2 ) 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 
 
 2. 
 
 ftsr 
 
 ffnri' 
 
 ^cT^ or ifta 
 
 ^ 
 
 3. 
 
 ^T5f or t[T 
 
 ^W or irt 
 
 ^TcT"" 
 
 r w 
 55 
 
 b) Preterite tense : I was, etc. 
 This is the same as the pret. of the def. auxil. verb; see 
 
 § 515, b. 
 
 c) Future tense: I shall be, etc. 
 
 Sing. Masc. and Fem. Plur. Masc. and Fem. 
 
 1 . ^t5JT w or ^srV ^5T or il$k or ^T^or ft^ 
 
 2. fT^W or ^STtf or ^ or ffjar 3 ) f ra^ or ft^^or ^Tsr or '^Z^ 
 
 3. fty ^" 
 
 1) Throughout, the initial consonant may optionally he 3^v or ^ fc, 
 and in the low forms of E. H. the medial cons, may be IT or ^ (§ 145 ^- 
 
 2) The masc. form may throughout be used also as fem. 
 
 3) Fem. also: ^TfijH or ^sft or ft^fsre or ^t^t. 
 
§ 517.] AUXILIARY VERBS. 3G9 
 
 Conjunctive mood, 
 d) Present tense : I be, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. and Fem. Plur. Masc. and Fern, 
 
 l.^f #"$" 
 
 2. ^r ^Ter or ^t 
 
 3. fto ^\ 
 
 e) Preterite tense : I ivere, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. Fem. Plur. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1. ^TrTT 1 ' or^t?arr W ^tr|^ ^^ ^T^T 
 
 2. ^TrTH or ^H ^Ifd^or f7FTf fTFT^Or^trT ^tr^ 
 
 3. ^TrT^ or ^H ^faor ^TcT ^Ror|^ B ^rffFTor fl(Tt w 
 
 Imperative mood, 
 f) Present tense: let me be, etc.; the same as pres. conj. 
 
 3. THE STRONG COMPLETE AUXILIARY VERB. 
 517. This verb is conjugated regularly throughout ; see 
 
 § 514,3. 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 a) Present tense : I am, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. Fem. Plur. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1. ^WTcrtT ^fe^ ^toftcrTT ^TW^TT 
 
 2. ^tWcTO or °^ ^rf^T or °sTi - ^Wfer|;or ^T ^ter^ 
 
 3. |¥^r ^nsNfl" ^tw K • ^forT 
 
 b) First preterite : I was, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. and Fem. Plur. Masc. and Fem. 
 
 1. ^ftwn a ^PeTT 
 
 2. ^tf<a^ l^L 
 
 3. inf^n^ ^rf^I 
 
 Or : Second preterite. 
 Sing. Masc. Fem. Plur. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1. ^TTpr^Tt" ^W^ ^TWciTl' ^reft 
 
 2. ^T^^T^or °^T ^t'JTf^T^ or °5Tt' ^T<eP5TeT or °crl ^<avd, 
 
 3. ft<pTc^ ^f^ ^p?P5t 1 " ^n=r^it u 
 
 24 
 
370 NEGATIVE VERB. § 518.] 
 
 c) Future tense : I shall be, etc. 
 
 
 Sing. Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 ^t^fofq or srT 
 
 Plur. Masc. 
 ^t^ST or ^7 
 ^IWSrir or °cX 
 
 Fem. 
 
 1 . 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 irnpra^or 5T 
 
 Conjunctive mood. 
 
 d) Present tense : I be, etc. 
 
 Sing. Masc. and Fem. Plur. Masc. and Fem. 
 
 1. ^wr 1 " ^fr?T 
 
 2. ^T<j| ^W or ^Tipr 
 
 3. ^K=T ^Tw" 
 
 e) Preterite tense : I were, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. Fem. Plur. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1. ^7<5TriT" J or °r?n" ^TWr^ ^lwfi" or °fWHL fT^ or °fwft 
 
 2. ^tWrre^or °rT ^mfa^or °r?t ^fpTrT^" or °rT ^T^O^ 
 
 3. ^'pTtT or °rj^ ^WrT or °FT^ ^W^ ^TfTT 
 
 Imperative mood, 
 f) Present: let me be, etc. Like the pres. conj. 
 Precative forms : 2. sg. frtf$R[, 2. pi. ?frf<k^ or irtwt. 
 
 g) Periphrastic tenses. 
 These are formed like those of the regular active verb ?T£5r 
 to read, see §521; e. g., jt w ^TWft^ sttet^ I am being, etc. 
 
 Participles. 
 Adjectival: pres. ?nw^ being, past I[tw^ been. 
 Conjunctive: ^tw cfr having been. 
 
 Adverbial: pres. ^fiwr or ^twFT on being, past <{i<eioi on ha- 
 ving been. 
 
 Infinitives. 
 
 Nom. ^twsr^ to be, ace. ^TW cFT or f[t<3or cR, etc. 
 
 # 
 
 4. THE DEFECTIVE NEGATIVE AUXILIARY VERB. 
 518. This verb exists only in the present tense of the 
 three moods; see § 514, 3. 
 
 1) Or: ^Vfi^sfl"', ^HW3R^, etc. 
 
§§ 519. 520.] REGULAR ACTIVE VERB. 371 
 
 a) Present indicative : I am not, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. Fem. Plur. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1 . iwT or ^TW ^TW l ) '^XWt 3^ 
 
 2. =T<=ra^or ^m ^twg or ^twt TO| or w ^HpO" 1 ) 
 
 3. niar %wt l ) ^-^-' ^rwf ') 
 
 b) Pres. conj. and imp. like the pres. indie. 
 
 5. THE REGULAR ACTIVE VERB. 
 
 519. There is only one conjugation. With the exception of 
 a very few irregular verbs (see §§ 525 — 527), all verbs, whether 
 ending in a consonant or a vowel, are conjugated precisely alike. 
 One example, therefore, of an active verb, fully conjugated, is 
 sufficient. For the sake of convenience, however, a list of the 
 first persons sing, and plur. of a few typical verbs will be ad- 
 ded ; the remainder to be supplied by the student. It may be 
 noted, as a practical rule, that an euphonic semicons. may be ad- 
 ded to any verb which ends with a vowel ; viz. JT_ to verbs in ^, 
 and a^ to verbs in 3 or ^\. Thus every verb may be made to 
 have a consonantal termination; and after the required verbal form 
 has been made, the euph. cons, may be again omitted ; and the 
 resultant form will be that of the verb as ending in a vowel. 
 
 5 20. The elements. 
 
 cn^r to read ; root T^ ; bases tn^, Q^r^. 
 
 The radical and participial tenses. 
 
 Indicative mood. 
 
 a) Present tense : I read, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. Fem. Plur. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1 . '-l4cdY~ or °5«n' L ' cr^fa H4]cHT M^^T 
 
 2. M^^or J ^T q^MH_or °c<Tl" '-l4<yi^or°^Tor°^?l^ '7^^ 
 
 3. T^tt 2 ) tr^- TOin or ^'" q^%^or°oTt w 
 
 1) Or like masc. 
 
 2) Or cr^^ft' u , q^rW , TO5TT, and so on throughout. 
 
372 REGULAR ACTIVE VERB. § 520.] 
 
 b) First preterite : I read, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. and Fem. Plur. Masc. and Fern. 
 
 1. ^?fr u T^T 
 
 2. qfise^ cr^fr 
 
 3. crfttT ^feL 
 
 Or second preterite : I read, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. Fem. Plur. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1 . er^ft^ or °^JTt" u q^?T ^^^\\ q^TJ' 
 
 3. q^y q^TO^ q^^T or ^ w q^f%Fror cf?V' 
 
 c) Future: I shall read, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. Fem. ') Plur. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1 . cnS5fr" J 2 ) q^5T q^^ or °©T q^5T or °k( 
 
 2. cn^FT or °5C q^fSr^ or °^t q^STg" or °5T q^^JT or °5T 
 
 •^ ~-* -^ e^ c^ 
 
 3. q^t q^i" qf^ w qf^;* 
 
 Conjunctive mood. 
 d) Present: I read, etc. 
 
 
 Sing. Mas< 
 
 :. and Fem. 
 
 Plur. Masc. 
 
 and Fem. 
 
 1. 
 
 q^t 18 
 
 
 q^t u 
 
 
 2. 
 
 q^or q^ 
 
 
 q^fT or q^S 
 
 
 3. 
 
 q^ 
 
 e) Preterite : 
 
 q^ 
 
 7 read, etc. 
 
 
 
 Sing. Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Plur. Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 1. 
 
 q^FTT W or °relt U 
 
 q^rO^ 
 
 q^FTT or qf^fT 
 
 q^fri" or '-ifa>rjr 
 
 2. 
 
 q^rT^ or FT 
 
 q^fTTH or °FTt 
 
 q^FTg" or °FT or °r?I^" ^^^$ 
 
 3. 
 
 q^FT or FT 
 
 q^FT or FT 
 
 q^rPT or FT 
 
 q^frr^T or °FtV 
 
 Imperative mood, 
 f) Present: let me read, etc. Like pres. conj. 
 Precative forms : 2. sing, qf^f , 2. plur. qf^r. 
 
 1) Throughout the masc. forms may be used for the fem. 
 
 2) Or qf^cft , qf^JSFT , and so on throughout. 
 
§ 521.] REGULAR ACTIVE VERB. 373 
 
 5 21. The periphrastic tenses. 
 
 Indicative mood, 
 g) Durative or definitive present : / am reading, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. Sing. Fern. *) 
 
 1. cr^FT srrrT or cr 3 ^off^ q^r ^ft or q° srf 
 
 2. qr^^nr^or 57177 or ^ir q^onfECT or snrfr or ^wr 
 
 3. q^fj STT?7 or 5TT?J^or 5TT or ^TcT or ^T q^rT^IT or ^T5T etc. 
 
 Plur. Masc. Plur. Fem. 
 
 1. q^rT^STTft or q° ^ q^fT cTTT^ or q° ^" 
 
 2. q^R^snT^ or WiZ or ^cT^or ^tsr q^r^STPn^ or ^0^ 
 
 3. q^n^sne"" or ^rsP q^;r srrrT or ^ w 
 
 h) Durative pret. or imperfect : J was reading, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. Sing. Fem. 
 
 1. q^FT ^tfTl u ^-S'l.T^C 
 
 2. q^fT p^ra^or °c<T q^rT^7^f§TH or °cFrt 
 
 3. q^T ^^^ 'J^T^L 
 
 Plur. Masc. Plur. Fem. 
 
 1. q^7"^ciTt q^FT^^rB" 
 
 2. q^rpr^ror °3T ^fiL^E^ 
 
 3. q^^^^n^or °^T U q^FT^^Hw^or °cfn' J 
 
 i) Durative future : I shall he reading, etc. 
 Sing. Masc. and Fem. Plur. Masc. and Fem. 
 
 1 . q^rT^T5rT' or q° ^WT 2 ) q^Ff ^Tsr or q-° ^HpTST 
 
 2. q^rT ^Isi^or q° ^ii^e q^Ff^ToTfT or q° ffnePsjfT 
 
 3. q^FTJTT^ or q° ^t^T q^^^T^^ or q° ^t1%|" w 
 
 k) Definite pret. or perfect : / have read, etc. 
 % Siug. Masc. Sing. Fem. *) 
 
 1. q^rT sTTTir* or q° ^TcTT" q^ STTCLor fn; 
 
 2. q^Ff ciTT^or srrt or ^Tsr q^r snir^or stttt or ^frsrr 
 
 3. q^^T 5TT6 or 5TTCT or 5JT or ^T5T or |[T ^z&k sjfs" or ^fTcf etc. 
 
 1) Optionally the masc. forms may be used for the fem. 
 
 2) Or q° ^sft w or q° ^ffWoTT^, etc. ; in fact any of the forms given 
 in §§ 516, c. 517, c may be used. 
 
374 REGULAR ACTIVE VERB. § 521.] 
 
 Plur. Masc. Plur. Fem. 
 
 1 . en^Fr srrri" or q° f z cra^r s^rfr or q° ^ 
 
 2 . q^T ^jjz¥ or oTT?: or ^THcT or ^TcT q:?c<T 5TKT or su 
 
 3. q^r anz u or ^Tsr^ q^rf cTTft w or fr^ 
 
 1) Pluperfect: I had read, etc. 
 
 Sing. Masc. Sing. Fem. 
 
 1 . q^^T ^^fV" q^ft (^0" 
 
 2 . ^^%fr\ ^cd^or °^ Q^rT ^f^TO^or °c<Ti' 
 
 3 . ^^T ^"^ciT q^rf '^FT^ 
 
 Plur. Masc. Plur. Fem. 
 
 1 . q^^r X^^ q ^ T^ J 
 
 2. q^oT ^C^Te[ or °c<T q^?T 7^c?n^ 
 
 3. Q^' ^cri^or °5T ,S ' q^?T ^fer^or °ciTt u 
 
 m) Future exact : / shall have read, etc. 
 
 Sing. Masc. and Fem. Plur. Masc. and Fem. 
 
 1 . q^^r ^ctstT or q° ^w^rT q^r ^rsr or q° ^t^st 
 
 2. q^^r ^raq or q° irmsp^ Q^h e[ra¥ or q° ^iwsra 
 
 3. q^T ^ or q° ftwt q^T ^"or q° ^Tfwif 
 
 Conjunctive mood, 
 n) Future conditional : (if) I he reading, etc. 
 
 Sing. Masc. and Fem. Plur. Masc. and Fem. 
 
 1. q^FT ffT^ or q° ^ftf q^rT jfl"^ or q° ^twT 
 
 2. q^H^T or q° ^TW ^^LCr^ or t[t or ^°^pT^ or ^^ 
 
 3. q:Fr ^Ttf or q° ^TW q^^tq^ or q° ftw^ 
 
 o) Durative pres. condit. : (if) I were reading, etc. 
 
 Sing. Masc. Sing. Fem. 
 
 1. q^r^^trft^ 'J^T.l^C 
 
 2. q^rT^^lrl^or q° ^TFT q^rTjnf?m or q° ^TFTT 
 
 3. q:&T^t?T or q° ^1H ^^C^l or q° ^TrT 
 
 Plur. Masc. Plur. Fem. 
 
 i. q^rT^^r s^i^l 
 
 2. q^T ^trTeT or q° ^TFT c ^ F LC r? ^ 
 
 3. q^f^^trT^ or q° ^TFT" q^PT^fFR or q° ^tr?T 
 
§§522.523.] REGULAR ACTIVE VEB I :. 375 
 
 p) Fut. exact condit. : (if) I have read, etc. 
 
 Sing. Masc. and Fern. Plur. Masc. and Fern. 
 
 1 . q^rf ^rif or q° sffrwT q^ ^" or q° ^tWT " 
 
 2. q^ - ^Y or q° ^TW q^?r ^T^ or q° ^lw etc. 
 
 3. q^" ^ftl^ or q° ^V^ q^cFT ^Tff or q° ^T^ w 
 
 q) Preterite condit. : (if) I had read, etc. 
 
 Sing. Masc. Sing. Fern. 
 
 1 . q^£r ^f q^t %7u^ 
 
 2. q^rr ^TPT^or q° ^ft ^^ infr%or ifrrrf 
 
 3. q^ ftrT^ or q° ^H q^rT ^rT^ or ^H 
 
 Plur. Masc. Plur. Fein. 
 
 1 . q^" fT^T q^^r ^t^PT 
 
 2. q^" ^fa?r or q° ^TFT q^rf ^TFO" 
 
 3. q^ ^TfiR or q° ^H w q^r)r ^VfrT^or q° ^farT 
 
 52 2. Participles. 
 
 a) Adjectival : pres. tE&Rjreading, past q:^T having read or read. 
 
 b) Conjunctive : q^ cft or q^ cR having read. 
 
 c) Adverbial : pres. q^rT or q^rT on reading, past q^cfT ow 
 having read. 
 
 Infinitives. 
 Nona, q^^ to read, ace. q^sr 57 or q£ 3T /or to rem? or /or 
 reading, instr. q^ST ST or q£ ST, etc. 
 
 Noun of agency. 
 Masc. or fern. q^ft^T^r reader, or fern, q^f^rr^t. 
 
 6. LIST OF TYPICAL REGULAR ACTIVE VERBS. 
 52 3. Elements. 
 
 a) T^L dwell, root "^IF, bases "^IpT^ , (5^1, 
 
 b) qT^r drink, „ qr or qfa , „ qt?TrT , qra"^ 
 
 c) =3W^ drop, „ =a[ , „ =grarT^ , =f sf^ 
 
 d) fte^ weep, „ fr, „ fta?^, frw 
 
 or ftcT^, „ ("fra) „ ffelrT^, fT5T5T. 
 
376 REGULAR ACTIVE VERB. § 523.] 
 
 a) Present indicative. 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 bp | 
 
 '! 
 
 * 
 
 CO ' 
 
 ra) 
 
 lb) 
 
 c) 
 id) 
 
 7f*TT 
 
 
 b) First 
 
 preterite. 
 
 QTOf^TJT 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 and Fern. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 and Fem. 
 
 ij 
 
 ra) 
 
 lb) 
 
 
 
 
 g 1 qt%T 
 
 
 1 
 
 |c) 
 
 WL 
 
 
 
 *] m. 
 
 
 « ' 
 
 Id) 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 Second 
 
 preterite. 
 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 si) | 
 
 fa) 
 lb) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 |c) 
 
 
 
 ^^L 
 
 "Si j ^a<^^ 
 
 
 CO ' 
 
 id) 
 
 T T5 ^L 
 
 c) 
 
 Future 
 
 indicative '). 
 
 jwfo^ 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 and Fein. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 and Fem. 
 
 tar 
 
 a 
 
 "°° 
 
 ra > 
 
 a. 
 
 Q 
 
 CO 
 
 (a) 
 U) 
 
 1 C) 
 Id) 
 
 m or q^3" 
 r 
 
 
 ■j «f 
 
 
 d) Pres. conj. or f) Pr'es. imper. 
 
 Masc. and Fem. Masc. and Fem. 
 
 b) *ft g I fi&" 
 
 C ) =# *] ^ 
 
 d) f$ I f^" 
 
 1) 1. pers. sing. masc. ^"^STf" 1 or ^"f|^fY ' ; fWsTT^ or qTSTf'; =^BSrr v 
 or =^srr w ; ^fasft 1 * or |^<sll . 
 
§ 524.] 
 
 REGULAR ACTIVE VERB. 
 
 377 
 
 e) Preterite conjunctive. 
 
 CO 
 
 fee 
 
 a 
 
 a) 
 b) 
 
 c) 
 
 a) 
 
 to \ 
 
 M 
 
 CM V 
 
 a) 
 b) 
 c) 
 
 CXI 
 
 a 
 
 a) 
 b) 
 
 « id) 
 
 fco 
 
 Cm 
 CO 
 
 a) 
 b) 
 c) 
 d) 
 
 Masc. and Fern. 
 ffpT^ or ^"^H 
 q^HrT^ or cnnH 
 
 =H5rT or =^rT 
 
 fr^r-r^or frziri 
 
 f) 
 Masc. and Fern. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 .1 
 
 
 Precative forms. 
 
 Masc. and Fem 
 
 Fem. 
 
 
 P^ 
 
 g) Durative or definite present. 
 
 Masc. and Fem. 
 
 ■% o s -^ 
 
 ^"^rT_ STir or ^" ^T5T 
 
 Ti-tTrT^snr or n° ^rar 
 
 g^cT 5117: Or =5T fT5T 
 
 ^tflrTsnr or fr° ^T5r 
 
 Masc. 
 
 =5^(7 STTE 
 
 or ^ToT }" 
 
 or^TST 
 
 * An 
 orfTTcr 
 
 or^ToT 
 
 Fem. 
 STTft 18 or ^ w 
 qY 3 snft' or^ w 
 
 o ^.w r w 
 
 ^ srrrr or^ 
 [rsnn or^j 
 
 1) Pluperfect indicative. 
 
 Masc. and Fem. 
 
 1 
 
 Fem. 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 ^^ |^^ 
 
 The remaining periphrastic tenses are made after the ana- 
 logy of Nro. g and 1. 
 
 Participles. 
 Conjunctive. 
 
 a) 
 b) 
 c) 
 d) 
 
 524. 
 
 Adjectival. 
 
 Adverbial. 
 
 
 fTSFT 
 
 q^I^ - 
 
 ftWT 
 
 1) Or : "^ #?, QT^" cT7, etc. 
 
378 IRREGULAR ACTIVE VERB. §§ 525. 526.] 
 
 Infinitives. 
 
 a) 7J?sT^ Ace. ^ ^7 or ffr^T cji 
 
 b) <?taor^ „ Tfa" 5? or <TTsr £JT 
 
 c) ^SST^ „ ^ 5R or ^SoT cFT 
 
 d) Xtesr^ ., fl^ if or f&S w, 
 
 Noun of agency, 
 a) T^^q> b) «m%qr, c) ^R<l£, d) fhrf^q; ; fern. °fr. 
 
 7. IRREGULAR ACTIVE VERBS. 
 
 52 5. There are three kinds of irregularities. Firstly, some 
 verbs add the suffixes 5T^, rT^ and ST^ instead of ^r[^ or S^ (of the 
 pres. indie), SFT^ (of the pres. part.) and %%^ or <^ (of the fu- 
 ture). This is done by all verbal roots in ST and U and by the 
 root ^T be. But the roots in ST and the R. ^T may optionally 
 take ^5T^. 
 
 Secondly; some verbs have a special form of the past par- 
 ticiple (and of all tenses derived from it), of the conjunctive part., 
 and of the first preterite tense. These are the verbal roots : 
 cR^ do, feqr put, stst^ come, msr find, sTT go, £ yive, ^ take, ^T be. 
 
 Thirdly; the two verbal roots £ give and c<T take add no 
 suffix in the 2. and 3. pers. sing. pres. conj. and imper. 
 
 Note also, that ST5T or ssr, sra" or SJT, ST^ or S^ are often 
 contracted into ST or ^ respectively (see § 34). 
 
 The following verbs will serve as types : WTST to eat, sTTST to 
 go, 5;sr^ to yive, ^tsr^ to he, znj&^ to do, srar^ to come. All other 
 verbs in ST are conjugated like WT5TJ vfSto take is conjugated 
 like 5:5^, ferfST. to put like cFT^.' ^Tsrsr^ to find like STcRT^. 
 
 526. 
 
 a) Present 
 
 indicative. 
 
 
 1 . sing. 
 
 3. sing. 
 
 1 . plur. 
 
 3. plur, 
 
 a) sTTc<TT' J 
 
 si led 1 
 
 sTT^rTT 
 
 sTT-FCT 
 
 b) £crfr 
 
 5^TT 
 
 5T5TT 
 
 ib^t. 
 
 c) -^IqHI 
 
 ^tc?TT 
 
 ^t^cFTT 
 
 ^TcfTH; 
 
§ 526,] 
 
 lKKEOULAK ACTIVE VERB. 
 
 379 
 
 b) First preterite. 
 
 
 1. sing. 
 
 3. sing. 
 
 
 
 1. plur. 
 
 3. plur. 
 
 a) 
 
 jutT 
 
 nfyy^ 
 
 
 
 HOT 
 
 nfa^ 
 
 b) 
 
 ftm 
 
 ft%r^ 
 
 
 
 i^JIT 
 
 r~ r~ 
 
 RR-L 
 
 c) 
 
 iTJTf" 
 
 ufirer^ 
 
 
 
 iTOT 
 
 nfcr 
 
 d) 
 
 ferr" 
 
 f%f|r^ 
 
 
 
 %TT 
 
 fdh^l^ 
 
 e) 
 
 STjff 
 
 OT^T 
 
 
 
 5T7IT 
 
 33T^^r 
 
 f) 
 
 wt?jt' 
 
 WT^ 
 
 
 
 ^T?TT 
 
 WT^T 
 
 
 
 Second 
 
 pretei 
 
 •ite. 
 
 
 a) 
 
 n^f" l ) 
 
 
 
 
 JT^fV 1 ) 
 
 
 b) 
 
 R<^y 
 
 
 
 R^vHj) 
 
 c) 
 
 w^rT ! ) 
 
 UJT^ 1 ) 
 
 
 
 U^Tt 1 ) 
 
 h^tJ) 
 
 A) 
 
 cFT^FTT' l ) 
 
 cFf^H ! ) 
 
 
 
 3^7 *) 
 
 cF^HT 1 ) 
 
 e) 
 
 S^V ! ) 
 
 ^T?!^ 1 ) 
 
 
 
 
 ss^ 1 ) 
 
 i) 
 
 «^«ft" *) 
 
 <3^wJ) 
 
 
 
 w^ri -1 ) 
 
 ^^^^L 1 ) 
 
 
 
 c) Future. 
 
 
 
 a) 
 
 sTTsTT 2 ) 
 
 ?n^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 b) 
 
 jrsft' 9 
 
 •n r 
 
 
 
 5[5^ or srsr 
 
 S^T 
 
 c) 
 
 ^r 3 ) 
 
 #t 
 
 
 
 ^tsr^or ^tsr 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 d) Pres. conj. and 
 
 f) 
 
 Pres. imper. 
 
 
 
 l.sg. 2.sg, 
 
 ■ 4 ) "3.sg. 
 
 
 
 l.pl. 2. pi, 
 
 , 5 ) 3. pi. 
 
 a) 
 
 tTToJ^ sTT 
 
 s\m 
 
 
 
 sTtj" 9 5TT^ 
 
 sTTO 
 
 b) 
 
 srT 3" 
 
 
 
 
 
 z™ 
 
 c) ^fT 6 ) f[T 
 
 ^t?T 
 
 
 1) Or: JTeTT, JT^T., JT^fV, JT^PT, ^vfT, STT^iT, etc. 
 
 2) Or: sT^aff" or 1T5TT', sTT^ or fT^ST or stir, jT^. 
 
 3) Or: ^SJT' 1 or ^twsfV* or ^IfeeTT, etc. The verb J3TS come formes 
 regularly SjrsjV Qv j^ft" or =335^ or fftsfT, gr|, m^l or STTsra or OT3^ , 
 ^^E or ^ , etc. 
 
 4) Or: srt; but not 53. 
 
 5) Or: sH; 5T1T or 51; ^f. 
 
 6) Or: fti or ft<=fT, as in §§ 516, d. 517, d. 
 
380 
 
 IRREGULAR ACTIVE VERB. 
 
 § 527.] 
 
 
 
 e) Preterite 
 
 CO 
 
 njunctive. 
 
 
 
 1. sg. 
 
 3. sg. 
 
 masc. 
 
 
 l.pl. 
 
 3. ill. masc 
 
 a) 
 
 sTTFtT 
 
 aTH 1 ) 
 
 
 
 ^^J) 
 
 irm^ 3 ) 
 
 b) 
 
 Ittt" 
 
 STL 
 
 
 
 2^1 
 
 5^£. 
 
 c) 
 
 ^trft' 
 
 € Tfr L 
 
 
 
 <Vl 
 
 <{lrT4. 
 
 
 
 f) 
 
 Precati 
 
 ve 
 
 forms. 
 
 
 
 2. sing. 
 
 
 
 
 2. plur. 
 
 
 a) sTp[ or ^ fT^ or 5T^ 
 
 b) ^ s:^ 
 
 c) ^t^ ^"^ 
 
 g) Periphrastic tenses. 
 These are made regularly by means of the pres. and past 
 part, and the auxiliary verb; provided only, that trans, verbs use 
 the past part, in >5T, and intrans. verbs that in c^. Thus, 3. sg. 
 pluperf. mR?r ^"^^ he had gone, but f^'^ci "(^c^ he had given. 
 527. Participles. 
 
 Adjectival. Conjunctive. 
 
 C) ^T(T , W^ 4 ) fTtrT cf7 
 
 d) cFT^T , cROcrT^ 4 ) 5Rq^ W, 
 
 e) ^TotrT , mV^l 4 ) ^T^cfi 
 
 cf^, ?h?m 4 ) 
 
 ^TotrT, 5T?T^ 4 ) 
 WTrT , WRTtfT 4 ) 
 
 Infinitives. 
 sTTsr^ 6 ), snu cf or frra - ^ 
 jr^, ^ m or r^ cH 
 ^75T , ^T ii or ^TsT^ 
 
 Adverbial. 
 sTTrT, rirT 4 ) 
 2TT, tt^T 
 
 ^TFT, U^T 4 ) 
 ^TTT, £Fk?T 4 ) 
 
 «im, ^ 4 ) 
 
 Nouns of agency. 
 sTTPl^T^, fern. °ft 
 
 Or: sTTrT, Zjl, ^T?T. 
 
 Or: sTTrft, £j|V, ^TrTf. 
 
 Or: 5TTFT , ZJ1 , ^m . 
 
 Ori JT^cil, ns<r[; ^^, iTJ^T, etc. 
 
 Or contr. 5T ^i, c K 97, 3J 37, etc. 
 
 Or : sn^, sT^ir or ?rir ^ ; ^^, ^t^r m ; aT^sr, a^ar or ^ir 37, etc. 
 
§§ 528. 529.] compound passive verb. 381 
 
 8. THE REGULAR COMPOUND PASSIVE VERB. 
 
 528. The forms of the pass, verb are composed of the 
 past part, in 5^ of the principal (i. e. active) verb and the tenses 
 of the verb sTTSJ^ to go (§ 47 9). The formation of the past part, 
 is explained in §§ 302 — 307; and the conjugation of the verb 
 sTRT is given in §§ 525 — 527. The form of the past part, never 
 changes, but the forms of the verb STTsT^ vary, as usual, according 
 to the person, number and gender of the subject. 
 
 Present indicative. 
 
 
 Sing. Masc. 
 
 Sing. Fern. 
 
 1. 
 
 q^5c^ ?nw >u 
 
 
 2. 
 
 a^pr sn^e^ or q° sTTtiT 
 
 <T^T^ sTtRft^ or q° sTTciTt 
 
 3. 
 
 q^r ?rr^TT 
 
 *z%^ sTTsT 
 
 
 Plur. Masc. 
 
 Plur. Fern. 
 
 1. 
 
 r 
 
 q^oT STT^FFTT 
 
 2. 
 
 tT^r^ sTTvreT or q° sTTaT 
 
 q^J^ HTtfO^ 
 
 3. 
 
 S ^ w 
 
 q^r?T sTT^in' or q sTTtfT 
 
 q^rjFT sllf^n - or ^ sTT^ 
 
 The rest of the tenses may be formed after the above manner. 
 
 Participles. 
 Adjectival. Conjunctive. Adverbial. 
 
 q^?T^ sTTTT^, q° rT?T^ ^^ ^L ^ q: ^L ^ q ° ^ 
 
 Infinitives. Nouns of agency. 
 
 q^T^ 5TT^, q° 5TW SF or q° sTTST £Ff q^cr^ sTTf^T^T^ ; fem. °fV 
 
 9. IRREGULAR COMPOUND PASSIVE VERBS. 
 5 29. There are only two irregular verbs; viz. zn&to go 
 and ^rsr^o be (§479,exc). The former uses the participial form 
 jTWrj^, instead of JW^T in the formation of the compound pass., 
 the latter the part, form ffte?T_ or, optionally, iTffr^. All other 
 active verbs, which form an irregular past part, (see §§527. 3 04), 
 use the same also in the compound pass. Thus, TiUvT sTTvlT it is 
 done; f5^^?rp?TT it is given; but irrar^ §nw it can go (lit. it is 
 gone); ^t^^ sTt^tt it can be, see §53 0. 
 
382 POTENTIAL PASSIVE VERB. §§ 530. 531.] 
 
 530. The pass, voice of intrans. verbs is only used in an 
 impersonal and potential sense. Thus, *ft ST 5T<r?>r^ rrnfi"" sTTcfTT lit. 
 by me it cannot be sat, i.e., I cannot sit; or ift sr &Tj JTnffr*' ^)*lei. 
 (or na"c^) sTTri jstt?: I cannot stand up. 
 
 Note: The compound pass, verbs should be carefully dis- 
 tinguished from the compound intensitive verbs; see § 538, a. 
 
 10. THE POTENTIAL PASSIVE VERB. 
 
 531. The potent, pass, verb, as to the formation of which 
 see § 482, is conjugated precisely like any other (active) verb 
 in 9T, e. g., like "pTTSI^ to cat, the conjugation of which is given in 
 §§ 525 — 527. 
 
 a) Present : I can be read, etc. 
 Sg. Masc. Fern. PI. Masc. Fem. 
 
 1. <44>mV cnsTcf^ q^r^TT cn^ri^T 
 
 2. q^TRTO^ 1 ) rr^rf^Tq 1 ) q^T^eT 1 ) M4>l<^ 
 
 3. q .j, Mi T^r^ cr^T^r^ 1 ) cr^Tfo^ 1 ) 
 
 b) Preterite : I could be read, etc. 
 1. sg. masc. q^prir or <T^ff w ; 3. sg. qr^TJTc^or T^TJ^, etc. 
 There is no first preterite form of the potent, pass. 
 
 c) Future : I shall be able to be read, etc. 
 
 l.sg. masc.q^^'orq^TT or^^ra^, 3.sg.q^T^; pi. m-&£ v> ° or <T31[ W , etc. 
 
 d) Pres. conj. or imper. : 1 may be able to be read, etc. 
 
 Sing. 1. cRncT^ 2. q^T or q^t 3. q^T^ 
 
 Plur. 1. m i l " 2. q^Tf; or q:&T 3. enr'tq^ 
 
 e) Pret. conj. : 1 woidd be able to be read, etc. 
 1. sing. masc. q^TrTT'; plur. q:^TrTT or q^T^TT^, etc. 
 Periphrastic tenses, 
 g) Dur. pres. 1 . sg. masc. T^fTj^rrrf " or q fTTsft '"", etc. 
 h) Dur. pret. „ „ TTTrT ^irtfTK, etc. 
 
 i) Dur. fut. „ „ q^TFT^TsfT or q° ^TsfT, etc. 
 
 1) Or: 2. sg. m. q^To<T, f. q^T5<ti; pi. m. q^TST; 3. pi. m. q^Tc?T , 
 f. q^T<5?T. 
 
§§ 532. 533.] SIMPLE CAUSAL VERB. 383 
 
 k) Perfect 1. sg. masc.<T£Yn^T snr^or q° ^ToiV'or q^^rj5r°orq ^[ , etc. 
 1) Pluperfect „ „ q^ra"?^ T^^TT or q^Slc^T ^"°, etc. 
 
 Participles. 
 Adjectival. Conjunctive. Adverbial. 
 
 M -*» I r» , q^T5JcH or cr^T^^ q3bT?T_ cfi q^TrT, Q^Jvi or *l^ir( 
 
 Infinitives. Nouns of agency. 
 
 q^TTSr or cr^Tj^, cn^T<i 37 or ^^ ST T^Tf^T^T^, fern. °ft 
 
 11. IRREGULAR POTENTIAL PASSIVE VERBS. 
 53 2. There is only one anomalous case; viz. the verb WV3 
 to eat. It forms its potent, pass, root irregularly, viz. f$rar ; but 
 the root, thus formed, is conjugated quite regularly. Observe also, 
 that the verbs g^ to give and ^T5^ to take make their potent, 
 pass, roots fi^T and f^rar (§ 482). The verbs ^Tsrs^ to come, ?TT^ 
 to go and ^sr_ to be possess no potent, passive. 
 
 12. THE SIMPLE CAUSAL VERB. 
 533. The simple causal verb, as to the formation of which 
 see § 4 74, is conjugated regularly like any other (active) verb 
 in 3^; provided that °^Tdri" becomes mz (§ 33) and antepenulti- 
 mate °^T5T , °^m° become ^3 or Wl, ^ or U (§ 34). 
 a) Present : I cause to read or I teach, etc. 
 1. sg. masc. q^rdfcff or q^TSTvrT; pi. ensr^TT, etc. 
 b) First pret. : I caused to read or I taught, etc. 
 Sg. 1. crarrr , 2. and 3. q^qj pi. 1. q^rar, 2. qrarafr, 3. q-^i^i . 
 Second preterite. 
 1. sg. q:o^Tlf or qrflcTf; pi. ^^T3^\ or qil^fi, etc. 
 c) Future: I shall cause to read or I shall teach, etc. 
 Sg. 1. q^^srf or crisofr" or q:S3afT or q^TsrV, 3. q^T^, etc. 
 PI. 1. q^T^a or q^T3^, 3. q^^iT or q^|", etc. 
 
 d) Pres. conj. or imper. : I may cause to read, etc. 
 Sg. 1. q^TSTT , 2. q^lH or q:&ld or q^T3, 3. q^Tol". 
 PL 1. q^T^, 2. q^lcJei or q^TST, 3. q^TsT. 
 
384 DOUBLE CAUSAL VERB. § 534.] 
 
 e) Pret. conj.: I would cause to read, etc. 
 1. sg. masc. q^3rft" or q^Trft", 3. q^rroTfT or <i£\d ; pi. 1. q:^T37T , etc. 
 g) Periphrastic tenses. 
 These are made regularly by means of the pres. and past 
 part. ; provided only, that causal verbs, being trans., use the past 
 part, in sT. Thus 3. sg. masc. imperf. q^rcKT pr^ he was causing 
 to read or he was teaching; again 3. sg. masc. perf. q^r^r sit?: 
 he has caused to read or he has taught, etc. 
 
 Participles. 
 Adjectival. Conjunctive. Adverbial. 
 
 Infinitives. Nouns of agency. 
 
 M4>I^J_or M4.ld^, q^Tcf cfT or q^5T cf? q^lRs^r; fern. ^t 
 
 13. THE DOUBLE CAUSAL VERB. 
 
 534. The double caus. verb, as to the formation of which 
 see § 47 7, is conjugated precisely like the simple causal verb 
 (§ 533). 
 
 a) Present : I cause to teach, etc. 
 
 1. sg. masc. q^5TT5i:r(fr or q^oTToT^rf ; pi. cnssrr^w, etc. 
 
 b) First, pret.: I caused to teach, etc. 
 
 1. sg. q^mrT, 2. and 3. q^orrjH; pi. 1. <J^5(Tm, 3. q^ETT^, etc. 
 
 Second preterite. 
 1. sg. masc. q^Hc-TT or q^aTc^rT, 3. q4>J3^^ or q^oTTc^T , etc. 
 
 c) Future: I shall cause to teach, etc. 
 
 1. sg. masc. q^sqrsiY' or q^srsrf or q^r^rt or q^awr \ 3. q^STT^, etc. 
 
 d) Pres. conj. or imper. : I may cause to teach, etc. 
 1. sg. q:$5TT5ri:", 2. q^rTS^ or q^STTcT or q^5TT3 ; 1. pi. q^5rrf", etc. 
 
 e) Pret. conj.: I would cause to teach, etc. 
 1. Sg. m. q^cOrTT or q^afarf , 3. q^TTSTrT or q^cflrt ; 1. pi. q^TT^TJ , etc. 
 
 Participles. Infinitive. 
 
 q^ollofrj^ q^cTTaRTT q^oll^ or q^STTSPE^ 
 
^ 535—538.] passive causal verb. ^85 
 
 14. THE PASSIVE OF THE SIMPLE AND DOUBLE CAUSAL 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 53 5. Causal verbs cannot form the potent., but only the 
 compound passive* The latter is formed and conjugated precisely 
 like that of any other (active) verb. Thus, simple caus. pass, in- 
 finit. q^rar^sTTS^ to be noised to read or to be taught', and double 
 cans. pass. inf. q^oTTsrcrr ?TTq to be caused to teach, and so forth. 
 
 15. IRREGULAR CAUSAL VERBS. 
 
 5 3 6. 1) The verb WTs^to eat forms its simple causal fwJTTcT^ 
 to cause to cat or to feed, and its double causal TWTSTToT^ to cause 
 to feed. Similarly the verbs ^TSj^ to take and 5^ to give form 
 MiJlsr^, f^trsrToTsT^ and f^JTTcTSJ" , f^TSITcrq^ respectively (§ 474, exc). 
 
 2) The verbs ^ToTST^ to come and sTT^ to go possess no cau- 
 sals. Instead of them, the intensitive compound verbs 5T53T5T^ to 
 bring (= to cause to come) and ^rfrrsra^ to remove (= to cause to 
 go) are used (see § 538, a). These two compound verbs are con- 
 jugated precisely like the two simple verbs ^T5T5^ and ?n^. Thus 
 their infin. pass, are vraUTsT sfTST^ to be brought and c<T?rrci^ jfra^ to 
 be removed. 
 
 3) Of the verb ^T5j^ to be there is no causal in use, whether 
 simple or double, active or passive. 
 
 FOURTH CHAPTER. COMPOUND VERBS. 
 
 53 7. Compound verbs are made by adding to the princi- 
 pal verb, which takes the form of the conj. part. (§ 49 0) or 
 the oblicpae infin. (§ 485) or the adj. part. (§ 48 6), certain auxi- 
 liary verbs. In conjugating, the latter only are inflected, while 
 the former remains unchanged. 
 
 538. The vei'bs most commonly used as auxiliaries to form 
 such comp. verbs are : 
 
 25 
 
386 COMPOUND VEEBS. § 538.] 
 
 a) For making intensities ; <S^to give (implying intensity), 
 3T^T5^ to throw (violence) ; W$s? to come and siT^q^ to go (comple- 
 tion) ; QJ*^ (or W. II. <re°) to fall (chance) ; 35sJ^ to rise (sudden- 
 ness) ; ^T^ to take (reflexiveness). In such intensitive comp. verhs 
 the auxil. verb has no significance of its own, hut merely serves 
 to modify the meaning of the principal verb. The latter takes 
 the form of the conj. part. Thus, yV^eNs^ to throiv, but T\~^Ft 5^ 
 to throw away ; rft^ TTcrTa^ to break into pieces, from cft"^ to hreak ; 
 5PT^ ^T^sj^ or sj^sTT^sT^ to be made up, completed, from aMaj^ to be 
 made ; WUJ^ ?TT^ to eat up, from <PTT^s^ to eat ; %m <T"^ to come 
 accidentally, to turn up, from ^T^^ to come; srt^ 35^ to speak 
 suddenly, from srte?T5r to speak; 3iTr ^W to cut for oneself, from 
 ^fTrar to cut ; "^ ^ra^ to ptlace for oneself, to lay by, from ^arsr 
 to place. 
 
 b) For making continuatives ; "^^ to remain and sTT^s^ to go. 
 In composition with T^" , the principal verb ' may take the form 
 either of the conj. or the adj. pres. part.; in conjunction with 
 sTT^sl , it may have only the form of the latter participle. Thus, 
 ^^ C^L or ^^X X^- t° continue sitting ; again T^rT^ sTT^sr^ to 
 continue reading. 
 
 c) For making frequentatives ; 5R^L to do. The principal verb 
 takes the form of the obi. infin. Thus, T^ cfi^sr^ or T^5T &i to 
 read often; ^tst 5f^_ or g^sr 3> or u^r 37 to be in the habit 
 of coming. 
 
 d) For making potentials; ^3*5^ to be able, sTRa^ to know. 
 The principal verb takes the form of the conj. part, or, less 
 usually, of the obi. infin. Thus, <T£ ^3^ or tr]| g° or "7^^ H 
 £0 &e aWe to read; w^ir sTFTsr^ or W5T sT° to &e a&Ze to eat. 
 
 e) For making completivcs; =5cF>5^ /o finish. The principal 
 verb takes the form of the conj. part. Thus q^ -ctch^ to finish 
 reading, WQ ^3isr. to finish eating. 
 
 f) For making desideratives ; ^T^rsr^ (or =5m>s^) to wis/*. The 
 principal verb takes the form of the adj. past part, or the obi. 
 infin. Thus, <T^^ fT^sj^ or <T? ^° or H3&3 ^° to wish to read. 
 
§ 539.] COMPOUND VERBS. 387 
 
 Very often these derivatives are idiomatically used to express 
 merely immediate futurity, as srifr sra^^T^r^srTT: the clock is about 
 to strike \ ir^ fsHH^j ^t%^ftt the time is about to pass. 
 
 g) For making inchoatives; crrnsr^ to be applied and ^T^s? to 
 become. The latter occurs only in the past tense WT^ he became, 
 and, in composition with it, the principal verb takes the form 
 of the adj. pres. part., as qzSr^uqcF^ he began to read. With c?rrRj 
 it takes the form of the obi. inf., as T^ cFTns^or 3^ c<T to begin 
 to read. 
 
 h) For making per missives \ 5^" to give. The principal verb 
 takes the form of the obi. inf. Thus, cr^ 2"^ or T^j" 5^ to allow 
 to read; otst s;a^ or ^^ 3; or ^r 5; to allow to come. 
 
 i) For making accptisitives ; m^Sto obtain. The principal verb 
 takes the form of the obi. inf. Thus, ^^ TT^ or q^3 q° to be 
 allowed to read. 
 
 539. Affinities and Derivation. 1) The form of the 
 principal verb in intens., con tin., potent, and complet. compound 
 verbs is not, as sometimes said (see Kl. 188 — 191. Eth. 102. 
 103. Ld. 70), the root of the verb, but the conj. part. This 
 can be clearly seen in E. H., especially in the case of verbs with 
 vocal roots, where the root and the conj. part, have different 
 forms; e. g., to eat up is iprra (conj. part.) iTT^a^, not W\ (root) 
 sTT^sj^; but also in others; e. g., ib~'<& £5^ or th~ch 5; to throw away. 
 In fact, these compounds literally mean to come after having eaten; 
 to give after having thrown. Thus, ^r^Tsi* lit. means to come after 
 having taken, i. e., to bring; *&& ^cfis^ or T^ =3° to give up after 
 having read, i. e., to have done ivith reading. The H. H., too, has 
 preserved the full conj. part, form in its causals, where it option- 
 ally adds q^ to roots in m (see Kl. 188. 192); e. g., 5TrTT^ ^T 
 or 5TrTT 5; to shoiv. Again 0. H. always uses the conj. part, in 
 its original form in ^ ; as qf% ^9T:r to have done reading. Finally 
 M. uses in these compounds the conj. part, in 3^T ; e. g., ?7T3vT 
 %rn u to cast away, si3^?JTir~ to bring, lit. having taken (from stot 
 to take) to come (see Man. 9 2); and likewise B. uses the conj. 
 
388 COMPOUND VERBS. § 539.] 
 
 part, in ^TT, G. in ^, S. in ^ or ^, 0. in jT; e. g., B. mi^m 
 =3ofr to have done eating (S. C. 193); G. mwt l^j to throw a/way 
 (Ed. 113); S. o(ii ofofvn to take off, zrj ^^ to have done doing 
 (Tr. 339. 342), 0. cjrf\ enf J «m w Me 7mfo7 o/" rfo^ (Sn. 42). 
 In the ordinary P., as in H. H., the form of the conj. part, does 
 not differ from that of the root; e. g., STT^e^TtrrT to be able to 
 read, WT '^£Ull to finish eating (Ld. 70, d). — 2) As regards those 
 compounds in which the principal verb takes the form of the obi. 
 infin., the latter is the aec. case of the infin. governed by the 
 auxil. verb. Thus 7^ ^(^ to read often is lit. to do reading, n"^ 
 $1^3^ to be about to die is lit. to desire dying. This is clearly 
 seen from the 0., which actually adds the ace. affix cfi to the 
 obi. inf. *rfj5TT cFT ^Tf|; I desire to die, srf^srT ar mfn I begin to do 
 (Sn. 41. 12). The termination of the obi. inf. is 5TT in G., ^5T 
 in P., UT in S.; e. g., G. srtsrr ^rcrt he began to see (Ed. 51), 
 P. *rf^55rr &JZJ he is in the habit of reading (Ld. 7 0, e), S. (T^ut 
 cfTCTUT to begin to erg (Tr. 344, 4). The B. alone forms an ex- 
 ception, in using the obi. form of the pres. part, in ^rT (or the 
 adverbial part.) in the place of the obi. inf. ; e. g., B. qftH =3Tf% 
 I desire to die, ^ffH mf\ I am able to do (S. Ch. 19 2, 4. 5). 
 Kellogg's conjecture (p. 19 2), that the H. H. form in ^T (as zn&\ 
 cRpTT to be in the habit of reading) is not the masc. sing, of the 
 past part, but a „ gerund" (i. e., obi. infin.) and identical with 
 the B. obi. inf. in m (S. C. 149), is quite true. — 3) In those 
 compounds, where the principal verb is in the form of an adj. part., 
 the latter really stands in the position of a predicate to the sub- 
 ject or object of the (auxil.) verb. Thus 3 q^rj^snT^snTT he con- 
 tinues reading is lit. lie is going as a reader, or 3T T^^-cn^r^snr 
 he wishes to die is lit. he ivishes (himself) as dead. It appears, 
 therefore, that, strictly speaking, none of these so-called com- 
 pound verbs are really compounds, but in every case the part, 
 or infin. of the principal verb is in ordinary grammatical con- 
 struction of some sort with the (so-called) auxil. verb. — 4) These 
 various comp. verbs occur in all Gd. languages, and are generally 
 
§§ 540. 541.] ADVERBS. 389 
 
 formed in the same way, though sometimes a different auxil. verb 
 is used. Thus I), and 0. use <TT^[ cross for ST3i in potent. (S. Ch. 
 192, 4. Sn. 41, 2), B. m^T, 0. 7TT stand for JJT in contin. and 
 for *qr in frequent. (S. Ch. 1 9 1, 1. 1 9 2, 3. Sn. 42) ; P. has ^r 
 with draic. S. 5T?T take, beside =^7, in complet. (Tr. 34 2, c. Ld. 
 70, d); S. 3T5^ go for fTT in intens. (Tr. 339, a). One exception 
 has been already mentioned in Nro. 2. — 5) Traces of these 
 comp. verbs already occur in Prakrit. Thus there are desidera- 
 tives in the Bhayavat'i, made by constructing the R. «pg£ ivish 
 with the past part. pass, in \U- e. g., 4-c^lfa ST&JT^oT iJTrfsrtf 3 tTCW 
 {Tor fw^TrsRi ^ft^st ynr^ gr^fg^d', i. e., I wish myself to shave, 
 myself to instruct, myself to teach the law, E. H. ^T^ srcr^ 'fj^ 
 5T^t fwrol?T STT^ wqjk STTW f^yT^. See Wb. Bh. 275. 433 '). 
 
 FIFTH SECTION. INDECLINABLES. 
 
 540. There are four kinds of indeclinables or words in- 
 capable of inflexion: 1) adverbs, 2) postpositions, 3) conjunctions, 
 4) interjections. 
 
 1. ADVERBS. 
 
 541. Adverbs may be either nominal, pronominal, numeral, 
 verbal or original, according as they are derived from nouns, pro- 
 nouns, numbers, verbs or from none of these. Again each of 
 these classes may be divided into adv. of time, place and manner. 
 Most adv. are native Hindi, but there are a very few of foreign 
 
 1) miffcRHZt may be derived from R. ^T-<(t^(or ^fT-f^T^, for Skr. 
 gT-f^ST^, cf. Pr. ^SpT = 5"^, for Skr. 2*STJ ,,to instruct, to initiate". — 
 The E. H. root e^TIF or =3T?[ may be better derived from the noun ^-c^i, 
 by the loss of initial J and the transfer of the aspiration of i? (§ 132). 
 Thus Skr. * ^^nrfpT, Pr. ^T^, fid. ^7 or =sm| or ^t|. Accordingly 
 § 173 should be corrected. 
 
390 NOMINAL ADVERBS. §§542.543.] 
 
 origin, whose native equivalents are obsolete. Again most adv. 
 consist of only one word ; but there are some that consist of a 
 phrase or of a repetition of the original word. The following 
 list of adv. lays no claim to completeness. The Sanskrit or 
 foreign source of each is added in brackets. 
 
 542. Nominal adverts of time. 1) T^ft 19 four days ago 
 or four days hence (for =g"^fr w ? Skr. ^^-5jr^) ; ffjm* three days 
 ago or three days hence (Skr. f^r-STn ); q^rT the day heforc yester- 
 day or the day after to-morrow (Skr. TJ-srar ) ; ^iT^ or 37TC?!r or 
 WifV^ yesterday or to-morroiv (Skr. ZFi^u) ; fsr^pr to-morrow, at 
 daybreak (Skr. fSwTrT) ; m^ or ^stt to-day (Skr. ^sr) ; wr' 
 hitherto (Skr. ^Tfq) ; ^f^nr^ the past year (Skr. q}"-5nc<T or q^- 
 oTTf, cf. §§ 69. 30); ?TpFr or fa^TT^" at daybreak, at down (W. H. 
 rT"^i, Skr. FTcT^T, f^T - 5rr^") ; f^rw always (Skr. f^TrHl) ; STJT^ or 
 sttit before (§§ 7 7, exc. 78, exc); mw or qt^ or qr^' 9 after- 
 wards (§§ 77, exc. 78, exc); Q^ or <TF^ or fw^ (§§ 61. 131) 
 or STffj again (Skr. q^qr, srf ) ; fa^i^ lastly (Skr. dto). — 2) Ad- 
 verbial phrases ; ^T fzyr or qT ^r f^r yesterday (lit. that day or 
 day of before) ; ^nf^ui ^fTTT?T (lit. becoming red) or gffcreprnr (lit. 
 on clearing off of darkness) at down, early; f^r =^cH (lit. the day 
 having risen) late in the morning ; *T^ f^/T always (lit. every day) ; 
 eT^rT^q" frequently; ^r iqr owce (etc., see § 409); ^Tf^^T^or ^^J 
 f^T^ no/v-a-days. — 3) Repetitions; f^*T^ fi£n^ every day; efisr^T 
 cFsr^T or 3T5®n' 3T55TT 11 sometimes; 'STTJ srnj' frequently. — 4) Fo- 
 reign; 5Tf§r:s[ Zas% (arabic ^>l ). 
 
 543. Nominal adverbs of place. 1) ^mfT or grrr^ &c- 
 fore (§§ 210. 77, exc. 7 8, exc); q$ l fi or q^TTV. or q^oJTf; or fq^° 
 &e/M«d (§§210. 7 7, exc. 7 8, exc); sqf^UT rt&we (Skr. 3qf7); ^rt^ 
 or pMizrr below (Skr. nt?, of f?r-^ ) ; jtoit or enr^ in front (Skr. 
 FTajw) ; ^f^ff or -sif^jc without (see § 2 1 7, p. 1 1 0) ; srra or sr^a»«w?stf 
 (Skr. oTrH, of a" surround, cf. § 3 74, p. 223, or from fo-'JJ^ surround) ; 
 -uTl-ci^ or ^TrTt^r (see § 54 5) or f^rtf or ^ty or f^RT.7 near (Skr. f^RS", 
 cf. § 104); qr'f?: or oTTO /ar (see §§ 17 2. 14 4): 'renr^ every where 
 (Ap. Pr. rrsra, Skr. ^^). — 2) Phrases ; crt^t ^g^ /or (lit. some 
 
§§544.545.] NOMINAL ADVERBS. 391 
 
 miles = W. II. foirgrfa, Skr. fffw^-efftsr, Pr. sjt^t, II. C. 3, 65, 
 cf. §§ 438, 4. 464). 
 
 544. Nominal adverbs of manner. 1) ^FTaj (Skr. 
 g%FR3i?) or Msflu (Skr. ^utn) accidentally, suddenly; gc?riT sepa- 
 rately (Skr. g^TX^); 5Tf FT_ much (Skr. 5Tf^); ^WT or ^FT^; or FT^R 
 quickly (see § 54 5); rTTcT^ffr:£ very quickly; *n% truly (Skr. ^ftf); 
 wsrr^ (§ 545) or fsrtft (Skr. am) m mm; mrpr (Skr. f^R?) 
 or 4t?F (persian ^5^0) well; f^^ or 5R5r^ merely (Skr. dto); sr^ 
 very (§ 145, exc. 2); stSt^ or st"^ altogether (Skr. ^rar). — 
 2) Phrases; 3TpT^ accidentally (lit. % fate); ^TQ^ ST midually; 
 similarly, by adding ^rfrf ^T or U'TfrT ^T or FTflT (arab. v-^o) in . . . 
 manner, adverbs may be formed from any adj., as *Tcm TjfH ^ in 
 a good manner, well. — 3) Repetitions; ^vTJT ^^rn severally ; jrt 
 7H or nit* nor 11 ' or inj slrf or cr^t cFoT sloivly, by and by; srHrr 
 m^u truly; ^TJT^m almost ; <jrgi$7^ falsely; W& zr^surely. — 4) Fo- 
 reign ; ?T^5[ necessarily (arab. jsy°) '■> sieFT<£r quickly (pers. ^Jdj*) ; 
 cFn^ a ?/ft?e (pers. ^) ; ^T^rr only (pers. v^i>) ; ^5®L5; 5» especially 
 (lit. giving respect; arab. V°0'j ^TCT m^rT or wr ^ST slowly (pers. 
 
 xi^Pt). 
 
 54 5. Derivation. Adverbs in ^ or 17 or ^ are modifica- 
 tions of the Ap. Pr. loc. sing, in ^f^, as explained in §§ 7 7, exc. 
 3 7 8. — Adverbs in 3 are modifications of the Ap. Pr. abl. or 
 loc. sing, in gj, see §§ 78, exc. 376. 378. — Adv. in ^ are mo- 
 difications of the Ap. Pr. loc. sing, in ^ or «£, see §§ 45. 378; 
 e. g., Skr. TfcrJT, Pr. 37^, Ap. cRvf or 5?f^T, E. H. ^>n% or 3H#^. — 
 Adv. in a quiescent are modif. of the Ap. Pr. ace. sg. or loc. sg. ; 
 see §§41. 45; e. g., Skr. ZKWa, Pr. 5R3T, E. H. 97T^; the latter, 
 however, might have arisen by the quiescence of the final ^ in 
 the Ap. Pr. CJ7T5T or E. H. 3in%. — The element °*rV (in (?[^ u , 
 etc.) appears to be the contraction of an Ap. Pr. abl. or loc. ST# 
 (see § 37 6), of m (Skr. ST.), formed irregularly after the analogy 
 of nouns (e. g., abl. f^cTW, of f^cTSTT day). — E. H. *ijiom is 
 derived with the pleon. suff. s&cTT from flTsT^, and 3fTo7T is contr. 
 to 5T3^, see § 199. — E. H. forsrqr contains an anomalous meta- 
 
302 VERBAL ADVERBS. §§ 546—548.] 
 
 thesis of m, if it is correctly derived from Skr. fa^cTTST^ „ broken 
 day", „day-break"; whence Pr. *falMcHJI{ or *fvrwreTT^", E. H. 
 fiT^rr^". — In fQvT and qvj. the qf7 and ^ are, perhaps, assimila- 
 tions to fqr:j[ (§547); S. has regularly fcrftyr or nfm or crm (Tr. 
 410). — E. H. zrgfj is formed by the addition of the pleon. 
 suff. J to Skr. cij, just as in E. II. oiif^, see §§ 543. 217. — 
 E. H. gJTT^-, Q^T"^, etc. contain the pleon. suff. T3WT3 (i. e., 37 + 
 3" + cfi), as explained in §§ 210. 217. — E. II. 3^iT?IT and f^TJOT 
 contain the pleon. suff. ^TT, see § 199. — E. H. JTJTfaa' is, pro- 
 bably, a corruption of the persian y5o0jj, which may be heard 
 in Hindi as ^inej^ (see § 21, 2), and whence by transposition (see 
 § 133) would arise RTmTj the aF> being now medial, is regularly 
 softened to IT^, see § 102. — E. H. ^FcffV and fTc?^ are really 
 W. Gd. adverbs; the former is the conj. part., the latter the obi. 
 form of the pres. part, of the verbal root f[T^ (M.), ^T (P.), 
 ^L(S-)> %<1 or ^^ (H.) move, go. Thus conj. part. S. ^t (Tr. 
 313), pres. part. ^T^ (Tr. 313), P. ^T£. — E. H. <T^ is the 
 pres. part, of the verbal root Fsqr or ft^T be quick. — E. H. gthT|e^ 
 is regularly derived from the Skr. ^SKFrra" having one's object not 
 done, unsuccessful, Pr. ii'ShWQ or Ap. Pr. %&iwr, whence contr. E. H. 
 SJcFT^ or STSTT^ (see §§ 13 7. 138). 
 
 546. The pronominal and numeral adverbs have been al- 
 ready enumerated in §§467 — 469 and in §§402. 417. 419 
 respectively. 
 
 54 7. Verbal adverbs. Many conjunctive participles may 
 be used as adverbs ; e. g., fq^ or fq^ 37 again (Skr. qff-3" go 
 round), f^f%r or ftc^^ together, sTPT ir knowingly, ^T^TT quickly 
 (§ 54 5), etc. By the addition of the conj. part. 37<T 37 or 37 37 
 having done to nouns, adjectives and numerals adverbial phrases 
 may be formed; e. g., wsrf 370^37 gladly (lit. having made joy); 
 ?73r $737 37 37 singly (lit. having made one by one), etc. 
 
 548. Particles of affirmation and negation. The 
 former are FTT or <TT rTT or !TT or ^T^ or ^t yes, 37T|^ or 37Ts> lit. 
 why not. The latter are ^T or TfW or ^r1i% or n"t^t or ^TTl^T no, not. 
 
§§ 549—551.] particles. 393 
 
 The prohibitive particle is f?R do not, used with the imper. only. 
 Thus ^rf^^^g; do not act Hi us, but jf ^i or tt^T cj>° you do 
 not act thus. 
 
 54 9. Affinities and Derivation, ftt is a contr. of the 
 Pr. fTTsr (Vr. 4, 6), Skr. FTta?^. — E. H. ^, S. ^3 (Tr. 419) is 
 the Skr. £tsr, used (like Skr. ^Tr^TT, E. H. «T<7j as a term, of 
 respect and, hence, of assent; cf. the English „sir". — The other 
 affirm, and negat. particles were originally various forms of the 
 auxiliary verb „to be". Thus E. H. ITT and ft", S. f3 or ft 
 (Tr. 418), B. ft or f (S. Ch. 218) are the 1. sing, pres.; see 
 §514, 4. The 3. sing. pres. occurs in S. *H% (Tr. 418) and 
 M. flRT (Man. 101). B. also uses the 3. sing. pres. sr?7 of the 
 other auxil. verb, see § 514, 1. The particles TTf or :7Tff are 
 compounds of the negative particle ^ and the 3. sing. pres. ^Tff 
 he is (§ 514, 4); similarly ^TTft^ and TTf%T are compounds of ^T 
 and the 3. plur. pres. aTft u and ^ff 7 ^; ^ff occurs in Pr. (H. C. 
 4, 419). As to the anunasika preceding §", see § 6 7. All these 
 particles, however, are now used without respect to the person 
 and number originally expressed by their form. — Instead of the 
 E. H. f?R , W. H. uses ^ or qfn, S. ^ (Tr. 415), G. ut (Ed. 
 115); in Pr. m or *f or *T (11. C. 4, 418), Skr. HT. 
 
 550. Particles of emphasis. These are ^ or ft only, 
 very and 3or I also. They are always used enclitically and often 
 coalesce with the final 3T of the principal word to ^7 or ^t. E. g., 
 ch crra^f crrft wTsrt pit cT^sr c£t jtjt i i. e., what, father! shall 
 you, this time, make only syrup or also molasses; here JT& = JT& i ., 
 and JTJT (or JT3T) = JTJ 3. 
 
 551. Affinities and Derivation. ^ is, perhaps, connected 
 with the Skr. p=T, Pr. it* or fire (Vr. 9, 3); but as the true Pr. 
 form is =5**, f%5^ (H. C. 2, 184), the derivation is doubtful. 0. has 
 3" or ff or f w (Sn..48), M. ft (Man. 101), H. H. ft. — E. H. 3, 
 B. *> (S. Ch. 23 7) are modifications of the Pr. fsr, Skr. aft (or -sfqr); 
 Pr. has also fq (H. C. 2, 218); S. preserves both fo and fa (Tr. 
 410), and even aspirates fir or ift (Tr. 410); so also II. II. ift. 
 
394 POSTPOSITIONS. AFFIXES. §§552—557.] 
 
 552. Particles of interrogation. ZRwJiat; e. g., 37 srra J 
 37T en^cn i i. e., what, father! tvhat arc you doing? 
 
 55 3. Affinities and Derivation. S. uses f?E or cft (Tr. 
 418), B. % (S. Ch. 218), W. H. fo, m. They are all connected 
 with the interrogative pronom. base, see §§ 43 7, 5. 467, d. 
 
 2. POSTPOSITIONS AND AFFIXES. 
 
 554. Postpositions supply in E. H. (and Gd. generally) the 
 place of what, in other languages, are prepositions. They are 
 placed after the noun or pronoun which they govern ; and the noun 
 or pronoun takes the oblique form with or without the genitive 
 affix 37 or 37. Postpositions constructed without a gen. aff. are 
 affixes (§ 374, p. 2 22). 
 
 5 5 5. The following postpositions are commonly constructed 
 without a gen. aff.; nf beneath (Skr. FT3T bottom); <TT^T (§§ 77,exc. 
 116. 375) or 37^" (§ 37 5) at, near; TT or trt^t" or jhtf in, within 
 (§378); £r (conj. part, of R. oW taJce) or fT3J (dto of R. FI37 see) 
 till; mr or tin with (Skr. st^); 3TTfT towards (§§ 37 5. 116). 
 
 55 6. The following postpositions are commonly constructed 
 with a gen. aff.; ^ffrr near, at (§ 374); em with (Skr. ^m); ^Rrfr 
 (often spelled ^fTl", cf. § 6, note) or T^TF instead of (§ 557); STTF 
 or STTf or sir or 5T?" for, by reason of (§ 374); V(J (Skr. ^sjj) 
 or *pr^ (Skr. gw) towards; ^J^^ like (§ 5 57); besides many of the 
 adverbs, enumerated in §§541 — 544. Also (oilfnj for, by reason 
 of (arab. ~bli>). 
 
 5 57. Affinities and Derivation. Most of these have 
 mentioned in §§ 3 74 ff. — The origin of 5TI77 is obscure; it is 
 probably derived from the Skr. oTW being; cf. the Pashtu vatah; 
 or perhaps it may be a corruption of the Urdu 5JTCT (arab. ^LuJ.,), 
 see § 143; it is peculiar to E. H. ; the W. H. has %3. — E. H. 
 ©IT is sometimes used like the arabic J,lXj in exchance for. — E. H. 
 ^TrTT lit. sacrifice, subs/it ate. see § 18, p. 23. — E. II. ij^I is Skr. 
 m\hr\ in return for, see § 143. — ; TT5' is probably connected with 
 the root m know; the Pr. has ^\T5 or :TT5r^ (H. C. 4, 444). 
 
§§ 558—561.] conjunctions. 395 
 
 3. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 558. Copulative conjunctions', U3J_ or ?rqr or b^ (§§ 5, b. 
 2 6) or 3TT and; 5fT or qfn or qrf^t or ftivT moreover ; 37T — sftt as weB — as. 
 
 559. Affinities and Derivation. E. H. srr^, 37, Bs. tfTijr 
 or 5rt;jr is the Pr. #gj or Ap. Uo(j\, Skr. ^rf ; B. has 5T7" (S. Ch. 
 237), Br. 9£, H. H. aq, P. *£ (Ld. 71), N. 7. The latter re- 
 jects the initial % (of %J\ and is used enclitically; e. g., 3^ oT 
 sTPT — 7/ U^TT he knew and said, or 35* — 7 *T*nF in 3ft ^ m^ awrf stowa" 
 in the middle! — E. H. 593 or m, B. 5"JT, also compounded ^TTJOT 
 or *TfV (S. Ch. 237), 0. *T3 or at (Sn. 46), M. 5T (Man. 103), 
 Br. eft, S. SI3 (Tr. 410), are, probably, the Pr. *fa (H. C. 1, 41), 
 Skr. afij or ^ftp**. — S. has also %f or ^ (Tr. 410), P. *t?r or 
 frT, 0. H. (Chand) TH = Pr. ^ or f?r, Skr. afff. — M. has also 
 ^T% or %mwt (Man. 103), G. sn or ir (Ed. 117); they are pro- 
 bably the Pr. W° or S^r°, Skr. *"ri"r^ or S""?T"a" lit. another. — E. H. 
 afr. etc. (§§61. 131), 0. <T% (Sn. 4 6), S. <jftJT or tqfnT or TOT 
 (Tr. 410), are the Pr. TOTT or TUT (Spt. 2 7 6. H. C. 4, 42 6), Skr. 
 jpqr — W. H. has SPOT — aFOT as well — as. S. fmr — fpra 1 (Tr. 410). 
 
 560. Adversative conjunctions; srjfai or 5TTT% or ©i^<* 
 (§561), ^rfer (arab. ^^), <q"<T, 5T7JL 6w£. 
 
 561. Affinities and Derivation. sjj% etc. are corrup- 
 tions of the Persian *Xb, see §143; W. H. sr^rrt%, 5TT%, 5T^^ 
 (Kl. 276), P. oT3*tf ( Ld - 71). — E. H. <tqr; is the Skr. "rpr , Pr. 
 <Tf; also W. H., P., S. tqr; on E. H., W. H. q- see §124; P. has 
 also g<T7 or ynj (Ld. 71) = Skr. g^T/Jr. — E. H. STf*, W. H. 
 ?Tjm, P. STJ is Skr. 5TfJ7 or oTT/UPT . — W. H. has also TO"""", P. 
 xmErf or toY (Ld. 71), S. qJTtj (Tr. 412) = Pers. Xo. — 0. 
 has <jfuT (Sn. 46), M. TOT (Man. 103), (x. run (Ed. 117), S. TOT 
 (Tr. 412) = Pr. TOT, Skr. tpq-. — N. has rT7, also M. FT7 (Man. 
 II, 26), probably a corruption of Skr. rff^ (or of FTpr^ hcyond. 
 across). — S. has also fefrrir (Tr. 412), a corruption of the arab. 
 -^ij; also ifTT or tf*rV (Tr. 413), apparently connected with Skr. 
 "ffSTT. — H. II., II. B., etc. use the Skr. <T7JFT, t%*rT, etc. 
 
W6 CONJUNCTIONS. §§562—566.] 
 
 562. Disjunctive conjunctions', m or mf or, eiCher-or\ 
 
 e. g., 37! ^ STSjf; alt 3: ?tv7/ ^om take this or thai; oiifTT aT ^hfr 
 a colt or a fill//; t — t or =r ftt — t neither- nor; e. g., ^r rfir ^ ^rr" J 
 ^ 3; / s/iorW take neither this nor that ; =3T^ — =erri[ or 3?t — q?T 
 irhvtIia-or\ e. g., =^t| f £r =3T^ 3: take either this or that (2. sg. 
 imp.) or whether he take this or that (3. sg. pres. conj.). 
 
 563. Affinities and Derivation. E. H. m is the Pr. 5T 
 or ett (II. C. 1, 67), Skr. 5TT ; H. H, H. B., H. 0., etc. have stt, 
 also ^TcTr; the latter is preserved in 0. ^m, contr. form Pr. g^oTT 
 (H. C. 1,67), Skr. msrr. — E. II. aft, B. far (S. Ch. 24 0), 0. % 
 or T%?T5TT (Sn. 46), M. eft' (Man. 103), W. H. t%, P. £ or *s> 
 (Ld. 71), S. % or eft (Tr. 412), N. fw are probably the Pr. fsfr, 
 Skr. T%jt^ «'//r^. — E. H. =^T% is the 3. sg. pres. conj. of the verb 
 ■^l^^L t° desire. — B. also uses fS-Tff either-or (S. Ch. 240), S. 
 rft"?-q- ft or FTTqT-T ft or sTT-?rf (Tr. 412); B. TT-TT or ^-zm^neither- 
 nor (S. Ch. 240), P. =tt-*T (Ld. 81). - - S. has !TT or (Tr. 412).— 
 W. H. and P. also use m, arabic L (Kl. 27 5. Ld. 71). 
 
 564. Conditio i) at and concessive conjunctions; §tt or 
 sT //', FTT //?c«; STT although, FTosft #e/, nevertheless. 
 
 565. Affinities. 1) Condit.; B.irf^ — FT^orrft(S. Ch. 238), 
 0. sra- — ft£ (Sn. 4 6), M. sqr — FT£ (Man. II, 1 7), W. H. ST> or at — FTr 
 or at, P. ?r or sr W£ — ?TT (Ld. 71), G. sr or it— - nt (Ed. 1 17), S. ir or 
 jT cFT; — FT or FTT (Tr. 417), N. ^m — FTT. — 2) Concess. ; B. STf^Ert — 
 FTsraT or rrsrert or ftt>. (S. Ch. 240), O.irsr — fts' or ?tii% w (Sn. 46), 
 M. STfT or srfT — afT or Frft (Man. II, 17), W. H. (Br.) s!T f — FTT f 
 (Kl. 2 75), P. iTT5T tt — FTT lit (Ld. 71), S. FT>? or rTTTJT or 5T or !T FTT^ 
 or ?T FTTur — FT or FTT or FT t% or FrjfT t% (Tr. 411), N. FTT — Fq[. 
 
 5 6 6. Derivation. 1) Condit.; a) Skr. ors; (or a^r), Pr. 
 ^ (Vr. 1, 11), E. H. ir, P., S. ir. — b) Skr. af^ (Pr. frtj?), 
 M. sq[; similarly Skr. FTfjf (Pr. frff ?), M. and N. rjj. — c) Skr. 
 SToTrT , Pr. sITST (H. C. 1, ll) or sTTCST (H. C, 4, 3 9 5) or SHST (H. C. 
 4, 401), E. II. and W. H. 5TT, G. sTT or S. srf (see § 563) or 0. 
 5T5T (§ 4 6 8, c); similarly Skr. fttstft , Pr. FTT5T or FTF5T or FT*sr, E. H., 
 W. II. FTT, B., W. H., G. FTT or P. FTT, S. FTT or (shortened) ?T, 
 
§§ 567. 568.] conjunctions. 397 
 
 N. FTT or 0. FT3T, B. (shortening ^) FT5T. — d) The N. U^IT is the 
 conj. part, of the verb iT^T to say (Skr. ufilTrorr), and is always 
 placed at the end of the conditional sentence ; thus, 5n^*T 37c<-il I UJ 
 
 ctrt 5^ ^ it^jt, fTT irrfcr|-^ cr?r cf^ttht 3^ mfq- x^t I ; t ircrr, ftt trq - t% 
 ^T3^TT, i. e., if (lit. having said that) a son of peace be there, then 
 //our peace will remain npo)t hioi : if not, then it will ogam come. — 
 2) The concessive conj. are made by adding to the condit. conj. 
 some emphatic particle (see § 5 5 0); thus a) Wt or 3 in B. frf^t, 
 Ap. Pr. srf^fsr, Skr. raft ; B. ffsrsft = Pr. FF5T^ f&, Skr. FTTSTFJrft 
 (loc. sg.) ; B. FT^, E. H. FTSSTT for FT55T + 3. — b) |T in W. H. 
 5TT if, FTT|T. — c) ^ or ^T in M. sTlft " or srfr for sTtj-f 51 , Frft' 
 or Frfr for rTff-f^. — d) fir or lit in S. sT T%, P. FTT lit, H. H. 
 FTT iTT. — e) The emph. particle is reduplicated in 0. FT5Tf u for 
 FT-ir-fT *, S. rrj^fsr for FTr-fT-f^T. — f) The P. ITT5T* is the Skr. 
 ittstt indeed, truly; similarly Js. uses ftt, E. H., W. H. etc. FTT or FTT; 
 e. g., N. it FTT ^X^UI ^^ STrff^; ^ ^X ** "TK^crTT, i. e,, I indeed am 
 not afraid of god, yet I shall give. 
 
 567. Causal and final conjunctions; a) sTT orfTg^^T since, 
 FTT therefore. — b) ^^T or FTfr ^T therefore. — c) cf»T% ^t because, for. — 
 d) sTef ^r in order that, so that. — e) 3>T STFT lest. — f) TT^T FTT 
 else, otherwise (lit., if not, then). 
 
 5 68. Affinities and Derivation, a) B. sTT^ — FTT^ or FTT^" FT 
 (S. Ch. 23 9), 0. irtrr — ftutCSu. 46), W. H. fsrcr ^ — ftt, P. §rf — ftt, 
 S. sTT — STT or 5Tcrrf — FT^rt, etc. (see Tr. 414. 415) ; not uncommonly 
 paraphrased, e. g., B. and 0. 5T S|"rT — FT ^FJ, M. ??NWt' — FiTFT^rV, N. 
 sT^cfiT^rjT^— FT^^TTTlTo etc. — b) B. ^TFT^ or ^R £t, 0. ^trj, ^PUkrl, 
 M. FTFT or ^TtTFT . W. H. f%T FT or frT^T Ft", P. FTT, S. STT (Tr. 415); 
 or paraphrased, e. g., B. ^ sFJT, U fkfij^ (S. Ch. 23 9), 0. sT ^FJ 
 (Sn. 4 6), N. ra cFT^n^ etc. — c) B. if^RT, M. cfrfer?f, W. H. 
 ^ft-t% or 5RJT-fgfT, H. H. 5f>if%, N. ^TTT ; or paraphrased, e. g., 
 B. chl(Ul^f%, M. S7T7TCT cT?T, etc. — d) B. ^iTF^iT, ^T^^T (S. Ch. 
 238), W. H. t%*TJr, P. frf. — e) B. t% sntq, 0. t% sntnr, II. H. 
 sf?TT siFT, lit. what do I or does he know; or B. crri?, lit. after- 
 wards (S. Ch. 240); H. H. :t ^T t%, S. T %in or q 5% lit. may 
 
398 INTERJECTIONS. §§ 569—571.] 
 
 it not be that (Tr. 415). — f) B. ^ fft or ^ ft srr or ^i% ^t or 
 rroT (S. Ch. 240), 0. =T rj, * 3 sit, ^tf| «U (Sn. 46. 125), M. 
 rrr^rT^ (Man. 103), W. II. JTrfTfTT, S. JT FTT (Tr. 415). — Most 
 of these conj. have a pronom. origin which has been explained 
 in §§ 437. 469. 
 
 4. INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 5 69. The following are some of the most usual interjections; 
 ^ or ^t or ^T or %J or ^" in addressing ; ^"PT "^"PT in greeting ; 
 ^t jft fie! for shame, in remonstrance; vjji vjj (or ?J"iT ?T ) or ^^ 
 fit to be spitted on, tUgjjTj fit to be cursed or abused, in disgust or 
 abhorrence; ^T ^T or ^ !> or STTT^" ah! alas!, in surprise or grief; 
 oTTf" 5TTf^ in admiration ; ^"T^ ^7^ in sorrow ; H^T or 9^T well ! in 
 consent ; £H or 5"^ ^t fre o/f / ; vT lo ! 
 
 570. Affinities and Derivation. These interj. are com- 
 mon to all Gds. — Some occur in Pr. ; e.g., f% f^ and finTffeTCR 
 (H. C. 2, 174); tf * (H. C. 2, 200), which, by adding the pleon. 
 suff. ft or it, becomes ^ft ejft ; ^T ^T, sr^f (H. C. 2, 217); a^, t 
 (H. C. 2, 201); f, ft (H. C. 2, 217?); ^fa T^J is probably the 
 Pr. and Skr. ^T (H. C. 2, 19 2). — 5TF17 is probably 5TFj/| o/< 
 
 SIXTH SECTION. SPECIMENS OF EAST HINDI. 
 
 1. VOCABLES AND PHRASES. 
 
 571. The following nouns, current in E. H., are, I believe, 
 not mentioned in any Hindi dictionary. 
 
 ^53^T weak ^WL 1 ) f' l(e ^ (of grass, 3jT^" 1 ) white 
 
 5ri%orTr?t wife etc.) ^t^ wet 
 
 ^TTTT a well ~ttJ l ) or Ssrsjqr rude mr soft 
 
 1) Bate in his Hindi dictionary gives: ^IPT, 3rjTcrf, 3<JT3. 
 
§571. 
 
 VOCABLES. PHRASES. 
 
 399 
 
 cK-dcrfl^ unripe 
 ^cnrr sweepings 
 aFf^HT black 
 ^Tir l ) enemy 
 ^rt~^i It sweet punt )>l in 
 ioR^t good 
 wsrq[ or wsa^ glutton 
 ^T 3 "^ sweepings 
 w^mrT dried leaves 
 JT35T or jtsi^T fool 
 Jil^t cavity 
 n^Tsr^tiX 2 ) /ooZ 
 rr^ heavy 
 na^ village 
 rilT^Sifuel of cowdung 
 rft^T^" calling 
 Erfr^T worthless 
 
 ^T3^T *) quadruped 
 f%^T or °fr /«eZ o/ 1 
 
 coivdnng 
 $*{$> bird 
 
 =3^ excellent 
 e^T^rts" family, race 
 5TT5(7 «Z£ 
 5TT5IH sHTrT^ every &od# 
 
 !Tit^t or sTTf coldness 
 
 ^^5na^ husband 
 
 w foy 
 
 5"^" coldness 
 
 3 (MT~* 3 ) cowardly 
 
 srta wolf {tiger?) 
 n^r sister 
 vrgi^T simpleton 
 nzft younger brother's 
 wife 
 
 3^r or 3TTfr footpath mtt sister's son or /««- 
 ^jfhfT, dirty band's sister's son 
 
 f^nJijT or n'^Y'^T finished f£ra^T afows 
 
 f^Tr solitary ifterT"^ beggar 
 
 ^rsq' &af? ^era hungry 
 
 MJi^ft 1 ) footpath iT^TcFr^r negligent 
 
 Onnr^ dWcd leaves *T35ft company 
 
 <7}"f%?jT neighbouring ^Z 1 *?^ dirty 
 
 Tra>7T dew *FT^ mow 
 
 g^T^ cfV oTTrT 4 ) nonsense my^ maw 
 
 qTcfrV free (branch?) foj^jZ^J we«& 
 
 q^JTc^ yellow 
 Qjl village 
 qrra^ glutton 
 qt^qTT we£ 
 
 ^rftf%OT buffoon 
 
 sttut o#, bidlock 
 
 siw^ or sn^ /aMe> 
 
 fsmH individual 
 
 fspTrT^^T 5 ) miserable ^Toqr unripe 
 
 f*T7^ orsft^ swiaW pfowtf ifto^ *) areew 
 
 t 
 
 5TiT^[ or ^ core/, string 
 
 risirT^ friendship 
 
 ^TEnft friend 
 
 srwi honesty 
 
 ^thld s«$tf 
 
 ^rsrtriT or c irtm convenient 
 
 1) Bate in his H. diet.: 5^, xfroTr, S^", <inii), ifprf- 
 
 2) Lit., sitting on an ass. 
 
 3) Lit., wei ««'(7t /ear. 
 
 4) Lit., tt'orrf 0^ irrelevancy. 
 
 5) Lit., stricken with misfortune. 
 
400 DIALOGUES. § 571.] 
 
 2. DIALOGUES 1 ). 
 
 a) Between two friends. 
 1. Q. cfif ITT^! cfi^T *3 mofr^snZ? A. cr^HdUl 7\iq ^ 9TJFIT. — 
 2. Q. %T ^ ^ =5T^tfT? A. ft^IT^ If =5T^T ^. — 3. Q. cFTT^ 
 5ftT 3^f *T?T^ 7^oT ? A. 3^7 ^737 ^qiTJ WrT^ 5JTC, 5T5F7 £W 3F. — 
 
 4. Q. smr sftt sTfcT^r stit? A. ^Tc?ft ' f^T ^ttst^ siro" . — 5. Q. 
 3if, hst, sg; mjt & <=nrr ^ ^w ! A. jtit mft efr w;tt ^ ^w sftt 
 
 q^ 5fTT? 3^ 3» ^^T^r 2 fiFTT ST"JT ^JsT 3 WorK — 6. Q. ^Tf^ cfiTc^ 
 cft^T UT^ ^TT^t" 5;W^T" I;' 4 . A. ^qy ITT^ 5TT^ SnTc* fific?TT 5 ^T qT^qr 6 
 air*; ^T STJH ctfqj ^Tc^t'. — 7. Q. FTT^ SJWT HOT 3i ^TWST^ 8 
 
 znuj A. sri^i' n?iT ^ra; a?n^ qifaq^ snsr ; ^to^ q fqcfTcir 2 £r ££ 
 rr^ snrq^ — 8. Q. XTTfu^r §m 2 sf qfl-Tr 9 uu?i? A. iw^ m are; 
 qftaT, ^rTi% g?r ^i^ 3^^ qifr L ' £w crfw. — 9. Q. gfTfTsnr srw 
 
 W* RT^? A. ^T S»g£ 3j7f> sfT^q^T. — 10. Q. ^ 5nW fen^T ^T 
 Wt cfirPTT £U^ ^ ? A. i SrScTT fsTETT^ ^ ; £U^ ^*£ £S «^TJ ^ 
 
 5^r. — 11. Q. ^ #r ^ swf^- (pt|t|; u cf ^rra^, sr rf^j irra q^ 
 fq^r ^r^? A. ^qj rrra qj; ftV *&;ft suft*, ^%r 10 gnw sr^ ft^ 12 
 
 STT3N — 12. Q. FTt^T^ STcfiffST cfTT W^? A. ^!T xlf k ^ m^F 
 
 rrfsT qy fra^ ^ftcfTT. — 13. Q. ss jh ^? A. ^n^^ii to 
 
 l-q #T fqc^ sTTvTT. — 14. Q. 95lcFT 3T^ SfToT^T 57T£ ^ ^T^t? A. 3^ 
 rft Sftg-crf STTct, 5*7% SIT q- cFa? OTT^^T 13 i^T. — 15. Q. rTT^ ^f 
 ^T RT^ q7£ qJTqt fqcrT ^a^? A. SFTT% * ? ^T^ fk iTTCT, H5T ^T <yT 14 . — 
 1G. Q. rfl^" ^f 9FT ^a'r =5T^c?IT? A. rTi^ q^cT^ ^m cTTn. — 
 
 17. Q. r?T^ gR a?? srf^rr ^ sr^ ^ ^17 srl" ^TT^tV A. ^5j-a?T ftT 
 si^fr ^ q-j^ q- cfrr|t ^n^ n?c5/, RTft rft srftT ^^7^^. — 18. Q. 
 
 qt^ OTJT^ ^JTif 3fF 9=^T^ ^TT5T 3R ^rT? A. sTS[^ (Tr^T^ ^ ^fa, rfsTSTq^ 
 ^ rfr^STW 15 vU. — 19. Q. FTT^T crffl^^T &j& q^T 3Rt ^T^ ? 
 
 A - ^T' 2T^ ^CT 16 sTT^tt; g=5^q^ 17 ptt €p^ rrzr^ snq^; «t^ 3nT^ 
 
 q^TTT q^!7 5TTQ; . — 20. Q. qTis^T^r q - qT^I" sTST^ g"FT ? A. 3n^ q^ 
 
 1) The following specimens of village-conversations were given to 
 me by Pandit Gopal Bhatta of Benares. The spelling is his, excepting the 
 virdmas and interpunctuations which I have adiled. 
 
§ 571.] DIALOGUES. 401 
 
 cFT, rT5^ or'sT^ H^|" X s . — 21. Q. ^TT# SICR 5TTTHT 19 cF qTS'm'^ IT 
 5rST5l^ ^Tf^TT. A. ^=c^T ! ^T^ cFrf%cFT cF SUT ^t|[ cF ^57?^ ^J. 
 
 Notes: 1) pers. ^.L>. 2) adverb, past part. 3) arab. — .S 1 . 
 4) 3. pi. pres. ind. of the potent, pass. 5) arab. **ls. 6) pers. 
 Jjj. 7) pers. fS. 8) arab.j*i>. 9) pers. U-^*o. 10) arab. q&J. 
 11) pers. (Aj_5>, treated as a denom. root. 12) pers. jaj. 13) arab. 
 s«Aj6. 14) 2. pi. imperative; or c<T ^Tf or 5<T crJJeT. 15) conj. part, 
 of the double caus. 16) contr. for 5Ff ^f . 17) anomalous plur. 
 of ^^^", apparently made after Urdu (arabic) analogy, as §"cjTP^ 
 orders, pi. of eTcFJT. 18) 1. pi. pres. conj., used as future. 19) re- 
 dundant form of 5TTT. 
 
 b) Between master and servant. 
 
 1. Q. cFT^ cfft%TT ^TTTTT^ WrT^ <T^[ sTRT cF ^t£. A. cFTf 5F SJ^? 
 cFT, &<T_ f^TfTST SF? — 2. Q. ^T, ^rTT f^TET ?F %3J ST35F WiToTT *T 
 
 ffr ^cfrrsr ef. A. cf ^77 * cf eftjt srw? — 3. Q. ira ^ srqf - , ^5" 
 
 vrnm^ ^t%. A. tfT^T EF WrTSTT U - ^" SF =T ^. — 4. Q. cF f^T JT 
 
 vr^^i srrf ? A. gr f^ cf asm sit^. — 5. Q. crisr^ cf f^ rft m^ 
 rrav^. A. fl^rr, ft^ £r =^t^ tt% *Njt^ sf> Sffrq; ^cfwtvit. — 
 
 6. Q. xiraR cF cFTJqr f^T, 5F> =TT^T? A. STT^ fft =TT^ f^^" ^c^t. — 
 
 7. Q. iroft ^ngra of srnrt ^vrra^; snqr h^-t.. A. sq" f§rasr^\ ^ 
 ay 2 flft <emr sTT^. — 8. Q. ^=^t, sTsr wto; cf ^, pts^ rftpr^ cf 
 £tmf\ if 5j"'fy^ ;£% A. rft^ ^ £ ijjT eft wt?t cf ^? — 9. Q. 
 
 TTJ ^ ^k 3 6% ^ ffrt (IH X^l^- A - ^Tcjft 1 ftfCT - W5T? — 10. Q. 
 
 ^3^" eft? ^ 5F ^frr wra^ <ri^. A. 57^ ^r ^Wft? — 11. Q. jjfn <£ 
 
 ^JT cF ^Tc^ ^TT^t fT^r^. A. sTtfT^t ^pTTO - ^f! Tl^t rft ftf)" 3"3W 4 sTT^- — 
 12. Q. sTT ^sTT, ^ w rft sT<5T^t 5 WW WT3; fsFTT cft^ ^ ^ =T 5TP^. 
 A. ^3T rTT 5TTH 'mit', WTq^ cF ^Tfeo- OT^. — 13. Q. IT^TT, clt?n cF 
 51^; oFtf^cfrr JT EFS; ?T£T STTa cFT ^TT|t W ? A. ^T ^, rft ST^ - W^ cF iff^T 
 SJTq^sTTi. — 14. Q. ^f?FTT ^T^t 5ft£I cF? A. ^cF ^ TOft ^ ^fa 
 5TT^. — 15. Q. cFTEFT ^T =^T|t cI>cT cF? A. cFTcF tff xTT^ (Tt^J ^WT^ 
 
 jt ^tq . — 16. Q. ^ Erfr |h sfr =arT^ ^t ef^ ^ tt , rft sii 9^t 
 
 ^fT.. A. ^! xft^Vf & T^rT 6 ^f, rft^l| w . - 17. Q. *\\ 
 
 ^T, cFT^ tRT^^'cF ^ STTIfT vfT^T ^flt; EF 5r^. A. cFrRT oiV^T ^ift? 
 
 26 
 
402 DIALOGUES. § 571.] 
 
 ftt^" aqr rr qw? — 18. Q. mrtft rr <rf^? rfr. A. erro rfr far^rao^ 
 ^tih k; ^tqr n^ =Eni^r. — 19. Q. ft! 573 ! m^ ^TcFt cm. A. 
 ^r ^fT gra - w, 3TPT sftth^ ^^? — 20. Q. ^r! ir^ t%rair =£Tt!w, 
 ft 151 ficrf^- 5 sft! A. sf^t, ^r! 3^3 sir! fijrrr jtxtc^ Jrr fqtr^ sjtst. 
 
 Notes: 1) pers. jj^j*- 2) old loc. 3) conj. part. 4) conj. 
 part, of potent, pass. 5) pers. t^>-X.L>. 6) arab. tj&y- 
 
 c) Between two sisters. 
 1. Q. 37^, srtlpt! ^sq cfi^-f jt^ J^?u J A. ^f|yTT ^ srm 
 WT-r. — 2. Q. {Ff; sift rfr^T/ ^risrr jt >amt <"f|^" srrsrej srT<i/? 
 
 A. qTft, qq[ ^%rTT STS^ STf^, rTTq ^JtJ, ^t5T5T_ 3Tq^. — 3. Q. 
 ?fTfT^ S"^T^T STTsT^ cRTc^ cR^T SJT^T JWc^ 5JT77 " '? A. qift, ST(ft rft 
 
 snr w , ^ri^R- wfT ^ stjh ^st"'. — 4. Q. f^ ^^ft^zrt 5^*^^? 
 A. ZQ^l & eFfftviT; g^ rrra^£&, rT5^ ST^N — 5. Q. rft^T^ fsrfEffsrT 
 rft $& ^7T^? A. f, STTff ST^rT^er 2 . — 6. Q. rft^T^ JTRTSTT 3 jjRf £tf 
 
 g;£r crt rrrft? A. ert cr^T snlpt? crf^r fonrr *r m ^ ^T^t fg^fcrj 
 
 WcRt f5KTT^ 3T i^rV cRij ^ cRT qift. — 7. Q. eRFTqT f^T_ fsrUcrT 4 
 
 nq^? A. ^s^rfr rft sm Mxioit f|q ff ; *rafT ^t^q" st^stt sr^t 
 ?rr^ 2 =3^ qift qcRr? . — 8. Q. wft ^t^ qwsr sjx^t njw 2 mf, ffr 
 ^y_ ;£?. A. tlr £R rfr flr^T^ srTq^. — 9. Q. ^ a^orr it jp[f tt «erW 
 
 l^ff 5 cF?t ^f^T SRe[ ^prTT? A. ^T^T, ^T^t' ^RcrT^ffvTT, ^%T^ =5TT^tcrlT 
 cRT 5ifqr cR|[ ^ slTrT, rft qqmZFT fm . — 10. Q. ^RT cRtsft f^ 
 
 T^ * TT ^[ 6 ^ TZ L' rfr ^jt 37 'j. A. gng^, ^f%^ ^ir sira , frl^T^ fa^Tef 
 
 sft q q ^tf . — 1 1 . Q. «^TT ! ^55T|; rTt^J ^fm V ^, (TT ^T #T 
 STTT^. A. ^>t|;'? sTTq ST^T IT if ||c?^ , HTq >T ^fRT f^^T^T 7 &TU? — 
 12. Q. fj^cFSjfT cFIoFT^cITJr? m^T STf ?T ^TnoTT. A. 9=Ef T ! rft gT5T, ^7^ 
 ft a^ q ^; OTTT rqV 2 it fqsrT^ fW fn|. — 13. Q. u^T st%[_ ! 
 5T^ t%^qT ^^5 ^T STJrj^ f^gT^T^ 7 ^<5?T 9T^ sr^[ q. A. g=^T! rft 
 cff5^ H[f J ^5T? — 14. Q. 5^ rft ^("oTT^ fiTrT^T 5TT^ 8 5=5^T STT^q 
 
 r^wena 51 ^r^. A. sT^-^ 9 %m & t5r=crT^ ^%^; ^. ^^ ifrtu^ ir 
 cir% ^ st.t; qtiTT 10 ^siTq^ |^5?r^. — 15. Q. q strt, w^srte iirTq fg;q 
 
 ^ft! A. ^! ^IT^ qfT^ JT ^cF qfjfT ^^ " '; 5T^ ^ T^ 5J, rW rftf; 
 
 Notes: 1) pers. j*;>. 2) arab. ^J* 3 . 3) redundant form of 
 
§571.] DIALOGUES. 403 
 
 tnf. 4) adverb, past part, of potent, pass. 5) shorter form of 
 
 2. pi. pres. ind. fern., for ^|tfS . 6) arab. v-ftji. 7) arab.^lo ^O. 
 8) arab. vAju. 9) arab. y^^°- 10) arab. Uas. 
 
 d) Between parents and son. 
 
 1. Q. (Father speaks): STET ! eir^ ^T 3^ 5F 3^* £ <3?T_ ifW 
 ^ ^! A. ^^ (TT rfl"^|r <£ fi^ srrcrc^. — 2. Q. ^f, ^rfSi^ cFte|r 37 
 srr? ££ n^i srra ; ^ <°rfrt; £7 ^. A. 5R7iqr s;m «t^ iwl - ? — 
 
 3. Q. gt gqrl^r.^TTS ^ra, iWr^ 5J^. ^rn. A. aFfrrft snw, cpt 3^t 
 
 wfT^o^ sTT^? — 4. Q. cFTrTf^TT eft ^T^t STTff , £f§W OT 8R^ U% & 
 
 gro sqr t ^tf; 5n?i stsToTT^ 5? sFrara fsr^^l srr^". A. sf srra - ? 
 arg; mfi" m^rt psr 5r9"5t ^ nfrV — 5. Q. RT^t, j^Pr strstt^n 
 A. g^ ^T WW 5TTH surl". — 6. Q. (Mother speaks): ^rrsr, 5TCT, 
 
 sT^ft WTO - &! A. OTsT eF7T ^^T^ 5F^ 5lTrl;*T? — 7. Q. ^TfT |^T^ 
 
 *T 57^ frft ^3£ bh"l\jifi u^ 5TW. A. ga^ srrq^ ^t ^ft? — 
 8. Q. trT^ (737 ^ srrer; q?^ srfr 37 ot^ ^^tj! A. ^x^t! jfrs utsr 
 m TTrrr irsrsn^ £! — 9. Q. |! ^r cfttct jt crrct ^w^r srnrj irh? 
 
 ^ToT! A. 5T137T ^JIT *T ^37 Q _ ^tf%% ! — 10. Q. 3^ 5TFTT 37 
 -Jcdiq^ c??T ! A. SR^T ! 5Tc<TT3^ ^raTT^IT ; ^T5T ^3^ <3W ! — 1 1 . Q. 
 (Father speaks): STTT ! rj^WTq' ^3, (T5^ ^T "fi^ ST <pTT^. A. 37i5> L ? — 
 12. Q. g^r^t" ^xft FTJeT *T ^IT 57 IJjS^ =m. A. =7Tft" ! STTJ sr^ToTrT 
 
 5rrq^. — 13. Q. ^=^grr <?r! ^isn^^fr. A. ^! jtt-i uctk 37 <7Ftt y353 
 sttj^. — 14. Q. sp^t! cr^RTorrsr! A. m\\ ^fr^rf gT?r ^rr^^ri;^ ? — 
 15. Q. (Mother speaks): FTT^T^ ^\ A. sft 37 ftrt ^ra" ^T^t 
 
 ^TolrT_. — 16. Q. qTfr 5T5rr]^; rT55TT 37€TT =Trft ^<T. A. ^"^T V 
 
 ^! — 17. Q. f^ 5TST, fTT ^T! m^T ?TV ffj" ^?T5T ^ srra^. A. ^r! 
 srra^ '^', fqi; ^#; sTcfT^t crfnl 57 cft^. — 18. Q. <rfr^ 5; ^! 
 A. ^ ?rfj?jT, ^fi - sffi' qfl^J 
 
 e) Between mother and boy. 
 
 1 . Q. ^ni ! win £ 5; ! A. 5!T 57^ ? — 2. Q. 57T srra^ ^ra- k ? 
 A. ftrr sttct; crt|; ^r w\k? — 3. Q, ^y sira oft ^T|t? A. j^ ftV 
 cftwt srra;, ^rf^P^ ^ srra^; gr'f, ftt 5^" ; m|t ^r c^Tq^ £r! — 4. Q. 
 
404 FOLKLORE. §571.] 
 
 |^c?tt. — 5. Q. oTgrsr . A. wt^r\ ^^ , 3?t gt it cfftt jtt?tt f^w? — 
 
 6. Q. OTT JTT5T STTT? A. JTZ c^T? ' 37T JJ.7 V — 7. Q. ^TT^t ! 7T5T 
 3T3TaJ rpr ^ 37 qT^t mSTFT^. A. SF£T! ^t! FT 5177! ^T ^TOT^TT. — 
 
 8. Q. jtvt^t ^ettctj m^t rfr 3: ^tt^wt mu !Tii. A. ft"' m^ m 
 yt3! ^*r_ sMett^ptt. — 9. Q. s^T frfr ^r ^%! A. | cfrnT? ST tqr 
 >3T^£t! tstt^tt 37 g^r^r' ggr^ ^t^. — 10. Q. ^=5^t! ftt^s;! 
 A. 5T! wt! 
 
 f) Between two boys. 
 1. Q. 37T ut^! =^cfT5T w^ 37? A. ssrff ^t w^t ^t^T; WT3 
 ^"j Fra^ ^eft*. — 2. Q. 3ts£ wsr? A. jtt^ sttsHft, Fra^ ot^tt 1 . — 
 3. Q. Fft^r 3tt^ cfi^f jt^ siTq^? A. Jttt^ 37 37T3£ sir 37. — 4. Q. 
 FTsj^ ^r =^t; w^ wt^ w . A. qTpr_ M w^5? — 5. Q. err ftt^t; <tw 
 ciracrltqTft? A. crfr ftt srrar ; ^tIt ^. — 6. Q. gra! crnrr sftt^\ 
 
 A. 37T77T 37f"T SITO^? — 7. Q. cffq-JT 5TfFT^ m?Ti. A. ^3 ! qT^ST OT^', 
 
 sr^ ^Tq^ 5T^ e '; fTsr^ srf%w_ £r ^^rr'. — 8. Q. ft5£ st ^rt sqr i=r ^t3 
 
 tfT^vTT 1 . A. FT^ 37T^ 51^ ^ sTTFT^ 5TT?7 ? — 9. Q. STT^ ^37 ^y^sTTCI ; 
 
 £ ^rrl <tt gif". A. FTTf7 2 g^^TT? — 10. Q. ^t, 5TT^r a vt<jt 37 j£tf 
 
 ^T. A. ST^T! SIT! sTcrT^t ^ ! — 1 1. Q. ^fTT 5Tcr?T c^T ^TT. A. 5TT ?Krf $7 ! 
 
 Notes: 1) 1. pi. pres. ind., for fat. ind. 2) old loc. ; ellip- 
 tic, for FTT^7 qm. 3) pers. &£Jb. 
 
 3. FOLKLORE. 
 
 a) The treasure in the field. 
 
 {737 SOT ^Tf^ITt 1 ^7f£ 2 3FT STT^t Sit Wff ©fT5I#FT ; 9T37 ^TT^ 5T£SrT 
 
 T/^*; sra^ 3: jt^ ^n^, ftst ^zz^i £r 37^fth ; ^ irrT ^rtf mr^ jtsr 
 tPT XI^X.' &* ^ ^ 3"£I ^ ^stt i> m? ft^fl suet' 8 ; J=r f|cft>3t 
 w=t5t, fTt cttstf ; sTst 3; ^Tf^Tr qfrj tcist , ftst_ sVcjt^ ^ srfrcrr m^ 
 37 wFj^aFf =gT7> «V.7j ir ^ crrnof 3 ; ^rt%n^ y^ 5j wt^ rr f^rcrTc^; cjfft 4 
 
 WFi; S^T FTT"^ ^T If^^crj^ JIJT^T ; «T ^T WJT ^ Qi; W5T 5 cr^TO^*; WT^ W^ 
 
 ^n"j 7; q;^ 3qsT^r"; ft^ ftt srs^ arrT t^r^ ^ ^77 sra5r w , ^t^ srjrr 
 
 ^ feFT dW*; ^Tt W3j V^*'; ^ ^TcfTTrT^ 37 i 5TTrj^ ^TW 57 =m"^t, 
 ^t 511T c?TT3T 5TPT 5TT?1 ^ ^ ^ ^^T m * ^ ^^^ Z\J & ^ ^Tft ; 
 ^T q - ^ITT; ^TTTT^ 37 cTicfOTT ^ti ; f c?rfir37^ 37 ^t^T 37 cj^ 37^fr ^ta - . 
 
§571.] FOLKLORE. 105 
 
 Notes: 1) arab. ( _ 5 ^. 2) pers. jj-^. 3) shorter form for 
 ^rrr^f", 3. pi. 2 pret. ind. ; see § 26. 4) pers. \£L. 5) pers. 
 V.*^- t5) pers. u^j-z*. 
 
 b) The two wise Brahmans. 
 
 cRFTT ym 5TTJ^^ ^^T ; ^if 53 ^rr "^^ ; 3; ^tc^t crftt srra 
 
 3R7 oTXT^Tj 9T IT $7^f iT^fi" 5F cFfT^ ^^Tj rT^3; £fTT %rT5^rT 3^w, 
 
 tRT 5JET ! FJ ^rft 5T^T ^^ if FTT^ <1^ sTT^ if ^5F iTf "(t ^ToTer ; rT^ 
 
 fqcTT 5F STTniT <TT^ if £^ft STO^ if fTT^ Q^ H^R ; STqr 3^T if q^Tf 
 
 FT ^cH-j^, srt ^^ if ^"37 ^f 7 ^» gTTI T ^T^j ^ ^ ^? <\'-> fT*L ^^F^E. 
 tfcFf iTfTT 5^TTT?T if FT^^T if OTIT ^m<J cF if fr^Hf : FT5T ST"^ *T H 
 
 ^ 3^ tH cpr^c^ sirr ft' 3»t^ ^r"f^t 35T?r ^r =5^^; ftst 3: sTtc<t^t 
 371" n- iflsW-cirj^ met" ; jfr if $r 7f:f rfy^ sjtsHft; ft^ 3; ^ttcft^t_ sft §w l 
 *mttH% *nm* ; ^r ^ sS^rT; ^rrfT 1 3^er S^i?^ *r <Krr^T ^tcr ^ir^; 
 
 ^TTW^ 2 if ^TT cFTJrT^ c?T^H ^TsTT if <TT^ JT^ WT$ ^sTT if ^FT^T ^TTT^T^ 
 cTffc?T; rPs^ JTsH SFI^^L, cfit FT^ ^TT sT^T ^ if qfTx^T 'fTsT ; rT^ ^JT 
 FTTf^ fsPTT sTT^T; 3T £fTT <?T3T 3 tT^'" mQx^I ^ST if; rTS^ gf^ JTsTT 
 lTT?T:T3FT"[ ^Ff qf^x^T ^fET 5TT 3=5^t ^J^T^Vf SFTsirT^ 11 '; 3TT JT 5^t ^ 
 ^gpT Fqwfr, ?T^ 33- g^ =^T3^ if UTrT , 5fx^T ST ^=5fT TcfiSn^T f f 5^7^ ; 
 
 srq - JTtjrq^rT^ if -T^Tsrrq 4 if <prw if stf/tc^tj ?t^ 3C ira- ft B to I; 
 
 cFSq[ 35TcfTH, TO^t^ 5ft cji i^T q - ^^T 5 if rfu^ STTJr^-, ^T 3C Tf^TT 
 s^n cFf 36^ JHTcr^; (TST^ ^T?TT ^T ^f ^^, cFT FT* 1 3iT% ^T^t" ?T^" ^J 
 
 3S it^t ? 3 cFf^re^ ^f ittft^ ^r 5^57 if riy^ ^teNtY ; rrsr^ ^"TsTT fapfm^ 
 
 cFf Sf^TRI 4 3T 5^T^ 5FT =^T3^ ^^T^ ff^ ^ 5i^T ^ ^mq^ #f rT ijt 5? 
 ff^<T ? nFfSTT^ STTcfl^ c^T 9T^ WFT^ ^ ; rTSJ^ J13T ^^^ SF?T 3J WrT^ iicF^ 
 fT? FT5I^ f%OT^ ^^RT^ cET mJTTTT^e ^ =r^ JTTc^ fef^" 7^cr?t; fTST^TsTT 
 tlTlTT5T.7 cFf SJcrTT^ if J^^^ , 5FT J JJ^^ ^R^ "^L? r?®L ^'^^ 
 
 £t FT 11 5T^ UTsT^TWr^ ^TST ; ^^ ^T^^rarJ^ if 5rTc<TTq^ cFf JWl ^ 5=5^T 
 
 fesSf^TT^Tj ®fzm fy&w^fz^si , ot^ ot if en if cff^rrqj 3; ^rTc^; 
 
 F?Tfif^ gT if J\fo ^ ^t^ qfft" STT^crTj ^ 5Ff^ oTTT ^T 9% ^ ST^, 
 
 ^Ff^ cT? £f ^ cFf^[ o(K SJifr^ffcf^-, 39^ fT!TT ^V ^ g-^TT^^ 4 , mj 
 
 cTff^^cRT "rt" ^TfrT i-T^ e<3" ^T efT^T? 3; STT^T^ c£t JT^JTsf ^T^rT ('TirT 
 
 JTlif nT5i ^T^T* «T^"crT ; ^TsTT ^rT gF»T% ? 3: 5TTQrIcr^t% t%foRT if tr^rT 
 
I'M, FOLKLORE. §571.] 
 
 it ^w znj zrit ft mj c^ 7 *t ctttt t^<t ; ftst^ 7T1TT ^pt :rrai^ ft 
 fwrcrr^ 3?rarT^ 57 zw$m m *t jt ^f cnj ^wrHj* ; n^ 7TsTT wftt*j 
 ^brr m=F gr^FT fiF a ,IB st:F fiu-mh^ fTsr; ^ cft" srrar jwt 3^ 
 
 etHg*4^9» SHpTT rT7^ FT ^rTfFTT^Tft 7? 37 f^TT 37^11 
 
 Notes: 1) ff and iffr* are emphatic. 2) arab. J>\. 3) lit. 
 standing, here ready. 4) shorter form for stt^tstptj see § 26. 
 5) pers. nOy>. 6) pers. ,l«A>Lyoi. 7) for %w, see § 67. 8) 3. sg. 
 2 nd pret. ind. of potent, pass. 9) pers. [ J^_yi> joy ; here used ad- 
 jectively, through confusion with adj., formed like FTWT; see §2 53. 
 
 c) The unfortunate Brahman. 
 3TFTT $T<37 ^T^T^ HNUIUJ | iFFPTOJ rT75T £r 7^ 7^Tj 3i ^T^ 
 
 fsrcmr ^d^itjr #7|r ^cft Tfriwr stt^t^ m f^rfun ft sf^tftj ft ^37 
 
 fsrary^ *rr^t ^tj ft sj:ftft jt form^ a^ =a:^ xr^ ?rm 7^?tj ^t mwr( 
 fr?r mt ^17J7^ t^ <qr "T^U 3T> ^T ^( H, 4 ft ^ffFT^^tq;, :?Nt 
 
 3iFT^, ^T#T 3ST^ c^TJWcFTj FT5T7T *m^, FTc^ WfWlW I 5CPT t%gTTT 57 F£T^ 
 
 Vw^^^t *irr 37 ^nft aV^ ^7 ^m^r, crrr%^QrTT ^r <tt^; rT^m - sfTr^T 
 i> FT7?r %^% ^tf^ dSr cfttrft ztj gifST 191 ; rrs^aFg; tttt^t 2 £ ar^ jn - ^ 
 cF?[oT a t% ?[^q? cFf> wrcr £F a?; st; 3 ^cr^r ^t ft *^ft^t% srn^rn; 
 ^t?Tc^ snpT^, ^7^5;; 3; T^t^-' 1 ^ jfTq;, ^37 ^tt iqr wr^ ^r 
 
 ST?T^ iF, cTT^T^ 37 R^HJ STTfr^ 3; <?rij i?T #7 ^37 ^ #7 rTqr 1J 
 
 srrq^, strt CT"? 3F7 in? a^ my 5F irfanr V #7. ^r^f|^ ••jt^ 57 a^ ^t 
 
 tr n?r^; rrq^^T ^r ^ g-^ tr^ ft ^ ^7^ ftt^ 3rT^[ ir, 3: ^tj 
 
 7IT7^h 3 ^cTO , srtjr ST anr ^crq- 5^ ft sT^ 4 ifTicH 5», qi^ srrft ^i 
 
 i^ =^^ n?Tc5 ; r?sr^ ^ 3; ^tt7T stt^tt uwTa^T acrrrt ft jgnir 57 51% 
 
 rr-TT 5? Fra; wtj ww irac^ mj srrft kj ir rTf 7 ft ^(Ui^ic^ ftq^ Of 
 5 
 
 55T ^"^ cTTTT H" 3" f^^T^'cH ^rT^T f% ^t 57^" ^5^ SF ^r?TT cF W! 
 
 ^^Ij ^ frr7F^ ^, t% atcf^ ^777^ ii, f% ar^ rrm^ i? u 
 
 Notes: 1) 3. pi. 2 nd pret. ind. of potent, pass. 2) for 
 il^-K 3) or vrtf&i, see § 291. 4) pers. S'j. 5) irregular conj. 
 part, of the verb TT^ to die. 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 Note: The numbers refer to the pages. 
 
 A. 
 
 Ablative 216, = gen. 210, postpos. 
 225, sing. 199. 203. 210, plur. 199, 
 suff. see suff., aff. see aff. 
 
 Abstract nouns see suff., are "fern, 
 see feminine. 
 
 Accent of numer. 252. 257—258, of 
 pleon. forms 99. 100. 
 
 Accusative 216, sing. 208, proper 185. 
 186. 220. 300, = dat. = old gen. 
 196. 198, suff. see suff. 
 
 Acquisitive verbs 387. 
 
 Active case 217. 217—220. 221, voice 
 316, past tense 217, use of pass. 138. 
 145. 340; see also change of voice. 
 
 Adjective 231. 247—250. 263. 267. 268, 
 form of 247. 248, gender 248—249. 
 declension 249 — 250. compar. 250, 
 in deris. sense 249, obi. form 249, 
 pronom. 273. 302—310, part. 326. 
 
 Adverbial phrases 390. 391. 392, re- 
 petition 390. 391, part, see part. 
 
 Adverbs 389—394, pronom. 273. 310 
 —316. 389. 392, nom. 389. 390— 
 392, num. 389. 392, verb. 389. 392, 
 original 389. 
 
 Adversative conj. see conj. 
 
 Affiliation of Gd. Lang. 217. 
 
 Affinities of alphabets 2, short vo- 
 wels 4, nasalisation 6, palatals 7, 
 cerebrals 8, nasals 11, semivowels 
 13, semicons. 17 — 24, sibilants 25, 
 visarga 26, anusvara 27 — 31, masc. 
 term. 37. 38. 40, fern. term. 41, neut. 
 term. 42, change of single vowels 
 43. 44. 45. 46. 90, insert, of se- 
 mivowels 48, contr. of vowels 50. 
 52. 54, changes of single cons. 35. 
 
 58. 59. 60. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 68. 
 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 91. 92. 93, 
 changes of conj. cons. 76. 78. 82. 
 83. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 94. 95, suff. 
 96, pleon. 100. 108, deriv. secon- 
 dary 112. 113. 114. 116. 117. 119. 
 120. 121. 123. 125. 127. 128. 129. 
 130. 131. 133. 134. 135, deriv. pri- 
 mary 136. 138. 141. 147. 152. 154. 
 155. 156. 158, roots 160, gender 
 184. 248, number 186—189, act. 
 case 217— 220, case aff. 221—223. 
 
 394, adj. declension 249, adj. com- 
 parison 250, card. 253—255. 262, 
 ordinals 263, multiplic. 265, col- 
 lect. 266, reduplicat.267, fraction. 
 269, proport. 271, subtract. 271, 
 distribut. 272, definit. 272, inde- 
 finit, 272, first pers. pron. 274. 278, 
 second pers. 276. 280, correl. 285 
 —289, reflex. 302, honor. 303, pos- 
 sess. 304, quantit. 306, qualit. 307, 
 indef. 309. 310, pron. adv. 311— 
 313, yerbs trans. 317, caus. 318, 
 double caus. 321, comp. pass. 322, 
 pot. pass. 324, auxil. 361 — 367, 
 comp. 387—389, infin. 326, adj. 
 part. 326, adv. part. 328, conj. 
 part. 329, nouns of agency 330, 
 pres. conj. and imp. 332, precat. 
 339, pres. ind. 341—345, l et pret. 
 ind. 345—350, 2 nd pret. ind. 351, 
 pret. conj. 353, fut. ind. 356—359, 
 periphrastic tenses 360, particles 
 393. X 394, postpos. 394, conjunct. 
 
 395. 396. 397, interject. 398. 
 Affirmation see particles. 
 
 Affix 222. 394, of case = old nouns 
 202, indicating seven cases 203, of 
 nom. plur. 186, act. 218. 219. 220. 
 
408 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 224, instr. 227—230, dat. 194. 219. 
 224—227, abl. 225. 226. 227—230, 
 of gen. 4. 51. 129. 130. 191. 220— 
 221. 228. 230—240. 299. 394. 304 
 —305, loc. 241—242, pleon. verbal 
 338. 345. 
 
 Agent see active case. 
 
 Alphabet 1. 2. 
 
 Anomalous see irreg., gender 183, 
 asp. 309, anunasika 335. 351, short 
 forms 199. 200. 201, long vowel 
 257, f 335, num. forms 261. 263. 
 264. 270, metathesis 391—392, suff. 
 126. 136. 351. 
 
 Antepenultimate vowel shortened 4. 
 32. 50. 51. 318. 
 
 Anunasika 6. 27 — 31. 46—47, omit- 
 ted 33. 201. 224. 279. 337. 342. 
 352, sign of neut. 185. 202, sign 
 of obi. plur. 187, anomal. 335. 351. 
 
 Anusvdra 11. 27 — 31. 36, inorg. 212. 
 336, euphon. 336. 
 
 Apabhramsa Saur. forms in E. H. 38, 
 Nagara 276. 
 
 Apostrophe 3. 
 
 Arabic influence on Gd. 10, sounds 
 in E. H. 25. 26, words in Gd. see 
 foreign. 
 
 Archaic obi. 29. 186. 
 
 Arddhachandra 6. 27. 
 
 Aryan phon. system. 9. 
 
 Aspiration of unasp. 72. 255. 309, 
 transferred 73. 92. 224. 364. 389. 
 
 Assimilation of foreign sounds in 
 E. H. 25. 26, visarga 26, obi. and 
 dir. forms 187. 203, ^ 86, U 89, 
 pers. suff. 336. 
 
 Auxiliary verbs see verbs. 
 
 B. 
 
 Baiswdri forms 137. 
 
 Bate 398. 399. 
 
 Beames 220. 227. 228. 229. 236. 238. 
 
 239. 257. 363. 
 Behdri Ldl 219. 
 Bengali alphabet 2. 3, respectf. term. 
 
 330, term. 3W of 1 st pers. 351, 
 
 exception, comp. verbs 388, pleon. 
 
 verb affix cR 338. 
 Bhagavati 389. 
 Bye forms of poss. pron. 304, pronom. 
 
 adv. 313. 
 
 Caligraphic writing 2. 
 
 Cardinal numb, see num., decleiis. 
 of, 262. 
 
 Case 216—242. 220, seven 216, of 
 agent see act., aff. 220. 222, see 
 also aff., in Skr. 202. 
 
 Causal conj. see conj., roots 156. 164. 
 170. 171. 178. 317, verb 316. 317— 
 322. 383—385. 387, rad. suff. 154. 
 157. 317. 319. 
 
 Cause, pronom. adv. of, 311. 312. 
 
 Cerebralisation of dentals 9. 239. 
 
 Cerebrals 8—10. 
 
 Chance, verbs express, of, 386. 
 
 Chand 139. 195. 196. 206. 208. 210. 
 219. 227. 231. 232. 233. 234. 237. 
 238. 276. 278. 294. 296. 298. 299. 
 
 Change of anusvara to nasal 88, mute 
 cons, to nasal 85. 87, cons, to ^ 
 89, of 5 to ^ 42—43. 228, ^ to 
 ^ 45, 3 to ^ in E. H. 10. 12. 62. 
 261, c^and ^34. 92. 224, ^ to 
 £ 12. 16. 34. 63, £ to W, vST, ^ 
 13. 64. 65, of 3 to J, vT, x 13. 34. 
 60. 61. 62. 111. 120. 160. 294, JT 
 to fT , and sT^ to ^ 17—24, ir to n^ 
 28, S tog 238. 239, £ to ^ 62. 
 140, 3^ to ^ 226, 2; to 5T^239. 294, 
 
 FT to e[ 255. 260. 309. 364, =€T to 
 
 ?T 258, W to 5 296, §[to 5^8. 132. 
 
 160 or to OT 295. 347. 365, fin. 
 
 sounds 36 — 42, med. single vowels 
 
 42 — 47, vowels in contact 47 — 56, 
 
 init. vowels 90 — 91, single cons. 
 
 57—74.91—93, conj. cons. 75—89. 
 
 93—95. 337, gender 42. 181. 182. 
 
 183—185, voice 138. 145. 149. 150. 
 
 153. 164. 168-170. 175. 217, class 
 
 161. 164—168. 364, number 208. 
 
 211. 274. 
 Circumflex see anunasika. 
 Class see change of class, suff. 161, 
 
 see also incorporation. 
 Classification of cons. 7. 
 Collective numb, see numerals. 
 Combination of vowels see contraction. 
 Comparison of adj. 250. 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 409 
 
 Comparative degree 250. 
 Completion, verbs express, of, 386. 
 Completive verbs 386. 
 Compound cons, see cons., roots 173 
 
 — 177. 177. 179. 329, verbs 147. 329. 
 
 362. 382. 385—389, pass, see pass., 
 "plur. 185. 186. 190. 300—302. 303, 
 
 tenses see tenses. 
 Compounds resembling suff. 110. 127 
 
 —136. 132. 158. 
 Composite form of per. term. 353. 
 Concessive conjunction see codj. 
 Conditional fut. 359, fut. exact 359, 
 
 durat. pres. 359, pres. 360, preter. 
 
 359, conj. see conj. 
 Confusion of gender see gender. 
 Conjugation of trans. 316. 371 — 375, 
 
 intrans. 316, auxil. verb 367 — 371, 
 
 regal, act. verb 371—375. 375 — 
 
 378, corap. pass, verb 380—382, 
 
 causal verbs 383—385. 
 Conjugational suff. see suffixes. 
 Conjunct cons, see cons., 7U^ 23. 24. 
 
 72. 78. 89. 94. 95. 
 Conjunction 252. 389. 395—398, co- 
 
 pul. 395, advers. 395, disjunct. 396, 
 
 condit. or concess. 396, causal or 
 
 final 397, paraphrased 397. 
 Conjunctive part, see part., mood 316. 
 
 331, past tense see past, pres. see 
 
 pres. 
 
 Connecting vowel m 176. 252. 261, 
 ^ 139. 148. 157, f 176. 
 
 Consonants 6—26, single 34 — 35. 57 
 —74, conj. 35—36. 75—89. 85, 
 transposed 73, interchanged 74, 
 interpolated 74. 
 
 Construction passive 217, pass.-act. 
 218. 
 
 Constructions or prayogas see prayoga. 
 
 Continuative verbs 386. 
 
 Contracted syllables 378. 380. 383. 
 393, see also contraction and vocali- 
 sation, forms see form, num. forms 
 271, term, of verbs 339. 
 
 Contraction of hiatus vowels 24. 26. 
 29. 33. 34. 35. 40. 47. 48. 50. 54. 
 67. 68. 75. 122. 132. 157. 158. 198. 
 232. 252. 
 
 Copulative conj. see conjunction. 
 
 Correlative pron. 273. 274. 284—302. 
 
 Corruption of foreign words see for- 
 eign. 
 
 Coioell 257. 303. 335—336. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dative 216. 226, disappear, in Pr. 202, 
 
 = old jjen. 193. 195. 197. 202. 206. 
 
 ■ 210. 279, = old gen. = ace. 196. 
 
 198, postpos. 224. 225, singul. 203. 
 
 208, aff. see aff. 
 
 Declension of adj. 249 — 250, correl. 
 pron. 299, honor, pron. 303, indef. 
 pron. 309, pers. pron. 282—283, 
 pleon. pron. 282. 300. 302, poss. 
 pron. 304, qual. pron. 307, quant, 
 pron. 306, reflex, pron. 302, sub- 
 stant. 242—246. 
 
 Defective num. 267. verbs 361. 364. 
 367—368. 370. 371. 
 
 Definite pres. ind. 359, preter. of 
 perf. ind. 359. 
 
 Definitive numb, see numerals. 
 
 Degree of adj. 250, verbs 317—322. 
 
 Demonstrative general 284. 286—287, 
 near 284. 285—286. 291. 304, pron. 
 282. 284, remote or far 273. 284. 
 286. 291. 304. 
 
 Denominative formation 355, par- 
 ticiple 118, root 81. 82. 164. 172— 
 173. 177. 179. 347, rad. suff. 154. 
 157. 158. 
 
 Dentalisation of cerebrals 14. 
 
 Derivation of adv. 391—392, abl. 
 and instr. aff. 227—230, act. dat. 
 aff. 220, dat. aff. 224—227, gen. 
 aff. 230—240, loc. aff. 241—242, 
 conj. 395. 396. 397, interject. 398, 
 nouns of agency 330, num. 72. 73. 
 74. 82. 86. 87. 90, plur. signs 189 
 —192, particles 393. 394, postpos. 
 394, pronom. adv. 313 — 316, cor- 
 rel. pron. 289—299, honor, pron. 
 303, indef. pron. 309—310, qual. 
 pron. 308, quant, pron. 306, first 
 pers. pron. 274—276. 278—280, 
 2 nd pers. pron. 276—278. 280— 
 281, possess, pron. 304 — 305, re- 
 flex, pron. 302, a few peculiar pro- 
 nom. forms 281 — 282, direct term. 
 212—216, fern. term. 125—126. 
 249, obi. term. 192—202, aux. 
 verbs 361—367, caus. verbs 319— 
 321, double caus. 321—322, comp. 
 verbs 387—389, conj. part. 329, 
 pass. 323—324, prec. 339—341, 
 fut. ind. 356 — 359, pres. conj. and 
 imperf. 334—339, pres. ind. 341— 
 345, pret. conj. 353 — 355, first 
 pret. ind. 345—350, second pret 
 
410 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 ind. 351—354, trans, verbs 317, 
 
 suft'. see suff. 
 Derivative roots 171—172, suft'. 95. 
 
 96.99, primary 95. 118. 133. 136. 
 
 136—158, secondary 95. 111—136. 
 
 179. 
 Desiderative verbs 386. 
 Desire expressed by suff. see suit'. 
 Devandgari 1. 2. 15. 24. 
 Dhdtupdtha 172. 
 Dialogues 400. 
 Diminutive forms 104. 107. 123. 182, 
 
 suff. 100. 101. 107. 134. 
 Direct form, see form, of demonstr. 
 
 pron. 284, first pers. pron. 274, 
 
 = obi. 219. 
 Direction, pronom. adv. of, 311. 
 Disaspiration 72. 81. 82. 85. 89. 160. 
 Disjunctive conj. see conjunction. 
 Dissolution of conj. cons. 57. 76. 77 
 
 —79. 155. 262. 
 Distribution of Pr. gen. suff. 204 — 
 
 209. 
 Distributive numbers see numerals. 
 Disused past tense act. 217, roots 
 
 154. 156. 157. 177, words 106. 107. 
 
 124. 126. 128. 
 Double causal 320. 321—322. 384. 385. 
 Doubling of cons. 79. 85. 101. 158. 
 
 255, retained 80. 158, vowels 85. 
 Drdvidian lang. and sounds 8 — 10. 
 Dubitative pres. 359, preter. 360. 
 Durative fut. ind. 359, pres. condit. 
 
 359, pres. ind. 359, preter. ind. 359. 
 
 E. 
 
 Elisi07i of causal suff. 5TcJ 145, of a 
 cons. 6. 59. 69—72. 76. 79. 79— 
 80. 85. 86. 93. 94. 95. 308, double 
 cons. 57. 58. 76. 85—87. 113. 254. 
 
 258. 362, final anusvara 36, final 
 anunasika 33. 42. 279. 337. 342. 
 352, final visarga 36, final ^ 252. 
 254, gen. suft'. 281, initial vowels 
 90. 91. 162. 395, nasal 6. 28. 30. 
 57. 58, neutral vowel 5, person. 
 verb. suff. 347. 351. 378, semicons. 
 19, semivowels 57. 58. 117. 132. 
 156. 158. 159, syllables 254. 258. 
 
 259, of f 34. 47. 70—71. 122. 193. 
 198. 224. 255. 260. 270. 295. 299, 
 of or before J or £ 35. 69. 318, 
 
 of * 55. 90. 117. 145. 270, of ^ 
 
 69. 128. 135. 232. 308, of <?T 70, 
 
 of IT 71. 117, of =T 72. 
 Elliptic phrases 213. 
 Emphatic form of con}, part. 329. 
 
 330, form of pron. 284. 301. 309. 
 
 310.311, particles or aff. 299. 309. 
 
 314. 393. 397. 
 Enclitic conj. 395, particles 393, pron. 
 
 338. 345. 
 Euphonic anusvara 346, ^" 335. 356, 
 
 IT 270, semicons. 16. 18. 24. 32. 
 
 47—48. 269. 335. 371. 
 Exception, see anomalous, irregular, 
 
 Bengali, etc. 
 Expansion of hiatus-vowels 47. 48. 
 
 Feminine 181. 248. 263. 265, forming 
 abstr. nouns 113. 116. 117. 123, 
 express, diminutiveness 123, iu- 
 strum. 154, in ^ 245. 267. 268, 
 in m 245, in ^ 245—246, in § 246, 
 in 3 246. 
 
 Final a sounded 32, conj. ?T and 5T^ 
 pronounced 5, conj. see conj. 
 
 First pers. pron. 273. 274. 278. 281. 
 303, pers. of verbs 331, pret. see 
 preterite. 
 
 Foreign sounds 25, words 25. 80. 125. 
 174. 389. 390. 391. 394. 395. 396. 
 
 Form short 54. 179. 181. 182. 194. 
 
 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. 247, long 
 
 98. 99. 112. 179. 180. 182. 242. 
 
 243. 244. 245. 246. 248. 249. 273. 
 274.284, strong 97. 103. 112. 126. 
 139. 180. 182. 194. 247. 248. 249. 
 263. 267. 282. 285. 330. 351. 355. 
 360, weak 97. 98. 99. 103. 112. 
 126. 139. 157. 180. 247. 263. 282. 
 285. 353. 354. 360, redundant 53, 
 
 99. 112. 179. 180. 182. 243. 244. 
 245. 246. 247. 248, meaning of, 
 181, direct 185. 186. 187. 203. 219. 
 274. 284, obi. 185. 187. 192. 203. 
 212. 214. 218. 263. 267. 269. 274. 
 284. 313. 394, gen. obi. 203. 220, 
 spec. obi. 203. 220, contr. 247. 271, 
 uncontr. 247, root 159, subst. 279 
 —281, adj. 247—248, card. num. 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 411 
 
 251—253, pron. 273. 282. 284. 299. 
 300—302. 306. 307, verbs 3 16— 330, 
 pleon. of verbs 362, neg. of verbs 
 363, inchoat. of verbs 363. 366, 
 neut. pron. 284. 
 
 Fractional num. see numerals. 
 
 Frequentative verbs 386. 
 
 Future indie. 33. 34. 146. 331—333. 
 343. 355—359. 359, part, see part., 
 condit. see cond., exact ind. 360, 
 exact condit. 359, durative 359. 
 
 Futurity, verbs expr. immed. 387. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gender expr. smallness or largeness 
 107. 108, identity of 248, pron. 
 273. 284. 302. 309, nouns 181—185. 
 248—249, verbs 331. 341. 350. 353. 
 355. 360. 362. 381, uncertainty of 
 181, confus. of 355. 368. 372. 373. 
 
 Genitive 216, sing. = nom. sg. or 
 plur. 215. 277, = instr. 218, old 
 see old or dat. or ace, dropped 
 281, = obi. form 202. 218, origin 
 of gen. suff. 209—212, aff. see aff. 
 
 Gerund 147. 388. 
 
 Granth see old Panjabi. 
 
 Guna 317. 
 
 Gupta 2. 
 
 Gurmukhi 2. 3. 13. 15. 20. 
 
 H. 
 
 Habitual pret. 359, past see Mara- 
 thi or Panjabi. 
 
 Hardening of semivow. 58. 59. 72. 92. 
 
 Heteroaeneous conj. 75. 76. 
 
 Hiatus 16. 33. 47. 52. 54. 55. 
 
 High Hindi 219. 
 
 Hindi, high see high, old see old, 
 vulgar see vulgar, low see low, 
 pleon. verb. aff. ^ or fn 346. 
 
 Historical present see Marathi. 
 
 Homogeneous conj. 75. 76. 
 
 Honorific pron. 273. 303. 
 
 I. 
 
 Identity of nom. and ace. proper 
 220, genders 248, pres. conj. and 
 imperf. 332, pres. conj., imper. 
 and indie. 334, pres. ind. and fut. 
 
 ind. 343. 357, pret. conj. and pres. 
 
 ind. in Marathi see Marathi, dat. 
 
 and act. suff. 220. 
 Immediate futurity, verbs express, of 
 
 387. 
 Imperative 53. 316. 331. 333. 337— 
 
 339. 339—341. 
 Imperfect ind. 359. 
 Impersonal verb 382. 
 Importation of Arab, and Pers. sounds 
 
 into Gd. 10. 25. 
 Inchoative verb, forms 363. 366, verbs 
 
 387, suff. ttT or ^T 363. 
 Incorporation of class snff. 161. 162 — 
 
 164. 165. 168, pass. suff. 164. 
 Increment ^?5T 340—341, W 362—363. 
 
 Indeclinables 389—398. 
 
 Indefinite pres. ind. 354, prun. 284. 
 289. 299. 309—310. 
 
 Indefinitive numb, see numerals. 
 
 Indicative 316. 331. 345, fut. see fut., 
 pres. see pres., perf. see perf., im- 
 per. see imper., pret. see pret., old 
 pres. in Skr. see old, fut. in Skr. 
 and Pr. 339. 
 
 Infinitive 145. 150. 153. 159. 185. 
 316. 326, obi. 326. 385. 388. 
 
 Inflexion of nouns 179—316, verbs 
 316—389. 
 
 Initial letters 3, vowels 90. 97, trr^ 
 in E. H. 12. 
 
 Inorganic anunasika 256, anusvara 
 
 212, oj^ll. 
 Insertion of vowels 57, euph. U and 
 
 ST 33. 54. 55. 97. 159. 371, of cons. 
 
 74, of 5T 50. 55. 138, of V 54. 137 
 
 —138, of f 48. 105. 133. 269, see 
 
 also euphonic. 
 Instrumental 216, = gen. 218, sing. 
 
 199. 208, plur. 199, suff. see suff. 
 Intensitive verbs 382. 385. 386. 
 Interchange of cons. 74, gend. 355. 
 Interjection 398, in vocat. 217. 
 Interpolation of vowels 76. 77—79. 
 
 93—94. 252, of cons. 74. 257, see 
 
 also insertion. 
 Interrogative pron. 284. 288. 299. 
 
 394, particles 394. 
 Intransitive verbs 316. 317. 333. 348. 
 
 350. 360. 380. 382. 
 Irregular verbs 371. 378 — 380. 381 
 
 —382. 383. 385, pass. 322. 324, 
 
112 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 cans. 317. 318—319. 320, past part. 
 138. 326. 345. 381. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kabir 195. 196. 219. 231. 233. 
 Kaithi 1. 10. 15. 16. 20. 24. 
 Kashmiri 240. 256. 
 Kellogg 332. 
 Khari bhdslid 16. 75. 
 Kinds of verbs 316—317. 
 Konkani 239. 240. 317. 
 Kothivdl see Mahajaui. 
 Kiitila 2. 
 
 Lassen on first pers. prou. 275, conj. 
 
 part. 330, fut. of oT-type in Pr. 
 
 357, pers. suff. 336. 
 Lengthening of short vowels 46. 83. 
 
 101. 171. 194. 252. 261, rad. vowel 
 
 316. 317. 
 Likeness express, by suff. see suff. 
 Literary form of Gd. lang. 219. 
 Locative 216. 241. 242, postpos. see 
 
 postpos., form of past part. 360, 
 
 sing. 199. 208. 210, plur. 199. 
 Long vowel 3, form see form. 
 Low Hindi 219, see also vulgar and 
 
 theth 368. 
 
 M. 
 
 Magadh forms 137. 
 
 Malidjani 2. 
 
 Maithili forms 137. 
 
 Manner, pron. adv. of, 311. 312. 389. 
 
 391. 
 Mardthi roots not in E. H. 160, type 
 
 of obi. term. 192, dat. = old gen. 
 
 193, habitual past or historical 
 
 pres. 332. 344. 357—366, respectf. 
 
 term. 339, identity of term, of 
 
 pres. conj. and pres. ind. 354. 
 Mdrkandcya on decl. 204. 205. 215. 
 
 216. 236, pleon. forms 101, pron. 
 
 forms 275. 277. 279. 293. 295. 298. 
 
 305, conj. part. 329, on euphonic 
 
 semicons. 17. 
 Masculine 181. 248. 265, express. 
 
 „ place" 151. 
 
 Masculines in ^ 242—243, in 5T 243, 
 
 $ 243—244, Z 244, 3 244, 3 244 
 
 —245. 
 Meaning of comp. verbs 386—389, 
 
 nom. forms 181, the two pret. ind. 
 
 345, suff. 95. 100. 145. 
 Medial single cons. 57 — 60, conj. 
 
 cons. 75 — 77. 
 Metathesis see transposition. 
 Meiodri 240. 
 Mixed conjuncts 75. 
 Monosyllabic roots, irr. caus. of 318. 
 Moods of verbs 316. 326—330, indie. 
 
 316. 331, conj. 316. 331, imper. 
 
 316. 331. 
 Mrchchhakatikd 234. 235. 
 Multiplicative numb, see num. 
 Midtiplicationta.b\e 251. 252. 264. 265. 
 Mute conson. 6. 
 
 N. 
 
 Ndgara Apabhramsa 276. 305, Bha- 
 
 sha 345. 
 Ndgari see Devanagari. 
 Naipdli pleon. verb. suff. ^338. 
 Nasal cons. 6, T in E. H. 10, J- and 
 
 or in vulg. E. H. 10, in Pr. 11 — 
 
 12, indicated by anus vara 11. 
 Nasalization 6, of vowels 46 — 47. 81. 
 
 84. 393, of 5T 47. 
 Negative verb, form 363. 364. 370— 
 
 371, part. 363. 393—394. 
 Neuter 183—185. 
 Neutral sounds 18, vowel 3. 4. 5. 
 Nominal term, see term., deriv. 177, 
 
 adv. see adv. 
 Nominative 216. 217. 220, sing. 36. 
 
 38. 208. 214, plur. 185. 186. 199. 
 
 212—216. 272, = dir. form. 185. 
 
 203, = gen. 215. 277, = voc. 216. 
 
 217, = ace. proper 220. 
 Noninitial vowel 3. 
 Nouns rad. 172, of act and agency 
 
 145. 150. 330. 
 Number of nouns 185— 216, verbs 331. 
 
 341. 345. 350. 353. 355. 360. 381. 
 Numerals 250 — 273, deriv. of see de- 
 riv. and suffs., ord. 120—128.250. 
 
 263—264. 267. 269, indef. 135. 250. 
 
 272—273, card. 250. 251— 262. 263. 
 
 269. 270, collect. 250. 262. 265. 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 413 
 
 265 — 267, aggreg. see collect., con- 
 tract, forms 271, distribut. 250. 
 271—272, defin. 272, indef. 135. 
 250. 272—273, defective 267, fra- 
 tion. 250. 268—270, multiplies. 250. 
 264—265, proport. 250.270—271, 
 subtract. 250. 271, adv. see adv., 
 adverb, phrases 372, reduplicatives 
 250. 267—268. 
 
 o. 
 
 Oblique form see form, form in ^ 
 51. 70. 136. 137. 145. 360, = old 
 gen. 202. 218, = dir. 219, =pron. 
 adv. 313, of adj. 249, sing. 185. 
 186. 187. 192. 195, plur. 185. 187. 
 
 195. 198. 242, archaic 186, term. 
 187—189. 192-202, inf. see inf. 
 
 Old gen. term. 191. 193, pres. tense 
 
 334. 341. 344. 351. 353. 356. 357. 
 362, fut. 339. 356, Hindi 139. 195. 
 
 196. 198. 206. 207. 210. 214. 219. 
 220. 224. 230. 231. 237. 238. 241. 
 
 335. 346, Hindi pers. suff. 335— 
 339. 346, Pr. forms 354, Bengali 
 196, Gujarati 219. 230. 240, Ma- 
 rathi219. 229. 238. 241. 332—333, 
 Panjabi 196. 206. 207. 210. 214. 
 219. 230. 233. 237. 239. 240. 356. 
 
 Omission see change and elision. 
 Ordinal numb, see numerals. 
 Organic U and 51" 16. 
 Origin of cerebrals 8 — 10, of obi. 
 
 form 187. 192. 202— 2G3, obi. or 
 
 gen. suff. 209—212, pleon.suff. 103. 
 
 110 — 111, see also derivation. 
 Original Aryan cerebrals 9, single 
 
 cons. 57. 78. 81, conj. cons. 75 — 
 
 77, adv. see adv. 
 Oriya alphabet 2. 20. 21. 
 
 Paisdchi 12. 
 
 Palatal cons. 7. 
 
 Palatalisation of m 238. 239, £ 239. 
 
 Pali 280, suff. of conj. part. 239. 
 
 Punjabi anom. pronom. forms 279 — 
 280. 305, anom. I st pers. suff. 336, 
 habit, past 366, oldPanj. see old. 
 
 Paradigms of decl. 220. 242—246. 
 283. 300—302. 
 
 Paraphrased conjunction 397. 
 Participle pres. 34. 83. 136. 226. 228. 
 
 326. 330. 344. 353. 358. 359, past 
 
 138. 217. 226. 326. 345. 350. 357. 
 
 359. 360. 378. 381, past used as 
 
 denom. root 172. 173. 347, future 
 
 145. 146. 150. 330. 333. 355, ad- 
 verb. 228. 328. 360. 385. 388, conj. 
 
 4. 225. 229. 232. 328—330. 378. 
 
 385. 387, adj. 360. 385, see also 
 
 past and pres. part. 
 Participles 316. 326—330. 
 Participial tenses see tenses. 
 Particle of affirm, and negation 392 
 
 — 393, interrog. 394, emph. see 
 
 emphatic. 
 Pdschd dialect 15. 16. 
 Pashtu roots 178, past part. 139, 
 
 causals 320, postpos. 394, pers. 
 
 verb. suff. 335-337, pleon. suff. 
 
 in 110. 
 Passive root see root, construct, see 
 
 constr., compound 322 — 323. 381 
 
 —382. 385, voice 138. 316. 322— 
 
 326, potential 324—325. 382—383. 
 
 385, term, used actively 138. 145. 
 
 340, see also chauge of voice. 
 Past conjunctive 331, see also pret. 
 Perfect indicative 359. 
 Periphrastic tenses see tenses. 
 Permissive verbs 387. 
 Permutation of roots 161. 
 Persian influence on Gd. 10, words 
 
 see foreign, pers. verb. suff. 335 
 
 —337. 
 Person of verbs 331. 341. 345. 350. 
 
 353. 355. 360. 381. 
 Personal pron. see pron. 
 Phonetic spelling 5. 17, disguises of 
 
 roots 161, system in Skr. 3. 6. 12. 
 
 24. 26. 27, in Hindi 6, in Aryan 9, 
 
 permutation see permutation. 
 Phrase adverb. 390. 391, phrases in 
 
 E. H. 398-399. 
 Pischel 224. 235. 
 
 Place, pron. adv. of 310.311. 389. 390. 
 Pleonastic declens. of pron. 282. 300, 
 
 verb. aff. 338. 346, verbal form 362, 
 
 rad. suff. 161. 161 — 162. 170—171. 
 
 173, suffs. 61. 95. 96—111. 100. 
 
 119. 122. 127. 134—179. 226. 247. 
 
 268. 289. 297. 306. 307. 314. 391. 
 
 392, ST (or cF) added 110. 112. 115. 
 
 116. 117. 119. 120. 122. 125. 127. 
 
 133. 137. 140. 141. 154. 155. 156. 
 
414 
 
 INDEX OK SUBJECTS. 
 
 Pluperfect 350. 359. 
 
 Plural 185. 212—216. 331, comp. 185. 
 303, simple 185. 186, periphrastic 
 186, oblique see obi., sign see sign, 
 used as sing. 274, of verbs 331, of 
 long adj. 249, old term of 189. 
 
 Possessional adj. see suff. 
 
 Possessive pron. see pron. 
 
 Postposition 222. 389. 394, of dat. 
 224. 225, of abl. 225, of loc. 241, 
 mii 193. 225. 
 
 Postpositional loc. 51. 52. 
 
 Potential verbs 386, pass, see pass. 
 
 Prdlcrit comp. verbs 389, methods of 
 forming pret. conj. 354, old see old. 
 
 Prayogas 326—327. 333. 348. 
 
 Precative 339—341. 
 
 Prefixing of f 93, of * or ^ 95, of 
 ■^ 272. 
 
 Prepositions 394. 
 
 Present part, see part, dur. 359, dur. 
 cond. 359, cond. 360, dubit. 359, 
 conj. 51. 52. 159. 331—339. 343. 
 345. 357. 359, imperat. 331—339. 
 339—341, ind. 341—345. 353. 357. 
 359, ind. in Skr. 334. 
 
 Preterite, first 331. 345—350. 351. 
 378, second 331. 350—353. 361, 
 conj. 34. 353—355. 359, ind. 138. 
 331. 333. 345.350.351.359, cond. 
 359, dubit. 360. 
 
 Primary roots see roots, derivat. 
 suff. see derivative. 
 
 Pronominal long forms 273, strong 
 forms 273, short forms 4, adj. 273. 
 303—310, adv. 273. 310—316. 
 
 Pronouns 232. 273—315, emphatic 
 310. 311. 312, pers.273— 284. 303 biB , 
 corr. 273. 284—302. 305—308, re- 
 flex. 273. 302. 303 bis , honor. 273. 
 303, poss. 273. 281—282. 302. 303 
 —305, demonstr. 284. 285—287. 
 291. 304, rel. 284. 287—288. 310, 
 inter. 284. 288. 299, indef. 284. 
 289. 299. 309—310, of quantity 
 289. 291. 293. 294. 297. 305—307. 
 313, of quality 294. 295. 307—308. 
 313, enclitic 338. 345. 
 
 Pronunciation of neut. vowel 4, short 
 vowel 4. 5, palatals 7. 8, cerebrals 
 8 — 10, init. U and 5T 16, 5M6, r, 
 1 etc. 6, ^ and ^ 12, ^ 13, Ma- 
 gadhi 17, seniicons. and semivowels 
 
 17. 18, x& and ^ 21, ST und d 24. 
 25. 270, anunasika and anusvara 
 27. 31, Beng. verb. term. 349, tjT 35, 
 ST 36, tT 35, ^ 35. 
 Proportional numb, see num. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quality pron. of 294. 295. 307—308. 
 
 318. 
 Quantity pron. of 289. 291. 293. 294. 
 
 305—307. 313. 
 Quiescent m 4. 31. 36. 37. 38. 97. 128. 
 ' 265, ^ and 3 38. 128. 252. 254. 338. 
 
 R. 
 
 Radical vowel 316, tenses 331. 331 
 —345. 
 
 Reduction of asp. 57. 58. 59. 65 — 67. 
 79. 270, vowels 32. 33. 38. 261. 
 
 Redundant form see form. 
 
 Reduplication of roots 367, num. 271. 
 272, emph. part. 397, suff. 97. 101. 
 102. 104. 
 
 Reduplicative numb, see num. 
 
 Reflexive pron. 273. 302. 303 bi9 . 
 
 Reflexiveness verbs express, of 386. 
 
 Regular verb conjugated see conjug. 
 
 Relation express, by suff. see suff. 
 
 Relative pron. 284. 287—288. 310. 
 
 Remote demonstr. pron. 273. 
 
 Repetition adverb. 390. 391. 
 
 Respect term, of 393. 
 
 Respectful termin. 339. 
 
 Resultant single cons. 57 — 58, conj. 
 cons. 75 — 77. 
 
 Retention of double cons. 80, of ^[ 
 in conj. 74. 76—77. 255. 
 
 Romance lang. 239. 
 
 Roots 159—179. 331. 387, in long 
 vowels 46. 387, permut. of see per- 
 mut., not in E. H. 166, primary 
 161. 161—171. 177, secondary 161. 
 171 — 177. 177, unchanged 161, de- 
 rivative see deriv., denom. see de- 
 nom., compound see compound, 
 simple 168. 171. 174. 319. 319, pass. 
 168. 171, caus. see caus., paraphra- 
 sed 174, tatsama 179. 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 415 
 
 Sandhi 36. 47. 48. 
 
 Second pers. of verbs 331, preter. 
 
 see pret., pers. pron. 273. 276. 2S0. 
 
 281. 303 b! ". 
 Secondary deriv. suff. see derivat. 
 Semicerebrals 9. 10. 25. 
 Semiconsonant 17. 24. 
 Semidentals 7. 
 Semitatsama G7. 75. 77. 112. 180. 255. 
 
 309. 
 Semivoiuels 6. 
 Setubandha 217. 218. 
 Slwrt vowel 3. 4. 5. 82. 83, form see 
 
 form. 
 Shortening of antepenult, vowel 32. 
 
 83. 97, long vowels 46. 90. 101. 
 ' 102. 145. 156. 171. 261. 317. 318. 
 
 335. 396, final U 53, radic. vowel 
 
 316. 317. 
 Sibilants 6. 
 Signs of plur. 185. 189—192. 232, 
 
 nasalization 6, vowels 3. 
 Simple roots see roots, plural 185, 
 
 causal 383—384. 385, verb 816.317. 
 Simplification of conj. cons. 57. 76. 
 
 79-85. 115. 
 Sindhi old 219, agreement with E. H. 
 
 15. 16, roots not in E. H. 160, pre- 
 serves short vowel 85, type of obi. 
 
 term. 192, obi. in poetry 203, anom. 
 
 pron. forms 279 — 280, anom. indef. 
 
 pron. 309, pres. part, in ^ or ^T 
 
 358, anom. first pers. suff. 336, 
 
 pleon. suff. in S. 110. 
 Single cons, see cons., vowels see 
 
 vowels. 
 Singular 185. 187. 192. 331. 
 Special Hindi vowels 4. 
 Specimens of E. H. 398—407. 
 Spelling see phonetic 5, in Gujarat! 
 
 201, of sfcj^as 3R 252. 
 
 Softening of cons. 57. 58. 59. 60 — 65. 
 
 83. 392. 
 Strong forms see forms, conj. 75, 
 
 auxil. verb 369—370. 
 Substantive 179—246. 268, forms 179 
 
 — 181, see also forms, gender 181 
 
 — 185, numb. 185—216. 
 Substitution see change. 
 Subtractive numb, see num. 
 Suddenness verbs express, of 386. 
 Suffix of nomin. 215, accus. 207. 391, 
 
 instrument, 205. 206. 212. 230, dat. 
 
 207, abl. 205. 206. 207. 211. 230. 
 391, gen. sing. 192. 193. 195.203. 
 204—206. 207—208. 209. 211, gen. 
 plur. 194. 198. 203. 205—206. 208 
 —209.211.212, loc. 51.52.70.205. 
 206. 207. 391, obi. plur. 185. 272, 
 pres. ind. 341. 344, SlY of l 8t sing. 
 
 pres. 52. 331. 335—336. 337, jf 
 of l 8t pi. pres. 70. 331. 335—336. 
 
 338, 3 of 2' 1 sing. pres. 331. 335. 
 337—338, 3TT of 2 d pi. pres. 70. 331. 
 336. 338—339, Sf[ or 5T of 2 d plur. 
 331—332. 336. 339, ^ of 3 d sing, 
 pres. 51. 331. 335, ^" of 3 d pi. pres. 
 51. 70. 227. 337, #u% of 3 d pi. pres. 
 83, iffrT or 3rT^or 3 ; T^or Srlr^or 3rT^ 
 
 339, pres. imper. 331. 333, 3 of 
 imper. 53. 331, pres. conj. 331. 333, 
 prec. 339— 341, ^?iT 340— 341, first 
 pret. ind. 345. 349, WT^ of past 
 tense 34. 62—63. 137—144. 350. 
 360, i 3 d sing. fut. ind. 33. 70, 
 W[^ of part. pres. 83. 136—137. 
 353. 359. or #? or TT 358, past 
 part. 137— 144^345. 350. 359. 378, 
 fut. part. 145—150. 355. 378, conj. 
 part. 4. 329, infin. 145—154. 159, 
 ^ obi. infin. 87, caus. verbs 317. 
 319, inchoat. 363, verbal omitted 
 see elision. 
 
 Suffixes redupl. see reduplication, 
 contr. 100, their meaning see mea- 
 ning, vulg. see vulg., diminut. see 
 diminutive, expressing smallness 
 100. 107, contempt 100, affection 
 100, likeness 107. 111. 119. 122. 
 134, possession 115. 117.118.120. 
 121. 122. 135, relation 120. 122. 
 129. 132. 135, desire 131, workers 
 of something 129—130, wages or 
 price 146, instrument 151, place 
 151, resembling compounds see 
 comp., added to verb, roots 114, 
 forming abstr. nouns 112. 113. 114. 
 116. 117. 123. 131. 132, feminines 
 123, numerals 128, ord. numbers 
 126. 267, nouns of act 145. 146. 
 150. 151. 154. 155. 157, nouns of 
 
416 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 agency 145. 147. 150. 151. 156. 158, 
 used with foreign words 125, ano- 
 mal. 126. 136, improper 127 — 136, 
 confused 133. 145. 153, conjuga- 
 tional 4. 34. 331. 333. 339. 341. 344. 
 345. 349. 350. 353. 355. 358, pleon. 
 rad. 161, derivat. see deriv., pleon. 
 see pleon., pleon. verbal see aff. 
 
 Superlative degree 250. 
 
 Supine 333. 
 
 Suppression of intermed. vowel 75, 
 see also elision. 
 
 Symbol see sign. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tadbhava 57. 59. 75. 
 
 Tassy de 277. 
 
 Tatsama 5. 10. 16. 17. 24. 26. 67. 
 112. 116. 179. 183. 225. 267. 
 
 Tenses 331 — 367, past act. 217, pres. 
 331. 331—339, past 331, fut.331, 
 simple 331, comp. 342 — 343, part. 
 248. 331. 345—359, periphrastic 
 331. 350. 359—367. 373—375. 380. 
 384. 
 
 Termination dir. 212 — 216, nom. 54, 
 verb. 51. 52, of roots 159, obi. and 
 dir. forms 187—189, old plur. 189, 
 obi. plur. 198.212, nom. plur. 199, 
 trans, verbs 317, ^T^of l 8t pers. 
 in Bengali 351. 
 
 Theth 10. 11. 12. 16. 75. 197. 
 
 Third pers. of verbs 331, pers. pron. 
 273. 304. 
 
 Time pronom. adv. of 311.312.389. 
 390. 
 
 Transfer of aspiration see aspirat., 
 of Z or 3 into the preceding syl- 
 lable 3-1 . 100. 236. 335. 339. 351. 352. 
 
 Transitive verbs 316. 317. 333. 348. 
 350. 360. 380. 384. 
 
 Transliteration of neutral vowel 3, 
 anunasika 6, cerebrals 9. 
 
 Transposition of vowels 391 — 392, of 
 cons. 73. 257. 270. 294. 305. 315. 
 
 Trumpp 227. 
 
 Tulsi Das 196. 198. 208. 230. 231. 
 232. 234. 237. 
 
 Types two of 1 st pers. pron. 274, two 
 of obi. forms 192, six of correl. 
 
 pron. 289, four of qualit. pron. 307. 
 308, six of pron. adv. 313, six of 
 fat. indie. 356. 
 Typical regular act. verbs 375—378, 
 irre<?. verbs 378—380. 
 
 u. 
 
 Uncontracted form see form. 
 
 Uniformity of roots 154 — 167. 172. 
 174, conjugational base 162 — 164, 
 declensional base 103, caus. 202. 
 203. 218. 
 
 Urdu 219. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vedic Sanskr. 13. 15. 175. 176. 329. 
 
 Verbal nouns 145. 147. 148, adv. see 
 adv., form pleon. 362, form neg. 
 363, suff. pleon. 338. 
 
 Verbs 316 — 389, conjug. of see con- 
 jug., transit, see trans., intrans. 
 see intrans., causal see causal, de- 
 fect, see defect., irreg. see irreg., 
 auxiliary 333. 342. 343. 347. 354. 
 359. 360. 361—367. 367—371. 385, 
 express, various meanings 386. 
 
 Vidydpati 196. 232. 233. 
 
 Violence verbs express. 386. 
 
 Virdma 3. 
 
 Visarga 26. 36. 
 
 Vocables in E. H. 398—399. 
 
 Vocalisation of a^ and S 16. 17. 35. 
 57. 67—68. 117?162. 318, nasals 57. 
 
 Vocative = obi. sing, or nom. plur. 
 215—216, of long adj. 249. 
 
 Voices of verbs, 316. 322-326. 
 
 Vowel 3, rt, ri etc. 6, single vowels 
 42 — 47, connecting vow. see con- 
 necting, radical vow. 316. 
 
 Vrddhi 317. 
 
 Vulgar forms of H. 10. 179. 237. 247, 
 form3 of pers. pron. 273, suff. 100. 
 101. 
 
 w. 
 
 Weak conjuncts 75, forms see forms, 
 past part, form 345. 348, auxil. 
 verb 368—369. 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 p. II. 1. 20. extends for extents. 
 
 p. III. 1. 2 2. Kachchh for Kachh. 
 
 p. III. 1. 23. Kachchhi for Kachhf. 
 
 p. IV. 1. 2 9. however for howerer. 
 
 p. VI. 1. 2. eighthly for eightly. 
 
 p. VIII. 1. 14. XXXVII for XXXV. 
 
 p. IX. 1. 29. and the short for and of the short. 
 
 p. XVII. 1.3 2. valakko for valakko. 
 
 p. XXIV. 1. 17. what for what. 
 
 p. XXV. 1. 3 3. Prachya for Pracha. 
 
 p. XXV. 1. 3 4. Prachya for Gaudi. 
 
 p. XXXVII. 1. 11. comes for come. 
 
 p. XXXVII. 1. 20. Prakas for Prakas. 
 
 p. 17. 1. 28. difficulty for difficulty. 
 
 p. 56. 1. 2 7. give thou for take thou. 
 
 p. 57. 1. 5. ^rqr for ^rrr^. 
 
 p. 61. 1. 3 3. JTlTc^ for qr?Tc^. 
 
 p. 64. 1. 31. ^T or srn^T for sUrg" or sr^^. 
 
 p. 65. 1. 29. § 77 for § 74. 
 
 p. 7 0. 1. 7. add: E. H. srf^ or 5T5T . 
 
 p. 7 0. 1. 10. ^W for ^tt. 
 
 p. 104. 1. 34. 5TT3.J for ST3£. 
 
 p. 107. 1. 6. rrrf^L for sff^L- 
 
 p. 110. 1. 24. i 3JTteT for WZTT. 
 
 p. 110. 1. 2 6. ftpftTT for f^UpliT. 
 
 p. 112. 1. 2 3. n^m^ for jt^ttt. 
 
 p. 12 3. 1. 34. ^Tcttt for 'afr&t. 
 
 p. 124. 1. 10. ir?TT son for srrr son. 
 
 p. 141. 1. 6. ^PrRT or =gf^5T /or ^rf^rq; or =gf^rq^. 
 
ADDENDA. 
 
 p. 67. rule 119, 2. W. II. ^TTT three and a half for Pr. *3TT°, 
 see § 41 6. 
 
 p. 88. rule 160. "r^ becomes ~Z in S., P., Mw. *st£t for sfrft suffix 
 of pres. part., see £ 301. Also P., S. <f?T five for Pr. <i^, 
 Skr. T^, see p. 2 5 6. 
 
 p. 90. rule 17 2. W. H. ^T7TT for *^tn three and a half, see 
 § 416. 
 
 p. 90. add rule 17 2 a . Z is elided; rax*ely; E. H. ^T^ or =^T1[ he 
 desires, Pr. J^ra^, Skr. * S^^TOTH, see p. 389, footnote. 
 
 p. 113. rule 227. The forms W and FFT are preserved in the 0. II. 
 of Chand; e. g. 33^ old age Pr. R. 28, 38; gtfTFFT friend- 
 ship Pr. R. 28, 56; 3^T5TrPT prosperity Pr. R. 2 8, 38; cfZctt 
 old a fie Pr. R. 28, 3 8. 
 
 }>. 117. rule 239. In 0. H. the suff. is yrr; e. g. pTrfrT lloody 
 Chand Pr. R. 28. 3 9. 
 
 PRINTED BY CHARLES GEORGI, BONN. 
 
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TABLE OF ALPHABETS 
 
 1. Pali 3 6 - Cent. B.C. 
 
 2. Pali d*-° 
 
 3. Pall d 1 - (Girnar) 
 
 4. Gupta 5*- h Cent A D. 
 
 5. Valabhi d'-° 
 
 6 .Kutila 1G"- h Cent.A.D. 
 7. Kaithi 
 8 Mahajani 
 
 9. Devanagari 
 
 10. Panjabi 
 11.Bangah 
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