John Sv/ett fc^cr-li HI. CO V PROGRESSIVE MAP XV I .l.; r -:-.-4f; '.'::i"T7r ~ : " A Manual OF General History: Being an Outline History of the World from the Creation to the Present Time. FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS. FOR THE USE OP ACADEMIES, HIGH-SCHOOLS, AND FAMILIES. BY JOHK J. AKDERSOISu A.M., LATE PRINCIPAL OP GRAMMAR-SCHOOL NO. 31, NEW YORK CITY; AUTHOR OP AN INTRODUCTORY SCHOOL-HISTORY, A COMMON-SCHOOL HISTORY, A GRAMMAR SCHOOL HISTORY, AND A PICTORIAL SCHOOL HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. NEW YORK : CLARK & MAYNARD, PUBLISHERS, 5 BARCLAY STREET. 1870. SCHOOL HISTORIES JOHN J. ANDERSON, A. M., Late Principal of Grammar School No. 31, New York. City. 1. Introductory School History of the United Slates. Illustrated with maps. 194 pp. 16mo. This work, though arranged on the catechetical plan, may he read independ- ently of the questions as a continuous narrative, the text having been fully writ- ten before the questions were prepared. It is designed for classes of ad- vanced AS WELL AS LOWER GRADES, IN WHICH ONLY AN OUTLINE OF UNITED States History is taught. 2. Common School History of the United States. Illustrated with maps. 350 pp. 16mo. This work is more catechetical than the preceding, since the answers are more independent of each other. It is designed for large graded schools. 3. Grammar School History of the United States. With one series of maps showing the places referred to in the work, and another showing the progress of the country, with its territorial extent at different pe- riods in its History. 252 pp. 16mo. The narrative plan has been adopted in this book, with one set of questions at the bottom of the pases, and another for topical review at the end of the sections. This work will meet all the wants of graded schools and academies. 4. Pictorial School History of the United States. Fully illustrated with maps, portraits, vignettes, &c. 402 pp. 12mo. This work is also on the narrative plan, but more circumstantial in its state- ments than any of the preceding. It is designed for High Schools and Academies. *** All of the above-named works contain the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States, with questions and explanations : and in the Grammar School History will also be found Washington's Farewell Address. 5. A manual of General History. Copiously illus- trated with maps, and accompanied with questions, Chronological Tables, Tables of Contemporaneous History, etc. etc. 420 pp. 12mo. This work has been prepared with great care on the narrative plan. Its statements are brief and clear. Designed for advanced classes. 6. Anderson's Rloss's Ancient History. Illustrated with colored maps and a chart. 445 pp. 12mo. Designed for High Schools and Academies. One of the leading atms in all of Anderson's Histories is to con- nect the geography with the chronology. Clark & Maynard, publishers, 5 BARCLAY ST., New York. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1809. By JOHN J. ANDERSON, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for tte Southern District of New York. TO TEACHEES. This work is designed to supply what the author be- lieves to be a great want among school text-books at the present time — namely, a convenient manual of gen- eral history, with the necessary geographical and chro- nological accompaniments. The plan pursued corres- ponds with that of the author's popular school his- tories of the United States, the situation of the differ- ent places mentioned in the text being shown on maps, specially prepared for this work. These maps, as far as it w r as found possible in so elementary a work, also present the progressive changes in the various polit- ical divisions of which the history successively treats. In connection with them is given a system of map- questions, by which the pupil's attention is called to the exact location of places just previous to their oc- currence in the History. The value of this plan has never been disputed by any teacher or student by whom it has been employed, experience clearly showing, that by associating events with places, both are more permanently impressed on the mind. The questions at the bottom of the pages are chiefly designed to draw attention to single facts, or to very brief statements ; those at the end of the sections, called Bevieiv Questions, associate facts belonging to the same individual, place, or train of events, and are thus of a topical character. This system of exercises &4S51J4 TO TEACHERS. affords all that is needed to give the pupil that power and readiness of grouping, describing, and relating, in which the chief value of historical study consists. The arrangement of matter followed is that by countries, rather than by periods, the author being of opinion, that the latter tends to confuse very much the mind of a student who has not already acquired a pretty good outline of the history of each country de- scribed. By dividing the whole subject into the periods of Ancient, Mediceval, and Modern history, the awkward and unsatisfactory method has been avoided of keeping the pupil's attention, while he is studying the history of one country, entirely away from the con- temporaneous history of other nations. This is still further obviated by the several tables of contemporane- ous events interspersed through the work. Events that are connected with the history of several countries are referred to briefly in each, so that they may be im- pressed upon the mind more clearly, by being viewed from each as a stand-point. The indicated pronunciation of proper names, which in the study of general history (particularly of ancient history) are so apt to be mispronounced, will be found a source of great convenience to both teacher and pupil, to whom it is not always possible to consult such vocabularies as contain these words, and who, therefore, generally acquire, by habit, incorrect methods of pronunciation, very difficult afterward to be aban- doned. The authorities employed are Webster's and Worcester s Dictionaries, and Lippincotfs Pronouncing Gazetteer. Being convinced of the great importance of chro- nology, the author has inserted dates very freely, but generally so as to form no essential part of the narra- TO TEACHERS. tive, — in order that, while the pupil need not be ex- pected to make these dates a matter of special study., he may obtain, by keeping them in view, a definite idea of the events in their order of occurrence, and of the intervals of time by which they are separated. — Teachers need not be admonished against the folly of requiring dates to be memorized apart from the nar- rative to which they relate. The maps should be used freely, being consulted constantly, and occasionally drawn on the blackboard, either by the teacher, or one of the pupils. No recita- tion should be permitted without a reference to them. In this way, the conceptions of the pupils will be made clear and accurate, the eyes as well as the ears being called into requisition. Trusting that this work will receive the generous patronage and consideration awarded to his other historical publications, the author, with these few remarks and suggestions, commits it to the impartial examination of his colaborers in the cause of educa- tion. MAPS. MAPS. -♦-♦-, PAGH 1. The Persian Empire under Darius (Progressive Map, No. 1), Frontispiece. 2. Ancient Monarchies 12 3. Ancient Greece (Progressive Map, No. 2) facing 33 4. Asia Minor 41 5. The Retreat of the Ten Thousand '. 47 6. The Marches of Alexander the Great 52 7. Ancient Italy (Progressive Map, No. 3) facing 67 8. Vicinity of Rome 68 9. The Roman Empire under Augustus (Progressive Map, No. 4) facing 104 10. The Barbaric Monarchies at the commencement of the reign of Justinian (Progressive Map, No. 5) facing 131 11. The Empire of Charlemagne and the Contemporary Mon- archies (Progressive Map, No. 6) facing 142 12. Great Britain and Ireland 158 13. France, and the neighboring Countries 188 14. Spain and Portugal 226 15. The Places referred to in the Modern History of Europe (Progressive Map, No. 7) facing 232 16. Discoveries and Explorations in North America 358 17. South America (Progressive Map, No. 8) facing 366 18.' Part of New Jersey and Pennsylvania 372 19. The United States at the close of the Revolution (Progressive Map, No. 9) facing 374 20. The Niagara Frontier 377 21. Taylor's Campaign 380 22. Scott's Campaign 381 23. Part of Maryland and Virginia 384 CONTENTS. PAGH INTRODUCTION 9 PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY. SECTION I.— The Most Ancient Nations 11 Babylonia or Chaldea (12) ; Assyria (14) ; Media (16) ; Lydia (17) ; Ancient Egypt (19) ; Ethiopia (24) ; Syria and Pales- tine (25) ; Chronological Recapitulation (28). SECTION II. — Persia, Greece, and Macedonia 31 Persia (31); Greece (33); Macedonian Empire (49) ; Chrono- logical Recapitulation (64). SECTION III.— Rome 67 Samnite War (75) ; Punic Wars (77) ; Pergamus (84) ; The Gracchi (86) ; War against Jugurtha (88) ; Social War (89) ; Mithridatic War (89) ; Civil War of Marius and Sylla (90) ; Servile War (91) ; Jewish history (92) ; Conspiracy of Cati- line (93) ; First Triumvirate (93) ; Second Civil War (95) ; Second Triumvirate (99) ; Chronological Recapitulation (100) ; Table of Contemporaneous Events (102). SECTION IV.— The Roman Empire 104 Augustus (104); Tiberius (105); Caligula (106); Claudius (106) ; Nero (107) ; Galba (108) ; Otho (108) ; Vitellius (108) ; Vespasian (109); Titus (109); Domitian (110); The Five Good Emperors (111); Commodus (113); Pertinax (114); Septimius Severus (114); Caracalla (115); Macrinus (115); Heliogabalus (116) ; Alexander Severus (116) ; Maximin (116) ; Gordian (117) ; Decius (117) ; Valerian (117) ; Gallie- nus (118); Claudius (119); Aurelian (119); Tacitus (120); Diocletian (120) ; Constantine (121) ; Julian the Apostate (122) ; Jovian (123) ; Theodosius the Great (123) ; Honorius (124) ; Valentinian III. (125) ; Maximus (125) ; Romulus Au- gustulus (127) ; Chronological Recapitulation (127). CONTENTS. PART II. MEDIAEVAL HISTOEY. SECTION I.— The Eastern Empire 131 SECTION IL— The Dark Ages 142 The Franks (142) ; The Normans (146) ; The Saxons in Brit- ain (147) ; The Saracens (149) ; The Feudal System (153) ; Chronological Recapitulation (154). SECTION III.— England in the Middle Ages 157 Norman Kings (160) ; The Plantagenets (163) ; Chronologi- cal Recapitulation (184). SECTION IV.— France during the Mlddle Ages 187 Branch of Yalois (196) ; Chronological Recapitulation (202). SECTION V.— The Crusades 205 First Crusade (206) ; Second Crusade (207) ; Third Crusade (208) ; Fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh Crusades (209) ; Influence of the Crusades (210) ; Chronological Recapitulation (211). SECTION VI. — Central and Southern Europe during the Middle Ages 213 Germany (213); The Hanseatic League (216); Switzerland (219) ; Italy (220) ; Spain (225) ; Portugal (227) ; Chronologi- cal Recapitulation (228) ; Table of Contemporaneous Events (230). PART III. MODERN HISTORY. SECTION I.— England 232 The Tudors (232); The Stuart Family (245) ; The Common- wealth (254) ; House of Brunswick (267) ; Chronological Re- capitulation (281). SECTION II.— France 285 House of Bourbon (295) ; Chronological Recapitulation (329). SECTION III.— European States 325 Germany (325); Austria (330) ; Prussia (331) ; Poland (333); Holland and Belgium (335); Sweden, Norway, and Den- mark (337); Russia (340); Switzerland (343); Italy (344); Spain (346) ; Portugal (348) ; Turkey (349) ; Greece (352) ; Chronological Recapitulation (353); Table of Contempo- raneous Events (357). SECTION IV.— American History 359 Discoveries and Settlements (359); United States (369); Mexico (391) ; Central America (392) ; West Indies (393) ; Chronological Recapitulation (396). INTRODUCTION. HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY — THEIR DIVISIONS, SOURCES, ETC. 1. History is a narration of the events which have hap- pened among mankind, including an account of the rise and fall of nations, as well as of other great changes which have affected the political and social condition of the human race. 2. Chronology is a department of history which treats of the exact time, or date, of each event, with reference to some fixed time, called an era or epoch. The epoch usually employed in our times among Christian nations for reck- oning dates, is the birth of Christ, called the Christian Ura.* All dates preceding this are marked b. c, that is, Before Christ; and all subsequent to it are marked A. D., that is, Anno Domini, which means In the year of our Lord ; that is, After the Mrth of Christ. 3. Previous to the fifth century b. c, there are but few dates that can be fixed with tolerable certainty ; that is to say, no uninterrupted series of dates can be accurately and positively assigned to events which are known to have occurred. In the earliest ages all dates are uncertain, authorities differing very much with regard to them, from * This era is, however, commonly placed four years after the time a* which the birth of Christ k supposed to have taken place. Intkodtction.— 1. What is history? 2. What is chronology ? What is an era or epoch? What epoch is usually em- ployed ? What does B. O mean ? A. D. ? 3. When do dates hecome reliable? 1* 10 INTRODUCTION. the absence of reliable information respecting these very remote periods. 4. History is best divided into Ancient, Mediceval, and Modern. Ancient history is considered to end 476 A. d., the date of the destruction of the western division of the Eoman Empire. Mediaeval history, or the history of the Middle Ages, extends from 476 a. d. to about the time of the fall of the eastern division of the Eoman Empire, in 1453. All subsequent history belongs to the third division. This mode of dividing the subject is, however, entirely arbitrary. 5. The most important facts to be learned in history are those that refer to the progress of mankind in civilization, — in the arts, sciences, literature, political freedom, social culture, and religious truth. Whatever events have no immediate bearing upon these, though often affording mat- ter for curious reflection and interesting research, are of secondary importance. 6. The chief sources of ancient history are the Sacred Scriptures of the Old and New Testament, which are the compositions of inspired writers, the works of ancient writers not divinely inspired, and ancient monuments, medals, coins, inscriptions, etc. 4. How is history divided ? At what date does ancient history end ? M idiaeval history ? What other division is there ? 5. What are the most important facts of history ? 6. What are the chief sources of ancient history ? PAET I. ANCIENT HISTO'BT. section i. The most Ahcieht Nations. Extending from the Earliest Ages to the Foundation of the Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great. 1. The exact date of the Creation and Fall of Man can- not be fixed with any degree of certainty, neither can the interval of time between the Creation and the Deluge be ascertained. The estimates of different chronologists as to these facts yary so widely that they seem worthy of no credence whatever. The difficulty of assigning the exact time of those events does not, however, at all diminish the evidence of their actual occurrence. 2. After the dispersion of mankind at Ba'bel, it is sup- posed that the descendants of Shem, the eldest of Noah's sons, went to the east and populated Asia ; those of Ham, with few exceptions, passed into Africa; and those of Ja'phet journeyed to the west and occupied different parts of Europe. The oldest monarchies, of which history gives us any account, are those of Babylonia and Assy'ria in Asia, and those of Egypt and Ethio'pia in Africa. Map Questions. — (See Map, page 1?.) What rivers unite and flow into the Persian Gulf? What region situated between them? Where was Babylonia? Assyria? Chaldea ? Persia or Elam ? Media ? What city in Babylonia ? In Chaldea ? In As- syria? In Media? Where was Susa? What river tributary to the Euxine or Black Sea? What monarchy in Asia Minor ? Its capital? What regions east of the Mediterranean Sea ? Principal cities ? What two great cities on the Nile River? What port at its eastern mouth ? What port at the head of the Red Sea ? What celebrated mountain near to it ? What region east of the Euxine Sea ? Section I.— 1. Can the exact date of the creation and fall of man be fixed ? 2. What events immediately followed the dispersion of mankind ? Whither did the eons of Noah migrate ? Which are the oldest monarchies ? .% THE 2.I03T ANCIENT NATIONS. [B. C. 2200. Babylonia or Chaldea. 3. The city of Bab'ylon was founded by Nimrod, the son of Cush, and grandson of Ham. It was situated on the river Euphrates, and became the capital of Babylo'nia or Chalde'a, — a region lying along that river, and originally called SM'nar. 4. Nimrod is described in the Scriptures as a "mighty hunter," and is supposed to be the same as the Be'lus of whom the historians speak in connection with the early history of this country, or the Bel, afterward worshipped as a god by the people. The constellation Ori'on is thought to represent this celebrated hero. 3. By whom was Babylon founded ? How situated ? Of what was it the capital J 4. Who was Nimrod ? B. C. 74?'.] THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 13 5. Babylon is supposed to have been built about twenty- two centuries B. c. It was in its early history a city of minor importance, Ur and others being capital cities while it remained a mere village. The Ohaldees (kal-decz') seem to have occupied at first the shores of the Persian Gulf, and to have afterward spread northward, until about 1700 B. c, when the seat of government was fixed at Babylon. 6. The minute history of this monarchy during about a thousand years from this date cannot be given; neither can its relations to the neighboring kingdoms of Assy'ria and E'lam, during this period, be positively defined. The explorations made in recent years among the ruins found in this whole region (called Mesopotamia) have thrown much light upon many questions pertaining to its history ; but an exact statement of the particular results reached would be out of place in this elementary work. 7. The line of Babylonian kings becomes exactly known to us from the year 747 b. c. The " Canon of Ptolemy," an astronomical work of the great geographer, gives us from this date the succession of monarchs to 330 B. c, when Babylon became a part of the dominions of Alexander the Great. The inscriptions discovered among the ruins con- firm the truth of this work. 8. The date of the commencement of the reign of Nabo- nas'sar is precisely fixed by the record of certain astronom- ical phenomena, made by Ptolemy. This date, called the Era of Nabonassar, is very famous in history. It is the year 747 B. c. (more particularly, Wednesday, February 26th of that year). 9. About 680 b. c. Babylon became subject to Assyria, but subsequently regained its independence; and under 5. When was Babylon built ? What is said of the Chaldees ? 6. To what extent is the early history of Babylonia known ? What region was called Mesopotamia ? Recent discoveries therein ? 7. When does the exact history of the Babylonian kings begin? What does the " Canon of Ptolemy"'' make known to us ? How confirmed ? 8. What is the Era of Nabonassar ? How is it fixed ? 9. When was Babylon subject to Assyria? Give the history of Nebuchad- nezzar ? 14 THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. [B. C. 588. the celebrated monarch Nebucliadnez' zar, acquired very great power. This king defeated the king of Egypt, sub- dued Jehoi'akim, king of Judah, and in consequence of repeated revolts, destroyed Jerusalem, and put an end to the kingdom of Judah under Zedeki'ah, carrying its in- habitants captives to Babylon (588 b. c.) He afterward turned his attention to the embellishment of his capital, and erected in Babylon many edifices of wonderful extent and magnificence. 10. After his death the Babylonian empire declined; and In 538 b. c, during the reign of Belshaz'zar,* as recorded in the Scriptures, the city was taken by Cyrus, king of the Persians ; and Babylonia thus became a Persian province. Assyeia. 11. Of the three countries that occupied the plain of Mesopotamia, Assyria was the most modern. It was a very fertile and populous region, and at the height of its pros- perity was a powerful empire. That it had advanced greatly in civilization and the arts, is proved by the vast ruins which remain, and which in recent years have been dili- gently explored. 12. The inscriptions discovered among these ruins have shown that very much of the history, previously received upon the credit of the Greek historians, is quite erroneous. The statements, however, of the Babylonian writer Bero'- sus, who lived about 268 b. c, and whose account coincides very nearly with the Scriptures, are proved to be correct. 13. Nineveh, the capital city of Assyria, built on the Tigris River, and once among the most splendid cities of the world, was, according to the Scriptures, built by Ash'- . * More probably STahona/dim and his son Belshaz'zar. 10. What followed the death of Nebuchadnezzar? When and by whom waa Babylon taken ? 1 1 . What was the situation of Assyria ? How is it described ? Evidences of its civilization ! 12. What have the inscriptions shown ? What is said of Berosus ? 13. Nineveh— its situation and origin ? When did it rise to greatness ? B. C. 721.] THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 15 ur, after the foundation of Babylon {Genesis, x. 11). That it rose to greatness after Babylon is stated by Berosus and proved by the inscriptions. 14. Little is known of Assyria previous to 770 b. a, when Pul invaded Palestine, but was bought off by Men' ahem, king of Israel (2 Kings, xv. 19, 20). In 738 B. c, Tig'lath Pile'ser, another king of Assyria, conquered Syria, and in- vading Palestine, carried away captive many of the Jews. 15. His successor Slial-man-e' ser also invaded Palestine, and laid siege to Sama'ria, the capital of the kingdom of Israel, which after a time surrendered (721 B. a), but prob- ably to Sar'gon, the successor of Shalmaneser ; since such seems to be the testimony of the monuments (2 Kings, xviii. 9, 10). 16. Sen-nacli'e-rib, the son and successor of Sargon, ob- tained possession of Babylon, and made two expeditions against Judea, in the first of which he carried away 200,000 of the Jews captive ; but in the second he failed entirely, his army having been destroyed by a pestilence, miraculously sent by God to preserve the Jews. This was during the reign of the Jewish king Hez-e-ki' ah. Sen- nacherib was a short time afterward slain by his sons. 17. The last great king of Assyria was E' sar-liad' don, son of Sennacherib, who reigned also over Babylon, at which he sometimes held his court; bricks bearing his name having been recently found among the ruins of that city. His conquests extended over a large part of Western Asia, and he claimed authority over Egypt and Ethiopia. Manas' sell, king of Judah, was brought as a prisoner be fore him at Babylon ; but after a few years' detention was restored to his throne, by the clemency of the Assyrian monarch. The Babylonian reign of Esar-haddon lasted 14. First well-established'date in Assyrian history ? Date of Tiglath Pileser'a invasion of Palestine ? What conquests did he make ? 15. Give an account of Shalmaneser's invasion ? 1 6. What expeditions were undertaken by Sennacherib ? Their results ? 17. Who was the last great king of Assyria ? His conquests? What Jewish king was made prisoner by him ? Duration of his reign ? 16 THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. [B. C. 606. thirteen years (from 680 b. o. to 667 b. a), but how long lie reigned subsequently at Nineveh cannot be positively ascertained. 18. After this splendid reign Assyria rapidly declined, and was frequently attacked by the Medes, then rising into power. In 606 b. c. (or 625 B. a), Nin'eveh was taken and destroyed by these people, under their king Cy-ax'a-res. The last king, Sar'acus, called Sar-dan-a-pa '- lus by the Greeks, finding that he could make no success- ful resistance, set fire to his palace, and perished, with all belonging to him, in the conflagration. Assyria then be- came a Median province, and afterward, with Babylonia, formed one of the divisions of the Persian empire. 19. Nineveh, in the time of Herod'otus, had ceased to exist ; and when Xen'ophon passed it (401 B. a), during the expedition of which he gives an account, the very name had been forgotten, though he testifies to the extent of the deserted city, stating that the height of the ruined walls was 150 feet. Media. 20. The fall of Nin'eveh produced a great change in the condition of Western Asia. Babylon became independent under a line of native kings, who in a short time raised their country to a very high degree of power and pros- perity. The Medes, then just risen into power, rapidly overran and subdued the whole region from the Caspian Sea to the Hd'lys River, and made war upon Lyd'ia, a country lying farther west. 21. These people, resembling the Persians in origin and language, coming from the east, had settled in the region lying immediately south of the Caspian Sea, and were at 18. What was the subsequent history of Assyria ? When and by whom waa Nineveh taken ? What was done by Saracus, or Sardanapalus ? What became of Assyria ? 1 9. What is said of the subsequent history of Nineveh ? 20. What was the effect of the fall of Nineveh ? What was accomplished bv the Medes ? 2 1 . Who were the Medes ? How did their power commence ? B. C. T08.] THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 17 first subject to the Assyrians; but about 708 B. a, the various tribes united and threw off the Assyrian yoke, choosing a king named Defo-ces, and making Eclat' ana their capital. 22. His son Pliraor'tes subdued the Persians, and at his death was succeeded by Cyaxares, who spread his con- quests so widely, as to be considered the founder of the Great Median" Empire. He was succeeded by Astyages (as-ti'ah-jez), whose daughter married a Persian prince, and gave birth to Cyrus, afterward called The Great. Cyrus, being bold and aspiring, put himself at the head of the Persian tribes, and marching with a large army into Media, deposed Astyages, and uniting the Median and Persian dominions under himself as monarch, thus founded the Great Persian Empire. Lydia. 23. Lyd'ia was situated in the western part of Asia Minor, and was especially noted for its fruitful soil and great mineral wealth, its chief river, the Pactolus, abound- ing in gold, which was also found in the neighboring mines. Hence the Lydians soon became corrupted by luxury and vicious indulgences. They are supposed to have settled in Asia Minor about 720 b. c. The early history of this people is fabulous and unreliable. 24. During about two centuries the Lydian monarchy occupied a prominent position in the history of Western Asia ; and when Cyaxares the Mede overran this part of the country, he was completely checked in his career of conquest by the Lydians under their king, Alyattes (a-le- at'tez) ; and after a war of six years, in which he had been often defeated by the Lydians, Cyaxares retired beyond the 22. Conquests of Phraortes and Cyaxares ? By whom was the Median Empire founded ? By whom and in what manner was the Persian Empire founded ? Ori- gin of Cyrus the Great ? 23. Where was Lydia situated? For what noted? Sources of its wealth? When did the Lydians settle in Asia Minor ? Their early history ? 24. Duration of the Lydian power ? What war during the reign of Alyattes ? 18 THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. [B.C. 610. Halys, the boundary of the Lydian kingdom at that time. 25. This war between the Lydians and Medes is said to have been terminated in a singular way. Their two great armies had come to an engagement (610 B. c.*), when, in the midst of the battle a total eclipse of the sun occurred, which so alarmed the soldiers that they imme- diately retired from the conflict. The two monarchs there- upon concluded not only a peace, but a firm treaty of alliance with each other ; and peace continued to subsist between these two powers until the time of Cyrus, about half a century afterward. 26. Alyattes is said to have reigned about forty years after the close of this war, and to have constructed a vast monument, inferior only to the great pyramids of Egypt. Its base was formed of immense blocks ©f stone, the struc- ture above being a great mound of earth. This mound has been explored in modern times, and a chamber found within, formed of solid blocks of marble, which gave evi- dence of having been rifled of its contents long before. It was without doubt the tomb of Alyattes. 27. This king was succeeded (about 568 b. c.) by his son Croesus (kre'sus), noted for his immense wealth, being by far the richest monarch of his time. He is also dis- tinguished as the last monarch of Lydia ; for, having made war upon Cyrus the king of Persia, he was entirely de- feated ; and his capital Sardis being taken by the enemy, he was made a prisoner, and condemned by Cyrus to be burnt alive upon a funeral pyre, but was afterward released. "Thus, within a very few weeks, from being a powerful and prosperous monarch, ruler over thirteen nations, he * This is Grote's estimate. According to Pliny, 581 B. C. 25. In what remarkable way was this war terminated? Date of the battle* How long did peace subsist ? 26. How long did Alyattes reign ? What singular structure did he erect ? 27. By whom was he succeeded? For what is Croesus noted ? His fate ? What became of Lydia ? B.C. 2700.] THE MOST AN"CIEIs T T NATIONS. 19 was reduced to the condition of a captive and a beggar, dependent upon the will of a despot whose anger he "had provoked." Lydia consequently became a province of the Persian Empire. Akcient Egypt. 28. Egypt is one of the most interesting countries de- scribed in history, being greatly celebrated for its antiquity, its remarkable civilization, singular institutions, and great power and influence in the ancient world. Its early history is involved in fable ; but it seems to be settled that the first king was called Me'nes, and that he founded the famous city of Mem'phis, although the time at which he lived is variously estimated by chronologists. (Probably about 2700 b. c.) 29. In the third century B. c, Ma-ne'tho, an Egyptian priest, compiled a history of his country, in which he di- vided the period from Menes to the final loss of independ- ence (about the middle of the fourth century) into 30 dynasties. Although this work itself has perished, chrono- logical abstracts from it are preserved in other ancient writings ; and these, together with the allusions found in the Bible, and the accounts given by Herodotus and other ancient writers, with what has been gleaned, in modern times, from the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the monu- ments, constitute all the sources of ancient Egyptian his- tory. 30. The history of the first seventeen dynasties, occu- pying a period of about twelve centuries, is very much involved in obscurity, the monuments only affording a few scattered facts and dates. The most famous of the pyra- mids are supposed to have been erected during the fourth 28. How is Egypt distinguished? Its early history ? The first king ? 29. What are the sources of Egyptian history ? How many dynasties are enu- merated hy Manetho ? 30. Dnringwhat period is the history unknown or uncertain? Date of. the Pyramids ? What is said of Memphis ? The llyksos ? 20 THE MOST AKCIEXT KATIOKS. [B.C. 971. dynasty ; in which period the city of Memphis attained a very high degree of splendor, and the state of civilization of the people was quite advanced. The most noted event was the invasion and conquest of the country by a foreign people from the East, who ruled probably from the fifteenth to the eighteenth dynasty, under the name of the Hyk'sos, or " Shepherd Kings." 31. These kings ruled in Lower Egypt as military despots, and very much oppressed the native people. It was during the reign of one of these, as it is now believed, that Joseph was made the chief minister, and that Jacob and his family were allowed to settle in the land of Goshen. It is supposed that they remained in Egypt a little more than two centuries, and that the exodus took place about 1652 B. c, during the rule of the 17th dynasty, which ap- pears to have been of Assyrian origin. 32. During the next three dynasties, the Egyptians en- joyed an independence from foreign rule, the first monarch of the eighteenth dynasty having expelled the Shepherd Kings and reinstated the native sovereigns. Some of the greatest of the Egyptian monarchs belong to this period. The most noted were Thot'mes III., who subdued Syria, and reduced Nineveh and perhaps Babylon to his sway (1444 B. c.) ; Thotmes IV., who caused the Great Sphinx to be constructed ; and Ra-me'ses I. and II, the latter of whom, called Sesos'tris by the Greeks, was a very great conqueror, and adorned both Egypt and Nubia with many splendid temples and other edifices. The exploits of these monarchs are recorded in pictures and hieroglyphs on the monuments. 33. Slie'shonk, called SM'shak in the Bible (1 Kings, xiv. 25), attacked Judah and took Jerusalem, despoiling it of all its treasures (971 b. c.) This event is depicted on 3 1 . Where and how long did the Hyksos rule ? At what period are the Israelites supposed to have settled in Egypt ? When did they leave it ? 32. When did Egypt become independent? What is said of Thotmes III., Thotmes IV., and Rameses I. and H. ? How are their exploits recorded ? B. C. 605.] THE MOST AKCIEKT NATIONS. 21 monuments found in the great temple at Karnak. Tirha'- kali, of the 25th dynasty, came to the assistance of the Jewish king Hezekiah against Sennacherib, the dreadful destruction of whose army has been already mentioned. This dynasty was of Ethiopian origin ; and hence Tirhakah is called in the Bible the King of Ethiopia. 34. The 26th dynasty was commenced by Psammet'ichus L, who by means of Greek mercenaries acquired an abso- lute power over the whole country. His successor, Neha'o, or Ne'chos IL, attempted the construction of a canal across the isthmus of Su'ez, but desisted after 120,000 men had perished in the undertaking. After defeating Josiah, king of Judah, he was himself defeated by Nebuchadnezzar, (605 B. c.) A-ma'sis, virtually the last of this dynasty, had a long and prosperous reign ; but having incurred the dis- pleasure of Camby'ses, king of Persia, his son and suc- cessor, Psammen'itus, after a brief reign of six months, encountered the Persian host, and was defeated at Pelu'- sium, 525 B. c. Thus Egypt came under the power of Cambyses, who treated the people with very great cruelty. 35. During the remaining dynasties, from the battle of Pelusium to 350 B. c, Egypt was engaged in a constant struggle with the Persians for its independence, which it often regained, but as often lost. In these efforts it was greatly assisted by the Greeks. Its final conquest by the Persians took place at the date above mentioned ; since which time the prophecy of Eze'kiel, that " there shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt," has been literally fulfilled, for not one native ruler has ever occupied the throne for a period of more than 2000 years. The subse- quent history of Egypt will be related in connection with that of the nations to whom it has successively belonged. « 33. Invasion of Jndah by Sheshonk? What is said of Tirhakah ? Why called in the Bible "Kin*; of Ethiopia?" Where i* Karnak ? Am. At Thebes. 34. Give an account of Psammetichus I. What great work was attempted by Nechos II. ? What led to the Persian invasion ? Its result ? 35. In what contest was Egypt engaged during the remaining dynasties ? By whom was it aided? Its final conquest, and the fulfilment of Ezekiel'e prophecy ? 22 THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 36. Civilization of the Egyptians. The early population and civilization of Egypt were due to its ex- traordinary fertility, caused by the annual inundations of the Nile. In fact, this region may be geographically described as the valley of that river, extending about 500 miles from north to south, and bounded on the western side by a rocky ridge sloping into the Great Desert, and on the east by low ranges descending to the Eed Sea. It was anciently divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Egypt 37. Upper Egypt, or the Theb'-a-is, as it was often called, included the narrow valley in the extreme southern part. Its capital was the great city Thebes, which, in the time of its splendor, is said to have extended over twenty-three miles, and to have had one hundred gates. The ruins of splendid temples, colossal statues, obelisks, and sphinxes still bear witness to its wonderful size and grandeur. 38. Middle Egypt, or Heptan'omis, as it was called on account of its seven districts, embraced the wider portion of the Nile basin below the Thebais. Its capital was Memphis, the City of the Pharaohs who received and pro- tected the Israelites. This district contains the finest of the pyramids, which are situated on the west side of the Nile, and extend for a distance of about seventy miles. 39. Lower Egypt consists of the Delta of the Wile, an extremely fertile region, and anciently very populous. The entire population of Egypt must have been large at the earliest periods. It has been estimated at seven millions, under the Pharaohs. The construction of the Great Pyramid, it is said, required the constant employment of 100,000 men. 40. The Egyptians were a brown race, and were divided into seven distinct castes, or ranks, — of which the priests 36. Cause of the civilization of Egypt? Of its extraordinary fertility? Ho\i is its situation described ? How was it divided ? 37. Describe Upper Egypt. What is said of its capital, Thebes ? 38. How is Middle Egypt described ? 39. Lower Egypt ? What estimate is given of the population of Egypt ? 40. The Egyptians— their color, castes, and religion ? THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 23 and warriors were the most honored; next, the agricul- turists, merchants, mariners, and artisans; while shep- herds, the lowest caste, were held in great abomination. The Egyptian religion was a gross superstition, the lower orders of the people worshipping the most degraded ani- mals, idols, &c. Astrology formed a prominent part of the national belief; hence their close observation of the heavenly bodies. 41. Their progress in the mechanical arts was consider- able, as is seen in the inscriptions on the monuments. The weaving of cotton and linen cloth, working in copper and brass, and pottery, were among the most prominent branches of manufacture. Agriculture was pursued with great skill and industry. A considerable traffic was car- ried on with other countries, gold, ivory, ebony, skins, and slaves being brought from Ethiopia ; incense from Arabia ; and spices from India ; and for these articles were ex- ported principally grain and cloths. This commerce was chiefly carried on by Greek and Phoenician merchants, since the Egyptians had not attained any skill in ship- building. 42. Much advancement was made also in the fine arts, painting, sculpture, and music. The skill in architecture which they had acquired is shown by the magnificent edifices, the ruins of which still exist ; such as the tem- ples, pyramids, obelisks, &c. These exhibit a peculiar style, but are very remarkable for their massive grandeur and regularity. The great pyramids were, in ancient times, counted among the wonders of the world. 43. The government was an absolute monarchy, but the priestly caste had very great influence, since there was a close union between the government and religion of the 4 1 . What mechanic arts were pursued ? Agriculture ? Commerce ? How car- ried on ? 42. What progress had the Egyptians made in painting, sculpture, &c. ? Their architecture ? 43. How is their government described? How connected with religion ? Origin ol" the custom of embalming ? 24 THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. [B. C. 750. country. There were religious ceremonies prescribed for every important action, and these even the kings were obliged to observe. The general belief that the soul would, after a certain long period, return to the body from which, at death, it had departed, caused great care to be taken to preserve the body from decay. Hence the custom of em- balming, and hence also the pyramids, which seem to have been only tombs, constructed by the kings, to preserve their mortal remains from decay. Ethiopia. 44. Directly south of Egypt lay the country of the Ethiopians, a nation the origin of which is lost in anti- quity. Its capital, Mer'o-e, from its situation on the upper Nile, became the emporium of Arabia, Egypt, and other great nations in its vicinity ; and Ethiopia grew to be one of the most powerful states of the ancient world (about 1000 B. c.) For a time it was tributary to Egypt ; but (about 750 b. c.) it acquired its independence, under Sab'acus, and in its turn subdued Egypt, which it kept under its sway about sixty years. 45. During the reign of Psammetichus, 240,000 Egyp- tians emigrated to Ethiopia, and settling there added greatly to the prosperity of the State. After subduing Egypt, Cambyses invaded Ethiopia ; but his soldiers suf- fered incredible hardships from famine in the deserts, and having reached Mereo, which he captured, he was obliged to relinquish his design and return to Egypt. About five centuries later, Ethiopia was conquered by the Romans. Phoenicia. 46. This region, bordering on the eastern shore of the 44. Situation of Ethiopia ? Its capital ? To what country was it tributary ? Under what king did it achieve its independence ? 4 5. What emigration took place from Egypt to Ethiopia? What monarch at- tempted its conquest ? The result ? When conquered by the Romans ? 46. What was the situation of Phoenicia ? For what noted ? What is said of Tyre and Sidon ? Which were the most ancient colonies of the Phoenicians 1 Which was the greatest of their colonies ? B.C. 878.] THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 25 Mediterranean Sea, is noted as having contained Si' don and Tyre, the most ancient commercial cities mentioned in history. These two cities were independent, each being under a government of its own. They were not only cele- brated for their commerce, but became the great colonizing powers of the ancient world. Their most ancient colonies were Ga'des (now Cadiz), in Spain, and U'tica, in Africa. Some of the earliest settlements in Greece are said to have been made by Phoenicians. The greatest of their colonies was Car'thage, on the northern coast of Africa, founded by Di'do, a Tyrian princess, 878 b. c. 47. Their manufactures of glass and linen, perfumes and purple dye, were sources of unbounded wealth ; and they were universally considered the most skilful workmen in gold, silver, ivory, bronze, &c. Their ships visited the most remote parts of the Mediterranean Sea, and even passed the Straits into the Atlantic, reaching Britain and the Cana'ries. They also carried on an active slave-trade. 48. Sidon (or Zidon) was under the dominion of Tyre in the eighth century, when the country was invaded by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria. It then submitted to the invader, and Tyre, after a long siege, was also subdued. The latter was besieged and taken by Nebuchadnez'zar (587 b. a); and both cities were afterward reduced by Cyrus (538 b. c.) Having revolted against the Persians, in 351 B. c, Sidon was fired by its own inhabitants and entirely destroyed. It was, however, afterward rebuilt; and both cities, in 332 b. c, were compelled to submit to Alexander the Great, Tyre yielding to the conqueror after a determined resistance of seven months. Sykia and Palestine. 49. Syria is the name given to a region of indefinite 47 Sources of their wealth ? To what countries did their ships penetrate ? 48. What is said of Sidon? By whom were Tyre and Sidon conquered in the eighth century ? Give their subsequent history. 49. What was the situation of Syria ? What is said of Damascus ? Who were its most noted kings ? 2 26 THE MOST ANCIENT tfATIO^S. [B.C. 1095. extent situated to the east of the Mediterranean Sea. It was called by the Hebrews A 'ram. Damascus was the old- est and most important city, and seems to have been an important place even in the times of Abraham, while in the subsequent history of the Jews it became quite promi- nent. King David gained a great victory over the Syrians of Damascus, and reduced their city. It afterward, how- ever, regained its independence, and under the three noted kings named Ben-Jia'-dad contended repeatedly with Israel. Haz'-a-el gained important victories over the Israelites, rav- aged their territory, and plundered Jerusalem. Damascus was afterward successively subdued by the Assyrians, Per- sians, Macedonians, and Eomans. 50. Palestine was situated between the Mediterranean and the valley of the Jordan, extending about 145 miles from north to south, with an average breadth of less than fifty miles. Yet within this small area were enacted the most momentous events in the world's history. Pales- tine is but another name for Pliilis'tia, or the country of the Philis' tines, those fierce idolaters, with whom so many and so long wars were waged by the Israelites. Their chief cities were Ash'dod or A-zo'-tus, As'ke-lon, Gath, Ga r za, and Ek'-ron, all noted in sacred history. 51. Of the twelve tribes of Israel, nine and a half were located to the west and two and a half to the east of the Jordan. Into this region they had been led by Joshua, Moses being only permitted to catch a distant glimpse of the promised land. After the death of Joshua, followed the period of the Judges, which lasted about five centuries. The last of the Judges was Samuel, who, when the people demanded a king, anointed Saul (1095 B. a). 52. Saul was succeeded by David, during whose reign 50. What was the extent of Palestine ? What is said of the Philistines ? Give the names of their chief cities ? 51. What was the location of the twelve trihes of Israel ? Give an account of their early history there. Who was their first king? 52. How long did David reign ? What was the extent of the kingdom during his reign ? What was the character of David's reign ? B.C. 975.] THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 27 (from 1055 to 1015 b. a), the kingdom of Israel 'stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Euphrates Biver, and from Syria to the Eed Sea ; and probably contained a pop- ulation of at least five millions. He encouraged navigation and trade, particularly with Tyre, and sought to instruct his people in the arts. The events of his splendid but troubled reign, with a minute account of his character and conduct, are recorded in the Bible (2 Sam. and 1 Chron.). 53. The reign of Solomon (1015-975 B. c.) was the most splendid period of the Jewish history. For him was re- served the honor of building the great temple of Jehovah. He formed alliances with the surrounding nations, opened an active trade with Egypt, and, to facilitate his commer- cial objects, erected Tad'mor in the desert, which after- ward became so renowned as Palmy'ra. He also built a superb navy, at a port [E 'zi-on-ge'ler) which he established at the northern part of the Bed Sea. The history of his wisdom, his prosperity and wealth, and his fall into idol- atry and sin, is greatly interesting and instructive. (1 Kings, ii.-xi.) 54. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom was di- vided, in consequence of the tyranny and insolence of his son Re-lio-lo' am, against whom ten tribes revolted and fol- lowed Jer-o-bo'am, who established himself at She'cJiem, as king of Israel. To Behoboam were thus left only two tribes, forming the kingdom of Judah. A desultory war was maintained between the two divisions during most of the reign of Jeroboam, which lasted twenty-two years. (1 Kings, xii.) 55. Israel. — The history of the successive kings of Israel is a sad record of war and sin. These kings were noted only for their wickedness and idolatry, and brought upon the people, in consequence, the severe punishments of God. 53. Describe the reign of Solomon. 54. What caused the division of the kingdom ? What kingdoms were formed f What is said of the reign of Jeroboam ? 55. What is said of the kings of Israel ? How did this kingdom end ? 28 THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. [B. C. 536. It was terminated by the invasion of the Assyrians, to whom the last king, Ho-she'a, was compelled to surrender Samalria, and the ten tribes were carried into captivity (721 B.C.). (2 Kings, xvii. 6.) Their place was supplied by Babylonian settlers, from whom, with a small part of the Jewish population, was derived the Samaritan race. 56. Judah. — This kingdom lasted 135 years longer. Most of its kings were wicked and idolatrous; but three reigns were marked by virtue and piety. During the reign of Je-hosti a-pliat the kingdom was in a more prosperous condition than it had been since the days of Solomon. Hezekiah's reign is remarkable for the invasion of Sen- nacherib, and the miraculous destruction of his army. It was on this occasion that the shadow on the sun-dial was made to move back to confirm the wavering faith of Heze- kiah. (2 Kings, xx. 9.) 57. The last king was Zed-e-M ah, during whose reign Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, took Jerusalem, and destroyed it, sending the unfortunate monarch in chains to Babylon, whither were also transported the miserable inhabitants (588 B. a). The temple was razed to the ground (2 Kings, xxxv.) ;* and for more than fifty years the holy city perished, except in the memory of the heart-broken exiles. The restoration of the Jews took place in 536 b. c, in pursuance of an edict of Cyrus, the great Persian monarch. (2 Chron. xxxv. 22, and Ezra, i.) CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. B. C. 2700. Menes, king of Egypt. 2000. Invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. 1867. Settlement of the Israelites in Egypt. 1732. Birth of Moses. * See also 2 Chronicles, xxxvi. 11-21, and Jeremiah, xxxix. 56. How much longer did Judah last ? What is said of the reign of Jehosha- phat ? What noted events of Hezekiah's reign are mentioned ? 57. "Who was the last king? What was his fate? By whom was Jerusalem destroyed ? How and when were the Jews restored ? THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 29 1700. Babylon, the capital of the Chaldees. 1652. Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. 1612. Death of Moses. 1 444. Syria subdued by the Egyptians, under Thotmes II. 1320. Rameses the Great, king of Egypt. 1095. Saul, the first king of Israel. 1055. David begins to reign over Israel. 1015. Accession of Solomon. 975. Secession of the Ten Tribes, and the division of the kingdom, 971. Jerusalem taken by Shishak, king of Egypt. 878. Carthage founded by the Tyrians. 750. Sabacus restores the independence of Ethiopia. 747. Era of Nabonassar. 721. Samaria taken — and end of the Kingdom of Israel. 720. The Lydians settle in Asia Minor. 625. Taking of Nineveh by the Medes. 610. Famous battle between the armies of Alyattes and Cyaxares. 588. Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and the captivity of the Jews. 587. Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 568. Commencement of the reign of Croesus. 546. Croesus taken prisoner by Cyrus. 538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. 536. Restoration of the Jews by an edict of Cyrus. 525. Pelusium taken, and Egypt subdued by Cambyses. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. What events immediately followed the Deluge ? 11 2. Name the most ancient monarchies 11 3. Give an account of the establishment of the Babylonian monarchy 12 4. Who were the Chaldees ? 13 5. What is meant by the Era of Nabonassar ? 13 6. What were the principal events of Nebuchadnezzar's reign ? 14 7. Relate the subsequent history of Babylon 14 8. Give an account of the foundation of the Assyrian Empire 14 9. Mention the most noted of its monarchs 15-16 10. What were the principal events of their reigns ? 15-16 11. How did the Empire terminate ? Its last king ? 16 12. Give an account of the rise of the Median Empire 16 13. What led to the foundation of the Persian Empire ? 17 14. Who were the Lydians, and where did they settle ? 17 15. Name their most noted kings 17-18 16. Relate the principal events of their reigns 17-18 30 THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. 17. By whom was the Lydian monarchy overturned ? 18 18. For what was Croesus noted ? 18 19. State the sources of Egyptian history 19 20. What portion of it is involved in obscurity ? 19 21. Who were the most noted kings of Egypt ? 20-21 22. What were the most important events of their reigns ? 20-21 23. What great work was undertaken by Nekao ? 21 24. Who was thelast of the 26th Dynasty ? 21 25. By whom was Egypt subdued in 525 B. c. ? 21 26. Give a sketch of its history for the next two centuries 21 27. What prophecy has been fulfilled in its history ? 21 28. Give a sketch of the geography of Egypt 22 29. Describe the civilization, government, &c, of the Egyptians 22-23 30. What powerful state so.uth of Egypt ? Its capital ? 24 31. Give a sketch of its history 24 32. Which were the most noted commercial cities of antiquity ? 25 33. Mention their most important colony 25 34. What were the sources of their wealth ? 25 35. Give a sketch of their history 25 36. Give a brief account of Syria and Damascus 26 37. Where did the Philistines dwell f Their chief cities ? 26 38. Mention the most noted events in the history of Palestine 26-27 39. What was the extent of the Jewish kingdom during the reign of David ? 27 40. What were the chief events of Solomon's reign ? 27 41. Into what separate kingdoms was Israel afterward divided ? 27 42. Give a sketch of the history oi the kingdom of Israel 27-28 43. How did it end ? 28 44. Give an outline of the history of Judah 28 45. During whose reign was the miracle of the sun-dial ? 28 46. What terminated the kingdom of Judah ? 28 47. How and when were the Jews restored to their own country ? 28 48. What is the oldest date referred to in ancient history ? 28 49. Is it reliable ? 19 50. What were the principal events between 2000 b, c. and 1500 b. c. ? 28-29 51. What were the chief events between 1500 b. c. and 1000 b. c. ? 29 52. What, between 1000 b. c. and 500 b. c. ? 29 53. Name the different kingdoms treated of in this section in the order of their foundation 12-28 54. State the geographical situation of each. (See Map, p. 12.) 12 55. What was the capital of each ? (See Map, p. 12.) 12 B.C. 525.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 31 section ii. Persia, Greece, and Macedonia. From the Foundation of the Persian Empire to the Conquest of Greece by the Romans. 1. Persia, at first of small extent, under Cyrus became a vast empire extending from the JEgean (e-ge'an) Sea be- yond the Euphrates ; and included, besides the original territory, Media, Assyria, Babylonia, Asia Minor, and Syria. All these countries were subdued by Cyrus in the short space of twenty-nine years (558-529 b. c.) ; so great were the activity, enterprise, and address of that extraordinary man. His death took place during an expedition against the Mas-sag' e-tce, (g like j,) a barbarous tribe living east of the Caspian ; and he was succeeded by his son Cam-by' ses. 2. The reign of Cambyses lasted nine years, its chief event being the invasion and conquest of Egypt (525 b. a), in which country he played the part of a ruthless tyrant. A large army which he despatched against the. temple of Ammon in an oasis of the Desert (Si-tvati) perished in a simoom. He cruelly murdered his brother Smer'dis ; but an impostor, under the name of Smerdis, usurped the throne of Persia, during his absence in Egypt; and a short time after this the death of Cambyses took place in consequence of a wound which he received from his own sword while Map Questions.— (See Progressive Map No. 1.) Name the principal divisions of Asia Minor. What region southeast of the Euxine Sea ? What mountains between the Euxine and Caspian Seas ? What country south of the Caspian ? What people farther east ? What rivers tributary to the Sea of Aral ? What country between ? What river bounded the Persian Empire on the east ? Its chief tributaries ? To what water was the Indus tributary? What desert region north of the Erythraean Sea ? Where was Persepolis 1 What country northwest of the Euxine Sea ? What country south of the Danube River ? 1. What was the extent of Persia under Cyrus? What countries did it com- prise ? When and how did the death of Cyrus occur ? 2 What was the length of Cambyses' reign ? What were its chief events ? What were the circumstances of his death ? 32 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 449. mounting his horse. — This king appears to have been the A-has-u-e'rus spoken of in Ezra. 3. Smerdis, the impostor, on the discovery of the fraud, was quickly deposed by the Persian nobles, who elected Da- rius /., called Hys-tas'pes, as king. This monarch was active and successful. During the thirty-six years of his reign (521-485 b. c.) he perfected the organization of the empire, dividing it into twenty provinces, over which he placed governors called by the Persians satraps, and select- ed as his capital Susa in the spring; Ecbat'ana in sum- mer; and Babylon in the winter. The most important wars which he waged were those against the Scythians and the Greeks. 4. With an immense army he crossed the Bos'porus by means of a bridge of boats, and advanced against the Scythians, a barbarous race dwelling on the other side of the Danube, in what is now European Turkey. The expe- dition Avas unsuccessful ; and leaving a force to conquer Thrace, he returned to Persia, and marched his army to the East, extending his authority as far as the Indus. The Io'nians, a Grecian colony dwelling on the western coast of Asia Minor, having revolted, and having been assisted by some of the Greeks, who took Sardis and burnt it, he de- termined to bring the whole of Greece under his authority. In two expeditions, however, he was entirely defeated, and while preparing for a third died, 485 B. c. 5. Xerxes I. (zerx'ez), the son and successor of Darius, renewed the attempt to subdue the Grecian States, col- lecting a vast army and fleet for the purpose; but he also was defeated, and after a reign of twenty years, trans- mitted the enterprise to his son Ar-tax-erx'es I., who was compelled finally to make peace with the Greeks, after the war had continued about fifty years (449 B. a). The sub- 3. Who succeeded Smerdis the impostor? What is said of Darius I. ? 4. How did his war against the Scythians result ? That against the Greeks ? 5. Who renewed the attempt ? Under whose reign did the war end ? Who was th ■ last king of Persia? By whom was he subdued? How long had the Persian Empire lasted ? PROGRESSIVE MAP N? 2 B. C. 329.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 33 sequent history of Persia is of no importance except as it is connected with that of the Greeks. The last king was Darius III., called Cod-o-man! nus, who was subdued by Alexander the Great, and Persia became a part of the Macedonian Empire, having lasted a little over two centuries. (329 B. c.) 6. The Persians, at first, and until after the reign of Cyrus, were a hardy race, of simple manners, and great courage in war; but subsequently they became, like the Medes, soft and effeminate, losing their bold hardihood, and becoming entirely corrupted by luxury and vicious indulgence. Their religion was, before the conquest of the Medes, a simple worship of the Spirit of Good ( O-ro-mas'des), and a belief in an Evil Spirit (Ah'ri-man) to be hated and •shunned. They afterward became converts to the religion of Zo-ro-as'ter, and worshipped the element of fire, under priests called Ma-gi. The impostor Smerdis belonged to the Magian priesthood. Greece. 7. The country known in history as Greece anciently consisted of three quite distinct parts : the first in the north, composed of Thes'sa-ly and E-pl'rus ; the second, in the middle, called Hel'las, which was the most important part ; and the third, the peninsula forming the southern portion of the country, called Pel-o-pon-ne'sus (now called Mo-re' a). To these was afterward added Mace- do' nia, which was situated to the north of Thessaly and Map Questions. (See Progressive Map, No. 2).— What was the situation of Bel- la? ? Peloponnesus ? Epirus ? Thessaly ? Macedonia ? What were the divisions of Hellas? Of Peloponnesus ? What was the capital of Laconia ? Messenia? Elis ? Arirolis? Attica? Name the principal towns of Boeotia. What town in Achaia ? Phocis ? Euboea ? Epirus ? What town near the east coast of Attica ? What towns in Thessaly ? Macedonia ? What gulfs south of Macedonia ? East of Peloponnesus? South of it? What island in the Saron'ic Gulf? What island near the coast of Messenia? What river in Laconia ? InAcarnania? What moun- tains east of Epirus? South of Thessaly? What pass leading from Thessaly into Greece? 6. Describe the Persians. What was their religion ? Who were the Magi ? 7. Of what parts did Ancient Greece consist ? Name the most important states of each, and point them out on the map. 34 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 776. Epirus. Central Greece and Peloponnesus were divided into several small states, of which the most important were the following: — Hellas. — At'tica, Bceo'tia, Plio'cis, East and. West Lo'cris, Do'ris, JE-to'lia, and Ac-ar-na'ni-a. To the west was the large island of Eubcea (u-be'ah). Peloponnesus. — Laco'nia, Ar'go-lis, Achaia {a-ha'yali), Ar-ca'dia, E'lis, and Mes-se'nia. (See Map of Greece.) 8. The primitive inhabitants of Greece are supposed to have been the descendants of Ja/van, the son of Ja'phet ; and hence it was called by the Hebrews Javan. A Celtic race from the East, called the Pe-las'gi, settled in Thrace in very ancient times; and these with other kindred races passed into Greece, and are known in the fabulous history of the period as Hel-le'nes, Lel'e-ges, &c. The Hellenes appear to have been the most energetic, since the rest of the Pelasgians disappeared before them. They also gave to the country its name, Hellas, by which, exclusively, it was known in ancient times. 9. The history of this country may be divided into two portions -; the legendary or traditional history, and the authentic history. The first commences at the earliest periods and extends to the first Olympiad (776 b. a). The second extends to the conquest of Greece by the Eomans (146 B. a). The most ancient traditions represent the country as divided into a large number of small states, each under its own chief or petty king, and engaged in war and piracy. This period of the history is often called the Heroic Age, since it abounds in fabulous stories of men of superhuman strength and valor, such as Her'cules, The- seus (the'-suse), Achilles (a-Jcil'lez), &c. 10. The most important events of the Heroic Age were 8. Who were the successive inhabitants of Greece? Who were the Pelasgi? What is said of the Hellenes ? 9. How may the history of Greece be divided ? When does each division com- mence ? What is meant by the Heroic Age ? 10. What was the Argonautic Expedition ? What is said of the Trojan War T B. C. 776.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 35 the Argonaut ic Expedition and the Trojan War. The first, supposed to have occurred about 1225 B. c, was an enter- prise the object of which, according to the tradition, was to bring from Colchis (kol'Jcis) a golden fleece. The heroes who engaged in it, sailing in a vessel called Argo, were called the Argonauts. Whether it was actually a voyage of discovery or commerce, or a mere piratical expe- dition, cannot be ascertained. The only account of the Trojan War is contained in the poems of Homer. Troy was besieged ten years by the Greeks, and was finally taken by stratagem (1184 b. a). 11. This period appears to have been followed by one of great •revolutions and migrations of the Hellenic races. The JEo'lians were driven from their home in Thessaly, and proceeded southward, expelling in their turn the ancient inhabitants of the lands which they settled (1124 B. a). Another race from Thessaly, called the Do'rians, invaded the Peloponnesus, and made an entire conquest of it (1104 b. a). This movement, being conducted by the descendants of Her'cules, who had been banished more than a century previously, is called in history the Return of the Heradeidm* (her-a-cli'de). Other migra- tions led to the iEo'lian, Dor'ic, and Ion'ic colonizations of Asia Minor. The dates of these events are not entirely reliable. 12. The authentic history of Greece may be properly considered as commencing 776 B. c. ; that is, at the first recorded Olympiad, a period of four years, which elapsed be- tween two celebrations of the Olympic games. These games were celebrated in honor of Jupiter, at Olym'pia, in Elis, and constituted the most splendid national festival of the Greeks. Their origin is lost in the darkness of antiquity.. * Heradeidm is a Greek word which means descendants of Hercules. 1 1 . What migrations followed the Trojan War ? What is meant hy the Return of the Heracleiche ? What colonies were established in Asia Minor ? 12. What was an Olympiad ? What were the Olympic games ? Who was Ly- curgus ? His age ? 36 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 517. It was, as is supposed, about this time (776 B. c.) that Lycur- gus reformed the government and laws of Sparta, and gave to it the constitution by which it afterward acquired the supremacy in Grecian affairs. 13. Sparta, the capital of Laconia, sometimes called Lacedcemon (las-e-de'mon), was originally Pelasgian, but was conquered by the Dorians when they invaded the Pelopon- nesus, and soon became the chief of the Dorian states. Lycurgus by his laws designed to perpetuate the primitive simplicity and hardihood of the people, by preventing the spread of luxury, and by educating the youth so as to make them brave and patriotic soldiers. The effect was soon brought to a test in the wars with the Messeftians, the first of which lasted twenty years (743-723 B. c.) ; the second, seventeen (685-668 b. a), and resulted in the entire defeat of the Messenians, and their dispersion into various parts. For the next three centuries Messenia formed a part of Laconia. 14. Wars were also waged by Sparta with the other states of the Peloponnesus, and resulted in extending her authority over the whole peninsula. The Arcadians had become her subject allies (560 b. c.) ; Ar'gos* was too much weakened by defeat to make any resistance (547 b. c.) ; and no northern state at this period could com- pete with her in military power. The government of Laconia was vested in two hereditary kings, a Senate elected by the nobles, and five magistrates called the Eptio-ri.\ The kings were of limited power; they pre- sided in the Senate, and led the armies. The Ephori were annually elected, and were clothed with very great author- ity. They could restrain the kings, control the public * In Grecian history the states are often called by the names of their capital cities. Thus, La- conia is generally known as Sparta, ; Argolis, as Arijos, &c. t Ephori, plural of ephonu, which means an overseer or inspector. 13. What is said of Sparta? What was the design of the laws of Lycurgus ? What wars were waged with the Messenians ? 1 4. What conquests were made hy the Spartans ? Describe the Spartan govern ment. Who were the Ephori ? What were their powers ? B. C. 560.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 37 assemblies, and they were the arbiters of peace and war. 15. The most important state of Central Greece, and afterward the great rival of Sparta, was Attica, the capi- tal of wjrich was Atli'ens, in some respects the most renowned city in the world. It was the seat of learning and the arts, and may justly be considered the mother of modern civilization. Its population was of Ionian origin, although in the mythic history of Athens it is said to have been first settled by a colony from Egypt, under Ce' crops. Its government was until the eleventh century monarchi- cal ; but after the return of the Her'aclei'dse, it was vested in elective magistrates, called Archons {ar'hons). The last king of Athens, Co'drus, in a war with the Dorians, sacrificed his life to save the city from capture. 16. Athens suffered for centuries from anarchy and mis- rule ; but in the seventh century (624 B. c.) it adopted the laws proposed by Dra'co, which were so severe that they were said to have been written in blood. They gave place (594 b. c.) to the constitution and laws devised by So' Ion. According to these, the government was vested in a Senate or Council, an assembly of the people, and a chief magistrate called Archon,* with eight inferior execu- tive officers, also called by the general name of archons. The most venerable court of justice was the A-re-op'a- gus,\ the members of which were inspectors of education and morals, as well as administrators of the laws. 17. The legislation of Solon laid the foundation of Athenian greatness, and though sometimes disturbed by usurpation, remained in force for more than four centuries. In 560 b. c, the government was seized by Pi-sis' -tra-t us, * Archon means in Greek a ruler. + Areopagus, Mam' 1 Hill, the Court being so called from its situation on a small eminence at Athens named the " Hill of Mars." 1 5. What is said of Athens ? Her population and government ? Her last king ? 1 6. What is said of Draco ? Of Solon and his laws ? 1 7. Who was Pisistratus ? What was the character of his government ? Who were his successors ? How long did they reign ? 38 PEESIA, GREECE, ANT> MACEDONIA. [B. C. 510. who exercised a despotic sway for thirty-three years, and transmitted his authority to his two sons, Hip'pias and Hippar'chus, called the Plsistrat'idce.* He ruled with moderation, patronized literature and the arts, opened a public library, and collected, it is said, the poems of Homer. Hip'pias and Hippar'chus also governed for some years with mildness and justice ; but in 514 b. c, an act of tyranny committed by Hippias caused a conspiracy to be raised against them, and Hipparchus was slain. Hip- pias ruled with great severity for four years longer, and then was expelled (510 b. c.) with the aid of the Spartans. He took refuge at the court of Darius, king of Persia. 18. Age of Despots. It was not in Athens alone that despotic power overturned the popular government. From 650 to 500 b. c, there were few of the Grecian cities that escaped this calamity. Hence this period has been called the Age of Despots. In the city of Sicyon (sish'e-on) a despotic dynasty lasted for more than a hundred years ; and another in Cor'inth, seventy-four years. The most noted of the latter was Per-i-an'der, whose sway (from 625 to 585 B. a), though oppressive and cruel, made Corinth the wealthiest and most powerful of all the commercial cities of Greece at that time. Like Pisistratus, he was a patron of literature and the arts, and was enumerated among the seven wise men of Greece. 19. After the expulsion of the tyrant Hippias from Athens, the government underwent some modifications, and a very remarkable institution was devised to prevent for the future any powerful and ambitious citizen from making himself despot. This was the famous Ostracism, by which any .citizen could be banished for ten years, with- out trial or even any formal accusation ; but simply by a * PisistrcUidce is the plural of Pisistratides, which means son of Pisistratus. 1 8. What was the " Age of Despots ?" Who was Periander 1 1 9. What was the Ostracism ? Its design and effect ? B. C. 490.] PEKSIA, GREECE, AKD MACEDONIA. 39 vote of the people, each citizen writing the name of the person whom he wished to banish on a shell,* and six thousand votes being required against the person to deter- mine his condemnation. No attempt at usurpation fol- lowed the establishment of this law. 20. The Persian War. The Greek colonies in Asia Minor had been subject to Crce'sus, but when the Lydian monarchy was overturned by Cyrus, they fell under the Persian yoke, and thus continued until 500 B. 0., when an insurrection against Darius broke out at Mi-le'tus, and spread through all the Greek cities in Asia. In this revolt assistance was rendered by the Athenians, who crossed to Asia Minor and burnt Sar'dis ; but the Ionian fleet having been defeated, and the city of Miletus captured by the forces of Darius, the revolt was speedily subdued, and the Greek colonies were completely subjugated, and treated with great severity, — all the inhabitants of Miletus being either put to death or sent into captivity. 21. The aid given by Athens to the Ionians drew dowi the wrath of Darius upon all Greece, which he determined to subdue, being still further instigated to this by the tyrant Hippias, then a resident at his court. In pursu- ance of this design, he despatched an expedition under Mar-do' ni-us, which proved an entire failure, the fleet being wrecked off Mount Ath'os, and a large part of the army drowned. The forces were still further weakened in a night attack made by the Thracians, and Mardonius was compelledto return (492 b. a). 22. A second expedition, under Da' Us and Ar-ta-pher'nes, sailed across the iEge'an Sea, and after reducing several isl- ands, landed at Mar'a-thon, twenty-two miles from Athens. * Called Ostracon— whence the name Ostracism. 20. What was the cause of the Persian War ? Give an account of the revolt of the Ionians. How did it result ? 21 . What expedition against Greece in 492 b. c. ? Where is Mt. Athos ? (Map No. 2.) 22. Give an account of the second expedition. What is said of the battle ol Marathon ? Its date ? 40 PERSIA, GEEECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 480. Here they were met by a small army of Athenians, under Mil-ti'a-des, and completely routed (490 b. a). This con- flict is reckoned among the world's great battles ; for had the Persians succeeded, the character of European civiliza- tion would have been entirely changed, becoming Asiatic ; and besides, the extraordinary disparity of the forces (the Persians being about ten times as numerous as the Greeks), makes it a very remarkable engagement, — especially as, up to that time, the Persian conquests had scarcely known a check. The credit of this great victory belongs to the Athenians, since they had only the aid of a small band of Platasans (pla-te'ans). 23. Ten years afterward, the attempt was renewed by Xerxes, who collected one of the largest armies the world has ever known, besides an immense fleet, and crossing the Hellespont by means of two bridges which he caused to be constructed, marched to the Pass of Ther-mop'y-lce,* where he was opposed by a small army under Le-on'i-das, a Spartan general. The defence was successful until a traitor dis- covered to the Persians a path across the mountains, when, seeing no hope of victory, but being forbidden by the laws of Sparta to flee from the enemy, Leonidas dismissed the forces of the allies, and fell upon the Persians with his little baiid of 300. After making vast slaughter, they all perished (480 b. a). 24. The great Persian fleet came to action with the much smaller one of the Greeks in the narrow strait of Sal'a-mis,\ and was defeated withimmense loss ; so much so that Xerxes, who had witnessed the fight, fled in dismay to Persia, and left the conquest of Greece to his general Mardonius (480 b. a). The chief command of the allied fleet had been assigned to Eu-ry-Wa-des, the Spartan ; but the credit of the victory * Thermopi/la>—Hot Gates, so called from the hot springs there. This pass led from Thessaly into Phocis.— (See Progressive Map, No. 2.) t Between the Island of Salamis, in the Saronic Gulf, and the mainland. — (See Map of Greece.) 23. What attempt was made by Xerxes ? Describe the battle of Thermopylae. 24. What great uaval battle was fought ? With what result ? B.C. 479.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 41 was given to The-mis'to-cles, the Athenian, through whose influence and sagacity the action was brought on. 30 East from loudon 35 25. In the meanwhile the land forces of the Persians had invaded Attica, and taken and destroyed Athens, the inhab- itants unfit for war having fled to the neighboring islands for protection ; but the army of Mardonius, 300,000 strong and assisted by Grecian auxiliaries, did not come to any decisive action till the next year (479 b. a), when it was de- feated and almost utterly destroyed at Pla-tcz'a* by the allied army of the Greeks, consisting of 110,000 men, under Pau- sa'-ni-as, a Spartan general, assisted by the Athenian Ar-is-W des. On the same day the Athenians gained a * A town in the southeastern part of Bceotia.— (Map No. 2.) Map Questions.— In what part of Asia Minor was Asia ? Galatia ? Cappa- docia ? Pontus ? Bithynia ? Pamphylta ? Cilicia ? Where was Mysia ? Caria ? Phrygia ? Lydia ? Paphlagonia ? What town was in the western part oi Lydia ? What town was in the southern part of Cilicia ? In the eastern part ? What town was in the southern part of Caria? In Ionia? In Phrygia ? What river in Pamphylia ? What promontory west of Caria? What island "vest of Mysia ? 25. What happened to Athens? When and hy whom was the Peisian army defeated ? Give an account of the battle of Mycale. 42 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 471. great victory over the combined land and Laval forces of the Persians, at Myc'ale, in Asia Minor. 26. Having driven the Persians from their country, the Greeks sent a fleet under Pausanias to invade the Persian dominions. This expedition was entirely successful; the Greek cities of Cyprus were set free, and Byzantium (be- zan'she-um),* after a long siege, surrendered. At this point, the Spartans, who had been the leaders in the war, lost their ascendency by the treason of Pausanias. Intoxicated by the fame and wealth which he had acquired at Plataea and by his subsequent success, and ambitious of more splendor and influence than he thought the little state of Sparta could confer upon him, he sent a letter to Xerxes, offering to deliver Greece into his power if he would give him his daughter in marriage, thus connecting him with the royal family of Persia. 27. This plot was, however, discovered before its consum- mation. Pausanias was recalled and put to death by order of the Ephori (471 B. a), and the command of the allied forces was transferred to Aristides. A league was also formed among the Ionians and some of the Greek islands, under the leadership of Athens, which was called the " Confederacy of Delos,"f since the deputies met at that island. This great maritime alliance contributed very much to the subsequent influence of Athens. It lasted about 70 years. The well-established character of Aristides for in- tegrity and prudence, contributed no little to this impor- tant measure. Indeed, the justice of this distinguished man had passed into a proverb. He and Themistocles, during the interval between the victory at Marathon and the invasion by Xerxes, had contended for political su- premacy in the public assemblies at Athens ; but Aristides * Byzantium was on the Bosporus : it was afterward called Constantinople. + Principal island of the Cyclades, a group in the ^Egean Sea. 26. What act of treason did Pausanias commit ? 27. What was his fate t What league was formed ? What is said of Aristides ? Who was his rival ? B. C. 449.] PEKSIA, GKEECE, AND MACEDONIA. 43 failing, had been banished by the Ostracism (483 b. a). He returned, however, just in time to aid his country at the battle of Salamis. 28. The glory gained by Themistocles at Salamis, to- gether with his great ability and prudence, gave to him at Athens unlimited influence. He caused the city to be rebuilt and strongly fortified, notwithstanding the opposi- tion prompted by the mean jealousy of the Spartans. Being, however, accused of participating in the treason of Pausanias, he was banished by the Ostracism (471 B. a), and took refuge in the dominions of the Persian monarch Artaxerxes, where he lived in great splendor and dignity till his death (449 B. a). Aristides survived the banish- ment of his great rival only four years. He died honored by his countrymen, and with a reputation for virtue and patriotism which no one could impeach. 29. Ci'mon, son of Miltiades, succeeded Aristides in the leadership at Athens. He gained a splendid victory over the Persians at the Eu-rym'e-don Kiver,* but afterward gave offence to the Athenians by favoring the Spartans, and was banished (461 B. a), through the contrivance of his rival Per'i-cles, who by this means obtained the leadership at Athens, which he retained until his death, more than thirty years afterward. Pericles possessed extraordinary talents as an orator and statesman, and his administration was the most splendid the Athenians ever had. Art and literature flourished, and the city was embellished with the most magnificent edifices. 30. Cimon was, after a few years, recalled from exile, and prosecuted the war against the Persians ; but died during the siege of Oitium (sish'e-um), in Cyprus. The Athenians, * In Pamphylia, southern part of Asia Minor. — (See Map, p. 41.) 28. What was the character of Themistocles ? What caused his hanishment ? When did the death of Aristides occur ? 29. What victory was gained hy Cimon ? How and when did the administra- tion of Pericles commence ? What was its character ? 30. How did Cimon's death occur? When did the Persian war end? What war and truce with the Spartans ? 44 PEESIA, GEEECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 422. however, gained another decisive victory over the Persians, which ended this long war (449 b. a). In the meanwhile war had been carried on with the Spartans, with whom a truce was concluded at first for five, and afterward for thirty years. The latter truce was broken by a great conflict between Athens and Sparta, each assisted by its allied states. This was the famous " Peloponnesian War." 31. The immediate cause of the war was a difficulty be- tween Cor'inth and Cor-cy'ra,* one of her colonies ; and as Athens took sides with the latter, the Dorian Confederacy accused her of violating the terms of the thirty years' truce, and a Spartan army invaded Attica (431 B. a). Unable, with his few allies, to contend against the superior military power of the Spartans, Pericles pursued the policy of keep- ing within the city, and sending his numerous fleet to ravage the enemies' coasts. A violent plague, however, broke out in Athens, and Pericles fell a victim to it, in 429 b. c. 32. The most noted events of the early part of the war were the revolt of Les'bos\ from Athens, and the brave de- fence of Platsea against the Spartans. The flower of the Spartan army having been blockaded by the Athenian fleet at Sphac-te'ri-a, the Spartans applied to the Athenians for peace, which, through the influence of Cle'on, a low and noisy demagogue, who had succeeded Pericles in the leadership of the popular assemblies, was refused. Sphac- teria was afterward attacked, and the Spartans compelled to surrender. The Athenians were severely defeated by the Boeotians at De'li-um, and a short time afterward lost their empire in Thrace by the battle of Am-phip'o-Ms, in which Bras'i-das, a distinguished Spartan leader, defeated Cleon, the Athenian, both generals being slain (422 B. a). * A large island off the western shore of Epirus : now Corfu. + A lurge and noted island off the western coast of Mysia, in Asia Minor. Capital, Mityleine. (See Map, p. 41.) 3 1 . What was the cause of the Peloponnesian war ? How and when did it com- mence ? Policy pursued by Pericles ? Cause and time of his death ? 32. What were the principal events of the early part of the war? Why did the Spartans sue for peace ? Who was Cleon ? In what battle were the Athenians defeated ? Who fell at Amphipolis ? Where was Amphipolis ? (See Map of Greece.) B. C. 405.] PERSIA, GREECE, AXD MACEDONIA. 45 33. The next year, through the influence of Nicias (nish'- e-as), who succeeded Cleon at Athens, peace was made with Sparta. Though designed to be a fifty years' truce, it lasted only a few months. Al-ci-M'a-des, a handsome and talented, but dissolute pupil of the great philosopher Soc'ra-tes, per- suaded Argos to renew the war. He then induced the Athe- nians to send an expedition against Syracuse, to the com- mand of which himself and Nicias were assigned. Alcibiades was, however, recalled ; and being accused of committing an act of great outrage and impiety, and condemned to death, fled to Sparta. Nicias suffered a most disastrous defeat; and as the armament had been one of the finest ever sent out by the Athenians, they were greatly weakened by this event (413 b. a). 34. Alcibiades passed from Sparta to Sardis, taking refuge with the Persian satrap, Tis-sa-pher'nes. He, how- ever, succeeded in gaining some brilliant naval victories for the Athenians, and was recalled by them with great enthusiasm and joy, but only again to be driven into exile (407 B. a). Athens unjustly caused six of her generals to be put to death, for alleged neglect of duty, after which the chief command was conferred upon Co'non. Though an able officer, he allowed himself to be surprised by the Spartan general Ly-san'der at JE'gos-pot'a-mos, on the Hel- lespont, and nearly all the fleet was destroyed (405 B. a). Lyssnder the next year proceeded to Athens, captured the city, and thus ended this long war. For a minute account of these events we are indebted to the hjtorians Thu-cyd'- i-des and Xen'o-phon. 35. Athens was thus driven to the most humiliating sub- mission. She was compelled to destroy her port, agree to undertake no military enterprise except under the com- 33. What was the "Peace of Nicias?" How was the war renewed ? Give an account of the expedition against Syracuse. Where is Syracuse ? (See Map, No. 3.) 34. What is related further of Alcibiades? What ended the war? HiBtoriana of the war ? 35. Results of the defeat of Athens ? Who restored the popular government ? 46 PERSIA, GREECE, A^D MACEDONIA. {B. C. 399. mand of Sparta, and also to consent to the abolition of her popular government, and to accept in its stead that of thirty magistrates, styled afterward, from their cruel and oppressive measures, the Thirty Tyrants. The demo- cratical government was, however, soon restored through the patriotism and gallantry of Thras-y-bu'lus, by whom and his associates the tyrants were expelled (403 b. a). 36. A few years after this, perished, by an unjust sen- tence of the Athenian judges, at the age of 70 years, Socrates, the most virtuous and illustrious of all the an- cient philosophers, whose uninspired teachings make the nearest approach to the morality of the Gospel. Accused of irreligion and of corrupting the youth by false doctrine, he defended himself with great boldness, .but displeased the judges by not supplicating their mercy. He spent the in- terval of thirty days between his condemnation and death in tranquil discourse with his disciples, and having drank the cup of hemlock with a firm and cheerful countenance, amid his weeping friends, died with perfect composure, ex- pressing to the last his belief in an immortality beyond the grave (399 B. a). His most eminent disciples were Pla'to and Xenophon, from whom we derive our knowledge of his doctrines, since he himself committed nothing to writing. 37. Retreat of the Ten Thousand. A short time after the close of the Peloponnesian War, the Greek soldiers being unemployed, a large number (about 14,000), under a Spartan leader, named Cle-ar'chus, entered into the service of Cyrus, surnamed the Younger, a Persian prince, and the brother of the reigning king, Artaxerxes II. His object was believed by them to be an attack upon the Pisidians, but the design really was to deprive his brother of the throne of Persia. They marched to Cu-nax'a, near Babylon, 36. Give an account of the condemnation and death of Socrates. Who were his most eminent pupils ? 37. Into whose service did some of the Greek soldiers enter? For what ob- ject ? What battle was fought ? With what result ? (Where was Cunaxa ? See Map, p. 47.) B.C. 401.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. where an immense army of 900,000- Persians engaged the forces of Cyrus, consisting of 300,000 together with the Greek mercenaries. The latter gained an entire victory; but Cyrus, in a rash attempt to slay his brother, was killed, and the expedition was abandoned (401 B. a). East Iroin. XoncLan. 38. On their retreat, the Greek generals were drawn into a conference with the Persians, and treacherously put to death. Xenophon, who had been a volunteer in the expe- dition, was immediately chosen commander ; and the retreat was continued by the Greeks for a distance of more than 1500 miles, amid incredible hardships from cold, hunger, and the assaults of their enemies, until they at last reached the Euxine, when they found their numbers reduced to about 10,000. This celebrated expedition, as well as the retreat which closed it, forms the subject of perhaps the most interesting work of Xenophon. He afterward with the same forces entered into the service of a Thracian king, and subsequently assisted the Spartans in Asia Minor against the Persians. 38. Give an account of the retreat. What led to the election of Xenophon? At what place were the generals killed? (see Map, p. 47.) 48 PERSIA, GREECE, A^D MACEDONIA. [B.C. 371. 39. In this war with the Persians, A-ges-i-la'us, the Spartan king, gained some important victories, but was suddenly recalled to defend his country against a powerful league, consisting of Argos, Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, formed to attack her. The confederate army was, how- ever, defeated by Agesilaus in the battle of Cor-o-ne'a; but about the same time the Spartan fleet was almost entirely destroyed at Cnidus (ni'dus) by Co'non, the Athenian (394 b. a). The Athenians by this victory regained the naval supremacy which they had lost at iEgospotamos. 40. Peace of Antalcidas. The Grecian states being thus at war with each other, each party contended for the alliance and aid of the Persians. Conon, who by means of Persian gold had been enabled to equip his fleet, and to rebuild the walls of Athens, was, through the machinations of Sparta, brought into suspicion with the Persian monarch and thrown into prison. The Spartans thus obtained the alliance of the Persians, and through their emissary, An- tal'ci-das, negotiated a peace by which the Greek cities of Asia were given up to Persian rule. This disgraceful treaty was ratified by the other states (387 b. a). 41. Theban War. The Spartans, having unjustly seized the citadel of Thebes, were expelled through the influ- ence of Pe-lop'i-das and E-pam-i-non' das, two distinguished Theban patriots. This brought on a war between Thebes and Sparta, in which the former state gained great glory. In the noted battle of Leuc'tra (371 B. c.) the Spartan army was defeated by forces much inferior in number, com- manded by Epaminondas and Pelopidas, and the Pelopon- nesus was thus thrown open to invasion. Agesilaus, however, by his vigorous measures saved Sparta from capture; and Epaminondas, after laying waste the territory of Laconia * 39. What victories were gained by Agesilaus ? What one by Conon? What was its effect ? 40. How was peace made with the Persians ? 41. What caused a war. between Thebes and Sparta? What battles were fought ? (Where were Leuctra and Mantinea ? See Map of Greece.) B. C. 359.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 49 with fire and sword, retired from the peninsula. Other invasions of the Peloponnesus were afterward made by the Thebans ; and in the last of these, the famous battle of Man-ti-ne'a was fought (362 B. a), in which the Spartans, under Agesilaus, were again defeated by Epaminondas, but the latter was mortally wounded. 42. Epaminondas is justly regarded as one of the greatest heroes and patriots Greece ever produced. Wise in council, and brave and skilful in battle ; an accomplished statesman and orator; and, what is still more, a man of unswerving truth and honesty, he was, during all the subsequent history of Greece, universally considered the best model for imi- tation. With him the influence of Thebes began and ended. His last advice was followed by his mourning countrymen, and peace was concluded before they departed from the Peloponnesus. Agesilaus died the next year, in an expe- dition in which he had engaged, though 80 years of age, to assist Egypt against the Persians. The subsequent history of Greece is closely connected with that of Macedonia. Macedonian Empire. 43. Previous to the time of Philip, Macedo'nia occupied only an obscure position among the nations of the world, though it had existed as a kingdom for about four centu- ries. Being detained as a hostage at Thebes, Philip had enjoyed the benefit of a thorough education under Epami- nondas ; and when, at the age of 24, he ascended the throne (359 b. a), he possessed all the accomplishments of a skil- ful soldier and statesman ; while his great talent for arti- fice made him especially suited for the part of a wily politician. 44. Greece, at that time, presented an excellent field for these peculiar talents. Torn to pieces by internal dissen- 42. What was the character of Epaminondas? When did the death of Agesi- laus occur ? 43. What is said of the early history of Macedonia ? Of the character and edu- cation of Philip ? 44. What was the state of Greece at that time ? 50 PERSIA, GREECE, A^D MACEDONIA. [B. C. 357. sions, possessing no national union, the states were con- stantly forming temporary leagues against each other, and preparing themselves for the attack of some crafty and powerful invader. Athens, distinguished for her progress in literature and art, was very much weakened by luxury; Sparta had become corrupted and enervated by the gold gained in her conquests, and though still warlike, was actuated only by the meanest sentiments of jealousy and revenge toward her sister states. The other states were only influential in promoting, by petty disputes, the general anarchy. 45. Having organized a powerful and well-trained army, Philip began his schemes by seizing Amphipolis and estab- lishing a military station at Phi-lip' pi. Meanwhile a war broke out between Athens and her maritime allies, called the Social War, which having lasted about three years, ended in the defeat of Athens and secured the indepen- dence of the more important allies (355 b. a). In the meantime another war had broken out in Greece, called the Sacred War (357 b. a), caused by the Pho'cians, who instead of paying a fine imposed by the Am-phic-ty-ori ic Council, for having occupied and cultivated a tract of land devoted to the Delphian Apollo, invaded the sacred terri- tory, and surprised and took Delphi* itself. 46. This brought on a general war, most of the states taking up arms against the Phocians, who, however, suc- ceeded in forming an alliance with Athens and Sparta. After the respective parties had been weakened by several battles, Philip interfered. Having totally defeated the army of the Phocians in Thessaly, he took and destroyed Q-lyn'thus;\ and then marched .into Greece, and after tak- ing possession of Phocis, occupied Delphi. He then as- * A town in Phocis, noted for its celebrated temple and oracle of the god Apollo, t A celebrated city on the southern coast of Macedonia. (Map of Greece.) 45. How did Philip begin his schemes of conquest ? WTiat was the social war ? Its result ? What was the sacred war ? 46. What part did Philip take in this war ? Its result ? B. C. 336.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 51 sembled the Ampliic'tyons, and procured a decree that the towns of the Phocians should be destroyed, and that their two votes in the council, of which they were deprived, should be transferred to Macedonia. This ended the Sacred War (346 B. a), the effect of which was to make Macedon the leading state in Greece. 47. Meanwhile the great Athenian orator, De-mos'tlie-nes, had endeavored, by his splendid eloquence, to arouse his countrymen against the crafty designs of Philip ; but al- though the latter persisted in his schemes of conquest, it was not until 338 b. c. that any effort was made to oppose his progress. In that year a battle was fought at Chm-ro-ne' a, in which Philip disastrously defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes, and thus completed the subjugation of all Greece. He, however, left to the states a nominal independence in their local affairs, he himself controlling all public measures. 48. Philip next convened a congress of the Grecian states at Corinth, obtained from them a formal declaration of war against Persia, and returned home to prepare an expedition for the conquest of that country, which he had for some time meditated. Before, however, these prepara- tions were completed, he was assassinated by Pausanias, a young Macedonian noble (336 b. c.) ; and Alexander, afterward called the Great, ascended the throne, being then only twenty years of age, but thoroughly educated, partly under the celebrated philosopher Ar'is-to-tle. 49. The Thebans having revolted, Alexander immediately marched against them, and taking their city, razed it to the ground, and sold its inhabitants, to the number of 30,000, in to slavery. After this terrible example, leaving An-tip'a-ter 47. What is? said of Demosthenes? Battle of Chaeronea? Its result? Where was Chferonea ? (See Progressive Map, No. 2.) 48. What measures were adopted by Philip against Persia ? What caused his death ? By whom was lie succeeded ? 49. How did Alexander suppress the revolt of Thebes? Where was his first battle with the Persians fought? What was its result? Describe the battle of Is- bus. What was its result ? (Where was Issus ? See Map, p. 52.) B. C. 332.] PEKSIA, GKEECE, AND MACEJONTA. 53 as regent in Macedonia, he proceeded on the expedition planned by his father (334 b. a). Having crossed the Hellespont with an army of 35,000 men, he advanced to the Gra-nl'cus river, and defeated the Persian army, 120,000 strong, assembled on its banks. He then passed through Asia Minor, all of the cities of which surrendered to him; and the next year defeated a vast army, under Darius, the Persian monarch, at Is'sus. So complete was the rout, that Darius fled in dismay, leaving his mother and wife to the mercy of the victor. These Alexander ordered to be treated with the greatest respect and attention. 50. He then advanced toward the south, and all the cities of Phoenicia surrendered to him, except Tyre, the siege of which delayed him seven months. He built a pier across the strait, half a mile wide, which separated the city from the main land, and thus having gained access to the walls, he battered them to pieces and took the city by storm (332 b. a). No mercy was shown to the wretched inhabit- ants, eight thousand of whom are said to have been mas- sacred, and the remainder sold into slavery. 51. In the mean while Darius solicited peace, offering to cede to Alexander the western half of the empire, and to give him his daughter in marriage. This, however, Alex- ander promptly refused, and continued his march toward Egypt, capturing Gd'za on the way. Passing through Egypt, he penetrated the Lib'yan desert, and paid a visit to the temple of Jupiter Am'mon. He also founded in Egypt the city of Alexandria,* which for many centuries after- * This was the first city founded by Alexander and named after him. He subsequently founded no less than seventeen cities, in different parts of Asia, to each of which he gave the name of Alexandria. (See Map, p. 52.) Map Questions. (See Map, page 52.) Name the places on Alexander's march from the Granicus to Issus. What places did he pass from Issus to Alexandria ? On his return from Alexandria to Arbela ? From Arhela to Ecbatana ? From Ecbatana to Maracanda ? What was the most northern point reached ? The most eastern ? What places did he pass on going from Alexandria the Farthest to the point of return on the Hyphasis ? At what points did great battles occur? De- scribe his return route. Which way did the fleet proceed under Nearchus ? 50. How was Tyre taken ? How were the inhabitants treated ? 51. What offer was made by Darius? What country did Alexander next in- vade ? What city did he found ? What did Alexandria become ? 54 PERSIA, GREECE, AKD MACEDONIA. [B. C. 328. ward was the first commercial city in the world, being the grand emporium of Europe, Africa, and India. 52. Turning again to the east, he crossed the Euphrates, and prepared for the battle which was to decide the fate of Persia. On the plain of Gau-ga-me'la, a few miles from Ar- he'la, Darius drew up his immense army, consisting of oyer a million Persians, which, with 40,000 foot and 7000 horse, Alexander, after a brief engagement, entirely defeated and put to flight (331 B. a). Proceeding to Babylon, he en- tered that city in triumph, having made himself, at the age of twenty-fiye, the master of all Western Asia, together with Egypt. " 53. He next advanced to Su'sa, a treasure-city of the Persians, which surrendered without resistance. Here were obtained gold and silver to the amount of 50,000 talents, and what was still more interesting to the Greeks, the spoils which Xerxes had carried off from Greece. Per-sep'- o-Ms, the real capital of the Persian kings, was the next city occupied by the invader; and here, it is said, the treasure captured amounted to 120,000 talents. Darius had in the mean while fled to Ecbatana, and thither Alexander went in pursuit, which he continued with great rapidity, until he reached Bactria, where the Persian monarch had been seized and put to death by the satrap of that province. 54. Alexander, still pursuing his career of conquest, de- feated the Scythians on the banks of the I-ax'ar-tes, and took possession of Mar-a-can'da (now Samarcand), the capital of Sog-di-a'na, where he married a Bactrian prin- cess, named Rox-a'na (328 B. a). Here too it was that, at a banquet, in a fit of anger, he murdered his friend Cly'tus, who had saved his life at the battle of the Granicus. He next invaded India, defeated Po'rus, the king of that coun- 52. What was the final engagement with Darius ? Its result ? 53. What other cities and countries were subdued? What was the fate of Darius ? 54. What further conquests were made by Alexander? Whom did he marry ? Whom did he slay in anger ? Why did he at last retreat ? B. C. 323.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 55 try, on the banks of the Hy-das'pes, and after a brief rest, pushed on to the Hyj)h'a-sis, when the soldiers, worn out with their toils, positively refused to proceed any farther. He then gave orders to return. 55. Having built a fleet, he sailed down the Indus to its mouth ; and then, leaving Ne-ar'chus to pursue the voyage of exploration, he marched through the burning desert to Persepolis, and thence by way of Susa and Ecbatana to Babylon, where he indulged in various schemes of further conquest. But, as he was about to set out on a campaign in Arabia, he was seized with a fever, said to have been oc- casioned by intemperance ; and after eleven days' illness, he expired (323 b. a). On his death-bed, being asked by one of his generals, to whom he desired to leave his throne, he answered : " To the worthiest among you ; but I am afraid my obsequies will be celebrated with bloody hands." He, •however, gave his ring to Per-dic'cas. 56. Of all the conquerors of antiquity Alexander was, without doubt, the most enterprising and renowned. The splendor of his military achievements should not, however, blind us to the moral depravity which could sacrifice, with- out a single pang of remorse, so many thousands of his fellow-creatures, merely to gratify a thirst for vain-glory. This insatiable desire seems to have been unmixed with any wish to benefit his subjects or mankind, although he founded cities which promised to be useful to him in car- rying out his ambitious views, and in perpetuating his memory. In the hands of Providence, however, he was undoubtedly an instrument of good; since, by his con- quests, the two continents were brought into closer com- munication with each other, and the language, literature, and arts of Greece were carried into the East. 55. In what way did he return? (Trace his route both in advance and on his return, from Map, p. 52.) What other conquests were meditated by him ? When and how did his death take place ? Did he leave a successor ? 56. What was the character of Alexander? What was the result of his con- quests ? (Point out on the Map the towns founded by him, and named Alexandria.) 56 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B. C. 322. 57. In the mean while, the Spartans, "under their king A'gis, had made a vigorous effort, in union with most of the other states of Peloponnesus (331 B. a), to throw off the yoke of Macedon ; but they were defeated with great slaughter by Antipater, Agis being slain in the battle. Athens had taken no part in this struggle ; but under the influence of Pho'cion, illustrious for the wisdom and moderation of his counsels and his stern republican sim- plicity and honesty, prosecuted the orators who had been active against the Macedonians, and, under a charge of bribery, drove them into exile. Among these was Demos- thenes. When, however, news arrived of the death of Alexander, the city gave way to the most excessive de- monstrations of joy, and Phocion's party lost all their influence. 58. The Lamian War. In an expedition under Le-os'- tlie-nes, the Athenians and their allies gained some impor- tant victories over Antipater near La'mi-a ;* but Antipater being joined by Crat'e-rus, with a considerable force from Asia, entirely defeated them in Thessaly, and the war was at an end (322 b. c). Athens was compelled to give up her orators, including Demosthenes, who had been recalled from exile during the war : the latter, however, escaping, was finally compelled to take poison in order to escape from his pursuers ; while the others were cruelly put to death. 59. Alexander's Successors. After Alexander's death, his half-brother Philip, and his infant son by Eoxa- na, were declared partners of the throne, while the empire itself was parcelled out among the generals who were to rule as satraps, but Perdiccas was to act as regent. Being * A fortified town near the southeastern border of Thessaly. (See Map of Greece.) 57. What effort did the Spartans make to regain their freedom ? What course did Athens pursue ? Why ? Who were banished ? Effect of Alexander's death at Athens ? 58. The Lamian war and its result ? (Where was Lamia ? See Map, No. 3.) 59. How were the dominions of Alexander disposed of? What league was formed against Perdiccas ? Who succeeded him a3 regent ? B.C. 301.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 57 suspected of a design to place himself upon the throne, a league was formed against Perdiccas by An-tig'o-nus, Ptol'- e-my, An-tip'a-ter, and Crat'e-rus ; and, in a war against them, he was assassinated (321 b. a). Antipater was then made regent, and the empire was again divided. 60. Antipater died three years afterward, at the age of eighty, and left the regency to Pol-y-sper'clion, a veteran general of Alexander. This displeased Cas-san'der, Antip- ater's son, who had expected to succeed his father, and kindled a war of several years between the two generals. During this war Cassander placed the administration at Athens under De-me'tri-us Pha-le're-us, a distinguished Athenian orator, statesman, and writer, who ruled the city for ten years with so much popularity that the Athe- nians raised 360 brazen statues to his honor. War having arisen between Antigonus and the other generals, Athens surrendered to Deme'trius Po-M-or-ce'tes,* the son of Antigo- nus ; and Phalereus, who, by his dissipated habits, had lost his popularity, was compelled to flee, all his statues being thrown down except one. 61. After several years more of war, a decisive battle was fought near Ip'sus, in which Antigonus was slain and his army entirely defeated (301 b. a). This led to a more permanent division of the empire, and nearly closed this long series of wars, which so fully demonstrated the pro- phetic sagacity of Alexander, when he said his obsequies would be bloody. It also, perhaps, still further proved the wickedness and wanton cruelty of his nature, since he took no means to prevent so dreadful a result by definitely appointing a successor. During these wars the whole of Alexander's relations, including his mother, O-lym'pi-as, and his wife and son, were successively put to death. * Poliorcetes means, in Greek, the " Besieger of Cities." 60. Who was the successor of Antipater ? What war ensued ? What is said of Demetrius Phalereus ? Demetrius Poliorcetes ? 61. Where was Antigonus defeated? (Where was Ipsus ? See Map, p. 41.) What was the result ? What became of Alexander's relations ? 58 PERSIA, GREECE, AtfD MACEDONIA. [B.C. 283. 62. In the partition of the empire which took place after the battle of Ipsus, Cassander obtained Greece and Macedonia ; Ptolemy was confirmed in the possession of Egypt ; Ly-sim'a-chus had the greatest part of Asia Minor ; and Se-leu'cus, the whole country from the coast of Syria to the Euphrates. The latter founded on the river O-ron'- tes a new capital of his empire, which he named An'tioch, after his father, An-ti'o-chus. 63. Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, was not subdued. He retreated from Ipsus, and proceeded to Greece ; but the Athenians refused to receive him. After forming an alliance with Seleucus, he again appeared before Athens, which, after a long siege, he captured, expelling the tyrannical governor whom Cassander had appointed (295 b. a). The Atheni- ans were greatly moved by his noble forgiveness and lenity ; for instead of the dreadful punishment which they had expected, he supplied their wants, and did his best to relieve the miseries occasioned by the long siege which they had suffered. 64. After the death of Cassander, Demetrius possessed himself of the throne of Macedon (294 b. a), which he occupied for seven years, when it was seized by Pyr'rlms, king of Epirus, and in a few months afterward by Lysim- achus (287 b. a). Thus the whole Macedonian Empire, excepting Egypt, under Ptolemy, was divided between Lysimachus and Seleucus. Demetrius died a captive at the court of the latter, 283 b. c. The throne of Macedon was filled by Lysimachus only six years, when, hostilities having arisen between him and Seleucus, he was defeated by the latter in a battle near Sardis, and slain. This gave nearly the whole empire to Seleucus, who, however, sur- vived the conquest only one year, being treacherously 62. What partition of the empire was made ? (Where was Antioch ? See Pro- gressive Map, No. 4.) By whom was it founded i 63. What was done by Demetrius ? What was his conduct toward Athens ? 64. By what kings was the throne of Macedon successively filled ? Into whoso power did nearly all the Macedonian Empire fall? In what way? What became of Demetrius ? Of Seleucus ? B.C. 243. PEKSIA, GREECE, AJs T D MACEDONIA. 5'J assassinated in Thrace (280 b. a), by Ptolemy Ce-rau'nus, son of Ptolemy, king of Egypt. 65. Macedonia and Thrace were the same year invaded by an immense host of Gauls, under a leader named Bren- nus, and Ptolemy fell in a battle which he fought to repel them. The Gauls then passed into Greece, and reached Delphi, where they were repulsed with great loss. Some of them afterward settled on the Danube ; others, in Thrace ; while a third part passed into Asia, and settled in the country called after them, Ga-la'tia . 66. After the death of Ptolemy, the throne of Macedon was occupied by Antigonus Go-na'tas,* son of Demetrius, who reigned till 243 b. c, exercising a severe rule over the Greeks, whose cities he governed by means of petty tyrants appointed by himself. This tyranny led to a noted con- federacy, styled in history the "Achaean League," it being in fact the revival of an ancient league which had existed among the tAvelve chief cities of Achaia. It was soon joined by most of the important states of Greece, in- cluding Athens ; and, under its wise and patriotic leader, A-ra'tus of Sicyon (sish'e-on), acquired very great influence (243 b. a). 67. At this period three powers contended for mastery in Greece : the A-chce'an League, the 2E-to'li-an League, and the Spartans. The iEtolian league was a confederation of tribes, which had gradually made themselves masters of Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, and some other states. The Spar- tans, under their celebrated kings A'gis and Cle-om 'e-nes, had attempted to regain their ancient simplicity of man- ners and military hardihood. * So called from Gonni, a town in Thessaly, where he was born. 65. Give an account of the invasion by the Gauls. Where did they settle? (What was the situation of Galatia ? See Map, p. 41.) 66. What noted league was formed among the Greek states ? What led to it? Who was at its head ? (Where was Sicyon ? See Map of Greece.) 67. What three powers were there in Greece at this time ? What was the J2tO- Iian league ? What did Agis and Cleomenes attempt ? 60 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. [B.C. 183. 68. Aratus, in a war with the Spartans, was obliged to call in the assistance of Antigonus Do' son,* king of Mace- don, who defeated Cleomenes and captured Sparta, which hitherto had remained unconquered (221 B. a). Aratus afterward entered into an alliance with Philip, king of Macedon, in a war against the iEtolians, which lasted till 217 b. c. ; but having displeased Philip, he was by the orders of the latter poisoned (213 b. a). 69. Phil-o-pce'men, styled " the last of the Greeks," suc- ceeded Aratus in administering the affairs of the Achaean league. He was a man of great talents and virtue. In 207 b. c, he gained a great victory over the Spartans, not- withstanding they were assisted by the Eomans ; and, in the general assembly of the Greeks, was hailed as the liber- ator of their country. The Eomans a few years after this made war upon Philip, king of Macedon, and defeated him in the famous battle of Cyn-os-cepli'a-lce,\ in Thessaly (197 b. a). Philip was then compelled to withdraw his garri- sons from the Grecian towns, and the independence of Greece was solemnly proclaimed by the Eomans. 70. The iEtolians having made war upon the Eomans, were completely subdued (139 b. a). Meanwhile Sparta joined the Achaean league; but the Messenians having re- volted against it, Philopcemen, in an attempt to reduce them, was taken prisoner and barbarously put to death, at the age of seventy (183 b. a). Mes-se'ne was, however, captured by the Achaaans the next year, and the murderers of Philopoemen punished. 71. The Eomans, again invading Macedonia, defeated * Doxon means about to give, and was applied to this king on account of his habit of promising hut not performing. + Oynoacephalm means dorjJ henrte, and was given to a range of elevated rocks in Thessaly resembling in appearance the heads of dogs. It is sometimes written Ci/nocephale. 68. What befell Sparta ? What caused the death of Aratus ? 69. Who was Philopoemen ? How did he become distinguished ? Describe the battle of Cynoscephahe and its result. (Where was Cynoscephalae ? See Map of Greece.) 70. What ended the ^Etolian league ? What caused the death of Philopoemen ? 71. When was the battle of Pydna fought? Its consequences? Where was Pydna ?— (See Map of Greece.) When and by whom was Greece finally subdued ? B. C. 146.] PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 01 its last king, Per' sens, in the battle of Pyd'na (168 B. c.j, and reduced it to a province. The Koman general, entering Greece, surrendered many of its cities to the pillage of the soldiers ; and no fewer than 150,000 of the inhabitants were captured and sold as slaves. A few years later, the Koman s under Mum'mi-us again invaded Greece, being invited by the Spartans, who had quarrelled with the Achaeans. The last army of the latter surrendered at Corinth (146 B. a), and Greece became a Eoman province, under the name of Achaia. 72. Grecian Colonies. — These were very numerous and widespread. The southern part of Italy was called Mag'na Grcecia, from the large number of Greek cities which it contained. One of the earliest was Cu'mce, an iEolic colony, on the Bay of Naples ; but the most promi- nent were Syb'a-ris, noted for its effeminacy and debauchery, and Cro'ton, distinguished for its athletes and physicians. After the destruction of Sybaris by its rival Croton, Taren'- tum took the lead among the cities of Magna Graecia. Sicily also contained a large number of Greek cities, of which the most noted were Mes-sa'na, Syr'a-cuse, and Ag-ri- gm'tum. Syracuse was a Corinthian colony, founded 734 b. c. Its history will be given in connection with that of Rome. 73. There was also a cluster of colonies at the western nart of the Mediterranean, of which Mas-sd'li-a (now Mar- seilles), founded 600 B. c, was the chief. On the African coast, Cy-re'ne was established by the Spartans (630 B. a). It afterward became the capital of Cyrenaica (si-re-na'e- kali). The Ionic cities of Asia Minor were especially noted for their enterprise; and, during the eighth and seventh centuries, Miletus was the first commercial city of Hellas ; but Eph'e-sus afterward rivalled it in size and importance. 72. What were the principal Greek colonies in Italy ? In Sicily ? Point them out on the Map. (See Progressive Map, No. 3.) 73. What other colonies were there? What is said of Miletus? Ephesus? Point them out. (See Map, p. 41.) G2 PERSIA, GKEECE, AND MACEDONIA. On the Propontis and the Euxine there were also numerous colonies, of which Cyz'i-cus and Sin'o-pe were the most cele- brated. 74. The Greeks were remarkable not only for keenness of intellect and delicacy of taste, but for the skill and tact with which they employed these faculties, both in the useful and in the fine arts. Architecture, painting, and sculpture were carried by them to a degree of perfection which has never been surpassed. The works of their poets and orators still remain unequalled by those of any subsequent age or country ; while their various systems of philosophy show a genius for deep speculation and subtle distinction, mingled with a refinement of sentiment, to be found in those of no other people. Had their virtue and patriotism been equal to their intellectual grandeur, Greece could never have been subdued. 75. Being destitute of any political union, the Hellenic States destroyed each other by their mutual dissensions and wars. This was partly due to the traditional animosities and jealousies of the different races, and partly to the geograph- ical character of Greece itself, which, crossed in every direc- tion by mountain chains or divided by deep gulfs, provided those natural barriers which encourage local pride and hos- tility. There were, however, three institutions that gave them a certain degree of national unity : — the Amphictyonic Council, the Oracles, and the Public Games and other re- ligious festivals. 76. The Amphictyonic Council was of very ancient or- igin. It consisted of deputies from the different states, and met usually twice a year, — at Delphi in the spring, and at Thermopylae in the autumn. Its express objects were to prevent acts of aggression against its members, and to pro- 74. For what were the Greeks remarkable ? 75. What caused the political disunion of the Grecian states ? What gave them a certain degree of unity ? 76. Describe the Amphictyonic Council. What were the Oracles ? Which wa* the principal one ? How generally was it consulted ? PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 63 tect the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The Oracles were certain sacred spots where it was thought the will of the gods might be ascertained through the inspired answers of the priestesses. There were several, the most noted of which was that of Apollo at Delphi. Thither messengers came from all parts of Greece, and even from foreign coun- tries, to consult the Oracle. 77. There were four great festivals at which the public games were celebrated, called the Olympic, Pyth'ian, Ne-me'~ an, and Isth'mian games. The Olympic games were cele- brated at Olympia, in Elis, every fifth year, in honor of Jupiter, and drew together an immense assemblage from all parts of Greece, as well as from foreign countries. The exercises consisted of running, wrestling, boxing, chariot- racing, etc. ; and to be proclaimed a victor in these games was considered the highest honor a Grecian could attain. None could contend in them but those of the Hellenic race, and all who entered into these contests were obliged to take an oath that they would use no unfair means to obtain the victory. The only prize bestowed on the victor was a sim- ple garland of wild olive. 78. The Pythian games were celebrated in honor of Apollo, every fifth year, near Delphi ; the Nemean and Isthmian games, once in two years : the first, at Ne-me'a, in honor of Jupiter ; and the second, by the Corinthians on their isthmus, in honor of Neptune, the god supposed to preside over the sea. In these three festivals there were contests in poetry and music, as well as trials of strength and skill. The Olympic games were the most ancient. They were revived, it is said, by Lycurgus in 776 B. c. ; and hence this date, called the First Olympiad, was afterward employed by the Greeks as their principal chronological era. 77. How many and what public games ? Describe the Olympic games. 78. Describe the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games. What was the origin of the Olympiads ? 64 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION", c. f 1225. Argonautic Expedition. J 1184. Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. ] 1124. iEolic migration from Thessaly. 1 1104. Return of the Heracleidse. f 770. Commencement of the Olympiads. Age of Lycur- i gus. I 743-23. First Messenian War. J 685-68. Second Messenian War. i 624. Draco gives laws to Athens. Legislation of Solon. Usurpation of Pisistratus. Insurrection at Athens. — Death of Hipparchus. Hippias expelled from Athens. Ionian revolt in Asia Minor. Miletus taken and the Ionian revolt subdued. Invasion of Europe by Mardonius. Battle of Marathon. — Persians defeated. Accession of Xerxes to the throne of Persia. Aristides banished from Athens by the ostracism. Themistocles the leading man at Athens. Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. — Battle of Salamis. Battle of Platsea. Leadership transferred from Pausanias to Aristides. — Commencement of Athenian supremacy. 471. Themistocles banished by the ostracism. — Death of Pausanias. 461. Pericles at the head of public affairs at Athens. 449. Death of Cimon. — End of the Persian War. 431. Commencement of the Peloponnesian War. 429. Death of Pericles. — Plague at Athens. 415. Expedition against Sicily, under Alcibiades and Nicias. 405. Battle of JEgospotamos. 403. The Thirty Tyrants expelled by Thrasybulus. 401. Battle of Cunaxa, and Retreat of the " Ten Thousand." 399. Death of Socrates, at the age of 70. 394. Battle of Coronea, and Victory of Agesilaus. — The Spartan fleet defeated by Conon. 387. Peace of Antalcidas. f 594. 1 560-27. 1 " 514. 510. <3 L 501. f 495. 492. 490. 485. 483. 481. 480. 479. ^ 478. i PERSIA, GREECE, AKD MACEDONIA. 65 f 371. Battle of Leuctra. — The Spartans defeated by Epam- inondas. 362. Battle of Man tinea. — Death of Epaminondas. 359. Accession of Philip to the throne of Macedon. 352. First Philippic of Demosthenes. 346. Philip overruns Phocis, and ends the Sacred War. 338. Battle of Chaeronea. — The Athenians and Thebans defeated by Philip. 336. Accession of Alexander the Great 334. Battle of the Granicus River. 333. Battle of Issus. 331. Battle of Arbela. 323. Death of Alexander at Babylon. — The Lamian War. 317-307. Demetrius Phalereus at Athens. 301. Battle of Ipsus. r 281. Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus. I 280. Seleucus assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus. — Invasion of Greece by the Gauls. 279. The Gauls defeated at Delphi. 243. Aratus general of the Achaean league. j 241. Agis (IV.), king of Sparta, put to death for attempting to reform the government. 236. Cleomenes (III.) becomes king of Sparta. 221. Sparta captured by Antigonus Doson. 213. Aratus poisoned by Philip, king of Macedon. 208. Philopcemen general of the Achaean league. 197. Battle of Cynoscephalae. — Philip, king of Macedon, de- feated. 183. Philopcemen put to death by the revolted Messenians. 168. Battle of Pydna. — End of the Macedonian monarchy. 146. Destruction of Corinth by Mummius. — Greece made a Roman province under the name of Achaia. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE. 1. What conquests were made by Cyrus the Great ? 31 2. What were the principal events of the reign of Cambysee ? 31 3. What important expeditions were undertaken by Darius Hystaspea ? 32 4. What led to the invasion of Greece ? 32 5. What Persian monarch invaded Greece, and with what result ? 32 6. When and in what way did the Persian Empire end ? 33 7. What was the character of the Persians ? Their religion ? 33 8. Give a brief sketch of the geography of Greece 33-34 9. Who were the primitive inhabitants of Greece ? 34 06 PERSIA, GREECE, AND MACEDONIA. 10. What were the principal events of the legendary history ? 34-35 11. What revolutions occurred in the twelfth century ? 35 12. Give an account of Lycurgus 35-36 13. Describe the Messenian Wars, and their consequences 36 11. Describe the government of Sparta 36 15. Give an account of the origin of Athens, and its early history 37 16. Who were Draco and Solon ? 37 17. Give an account of Pisistratus and his sons 37-38 18. What is meant in Grecian history by the "Age of Despots V 38 19. What was the ostracism, and why was it established ? 38-39 20. Mention some of the distinguished mer? who were banished by it 42-48 21. What led to the battle of Marathon? Its consequences ? 39 22. Give an account of the invasion of Greece by Xerxes 40 23. Give a sketch of the career of Aristides 41-43 24. Also of Themistocles 41-43 25. Of Pausanias 41-42 26. OfCimon 43 27. Give a full account of the Persian War 39-44 28. Give a full account of the Peloponnesian War 44-45 2!). Give a sketch of the life and character of Socrates 46-47 30. What led to the battle of Cunaxa ? 47 31. Give an account of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand ■ 47 32. Describe the character of Agesilaus, and state the chief events of his life.. 48-49 33. What rendered Epaminondas illustrious ? 48-49 34. Describe the character of Philip of Macedon, and state the principal events of his reign 49-51 &5. What was the Sacred War ? 50-51 36. What victory gave Philip control of Greece ? 51 37. Give a sketch of the career of Alexander the Great 51-56 38. What victory gave him the Persian empire ? 54 39. After his death, what noted generals contended for the mastery ? 56-57 40. What led to the battle of Ipsus ? Its consequences ? 57 41. Who were Demetrius Phalereus and Demetrius Poliorcetes ? 57 42. How was the Macedonian Empire divided after the battle of Ipsus ? 58 43. Give a sketch of the career of Demetrius Poliorcetes 58 44. Mention some of the successors of Ptolemy Ceraunus on the throne of Macedon 59 45. Give an account of the formation of the JStolian league 59 46. Give a sketch of the history of the Achaean league 59 47. Who was Philopoemen ? What was he styled ? 60 48. How did the Macedonian monarchy end ? 61 49. When and by whom wa# Greece subdued ? 61 50. Give a sketch of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, Italy, Africa, &c 61 Dl. What was the character of the Greeks ? 62 52. What was the Amphictyonic Council '? 62 53. Describe the public games 63 54. In whose honor were they held ? What was their effect ? 63 55. Mention the chief events of the fabulous age, with their dates 64 56. Mention the chief events in the history of Greece, with their dates, during each succeeding century 64-65 PROGRESSIVE MAP N?3. C. C. 753.1 HOME. G7 section iii. Rome, From its Foundation to the Establishment of the Empire. 1. Rome is said to have been founded in 753 b. a, but its early history for at least three and a half centuries is only a series of traditional narratives of the details of which there is no authentic evidence. According to these, its founders were two brothers named Rom'u-lus and Re'mus, of the Latin race, a people that had long inhabited that part of Italy, occupying a district called La'ti-um. Romulus be- came the first king, and was succeeded by six others, the united reigns of the whole comprising a period of about two centuries and a half. 2. Besides the Latins and the Greek colonies, Italy, at the time of the foundation of Rome, was occupied by several other races, of whom the E-tru'ri-ans, living in what is now called Tuscany, were the most important and the most ad- vanced in civilization. Romulus, it is said, arranged a plan of government for the new city, dividing the people into tribes, establishing a senate, and recognizing the two classes of Patricians, or nobles, and Plebeians, or common people. 3. Nu'ma Pom-pil'ius, the second king, was, according to the traditions, the founder of the religious institutions of the Romans. Tul'lus Hos-tiTi-us, the third king, was Map Questions.— (See Progressive Map, No. 3.)— Name the divisions of Italy. What was the situation of Latium ? Etruria ? Umhria ? Samnium ? Apulia ? Cala'bria? Brutium ? Campania? Territory of the Sabines ? Cisalpine Gaul ? Where was Rhe'tia ? Illy'ricum ? Helvetia ? What river tributary to the Adriatic Sea ? What branches of it are laid down ? On what river was Rome ? What port at its mouth ? Where was the Rubicon River ? The Metaurus River ? Lake Trasi- me'nus ? Where was Veil ? Tarquinii ? Tusculum ? Clusium ? Capua ? Cannae ? Bruiidusium ? What towns in Sicily ? In Africa ? 1 . When and by whom was Rome founded ? Give the early history of Rome. 2. By whom was Italy occupied at that time ? What were the acts of Romulus f 3. Name the other kings of Rome. What is said of each? What ended the mouarchy ? 68 KOME. LB. C. 509. noted for the wars waged by him against the neighboring cities. An'cus Mar' tins, the fourth king, gained victories over the Latins and some of the other races. Tar'quin the Elder, the fifth king, was noted for the public buildings and other works which he caused to be constructed ; among these were the Great Circus and the Great Sewer. Ser'vi-us Tul'- li-us, the sixth king, established the census, which was taken every five years. Tar'quin the Proud, the seventh and last king, was by an insurrection of the people driven from the throne and city in consequence of an infamous crime com- mitted by his son. This ended the monarchy (509 b. a). 4. Instead of kings, two yearly magistrates, called Con- suls, were then elected ; and Junius Brutus and Col-la-ti'- nus, through whose means the Tarquins had been expelled, were appointed to this office. The duties and powers of the consuls were similar to those of the kings, and for nearly 150 years they were chosen exclusively from the pa- tricians. As civil officers their power was nearly absolute, each ruling by turns ; and they were the legally appointed generals of the army in time of war. 5. For more than twelve years after the abolition of the monarchy, the Romans were engaged in war with the ad- herents and friends of the Tarquins. Several of the neigh- boring cities raised armies to compel the Romans to rein- state their king, but they were all finally defeated, although at times they seemed to be on the point of achieving their object. The famous battle of Re-gil'lus, in Tus'cu-lum, ter- VlCINITY OF EOME. 4. What officers took the place of the kings ? What were their powers and duties ? Who were the first consuls ? 5. What wars followed the abolition of the monarchy? Give some account of them. What is said of the battle of Lake Regillus ? What was the consequence ? What is said of the appointment of dictator ? (See also the note.) B. C. 494.] ROME. G9 minated the struggle, and the Tarquins finally gave up all hope of restoration. To this period belong some of the most interesting stories of the legendary history.* It was during this period also that the first dictator^ was appointed. 6. Although the monarchy was abolished, Rome was by no means under a free government. All political power was in the hands of the patricians, and the plebeians were kept in a condition of great social degradation. Obliged to borrow money of their rich neighbors, they were charged enormous rates of interest, and, when unable to pay, were delivered by the cruel laws to the mercy of their creditors, who entirely deprived them of their lands, and reduced them to the condition of serfs or slaves. Besides, they were compelled to perform military duty whenever called upon by the government. 7. At length their condition became so .wretched that they refused to take the field against the public enemy ; but, leaving the city to the patricians, departed in a body to the Sacred Mount, about three miles distant. This compelled the nobles to make some concessions. They released the debtors from their obligations, setting free all who had been made slaves, and assented to the appoint- ment of two magistrates, called Trib'unes, who were to be chosen from the ranks of the Plebeians, to hold office one year, and to have the power of annulling any law of the Senate by pronouncing the word Veto, which means, I for- bid it. The people then returned to the city (494 b. a). 8. This concession on the part of the nobles was not so great as it appears, since the Tribunes were elected by those assemblies (called the Comitia of the Centuries) in * Such as the legend of Horatius, who kept the bridge against the whole Etrurian army; of Mucii'8 Scaevola, and of Castor and Pollux at Lake Regillus. (See Liddell's History of Rome, and .Macaulay's Lays of Atinent Rome.) t A dictator was an officer vested for a limited time with an absolute and irresponsible authority. He was only appointed in times of great public peril. 6. What was the state of Rome at this time ? What was the condition of th« Plebeians ? 7. What measure was taken by the Plebeians ? Give the result. 8. How were the Tribunes elected ? What were their powers ? 70 ROME. [B.C. 471. which, according to the constitution of Servius Tnllius, the Patricians could always, by means of their wealth, com- mand a majority of votes. The Tribunes were not invested with any of the ordinary duties of magistrates, their office being simply to protect the rights of the Plebeians by their check upon the legislation of the Senate, which body was purely an aristocratic assemblage. The Tribunes were af- terward increased to five, and finally, in later times, to ten. 9. Another source of difficulty was the injustice of the nobles in seizing upon the public or conquered lands, and keeping them for their exclusive use; whereas, by the con- stitution of Servius Tullius, they were to be divided partly among the poorer people. This kind of aggression con- iinued to exist for centuries, and gave rise to the proposal of many exciting measures, called "Agrarian laws," the object of which was to enforce a proper division of these public lands. 'This was the more necessary; since, when held in large quantities by the wealthy, they were culti- vated by slaves, and the small farmers and freemen were deprived of the means of existence. 10. A few years after the creation of the Tribunate (486 B. C.), S/ni'ri-us Cas'si-us, one of the consuls, proposed the first agrarian law; but he fell a victim to the machinations of the nobles, and, on a false accusation, was put to death. The law, although passed, was not put in execution, and the contest continued until the Plebeians gained a great triumph in the passage of the " Law of Vol'e-ro," according to which the Tribunes were elected by the Plebeians them- selves at the Assembly of the Tribes, not at the Assembly of the Centuries (471 b. a). This law destroyed the power of* the nobles, and made Borne a democratic state. 11. While these struggles had been going on in the city between the two Orders, there were almost constant wars **. What were the Agrarian laws? What was their origin ! Their object? 1 0. Who proposed the lirst Agrarian law ! What was his fate ? What was the " Law of Volero ?" What was its effeel 1 11. Itclate the legend about Coriolanus. B.C. 451.] ROME. 71 with the neighboring people, among whom the iE'qui-ans and Volscians (called in Latin Volsci) were the most trouble- some. To this period belongs the story of Co-ri-o-la'nus, a patrician general, who acquired this name by the capture of Co-ri'o-U, an important city of the Volscians. Having great influence at Rome in consequence of the victories which he had gained, he insisted, during a time of famine, that no corn should be given to the people unless they would relin- quish their privileges. But the tribunes procured his banish- ment ; and going over to the Volscians, he marched with an army against Rome and threatened its capture. The Senate made several attempts to dissuade him from his revengeful purpose, but in vain. At last, when his mother, wife, and children were sent to his camp to intercede for the city, he relented, and retired with his army. Shortly afterward he was put to death by the Volscians (488 b. a). 12. To a somewhat later period belongs the interesting legend of Cin-cin-na'tus, who, although a patrician, lived on a small farm which he cultivated with his own hands. Twice was he called from the plough to serve his country, once as Consul and again as Dictator; and while holding the latter office, he gained a great victory over the iEqui- ans ; and then, having freed Rome from danger, immediate- ly resigned his great office, and returned to his humble agricultural labors, followed by the applause and blessings of all his countrymen (458 B. a). Nearly thirty years afterward, when at the age of 80, he was again called from his retirement to take the office of dictator. 13. The Romans having no written laivs, ten commis- sioners were appointed, called De-cem'-virs, to arrange a code. (451 B. c.) They were invested with a very large authority, superseding the other magistrates, and ruling by turns, each for one day. The celebrated code of the Twelve 12. Relate the legend about Cincinnatus. 1 3. Who were the Decemvirs ? What authority did they have ? What caused the abolition of the Decemvirate ? 72 HOME. [B.C. 391. Tables was the result of their labors; but a flagrant abuse of power on the part of Ap'pi-us Clau'di-us, one of their number, caused the abolition of the Decemvirate in the third year of its existence. 14. The right of intermarriage between the patricians and plebeians being forbidden, a law was introduced by one of the tribunes (445 B. c.) making such marriages legal. This, after violent opposition, was passed, and was imme- diately followed by a proposal to open the consulship to the plebeians. To put an end to the strife and excitement which this produced, the duties of consuls were intrusted to officers called military tribunes, to be elected by the Assembly of the Centuries, both patricians and plebeians being eligible to the office. The Senate, however, could order the election of consuls, instead of the Tribunes, for any year. These officers continued to be elected with various intermissions until 367 b. c, when, by the Li-ci?i'- ian Law, plebeians were admitted to the consulship. 15. The Eomans having besieged Veil {ve'yi), a powerful city of E-tru'ri-a, for several years, were on the point of suffering a disastrous defeat, when Fu'ri-us Ca-miTlus, being appointed Dictator, caused a mine to be dug by means of which the soldiers were admitted into the citadel, and the city was taken and destroyed (396 b. a). Veii was a larger and more magnificent city than Eome itself, and so favorably situated that very many of the Eomans were inclined to abandon their own city and migrate thither. From this, however, they were finally dissuaded by the patricians. Camillus being accused of appropriating the spoils of the conquered city to his own use, was driven into exile (391 b. a). 16. At this period, the Gauls, a barbarous but very bold 14. What privilege did the plebeians acquire? What were the military tri- bunes ? What privileges did the Licinian law give to the plebeians ? 1 5. What was accomplished by Camillus ? How did Veii compare with Rome? What danger threatened Rome ? Why was Camillus banished ? 1 6. What city was attacked by the Gauls ? How did the Romans become in volved ? B. €. 390.] ROME. 73 and warlike people, had possessed themselves of nearly all Western Europe, and occupied also the north of Italy. Proceeding farther south, they (391 B. c.) attacked Clu'-si- nm, an important city of Etrnria, the inhabitants of which sent to Rome for assistance. Embassadors were according- ly sent to Clusinm to demand of the Gauls the reason of their hostile invasion, and bid them quit a territory to which they had no claim. Bren'nus, their leader, answered that the " title of brave men was their swords ;" whereupon a battle ensued, in which the Roman deputies, unmindful of their neutral character, took part against the Gauls. 17. The course taken by the deputies so enraged Brennus that he immediately left Clusinm, and with an army of nearly 75,000 men marched toward Rome. On the banks of the Al'li-a, a few miles from the city, he met and de- feated the Roman army ; and then marching to the city itself, entered it without opposition, the inhabitants having all fled, except 80 aged senators, who awaited the enemy in the Forum, in their robes of state and seated in their ivory chairs. These venerable men were quickly massacred, and the city pillaged and burnt (390 b. a). 18. The citadel, however, being built on a steep and lofty cliff, held out for seven months; and the Gauls besieging it were reduced in numbers by a pestilence which broke out among them. It is said that at one time they were on the point of taking the citadel ; for having discovered a narrow path up the cliff, they had nearly reached the summit dur- ing the darkness of night, all the guards being asleep ; but at that instant the sacred geese kept in the temple of Juno commenced a loud cackling, which awoke the garrison ; and the Roman commander, Mar'cus Man'li-us, springing up, rushed to the edge of the rock and hurled the Gauls headlong down. 1 7. What defeat was sustained by the Romans? What followed the battle of Allia? 18. How was the citadel defended? Relate what is said to have occurred dur- ing the defence. 74 ROME. TB. C. 383. 19. In the mean while, Camillus had been called from banishment and made dictator. He arrived, as the story goes, with an army just as the Eomans were about to deliver to the Gauls 1000 pounds of gold which they had agreed to pay as a ransom. Exclaiming that " Rome should be ransomed only with steel," he ordered the gold to be carried away, and immediately attacking the Gauls, de- feated them with great slaughter. Other, and probably more truthful, accounts state that the gold was paid, and that the Gauls peaceably retired ; and it is even said that, more than four centuries afterward, some of this very gold was recovered from the Gauls of that later period. It is, however, certain that the city was left in ruins; and the public records having been destroyed, no materials for an authentic history of the events preceding this period could afterward be obtained. 20. After the departure of the invaders, the city was in a sad condition, and the people were almost in despair. They had lost their houses, their cattle, and their crops, and yet were obliged to pay taxes in order to repair the city walls and to carry on the wars which the neighboring states waged against them. They were also very much oppressed by the merciless laws against debtors. In this crisis, Marcus Manlius, the brave defender of the citadel, distinguished himself by his efforts and sacrifices to relieve the people's wants. Having by this means acquired very great popularity, he excited the suspicions of the patricians, and was accused of attempting to make himself king ; of which offence being unjustly pronounced guilty, he was thrown down the very rock* from which he had repelled his country's enemies (383 b. a). 21. During the next twenty years, frequent wars were * Called the Taipeian Bock. 1 9. Who defeated the Gauls ? What is said of the ransom ? How far is the account certain as regards the city and public records ? 20. What was the fate of Manlius ? Relate the events that led to his death. 21. What wars were waged during the next twenty years ? What is stated of subsequent wars ? Of the alliance between Rome aud the Latin cities ? B. C. 295.] ROME. 75 waged with the Volscians, iEquians, and Etrurians, in which Camillus gained great distinction, and was five times made dictator and hailed repeatedly as the Savior of Rome. In 361 B. c, the Gauls made another invasion, and ten years afterward a third, but each time were repulsed. A war of several years was also waged with the powerful Etrurian city Tar-quin'i-i, but it was finally brought to a successful issue, a peace of forty years being concluded. The Romans at this time had also formed an alliance with most of the Latin cities, which added greatly to their strength and safety. 22. Samnite War. — The Sam'nltes, a warlike people inhabiting central Italy, having made war upon the Cam- pa'nians, the latter called in the aid of the Romans (343 b. a), who entering Campania defeated the Samnites with im- mense slaughter, and compelled them to make peace, after the Avar had lasted about two years. A war with the Latin cities followed, in which the Romans were also victorious, and Latium was annexed to the Roman territory (339 b. a). 23. In a second war with the Samnites, the Romans sus- tained a terrible defeat in a narrow valley called the Cau'- dlne Forks, and were compelled by the Samnite general to pass under the yoke* in acknowledgment of their subjuga- tion (321 B. a). The war was, however, continued until 305 b. c, when the Samnites, having been repeatedly de- feated, were compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. Seven years afterward they renewed the war, being aided by the Umbrians, Etruscans, and Gauls; but the allied army suffered a great defeat near Sen-ti'num, a town in Um'bria (295 b. a). This famous victory gave the Ronjans the dominion of nearly all Italy. Close upon this event, followed a war with the Etrurians and Ganls, * The yoke was made by setting: two spears upright, and placing another across the top of them 22. What caused the Samnite war? What country was annexed in 340 B. c. ? 23. What caused the second Samnite war ? Where were the " Caudine Forks ?" Ans. In Samnium. When were the Komans defeated ? How did the war end? Describe the third Samnite war. What was the effect of the battle of Sentinum ? What other war followed ? 76 ROME. [B. C. 274. whose combined forces were also vanquished with great slaughter. 24. The inhabitants of the Greek colony Ta-ren'-tum having given offence to the Romans, the latter declared war upon them, upon which the Tarentines solicited the aid of Pyr'r7ius, King of Epi'rus, the greatest general of his age. Complying with this request, he landed in Italy and gained a great victory over the Romans, commanded by the Con- sul Lce-vi'nus (280 B. a). But it was a dear-bought triumph, for he lost many of his best troops and some of his ablest officers, and was probably indebted for it more to the confusion occasioned by the elephants which his army contained, and to which the Eomans were not accustomed, than to the superior valor or skill of his soldiers. When, on visiting the battle-field the next day, he gazed on the Roman dead, all of whom appeared to have fallen in their ranks, and with their faces turned toward the enemy, he exclaimed : " If I had such soldiers as these, how easily could I conquer the world !" 25. Many of the Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and he advanced within eighteen miles from Rome, to which he sent an emissary, offering peace ; but this the Roman senate refused until he should withdraw his forces from Italy. Another battle was fought the next year, in which the Ro- mans were again defeated, but with great loss to Pyrrhus. Leaving Italy, he then proceeded to Sicily with the design of expelling the Carthaginians from that island, but in this he was not successful ; and after an absence of two years he returned to Ta-ren'tum. At Ben-e-ven'tum* he was met by the Romans under the Consul Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus, and suffered a most disastrous defeat (275 b. c), after which he retired forever from Italy. Returning to Greece, he was * A town of Samnium, about 28 miles from Capua. (See Progressive Map, No. 3.) 24. What led to the invasion by Pyrrhus? What success did he meet with? What did he say of the Roman soldiers ? 25. What were the farther proceedings of Pyrrhus ? Where was he defeated ? Where was he killed ? B. C. 266.] ROME. proclaimed King of Macedonia, and making war npon the Spartans, he nearly took their city ; but in an attack upon Argos, he was killed by a tile thrown by a woman from the roof of a house (272 b. a). 26. After the departure of Pyrrhus, the Tarentines ap- plied for aid to the Carthaginians, who sent a fleet for their relief; but the Eomans obtained possession of Ta- rentum. The Samnites, Luca'nians, and other tribes soon afterward submitted, thus leaving Eome mistress of all Italy (266 B. a). Over this extensive domain she organized a most effective government. Some portions, which were called Prefectures, that is, districts governed by Prefects, she ruled by means of magistrates sent from herself. From others, the Municipal Towns, she only exacted military service, leaving to them the control of their own local af- fairs ; while in very many she planted colonies of Eoman citizens, whom she supplied with lands from the conquered territory, and placed over the subjugated inhabitants. Her rule was, however, mild and generally just, and was but little disturbed by commotion or revolt. 27. The Punic Wars. — Across the Mediterranean, on the African shore, was the great rival republic, Carthage ; and with her the Eomans were now to measure their strength.* This city, settled, as it has been stated, by the Tyrians, had been in existence about six centuries, and had grown, by means of her commerce, to be one of the wealth- iest cities in the world. Her ships covered the Mediterra- nean, and her fleets were unequalled for numbers and efficiency. Three hundred cities in Africa paid her tribute, she had made conquests in Spain, and nearly all Sicily had submitted to her sway. * The wars waged with Carthage were called Punic Warn, Punic being a corruption of Phoenix, meaning Phoenician, since Carthage was of Phoenician origin. 26. When and how did Rome become mistress of Italy? What is said of the government which she established? What were the prsefectures ? Municipal towns ? Colonies ? 27. What was the condition of Carthage at the commencement of the Punic wars. ? 78 ROME. [B. C. 264 28. Syracuse, however, still retained its independence, after repeated wars with the Carthaginians. This city was a colony of the Corinthians, established in the eighth cen- tury b. c. ; and, in the fifth century, became the most populous and powerful state in the island, under a virtuous and patriotic sovereign, named Ge'lon. During its struggle with Athens, in which Nicias was so disastrously defeated, it was under a free government, but subsequently lost its liberties (405 b. a), being ruled for 38 years by the famous Di-o-nys'-i-us, who carried on a successful war with the Carthaginians. Ti-mo'le-on, a Corinthian of great virtue and talents, restored it to freedom (344 B. c.) ; but under A-gath' o-cles, the despotism was again established (317 B. a). At the time to which we have arrived, it was under the rule of a monarch named Hi'e-ro, during whose reign flourished the famous mathematician Archimedes (ar-ke-me'deez), 29. First Punic War. — This war commenced in 264 B. c. and lasted 23 years. It was brought on in the following manner. Agathocles, who waged long wars with Carthage, had hired a body of troops from Cam-pa'ni-a; and these, after the death of that despot, seized Messana and slaugh- tered the inhabitants, after which they assumed the name of Marnier-tines, which means warlike men. These Hiero, king of Syracuse, marched against and defeated; where- upon they divided, and while a portion of them invoked the aid of the Romans, the others applied to the Carthagin- ians. Thus, by a set of mercenary murderers and robbers, were these two great republics plunged into a series of wars which lasted more than a hundred years. The real cause of the war was, however, the rivalship of these states. 30. The Romans having gained some important victo- ries, were soon joined by many of the states of Sicily, 28. Give a sketch of the history of Syracuse. 29. What led to the first Punic war ? What was the real cause of the war ? 30. What victories did the Romans gain ? What general was defeated, and how? B.C. 218.] ROME. 79 including Syracuse. They then took Ag-ri-gen'tum, d<\ feating an immense army which the Carthaginians had sent to its assistance (262 b. a). Seeing then the necessity of coping with their enemy on the sea, they built a fleet, and under the Consul Du-iTU-us, gained two great naval victories. Thus encouraged, they sent an armament under Reg'u-lus to attack Carthage itself; but this expedition, although at first successful, was defeated with great loss through the assistance of Xan-thip'pus, a Spartan general, who had recently entered the service of Carthage. The greater part of the Eomans were slain or made prisoners, Regulus himself being among the latter (255 b. a). 31. But subsequent misfortunes discouraged the Cartha- ginians ; and they took Regulus from prison, and sent him to Rome, with the understanding that he should obtain favorable terms of peace, or return to Carthage (250 b. a). He listened to the dictates of patriotism instead of con- sulting his own personal safety, and advised his country- men to continue the war, assuring them that Carthage was nearly exhausted. Having, in accordance with the pledge which he had given, returned to Carthage, he was, it is said, put to death with the most dreadful tortures. The war having continued some years longer, the Car- thaginians sued for peace, which was granted on condition that they should evacuate the island of Sicily, restore the Roman prisoners, and pay all the expenses of the war (241 b. a). Sicily, with the exception of Syracuse, then became a Roman province. 32. Second Punic War. — This war commenced in 218 B. c, and lasted seventeen years. Han'ni-bal, the son of Ila-mil'car, a noted general in the first Punic war, had when a youth been made by his father to swear upon the altar eternal enmity to the Romans ; and the Carthagin- 31. What is further said of Regulus ? How did the war end ? What became of Sicily ? 32. How and when did the second Punic war begin ? 80 ROME. [B.C. 215. ians having made considerable conquests in Spain, Han- nibal laid siege to Sa-gun'tum, a Greek colony near the eastern coast then in alliance with Eome. The expostula- tion s of the last-named power being treated with contempt by Hannibal, and his conduct having been approved by Car- thage, preparations for war were immediately commenced. 33. Hannibal, having completed the conquest of Spain, crossed the Pyrenees and Alps, and at the river Ti-ci'nus met and defeated the Eomans under their consul Scip'i-o (218 B. a). A few days afterward, he inflicted a severe defeat upon the other consul, Sem-pro'ni-us, near the river Tre'bi-a, a short distance from the scene of the first conflict. Another great battle was fought the next year, near the lake Tras-i-me'nus ; when the Eomans were again defeated, their army being almost destroyed (217 p». a). So alarmed did the Eomans become, in consequence, that they immediately appointed a dictator, Fa'bi-us Max'i-mus being selected for the office. 34. This general adopted the tactics of harassing the invaders as much as possible, but avoiding a direct engage- ment, thus wearing out their resources by delay. The Eomans were thus enabled to recover somewhat from their disasters ; but the next year (216 b. a), Hannibal having advanced into Southern Italy, was opposed by a large army under the consuls JE-milli-us and Varro ; and at Cam! nee a terrific battle took place, which for the fourth time re- sulted in a complete victory for the Carthaginians (216 b. a). It is said that more than 50,000 Eomans fell on the field, and that Hannibal sent to Carthage three bushels of gold rings, taken from the fingers of senators and knights who were found among the slain. Almost all the nations in the south of Italy at once revolted from the 33 What course did Hannibal take ? What victories did he gain ? To what position was Fabius Maxiraus elected ? 34. What was the policy of Fabius ? Describe the battle of Cannae. (Where was Canine ? See Map, Ko. 3.) What revolt ensued 'i Where did Hannibal pasa the winter ? B.C. 212.] ROME. 81 Romans ; but Hannibal, instead of marching on the city, which it is thought he might have captured, went into win- ter-quarters at Cap'u-a, and waited for re-enforcements. 35. In the meanwhile, the Romans had sent the two Scipios into Spain, who, after having gained great advan- tages over the Carthaginians, were defeated in battle and slain. They were succeeded by Pub'lius Corne'lius Scipio, son of one of the former commanders, who, having defeated the Carthaginians in several important battles, completed the conquest of Spain (205 B. a). Hannibal gained no im- portant victory after that at Cannae. His army, reduced in numbers, and impaired in strength and discipline by the pleasures and vices of Capua, was scarcely adequate to protect his Italian allies against the Romans, now under the command of Fa'Uus and Mar-cel'lus, the former of whom, from his cautious policy, was called the Shield, and the latter, on account of his vigor and address, the Sword of Rome. Marcellus did important service in Sicily. 36. Hiero, king of Syracuse, having died, the Syracusans established a popular government, and declared against Rome. Marcellus therefore proceeded against the city, which he took after a siege of two years (212 b. a). This siege is memorable for the part taken in the defence of the city by Archimedes, who exhausted his science and skill in the invention of machines to assail the besiegers. In the general massacre that followed the entrance of the Romans, the aged philosopher was slain ; the city was pillaged, and many of its magnificent works of art were carried to Rome. 37. Hannibal, despairing of succor from Carthage, at length summoned his brother As'dru-bal from Spain, who soon passed into Italy, but was intercepted by a Roman 35. What had the Romans clone in the mean while ? Who completed the con- quest of Spain ? What was the condition of Hannibal's army ? What generals were tilled the Shield and Sword of Rome ? Why ? 30. What service, did Marcellus perform in Sicily? What is said of Ar- chi ■ edes V 37. What measure did Hannibal adopt to obtain aid ? Why did he not get the aid 't Whither did the Romans now direct the war 't 82 HOME. [B. C. 202. army, at the Me-tau'rus River, in Umbria ; and, in the bat- tle that ensned, he was defeated and slain (207 B. a). Han- nibal received notice of this disaster by the sight of his brother's gory head, which the consuls caused to be thrown into his camp. The Eomans, under the influence of Scipio, the conqueror of Spain, resolved now to " carry the war into Africa," and Scipio was appointed to the command. 38. Having defeated the Numid'ians in a great battle, and vanquished the Carthaginians with immense slaugh- ter, at U'ti-ca, Scipio marched almost to the gates of their city ; when the Carthaginian senate, driven to despair, recalled Hannibal to the defence of his own coun- try. The call was at once obeyed, and landing in Africa, Hannibal drew up his forces on the plain of Za'ma, a town in Numidia. Seeing that his army was far inferior to that of the Romans, he obtained an interview with Scipio, and proposed a treaty of peace; but Scipio, true to Roman policy, declined the proposal. The battle therefore took place, and Hannibal was defeated with great loss (202 B. c). 39. The battle of Zama ended the second Punic war ; for although the Carthaginians were not utterly exhausted, yet, by the prudent counsel of Hannibal, who saw that it would be useless to protract the struggle, they consented to accept the terms of peace dictated by Scipio, and approved by the Roman Senate. These were very severe : Carthage was to evacuate Spain, to give up all her prisoners, surren- der her fleets, pay 10,000 talents to defray the expenses of the war, and agree to undertake no future war without the consent of Rome. The treaty having been concluded, Scipio returned home, and was honored with a more splen- did triumph than any Roman general had previously re- ceived. He was called thereafter Scipio Af-ri-ca'nus. 40. Hannibal was for a time treated with great respect 38. What did Scipio accomplish ? Where did he defeat Hannibal? What was the result ? 39. On what terms was peace made ? How was Scipio rewarded ? 40. Relate the subsequent history of Hannibal. B. C. 189.] EOME. 83 by the Carthaginians, and, being placed at the head of the government, endeavored to restore the nation to its former prosperity and splendor. But the intrigues of the ancient nobility prevailed against him, and he was compelled to flee in order to save his life (196 b. a). Taking refuge ill Syria, at the court of An-ti'o-clius the Great, he assisted that monarch in a war against the Romans ; but the latter prevailing, demanded that he should be given up to them, whereupon he fled to Bi-thyn'-i-a, and there, being still pur- sued by the Roman emissaries, he was at last compelled to put an end to his life to avoid falling into their hands (183 b. a). 41. In the same year died his great rival, Scipio Afri- canus, an exile too from his native country. For, having served with his brother Lucius Scipio in the war against Antiochus, and defeated that monarch at the battle of Mag-ne 'sia, he and his brother were accused of embezzling some of the captured treasures. To this base and ungrate- ful accusation he disdained to plead ; but, quitting Rome in disgust, took up his abode in Campania, where he died. Lucius Scipio, refusing to pay the fine imposed upon him, had all his property confiscated. This general, after the victory at Magnesia, was called Scipio Asiaticus. 42. The second Punic war was followed by a war against Philip, king of Macedonia, who was defeated in the battle of Cyn-o-cepli 'a-le. The iEtolians having invited Antiochus into Greece, that monarch crossed over and took Euboea. This was considered an act of interference by the Romans, and war was declared against Syria, which was ended by the battle of Magnesia, in Lydia (190 b. a), after which Anti- ochus was obliged to surrender nearly the whole of Asia Minor to At'ta-lus, king of Per'ga-mus, who had been in alliance with the Romans during the war. Antiochus was 41. Kelate the subsequent history of Scipio Africanus. Who was called Scipio Asidliem? Why? Where was Magnesia ? (See Map, page 41.) 42. What battle terminated the war against Philip ? Against Antiochus ? What was Antiochus compelled to do ? Who was Antiochus ? 84 ROME. [B.C. 146. the most powerful and enterprising of the successors of Seleucus, called the Se-leu' ci-dce j and previous to this de- feat had waged successful war against the Parthian s, Bac- trians, and other nations in the East. 43. The monarchy of Syria at this time extended as far east as the Euphrates, and was bounded on the north by the Taurus Mountains, and on the south by Arabia. Asia Minor, now severed entirely from the dominions of Anti- ochus, contained, besides the kingdom of Pergamus, the independent monarchies of Bithyn'ia, Cap-pa-do' cia, and Pon'tus, besides Ga-la'tia, the country occupied by the Gauls. These states, fragments of the Macedonian Empire, will be referred to in the course of the folloAving history. 44. Pergamus was founded by a lieutenant of Lysim- achus (283 B. a), but did not acquire any prominence until the reign of Attalus, who distinguished himself by his alliance with the Eomans in the war against Antiochus. This kingdom lasted 150 years, at the end of which its last king, Attains III., left it, with all its treasures, to the Romans (133 b. a). The kings of Pergamus were noted for their attention to literature; and they collected an immense library, which was afterward carried to Alex- andria. 45. After the death of Philip, king of Macedonia, Per- seus, his successor, made an effort to free Greece and Mace- don from the Roman yoke, but, after a war of three years, was utterly subdued at the battle of Pyd'na (168 b. a). He was carried captive to Rome, where he and his wife and children graced the triumph of JE-mil'i-us Pau'lus, his conqueror. Thus was Macedonia added to the Roman dominions, which a few years afterward were still further augmented by the conquest of Greece (146 b. a). 43. What constituted Syria at this time ? What did Asia Minor contain ? 44. Sketch the history of Pergamus. For what were its kings noted ? Where was Pergamus. — Am. In Mysia, Asia Minor. (See Map, page 41.) 45. What led to the war with Perseus ? Where was he defeated? What waa the result ? What other conqnest was made in 146 b. c. ? B. C. 146.] ROME. 85 46. Third Punic War. — In the mean time the third Punic war broke out, caused by the inveterate hatred of the ."Romans toward the Carthaginians. A pretext for the war was found in the efforts made by Carthage to repel the aggressions of Mas-i-nis' sa, king of Nu-mid'i-a,* whom the Romans acknowledged as their ally. Every effort was made by the Carthaginians to appease the hostility of their ene- mies. They complied with every demand ; banishing all who had given offence to the Romans, and even surrendering their arms and military stores. But when finally told that they must leave Carthage, and permit it to be destroyed, they took courage from despair, shut the gates of the city, and put to death every Roman within its walls. 47. The most vigorous exertions were then made to supply the place of the weapons which the treachery of Rome had wrested from them. Men of every rank toiled day and night in the forges, and the women cut off their hair to furnish bow-strings for the archers. For three years did they, un- der their general As'dru-bal, keep the Romans at bay ; but at length were obliged to yield to the skill and perseverance of Scipio Africanus the Younger, under whom the Romans scaled the walls of the city, and cut their way to the cita- del. After six days of continuous slaughter, the miserable inhabitants were subdued ; and the city having been set on fire, very many perished in the flames. By a subsequent order of the Roman Senate, every house that was left standing was thrown down, and the city completely de- stroyed (146 b. a). 48. Thus perished this magnificent city, after it had ex- isted seven centuries. Utica, which had submitted to the Romans, was rewarded with a portion of the Carthaginian * A country on the northern coast of Africa, to the west of Carthage. 46. What caused the third Punic war? What course was pursued by the Car- thaginians ? 47. Give an account of the siege and capture of Carthage. What was the fate of the city? 48. What is said of its territory and subsequent history ? 86 ROME. [B.C. 133. territory ; but the principal part was formed into a province under the name of Lib'ya. Under the Emperor Augustus Carthage was rebuilt, and became, in the second century of the Christian era, one of the finest cities of the Roman empire. It was again destroyed by the Arabs in the seventh century (698 A. d.), and now only a few ruins remain to mark its site. 49. Spanish War. — Although the Carthaginians had been expelled from Spain, the inhabitants were not sub- dued ; and they valiantly defended their liberties for a long series of years against the Romans. Among the most cou- rageous and warlike tribes were the Cel-ti-be'ri-ans and Lu- si-ta'ni-ans.* The latter found, in their noble and patriotic chief Vir-i-a'tus, a leader worthy of their bravery, and able to cope with the best generals of Rome.- For six years he defied every effort for his defeat and capture; and the Lusitanians were only subdued when the Romans by treach- ery procured his assassination (140 B. a). The taking of Nu-man'tia\ by Scipio completed the subjugation of Spain (133 b. a). 50. The Gracchi. — The great conquests made by the Romans had served rather to enrich the nobles than to ben- efit the middle or poorer classes of the citizens ; and had corrupted the government by giving undue power to the Senate. The agrarian laws, which in earlier times had been passed to protect the people against the greed of the aristocracy, were generally unobserved; and the city, as well as all Italy, was swarming with slaves, who left no occupation to the citizens except that of war. At this time a champion of the people arose, in the person of a young noble, named Ti-be'ri-us Grac'clius, who, being elected * Lufritania corresponded very nearly with modern Portugal ; Celtiberia, with Aragon, in the northeastern part of Spain. + Naiaautia was in the northern part of Spain. 49. What war was waged in Spain ? Who was Viriatus ? What ended the Spanish war ? 50. How was Rome affected by her conquests ? Who was Tiberius Gracchus 1 B.C. 121.] ROME. 8? tribune, and noticing with grief and indignation the op- pressions of the rich and the sufferings of the poor, deter- mined to remove them, by reviving the Licin'ian law, which had fallen into neglect. 51. This law provided that the public lands should be for the benefit of all classes, and that no one should occupy more than 330 acres ; but the nobles had seized them, and converted them to their own use. These lands Gracchus proposed to divide according to law, but to pay the owners for the buildings which they had erected upon them. He also proposed that the treasures left to Eome by Attalus, king of Pergamus, should be laid out in implements and cattle for the poor occupants of these lands. 52. These propositions raised a great storm of indigna- tion among the senators and other members of the aristoc- racy; and while an election for tribunes was going on, they rushed into the assembly to prevent the re-election of Gracchus ; and in the tumult he, with 300 others, was slain (133 b. a). Ten years afterward, his brother, Ca'i-tis Grac'- clias, distinguished for his oratory, made another attempt to vindicate the rights of the people, and check the en- croachments of the Senate. But he, too, fell a victim to their violence ; being slain, with 3000 of his followers, by the orders of the consul, whom the Senate had invested with the authority of a dictator (121 B. a). 53. The Gracchi* have been unjustly represented as seditious demagogues. They were, on the contrary, vir- tuous and patriotic reformers ; and,had the measures which they proposed been adopted, the subsequent history of Rome would have been very different. Henceforth we see the supreme power in the hands of a corrupt and insolent aristocracy, and the state a constant prey to civil dissen- * Gracchi is the Latin plural of Gracchus, and means the two persons of that name. 5 1 . How did he propose to rectify abuses ? What was the Licinian law ? 52. What course did the nobies take? What became of Tiberius Gracchus? Who succeeded him iu the enterprise ? What was the result ? 53. What is said of the Gracchi and their measures ? 88 ROME. [B. C. 106. tion and war; while the people are merely the instruments, wielded by one or the other military chieftain, to satisfy his ambitious designs. Conscription and massacre, as either party prevails, thin the ranks of the proud nobles, and thus avenge the wrongs, while they vindicate the wisdom taid patriotism, of the two Gracchi. 54. War against Jugurtha. — The disgraceful corrup- tion of the Senate was shown in the war against Ju-gur'- tha, who, having murdered his two cousins, sons of Mi-cip'sa, a faithful ally of Eome, usurped the throne of Xumidia. These iniquities he was enabled to perpetrate, in spite of repeated complaints made to the Eoman senate, by bribing its members; and he openly boasted of the power of his gold. At last, when the people would endure the outrage no longer, war was declared against the wicked usurper (111 B. c.) ; but Jugurtha bribed the generals, and thus prevented its success. 55. This being discovered and punished, the conduct of the war was committed to Me-tel'lus, who had almost com- pleted the subjugation of Numidia, when he was super- seded in the command by his lieutenant, Caius Mar'i-us. This man, afterward so famous in the history of Rome, had just risen to notice at the age of 50, having been long kept in obscurity by his poverty and mean birth. He soon brought the war to a conclusion, and sent Jugurtha a captive to Eome, where he was starved to death in a dungeon (106 B-. c). 56. Invasion of the Cimbrians and Teutons. — In the mean time, hordes of barbarians, called the Cim'bri-ans and Teu'tons, invaded Gaul, and threatened Italy. After four Roman armies had been successively defeated by them, the command was given to Marius, who attacked the Teu- 54. Who was Jugurtha, and what led to a war with him ? To whom was its management committed ? Willi what result ? 55. What was done hy Metellus and Marius ? What is said of the latter ? 56. What invasion of Italy took place? By whom were the barbarians d& feated ? What was Marius called ? B. C. 63.] ROME. tons near the Rhone River, and gained so decided a victory over them, that they were almost annihilated (102 B. a). The next year, having been appointed consul for the fifth time, he marched against the Cimbrians, whom he also defeated with immense slaughter, in Ois-al'pine Gaul.* By these two great victories, the tide of barbarian inundation was turned back for centuries, and Marius was deservedly hailed as the Savior of his Country. 57. Social War. — A dreadful war broke out soon after- ward (90 B. c.) between Rome and the Italian states, called the Social War. This was caused by the demand of the states for the rights of citizenship, which the Senate re- fused. After nearly two years of war, and the destruc- tion of about 300,000 Italians, the franchise was granted to all such as laid down their arms ; and tranquillity was restored. 58. Mithridatic War. — Mith-ri-da'tes, king of Pon- tus, having made extensive conquests in Asia Minor, formed the design of entirely expelling the Romans from that country; and by his orders 80,000 Italians, in the different cities, were massacred in one night (88 B. a). Syl'la, a distinguished Roman general, being sent against him, defeated him in several battles, and compelled him to sue for peace (84 b. a). 59. The war was afterward renewed (74 B. a), but was brought to a successful conclusion by Pompey the Great ; and Mithridates, in despair, put an end to his life (63 b. a). This monarch was noted for his talents and accomplish- ments, being, it is said, able to converse in all the different languages of his extensive dominions. He was considered the most powerful opponent Rome had ever known, having, during his long reign of fifty-seven years, been engaged nearly twenty-five of them in war with that republic. * Cisalpine means on this side of the Alps ; that is, on the side towards Rome. 5 7. What is meant by the Social War ? What was its cause ? How did it end 1 58. What caused the Mithridatic War? Who defeated Mithridates ? 59. Who again defeated him ? What is said of Mithridates ? 90 ROME. [B. C. 83. 60. Civil War of Marius and Sylla. — Marius, and Sylla, his lieutenant in the war with Jugurtha, eagerly contended for the chief command in the Mithridat'ic War ; but Sylla prevailed, and compelled his rival to flee from Rome in order to save his life. After the departure of Sylla to his command, the consul Cin'na recalled the aged Marius, who, returning to Italy, defeated the partisans of his rival, and entering Rome in triumph, caused those who had opposed his cause to be put to death (87 b. a). He then declared himself consul, but a short time afterward died, at the age of 71. 61. Marius was one of the most remarkable characters to be found in history. By his great abilities he rescued his country from a danger that threatened its destruction ; but. his insatiable desire for power and distinction plunged it into the miseries of a civil war. Though six times made consul, and crowned with every honor his countrymen could confer, yet, at the advanced age of 70, in order to acquire office he ceased to be a patriot, and became a partisan ; and when triumphant, glutted his rage against such of his fellow-citizens as had opposed him, with the most remorse- less cruelty. At length, exhausted by intemperance and debauchery, he sank into the grave, " hated by his enemies, feared even by his friends." 62. Sylla, returning from Asia, entered Italy with a large army (83 B. c.) ; but the leaders of the Marian party had made great preparations to oppose him. A dreadful war of two years ensued, during which the Samnites took up arms against Sylla. He was, however, triumphant over all his enemies, and after gaining several great victories, entered Rome its undisputed master. His first act was to massacre 6,000 Samnite prisoners ; and then commenced a 60. What caused a civil war at this time ? Give an account of it. What be- came of Marius ? 61 . What is said of his character ? 62. What took place on Sylla's return to Italy ? On his entrance into Rome? What Jjecame of Sylla ? B.C. 71.] KOME. 91 fearful slaughter of all whom he deemed his enemies. Every day he issued a new list of those who were to be put to death ; and after this dreadful proscription, in which it is said 8,000 citizens perished, he declared him- self Perpetual Dictator. Having effected some reforms in the government, he resigned, to the surprise of all, the office of dictator, which he had filled about two years, and retired to private life (79 B. a). A short time after- ward, he died of a loathsome disease, occasioned by intem- perance and debauchery. 63. In this war, Marius had been opposed by the patri- cians ; while the Senate and its partisans had been on the side of Sylla. The party of Marius was thus sustained by the people, but that of Sylla by the aristocracy. The death of these two great chiefs did not end the strife. Ser-to'ri-us, one of the most distinguished of the Marian leaders, had taken refuge in Spain, and there established a power which for more than ten years defied all the efforts of the Senate. Pompey was sent against him ; but it was only after the assassination of Sertorius that the insur- gents could be subdued (72 b. a). 64. Servile War. — In the mean time, Eome was con- fronted with a terrific danger. This was a slave insurrection. Spar'ta-cus, a Thracian, made captive in war, and afterward kept in a training-school for Gladiators, at Capua, broke loose from his place of bondage with a number of his fellow- prisoners, and fleeing to Mount Vesuvius, was joined by a vast number of slaves and outlaws of every description. Having collected a force of over 100,000 men, he moved northward, defeated the regular army in several engage- ments, and threatened Rome itself. At last he was met by a large force under Cras'sus, and his army cut to pieces, he himself being among the slain (71 b. a). This was the 63. Which was the popular party? The aristocratic party? Who was Serto- rius r How and when was he subdued ? 64. Who was Spartacus? By whom was the revolt of the slaves subdued? What other revolt is spoken of? What led to these revolts ? 92 HOME. [B.C. 61. second great slave revolt, one having, about 60 years before, broken out in Sicily, and been reduced only after frightful massacres and ravages. These insurrections were the natural result of the dreadful slave-system pursued in the Roman conquests. 65. At this time, Pompey and Crassus were the two lead- ing men at Rome. The former, by his conduct during the civil war, his good fortune in Spain, and the timely assist- ance he had rendered against Spartacus, had contrived to acquire very great popularity. Sylla had given to him, when yet a young man, the title of Magnus — the Great. Crassus exerted a powerful influence by means of his im- mense wealth, which he had craftily acquired by buying up the estates of the proscribed during the dictatorship of Sylla. Pompey being sent against the pirates of the Medi- terranean, acted with so much energy and address, that in three months he entirely cleared the seas of those robbers (G6 b. 0.). 66. In the mean time, Lu-cuTlus had been winning vic- tories over Mithridates and his son-in-law Ti-gra'nes, king of Armenia, but was stopped in his career of success by a mutiny of his troops. Pompey was, therefore, sent into Asia, with the powers of a despot, to bring the war to a close. This he accomplished in less than three years, sub- duing both the revolted kings, and reducing Pontus to a Roman province (63 B. a). He also reduced Syria, and took Jerusalem, dethroning the reigning king of Judea, and making the kingdom tributary to Rome. Having regulated all the provinces of the east, with the authority of an absolute potentate, he returned triumphantly to Italy (61 b. a). 67. Jewish History. — After the edict of Cyrus, the 65. What influence did Pompey and Crassus exert at this time? How had Crassus become wealthy ? What was accomplished by Pompey in 66 b. c. ? 66. What victories had Lucullus gained ? "By whom was he superseded ? What did Pompey accomplish ? 67. Give a brief sketch of Jewish history down to this time. B. C. 62.] ROME. 93 Jews remained under the dominion of Persia, till the time of Alexander ; and after his death, their country became subject to Ptolemy. Subsequently, the kings of Egypt and Syria contended for it, until, in 198 b. c, Antiochus the Great defeated the Egyptians, and thus became its ruler. In consequence of the oppression of one of his successors, the Jews revolted, under the renowned Judas Mac-ca-be'us, who, in a succession of victories, routed the Syrian armies and entered Jerusalem in triumph. After his death (161 B. a), his brothers completed the work of national deliver- ance, and they and their successors ruled -as high-priests until (in 106 b. c.) Ar-is-to-bu'lus assumed the crown. When Pompey invaded Asia, Aristobulus II. was on the throne ; but his right was disputed by his brother, John Hyr-ca'nus, whom Pompey, after besieging Jerusalem three months, and taking the city, placed over the kingdom (63 b. a). The successors of Judas Maccabeus are called the Maccabees, or the As-mo-nce'an Dynasty. 68. Conspiracy of Catiline. — While Pompey was in Asia, Cat'i-line, a profligate and needy patrician, formed a conspiracy to murder the consul, and then plunder and burn the city (63 b. a). The plot was, however, discovered in time by Cic'e-ro, the great orator, who denounced Cati- line, and compelled him to flee from Home. His confed- erates, who had been left in the city to consummate the wicked scheme, were betrayed by some Gauls whom they endeavored to gain over to their service, and being imme- diately apprehended were put to death, through the cour- age and promptitude of the consul Cicero. Catiline, at the head of a numerous force which he had succeeded in col- lecting, was defeated and slain (62 b. a). 69. First Triumvirate. — In the mean time, Ju'lius Cm'sar had won considerable distinction by his courage and address as a politician, and his skill as a military 68. What conspiracy was discovered at Rome ? How was it suppressed ? CO. How was the first triumvirate formed ? What did Cresar gain by it ? 94 ROME. [B. C. 50. commander. Finding Pompey and Crassus hostile to each other, he succeeded in reconciling them, and in establish- ing an alliance by which the three were to support each other's plans and interests (60 b. a). This secret cabal lias been called the First Tri-um'vir-ate.* By the support of his two powerful confederates, Caesar obtained the consul- ship; and at its close, the Senate passed a decree by which lie was assigned, as proconsul, to the government of Gaul, with the command of an army to subdue the barbarians, who had commenced hostile movements. 70. Caesar's campaigns in Gaul lasted about eight years; and, in that period, he not only succeeded in subjugating all the warlike races of that country, but, crossing the Rhine, gained great victories over the bold and hardy Ger- mans. He also passed into Britain, and defeated the fierce and warlike inhabitants, who strove with the greatest in- trepidity to repel the invaders from their island (55 b. a). By 50 b. a, his province was completely subdued ; and it is computed that in these eight years of war, nearly a mil- lion of Gauls and Germans were sacrificed, Caesar never showing the least mercy to the barbarians, while, toward his fellow-citizens, he was remarkable for mildness and humanity. 71. In the mean time, Crassus had obtained the pro- consular government of Syria, and had undertaken an ex- pedition against the Par'thians, an eastern race who, first appearing near the Caspian Sea, had at this time conquered the vast region extending from the Euphrates to the Indus. In this expedition Crassus was defeated and slain (53 b. a). His lieutenant, Cassius (kash'e-us), however, prosecuted the war two years longer, and gaining a decided victory over the Parthians, checked their further advance westward. * Triumvirate means an association consisting of three men. 70. What is said of Gesar'e campaigns in Gaul ? 7 1 . What hecarnc of Crassus ? Who defeated the Parthians ? «. C. 48.] ROME. 95 Pompey, although made proconsul of Spain, remained in Rome, governing his province by means of lieutenants. 72. Second Civil War. — One of the members of the triumvirate having been removed by death, and Pompey haying become intensely jealous of .Caesar, the coalition was practically dissolved. Pompey, determining to supplant Caesar and obtain the dictatorship, went over to the party of the Senate which he had hitherto opposed, and obtained in succession two decrees : first, that Caesar should forth- with disband his army; and second, that, as he had not obeyed, he should be proclaimed an outlaw, Pompey him- self all the while retaining his army in Spain, as well as other forces in Italy, in order to enforce his ambitious designs. Caesar, seeing that he could only oppose violence by violence, at once broke up his camp, and crossing the river Ru'bi-con, the boundary of his province, entered Italy, with a small army, afterward re-enforced by detachments from Gaul. Thus was commenced the Second Civil War. 73. Pompey, with what forces he had, and accompanied by many of the senators and others, fled to Brundu'sium, from which port, having collected a large fleet, he sailed to Epirus. Caesar soon overran Italy ; and then proceeded to Spain, where, with consummate address, he speedily won over Pompey's generals, and annexed their forces to his own. Returning, he then crossed to Epirus to give battle to Pom- pey. No general engagement, however, took place till the next year ; when, on the plains of Phar-sa'li-a, the battle was joined, and Caesar, although with forces far inferior in number, gained a decisive victory (48 b. a). Pompey took refuge in Egypt, but was treacherously assassinated as he was about to step ashore. 74. Caesar, with his characteristic promptitude, pursued 72. What caused the dissolution of the Triumvirate? What caused Caesar's hnasion of Italy? 73. What course did Pompey take ? Caesar ? What battle decided the contest J What hecame of Pompey ? 74. What took place on Caesar's reaching Egypt ? 96 ROME. [B. C. 48. Pompey to Egypt, and on arriving there was presented with the head and ring of his great rival. He turned aside with tears from the mournful and ghastly spectacle, and ordered Pompey's remains to be burnt with due honor. He caused also a monument to be erected, to commemorate the splendid fortune, as well as the sad reverse, of his former friend and associate. Having none of the ferocious and bloodthirsty malignity of Marius and Sylla, he freely par- doned all who had opposed him; and, consequently, the greater number of Pompey's partisans were soon won over to his standard. 75. The succession to the throne of Egypt was, at that time, in dispute between the young King Ptolemy and his sister, the celebrated Cle-o-pa'tra. Caesar, influenced by the fascinations of the latter, decided in her favor, and thus incurred the hostility of Ptolemy's adherents, who raised a fearful insurrection against him. This, however, in a few months he reduced, and confirmed Cleopatra on the throne. During this war at Alexandria, Caesar set fire to the Egyp- tian fleet, and the flames having extended to the public library, that immense collection of more than 100,000 vol- umes, containing all the most valuable works of ancient times, was destroyed (48 b. a). 76. Erom Egypt Caesar proceeded against Phar-na 'ces, son of the great Mithridates, who had risen in rebel- lion and seized upon Armenia and Colchis. Him Caesar speedily defeated at Ze'la, in Pontus, and announced his victory to the Eoman Senate in three words — Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). In two months all Asia was restored to tranquillity, and Caesar then returned to Rome, to assume the office of dictator. Proceeding next to Africa, he gained a great victory at Thap'sus over the forces of Scipio, who, assisted by Ju'ba, king of Mauritania, still 75. What caused an insurrection at Alexandria ? What was the effect of it ? 76: What other important victories were gained hy Caesar ? Where was Thap- sus ?— Ans. In the northern part of Africa. What became of Cato ? B. C. 44.] HOME. 97 adhered to the senatorial party. Ca'to, called the Stoic,* on account of his stern virtue, seeing that all was lost, and that the Roman republic was now at an end, committed suicide at U'ti-ca (46 B. a). 77. Having formed Numidia into a Roman province, Ca?sar returned to Rome, where he celebrated with extraor- dinary magnificence four triumphs — over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Numidia. A general amnesty was then de- clared, and the soldiers were rewarded with liberal dona- tions. But before he could settle affairs at Rome, he was called to Spain, where the two sons of Pompey had raised an army against him. These he defeated in the severe bat- tle of Mun'da, which closed the war. Having thus become master of Rome, he determined to lay aside the sword and cultivate the arts of peace. He instituted many important reforms in the laws and government, rectified the calendar, and formed plans for many other great and useful works. 78. But while meditating these, a stop was suddenly put to his magnificent career. A conspiracy having been formed against him by a large body of nobles, prominent among whom were Brutus and Cassius, the former his most inti- mate friend, he was attacked in the Senate house, and fell pierced with twenty-three wounds (March, 44 b. a). The reason alleged for his assassination was that he meditated making himself king; and Brutus, a nephew of Oato, was probably sincere in this belief; but the others seem to have been actuated by feelings rather of envy than of patriotism. Besides, the leading conspirators were guilty of base ingrati- tude ; for they had been freely pardoned their former oppo- sition to Caesar's party, and placed in offices of power and * The Stain were a sect of Grecian philosophers who inculcated the doctrine that fortitude is the chief virtue, and prided themselves upon their endurance of pain, and insensibility to mis- fortune. 77. What triumphs did Caesar celebrate ? What is paid of the battle of Mnnda ? Where was Munda ? Ans. In the south of Spain. What did Caesar accomplish as dictator ? 78. How was his career closed ? What was the cause of his assassination ? 98 ROME. [B.C. 44. emolument. Cassius indeed had been one of the most active of Pompey's adherents. 79. Caesar was probably the greatest man that Rome ever produced. He was not only an able general and a consum- mate statesman and politician, but a splendid orator, a fine scholar, and an elegant writer. His history of the Gallic campaigns, styled the " Commentaries," is a complete model for this kind of composition. His knowledge of human nature seems to have been almost perfect, for he swayed the minds of all who came within his influence, to an extent rarely equalled and never surpassed. His great crime was, that having acquired power he knew not how to lay it down, preferring to retain it, although in so doing he de- stroyed forever the liberties of his country ; for the battles of Pharsalia, Thapsus, and Munda established the Eoman empire, and Julius Caesar virtually become its first emperor, 80. After the murder of Caesar, the conspirators fled to the capitol, where they remained until they entered into an agreement with Mark An'tony, the consul, and a particular friend of Caesar, that all his laws should remain in force, that his will should be carried into effect, and that his body should be honored with a public funeral. Accordingly it was carried into the forum ; and Mark Antony pronounced over it a funeral oration, in the course of which he exposed the bleeding wounds to the people, and so worked upon their sympathies, that they arose against the conspirators and compelled them to flee from the city. 81. Antony having thus became master of Rome, pro- duced Caesar's will, and other papers which he represented as containing his acts and wishes. These he strenuously enforced, until he excited the opposition of the senatorial party, led by Cicero, who pronounced against Antony those severe but magnificent orations, styled, in imitation of De- 79. What was his character? 80. What events followed the murder of Caesar? What was done by Mark An- tony ? What was the effect of his oration ? 8 1 . What were the Philippics ? Why were they spoken ? Who was Octavius ? B. C. 42.] KOME. 99 mosthenes, the Philippics. In the mean while Oc-ta'vi-us, a young man, the nephew and adopted son of Caesar, arrived in Kome, and immediately demanded the property left him by his adopted father. 82. Second Triumvirate. — Being sustained by the Senate, Octavius declared against Antony, who, defeated by the consuls in battle, filed into Gaul, and there formed a union with Lep'i-dus, the general who had command of that province. The two then marched to oppose Octavius, but finally entered into a negotiation with him ; and the three then agreed to form a second triumvirate and, after punishing the murderers of Cassar, to divide the empire among themselves (43 b. a). A dreadful proscription and massacre followed the formation of this league, each of the triumvirs inserting in the list all whom he deemed hostile and wished to be put to death. Not fewer than three hundred Senators and two thousand knights were among the proscribed ; and among the victims sacrificed to the hatred of Antony, was Cicero. 83. Having taken vengeance upon their enemies in Italy, the triumvirs turned their attention to Brutus and Cassius, who, with the design of restoring the liberties of their coun- try, had succeeded in making themselves masters of all the eastern part of the empire. Antony and Octavius crossed to Macedonia, and engaged the republican forces at Phi- lip' pi, where Cassius and Brutus were successively defeated, each slaying himself at the close of the battle (42 b. a). These victories left to the Triumvirate absolute control of the empire. 84. Antony being visited by Cleopatra in Asia, returned with her to Egypt, and surrendered himself to the wiles of that artful beauty. At last, after neglecting his duty for 82. What led to the second triumvirate ? What proscriptions followed? What illustrious man was put to death ? 83. Where were Brutus and Cassius defeated? What was the result of these battles ? Where was Philippi ? (See Map of Greece.) 84. What led to the battle of Actium? What was its result? Where was Actiuin? Ans. On the western shore of Greece. 100 ROME. [B.C. 31. years, he gave great offence to Octavius by divorcing his sister eta via, in order to marry the Egyptian queen. This brought on a war between the two triumvirs, which was ended by the battle of Actinm (ak'she-um), Antony and Cleopatra being totally defeated (31 b. a). Fleeing to Egypt, Antony stabbed himself, and Cleopatra put an end to her life (it is said by means of a venomous asp) in order to prevent being compelled to grace the triumph of Octavi- us. Her death terminated the sovereignty of the Ptolemies, which had existed about three centuries (323-31 b. a). 85. Egypt having been made a Koman province, and plundered of its immense treasures in order to supply Oc- tavius with funds to reward his soldiers, he returned to "Rome, where he was formally invested with absolute authority by the Senate, who saluted him by the title of Augustus. The date of the battle of Actium is generally chosen as the era of the commencement of the Eoman em- pire. Subsequently, the government was in fact a military despotism, under which the Romans were so hopeless of relief that they made no effort to restore their republican constitution. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. B. C. 753. Foundation of Rome. 509. Expulsion of the Tarquins — Bra of the Bepublic. 494. Creation of the Tribunes. 486. First Agrarian law proposed by Cassius. 485. Coriolanus banished. Rome saved by female intercession. 471. Law of Volero. Borne a Democracy. 451. Appointment of De&emvirs. 445. Intermarriage of patricians and plebeians permitted. 391. Invasion of Italy by the Gauls. 390. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls. 343. Commencement of the war with the Samnites. 321. Defeat of the Romans by the Samnites. 305. The Samnites subdued. 85. What was done by Octavius? What title did he assume ? What was th» character of the government of Kome under him ? ROME. '•' ' 101 295. The Samnites, Umbrians,' J > . . .,,... 103 REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. Give an account of the foundation of Rome 67 2. How long did the monarchy last ? 67-68 3. What is the character of this part of the history ? Why ? 67 4. What officers afterward performed the duties of the kings ? 68 5. Give an account of the wars with the Tarquins 68 6. What led to the creation of Tribunes ? 69 7. When and how did the people acquire a control of the government ? — 70 8. What disposition was made of the conquered lands by the Romans ? 70 9. What were the Twelve Tables ? By whom framed ? 71 10. What was the office of dictator ? Name the first prominent dictator — 69-71 11. Give an account of Camillus 72 12. Mention the events connected with the invasion of Italy by the Gauls. . . 72-74 13. Give the history of Marcus Manlius 73-74 14. What wars were waged with the Samnites ? Their result? 75-76 15. Give an account of the invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus 76 16. What rendered Rome mistress of all Italy ? 77 17. How was it governed ? — 77 18. What led to the Punic wars ? 77-78 19. Give a sketch of the previous history of Carthage. Of Syracuse 77 20. What were the principal events of the first Punic war ? 78-79 21. Give a sketch of the career of Hannibal 79-83 22. When and how did Sicily become a Roman province ? 79 23. When and how was Syracuse finally subdued ? 81 24. What led to the battle of Magnesia ? Its consequences ? 83 25. How did Pergamus become a Roman province ? 84 26. When and how were Macedonia and Greece subdued ? 84 27. Give an account of the third Punic war 85 28. When and how were the Celtiberians and Lusitanians subdued ? 86 29. Who were the Gracchi, and what measures did they propose ? 86-87 30. Give an account of the war against Jugurtha 88 31. What invasion by the Cimbrians and Teutons ? By whom were they repelled ? 88-89 32. Give an account of the Social War 89 33. What wars were waged against Mithridates? Principal events of them?.. 89 34. What led to the first civil war ? Its chief events ? 90 35. State the principal events in the life of Sylla 90-91 36. What servile wars broke out ? The principal events ? 91 37. What successes raised Pompey to distinction ? 92 38. Give an account of Catiline and his conspiracy 93 39. What led to the first triumvirate ? 93 40. What conquests did Ciesar make while proconsul ? 94 41. What caused dissensions between him and Pompey ? 95 4-2. What civil war followed ? Its principal events ? 95-96 43. What great victories did Ctesar gain ? 96-97 41. What office did he assume ? What were his principal measures ? 97 45. How was his career terminated ? f 97 40. What civil war followed ? Its chief events ? 98-99 47. Who formed the second triumvirate ? 99 48. How did Octavius acquire the supreme power ? 99 49. What did Rome then become ? 100 104' ,,.... XHJ KDJCA2I EMPIRE. [A. ». 10. section iv. The Koman; Empire, From its establishment under Augustus to the Fall of the Western Empire, 476 a. d. 1. Augustus. — Although Augustus ruled with absolute power, he retaiued the forms of the republican govern- ment, but caused all the important offices to be conferred upon himself. The Senate still held its sessions, but its deliberations and decrees had no real weight or efficacy. The long civil wars had made the Romans greatly desire tranquillity; and as Augustus ruled with equity and moderation, avoiding every appearance of royalty, all yielded cheerfully to his authority. He kept large armies and fleets stationed at various parts of the empire, to re- press all opposition, and compel obedience to his com- mands and exactions ; and instituted the Prcetorian Guards* to protect his person. The revenues of the empire probably amounted at this time to upwards of $200,000,000. 2. Augustus made some conquests in Spain ; and his stepsons Ti-be'ri-us and Dru'sus succeeded in conquering Vin-de-W ci-a and Nor'i-cum, but their efforts to subdue * So called from Pnrtorium, the name given to the tent of the general in every Roman camp. These praetorian guards afterward became the chief instruments of usurpation and tyranny. Map Questions. (See Progressive Map, No. 4.)— Name the divisions of the Ro- man Empire in the northern part of Africa. What divisions in Europe bordered on the Mediterranean ? What divisions in Asia on the Mediterranean and iEgean Seas ? On the Euxine Sea ? W T hat north of Italy and Illvr'icum ? What south of the Danube ? North of it? What east of Gallia or Gaul*? North? What towns in Spain? What body of water was called Pa'lus MeO'tis? What towns on the Euphrates and Tigris rivers ? What towns in Syria ? What towns in Thrace ? In Dalmatia ? In Northern Italy ? 1 . How did Augustus rule ? How was the empire protected ? What were its revenues ? 2. What conquests were made ? By whom was Varus defeated ? When did Augustus die ? By whom was h( succeeded ? MtOGHRSSlVH MAP N?4 A.D.I 4.] THE KOMAN EMPIRE. 105 Germany were thwarted by the difficulties of the country and the valor of the native population. Led by the brave and patriotic Ar-min'i-us, or Her'mann, some of the tribes that had submitted to the Romans revolted, and the pro- consul Va'rus was surprised, and his army cut to pieces (a. d. 10). This disaster so preyed upon the emperor's mind that he died a short time after (a. d. 14), in the 76th year of his age, leaving the government to his stepson Tiberius. 3. Augustus and his friend and minister Mecsenas (me- se'nas) were both liberal patrons of learning and the arts ; and the literature of this period is greatly distinguished for genius and refinement. The celebrated poets Vir'gil, Hor'ace, and Ov'id, and the historian Liv'y, flourished during this reign. The most interesting event of this period was the Birth of our Saviour, which is supposed to have taken place 4 b. c. ; that is, four years previous to the date commonly assigned for the Christian era. It occurred during the reign of Herod the Great, king of Judea, who had been placed upon the throne by the favor of Mark Antony. 4. Tiberius. — In the first part of his reign, Tiberius assumed an appearance of great moderation and clemency, taking the sovereign power only after the urgent requests of the Senate, and binding himself to conform to the regu- lations of his predecessor. He soon, however, displayed the wickedness and cruelty of his disposition, and many of the most eminent nobles were put to death on a charge of treason. The brilliant career of his nephew and adopted son, Ger-man'i-cus, excited his jealousy ; and recalling him from Germany, where he had gained important victo- ries over the heroic Hermann, he sent him to the East, and there caused him to be poisoned. • 3. By whom was literature encouraged ? What writers flourished ? When did the birth of Christ occur ? 4. What was the character of Tiberius and his government ? What is related of Germanicus ? 106 THE ROMAN - EMPIRE. [A. ». 41. 5. Yielding to the persuasions of his wicked and rapa- cious minister, Se-ja'nus, he secluded himself in the island of Ca'pre-ae, where he abandoned himself to every species of licentiousness and vice ; while this minister perpetrated the most enormous acts of injustice and tyranny. The latter, having been discovered at last in a plot to place himself on the throne, was executed by the order of Tiberius, who, after the death of his favorite, became still more cruel and bloodthirsty, putting to death without mercy all against whom his spies and informers excited his gloomy jealousy. At last, worn out with his vicious excesses, and feeling that his end was near, he bequeathed the empire .to Caius Ca- lig'u-la, son of Germanicus, and soon after died (a. d. 37). The crucifixion of our Saviour took place in Judea, in the eighteenth year of this reign (a. d. 33). 6. Caligula. — Caius, surnamed Caligula, from the sol- diers' boots (caVi-gcs) which he wore when in the camp in Germany, commenced his reign well; but after he had worn the purple* eight months, displayed so wanton and ferocious a disposition, that his acts seem like the wild freaks of a madman. He wasted the treasures of the state in the most foolish and expensive works. His favorite horse was kept in a stable constructed of marble, and offered golden oats in an ivory manger. Massacre seemed to be his delight, and he feasted his eyes in beholding the dying agonies of his victims. A conspiracy, led by the captain of the Praetorian Guards, at last relieved the em- pire from the tyranny of this monster (a. d. 41). 7. Claudius. — On the death of Caligula, the Praetorian Guards chose Clau'di-us, his uncle, to succeed him. This * This was the peculiar color of the emperor's robe ; and, hence, to " assume the purple sigritied the same as to ascend the throne. 5. Who was the minister of Tiberius ? His character and fate ? Who succeeded Tiberias ? What interesting event occurred in his reign ? 6. What was the character of Caligula ? What acts of folly and cruelty did he commit ? What was his end ? 7. Who succeeded Caligula ? What were the principal events of the reign of Claudius ? What is said of Messalina and Agrippina ? A. D. 54.] THE ROMAtf EMPIRE. 10? emperor was fifty years old when he commenced to reign, and was remarkable for the imbecility of his character, being entirely ruled by his wives and favorites. He, how- ever, embellished Rome with many splendid edifices, and went in person on a campaign in Britain, where his armies gained important victories, subduing all the south- ern part of the island, and sending the celebrated chief Ca-rac'ta-cus a captive to Rome. Influenced by his wicked and profligate wives Mes-sa-U'na and Ag-rip-pi'na, Clau- dius caused many innocent persons to be put to death, but was at last poisoned at the instigation of Agrippina, in order that her son Ne'ro might assume the purple (a. d. 54). 8. Nero. — This emperor was only seventeen years old when he commenced to reign ; and as he had received an excellent education under the instruction of the philoso- pher Sen'e-ca, his acts were for a few years just and virtu- ous. At length he betrayed the wickedness of his charac- ter, and abandoned himself to every species of vice and cruelty. Dreading the influence of his mother, he ordered her to be murdered. He also brutally caused the death of his wife. He is said to have ordered the city of Rome to be set on fire, so that he might behold a great conflagration ; but he afterward rebuilt it and erected for himself a palace of vast extent and splendor. To escape the indignation of the people, lie charged the crime of firing the city upon the Christians, and caused multitudes of them to be put to death by the most dreadful tortures. During this persecu- tion, the Apostle Paul was beheaded. 9. A conspiracy against the emperor having been dis- covered, many innocent persons were put to death, among them Seneca, and the poet Lu'can. The detestable reign of Nero was brought to a close by a movement of the army in Spain, who, disgusted with his wickedness and 8. How did Nero commence his reign ? What cruel acts did he commit ? 9. Why were Seneca and Lucan executed ? What terminated the reign of Nero? What were the feelings of the common people toward him ? What revolt occurred during Nero's reign ? 108 THE ROMAN" EMPIRE. [A. JJ. 69.] folly, proclaimed their praetor Gal'ba emperor, who imme- diately commenced his march to Rome. Deserted by his guards, Nero was compelled to flee, and finally committed suicide to avoid being publicly executed (a. d. 68). The common people, to whom he had been profuse in his boun- ties, lamented his death, and decorated his tomb with flowers. He was the last of the family of the Caesars, and probably the vilest monarch that ever lived. In this reign (a. d. 66) a revolt of the Jews took place, and lasted through several of the succeeding reigns. 10. Galba was over 70 years of age ivhen he com- menced to reign, having served as proconsul in various parts of the empire during the four preceding reigns, and obtained a high reputation for bravery, as well as for the rigid justice of his administration. He soon, however, became unpopular, from his severity; and the soldiers, being refused their usual donative, revolted. O'tho, taking advantage of their discontent, induced the praetorian guards to proclaim him emperor; and Galba, attempting to quell the sedition, was slam in the streets by one of the veterans, after a brief reign of seven months. 11. Otho was no sooner in possession of the govern- ment than he gave himself up to unbridled license and debauchery ; but he soon found a rival in Vi-tel'U-us, the commander of the army in Lower Germany, who, revolting from the authority of the new emperor, marched with his forces into Italy, where he was met, on the banks of the Po, by Otho, but gained a decided victory over him, and was at once acknowledged emperor. Otho committed suicide at the close of the battle, after a reign of only three months (a. d. 69). 12. Vitellius had been a companion of Tiberius at Capreae, and a favorite with his infamous successors, Calig- 10. What was the character of Galha ? What led to his death ? 1 1 . What was the conduct of Otho ? How did his reign end 1 1 2. Describe the character and conduct of Vitellius. By whom was he de- A. O. 70.] THE KOMAH EMPIEE. 109 ula, Claudius, and Nero. He was greatly addicted to gluttony and debauchery ; and on his accession left the government to his favorites, while he devoted himself entirely to feasting and drunkenness, squandering in these indulgences nearly fifty millions of dollars in about four months. At length, the army, disgusted with these ex- cesses of the emperor, revolted from him in favor of Ves~ pa'sian, their general, who had acquired distinction in the war against the Jews. The forces of Vitellius being defeated at Cre-mo'na, he was compelled to abdicate, but the populace dragged him from the palace to the place of common execution, and put him to death with dreadful cruelty and ignominy (a. d. 69). His reign lasted about eight months. 13. Vespasian presented a striking contrast, both in talent and virtue, to those whom he succeeded. He re- stored the discipline of the army, revived the authority of the Senate, filling its wasted ranks with eminent and virtuous men, and in other respects reformed the poli- tical and social condition of the city and empire. He commenced the famous Col-os-se'um or Amphitheatre, the ruins of which still exist to show its ancient magnifi- cence ; and he also patronized learning and the arts. Qtmi- til'i-an, the celebrated rhetorician, Jo-se'phits, the Jewish historian, and Plin'y, a noted writer and naturalist, flour- ished during this reign, which lasted about ten years (until A. D. 79). Its most noted event was the taking and destruc- tion of Jerusalem by Ti'tus, the son of Vespasian. This was accomplished after a terrible siege of six months, during which, according to Josephus, more than a million of persons perished. The city was razed to the ground, and the inhabitants sold, or driven into banishment (a. d. 70). 14. Titus. — This emperor ruled with so much justice 1 3. What was the character of Vespasian ? Who flourished during his reign ? What noted event occurred ? 14. What was the character of Titus ? What interesting events occurred dn-ing his reign ? By whom was he succeeded ? 110 THE ROMAIC EMPIRE. [A.D. 84. and beneficence that lie is styled by Tacitus (tas'e-tus), the historian, the "Delight of Mankind." His reign was marked by many disastrous events. In the first year occurred the dreadful eruption of Vesuvius, during which the cities of Pompeii (pom-pe'yi) and Her-cu-la'ne-um were overwhelmed by a dense shower of black ashes, that fell burying most of the inhabitants in their dwellings. Fugitives from Campania flocked into Kome, and a ter- rible pestilence ensued, in which 10,000 persons died daily. This was succeeded by a great conflagration that raged for several days, and destroyed a considerable portion of the city. Titus gave liberally to relieve the sufferers, and caused the edifices which had been consumed to be rebuilt. He also completed the Colosseum, commenced by Vespa- sian. His death occurred soon after, in the third year of his reign (a. d. 81), and he was succeeded by his brother, Domitian (do-mish'e-an). 15. Domitian was as remarkable for tyranny and cru- elty as his brother had been distinguished for justice and humanity. He united the gloomy dissimulation of Tiberius with the wanton wickedness of Caligula and Nero. The armies under his leadership were defeated by the Dacians and other barbarous nations, with whom he made disgrace- ful treaties, while he demanded the triumphs usually de- creed to the most splendid victories. He was very fond of solitude, amusing himself principally by catching flies and transfixing them with a bodkin. After a shameful reign of fifteen years, he was assassinated (a. d. 96). The con- quest of Britain, excepting the northern part, was com- pleted during this period (a. d. 84), by A-gric'o-la, who, in this and the two preceding reigns, had defeated the inhabitants in several great battles. There also occurred during this reign a second general persecution of the Christians. Domitian was the last of the emperors called 15. What was the character of Domitian? What were the events of hia reign ? What line of emperors ends with him ? A.B. 117.] THE ROMAK EMPIRE. Ill the twelve Ccesars (Julius Caesar being considered the first). 16. The five good Emperors. — Nerva. After the death of Domitian, the Senate decreed that his statues should be demolished and his name erased from the annals. They then unanimously elected as his successor JVer'va, who had been twice consul, and was then in his seventieth year. He displayed great wisdom and moderation, dimin- ished the taxes, and introduced other reforms. A revolt of the praetorian guards caused him to adopt as his succes- sor the virtuous Tra'jan, a short time after which he died, having reigned only sixteen months (a. d. 98). 17. Trajan was by birth a Spaniard, but he had been educated partly in the school of Plu'tarch,* whom he highly honored during the whole of his reign. He was equally great as a monarch and a general, while his many virtues entitle him to a place among the best of men. He re- formed the government, and bound himself by a solemn oath to observe the laws. He conquered the Dacians, penetrating their country by means of a stupendous bridge which he caused to be built across the Danube. He also gained several victories in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Parthia, the cities of Se-leu'cia and Ctes'i-phon\ surrender- ing to his arms. The lofty and splendid pillar which he erected to commemorate these conquests still remains. His death took place in Cilicia (a. d. 117), after he had reigned about twenty years. 18. Adrian, a relative of Trajan, and the companion * Plutarch was a native of Boeotia, in Greece ; but he had removed to Rome and opened a school there. His biography of illustrious men is one of the most interesting works of ancient literature. + Seleucia was founded by Seleucus, and became one of the most magnificent cities in the world. It was situated on the west bank of the Tigris, about forty miles from Babylon, which was partly despoiled and depopulated to enrich it. Ctesiphon was built by the Parthians on the east bank of the Tigris, nearly opposite Seleucia, and became the capital of the Parthian monarchy. _ 1 6. Who was the first of the " five good emperors" ? What is said of Nerva ? 1 7. What was the character of Trajan ? What conquests did he make ? How long did he reign ? 18. Who succeeded Trajan? What is related of his character? What were the chief events of his reign ? Who was his successor ? 112 THE ROMAN- EMPIRE. [A. ». 161. of his expeditions, was declared emperor by the army and Senate, and was distinguished for his talents and accom- plishments, being not only a successful general but a mathematician and artist. He spent thirteen years in visiting the different parts of the empire, to inspect the administration of the government. Having passed through Dacia, Germany, and Gaul, he sailed to Britain ; and while there, caused a wall to be constructed across the northern part of the island to prevent the inroads of the Scots.* He afterward visited the various provinces in Asia and Africa. An insurrection having broken out among the Jews, he reduced them to submission, and ordered that a Roman colony should be established at Jerusalem, chang- ing its name to JE'li-a Cap-i-to-li'na. He died in the twenty-second year of his reign (a. d. 138). The virtues of A'dri-an were not unalloyed ; he severely persecuted the Jews and Christians ; and in the latter part of his reign, greatly provoked public indignation by his cruel- ties. He adopted as his successor An-to-ni'nus, surnamed the Pious. 19. Antoninus Pius. — The reign of this emperor wa3 one of almost uninterrupted peace, but was still more dis- tinguished for the virtue, wisdom, and efficiency with which he administered the government. Such was his reputation for these qualities, that princes beyond the bounds of the empire made him the arbiter of their differ- ences. He extended his dominions in Britain, and caused a wall to be built to the north of that constructed by Adri- an, f He died in his 75th year, after a reign of twenty- two years (a. d. 161), and was succeeded by his adopted son, Mar'cus Au-re'li-us Antoninus. 20. Marcus Aurelius. — This emperor was also dis- * This was an earthen rampart constructed between the River Tyne and the Solway Frith, and was called the I'vu' Watt, Considerable remains of it still exist, t Constructed between the friths of Forth and Clyde, and called afterward Grahame , s Bike. 1 9. What was? the character of Antoninus ? What was done in Britain ? A.D.I 80.] TIIE E0MA2S" EMPIRE. 113 tinguished for his virtues as a monarch and a statesman, and added to them the merits of a philosopher. He took Lu'cius Ve'rus for his colleague in the government, as- signing to him the eastern part of the empire, in which a war had broken out with the Parthians. This the lieutenants of Verus brought to a successful conclusion. War was also waged by both emperors against the Germans ; and after the death of Verus, Marcus himself carried on war, during five years, against the barbarians in Pan-no' ni-a. In this latter war the Eoman army was saved by a remarkable thunderstorm, which was imputed by some to the earnest supplications of a division of the army composed of Chris- tians, hence called the " Thundering Legion." 21. A dreadful persecution of the Christians occurred during this reign ; and Jus' tin Mar'tyr and Pol'y-carp, the venerable bishop of Smyrna, fell victims to the superstitious fury of the pagans. The Germans, pressed by vast hordes of barbarians in their rear, were compelled to invade the territories of the empire, and Aurelius marched against them. After gaining several victories, he was seized with the plague at Vin-do-bo'na (now Vienna), and died in a few days (a. d. 180). With him perished the glory of the empire, for few of his successors merit the praise of either virtue or ability ; while the inroads of the barbarous nations who migrated from the wilds of the east and north, could only have been repelled by the most vigorous and best di- rected efforts. The death of Aurelius therefore marks the commencement of the " Decline of the Roman Empire." 22. Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, succeeded ; but he possessed none of the virtues of his father, having been spoiled in his youth by the vicious precepts and example of his abandoned mother Fau-sti'n-a. His debaucheries, 20. What was the character of Marcus Aurelius ? What were the chief eventa of his reign ? What was the " Thundering Legion f " 21. What persecution occurred? What people invaded the empire ? When and how did the death of Aurelius occur? What is said of this event? 22. What was the character of Commodus ? How long did he reign ? ]14 Till- ROMAN EMPIRE. [A. D. 193. wickedni 38, Wl cruelly were scarcely equalled by those of and Caligula. Bloodthirsty, even in his sports, he roamed through the streets, wounding and slaying the un- ofcing passengers ; and his chief delight was to contend gladiator in the public arena. After several unsuc- il conspiracies had been formed against him, Com'mo- dufl was at Length strangled in his bed, in the 12th year of his detestable reign (a. d. 192). 23. Pertinax ( pcr'ti-nax), selected by the conspirators to succeed Commodus, had risen through almost every grade of society to the position of praefect of the city; but it was with reluctance that he consented to assume the purple. The praetorian guards, however, urged it, and the we tl nir sanction; but his severity of discipline displeased those who had caused his elevation, and inarching into the palace, they cut off his head, and carried it into the camp, after he had reigned scarcely three months. 2 I. The praetorians then offered the throne to the highest bidder; and Didius Julianus, a wealthy senator, having made the richest offer to the soldiers, was declared emperor, Senate being compelled to ratify the election. The •ns of Syria, Ulvria, and Britain, however, refused to 1 1 army choosing its own monarch. Se-ve'rus, who commanded in Pannonia, marched directly to Eome; and the praetorians having deserted Didius, the Senate de- i that he should be deposed and put to death; where- upon he was beheaded like a common criminal, after an uneasy reign of two months (a. d. 193). Severus was then declared emperor. 2.j. Septimius Severus.— The first task performed by ■us WB£ fche conquest of his rivals; and this he accom- plished in about three years, one being defeated at Issus, led Oommodllt! What is related of him? What terminated - committed by the praetorians! What led to the the principal acts of this emperor? Where did he die? Bv A. D. 218.] THE KOMA^ EMPIEE. 115 where Alexander had contended for empire with Darins, and the other, in a great battle near Lyons. His authority b«ing thus established, he ruled with great severity, over- turning even the forms of the republic, which had up to this time survived to remind the Eomans of their ancient liberty. He defeated the Parthians, and took Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Babylon ; and, a war having broken out in Britain, he proceeded against the Caledonians, or Scots, drove them back into their fastnesses, and rebuilt and strengthened the wall between the Clyde and Forth rivers. A short time afterward he died at York, in the 18th year of a very successful reign (a. d. 211), leaving the throne to his two sons Car-a-cal'la and Ge'ta. 26. Caracalla. — The first act of Caracalla was to cause his virtuous brother Geta to be assassinated, even after he had taken refuge in the arms of his mother ; and 20,000 persons whom he accused of being friends of Greta, shared his hapless fate. The principal part of his reign Caracalla spent in the provinces, and each one in turn was the scene of his rapine and cruelty. He ordered a general massacre of the citizens of Alexandria, on account of a lampoon which some one had published against him there. He was at length assassinated by Ma-crinus, the praetorian pre- fect* (a. d. 217). During this reign, all the free inhabit- ants of the empire were declared Roman citizens. 27. Macrinus, the murderer of Caracalla, was pro- claimed emperor by the troops, but retained the dignity only about a year, being defeated and slain near Antioch in an effort to reduce the rebellious armies of Syria, who had declared for He-U-o-gab'a-lus, supposed to be the son of Caracalla. This battle gave the throne to the latter, who had been born at Em'e-sa, in Syria, and was then only 15 years of age (a. d. 218). * This office had become, under Severus, the principal one in the empire, being next to that ot the emperor himself. 26. What wicked acts did Caracalla commit ? What ended his reign ? 27. What is said of Macrinus ? By whom was he succeeded 1 116 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. [A.D.235, 28. Heliogabalus.— This emperor derived his name (HdiogaMus or FA-a-gab'a-lus) from his office as high- si of the sun (called He-li-o-ga'bal in Syria); and he attempted to introduce into Rome the effeminate manners and superstitious idolatry of the East. He built a temple to the Sun on the Palatine Hill, and celebrated the sacri- fioea of the god with the utmost expense and solemnity. After three years spent in the most shocking vices, among which gluttony was the most conspicuous, he was massa- cred by the Praetorians, and thrown into the Tiber (a. d. 29. Alexander Severus, cousin of the preceding em- peror, succeeded him. He was a virtuous young man, of a mild and benevolent disposition, and very fond of learning ; and his government was all that could have been expected from so excellent a prince. In the fourth year of his reign, the Parthian empire was overturned by a revolt of the Per- sians under Ard-e-shir', the founder of the famous dynasty of the Sas-san'i-des, who governed Persia for more than four centuries. Ardeshir attempted to extend his dominion to the Mediterranean, but was defeated by Alexander Seve- rus in several obstinate engagements. The emperor, a short time afterward, inarched against the Germans ; but was as- sassinated (a. d. 235) by some of his troops, who declared in favor of their general, Max'i-min, a soldier of fortune, of gigantic stature and enormous strength, who had risen from the condition of a Thracian peasant to the chief com- mand of the army. 30. Maximin, though an able general, showed in his government the ferocity of a brutal savage, putting to death with the most horrid cruelty all whom he suspected of the least disaffection. After a reign of three years, •is. Wli.it is related of Heliogabalus? Why was he so called ? What WU the character of Alexander Severus? What revolution occurred in the East F How did this reign end? Who succeeded Alexander' :JO. What was the character of Maximin? lluw and when did his reijm end? By whom was he succeeded ? A. D. 251.] THE EOHAN EMPIKE. 117 during which he gained several victories over the barba- rians, an insurrection breaking out in Italy, he marched from his camp on the Danube to suppress it ; but was slain in his tent by the Praetorian guards (a. d. 238). He was succeeded by two distinguished senators (Max'i-mus and Bal-M'nus), whom the senate had chosen as emperors. These were soon afterward put to death in a mutiny of the Praetorians ; and the purple was assumed by Gor'di-an, a youth whom the army had compelled the senate to associ- ate as colleague with their own chosen emperors. 31. Gordian reigned with distinction and prosperity. He gained great victories over the Persians, under their king Sa'por, driving them out of Syria, and compelling them to abandon Mesopotamia ; but he was soon afterward assassinated in a mutiny of the army, fomented by Philip, an officer of the guards, who thus became his successor (a. d. 244). Philip reigned about five years, at the end of which he was defeated and slain in an insurrection of the Pannonian army under De'cius (a. d. 249). 32. Deems. — The reign of this emperor is remarkable for the dreadful persecution which he instituted against the Christians, who, throughout the empire, were dragged to execution, and subjected to the most horrid cruelties. There was also a great invasion of the Goths, a barbarous people from Scandinavia, who, having crossed the Danube, passed into Mcesia and Thrace. Phil-ip-pop 'o-lis was taken by storm, and 100,000 persons are said to have been massa- cred. They also, a short time afterward, defeated the Eo- man army under Decius, in a terrific conflict in which the emperor himself perished (a. d. 251). Decius exhibited the character of a brave and active general and an accomplished monarch. 33. Valerian. — The two immediate successors of Decius 31. What were the chief events of Gordian's reign? By whom was he suc- ceeded ? Who was the successor of Philip ? 32. For what is the reign of Decius remarkable? What invasion occurred! How and when did the death of Decius occur ? 118 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. [A. D. 260. held the throne only about two years, when Va-le'ri-an, who commanded the armies of Gaul and Germany, assumed the purple. He was about sixty years of age, of noble birth, unblemished integrity, great talents, and in every respect worthy of reigning. In an expedition against the Persians he WBB defeated and taken prisoner (a. d. 260) ; and Sapor, the Persian monarch, took advantage of this victory to overrun Syria, Cilicia, and Cappadocia. The city of An- tioch was surprised and pillaged, and its inhabitants put to the sword, or carried away into captivity. Valerian, it is said, was treated with great indignity and cruelty by the Persian monarch. He was compelled for seven years to bow himself down so as to serve as a stepping-stone to Sa- por when he mounted his horse; and, on his death, his skin stuffed in the form of a human figure, and dyed with scarlet, was preserved in the temple of Persia. 34. Gallienus, the son of. Valerian, had been associated in the government with his father ; and after his defeat, continued to reign, making no effort to cause his father's release, but rather seeming to rejoice in the disaster which freed him from the authority of so strict a censor. At the time of his accession, the barbarians, encouraged by the captivity of Valerian, invaded the empire on all sides. The Germans invaded Italy, but were repulsed by the emperor, who then gave himself up to indolent amusements. This inactivity caused a number of usurpers to start up in various parts of the empire and claim the throne. 35. These usurpers have been called the Thirty Tyrants, but their real number was nineteen. Many of them had been the lieutenants of Valerian, and were disgusted with the imbecility of his son, especially at a time of so much I l I J Who were the successors of Decius ? What is said of Valerian ? By whom w.i- be defeated ? How was he treated hy Sapor? What countries were overrun by the Persians ? What city was taken ? :t I. What is related of Gallienus? What invasions occurred? 8ft. Who were called the "Thirty Tyrants?" What is said of Odenatus and Palmyra ? of Zenobia ? What became of the other pretenders ? When and how did the reign of Gallienus end ? A.D. 270.] THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 119 public peril and disaster. Among them was 0-de?i-a'tus, a" prince of Palmyra,* which had become an independent city, a short time after the death of the emperor Gordian, Iniviug revolted from the Romans on account of the exac- tions of the proconsul. After the defeat of Valerian, Odenatus marched against the Persians ; and, having de- feated them with great loss, recovered Mesopotamia. For these services Gal-M-e'nus and the senate conferred on him and his famous queen, Ze-no'bi-a, the government of the East; thus converting a rival into a friend and partner. This great man was soon after murdered by some of his own family, and Zenobia succeeded him in the government. The other pretenders to the purple also died a violent death, perishing either in battle or by assassination. Gal- lienus was himself murdered while besieging one of his rivals in Milan (a. d. 268). 36. Claudius, a great general, and a virtuous and pa- triotic monarch, succeeded him. He gained a signal vic- tory over the Goths in Mcesia, destroying one of the mightiest armaments that ever invaded the empire; but he was prematurely arrested in his career of glory by a dis- ease which he caught in Pannonia (a. d. 270). He named Au-re'M-an, one of his generals, as his successor. 37. Aurelian. — This emperor's short reign was filled with the most momentous events. The Goths and the Van' dais (also a Gothic tribe) renewed their invasions, and were encountered with indecisive results by Aurelian, who finally made a peace with them, relinquishing to them the great province of Dacia, most of the inhabitants of which removed to the south side of the Danube (a. d. 270). He * Palmyra, or Tadmor, was founded by Solomon in an oasis in the Svrian desert, about 140 rmles east of Damascus ; and being on the great route to Persia and India, it became the rest- iiiK-place of the caravans, and was soon greatly enlarged, and enriched with all the treasures ot the East. 36. What was the character of Claudius? What victory did he gain? Whc succeeded him ? 37. What terms did Aurelian make with the Goths and Vandals ? What barha rous tribe did he defeat ? 120 THE ROM AX EMPIRE. [A. JD. 284. i\r\\ defeated the Al-lc-mtui'i, a German tribe, who had in- vaded Italy and were threatening Rome itself, which Aure- lian caused to be protected by new fortifications. Various parts of the empire were still held by usurpers, some of them women, among whom was Zenobia, queen of Palmyra and several provinces of the East. 38. This queen was esteemed the most lovely and accom- plished of her sex, having been instructed by the celebrated scholar and critic, Lon-gi'nus. After the death of Odena- tus, she filled the throne of Palmyra for five years; but claiming an independent sovereignty, she gave offence to Aurelian, who, having defeated her forces in two great battles, besieged and took her capital, Palmyra. Zenobia was made a captive to grace the triumph of her conqueror, and her favorite minister Longinus was executed (a. d. 273). In an expedition against the Persians, Aurelian was assassinated by one of his generals (a. d. 275). 39. Tacitus, an aged senator, succeeded, and during a brief reign of six months, repelled an attempted invasion by the Scythians. Civil war followed between the generals who were competitors for the throne, and it lasted until A. d. 285, when Di-o-cle'tian, vanquishing his rival Ca-ri'- nuSj in Mcesia, obtained full possession of the empire. 40. Diocletian was a native of Dalmatia, and his parents were slaves ; but he had been promoted succes- sively to the offices of provincial governor, consul, and praetorian prefect. He was proclaimed emperor by the army in A. D. 284; and the year after, feeling that the extent of the empire, and the troubles in which it was in- volved, were too vast for any single mind, he made Max- im'i-an, a brave but unlettered soldier, his colleague. After a few years, each emperor also took an associate, or Ccesar, 38. What is paid of Zenobia ? What war did Aurelian wage against her ? With What result ! When and how did this reign end ? 39. What is said of his successor ? What followed ? 40. What was the previous history of Diocletian? What colleagues were •taken? A. D. 323.] TIIE ROMA^ EMPIRE. 121 and the empire was divided among the four rulers. In this way the barbarians were kept in check, and general tran- quillity was preserved. 41. During this reign the Persians were defeated by Ga-le'ri-us, one of the Caesars ; and Mesopotamia, together with several districts beyond the Tigris, was subdued. There also occurred the last great persecution of the Chris- tians, from which fact the era of the commencement of Diocletian's reign (a. d. 284) is called, in the history of the Church, the " Era of Martyrs." In 305 A. d. Diocletian took the extraordinary resolution to resign the empire, and obliged Maximian to do the same. The Caesars, Galerius and Con-stan'tius, then became emperors, choosing in their turn Caesars to succeed them. Diocletian retired to Sa-lo'- na, in Dalmatia, and spent the remainder of his life in the quiet pursuits of agriculture ; and so well satisfied was he with the change, that when Maximian afterward urged him to resume the imperial dignity, he replied, " I wish you would come to Salona and see the cabbages I have planted; for having once visited my garden, you would never again mention to me the name of empire." 42. Constantine. — Constantius having died at York, in Britain, his son Con' stan-tine was saluted emperor by the army; but Galerius and the two Caesars refused to ratify the election, and civil war ensued, in which there were no less than six competitors for the throne, among them the former emperor, Maximian, and his son Max-en - tins. Constantine, after eighteen years of war, finally prevailed over all his rivals, and became sole monarch of the empire (a. d. 323). During this conflict, while march- ing against Maxentius, he saw, it is said, in the heavens a luminous cross, bearing the inscription, in Greek, " Con- quer by this;" and under the standard of the cross, 41. Whom did Galerius defeat? What is meant by the "era of martyrs' ' ? What extraordinary resolution did Diocletian adopt ? Was he satisfied with the change ? 42. How did Constantine acquire the empire ? What led to his conversion ? 6 122 THE ROMA^ EMPIRE. [A. D. 361. having defeated Maxentius, he became a convert to Chris- tianity. 43. In order that his residence might be nearer the cen- tre of his dominions, he removed the capitol from Rome to Byzantium, which he embellished with magnificent churches, palaces, and other edifices ; while gardens, parks, and private walks exhibited all the refinements of eastern luxury. The city from him received the name of Constan- tinople. During this reign (a. d. 325), the celebrated council of Nice (in Bithynia) was held, in which the doc- trines of the Church were more clearly defined. Constan- tine repulsed the Goths and Sarmatians, who invaded Thrace (a. d. 332). His death occurred five years later, in the sixty-fifth year of his age (a. d. 337). 44. The three sons of Constantine succeeded him, but quarrelled among themselves, and a terrible civil war en- sued. This lasted until 353, when Constantius, after gaining several great victories over his rival Mag-nen'tius, his brothers having been previously slain, became sole and undisputed master of the throne. His cousin, Ju'li-an, was taken as his colleague ; but afterward, by his victories over the Germans and other barbarous nations, he excited the jealousy of the emperor, who, to destroy the influence of the Caesar, recalled his best legions ; but they refused to obey, and saluted Julian as emperor. Preparations for civil war immediately commenced ; but the death of Con- stantius terminated the strife (a. d. 361), and raised Julian to the throne. '45. Julian the Apostate. — This emperor had been educated In Athens, and had imbibed a great fondness for the pagan philosophy and religion. On his accession, therefore, he determined to overthrow Christianity, and 43. What city did he make hi? capitol ? What council was held ? Who wero repulsed ? When did his reign end ? 44. What events followed the death of Constantine ? How did Julian become emperor ? 45. Why was Julian styled "the Apostate" ? What did he attempt ? How was it defeated? Where was he killed ? A. D. 388.] THE KOMAtf EMPIEE. 123 restore the ancient faith and worship ; and hence he has been called " the Apostate." To disprove the prophecy of Christ, he attempted to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem ; but the design, it is said, was frustrated by miracle, fire-balls breaking out from the foundation and driving the work- men away, so that they were obliged to abandon the attempt. Julian was afterward killed in a disastrous ex- pedition against the Persians, after a reign of sixteen months (a. d. 363). 46. Jovian, his successor, restored Christianity, but died after a reign of seven months. Valentinian, com- mander of the guards, succeeded, and divided the empire, giving to his brother Valens the government of the east, while he retained that of the west, making Mil'an his capital. The barbarous nations of the north still con- tinued their incursions. The Goths, pressed in their rear by the more savage Huns,* entreated and obtained permis- sion to settle on the south bank of the Danube, but were afterward driven into revolt by the treachery of a Eoman governor. Valens attempting to subdue them, was de- feated and slain in a great battle, near Adrianople; Gra- tian, who had succeeded Valentinian, arriving too late to prevent the disaster (a. d. 378). The empire of the east was then given to Theodosius (a. d. 379),who subdued the Goths, and received great numbers of them into the Roman armies. 47. Theodosius the Great. After the death of his associates Gratian and Valentinian II., and the defeat of the different rivals who attempted to obtain the throne, Theodosius became sole monarch (a. d. 388). He ruled with so much wisdom and ability that he has been called * The Huns were a warlike tribe, of the Mongolian race, of uncouth and hideous aspect and dreadful ferocity. They emigrated from Central Asia. 46. What is said of Jovian ? How was the empire divided by Valentinian ? Where were the Goths permitted to settle ? Why ? What was the consequence ? Who succeeded Valens ? What was done by Theodosius ? 47. When did Theodosius become sole monarch? Why called the Great f What were the prominent events of his reign ? How did he divide the empire ? 124 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. [A. ». 403. the Great. The complete overthrow of Paganism and the establishment of Christianity in the Roman dominions, as well as the repulse of the barbarians from every part of the frontier, were striking events of this reign,— the last that reflected any credit upon the Roman name. Theodosius at his death divided the empire between his two sons, Ho-no'- ri-us being placed on the throne of the West, and Ar-ca'di-us on that of the East (a. d. 395). • 48. Honoritis .— This reign had scarcely commenced, when the Goths, indignant that their subsidy had not been paid, invaded Greece under the renowned leader Al'a-ric, and devastated the whole country from Thermopylae to Sparta. Stil'i-cho, the brave and talented minister of Ho- norius, by a series of masterly movements, drove out the barbarians ; but the pusillanimous Arcadius made a dis- graceful treaty with Alaric, which put an end to the cam- paign. Alaric soon after invaded Italy, and made a rapid march for Rome ; but he was overtaken near Ve-ro'na and entirely defeated by Stilicho (a. d. 403). His departure from Italy was, however, purchased by the weak and timid Honorius by the payment of a large pension. 49. During the next five years, Stilicho gained several important victories over the barbarians ; but the unworthy emperor, tired of his influence and jealous of his great fame, treacherously caused him to be put to death, appoint- ing in his stead a minister of neither capacity nor worth. The latter having caused a massacre of the families of the barbarians throughout Italy, the Gothic soldiers in the Roman army revolted and joined the standard of Alaric, who immediately invaded Italy and marched to Rome. The city was soon compelled by famine to surrender, and Ho- norius, who held his court at Ravenna, refusing to treat for 48. What invasion took place during the reign of Honorius ? What was done by Stilicho? How was Alaric induced to leave Italy? 49. What other victories were gained by Stilicho? What were the circum- stances of his death ? What caused another invasion by Alaric? What is said of the pillage of Rome ? Of the death of Alaric ? A. ». 450.] THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 125 peace, the ancient capital was given np to pillage (a. d, 410). The devastation and massacre were frightful ; but Alaric, professing Christianity, spared the churches ; and, unwilling utterly to destroy the city which had been the world's' mistress, the sixth day after its capture he withdrew his forces. He then prepared to invade Sicily, but was seized with a mortal disease ; and his remains were buried beneath the bed of a small stream, in the southern part of Italy. 50. A-dol'phus, the brother-in-law of Alaric, succeeded to the sovereignty of the Goths; and having married Pla- cid' i-a, the sister of Honorius, he made peace with the Ro- mans. He then retired into Spain, and founded in that country the Kingdom of the Vis'i-goths* About the same time the Vandals settled in the central and southern parts of Spain ; and the Sue'vi and other German tribes, in the northwestern part. Under the successors of Adolphus, the Vandals were expelled (a. d. 427), the other nations sub- dued, and the Gothic monarchy extended over a large part of Gaul as well as Spain. The Vandals, crossing into Africa, made themselves masters of the northern part of that country. About this time also the Franks, Burgundians, and other barbarous tribes invaded Gaul. 51. Valentinian III. — After a disgraceful reign of twenty-eight years Honorius died (a. d. 423), and was suc- ceeded by Valentinian III., a weak prince, under the guardianship of his mother Placidia, who ruled in his name for twenty-five years. During this period the Huns, under their terrible leader At'ti-la, having defeated several Roman armies, ravaged the Eastern Empire from the Euxine to the Adriatic (a. d. 441-450). After extorting immense treasures from the Emperor of the East, as the * The Goths were divided into two portions, those of the east being called the Ostro-goths, and those of the west the Visigoths. 50. Who succeeded Alaric? Why did he make peace with the Romans? Whither did he retire ? What kingdoms were founded in Spain ? Whither did the Vandals retire ? Who invaded Gaul about this time ? 5 1 . How long did Valentinian reign ? By whom was he succeeded ? Who was A ttila, and what is related of him ? By whom was he defeated ? 126 THE KOMAK EMPIKE. [A. D. 455. price of peace, Attila formed an alliance with the Franks, and marched into Ganl, where he was met and defeated with terrible slaughter by the united forces of the Romans and Goths, the former commanded by A-e'tius, the greatest general of his age, and called by some " the last of the Ro- mans" (a. d. 451). 52. Notwithstanding this great defeat, Attila the next year invaded Italy, and committed the most dreadful devastations, boasting that " the grass never grew on the spot where his horse had trod." Many of the most flourishing cities were taken and utterly destroyed. The people of the Venetian territory (the Ven'e-tl) took refuge in the neighboring islands ; and thus was founded a maritime republic, which afterward became the great emporium of Europe. The entreaties of Leo, Bishop of Rome, and the payment of an immense sum, finally induced Attila to de- part from Italy; and the next year (a. d. 453). his death relieved the empire from the terror of his arms. Aetius, in the year following, was basely murdered by order of Valen- tinian ; and the next year the emperor himself was assas- sinated in revenge for the crime (a. d. 455). This was done at the instigation of a wealthy senator named Pe-tro'ni-us Max'i-mus. 53. Maximus was then proclaimed emperor; but Eu-dox'i-a, the widow of Valentinian, implored the aid of Gen'se-ric, king of the Vandals, to avenge his death. With a numerous fleet he set sail from Carthage, his capital ; and, disembarking at Ostia, marched to Rome, which became a prey to the violence of his followers. The pillage of the city lasted fourteen days and nights ; and the vessels of the Vandals and Moors were laden with the spoils of temples and palaces (a. d. 455). During the next twenty-one years 52. What ravages were committed by Attila in Italy? Where did the Veneti, or Venetians, take refuge ? When did the death of Attila occur ? Of Aetius ? How did the reign of Valentinian end, and when ? 53. By whom were the Vandals called into Italy, and why? What city waa Backed ? How many emperors reigned during the next twenty-one years ? Who was the last ? Who was Orestes ? A.». 476.] THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 127 eight emperors successively assumed the purple, the last of whom was Romulus, the son of O-res'tes, a Pannonian chief, who had been in the service of Attila, but afterward trans- ferred his allegiance to the emperors of the West. 54. Romulus Augustulus — Odoacer. The barba- rian mercenaries, demanding from Orestes a third part 01 Italy and being refused, revolted, and chose Ocl-o-a'cer, chief of a Gothic tribe called the Heruli, as their leader. Pavia was taken by storm ; and Orestes having been made prisoner, was put to death. Odoacer compelled Eomulus (surnamed in derision Au-gus'tu-lus*) to resign the purple ; and abolishing the title and office of Emperor of the West, lie proclaimed himself King of Italy (a. d. 476). Thus ter- minated the western division of the Great Koman Empire. The eastern division continued to exist for nearly one thousand years. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. B. C. 81. Augustus (I). Army of Varus destroyed (a. d. 10). Virgil, Livy Ovid, and Horace. 4. Birth of our Saviour. A. D. 14. Tiberius (II). Germanicus. Hermann. The wicked Sejanus. 33. Crucifixion of our Saviour. 37. Caligula (III). Dreadful cruelties perpetrated. 41. Claudius (IV). Caractacus. Wicked Messalina and Agrippina. 54. Nero (V). Seneca. Lucan. Martyrdom of St. Paul. Revolt of the Jews. 68. Galba (VI). Reign of seven months. G9. Otho (VII). Reign of three months. 69. Vitellius (VIII). Reign of eight months. [tilian. Pliny. 69. Vespasian (IX). Colosseum commenced. Josephus. Quin- 70. Destruction of Jerusalem. 79. Titus (X). Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Colea- seum finished. * Aui/u.sttilus means, in Latin, the Little Augustus. 54. What led to the death of Orestes? How and wheu did the Western Em- pire end ? 12S THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 81. Domitian (XI). Wars with the Dacians. Conquest of Britain by Agricola. 96. Nerva (XII). Reign of sixteen months. 98. Trajan (XIII). Conquest of the Dacians. Victories in th6 East. 117. Adrian (XIV). General survey of the Empire. Wall built in Britain. Jews revolt and are subdued. lo8. Antoninus Pius (XV). 161. Marcus Aureltus Antoninus (XVI). War with the Partis- ans and Germans. Persecution of the Christians. 180. Commodus (XVII). Dreadful cruelties perpetrated. 192. Pertlnax (XVIII). Reign of about three months. Empire sold by auction. 193. Didius Julianus (XIX). Reign of two months. 193. Septimius Severus (XX). Abolishes the forms of the republic. Defeat of the Parthians. 211. Caracalla (XXI). Murders his brother Geta. Dreadful mas- sacre at Alexandria. 217. Macrinus (XXII). Defeated and slain near Antioch. 218. Heliogabalus (XXIII). "Priest of the Sun." Temple to the Sun built in Rome. 222. Alexander Severus (XXIV). Foundation of the Second Per- sian Empire. 235. Maximin (XXV). Dreadful cruelties perpetrated. Victories over the barbarians. 238. Gordian, the Third (XXIX). Succeeds the two Gordians (XXVI and XXVII) who had been declared emperors by the army, and Maximus and Balbinus (XXVIII) elected by the Senate to rule jointly. 244. Philip (XXX). Insurrection of the army under Decius. 249. Decius (XXXI). Dreadful persecution (seventh) of the Chris- tians. Gothic invasion. 251. Death of Decius. Brief reigns of Gallus and ^Emilianus. 254. Valerian (XXXIV). Defeated and taken prisoner by the Per- sians. 200. Gallienus (XXXV). The empire invaded on all sides by the barbarians. The " Thirty Tyrants." Odenatus and Ze- nobia. 268. Claudius (XXXIV). Defeats the Goths in Moesia. 270. Aurelian (XXXVII). Dacia given up to the Goths. Zenobia defeated and taken prisoner. 275. Tacitus (XXXVIII). Civil war ; ended by Diocletian. THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 129 284. Diocletian (XLI1I). Subdues his four rivals, each of whom had been declared emperor, and takes Maximian as his col- league. Empire divided among the two emperors and the two Cassars. Last persecution (tenth) of the Christians. 305. Diocletian and Maximian resign the empire to the Caesars, Gale- rius and Constantius. 306. Constantine (XLV). Six competitors for the throne. Max- entius defeated. 323. Constantine sole and undisputed emperor. Christianity estab- lished. Capital removed to Byzantium. 325. Council of Nice. 337. Constantine II., Constantius, and Constans (XLYI), three emperors. Civil war. 353. Constantius sole emperor. Victories over the Germans by Julian. 361. Julian the Apostate (XL VII). Re-establishes Paganism. Defeated and slain by the Persians. 363. Jovian (XL VIII). Christianity restored. Reign of seven months. 364. Yalentinian I. (XLIX). Empire divided ; Valens emperor of the East. 375. Gratian (L). Battle of Adrianople; Valens defeated and slain by the Goths. Theodosius emperor of the East. 383. Valentinian II. (LI). Defeat of the Goths by Theodosius. 388. Theodosius the Great (LII). ' Defeats his rivals, Maximus and Eugenius. Complete establishment of Christianity. Final division of the Empire. 395. Honorius (LIU). Invasion of Greece and Italy by Alaric. Stilicho. 410. Rome pillaged by the Goths under Alaric. 412. Kingdom of the Vandals founded in Spain. 415. Kingdom of the Visigoths founded in Spain and Gaul. 420. The Franks, Burgundians, &c, invade Gaul. 423. Valentinian III. (LIV). The Huns under Attila invade the Empire. 45'j . Defeat of Attila in Gaul by Aetius. 452. Ravage of Italy by Attila. Venice founded. 454. Death of Aetius, the " Last of the Romans." 455. Maximus (LV). Sack of Rome by the Vandals. 475. Romulus Augustulus (LXIII). Last emperor of the West 476. Odoacer founds the Kingdom of Italy. 130 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. What were the most important events of the reign of Augustus ? 104-105 2. Describe the Augustan age of Roman literature 105 3. Give an account of Tiberius and the principal events of his reign 105-100 4. Describe the character of Caligula 106 5 What were the principal events of the reign of Claudius ? 106-107 6. Describe the character of Nero, and his reign 107-108 7. Give a sketch of the character of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius 108-109 8. What events occurred during the reigns of Vespasian and Titus ? 109-110 9. Describe the character of Domitian Ill 10. Name the " five good Emperors," and state the important events of their reigns 111-113 11. Describe the character and conduct of Commodus 113-114 13. What events led to the accession of Septimius Severus ? 114 13. What were the most important events of his reign ? 114-115 14. Give an account of the reign of Caracalla 115 15. In what way did Macrinus acquire the throne ? 115 16. Give an account of Heliogabalus and his reign 116 17. What important events occurred during the reign of Alexander Severus ? 116 18. Name the four immediate successors of Severus,and describe their reigns 116-117 19. Describe the character and reign of Decius 117 20. How did Valerian acquire the throne, and how did he lose it ? 118 21. Give an account of Gallienus and the " Thirty Tyrants" 118-119 22. Give an account of Zenobia 120 23. How did Diocletian acquire the throne ? 120 2 1. What were the most interesting events of his reign ? 120-121 25. In what way did Constantine obtain the throne ? 121 2>). Give an account of the reign of Constantine 122 27. Describe the character and reign of Julian the Apostate 122-123 2S. What led to the accession of Theodosius the Great ? 123 2!). What were the chief events of his reign ? 124 30. What important events occurred during the reign of Honorius ? 124-125 31. What were the chief events of the reign of Valentinian IH. ? 125-126 83. What emperors occupied the throne after this reign ? 126-127 33. In what reigns were there persecutions of the Christians ? 107-110-112-113-117-121 3 1. During whose reign was Jerusalem taken ? 109 35. During whose reigns were the Britons defeated and subdued ? 107-110 36. When and how were Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed ? 1 10 37. Give an account of Plutarch, the historian Ill 38. By what emperors were the Parthians defeated, and how was their empire destroyed ? 111-115-116 39. Who were the Sassanides, and how r long did they reign ? 116 40. Give an account of the Goths and their invasions . . 119-122-123-124-125 41. Give an account of the invasions of the Vandals 119-125-126 42. Give an account of the invasions of the Huns 123-125-126 43. Who was Stilicho, and what victories did he gain ? 124 41. Who was Aetius, and what victory did he gain ? 126 45. Give a brief account of Alaric, Attila, and Genseric 124-125-126 4r>. What were the chief events of the first century A. D. ? 127-128 47. Relate the principal event s of the second century 128 4§. Also of the third, fourth, and fifth centuries 128-129 PKocim-issivi': map n?5. A. D. 408.] THE EASTERN" EMPIRE. 13] PAET II. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. section i. The Eastern Empire. Extending from the Accession of Arcadius (395 a. d.), to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. 1. The Eastern or Byz'an-tine Empire, or, as it is some- times called, the Greek Empire, was founded in 395 A. d., when Theodosius, at his death, divided the Eoman Empire between his two sons, Honorius and Arcadius, assigning to the latter all the portion lying between the Adriatic Sea and the Tigris River. Arcadius was a weak monarch, who left the administration of the government to ambitious and corrupt ministers, while he lived in oriental luxury, indifferent to his duties and careless of the condition of his subjects. During his reign nourished the virtuous and eloquent Chrys'os-tom,* archbishop of Constantinople, who was persecuted by the empress Eu-dox'i-a, on account of his firm adherence to the orthodox Christian faith. Arca- dius died in 408. 2. The successor of Arcadius was Theodosius II., during * C'hrysotitom is a Greek word which means golden-mouth. Map Questions.— (See Progressive Map, No. 5.) How far did the kingdom of the Ostrogoths extend toward the north? What people occupied Italy at the commencement of Justinian's reign? What people east of the Phone? What kingdom comprehended France and a part of Germany? What people farther east, at the sources of the Danube? What races had settled on the Danube? What others farther to the north? What kingdom occupied Spain? What king- dom in the north of Africa ? What was the extent of the Eastern Empire at that period? What empire bordered it on the east? 1. When and how was the Eastern Empire founded? What was its extent? What is said of Arcadius ? Who nourished during his reign ? 2. Who succeeded Arcadius ? What is said of the Huns ? Of Pulcheria ? 132 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. [A. ». 534 whose reign the Huns under Attila invaded the empire ; and, having in three battles vanquished the armies sent to oppose them, committed the most dreadful and widespread ravages. They dictated terms of peace in the suburbs of Constantinople, exacting the enormous annual tribute of 2,100 pounds of gold, and the immediate payment of 6,000 pounds. Theodosius was only the nominal sovereign, the government being really administered by his sister Pul- che'ri-a, who, after his death, in 450, was proclaimed em- press, and reigned about three years. 3. During the reign of Ze'no (the third from Pulcheria), Od-o-a'cer having made himself master of Italy, and de- posed the last emperor, Augustulus, ruled the country for 14 years, under the title of King of Italy. His reign was terminated by an invasion of the Ostrogoths under The- od'o-ric (a. d. 493), who reigned over Italy 33 years, with all the wisdom and moderation of a virtuous and enlight- ened prince. A large part of the Gothic nation had been transported into Italy, and after its conquest, one-third of all the lands were divided among the followers of Theodo- ric ; and yet, such was the efficiency of his government, that peace and prosperity were everywhere prevalent, and it was a common saying, " that a purse of gold might be safely left in the fields." 4. The famous reign of Jus-tin' i-an over the empire of the East, commenced in 527 A. d., and lasted 38 years. It is remarkable for the code of laws which the emperor caused to be framed, and for the victories of Bel-i-sa'ri-us and JVar'ses, the two greatest generals of the age. The former defeated the Vandals, in Africa, in two great bat- tles, and recovered the provinces which they had subdued (a. d. 534). He next reduced Sicily, and, crossing into 3. During whose reign did Odoacer conquer Italy? How and when was Odoa- cer's reign terminated? What was the length of Theodoric's reign? What was its character ? 4. When did the emperor Justinian's reign begin ? What was its length ? For what was it remarkable ? What conquests were made by Belisarius ? A. ». 565.] THE EASTEE^" EMPIRE. • 133 Italy, defeated the Gotlis and captured their capital, Ra- ven 'na (539 A. D.). In 544 A. D., the barbarians having, under their king Tot'i-la, again invaded and reconquered Italy, Belisarius waged war against them for five years, but with very inadequate forces, and through the jealousy and unjust suspicions of Justinian, was finally recalled. 5. After several years of retirement, Belisarius, in his old age, was called upon to defend Constantinople against the Bul-ga'ri-ans and Sla-vo'ni-ans,* who, after committing frightful ravages in various parts of the empire, threatened Constantinople. The aged hero, by his skill and valor, entirely defeated these fierce barbarians ; but four years afterward, notwithstanding his great services, he was un- justly imprisoned by the emperor on a charge of treason. He was subsequently acquitted, and died in 565. 6. Meanwhile, the war had been continued against the Goths in Italy. Rome, which had been taken by Totila, and its entire destruction threatened, was recaptured by Narses, and the Goths defeated with great slaughter, their king, Totila, being slain (a. d. 552). After he had gained another great victory over the Goths the next year, and defeated the Franks and other German tribes who had ravaged the peninsula from the Alps to Otranto, ISTarses entered Rome as a conqueror, and was afterward appointed by Justinian Exarch of Italy. He fixed his court at Ra- venna, and continued to govern the country till the death of Justinian, in 565, by whose successor he was recalled. He died in Rome a short time afterward, at the age, it is said, of 95. 7. During the reign of Justinian, the A-vars', a race sim- * The Bulgarians were the remains of the Huns who, after the death of Attila, retreated to the Kuxine and the lake Masotis. The Slavonian* were a barbarous race from the plains of .Rus- sia, who afterward settled in the vicinity of the Baltic Sea. 5. Who were the Bulgarians and Slavonians ? (See note.) By whom were they defeated ? What further is said of Belisarius ? 6. What victories were gained hy Narses ? To what office was he appointed ? How long did he rule Italy ? What was his capital ? When did his death occur i 7. What is said of the Avars ? The Lombards ? The Gepidae ? 134 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. [A. I>. 622. ilar in origin to the Huns, fleeing from the Turks, who lived at that time near the Altai Mountains, crossed the Tana-is and Bo-rys'the-nes (Don and Dnieper rivers), and advanced into Poland and Germany. They then passed to the Danube, and, subduing the Bulgarians, took possession of the country which the latter had occupied (Dacia). This period is also noted for the passage to the south of the Lombards,* who had been invited by the emperor to enter Noricum and Pannonia, in order to check the advance of another barbarous race called the Gep'i-dce. These, after a thirty years' war, were almost entirely exterminated by the Lombards, under Al'bo-in, assisted by the Avars, the latter of whom continued to occupy Dacia, and some of the adja- cent countries, for more than two centuries. 8. In the reign of Justin II, the successor of Justinian, the Lombards, under Alboin, entered Italy (a. d. 568), being invited, as it is said, by Parses, in revenge for the affront of his recall. In a short time they conquered the whole country, except a small portion which continued, under the name of the Exarchate of Ravenna, in possession of the Eastern Empire. The kingdom of the Lombards in Italy lasted more than two centuries, their seat of govern- ment being Pa' via. The famous iron croivn of the Lom- bards is said to have been presented to one of their queens by the celebrated Roman pontiff, Gregory the Great, as a reward for converting the king to the Catholic faith (about 600 A. D.). 9. The reigns of Justinian and several of his successors were much disturbed by the encroachments of Persia, then the most extensive and powerful monarchy of the East; but the emperor He-rac'li-us, in the beginning of the seventh century (622-628), in three remarkable expedi- * Or Lonr/obards, meaning men with long beards. 8. When did the Lombards invade Italy? Why ? What part of it did they con- quer? How long did their kingdom last? What is said of the iron crown? *). What is said of Persia ? By whom was the Persian monarch defeated? Who overturned the Persian monarchy ? A. D. 642.] THE EASTERN" EMPIRE. 135 {ions, in which he displayed a boldness, perseverance, and military skill never surpassed, defeated Khos'ru, the greatest of the Persian monarchs, and effectually broke the power of the kingdom. Eight years afterward, the last of the. Sas-san-i'des, a dynasty which had filled the Persian throne for four centuries, was defeated by the Sar'a-cens ; and in a few years the whole of the Persian dominions submitted to their victorious arms (a. d. 651). 10. The reign of Heraclius is also remarkable for the commencement of that succession of victories and con- quests by which those enthusiastic Arabian zealots, called the Saracens, despoiled the Byzantine empire of the largest part of its dominions. Syria was subdued in this reign (a. d. 638), the forces of Heraclius having been defeated in several great battles ; and Damascus and Jerusalem were taken, seven centuries after Pompey had achieved the con- quest of Syria, and annexed it to the dominions of the Eoman republic. Egypt was conquered during the next two years, Alexandria being taken after a siege of 14 months (a. t>. 640). This was the last drop of bitterness in the cup of the unfortunate Heraclius, who died seven weeks after he received intelligence of the sad event.* 11. During the next half-century, the descendants of Heraclius continued to occupy the throne, and the empire was still further despoiled of its provinces by the irresisti- ble valor and activity of the Saracens. The conquest of all northern Africa was completed in this period ; and twice did the victorious Mohammedans lay siege to Constantino- ple itself, and were repelled from its walls only by the effectual use of the famous Greek fire. This is supposed to have been a kind of bitumen or inflammable oil, and was poured * It was on this occasion that the great Alexandrian library was burnt, the bigoted Mahome- tan general saying that if the books agreed with the Koran they were unnecessary ; and it they contradicted it, they were pernicious. 1 0. For what is the reign of Heraclius noted ? When was Syria subdued by the Saracens ? Egypt ? 1 1 . What is said of the farther conquests of the Saracens ? The Greek fire ? 136 THE EASTERN" EMPIRE. [A. ». 1055. from the ramparts, or blown through long tubes against the besiegers. 12. During the same period also, the Bulgarians, who in the previous century had been subject to the Avars, crossed the Danube, followed by various Slavonian tribes, as the Servi- ents, Bos'ni-ans, Cro-a'tians, etc., and having vanquished the Eoman armies sent against them, founded (a. d. 680) the Kingdom of Bulgaria, in the country a part of which still bears this name. This kingdom was a formidable enemy of the Greek Empire till the reign of Basil II (976-1025), by whom, after a war of several years, in which the most shocking cruelties were perpetrated, it was entirely subdued. It then became again a province of the empire, and so re- mained till 1186, when it once more regained its inde- pendence. 13. In the ninth century (a. d. 865), the Russians, having descended the Bo-rys'the-nes (Dnieper) Eiver, in their rude boats and sailed into the Bosporus, made an attack upon Constantinople, but were repulsed. During the next cen- tury the attempt was twice repeated ; but although the ar- maments of the Russians were quite formidable, both from the number of the vessels and the valor of those who manned them, their expeditions were all unsuccessful. During the reign of Zim'is-ces (969-976), the Russians having gained a great victory over the Bulgarians, again threatened Con- stantinople, but were severely defeated by the brave and warlike emperor in several battles, and finally compelled to capitulate. Thus terminated these dangerous inroads. 14. The next formidable enemy of the empire were the Turks, who abandoned their ancient habitations in Central Asia ; and, in the eleventh century, taking advantage of the dissensions of the Saraceus, conquered Persia, capturing Bagdad in 1055. Previous to this they had carried their 1 2. When and how was the Kingdom of Bulgaria founded ? Give a sketch of itb history. 1 3. What is said of the incursions of the Russians ? 14. Describe the invasion of the Seljuk Turks. What is said of the Kingdom of Roum ! A. I>. 1097.] THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 137 conquering arms as far as northern India. In 1090, they had subdued Asia Minor and Syria; and their empire ex- tended from* the Hellespont to the borders of Chinese Tartary. These Turks belonged to the tribe called Seljuks (sel'yooks), and are not to be confounded with the Ot'to-man Turks, to be treated of hereafter. The dominions of the Seljuks were afterward divided, and a new kingdom was established by them in Asia Minor, called the Kingdom of Roum {room), which lasted about two centuries (from 1075 to 1272), during which period it waged frequent wars with the Greek Empire. Its capital was at first Ni'ce, in Bithynia, but in 1097 was removed to I-co'ni-um* 15. In 1076, Jerusalem, which had been in the possession of the Saracens for four centuries, was taken by the Seljuk Turks, who treated the pilgrims to the sepulchre of our Saviour with such insult and cruelty, that the Christian nations of Europe were roused to indignation, and sent against them those remarkable expeditions called the Cru- sades. In the first of these, Nice, the capital of Sol'i-man, Sultan of Roum, was taken (1097), and, a short time after- ward, Antioch and Jerusalem. The latter of these was made the capital of a new kingdom, which soon compre- hended the whole of Palestine. Most of Asia Minor was also rescued from the power of the Turks, and again an- nexed to the Greek Empire. 16. In the fourth of these expeditions, during the reign of a usurping emperor at Constantinople, the Crusaders (Erench and Venetians) were induced by the son of the law- ful emperor to abandon the proper object of the expedition and attack Constantinople, with the view to restore the union of the Roman and Greek churches, which had separated on account of a difference in doctrine. The city was accord- *An ancient city of Phrygia, in Asia Minor. The Kingdom of Roum ({. e. of the Romans) was afterward called the Kiw/dom of Iconium. 15. By whom was Jerusalem taken in 1076? What led to the Crusades! What was done in the first Crusade ? 1 6. What led to the taking of Constantinople by the Crusaders ? 138 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. [A. D. 1272. ingly besieged with all their forces, and, by means of the powerful fleet of the Venetians, was taken ; and the lawful emperor was restored to the throne. He being„however, the next year, by an insurrection of the inhabitants, deprived of his throne and put to death, the Crusaders again besieged the city, and took it by storm (1204). 17. Most of the dominions of the empire were then di- vided between the French and Venetians, who appointed Baldwin, Count of Flanders, emperor. He and his suc- cessors, called the Latin Emperors, continued to occupy the throne till 1261, when the Greeks, who in the meanwhile had held Nice as their capital, again obtained possession of Constantinople, under their emperor Pal-ce-ol'o-gus. This emperor expelled the Latins from the city; but some few Latin principalities continued to exist within the limits of the Empire until its final destruction. 18. Meanwhile another tremendous revolution had taken place in western Asia, occasioned by an incursion of the Mon'gols, a Tartar race who, in the beginning of the thir- teenth century, under the renowned chief Jen'gliis Khan, subdued a large part of China, overturned the flourishing kingdom of KJia-rasm (now Kliiva), and conquered the greater part of Persia. Populous territories, abounding in the noblest works of mankind, were made entirely desolate, so that the peaceful industry of centuries has been scarcely sufficient to repair the ravages of a few years. After the death of Jenghis (1227), the Mongols passed into Syria and Asia Minor, pillaged Aleppo and Damascus, and destroyed the kingdom of Koum, or Iconium, the last Seljuk sultan seeking a refuge among the Greeks of Constantinople (1272). The Mongols subsequently carried their victorious arms into Europe, and devastated or conquered many of its most fertile and populous countries. 1 7. How were the dominions of the empire divided by the Crusaders? When did the Greeks regain Constantinople ? What is said of the Latins ? 18. Give a sketch of the conquest of the Mongols under Jenghis Khan When did the beljuk kingdom of Iconium end ? What is further said of the Mongols ? A. D. 1402.] THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 139 19. Soon after these events, and while the descendants of Palaeologus still continued a feeble administration at Constantinople, there arose a power which was destined to cause the final destruction of the Byzantine Empire, and establish upon its ruins one which should rival it in extent, and far surpass it in the splendor of its conquests. This was the Ottoman Turks, so called from their founder Otliman, Ottoman, or Os'man, who in 1299 invaded Asia Minor, and in a few years succeeded in establishing there a kingdom, the capital of which he fixed at Pru'sa, in Bithy- nia. This kingdom soon became one of the most flourish- ing states of the East. 20. The remaining history of the Greek Empire, during a century and a half, is but the narrative of its contests with the Ottomans, who successively wrested from it the fairest portions of its dominions. In the middle of the 14th century (1360), Am'u-rath, one of the successors of Othman, captured Adrianople, and made it his capital. He afterward subdued Thrace and Macedon, but fell at Cos-so'va, in Servia, where, however, he defeated an im- mense army of Christians, amounting, it is said, to 500,000 men (1390). His successor, Baj'a-zet, continued the tide of conquest ; and for ten years besieged Constantinople, but was called away to defend his dominions against the cele- brated chieftain Ti'mour, or Tam'er-lane, by whom he was afterward defeated and taken prisoner (1402). 21. This delayed the fall of the Greek Empire for some years ; but Timour's empire being dismembered, the Turks resumed their encroachments, and finally, under Mo-liam'- med II, after a siege of fifty-three days, took Constanti- nople by storm (May 2§, 1453). Constantine {Palceologus), 19. What power arose a short time after this ? Who was the founder of the Ottomans ? What kingdom was established by him ? 20. What is said of the remaining history of the Greek Empire? What con- quests were made by Amurath ? Where did he defeat the Christians ? By whom was he defeated. 21. By whom and when was Constantinople taken? What events followed I What is said of the history of the Byzantine emperors ? 140 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. its last emperor, fell in the battle, and the inhabitants were either massacred, or carried into slavery. This event was soon followed by the subjugation of all the remaining dominions of the empire, which thus, after an existence of 1058 years, was brought to an end. The minute history of the dynasties and emperors which followed each other during this long period, presents probably the most shock- ing and disgraceful narrative of imbecility, wickedness, and crime, contained in any part of the annals of the world. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 395. Foundation of the Eastern Empire under Arcadius. 408. Accession of Theodosius II. 441. Invasion of Attila. 493. Invasion of Italy by the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric. 527. Accession of Justinian. 584. Conquest of the Vandals by Belisarius. 539. Conquest of the Goths in Italy by Belisarius. 552. Defeat of the Goths in Italy by Narses. Totila slain. 564. Death of Belisarius. 565. Death of Justinian. Recall of Narses from Italy. 568. Invasion of Italy by the Lombards. 622. Defeat of the Persians by the Emperor Heraclius. 638. Conquest of Syria by the Saracens. 640. Alexandria taken by the Saracens. 651. Conquest of Persia by the Saracens. 680. Foundation of the Kingdom of Bulgaria. 865. Constantinople attacked by the Russians. 1055. Conquest of Persia by the Seljuk Turks. 1075. Foundation of the Kingdom of Roum or Iconium. 1076. Jerusalem taken by the Seljuks. 109-7. Nice, the capital of Roum, taken by the Crusaders. 1204. Constantinople taken by the Crusaders. Accession of the Latin emperors. Baldwin. 1261 . Constantinople retaken by the Greeks. Palaeologus emperor. 1272. Kingdom of Iconium destroyed by the Mongols. 1299. Invasion of Asia Minor by the Ottoman Turks. 1360. Capture of Adrianople by the Ottomans, under Amurath. 1453. Constantinople taken. — End of the Greek Empire. TIIE EASTERN EMPIRE. 141 REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. Give an account of the reign of Arcadius 131 2. What important events occurred during the reign of Theodosius II. ? . . 132 3. State the great events of Justinian's reign 132-133-134 4. Give an account of Behsarius 132-133 5. What victories were gained hy Narses ? 133 6. Who were the Bulgarians and Slavonians ? 133-136 7. Give an account of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric and Totila 132-133 8. Who were the Lombards, and what monarchy did they found ? 134 9. Who were the Avars, and what, led to their invasion of the empire ? . . . 133-134 10. For what events is the reign of Heraclius memorable ? 134-135 1 1. During whose reign did the Saracens begin their conquests ? 135 12. When and by whom was Constantinople attacked ? ... 135-136-137-139 13. What was the Greek fire, and how was it used ? 135 14. Give an account of the Seljuk Turks and their conquests 136-137-138 15. Relate the history of the kingdom of Roum 137-138 16. What led to the Crusades? 137 17. How did the Latin emperors acquire the throne of Constantinople, and how long did they retain it ? 137 1A Who was Jenghis Khan, and what conquests did he make ? 138 19. What further conquests were made by the Mongols after the death of JenghisKhan? 138 20. Who were the Ottomans, and why were they so called ?.'. 139 21. During what periods did they attack the empire ? 139 22. What conquests were made by Amurath ? 139 23. Give an account of the battle of Cossova 139 24. Give an account of Timour, or Tamerlane , 139 25. When and by whom was Constantinople finally taken ? — 139-140 28. What was the fate of the inhabitants ? 140 27. Who was the last of the Greek emperors ? 140 28. How long had the Byzantine Empire lasted ? 140 29. What is the general character of the internal history of this empire ? . . 140 30. After whom was Constantinople named ? 122 31. Who was Chrysostom, and during whose reign did he live ? 131 32. When and by whom was the Alexandrian library burnt ? (note) 135 33. Give a brief sketch of the history of the kingdom of Bulgaria 136 34. What is the date of the foundation of the Eastern Empire ? 140 35. Mention three important events in the history of this empire, that occurred during the fifth century 140 36. Mention seven important events of the sixth century 140 37. Mention five of the seventh century 140 38. What important event occurred during the ninth century ? 140 39. Mention four important events of the eleventh century 140 40. Mention four of the thirteenth century 140 41. What is the date .of the taking of Constantinople by the Ottomans ? . . . 140 42. When did Justinian's reign commence, and what was its duration ?. . . 140 43. When was Jerusalem taken by the Seljuks ? 140 44. What was the origin of the famous iron croivn of the Lombards ? 134 142 THE DARK AGES. section ii. The Dark Ages, Extending from (lie Invasion of Gaul by the Franks to the End of the Saracen Empire (a. d. 1258). 1. The history of the Dark Ages, so called from the universal ignorance and superstition that prevailed during that period, is the history of the various warlike and bar- barous nations that, migrating from the north and east, overwhelmed the Eoman Empire, and, occupying the dif- ferent districts of Europe, laid the foundation of the present nations found in those countries. Most of these barbarous tribes have already been referred to and briefly described in connection with the history of the two divisions of the Eoman Empire; but in this section there is presented a more specific account of those whose influence was espe- cially powerful and wide-spread, and whose more durable institutions have affected the character and condition of the modern world. These are, the Franks, the Saxons, the Saracens, and the Normans. The Franks. 2. The Franks, or Freemen, were a confederation of German tribes living in the country near the lower part Map Questions.— (See Progressive Map, No. 6.) How far did the empire of Charlemagne extend from east to west? What river was its eastern boundary? How far did it extend toward the south?— Am. To Gaeta, in Italy. How far did it extend toward the north ?— Am. To the Baltic Sea. What state occupied the southeastern part of France ? The southwestern part ? What monarchy occupied both sides of the Lower Danube ? What people dwelt in the districts of the Upper Danube ? What people occupied both banks of the Oder ? What race lived in the regions near the Elbe and Rhine ? What monarchy occupied nearly all Spain ? To what part of Spain had the Visigorhs retired ? What kingdom existed in the north- ern part of Africa ? What was its capital ? Where was the Caliphate of Bagdad ? 1. What is said of the history of the Dark A^es ? Why are they so called? Which were the most important of the barbaric nations ? 2. Who were the Franks ? When did Clovis invade Gaul? Who was he ? What were his other chief conquests and victories ? Where was Burgundy ? PROGRESSIVE MAP XV 6. A.B. 511.] THE DARK AGES. 143 of the Rhine, who in the third century successfully opposed the Romans, committing great devastations throughout Gaul and Spain. In the fifth century (a. d. 486), Clo'vis, chief of a tribe known as the Sa'lian Franks, invaded Gaul, and having victoriously overrun the greater part of it, founded therein a new monarchy, the capital of which he fixed at Lu-te'tia, or Paris.* He chose for his queen do-til' da, a Christian princess, and niece of the king of Burgundy, a country situated east of the Rhone ; and through her in- fluence he embraced Christianity. He gained several great victories over the Al-le-man'ni — a powerful confederation of German tribes — and defeated the Burgundians and the Visigoths, the latter of whom were deprived of nearly all their possessions in Gaul. 3. After the death of Clovis (511), his extensive domin- ions were divided among his sons, and thus were formed three kingdoms : 1. Aus-tra'sia, east of the Rhine ; 2. Nens'- tria, north of the Loire; and 3. Aquitaine (ak'tve-tain), between the Loire (hvar) and the Pyrenees. These were afterward united under a single monarch, and increased by the annexation of Burgundy, which was obtained by con- quest. Thus the monarchy of the Franks became more powerful and extensive than any other formed by the Bar- barians, and was the only one that was durable. In the his- tory of France, Clovis and his descendants are called the Mer-o-vin 'gi-ans, from Mer-o-vm'us, one of their ancestors. This dynasty lasted a little more than 250 years (486-752). 4. The immediate successors of Clovis were noted for their constant dissensions, their vices, and the dreadful crimes which they perpetrated to obtain possession of each others dominions. Some were great warriors, like Clovis * Lvtetta was the name given by the Romans to the collection of lints built of mud (lulum), And inhabited by a Gallic tribe called the Pun'sii, from whom it was afterward called Paris. 3. How were the dominions of Clovis divided at his death ? What is said of the monarchy of the Franks ? Who were the Merovingians ? How long did the dy- nasty last ? 4. What is said of the successors of Clovis ? Who were the " Mayors of the Palace ?" When did Pepin d'Heristal rule ? 144 THE DARK AGES. [A. ». 774. himself; but for more than a century previous to the termi- nation of the dynasty, they were but nominally kings [called Faineants (fa-na-ong) — Do-nothings], all the royal power being exercised by the great ministers, styled Mayors of the Palace. This high office was made hereditary by Pep' in cTIIer-is-tal', who held it from 687 to 714. 5. He was succeeded by the famous Charles Mar-teV (the Hammer), who, when the Saracens, after completing the conquest of Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, threatening not only the subjugation of France but of all Europe, met them near Tours (toor), and inflicted upon them so severe a defeat, that they were completely checked in their long tide of conquests (732). 6. Pepin the Short,* the successor of Charles Martel, having rendered important aid in repelling the Lombards from Route, was, by the authority of Pope Zach'ary, placed upon the throne of the Franks, and the weak Ohil'de-ric, the last of the Merovingians, was formally deposed (752). Thus commenced the Carlovingian dynasty. This j)eriod is also noted for the termination of the rule of the Eastern emperors in Italy, and the commencement of the temporal dominion of the Roman Pontiff, whose government of the territories previously included-within.the Exarchate of Ra- venna, was acknowledged and sustained by Pepin. 7. At the death of Pepin (768), his two sons Car'lo-man and Charles succeeded, but the former dying, Charles [afterward known as Charlemagne (shar'le-malm) — Charles the Great] became the sole monarch of the Franks, and the ruler over not only France, but a large part of Ger- many. He made war upon the Lombards in Italy, and having taken Pavia, their capital (774), put an end to this * So called from his very low stature, being it is said only four and a half feet high; while his gon Charlemagne was seven feet in height. 5. By whom was he succeeded ? What great victory did Charles Martel gain ? 6. How did Pepin the Short become king ? What dynasty was commenced by him ? For what is this period noted ? 7. W T ho succeeded Pepin ? What were the chief conquests of Charlemagne .' What did the battle of Roncevalles give rise to ? A. D. 841.] THE DARK AGES. 145 monarchy, which had lasted about two centuries. He also, after several years of severe war, reduced the Saxons on the lower Weser (ive'zer), and invading Spain, which was then in possession of the Saracens, conquered all that part lying north of the E'bro (778). On his return through the Pyrenees, the rearguard of his army was surprised at Ron-ces-val'les and defeated, its brave commander Ro'land, the favorite nephew of Charlemagne, being slain. This battle gave rise to many romantic stories, and formed the subject of the most popular epic poem of the Middle Ages, the famous " Song of Koland." 8. Charlemagne also gained some victories over the Avars, in Pannonia, and other eastern races ; and in 800, while on a visit to Italy, the Pope (Leo III.) crowned him Emperor of the Romans, thus reviving the Empire of the West, the capital of which Charlemagne fixed at Aix la Chapelle (dices lah sha-pel'). This monarch was not only distinguished for his military talents, but was passionately fond of learning, receiving instruction from Al'cuin, a Saxon, who was the most accomplished scholar of the age. He also showed the greatness as well as beneficence of his char- acter by the many useful enterprises which he planned for the benefit of his people, and by his efforts to dispel the ig- norance which universally prevailed. His death occurred in 814. 9. His son and successor, .Louis le Deb-on-naire' (the Easy) was of too mild and unwarlike a disposition to reign over an empire so extensive, and composed of such hetero- genous parts ; and his own sons formed conspiracies against him. After his death, in 840, three divisions were formed, one for each of his sons ; but they soon quarrelled, and the great battle of Fon-te-naille' was fought (841), in which, it 8. What other victories were gained by Charlemagne ? What title did the Pope confer on him ? What is said of his character ? Who was Alcuin ? 9. Who succeeded Charlemagne ? What was the character of Louis? What occurred after his death ? What was the result of the battle of Fontenaille ? How was the empire divided in 843 ? 146 THE DARK AGES. [A. ». 912. is said, so many of the bravest generals and soldiers of the empire fell, that it was afterward impossible to repel the incursions of the Normans, who about this time commenced their piratical attacks. Two years after this battle (843), a treaty was made by the contending parties, according to which a new distribution of the imperial dominions was made among the three sons ; — Louis receiving Germany ; Charles, France ; and Lothaire, Italy. 10. Charles the Fat, a son of Louis, obtained possession of the whole in 884 ; but three years afterward it was finally separated, Germany alone retaining the imperial title and dignity. The other divisions were France, Italy, and Bur- gundy or Aries («W),* this latter kingdom having regained its independence during the weak reigns of some of the pre- ceding Carlovingian princes. 11. The Normans. — These were a bold and enterpris- ing race from Norway and Denmark, and were sometimes called Norsemen or Northmen. They commenced their ravages during the reign of Charlemagne ; but under his successors, taking advantage of the weakness of the govern- ment, they sailed up the navigable rivers, pillaged and burnt the great towns, and retired dragging away many of the inhabitants with them. During the reign of an im- becile king, named Charles the Simple, they ascended the Seine {sane), and besieged Paris ; whereupon the king, un- able to make any resistance, finally ceded to their ruler, Dulce Rollo, a large district in the north of France, after- ward called Normandy (912). The same active race about the same time crossed the Atlantic, and estab- lished colonies in the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Green- land ; and in the next century are supposed to have visited So named because its dukes, or rulers, for some time made the city of Aries their capital. 10. Who afterward ruled over the whole? What was the final division? When was it made ? 1 1 . Who were the Normans ? What ravages were committed hy them ? What took place daring the reign of Charles the Simple ? What other colonies were established by the Normans during this period ? A. B.449.] THE DARK AGES. 147 the eastern shore of North America, in the latitude of New England. 12. During the reign of Louis V., surnamed Le Faineant (the Do-nothing), Hugo, or Hugh Cap'et, the most powerful of the French vassals, seized the throne, which, on account of the moderation and efficiency of his government, he was al- lowed by the Church and the nobles to retain He was formally crowned in 987, thus inaugurating a new line of kings, named after him the Capetian Dynasty. The Saxons ik Britain. 13. The Saxons were a German race who, as early as the third century, made their appearance in northern Ger- many; and, forming powerful confederations, during the reigns of Julian and Valentinian, invaded the Eoman em- pire. At a later period, probably in the fifth century, they commenced their incursions in Gaul and Britain. After the abandonment of the latter province by the Romans, hordes of these barbarous tribes, associated with An'gles and Jutes from Denmark, rushed with irresistible force upon the island, and completed the conquest of the whole, except the western portion, now called Wales, into which the remnant of the British population retired. 14. The story generally related to account for this revo- lution is, that the Britons, attacked by the Scots and Picts from the north, and being deserted by the Eomans, and therefore unable to defend their country, invited the Saxons to assist them in repelling their enemies. The Saxons coming over (449) under two leaders, named Hen'ghist and Hor'sa, soon drove back the Scots and Picts, but finding the country which they had saved by their valor pleasant and fertile, determined to conquer it for themselves. This story is now generally considered mythical ; the evidence 12. How and when did Hugh the Great acquire the throne ? What new dynasty was commenced by him? I 3. Who were the Saxons ? Describe their invasion of Britain. 14. Give the mythical history of this event. 148 TIIE DARK AGES. [A. B. 597. which we possess only showing that Britain was conquered by the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons in the fifth century. 15. Thus were formed during the fifth and sixth cen- turies, by the many inroads of these people, seven kingdoms in different parts of the island, named collectively the Saxon Hep'tar-chy, and consisting of: 1, Kent ; 2, Sussex ; 3, Wessex ; 4, Essex; 5, Northumbria ; 6, East Anglia ; 7, Mercia. Various wars arose among these states, and many changes occurred in their respective territories, the final result of which was that Wessex absorbed all the others ; and in 827, its king Egbert became the acknowledged monarch of the whole country, to which he gave the name of England. (Engla-land, i. e., Land of the Angles). 16. To this period of the Saxon history belong the stories related of King Arthur, a famous British cham- pion who became renowned for his many victories over the Saxon invaders ; also the partial conversion of the Saxons to Christianity, which was effected by St. Au-gus-tine' and several monks, commissioned by Pope Gregory the Great to perform this work (597). The barbarous and ferocious manners of the age, although softened, were by no means removed, by the partial christianization thus effected. 17. During the period of the Heptarchy, the Danes com- menced their inroads upon the Saxons. These were Norse- men who had come from Norway to Denmark, and occu- pied the lands left uninhabited by the emigration of the Angles and Jutes to Britain. It is said that these North- men were induced to make depredations on Charlemagne's dominions by the Saxon exiles, who had been driven from their homes in northern Germany by the victorious arms of the great Frankish monarch. After several years of fierce war, Charlemagne succeeded finally in subduing 1 5. What kingdoms were formed in Britain ? When and by whom were they united? What name was given to the kingdom thus formed ? 1 6. What is related of the period of the Saxon conquest ? When and how were the Saxons converted ? 1 7. Who were the Danes ? Why did they invade Charlemagne's dominions ? A. D. 622.] THE DARK AGES. 149 those heroic Germans, and taking possession of their conn try, dispersed them among the surrounding nations (804). The Saeaceks. 18. Sar'a-cens — meaning Eastern People — was the name given to that fierce and active race, who, proceeding from Arabia in the seventh century, rapidly overran a consider- able part of Western Asia and the whole of northern Africa, and made a conquest of the kingdom of the Visi- goths in Spain ; but were stopped in their victorious career by the valor of the Franks, under their renowned leader, Charles Martel. 19. They were followers of Ma'ho-met, or Mo-ham' med, who was born at Mec'ca, and in the fortieth year of his age (611), pretended to have a divine mission, and a new reve- lation from God. The preaching of his doctrines excited great opposition at Mecca; and in 622 (July 16), he was compelled to flee from the city in order to save his life. This event, called in Arabic the He-gi'ra, is the epoch which the Mohammedans employ in their chronology. 20. His prophetic character being acknowledged at Me-di'- na, in which city he had taken refuge, his doctrines rapidly gained general credence ; and, having assumed the sword as a means of making converts, he was enabled, seven years after his flight, to re-enter Mecca in triumph, being sus- tained by a large army which he had collected from among tbe roving Arabs by large promises of plunder in this world, and everlasting bliss in the next. The whole Arabian nation, soon after the taking of Mecca, embraced his doctrines, became thorough believers in his sacred mis- sion, and determined to extirpate all unbelievers, or compel them to assent to the cardinal principle of his creed, " There is but one God, and Mohammed is his prophets 1 8. Who were the Saracens ? 19. Who was Mahomet, and what were the first effects of his preaching When did the Ilegira occur ? 20. When did his doctrine gain credence, and what was the result ? 150 THE DARK AGES. [A. ». 655. 21. The impostor had not only conquered Arabia, but had commenced the conquest of Syria, when death stopped him in his successful career, at the age of 63 (a.d. 632). He was succeeded by A-bu'be-ker, styled the First Caliph (i. e. vicar), who collected the fragmentary writings of Mohammed, and formed from them the sacred book called by his followers the Ko'ran. He also prosecuted the con- quest of Syria, defeated, by means of his general, Ca'led (called the "Sword of God"), Heraclius, the Greek em- peror, and took Damascus. Under his successor, O'mar, Jerusalem was taken (a. D. 637), and all Syria subdued; Egypt was conquered, and the Persians defeated in a great battle, at Ca-de'sia, on the Tigris River. 22. This caliph, it is said, during a reign of ten years, reduced 36,000 cities and villages, demolished 4,000 Chris- tian churches, and erected 1500 Mohammedan temples, called mosques. He was succeeded by Oth' man, who com- pleted the conquest of Persia and other eastern countries, extended his dominion in Africa, and published a new edi- tion of the Koran. Cyprus and Rhodes were also taken, the Saracens at the latter place destroying the famous brazen Co-los'sus,* or statue of Phce'bus, the god of the sun. The murder of Othman made Ali (ah'le) caliph, considered the bravest and most virtuous of the successors of Mohammed (a. d. 655). 23. The reign of Ali is noted for the schism which occurred among these fierce zealots, by which the who'le Mohammedan world became divided into two parties, called the Sun'nltes and the Shi'Ues, the former acknowledging * This celebrated statue was erected 300 b. c. It was formed of metal, cast in separate pieces, was about 100 feet high, and took twelve years to complete it. It was thrown down by at earthquake, about sixty years after its erection, and remained in ruins nearly nine centuries. The Saracens caused it to be broken up and sold. 2 1 . When did Mohammed's death occur, and hy whom was he succeeded ? What was done by Abu-beker ? What conquests were made by Caled ? What was achieved under Omar ? 22. How many cities, etc., were taken under Omar ? By whom was he succeeded? What were the chief events of Ottoman's rei^n ? Who was his successor * 23. What schism occurred while Ali was caliph ? What usurpation took place, and what dynasty was founded ? A.D. T11.J THE DARK AGES. 151 the authority of all the caliphs, while the latter reject all but Ali, whom they regard as the equal of Mohammed. The Shiites also reject the Sun'nah, a book of traditions concerning the prophet, which the Sunnites, or orthodox Mohammedans, receive as sacred. During the reign of Ali, Mo-a-wi'yah usurped the government of Syria, and by the murder of Ali, became caliph. He was the first of the dynasty called the Om-mi-ya'des, which lasted till 752. 24. Moawiyah fixed his capital at Damascus, and, by his A-mir-al-ma (captain at sea; hence our word admiral) and his lieutenant Ak'bah, continued the conquest of northern Africa, founding south of Tunis the famous city of Kairwan (klre-wah?i ). It was the army of this caliph that besieged Constantinople, and was repulsed by means of the Greek fire, so efficiently employed by its defenders (668- 675). About forty years afterward (717) Constantinople was again attacked by an army of Saracens, said to num- ber 120,000 men ; but, after a siege of thirteen months, was relieved by the Bulgarians, who fell upon the Saracens, and defeated them with immense slaughter. 25. Carthage was taken by the Saracens in 698, and utterly destroyed, after which they encountered no opposi- tion in Africa except from the native Berber tribes, whom they finally subdued (709) and converted. From the union of the Arabic and Berber races sprung the Moors, so noted in Saracenic history. The conquest of Africa was immediately followed by that of Spain ; for Mu'sa, the Saracen general, dispatched his lieutenant Ta'rih across the strait of Gib- raltar (Gib-el- Tar ik — mountain of Tarik) with an army, which defeated Roderick, the last of the Visigothic kings, and thus destroyed their monarchy in Spain, after an ex- istence of more than two centuries (711).* A remnant of * It is said that the Saracens were invited into Spain by Count Julian, a Gothic noble, in re- .sa&jje for an injury inflicted upon him by King Roderick. 24. What was the capital under Moawiyah ? What were the chief events of his reign ? When was Constantinople attacked, and how was it saved ? S»5. What account is given of the conquest of Africa? Of Spain? What be came of the Goths ? j-o THE DARK AGES. [A. ». 808. the Gothic nation, however, escaped to the highlands among the Adrian mountains, where they succeeded in maintaining their independence for many centuries. 20. Crossing the Pyrenees, the victorious Saracens were Mill pressing on in their career of conquest when they were defeated, in a battle that lasted seven days, by the renowned ( Ibarles Hartel, who by his valor and skill probably rescued Enrope from the Mohammedan yoke (732). His grandson Charlemagne more than fifty years afterward drove them beyond the Ebro, and thus confined them to their do- minions in Spain. The Ommiade dynasty of caliphs was, in t he middle of the eighth century (752), succeeded by theAb- bas'i-des, descendants of Ab'bas, the uncle of Mohammed; bat one of the Ommiyades, escaping to Spain, founded afi independent caliphate at Cor'do-va, which lasted 250 wars, and was one of the largest and most splendid centres of commerce, literature, and the arts in the world. 27. Al Mansur (man-soor'), the second of the Abbasides, removed the capital to the Tigris, founding there the city of Bagdad, which was built out of the ruins of Seleucia and Otesiphon (762). The most celebrated of the caliphs of Bagdad was Ha'roun-al-Rasch'id (Aaron the Just), made familiar both to young and old by the tales of the " Arabian N ignis." During this reign (786-808), and several succeed- ing reigns, literature and science, particularly astronomy, were carried to a very high degree of perfection both at Cordova and Bagdad, while nearly all Europe was slum- bering in the intellectual night of the dark ages. 28. After the reign of Haroun al Raschid, the Saracen empire became divided by the rebellion and usurpation of the provincial governors, so that, in the beginning of the •H\. What stopped the Saracens in their career of conquest? W T hen did the Ommiade dynasty cease, and by whom was it succeeded ? What was established Bva r 27. Who founded Bagdad? What, is said of Haronn al Raschid ? What pro- _!.-- was made in literature and science by the Saracens? 28. How was the empire afterward divided ? How many caliphates were there in the tenth century ! Which was the most distinguished? How long did the Patimitea continue" in power ? By whom were they succeeded at Cairo ? A. I>. 1258.] THE DARK AGES. 153 10th century, there were no less than seven caliphates, all of whom acknowledged the caliph of Bagdad only as the successor of Mohammed, denying to him any temporal authority over their respective dominions. Of these inde- pendent kingdoms the most distinguished was that of the Fat'i-mites* in Africa, whose capital was Cairo (ki'ro), and who continued in power till 1171, when the last of the dynasty was succeeded by the famous Sal'a-din. 29. In the eleventh century (1055), Bagdad was taken by the Seljuks ; but these fierce barbarians, being believers in Mohammed, acknowledged the caliphs of Bagdad as their superiors. The power, however, of the latter had been greatly diminished ; and their dominions scarcely extended beyond the walls of the city. At length, in 1258, during the reign of the grandson of Jenghis Khan, Bagdad was taken and sacked by the Mongols ; and the caliphate ex- tinguished, after it had existed nearly 500 years. This is generally regarded as the termination of the Saracen em- pire, although, centuries before, its various parts had been but nominally connected. The Feudal System. 30. The prevailing system by which, during the period from the 9th to the 13th century, social and political rela- tions, including particularly the rights of property, were regulated in nearly all the countries of Europe, was called the Feudal System, a feudal proprietor being a person who held his lands from another, on condition of certain ser- vices which he, as a vassal, was bound to perform for the other, as a suzerain or superior. * So called because they were believed to be the descendants of Fatima, the daughter of Mo- hammed. 29. By whom was Bagdad taken in the eleventh century ? When and in what way did the Saracen empire terminate ? 30. What was the feudal system ? What was meant hy a feudal proprietor ? 154 THE DAKK AGES. 31. With the exception of the duty of military service to their superiors, the vassals of a king practically were invested with sovereign power within their own dominions, having vassals in various degrees beneath them ; and living in their fortified castles, often by means of pillage, while the peasantry were bound as serfs, or slaves, to the soil. 32. The feudal nobles and gentlemen fought on horse- back, and were protected by a close-fitting armor of steel, often ornamented with gold and silver. Their principal weapons of offence were long lances, with which they rode fiercely against each other ; and clubs, maces, or swords for hand-to-hand conflicts when their lances were broken, or when the combatants became unhorsed. The common soldiers fought on foot, were unprovided with protective armor, and used bows and arrows, — either long-bows or cross-bows. The Normans were skilled in the use of every species of arms, but particularly in the cross-bow; and, after the Norman invasion, the English became the most skilful archers in the world. Cannon came into use in the middle of the fourteenth century. 33. The feeble bond of union by which the different members of society were held together, led to violence, re- bellion, and anarchy ; and, during the middle ages, was a perfect barrier against all improvement in government, maimers, or the arts of civilized life. The feudal system gradually yielded to influences which will be explained in connection with the subsequent history. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 449. Invasion of Britain by the Saxons. 480. Invasion of Gaul by Clovis. 597. Conversion of the Saxons in Britain to Christianity. 3 1 . What was the condition of the vassals ? Of the peasantry ? 32. How did the feudal nobles and gentlemen fight ? The common soldiers? What is said of the skill of the Normans ? Of the English ? 33. What was the condition of society during the middle ages? THE DARK AGES. 155 611. Mohammed commences his pretended mission. 622. Flight of Mohammed from Mecca. The Hegira. 629. Mohammed enters Mecca in triumph. 632. Death of Mohammed. 637. Jerusalem taken by the Saracens. 661. Commencement of the Ommiyades. 687. Pepin d'Heristal, Mayor of the Palace. 698. Carthage stormed by the Saracens, and destroyed. 709. Conquest of Africa completed by the Saracens. 711. Spain conquered by the Saracens. End of the monarchy of the Visigoths. 732. The Saracens defeated by Charles Martel 752. End of the Merovingian dynasty of the Franks, and of the Saracen dynasty of the Ommiyades. 755. The Pope made a temporal prince. 762. Bagdad founded by the Saracens. 768. Accession of Carloman and Charles, afterward styled Charlemagne. 774. Pavia taken by Charlemagne. End of the Kingdom of the Lombards. 786-808. Reign of Haroun al Raschid at Bagdad. 800. Charlemagne crowned " Emperor of the Romans." The Western Empire revived. 804. The Saxons in Germany subdued by Charlemagne. 814. Death of Charlemagne. 827. England founded by Egbert. End of the Saxon Heptarchy. 841. Battle of Fontenaille. 843. The empire of Charlemagne divided. 884. Charles the Fat sole monarch of the Franks. 887. Final division of the Empire into France, Germany, Bur- gundy, and Italy. 910. Commencement of the Fatimite dynasty at Tunis. 912. The Normans settle in France, during the reign of Charles the Simple. 987. Hugh Capet becomes king of France. End of the Carlovingian dynasty. 1055. Bagdad taken by the Seljuks. 1171. The Fatimite dynasty overturned at Cairo by Saladin. 1258. Bagdad taken by Jenghis Khan. End of the Saracen Empire. 156 THE DARK AGES. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGB 1. What period is called the Dark Ages ? 143 2. Give a sketch of the history of Clovis 143 3. During what period did the Merovingians occupy the throne of France ? 143 4. Name the most celebrated of the Mayors of the Palace, and state for what they were distinguished 144 5. Give the history of Pepin the Short 141 6. Give a sketch of the history of Charlemagne 144-145 7. Who was Alcuin, and for what was he distinguished ? 145 8. What was the " Song of Roland ?" 145 9. Mention the most eminent of the successors of Charlemagne 145-146 10. Give a sketch of the history of the Normans 146 11. What led to the establishment of the Capetian Dynasty ? 147 12. What led to the invasion of Britain by the Saxons ? 147 13. Give a sketch of the history of the Saxon Heptarchy 148 14. What led to the invasion of Britain by the Danes ? 148 15. Who was King Arthur ? 148 16. Give a sketch of the history of Mohammed... 149-150 17. Who were the most noted of his immediate successors ? 150-151 18. Give an account of the conquest of Syria, Egypt, and Persia, by the Saracens 150-151 19. What is the origin of the name Gibraltar ? 151 20. Give an account of the Ommiyades 151-152 21. Give the history of the Abbasides 152 22. Who was Haroun al Raschid, and for what was he noted ? 152 23. Give a sketch of the history of the Caliphs of Bagdad 152-153 24. Give the history of the Fatimites 153 25. During what period did the Saracen Empire last ? 149-153 26. State the peculiar features of the Feudal System 153-154 27. What were the effects of this system upon the manners and state of society of the Middle Ages ? 154 28. Describe the mode of warfare practised during this period 154 29. What is the date of the Hegira ? 149-155 30. What Saracen monarch was contemporary with Charlemagne ? 155 31. What two important events in the tenth century were very nearly contemporaneous ? 155 >32. By whom was Bagdad taken in the eleventh century ? 155 33. By whom was it taken in the thirteenth century ? 155 34. Mention, in chronological order, the important events of the fifth century 154 35. Mention those of the seventh century 155 3(5. Mention those of the eighth century 155 37. What were the most important events of the ninth century ? 15j 38. What important event of French history occurred in the tenth century ? 155 39. What important event in the Saracen history took place in the eleventh century ? 155 40. What important event occurred in 732 ? 155 41. Name ten events from 732 to the death of Charlemagne 155 42. Name in chronological order fourteen events after the death of Charle- magne 155 A. D. 827.] ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 157 section iii. England in the Middle Ages, Extending from tlie Foundation of the Anglo-Saxon Monarchy under Egbert (827) to the Accession of Henry VII. (1485). 1. Egbert and his successors, the Saxon kings of Eng- land, held the throne a little over two centuries (827-1066) The most eminent among the latter was Alfred the Great, who was the most illustrious monarch of his age (871-901), and one of the wisest and most virtuous kings that ever reigned. Though at one time entirely overwhelmed by the Danes, who had long disturbed the kingdom by their irrup- tions, and though reduced to such an extremity that he was obliged to seek safety in an obscure part of the country, in the disguise of a peasant, he at last by his fortitude and address was enabled to defeat his enemies, and to regain his throne. The Danes being expelled, he restored tranquillity to the country, and endeavored, by judicious measures, to promote the prosperity and civilization of the people. He founded the University of Oxford, improved the laws of the kingdom, and established schools for the education of the people. 2. The continued struggle with the Danes forms the most prominent feature of the Saxon history of England. Edward, surnamed the Elder, the son and successor of Alfred, and Edward's successor, Ath'el-stan, were distin- Map Questions.— (Map, page 158.) What cities and towns near the southern coast of England ? What cities and towns near the boundary of Wales ? In the northern part of England ? In the eastern part ? Where is Bosworth ? Edge Hill ? Northampton ? What cities and towns in the southern part of Scotland ? In the northern part ? In what part of Ireland is Dublin ? Drogheda ? Londonderry ? Gal way ? Cork ? In what part of Wales is Milford Haven ? Caernarvon ? 1 . How long did Egbert and his successors hold the English throne ? Who was the most eminent of the Saxon kings ? What was his character ? The chief events of his reign? 2. What constitutes the chief feature of the Saxon history ? What kings de feated the Danes ? What massacre was committed ? The consequence of it I How did Canute become king ? 158 ENGLAND IX THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1013. guished for the victories which they gained over these fierce and persevering invaders. During the reign of Eth' el-red, surnamed the Unready, a barbarous massacre, ordered by the king, of all the Danes who had settled in any part of the country, so incensed Sweyn (swane), king of Denmark, that he raised an immense army, with which he invaded the kingdom, and having compelled Ethelredto flee, caused A. ». 1017.] EtfGLAtfD IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 159 himself to be proclaimed king of England (1013). On his death, Ethelred was restored to the throne ; but his suc- cessor, Edmund Ironside, was defeated by an army of Danes under Can-ute', the successor of Sweyn, and com- pelled to surrender one-half of his dominions to the victor, who, a short time afterward, by the death of Edmund, be- came sole monarch of England (1017). 3. Canute, surnamed the Great, was an able and politic monarch, whose rule, although at first severe and cruel, became afterward so popular from its efficiency and mod- eration, that the Anglo-Saxon people forgot that they had been subjugated; and after his death (i035) Canute was as much lamented as Alfred or Athelstan. He was succeeded by his son, Har'old Harefoot, so called from his fondness for the chase and his swiftness in running. At his death, his brother Hardicanute obtained the throne, after whom the English succeeded in throwing off the Danish yoke, and the Saxon line was restored in the person of Edward, sur- named the Con'fessor, on account of his fondness for learn- ing, his studious habits, and his distaste for active pursuits. He was canonized by the Pope, and very much revered by his people, who imputed to him the power of curing the scrofula by the touch of his hand. Hence, this disease was called the " king's evil ;" and for seven centuries those afflicted with it were, at times, presented to the king to be cured in this way. 4. Edward dying without heirs, the crown was conferred by the clergy and nobles upon Harold, son of Earl Godwin, the most powerful nobleman of the time, whose daughter Edward had married. Harold was also, through his grandmother, a descendant of Sweyn, the Danish king. His right to the throne was, however, disputed by his brother Tos'tig, who, with the aid of the kings of Scotland and Norway, was enabled to raise a large army, which was 3. What was the character of Canute? What other Danish kings reigned? What is said of Edward the Confessor? ■1. Who succeeded him ? What victory did Harold gain 1 160 ENGLAND m THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. D. 1066. defeated by the English forces under Harold, after a severe battle fought near the Der'went River, in the northern part of England (Sept. 25, 1066). 5. Three days after this battle, a more powerful com- petitor for the throne landed on the southeastern shore of England, with a large and finely equipped army. This was William, Duke of Normandy, to whom Edward had bequeathed the throne, and whose claim was sanctioned by the Pope; while Harold, who, it was said, had sacredly promised not to dispute William's claim, was viewed by many as guilty of usurpation and perjury. Harold, not- withstanding his recent conflict with the Norwegians, marched with all the forces he could collect to oppose the Normans. The battle, which was long and bloody, was fought near Hastings* and resulted in the entire defeat of the Saxons, Harold himself being slain (Oct. 14, 1066). This ended the Saxon dynasty, and gave the control of the kingdom to William, who, two months afterward, was for- mally crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey (Dec. 25, 1066). Normal Kings. 6. William I., surnamed the Conqueror, was a descend- ant of the famous duke Eollo, to whom Charles the Simple had ceded Normandy about 150 years previously. He was not only a brave and skilful general, but an able statesman ; and, after subduing all the Anglo-Saxon leaders who op- posed his rule, he, by severe but judicious regulations, firmly established the government, and effectually protected the country from foreign invasions. The Saxon population was, however, reduced to a condition of abject bondage to the great Norman barons, among whom most of the lands * On the site of the town now called Battle, in the southeastern part of England. (See Map.) 5. Who invaded England ? On what did William hase his claim to the throne ? Where was Harold defeated ? What followed the hattle of Hastings ? 6. Who was William the Conqueror? What was his character? By what measures did he complete the conquest ? What was the condition of the Saxons ? A. ». 1087.] EKGLAND IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 161 were divided as a reward for their services, according to the usages of the feudal system. The laws of Edward the Confessor were not, however, abolished ; and some of the Saxon nobles sat in council with the Norman counts. 7. William instituted the custom of ringing the curfeiu- bell in the evening, as a signal that the people should ex- tinguish their lamps and fires, either to prevent conflagra- tions, or secret assemblies of those who were hostile to his government. One of his most useful acts was to cause the compilation of the Domesday Book, which was a register of all the estates in the kingdom. Hunting was his favor- ite amusement ; and in order to make a new forest near his residence, he laid waste a tract of country extending thirty miles, driving out the inhabitants, demolishing houses and even churches, but making no compensation for the injury. To kill game in any of the forests was made a crime of greater enormity than murder. He died during an invasion of France in the twenty-third year of his reign (1087). 8. William II., surnamed Rufus, the Red, from the color of his hair, succeeded to the throne of England, by the will of his father, while his elder brother Eobert as- sumed the government of Normandy. William inherited the courage and much of the ability of his father, but was more cruel and unprincipled. His reign was much dis- turbed by quarrels with his brothers Robert and Henry, which caused him to invade Normandy. He also waged war with Malcolm, king of Scotland. During this period the first crusade occurred; and Eobert, wishing to join it, sold to William his duchy of Normandy (1095), the latter raising the money to pay for it by forced levies upon his subjects, even compelling the convents to melt their plate in order to furnish their quota. After a reign of 13 years, 7. What was the curfew ? The Domesday Book ? The New Forest ? 8. What was the character of William II. ? What were the chief events of his reign J How was his death caused ? Why was it considered a just retribution ? 1G2 ENGLAND IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. IK 1135 he was accidentally shot while hunting in the New Forest (1100). The people viewed this as a just retribution; for where the Conqueror had destroyed the homes of the Saxons, his son prematurely and miserably perished. 9. Henry I. (surnamed Beanclerk, the Scholar), the younger brother of William II., succeeded him ; Robert, the elder brother, being absent in the Holy Land. The latter, on his return, again received Normandy ; but some- time afterward, war arising between the brothers, Robert was made prisoner, sent to England, and confined in a castle in Wales till his death. The government of Henry was characterized by severity ; and so strict and impartial was he in administering the laws, that he was styled the " Lion of Justice." His private life was, however, very im- moral ; and he was so deceitful and treacherous that even his greatest favorites distrusted him. The latter part of his life was saddened by the loss of his only son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy; after which event, it is said, Henry was never seen to smile. His death occurred in 1135. ' 10. Stephen, a nephew of Henry, succeeded him, al- though it had been his cherished wish that his daughter Matilda should have the throne. This princess, whose first husband was the emperor of Germany, and who afterward married Geoffrey Plan-tag' e-net, Earl of Anjou, raised an army, and having defeated Stephen and made him a pris- oner, was declared queen of England (1141). She, how- ever, soon disgusted all her English friends and supporters by her despotic and arrogant behavior ; and Stephen was enabled to regain the throne, Matilda being compelled to flee. 11. Some years after this, Henry Plantagenet, her son, made another effort to dethrone Stephen, but was finally 9. Who succeeded William II. ? What is said of Robert? Describe the govern- ment of Henry I. What was his character ? Effect of the loss of Prince Henry \ 10. Who succeeded Henry I. ? What was done by Matilda J 11. What was done by Henry Plautagenet '( From what did the country suffer 1 A.D. 1154.] EKGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 163 reconciled to the king, being adopted by him as his son and successor ; soon after which, on the death of Stephen, he became king (1154). During the reign of Stephen, on account of the weakness of the government, the country suffered greatly from the violence and rapacity of the feudal barons, each of whom occupied a fortified castle, from which, at the head of his band of mercenary ruffians, he sallied forth day and night to plunder and oppress the in- habitants. Stephen was the last of the direct Norman line. The Plantagenets. 12. Henry II., the first of the Plantagenets,* had mar- ried Eleanor, duchess of Guienne {ghe-en'), the divorced queen of Louis VII., king of France ; and thus, at his ac- cession, he became the ruler not only of England but of the greater part of France. His first acts were to reduce the refractory nobles to obedience; and, dispossessing them of their strongholds, to compel them to discontinue their law- less violence and pillage. His next object was to reform the abuses and correct the vices of the clergy, who, being by the institutions of William the Conqueror, amenable only to ecclesiastical authority, set the common laws of the realm at defiance. 13. In this undertaking, he met with determined opposi- tion from Thomas d Becket, a man of great talent and fear- less courage, who, holding the highest office in the Church (that of ArcliMshop of Can'ter-bu-ry), considered it his duty to defend the authority and privileges of his order, not- withstanding he had been elevated to this great dignity by the friendship and partiality of Henry II. At a grand council held at Clarendon (1164), the king presented six- * PlantagenH means, in French, hroom-pJant ; and was Riven to this family, it is said, because one of their ancestors had done penance by scourging himself with twigs of that plant. 12. How did Henry enlarge his dominions? What did he attempt to accom- plish ? 13. Who opposed him ? What was the character of Becket? What were the 11 Constitutions of Clarendou ?" What was the conduct of Becket ? 164 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D.I 170. teen propositions, called the " Constitutions of Clarendon," mir of which was*that clergymen accused of any crime should be tried by the civil courts; while the others were designed to define and regulate the ecclesiastical authority, and make it subservient to the civil power. To these prop- ositions Becket, after great resistance, reluctantly gave his assent; but, afterward attempting to evade them, he was condemned by a council, especially called by the king to consider his offence. 14. He then secretly departed from England, and took refuge with the king of France, by whom, as well as by the Pope, he was encouraged and sustained. Henry at last becoming reconciled to him, he returned to England and resumed his high office ; but he again opposed the royal au- thority ; and the king was at last provoked into exclaiming, u Is there no one of my subjects who will rid me of this in- solent priest?" Four knights, construing this as a com- mand, immediately proceeded to the residence of the prel- ate, and, pursuing him into the cathedral, barbarously slew him before the altar (1170). 15. Henry was thrown into the greatest consternation on hearing of this event. He expressed the deepest sorrow for the words he had hastily uttered, and evinced the sincerity of his repentance by acts of the severest penance, consent- ing to go as a pilgrim to the tomb of the murdered prelate, now canonized as a saint and martyr, and for miles of the way walked barefoot over the flinty road, marking his steps with blood. Independently of its atrocity, nothing could have been more disastrous to the king's cause than the murder of Becket ; for the Church party gained more by the death of their champion than all his best efforts could have won for them if he had lived, talented and determined as he was; and Henry only obtained pardon from the Roman H* 57,. whom was Becket supported ? What led to his assassination ? 1 o. \\ hat was its effect on Henry ? On the cause of the Church ? A. D. 1172.] ENGLAND IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 165 pontiff on condition that he would submit entirely to the wishes and injunctions of the holy See: 16. Conquest of Ireland. — One of the most important events of this reign was the conquest of Ireland, which Henry completed in 1172. Ireland, anciently called Hi- bernia, was peopled by a race similar to the Britons, but little is known of them before the fourth century. Each province had its separate king, but was dependent upon the monarch who held his court at Tar a. In the fifth century the people were converted to Christianity, chiefly through the efforts of the renowned St. Patrick. From the sixth to the twelfth century, Ireland became famous for its progress in literature and art, and sent forth many learned men and missionaries from the monasteries which had been established. For three centuries it was much harassed by the Northmen or Danes ; but in 1014, the latter were ut- terly defeated in a great battle fought at Clon'tarf, near Dublin. 17. Some years before the death of Becket, Henry ob- tained permission of the Pope to subdue the island; but it was not until 1172 that he accomplished this object. One of the five subordinate kings having been expelled from his province, and having taken refuge in England, succeeded in enlisting a force from the Anglo-Norman nobles and adventurers, with which he regained his king- dom. The English then so rapidly prosecuted the con- quest of the country, that the next year Henry went there, and, having received the submission of most of the native chiefs, committed the government of the island to a viceroy whom he appointed. 18. The last sixteen years of Henry's life were embittered by family dissensions, his three oldest sons combining with Louis, king of France, to deprive him of his throne. At 1 6. When was Ireland conquered ? Give a sketch of its early history. 1 7. How was the conquest effected ? 18. What embittered the close of Henry's life ? Give an account of this. 1G6 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1189. the same time his French dominions were threatened by a revolt, and the northern part of England was invaded by the king of Scotland. Henry, however, triumphed over all his enemies. But these troubles were no sooner pacified than similar family discords broke out, his sons being encouraged in their disobedience and unnatural hostility by Queen Eleanor, their mother, who had become enraged against the king for his licentiousness, and par- ticularly on account of his attachment to Rosamond Clif- ford, styled in the ballads of the time the "Fair Kosa- mond." 19. Eleanor, attempting to flee the kingdom, was ar- rested and kept in close confinement. The king's eldest son, Henry, died of a fever, his second son Geoffrey (jef're) was killed in a tournament in France, and Richard, the third son, joined the king of France in a war against his father, so that Henry was compelled to submit to a very humiliating treaty of peace. His death occurred a short time afterward (1189). He was, undoubtedly, a very able monarch, and did much to establish the royal authority in opposition to the violence of the feudal barons, and to the exorbitant claims and pretensions of the clergy. He was a patron of learning and art, and many Gothic edifices of great splendor were erected during his reign. The simple arts of civilized life also made considerable progress during the same period. Henry was succeeded by Richard, afterward styled, on account of his martial courage, Cceur de Lion — the Lion-hearted. 20. Richard I., Cmur de Lion (kyur duh le-ong). — This monarch, being ambitious of military glory, embarked in the third crusade, and gained several important vic- tories in the Holy Land over the renowned Saladin. On his return, he was arrested in Germany ; and, by the order 1 9. What were the last events of Henry's reign ? Date of his death ? His charac- ter? His successor? 20. In what enterprise did Richard I. engage ? What delayed his return ? Who plotted against him ? A. ». 1199.] ENGLAND IN - THE MIDDLE AGES. 167 of Henry VI., emperor of Germany, whom he had offended in Palestine, was confined in a dungeon, nntil his subjects paid a large sum of money for his deliverance (1194). During his absence, Philip, king of France, had seduced John, Richard's brother, from his allegiance ; and both had plotted for the destruction of Richard, with the design of obtaining possession of his dominions. 21. The rest of Richard's reign was occupied in conten- tion with Philip; and after much petty and indecisive war, he was mortally wounded in an attack upon a castle in France, held by a rebellious vassal (1199). The character of this monarch is one of the most romantic to be found in history, and displays a love of adventure, a military daring, and a strength and skill in feats of arms, unsurpassed in ancient or modern times. His people, oppressed by the taxes which were ruthlessly levied to carry out his useless projects, were yet proud of his fame, though he accom- plished nothing for their benefit, nor advanced in any respect the prosperity of the country. He, indeed, spent but fourteen months in his kingdom during the ten years of his reign. 22. John, the brother of Richard, succeeded him, with the consent of the people, although Arthur, Geoffrey's son, was the rightful heir. This young prince, having fallen into the power of his uncle, was imprisoned, and, it is said, cruelly murdered by him. Philip, king of France, sum- moned John, as Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine (ak-tve- tairi), to answer for this offence before a court of peers; but he refused to obey the summons, and was accordingly branded as a murderer, and adjudged to lose all his French territories, which in a few years Philip succeeded in con- quering, and annexed them to his own dominions. Hence, John received the surname of Lackland. 21. When and how did his death occur? Describe his character. 22. Who succeeded Richard I. ? What was the fate of Prince Arthur ? Wha« caused John to lose his French territories ? 168 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1215. 23. The Pope (Innocent III.) having caused Stephen Lanffion, a man of great talent and unblemished character, to be elected Archbishop of Canterbury, John refused to give his consent; whereupon Innocent placed the kingdom under an interdict, in consequence of which the churches were closed, the dead were refused Christian burial, and all other religious offices ceased. The king, still resisting, was formally excommunicated by Innocent, his people were ab- solved from their allegiance to him, and a solemn injunction was placed upon Philip of France to take possession of the kingdom. John at last submitted, and solemnly surren- dered his dominions to the Pope, promising to hold them as his obedient vassal, and pay to him an annual tribute (1213). Philip, attempting to carry out his design of con- quering England, sustained a great disaster in the loss of his fleet, which was attacked by the English and destroyed. This was the first naval action of importance between the English and French. 24. John's next contest was with the barons, who, under the leadership of Langton, determined to compel his assent to a series of propositions designed to diminish the royal prerogatives and secure the liberties of the subjects by established principles. This, John steadily refused, until a large army had been raised by the barons, and the city of London taken ; when he finally submitted, and signed the famous Magna Charta (the Great Charter) at Kun-ny- mede' (June 15, 1215). One of the most important articles of this instrument was, that "no delay should take place in doing justice to every one; and no freeman should be taken or imprisoned, dispossessed of his free tenement, outlawed, or banished, unless by the legal judgment of his peers" This famous charter, although granted to the 23. How was John compelled to submit to the Pope ? What naval action with lli«' (Trench occurred? 24. What CMIMd a contest with the barons? How was he compelled to sign Magna Charfaf What important article was contained in it ? How is this instru- ment regarded • A. D. 1264.] ENGLAND IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 169 nobles only, protected the rights of all, and is justly re- garded as the palladium of English liberty. 25. John attempted afterward to resist the execution of this instrument, and levied an army of foreign mercena- ries, by means of which he perpetrated the most atrocious cruelties, and compelled the authors and supporters of Magna Charta to nee the country. In the midst of the troubles which this excited, his death fortunately occurred, and thus saved the people from the misery and disaster of a prolonged civil war (1216). The character of John was despicable; cruelty, treachery, and cowardice being its prominent traits, unrelieved by a single redeeming virtue. He was succeeded by his son Henry, then in his tenth year. 26. Henry III. — During the first part of this reign, the country was governed by the guardians of the young king, and was much disturbed by wars with France. After attaining the age of majority, Henry had frequent disputes with the barons, who compelled him to confirm the Great Charter in the most solemn manner. They nevertheless continued to oppose the royal authority, in consequence of the unwise exactions of Henry, and his submission to the influence of foreigners, by whom the offices both of church and state were filled. 27. Through the efforts of Simon de Mont' fort, Earl of Leicester (les'ter), twenty-four barons were appointed by the great council to regulate the kingdom ; and to this arrange- ment the king gave his assent (1258). A quarrel afterward arising between the nobles and the royalists, civil war ensued ; and the king's forces were defeated at Lew'es, and he and his son, Prince Edward, were taken prisoners (1264). This placed the government mainly under the control of 25. What was John's subsequent conduct ? When did he die? What is said of his character? Who was his successor ? 26. How was the government at first conducted under Henry? What led to dispute with the barons ? 27. What was done through the influence of Simon de Montfort ? What led to the battle ot Lewes ? What was its result ? What did Leicester do to strengthen his influence ? How is this considered ? 8 170 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. D. 1272. Leicester, who, in order to strengthen his influence, sum- moned a council (now styled a parliament), and gave seats in it not only to the barons and knights, but to the representatives of the boroughs, or towns (1265). This is considered the first institution of the House of Commons — a branch of the English legislature, which, representing the will of the great body of the people, has ever proved the chief bulwark of the political and civil liberty of the country. 28. Prince Edward, having escaped from the confinement in which he had been kept by Leicester, raised an army ; and, in the battle of Eres'ham, entirely defeated the forces of Leicester, who, with his eldest son, was among the slain (1265). This placed Henry again on the throne; and Prince Edward having by prudent measures restored gen- eral tranquillity, by infusing a wiser and more popular spirit in the government, went on a crusade to the Holy Land. Before his return, his father died (1272), after the exceedingly long reign of fifty-six years. Henry was mild and pacific in his disposition, but possessed neither the talents nor force of character required to cope successfully with the difficulties 'of so disturbed a period. England, however, increased in wealth and influence during this reign, and widely extended her commercial relations with other countries. 29. Edward I. — The first important event of this reign was the conquest of Wales, which Edward undertook because Lew-eXlyn, prince of that country, refused to do him the homage which he owed as a vassal. The conquest was completed in 1283 ; Lewellyn being executed as a traitor, and the government of Wales conferred upon the king's eldest son, called the " Prince of Wales " — a title ever afterward borne by the eldest son of the English sovereign. This event 28. How did Henry regain his throne? When did he die? What was his character ': What progress was made during his reign ? 29. What was the first important event ol the reign of Edward I. ? Why was Wales attacked ? What was the result ? A.». 1298.] EKGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 171 was followed by a cruel persecution of the Jews, who were at last, to the number of 16,000, banished from the country. 30. The wars with Scotland occupy nearly all the rest of this reign. A lexander III., king of that country, h aving died without heirs, numerous competitors arose for the throne, the most noted of whom were John Ba'li-ol and Rooert Bruce, the former being the grandson of a second daughter, and the latter a son of a third daughter, of David, the brother of a previous king. A furious dispute having arisen in the Scotch parliament, as to the succession, the matter was referred to the arbitration of Edward, who, in accordance with the unanimous opinion of all the great lawyers of Europe, decided in favor of Baliol, as being the most direct descendant, and he was accordingly placed upon the throne. 31. Edward, however, had meanly taken advantage of the circumstances to compel Baliol to take an oath of fealty to him, and thus to acknowledge himself a vassal to the English king; and he subsequently so harassed him by frequent and degrading commands, that Baliol was finally provoked into a refusal to comply, determining to make a stand for his own and his people's liberty. He was, how- ever, unsuccessful ; for Edward, invading Scotland with a large army, defeated Baliol in the battle of Dunbar (1296), took him prisoner, and carried him captive to England. He was afterward released, and died in obscurity, in France. 32. Scotland, although subdued for a time, soon found a noble champion in the renowned William Wallace, who de- feated an English army of 40,000 men, near Stirling, and committed great ravages in the north of England (1297). The next year, however, Edward defeated Wallace, in the battle of Fal'hirk, and again established his government in Scotland. Wallace was never afterward able to gain a 30. What dispute led to the intervention of Edward I. in the affairs of Scot- land ? How was it settled ? 3 1 . What dishonorable course did Edward pursue ? What led to war ? What victory did the English gain ? What became of Baliol ? 32. What victory did Wallace gain ? Where was he defeated ? His fate ? 172 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. D. 1307. decisive victory over his country's enemies; although he fought bravely for several years, until, having been betrayed by one of his own countrymen into the power of Edward, that remorseless king sent him to London ; and, in order to intimidate the Scottish leaders, caused him to be executed (1305). 33. The people of Scotland, however, made another effort to regain their liberties under Robert Bruce, son of the competitor of Baliol, and now acknowledged the right- ful heir to the throne ; and the English were once more expelled from the country. But Bruce was defeated by one of Edward's generals ; und the king himself marched to com- plete the conquest, but was suddenly taken ill, and died, at Carlisle (1307), enjoining with his last breath his son and successor, Edward, to prosecute the enterprise, until the Scots should be entirely subdued. 34. Edward I. had also carried oh war with Philip IV. of France, who had formed an alliance with the Scottish king, Baliol. He confirmed, but with great reluctance, the Great Charter; and (in 1295) caused the deputies from the bor- oughs to meet the other representatives in Parliament, stating that "what concerns all should be approved by all," — a principle that lies at the foundation of all civil and political freedom. Edward was one of the ablest and most successful monarchs that ever reigned. He was pol- itic and warlike, popular on account of his majestic per- sonal appearance, his military success, and his wise meas- ures. His efforts to reform and establish the laws gained for him the appellation of the English Justinian. 35. Edward II., unmindful of his father's dying in- junction, withdrew his forces from Scotland, and the people of that country gradually recovered their freedom. Hav- 33. What other attempt was made by the Scots to regain their freedom ? How did Edward's reign end ? 84. What were the other events of Edward's reis™ ? His character ? 35. What account is given of the battle of Bannockburn ? What was the char- acter of Edward II. ? How and when did his reign end ? A. D. 1333.] EKGLAND IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 1?3 ing, at last, in the seventh year of his reign, invaded the country, he was disastrously defeated by Kobert Bruce, in the fanious battle of Bannochbum (1314). Of a character the very reverse of his father, Edward soon lost the respect of his people, and gave great offence to the nobles by sur- rendering himself to the influence of foreign favorites. Civil war finally broke out, in which Isabella, Edward's queen, took part against him ; and being deserted by his subjects, he fell into the hands of his enemies, who kept him for some time in prison, but at last caused him to be put to death in the most shocking manner (1327). His son Edward had previously been declared king. 36. Edward III. — In consequence of the youth of the king, a council of regency was appointed to administer the government ; but the real power was possessed by Isabella and her paramour (the infamous Mor'ti-mer, a prominent baron), both of whom had been accessory to the murder of the late king. This occasioned universal disgust and ab- horrence ; and the young king soon (1330) found means to punish the murderers of his father, Mortimer being seized and executed as a common criminal, and Isabella placed in confinement, where slie was kept until her death. 37. Kobert Bruce, who had fully achieved the independ- ence of Scotland, left the throne to his son David, who at the time of his father's death was only five years old. Ed- ward, taking advantage of this circumstance, endeavored to depose the young king, so as to place Echuard Baliol, son of the former king, on the throne, he having sworn fealty to the English - monarch. This the Scots resisted, but were severely defeated by Edward in the great battle of Halidown Hill (1333), and were again brought into sub- jection to the English crown, David fleeing his country, and taking refuge in France. 36. Mention the first events of the next reign. What was done with Mortimei and Isabella ? 37. How was Scotland again subdued by the English ? 174 ENGLAND IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. D. 1346. 38. Edward's next object of ambition was to acquire possession of the throne of France, circumstances seeming to favor that project; for Charles IV, the king of that country, having died without heirs, the nation had placed his cousin Philip VI. on the throne. But Edward, through his mother Isabella, was a more direct descendant; and on this ground, notwithstanding that the ancient laws of France (the Salic laiv—i. e., law of the Salian Franks) ex- cluded females from the throne, he claimed his right to the succession, and proceeded to vindicate it by force of arms. Having destroyed the French fleet in a great naval battle (1340), he invaded France, and with forces far infe- rior to those of Philip, defeated him in the memorable battle of Crecy (Jcres'e). This battle is made particularly interesting, not only by the greatness of the victory, but by the fact, that in it cannon were for the first time employed by the English,* and also as the occasion on which the king's son Edward, afterward styled the Black Prince (from the color of his armor), commenced his brilliant military career (1346). 39. Edward next took Calais (Teal' is), after a long siege ; and expelling all the inhabitants, peopled it anew with English. This city, regarded as the key of France, the English retained for nearly two centuries. While Edward was thus engaged, the Scottish people had again placed David Bruce upon the throne, who, invading England, was defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Neville's Cross, near Dur'ham (1346). This victory was due to the activity and heroism of Phi-lip'pa, Edward's queen, who, previous to the action, rode through the' ranks of the army, exhort- * Firearms appear to have been used by the Chinese in 618 b. c, nearly two thousand years before the battle of Crecy. They were also used in different forms in India; and, as early as the eighth century, by the Saracens. The invention of gunpowder is generally attributed to Friar Bacon, who in 1216 announced its composition; but it was not till 1320 that the proper mode of making it was understood. King Edward's cannon were only of the size of duck-guns. 38. Why did Edward III. claim the French throne ? What battles were fought ? What gives particular interest to the battle of Crecy ? 39. What other events occurred in France and England about the same time ? A. D. 1364.] ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 175 ing every man to do his duty, and repel the invaders of their country. Having caused David to be lodged in the Tower, "she joined her husband at Calais. 40. A truce was concluded, a short time afterward, be- tween the French and English monarchs, which was pro- tracted by a dreadful plague that swept away many thou- sands of the people, not only in England, but in most of the other countries of Europe. Philip, king of France, hav- ing been succeeded by John (1350), and the country being distracted by factious dissensions, Edward resolved again to attack it ; and for this purpose dispatched the Black Prince, with an army, to Guienne, while he himself was to make an incursion by way of Calais. The former pene- trated into the heart of France with an army of 12,000 men ; but at Poitiers (poi-terz') found himself confronted by a splendidly equipped force of 60,000 men, commanded by John in person. Desirous to retreat, the Prince offered to restore all his conquests and give up the war ; but John declining any terms but unconditional surrender, a battle ensued, which, owing to the skill and valor of the Black Prince, resulted in the entire overthrow of the French, John himself being made a prisoner (1356). 41. John, in accordance with the manners of the times, was treated by his conqueror with the most chivalric cour- tesy and respect; but was kept in captivity at London till ransomed by his subjects (1360), when he resumed the throne ; but, not being able to fulfil the terms of his release, he returned to London, where he died the next year (1364). Under his successor, war was renewed between the two countries; but Edward gained no permanent advantage, although the Black Prince manifested all the qualities of an able and enterprising general. The latter, however, sul- lied his fair fame by causing an inhuman butchery of all 40. What protracted the truce ? Give an account of the battle of Poitiers. 41 . What further account is given of King John ? What was clone by the Black Frince ? When did his death occur ? His character ? Who succeeded Edward III. * 176 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1377. the inhabitants of one of the French towns after it had sur- rendered to his arms. Worn out by incessant toil and ex- posure, he died (1376), universally esteemed, not only for his heroism and skill as a military commander, but for the generosity, moderation, and amiability which shed still greater lustre on his character. The king survived him only a year; and was succeeded (1377) by Richard, the son of the Black Prince, then only 11 years of age. 42. Edward III. was a wise and powerful monarch, pop- ular not only for his military success and prudent admin- istration, but for his many personal accomplishments. He took no important steps without consulting his parlia- ment, refused to pay tribute to the Pope as a temporal prince, to which John had meanly consented; and so greatly encouraged trade, that he has been called the " Father of English commerce." Wool was the chief arti- cle of export, and an extensive trade was carried on with the ports of the Baltic. During this reign, also, com- menced the FIRST ERA OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, the earliest known work in prose, the Travels of Sir John MandevilU, being published about 1360. The famous Jolm WicJcliffe, and the poets Chaucer (chaw'ser) and Gower, also nourished during a part of this reign. 43. Richard II. — The first part of this reign is noted for an insurrection of the lower orders of the people, occa- sioned by the condition of serfdom in which they were kept, and the miseries to which they were subjected by the unjust laws of the period, and by the oppressions of the wealthier classes. The immediate occasion of the outbreak was the imposition of a tax on every person above fifteen years of age, and the indignity with which a young maiden, the daughter of one Wat Tyler (or Wat, the tiler), was treated by the brutal tax-gatherers. This so incensed her father that he struck the officer dead with his hammer ; 42. What was the character of Edward III. ? What is said of his administration * Of commerce ? Of literature ? 43. What caused the insurrection of Wat Tyler? A. D. 1381] ENGLAND Itf THE MIDDLE AGES. 177 and, being joined by his friends and neighbors, raised a revolt, and placed himself at the head of the insurgents. 44. The populace to the number of 100,000 men as- sembled at Blackheathy near London, broke into the city, burned the palaces and mansions of the nobles, plundered the warehouses, and murdered the archbishop and many other persons of distinction. The king having entered upon a conference with Wat Tyler, the latter, it is said, acted with so much insolence that WaV worth, the Mayor of London, struck him with his sword; whereupon Tyler was immediately dispatched by others of the king's retinue. Eichard, to quell the mutiny, acceded to the demands of the insurgents, and the latter dispersed ; but the nobility having raised a large army, the ringleaders were appre- hended and executed, and the concessions of the king were annulled (1381). This made Eichard very unpopular with the common people, for their demands had been reasonable and just; the most important being that villenage or slavery should be abolished, the people paying a fixed rent for their lands, instead of being bound to do such services as their feudal lords might require. Serfdom, however, did not entirely cease in England until more than four centuries after the date of these events. 45. Eichard, although displaying much spirit and cour- age in these times of disturbance, was afterward charac- terized by indolence and want of capacity. He quarrelled with the great officers and distinguished nobles of his court, and gave his entire confidence to unworthy favorites. He had banished his cousin Henry, son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, for being concerned in a duel ; and, on the death of the duke, proceeded to dispossess Henry of his estates and annex them to those of the crown. Henry, 44. What were the chief incidents of this rebellion ? How was it subdued ? What made Richard unpopular with the lower orders? What were their de- mands ? How long did serfdom continue ? 45. What was the character of Eichard 9 What led to his deposition ? What distinguished reformer and poet flourished during this reign ? 178 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. D. 1403. however, taking advantage of Kichard's absence in Ireland, landed with a small force in England ; and so unpopular was the king, that the invader was soon joined by a force of G0,000 men. Kichard was accordingly deposed (1399), and, it is said, was soon afterward murdered. During this reign Wickliffe, called by some the "morning star of the Reforma- tion," translated the Bible. He and his doctrines were much favored by John of Gaunt.* Chaucer, styled the " Father of English poetry," also wrote his celebrated poem, " The Canterbury Tales." 46. Henry IV., the first of the house of Lancaster, had no legal right to the throne, being a descendant of the fourth son of Edward III., while Edmund Mortimer was living, who was descended from the third son of the same monarch; hence this reign was little else than a series of insurrections. The most formidable was that excited by the Earl of Northumberland and his son, Harry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, on account of his fiery temper. This young nobleman was distinguished for the battle which, in the previous reign, he had fought with the Scots at Otter- burn (1388), and on which was founded the famous bal- lad of " Chevy Chase." He had also greatly aided Henry in his efforts to obtain possession of the kingdom; but, afterward quarrelling with him, joined his forces to those of the Scots under Douglas and the Welsh under Owen Glen' dower, with the object of placing Mortimer on the throne. 47. A terrific battle was fought near Shrewsbury (1403) ; but the rebels were defeated, and their brave leader, Percy, was slain. The king and his son took part in the battle, and signalized themselves by their feats of strength and * Wickliffe advocated many of the reforms and doctrines afterward preached by Luther and Ins followers, in the 16th century. The followers of Wickliffe were called Lollards. 46. Why had Henrv IV. no legal right to the throne ? What formidable insur- rection broke out* What was Percy called? For what was he distinguished ? What gives interest to the battle of Otterburn ? 4 7. Describe the battle of Shrewsbury. How did religious persecution com mence ? By whom was Henry IV. succeeded ? A. ». 1420.] ENGLAND IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 179 daring. Henry, in order to gain the favor of the Church, caused severe laws to be passed against the Lollards, and one of them was condemned and burnt at the stake (1401). This was the first English subject that was put to death on account of his religious opinions. Henry IV. died in 1413, and was succeeded by his son, Henry V. 48. Henry V., during his father's life, had been distin- guished for his riotous and disorderly conduct ; and had, on one occasion, been committed to prison by the chief-justice, whom he had insulted for indicting one of his dissolute com- panions. On his accession, however, he dismissed his profligate associates and thoroughly reformed his life, retain- ing in office the wise ministers of his father, including the chief-justice by whom he had been so fearlessly punished. Among his first acts was the persecution of the Lollards, now a numerous party; and their leader, Lord Cooham, with many others, was condemned and executed. 49. Henry next made an attack upon France, which he hoped to subdue ; because, during the lunacy of its king, Charles VI., it was distracted by disputes as to who should have the regency. Having taken Har'flenr, after a long siege, he marched against the French army, four times as numerous as his own, and totally routed it in the memor- able battle of Ag'in-court (1415), 10,000 of the French be- ing slain and 14,000 taken prisoners ; while, it is said, the English lost only 40. After some other successes, a treaty was concluded (1420) at Troyes {tmvali), by which Henry was to marry the king's daughter Catharine, and to succeed to the French throne on the death of Charles, and the two kingdoms were to be united. Two years afterward, he and his queen entered Paris with all the pageantry of a royal progress, dazzling the inhabitants with the wealth and mag- nificence of their future sovereigns; but in a few months 48. What was the character of Henry V. ? How did he commence his reicrn ? 49. Why did he invade France ? What victory did he gain ? What treaty wag made ? When did his death occur ? Who was his successor ? ISO ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1437. death stopped short the triumphant career of Henry, and put an end to all his schemes of vainglory and ambition (1422). He left one son, Henry, less than a year old. 50. Henry VI., at his accession, was proclaimed, by the Parliament, King of France as well as of England ; and his uncle, the Duke of Bedford, the most accomplished prince of his age, was appointed Protector of the kingdom, and guardian of the infant king. The French king, Charles VI., having expired a few months after the death of Henry V., his son Charles VII., an energetic prince, asserted his claim to the throne in opposition to that of the English king ; and a war of several years ensued, in which the French, chiefly by the heroism of the wonderful Joan of Arc,* were enabled to recover their country from the possession of the English, and place their own king, Charles VII., on the throne (1437). 51. Henry, on arriving at the age of majority, showed neither the capacity nor the disposition to take control of the government. He married Margaret of A njou, a prin- cess whose accomplishments and masculine energy of char- acter were well suited to supply the defects and weaknesses of her husband. But the incapacity of the king encouraged the rival house of York to lay claim to the throne, in be- half of Richard, Duke of York, the descendant of Edward's third son, who was a man of ability and valor, as well as immense wealth. In this pretension Richard was upheld by the greatest nobleman of the kingdom, the renowned Earl of Warwick (war'rick), afterward called the King-maker, whose means and possessions were so extensive that 30,000 retainers were constantly supported by him in his various castles and manors. An insurrection of the lower orders, See History of France, Section IV., 27, 28. 50. What led to a war with France during the regency of Bedford? How did the French regain their possessions 1 51. What was Henry's character ? Whom did he marry ? Her character ? What led to the claim of Richard, duke of York ? By whom was he supported ? What is said of Warwick ? Give an account of Jack Cade's rebellion. A. D. 1461.] ENGLAND IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 181 under a leader named Jack Cade, broke out about this time, but was soon put down, Cade being slain (1450). 52. The king's government being very unpopular, Kich- ard raised an army, ostensibly for the redress of grievances ; and in the battle of St. Albans (awl' bans) defeated the royalists (1455), and took the king prisoner. This was the first battle in that great civil war styled the " War of the Eoses" (from the badges of the parties, the Lancastrians wearing a red rose and the Yorkists a white rose). This war lasted thirty years, was signalized by twelve pitched battles, and almost annihilated the ancient nobility of Eng- land. The next year after the battle of St. Albans, the king was restored to his authority ; but the contest soon broke out with increased fury, and in the battle of Northampton the king was defeated and taken prisoner by the Earl of Warwick (1460), after which the Duke of York was pro- claimed the lawful successor of Henry, and Edward, the son of Henry and Margaret, was excluded from the throne. 53. The queen, however, fled to Scotland, and with the aid of the northern barons raised a large army, with which, in the battle of Wakefield, she defeated the Duke of York, who was taken prisoner and put to death (1460). A few weeks after this, Margaret defeated the Earl of Warwick and regained possession of the king ; but Edward, son of the late Duke of York, joining his forces with those of Warwick, compelled her to retreat, and, triumphantly enter- ing London, was proclaimed king, under the title of Edivard IV. (1461). 54. Edward IV. — -Queen Margaret, however, was not subdued. She succeeded in collecting an army of 60,000 men in the northern counties, with which she encountered the forces of Edward and Warwick, in the terrific battle of 52. What led to the battle of St. Albans? Its result? What civil war was commenced by it ? What is said of this war ? What led to the battle of Northamp- ton ? What were its consequences ? 53. What led to the battle of Wakefield? What was its result? How did Edward IV. obtain the throne ? 54. What other efforts were made by Margaret ? With what results ? 182 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D. 1482. Two' ton; but was totally defeated (1461), and compelled, with her husband, to take refuge in Scotland. During the next three years, Margaret made but one effort to recover the lost kingdom, but was defeated and compelled to flee to Fiance ; a short time after which, Henry fell into the posses- sion of the king, and was confined in the Tower at London. 55. Edward's vices, however, and his marriage with Eliz- abeth Gray, a Lancastrian knight's widow, upon whose relatives the infatuated monarch showered all his favors, so disgusted the brave and high-spirited Warwick that he deserted the cause of Edward, and formed an alliance with Margaret. So popular was this nobleman, that in a few days he raised an army of 60,000 men, compelled Edward to flee, and placed Henry again on the throne (1471). Dis- aster soon followed this great victory ; for Edward landing in England with a small force, was soon joined by an im- mense army, and regaining possession of London, once more made prisoner the hapless Henry, and marched against Warwick, who had taken a position at Bar'net, near London. 56. The king-maker, deserted by his son-in-law, the Duke of Clarence, brother to Edward, who with a large force went over to the Yorkists, was defeated in the battle of Barnet, and slain (1471) ; and, a fortnight afterward, Ed- ward gained a decisive victory over the forces of Margaret at Tewks'bury, the latter, with her son Edward, being among the prisoners. The young prince was cruelly put to death by the Dukes of Clarence and Gloster, brothers of Edward IV., and Margaret was imprisoned in the Tower. A few days after this battle, Henry expired in the Tower, ac- cording to general belief, by the murderous hand of the cruel and wicked Duke of Gloster. Queen Margaret after- ward found a refuge in France, where she died (1482). 5 ii. How did Edward IV. disgust the Earl of Warwick ? How did Henry regain the throne ? How did he again lose it ? 56. Where was Warwick defeated and slain? Where was Margaret defeated ? What followed the battle of Tewksbury ? A. D.1483.] ENGLAND IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 183 57. Edward, being now secure on the throne, gave him- self up to every species of vice and debauchery. He caused his brother, Duke of Clarence, to be put to death on a charge of treason, being probably instigated to this crime by his younger brother, Richard, Duke of Gloster, who was noted for his designing character and unrelenting ambition. Edward was about to engage in a war with France, when he was seized with a distemper, of which he expired (1483). During this reign, William Caxton introduced into Eng- land the art of printing, the first printed book being " The Game and Playe of Chesse" (1474). 58. Edward V., the eldest son of Edward IV., a youth of twelve years, was proclaimed king ; and his uncle, the Duke of Gloster, was appointed Protector. This artful and wicked prince, obtaining possession of the young king and his brother Richard, placed them in the Tower ; and caused Lord Rivers, their maternal uncle, and Lord Hastings, with several other distinguished persons, to be executed on a charge of treason. He then gave out that the young princes were illegitimate ; and contrived that some of his friends should solicit him to take the crown, which, with pretended reluctance, he accepted, and held under the title of Richard III. (1483). 59. Richard III. — The first act of this wicked usurper was to destroy the two young princes, who are supposed to have been smothered in their beds, in the Tower, by his orders. But he was not permitted quietly to enjoy the fruits of his crimes. A conspiracy was formed against him by his former friend, the Duke of Buckingham ; but it failed, and Buckingham was seized and executed. The nation, however, soon found a deliverer in Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, the last heir of the house of Lancaster, 57. State the other events of Edward's reign. When did his death occur ? Who introduced the art of printing 1 What was the first hook printed in England ? 58. Who was the immediate successor of Edward IV.? How did Richard, Duke of Gloster, obtain the throne ? 59. What was the fate of the two young princes ? Of the Duke of Buckingham ? How was this reign terminated ? Who was proclaimed king at Bosworth ? 184: ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1485. who, landing at Mil' ford Haven, in Wales, was soon joined by sufficient forces to cope with those of the usurper. An engagement took place at Bosworth Field, in which the forces of Bichard were defeated, and he himself, fighting desperately in the conflict, was slain. Eichmond was pro- claimed king on the battle-field, by the title of Henry VII (1485). a CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 827. Egbert unites the Saxon kingdoms. Commencement of the English monarchy. 871. Accession of Alfred the Great. Reigned 30 years. ' 1013. Sweyn, the first Danish king. Reigned about 6 months. 1017. Canute the Great, sole monarch of England. Reigned 19 years. 1042. Edward the Confessor. Saxon line restored. Reigned 24 years. 10G6. Harold declared king. Reigned about one year. 1066. Battle of Hastings. Harold defeated by William (I.) of Normandy. 1087. William II. (Rufus). Reigned 13 years. 1100. Henry I. (Beauclerk). Reigned 35 years. 1135. Stephen (of Blois). Defeated by Matilda (1139). 1154. Henry II. (Plantagenet). Reigned 35 years. 1170. Death of Thomas a Becket. 1172. Conquest of Ireland. 1189. Richard I. (Coeur de Lion.) Ransomed by his subjects (1194). Reigned 10 years. 1199. John (Lackland). Reigned 17 years. 1215. Magna Charta signed. 1216. Henry III. Reigned 56 years. 1264. Battle of Lewes. Henry and Prince Edward >.iade prisoners. 1265. House of Commons instituted by Leicester. " Battle of Evesham. 1272. Edward I. Reigned 35 years. 1283. Conquest of Wales. Prince Lewellyn executed. 1296. Battle of Dunbar ; the Scots defeated. I 1298. Battle of Falkirk; Wallace defeated. ENGLAND LN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 185 1305. Wallace taken prisoner and executed. 1307. Edward II. Keigned 20 years. 1314. Battle of Bannockburn. Edward defeated by Robert Bruce 1327. Edward III. Reigned 50 years. 1333. Battle of Halidown Hill ; the Scots defeated. 1346. Battle of Crecy ; the French defeated by Edward III. " Battle of Neville's Cross ; Scots defeated. 1356. Battle of Poitiers ; French defeated by the Black Prince. 1376. Death of the Black Prince. 1377. Richard II. Reigned 12 years. 1381. Insurrection of Wat Tyler. 1388. Battle of Otterburn, between Percy (Hotspur) and Douglas. L 1399. Henry IV. Reigned 14 years. 1401. A Lollard clergyman burnt at the stake. 1403. Battle of Shrewsbury. Percy defeated and slain. 1413. Henry V. Reigned 9 years. 1415. Battle of Agincourt. 1420. Treaty of Troyes. 1422. Henry VI. Reigned 39 years. 1450. Jack Cade's rebellion. 1455. Battle of St. Albans ; the royalists defeated. 1460. Battle of Northampton. King Henry taken prisoner. 1461. Battle of Wakefield. Duke of York captured and slain. 1461. Edward IV. proclaimed king. Reigned 22 years. " Battle of Tow ton. Queen Margaret defeated by Edward and Warwick. 1471. Battle of Barnet. Warwick slain. King Henry assassinated. " Battle of Tewksbury. Queen Margaret defeated, and Prince Edward assassinated. 1474. Art of Printing introduced into England. 1482. Death of Queen Margaret, in France. 1483. Edward V. Reigned 74 days. 1483. Richard III. Reigned 2 years. 1485. Battle of Bosworth. Henry VII. proclaimed king. 186 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. State all you can of Alfred the Great and his successes 157-159 2. Of Edward the Elder, Athelstan, and Ethelred 157-158-159 3. Of Sweyn, Edmund Ironside, and Canute 158-159 4. Of Harold Harefoot, Hardicanute, and Edward the Confessor 159 5. Give a history of the Danish invasions of England 147-148-157 6. State what you can of Harold and his career 159-160 7. Name, in chronological order, the most important events from the ac- cession of Egbert to the battle of Hastings ... 184 8. Give an account of William I. and the events in his reign 160-161-189 9. Of William II. and the events in his reign 161-162-189 10. Of Henry I., surnamed Beauclerk, and the events in his reign 162 11. Of the contest between Stephen and Matilda 162 12. How did Henry Plantaganet get to be king of England ? 162-163 13. Name the principal events in the reign of Henry II 163-164-165-166 14. Give the narrative in relation to Thomas a Becket 163-164 15. Give the early history of Ireland 165 16. What account can you give of Queen Eleanor 166 17. Sketch the character and career of Richard Coeur de Lion 166-167 18. Of King John (Lackland) and the events in his reign 167-168-169 19. Give the history and character of Magna Charta 168-169-172 20. Sketch the character and reign of Henry III 169-170 21. Name the principal events in the reign of Edward I , 170-171-172 22. Give an account of Robert Bruce, his successes and misfortunes 172-173 23. Of Edward II. and his reign 172-173 24. Name the principal events in the reign of Edward III 173-174-175-176 25. Name, in chronological order, the principal events from the battle of Hastings to the battle of Poitiers 184-185 26. Give an account of the Wat Tyler insurrection 176-177 27. What were the other events in the reign of Richard II. ? 177-178 28. Give an account of the contest between Henry IV. and Mortimer 178-179 29. Sketch the character and reign of Henry V 179-180 30. What contest for territory took place during the next reign ? 180 31. Give an account of the contest 180 32. State what you can of Queen Margaret 180-181-182 &3. Relate the facts in the career of the Earl of Warwick. 180-181-182 34. Name, in chronological order, the principal events from the battle of Poitiers to the battle of Barnet 185 35. What battles were fought during the reign of Henry VI. ? 181 36. What was the result in each of the three battles ? 181 37. Give a sketch of the character of Edward IV 182-183 88. Give an account of the career of the Duke of Gloster (Richard HL).. . 183-184 89. Name, in chronological order, the principal events from the battle of Barnet to the battle of Bosworth 185 40. What account can you give of Jack Cade's rebellion ? 180-181 41. Of the Black Prince and his career ? 174-175-176 42. Of William Wallace, his success and defeat ? 171 43. Of Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury ? 168 44. Of the battle of Hastings, its causes and consequences ? 160 45. Name, in chronological order, the important events in the history of England during the Middle Ages 181-185 A. D.087.] PRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 187 SECTION IV. France during the Middle Ages. Extending from the Founding of the Capetian Dynasty (987) to the End of th6 Beign of Louis XL (1483). 1. Hugh Capet. — From the accession of Hugh Cap'et (or ha' pet), for about two centuries, the dominions of the French kings had but little extent, haying been usurped, during the previous weak reigns, by the ambitious and tur- bulent nobles. The most important of these minor govern- ments were Brit'tany, in the northwest; Normandy, in the north; Aquitaine, or Guienne (ghe-en'), and Anjou (ahn'joo), in the west; Gas' cony and Na-varre' , in the southwest; Provence (pro-vahns'), in the southeast; and Bur' gundy, Champagne (sham-pan' y a), and Flan'ders, in the east and northeast. So that, in fact, only a small part of what is now called France, at the period of these early Capetian (kah-pe 'she-an) monarchs, was under their sway; and the history of the period mainly consists of an account of the wars resulting from this divided state of the country, and of the gradual consolidation of the whole into one kingdom. Hugh Capet was an active and prudent monarch; and, during his reign of nearly ten years, he succeeded in overcoming all opposition to his authority, and in enlarging his dominions. At his death (996), he left the throne to his son Robert. 2. Robert succeeded in annexing Burgundy to his do- Map Questions.— (Map, page 188.) What countries east and northeast of France ? What provinces in the northern part? In the eastern part? Southern part? Western part ? Central part ? Where is Paris ? Orleans ? Brest ? Rochelle ? Bordeaux? Avignon? Troyes ? Poitiers? Tours? Rlieims ? Nancy? 1. What is said of the extent of France? Name the principal minor govern- ments, with their situation. Of what does the history of France at this period consist ? What is said of Hugh Capet and his reign ? 2. What were the chief events in the reign of Eobert ? What caused a destruc- tive pestilence ? What is said of this period ? By whom was Robert succeeded ? 188 FRANCE IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1000. minions, but refused the kingdom of Italy and the empire of Germany, which he was invited to accept. The papal authority Avas exercised at this time so severely, that Rob- ert was compelled, by excommunication, to divorce his be- loved wife Bertha, because she was his fourth cousin. During this reign the year 1000 arrived, which had been almost universally predicted as the millennium — the end of the world. This belief occasioned general neglect and idleness ; and a dreadful famine and pestilence was the re- sult, which swept away vast multitudes of people, and caused the most frightful miseries and crimes. The super- stition and ignorance of the people, and the oppression and vices of the nobles, made this one of the darkest periods in A. D. 1108.] FEAKCE 12* THE MIDDLE AGES. 189 human history. Kobert died in 1031, and left the throne to his son Henry. 3. Henry I. — This reign is noted for the repeated wars which Henry waged with the Duke of Normandy — William, afterward the Conqueror of England, who successfully de- fended his dominions against the attacks of the French king. This was the cause of that aversion between the English and French monarchs that occasioned so many wars during the following reigns. The power of the Church was exercised during this reign to put a check to the unceasing warfare of the nobles, and to procure some respite for the unfortunate peasantry, so that they might cultivate the lands, and thus prevent famine and pestilence. This was effected by establishing what was called the Truce of God — a religious injunction against all military opera- tions, duelling, and other acts of violence, from Wednes- day, at sunset, till sunrise on Monday, and on all feast and holy days. This regulation did much, eventually, to soften the ferocity of these terrible times. Henry I. was succeeded by his son Philip (1060). 4. Philip I. was a haughty and unprincipled monarch. He engaged in a war with William of Normandy, after the conquest of England by the latter, and endeavored to sow dissensions between him and his son Robert. After the death of William, he assisted Robert against William Ru- fus, compelling the latter to surrender Normandy to his brother. He was excommunicated by the Pope four times, for seizing by violence, and illegally marrying, the Countess of Anjou, whom he refused to deliver up to her lawful hus- band. During this reign Peter the Hermit preached the First Crusade (1095). Philip was succeeded by his son Louis (1108). 5. Louis VI., surnamed the Fat, was an energetic and 3. For what is the reign of Henry I. noted ? What was the " Truce of God ?" W hat led to its institution ? Wha' was the effect of it ? Who succeeded Henry 1. ? 4. What is said of Philip I. ? What were the chief events of his reign ? Who was his successor? 190 FBASTCE EN" THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D.I 180. prudent king. He did important service to France by keeping the great vassals of the crown under control, and gave to the towns their first charters, thus relieving large numbers of the lower orders from the wretched condition of serfdom, in which they had been kept by the iron hand of the aristocracy. These early municipalities were called Communes, or commons (afterward the third estate), and consisted of citizens leagued together for mutual interest and defence. Henry I., of England, having regained Nor- mandy, Louis attempted to dispossess him ; but, although he raised a large army, the great barons refused to assist him, believing that the balance of power would be destroy- ed if Normandy were annexed to the French king's domin- ions. He was succeeded by his son Louis (1137). 6. Louis VII., by marrying Eleanor, became possessed of Guienne and Poitou (pivah-too') ; but, during the expe- dition which he undertook to the Holy Land, and in which he was accompanied by his queen, he was so provoked by the freedom and levity of her conduct that he divorced her, and thus lost her great possessions. These he had the mortification of seeing annexed to the dominions of Henry, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and Maine, and after- ward king of England (Henry II.), whom Eleanor had mar- ried after her divorce from the French king. In this way Henry II. came into possession of more extensive territories in France than those of the French king himself. Louis was succeeded by his son Philip (1180). 7. Philip II. {Augustus). — During this reign, the au- thority of the monarch was more generally acknowledged than it had been since the accession of Hugh Capet, and the country became more united and powerful. This was 5. What was the character of Louis VI. ? How did he benefit France ? What were the " Communes ?" What caused a war between him and Henry I. of Eng- land ? Who succeeded him ? 6. How did Louis VII. extend his dominions ? How were they afterward dimin- ished ? Who was his successor ? 7. What is said of the reign of Philip II.? State the principal events of it. How did Philip extend his dominions ? What other measures did he accomplish? Who succeeded him ? A. D. 1217.] FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 191 partly due to the great ability and prudence of Philip, who knew how to make himself respected and feared. He en- gaged in the third Crusade with Kichard I., of England ; but, becoming jealous of the English monarch's fame, he deserted him; and, returning home, basely plotted with Richard's brother John to seize his dominions. Failing in this, he afterward obtained the English provinces in France by means of the wickedness and cowardice of John. He thus added to his dominions, Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Poitou, and Louvaine ; and afterward extended his sway to the Pyrenees. He greatly improved the discipline of the army, encouraged learning, and walled and paved Paris and several other towns. After a reign of 43 years, he left his kingdom in a state of tranquillity to his son Louis (1223). 8. The Albigenses. — The reign of Philip II. is also noted for the persecution of the Al'bi-gen-ses, — a numerous sect of dissenters from the Church of Eome, who arose in the commencement of the 13th century, in Languedoc (lari'ghe-doc), and were supported by Raymond VI., Count of that province. They received their name from Albigeois (al'be-zhivah), the district in which they first appeared. During the reign of Philip Augustus (1209), Pope Innocent III. caused a crusade to be preached against them, excom- municating both them and Count Raymond ; and, in the war which ensued, many of their towns were taken, and the most dreadful massacres perpetrated. Raymond was, at last, obliged to submit to the authority of the Pope. Dur- ing the war, Simon de Montfort, the elder,* took an active part against the Albigenses, and was conspicuous for his cruelty and perfidy. He was killed at the siege of Toulouse (1218). 9. Louis VIII. was a feeble monarch ; but the wise * Father of the famous Earl of Leicester, who founded the English House of Commons. 8. Who were the Albigenses ? Why were they so called ? Give an account of the crusade against them. What is said of Simon de Montfort ? 9. What was the character of Louis VIII. ? What was the state of France dur- ing his reign ? Describe the crusade against the Albigenses. 192 FRANCE IN" TITE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1249. policy of Philip Augustus had given such an impulse to affairs, that France continued to be triumphant over the English, who, during the reign of Henry III., made repeated attacks upon the French territories. Another crusade was undertaken against the Albigenses by Louis VIII., under the authority of the Pope. With a large army, he laid siege to Avignon (ah-ven'yong), but was kept so long under its walls that 20,000 men perished by dis- ease and famine ; and Louis himself died a short time after he received the submission of the conquered in- habitants (122G). 10. Louis IX. (Saint Louis), son and successor of Louis VIII., was but a youth at the time of his accession ; and the government was administered by his mother, Blanche of Castile (Icas-teeT), during whose regency the war against the Albigenses was closed by the complete submission of Count Eaymond, and the cession, by formal treaty, of Languedoc to the crown of France (1229). The Inquisi- tion was established at Toulouse (too-loos'), and all who re- fused to conform to the tenets of the Church of Eome were mercilessly punished. The remnant of the Albigenses emigrated to the east, and are lost sight of in history a short time after these events. 11. Louis, although uninstructed in letters, imbibed the most excellent principles of conduct from his mother, and strictly observed them after he attained the age of majority. He engaged in a crusade (1249) against the Sultan of Egypt, but was taken prisoner, and ransomed by his sub- jects for an immense sum ($1,500,000). Keturning after an absence of five years, he ruled with so much candor and moderation, and with such a conscientious regard for jus- tice and rectitude, that he was universally esteemed, and 10. Who succeeded Louis VTIL ? Who at fin»t administered the government ? How was the war against the Albigenses closed ? What followed the treaty ? 1 1. What was the character of Louis IX. and of his government? What cru- sades did he undertake ? When and how did his death occur ? By whom was he canonized ? Why J A. D. 1285.] FEAKCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. . 193 was enabled to promote the true progress and happiness of his people. In another crusade, undertaken to check the Mo- hammedans in Syria, he crossed to Africa, and died of the plague near Tunis (1270). Louis, some years after his death, was formally canonized by the Pope (Boniface VIII.) for his many virtues and his efforts and sacrifices for the cause of Christianity (1297). During the troubles between Henry III. of^ England and his barons, Louis was chosen umpire by both parties, but his decision was disregarded. 12. Philip III., called the Hardy (because his constitu- tion had proved strong enough to resist the pestilence that carried off his father), continued the war against the Moors ; and, with the aid of his uncle, Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, reduced the king of Tunis to submission. Charles, who had but recently acquired possession of Sicily, became very odious to the people by his arbitrary government and the excesses of his followers ; and this discontent was en- couraged by Peter, king of Aragon,* who claimed the island. The result was, that, on Easter day (1282), when the church-bell sounded for vespers, the Sicilians rushed on all the French they could meet with, and massacred them without mercy. About 8,000 persons perished by this dreadful event, which is known in history as the Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. Peter of Aragon, by this means, succeeded in expelling Charles of Anjou from Sicily; and Philip III., taking up the cause of his uncle, made an un- successful invasion of Aragon, and died a short time after- ward of a fever, resulting from disappointment and fatigue (1285). 13. Philip 17. (le Bel — the Fair) succeeded at the age * A mijwi was at this time an important kingdom in the northeastern part of Spain ; and Peter rested his claim to Sicily on his marriage with Constance, daughter of a previous king of that island. 12. Who succeeded St. Louis ? Why was Philip III. called the Hardy? How did he end the war against the Moors ? What led to the " Massacre of the Si- cilian Vespers V Describe it. Why did Philip III. invade Aragon ? What caused his death? • 1 3. Who succeeded Philip III. ? What is said of the reign of Philip IV. ? De- scribe the war which he carried on with Edward I. What caused a war with the Flemings ? Describe it. For what were the Flemings noted ? 9 194 FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. ». 1317. of 17. His reign is one of the most important in French history. He carried on a war of seven years with Edward L of England, in order to obtain Guienne ; but finally con- sented to a treaty relinquishing his claims to that duchy. He obtained possession of Flanders ; but governed it so op- pressively that the people (called Flemings) rose in revolt ami massacred the French to the number of 3,000. Philip endeavored to reduce the Flemings to submission; but this brave people successfully defended their liberties against his assaults. The Flemings were, at this period, greatly distinguished for their skill in weaving, and in other in- dustrial arts. 14. This reign is particularly noted for the contest which arose between the king and the Pope (Boniface VIII.), on account of the attempt of the latter to prevent the taxation of ihe clergy. Boniface in vain issued bull after bull, all of which were treated with contempt and defiance by Philip; who, after the death of Boniface, succeeded in placing the archbishop of Bordeaux (bor-do'), under the title of Clement V., on the papal throne, and transferred the seat of the papacy from Rome to Avignon, where it re- mained for about 70 years. 15. He also caused the famous order of Knights Templars* to be condemned and abolished, for alleged corruption and immorality ; and the Grand Master and many other indi- viduals of the order were burnt to death, while others were treated with the most shocking cruelty. The motive of tlif king in this prosecution, was probably the desire to possess himself of a part of the immense wealth of the order; and the whole procedure was characterized by the mogj -hameless perfidy, injustice, and cruelty. Philip died * This celebrated religious and military order was founded at Jerusalem in the beginning of the twelfth century, for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre, and the pilgrims who journeyed thither. It afterward spread all over Europe, and became noted for its vast possessions. It was suppressed in England by Edward II. (1309). 1 4. What caused the contest of Philip IV. with the Pope ? Describe it. What was .ts result ? 1 5. Give an account of the abolition of the order of Knights Templars. What was the character of Philip IV. ? What important event occurred in 1302 ? A.B. 1322.] FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 195 a few weeks after thfs event (1314). His character is that of an adroit and energetic monarch, but is deeply stained with treachery and despotism. The representatives of the Tliird Estate, or, the Commons, were called to meet with the nobility and clergy in the grand council of the nation during this reign, in order to give their consent to the levy of taxes (1302). 16. Louis X., surnamed Hutin (disorder, or tumult), from the tumultuous conduct, of the nobles and clergy, who attempted to regain from Louis the powers and privileges of which they had been deprived by his artful and despotic father. He yielded to most of their demands, and issued an ordinance enfranchising the serfs within the royal do- mains. During his short reign, he was under the influence of his uncle, Charles of Valois (val-wah'), who employed it to destroy Marigny {mah-reen'ye), the former prime-minis- ter of Philip the Fair; and this distinguished man was condemned and put to death upon a malicious and absurd charge of sorcery. On the death of the king (1316), the government was administered by his brother Philip, as re- gent ; and, the infant son of Louis X. having died, Philip became king (1317). 17. Philip V. (le Long — the Tall) assembled the States- General to pronounce upon his right to the throne, which was disputed by the daughter of Louis X. ; and a decree was issued declaring that females are incapable of inheriting the crown of France. This decree being based, as it was said, upon the barbarous code of the Salian Franks, was called the Sal'ic Law. During this reign, France was the scene of dreadful religious persecutions, particularly of the Jews, who were put to death in Tou-raine' with the most dreadful barbarity. Philip, after a brief reign of five years, was succeeded by his brother Charles (1322). 1 6. Why was Louis X. called Hutin ? What course did he pursue ? What ia said of Marigny ? How did Philip V. become king ? 1 7. How did Philip V. secure himself on the throne ? What was the Salic law ? What persecution took place * By whom was Philip V. succeeded 1 196 FRANCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. B. 1350 18. Charles IV. became king by the operation of the Salic law,- for Philip V. had left daughters but no sons. His reign is almost a blank, being only noted for his inva- sion of Guienne, to which he was invited by the troubles of Edward II. of England. It was in France that the wicked Queen Isabella, sister of Charles IV., plotted with Mortimer for the destruction of her- unfortunate husband. Charles afterward restored Guienne to Edward III. On the death of Charles without heirs (1328), the direct line became ex- tinct, and PhMip of Valois, nephew of Philip the Fair, suc- ceeded to the throne. Branch of Valois. 19. Philip VI. soon had to contend with a competitor in the person of Edward III. of England, who laid claim to the throne of France, as being a direct descendant, through his mother, of Philip the Fair. But this claim was deemed by the French invalid by the operation of the Salic law ; since, if Isabella had no right to the throne, Edward could inherit none from her. Edward, after several years, deter- mined to enforce his claim ; and having invaded France, defeated Philip in the famous battle of Crecy (1346), and took Calais. These victories, however, did not give Edward the object of his ambitious desires; and, a truce being agreed on, he returned to England. Dau'pJmiy was about this time annexed to France, on condition that the king's eldest son should thereafter bear the title of Dauphin. The Black Plague raged throughout France during this reign (1348-9), and carried off vast multitudes of people — 50,000 in Paris alone. Philip died in 1350, and was succeeded by his son John. 20. John (le Bon — the Good). — During this reign, the 18. How did Charles IV. become king ? What is said of his reign ? Of Isabella? Who succeeded Charles IV. ? In what way ? 1 9. What rival had Philip VI. ? What is said of Edward's claim ? Give at account of the war that ensued. What was the result J What is said of the Black Plague ? Who succeeded Philip VI. ? A.A.I 3 50.] PEAifCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. 197 English, under the Black Prince, again invaded France ; and the memorable battle of Poitiers was fought, in which John was taken prisoner, and no less than 2,500 of the French nobility and chivalry were slain. The king being carried to England, his eldest son, Charles, became regent, and dur- ing his administration the people, under Mar-eel ', head of the municipality of Paris, made a desperate struggle to curb the despotic power of the monarch and obtain a share in the government. The States-General were assembled, and granted the privileges demanded ; but these being afterward annulled, an insurrection broke out which raged for some time, but was terminated by the death of Marcel, and the defeat of the popular cause. 21. At the same time, a frightful insurrection of the peasantry burst forth, caused by the hopeless misery in which they had been so long kept by the nobles. This re- volt is called the Jacquerie (zhak'e-re), from Jacques Bon- liomme {zliak hon-om), the name derisively applied to a French peasant. The feudal castles were sacked and de- stroyed by the insurgents, and their inmates, of every age and sex, put to death with shocking barbarity. Being at last defeated in an attack upon one of the towns, the peas- ants were hunted down on all sides like wild beasts, and massacred by thousands ; so that some of the rural dis- tricts were almost depopulated, and presented a ghastly scene of ruin and desolation. 22. In the mean time, John, being a prisoner in England, in order to obtain his release, consented to surrender a large part of his territories ; but to this the States-General would not submit ; and Edward III. again invaded France, but finally made peace, consenting to release John upon more reasonable terms. The latter, after four years' captivity, 20. What invasion look place during John's reign ? What was its result ? What events occurred during the regency of Charles ? 2 1 . What was the Jacquerie f Describe it. How were the peasants treated * 22. How did John obtain his release ? Why did he return to England ? Hot* was the ducal line of Burgundy founded ? 198 FRANCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. [A.D.I 380. finally returned to his kingdom, and was greeted with uni- versal transports of joy and gratitude by his people ; but his son Louis, who had been delivered to the king o* England as a hostage, having escaped, John was so con- scientious that he surrendered himself again to his English captors, and died a short time after his arrival in England (1364). He had previously (1363) given to his favorite son Philip the Duchy of Burgundy, in reward for his bravery at Poitiers ; and thus was founded that famous ducal line of Burgundy which continued more than a century, and played so important a part in French history. 23. Charles V., surnamed the Wise, succeeded his father ; and, by means of his prudent measures, did much to restore peace and prosperity to his kingdom. He was himself of an un warlike disposition, being fond of study, and having a talent for statesmanship rather than for the con- duct of military affairs. He raised to the office of Consta- ble of France the famous Du Guesclin (ga-klang') one of the greatest generals of his age. Although defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Nav-ar-re'te by the Black Prince, Du Guesclin, after the death of that great leader, pursued an almost uninterrupted career of victory against the English, depriving them of nearly all their possessions in France. Charles founded the Royal Library at Paris, and was a generous patron of literature and art. He died in 1380, two months after the death of the Constable Du Guesclin. 24. Charles VI., the son and successor of Charles V., was only twelve years of age at his father's death ; and ac- cordingly his uncle, the Duke of Anjou, was made regent. Disturbances were occasioned by the efforts of the people to release themselves from the unjust a*nd oppressive taxes which had been imposed by Philip the Fair and his suc- 23. What was accomplished by Charles the Wise? What was his character? What is said of Du Guesclin ? What did Charles found ? When did he die ? 24. What insurrection broke out under the regency of the Duke of Anjou? What revolt ? Give an account of the battle of Rosebecque. A.D.I 422.] FRANCE IN" THE MIDDLE AGES. 199 cessors ; and at Paris an insurrection occurred, which was with much difficulty subdued. An expedition was under- taken to reduce the Flemings, who had revolted against their ruler, Count Louis of Flanders ; and the terrible bat- tle of Rosebecque (rose'bek) was fought, in which the cele- brated Flemish leader Philip Van Artevelde (ar'te-veld) was defeated and slain, and no less than 25,000 of the brave Flemings perished (1382). The French king him- self was present in this battle, but his army was com- manded by Oliver Glisson (Mees'song), Constable of France, a man of great talents and distinction. 25. This great victory strengthened the power of the king ; and the French towns, which had made resistance to the royal exactions, being obliged to submit, all their citi- zens who had been prominent in the popular movement were put to death without mercy. In Paris alone, 300 were led to the scaffold, martyrs to the cause of popular freedom (1382). Some years after this, Cliu. les VI. be- came afflicted with insanity, from which he never entirely recovered ; and while France, in consequence of this ca- lamity, was a prey to every species of disorder, Henry V. invaded it, took Har'fleur, and penetrated into the country. On his retreat, he was surprised at Agincourt ; but, though obliged to give battle at great disadvantage, he gained a decided victory (1415). This was followed by the taking of Rouen and the conquest of Normandy ; when, finally, the treaty of Troyes was made, according to which Henry married Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and was, on the death of the latter, to become king of France. This shameful treaty was ratified by the States- General, but was never carried into effect, for Henry died some months be- fore the death of Charles VI. (1422). 26. Charles VII., the Victorious, was crowned at Poi- 25. What was the effect of this victory ? How was the king afflicted ? What invasion took place ? With wha! result ? What followed the battle of Airincourt ? What is said of the treaty of Troyes ? Why was it not carried into effect ? 200 FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. [A. D. 1429. tiers; but Henry VI. of England had already been pro- claimed king of France, in accordance with the treaty of Troyes. The Duke of Bedford, the English regent, gained a great victory over the army of Charles, consisting partly of Scotch and other auxiliaries (1424). This dreadful dis- aster to Charles was followed (1428) by .the siege of Orleans, the last stronghold of his party, while no hope was entertained by the French of being able to repel its assailants. The deliverance of Charles was, however, ef- fected by one of the most extraordinary occurrences re- corded in history. 27. Joan of Arc, a simple peasant girl, had been told of a prophecy, to the effect that France could only be de- livered from its enemies by a virgin ; and the idea became impressed upon her mind, that to herself had been divinely committed the task of effecting this great object. She soun induced others to believe in the truth of her mission, among them the king himself and his chief officers, and was admitted into Orleans, arrayed in armor, and provided with a train of attendants (1429). Under her leadership, the French seemed to be inspired with almost superhuman courage, and soon compelled the English to raise the siege. 28. She next urged the King to march to Rheims (reemz), in order to assume the crown of his ancestors ac- cording to the accustomed rites ; and, partly under her leadership, the French, after several victorious battles, reached the city, which the English were compelled to sur- render; and the King was crowned in the great cathedral (1429). Joan then declared her mission ended, and wished to be dismissed ; but her services being still demanded, she remained in the army; and a short time afterward fell into 26. What caused a war on the accession of Charles VII. ? What disasters oc curred ? How was Charles delivered from his difficult situation ? 27. Who was Joan of Arc ? What was accomplished by her? 28. Narrate the subsequent events in the career of Joan of Arc. A. D. 1465.] FKAKCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 201 the power of the English, by whom she was burnt to death at Kouen, on a charge of sorcery (1431). 29. Nothing was gained by the cruel execution of the "Maid of Orleans;" for the English continued to suffer defeat till they finally lost all their French possessions ex- cept Calais ; and the Duke of Burgundy, who had previously supported them, became reconciled to Charles VII. Charles thus rightly received the surname of " Victorious ; " for he had become one of the most powerful sovereigns of Europe. The last years of his life were embittered by the wicked and undutiful conduct of Louis, his eldest son, who re- peatedly plotted against him. With such terror was he in- spired from the wicked intrigues of the prince, that he was afraid to take food lest he might be poisoned ; and died, it is said, from want of sustenance (1461). 30. Louis XI. The character of this king presents a strange and odious combination of dissimulation, cruelty, and superstition, and on this account he has been styled the Tiberius of France. Determined to enlarge the royal authority by weakening the great feudal vassals, he soon excited their opposition ; and a coalition was formed against him, called the League of the PuUic Good (1465), the ruling spirit of which was Charles the Bold, afterward Duke of Burgundy. A war ensued, in which Louis was defeated, and compelled to grant all the concessions demanded ; but these he afterward revoked, and, one by one, reduced the rebellious vassals to submission. 31. The greater part of the reign of Louis XL is occu- pied with dark intrigues against his enemies, particularly against Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The latter was afterward defeated, in two great battles, by the Swiss, whose country he had invaded ; and the next year he suffered 29. What is further related of the reign of Charles VII. ? What embittered hia last years ? What caused his death ? 30. What is said of the character of Louis XI. ? What caused the League of the Public Good ? What was the result of the war ? 3 1 . What occupied most of this reign ? What is said of Charles of Burgundy ? 9* 202 FRANCE IK THE MIDDLE AGES. LA. D. 1483. another defeat from the Duke of Lor-raine', at Nan'cy, where he was slain (1477). Louis, taking advantage of these cir- cumstances, was enabled to re-annex Burgundy to the French dominions. The death of Charles the Bold ended the long resistance of the great French vassals to the cen- tral power of the monarchy. 32. Mary of Burgundy, the daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, was thus deprived of the Duchy ; but she still remained mistress of Flanders, and Louis desired to marry her to the Dauphin (the eldest son of the king). Dis- gusted with his treachery, she refused her consent, and accepted the hand of Maximilian, son of the Emperor of Germany, and Archduke of Austria (1477). This marriage laid the foundation of the greatness of the house of Aus- tria, and led to a rivalry between France and the Empire which lasted nearly two centuries. As Louis grew old, he became very superstitious and cruel ; and, at last, conscious of being universally abhorred, he shut himself up in a castle which he kept constantly defended by armed troops. His death, which occurred in 1483, is a turning point in French history, and marks the close of the Middle Ages. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 987. Hugh Capet, first of the Capetian dynasty. Reigned 9 years. 996. Robert. Reigned 35 years. 1000. Year of the predicted millennium. 1031. Henry I. Reigned 29 years. 10G0. Philip I. Reigned 48 years. 109o. First Crusade preached. 1108. Louis VI., the Fat. Reigned 29 years. " Enfranchisement of the Communes. 1137. Louis VII., the Young. Reigned 43 years. Second Crusade. 1180. Philip II., Augustus Reigned 43 years. Third Crusade. 32. What is said of Mary of Burgundy? What was the effect of her marriage with Maximilian ': What is said of the close of the reign of Louis XI. ? When did his death occur ? Why is this an important date ? FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 203 1209. Crusade against the Albigenses. 1218. Death of Simon cle Montfort. 1223. liouis VIII. Reigned 3 years. Continued persecution of the Albigenses. 1226. Louis IX. (St. Louis). Reigned 44 years. Two Crusades un- dertaken. 1229. The Albigenses subdued. "«270. Philip III., the Hardy. Reigned 15 years. 1282. The Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. 1285. Philip IV., the Fair. Reigned 29 years. Contest with Pope Boniface. # 1314. Louis X., Rutin. Reigned 2 years. 1317. Philip V., the Tall. Regent 7 months ; reigned 5 years. Salic law confirmed. 1322. Charles IV. Reigned 6 years. 1328. Philip VI., of Valois. Reigned 22 years. 1346. Battle of Crecy. 1350. John, the Good. Reigned 14 years. 1356. Battle of Poitiers. 1364. Charles V., the Wise. Reigned 16 years. Constable du Ouesclin. 1380. Charles VI., the Well-beloved. Reigned 42 years. 1415. Battle of Agincourt. 1422. Charles VII., the Victorious. Reigned 39 years. 1431. Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen. 1461. Louis XI. Reigned 22 years. Called by some the Tiberius of France. 1477. Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, killed at Nancy. The duchy seized by Louis XI. 1483. Death of Louis XL REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. State all you can of Hugh Capet and his reign 147-187 2. Over what territory did Capet have dominion ? 187 3. By whom was he succeeded on the throne ? 187 4. State the important events of King Robert's reign 187-188 5. What is said in relation to the predicted millennium ? 188-189 G. By whom was King Robert succeeded on the throne ? . 189 7. Name the important events of the reign of Henry 1 189 8. How was the power of the Church exercised during his reign ? 189 9. By whom was Henry I. succeeded on the throne ? 189 10. What were the character and acts of King Philip I. ? 161-189 11. How many kings of the Capetian race were there ? 187—193, 195 — 196 204 FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 12. Name them in the order of their succession 187-188-189-190-191-192-193-195- 196 18. What was the character of Louis VI., and what were his important acts ? 189-190 14. How did Louis VII. sain and lose vast territory in France? 19C 15. State the important events in the life of Queen Eleanor? 190-163-1 (56 16. What was the character of Philip Augustus ? 190-191 17. Give an account of the important events of his reign 190-191-167-168 18. Give the history of the Albigenses 191-192-207 19. State what you can of Simon de Montfort 169-191 20. State what you can of Count Eaymond 191-192 21. Give an account of the reign of Louis IX., or St. Louis 192-193 22. What did Philip the Hardy accomplish in Africa and Aragon ? 193 23. Give the facts in relation to the Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers 193 2 1. Name the principal events of the reign of Philip the Fair 193-194 25. What can you state of Flanders and the Flemings ? 187-194-199 26. Of Louis X., the son and successor of Philip the Fair ? 195 27. Who was Philip the Long, and by what right did he become king ? 195 28. Who was Charles IV., and how did he succeed to the throne ? 195-196 29. Who was Philip of Valois, and what were the events of his reign ? . . . 196 30. Give the particulars of the contest between him and Edward III. . . 174-175-196 31. What account can you give of the Black Plague of 1348-9 ? 175-196 32. Beginning with the first, name six kings of the House of Valois 196—201 33. Who was John the Good ? Name the events of his reign 196-197-198 34 Give an account of the contest between him and Edward III 175-197-198 86. What was the character, and what the acts of Charles the Wise ? 198 36. Give an account of the expedition against the Flemings 199 37. State what the consequences were of Clisson's victory 199 38. What efforts did Henry V. make to subdue France ? 179-199 39. With what success were his efforts attended ? , 179-180-199 40. What were the early events in the reign of Charles the Victorious ? — 199-200 41. Give the facts in the career of Joan of Arc 180-200-201 42. Give the closing events in the life of King Charles 201 43. Who was Louis XI. , and what was his character ? 201 44. Give an account of the events in his reign 201-202 45. Give the history of Mary of Burgundy 202 46. What is said of the closing years of Louis XL ? 202 47. In what year did his death occur ? 202 48. Name, in chronological order, the important events from the accession of Hugh Capet to the Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers 202-203 49. Name, in chronological order, the important events from the Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers to the death of Louis XI 203 50. Name the early kings of France, with their surnames 202-203 51. Name them with the length of their reigns 202-203 53. Name each with the most important act of his reign 187—202 53. Which of them had the longest reign ? 202-203 51. Which of them engaged in the Crusades ? 202-203 55. During whose reign was the battle of Crecy fought ? 203 66, During whose reign was the battle of Poitiers fought ?. 203 57. During whose reign was the battle of Agincourt fought ? 203 58. W T ho was Maximilian ? 202 A. D. 1076.] THE CKUSADES. 205 SECTION V. The Crusades.. From the Council of Clermont (1095) to the Capture of Acre by the Mohammedans (1291). 1. The Crusades were religious wars carried on during the Middle Ages between the Christian nations of the West and the Mohammedans of the East. From an early- period, it had been deemed by the Church an act of piety to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, to visit the various places which the Saviour had hallowed by his presence, and to pay devotion to the sepulchre in which he had been entombed. The Saracens, who conquered Palestine in the 7th century, had respected these Christian pilgrimages, and rather assisted than opposed those who made them, allowing them to build a church and a hospital at Jerusa- lem. The Fatimite sultans of Egypt, on their conquest of Syria, in the 10th century, had been less generous ; and Christendom, at that time, became somewhat alarmed and excited. 2. But when the Seljuk Turks took possession of Syria and captured Jerusalem (1076), the pilgrims were treated with the most shocking cruelty and insult ; and the news of these atrocities excited the deepest indignation through- out Christendom. The Byzantine emperors first taking alarm, appealed to the Christian monarchs of the West ; and Pope Gregory VII. had entertained the idea of sending aid to the Emperor Manuel, in accordance with his earnest supplication, as early as 1073. It was not, however, until 1 . What were the crusades ? What is said of the Christian pilgrimages ? How were the Christian pilgrims treated by the Saracens ? What alarmed Christendom in the tenth century ? 2. How did the Seljuk Turks treat the Christians ? What was the consequence f When were effectual measures for relief taken ? 206 THE CRUSADES. [A.D.I 096. Peter the Hermit, returning from the Holy Land, depicted the dreadful sufferings of the Christians of Palestine, that any effectual measures for relief were taken. 3. This religious enthusiast was a native of Am'i-ens, in France, and animated all who listened to his preaching with the same burning zeal against the infidels as had filled his own soul on witnessing their atrocities. Pope Urban II. soon took up the cause; and two councils were held, at the second of which, at Cler-mont ', in France (1095), the Pope himself delivered an impassioned address to a vast multitude of both clergy and laymen. His ex- hortation was greeted with the cry of " God wills it !" which burst simultaneously from every one present. The war was, accordingly, agreed upon ; and all who entered into it were directed to wear, as a badge, a cross of red stuff at- tached to the shoulder. Hence these wars were called Crusades. 4. First Crusade. — From all parts of Europe thou- sands hurried, at the summons of the Pope, to take part in the holy war; and, in the spring of 1096, no less than 275,000 men, in large part the dregs of the population, were on their way to Palestine. Peter himself commanded a great multitude ; but the first detachment, under Walter the Penniless, was cut to pieces by the Bulgarians, only a small band reaching Constantinople, where it was joined by the forces of Peter. This undisciplined multitude en- gaged the army of the Turkish Sultan on the plains of Nice, but were defeated with great slaughter. A third and fourth expedition of the same kind shared a similar fate. 5. But the real crusaders soon arrived at Constantino- ple. These consisted of six armies of veteran soldiers, com- manded by the most skilful and experienced generals of 3. Who was Peter the Hermit ? What was done by Pope Urban II. ? What took place at the Council of Clermont ? Why were these wars called Crusades ? 4. In what way was the first crusade commenced ? 5. Who were the real Crusaders ? What force had they ? A.D.1099.J THE CRUSADES. 207 the age : Godfrey of Bouillon (boo-eel-yong'), Duke of Lor- raine ; Hugh the Great, brother of Philip I, king of France; Robert, son of William the Conqueror of Eng- land; Count Robert, of Flanders; Bo'he-mond, Count of Tarentum, with his cousin, the noble and illustrious Tancred; and Count Raymond, of Toulouse. The whole force amounted to about 600,000 men. 6. Having defeated Sultan Sol'i-man, and captured Nice, his capital (1097), they proceeded to Syria, and took Antioch (1098), after a siege of seven months. During this siege, Peter the Hermit, and multitudes of others, de- serted the ranks of the crusaders. After routing an im- mense army of Mohammedans, sent by the Persian sultan, the crusaders marched to Jerusalem, where they found their army reduced to 40,000 men. After a short siege, this city surrendered (1099), and Godfrey of Bouillon was unani- mously elected king. A short time after this, he defeated the Sultan of Egypt, with an immense army, at Ascalon. 7. The Kingdom of Jerusalem, thus founded, was gradu- ally extended till it embraced the whole of Palestine ; the best part of Asia Minor was restored to the Eastern Em- pire, and Bohemond was made Prince of Antioch. At Jerusalem were founded the two famous orders of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John and the Itnights Templars. For nearly fifty years the three Latin principalities or kingdoms of the East — Edessa, Antioch, and Jerusalem — maintained themselves against the Mohammedans, and in- creased in power and wealth. 8. Second Crusade. — This was excited by the dangers to which the Christians of Syria were exposed from the conquering arms of a Turkish Emir, who, having been ap- pointed governor of Aleppo, had defeated the Franks at 6. What was accomplished by the crusaders ? Who was made King of Jeru- salem ? 7. How was the kingdom of Jerusalem extended ? What else was done ? What orders were founded ? What is said of Edessa, Antioch, and Jerusalem ? 8. What excited the second crusade? By whom was it preached? Who took part in it ? What caused its failure ? 208 THE CBUSADES. [A.D.I 192. Antioch, had taken Edessa, and threatened the destruction of all the Christian kingdoms in Syria. It was preached by the celebrated St. Ber'nard, Abbot of Clairvanx {clare-vo'), in Champagne, who was distinguished for his learning and devotion. Two immense armies, under Louis VII., king of France, and Conrad III., emperor of Germany, marched for the Holy Land (1147). But, owing to the base treach- ery of Manuel Com-ne'nus, the Greek emperor, the armies met with a long series of disasters ; and after a fruitless at- tempt to take Damascus, the expedition was abandoned, only a small remnant of the numerous host returning to Europe. 9. Third Crusade. — The taking of Jerusalem by Sal'a- din, sultan of Egypt (1187), led to a third crusade, the chiefs of which were Frederick Bar-ba-ros' sa, emperor of Germany; Philip Augustus, king of France; and Richard I, of England. The emperor set out first (1189), but died of a fever brought on by imprudently bathing in the O-ron'tes Kiver. His army joined the forces of the other two monarchs at Acre; which city, after a long siege of nearly two years, was compelled to surrender, notwithstanding every effort made by Saladin to relieve the defenders. No less than nine battles were fought, and more than 100,000 Christians perished, in battle or by disease, during the progress of this siege. 10. Eichard and Philip having quarrelled, the latter re- turned to Europe ; but the former led his forces to Asca- lon, and defeated Saladin, but was compelled to retire from Jerusalem. After accomplishing prodigies of valor, which excited the admiration of the Saracens, he made a treaty with Saladin, to protect the pilgrims from injury and op- pression, and set out for Europe (1192). Saladin dying the next year, the unity of his empire was destroyed. The 9. What led to the third crusade ? Who were its chiefs ? What hefell the Em- peror Frederick ? What city was taken ? What losses did the Christians sustain » 10. Why did Philip return home? What did Richard achieve? What ended the third crusade? A. B. 1269.] THE CRUSADES. 209 sultans of Egypt, Aleppo, and Damascus became hostile to each other ; and the Franks, or Christians of Syria, were left secure in their possessions. 11. The Fourth Crusade was enjoined by Pope Inno- cent III. (1203). A vast armament was fitted out at Venice; but the expedition was diverted from its proper mission against the Mohammedans, and, under Baldivin, Count of Flanders, proceeded against Constantinople. This city the crusaders took (1204), and founded there the Latin dynasty of emperors, who occupied the throne for fifty-six years. 12. The Fifth Crusade was led by Frederick II, em- peror of Germany. It began in 1228, and was terminated by a treaty which the emperor made with the sultan of Egypt. In accordance with this treaty, Palestine was ceded to Frederick, and free toleration granted of both the Christian and Mohammedan faiths. Under this arrange- ment, the Christians lived in Jerusalem in peace and pros- perity, undisturbed until the irruption of the Mongols, in the middle of the thirteenth century. # 13. The Sixth Crusade was undertaken by Louis IX. (St. Louis), of France (1249), in consequence of the cap- ture and pillage of Jerusalem by the barbarous Mongols. The French monarch, after having taken Damietta, was utterly defeated by the Sultan of Egypt, and taken prisoner. Jle was afterward ransomed by his subjects (1250). 14. The Seventh Crusade was undertaken by St. Louis in alliance with Prince Edward (afterward Edward I.) of England (1269), in consequence of the taking of Antioch by the Mam'e-luke* Sultan of Egypt. Louis * The Mameluke* (a word meaning in Arabic, slave,*) were of Turkish origin, and were bought by the Sultan of Egypt and placed in the army. In 1251, they had advanced to such a degree of power, that they made one of their number Sultan, and founded a dynasty which occupied the throne of Egypt for centuries. 1 1 . Who enjoined the fourth crusade ? What did it accomplish ? 1 2. Who was at the head of the fifth crusade ? What was effected by it ? 1 3. By whom was the sixth crusade undertaken ? Why ? What was the result ? 1 I. By whom was the seventh crusade undertaken ? Why ? What caused the death of St. Louis ? What followed ? What was done by Edward ? 210 THE CRUSADES. [A. ». 1291. crossed to Africa, expecting to receive the King of Tunis aa a convert to Christianity ; but, instead of a convert, he found a determined enemy ; and a pestilence having broken out, the French perished by thousands on the burning sands. St. Louis died in his tent; and his son Philip, after making a treaty with the king of Tunis, returned to France (1270). Prince Edward, however, proceeded to the Holy Land, and gained some advantages by his skill and valor; but after making a ten years' truce, he returned home to assume the English throne. 15. This was the last of the crusades. Antioch had been taken by the sultan of Egypt, and all its inhabitants slaughtered or made slaves in 1268 ; the other towns of Syria, soon after fell successively into the hands of the Mo- hammedans, excepting Acre, which for a time was the me- tropolis of the Christians. This also was captured by the sultan in 1291, and its inhabitants, to the number of 60,000, put to death or sent into bondage. Soon afterward all the churches and fortifications of the Latin Christians throughout Syria were demolished. 16. Influence of the Crusades. These enterprises indirectly contributed very greatly to the political and social improvement of the nations of Europe during the Middle Ages. They tended to break up the feudal system, by compelling the great barons to sell their lands, in order to raise the money necessary to equip their troops and transport them to distant countries. They also aided pop- ular freedom, by inducing kings to grant to the towns po- litical privileges, in return for contributions of money for the same purpose. 17. They encouraged commerce, by employing so many ships and such vast supplies as were required to transport and sustain the vast armies which were raised and sent out 1 5. What events destroyed the power of the Latin Christians in Syria ? 1 6. What was the inlluence of the crusades on the Feudal System ? On popular freedom? 1 7. On commerce and navigation ? What cities rose to eminence ? THE CRUSADES. 211 to so great a distance. Foreign countries were brought into communication with each other, and the advantage of a mutual exchange of products soon became apparent. Thus the arts of navigation and ship-building rapidly ad- vanced ; and many cities situated in the route of these ex- peditions soon acquired extraordinary influence and wealth. Of these Oen'oa and Venice are examples. 18. Tliey promoted the diffusion of knoivledge, and the progress of science and literature. Those who engaged in them were at first grossly ignorant and illiterate ; but coming in contact with the Greek and Saracenic civiliza- tion, they soon imbibed a taste for the science and litera- ture which constituted one of its most prominent features, and, on returning home, communicated the same spirit to their fellow countrymen. 19. They were enterprises undertaken for a noble and unselfish purpose ; and, although blended with it, was the desire of military distinction and renown, this was to be gratified by great self-sacrifice, and personal devotion to a cause which conscience and religion approved. Hence were necessarily infused that heroic and disinterested spirit, that eagerness to succor the weak and distressed, that love of romantic adventure, and those elevated sentiments of honor, all of which went to form that remarkable feature of the manners of the Middle Ages, known as chivalry. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 1076. Jerusalem taken by the Seljuk Turks. 1095. Council of Clermont. " First crusade advocated by Pope Urban II. 1097. Soliman defeated and Nice taken by the Crusaders. 1098. Antioch taken by the Crusaders. 1099. Jerusalem taken, and Godfrey of Bouillon elected king. 18. How did they promote the diffusion of knowledge, and the progress of science and literature ? 1 9. What is further said of their influence ? How did they give rise to chivalry I 212 THE CKUSADES. 1147. Second crusade undertaken by Louis VII. and the Emperor Conrad. 1187. Jerusalem taken by Saladin. 1189. Third crusade under Philip II., Richard I., and Frederick Bar- barossa. 1203. Fourth crusade, under Baldwin, count of Flanders. 1204. Constantinople taken by the Crusaders. Fifth crusade, under Frederick II., emperor of Germany. 1249. Sixth crusade, under St. Louis. 1968. Seventh crusade, under St. Louis and Prince Edward. 1270. Death of St. Louis near Tunis. 1291. Capture of Acre by the Mohammedans. Total conquest of Syria and subjugation of the Latin Christians REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. What was the early custom in reference to making pilgrimages to the Holy Land? 205 2. What events afterward occurred to interfere with the custom ? 205 3. Who was Peter the Hermit, and what did he do ? 189-200-20? 4. What preparations were made for the first crusade ? 206 5. Give the full account of the first crusade 206-161-207 6. State why the second crusade was undertaken 207-208 7. Give the full account of the second crusade 207-208-190 8. What was the immediate cause of the third crusade ? 208 9. Give the full account of the third crusade 208-209-166-191 10. Why, and with what result, was the fourth crusade made ? 209 11. Give an account of the fifth crusade 209 12. When and by whom was the sixth crusade undertaken ? 209 13. Give the facts in the career of Saint Louis 192-193-209-210 14. Give the full account of the seventh crusade 209-210 15. Give the history of Antioch 58-115-118-137-207-210 Id. What were the four important influences of the crusades 210-211 17. In what way did they tend to destroy the feudal system 210 18. Explain how they encouraged commerce 210-211 19. In what way did they promote the diffusion of knowledge ? 211 20. How did they promote the spirit of heroism and disinterestedness?. . 211 21. Name the most prominent persons in each of the seven crusades 206—210 22. Name those who were most successful 206—210 2:!. Name, in chronological order, important events of the 11th century. 184-202-211 21. Name those of the 12th century 184-202-212 26. Name those of the 13th century 184-203-212 26. Name those of the 14th century 185-203 27. Name those of the 15th century 185-203 936.] CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. 213 section vi. Central and Southern Europe during the Middle Ages. Germany— {From 843 to 1493). 1. After the battle of Fontenaille, in which the degen- erate grandsons of Charlemagne fought with each other over the territories subdued by his wisdom and valor, the em- pire was divided into three portions, — France, Germany, and Italy; and the second of these divisions was assigned to Louis (843). The Carlovingian race became extinct in 911 ; and thereafter the Di'et, or Great Council consisting of the provincial rulers and the chief dignitaries of the Church, assumed the right of electing the emperor, subject to confirmation by the Pope, by whom alone he could be crowned. 2. Several races at this time occupied Germany, the chief of which were the Franks, Saxons, Ba-va'ri-ans, and Sua'- bi-ans ; and the first choice of the Diet was Conrad of Franconia. He was succeeded (919) by five Saxon emper- ors, the first of whom was Henry I. {the Foiuler), who brave- ly and successfully withstood an irruption of the Magyars (mod'yars), or Hungarians, whom he defeated in a great battle (934), and thus saved his country from being overrun by those barbarous hordes. Before his death (936) he was regarded as the greatest monarch in Europe. 3. He was succeeded by his son Otho I. (the Great), who again saved Germany by defeating the Hungarians 1 . When and how was the empire of Charlemagne divided ? To whom was Germany assigned ? When did the Carlovingian race hecome extinct ? What fol- lowed ? % What races occupied Germany? Who was the first choice of the electors? By whom was he succeeded ? What is said of Henry the Fowler ? 3. Who succeeded Henry I. ? What was accomplished by Otho the Great ? 214 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1056. * (955), in a battle near Augsburg (ougs'boorg), and extended the limits of the Empire on every side. At the head of a victorious army he passed the Alps, subdued Italy, and after receiving at Mil'an the iron crown of the Lombards, was crowned by the Pope Emperor of the West (962). 4. This great monarch died in 973, and was succeeded by his son Otho II., whose reign was a constant series of wars. He defeated the Saracens in Lower Italy, and made himself master of Naples and Tarentum; but the Greek emperor having invited the Saracens again into Italy, Otho was entirely overwhelmed by them, and narrowly escaped with life. At a diet held in Ve-ro'na, he formally confirmed the privileges of the Republic of Venice ; and was preparing a great expedition against the Greeks and Sara- cens, when he died at Eome (983). 5. Otho III. was also a great monarch. He defeated the Slaves,* or Slavonians, who had long carried on war against the Empire, and compelled their chief, Mi-cis'las, Duke of Poland, to do him homage. Afterward, by formally ac- knowledging the successor of the duke a king, he raised the Polish territories to the rank of a kingdom (995). He died at Ravenna (1002), and was succeeded by Henry II. who was the last of the Saxon emperors (1024). 6. Four Franconian Emperors followed. The first was Conrad II., who annexed the kingdom of Burgundy to the Empire. Henry III., his son, promulgated the Truce of God, extended his sway over Hungary, and repressed the insolence of the spiritual and temporal princes of Germany. He was succeeded by Henry IV. (1056), who had a severe contest with the famous Pope Gregory VII (Hil'de-brand). * The Slm-cx. in- Slimma/is, anciently called Sarmatians and Scythians, originally inhabited tbe northern parts of Europe and Asia, and previous to the seventh century had spread them- selves over a larg^e district m Central Europe, bordering on the Baltic Sea. 4 . State the principal event? in the reign of Otho II. When did his death occur ? r>. What was accomplished hy Otho III. ? How did Poland become a kingdom ? Who was the last of the Saxon emperors ? 6. What emperors followed ? What was done by Conrad II. ? By Henry HI. ? Who succeeded him ? What caused the contest between Henry IV. and Gregory VII. ? How was Henry IV. humiliated ? 1152.] CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. 215 This talented and energetic pontiff aimed to free the Church from its abuses and make it supreme over the civil power, and therefore determined to put a stop to the corrupt sale of ecclesiastical offices by the emperor. Henry, resisting this, was excommunicated ; and, in 1077, the greatest tem- poral monarch in the world was forced to stand barefoot on the frosty earth at Canossa (a town in Italy) for three days, waiting for admission to Gregory, to whom he finally made the most abject submission. 7. But he failed to keep his promises, and raised a large army, with which he defeated Rudolf of Siiabia, whom the Pope had caused to be elected in his stead. Then passing into Italy, he took Kome (1084), and ordered the election of a pope in place of Gregory, whom he deposed and drove into exile at Salerno.* Here, this zealous and able pontiff died (1085); but, notwithstanding his misfortunes, he left the papal power greatly strengthened and improved by his efforts. Henry IV. was succeeded by Henry V. (1106), who was the last of the Franconian emperors ; and after the crown had been worn by Lothaire of Saxony (1125-1137), it passed into the possession of Conrad of Suabia (Conrad III.). 8. Conrad III., the first of the Suabian Emperors, took part in the second Crusade. His reign is noted for the commencement of the civil wars between the papal and imperial parties, called, respectively, the Guelphs and Ghib'- ellines, the contests between whom continued to harass Germany and Italy for nearly three centuries. Frederick I. (Bar-ba-ros'sa — Fed-Beard), the nephew of Conrad, suc- ceeded him (1152) ; and displayed, during a long reign, the character of an active and talented monarch. He engaged in a contest with the Lombard cities of Northern Italy, * A town in Southern Italy, about thirty miles southeast of Naples, on a gul& of the sumo name. It is very famous in history. 7. What did he afterward do ? Where did Gregory die ? What was the effect of his efforts ? Who succeeded Henry IV. ? When did Conrad of Suabia assume the crown ? 8. What is said of the reign of Conrad III. ? Of Frederick Barbarossa ? How did the Lombard cities acquire their independence ? 216 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1250. which at this time emerging into power, claimed the rights of republics. Although at first defeated, they subsequently triumphed (1176) in the battle of Legnano (len-yah'no) ;* and, by the peace of Constance,\ acquired their independ- ence (1183). Frederick perished in the third Crusade (1190). He is regarded as the best and wisest of his race. 9. The interval between the death of Frederick Barba- rossa and the accession of the Hapsburg line (1190-1273), was a period of constant internal commotion and foreign war. The most eminent of the emperors of this period was Frederick' II., grandson of Barbarossa, and one of the ablest and most accomplished sovereigns of the Middle Ages. He was compelled, by his obligations to the pope, to undertake two expeditions to the Holy Land, in the second of which he was successful. Contests with the Italian cities and with the papacy occupied the remainder of his reign. He died in 1250. 10. The Hanseatic League. — During the reign of Frederick II., Hamburgh and Lubec formed a union, to protect their shipping against pirates, and extend their commerce. This confederacy was soon joined by Brem'en, Cologne, Dant'zic, and many other towns, and became very influential and celebrated, under the title of the Hansa, or TIan-se-at'ic League. Its principal foreign depots were London, Bru'ges,\ Nov'gorod,% and Ber'gen.\ Its deputies met every three years at Lubec. This league attained its highest prosperity and importance in the 14th century. Its last general assembly met in 1630. * A town of Northern Italy, sixteen miles N. W. of Milan. t A town in the southern part of Germany, on the northwestern shore of Lake Constance. $ In the Middle Ages the great emporium of Central Europe, distinguished not only for its extensive commerce, hut its manufacture of" cloths and tapestries. S A great emporium of Western Russia during the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries; having at one time, it is said, a population of 400,000. I A commercial town in the western part of Norway. 9. What is said of the period following the reign of Frederick I. ? What was the character of Frederick II. ? What were the chief events of his reign ? 10. What led to the Hanseatic League ? What towns joined it? What wera its principal foreign depots ? Where and how often did its deputies meet? When did it reach its highest influence ? When did it end ? 1308.] CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. 21? 11. Rudolf I., the first of the Haps'burg* line, was acknowledged emperor by the Pope (Gregory X.) (1273), on condition of resigning all jurisdiction over Eome, while he retained the right of investing new bishops. He sub- dued Ot'to-car of Bohemia, and seized his dominions, in- cluding Austria, thus founding the present Austrian Em- pire. He ruled with much skill and energy ; and, reducing the robber-nobles to submission, greatly increased the im- perial power. On his death (1291) a contest arose as to the succession; but his son Albert finally prevailed (1298). 12. Albert I. — During this reign the Swiss Cantons made their memorable rising for independence, being pro- voked, according to the popular tradition, by the tyranny of the governor, Gesler {glies'ler), who commanded, as the story goes, the citizens of Al'torf to bow before the ducal cap of Austria, set upon a pole in the market-place. This, William Tell refused to do ; and was condemned to lose his life, or shoot an apple from his son's head. Although he succeeded in this trying ordeal, the governor still refused to set him at liberty ; but a storm arising as he was carried in chains across the lake, he was unfettered, in order that he might render aid as a steersman ; when, leaping from the vessel as it neared the shore, he escaped, and a short time after avenged himself and his country by slaying the tyrannical governor (1308). f The emperor himself was murdered the same year in Switzerland by his nephew, John of Suabia. 13. After the murder of Albert, the imperial throne was filled in succession by Henry VII. (1308-1313), who an- * Hiipuburff, meaning Hawk's Castle, was the name given to the stronghold built by the feudal ancestors of this race, on the Rhine. + The story of William Tell is a traditionary legend, the details of which are now generally believed to be fictitious. 1 1 . What were the principal events of the reign of Rudolf I. ? Who succeeded him? 1 2. What interesting event occurred during the reign of Albert I. ? Relate the story of William Tell. When and how did Albert's death occur ? 13. Who were the next four emperors ? Which annexed Bohemia to the em- pire ? What was the Golden Bull ? By whom was it issued ? What followed the death of Charles IV. ? When did Sigismund of Hungary ascend the throne ? 10 218 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1437. nexed Bohemia to the empire; Louis of Bavaria, and Frederick of Austria (1313-1349) ; and Charles IV. of Bo- hemia (1349-1378) ; the last of whom published the Golden Bull, a decree by which the electors of the German Empire and the mode of election were determined (1356). The death of Charles IV. was followed by several brief reigns, after which the crown was conferred on Sig'is-mund of Hungary, a son of Charles IV. (1410). 14. This emperor had been king of Hungary, and at- tempted, with an immense army of Hungarians, French, Germans, and Poles, to relieve the Byzantine Empire, then attacked by the Ottomans; but was terribly defeated at Nicop'olis* (1396). During his reign John Huss preached in Prague against the abuses of the Church, and attacked the papal supremacy. At first he was excommunicated; and then, being induced under a safe-conduct given by the Emperor Sigismund, to attend the council at Constance, he was apprehended, convicted of heresy, and, notwith- standing the plighted word of Sigismund, burnt at the stake (1415). His friend and disciple, Jer'ome of Prague, shared the same fate the next year. 15. This led to a furious war of sixteen years, in the first part of which the Bohemians, or Hussites, were led by the famous John Zis'ca, and defeated the armies of Sigismund in many battles. In 1437, a treaty was made, by which the religious liberty of the Hussites in Bohemia was acknowl- edged. While this war was going on, Sigismund marched against the Turks, whom he defeated in a great battle near Nis'sa\ (1419). This checked the Ottoman conquests on the eastern frontier. Sigismund died in 1437. 16. The short reign of Albert II. (1437-1440), was fol- * A town in European Turkey, on the Danube. (See Progressive Map, No. 7.) + A town in European Turkey, south of the Danube. (See Progressive Map, No. 7.) 1 4. What led to the battle of Nicopolis ? What account is given of John Huss ? Of Jerome of Prague ? 15. What is said of the war with the Hussites ? Who was their leader ? How was it ended ? Where did Sigismund defeat the Turks ? What was the effect of this defeat 't 1436.] CENTRAL AtfD SOUTHERN EUROPE. 219 lowed by that of Frederick III., who, in order to aggran- dize the house of Austria, neglected the general interests of the empire, and suffered the infidel Turks to make great encroachments upon its territories. He succeeded (1477) in effecting a marriage between his son Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, thus obtaining for the former the sovereignty of the Netherlands, which Mary had inherited from her father, Charles the Bold. Printing was invented in Germany during the reign of Frederick III. Maxi- milian succeeded his father on the imperial throne in 1493. Switzerland— (From 1307 to 1476). 17. The oppression of the Swiss by Albert I. led to au insurrection ; and Leopold, his son, advancing into Switzer- land with a considerable army, was defeated by a small band of Swiss at the narrow pass of Mor' gar-ten (1315). This was followed by a league of the Cantons of Uri (oo'ree), Schweitz (shwites), and Unterwalden (oo?i'ter-ival'den), to which others were afterward added; and, in 1352, the con- federacy included eight Cantons. The Austrians afterward renewed the war, and were again defeated at Sem'pach (1386), in a battle memorable for the devotion of Arnold of Winhelried (ivin'kel-reed), who, when his countrymen recoiled from the serried spears of the enemy, rushed upon them, burying them in his bosom, but making way for the Swiss host behind him. 18. In the following century, Switzerland had gained in strength ; but it was severely tried by a civil war which broke out among the Cantons in 1436. This was followed by a struggle with Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, in which the Swiss gained two decisive victories. Their inde- 1 6. What reigns followed ? Relate what is said of Frederick III. What was obtained by the marriage of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy? What invention took place ? When did Maximilian succeed to the throne ? 1 7. What led to the battle of Morgarten ? By what was it followed ? What took place at Sempach ? What is related of Arnold of Winkelried ? 18. Relate the subsequent history of Switzerland to 1499. 220 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1499. pendence was fully established by a peace concluded with the Emperor Maximilian in 1499. Italy. 10. Northern Italy, by the defeat of the Lombards (?74), passed under the rule of Charlemagne, who was, in 800, crowned at St. Peter's "Emperor of the Komans." After the battle of Fontenaille, it was assigned to his grandson Lothaire (843), whose descendants held the throne nearly fifty years (843-888). This period is noted for the invasion of Southern Italy by the Saracens, who carried their victorious arms even to the gates of Eome. They held possession of a large part of the country until they w^re expelled by the Normans in 101G. 20. Confusion and civil war followed the close of the Carlovingian dynasty in Northern Italy, occasioned by the disputes of ambitious nobles for the throne, until Otho I., of Germany, assumed the sovereignty of the country (961). From this period, the chief towns rapidly emerged into power and importance. The Lombard League was formed in 1167 ; and, in 1183, the cities secured their independence by the Peace of Constance. The bitter strife between the Guelphs and Ghibellines devastated the country for centu- ries ; but, nevertheless, the republics of Northern Italy at- tained a high degree of spendor and prosperity. 21. Venice. — Among these, Venice occupied a promi- nent place. Its foundation dates from the invasion of Italy by Attila (452), who pillaged and destroyed the flourishing cities of the Veneti in Northern Italy ; and many of the inhabitants, taking refuge among the islands at the head of the Adriatic, founded there a settlement which for a 19. What events are mentioned in the history of Northern Italy from 843 to 888 ? Of Southern Italy ? 20. How was Northern Italy affected by the extinction of the Carlovingians ? What league was formed ? How did the cities secure their independence ? What contest laid waste the country ? What is said of the northern republics ? 21. What account is given of the foundation of Venice ? 1177.] CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. 221 time depended for its subsistence upon fishing and the manufacture of salt. It was called Ve-ne'zi-a, or, as we have it, Venice. 22. It was between two and three centuries a simple re- public ; but, in 697, the first Doge {duke) was elected, — an officer in whom was vested almost undivided authority. The republic was nominally subject to the Eastern Em- pire, and assisted it in defending the Exarchate of Eavenna from the attacks of the Lombards. During the reign of Charlemagne (809), it was attacked by the Franks, but defeated them with great loss. A short time after this, the central island, Rialto (re-awl' to), was connected with the other islands by wooden bridges ; and this city of bridges and canals, instead of streets, came to be generally known by its name Venice. 23. A short time after this, the Venetians took St. Marie as their patron saint, having brought, as it is said, his body from Alexandria (829). During the next 250 years, the republic greatly increased in wealth, commerce, and naval power; and its territorial dominions were augmented by the acquisition of Dalmatia, and some of the neighboring provinces. In the first Crusade, the Venetians sent a fleet of more than 200 vessels to aid Godfrey of Bouillon (1099) ; and during the whole period of these expeditions, Venice was the great centre of commerce, and the emporium by which the silks, spices, and gems of the East were distributed to Europe. 24. Venice was a prominent member of the " League of Lombardy," against Frederick Barbarossa ; and, during the contest (in 1177), gained a splendid naval victory over the Ghibellines, under Otho, Frederick's son, in defence of the Pope, who had appealed to the republic for protection. It 22. When was the first Doge elected ? How was Venice connected with the Eastern Empire ? Whom did it defeat in 809 ? What is said of the Rialto ? 23. What events occurred during the next 250 years ? How was Venice affected by the Crusades ? 24. Of what league was Venice a member? W T hat great victory was gained? What ceremony was instituted ? 222 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1396 was after this victory that the ceremony of " wedding the Adriatic" was instituted, the Pope presenting the Doge with a ring for the purpose.* 25. After the taking of Constantinople by the Crusaders (1204), Venice having supplied a fleet, under the venera- ble doge Dan'do-lo, received, as her share of the spoils, the Mo-re 'a,\ and several other territories in Europe. The doge, although blind and ninety years of age, so distin- guished himself that the Crusaders, in admiration of his prowess and skill, offered him the imperial crown, which he refused. During the latter half of the 13th century and most of the 14th, Venice was engaged in almost constant war with her great rival, Gen'o-a. 26. In the latter part of the 13th century (1275), Mar'co Po'lu, the great Venetian traveller, crossed Asia, and after visiting Tartary and China, returned home by way of the East Indies and the Persian Gulf. The account given by this traveller of the East, did much to stimulate further adventure and exploration. After Genoa had passed away as an independent power (1396), Venice experienced her highest prosperity, and was the greatest maritime power in the world. 27. She acquired by conquest, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, a large domain in Northern Italy, and did important service to Europe by repelling the attacks of the Turkish fleets in the Mediterranean. Her wars, how- ever, soon wasted her treasures, and impaired her com- merce ; while her government became tyrannical and cor- rupt. "When the new route to the East, by way of the Cape * This ceremony, performed with great pomp and festivity, consisted in casting a ring in the sea, to indicate that it was " subject to Venice as a bride is to her husband." t The southern peninsula of Greece, anciently called the Peloponnesus. 25. How was Venice rewarded after the taking of Constantinople in 1204? What is said of Dandolo ? With what other republic was Venice at war in the 13th and 14th centuries ? 26. What is said of Marco Polo? What did Venice become after the fall of Genoa ? 27 What is said of the history of Venice during the 15th century? In what way did she lose her power ? 1060.] CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. 223 of Good Hope, was discovered (1497), her fate was sealed, and her glory soon departed. 28. Southern Italy. This part of the Peninsula, in the ninth century, was invaded by the Saracens, against whom it was for a time defended by the armies of the By- zantine Empire. In the next century, Otho II., of Ger- many, having defeated the Saracens, made himself master of Naples and Salerno, and finally of Tarentum. This so alarmed the Greek emperor, that he formed an alliance with the Saracens ; and, in the severe battle of Crotona, utterly defeated Otho, who with difficulty escaped from the hands of the victors. The Saracens held many of the most important places in Southern Italy until they were expelled by the Normans, in the 11th and 12th centuries. 29. These were a band of adventurers from Normandy, who at first rendered aid in expelling the Saracens from Salerno (1016). Being joined by others, they soon made a lodgment in the delightful regions of Southern Italy, re- peatedly defeating the vastly more numerous forces of the Eastern Empire. Their numbers were increased by con- stant accessions from Normandy; and, in 1060, the re- nowned Robert Guis'card (or ghees-har'), was acknowledged by the pope Duke of Apulia and Cala'bria, and of such other lands, in Italy and Sicily, as he might rescue from the Greeks and Saracens. This Norman duke was, per- haps, the most accomplished soldier of his age ; and ex- tended his conquests throughout Southern Italy, thus put- ting an end to the long dominion of the Eastern emperors. 30. He subsequently raised an immense army, officered by Norman knights, and attacked the other territories of the Eastern Empire. Durazzo (doo-rat'so)* fell, after a * A town of European Turkey, on the Adriatic; called by the Greeks Epvkimnm; by the Ro- mans, Dyrrachium. 28. Who invaded Southern Italy in the ninth century? By whom was it de- fended ? What was done hy Otho II. ? What led to the battle of Crotona ? How long did the Saracens continue in Southern Italy ? By whom were they expelled ? 29. Who were the Normans ? How did they obtain a lodgment in Southern Italy ? What is said of Robert Guiscard ? 224 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1435. siege of seven months, before his invincible skill and valor ; and thence he marched his army into the heart of the em- pire, making Constantinople itself tremble. He was, how- ever, hastily recalled to Italy to protect Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) against his inveterate foe, Henry IV. of Germany ; and, raising a large army, he marched rapidly from Salerno to Rome, and compelled the German emperor to seek safety in retreat. It was with the faithful Robert Guiscard, that the illustrious pontiff at last found an asylum at Salerno. 31. Roger I, the brother of Robert Guiscard, conquered Sicily from the Saracens after several years of war ; and his son, Roger II, ruled over the Norman possessions in both Sicily and Italy, and subjugated the free cities of Naples and Amal'fi* (1127) ; but, in the person of William II, his grandson, the Norman dynasty became extinct, and the kingdom passed under the sway of the German emperors (1189). 32. Thus it remained till the reign of Manfred, whom Charles of Anjou defeated in the battle of Beneverito\ (1266), and thus obtained the throne of Naples and Sicily, which he retained till the dreadful massacre of the Sicilian Vespers (1282). By this event he lost Sicily; but trans- mitted Naples to his descendants, who retained the throne of that country till 1435, when it passed to the kings of Aragon, who had ruled Sicily from the time of the Sicilian Vespers. 33. Rome, or Papal Italy, has been governed since the 8 th century by the Popes, who, in uninterrupted succession, have been elected to fill the chair of St. Peter. During a * A town on the Gulf of Salerno, southeast of Naples, noted for its extensive trade in the Middle Ages, t A town of Southern Italy, a few miles northeast of Naples. 30. Narrate the other principal events in the history of Robert Guiscard. 3 1 . What is related of Roger I. and Roger II. 1 What ended the Norman dynasty ? 32. How and when did Charles of Anjon obtain Naples and Sicily? How long did he retain Sicily ? Naples ? 33. What is related of Rome, or Papal Italy ? What account is given of Rienzii 1252.] CE^TKAL AHD SOUTHEKtf EUROPE. 225 period of 72 years (from 1305 to 1377) the Pope's resi dence was at Avignon. Rome, in the mean while, was the scene of constant disorder from the lawless acts of the great nobles, who prosecuted their family feuds with the utmost fury and license. Out of these struggles arose Rienzi (re-en'ze), the " Last of the Tribunes," who, in 1347, seized the chief power, and having expelled the nobles, en- deavored to restore the ancient liberties of the city. A counter-revolution overturned his government after an ex- istence of but seven months, and he was driven into exile. Rienzi was a friend of the famous poet Pe'trarch, and was distinguished for his learning and oratory. SPAIls". 34. On the conquest of Spain by the Saracens, the Chris- tians, who were the remnant of the Visigothic kingdom, took refuge in the mountainous districts of As-tu'ri-as, and founded a new kingdom under their leader, Pe-la'yo. For centuries they and their descendants waged an almost incessant warfare upon the Mos'lems, or Mohammedans ; and new kingdoms came into existence as the country was gradually recovered. Of these, Ar'agon and Castile (cas-teel') were the chief. In 1212, these different king- doms combined their forces, and gained at To-lo'sa* one of the greatest victories ever achieved by the Christians over their Moslem foes. 35. After this battle, the Saracen power rapidly declined, and that of Castile and Aragon steadily increased. The most celebrated of the Castilian monarchs were Al-fon'so X., noted for his learning, and particularly for his love of astronomy (1252-1282) ; Peter the Gruel, a contemporary of Du Guesclin and the Black Prince ; and Henry, his suc- * A town in the northern part of Spain, a few miles from the port of St. Sebastian, on the Bay of Biscay. (See Map, page 226.) 34. What followed the conquest of Spain by the Saracens ? What Christian kingdoms were afterward formed ? What is said of the battle of To-lo'sa ? 3 5 . What was the effect of this battle ? Who was the most eminent of tho kings of Castile ? For what was he noted ? What other kings are mentioned ? 10* 22C CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. [1469. cessor, who was defeated at Navarrete (nah-var-ra'ta)* by the Black Prince, and deposed. 36. The smaller kingdom of Aragon acquired extensive foreign possessions, the chief of which were Sicily, Naples, and Sardinia. Under the reign of Ferdinand the Cath- 8 T/Oti£. "West from. 4 Tiondon. .^PORTUGAL olic, who married Isabella, Queen of Castile, both these kingdoms were united (1469) ; and from this date com- menced the real greatness of Spain. Ferdinand made war upon Granada (grah-nah'-dah), the last Moslem kingdom * A town in the northern part of Spain, near the Ebro River. (See Map.) Map Questions.— What provinces of Spain border on the Atlantic ? On the Pyrenees ? On the Mediterranean ? In what part of Spain is Castile * Leon * Aragon f Murcia? Where is Saragossa ? Toledo? Valencia? Cordova 9 Tal- avera ? Granada ? What cities of Portugal are on or near the Atlantic ? 36. What possessions were acquired by Aragon ? How were Aragon and Cas- tile united ? What was achieved by Ferdinand ? For what is the year 14!)2 mem- orable ? 1497.] CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. 227 in the Peninsula (1481) ; and, in 1492, after a long siege, the famous Moorish fortress, the Al-ham'bra, was surren- dered; and the Saracen power in Spain came to an end, after an existence of 779 years. This year (1492) is also memorable for the discovery of America by Columbus, under the auspices of Queen Isabella. Portugal. 37. This kingdom was originally a part of Castile ; but in 1095, King Alfonso VI. granted it to his son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy, who was to rule as a vassal. Henry's son and successor, Alfonso, gained a great victory over the Saracens, and, throwing off his allegiance to Castile, made Portugal an independent kingdom (1139). This led to a fierce con- test with Castile, which lasted for a long time ; but ended in favor of the Portuguese, who were governed for more than two centuries by the descendants of Alfonso, whom they had chosen for his virtues and his valor. 38. Alfonso III. is regarded as the founder of Portuguese commerce and mercantile enterprise. He encouraged the arts, protected learning, and founded (1284) the University of Lisbon. During the reign of John, Prince Henry, the Navigator, one of the wisest and best men of his age, planned and directed several voyages in order to explore the coast of Africa, and discover a passage around it to the Indies. Under John II., Bartholomew Diaz (de'az) reached the stormy cape at the extremity of the continent (I486), to which the king of Portugal gave the name of Good Hope;* and, in 1497, Vas'co da Ga'ma doubled this cape, and succeeded in sailing to India. This voyage and tbxt of Columbus revolutionized the commerce of the world. Diaz had called it the "Cape of all the Storms," in consequence of the tempests which he had experienced before reaching it. 37. What was Portugal originally? How did it become independent ? What did this lead to ? How was Portugal governed ? 38. What is said of Alphonso III. ? Of Prince Henry, the navigator? By whom and when was the Cape of Good Hope discovered ? By whom and when was it rotinded ? What was the effect of the discoveries made by Columbus and Da Gama i 228 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 843. 934. 936-973. 973-983. 983-1002. 1016. 1056-1105. 1060. 1077. 1084. 1139. 1176. 1183. 1190. 1212. 1247. 1266. 1273. 1275. 1284. 1315. 1347. 1356. 1386. 1396. H 1414-1418. 1419. 1437. 1477. 1186. 1492. u 1493. 1497. Empire of Germany established under Louis, grandson of Charlemagne. The Hungarians defeated by Hemy the Fowler. Otho the Great. Hungarians defeated. Otho n. Republic of Venice becomes prominent. Otho III. Kingdom of Poland begins. Invasion of Italy by the Normans. Saracens defeated. Henry IV. The Papacy of Hildebrand (Gregory VII.). Robert Guiscard, acknowledged Duke of Apulia, &c, by the Pope. Submission of Henry IV. to Gregory VII. Rome taken by Hemy IV. Gregory VII. deposed. Portugal made an independent kingdom. Battle of Legnano. Peace of Constance. Lombard cities become independent. Death of Frederick Barbarossa, after a reign of 38 years. Defeat of the Saracens at Tolosa by the Spanish Chris- tians. Hanseatic League formed. Charles of Anjou becomes king of Naples and Sicily. Rudolf I., the first of the Hapsburg line. Marco Polo, the Venetian, travels to the East. Alfonso the Wise, king of Portugal. Battle of Morgarten. Victoiy gained by the Swiss. Rienzi, the "Last of the Tribunes" at Rome. The Golden Bull published by Charles of Bohemia. Battle of Sempach. Death of Arnold of Winkelried. Sigismund of Hungaiy defeated by the Turks at Nicopolis. Genoa ceases to exist as an independent republic. Council of Constance. John Huss and Jerome of Prague condemned and burnt for heresy. Defeat of the Turks at Nissa by the Emperor Sigismund. Religious freedom granted to the Bohemians. Marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy. Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz. Granada conquered by Ferdinand of Spain. Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. Accession of Maximilian, emperor of Germany. Cape of Good Hope doubled by Vasco da Gama. CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE. 229 REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGH 1. Give an account of the cattle of Fontenaille, with its cause and conse- quences 145-146-213 2. How was the Carlovingian dynasty begun ? 144 3. Name, in the order of their succession, six sovereigns of the Carlovin- gian dynasty 144-145-146 4. To what position was Conrad of Franconia raised ? 213 5. By whom was Germany occupied at that time ? 213 6. Name the five Saxon emperors that succeeded Conrad 213-214 7. What did Henry the Fowler achieve for his country ? 213 8. Give an account of the achievements of Otho the Great 213-214 9. What events occurred during the reign of Otho II. ? 214 10. What were the achievements of Otho III. ? 214 11. Name the four Franconian emperors of Germany 214-215 12. What did Conrad II. and Henry III. accomplish ? 214 13. Give an account of the contest between Henry TV. and Gregory Vn — 214-215 14. State what you can of Conrad of Suabia (or Swabia) 215 15. Of Frederick Barbarossa 215-216-208-221 16. Of Frederick II 216-209 17. Give the history of the Hanseatic League 216 18. Name, in chronological order, the most important events of the 10th century 202-228 19. Name those of the 11th century 184-202-21 1-22S 20. Name those of the 12th century 184-202- 212-228 21. Name those of the 13th century 184-203-212-228 22. Name those of the 14th century 185-203-228 23. Give the facts in the reign of Rudolf 1 217 24. Give an account of the reign of Albert 1 217 25. Name seven successors of Albert 1 217-218-219 26. What was done by Charles IV. of Bohemia 218 27. Give an account of the life and reign of Sigismund 218 28. Give the early history of Switzerland 217-218-220 29. Give the history of Northern Italy from 774 to 1183 ... 220 30. Give the origin and early history of Venice 220-221-222-223 31. Give an account of Marco Polo 222 32. Of the operations of Otho H in Southern Italy 223-214 33. Of the Saracens in connection with Southern Italy 223-204 34. Of Robert Guiscard, his elevation and successes 223-224 35. Of events in Italy and Sicily which afterward occurred 224 36. State what you can of Rome, or Papal Italy 224-225 37. Of the battle of Tolosa, its causes and consequences 225 38. Give the early history of Aragon and Castile 225-226-227 39. What can you state of Queen Isabella ? 226-227 40. Of King Ferdinand and his success in Granada ? 226-227 41 . Give the early history of Portugal 227 42. What can you state of Alfonzo III ? 227 43. Of voyages made by Portuguese navigators ? 227 44. Name, in chronological order, the most important events of the 15th century 185-203-22? 230 TABLE OF CONTEMPORANEOUS EVENTS. A.D. England. France. Other Nations. 732 Victory of Charles Mart el. End of Merov. Dynasty. Accession of Charlemagne. Empire of the West resto'd Death of Charlemagne. Div. of Charlemagne's emp Charles the Fat. Period 752 of the 768 786 800 The Saxon Heptarchy. Saracen Conquests. Haroun al Raschid. 814 827 843 Egbert, King of England Louis Emp. of Germany. 871 884 Alfred the Great. 910 Fatimite dynasty begins. 912 Normans settle in France. 919 Henry the Fowler. Otho the Great. 936 987 9% Hugh Capet. Robert. 1013 1017 Canute the Great The Normans in Italy. 1031 Henry I. 1041 1055 Edward the Confessor. Seljuks take Bagdad. Henry IV. of Germany. 1050 1060 Philip I . . 1066 1076 William the Conqueror. 1084 Hildebrand deposed. 1087 1095 William Rufus. First Crusade. Louis VI. Louis VH. 1100 1108 1137 1152 1154 1176 Henry n. Battle of Legnano. 1180 1187 1189 1199 1216 1223 John. Louis Vm. 1226 1?5K End of Saracen Empire. 1270 Philip m. 1vlated gunpowder was invented by Schicartz in 1320, and im- mediately thereafter almost every state commenced the use of cannon of small size. In 1346 Edward III. used them at Crecy. Plated armor could then no longer protect the feudal tyrant against the weapon of the oppressed peasant. t The credit of this invention is contested by the Dutch in favor of Coster (1426), and by the Germans on behalf of Gutetibeiy (1441). Between 1450 and 1455, the latter succeeded in printing a Bible, In quarto size, the initial letter of each chapter being executed by the pen, in colors. Map Questions. — (See Progressive Map, No. 7.)— What countries in Europe bor- der on the Atlantic Ocean ? On the Mediterranean Sea ? On the North Sea ? On the Baltic Sea ? On the Black Sea ? What river flows through Austria and Tur- key ? What cities are on it ? What cities and towns are laid clown on the Map in Russia ? In Prussia ? In Germany ? In Italy ? In France ? In Spain ? In Tur- key ? Where is Brussels ? Amsterdam ? Waterloo ? Warsaw ? Copenhagen ? 1. Who was Henry VII. 1 How did he strengthen his title? Whom did he imprison ? PROGRESSIVE MAP N? 7. 1492.] ENGLAND. 233 afraid of competitors for the crown, he imprisoned in the Tower the young Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clarence, and grandson of the renowned king-maker. 2. The general favor felt toward the house of York oc- casioned Henry much trouble, and many plots and insur- rections were formed against him. A rumor having been circulated among the people that Warwick had escaped from the Tower, an attempt was made to personate him ; and for this purpose a handsome youth, named Lambert Simnel, a baker's son, was chosen. The impostor was carried to Ireland, and was there proclaimed king under the title of Edward VI. (1487). The king prevented the insurrection from spreading in England by exhibiting in public the real Earl of Warwick ; and the adherents of the impostor, hav- ing landed in England, were defeated in a decisive battle by the king's troops (1487). Simnel, being taken prisoner, was pardoned, and was afterward employed as a domestic in the king's household. 3. Five years afterward, a more formidable attempt was made by the enemies of the king to raise a pretender to the throne, by counterfeiting Richard, the younger of the two sons of Edward IV., who were said to have been smothered in the Tower. The person selected for this purpose was a young man named Perkin Warbeck ; and so well did he play his part, that the Duchess of Burgundy, sister of Ed- ward IV., acknowledged him as her nephew, and greeted him with the title of the White Rose of England. James IV., king of Scotland, also acknowledged him, and gave him the noble lady Gordon in marriage, and invaded England in order to raise an insurrection in his favor. 4. The people, however, refused to receive the pretender ; and, after making another attempt in Cornwall, Perkin gave 2. What caused the kins: trouhle ? What account is »iven of Lamhert Simnel ? 3. What led to the imposture of Perkin Warbeck? By whom was he acknowl- edged ? 4. What ended this affair ? What became of Perkin Warbeck ? Of the Earl ol Warwick ? 234 ENGLAND. LI 509. himself up, and was imprisoned in the Tower (1497). There, becoming acquainted with the Earl of Warwick, he planned with him an escape, but the plot was discovered, and both were executed — Perkin being hanged at Tyburn, and the unfortunate prince beheaded on a charge of trea- son (1499). By this act of cruelty Henry destroyed the last male descendant of the Plantagenets. 5. During this reign, the celebrated navigators, John and Sebastian Cab'ot, set sail from Bristol under a commission from the king, and discovered the mainland of North America (1497). This was the year before Columbus made his third voyage, in which he reached the mainland of South America. Henry was a prudent monarch, and very much averse to war, because it prevented the gratification of his ruling passion, avarice. In order to increase his hoards, he resorted to the most unjust and tyrannical exac- tions ; and two lawyers, named Emson and Dudley, gained an infamous notoriety by acting as instruments of his rapacity. His treasures amounted at his death to nearly two millions sterling — an enormous sum for that period. He died after a reign of 24 years, and was succeeded by his son Henry (1509). 6. Henry VIII., when he ascended the throne, was only eighteen years of age, and was handsome, affable, and popular. During the first year of his reign he married Catharine of Aragon, to whom he had been betrothed since his eleventh year. This princess had been previously married to his elder brother Arthur, a youth of sixteen years, who died a few months after the marriage. Henry made a special favorite of Tlwmas Wolsey (wool'ze), and advanced him successively to the highest honors, though he was of very humble origin, being, as it is said, the son of a butcher. Wolsey had, however, received an excellent 5. What maritime adventures occurred? For what was Henry characterized ? Who were Emson and Dudley ? When did the king's death occur ? By whom was he succeeded ? 6. What is said of Henry VIII. ? Whom did he marry ? What is said of Wolsey ? 1527.] ENGLAND. 235 education, and was a man of very great talents. He was afterward made a cardinal by the Pope. 7. Henry joined the league which was formed against France by Spain, Venice, and the Pope; and, having in- vaded France at the head of 50,000 men, he routed the French in the celebrated Battle of the Spurs, so called from the rapid flight of the enemy (1513). In this campaign, the Emperor Maximilian enlisted in Henry's army, and received pay as one of his subjects and captains. In the same year, James IV., king of Scotland, having invaded England with a large army, was defeated by the Earl of Surrey in the battle of Flodden Field ; and the king him- self, with the flower of the Scottish nobility, was left dead on the field. 8. Martin Luther having caused great excitement in Europe by the promulgation of his doctrines, Henry VIII., who had been carefully educated in the Eomish faith, wrote a treatise against them, and dedicated it to the Pope (Leo X.), who, as a recompense, conferred on the royal author the title of Defender of the Faith (1521). A few years after this, Henry applied to the Pope (Clement VII.) for a di- vorce from Queen Catharine, professing to have some doubts of the lawfulness of a marriage with his brother's widow ; while the real reason was that he desired to marry Anne Boleyn (an bul'en), an attendant of the queen, with whom he had become enamored (1527). 9. But the Pope, who had recently suffered much in a war with the Emperor Charles V., nephew of Catharine of Aragon, was unwilling to sanction the divorce ; and the king, thinking that the delay in the gratification of his wishes was due to the neglect or insincerity of Cardinal Wolsey, dismissed him from his high office, banished him 7. What led to the Battle of the Spurs ? Of Flodden Field ? What was the result of this battle ? Where is Flodden Field ? (See Map, p. 158.) 8. Why was the king styled M Defender of the Faith V To whom and why did he apply for a divorce ? 9. What caused the fall of Wolsey ? How was he treated ? What g lying of hia is quoted ? 236 ENGLAND. [1535. from court, and deprived him of many of his great posses- sions. Being resolved upon his entire ruin, the king after- ward caused him to be arrested on a charge of treason ; but death saved the proud cardinal from any further disgrace. Among his last words was the well-known exclamation, " Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs !" 10. By the advice of Cranmer, the great universities of Europe were consulted with regard to the lawfulness of Henry's marriage; and these having generally decided against it, Cranmer, who had recently been made Arch- bishop of Canterbury, opened a court to examine the ques- tion ; but the queen refusing to appear before it, he for- mally annulled the marriage, and ratified that with Anne Boleyn (1533). The Pope having pronounced the judg- ment of Cranmer illegal, and threatened Henry with ex- communication, the Parliament, under the king's influ- ence, confirmed his marriage with Queen Anne, and for- mally declared him " the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England." By this declaration and other acts of Parliament, the English Church was separated en- tirely from the Church of Rome (1534). The monasteries were afterward suppressed, and some modifications intro- duced in the doctrines and forms of religion. This event is known in history as the English Reformation. 11. Sir Thomas More, one of the most virtuous and learned men of the kingdom, who had succeeded Wolsey as chancellor, was beheaded for refusing to acknowledge the kings supremacy; and the upright Bishop Fisher was con- demned and executed for the same offence (1535). The king indeed evinced, during the whole of his subsequent reign, a spirit of the most cruel bigotry and persecution. In abandoning his allegiance to the Pope, he by no means 1 0. How was Henry's first marriage annulled ? What did the opposition of the Pope lead to ? What is this change called ? 11. Who were executed for denying the king's supremacy? What is said of (he sentiments and conduct of the kin" ? 1547.] ENGLAND. 23? became a convert to the new doctrines of Luther and others against the Romish faith; and while he plundered the churches and monasteries of their possessions, he caused those who dissented from their doctrines to be burnt with- out the least mercy. 12. Less than three years had elapsed from his marriage with Anne Boleyn, when he caused her to be beheaded on a charge of adultery; but he himself proved her innocence and the wickedness of his own conduct, by immediately marrying Jane Seymour, to whom he had previously be- come attached. This queen having died a short time after- ward, he, for political reasons, contracted a marriage with Anne of Cleves ; but, on seeing her, he refused to fulfil his contract, and caused his minister Cromwell to be executed on a charge of treason, because he had been instrumental in arranging this unfortunate affair. His next choice was Catharine Howard, who, like Queen Anne, was condemned and beheaded on a charge of adultery, but was generally believed guilty. Catharine Parr, his sixth wife, had the sagacity and good fortune to escape his jealous cruelty, and survived him. 13. The last victim of Henry's tyranny was the accom- plished Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, who was beheaded on Tower Hill, being unjustly condemned for treason (1547). The king survived this event only a few days. Henry VIII. without doubt, one of the most remorseless despots that ever reigned ; but notwithstanding his arbitrary violation of every principle of political and religious liberty, he never ntirely the affection and esteem of his subjects. During this reign, the first complete copy of the English Bible was printed, and ordered by the king to be placed in every parish church. It was based upon the translation of 117/- 12. What account is eiven of the suhseqnent marriages of the king, and the circumstances that led to them ? 1 3. Who was the kind's last victim ? When did Henrv VTn. die ? What was his character? What translation of the Bible was made ? Who were the most notod poets of this period ? What children did Henry VUL leave * 238 ENGLAND. [1553. Ham Tyndale, and executed by Miles Coverdale. The most noted poets of this period were the unfortunate Howard, Earl of Surrey, and Sir Thomas Wyatt. Henry left three children — Mary, daughter of Catharine, Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, and Edward, son of Jane Seymour. The last succeeded him. 14. Edward VI. was in his 10th year on his accession; and the government was administered with great firmness by his maternal uncle, Duke of Somerset, under the title of Protector. During the first years of this reign, further changes were made in the established religion, and severe laws enacted against those who refused to comply with the liturgy, as contained in the Book of Common Prayer, com- piled chiefly by Cranmer and Ridley. Some who refused obedience were committed to the flames. The Duke of Somerset was deprived of his office of Protector (1550), and finally executed, through the contrivance of the designing and ambitious Duke of Northumberland, who thus became Protector (1552). This nobleman induced Edward to set aside his sisters Mary and Elizabeth, and bequeath the crown to Jane Grey, great-granddaughter of Henry VII., who was married to Lord Guilford Dudley, a son of the Protector. A short time after this, Edward died, much la- mented for his many virtues (1553). 15. Mary, in spite of all the efforts of Northumberland, was acknowledged queen ; and the unfortunate pair, Dudley and Lady Jane Grey, suffered death upon the scaffold (1554), the queen showing no mercy notwithstanding their youth and innocence. The Lady Jane was one of the most accomplished princesses of her time, having been instructed in Latin and Greek by the celebrated Roger As'cham. She was also possessed of singular amiability, virtue, and piety. 1 4. What is said of Edward VI. ? What changes in religion were made ? Who compiled the Book of Common Prayer ? What persecution occurred ? What he- oame of the Duke of Somerset ? Who succeeded him ? What did Northumber- land do ? When did Edward VI. die ! 1 5. What followed the accession of Mary ? What is said of Lady Jane Grey ? 1558.] ENGLAND. 239 Her last message to her youthful husband (for neither of them was oyer 17 years of age) was : " Our separation will be only for a moment ; we shall soon meet each other in a place where our affections will be forever united, and where misfortunes will never more disturb our eternal felicity." 16. The cherished object of Mary was to restore the Eoman Catholic religion; and, in pursuance of it, she consented to marry Philip of Spain, son of the Emperor Charles V. Through an obsequious parliament, she then caused all the statutes of Edward VI. with regard to religion to be repealed, and the severe laws against heresy to be revived. Cardinal Pole was sent at her request to England as papal legate, and the kingdom formally restored to the Eomish Church. One of the most dreadful persecutions on record then ensued; and no less than 277 persons were burnt at Smithfield, the most eminent among these martyrs being Granmer, Ridley, and Lat'imer. 17. To please her husband, Philip, now become king of Spain, the queen engaged in a war with France ; but ill success attended her efforts ; and Calais, which the English had held for more than two centuries, fell into the hands of the French. The queen was greatly mortified at this event; and her death occurred a short time after it (1558), much to the relief of the nation, who had been disgusted with her cruelty and bigotry. During this reign, commer- cial intercourse was established with Eussia, a passage to Archangel having been discovered during the previous reign. 18. Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, who suc- ceeded Mary, had been educated in the Protestant faith, and her accession to the throne was hailed by the people with great rejoicings. The first important event of her 1 6. What measures did Mary adopt in reference to religion ? What persecution took place ? 1 7. What war did Mary engage in ? What was its result ? What is said of her death? What was established during this reign ? By what means ? 18. Who succeeded Mary? What measures with respect to relig'on were adopted? 2-iO ENGLAND. LI 5 69. reign was the re-enactment of the laws of King Edward, concerning religion, and the re-establishment of the new liturgy, to which all were required to conform under severe penalties. By the Act of Supremacy all clergymen and government officers were compelled to take an oath ac- knowledging the English sovereign head of the Church ; and by the Act of Conformity, no persons were allowed to attend any other places of worship than those of the es- tablished Church. Hundreds suffered death, imprisonment, or other persecution for refusing compliance with these ar- bitrary statutes. 19. The reign of Elizabeth for the first eleven years was distinguished for the internal quiet and prosperity of the country. She displayed that prudence, vigilance, and ac- tivity so necessary in a sovereign, and gained the almost universal esteem and admiration of her people. Though she was urged by Parliament to enter into the married state, and many distinguished princes, both Catholic and Protestant, sought her hand, she positively declined all such offers, and expressed her determination to remain single for life. She owed much of her success in adminis- tering the government to the great statesmen whom she selected as her ministers, among whom the most prominent were Cecil (ses'il), afterward Lord Burleigh^ and Sir Francis Walsingham. 20. There were at this time in the kingdom three religious parties — namely : the Churchmen, or those who were at- tached to the established Church ; the Roman Catholics, who, supported by the great continental powers, expected to re-establish their religion ; and the Puritans, who con- tended for more radical changes in religious forms and doc- trines (1569). These last had imbibed their principles from those who, during the persecutions of the previous reign, 19. What is said of Elizabeth's administration ? Who were her prime minis- ters ? 20. Describe the religious parties existing at this time. What is said of the Puritans ? 1572.] ENGLAND. 241 had taken refuge in Geneva and Frankfort ; and they op- posed Elizabeth's government, not only on the ground of religious differences, but on account of her assuming a prerogative and authority opposed to the civil and political rights of the people. It was not, however, until a subse- quent reign that these fearless agitators were enabled to bring their principles into thorough operation. 21. England now began to distinguish herself in that splendid career of maritime enterprise which has shed such lustre upon her name. Under the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh (raiv'le), a favorite courtier of Elizabeth, voyages were made to North America, and the queen gave to the regions discovered the name of Virginia (1584). Frobisher also made explorations for a northwest passage to India ; and Sir Francis Drake completed a voyage around the world, by way of Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope (1579). 22. The people of the Netherlands having revolted against Philip II. of Spain, in consequence of his dreadful oppressions and persecutions (1572), Elizabeth warmly es- poused their cause ; and Philip, therefore, made extensive preparations to invade England and conquer it, so that he ' might restore it to the authority of the Pope. For this purpose he equipped an immense fleet, called the Invincible Ar-ma'da, consisting of 150 ships, bearing 3,000 guns and 27,000 men. But this vast armament, as it sailed up the Channel, was attacked and partly destroyed by a much smaller fleet, under the command of Lord Howard, as ad- miral, assisted by those renowned captains, Drake, Fro- bisher, and Hawkins. The Spanish admiral, therefore, rinding it impossible to effect a landing on the coast, or gain any advantages over the English fleet, attempted to return to Spain by sailing around Scotland ; but a storm 2 1 . What maritime expeditions were carried on with success ? 22. What led to a war with Philip II. of Spain ? Give an account of the Invin- cihle Armada. Jt 242 ENGLAND. [1566. arising, nearly all his vessels were wrecked off the Orkney Islands (1588). 23. The year preceding this glorious event is memorable for the execution of the unfortunate Mary, Queen of Scots at Foth'er-in-gay Castle,* after an imprisonment of more than 18 years. Mary was the great-granddaughter of Henry VII., and had first married Francis II., king of France, in which country she had been educated in the Roman Catholic faith. The early death of her husband compelled her return to Scotland, where she assumed the throne, although she was much disliked by the Scots on account of her religion and her gay manners (1561). 24. A few years afterward (1565), she married her cousin, Lord Dam'ley, with whom she lived very unhappily, on account of his misconduct, extravagance, and vicious ex- cesses. Becoming jealous of her secretary — one Rizzio (ret'se-o), an Italian — Darnley, accompanied by several noblemen, rushed one evening into her apartment, where she was engaged with her secretary and others, and the unfortunate man was seized and hurried into the ante- chamber, where he was dispatched with fifty-six wounds (1566). Mary subsequently professed to have pardoned this atrocious outrage ; but a few months afterward, Darn- ley's house was blown up by gunpowder, and he ' himself thus killed. 25. The suspicion that Mary was accessory to this crime, seemed afterward to be confirmed by her marriage with the Earl of Both well, a dissolute nobleman, who "was generally believed to have been concerned in its perpetration. This caused an insurrection of the nobles, who, having taken * Fothcrmrfiy, a parish in Northumberland 'county, in the central part of England. The castle svas razed to the ground after the accession of James I. 23. Who was executed in 1587? Who was Mary, Queen of Scots ? To whom was she first married ? Why was she disliked by the Scots ? 24. What account is given of Lord Darnley? What is stated of Rizzio ? 25. What led to Mary's imprisonment at Loch Leven ? Where is Loch Leven f (See note, page 243.) What caused her flight to England ? 1587.] EN-GLAND. 243 her prisoner, compelled her to abdicate the throne, and confined her in Loch Lev' en Castle.* She, however, es- caped thence, and raised a small army, which was defeated by the Regent; whereupon she fled into England and threw herself on the protection of Elizabeth ; but instead of the generous hospitality which she anticipated, she found herself a captive for life. 26. Mary had given great offence to Elizabeth, when in France, by assuming the title of Queen of England, on the ground that the marriage of Henry VIII. with Anne Bo- leyn was unlawful ; and hence that her daughter, being ille- gitimate, had no right to the throne ; and during Mary's whole life, the Catholic party in England favored her pre- tensions, many conspiracies being formed by them to place her upon the throne. In the last of these, the object of which was to take the life of Elizabeth, Mary was found guilty of being an accomplice, and sentenced to death ; and the warrant for her execution having been signed by Elizabeth, she was beheaded (1587). 27. Queen Mary was one of the most beautiful and accom- plished princesses of her age. Her manners were graceful and winning, and her conversation full of wit and spright- ly intelligence. She was a charming singer, and could ac- company herself on several instruments; and the poems which she has left attest a genius for that kind of compo- sition. Her imprudence and want of self-control, and, it is to be feared, the absence of strong moral principles, brought upon her those great calamities which have shed a mournful interest upon her name. The signing of her death-warrant is, however, considered by some the greatest blot upon the fame of the virgin queen. * Loch Leren, a small lake in the eastern part of Scotland, about twenty miles north of Edin- burgh. It contains several islands, on one of which the remains of the castle still exist. This lake is not to be confounded with Loch Leven in the western part of Scotland, near which is the famous valley of Glfnroe. 26. How had Mary displeased Elizabeth ? What led to her execution ? Where is Fotheringay ? (See note, page 242.) 27. What was the character of Mary ? 244 ENGLAND. [1603. 28. During the religious wars in France, Elizabeth gave all the aid in her power to the cause of the Protestants ; and when Henry IV. had ascended the throne she sent him money, and a force under the Earl of Essex, to assist him in subduing his enemies (1589). Essex was a young noble- man who by his merit and accomplishments had gained very high favor with the queen ; but he afterward fell into disgrace, in consequence of misconduct during an expedi tion against the revolted Irish (1599). Disappointed in obtaining a pardon from the queen, he entered into a plot to raise an insurrection against her, and with his accom- plices was arrested, and tried for treason, convicted, and finally beheaded (1601). 29. The fate of this young nobleman, for whom she ap- pears to have had a very deep affection, oppressed the queen's mind with a settled melancholy, which was greatly increased when she learned that a ring* which he had sent to her to recall her tenderness and incite her to clemency, had been treacherously withheld by one of his enemies. She died in the 45 th year of her reign, at the age of 70 (1603), leaving a reputation for prudence, vigor, and ability unsurpassed by any sovereign that ever reigned. 30. During this illustrious reign, flourished the poet Spenser, who wrote the Faerie Queene ; Sir Philip Sidney, the author of Arcadia ; and the immortal poet and drama- tist Shakespeare, whose works are the especial glory of Eng- lish literature. Bacon also commenced his splendid career as a philosopher, but disgraced himself by his virulence against Essex, from whom he had received many favors and benefits. * This ring had been previously given to him by the queen, with the promise that whenever he should send it to her, it should not fail to remind her of their friendship, and awaken hei tender regard for him. 28. What was Elizabeth's course toward the French Protestants? Give an account of the Earl of Essex. 29. How was Elizabeth affected by his sad fate ? When did her death occur? What is said of her reputation ? 30. What eminent writers flourished during her reign ? What is said of Lord Bacon ? 1603.] ENGLAND. 245 The Stuart Family. 31. James I., the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, succeeded Elizabeth, not only by right of birth, but by the nomination of the late queen. He had been proclaimed King of Scot- land under the title of James VI., after the abdication of Mary (1567), being then an infant ; and thus, on his acces- sion to the English throne, the two countries became united under one monarch, although they continued for about a century to have their own separate legislatures. 32. In the first part of this reign, a conspiracy was formed to subvert the government and place Arabella Stuart, the king's cousin, on the throne ; and in this scheme the cele- brated Sir Walter Raleigh was accused of being concerned, and was kept in imprisonment for several years, during which he wrote his " History of the World." Being released in order that he might point out a gold mine which he said existed in Guiana ( glie-ah'nah), and, having failed in the expedition, he was, on his return, beheaded, in pur- suance of the sentence previously pronounced against him (1618). This act reflects a lasting disgrace upon James, who sacrificed this illustrious man to appease the anger of Spain, incensed by the attack which Raleigh had made upon some of the Spanish settlements in South America. 33. The Roman Catholic party, disappointed in not re- ceiving the religious liberty which they had expected from James, arranged, in 1605, a plot to overturn the government by the destruction of the king and Parliament. For this purpose a vault below the House of Lords was hired, and thirty-six barrels of gunpowder stored therein, which, on the opening of Parliament, were to be fired by one Guy Faivkes, an officer in the Spanish service, brought to Eng- land for the purpose. This conspiracy, styled the " Gun- 3 1 . Who succeeded Elizabeth ? What countries became united ? 32. What conspiracy was discovered ? What account is given of Sir Waltei Raleigh ? 33. What account is given of the Gunpowder Plot ? 246 ENGLAND. [1607. powder Plot," was discovered just on the eve of its execu- tion, and Guy Fawkes arid some of his fellow-conspirators were executed. 34. James, although of a pusillanimous disposition, was very persistent in upholding the royal prerogative, being prone on all occasions to insist on the divine right of kings to rule without control. His arbitrary acts and principles, however, met with decided opposition from the Parliament of 1621, who declared their privileges to be the ancient and undoubted birthright of the English people ; which declaration so incensed the king, that he sent for the Journals of the Commons, and tore the record out with his own hands. The same Parliament impeached the celebrated Lord Bacon for bribery ; of which being found guilty, he was punished by a heavy fine, and dismissal from all his offices. 35. The king's high-handed measures, especially against those who refused to conform to the established Church, so disgusted the Puritans that they emigrated in large num- bers, at first to Holland, and afterward to Neio England, where they established a settlement at Plymouth (1620). A settlement was effected in Virginia, during the previous part of this reign (1607), at a place named, in honor of the King, Jamestown. 36. One of the worst characteristics of this monarch was his proneness to attach himself to unworthy favorites, the first of whom was Bolert Carr, a young Scotchman, on whom James for several years lavished the most profuse favors, bestowing on him the title of the Earl of Somerset. Carr was succeeded in the king's favor by George Villiers {vil'yerz), who was created Duke of Buckingham, and gained an infamous notoriety by his profligacy and arro- gant conduct. 34. What were the political principles of James I. ? What opposition was made by the Parliament of 1621 ? What is said of Lord Bacon ? 35. What led to the settlement of Jamestown and Plymouth ? 36. Who were the favorites of James II. ? What is said of them 1 1625.] ENGLAND. 247 37. James had been educated by the celebrated George Bu-clian'an of Scotland, and possessed considerable learn- ing, of which he was passionately fond of making a display ; so that, although he was excessively nattered by his cour- tiers, his pedantry gained him very general ridicule. The distinguished French minister, Sully, very aptly styled him " the wisest fool in Christendom." He was as much devoid of dignity of manners and conversation as of good sense, his unseemly familiarity being equal to his childish vanity and offensive arrogance. On his death, in 1625, he was succeeded by his eldest son Charles. 38. One of the most important events of the reign of James I. was a new translation of the Bible, under the pat- ronage of the king, and by a number of learned men desig- nated by himself. It was completed in 1611 ; and having superseded other versions, continues to be the English Bible in general use among Protestants. The charter granted to the East India Company by Queen Elizabeth was renewed by James in 1609; and in 1612, the first English factory was established at Su-rat'. 39. Charles I., on his accession, was in his 25th year ; and soon afterward he married Henrietta Maria, daughter of the French king Henry IV. In order to prosecute a war with Spain, which had been brought on by the arro- gance and misconduct of the Duke of Buckingham, he summoned a Parliament, and asked for a vote of supplies. This the Commons, under the leadership of Sir Thomas Wentivorth, Sir John Eliot, and others, refused to. grant, unless Charles would relinquish some of the prerogatives which had been exercised by his father, and which he still claimed as his hereditary right. Charles, therefore, dis- solved the Parliament, and levied money by his own au- thority. 37. Describe the character of James n. When did his death occur? 38. What other events occurred during the reign of James n. ? 39. Who succeeded James I. ? Whom did Charles marry ? What caused a diffl culty with Parliament ? Who were the popular leaders ? 248 ENGLAND. [1629. 40. These forced loans, called tonnage and poundage,* and ship-money^ gave great offence to the people, whose discontent was still further increased by the conduct of Buckingham, — particularly by the failure, through his mis- management, of an expedition designed to assist the Hu- guenots, or French Protestants, in their contest with Eiche- lieu (reesh'e-lu). In a succeeding Parliament, accordingly, the king met with more determined opposition ; and the famous Petition of Riglit\ was adopted, to which the king was obliged to give his assent (1628). Soon after this the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated at Portsmouth, by an officer of the army whom he had offended. 41. A fourth Parliament having been assembled (1629), and proving refractory, the king determined to rule with- out a parliament, and continued his illegal exactions. He also, by means principally of the court of Star Chamber, % attempted to punish such of the popular leaders as had made themselves particularly obnoxious. Some of them were fined for what was called their seditious language in Parliament ; but they refused to pay the fines; and Sir John Eliot died in prison. Charles, however, chose some of his ministers from among the popular leaders ; one of whom, Sir Thomas Wentworth, was created Earl of Strafford, and became the chief-minister of the king. 42. Another cause of complaint was afforded by the policy * Tonnage and poundage were duties on imported merchandise which it had been customary to allow the King to levy since the reign of Edward III. The Parliament of 1625 refused, however, to grant this privilege to the king for a longer period than one year. + Ship-money was an arbitrary tax levied on the seaports for the equipment of a fleet. Charles extended it over the whole kingdom. $ The Petition of Right was an emphatic statement of the privileges of the people as conferred by previous enactments. It is regarded as the Second Great Charter of English liberties. § The Court of Star Chamber was of very ancient origin, and derived its name from the cham- ber of the king's palace at Westminster in which it used to hold its sessions, the ceiling of this apartment being decorated with stars. It had very extensive powers, both civil and criminal and could adjudge cases without the intervention of a jury. Hence it became a formidable in- strument of tyranny. It was abolished by act of Parliament in 1641. 40. What further displeased the people ? What were tonnage and poundage and ship-money? (See note.) What did the Parliament of 1628 do ? What is meant by the Petition of Right ? (S^e note.) 41. What arbitrary measures did Charles afterward adopt? What was the &tar Chamber? (See note.) Who opposed the king? Who became Earl of Straf- ford? 42. What other cause of complaint was given the people ? What course did the Puritans pursue ? What led to the Scottish Covenant ? What was it ? 1641.] ENGLAND. 249 of the king with regard to religion. Under the influence of Arclibislio]) Laud, the liturgy was altered and the ritual increased by many of the ceremonial observances of the Eomish Church, very much to the disgust of the great body of the English people, but particularly of the Puritans. Many of the latter, to avoid conforming to the require- ments of the established Church, emigrated to New England, and founded Massachusetts and other colonies in that coun- try. Charles also attempted to force this liturgy upon the Scottish people ; but they rose in insurrection against it ; and the famous Covenant was formed and signed, according to which they solemnly bound themselves to unite for their mutual defence, and to resist all religious innovations (1638). 43. The king requiring them to relinquish the covenant, a war ensued ; and a Scottish army invaded England, which after defeating a detachment of the royal forces at the Tyne River, took possession of Newcastle. This compelled the king finally to call another Parliament, in order to obtain supplies. This body, memorable as the Long Parliament, assembled in 1640, and immediately commenced the re- dress of public grievances. One of its first acts was the impeachment of the Earl of Strafford, who was particularly odious to the popular leaders for his desertion of their cause, and for the aid he had given the king in carrying out his most arbitrary measures. Being tried and found guilty of treason, he was beheaded, the king having ungratefully given his assent to the execution (1641). Archbishop Laud was also impeached and imprisoned in the Tower ; but his execution did not take place until four years afterward. In the same year, a dreadful insurrection broke out in Ireland against the government, and the English were massacred with every species of cruelty (1641). 44. Meanwhile, the Parliament continued its measures 43. What war ensued? When did the Long Parliament meet ? What measures did it adopt? What was Strafford's fate? Laud's? What insurrection broke out ? 44. What extraordinary step did the king take ? What was the effect ? What is said of Hampden ? 250 EtfGLAKD. [1642. of redress ; and the king took a step which still further in- flamed the popular indignation against him. Going with an armed retinue to the House, he demanded that five of its members should be pointed out to him in order that they might be seized. But the Speaker, Lenthall, refused to com- ply, boldly declaring that he was the servant of the House, and could only act in accordance with its directions. The king therefore retired without effecting his object, amid the low murmurs of "Privilege! privilege!" from the indig- nant members (1642). Among the five members thus as- sailed was the noted patriot John Hampden, who, a few years before, had gained the applause of the people by mak- ing a bold stand against the illegal levy of ship-money. 45. The king, whose conduct was characterized by great irresolution as well as rashness and imprudence, afterward apologized for this breach of the privileges of Parliament ; but the latter was now determined on extreme measures, and demanded the royal assent to propositions which would have stripped him of all authority. Finding a large party in his favor, he collected what forces he could, and erected the royal standard, resolved to stake the issue upon the sword. The Parliament had also made preparations for the struggle; and thus was commenced that great civil war which raged for years between those who supported the authority of the king and those who wished to limit, or destroy it' (1642). 46. The royalists, or cavaliers (as they were called), in- cluded the greater part of the nobility, clergy, and landed gentry, with all who were attached to the established Church, and also the Catholics. The supporters of Parlia- ment were chiefly composed of the yeomanry of the coun- try, the townspeople, and the dissenters, or Puritans. 45. What was tne subsequent conduct of the king? Tell how and when the great civil war began. 46. Who supported the king, and what were they called ? Who were the Bnp- porters of Parliament ? Whar name was given to them ? Why? By whom were the armies respectively commanded ? Who was Prince Kupert ? (See note, p. 251.) 1643.] ENGLAND. 251 These were called Roundheads, in derision of their custom of wearing their hair cropped short. The parliamentary forces were at first led by the Earl of Essex, those of the king, by the Earl of Lindsay. The cavalry of the latter was commanded by the famous Prince Rupert.* 47. The first general engagement took place at Edgehill, and Lindsay was mortally wounded and taken prisoner; but there was no decisive victory on either side (1642). J n a skirmish the next year the illustrious John Hampden was mortally wounded ; and his loss was felt as a severe blow to the popular party. Several battles were fought during the same year (1643), the most important of which was that of Newbury. The result was still indecisive ; but the royalists lost one of their chief supporters in the brave and eloquent Lord Falkland (fatvh'land), who while he had at first firmly and patriotically opposed the unjust pretensions of the king, stood by him when the attempt was made by Parliament to deprive him of his legal au- thority. 48. The Parliament entered into negotiations with Scot- land to combine their forces against the king ; and, princi- pally through the address of Sir Henry Vane, who had been sent as a commissioner to Edinburgh, a "solemn league and covenant" was entered into by which the Scot- tish people renewed the pledges of the previous covenant, and bound themselves to assist the cause of the English Parliament. A large army was, accordingly, sent into England ; but this was counterbalanced by a considerable force which the king succeeded in obtaining from Ireland (1643). Lord Fairfax, who commanded the parliamentary * Prince Rupert was the son of Frederick, Elector-Palatine, and Elizabeth, daughter of .1 lines I. ; so ihatthe reigning: king, Charles I., was his uncle. He was not onlv prominent in this war, but afterward acquired great distinction in the naval operations of Enghmd. Subse- quently he became noted tor li is researches in science and the useful arts. 47. What account is given of the battle of Edgehill? Of Newbury? Where are Edgehill and Newbury? (See Map, p. 158.) Where and when was Hampden killed? Lord Falkland ? What is said of the latter ? 48. What led to the " Solemn League and Covenant ?" What followed ? Whc laid siege to York? 252 ENGLAND. [1648. forces in the north, formed a junction with the Scotch, and laid siege to York. 49. The arrival of Prince Eupert with a considerable army raised the siege and led to the battle of Marston Moor, in which the Royalists sustained a severe defeat, principally through the activity and skill of Oliver Crom- well, by whom Prince Rupert's cavalry was routed and his artillery captured (1644). A short time after this, the com- mand of the parliamentary army was transferred to Sir Thomas Fairfax, a man entirely under the influence of Cromwell ; and the next year (1645) a very decisive victory was achieved by Fairfax over the king's forces at Naseby (naze'be), in which Cromwell especially distinguished him- self by his skill and valor. 50. After other reverses, the king, despairing of success, gave himself up to the Scottish army (1646), expecting to be treated with respect and liberality ; but the Scots de- livered him up to the English Parliament, by whom he was kept a prisoner (1647). Soon afterward, the sect of dis- senters known as Independents, triumphed over their rivals, the Presbyterians; and Cromwell, who belonged to the former, obtained, through his influence with the army, control of the Parliament. Finding the Presbyterian members hostile to his views, he caused the house to be surrounded by two regiments under Colonel Pride, one of his trusty officers, and excluded all but the most deter- mined of the Independents. This invasion of the Parlia- ment was called, in derision, "Colonel Pride's Purge" (1648). 51. Meanwhile, the king had offered important conces- sions, which the Presbyterians were disposed to accept ; but which the Independents, who now constituted Parliament, 49. Give an account of the battle of Marston Moor. Where is Marston Moor ? (Seo Map, p. 158.) What is said of Oliver Cromwell ? To whom was the command of the Parliamentary army transferred ? Describe the battle of Naseby. Where is Naseby ? (See Map, p. 158.) 50. How did the king fall into the hands of the Parliament ? How did Crom- well obtain control of the Parliament ? What was •' Colonel Pride's Purge ?" 1649.] ENGLAND. 253 voted to be unsatisfactory, Cromwell and the other generals who were controlled by him desiring the entire subversion of the government, and the establishment of a republic. Accordingly a vote was passed that the king had been guilty of treason in levying war against his Parliament ; and a court was organized to try him. This court was presided over by Bradshaw, and consisted of 133 members, among whom were the chief officers of the army ; and, although the king refused to acknowledge its authority, he was found guilty, and three days after his condemnation was beheaded (Jan. 30, 1649). 52. The Scots had protested against this whole proceed- ing, and foreign nations interceded in the king's behalf. The Prince of Wales, anxious to save his father's life, sent a blank sheet of paper, subscribed with his name and sealed with his arms, on which the judges might write what con- ditions they pleased as the price of the king's release ; but these men could not be moved from their purpose. A few days after the death of Charles, the Commons abolished the House of Lords, and formally proclaimed the establishment of the Commonwealth, declaring it high treason to acknowl- edge Charles, the Prince of Wales, King of England. 53. The character of Charles I. was in many respects worthy of commendation. In his private relations his con- duct was quite exemplary, being entirely free from those vices which so often sully the character of kings. As a monarch, his principal fault was insincerity, by which he lost the confidence of his people ; for he gave his assent to measures of reform which he subsequently endeavored to evade. His arbitrary conduct finds some apology in the fact that his predecessors bad exercised the same powers which he claimed ; but his prudence and moderation were not sufficient to convince him that the great change which 5 1 . What led to the trial and execution of the king? 52. What was done to obtain the king's release ? How was the Common wealtt established ? 53. What is said of the character and conduct of Charles I. ? 254 ENGLAND. [1651. had taken place in the sentiments of the people necessitated a corresponding change in the royal pretensions ; since the influence of authority can never prevail over that of public opinipn. 54. The Commonwealth. — Cromwell, as Lord Lieu- tenant, having entirely subdued the insurrection which had broken out in Ireland, was next sent by the Parliament to Scotland, where the Covenanters had proclaimed Charles II. king, and had raised a large army for his support. They were entirely defeated by Cromwell in the battle of Dun- Mr (1G50) ; after which Charles determined to march into England, expecting to obtain large accessions to his army. But in this he was disappointed; and being promptly pursued by Cromwell, was defeated at Worcester (woos'ter), where the whole Scottish army were either killed or taken prisoners (1651). Charles escaped from England with great difficulty, being obliged to travel for two months in the disguise of a peasant. At one time, he concealed him- self for twenty-four hours in a large oak-tree, while his pursuers passed on. This tree was afterward known as the Royal Oak. 55. The affairs of the English republic, under the admin- istration of the Parliament, continued to be prosperous. The Portuguese were humbled by Admiral Blake; Ireland was reduced to submission by Ire'ton, one of Cromwell's generals; and Scotland was entirely subjugated by General Monk, whom Cromwell had left to complete the work com- menced by the battle of Dunbar. Being off ended by the haughty behavior of the Dutch republic, the Parliament passed the famous " Navigation Act," which prohibited all nations from importing any merchandise into England or her colonies except in English ships, or in the ships of the .5 1. What led to the hattle of Dunbar? The battle of Worcester? Where are Dunbar and Worcester! (See Map, p. 15S.) How did Charles II. escape ? .">.>. What victories were gained by the English during the administration of the Parliament ? What was the " Navigation Act V What did it lead to ? What vie tories were gained by Blake ? 1653.] ENGLAND. 255 country where the goods were produced. The Dutch being at this time the principal commercial nation of Europe, a war was brought on, in which Blake gained several splen- did victories over the Dutch fleets, commanded by Van Tromp and De Ruy'ter (1652-3). 56. Meanwhile, Cromwell perceiving that the Parlia- ment had become jealous of his power, determined to dis-. solve it. Accordingly, going to the House with 300 sol- diers, he loaded the members with the vilest reproaches, and bade them "to be gone and give place to honester men." Then commanding the soldiers to clear the hall, he ordered the doors to be locked ; and putting the keys in his pocket, departed to his lodgings (1653). Thus, being supported by the army, he obtained the supreme power of the government. Desiring, however, to preserve some of the forms of the republic, he issued writs for the election of 140 persons, who were to constitute a parliament. 57. These, by his management, consisted of the meanest and most fanatical of the citizens ; one of whom, a leather- seller named Praise- God Barebone, having made himself conspicuous by his sanctimonious cant and long prayers, the Parliament was called, in derision, Barebontfs Parlia- ment. Another name for it was the " Little Parliament." Cromwell, however, soon dissolved this ridiculous assembly, and caused himself to be appointed " Lord Protector." He was to be assisted by a Council of State, and was bound to summon a parliament every three years (December, 1653). 58. A short time previously, Van Tromp, the distin- guished Dutch admiral, had been shot in an action with the English under Blake ; and the Dutch, terrified by their losses and overwhelmed with the expense of the war, solicit- ed peace. This was at last signed by Cromwell, and a de- 56. How did Cromwell disperse the Parliament ? What was his next step ? 5 7. Give an account of Barebone's Parliament ? Why was it so called ? What office did Cromwell assume ? 58. When and in what way was peace made with the Dutch ? Waat is said of Cromwell's administration? 256 ENGLAND. [1658 fensive league was established between the two republics, the honor of the flag being yielded to the English (1654*). The administration of Cromwell was characterized by great vigor and ability. He boasted that he would make the name of Englishman as much feared and respected as had been that of Roman ; and the uniform success of his naval and military enterprises went far to realize this saying. 59. Under Blake, the English fleets achieved an uninter- rupted series of victories. He subdued the Barbary Powers (1655), and defeated the Spaniards in several important actions (1656-7). His death occurred in 1657. Blake was an inflexible republican ; but he disapproved of the usur- pations of Cromwell, notwithstanding the honors which the latter heaped upon him. During the war waged with Spain, the island of Jamaica was captured by an English squadron under Admirals Penn and Venables (1655) ; and Dunkirk was captured from the Spaniards by the combined forces of France and England (1658). 60. Cromwell, although prosperous abroad, was at home involved in very great difficulties. He had called two Par- liaments successively ; but not finding them subservient to his views, he had promptly dissolved them (1654-1656). He was threatened with conspiracies against his govern- ment ; and, after reading a book published by one Colonel Titus, and entitled " Killing no Murder," he became afraid of assassination, and constantly wore armor under his clothes, and carried pistols in his pockets. At last the dreadful anxiety of his mind brought on a fever, of which he expired (Sept. 3, 1658), — the anniversary of the day on which he had gained the victories of Dunbar and Worcester. 61. Cromwell was in his sixtieth year when he died. He was of a robust frame of body, and of a manly, though not 59. What was accomplished by Blake ? When did he die ? What was his char- acter? What conquests were made from Spain ? Where is Dunkirk ? (See Map of France, p. 188.) 60. What difficulties had Cromwell to contend with? How and when did hi? death occur? 6 1 . What is said of the character and conduct of Cromwell ? 1G60.] ENGLAND. 25? an agreeable aspect. His character had very many traits of greatness. No one can gainsay the splendid talents which he displayed, both as a general and a statesman ; and, had he rightfully possessed the sovereign power, he would undoubtedly have compared favorably with any monarch that ever reigned, both for ability and upright- ness. But his perverted ambition, not content with re- dressing the grievances, and establishing the liberties, of his country, prompted him " to wade through slaughter to a throne ; " and, therefore, instead of receiving the bene- dictions of his countrymen, he was execrated and ab- horred. 62. Richard Cromwell succeeded his father in the office of Protector ; but his want of capacity for so diffi- cult a position was soon manifest, notwithstanding he was supported by General Monk, who commanded the army in Scotland, and by his brother Henry, as Lord Lieuten- ant of Ireland. A Parliament was called, but it having given offence to the army officers, the latter compelled Eichard to dissolve it (1659). Soon after this he signed his own abdication, and thus left the supreme authority to the army, who then ruled by a council of officers. The country being threatened with anarchy and civil war, General Monk marched his army into England, and sub- dued the contending factions. A Parliament was then called, and diaries II was proclaimed king (May 29, 1660). This event is known in English history as the Restora- tion. 63. Charles II. came to the throne with the universal rejoicings of the people. At the commencement of his reign, an act was passed pardoning all who had taken part in the Great Rebellion, except the regicide judges, some of whom were tried and executed. On the anniversary of the 62. Who succeeded Oliver Cromwell ? What was Richard Cromwell's char- acter ? What led to his abdication ? How was the Restoration effected ? 63. What is said of Charles's accession ? What punishment was inflicted upon the late rebels ? Who became prime minister ? 258 ENGLAND. [1664 late king's death, the bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Brad- shaw were disinterred, hanged on the gallows, then decapi- tated, and their heads fixed on Westminster Hall. "With this exception the king showed great moderation and clem- ency, and admitted into his council both Royalists and Presbyterians. Sir Edward Hyde was created Earl of Clarendon, and made prime minister. 64. The most remarkable feature of this period was the entire change which took place in the sentiments of the people. During the reign of Charles I. they manifested the most intense zeal for liberty ; but now they seemed eager to evince an equally extravagant spirit of submission. Under the control of the Puritans, they seemed to think that religion consisted in gloom, austerity, and the sacrifice of all social gayety and pleasure ; but, going to the opposite extreme, they now plunged into riot and dissipation. Every thing religious or serious was ridiculed ; and nothing but scenes of gallantry and festivity occupied the general at- tention. The monarch set the example, and indulged him- self in mirth and festivity, while those who had suffered in his father's cause were left in wretchedness and neglect. 65. After a short time, hoAvever, the king's profusion and reckless self-indulgence considerably abated the people's loyalty, and they could not forbear making comparisons between this slothful and licentious monarch and the great Protector who had made the name of England so glorious throughout the world by his careful and vigorous adminis- tration. Dunkirk, which had been acquired during that splendid period, was now sold to the French to supply moans for the king's extravagant pleasures (1664). 66. The same year (1664), war was commenced against the Dutch; and the English took possession of New Neth- erlands in North America, and captured some of the Dutch 64. Describe the change that had occurred in the popular sentiments. 65. What disgusted the people with Charles IT. ? 66. What important events occurred daring the Dutch war? Who took side? with the Dutch ? What terrible naval action enaued '? 1667.] ENGLAND. 259 settlements in Africa. De Kuyter retaliated by attacking Barbadoes and some of the other English dependencies. A great naval battle was fought off the eastern coast of Eng- land, in which James, Duke of York, brother of the king, defeated the Dutch fleet with immense loss (1665). France then took sides with the Dutch republic ; but the combined fleets of the allies, commanded by the great admiral De Ruyter and the Duke of Beaufort, were defeated by the English under the Duke of Al-be-marW (previously Gen- eral Monk) and Prince Rupert. This battle lasted four days, and was one of the most terrific naval engagements ever fought (1666). 67. Meanwhile the Great Plague had broken out in Lon- don ; and such was its virulence, that the deaths in the citv alone were estimated at not less than 100,000 during the year (1665). Close upon this calamity followed the Great Fire, which raged for three days, and destroyed 13,200 dwelling-houses, besides 90 churches (1666). The desire of Charles to save expense, in order that he might have means for his extravagant indulgences, led to neglect in keeping up the naval force of the kingdom ; and the Dutch, taking advantage of this, defiantly entered the harbors, and did immense havoc to the shipping. They even sailed up the Thames, extending their ravages as far as London Bridge (1667). Peace was, however, declared the same year. 68. The disgraceful close of this war, together with the previous measures, made the government very unpopular; and Clarendon was impeached and banished. Five minis- ters, called afterward the Cabal, were then chosen, who adopted the policy of restraining the French king Louis XIV. in his ambitious scheme of seizing the Spanish Netherlands.* A league was formed with Holland and ■ That part of Netherlands which remained in possession ol Spain after the Dutch provinces had revolted and achieved their independence. It included the present kingdom of Belgium. 67. What calamitous events occurred in London ? Describe each. What were the Dutch enabled to do ? When was peace made ? 68. What caused Clarendon's fall? What was the Triple Alliance ? What led to it ? What treaty did Charles II. make with France ? 260 ENGLAND. [1674. Sweden, called the Triple Alliance ; and Louis was com- pelled to abandon his enterprise (1668). Charles afterward became dissatisfied with the alliance and concluded a dis- graceful treaty with Louis, in which he agreed to assist the latter in subjugating Holland, and also consented to make a public profession of the Catholic faith. For this he was to receive as a compensation an immense sum of money yearly from the French coffers (1770). 69. Shortly afterward (1672), England joined France in a war against the Dutch; and while the fleets of the latter contended with those of the English, commanded by the Duke of York, the French army invaded the territory of the republic, captured many of its cities, and drove it to the extreme measure of opening the sluices and inundating the country. In these perilous circumstances the Dutch forces were commanded by William, Prince of Orange, who gained great distinction by his determined courage and patriotism. The war continued till 1674 ; w T hen it had become so unpopular, that the king was compelled to make a treaty of peace with the Dutch provinces.* 70. While this war was in progress, the Test Act had been passed by Parliament, obliging all government officers to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and to ab- jure the Romish doctrines. The Duke of York, therefore, who had made a public profession of Romanism, resigned his office as admiral, and was succeeded in the command by Prince Rupert. Much excitement was occasioned by an alleged conspiracy (called the " Popish Plot") on the part of the Catholics to set fire to the city of London, as- sassinate the king, and betray the country to the French. The principal witness in this absurd accusation was one * The Dutch Republic was called the " Republic of the Seven United Provinces." It included the present kingdom of Holland. 69. What war was waged with the Dutch ? To what extremity were they re- duced ? Who commanded their forces ? When and how did the war end * 70. What was the Test Act? What course was pursued by the Duke of York ? What was the so-called " Popish Plot ?" Who was the chief witness ? Who suf- fered death? 1683.] ENGLAND. 261 Titus Oates, who was afterward proved to be of a most infamous character. Before the imposture was discovered, many innocent persons suffered death, among them the aged and illustrious Earl of Stafford (1680). 71. In the year 1679, was passed the famous Ha'be-as Cor'pus* act, securing all subjects from imprisonment, ex- cept where it can be shown to be justified by law. This was designed to check the illegal and arbitrary arrests made by the authority of the king, who in every respect exercised the most despotic sway. He deprived many of the cities, London included, of their charters, in order to extort money for their restoration ; and no one felt him- self secure from the numerous gang of spies and informers who were employed by the court. This state of things led to a conspiracy, called the Rye-House Plot (1683). 72. The members of this plot were, Lord William Rus- sell, Algernon Sidney, John Hampden (grandson of the great patriot), the Duke of Monmouth (the king's natural son), and others. The object was to restore the liberties of the country by dethroning its present arbitrary mon- arch ; but the conspirators did not agree as to the mode of accomplishing it. Monmouth expected the throne him- self, Eussell wished simply reform, and Sidney was en- thusiastic for the restoration of the republic. The plot having been discovered, Eussell and Sidney were beheaded (1683) ; but Monmouth, who at first had fled, was after- ward pardoned. The death of Charles occurred a short time afterward (1685) ; and his brother, the Duke of York, succeeded, under the title of James II. 73. In the first part of the reign of Charles II. (1667), * Hahms Corpus, means " have the body." The writ, or order of the court of justice, was so called because it enjoins any person restraining another's liberty, to have Ms body, that is, to produce the prisoner, before the court, so that the cause of his detention may be known. 71. When and why was the Habeas Corpus Act passed? What is meant by Habeas Corpus? (See note.) What infamous measures were resorted to by Charles ? To what did they lead ? 72. Who were engaged in the conspiracy? With what designs? What waa the result ? When did the king's death occur ? Who succeeded him ? 262 ENGLAND. [1685. the celebrated poet, John Milton, published his greatest work, "Paradise Lost." This illustrious man had been Foreign Secretary under Cromwell, and had distinguished himself by his writings in defence of the commonwealth. His principal contemporaries in the field of literature were John Bunyan, the author of " Pilgrim's Progress ;" Samuel Butler, who wrote " Hudibras," a burlesque poem on the Puritans and the Civil War ; and John Locke, the author of the immortal "Essay on the Human Understanding." Dry den also wrote several of his finest poems, and was made poet-laureate. The drama received many talented contributions from Ot'tuay, Wych'er-ly, and others; but, taking its character from the court, it was shamefully im- moral. Sir Matthew Hale, the just judge and pious writer, also flourished during this period. 74. James II., notwithstanding the glory he had acquired as a naval commander, was very unpopular on account of his religion, to which he showed the greatest attachment. The Duke of Monmouth, who had fled to Holland during the preceding reign, now set up a claim to the throne, and landing in England, was soon joined by a considerable force. He was however completely defeated at Sedge 'moor, * and being apprehended after the battle, was tried and executed (1685). The most dreadful persecution followed of those who were implicated in the rebellion. Trials were held under the infamous Judge Jeffries; and many innocent persons were condemned and executed. This wicked judge boasted of the large number of persons (more than 300) whom he had caused to be hanged. 75. The imprudent zeal of the king in promoting the Roman Catholics to power, occasioned great excitement and • Sedgemoor, a wild tract of country in the southwestern part of England, not far from Bristol Channel. 73. What is said of John Milton ? What other eminent writers are referred to ? What was the character of the Drama ? 74. What made James II. unpopular? Give an account of Monmouth's rebel- lion. What was the conduct of Judge Jeffries ? 75. What led to the imprisonment of the bishops bj r James II. ? 1689.] ENGLAND. 263 dissatisfaction. Having issued a proclamation allowing liberty of conscience, and declaring that non-conformity to the established religion should no longer be punished, he required that this declaration should be read in all the churches. This the clergy refused to obey ; and a petition was presented against it by seven bishops, including San- croft, the primate. James, exasperated at this opposition, caused the bishops to be arrested and imprisoned in the Tower (1688). 76. The popular excitement produced by this act of the king was intense. Crowds attended the bishops as they were conducted to the Tower, and signified their sympathy and veneration in every possible way. The acquittal of the bishops after their trial at Westminster Hall, still further increased the commotion, even the soldiers whom James had collected for his protection taking part against him. A few months afterward, William, Prince of Orange,* who had married Mary, the daughter of James II., taking ad- vantage of the popular indignation against the king, set sail from Holland with a large fleet and army, and proceeded to England. Having effected a landing at Torbay, he marched toward London; whereupon, James, finding him- self without support, fled to France. 77. A convention of representatives was immediately assembled (Jan. 1689); and the crown was bestowed on William and Mary for their lives, the succession being settled on the Princess Anne, second daughter of James II., who had married Prince George of Denmark. The con- vention annexed to this settlement a Declaration of Eights, definitely fixing the extent of the king's prerogative, and more precisely stating the constitutional principles of the * William was the son of Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I., and consequently was a nepheit of James II. ; and Mary, his wife, was his first cousin*. Setting aside the family of James II., \V illiam was thus the next lawful heir to the throne. 76. What excitement did it produce ? What caused the flight of the king ? 77. What was done hy the Convention ? What was the Declaration of Rights What were its chief articles ? W x hat did they afterward constitute ? 264 ENGLAND. [1C92. government. Among these the chief articles were : 1. The king cannot suspend the laws or their execution; 2. He cannot levy money without the consent of Parliament; 3. The subjects have a right to petition the crown ; 4. A standing army cannot be kept in time of peace without the consent of Parliament ; 5. Elections and parliamentary debates must be free, and Parliaments must be frequently assembled. These acts of the convention were afterward confirmed by a Parliament regularly summoned, in an enact- ment called the Bill of Rights, and constituted what is called in English history the Glorious Revolution 0/I688.* 78. William and Mary. — Although the crown had been conferred jointly upon William and Mary, the adminis- tration of the government was exclusively intrusted to the former. James II. having received a considerable naval force from the French king. Louis XIV., proceeded to Ireland, where the people were generally favorable to his cause. He was received with great demonstrations of joy, and a large army was soon collected for his support. He was, however, entirely defeated by William in the celebrated Battle of the Boyne, and was again compelled to take refuge in France. The next year Ireland was entirely subdued ; and the Scottish Highlanders, who had taken up arms in favor of James, were induced to submit to the government. In connection with the pacification of the Highlands, oc- curred the dreadful Massacre of Glencoe\ (1692). 79. The war with France still continued ; and, in 1692, * So called, although it took place in 1689 (January); because, until 1752, the English com- menced the year on the 25th of March. t Mclan of Glmcop, Chief of the McDonalds, had delayed taking the oath of allegiance to the ki.^g; and the enemies of the clan, taking advantage of (his circumstance, obtained an order for its military execution. Accordingly, a body of soldiers entered the valley of Glencoe, and cruelly put to the sword all who failed to escape, including men. women, and children. The signing of this order has subjected King William to very severe censure. Glencoe is situated at Loch Leven, in the western part of Scotland. 78. Who now administered the government? What led to the battle of the Boyne? What were its results ? Where is the Boyne River ? (See Map, p. 158.) What massacre occurred in Scotland ? Where is Glencoe ? (See note.) 79. Give an account of the battle of La Hoguc ? What was its effect ? Where is Cape La Hogue ? (See note, p. 265.) When and how did the war end ? When did Mary die? What title did William take ? What was his character ? What ia eaid of Mary ? 1701.] ENGLAND. 265 the French fleet was defeated by the combined English and Dutch fleets, under the command of Admiral Russell, in the famous battle of La Hogue (hog)* This disastrous defeat decided the fate of James, and destroyed his hopes of ever regaining the English throne. The war, however was not formally terminated until the treaty of Rys'ivick (1697).f William, by the death of Mary, in 1694, became sole ruler, under the title of William III. His own death occurred in 1702. He was a man of great abilities, both for war and statesmanship, and a most excellent sovereign ; but the austerity of his manners made him unpopular. The character of Mary was very amiable and exemplary. 80. Anne. — This reign is almost wholly occupied by the " War of the Spanish Succession," — so called because it was waged against Louis XIV. of France, who, in the prosecu- tion of his ambitious schemes, attempted to obtain the control of Spain by placing one of his own relatives on the throne of that country. This had led, in 1701, to the formation of a league, called the Grand Alliance, between England, Holland, and Germany, the object of which was to check the encroachments of the French king. Louis XIV. had given additional cause of complaint to William by acknowledging, on the death of James II., the son of the latter King of England (1701). War, for which prepa- rations had been already made, was formally declared against France shortly after the accession of Queen Anne ; and the chief command of the army was conferred on the Duke of Maryborough (1702). 81. During the first campaign, Marlborough made some conquests in Flanders; and in the next, he defeated the * Cape La Hague is in the northern part of France, a short distance east of Cherbourg, and is not t.) be confounded with Cape La Hague, to the west of Cherbourg. i Rtmcidc is a small town in the western part of Holland, 35 miles southwest from Amsterdam. 80. With what was Queen Anne's reign chiefly occupied? What caused the war ot the Spanish Succession ? On whom was the chief command conferred ? 81. What victories were gained hy Marlborough ? Who commanded the Impe- rial forces ? Where is Blenheim ? (See note, p. 266.) Where is Kamillies ? (See Map, p. 188.) What fortress was taken by the English ? What victory was gained at Turin? Where is Turin ? (See Progressive Map. No. 7.) 12 266 ENGLAND. [1713. French and Bavarians, in the memorable battle of Blen- heim* (blen'lilme) (1704). The celebrated Prince Eugene commanded the imperial troops in this battle. During the same year, the English fleet captured Gibraltar; and this strong fortress has ever since remained in the possession of Great Britain. In 1706, Marlborough gained another bril- liant victory over the French at Ramillies (ram'e-leez), and by means of it made almost an entire conquest of Flanders. The French also received the same year a terrible over- throw from Prince Eugene, at Tu'rin. 82. The year 1708 was signalized by another great victory over the French at Ou'den-arde, which was followed, the next year, by the terrific battle of Malplaquet (mal-plah'ka), in which the allied army, under Marlborough, routed the French, but with the dreadful loss of 20,000 men. This decided victory finished the campaign in Flanders (1709). Shortly afterward, Marlborough being accused of dishonest practices in connection with the army contracts and ac- counts, was dismissed by the queen from all his appoint- ments. The parliament also having passed a vote of cen- sure of his conduct, he retired from England in disgust, and took up his abode in the Netherlands. Peace was concluded with France by the treaty of Utrecht (u'trekt), in 1713. The following year the queen died. She was very popular, receiving the title of the "Good Queen Anne;" but, according to some authorities, she was full of preju- dices, easily influenced by flattery, and blindly guided by her female favorites. 83. Her reign was not only distinguished for military achievements, but was characterized to such an extent for * Blenheim is a small village in Bavaria, on the Danube, 23 miles W. N. W. of Augsburg (See Progressive Map, No. 7.) 82. What other victories were gained by Marlborough ? What led to his fall ? Where are Oudenarde and Malplaquet ? (See Map, p. 188.) What treaty was made with France? Where is Utrecht? (See Map, p. 188.) When did the queen's death occur ? What is said of her character ? 83. What is said of the literature of this period? What union was effected ? What line ended with Queen Anne ? 1106.] ENGLAND. 26? progress in science and literature, that it has been called the "Augustan Age of England." Addison, Steele, Pope, Bolingbrohe, and Swift were the most eminent writers of this period. The chief political event was the " Constitu- tional Union of England and Scotland/' in 1707. These two countries, since the accession of James I., had acknowl- edged one sovereign, each having its own separate legis- lature ; but, since the union of 1707, they have both sent representatives to the same Parliament. Queen Anne was the last sovereign of the House of Stuart. House of Brunswick. 84. George I. was the son of the Duke of Brunswick, Elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, granddaughter of James I. To this king. England seemed always a foreign country, for the people and institutions of which he had very little sympathy or affection. He was fifty-four years of age when he commenced to reign. Those who favored the cause of the Stuarts, called Jac'o-bltes, excited an insurrec- tion in Scotland in order to place James, the Pretender, son of James II.,* on the throne (1715). The rebels, under the Earl of Mar, were defeated and compelled to surrender ; and many of the leaders of the rebellion, among them the Earl of Derwentwater, were executed. The Earl of Mar and the Pretender both escaped to France. 85. One of the most noted occurrences of this reign was the South Sea Scheme. This was the project of a corpora- tion, called the South Sea Company, to pay off the national debt, then about £35,000,000, by profitable mercantile en- terprises with the Spaniards in South America. The gov- ernment gave its consent to the scheme, and allowed its * James, the Pretender, was frequently styled the Chevalier of St. George. 84. Who was the first of the House of Brunswick ? Who was George I. ? What is said of him ? Who were the Jacohites ? Give an account of the insurrection in Scotland, and its result. 85. Give an account of the South Sea Scheme and its consequences. When did Marlborough die ? What is said of him ? When did the king's death occur ? 268 ENGLAND. [1727. stock to be exchanged for the company's stock, which, in consequence of the rage for speculation pervading all classes of the people, reached the extraordinary premium of 900 per cent. The bubble, however, soon burst, and occasioned, for a time, wide-spread embarrassment and ruin (1720). The Duke of Marlborough, who had been restored to his office of captain -general, died in 1722. This great general is said to have been so illiterate that he could not write his native language correctly. Avarice was the greatest blemish in his character. George I. died of apoplexy while on a visit to his native country (1727). 86. George II. succeeded his father at the age of forty- four years. Sir Robert Walpole, who had been prime minis- ter during a large part of the previous reign, was continued in office, and administered the government, in a manner conducive to the peace and prosperity of the country, till his resignation, in 1742. A difficulty occurred with Spain during his administration, partly on account of a dispute with respect to the boundary of the American colony Geor- gia, which had been settled by General Oglethorpe in 1733, and named after the king. Admiral Vernon, who was sent out with a fleet to attack the Spanish settlements, captured Porto Bello, on the Isthmus of Darien (1739). 87. The next year, with a large naval and land force, he attacked Car-tlia-ge'na,* the strongest Spanish settlement in America ; but, after destroying most of its forts, he was compelled to retire. Another squadron, under Commodore Anson, took and destroyed one of the Spanish cities in Peru, and, together with other prizes, captured an East India galleon, laden with gold and silver. Anson's expedi- tion lasted nearly four years, he having returned by way of * Carthagena, or Cartagena, is a considerable town on the northern coast of South America, now in the United States of Colombia. 86. Who succeeded George I.? What celebrated man was prime minister ? What led to a difficulty with Spain ? What place was taken by Admiral Vernon ? 87. What important place was taken the next year? Give an account of An- son's expedition. 1745.] ENGLAND. 269 the Cape of Good Hope, thus completing the circumnaviga- tion of the globe (1740-1744). 88. Meanwhile, England had become involved in a conti- nental war. On the death of Charles VI., Emperor of Germany (1740), Louis XV., king of France; setting aside the hereditary claims of Maria Theresa (te-re'zah), the Emperor's daughter, had caused the Elector of Ba-va'ri-a to be raised to the imperial throne, and had raised a large army for his defence. Maria Theresa taking refuge among the Hungarians, was acknowledged by them as their queen ; while England, supporting the claims of the Austrian princess, was involved in a war with France. This is called in history the " War of the Austrian Succession." 89. The most important events of this war were the de- feat of the French at Dettingen {det' ting-en)* by an allied army of the English and Germans, partly under the com- mand of George II. in person (1743) ; and the defeat of the allies (England, Holland, and Austria) under the Duke of Cumberland, by the French, under Marshal Sdxe (sax) (1745), in the memorable battle of Fontenoy\ (fon-ta- nivati). The operations of the war also extended to the American colonies ; and Louisburg, an important French fortress, called, from its strength, the " Gibraltar of Amer- ica," was captured (1745). While these events were in pro- gress, an unsuccessful attempt had been made by Prince Charles, the Pretender, grandson of James II., to invade England, with a considerable army under Marshal Saxe (1744). After the battle of Fontenoy, Charles succeeded in landing in Scotland, though without any military sup- port (1745). 90. Being joined by a small army of Highlanders, he de- feated the royal forces; and, having taken Edinburgh and * Dettingen is a village of Bavaria, on the Main River, east of Frankfort. t Fontenoy is a village of Belgium, 43 miles southwest from Brussels, about halfway between Oudenarde and Malplaquet. (See Map, p. 183 ) 88. Explain the causes that led to the " war of the Austrian Succession," 89. What were the chief events of the war? What conquest was made America ? What was done by Prince Charles, the Pretender, in 1744 and 1745 ? 270 EtfGLAKD. [1759. some other cities, he caused his father to be proclaimed King of Scotland, under the title of James VIII. He next marched into England, but was soon compelled to retreat, being pursued by the royal army, under the Duke of Cum- berland, second son of George II. The two armies at length met at Cul-lo'den ; and a battle was fought, in which the Pretender and his adherents were entirely defeated (1746). This was the last battle fought on the soil of Great Britain, and closed the struggle made by the Stuarts to regain their lost throne. Prince Charles wandered in disguise through the country for five months ; but, at length, succeeded in elfecting his escape to France. 91. A treaty of peace was made with France at Aix-la- Chapelle, in 1748, by which Maria Theresa's claim to the throne was confirmed ; but the war was soon after renewed in consequence of disputes respecting the boundary of the French and English territories in America. In 1755, General Braddock was defeated by the French in an expedi- tion against Fort du Quesne {doo-kane') ; but General John- son gained a victory over the French and Indians at the head of Lake George, Baron Dieskau (de-es-ko'), their com- mander, being wounded and taken prisoner. An expedi- tion under Colonel Monckton (monk'tun), the same year, drove the French from Nova Scotia. In 1759, General Wolfe succeeded in reaching the " Plains of Abraham " with his army, and defeated the French forces under the Marquis of Montcalm (mont-kam'). Both generals were killed. Quebec capitulated after this victory, which vir- tually gave to the English possession of Canada. 92. Meanwhile, England had taken part in the famous Seven Years' War, brought on by a coalition of France and 90. Give a further account of the Pretender. Where was he finally defeated ? For what is the battle of Culloden noted ? Where is Culloden ? (See Map, p. 158.) How did Charles escape ? 9 1 . What treaty closed the war with France ? When and why was it renewed ? What events occurred in 1755 ? When and how was Quebec taken ? 92. What was the " Seven Years' War?" Why did the English engage in it! Who was prime minister? What caused the retirement of the Duke of Cumber land ? Who gained victories in India ? When did George II. die ? 1760.] ENGLAND. 271 several of the other European states, against Frederick the Great of Prussia. Principally with the object of defending the Electorate of Hanover, England formed an alliance with the Prussian monarch ; and, under the able adminis- tration of William Pitt, afterward Earl of Chatham, the government displayed great vigor and enterprise. The want of success, however, of the Duke of Cumberland enabled the French to overrun Hanover (1757), at which the king was so indignant that he treated his son with the greatest coldness. Offended by this treatment, the victor of Culloden resigned all his offices, and went into retire- ment. Hanover was recovered the next year after its con- quest, and important advantages were gained by Frederick. Lord Clive also won a series of splendid victories over the French in India, achieving the conquest of Bengal. Before the war was brought to a close, the king died, and was suc- ceeded by his grandson, under the title of George III. (1760). 93. George III. was twenty-two years old when he ascended the throne, and was the first king of the House of Brunswick that was born in England. Pitt soon after- ward retired from the government, and was succeeded by Lord Bute, a man of indifferent merit, but an especial favorite of the king. The arms of Great Britain and her allies continued to be successful in Europe, notwithstand- ing her enemies were strengthened by the accession of Spain ; but the government desired peace, which was Anally attained by the Treaty of Paris, made in 1763. The most important conquests made by the English during this long war were those in North America and India. In the latter country, the genius of Clive had laid the foundation of the British power so firmly, that the French could never afterward regain their influence. 94. Shortly after this peace, the famous Stamp Act was 93. What is said of George in". ? Who succeeded Pitt ? What treaty was made in 1768 ? What conquests had been made during the war ? 94. What caused a war with the American Colonies ? 2?2 ENGLAND. [1783. passed, for the purpose of raising a revenue in America (1765). The colonies resisted the measure, on the ground that they were not represented in the English Parliament, and that "taxation and representation" are, by the British Constitution, inseparable. The measure was greatly op- posed in Parliament by the Earl of Chatham and others, as impolitic and unjust ; but the government insisted on their right to tax the colonies; and the latter, after a resistance of ten years, were finally driven into the War of the Revolution, which commenced at Lexington, Massa- chusetts (April 19, 1775). 95. The next year, the thirteen Colonies, through their representatives in Congress, declared their independence (July 4), which, after a determined struggle of nearly seven years, they successfully achieved, the British general Corn- wallis being compelled to surrender his army to George Washington, at Yorktown (Oct. 19, 1781). Previous to this event, the Americans under General Gates had compelled the surrender of a British army under Burgoyne, at Sara- toga (1777) ; and the French king, Louis XVL., taking ad- vantage of this success, had acknowledged the independence of the colonies. A war, therefore, ensued between England and France, which continued until 1783, when a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, one of the conditions of which was, that the independence of the American colo- nies should be acknowledged. 96. During this period, important advantages had been gained by the British in India under Warren Hastings , but the measures which he adopted to obtain money, in order to make the large remittances expected by the East India Company, were characterized by great oppression and injustice against the natives and their rulers. On his 95. What measure was adopted by the Colonies ? How was their independence achieved ? What victory led to an alliance with France ? What treaty closed the war with France and the Colonies ? 96. What led to the impeachment of Warren Hastings? Give an account of his trial. What distinguished orators took part in it? 1801.] ENGLAND. 273 return to England, articles of impeachment were presented against him in Parliament by the celebrated Edmund Burke, and the trial that ensued is one of the most memo- rable in history. It commenced in 1788, and lasted till 1795, resulting in the acquittal of Hastings. This trial is not only remarkable for its length, but for the brilliant dis- plays of oratory to which it gave occasion, on the part of the managers of the impeachment, Burke, Sheridan, Fox, Windham, and others, — a galaxy of great men unsurpassed for splendor in the annals of Great Britain. 97. Meanwhile, the great French revolution had broken out (1789), and in its progress all Europe was convulsed. The British government, under the administration of Wil- liam Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham, took an active part against the revolutionists in France, whose dreadful ex- cesses had disgusted and alarmed every civilized nation of Europe. After the execution of the French king, Louis XVI., in 1793, Great Britain, Holland, Russia, and Spain formed a coalition to restore the monarchy in France. Few victories were, however, gained over the French armies; but the English fleets, under Nelson and others, acquired great gtory. In 1798, Nelson fought the "Battle of the Nile,"* in which he destroyed the ships that had conveyed Napoleon and his army to Egypt; and in 1801, he bom- barded Copenhagen, and partially destroyed the Danish fleet. This had the effect to prevent a threatened alliance of the Northern powers against Great Britain. 98. An important victory was gained (1801) by Sir Ralph Abercrombie over the French forces left by Napoleon in Egypt to menace the power of Great Britain in the East ; after which a treaty of peace was concluded at Amiens (am'e-enz) with the French government, then under the * In Aboukir Bay, northern part of Egypt. (See Progressive Map, No. 7.) 97. When did the French revolution commence ? What course did Great Britain take ? Into what coalition did she enter ? What victories were gained by Nelson ? 98. What victory was gained by Sir Ralph Abercrombie ? What peace was con- cluded ? What union was effected in IROt ? 12* 274 ENGLAND. [1814. control of Napoleon as First Consul (1802). Previous to this, Ireland was constitutionally united to Great Britain, its separate legislature being abolished (1801). 99. The year after the conclusion of the "Peace of Amiens," war again broke out between England and France; and England was threatened with an invasion by Napoleon, but it was too strongly defended by its powerful fleets to render such an undertaking practicable. During this war, Nelson gained his most splendid victory, defeat- ing the combined French and Spanish fleets oif Cape Traf- algar'; but it was dearly bought by the English, for their great admiral fell mortally wounded in the action (1805). 100. In 1808, the "Peninsular war" was commenced, being caused by the unjust attempt of Napoleon, then em- peror of France, to place his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain, in opposition to the wishes of the people of that country. Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterward created Duke of Wellington, was sent with an army to prevent the consum- mation of this project ; and he defeated the French (1808) in the decisive battle of Vimeira (ve-ma'e-rah).* Sir John Moore, who had been sent to co-operate with the Spaniards against the French, was compelled to retreat, receiving no aid from the inhabitants. He afterward fell in the battle which took place at Co-run na, where the French were re- pulsed ; and the English troops made their escape from the country, with the assistance of the fleet (1809). 101. Under Wellington, the war was continued in the Peninsula until 1814; and the victories at Ta-la-ve'ra (1809), at Sa-la-man'ca (1812) and Vit-tdri-a (1813) re- * Vimeira is a small town near the western coast of Portugal, about 30 miles northwest from Lisbon. (See Progressive Map No. 7.) 99. When did the war with France recommence ? What was threatened ? What hrilliant victory was gained by Nelson? Where is Cape Trafalgar? (See Map, p. 286.) 100. What caused the "Peninsular War?" Give an account of the battles of Vimeira and Corunna. Who fell in the latter? Where is Vimeira? (See note.) Where is Coninna? (See Map, p. 296.) 101. What victories wore gained by Wellington ? Point out the places on the Map (p. 2M). What part did Great Britain take in the resistance made to Napo leou ? What other war was waged ? What caused it ? When was peace made ? 1820.] ENGLAND. 275 fleeted great glory on the British general's name. Mean- while, Great Britain had been active in the opposition made by the great European powers against the ambitious schemes of the Emperor Napoleon ; and, both by her coun- sels and pecuniary as well as military aid, contributed not a little to his downfall in 1814. During this period war had also been waged with the United States, brought on principally by the unjust claims of Great Britain to the right of searching American vessels for deserters and British seamen, in order that she might seize them or impress them into her service. This war was formally closed by the Treaty of Ghent* (Dec. 24, 1814). 102. Napoleon, escaping from Elba, to which he had been banished, and resuming the throne of France, again aroused the European nations against him. This led to the mem- orable battle of Waterloo, in which Wellington gained his most splendid victory (June 18, 1815). Thus was ended the great struggle which for nearly 25 years had been made by Great Britain, to check the conquests of the French, and preserve the " balance of power " in Europe. To accom- plish this end immense sacrifices of men and money had been made, the national debt having been increased to nearly 900 millions sterling. 103. George III. died in 1820, after a reign of sixty years, — the longest in English history. It was distin- guished not only for its remarkable military events, but for its progress in commerce, science, and the useful arts, for the general diffusion of knowledge, and for its splendid productions of literary genius. The greatest name in the first part of this reign is that of Samuel Johnson, the author of the English Dictionary, and also renowned for his talents as a * Ghent is a noted city in the western part of Belgium. 1 02. What led to the battle of Waterloo ? What was the result of it ? Where is Waterloo ? (See Map, p. 188.) What had these wars cost Great Britain ? 103. When did the death of George III. occur? What is said of this reign? What celebrated writers flourished during it? What was the character of George ;.; ENGLAND. [1827. poet, critic, and essayist. Gibbon and Hume stand promi- nent as historians; and Young, Gray, Burns, and Cowper, as poets. The closing portion of the reign is illumined by the names of Byron, Shel'ly, Words' worth, Cole' ridge, Scott, and a host of others, whose works have been the especial glory of the present century. The private character of George III., in every relation of life, was worthy of esteem ; but his moderate abilities, narrow views, and obstinacy as a king, have subjected his name to considerable obloquy, if not contempt. 104. George IV., who succeeded his father at the age of 58, had been noted for his profligacy and extravagance in the previous part of his life. He was a man of polished manners, but was perfectly unprincipled and heartless. As Prince Kegent he had been virtually king for ten years be- fore his accession, George III. having become incapable of governing on account of insanity. Almost the first act of the new monarch was an attempt to obtain a divorce from his wife, Caroline of Brunswick. The accusations brought against her were believed to be unfounded, and popular sympathy was strongly in her favor ; so that when, on ac- count of the able defence of her by Henry Brougham [after- ward Lord Brougham (broo'am)], the king failed in his object, the public joy was so great that there was a general illumination. She died a short time afterward. 105. The Greeks having for some years struggled to throw off the Turkish yoke, finally secured the aid of Eng- land, France, and Russia, whose combined fleets defeated and destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleet in the battle of Navarino (?iah-vah-re'no) (1827). By this event the independence of Greece was achieved ; after which it was erected into a separate kingdom, the crown being conferred 104. What is said of George IV.? Give an account of the trial of Queen Caroline. 105. How did the Greeks obtain their independence? Where is Navarino? i Sec Prog. Map, No 7.) Who became king of Greece ? What is said of Byron ? What important measure was adopted ? Who aided in bringing this about ? 1837.] ENGLAND. 277 upon Prince Otho, of Bavaria. During this contest Lord Byron went to Greece to render aid to the oppressed in- habitants ; but he did not live to witness the triumph of the cause, dying at Mis-so-lon' ghi (-ghe) in 1824. Another important event of this reign was the removal of civil and political disabilities from the Roman Catholics, a measure greatly aided by the efforts of the celebrated Irish orator and patriot, Daniel O'Connell. George IV. died in 1830. 106. William IV., late Duke of Clarence, and brother of George IV., succeeded to the throne on the death of the latter. A short time after his accession, measures of Par- liamentary reform were loudly called for by the people ; and a Reform Bill was brought in by Lord John Russell, which passed in 1832. The effect of this law was to extend the right of suffrage, and distribute the representation more equitably among the different parts of the kingdom. The year 1834 is memorable for the abolition of slavery through- out all the British colonies. The sum of £20,000,000 was awarded by Parliament to the planters as a compensation for the loss of the slaves emancipated ; and nearly three- fourths of a million of human beings were set free. Wil- liam's reign was terminated by his death in 1837; but, brief as it was, it was replete with beneficent measures which have made it dear to the memory of the English people. 107. Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, and niece of William IV., succeeded the latter on the throne, which she has continued to occupy up to the present time. The connection between Great Britain and Hanover, which had lasted 123 years, was dissolved on her accession, since the laws of the latter country exclude females from the throne. Her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, accordingly succeeded William IV. as King of Hanover. In 1837, an insurrection 106. By whom was George IV. succeeded? Give an account of the Reform Bill. What other important measure was adopted? When did William IV. die ? What was the character of his reign ? 107. Who succeeded William IV.? What country was separated from Great Britain ? Give an account of the Chartists. 278 ENGLAND. [1846. broke out in Lower Canada, on account of the discontent of the people toward the government ; but tranquillity was soon restored, Upper and Lower Canada being united into one province. Disturbances were also caused by the Chartists, an association of radical reformers, who demanded a "new charter," embodying universal suffrage, vote by ballot, and the entire abolition of the property qualification of members of Parliament. Great mass meetings of the people were held, at one of which as many as 200,000 per- sons were computed to have been present. The demands of the Chartists being refused, riots ensued, which, however, were soon put down (1839). 108. In 1840, Queen Victoria was married to Prince Al- bert of Saxe-Co'burg-Go'tha (one of the German states). An insurrection in Cabul (hah-bool) expelled the English from Af-ghan-is-tan' ; and the retreating army, of 17,000 men, nearly all perished from cold, famine, and the attacks of the Afghans (1841). Under Lord El'Un-bor-ough, Ca- bul was retaken, and its fortifications destroyed ; but Af- ghanistan was abandoned (1842). The reduction of Scinde (sind), a district on the lower Indus, by Sir Charles Na'pi-er, was the next event of importance (1843), which was soon followed by a war with the Sikhs of the Pun-jab', who, after several severe conflicts, were obliged to yield to the skill and valor of the British. The conquest of these districts gave the British government control of the whole peninsula of Hin-dos-tan' (1849). 109. The most important measure of Parliament was the Repeal of the Corn Laws, thus opening the country to the free importation of foreign grain (1846). The Russians having seized upon the Danubian principalities, Wal-la 'chi-a and Mol-da'vi-a, England formed an alliance 108. When and to whom was Victoria married ? What account is given of the Afghan W T ar ? Of the conquest of Scinde ? Of the Punjab ? Where is the Punjab ? (Ans. In the northwestern part of Hindostan.) 109. What laws were repealed in 1846? What led to the war with Russia? What battles were fought in the Crimea ? How and when was Sebastopol taken ? When did the war end ? 1857.] ENGLAND. 279 with France, to protect Turkey from the encroachments of the Czar (1853). This led to the Crim'e-an War, during which the allied fleets blockaded the harbor of Se-bas'to- pol,* and, after a siege of eleven months, captured the city (1855). During this siege, were fought the celebrated battles of ATma, Bal-ak-la'va, and Ink' er-mann,\ in the second of which the " Six Hundred" made their famous charge. The fortifications defending the city were of immense extent and strength, and the French greatly distinguished them- selves by the vigor and gallantry of their assaults. The Malakoff' and Redan, two of the strongest works, were stormed by them, after the English troops had failed in the attempt. Peace was signed with Eussia in 1856. 110. The next year (1857) is remarkable for the Indian Mutiny, occasioned by the introduction of Enfield rifles, for which greased cartridges were used. The native soldiers being forbidden by their religion to taste animal food, re- belled, because in loading the rifles it was necessary to bite off the ends of the cartridges. After the outbreak of the rebellion in Mee'rut,% t Qe Sepoys (native troops) seized Delhi (del'le), which was besieged for more than two months by the British, and only taken after the most desperate fight- ing (Sept. 20, 1857). 111. Cawn'pore and Luck'now% were the scene of other insurrections. At the former place the English were mas- sacred with frightful atrocity by the Sepoys, under Nena Sahib (sah'eeb), who was afterward defeated by General Havelock and Sir Col' in Campbell. These two officers showed the greatest courage and skill in their operations * Sehastopol, a strongly fortiSed seaport in the Crimea— a peninsula in the southern part of Russia. t Alma is a small river in the Crimea; Balalrtava, a town on the Black Sea, southwest from Sebastopol; Inkennnnn, a seaport near Balaklava. $ Meentt is situated about 35 miles northeast from Delhi, a noted city of Hindostan, on th Jumna, an affluent of the Ganges. § Oaampore and Lwknow are important towns in Hindoostan, the former on the Ganges, th latter on a tributary to it. They are some distance east of Delhi. 110. What led to the Indian mutiny ? How and when did it begin ? 111. What other events occurred ? What generals distinguished themselves ? When did the rebellion end ? What atrocities were perpetrated J 280 ENGLAND. [1868, against the rebellion, which was finally crushed in 1859. The dreadful outrages on men, women, and children, per- petrated during this war by the native troops, and the hor- rible punishments afterward inflicted upon the latter by the British, scarcely find a parallel in history. 112. Meanwhile, wars had been waged with the Chinese. The first was caused by the seizure of opium imported into China, contrary to her laws, by British merchants. At the close of this Avar China was compelled to cede Hong Kong* to Great Britain, and open five seaports to British com- merce, besides paying $21,000,000 as indemnity for the expenses of the war (1842). In 1857, hostilities were re- sumed ; and, Canton having been stormed and some of the forts near Pekin taken, the Chinese submitted to the de- mands of the English, one of which was that a British minister should be allowed to reside at Pe'kin (1860). 113. The other most interesting events of this reign are, the death of Prince Albert, in 1861 ; the laying of the Atlantic Cable, in 1866 ; the passage of the Second Reform Bill, in 1867, by which bill the elective franchise was great- ly extended by diminishing the property qualifications of voters for members of parliament ; and the expedition to Abyssinia, in which King Theodore was defeated (1868). The liberality of the queen in all measures of reform, her ready acquiescence in the will of her people, when definitely ascertained and legitimately expressed, and her social and domestic virtues, have won for her the esteem and affection of all classes of her subjects, who, in the words of Macaulay, " have found in her a wiser, gentler, happier Elizabeth." 114. The progress made in science and the useful arts during this reign has been beyond precedent. The coun- * Hong Kong is an island at the mouth of the estuary which leads to Canton, in the south- eastern part of China. 112. What led to wars with China ? What were their results ? 113. What other interesting events occurred during this reign ? What is said of Queen Victoria ? 114. Describe the progress made in science and the useful arts. What inven- tions have been made ? ENGLAND. 281 try has been crossed in every direction by railroads of the very best construction ; ocean steam-vessels have revolu- tionized commerce and navigation; the electric telegraph has brought every part of the kingdom into instant com- munication with all other parts of the civilized world; while the building of iron-clad war-steamers has rendered obsolete all former achievements in naval architecture, and changed entirely the character of maritime warfare. 115. The steam printing-press has greatly facilitated the spread of intelligence, aud increased the number of jour- nals and periodicals of all kinds circulated among the people. The literature of the period is enriched by the productions of Ten' ny -son, the poet-laureate ; Thack'e-ray, Dickens, and Bul'iver, among novelists; and Ma-cau'lay, Carlyle, Buckle, De Quincey, and many others, historians, essayists, etc., who, in every department of prose and poetry, have shed lustre upon the language and literature of their country. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. d. 1485. Henry VII. First of the Tudors. Reign of 24 years. 1509. Henry VIII. Reign of 38 years. 1513. Battle of the Spurs. Battle of Flodden Field. 1534. Separation of the English Church from that of Rome. 1547. Edward VI. Reign of 6 years. 1553. Mary. Reign of 5 years. 1558. Elizabeth. Reign of 44 years. 1579. Completion of a voyage round the world by Sir Francis Drake. 1587. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. 1588. Destruction of the " Invincible Armada." 1601. Execution of the Earl of Essex. 1603. James I. First of the Stuarts. Reign of 22 years. 1605. Gunpowder plot. 1611. Translation of the Bible. 115. What has been the effect of the application of steam to printing ? Men tion some of the most prominent writers of the period. 282 ENGLAND. 1618. Sir Walter Raleigh beheaded. 1625. Charles I. Reign of 24 years. 1628. Petition of Right granted. 1638. The Covenant signed by the Scots. 1641. Execution of the Earl of Strafford. 1642. Commencement of the Civil War. Battle of Edgehill. 1643. Battle of Newbury. Death of Lord Falkland. 1644. Battle of Marston Moor. Defeat of the Royalists. 1645. Battle of Naseby. The royalists defeated by Cromwell. 1649. Execution of Charles I. The Commonwealth declared. 1650. The Scottish Covenanters defeated at Dunbar by Cromwell. 1651. Battle of Worcester. Charles II. defeated by Cromwell. " Navigation Act passed. 1653. The Long Parliament dispersed. " Cromwell made " Protector." 1658. Death of Oliver Cromwell. Richard Cromwell Protector. 1660. Charles II. restored. Reign of 25 years. 1665. Defeat of the Dutch by James, Duke of York. " Great Plague in England. 1680. Supposed Popish plot. Earl of Stafford executed. 1683. Execution of Lord William Russell and Algernon Sidney. 1685. James II. Reign of 4 years. 1689. William m. and Mary. Reign of 13 years. " " Revolution of 1688" (Jan. 1688-89). 1690. Battle of the Boyne. James II. defeated. 1697. Treaty of Ryswick. 1702. Anne. Reign of 12 years, 1704. Battle of Blenheim. The French defeated by Marlborough and Prince Eugene. 1706. Battle of Ramillies. The French defeated by Marlborough. 1708. Victories of Marlborough at Oudenarde and Malplaquet. 1713. Treaty of Utrecht. 1714. George I. Reign of 13 years. 1727. George II. Reign of 33 years. 1743. Battle of Dettingen. The French defeated by George II. 1745. Marshal Saxe victorious at Fontenoy. 1746. Battle of Culloden. 1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. .1759. Capture of Quebec, and death of General Wolfe. 1760. George III. Reign of 60 years. 1783. The Independence of the American colonies acknowledged by Great Britain. ENGLAND. 283 1788. Trial of Warren Hastings, lasting till 1795. 1798. The French fleet defeated by Nelson in the Battle of the Nile. 1801. Legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland. 1805. Battle of Trafalgar. Death of Lord Nelson. 1809. Battle of Corunna. Death of Sir John Moore. " Battle of Talavera. 1814. Treaty of Ghent. Peace declared with the United States. 1815. Battle of Waterloo. Victory of Wellington over Napoleon. 1820. George IV. Reign of 10 years. 1827. Battle of Navarino. Independence of Greece declared. 1830. William IV. Eeign of 7 years. 1834. Slavery abolished in all the British colonies. 1837. Victoria. 1841. Afghan War. Cabul taken and dismantled. Chinese War. 1843 Conquest of Scinde by Sir Charles Napier. 1846. Corn Laws repealed. 1853. Commencement of the Crimean War. 1855. Sebastopol taken by the forces of Great Britain and France. 1857. Indian Mutiny. Delhi taken. Chinese War. 1861. Death of Prince Albert. 1867. Second Reform Bill passed. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGK 1. Give an account of Henry VII. and his reign 183-184-232-233-234 2. How many wives did Henry VHI. have ? Give their names 234-236-237 3. Give the history of his contest with Pope Clement II 235-236 4. State all you can in relation to Cardinal Wolsey 234-235-236 5. Give an account of Edward VI. and his reign 238 6. Who was Queen Mary ? and give the events of her reign 238-239 7. Who was Queen Elizabeth, and how long did she reign t* t 238-239-244 8. Name the most important events in the early part of her reign 239-240 9. What important voyages were made during her reign ? 241 10. Give the particulars in relation to the great Armada 241-242 11. State all you can in relation to Mary, Queen of Scots 242-243 12. Give the facts, as far as you can, in relation to the Earl of Essex 244 13. What authors of note lived during the time of Queen Elizabeth ? 244 14. Give the history of James I. to the time of his becoming king of England. 245 15. Give what you can of the history of Sir Walter Kaleigh 241-245 16. Give a full account of the Gunpowder Plot 245-246 17. Name the important acts of the reign of James I 245-246-247 18. What was the length of the reign of James I. ? 245-247 19. What troubles did Charles I. have with his first Parliament ? 247 20. Give an account of Buckingham and his acts 246-247-248 21. Of the difficulties between Charles I. and his fourth Parliament 248 284 ENGLAND. 22. Of the Earl of Strafford and his fate 248-249 23. Of the difficulties which led to the civil war 249-250 24. Of the principal events in that war 251-252 25. Of the closing acts of Charles I., his fate, and character 252-253 26. Of events during the rule of Oliver Cromwell 254-255-256 27. Of the Covenant and Covenanters 249-251-254 28. Of Richard Cromwell and his administration 257 29. Of the Puritans 240-241-246-249-250-251-258 30. What event is known in English history as the Restoration ? . . . 257 81. Name the principal events in the reign of Charles II 257—262 32. Give an account of the war with the Dutch 258-259 33. Of the next war with the Dutch, in which France joined 2(50 34. Of the Triple Alliance, its objects and consequences 259-260 35. Of the Test Act, its object and consequences 260-261 36. Of the Habeas Corpus Act, its design and consequences 261 37. Of the Rye-House Plot, its cause, object, and result 261 38. W hat noted authors lived during that period ? 262 39. By whom was Charles H. succeeded on the throne ? 261 40. Give the history of James H. previous to his accession 259-260 41 . Give a sketch of his reign and subsequent career 262 — 265 42. By whom was James succeeded on the throne ? ; . 263-264 43. How was the succession made and the king's power restricted ?...,... 263-264 41. Give a sketch of the reign of William and Mary 264-265 45. What was the Grand Alliance of 1701, its origin and object ? 265 46. Name the principal events of Queen Anne's reign 265-266-267 47. Narrate the facts in relation to the Duke of Marlborough 265-266-268 48. What authors of note lived during the reign of Queen Anne ? 267 49. Give the history of Scotland to that period 171-172-173-174-242-245-267 50. By whom was Queen Anne succeeded on the throne ? 267 51. Give an account of George's struggle to retain his crown 267 52. Name the principal acts in the reign of George II 268-269-270-271 53. Give the facts relating to the " War of the Austrian Succession" 269-270 54. The facts relating to the contest for territory in America 270 55. Those relating to the famous Seven Years' War 270-271-272 56. Those relating to the War of the American Revolution 271-272 57. Relating to the war which ended in the peace of Amiens 273 58. Give the history of Ireland to 1801 165-244-254-274 59. Give an account of the " Peninsular War" 274 60. Of the struggle ending in the battle of Waterloo 275 61. What authors of note lived during the reign of George in. ? 275-276 62. Give the principal events in the reign of George IV 276-277 63. Give those in the reign of William IV t 277 64. Mention those in the reign of Victoria 277-278-279-280-281 66. What noted authors lived during Victoria's reign ? 281 66. Name, in chronological order, the most important events from the time of Henry IV. to the time of Cromwell 281-282 67. From the time of Cromwell to the reign of George 1 282 68. From that of George I. through Victoria's reign 282-283 69. Who were the three kings of England named George ? 267-268-271-276 70. Who were the four, named William ?. 160-161-265-277 71 . The six, named Edward ? 170-172-173-181-18:3-238 72. The eight, named Henry ? 162-163-169-179-180-232-234 1483.] FRANCE. 285 SECTION II. France, From the Accession of Charles V1IL (1483) to the present Time. 1. Charles VIIL, the son and successor of Louis XI., was only thirteen years of age when he commenced to reign. He was, moreover, feeble both in body and mind, and very ignorant. A dispute arising as to who should have the guardianship of the young king, the question was referred to the States-General, a meeting of that body being called for the purpose (1484). This assembly of the States is noted for the ineffectual attempt made by the Third Estate (i. e., the Commons) to obtain a redress of grievances, and to acquire some influence in the government, diaries, by his marriage with Anne, Duchess of Brittany, acquired possession of that country; and thus was de- stroyed the last stronghold of feudal independence and rebellion. 2. By this marriage, Charles gave offence to Maximilian of Austria, to whom Anne had been previously betrothed ; and that monarch was joined by Henry VII. of England and Ferdinand of Spain in a league against Charles ; but the latter succeeded, by means of concessions of territory and the payment of large sums of money, in effecting a peaceful accommodation (1493). The next year he invaded Italy with a large army to recover Naples, then in posses- sion of Alfonso II., a prince of Aragon, who, on the ap- proach of Charles, abdicated the throne, and the French 1 . What is said of Charles VTIT. ? Why were the States-General called ? For what is this meeting noted ? How did Charles acquire Brittany ? 2. To what hostilities did this marriage lead? How were they settled? Give an account of the invasion of Italy and its result. What was the conduct of Charlea after this ? When and how did his death occur ? What line ended with him ? 286 FRANCE. . [1498. monarch entered the city in triumph. A league being formed against him by Venice, Milan, and other states of Northern Italy, he retreated ; but, on the confines of Lom- bardy, gained a brilliant victory over a much superior army of the allies, thus securing his retreat to France. Naples a short time afterward was abandoned by the French ; so that Charles, who had been desirous of winning the glory of Alexander or Charlemagne, had the mortification of seeing his expedition prove a total failure. He afterward gave himself up to every species of vicious indulgence, and thus ruined his health. His death, which happened soon after, was, however, the result of an accident (1498). Charles VIII. was the last of the family of Valois. 3. Louis XII. — Charles VIII. dying without heirs, Louis , Duke of Orleans, succeeded to the throne, with the title of Louis XII He was the great-grandson of Charles V., and commenced his reign by the exercise of a noble forbearance and moderation which gained for him the esteem of all classes. Those who had opposed and injured him during the previous reign were freely forgiven, the king saying that " it did not become the King of France to resent the injuries of the Duke of Orleans." Desiring to marry Anne of Brittany, the widow of Charles VIIL, he applied to the Pope (Alexander VI.) for a divorce from his wife, who, though distinguished for her talents and virtue, was deformed in person. The divorce being granted, his marriage with Anne was solemnized with great splendor. 4. Most of this reign was occupied by wars undertaken by Louis to acquire possession" of territories in Italy. His first conquest was that of Milan (1500), after which, in alliance with Ferdinand of Aragon, he took Naples; but a dispute arising between the allies as to the partition of the conquered territory, the French were defeated by the 3. Who succeeded Charles VIII. ? What is said of the conduct of Louis XII. J How and why did he obtain a divorce from his wife ? 4. What conquests did he make in Italy ? What disasters did he suffer ? 1513.] FKANCE. 287 Spanish forces under Gon-zal'vo of Cordova, called the " Great Captain," and Ferdinand thus gained almost ex- clusive possession of the Neapolitan States (1503). Louis attempted to retrieve his loss ; but Gonzalvo inflicted upon the French one of the severest disasters that ever befell their arms (Dec., 1503). 5. Louis, some time afterward, entered into the celebrated League of Cambray, formed by France, Germany, Spain, the Pope (Julius II.), and the minor states of Italy, in order to check the power of Venice, then at the height of its glory and influence. Under the command of the illus- trious Chevalier Bay'ard, the French completely defeated the Venetians in the battle of Agnadello (an-yah-del'lo) ; and the other allies were also successful (1509). But the intrigues of Julius II. soon afterward diverted the force of the alliance from Venice and turned it against France, with the view to deprive the latter of all its possessions in Italy. In this way the " Holy League," consisting of the Pope, Ferdinand of Spain, and the Venetian Eepublic, was formed (1511) ; but the French, under the command of the re- nowned Gaston de Foix (fwah), gained two brilliant vic- tories over the allies. That heroic general having fallen in one of these battles (1512), Louis was soon afterward obliged to succumb to the power of the League, and sur- render all his Italian acquisitions in Northern Italy. 6. Louis then formed an alliance with Venice to recover these possessions (1513), and, at first, gained some suc- cesses; but was finally defeated with severe loss by the Swiss, who had been hired by the Italians for their defence. This disaster encouraged the enemies of France to attack it ; and while it was threatened by Ferdinand of Spain, the Swiss invaded it from the west, and Henry VIII. landed with a large army at Calais. The latter a short time after- ward fought the noted " Battle of the Spurs," in which 5. What was the League of Cambray? What was its result? What was the Holy League ? What victory was gained by the French ? What followed ? 6. What other disasters befell Louis in Italy and France ? When did he die ? 288 FRANCE. [1515. several of the French officers, including Bayard, were taken prisoners (1513). Louis, wearied with these harassing wars, shortly afterward succeeded in making a treaty of peace with his enemies, but survived it only a few months. His virtues had made him exceedingly popular, and he died universally regretted by his subjects (1515). 7. Francis I., Duke of Angouleme (ang '-go-lam), and cousin of Louis XII., succeeded to the throne, at the age of 21 years. He was of a very chivalrous disposition, and was eager to distinguish himself by military achievements. His first enterprise was to recover Milan, which had been lost during the previous reign ; and, at the head of 40,000 men, commanded by Bayard, the Constable Bour'bon, and other illustrious generals, he invaded Italy. There, in the battle of Marignano {mali-reen-yali'no), he totally defeated the Swiss mercenaries, 10,000 of whom were left dead upon the field (1515). Milan, therefore, surrendered ; and Francis wisely augmented his influence by establishing a lasting alliance with the Swiss Republic (1516). 8. On .the death of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, Francis became a competitor with Charles, of Spain, for the vacant throne. The election of the latter excited the anger of Francis, and gave rise to a series of wars that lasted nearly twenty-five years, between him and his great rival, afterward so illustrious as Charles V. of Germany. Both parties sought the alliance of Henry VIII. of England ; and, on the occasion of the interview which took place between the English and French monarchs, fetes of such extraordi- nary splendor were given, that the place of the interview was called the « Field of the Cloth of Gold." Owing, how- ever, to the intrigues of Wolsey, Henry declared in favor of the Emperor. 9. Francis unwisely quarrelled with his great general, 7. Who succeeded Louis XII.? W T hat was his character? What led to the battle of Marignano ? What were its consequences ? 8. What led to wars with Charles V. of Germany? What course was pursued by Henry VIII. ? How was this brought about ? 1529.] FRANCE. 289 the Constable of Bourbon, and the latter was gladly taken into the service of the emperor. The first step of the French king was to invade Italy ; but his army was under the command of an incompetent general, and Bourbon soon drove it into a disastrous retreat, during which the gallant and chivalrous Bayard was killed. Francis then conducted the army in person ; but, at Pa' via, suffered a dreadful defeat, all his most distinguished generals being slain, and he himself made prisoner (1525). 10. He remained in captivity more than a year, during which he suffered considerable indignity from the emperor, who extorted from him an assent to the most humiliating conditions before he would grant his release. These, on regaining his liberty, he refused to fulfil ; and the war was renewed, Francis having effected an alliance with Venice and the Pope. Bourbon accordingly marched to Rome, with a large army, consisting partly of German troops, whose minds had been excited by the new doctrines of Luther, and partly also composed of a multitude of ad- venturers and bandits, ferocious as the Huns or Vandals. 11. Bourbon was slain in the first assault; but Rome was taken, and for seven months became a scene of the most remorseless violence and pillage, the Pope being kept a prisoner, and treated with the grossest indignities (1527). This led to an alliance between the kings of France and England ; and Charles, embarrassed by the movements of the German Protestants, and threatened by the Turks under their great sultan, Soliman the Magnificent, con- sented to a treaty of peace with Francis (1529). 12. Twice, however, was the war renewed; and Francis degraded himself and shocked Christendom by forming an alliance with the Turkish sultan. In 1544, he wiped out 9. With whom did Francis quarrel ? What led to the battle of Pavia ? What was its result ? Where is Pavia ? (See Prog. Map, No 7.) 1 How did Francis obtain his release ? What led to the taking of Rome ? 1 1 . Give an account of the sack of Rome ? To what did it lead * 1 2. What were the subsequent events of this reign ? When did it end ? 13 XdQ FRANCE. [1547. the disgrace of his defeat at Pavia, by a splendid victory in Italy over the Imperial army ; but Charles formed an alli- ance with Henry VIII., both monarchs engaging to invade France, capture Paris, and divide the French dominions between them. The French king successfully defended his capital against the invading armies of these two powerful foes, and finally succeeded in making peace with both. His death occurred the next year (1547). 13. Francis I. was a liberal patron of literature and the arts, both of which made very great progress during his reign . He was possessed of considerable talents, unbounded ambition, and very extraordinary courage, activity, and en- terprise ; but his private vices, his acquiescence in the ir flu- ence of incapable favorites, and his want of prudence and self-control, brought upon his people great misfortunes and miseries. 14. Henry II., on his accession to the throne, was in the twenty-ninth year of his age. He was slothful and luxurious in his disposition, and possessed but few of the talents of his father. Before he commenced to reign, he married Catharine de' Medici (med'e-che), a descendant of the illustrious Lorenzo de' Medici, of the Florentine Republic, who, on account of his accomplishments and his liberal patronage of learning and art, was atyled the " Magnificent." Pope Leo X. was a son of Lorenzo, and Clement VII. a nephew ; and when, through the influence of the latter and Charles V., Florence lost her liberty, a member of this celebrated family was made the first Duke of Florence (1529) ; and its descendants, for a century afterward, continued to occupy the ducal throne of Tus- cany. 15. Hostilities between France and Charles V. were ro- 1 3. What was the character of Francis I. ? 14. What is said of Henry II. ? Whom did he marry? Who was Catharine de' Medici ? 1 5. What war was continued ? What led to the treaty of Pass-.!! ? What were its terms ? What victory was gained by Francis, Duke of Guise 1 1559.] FKAKCE. 291 sumed soon after the commencement of Henry's reign; and the latter allied himself with the great Protestant champion, Maurice, Elector of Saxony, who at once de- clared against the emperor as the enemy of the civil and religious liberty of Germany. Charles V., prudently yield- ing to the force of so powerful a combination, concluded with the Germans the treaty of Passau, conceding to the Protestants freedom of worship (1552). Henry II., how- ever, having refused to be included in the treaty, the imperial army was repulsed with severe loss at Metz, defended by the French under Francis, Duke of Guise (gweez). 16. Charles V. having resigned his throne to his son Philip, the French king embraced the occasion to invade the Netherlands and Italy; but sustained severe disasters in each of these enterprises. In the former, the Constable Montmorency sustained a total defeat at St. Quen'tin, where the flower of his army were either slain or taken prisoners (1557). Queen Mary of England had given assistance to her husband Philip ; and, through the energy of Guise, the French gained possession of Calais (1558). This was soon followed by a treaty of peace between the contending par- ties, and by the king's death, which was occasioned by a wound received at a tournament (1559). 17. Francis II., a youth of sixteen years, succeeded to the throne. The year before, he married Mary, Queen of Scots; and, being of feeble intellect, he was entirely ruled by his fascinating queen, who herself was under the control of her uncles, the Duke of Guise and his brother, Cardinal of Lorraine. These two noblemen thus acquired the supreme power in the government ; which they pro- ceeded to employ for the destruction of the Protestants, or Huguenots, the persecution of whom had commenced in the previous reign. The Huguenots had, nevertheless, 1 6. What countries did Henry III. invade ? What were the results ? Why did the French take Calais? When and how did Henry's death occur? 1 7. Who succeeded Henry II. ? What was his character ? Who was his queen ? Who obtained the control of the government ? What is said of the Protestants ? 292 FRANCE. [1560. rapidly increased in number and influence, and now included within their ranks the King of Navarre, his brother Louis, Prince of Conde (Jco?i'da), Admiral Co- ligny (Jc*o-leen-ye'), with many others of high rank and great ability. 18. On account of the tyrannical administration of the Guises, a conspiracy was formed, under Conde; which proving unsuccessful, the Duke of Guise took the oppor- tunity of executing a dreadful vengeance on those who had been concerned in it, executing upward of 1200 persons with the most revolting cruelty (1560). This was soon followed by the arrest of the King of Navarre and the Prince of Conde, the latter of whom was convicted of high treason and sentenced to be executed ; but the king's death taking place soon afterward, he was released. The reign of Francis II. lasted less than eighteen months; and he was succeeded by his brother Charles, a youth ten years and a half old (1560). 19. Charles IX. — The government was now adminis- tered by the Queen-mother, Catharine de' Medici, who had previously selected for her chief friend and adviser the moderate and virtuous Chancellor de VHopital (lo'pe-tal) ; and the leaders of both religious parties were placed in the great offices of state. The States-General were assembled, and proclaimed entire freedom of religion, which was after- ward confirmed by a royal edict. These excellent measures, however, proved ineffectual, in consequence of the excesses and bitter feelings of both parties ; and the country was soon plunged into the miseries of a civil war. 20. The Prince of Conde at first assumed the command of the Protestants, who were assisted by the English Queen Elizabeth, while the government was aided by Philip of 18. What conspiracy was formed? What was its result? Who succeeded Francis II. ? 19. Who administered the government under Charles IX.? What measures were adopted ? With what results ? 20. Give an account of the war that ensued. How did it end? 15T2.] FKANCE. 293 Spain. This war was carried on with great fury, and with various successes on both sides, till 1570, when Catharine obtained peace by granting to the Huguenots the free ex- ercise of their religion in all parts of France, except Paris, placing in their power, as a guarantee, four cities, one of which was Rochelle (ro-sheV). While this arrangement gave great dissatisfaction to the Catholic party, it did not restore confidence to the Protestants, who entertained a mistrust of the sincerity of Catharine, by whose counsels and intrigues the king was entirely controlled. 21. Admiral Coligny and the other Protestant leaders finally repaired to the court ; and the former gained so much influence over Charles, that the Queen-mother en- tered into a conspiracy to remove him by assassination, and thus arouse the vengeance of the Huguenots, so that a pretext might be found for their destruction. Coligny was, however, but slightly wounded, and the plot failed. Catharine and her accomplices next wrung from the king his consent to the death of Coligny and the other principal members of the Protestant faction. The dreadful " Massa- cre of St. Bartholomew's Day" followed, in which the Huguenots throughout France were butchered, without distinction of age or sex. Coligny was the first victim, and the number of those that fell in Paris is estimated at 10,000; the whole number slaughtered in different parts of the kingdom amounting to 30,000 (August 24, 1572). 22. The Huguenots were not, however, destroyed. They successfully repelled the attacks made on their stronghold, Rochelle, and succeeded in obtaining very favorable terms of peace from the government. Charles soon afterward died (1574). having suffered on his death-bed the mostpoignaufc remorse for the crimes and atrocities which had been perpe- trated with his sanction. His imbecility has, however, 21. What led to the Massacre of " St. Bartholomew's Day?" Give an account of it. 22. What was its effect on the Huguenots ? When did the king die ? What is said of him ? 294 FKAtfCE. [1589. saved his name from most of this guilt, resting, as it does, upon Catharine de' Medici, and her associates in the dark intrigues by means of which those acts of cruelty were committed. 23. Henry III., brother of the late king, succeeded to the throne ; although, in the preceding year, he had been elected King of Poland. He was a weak and dissolute man, neglecting his duties to indulge in the most infa- mous debauchery. The Huguenots, under the leadership of Henry of Navarre, and the Prince of Conde, became very powerful ; and the king and Catharine were compelled to make the most humiliating concessions (1576). This led to the " Holy League," formed by the Catholic party to extirpate the Huguenots, overturn the government, and place one of the Guises on the throne. 24. The contest that followed has been styled the " War of the Three Henries " — Henry, the king, Henry of Guise, and Henry of Navarre. It was commenced in 1587 ; and the king, in union with the Leaguers, gained some ad- vantages over their opponents. At last, disgusted and en- raged at finding himself at the mercy of the Guises, and being treated with considerable indignity by them, he caused them to be assassinated. This crime excited a vio- lent outbreak of popular fury against the king, who, in order to resist the opposition which he had created, allied himself to Henry of Navarre and the Huguenots. A few months after this, he was assassinated by a Dominican Monk, named Clement, who was prompted to the deed by feelings of religious enthusiasm (1589). Thus ended the royal dynasty of Valois, the throne passing to the House of Bourbon, in the person of Henry III., King of Navarre, who now assumed the title of Henry IV. 23. Who succeeded Charles IX.? What is said of him? What caused the Holy League ? 24. What was the War of the Three Henries ? What is said of it ? What crime was committed by the king ? How did his death occur ? What line ended ? By whom was Henry HI. succeeded ? 1598.1 FRANCE. 295 House of Bourbon. 25. Henry IV. was in his 36th year when he came to the throne, from which the Catholic nobles at first attempt- ed to exclude him, except on condition of his renounc- ing his religion, which he refused to do ; but he prom- ised to give security to the Catholics and their religion, and to abide the decision of a national Council. This not being satisfactory to the League, now commanded by the Duke of May-enne', brother of the late Duke of Guise, a war ensued, in which Henry defeated his enemies in the famous battle of Ivry (eev're) (1590) ; but the fruits of this victory were afterward lost, and the Duke of Mayenne entered Paris in triumph. 26. The war was continued for some time with varied success, Henry being aided by the English troops under the Earl of Essex. At last, the States- General were called ; and Henry, to satisfy the prevailing party, and to secure a recognition of his right to the throne, abjured Protestant- ism and declared himself satisfied of the truth of the Catholic faith (1593). Though injurious to his personal reputation, this act of the king's delivered France from a condition of the most dreadful anarchy ; and, for patriotic reasons, it was approved by many of the Huguenots them- selves. On moral and religious grounds, it cannot, of course, be at all j ustified. 27. The next five years were occupied in securing his possession of the throne, and in a war which was carried on with Philip of Spain. This was closed by a treaty in 1598, a year memorable for the grant by the king of the celebrated Edict of Nantes (nantz), in which he con- firmed the rights and privileges of the Huguenots, conferred 25. What course waa pursued by Henry and the Catholic nobles ? What led to the battle of Ivry? What was its result ? Where is Ivry? (See Map, p. 188.) 26. What were the other events of the war? What course did Henry pursue with respect to his religion ? What is said of it ? 27. What were the chief events of the next five years ? What was the Edict of Nantes ? Where is Nantes ? (See Map, p. 188.) 29G ERANCE. [1610. upon them entire liberty of conscience, and admitted them to all offices of honor and emolument. 28. He next directed his attention to the internal condi- tion of the kingdom, which, on account of the long con- tinuance of civil war, had become entirely disorganized. By the construction of roads and canals, he brought all parts of the country into ready communication, encouraged traffic and commerce, and thus opened new sources of wealth and intelligence to the people. Manufactures, mining, and every other department of industry were fostered by his beneficent measures, in devising which he was greatly aided by the wise and upright Duke of SuTly. The latter reorganized the finances; and, although many of the taxes were remitted, the national debt was almost entirely liquidated. 29. In the latter part of his reign, Henry IV. formed a project to rearrange the various states of Europe, and form them into an association, so as more completely to secure the balance of power, and to diminish the influence of the imperial house of Austria. A dispute having arisen be- tween the emperor and some of the Protestant princes of Germany, Henry took sides with the latter, and thus gave great offence to his Catholic subjects. He was on the point of setting out to commence the war, when he was assassinated (1610) in the streets of Paris by a half-insane fanatic, named Ravaillac (rali-val-yah'). The death of the king, who was the idol of the people, occasioned the utmost grief and indignation ; and his murderer was put to death with every refinement of torture. Henry was possessed of great abilities and force of character ; and, as a monarch, was deserving of very high praise ; but his private life was sullied with very great vices and immoralities. SO. Louis XIII. succeeded his father at the age of nine 28. What wise measures were adopted by the king ? Who was his minister ? 29. What scheme was planned by Henry* IV. ? How did he offend his Catholic subjects ? How was his death caused 9 What was his character ? 1628.] FRANCE. 297 years, under the regency of his mother, Mary de' Medici. Sully, the great minister of Henry IV., becoming disgusted with the injudicious measures of the regent, and particularly with her attention to Italian favorites, resigned his offices, and went into retirement. An assembly of the States- General, in 1614, is noted for the first great occasion on which the celebrated Eichelieu {reesh'e-lu) made display of his extraordinary talents. He was made a cardinal in 1622 ; and, two years afterward, he became the chief adviser of the king. 31. Eichelieu's first object was to subdue the Huguenots, who for some time had been in rebellion against the gov- ernment. Eochelle, their chief city, was besieged; and, although Charles I. of England sent a considerable force to its assistance, it was compelled, after a vigorous defence of fifteen months, to surrender (1628). Eichelieu himself took a very active part in this siege. The other towns in the possession of the Huguenots were shortly after obliged to submit ; and the cause of Protestantism in France was en- tirely prostrated. 32. Eichelieu's next object was to humble the power of the imperial house of Austria, to effect which he took part in the "Thirty Years' War," on the side of the Protestants (then commanded by the great Swedish monarch Gustavus Adolphus), against Spain and the Empire. After the death of that hero at Lut'zen, the French suffered some reverses, the imperialists invading France, devastating the country, and penetrating within three days' march of the capital. The persevering energy of Eichelieu, however, finally triumphed over all his enemies; and the French armies made conquest of Alsace and other territories. 33. The vigor of Eichelieu's government excited much 30. Who succeeded Henry IV. ? Who became Regent? What is said of the States-General? To what offices was Eichelieu promoted? 31. Give an account of the war waged by Richelieu against the Hug:ienots. Where is Rochelle ? (See Map, p. 188.) 32. What was the next object of Richelieu ? How did he carry it out ? 298 FEANCE. [1642. opposition on the part of the princes and nobles of France, and many conspiracies were formed to destroy him. All these schemes he was enabled to thwart by his consum- mate vigilance and address, and several of those who had engaged in them he caused to be executed. The most con- spicuous among his enemies were. Mary de' Medici, the queen-mother; Gaston, Duke of Orleans, the brother of the king ; and the Duke of Montmorency. The last was exe- cuted, having been taken prisoner in a conflict with the government forces. 34. Notwithstanding these difficulties, Richelieu sustained the influence of France, and made its power respected by every foreign state. In no period of its history, has its glory shone forth with more splendor than during the ad- ministration of this talented and ambitious cardinal, be- neath whose comprehensive genius and indefatigable energy the king himself became a mere cipher. Richelieu was also a patron of science and literature ; and to him France owes the foundation of the French Academy. His death occurred in 1642, and was followed the next year by that of the king. 35. Louis XIV. was scarcely five years of age when his father died ; and the regency was intrusted to his mother, Anne of Austria, who selected as her prime minister Cardi- nal Maz'a-rin, a former disciple and associate of Richelieu. France was again drawn into the " Thirty Years' War," by the renewal of hostilities on the part of the house of Aus- tria; but several splendid victories were gained by the French army, under the Prince of Conde, afterward so illustrious as the "Great Conde," and by the celebrated Marshal Tu-renne'. This long war was closed by the "Treaty of Westphalia," in 1648, by which the boundaries of France were settled, nearly as they exist at present. 33. What conspiracies were formed against him ? With what results ? 34. What is said of the administration of Richelieu? What did he found 5 When did his death occur ? When did the king die? 35. By whom was Louis XIII. succeeded ? What is said of Louis XIV. ? Who became Regent ? What minister did she choose ? In what war was France in- volved ? YVitli what result ? What is said of the Peace of Westphalia ? 1661.] FRANCE. 299 36. Meantime, the civil war of the Fronde* had broken out (1648), caused by the resistance of the people, repre- sented in the parliament of Paris, to the unjust and op- pressive measures of taxation adopted by the government, and probably incited by the rebellion of the English against their king, Charles I., which had just been brought to a successful issue. In these commotions, the court was op- posed by many of the nobles ; and, during the latter part of the war, the Great Conde also took sides against the government. The principal leader of the revolt, however, was Cardinal de Retz (rats). With much difficulty it was subdued in 1653, having lasted about five years. 37. The death of Mazarin, who had accumulated enor- mous wealth, occurred in 1661, after which date Louis XIV., from whom, on account of his neglected education, little had been expected, suddenly assumed the reins of government. He at once exhibited great sagacity and tal- ent as a ruler ; and during his subsequent reign, which lasted more than half a century, the vastness of his mili- tary enterprises, the grandeur of his plans for the internal improvement of his kingdom, his magnificent court cere- monial, and his enlightened patronage of literature and the arts and sciences, obtained for him the title of the "Great King." His government was, however, a com- plete despotism, its fundamental principle being compre- hended in his famous saying, " I am the state." 38. The prosperity of France was, at this time, greatly promoted by the wise financial measures of Colbert (Tcol- bclre'), and by the able administration of foreign affairs, con- ducted by the prime minister Louvois (loo-vwah 1 ). The first * The members of the political faction opposed to the government were called, in derision Fi 'imleuiK, that is, Sliw/eis; being compared to the vagrant boys (gamins) of Paris who fought with slings (J'ronde). 36,, What caused the war of the Fronde? Give an account of it. Why called the Fronde ? (See note.) 37. When did Mazzarin's death occur? What is said of the conduct and char- acter of Louis XIV. ? 38. By whom was the prosperity of France promoted ? What caused the Triple Alliance? The war with the Dutch ? Where is Franche Comte ? (See Map, p. 188.) 300 FRANCE. [1681. military enterprise of Louis was the seizure of Flanders and Franche Comte (fransli kong'ta) ; but the " Triple Alliance" (England, Holland, and Sweden) arrested his career of con- quest (1668). This excited the anger of Louis against Hol- land; and, having bribed Charles II. of England to aid him, and obtained promises of neutrality from the other great powers of Europe, he directed his armies, commanded by Turenne and Conde, against that republic. 39. At first, the affairs of the Dutch appeared to be des- perate, as they were weakened by the dissensions between the adherents of William of Orange and the democratic party under De Witt, The latter having been overthrown by a popular insurrection, William, Prince of Orange, then a young man in his 23d year, became stadtholder (presi- dent) of the republic. Through his genius and patriot- ism the country was successfully defended, the progress of the enemy being at first arrested by opening the vast 'sluices, and laying the whole district surrounding Amster- dam under water (1672). 40. This war lasted six years longer, the Prince of Orange having succeeded in forming an alliance with the Emperor of Germany. The French fleets gained important victories in the Mediterranean over those of Holland under De fiuyter, who was slain in one of these battles. Peace was made, in 1678, between France and Holland. The former gained nothing of importance by this severe war ; but Louis had lost his great general Turenne ; and Conde, enfeebled by age, had fought his last campaign. The free city of Stras'burg was captured by the French a short time after- ward (1681) ; and, through the engineering skill of the celebrated Vauban (vo-bahng 1 ), it was made an impregnable bulwark of France on the eastern frontier. 39. What weakened the Dutch? Who became stadtholder? What measures did he adopt? _, ,". , - 40. What other events of the war are mentioned? What were its results? When and how was Strasburg taken ? Where is Strasburg ? (See Progressiva Map, No. 7.) 1713.] FKANCE. 301 41. By the advice of the celebrated Madame de Main'- te-non (-nong), Louis adopted the impolitic measure of re- voking the Edict of Nantes (1685) ; after which a fierce persecution of the Huguenots ensued, which drove upward of 500,000 of the most industrious of the citizens of France from their country. The flight of James II. from England involved the French monarch in another war, in which he had to cope with the combined forces of the " Grand Al- liance," consisting of all the great powers of Europe (1689). For over seven years was this mighty struggle maintained by sea and land; and, France being utterly exhausted, Louis was compelled to assent to the Treaty of Eyswick, and thus submit to humiliating conditions of peace (1689). 42. A few years afterward, followed the great " War of the Spanish Succession" (1701). On the death of Charles II. of Spain, Louis claimed the throne of that country for his grandson Philip V., whilst the emperor supported the claim of his son, afterward the Emperor Charles VI. This led to an alliance between Holland and Germany against the French king ; which was joined by William of Orange, Louis having recognized the son of James II. king of Eng- land. The war was carried on in Spain, Belgium, Germany, and Italy; and the French experienced a series of disas- trous defeats, having to contend against the genius of Marl- borough and Prince Eugene. The Treaty of Utrecht closed the war (1713), according to which Louis gave up some of his American possessions to England, but obtained the re- cognition of Philip V. as King of Spain. 43. The condition of France was now most deplorable, through the ambition, pride, and bigotry of her despotic monarch. He sustained, however, his haughty mien and pompous state ceremonial to the last, notwithstanding he 41. What impolitic act did Louis XIV. commit? What was the result ? Give an account of the Grand Alliance and the events that followed it. 42. Give an account of the war of the Spanish Succession. What was its result f 43. What was now the condition of France? What is said of Louis XIV. ? When did his death occur? Who succeeded him ? What writings did he leave 5 What is the period of his reign called ? 302 FRANCE. [1715. had lost by death, his son, the Dauphin, his eldest grand- son, and many others of his kindred. He died in 1715, after a reign of more than 72 years, and was succeeded by Louis, his great-grandson. Louis XIV. left several volumes of writings, containing his " Instructions to his Sons," and his letters, which give valuable information respecting the events of his reign. This period is regarded as the Augus- tan age of French literature. 44. Louis XV. was only five years of age on his acces- sion, and the Regency fell into the hands of the dissolute Duke of Orleans, who was controlled by his shameless and unprincipled minister, the infamous Abbe Dubois (du- bwah'). The education of the young king was intrusted to the Abbe de Fleu'ry, noted for his virtues and accom- plishments, and for his work on the History of the Church. Cardinal Fleury succeeded him in 1722. During the re- gency occurred the famous " Mississippi Scheme," devised by a Scotch adventurer named John Law, who proposed to issue paper money on the security of certain gold and dia- mond mines said to exist near the Mississippi Eiver, in Louisiana, and in this way to extinguish the vast debt of the country. Such was the rage for speculation excited by this project, that the shares sold for forty times their par value. Thousands were ultimately ruined by this scheme, as in England by the " South Sea Bubble." 45. Cardinal Fleury was made prime minister in 1726, in the 72d year of his age; and the country greatly pros- pered under his prudent and skilful administration, which lasted seventeen years. His policy was peaceful ; but the marriage of Louis XV. with the daughter of the dethroned King of Poland, involved him in a war with Russia, Austria, and Denmark, to reinstate his father-in-law, Stan'is-las, on 44. What was the age of Louis XV. ? Who became Regent and minister ? Who were the instructors of the king ? Give an account of the Mississippi scheme. 45. When did Cardinal Fleury become minister? What is said of his adminis- tration ? What caused war with Russia, Austria, and Denmark ? What was its result ? What war followed ? What victory was gained ? What treaty ended the war ? What followed ? 1774.] FKANCE. 303 the throne ; but in this object he was unsuccessful. The "War of the Austrian Succession" followed soon after, during which Fleury died (1743). The most important victory gained by the French during this war was that of Fontenoy, under Marshal Saxe (1745). The Treaty of Aix- la-Chapelle gave a brief rest to Europe, which was broken by the "Seven Years' War" in 1756. 46. During this struggle France lost Canada, and some of her West Indian possessions ; and her army was severely defeated at Min'den, by the English and Hanoverians, commanded by the Duke of Brunswick (1759). The Treaty of Paris deprived France of many important possessions, and left her heavily laden with taxes (1763). The year 1769 is remarkable for the conquest of Corsica, after a brave struggle for its independence, under Paoli. During- the same year was born on this island, Napoleon Bonaparte, destined to play so great a part in the subsequent history of France. Louis XV. died in 1774, after having, by a long course of tyranny, debauchery, and reckless profusion, dis- gusted his subjects, and plunged the country into anarchy and ruin. 47. Louis XVI. succeeded his grandfather at the age of 20 years. His character presented a striking contrast to that of the preceding king, being beneficent and upright ; and he commenced his reign with the sincere desire to amelio- rate the condition of his suffering people, by redressing their grievances, and restoring the financial prosperity of the kingdom. He was, however, deficient in judgment and decision ; and, although he selected for his ministers the patriotic Turgot (toor-go') and Malsherles (mal-zarV), he soon became involved in great difficulties on account of the irreparable confusion of the finances. These were still 46. What did France lose during the Seven Years 1 War? What took place at Minden ? What was lost hy the Treaty of Paris ? For what is the year 1769 noted ? When did Louis XV. die ? What was the effect of his reign ? 47. Who succeeded to the throne? At what age? What was his character? What minister did he select ? What caused difficulties ? Who was the queen ? 304 FRAKCE. [1789. further deranged by the extravagant habits of the Court, presided over by the young and fascinating queen, Marie Antoinette (an-tivah-net'), daughter of Maria Theresa. 48. Various ministers of well-established reputation for financial skill were selected, — among them the celebrated Neck'er, a banker of Geneva ; but the national difficulties increased. A war with England, caused by the interference of France in the struggle of the English colonies of America for independence, still further embarrassed the government of Louis XVI., by compelling a new levy of taxes, greatly to the discontent of the people, who complained loudly of the extravagance of the Court and Marie Antoinette. At length an assembly of the States-General was vehemently demanded, a meeting of which had not been called since 1614. To this Louis gave his assent (1789). 49. By the advice of Necker 5 it had been decreed that the representatives of the Third Estate, or Commons, should be equal in number to those of the nobility and clergy together ; and, on their assemblage at Ver-sailles' (May 5, 1789), a dispute arose as to the mode in which the votes should be taken in deciding questions, — whether the three Orders should vote as separate bodies, or, all being assembled in one body, the votes should be taken numeri- cally. The latter mode was advocated by the Third Es- tate ; and, after contending for several weeks, against the opposition of the two other orders, they finally resolved themselves into a distinct body, under the title of the Na- tional Assembly, and claimed to be the legitimate rep- resentatives of the French people (June 17). They were soon joined by many of the clergy. 50. Thus was inaugurated the great French Revolu- tion, which in its progress not only convulsed France, but 48. What financial ministers were selected? What increased the troubles » What measure was finally resolved on ? 49. How had the number of representatives been arranged? What disputes arose ? What was the course of the Third Estate ? By whom were they joined ? 50. What did these proceedings inaugurate? What causes led to the Revo- lution ? 1*89.] FRANCE. 305 threw the whole civilized world into violent commotion, uprooting institutions which had withstood the assaults of ages. For this mighty outbreak many circumstances had prepared the way, the chief of which were the following : 1. The despotism, recklessness, and profligacy of the gov- ernment of France during the three preceding reigns ; 2. The oppressions to which the lower classes were subjected from the unjust laws which favored the nobility and cler- gy, by exempting them from their due 'share in the weight of taxation ; 3. The dissemination of knowledge among the people, and the spread of infidelity, occasioned by the writings of Vol-taire', and others ; 4. The notions and feel- ings in favor of popular freedom inspired by the success of the American Revolution, in which so many of the French nation had borne a distinguished part. 51. The king and his ministers, dismayed at the deter- mination shown by the Commons, and desiring to check their proceedings, attempted to exclude them from their hall, and thus suspend their sittings. But the Assembly, through the energy of their president Bail'ly (or bahl-ye'), and the eloquence of their great leader Mirabeau (me-rah- bo'), thwarted this attempt ; and the king showed his in- decision by afterward sanctioning their measures, and re- questing all the deputies of the clergy and nobility to join with the Third Estate. 52. By the advice of the queen, large bodies of troops were collected to overawe the Assembly, and JSTecker was dismissed. This excited an insurrection of the populace in Paris, and the Bastile (bas-teel'), a noted prison, was stormed and captured by the mob (July 14, 1789). • The excited populace then proceeded to Versailles, and de- manded that the king and royal family should return to Paris ; and Louis felt himself obliged to comply. Lafay- 5 1 . What course did the king take ? The Assembly ? 52. What led to an insurrection ? What acts did the populace commit • Who was made commandant of the National Guard ? With whom did it sympathize ? 306 FRANCE. [1791. ette (lah-fa-et 1 ) was then placed at the head of the mili- tia, called the National Guard, the members of which sympathized with the popular movements, so that the king was without any support except from the Swiss and Ger- man mercenaries. 53. The violence of the Parisian mob, inflamed by the political writings which were circulated among the people, soon became ungovernable ; and several obnoxious individu- als were seized and put to death with great cruelty. The Assembly energetically prosecuted its measures of reform, and decreed the entire abolition of the principles and prac- tices of the former government. They subsequently agreed upon a constitution, limiting the power of the king and securing popular rights ; and then passed a resolution by which the National Assembly (now called the Constitu- ent Assembly) was dissolved, and a new body authorized to be summoned, entitled the Legislative Assembly, to which .none of the members of the National Assembly were eli- gible (1791). 54. Meanwhile, several insurrections had taken place in Paris ; and the king and his family had been treated with the greatest indignity by the infuriated mob, whose pas- sions were particularly excited against the unfortunate queen. Attempting flight, they were pursued, arrested, and brought back to Paris. The Legislative Assembly met in 1791 ; and, although the king had accepted the constitu- tion and promised to abide by its requirements, a large party were hostile to the monarchy, desiring to destroy it, and establish a republican form of government. These views were fostered by the political clubs which had been formed in Paris, a short time after the commencement of the Revolution, among which the famous Jac'obin Club had attained the complete control of the Assembly. 53. What was the conduct of the Parisian mob? Of the National Assembly ? What body succeeded it ? . , , 54. What had taken place in Paris ? Against whom were the populace excited 5 Who desired a republic ? By whom were these sentiments fostered ': 1792.] FKAN/CE. 307 55. The king repeatedly made concessions to the repub- licans, while he cherished schemes for escaping from their control ; but each month added to his humiliations and to the boldness of his enemies. Foreign nations looked on with alarm, and sympathized with the royal family. Austria and Prussia declared war upon the French, in order to rescue the hapless monarch. This still further excited the Pa- risian mob. They rushed to the Tuileries (tweel're), the palace in which the king resided, took it by storm, massa- cred the brave Swiss soldiers who defended it, and obliged the king to take refuge in the Assembly, by whose orders he and his family were imprisoned (August 10, 1792). . 56. The supreme authority being now seized by the mu- nicipality of Paris, a special criminal tribunal was insti- tuted ; and all persons suspected of hostility to the revolu- tion were dragged before it, condemned, and massacred in the most shocking manner. Lafayette being at the head of the army, refused to recognize the authority of the Assem- bly, but, he not being sustained by the troops, retired from the country. The Legislative Assembly was dissolved ; and having been reorganized as the National Convention, it formally abolished the monarchy, and declared France a republic (September 1792). The next month, the revolu- tionists were emboldened by the victory gained by the French General Dumourier (du-moo-re-a') over the Aus- trian army at Jemeppe (zha-mep'), in Belgium. 57. The Convention, now composed of strict republicans, was divided into two parties, bitterly hostile to each other, one called the Mountain Party and the other the Girond- ists (zhe-rond'ists). Of the former, the leaders were Bo- 55. What was done by the king? Who declared war upon France ? To what * did this lead ? 56. What followed the imprisonment of the king? What succeeded the Legis- lative Assembly ? What measures were taken by the National Convention ? What emboldened the revolutionists ? 57. Into what parties was the Convention divided? Who were the leaders of the Mountain Party? What distinguished orator belonged to the Girondists? Give an account of the trial of the king. When did the execution take place 5 What nobleman voted against the king ? 308 FRANCE. [1793. bespierre {ro-bes-pe-dre'), Dan'ton, and Marat (mah-rah'), noted for their wickedness and cruelty. One of the most eminent of the Girondists was Vergniaucl (varn-yo'), dis- tinguished for his eloquence. One of the first acts of the Convention was the trial of the king, who was charged with conspiring against .the liberties of France ; and, notwith- standing the eloquent and unanswerable defence made by his advocate, Des&ze {duh-sdz'), he was found guilty of the charges, with very few dissenting votes, and condemned to death. The sentence was executed by the guillotine, one week afterward (January 21, 1793). Among those who voted for the king's condemnation was the infamous Duke of Orleans, who took part in the popular excesses, abandon- ing his title and taking the name of Philip E-gal'i-te {equal- ity). 58. The Mountain Party having triumphed in the Con- vention, the Girondist leaders were guillotined. The Reign of Terror was then inaugurated, during which the Revolutionary Tribunal, controlled by Robespierre, Danton, and others, caused thousands to be seized and hurried to the guillotine. Among these victims was the un- fortunate Marie Antoinette (Oct. 1793), who, during her imprisonment, had been subjected to every indignity and insult which could be devised by her relentless jailers. Similar deeds of cruelty were perpetrated in other parts of France, the number guillotined being estimated at more than 18,000. 59. The cruel and wicked men concerned in these atroci- ties almost invariably met with a violent death. Marat was assassinated by Charlotte Cor' day. The faction of Robespierre, triumphing over that of Danton, caused him •and his adherents to be guillotined; and a few months 58. What was the fate of Marat? What party triumphed in the Convention? What followed ? What was the fate of Marie Antoinette ? What occurred in other parts of France ? 59. What closed the Reign of Terror? What change took place in the govern- ment ? What brought Napoleon Bonaparte into notice ? 1796.] FRANCE. 309 afterward, this dreadful period closed by the execution of Robespierre himself (1794). A new constitution was then adopted by the Convention, the executive authority being intrusted to a Directory, consisting of five members. This constitution being opposed by several of the Parisian Sec- tions (divisions of the city), who threatened an insurrec- tion, Napoleon Bonaparte, a young officer, who had pre- viously distinguished himself at the siege of Tou-lon', was selected to conduct the military operations against the in- surgents. Planting his cannon adroitly, he opened fire upon the populace, and dispersed them without difficulty (1795). 60. The service rendered by Napoleon on the " Day of the Sections," was soon afterward rewarded by conferring upon him the command of the Army of Italy, designed to operate against the Austrians (1796). In two campaigns he achieved a succession of the most brilliant victories over the Austrian armies ; and, entering the Venetian territory, in consequence of hostilities committed against the French, he captured Venice itself, and overturned her ancient gov- ernment (1797). The emperor was at length compelled to assent to the terms of the treaty of Cam'po For'mi-o, by which an independent commonwealth was established in Northern Italy, called the " Cisalpine Republic," and the city of Venice was ceded to Austria. 61. Bonaparte, after considerable persuasion, induced the Directory to consent to an expedition designed to conquer Egypt, as a means of attacking the commerce and power of England in the East. Landing there with an immense army, he captured Alexandria, and then marched toward Cairo (Jci'ro), which, after defeating the Mamelukes in the noted "Battle of the Pyramids," he entered (1798). This gave him possession of the country ; but a few days after- 60. What command was bestowed on Napoleon ? Describe the campaigns in Italy. How did they end ? What was the Cisalpine Republic ? 61 . What account is given of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt ? , 310 FKANCE. [1800. ward, Nelson destroyed his fleet, in the memorable " Battle of the Nile," and thus cut off the retreat of the invaders. 62. The Turkish empire having declared war against France, Bonaparte at once invaded Syria, captured Jaffa by assault, and cruelly caused 1200 Turkish prisoners to be put to death. He then laid siege to Acre (a'ker), but failed to capture it ; although he defeated the Turks with great slaughter at Mount Ta'bor. Eeturning to Egypt, he attacked and almost annihilated a considerable army of Turks at Aboukir (ab-oo-keer'), General Murat {mu-rah'), at the head of the French cavalry, particularly distinguishing himself in this obstinate battle (1799). Leaving his army with General Kleber (Ma-Mr'), he then returned to France, and was received with unbounded enthusiasm by the people. 63. Meanwhile, a new coalition of the great powers of Europe had been formed against France, and the Kussians under Su-iuar'row had gained several important victories in Italy. This made the Directory very unpopular, and Bona- parte took the opportunity of overturning the government at the point of the bayonet. A new constitution was then formed, and accepted by the people, according to which the executive power was vested in three Consuls, elected for ten years. Bonaparte was appointed First Consul (1799), and by his vigor and address introduced reforms in every department of the government. 64. The military operations were conducted with splen- did ability and success. The Austrians were defeated by General Moreau (mo-ro') in the battle of Ho-hen-lin' den ; while Napoleon himself gained new laurels by his daring passage of the Alps, and by his brilliant victory over the Austrians at Ma-ren'go (1800). This compelled the empe- 62. What account is given of the Syrian expedition ? What victory was gained over the Turks ? Whom did Napoleon leave in Egypt ? 63. What made the Directory unpopular? How was a change in the govern ment effected ? What did Napoleon become ? 64. What victory was gained by Moreau ? By Napoleon ? What treaties were then made ? To what office was Napoleon elected ? When and how was he made emperor ? 1805.] FRANCE. 311 ror to conclude the Treaty of Lune'ville (1801), which was followed by the Treaty of Amiens, in which peace was made with England (1802). Bonaparte was next elected Consul for life; and, various conspiracies being formed against him, he determined still further to augment his power, and caused himself to be declared by the Legislature Emperor of the French (1804). 65. A short time after this, Moreaa was banished for being concerned in a conspiracy against the government, and eleven of the other conspirators were put to death. Napoleon received the crown of France from the hands of the Pope ; and subsequently caused himself to be crowned King of Italy, with the famous " iron crown" of the Lom- bards (1805). These assumptions of power led to another coalition against him, on the part of England, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Prussia; but Napoleon, with his ac- customed promptitude, marched against the Austrians, and succeeded in capturing a large army at Ulm (1805). This was soon followed by the decisive battle of Aus'ter-litz, in which the combined army of the Austrians and Russians were routed with overwhelming loss. The emperors of France, Austria, and Russia were present at this battle, and the conditions of peace were at once agreed upon. The treaty was afterward concluded at Presdurg, Austria making great sacrifices of territory. 66. Napoleon now took possession of Naples, and con- ferred the crown upon his brother Joseph. His brother Louis was made king of Holland ; and various principali- ties and duchies were bestowed upon his most eminent generals and ministers. He next formed a union of several states of Germany, which was styled the " Confederation of the Rhine," and placed under his own control. This 65. Who was banished ? What other crown did Napoleon obtain ? What co- alition was formed? What victories were gained by Napoleon? What is said of the battle of Austerlitz ? What treaty was then made ? 66. What crowns were bestowed by Napoleon upon his relatives and others ? What was the " Confederation of the Rhine V What title did the emperor of Ger many assume ? 312 FRANCE. [180T. was practically a dissolution of the empire of Germany ; and the emperor, accordingly, assumed the title of Emperor of Austria, relinquishing that of " Emperor of Germany and King of the Romans," which he had hitherto possessed. 67. These encroachments and usurpations led to a fourth coalition, consisting of Prussia, Eussia, Austria, Great Britain, and Sweden, against the French empire. The Prussian monarch raised an immense army of 150,000 men, and commenced hostilities.; but Napoleon, with wonderful skill and promptitude, attacked and utterly defeated the Prussians, in the sanguinary battle of Je'na (1806). So complete was the victory, that the kingdom of Prussia lay at the mercy of the victor, who a few weeks afterward en- tered Ber-lin' in triumph. There, he issued his celebrated decree, declaring the British Isles in a state of blockade, and forbidding all commercial intercourse, on the part of any nation, with Great Britain or her colonies. 68. During the winter, he attacked the Russians at Eilau {i'loiv) ; but his army was repulsed with tremendous slaughter (January, 1807). Six months later, with an army of 200,000 men, he gained a victory over the Russians at FriecTland ; and thus was enabled to dictate terms of peace to the Russian emperor Alexander, at Til' sit. Peace was also made with Prussia, on condition that she should give up the territory between the Rhine and Elbe rivers, which Napoleon bestowed on his brother Jerome, with the title of King of Westphalia (1807). 69. Napoleon's commercial restrictions, as declared in the Berlin decree (callecl the Continental System), were not obeyed by Portugal, into which country British merchan- dise was freely admitted, and thence transported into Spain. He therefore ordered General Junot to invade Portugal and 67. What was the fourth coalition? Give an account of the hattle of Jena? What were the consequences ? What decree was issued hy Napoleon ? 68. What battles were fought with the Russians? To what treaty did the vic- tory of Friedland lead ? What was given to Jerome Bonaparte ? 69. What country was invaded by the French ? Why ? What followed ? What measures did Napoleon adopt in regard to Spain ? 1809.] TRANCE. 313 take possession of Lisbon ; and the prince regent was com- pelled to seek refuge with the British fleet in the Tagus, whence he sailed to Brazil, and fixed the seat of his gov- ernment in that country. Portugal was then declared a province of the French empire. Napoleon next determined to take possession of Spain ; and, after compelling its law- ful king to resign the crown, he conferred it upon his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, whom he had transferred from the throne of Naples. The latter throne he conferred on Murat, who had married his sister (1808). 70. The people of Portugal and Spain were aroused to insurrection by these arbitrary measures ; and the British government resolved to aid them in their efforts to expel the invaders. The " Peninsular War" followed, which lasted nearly five years, and in which Wellington gained those re- splendent victories which have already been referred to in the history of England. Meanwhile, hostilities were again resumed on the part of Austria, with armies which amount- ed, in the aggregate, to about 500,000 men. Napoleon, notwithstanding his inferior forces, defeated the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, at Ech'muhl (1809), but was compelled to fall back from his position after the bloody battle of As pern. A week afterward, he gained a decisive victory at Wagram {wah'gram) ; after which the Austrian emperor was obliged to submit to terms of peace dictated by the victor (1809). 71. While these events were in progress, Napoleon deposed the Pope (Pius VII.), and caused him to be imprisoned in France, on account of his refusal to concur in the Conti- nental System, and to recognize Murat as king of Naples. Having divorced his faithful and virtuous wife Josephine, he next haughtily demanded the Austrian princess Maria Louisa in marriage; and so thoroughly had the Emperor TO. To what war did the seizure of Spain lead ? What battles were fought bv Napoleon with the Austrians ? What followed the victory at Wagram ? 71. What were the next measures of Napoleon? What cities and territory were seized ? 14 314 FRANCE. [1812. Francis been subdued at Wagram, that he was compelled to give his assent ; and the nuptials, accordingly, took place a short time afterward (1810). In order the more effectually to carry out his policy of commercial prohibition, he, in the same year, seized the Hanse towns, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubec, and annexed the northern coast of Germany to the French empire. 72. Difficulties having arisen with Sweden and Russia, in consequence of the French emperor's arbitrary demands in the carrying out of the Continental System, the latter determined to invade Russia with an overwhelming force. Accordingly, in June, 1812, he set out with a splendidly equipped army of nearly 500,000 men, crossed the Niemen, and directed his march to Mos'cow, the ancient capital of the Russian empire. Arriving at Smo-lenslc', he captured the city after a tremendous conflict, which closed with the retreat of the Russians. About two weeks after this, he fought a desperate battle with the Russian army at Bor-o- di'no (i like e) ; but, although 45,000 of the enemy were either killed or wounded, he failed to destroy their army, and gained no decisive victory. His own losses had been immense (September 7). 73. Unable to defend Moscow, the Russians abandoned it, and the French entered it in triumph ten days after the battle of Borodino. But the city had been set on fire by the Russians, and the French vainly attempted to stop the conflagration. Nine-tenths of the whole city became a prey to the flames. This disconcerted the plans of Napo- leon, who had designed to pass the winter at Moscow ; and as the Russians were menacing his communications with Smolensk, where his magazines and reserves had been left, he determined to retreat (October 19). 74. But the dreadful Russian winter soon commenced, 72. What led to the invasion of Russia? When was it commenced? What battles were fought with the Russians ? 73. What city was entered by the French? What compelled Napoleon to retreat? 1813.] FRANCE. 315 and the French soldiers perished by thousands, of cold and famine. To add to their sufferings, they were constantly harassed by the Russian army, with which they had sev- eral severe conflicts before reaching the Ber-e-si'na River, where their passage was disputed by the Russians in strong force. The loss of life was frightful. Multitudes fell by the sabres of the Russians, but still larger numbers per- ished in the icy waters of the river ; so that only 20,000 men remained to Napoleon of the splendid army with which he had set out. During these terrific scenes and conflicts, Marshal Ney (net) had won for himself the ap- pellation of the " Bravest of the Brave." 75. After the dreadful passage of the Beresina, Napo- leon abandoned the army, and fled in disguise to Paris, where his arrival restored public confidence and courage ; and such were his extraordinary energy and the resources of the French nation, that, in the beginning of the next year (1813), he was enabled to resume operations with an army of 350,000 men, exclusive of his forces in Spain Europe was once more allied against him ; but, on the fa- mous battle-ground of Lut'zen, he defeated the army of the allies, and triumphantly entered the city of Dresden. Two other battles were fought with indecisive results, after which he consented to an armistice. 76. But operations were soon resumed by the allies with an immense army ; and they attacked the French at Dres- den, but were repulsed with severe loss. Moreau, fighting on the side of the allies, was here mortally wounded (Ju- ly 26). In October, the allies, with large re-enforcements, threatened Napoleon's communications, and compelled his retreat to Lelp'sic, where the greatest conflict of the war ensued, the allied army amounting to about 250,000 74. Describe the retreat of the French. The passage of the Beresina. How many were left of Napoleon's grand army ? What was Marshal Ney called ? 7 5 . What did Napoleon next do t What army did he raise ? What battles were fought? 76. Where were the French attacked? With what result? Give an account of the battle of Leipsic and its consequences. 316 FRANCE. [1815 men ; while that of Napoleon contained less than 150,000. This has been called the " Battle of the Nations." After a desperate struggle the French were compelled to retreat ; and Napoleon's great conquests were at once lost. 77. Against the immense forces of the allies, Napoleon could now make no effectual resistance. Having defeated every army sent to impede their progress, they at last pene- trated into France, and entered Paris (March 31, 1814). Napoleon, who had fled from the city, was obliged to abdi- cate the throne of France as well as of Italy, and to retire to the island of EVba, of which he was to have the sover- eignty. Louis XVII. having died a prisoner in the Tem- ple, during the Reign of Terror, his uncle was declared king, under the title of Louis XVIII. (May 3, 1814). 78. The next year, while a Congress of the European powers was assembled at Vienna, to arrange and settle the affairs of Europe, they were suddenly surprised by the escape of Napoleon from Elba. Landing on the southern shore of France (at Cannes [Jean] ), he was at once re- ceived with enthusiasm by the troops; and Marshal Ney, who had been sent to oppose his progress, having deserted to him, he once more entered Paris in triumph, and was greeted with acclamations of joy by all classes (March 20, 1815). Louis XVIII. having fled, Napoleon found himself again on the throne of France ; and in less than two months, an army was organized of over 200,000 men, ex- clusive of the National Guards. 79. Meantime, the allies had prepared for the impending conflict. Three vast armies were collected ; the first con- sisting of Austrians, under Prince Schwartz'en-berg ; the second, of British, Germans, and Prussians, under Welling- ton and Blu'cher (bloo'ker) ; and the third, of Russians, 77. What led to Napoleon's abdication? Where was he sent? Who was placed on the throne ? 78. What Congress was held ? What was accomplished by Napoleon ? 79. What armies were collected to oppose him? What battle was fought? What was the result ? To whom did Napoleon surrender ? 1821.] FKAKCE. 317 under the Emperor Alexander. Operations commenced on the 15th of June; and, on the 18th, was fought the memorable battle of Wa'ter-loo, in which the army under Wellington repulsed the French, and drove them into irre- trievable retreat and ruin. Napoleon fled to Paris; but finding that no further effort could be made to retrieve his ruined fortunes, he surrendered himself to the commander of a British vessel of war, and was carried to England. 80. By agreement of the allied sovereigns, he was sent a captive to the little island of St. He-le'na, where he arrived in October, 1815, and where he continued to reside as a prisoner until his death, in 1821, at the age of 52 years. Such was the termination of this extraordinary career of ambition and conquest — the most extraordinary in the world's annals. From the ranks of private life, and a con- dition of total obscurity, this wonderful man, by his genius and force of character, lifted himself above the greatest po- tentates on earth, to whom he gave laws as to his lowliest subjects. No one can read the details of his brilliant career without being dazzled by his achievements; but, at the same time, all must be shocked at his entire indifference to human suffering. With the talents to have enabled him to confer the greatest blessings on his race, he chose to be its scourge, and sacrificed to his selfish schemes every principle of benevolence and rectitude. However mourn- ful, therefore, his fall may appear, it must be regarded as a just retribution for his crimes ; while it affords an impres- sive lesson on the vanity and instability of all human glory. In 1840, Napoleon's remains were transported from St. Helena to Paris, and there entombed with every possi- ble circumstance of splendor and solemnity. 81. Louis XVIIL— Soon after the battle of • Waterloo, Paris was entered by the allies, and the greater part of tho 80. What disposition was made of him? When did he die? What is said of his character and conduct ? 81. What measures were adopted hy the Allies ? Who were executed ? v* 7 ha» were the chief events of the reign of Louis XVIII. ? Who succeeded him ? 318 FRANCE. [1830 French territory was occupied by foreign armies. Louis XVIII. was restored, and Marshal Ney, who had deserted to Napoleon, was shot as a traitor. The same year Murat, having made a rash attempt to regain the throne of Na- ples, was seized and put to death. The measures of the restored Bourbon dynasties of Spain and Italy, had been so tyrannical that insurrections broke out in those coun- tries. In Spain, the army, under General O'Donnell, sup- ported the liberal constitution, and Ferdinand, the king, was obliged to submit. Louis XVIII., by the persuasions of the allied sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, sent an army into Spain, to restore the supreme authority to Ferdinand ; and the constitutionalists having been de- feated, the liberal government was overturned (1823). Louis XVIII. died the next year (1824), and was suc- ceeded by his brother Charles, Count of Artois (ar'twah). 82. Charles X. — During this reign, the contests be- tween the ultra-royalist and liberal parties in the Chamber of Deputies, as the legislature was called, became very vio- lent ; and Charles, taking sides with the former, adopted very arbitrary measures to enforce his views. The liberal party having secured a majority in the Chamber, the king caused the latter to be dissolved, altered the law of elec- tions, and suspended the liberty of the press. In conse- quence of these despotic measures, the people rose in insur- tion ; and, after a contest of " three days," dispersed the royal guards and sacked the Tuileries. Lafayette was then appointed general of the National Guards ; and the Chamber of Deputies, declaring the throne vacant, sum- moned Lou'is Phil'ippe (or loo'e ftl-leep') to occupy it (1830). Charles took refuge in England. 83. Louis Philippe was the son of the infamous Duke of Orleans, who, as Philip Egalite, had shared in the ex- 82. Into what parties was the Chamber of Deputies divided? Give an account of the Second Revolution. What followed ? 83. What is related of the career of Louis Philippe ? 1848.] FEANCE. 319 cesses of the Revolution, and had become one of its many victims. The new king, since that dreadful period, had suffered every variety of fortune, being an exile from his native land, and in a condition of privation and distress travelling or sojourning in foreign countries. He had spent some years in the United States. Now, by a strange re- vulsion of fortune, he was called to ascend the throne of his native country, from which he had been previously banished. 84. A charter of rights was agreed upon by the Chamber of Deputies, and accepted by the newly-elected king. His reign was, for several years, quite prosperous; and the country advanced in education, commerce, and internal improvements. Louis Philippe, however, was very odious to the extreme republicans, and several attempts were made upon his life. He afterward became generally unpopular, by his opposition to the reforms which were demanded in the government, as well as by his avarice and his selfish concern for the aggrandizement of his family. 85. An attempt to repress, by arbitrary prohibition, a re- form banquet appointed on Washington's birthday (Feb- ruary 22, 1848), excited an insurrection of the people, with whom the troops fraternized ; and Louis Philippe was com- pelled to flee. With much difficulty, he made his escape to England, where he died about two years afterward. Ono of the most important events of this reign was the con- quest of Algeria (1847), after a long and sanguinary strug- gle on the part of the native tribes, under their leader Abd-el Ka'der. 86. After the fiight of the king, a provisional govern- ment was instituted, consisting of seven members, among whom were La-mar-tine' and Ar'a-go, distinguished for their attainments in literature and science. France was 84. What were the first events of his reign? What made him odious to the re- publicans ? How did he become generally unpopular ? 85. What caused the flight of Louis Philippe ? What conquest had been made ! 86. What followed the flight of the king? Who was elected president? 320 FRANCE. [1849. declared a republic, with the motto, " Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity ;" hereditary titles and distinctions of nobilit} were abolished, and a national assembly was called for the purpose of framing a constitution. The constitution after- ward adopted vested the government in a president, to be elected for four years, and a national assembly, to consist of 750 members. By the election which followed, Louis Napoleon was chosen, by an immense majority, first presi- dent of France (1848). 87. Louis Napoleon is the nephew of the Great Napo- leon, being the son of Louis Bonaparte and Hortense Beau- liarnais (bo-ar-na'), daughter of the Empress Josephine. During the reign of Louis Philippe, he had become noted for two attempts to obtain possession of the government by endeavoring to raise a revolt in his favor among the troops. One of these was at Strasburg, in 1836 ; and the other at Boulogne (boo-lone'), in 1840. For the second he was con- demned to perpetual imprisonment, but succeeded in making his escape in 1846. These rash enterprises sub- jected him to considerable ridicule. 88. In the first year of his presidency, a revolution broke out in Rome, and the Pope (Pius IX.) fled to Gaeta (gah-a'- tah). Louis Napoleon having sent an army under General Oudinot (oo 'de-no) to restore him to his government, the republicans under Gar-i-bal'di were entirely defeated, and Pius IX. returned to Rome the next year. Revolutions broke out in other parts of Italy, with similar want of suc- cess. 89. Difficulties arising between the president and the Assembly, the former determined to overturn the existing form of government, so as to obtain an increase of power. His measures were devised and executed with great adroit- ness. Having gained over the military, he seized and im- 8 7. Who is Louis Napoleon ? How had he made himself notorious ? 88. What events took place in Italy during his presidency? 89. What caused the overthrow of the government? 1859.] FKANCE. 321 __ ' prisoned such of tile members of the Assembly as were hostile to his views; as well as other distinguished citizens from whom he apprehended opposition. He then sup- pressed the newspapers, and proclaimed a dissolution of the Assembly and Council of State (Dec, 1851). 90. A despotic constitution sketched by Louis Napoleon was accepted by the people, and he was elected president for a term of ten years. A short time after this, he obtained the passage of a decree by the Senate, declaring him he- reditary Emperor ; and this decree was ratified by the popu- lar suffrages. Napoleon Bonaparte's son by Maria Louisa (Napoleon II. ) having died, Louis Napoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III. Thus was effected one of the most disgraceful usurpations recorded in history, by means of a dishonorable stratagem which has been dignified by the name of coup cV'etat (Icoo-detali') — i. e. stroke of state policy. 91. In 1854, the French united with the English in the Eussian War, and under Marshal Pelissier (pa-lis-se-a') acquired the glory of the final storming of the tremendous fortresses of Sebastopol. In 1859, war having arisen be- tween Austria and Sardinia, the French emperor formed an alliance with the latter, and took the field in person in Northern Italy. Austria suffered disastrous defeats at Ma- gen' ta and Sol-fer-i'no ( i like e ), and by the treaty of Vil'- lafran'ca was obliged to relinquish possession of Lombardy. The most important event since that time is the interven- tion of the French emperor in the affairs of Mexico, by means of which the republican government was overturned, and the country placed under the imperial sway of Maxi- milian. 92. The preservation of the Papal power in Italy from the attacks of Garibaldi and his republican associates, 90. In what way did Louis Napoleon become emperor of France' What title did he assume ? Why ? What is called the coup d'etat ? 91. What have been the chief events of Napoleon III.'s reign ? 92. What else is remarked of his policy? What progress has been made by France during his reign ? 14* 322 FKA^CE. presents a striking feature of the Emperor's policy, which in its general character has been strongly on the side of absolutism as opposed to the spread of liberal principles and the establishment of democratic governments. Under his sway, France, though kept under severe restraint by the imperial power, has made great and rapid strides in every department of national well-being ; and her internal improvements and progress in commerce and manufac tures, are unsurpassed by those of any of the great nations of the civilized world. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 1483. Charles VIII. Reigned 15 years. 1498. Louis XII., Duke of Orleans. Reigned 17 years. 1508. League of Cambray. 1515. Francis I. Reigned 32 years. 1525. Battle of Pavia. Francis I. taken prisoner. 1547. Henry II. Reigned 12 years. 1559. Francis II. Reigned 17 months. Shortest reign in French history. 1560. Charles IX. Reigned 14 years. 1572. Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day. 1574. Henry III. Reigned 15 years. 1589 Henry IV. Reigned 21 years. FRANCE. 323 1590. Battle of Ivry. 1598. Edict of Nantes published by Henry IV. 1010. Louis XIII. Reigned 33 years. 1624. Richelieu made minister to the king. 1628. Capitulation of Rochelle. 1642. Death of Richelieu. 1643. Louis XIV. Reigned 72 years. Longest reign on record. 1661. Death of Cardinal Mazarin. 1685. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 1715. Louis XV. Reigned 59 years. 1759. Battle of Minden. 1769. Conquest of Corsica. Birth of Napoleon Bonaparte. 1774. Louis XVI. Reigned 19 years. 1789. Commencement of the Great Revolution. " Bastile stormed. 1793. Execution of Louis XVI. Marie Antoinette guillotined. 1794. Fall of Robespierre. End of the Reign of Terror. 1796. Napoleon in command of the Army of Italy. 1798. Battle of the Pyramids. Cairo taken by the French. 1799. Napoleon First Consul. 1800. Battle of Marengo. 1804. Napoleon Emperor of the French. 1805. Battle of Austcrlitz. 1806. Battle of Jena. 1807. Battles of Eilau and Friedland. Peace of Westphalia. 1809. Battles of Eckmuhl, Aspern, and Wagrani. 1810. Divorce of Josephine, and marriage of Napoleon and Maria Louisa. 1812. Invasion of Russia. Battles of Smolensk and Borodino. 1813. Battles of Lutzen, Dresden, and Leipsic. 1814. Paris taken by the allied armies. Abdication of Napoleon. " Louis XVIII. Reigned 10 years. 1815. Battle of Waterloo. Final defeat of Napoleon. 1821. Death of Napoleon Bonaparte at St. Helena. 1824. Charles X. Reigned 6 years. 1830. Second French Revolution. Charles X. dethroned. " Louis Philippe. Reigned 18 years. 1847. Conquest of Algeria. 1848. Third French Revolution. Louis Philippe dethroned. 44 Louis Napoleon elected President 1851. Coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon. 1852. Louis Napoleon emperor, with the title of Napoleon III. 1859. Battles of Magenta and Solferino. 324 FRANCE. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. By whom was Louis XI. succeeded on the throne of France ? 285 2. State what you can of Charles and the events of his reign 285-286 3. By whom was Charles VIII. succeeded on the throne ? 286 4. Name the most important events in the reign of Louis XII 286-287-288 5. By whom was Louis XII. succeeded on the throne ? 2S8 6. Name the important events of the reign of Francis 1 288-2S9-290 7. Who was the successor of Francis I. and what was his character ? 290 8. Name the important events occurring during the reign of Henry II 290-291 9. Who was the successor of Henry II., and what was his character ? 290-291 10. Name the principal events of the reign of Francis II 291-292 11. By whom was Francis II. succeeded as king of France ? . . 202 12. What were the principal events of the reign of Charles IX. ? 292-293-294 13. Give an account of the Huguenot struggle 292-293-294-295-296-297-248 14. Who was Henry III. of France, and what his character ? 294 15. Name the important events of the reign of Henry IH 294 16. Who was Henry IV. of France, and what was his character ? 294-296 17. Name the principal events of the reign of Henry IV 295-296 18. By whom was Henry IV. succeeded on the throne ? 296 19. Give an account of Richelieu, his character, acts, and death 297-298 20. Who was Louis XIV., and what was his character ? 298-299-301 21. Name the important events of the reign of Louis XIV 298—302 22. Who was Loui s XV. , and what was his character ? 302-303 23. What were the principal events in his reign ? 302-303 24. Who was Louis XVI., and what was his character ? 303 25. Relate the events which led to the French Revolution 304 26. State, in detail, the causes of the rebellion 305 27. Relate the events to the time of the execution of the king 305-306-307-308 28. Give an account of the Reign of Terror 30S-309 29. Of further events to the establishment of the Cisalpine Republic 309 30. Of the two expeditions against Egypt 309-310 31. Of further events till Bonaparte was declared emperor 310-311 32. Of subsequent events to the fourth coalition 311-312 33. Of further events to the beginning of the " Peninsular War" 312-313 34. To the retirement of Bonaparte to the Island of Elba 313-314-315-316 35. Of further events to the death of Bonaparte 316-317 36. Who was Louis XVIII., and what were the events of his reign ?.. . . »316-317-318 37. Who was Charles X., and what were the events of his reign ? 318 38. Who was Louis Philippe ? and give his early history 318-319 39. Give an account of his reign, flight from France, and death 319 40. What events followed the flight of Louis Philippe ? 319-320 41. Who is Louis Napoleon ? and give his early history 320 42. Describe the steps by which he became emperor of France 320-321 43. Give the cause and particulars of the Russian War 278-279-321 44. How many of the kings of France were named Louis ? 323 45. State, as far as you can, who each one was 145—323 46. How many of the kings of France were named Charles?.. 323 47. State, as far as you can, who each one was 144—3-23 48. How many of the kings of France were named Henry ? 322 49- State, as far as you can, who each one was 1S9-290-294-295 50. Which of the kings of France were executed ? 142—323 1535.] EUROPEAN STATES. 325 section iii. European States. 1. The history of the States of Southern and Central Europe, down to the latter part of the fifteenth century, has been given in connection with the history of the Middle Ages. The more northern states, having a later origin, have not as yet been treated of. A brief outline of the history of each of the European States is given in this section. Germany, From t7ie Accession of Maximilian. 2. The reign of Maximilian (1493-1519) is noted for the commencement of the preaching of Martin Luther against the doctrines of the Church of Rome (1517). Charles V., who succeeded Maximilian, his grandfather, was one of the greatest monarchs of ancient or modern times. He had become King of Spain by hereditary right, previous to his election as Emperor of Germany ; and was, besides, ruler over Austria, the Netherlands, and Naples. His contests with Francis I. of France have been already sketched. 3. The other interesting events of his reign are his con- flicts with the Turks, his defeat of the pirate Bar-oa-ros'sa at Tunis (1535), and his repeated contests with the Prot- estants. This name was first given to the followers of Luther at Spire, on account of their protest against the decree passed by the representatives of the Catholic States 1 . What portion of the history is contained in this section ? 2. For what is the reign of Maximilian noted ? What is said of Charles V. ? 3. What are the most interesting events of his reign ? What is the origin o' the name Protestants? What is said of the ''Confession of Augsburg V Of Che "League of Smalcalde?" What was the effect of the. latter? Where is Augs- burg ? (Ans. In Germany— Map, No. 7.) How was protestantism secured ? What occurred in 1556 ? 326 EUKOPEAJT STATES. [1629. (1529). At Augsburg they published their Confession of Faith, which was drawn up by Me-lanc 'tlion (1530), and signed by the Protestant princes. The latter, after the con- demnation of the " Confession of Augsburg " by the Diet, formed, for their defence, the famous "League of Smal' cal-de." This firm stand on the part of the supporters of the new doctrines compelled Charles to relax the severity of his measures against them. Protestantism was secured by the efforts of Maurice of Saxony, resulting in the treaty of Passau (1552). Charles V. abdicated the throne in 1556, and was succeeded by his brother Ferdinand. 4. The next important event in the history of Germany is the "Thirty Years' War," which commenced in 1618, in Bohemia, on account of the attempt of the king (Ferdinand) to extinguish Protestantism within his domin- ions. During the progress of this outbreak in Bohemia, Ferdinand was elected Emperor of Germany ; but the Bo- hemians chose Frederic, Elector-palatine, son-in-law of James I. of England. Frederic being defeated in the battle of Prague, was obliged to flee ; and the Bohemians were punished without mercy (1620). This is considered the first period of the war. 5. Frederic's general, Mansfeldt, held out for a time against the imperial generals Til'ly and Wal'len-steln ; and succeeded in gaining the assistance of Christian IV., king of Denmark. The latter was defeated by Tilly ; and Wal- lenstein invaded and took possession of nearly the whole of Denmark. A defeat sustained by Wallenstein at Stral- sund* afterward compelled the emperor to grant peace to Christian IV., on condition of his deserting the Protestant cause (1629). This ended the second period of the war. 6. The next year (1630), by the intrigues of Eichelieu. * Stralsund is a strongly fortified town of Prussia, on the Baltic Sea. 4. W T hat led to the Thirty Years' 1 War? Give an account of the first period of it. 5. Give au account of the second period. 1648.] EUROPEAN STATES. 327 Wallenstein, the greatest of the imperial generals, was dis- missed; and Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, was in- duced to enter the contest as the champion of the Prot- estant cause. With a small, but finely disciplined army, he invaded Germany, and passed triumphantly through the country, haying defeated Tilly in a great battle near Leip- sic (1631). Tilly being slain soon afterward, the emperor was obliged to recall Wallenstein, who by his skilful opera- tions soon retrieved the imperial cause. In 1632, occurred the memorable battle of Lutzen, in which the Protestants triumphed, but with the loss of their great leader Gustavus (1632). Soon after this, Wallenstein, being accused of trea- son, was assassinated by the command of the emperor (1634). This ended the third period of the war. 7. Richelieu now directly took part in the struggle on the side of the Protestants, allying France with Sweden, Holland, and the Protestant states of Germany against his implacable foe, the House of Austria. During the remain- der of the war, the imperial cause declined, through the in- fluence of Richelieu's masterly diplomacy and energetic military operations. The Emperor Ferdinand II. died in 1637, and Richelieu, in 1642 ; but the war lingered on six years longer. The peace of Westphalia established the re- ligious independence of the Protestant states, made Hol- land and Switzerland free, increased the territories of France, and stripped the- German empire of very much of its ancient power and splendor (1648). 8. The long reign of the emperor Leopold I. (1658- 1705) was principally occupied in wars with the Turks and with France. The former, in 1683, penetrated to the heart of the empire, and laid siege to Vienna, from which Le'o- 6. What caused the intervention of Gustavus Adolphus ? Give an account of the third period of this war. 7. Wha't was the effect of Richelieu's intervention? How did the war end? What were the terms of the treaty of Westphalia ? When was it made ? 8. With what was the reign of Leopold I. occupied? What was done hy the Turks ? By whom were they defeated and expelled ? In what other wars wag Germany involved ? What is said of Prince Eugene ? 328 EUEOPEAN STATES. [1745. pold was compelled to flee. Through the courage and ad- dress of the celebrated Polish king, John So'bi-es-M, the city- was relieved, and the Turks were obliged to retreat to their own dominions. Germany was involved in the wars caused by the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV. of France; and several brilliant victories were gained in her interest by her illustrious general, Prince Eugene, who, as has been already stated, participated in the great battles fought during the War of the Spanish Succession, at Blenheim, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. 9. Prince Eugene also gained several important victories over the Turks, of which the greatest were that of Zenta, in Hungary (1697) ; and that of Bel-grade' (1717), the lat- ter resulting in an immense loss to the Turks, including the city itself, over which, as being the key of Hungary, very many severe conflicts had taken place between the Austrian and Ottoman forces. Charles VI., who reigned from 1711 to 1740, was the last of the male line of the Hapsburgs; and his death was followed by disputes which led to the famous War of the Austrian Succession. .10. In this war, Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, joined the enemies of Maria Theresa, in their attempt to deprive her of her dominions; and the elector of Bavaria, assuming the imperial throne, under the title of Charles VII., and being assisted by France, advanced to Vienna, and compelled her to flee to Hungary. The Hungarians drew their swords enthusiastically in her favor, and Charles VII. was forced to retreat. The latter died in 1745; and Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, the husband of Maria Theresa, was elected emperor, under the title of Francis I. 11. The reign of Francis I. was distinguished by the 9. What victories over the Turks were gained by Prince Eugene? What is said of Belgrade ? What line ended with Charles VI. ? What war followed '( 10. Give an account of the " War of the Austrian Succession." Who became emperor in 1745 ? 1 1 . For what was the reign of Francis I. distinguished ? What caused the " Seven Years' War ?*' 1815.] EUROPEAN STATES. 329 great " Seven Years' War" which broke out eight years after the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1756). Great Britain and France quarrelled about their colonial possessions in North America ; Austria was eager to regain the territories which Frederick of Prussia had conquered during the previous war ; and the Empress of Eussia was desirous of curbing the pride and ambition of the Prussian monarch. Poland and Sweden joined Eussia ; and thus Frederick, whose only ally was Great Britain, had to contend against five great states. 12. The Prussian king was, however, the greatest general of his age; and the many splendid victories which he gained with his small but highly-disciplined army, illus- tiate, in a very striking manner, to what an extent the genius of a military commander can triumph over superior numbers. This war was closed by the Treaty of Paris, in 1763. 13. During the reign of Francis II. (1792-1835), occurred the great wars with Napoleon, the result of which was, that the Empire was dissolved in 1806, after an existence of more than a thousand years. Most of the states were formed into the " Confederation of the Ehine ;" and Austria became an hereditary empire, over which Francis continued to rule until his death in 1835. 14. After the defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, in 1814, the Confederation of the Ehine was dissolved ; and, in 1815, the Congress of Vienna formed the " Germanic Confedera- tion," consisting of 39 states, of which the central assem- bly, or Diet, held its sessions at Frankfort on the Mayne (mine). Subsequently, the peace of Germany was much disturbed by the repeated contests of Austria and Prussia for supremacy in the affairs of the Confederacy. During the revolutionary period of 1848-9, the King of Prussia, 1 2. What was accomplished by Frederick the Great ? 1 3. What distinguished the reign of Francis II. ? What took place in 1806 ? 1 4. What change occurred in the constitution of Germany in 1814 and 1815 ? How was the quiet of Germany disturbed ? What occurred in 1849 ? 330 EUROPEAN STATES. [1849 whose policy had been to give greater unity to Germany, obtained, by a vote of half the states, the title of Emperor of the Germans ; but to this the other states would not consent. 15. The " Six Weeks' War" of 1866 gave to Prussia that leading control in Germany for which she had so long con- tended. In June of that year, war was declared against Austria by Prussia and Italy ; by the latter, to obtain pos- session of the Venetian territories. The Italians were de- feated ; but the Prussians, under the command of their king ( William /.), invaded Bohemia, and in the battle of Sad" o-wa, defeated with great loss the Austrians, under Marshal Benedek. By the treaty which soon followed, Austria was excluded from the Germanic Confederation ; and Prussia, after incorporating with her own dominions some of the states, formed of those north of the Mayne, including her- self, the North German Confederation., the diet of which meets at Berlin. The states further south, of which Bava- ria, Wurtemberg, and Baden are the chief, are entirely independent. 16. Austria. — Austria, after its organization as a sepa- rate empire in 1806, continued to be involved in the great conflict with Napoleon, in which she suffered terrible disas- ters. The great defeat at Wagram left her powerless ; and the Emperor Francis was obliged to submit to the humilia- tion of accepting the victorious Corsican as his son-in-law (1810). Since the settlement of affairs by the Congress of Vienna, the most noted events in the history of the Austrian empire have been the unsuccessful revolt of Hungary, in which Kossuth (Jcos-shoot 1 ) took so distinguished a part (1849), and the wars waged with Prussia and Italy. The result of the latter has been to deprive Austria of all her dominions in Northern Italy, and to exclude her from all participation in the affairs of Germany. 1 5. Give an account of the " Six Weeks' War." What was its result ? 1 6. Give a sketch of the history of Austria since 1806. 1701.] eubopeak states. 331 Prussia. 17. Prussia derives its name from the Bo-rus'si, a fierce and warlike tribe of the Slavonic race, who early settled on the lands bordering on the Baltic Sea. In the first part of the eleventh century they were partially subdued by Bo- les'las, king of Poland ; but, for more than two centuries, they resisted every effort made to convert them to Chris- tianity. This was finally established among them by means of the crusade carried on against them by the Knights of the Teutonic Order,* during more than fifty years. The country remained under the government of the Knights for about two centuries, when it became partly dependent upon the great kingdom of Poland (1462). 18. The Duchy of Bran' den-burg, a part of these Prus- sian territories, became, in 1640, the nucleus of the present kingdom of Prussia, through the efforts of Frederick Wil- liam, styled the Great Elector. Prom Poland he obtained a recognition of his claim to the Duchy of Prussia, which had been hitherto possessed by that kingdom. He partic- ularly distinguished himself for his successful wars against the Swedes, whom, in 1679, he entirely expelled from the country. He was also noted for his strenuous efforts in the cause of the Protestants ; for which he received letters of congratulation and thanks from Oliver Cromwell. When the Edict of Nantes was revoked by Louis XIV., many of the exiled Huguenots found a refuge in the dominions of the Great Elector. 19. Prussia became a kingdom in 1701, the last Elector, * The order of Teutonic Knights was founded during the Crusades. Their first seat was at Acre ; but, after the destruction of the kingdom of Jerusalem, they removed to the banks of the Vistula, and succeeded finally in establishing a sovereignty, which had the control of nearly three millions of people. 1 7. What is the origin of the name Prussia? Give an account of the Borussi. How was Christianity established ? Who were the Teutonic Knights ? {See note.) Into whose control did the country pass, and when ? 18. What was the nucleus of the kingdom of Prussia? Who was called the Great Elector ? What is related of him ? 1 9. How and when did Prussia become a kingdom ? What is said of FredericK William I. ? 332 EUROPEAN STATES. [1814. Frederick III., having been acknowledged king by the em- peror of Germany, on condition that he should aid the cause of Austria in the War of the Spanish Succession. His troops gained great distinction by their valor in the battle of Blenheim. He was succeeded by Frederick Wil- liam I, in 1713, noted for his harsh and eccentric charac- ter, his fondness for tall soldiers, and his savage treatment of his son, who succeeded him as Frederick the Great (1740). 20. Under the latter, Prussia became one of the greatest military powers in Europe, partly through the magnificent army which had been collected by Frederick William I., and disciplined to the highest degree of efficiency. The achievements of Frederick the Great in the Seven Years' War, have already been referred to. The details of this remarkable struggle present one of the most interesting chapters in history. In 1772, the Prussian territories were greatly enlarged by the first partition of Poland. Fred- erick gave considerable attention to the internal improve- ment of his kingdom, encouraging agriculture, manufac- tures, and commerce. He was passionately fond of litera- ture, was an intimate friend and associate of Voltaire, and acquired himself some distinction as an author. He died in 1786, at the age of 75. 21. The wars with Napoleon occurred during the reign of Frederick William III. In these, Prussia suffered the terrible overthrow of Jena (1806), but redeemed her honor through the achievements of Blucher {Uoo'ker), to whose skill, courage, and promptitude the great victories of Leip- sic and Waterloo were partly due. Blucher's hatred of Napoleon and the French was intense; and, had he not been overruled by the other generals, Paris, in 1814, would have been given up to be pillaged by the soldiers. 20. What is said of the reign of Frederick the Great? Of the "Seven Years' War ?" How was Prussia enlarged in 1772 ? What is said of Frederick ? When did he die ? ftl. During whose reign did the wars with Napoleon occur ? How was her do feat at Jena retrieved ? What is related of Blucher ? 1861.] EUROPEAN STATES. 333 22. By the Congress of Vienna the Prussian territories were much enlarged ; and during the subsequent part of the reign of Frederick William, the condition of Prussia was greatly improved. The commercial league among the states, called the Zoll-ver-eiri , has very considerably facilitated trade; and the establishment of common schools of a high order of excellence, has done much to enlighten the people and augment the real strength of the kingdom. Frederick William III. was succeeded in 1840 by his son, Frederick William IV., who died in 1861. During the reign of his successor, William I, the changes in the Prus- sian dominions occurred, which have been explained in connection with the history of Germany. These monarchs have ruled with despotic power, steadily resisting all efforts on the part of the people to obtain a liberal representative government. Poland. 23. Poland was erected into a kingdom, and became an extensive and powerful monarchy, during the Middle Ages. In the latter part of the fourteenth century occurred its first union with Lith-u-a'ni-a, a large district extending to the Nie'men and Dnie'per rivers. Soon after this, successful wars were waged with the Teutonic Knights, which re- sulted in uniting the Prussian provinces with Poland (1462). During the reign of Sigismimd I. (1506-1548), a war was carried on with the Eussians, who thus acquired Smolensk. Through the wise and beneficent measures of this sovereign, Poland was much improved, and reached a very high degree of greatness and splendor. 24. In the next reign (Sigismund II.) , occurred the final union of Poland and Lithuania (1569); and the Protestant 22. What other events are mentioned in the reign of Frederick William III. ? Who succeeded him ? What occurred in the reign of William I. ? How did these kings reign ? 23. Give a sketch of the early history of Poland. By whom was the kingdom much improved ? 24. When was Protestantism introduced ? Who was the first elected mon arch? 334 EUROPEAN STATES. [1793. doctrines took a firm hold of the higher classes. At the close of this reign (1572), the monarchy was made elective; and the first king chosen was Henry of Valois, afterward Henry III. of France. This change in the constitution of the kingdom was very injurious to its interests, since it fomented faction and gave rise to repeated civil wars. 25. The next century was chiefly occupied in wars with the two great northern powers, Sweden and Eussia. Dur- ing the reign of John Cas'i-mer (1648-68), a Swedish army overran Poland, took War'saw and Ora'cow, and com- pelled the king to flee. The Poles, however, made a vigor- ous effort to preserve their independence, and, having ex- pelled the Swedes, restored their sovereign to his throne. 26. The reign of John Sobieski is one of the most brilliant in Polish history. He was a great warrior, and saved his country from the Cossacks and the Turks. His defeat of the latter near Vienna, in 1683, has already been referred to. The constant dissensions and turbulence of the Polish nobles, however, frustrated all his efforts to improve and strengthen the kingdom, and prepared the way for its final dismemberment and ruin. The last king of Poland was Stanislas Augustus, during whose reign occurred the first partition (1772), by which Austria, Eussia, and Prus- sia divided most of its dominions among themselves, leav- ing to the Polish king only a nominal authority over those remaining to him. 27. Twenty years later, the war with the Eussians again broke out; but they were defeated by the Poles, under their renowned leader Prince Po-ni-a-tow'sJci, in several engagements, notwithstanding which Stanislas submitted to the second partition, by which the Polish territories were still further diminished (1793). The next year, the 25. How was the next century occupied? What occurred during the reign of John Casimer? 26. What is said of John Sobieski ? Who was the last king of Poland ? De- scribe the first partition. 27. What events preceded the second partition ? What was done in 1794 ? 1862.] EUROPEAN STATES. 335 Poles made an ineffectual effort to regain their lost liber- ties, under that noble and illustrious patriot Thad'de-us Kos-ci-us'ko, who had so generously lent his sword to the cause of American freedom, in the war of the Revolution. 28. At first victorious, the brave Poles were soon obliged to succumb to the overwhelming masses of the Russians, commanded by the fierce and relentless Suwarrow ; and Kosciusko was wounded and made a prisoner (1794). Warsaw was soon after taken by storm ; and the last relic of Polish independence was destroyed by the third parti- tion (1795). Stanislas died a broken-hearted exile in St. Petersburg (1798). Kosciusko, kept for some time a cap- tive at St. Petersburg, was afterward released ; and for many years wandered in America, France, and Switzerland. In the last-named country he died, from the effects of a fall from his horse (1817). 29. The wars waged by Napoleon I. against the enemies of Poland excited new hopes in the people of regaining their independence ; but these were destroyed by the Con- gress of Vienna, who gave some of the Polish territories to Prussia and Austria, and formed of the remainder the Kingdom of Poland, under the control of the Czar. After the unsuccessful insurrection of the Poles in 1830, this kingdom was incorporated with the Russian empire. Another, but still unsuccessful, insurrection against the Russian government, took place in 1862. Holland and Belgium. 30. Holland and Belgium, called the Netherlands, or Low Countries, constituted, in 843, a part of Germany. For several centuries, it was under the rule of petty princes ; and afterward constituted a part of the Duchy of 28. What led to the third partition? What is related of Stanislas and Kosci- usko? 29. When and how was the kingdom of Poland formed ? What occurred in 1830 and 1862? 30. Give a sketch of the early history of Holland and Be'gium. 336 EUROPEAN STATES. [1713. Burgundy. Several of its cities, as Ghent, Antwerp, Brus- sels, and Mecli'lin, grew strong and rich by their trade and manufactures. The death of Charles the Bold, and the marriage of his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, with Maxi- milian, brought the Netherlands, for a time, under the sway of Austria (1477); but they subsequently passed, by in- heritance, to the emperor Charles V., who was the grand- son of Mary of Burgundy. 31. The historical importance of these states commences in the reign of Philip II. of Spain, the son and successor of Charles, through the resistance made by their spirited inhabitants to the tyranny and intolerance of that bigoted monarch. Under their great leader, William of Orange, surnamed the " Silent," the Seven United Provinces suc- cessfully revolted against the cruelties of the Duke of Alva, viceroy of Philip, and achieved their independence, William becoming the first Stadtholder (1579). This illustrious personage was assassinated in 1584, but the United Prov- inces were presided over by the Princes of Orange till the French Eevolution. The other provinces (Belgium) con- tinued to belong to Spain, till they were transferred to Austrian (1713). 32. The Dutch Kepublic became, a short time after its independence, the most formidable maritime power in the world. The part taken by it in the great European wars, and its successive contests with Great Britain, have already been related. During the French Eevolution, the National Convention having declared war against Holland, the country was overrun by the French armies ; and the anti- Orange faction excited a popular insurrection which ex- pelled William V., the last of the Stadtholders, and led to the establishment of the Batavian Republic, under the 31. When and how does the historical importance of the Netherlands com- mence ? How was the independence of the Seven Provinces secured ? What is said of William the Silent ? How long did the Princes of Orange preside over the country ? To whom did Belgium helong ? 32. What did the Dutch Republic become ? What happened during the French Eevolution ? 1865.] EUROPEAN STATES. 337 protection and control of the French (1795). Belgium was made a part of France. 33. Napoleon Bonaparte made his brother Louis king of Holland, but afterward dethroned him, and annexed the country to France. After the fall of Napoleon, the Con- gress of Vienna reunited Holland and Belgium, and thus formed the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which was placed under one of the Orange family, with the title of William I. This union lasted till 1830, when Belgium successfully re- volted, and became a separate kingdom, Leopold, a German prince, being placed upon the throne. In 1865, he was succeeded by Leopold II. Holland is now (1869) ruled by William III., who ascended the throne in 1849. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. 34. These three countries were in the Middle Ages in- habited by a Scandinavian people, the descendants of the Goths and other barbarous races. Each was governed by its own princes till the beginning of the 14th century, when Norway was united with Sweden. The three coun- tries were formed into one kingdom, under the rule of Margaret, Queen of Denmark, in the latter part of the same century (1397). This union, however, was neither effectual nor permanent ; but the kings of Denmark con- tinued to claim and exercise some sway over these countries till 1523, when Sweden was freed from the tyranny of Christian II. of Denmark, by the patriotic exertions of the renowned Gustavus Vasa. 35. Sweden. — This illustrious man was afterward elected king of Sweden, and, by his wise and beneficent measures, established the prosperity of the kingdom, and gave to this semi-barbarous state an honorable place among 33. What disposition was made of Holland by Napoleon ? By the Congress of Vienna ? What other changes occurred in Holland and Belgium ? 34. Give the history of Sweden, Norway, andDenmark to the time of Gustavua Vasa. 35. What is related of Gustavus Vasa? Of Gustavus Adolphus ? Of Oxen- stiern ? 15 338 EUROPEAN STATES. [1718. the civilized monarchies of Europe. His reign of thirty- seven years (1523-1560) was also signalized by the estab- lishment of Protestantism. The next important reign was that of the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, the hero of Lut- zen. His death, in 1632, would have been an irreparable disaster to his country but for the virtues and talents of his minister Ox'en-stiern (stern), who administered the government during the minority of Chris-ti'na, daughter of Gustavus. 36. Charles XL, during his long reign (1660-1697), suc- ceeded in enlarging the Swedish territories, and obtained from the Diet a decree giving to him absolute power. His reign was exceedingly prosperous, and the internal condi- tion of the kingdom was much improved. Charles XIL, called sometimes the " Madman of the North," succeeded. His passion for conquest and military glory plunged his country in many miseries and misfortunes. A coalition formed against him by Denmark, Poland, and Eussia, led to the Northern War, in which Charles gained several bril- liant victories over the Danes and Russians ; and having succeeded in dethroning the king of Poland, placed in his stead Stanislas (1704). 37. The celebrated contest with Peter the Great fol- lowed; and Charles invaded Eussia with a large army, which, after suffering the most dreadful hardships from cold and hunger, was finally defeated at Pol-ta'va (1709). Charles took refuge in Turkey, and succeeded in persuading the Turkish emperor to declare war against Eussia ; but he afterward quarrelled with the emperor, and was compelled, after remaining more than five years in Turkey, to flee. He returned to Sweden in 1714, and still continued to carry out his ambitious designs till his death, which oc- curred during the siege of a town in Norway (1718). 36. What is said of the reign of Charles XI.? What was the character of Charles XII. ? What led to the Northern War ? What was accomplished in it by Charles XII. ? 37. What other events occurred during his reign ? When did it end ? 1523.] EUROPEAN STATES. 339 38. The vacillating policy of Gustavus IV, during the Napoleonic wars, led to the loss of Bothnia and Finland ; and, in 1809, he was obliged to abdicate in favor of his uncle, Charles XIII. This king being without heirs, Ber- na-dotte', one of Napoleon's marshals, was raised to the rank of Crown Prince (1810), and became virtually the king. With the title of Charles XIV. he formally ascended the throne of Norway and Sweden in 1818, the two coun- tries having been united by the Congress of Vienna. His reign, which was characterized by vigor and moderation, lasted until 1844, when he was succeeded by his son Oscar. Since the death of the latter, in 1859, the kingdom of Nor- way and Sweden has been ruled by his grandson Charles XV. Each country, however, continues to have its own separate legislature. 39. Norway continued to be united with Denmark till 1814, when, by the treaty of Kiel (keel), the allied powers compelled the latter to resign her possession of Norway to Sweden. The union of the two countries was afterward confirmed by the Congress of Vienna. The people of Nor- way made some resistance to this arrangement; but the country being invaded by an army under Bernadotte, they were reduced to submission. The constitutional privileges of the nation have, however, been retained; and the condi- tion of the country, under the Bernadotte dynasty, has been one of peace and prosperity. 40. Denmark. — After the separation of Sweden and Den- mark (1523), the latter was governed by Frederick I., who introduced the Lutheran religion into his dominions. Dur- ing the next reign, Sles'tvich and HoV stein were annexed to the Danish territories. Under Christian IV, Denmark took an active part in the Thirty Years' War ; but defeat and 38. What caused the loss of Bothnia and Finland ? What led to the election of Bernadotte ? Of what countries was he made king ? What is said of his reign ? Who succeeded him ? Who is the reigning sovereign ? 39. Give the history of Norway subsequent to 1814. 40. What events are related in the history of Denmark subsequent to the loss of Sweden ? 310 EUROPEAN STATES. [1864. disaster were the consequence, and Christian was obliged to submit to very humiliating conditions of peace (1629). 41. During the Napoleonic wars, Great Britain, claiming the right to search foreign vessels, took a Danish frigate that had made resistance. This led to a league with Rus- sia, Prussia, and Sweden, against the naval power of Great Britain. Nelson, however, attacked and destroyed the Danish fleet in the harbor of Copenhagen, and thus para- lyzed the power of the confederacy (1801). The British again destroyed the Danish fleet in 1807, in consequence of a threatened alliance with France. By the treaty of Vienna, Denmark received the Duchy of Lau'en-burg (1815). 42. In 1848, a revolt occurred in Sleswick and Holstein, to produce a separation of the Duchies from the Danish crown ; but it was subdued, through assistance furnished by Austria. In 1864, Prussia, in alliance with Austria, compelled Denmark to give up these territories, and thus confined her sway to the peninsula and the adjacent islands. The marriage, in 1863, of the English Prince of Wales to Alexandra, daughter of the Danish king, Christian IX., has a third time allied Denmark to Great Britain. Russia. 43. The ancestors of the Russians were the Slaves, who, at an early period, formed settlements near the sources of the Dnieper, Dniester, and Don rivers, and the Baltic Sea. Of these, Nov-go-rod' and Kief (ke-ef) were the chief. The size and influence of the former, while a member of the Hanseatic League in the 13th century, were so great, that it was called the " Mighty Novgorod." It was the metrop- olis of one of the most extensive of the Russian states, oc- 4 1 . What events occurred daring the Napoleonic wars ? 42. What revolt happened in 1848? What caused the loss of the Duchies? What alliance has been formed with England ? 43. Who were the ancestors of the Kussians ? Where did they settle ? Which were their chief settlements ? What is said of Novgorod ? 1703.] EUROPEAN STATES. 341 cupying a vast tract stretching from the Baltic to the White Sea. 44. For several centuries Eussia was overrun by the Mon- gols, from whom it was emancipated by Ivan III., one of the greatest of its monarchs, who, during his reign of nearly half a century (1462-1505), did very much to improve and elevate the people. He had married a niece of Constantine Palseologus, and endeavored to introduce into his country the laws, institutions, and arts of civilization peculiar to the Greek empire. During this and the two succeeding reigns, the petty principalities were abolished, and Eussia assumed the character of a consolidated empire (1584). A short time previous to this, the conquest of Siberia had been commenced ; and, in 1661, Ir-koutsk' was founded. 45. Eussia owes its greatness as a European power to the talents and energy of Peter the Great, who was one of the most extraordinary personages described in history. With an inflexible will, he was dismayed by no difficulty and appalled by no danger. With the spirit of an enlight- ened patriot, he resolved to introduce among his people the useful arts, the civilized customs, and the beneficent insti- tutions which he saw prevailing in other countries of Eu- rope. To accomplish this, he visited England, Holland, and other countries ; and even engaged himself as a com- mon mechanic, to obtain a knowledge of the arts which he desired to teach his people. In 1703, the capital was re- moved from Moscow to his new city, St. Petersburg. 46. Previous to this, the war with Charles XII. of Sweden broke out ; and Peter was defeated with great loss in the battle of Narva (1700).* Profiting by this experience, the Russian monarch reorganized his army; and when Charles * Narva is situated in the western part of Russia, near the Gulf of Finland. 44. By whom was Russia overrun ? What is said of Ivan m. ? What change took place in Russia ? What conquest was made ? 45. To whom does Russia owe its greatness ? What is said of Peter the Great ? 46. Describe his wars with Charles XII. What saved him from defeat by the Turks ? When did Peter the Great die ? 342 EUK0PEA1T STATES. [1825. invaded Russia, in 1707, he was permitted to penetrate farther and farther into those dreary regions of frost and famine, till, with a small and half-famished remnant of his great army, he was surrounded at Poltava, and entirely de- feated (1709). Two years later, Peter allowed the Russian army to be surrounded by the Turks near the Pruth (proof) river ; and was saved from a terrible disaster by an artifice of the Empress Catharine, who bought off the vizier with her jewels. Peter the Great died in 1725. 47. Catharine I, the widow of the great Czar, succeeded him, ruling for two years. She had originally been a peas- ant girl; but by her prudence, intelligence, and enterprise, she did much to facilitate the beneficent objects of her dis- tinguished husband. Prince Men' schi-Tcoff, the chief min- ister of Peter, had also risen from a very humble station. During the reign of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great and Catharine, Russia became prominent among the nations of Europe, and took a distinguished part in the Seven Years' War (1740-48). 48. The profligate empress Catharine II (1762-96) had the celebrated Po-tem'hin for her minister and favorite. Wars were waged with Turkey and Poland, and the Crimea was wrested from the former in 1784. The Turks were afterward severely defeated by the famous general Suwar- roiv, and compelled to submit to further loss of territory. This general also distinguished himself during the next reign (Paul) in the wars waged against Napoleon. Paul was assassinated in 1801, and was succeeded by Alexander L, who entered into the several coalitions formed against Napoleon. He died in 1825. 49. The reign of Nicholas L, who was a stern despot, is 47. What is said of Catharine I. ? Prince Menschikoff ? The Empress Eliza- beth ? 48. What is related of the reign of Catharine II. ? Of Suwarrow? Who suc- ceeded Catharine II. ? What ended the reign of Paul ? Who succeeded him ? What is said of the reign of Alexander I. ? 49. What were the chief events of the reign of Nicholas I. ? By whom was he succeeded ? What took place in 1856 ? 1865.] EUROPEAN STATES. 343 V ioJed for the insurrection in Poland (1830) ; and the cruel punishments inflicted upon the unfortunate Poles by the remorseless emperor. The crushing out of the Hungarian insurrection by the interference of Eussia, and the Crimean war, were also events of this reign. Nicholas died while the latter was in progress, and was succeeded by the present emperor, Alexander II. (1855). The next year, the treaty of Paris was concluded, by which Eussia was obliged to resign her pretensions to the Danubian principalities, and to the unrestricted navigation of the Black Sea. 50. Alexander's reign has, in many respects, been mild and beneficent. Many important reforms have been intro- duced into the empire, the greatest of which is the abolition of serfdom, by which fourteen millions of people have been released from bondage, and made free citizens. The em- peror's severe measures against the Poles, after the insur- rection of 1863-4, considerably modified the good opinion in which he had previously been held. During this reign, Eussia has made considerable acquisitions of territory in Asia, the chief of which are the regions of the Can' casus (1859), the valley of the A-mour' River, and the northern portion of Tur-kes-tan' (1865). Switzerland. 51. The chief events in the history of Switzerland, after the establishment of its independence in 1499, were those connected with the changes in religion brought about by the celebrated Protestant preacher Zivin'gle, an associate of Luther and Melancthon. The Cantons were soon in- volved in a civil war on account of religious dissensions. Zurich, in 1523, adopted the opinions of Zwingle, and was followed by Berne, and other Cantons in the north ; while 50. What is said of the reign of Alexander II. ? What have been its chief events ? 51. What is said of the history of Switzerland subsequent to 1499? Who was Ulric Zwingle? What involved the Cantons in civil war? What was the result ? Who was Calvin ? What is said of his doctrines ? 344 EUKOPEAN STATES. [1848. . > the forest Cantons remained attached to the Church of «£ Eome. In a battle fought in 1531, the latter were victo- rious, and Zwingle was slain. Geneva was the residence of John Calvin, one of the most distinguished of the Protestants ; and from his preaching spread the doctrines which afterward characterized the Puritans of England, and the people of Scotland. The death of Calvin occurred in 1564. 52. The neutrality of Switzerland was preserved during the Thirty Years' War; and at its close, the peace of Westphalia secured the independence of the Confederacy, by acknowledging it as a separate state. At this period, the Swiss were among the best soldiers in Europe, and were employed in immense numbers by foreign states. In 1798, the French armies overran Switzerland; and, in 1802, Napoleon, as First Consul, annexed three of the Cantons to France, and constituted of the others a Confed- eration dependent upon it. The Congress of Vienna re- stored the Cantons, and re-established the republic, con- sisting of 22 Cantons (1815). The Constitution of 1848 vests the supreme power in a Federal Assembly consisting of two houses, whose place of meeting is at Berne. Italy. 53. Italy continued to be divided into a number of small states until a very recent period. Among these, the Duchy of Sa-voy' became, in the latter period of the Middle Ages, a power of considerable importance. During the wars of Louis XIV. of France, it took sides with the allies, and was rewarded, by the treaty of Utrecht, with the island of Sicily and other territories. The Kingdom of Sardinia originated in a treaty made between Savoy and Austria (1720), by which Sicily was exchanged for the island of Sardinia, and 52. What followed the peace of Westphalia? What is said of the Swiss sol- diers ? What changes have occurred since, in the government of Switzerland ? 53. What is said of Italy in the Middle Ages ? What is said of Savoy ? Of the kingdom of Sardinia ? 1867.] EUROPEAN STATES. 345 the Duke of Savoy was acknowledged king. By Napoleon it was stripped of much of its territory, which was restored by the Congress of Vienna, who also annexed to it the ancient republic of Genoa. 54. Charles Albert was a vigorous and enterprising mon- arch ; and during his reign (1831-49) many reforms were introduced into the government, in compliance with the demands for a more liberal policy, by the people. At the revolutionary period of 1848, the king announced a new constitution, which was hailed with much satisfaction. An insurrection of the Austrian states of Italy broke out, and the king placed himself at the head of the Italian forces. Being disastrously defeated, he was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel (1849). 55. During the reign of the latter, many changes have taken place in Italy. Joseph Gar-i-baV di, called by some, from the simplicity of his dress, the "Hero of the Red Shirt," landing in Sicily, proclaimed himself Dictator for Victor Emanuel. Having stormed Palermo, and defeated the troops of the King of Naples, he invaded the mainland, and, continuing in his victorious career, compelled the king (Francis IL, nicknamed JBombino) to flee (1860). 56. Victor Emanuel afterward entered Naples, and was acknowledged king. Lombardy had been wrested the year before from Austria, through the aid of the French emperor, Napoleon III., who gained the splendid victories of Magenta and Solferino over the Austrian forces. As a result of the successful insurrection of 1860, the states of Italy, except Venetia and the Papal states, by general resolution, were consolidated into the Kingdom of Italy, under the rule of Victor Emanuel. After the Six Weeks' War of 1867, Venetia was also surrendered by Austria, and annexed to 54. What account is given of Charles Albert ? Who succeeded him ? 5 8. What is said of the insurrection under Garibaldi ? 56. Who was acknowledged king of Naples ? How was Lombardy annexed t« Italy? How wae the kingdom of Italy formed? How was Venetia acquired? What is now the capital of Italy ? 15* 346 EUROPEAN STATES. [1580 the Italian kingdom, the capital of which is now at Flor- ence. Spaik. 57. Charles V. of Germany, previous to his election as emperor, inherited the throne of Spain, being the grandson of Isabella of Castile. His reign, which commenced at the death of Ferdinand (1516), lasted forty years ; but is chiefly occupied with the general affairs of Europe. Cardinal Ximenes {he-ma' nes), one of the most celebrated personages of his age, administered the government till 1517, with great vigor and ability. Charles was succeeded, on his abdication, by Philip II. (1556), who thus became one of the greatest potentates on earth, being ruler over Spain, the Netherlands, Sicily, Naples, and other parts of Italy, besides of such parts of the New World as had been added to the dominions of Spain by the discoveries of Columbus and his Spanish successors. 58. Philip's schemes were principally actuated by bigotry, and nearly all ended in utter failure ; so that, at his death (1598), he left the country despoiled of some of its best possessions, impoverished by ruinous wars, and greatly lowered in the respect of foreign nations. His successor {Philip III.) still further weakened the kingdom by the expulsion of the Moors (1610), who had been permitted by Ferdinand to remain in the country, on condition of their accepting Christianity. This measure of Philip III., which was based on the charge of hypocrisy in the professed con- version of the Moors, deprived Spain of 500,000 of its most useful population. 59. The reign of Philip IV. (1621-65) was noted for the loss of Portugal, which had been annexed to Spain during the reign of Philip II. (1580). It now re-established its 57. What is said of Charles V. and his reign in Spain? Who was Cardinal Ximenes ? What is said of Philip II. ? 58. W T hat was the character of Philip's schemes and their result? How was Spain weakened by Philip III. ? W T hat is said of this measure ? 59. For what is the reign of Philip IV. noted ? Charles II. ? Philip V. ? 1869.] EUROPEAN STATES. 347 independence as a separate kingdom under the Duke of Bra-gan'za (1640). Philip IV. made the most strenuous exertions to recover the lost province, and his failure is said to have partly occasioned his death. During the next reign {Charles IL 3 1665-1700), Spain was left, by the im- becility of its government, a prey to the other nations of Europe, by whom it was despoiled of many of its best pos- sessions. The placing of Philip V. upon the throne, by his grandfather, Louis XIV., led to the War of the Spanish Succession. 60. The attempts of the Emperor Napoleon I. to obtain control of Spain, occasioned the Peninsular War, the chief events of which have already been related. The conclusion of peace, in 1814, restored Ferdinand VII to the throne, who dissolved the Cortes, or Parliament, and established an absolute rule. A revolution which broke out in 1820, compelled him to restore the free constitution formed in 1812, and placed him under restraint. Louis XVIII. of France, however, sending an army into Spain, released him, and restored his authority. 61. Isabella succeeded her father in 1833, but was soon opposed by Don Carlos, her uncle, who claimed the throne on the ground that Isabella was excluded by the Salic law. A war of four years followed, between the party who sup- ported the government of the queen-dowager, Chris-ti'na, acting as regent for the young queen, and the adherents of Don Carlos. Great Britain finally sent an army in aid of Isabella ; and Don Carlos, hopeless of success, fled to France. Isabella's rule gave great dissatisfaction, and sev- eral revolutionary movements have occurred, in the last of which, the queen was deprived of the throne (1868). A provisional government now exercises authority over the country ; but a constituent Cortes has been elected, in which the monarchist party is largely in the ascendant (1869). 60. What caused the Peninsular War ? What was done in 1814 ? In 1820 ? 61 . Give an account of Isabella's reign. How did it end ? 348 european states. [1750. Portugal. 62. It was during the reign of Manuel, surnamed the Great (1495-1521), that Vasco da Gama made his success- ful voyage to India, by way of the Cape of Good Hope (1497). This was soon followed by the accidental discovery of Brazil, by Cabral (1500), thus giving that extensive and fertile region to the Portuguese. An unfortunate expedi- tion of Sebastian III. to Morocco (1578), from which he never returned, left Portugal without a sovereign, and occa- sioned disorder and anarchy, — the people constantly looking for the return of their king, of whose fate no tidings were ever received. 63. Philip II. of Spain, taking advantage of these circum- stances, seized upon the country (1580) ; and for sixty years it was held in subjection to the Spanish crown. During this period, it suffered much from the oppressive exactions of its conquerors, being obliged to share in the taxation occasioned by the long and expensive wars waged by the Spanish monarchs. At last, it was set free by a rev- olution; and John IV., Duke of Braganza, ascended the throne (1640). Long wars followed with Spain, which did not acknowledge its independence till 1668. 64. During the next century, Portugal remained In a state of inglorious stagnation, being steeped in ignorance and bigotry ; and, after being one of the greatest maritime nations of the world, was content to become a kind of com- mercial dependent of Great Britain. Under the reign of Joseph I. (1750-77), the genius and enterprise of his great minister, Don Carvalho (har-val'yo) infused a temporary vigor in the government ; but this was checked by the ac- cession of his daughter Maria, who permitted the nobles 62. What is said of the reign of Manuel of Portugal ? How and by whom was Brazil discovered ? What occasioned trouble and disorder ? 63. To what did these troubles lead? How long was Portugal under Spanish rule ? What was its character ? How and when did it regain its freedom ? 64. What is said of its history during the next century ? Of the reign o*" "Jo- seph I. ? 1861.] EUROPEAN STATES. 349 and clergy to resume their destructive influence. Her in- sanity led to the appointment of her eldest son, John VI- as regent (1792). 65. The invasion of Portugal by the French, under Mar- shal Junot, induced John to abandon Portugal and retire to Brazil (1807), where he remained until 1821 ; although, by the death of his mother, he had been acknowledged king in 1816. His return was occasioned by the breaking out of a revolution in Portugal, which had for its object the establishment of a government securing the rights of the people. John VI. accepted the new constitution, and ac- knowledged the independence of Brazil, the throne of the latter country being occupied by his son, Don Pedro (1825), with the title of Emperor. 66. On the death of John VI. (1826), his son Don Pe- dro, preferring the Brazilian throne, resigned that of Por- tugal in favor of his daughter, Maria da Gloria ; but his brother, Don Miguel (me'gwel), who had previously op- posed the reforms in the government, laid claim to the throne, and obtained an acknowledgement of his right by the Cortes (1828). This led to a dreadful condition of anarchy, which was terminated by Don Pedro, with the aid of the British ; and Miguel being defeated, Maria ob- tained possession of the throne (1833). This and the sub- sequent reign were characterized by great national disas- ters. The present king, Louis I, ascended the throne in 1861 ; and a better state of things now prevails. Turkey. (From 1453 to the present time.) 67. Mohammed II, the conqueror of Constantinople, greatly enlarged the Turkish territories; and his son, Bajazet II. (1481-1512), extended his dominions to the 65. What followed Junot's invasion of Portugal? When and why did John return from Brazil ? What course did he adopt with respect to the new constitu- tion ? With respect to Brazil ? 66. What followed the death of John VI. ? Who laid claim to the throne ? What was the result ? What else is related of Portugal ? 67. What is said of Mohammed II. ? Bajazet II. ? Selim I. ? Soliman ? 350 EUROPEAN" STATES. [1566. present limits of the Ottoman empire, adding besides a part of the region north of the Black Sea, and portions of Italy and Austria. His successor, Selim I, a monarch of great enterprise and ability, made conquest of Syria and Egypt, and laid the foundation of the Turkish naval power, which so long disputed the empire of the Mediterra- nean with the fleets of Venice. The greatest power and splendor were, however, attained by the Ottoman empire during the reign of Soliman, surnamed the Magnificent (1520-66). 68. This great monarch reduced the powerful Danubian fortresses of Belgrade, wrested the island of Ehodes from its persevering and valiant defenders, the Knights of St. John, and, having subjugated Hungary, marched to Vien- na, which he besieged for four years. He also carried on a successful war with the Shah (emperor) of Persia ; and his fleets triumphantly swept the Mediterranean from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Levant. One of his last under- takings was an unsuccessful attack on the island of Malta, which the Emperor Charles V. had given to the Knights of St. John, after their expulsion from Rhodes. 69. During the reign of Selim II (1566-74), the German emperor agreed to pay an annual tribute to the Turks for their surrender of Hungary. The attempt to take Astra- chan* preliminary to the construction of a canal between the Don and Volga rivers — a scheme projected by the Turkish emperor for commercial purposes — aroused the hos- tility of the Russians, a people until that time little known in Southern Europe. Thus were commenced those fierce wars, which for centuries have been waged by these neighboring empires. During the reign of Selim, the fleets of Turkey received a check by the great naval defeat * A city of Russia, near the mouth of the Volga River. 68. What conquests were made by Soliman ? Where was he defeated 1 69. What events occurred during the reign of Selim II. ? 1792.] EUROPEAN STATES. 351 sustained at Lepanto,* in an action fought with Don John of Austria (1571). 70. The subsequent reigns, for more than a century, pre- sent only a continuous series of contests with Austria, Po- land, and Eussia, in which the Ottoman power succeeded in extending its dominions from the Danube to the Tigris, and from the southern limits of Egypt to the falls of the Dnieper River. It sustained, however, several defeats, of which that at Vienna by the Poles under their king, John Sobieski, was the most memorable. The assistance given to Charles XII., after the battle of Poltava, involved the Turks in a war with Peter the Great, to whom it would have proved a great disaster, had he not been rescued by the skilful artifice of the Empress Catharine. A short time after this, the Morea\ was taken from the Venetians (1714). 71. The remaining portion of the history of Turkey is characterized by its contests with Russia, which has proved its most formidable foe, despoiling it of many of its most valuable possessions. During a six-years' war (1768-74), the Russians overran the Crimea, which they succeeded in retaining, notwithstanding the most desperate efforts of the Turks to regain it. While Catharine II. of Russia was on the throne, the Turks were assailed by the combined power of Russia and Austria, the forces of the former being commanded by Marshal Suivarroiv, the most famous of Russian generals, and particularly noted for his resolution and relentless ferocity, — qualities which he particularly displayed in his contests with the unfortunate Poles. Peace was concluded between Russia and Turkey in 1792. * Lepanto is situated in Greece, on the north coast of the giilf of the same name. t Morea is the modern name of the ancient Peloponnesus, in the southern part of Greece. 70. What do the subsequent reigns present ? What defeats did Turkey sus tain ? What caused a war with Peter the Great ? What is said of it ? What con- quest was made from the Venetians ? 7 1 . What is said of the contests of Turkey with Russia ? When was the Crimea conquered ? What war arose during the Empress Catharine's reign ? What ia said of Suwarrow * When was peace made ? 352 EUROPEAN STATES. [1820. 72. The conquest of Egypt and the invasion of Syria by Napoleon have already been referred to. By the aid of the British, the lost territories were regained. One of the most interesting events since that time, is the successful insurrection of the Greeks, whose independence was se- cured by the battle of Navarino (1827). The wars waged with the rebellious Pacha of Egypt, Meliemet Ali (ma' he- met ah'le), still further reduced the strength of the empire. This contest was terminated in 1841, by the virtual surren- der of Egypt to Mehemet Ali, he being made hereditary viceroy. His son, Ibrahim Pacha (ib'rah-him pa-shaiv'), succeeded him in 1848. 73. Eussia has repeatedly taken advantage of the present weakness of the Ottoman empire, to attempt its spoliation. In the Crimean war, Turkey was successfully aided by Great Britain and France, in opposing the schemes of con- quest of the Emperor Nicholas; and, by the treaty of Paris, it regained a portion of territory north of the Dan- ube, and was released from its ignoble subservience to the Russian empire. During the last few reigns, attempts have been made to introduce reforms in the government, and to advance the civilization of the people. The present empe- ror (Ab'dul A'ziz) ascended the throne in 1861, and has shown in his administration a liberal and energetic spirit. Greece. 74. From the capture of Constantinople (1453) until a recent date, Greece was under the Mohammedan yoke, which was made galling and oppressive to the last degree by the brutal and fanatical Turks. In 1820, the Greeks determined to make a struggle for their independence; and Mav-ro-cor-da'to was proclaimed president. His most cel- 72. What other events are mentioned ? When was Egypt surrendered ? 73. What caused the Crimean War ? What was its result ? What is said of the recent reigns ? 74. How long was Greece under the Mohammedan rule? What is said of it ? What took place in 1820 ? What is related of Marco Bozzaris ? For what is Mis- Bolonghi noted ? 1862.] EUROPEAN STATES. 353 ebrated compeer in the dreadful contest that ensued, was Marco Bozzaris (bot-sah'ris), — called, sometimes, the " Le- onidas of Modern Greece." This heroic chief perished in a night-attack upon the Turkish camp (1823), near Misso- longlii, one of the chief centres of the insurrection. This place also derives a mournful interest from the death of Lord Byron, who died there of a fever, occasioned by his earnest efforts in behalf of Greece (1824). 75. The fall of this place, after a long siege, in which its brave defenders suffered the most dreadful hardships from famine, and which closed by their captivity, aroused the sympathy of Europe; and England, France, and Eussia formed a league to assist the brave Greeks in their unequal contest. The combined fleets of the allies entirely de- stroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleets in the harbor of Navarino (Oct. 20, 1827). After this victory, Count Capo d'Istria, a native of the island of Corfu, was formally in- stalled as President of Greece. Its independence was ac- knowledged by the Turkish sultan in 1829. 76. Made a separate kingdom by the allied powers, its first king was Otho, a Bavarian prince (1832). His reign was somewhat troubled, by the discontent of his subjects with his German officials and foreign troops, and by Kus- sian intrigues for the purpose of involving the little king- dom in the insurrections of the neighboring provinces against Turkey. Having abdicated in. 1862, he was suc- ceeded the following year by Prince William of Denmark, who now occupies the throne with the title of George Z, King of the Hellenes* * George I. is a brother of Alexandra, wife of the Prince of Wales, the heir-apparent to the British throne. 75. What excited the sympathy of Europe ? Who were defeated at Navarino ? Where is Navarino ? (See Progressive Map, No. 7.) Who was made President of Greece ? When was its independence acknowledged ? 76. Who was the first king of Greece? What is said of his reign ? By whom was he succeeded ? When ? 354 EUBOPEAtf STATES. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 1397. Union of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. 1462-1505. Reign of Ivan III., Czar of Russia. 1493. Accession of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany. 1500. Discovery of Brazil by the Portuguese navigator, Cdbral. 1516. Accession of Charles 1. of Spain (Charles V. of Germany). 1517. Commencement of Martin Luther's preaching. 1519. Accession of Charles V., Emperor of Germany. 1520. Accession of Soliman the Magnificent. 1523. Sweden freed from the yoke of Denmark by Gustavus Vasa. 1529. Lutherans called Protestants at Spire. 1530. Confession of Augsburg signed. 1531. Zwingle slain. 1552. Treaty of Passau. 1556. Accession of Philip II. of Spain. 1564. Death of John Calvin. 1569. Union of Poland and Lithuania. 1571. The Turkish fleet defeated at Lepanto by Don John of Austria. 1579. William the Silent, the first Stadtholder of Holland. 1580. Portugal annexed to Spain by Philip II. 1584. Assassination of William the Silent. 1598. Death of Philip II. of Spain. 1610. Expulsion of the Moors from Spain. 1618. Commencement of the Thirty Years' War. 1632. Battle of Lutzen. Death of Gustavus Adolphus. 1640. Portugal freed from the Spanish yoke. Accession of John IV., Duke of Braganza. 1648. Peace of Westphalia. End of the Thirty Years' War. 1661. Irkoutsk founded by the Russians. 1679. Defeat of the Swedes by William, the Great Elector. 1683. Defeat of the Turks by John Sobieski. 1697. The Turks defeated by Prince Eugene. 1700. Defeat of Peter the Great at Nana by Charles XII. 1703. The capital of Russia removed to St. Petersburg. 1709. Battle of Poltava. Defeat of Charles XII. by Peter the Great. 1714. The Morea conquered from the Venetians, by the Turks. 1717. The Turks defeated at Belgrade by Prince Eugene. 1718. Death of Charles XII. of Sweden. 1725. Death of Peter the Great. 1740. Accession of Frederick the Great of Prussia. EUEOPEAN" STATES. 355 1745. Accession of Francis L, Emperor of Germany. 1756. Commencement of the Seven Years' War. 1772. First Partition of Poland. 1784. The Crimea ceded to Russia by the Turks. 1793. Second Partition of Poland. 1794. Kosciusko defeated and taken prisoner. 1795. Third Partition of Poland. 1801. The Danish fleet destroyed by Nelson at Copenhagen. " Paul, emperor of Russia, assassinated. 1806. End of the Empire of Germany. 1807. Prince John, Regent of Portugal, flees to Brazil. " Second bombardment of Copenhagen by the British. 1810. Bernadotte elected Crown Prince of Sweden. 1815. Switzerland made independent by the Congress of Vienna. 1823. Death of Marco Bozzaris. 1825. Brazil acknowledged an independent empire, under Don Pedro. 1827. Battle of Navarino. 1829. The independence of Greece acknowledged. 1830. Polish insurrection. " Belgium made an independent kingdom by a revolution. 1832. Accession of Otlio, first king of Greece. " Poland incorporated with the Russian empire. 1833. Accession of Isabella, Queen of Spain. 1841. Mehemet Ali made hereditary Viceroy of Egypt. 1848. Revolt of Hungary, under Kossuth. 1849. Accession of Victor Emanuel, king of Sardinia. " Revolt of the Danish Duchies. 1855. Accession of Alexander 27., emperor of Russia. " Fall of Sebastopol. 1859. The Caucasus conquered by the Russians. " Campaign of Magenta and Solferino. 1860. Insurrection in Italy, under Garibaldi. " " King Bomba" of Naples compelled to flee. 1862. Polish insurrection. 1863. New kingdom of Italy formed, under Victor Emanuel. " Accession of George I., King of the Hellenes. 1864. Denmark deprived of the Duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg. 1866. The " Six Weeks' War." " Battle of Sadowa. 1868. Revolution in Spain. Queen Isabella dethroned. 356 EUROPEAN STATES. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGH 1. State what you can in relation to Martin Luther 235-237-325-326 2. Give a sketch of the reign of Charles V. of Germany 325-326 3. When did the hattle of Lutzen take place, and with what result ? 327 , 4. Give a statement of the causes and events which led to that hattle . . . 326-327 5. Describe the part which Richelieu took in the " Thirty Years 1 War" .297-326-327 6. Give a connected account of the Thirty Years' War 297-326-327 7. Name, in order, the principal events of the reign of Leopold 1 327-328 8. Give an account of the War of the Austrian Succession 269-270-303-3-28 9. Give an account of the great " Seven Years' War" 270-303-329 10. Name important events of the reign of Francis II. 307-309-310-311-312-313-316-329 11. Give the history of the " Germanic Confederation" 329-330 12. Give the history of the " North German Confederation" 330 13. Of Austria, after its organization as a separate empire in 1806 330 14. Give a sketch of the history of Prussia up to the year 1462 331 15. Give the subsequent history of Prussia up to the year 1701 . &31 16. Give the further history of Prussia to the time of Frederick the Great. 331-332 17. Give the history of Prussia during the reign of Frederick the Great. .. 332-333 18. State all the facts you can in relation to Blucher 315-316-317-332 19. Give a sketch of the recent history of Prussia 333 20. Give a sketch of the history of Poland to the reign of Sigismund II... . 333-331 21 . Of subsequent events, to the reign of John Sobieski 333-334 22. Give the facts, as far as you can, in relation to Sobieski _. 328-334 23. What occurred in Poland during the reign of Stanislas Augustus ? 334-335 24. Give the particulars of the further history of Poland 335 25. Give the history of the Netherlands, to the reign of Charles V . . 336-333 26. Give a sketch of the subsequent history of the Netherlands 336-337 27. Give a sketch of the early history of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. . 337 28. Name the important facts in the history of Sweden 337-338-339 29. Name the important facts in the history of Norway 337-338-339 80. Give a sketch of the history of Denmark 337-338-339-340 81. Of Russia, to the reign of Peter the Great 340-341 32. Give the particulars, as far as you can, in the life of Peter the Great. . . 341-342 33. Of Charles Xn. of Sweden 338-341-342 34. Of Catharine I. and Catharine II. of Russia 342 35. Of Nicholas I. of Russia ■ 342-313 36. Of Alexander I. and Alexander n. of Russia 342-343 37. Give a sketch of the history of Switzerland 217-219-343-344 38. Of events in the modern history of Italy 344-345-340 39. Of events in the modern history of Spain 346-347 40. Give a sketch of the life of Philip II. of Spain 239-291-336-346-348 41. Of events in the modern history of Portugal 348-319 4?. Of events in the modern history of Turkey 351-352 43. Of events in the modern history of Greece 352-353 44. Name, in order, important events of the 15th century. .. 185-203-228-281-322-354 45. The important events of the 16th century 281-322-323-354 46. The important events of the 17th century 281-282-323-354-355 47. The important events of the 18th century 282-283-323-354-355 48. The important events of the 19th century 383-323-355 49. Give the names, as far as you can, of all the European monarchs of modern times that have died of other than a natural death 231—353 TABLE OF CONTEMPORANEOUS EVENTS. 357 a.d.I England. France. Other Countries. 14& r 148£ 149£ 149£ 1 Charles VIH. Henry VII. Maximilian of Germany, ::: Louis XII. Francis I. 150!: 151E Henry VIII. 151(3 Charles V. of Germany. Soliman the Magnificent. 1520 1547 Edward VI Henry II. 1552 155;] 155( 1 Treaty of Passau. Philip H. of Spain. 'Mary. 1558 155*5 ! Elizabeth. Francis n. Charles IX. 1560 1571 Battle of Lepanto. 1572 St. Bartholomew's Massa. 1574 157*) William the Silent. 1589 Henry IV. Louis XIII 1603 1610 James I. Moors expelled fromSpain Thirty Years' War begins Battle of Lutzen. Portugal independent. 1618 1625 1632 1640 1643 Louis XrV 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Sobieski defeats theTurka Battle of Narva. Battle of Poltava. 1653 1660 1683 CromwelL Protector. Charles H. 1685 1689 1700 William and Mary. 1702 1709 Anne. 1714 1715 George I. Louis XV. 1718 Death of Charles XII. Frederick the Great. 1727 1740 1760 1774 Louis XVI. 1789 1795 Third Partition of Poland 1799 Napoleon First Consul. Napoleon Emperor. 1804 1806 End of German Empire. 1814 Louis XVHI. Charles X. 1820 1894 1895 Brazil independent. Battle of Navarino. Isabella of Spain. 1897 1830 1833 WilliamlV Louis Philippe. 1837 1848 Louis Philippe dethroned. 1849 Victor Emanuel. 1852 Napoleon HI. 1855 Sebastopol taken. Battles of Magenta and Solferino. j 1859 1 ::::::.:::::::: 358 AMERICAN HISTORY. jOo (M^^'y^vi^ ur WgS X^V ■ /^AmJdasMJarlow; " ^TurnpaJio^l 9^\ ■- -5. I)e Soto(Flcct)l53u\+y 7? X «v \ fr u x y o j-|:.; \ rV-r^. "|% Tortugas Jx. c %,: JKJE JC JT c a iieiTiutda 1792.] AMERICAN HISTORY. 359 section iv. American History. Discoveries and Settlements. 1. America was discovered in 1492 by Christopher Co* lumbus, a native of Genoa (jen'o-a), Italy. With a fleet of three vessels, supplied by Queen Isabella, he set sail from Spain, and, after a voyage of ten weeks, reached one of the Bahama islands, to which he gave the name of San Salva- dor. He also discovered other islands belonging to the group of the West Indies ; and in another voyage he dis- covered the mainland, at the mouth of the O-ri-no'co (1498), in South America; but he was not aware that he had reached a new continent, supposing that the lands dis- covered belonged to Asia. 2. The mainland of North America was first reached at Labrador, by John Cabot {kab'iot) and his son Sebastian, while sailing under a commission from Henry VII. of England (1497). The country was called America, from Amerigo Vespucci {ah-ma-re'go ves-poot'che), a Florentine navigator, who, in 1499 and 1501, visited the eastern coast of South America, and, on his return to Europe, gave an interesting account of his voyages, thus acquiring the repu- tation of being the first discoverer of the country. 3. Twenty years after Columbus's first voyage, Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on'), an aged Spaniard, accidentally Map Questions.— (See Map, p. 358.) Where are the Bahama Islands? The West Indies? Where is Guanahani, or San Salvador? Labrador? Florida? Quebec ? Acadia ? Nova Scotia ? New Brunswick ? Port Royal Entrance ? St. Augustine ? Virginia ? Cape Cod ? Maine ? Jamestown ? 1 . By whom and when was America discovered ? Who was Columbus ? What land was first discovered? What else did Columbus discover? What did he suppose these lands to be ? 2 When and by whom was North America discovered ? Why was the country called America ? 3 What account is given of the discovery of Florida ? Why was it so called f Give an account of the discovery and conquest of Mexico. 3G0 AMERICAN HISTORY. [1583. discovered Florida, which received its name from the abun- dance of flowers with which its forests were adorned (1512). Five years later, Cor'dO-va discovered Mexico, and explored the coast of Yu-ca-tan' . Mexico was afterward conquered by another Spaniard named Cor'tez, and became a province of Spain (1521). 4. The belief being general among the Spaniards that Florida abounded in riches, Be Soto (da so' to) landed on its shores in 1539, and penetrated into the interior. During his wanderings, which lasted nearly three years, he discov- ered the Mississippi (1541). Meanwhile, the French had sent out Verrazzani (ver-rat-tsah'ne), who explored the eastern coast of North America (1524) ; and James Cartier (car-te-a'), who, in two voyages, discovered the gulf and river of St. Lawrence (1534-5). 5. The Huguenots desiring a place of refuge, at first at- tempted a settlement at Port Royal entrance (1562), in the region afterward named Carolina (in honor of the French king, Charles IX.) ; and two years later on the banks of the St. John's River, Florida. Both attempts were unsuc- cessful. The year after (1565), the Spaniards made a set- tlement in Florida, at St. Augustine, having previously put the French settlers to death with barbarous cruelty. 6. In 1583, an unsuccessful expedition was made by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, sailing from England under a patent granted by Queen Elizabeth ; and the next year Sir Walter Raleigh dispatched two vessels to the new world, under Am'idas and Barlow, who visited the islands near the coast of North Carolina, and on their return gave so glowing an account of the country, that Elizabeth named the region discovered Virginia, as a memorial of her unmarried state. 7. Two unsuccessful attempts were afterward made to es- 4. What account is given of De Soto's expedition ? Verrazzani's ? Cartier's ? 5 . Where did the Huguenots attempt to settle ? With what results ? When and by whom was St. Augustine settled ? 6. What voyages were made by the English ? Why was the country called Vir- ginia ? 1623.] AMERICAN HISTORY. 361 tablish a colony on Roanoke Island (1585-7) ; and an at- tempt farther north was made by Bartholomew Gosnold, who discovered Cape Cod (1602), bnt failed to effect a settlement. Martin Pring the following year explored the coast and large rivers of Maine. In 1606, King James I. divided the territory claimed by the English into North and South Vir- ginia, and granted the former to the Plymouth Company, the latter, to the London Company. The first permanent settlement under this grant was made at Jamestoivn, in 1607, by an expedition sent out by the London Company. 8. Virginia was thus the first English colony success- fully planted in ^"orth America. The want of industrial habits among the settlers at Jamestown at first greatly impeded its prosperity, and brought it at one time to the verge of ruin (1610). New emigrants, however, arrived; and its affairs being managed by the virtuous and prudent Lord Delaware (appointed governor in 1609), it soon began to assume a flourishing condition. Virginia afterward be- came a royal province, the London Company being dis- solved by the king (1624). 9. Massachusetts was first settled in 1620, at Plymouth, oy English Puritans, who, during the reign of James I., emigrated to America to find that religious liberty of which they were deprived in their own country. After the acces- sion of Charles L, another company of emigrants settled at Salem (1628) ; and two years afterward Boston was settled, principally by Puritans (1630). These two settlements belonged to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. 10. New Hampshire was first settled in 1623, at Lit- tle Harbor, near Portsmouth, and at Dover, by English emigrants sent out by Ferdinand Gorges (gor'jez) and John 7. What other attempts at settlement were made hy the English ? What is said of Martin Pring ? How was the territory divided hy James I. ? What was the first settlement made ? 8. What is said of the early history of Virginia ? When and how did it become a royal province ? 9. Give an account of the settlement of Plymouth. Of Salem. Of Boston. What were the first settlements of the Massachusetts Bay Colony ? 1 0. Give a sketch of the early history of New Hampshire. 16 362 AMERICAN HISTORY. [1614. Mason, to whom this region had been granted, under the name of Laconia. The name Neiv Hampshire was given to it in 1629. From 1641 to 1680, this colony was united to Massachusetts, from which it was not permanently sepa- rated until 1741. 11. Connecticut was settled in 1633, by a company of persons from Plymouth, at a place called Windsor {win'' zer). Other settlements were made, by emigrants from Massachusetts, a short time afterward, the principal one being that at Hartford (1635-6). These settlements formed at first the Connecticut Colony. About the same time, a colony was planted at the mouth of the Connecticut River, which was called Saydroolc. A third colony was established in 1638, which received the name of New Haven. These three colonies subsequently formed the colony of Connecticut (1665). 12. Rhode Island was settled by Roger Williams, who had been banished from Massachusetts because of his de- nunciation of the religious intolerance practised there, as well as for certain opinions entertained by him with respect to civil matters. The settlement was made in 1636, at Providence. The next year a company of emigrants left Boston on account of religious persecution, and settled on the island of Rhode Island, which was purchased from the Indians. These two settlements were united by a charter in 1644. 13. New York, at first called Neiv Netherlands, was settled in 1614 by the Dutch, who built a fort on Man-hat'- tan Island, for the purpose of trading with the Indians. Their attention had been directed to this spot by the dis- covery (in 1609) of the Hudson River, by Henry Hudson , an English navigator, in the service of the " Dutch East 1 1. What were the first settlements made in Connecticut? What other colo- nies were planted ? What did they afterward form ? 1 2. What account is given of the early history of Rhode Island ? 13. Bvwhom was New York first settled? What led to it? What was its name at first ? When did its colonization commence ? WTiat settlements were made ? 1738.] AMERICAN HISTORY. 363 India Company." On this discovery the Dutch claimed the whole region from Cape Cod to the southern shore of Delaware Bay. The actual colonization of the country did not commence until 1623, when two settlements were made — one on Manhattan Island, called New Amsterdam, and the other at Albany, called Fort Orange. 14. Four governors ruled in succession, the last and most noted of whom was Peter Stuyvesant (sti've-sant), during whose administration (1664) New Amsterdam was taken by the English ; and New Netherlands accordingly became an English colony, with the name of New York, being so called in honor of the Duke of York, to whom Charles II. had granted the territory. In 1673, during a war between England and Holland, the Dutch regained their former possessions ; but, after a period of fifteen months, returned them to the English. 15. New Jersey. — The Dutch, who included New Jersey in the province of New Netherlands, established a trading-post at Bergen as early as 1622 ; but the coloniza- tion of the country did not commence till 1664, when a settlement was made at Elizabethtown (now Elizabeth) by emigrants from Long Island. Previous to this, however, this portion of New Netherlands had been sold by the Duke of York to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, and was named New Jersey in honor of the latter, who had been governor of the island of Jersey in the English Chan- nel. The whole territory, in 1682, became the property of William Penn and other Quakers ; but in 1702, being given up by the proprietors, it formed, with New York, a royal province, and thus continued till 1738, when it became a separate province. 16. Maryland was settled under a charter granted by Charles I. to Ce'cil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, who wished to 14. How many governor? ruled ? Who was the most noted ? What occurred durinlez) 34 Acre {a'ker) 208, 210, 310 Act of Conformity 240 Actium (ak'she-urri) 100 Adams, John 375, 379 Adams, John Quincy 379 Ad'di -son 267 A-dol'phus. King of the Goths 125 Adolphus, Gustavus 327, 338 A'dri-an Ill, 112 A-dri-an-o'ple 123, 139 A-dri-at'ic, Wedding the 222 j33gean (e-ge'ari) Sea 31, 39 ^E^os-pot'a-mos 45,48 JS'li-a Cap-i-to-li'na 112 ^E-mil'i-us 80, 84 ^E-o'li-ans, Migration of 35 iE'qui-ans 71 Aetius {a-e'she-us) . . 126 ^E-to'li-a 34 iE-to'li-an League. . . , 59 Af-ghan-is-tan' 278 Afri-ca 11, 125 135, 153, 227, 393 A-gath'o-cles 78 Age of Despots 38 Agesilaus (a-jes-e-la'us) 48, 49 Agincourt (afin-court) 179, 199 A 7 gis 56, 59 Agnadello (an-yah-del'lo) 287 A-gra'ri-an Laws 70, 86 A-gric'o-la 110 Ag-ri-gen'tum 61 Ag-rip-pi'na 107 A-has-u-e'rus 32 Ah'ri-man 33 Aix-la-Chapelle (akes lah sha-pel') 145 270, 303, 329 Ak'bah 151 Alabama (al-ah-bah'mah) . . 377, 378, 385 Al'a-ric 124,125 A-las'ka 390 Albany {awl'ba-ne) 363 Al-be-marle', Duke of 259 Albert I 217,219 PAGE Albert n 218 Albert, Prince 278, 280 Albigenses (al-be-jen'sdz) 191, 192 Albigeois (al'be-zhwah) 191 Al'bo-in 134 Alcibiades (al-se-bf 'ah-dez) 45 Alciun (al'kwin) 145 A-lep'po 138 Al-ex-an'der the Great 51, 53, 54, 55 Alexander II. of Russia 343 Alexander III., King of Scotland... 171 Alexander VI., Pope 286 Alexander Se-ve'rus 116 Al-ex-an'dri-a 53, 84, 96, 115, 135, 309 Al-fon'so II. of Aragon 285 Al-fon'so III. of Portugal 227 Alfonso VI. of Portugal 227 Alfonso X. of Portugal 225 Alfred the Great 157 Al-ge'ri-a, Conquest of 319 Algiers {al-jeerz')... 378 Al-ham'bra 227 Ali (ah'le) ....: •. ... 150 Al-le-man'ni 143 A11i-a River 73 Al'ma 279 Almagro (al-mah'gro) . 368 Al Mansur {man-soor') 152 Alps 80,214, 310 Alsace (al-sahsO 297 Altai (al-ti0 134 Al'torf 217 Alva, Duke of 336 Alyattes (a-le-at'tez) ,. . 17 A-mal'fl 224 A-ma'sis 21 Am'a-zon 367 America 270, 359 America, North, 147, 234, 241, 258, 271 270 359 America, South.. . 234, 359, 366, 367, 368 Amerigo Vespucci (ah-ma-re'goves-poot'- che) a59, 368 American Colonies 269, 272, 361 Am'i-das 360 Amiens (am'e-enz), Treaty of. . . 273, 311 A'mir-al-ma 151 Am'mon 31 A-moor' River 343 Am-phic-ty-on'ic Council 51, 62 Am-phip'o-lis 44, 50 Am'ster-dam 300 Am'u-rath 139 An'cus Martius (mar'she-us) 68 An'gles 147 Anjou (ahn'joo) 1S7 An-nap'o-lis 365, 366 Anne, Queen of England... 263, 265, 266 Anne ol Austria 29b 404 IXDEX. PAGE Anne Boleyn (an bid' en) 235, 236, 237 Anne, Duchess of Brittany 285, 286 Anne of Clevee 237 An'son, Commodore 26S Antalcidas (an-tal' se-das) ,. 48 Antietam {an-te'tam) 387 An-tig'o-nus 57, 58 Antigonus Do'son 60 Antigonus Go-na'tas 59 An'ti-och, founded by Seleucus 58 An-ti'o-chus the Great 83, 93 An-tip'a-ter 51, 56, 57 Antoinette, Marie {an-twah-net') 304, 308 An-to-ni'nus Pi'us 112 Antoninus, Marcus Au-re'li-us. . 112, 113 An'to-ny, Mark 98, 99, 100 Ant'werp 336 A-pol'lo, Oracle and Temple of 63 Ap'pi-us Clau'di-us 72 A-pu'li-a 223 Aquitaine (ak-we-tain') 143 Ar-a-bel'la Stuart 245 A-ra'bi-a 23, 24, 55, 150 Ar'a-go 319 Ar'a-gon 193, 224, 225 A'ram 26 A-ra'tus of Sicyon (sish'e-on) 59, 60 Arbela (ar-be'lah) 54 Ar-ca'di-a 34 Ar-ca'di-us 124, 131 Archangel (ark-an'gel) 239 Archimedes (ar-ke-rne'dez) 78, 81 Archon's (ar'kons) 37 Ardesher (ard-e-sher') 116 A-re-op'a-gus 37 Argentine {ar-j en-teen') Republic 368 Argo 35 Ar'go-lis 34, 36 Ar-go-naut'ic Expedition 35 Ar'gos 36, 45, 48, 77 Aristides (ar-is-tl' dez) 41 , 42, 43 Ar-is-to-bu'lus 93 Aristobulus II 93 Aristotle (ar'is-tot-el) 51 Aries (arO 146 Ar-ma'da, Invincible 241 Ar-me'ni-a 92, 96 Ar-min'i-us 105 Arnold, Benedict 371, 373 Arnold of Winkelried (win'kel-reed) 219 Artaphernes (ar-tah-pher'nez) 39 Artaxerxes I. (ar-tax-erx'ez) 32, 43 Artaxerxes II 46 Arthur, King 148 Arthur, Prince 167, 234 Artois (ar'twah), Count of 318 As'ca-lon 207 Ascham, Roger (as'kam) 238 As'dru-bal 81 Ash'dod 26 Ashley River. 365 Ash'ur 14 Asia (a'she-ah) 11, 136, 222 Asia Minor 17, 84 As'ke-lon 26 As-mo-nte'an Dynasty 93 As'pern, Battle of 313 As-syr'i-a 14 Assyrians 17 PAGE As-tra-chan' (-kan) or As-tra-can' 350 Astrology 23 Astronomy 152, 255 As-tu'ri as 225 Astyages (as-W ah-jez) '. 17 Ath'el-stan 157 Ath'ens 37 Ath'os, Mt 39 At-lan'tic "25, 146 Atlantic Cable 280 At'ta-lus 83, 84 Attica (at'te-kah) 34, 37. 41 , 44 Attila {at'te-lah) 125, 126, 220 Augsburg (ougs'boorg) 214, 326 Augustan Age of England 267 Augustan Age of French Literature 302 Au'gustine, St 360 Au-gus'tus 104, 105 Au-gus'tu-lus, Rom'u-lus 127 Au-re'li-an 119, 120 Au-re'li-us, Marcus 112, 113 Aus'ter-litz 3 1 1 Aus-tra'si-a (she-ah) 143 Austria 217, 296, 312, 3:30 Austrian Succession,War of, 269, 303, 328 Avars (a-varz') 133, 1:34, 145 Avignon (ah-ven' yong) .. . . 192,194,225 Az'tecs 391, 393 B. Ba'bel H Bab'y-lon 13 Bab-v-lo'ni-a 12 Ba'con 244, 246 Bac'tri-a 54 Baden {bah' den) 330 Bag'dad 136, 152, 153 Bailly (bahl-ye') 305 Baj 'a-zet 139 Bajazet II 349 Bal-ak-la'va 279 Bal-bi'nus 117 Bal-bo'a 367 Baldwin, Count of Flanders. . . . 138, 209 Ba'li-ol, John 171, 172 Baltic 176 Baltimore 378 Banks, General 387 Ban'nock-burn 173 Bar-ba'does 259 Barbaric Monarchies, Map of.. facing 131 Bar-ba-ros'sa, Frederick, 208, 215, 216, 221 Barbarossa, the Pirate 325 Barebone, Praise-God 255 Bar'low 360 Bar'net 1 82 Ba'silll 136 Bastile (bahs-teel') 305 Batavian Republic 336 Ba-va'ri-a 218, 269, 330 Bay'ard, Chevalier 287, 288, 2*9 Beauharnais (bo-ar-na') Hortense.... 320 Beck'et, Thomas a 163, 164, 165 Bel or Be'lus 12 Belgium (bel'je-um) 301, 335 Bel-grade' 328, 350 Bel-i-sa'ri-us 132, 133 Belize (ba-leez') 39.3 Bel-shaz'zar 14 INDEX. 40; PAGE Be'mis (or Bem'is) Heights 373 Ben'e-dek, Marshal 330 Ben-e-ven'tum 76 Ben-e-ven'to 224 Bengal {ben-gawl') 271 Ben-ha'dad 26 Ben'ning-ton 373 Beresina (ber-e-ze'na) 315 Ber'gen 216, 363 Berkley, Lord 363 Ber-lin', or Ber'lin 312, 330 Ber-na-dotte' 339 Berne 344 Be-ro'sus 14 Ber'tha 188 Bihle, English 237, 247 Bi-thyn'i-a . 84, 139 Black Prince.. 174, 175, 197, 198, 225, 226 Blackheath 177 Blake, Admiral 254, 255, 256 Blanche of Castile (kas-teel') 192 Blenheim {Men' hime) 266, 328 Blucher {bloo'ker) 316, 332 Boeotia (be-o' she-ah) 34, 59 Bo-he'mi-a 218 Bo'he-mond, Count of Tarentum 207 Bo-les'las 331 Bolevn, Anne (bid' en, an) . . 235, 236, 237 BoUhgbroke (bul'ing-bruk) 207 Bol'i-var 368 Bo-liv'i-a 368 Bo'na-parte, Napoleon, 273, 274, 275, 309- 317, 375, 376. Bonaparte, Jer-ome' 312 Bonaparte, Joseph 311,313 Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon, 311, 320,321, 337, 345 Bon'i-face VIII., Pope 183, 184 Book of Common Prayer 238 Bordeaux (bar-do') 194 Bor'gi-a, Caesar 2S6 Borodino (bor-o-de'no) 314 Borussi (bo-roos'sl) 331 Bo-rys'the-nes 134, 136 Bos'po-rus 32, 136 Bos'ton 361, 362, 369, 371 Bos'worth Field 184 Both'ni-a 339 Bouillon (boo-eel-yong'), Godfrey of. . 207 Boulogne (boo-lone') 320 Bour'bon, the Constable of 288, 289 Boyne, Battle of the 264 Bozzarris (bot-sar'ris) 353 Brad'dock, General 270 Brad'shaw 253, 258 Bra-gan'za 346, 347 Bragg. General 3S7, 388 Bran'den-burg 331 Bran'dy-wine Creek 372 Bras'i-das 44 Brazil (brah-zeeV) 313, 349, 366, 368 Breed's Hill 370 Brem'en 216, 314 Bren'nus 59, 73 Britain 25, 94, 107, 110, 114, 147 Brit'ta-ny 187 Brooklyn 371 Brougham (broo'am) 276 Brown, John 383 PAGH Bruce, Robert 171, 172, 173 Bruges (broo'jis, or broozhe) 216 Brun-du'si-um (-zlte-um) 95 Brussels a36 Bru'tus, Junius 68 Brutus, Marcus 97, 99 Buccaneers 393 Bu-chan'an, George 247 Buchanan, James 383 Buckle (buck' el) 281 Buena Vista (bwa'nah Tees' tah) 381 Buenos Ayres (bc/nus a'riz) 368 Bulgarians 133, 151, 206 Bull Run 385,387 Bulwer (bul'wer) 281 Bunker Hill 370 Bun'yan, John 262 Bnrgoyne(bur-goin'), General, 272,372.373 Bur'gun-dy 143, 146, 187 Burke, Edmund 273 Burns 276 Burnside, General 387 Bute, Lord 271 Butler, Samuel 262 Butler, General 386 By'ron, Lord 276, 277, 353 Byz'an-tine Empire 131 Byzantium ipe-zan' she-um) 42, 122 C. Cabal, the 259 Cab'ot, John 234, 359 Cabot, Sebastian 234, 359, 368 Ca-bral' 348, 366 Cabul (kah-booV) 278 Cade, Jack 181 Ca-de'sia (she-ah) 150 Cadiz (ka'diz) 25 Caesar, Julius 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 Caesars, the Twelve Ill Cairo (ki'ro) 153, 309 Ca-la'bri-a 223 Calais (kal'is) 174, 196, 239, 291 Ca'led 150 California 381, 382 Ca-lig'u-la, Caius 106, 108, 110, 114 Cal'vin 344 Cam-by'sSs 21, 24, 29, 31 Cam'den 374 Ca-mil'lus 72, 74, 75 Cam-pa'ni-a 83,110 Campbell, Sir Col'in 279 Campo Pormio, Treaty of 309 Canada. . . 270, 278, 303, 366, 371, 372, 380 Ca-na'ries 25 Cannae (kan'ne) 80, 81 Cannes (kan) 316 Cannon 154, 174 Ca-nos sa 215 Can-ton' 280 Ca-nute' the Great 159 Cap'et, Hugh (or kapet) 147, 187 Capetian Dynasty 147 Ca'po d'Is'tri-a 353 Cap-pa-do cia (she-ah) 84, 118 Ca'pre-ae 106,108 Capu-a 81,91 Car-a-cal'la 115 Ca-rac'ta-cus. 10? 406 INDEX. PAGE Cardinal de Retz (rdtz) 299 Car-ib-be'an Sea 393 Ca-ri'nus 120 Carlisle {kar-FUe') 172 Car'lo-man 144 Car-lo-vin'gi-an Dynasty 144, 220 Car-lyle' 281 Car-o-li'na 360 Caroline of Brunswick 276 Carr, Robert 246 Car'te-ret, Sir George 363 Car'thage, 29, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86 126, 151 Car-tha-sje'na 268 Cartier (kar-te-a') 360 Cas'pi-an 16, 31, 94 Cas-san'der 57, 58 Cas'si-mer, John 334 Cassius {kash'e-us) 94, 97, 98, 99 Cassins, Spurius 70 Castile {cos-ted') 225, 227 Catharine de' Medici (med'e-che). 290, 292, 293, 294 Catharine of Ar'a-gon 234 Catharine I. of Russia 342, 351 Catharine II. of Russia 342, 351 Cat'i-llne 93 Ca'to 97 Cau'ca-su8 343 Cau'dme Forks 75 Cavaliers 250 Cawn-pore' 279 Caxt'on, William 183 Cecil (ses'il), Lord Burleigh 240 Cecrops (se'krops) 37 Cel-ti-be'ri-a, (note) 86 Cel-ti-be'ri-ans 86 Central America 392 Cer'ro Gor'do 382 Chad's Ford 372 Chaldea (kal-de'ah) 12 Chaldees (kal-dez) 13 Champagne (sham-pan.' y a) 187 Champlain (sham-plane') 366 Chancellor de THopital (lo'pe-tat). . . . 292 Chancellorsville 387 Charlemagne (shar'le-mahn) 144, 145, 146. 148, 152, 213, 220, 221 Charles Albert, of Savoy 345 Charles the Bold 201, 202, 219 Charles the Fat 146 Charles the Simple 146, 160 Charles the Pretender . . . . 269, 270 Charles I. of England 247, 299 Charles II. of England, 253, 254, 257, 300, 363, 3(54 Charles II. of Spain 301 Charles IV. of France 174, 196 Charles IV. of Bohemia 218 Charles V. of France 198 Charles V. of Germany, 235, 2S8, 289, 290, 291, 325, 346, 350 Charles VI. of France 198, 199 Charles VI. of Germany 269, 328 Charles VII. of France 199, 200, 201 Charles VIII. of France 285, 286 Charles IX. of France 292, 293, 360 Charles X. of France 318 Charles XI. of Sweden 338 PAGR Charles XII. of Sweden.... 338, 341, 351 Charles XIII. of Sweden 339 Charles XIV. of Sweden 339 Charles XV. of Sweden 339 Charles of Anjou 193, 224 Charles of Valois (val-wah') 195 Charles, Archduke of Austria 313 Charleston 365, 371, 373, 385, 389 Chartists 278 Chatham, Earl of 271, 272 Chaucer (chau'ser) .-. 176 Chesapeake Bay 372, 3S5 Chesapeake, the Frigate 376 Che v'y Chase, Ballad of 1 78 Chick-a-mau'ga 387 Chili (che'le) 367, 368 China 138, 222, 280 Chinese Tartary 137 Chip'pe-wa 377 Chceronea (ke-ro-ne'ah) 51 Christ 9, 105, 123 Christian II. of Denmark 337 Christian IV. of Denmark S26, 339 Christian IX. of Denmark. 340 Christianity 148, 165, 331 Christians, Persecution of, 107, 112, 113, 117, 121 Christina (k?is-ti'nah) 3:58 Christina of Spain 340 Chronology 9 Church, English 236 Church, Greek 137 Church, Romish 137, 236, 249 Chrysostom (kris'os-tam) 131 Cicero (sis>e-ro) 93, 98, 99 Cilicia (se-lish f e-ah) 111,118 Cimon (si'mon) 43 Cim'bri-ans (sim-) 88, 89 Cin-cin-na'tus 71 Cinna (sin'nah) 90 Cis-al'pine Gaul 89 Cisalpine Republic ■. 309 Citium (sish'e-um) 43 Clairvaux (clare-vo') 208 Clar'en-don 163 Clarendon, Constitutions of 164 Clau'di-us 106, 107, 109, 119 Clay, Henry 382 Cle-ar'chus (-kus) 46 Clement, the Assassin of Henry III. 294 Clement V., Pope 194 Clement VII., Pope 235, 290 Cle-om'e-nes 59, 60 Cle'on 44, 45 Cle-o-pat'ra 96, 99, 100 Cler-mont' 206 Clifford, Rosamond 166 Clinton, George 373, 374 Clisson (kles'song), Oliver 195 Cllve, Lord 271 Clon'tarf 165 Clo-til'da 143 Clo'vis 143 Clusium (Jdu'she-um) 73 Clyde (kUde) River 115 Cly'tus 54 Cnidus (ni'dus) 48 Cob'ham, Lord 179 Cod, Cape 361,363 INDEX. 40? PAGE Cod-o-man'nus 33 Co'drns 37 Colbert (kol-bare') 299 Colchis (kol'kis) 96 Cole'ridge 276 Colfax (kdl'fax), Schuyler (ski'ler)... 390 Coligny (ko-leen-ye'), Admiral . . . 292, 293 Cologne (ko-lone') 216 Col-la-ti'nus 68 Co-lom'bi-a 368 Col-os-se'um 109, 110 Co-los'sus of Rhodes 150 Co-lum'bi-a 389 Columbus, Christopher.. .. 227, 234, 359, 367, 368, 393 Com'mo-dus 113 Commonwealth, English 253, 254 Com-ne'nus, Manuel 208 Con'de, the Great 299, 300 Confederation of the Rhine 328 Confederation, North German 330 Connecticut (con-net'e-cut) 362 Co'non 45, 48 Con'rad of Franconia 213 Conrad II. of Germany 214 Conrad III. of Germany 208, 215 Con'stance, Council of 218 Constance, Peace of. 216 Con'stan-tine 121, 122 Constantine Palteologus 139 Constantinople. 122, 132, 133, 135. 136, 137, 138, 139, 151, 206, 209, 222, 349, 352 Con-stan'tius (she-us) 121, 122 Co-pen-ha'gen 273, 340 Cor-cy'ra (c like s) . 44 Cor'day, Charlotte 308 Cor'do-va 152 Cordova, the discoverer of Mexico. . 360 Cor'fu 353 Cor'inth 38,44,48,51,61 Cor-i-o-la'nus 71 Co-ri'o-li 71 Corn Laws, Repeal of 278 Cornwall 233 Corn-wal'lis, Lord. : 272, 374 Cor-o-ne'a 48 Cor'si-ca 303 Cor'tez 360,391 Co-run'na, Battle of 274 Cos'sacks 334 Cos-so'va 139 Costa Rica (kos'tah re'kah) 393 Covenant, Scottish 249, 251 Covenanters 254 Cov'er-dale (kuv-) 238 Cow'per 276 Cra'cow 334 Cran'mer 236, 238, 239 Cras'sus 91, 92, 94 Crat'er-us 56, 57 Crecy {kres'e) 174, 196 Cre-mo'na 109 Cri-me'a 351 Crim'e-an War 279, 343, 352 Crcesns (kre'sus) 18, 29, 39 Crom'well, Minister to Henry VIII. . 237 Cromwell, Oliver. . . 252, 253, 254, 258, 331 Cromwell, Richard 257 Cro'ton 61 PAGB Cro-to'na 223 Crusades. . . 137, 161, 166, 170, 189, 205, 216 Ctesiphon (tes'e-fon) Ill, 115, 152 Cu'ba 393 Cul-lo'den 270 Cumse (ku'me) 61 Cumberland, Duke of.. . 269, 270, 271, 277 Cumberland River 386 Cu-nax'a 46 Cur'few Bell 161 Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus 76 Cush 12 Cyaxares (si-ax' a-Hz) 16, 17, 29 Cyn-os-ceph'a-ke, or Cyn-o-ceph'a-le (sin-) 60, 83 Cy'prus 42, 43, 150 Cy-re'ne 61 Cyrenaica (si-re-na'e-kah) 61 Cyrus the Great. . . 14, 17, 18, 25, 28, 31, 39 Cyrus the Younger 46,47 Cyzicus (siz'e-kus) 62 D. Dacia (da'she-ah) 119, 1 34 Dacians Ill Dal-ma'tia (-she-ah) 120,121,122 Da-mas'cus. .26, 135, 138, 150, 151, 208, 209 Dam-i-et'ta 209 Dan'do-lo 222 Danes , 157, 158, 159 Dan'ton 308 Dant'zic 216 Danube. . .32, 59, 111, 119, 123, 134, 351, 352 Darien, Isthmus of 268, 367 Da-ri'us Hys-tas'pes 32, 38, 39 Darius Cod-o-man'nus 33, 53, 54, 115 Darnley, Lord 242 Da'tis 39 Dau'phin-y 196 David, king of Israel 26, 29 David, king of Scotland. . . 173, 174, 175 Davis, Jefferson 385, 390 De-ca'tur 376,378 De-cem'virs 72 Decius (de f she-us) 117 Dej'o-ces 17 Delaware 364 Delaware Bay . . 363 Delaware River 364, 371 Delaware, Lord 361, 364 Delhi (del'le) 279 De Leon, Ponce (dala-dn', pon'tha). 359 De'li-um 44 Del'phi 50, 59, 62, 63 Delta of the Nile 22 De-me'tri-us Pha-le're-us 57 Demetrius Po-li-or-ce r t6s 57, 58, 59 De Monts (da mong) 365 De Mont'fort, Simon . 191 De-mos'the-ngs 51,56,99 Denmark, 146, 147, 148, 158, 263.302,337.339 De Quincey 281 De Ruyter (ri'ter) 255, 259 Der'went River 160 Deseze (duh-saz') 308 De So'to 360 Dettingen (def ting -en) 269 De Witt 300 Diaz (de'az), Bartholomew 22"! 408 INDEX. Dickens . Dictator Dido PAGE .. 281 . . 69 .. 25 114 PAGi Edward the Elder *°J E--al'i-te, Philip 148,151 Egbert . . . . . ■ ■ • -• • • • • • — • — J^gg , )3 ,, 3 Egypt, 11, 14, 15, 1^;^ 150 , 305), 352 Egyptians, civilization of 22 Eilau (i'low) ° 2( . Ek'ron " -< -t *• El-a-gab'a-lus *Jg gj™ .'."&5.816 ££*£ of QuiOTue'^X^n), MB, UK El'i-ot, Sir John a?*!^ EllLabeth'of Engird; MB.' 247, 292, 360 Elizabeth of Russia •»» Elizabethtown.... 2£ El-len-bor'ough, Lord ^ Embalming 115 |m'e-ea ;;; ^ England (i«,Vto"^; »8; 1^^2,353, 360 English Justinian • ' E-pam-i-non'das *»i jjj Did'i-us Ju-li-a'nus 2;0 Dieskau (de-es-ko ) • • • • • • ■ ■ • .,-.;<: ; > : > Di'et, German . . . • - - 213, 32b, 3g, gu Di-o-cle'ti-an (-*te-an-) ^ x ~* Dionysius (di-o-msh e-us — ^ Dnieper (ne'per) . ' ;340 Dniester (nees'ter) n.^ Doge of Venice 1(J1 Domes'day Book. . - . . . 1( j m Domitian (do-mish'e-an) ... "«< £i Don Carlos • • • o. s Don Carvalho {kar-val'yo) g* Don Miguel {jm'gwd) — °£ Don River......-- * ggg Don nel-son, Fort . ™? Dor'ches-ter Heights • • ^ Do ri-ans 34 D°ris ;;.;'.'.'. ns Douglas m Dover 37 Dra'co ; 241 , , Drake, Sir Francis 315 Eph'e-sus £J Dres'den 104 I Eph'o-ri ja a4B8"76, 95 E-Pi'ru* v Vil ._. ^' ' . .' 8, 105 Dru'sus 26-2 Dry'den " ' ^5 I Era, Christian Dublin ;••;•,; 302 Dubois (du-bwah') jgj Du Guesclin {ga-Uang') 1»S » Du-il'li"- 121 Dumourier (dt^'-re-a') . • • ••• ^ gj Dun'bar ....'256,258 Dnn'kirk. .....•••• '070 DuQuesne (fame)... 2 . )3 Durazzo (doo-rat'zo) J*J Dur'ham... • 2W Dutch Republic * w Earl of Essex.... .^ 214,251,205 Earl of Lind'say '*.".'. 9ffl Earl of Mar . . Earl of Richmond • • • ££ 23g l(ll «5S*:.:::::ma:aS Earl of 14S East Anglia 222 East Indies 34 East Locris ^ 152 E'bro fil 32 54 55 Ec-bata-na 14 ' ' ^3 Eck muhl ■ • • 3^0 Ecuador (ek-wah-dor') g» E den-ton 207, 208 E des-sa 25 1 lg^Nante^^:::::^,3oi,33i Edinburgh {ed'in-WT-ro) 251, 269 Edmund Ironside —9, 194 Edward I. W 196 Edward II. ^ ^ m m Edward III ' 181 232, 233 EdwardlV xo ' ' 183 Edward V. ^ m 2 40 ISd th'e Confe 8 soV.V::...159, 160, 161 Era of Martyrs ■. 3n Erie, Lake 15 E'sar-had'don 14g Essex 2 44 Essex, Earl of • • " ..„ Eth'el-red, the Unready 70 73 E-tru'ria ' 75 E-trus'cans • • •• • • • ■ • • • 'W 'A. 29 E-thi-o'pi-a 11, 1 5 > 21, 23, -J4, *j Euboea (u-be'ah) ^ 131 Kpe . te . b : 11,54, 142, 152, 153, »£, flg Europe, Central and Southern .' 213 European States ^ Eu-ry-bi'a-des 43 Eu-rym'e-don .' 47, 62, 125 Eux'ine ' 1TO i^r!SeofRaWna-:.Vi34;i44-,221 Eyre (Ire), Governor «g E-ze'ki-el 2 ^ E'zi-on-ge'ber 32 Ez'ra Fa'b-i-us Max'i-mus 80^ Faineants (fa-na-wg r ) g* Fairfax, Lord 2 52 Fairfax, Sir Thomas «• Fair Oaks. Battle of «2? Falkirk (fawl'kirk) ... . . • • • • ^' Falkland \fawk>land), Lord gi Faroe (/a'ro) Islands ^ Far'ra-gut, Admiral ** Fat'i-mites, Kingdom of 1^ Faus-ti'na 04^ Fawkes, Guy (/aw*, gnu) v **» IXDEX. 409 PAGE Fer'di-nand the Catholic 226, 286 Ferdinand II. of Germany 326, 327 Ferdinand VII. of Spain 318, 347 Ferdinand of Bohemia 326, 327 Feudal System 153 Fill'more, Mil'lard 382 Fin'land 331 Firearms, commencement of use of, 174 (note), 232 Fish'er, Bishop 236 Flanders. . . 187, 194, 199, 202, 265, 266, 300 Flemings 194, 199 Fleu'ry, Abbe de 302 Fleury, Cardinal 302 Flod'den Field, Battle of 235 Flor'ence 346, 359 Florence, First Duke of 290 Florida 360, 378, 379, 385 Fontenaille (fon-te-nel') 145, 213, 220 Fontenoy (fon-ta-nwah 1 ) 269 Foth'er-m-gay Castle 242 Fox 273 France. . . 143, 187, 244, 285, 352, 360, 373, 375, 376, 392 Franche Comte {fransh kong'ta) 300 Francis I. of France 288, 325 Francis I. of Germany 328 Francis II. of France 242, 291 Francis II. of Austria 329 Francis of Lorraine 328 Francis, Duke of Guise (gweez) 291 Fran-co / ni-an Emperors of Germany 214 Frank'fort 241, 329 Franklin, Benjamin 373 Franks 142, 209, 213, 221 Franks, Sa'li-an 143 Frederick Barbarossa 208, 215 Frederick, Elector-palatine 326 Frederick of Austria 218 Frederick of Bohemia 326 Frederick the Great (of Prussia) 271, 329, 332 Frederick I. of Denmark 339 Frederick II. of Germany 209, 216 Frederick III. of Germany 219 Frederick HI. of Prussia 332 Frederick William, the Great Elector 331 Frederick William I. of Prussia 332 Frederick William HI. of Prussia... 332 Frederick William rv. of Prussia. . . 333 Fredericksburg, Battle of 387 Fre-mont', John C 381 French and Indian War 366 Friedland (Jreed'land) Battle of 312 Fro'bish-er 241 Fronde, Civil War of 299 Fu'ri-us Ca-mMus 72 G. Ga'des 25 Gaeta {gah-a'tah) 320 Gage, General 369, 370 Ga4a'tia (she-ah) 59, 84 Gal'ba 108 Ga-le'ri-us 121 Gal-li-e'-nus 118, 119 Gama (ghah'mah). Vasco da 227 Gar-i-bal'di 320,345 Gas'co-ny 187 l8 PAGE Gas'ton de Foix (fwah). 287 Gaston, Duke of Orleans 293 Gates, General 273, 373, 374 Gath 26 Gau-ga-me'la 54 Gaul 88, 94, 97, 125, 126, 143, 147 Gauls 59,75,94 Ga'za 53 Gelon {je'lon) 78 Ge-ne'va 241, 344 Genoa {jen'o-ah) 211, 222, 345, 359 Genseric (jeti'ser-ik) 126 Geoffrey {jef're) 166, 167 George I. of England 267 George I. of Greece 353 George II. of England 269, 365 George III. of England 271, 275 George IV. of England 276, 277 George, Prince of Denmark : . . . 263 Georgia 268,365,385,388 Gepidae (jep'e-de) 134 Ger-man'i-cus 105, 106 Ger'man-town 372 Germany, 105, 134, 144, 146, 188, 213, 287, 325 Germanic Confederation 329 Gesler (ghes'ler) 217 Geta (Je'tah) 115 Gettysburg (ghet-) 387 Ghent 275,336,378 Ghib'el-llnes 215, 220 Gibbon, a distinguished historian. . . 276 Gibraltar {jib-rawl' ter) 151, 266 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 360 Girondists (zhe-rond'ists) 307, 308 Glencoe, Massacre of 264 Glen'dow-er, Owen 178 God'frey of Bouillon (boo-eel-yong'), 207, 221 Godwin, Earl 159 Gon-zal'vo of Cordova 2S7 Good Hope, Cape of, 223, 227, 241, 269, 348, 367 Gor'di-an 117, 119 Gordon, Lady 233 Gorges (gor'jez), Ferdinand 361 Go'shen, the Land of 20 Gos'nold, Bar-thol'o-mew 360 Goths, 117, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 183 Gower, a distinguished poet 176 Grac'chus, Ca'i-us 87 Grac'chus, Ti-be'ri-us 86, 87 Granada {grah-nah'dah) 226 Grand Alliance 265,301 Gran-fcus 53, 54 Grant, General .... 386, 387, 388, 389, 390 Gratian (gra'she-an) 123 Gray, a distinguished poet 276 Gray, Elizabeth 182 Great Britain, 312, 316, 352, 369, 374, 375, 376, 392 Great Desert 22 Grecian Colonies 39, 6t Greece 33,84,124,352 Greek Empire 131, 137 Greek Fire 135,151 Greek Historians 14 Greeks 35,47,138, 352,353 Greene, General 374 410 I^DEX. PAGE Greenland 146 Greg'o-ry the Great 134, 148 Gregory VII., Pope. . . . 205, 214, 215, 224 Gregory X., Pope 217 Grey, Lady Jane 2:38 Guanahani (gtvah nah-hah'ne) 393 Guatemala (gwah-te-mah'lah) 393 Guiana (ghe,de-thorpe, General Ohio Ohio River Ojeda (o-Ua'dah) Oliver Clisson (see Clisson). O-lym'pi-a 0-lym'pi-ad, First 99. 119, 127, 261 100 100 277 120 182 818 2fiS 376 375 36S 35, PAGB O-lym'pi-as 57 O-lym'pic Games 63 O-lyn'thus 50 O'mar 150 Orange, Fort 363 Orellana (o-rel-yah'nah) 367 O-res'tes 126 O-ri-no'co River 359 O-ri'on 12 Ork'ney Islands 212 Or'loans 200 O-ron'tes 58, 208 Os'car 339 Os-ce-o'la 379 Os'ti-n 116 Os'tro-goths 132 Oth'man 139, 150 O'tho. Emperor of Rome 108 Otho I., the Great 213, 220, 221 Otho II 214, 223 Otho III 214 Otho, Prince of Bavaria 277 Otho, King of Greece 353 O-tran'to 133 Ot'ter-burn 178 Ot'to-car 217 Ot'to-man Empire 350 Ot'to-mans 139, 218 Ot'way 262 Ou'dc-narde .... 266, 328 Oudinot (oo' de-no) 320 Ov'id 105 Ox'en-stiern (stern) 338 Ox'ford 157 Pacific Ocean 367 Pac-to'lus 17 Pakenham (pak'n-am) 378 Pa-ler'mo 345 Pal'es-tlne. . . . 15, 25, 26, 137, 205, 207, 209 Pal-my'ra 27, 119,120 Pal-oe-oFo-gus 138,139 Panama (pan-a/i-mah') 367 Pan-no'm-a 113, 114, 119, 134, 145 Pa-o'li 303 Paris, 143, 146, 191, 196, 197, 198, 199, 293, 295,303, 317 Paris, Treaty of 271, 303, 352, 366 Parr, Catharine 237 Par'thi-a Ill Paul the Apostle 107 Paul, Emperor of Russia 342 Pau-sa'ni-as 41, 42, 43, 51 Pa'vi-a 134, 144, 213, 289, 290 Pe'kin 280 Pe-las'gi-aus or Pe-las'gl 34 Pe-la'yo 225 Pelissier (pa-lis-se-a f ) 321 Pe-lop'i-das 48 Pel-o-pon-ne'sus, 33, 34, 35, 36, 48, 49, 56 Pe-lu'si-um (-z/ie-um) 21, 29 Penn, Admiral 256 Perm, William 363, 364, 365 Pennsylvania 364, 371, 3S7 Pen-sa-co'la 377, 378, 385 Pep'in d'Her-is-tal' 144 Pepin the Short 144 Percy, Harry 178 I1S"DEX. 415 PAGE Per-dic'caa 55, 56, 57 Per'ga-mus 83,84,87 Per-i-an'der 38 Per'i-cles (-kllz) 43, 44 Perry, Commodore 377 Per-sep'o-lis 54, 55 Per'seus (suse) 61 Persia, 31, 46, 51, 116, 134, 136, 138, 150, 350 Persian Gulf 13,222 Persians 14, 17 Per'ti-nax 114 Pe-ru'.- 367,368 Peter of Aragon 193 Peter the Cruel 225 Peter the Great 338, 341, 351 Peter the Hermit 189, 206, 207 Petersburg 388 Petersburg, St 341 Pe'trarch 225 Pha-le're-us, Demetrius 57 Phar-ua'ees (sdz) 96 Phar-sa'li-a 98 Phil-a-del'phia 364, 370, 372, 373, 375 Philip of Burgundy 198 Philip, Emperor of Rome 117 Philip I. of France 167, 16S, 189 Philip II. of France (Augustus), 190, 191, 192, 208 Philip III. of France 193, 210 Philip IV. of France 172, 193 Philip V. of France 195 Philip VI. of France 174, 175, 196 Philip of Macedon 49, 50. 51 Philip II. of iMacedon 60, 83, 84 Philip II. of Spain, 239, 241, 291, 292, 294, 336, 346, 348 Philip III. of Spain 346 Philip V. of Spain 301 Philip Van Artevelde {ar'te-veld) .... 199 Phi-lip'pa 174 Philippe, Louis (see Louis Philippe). Phi-lip'pi 50, 99 Philippine ( iil-ip-peen') Islands 367 Phil-ip-pop'6-lis 117 Phil-is'tines 26 Phil-o-poe'men 60 Phocion {fo'she-on) 56 Phocis (Jo'sis) 34, 59 Phoebus (fe'bus), Statue of 150 Phoenicia (fe-nish' e-ah) 24, 53 Phra-or'tes (-tez) 17 Pick'ens, Fort 385 Pickens. General 374 Pierce, Franklin 382 Pi-le'ser, Tig'lath 15 Pi-sis'tra-tus 37 Pitt, William (elder) 271 Pitt, William (younger) 273 Pius VII., Pope 313 Pius IX., Pope 320 Pizarro (pe-zar'ro) 367 Pla-cid'i-a. . 125 Plains of Abraham 270 Plan-tag'e-net (-taj-), Geoffrey 169 Pla-tse'a : 41,42,44 Pla'to 46 Plymouth (plim'uth) 246, 361 Plin'y 109 Plu'tarch Ill PAGB Po River 108 Poitiers (poi-terz), 175, 197, 198, 199, 200 Poi-tou (pwah-too'). : 190, 191 Poland 134, 333, 342, 343, 351 Pole, Cardinal 239 Polk, James K 380, 381, 382 Po'lo, Marco 222 Poltava (pol-tah'vah) 338, 342, 351 Pol'y-carp 113 Pol-y-sper'chon 57 Pompeii (pom-pe'yi) 110 Pom'pey the Great, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 Po'ni-a-tow'ski 334 Pon'tus 84, 89, 92, 96, 97 Pope, the distinguished poet 267 Pope, General 386, 387 Port Hudson 387 Port Royal, Acadia 360 Port Royal, South Carolina 365, 366 Porter, Admiral 386 Porto Bello 268 Ports'mouth 248, 361 Por'tu-gal 227, 313, 348, 366 Po' rus 54 Po-tem'kin 342 Po-to'mac River 387 Prae-to'ri-an Guards 104 Prague (prag) 218 Pres'burg 311 Pride, Colonel 252 Prince of Wales, origin of the title. . 170 Pring, Martin 361 Pro-pon'tis 62 Protestants 325, 327 Provence (pro-vahns') 187 Providence 362 Pru'sa 139 Prussia, 307, 311, 312, 316, 331, 334 Pruth (proof) River 342 Psam-men'i-tus 21 Psam-met'i-chus 1 21, 24 Ptolemy (tol'e-me) 13, 57, 58, 93 Ptolemy, Ce-rau'nus (se-) 59 Pub'li-us Scipio (sip'e-o) 81 Puebla (pweb-lah) 392 Pul 15 Pu-las'ki, Count 373 Pulaski, Fort 386 Pnl-che'ri-a (-&?-) 132 Pun'jab 278 Pu'ri-tans 240, 246, 249, 250, 361 Pydna (pid'nah) 61,84 Pyr-en-ees' 80, 143. 191 Pyrrhus (pir'rus) 58, 76, 77 Quebec 270, 366, 371 Queen Anne's War 865 Quesne (kane), Fort du 270 Quin-til'i-an 109 R. Raleigh (raw'le), Sir Walter, 241, 245, 360 Ra-me'ses I 20 Rameses II 20, 29 Ramillies (ram'e-leez) 206 Ravaillac (rah-val-yak') ..." 296 Ra-ven'na 124, 133, 214, 221 Raymond VI., Count of Languedoc, 191. 416 INDEX. PAGE Raj-mond, Count of Toulouse 207 Red Sea 22,27 Re-dan' 279 Re-gil'lus 68 Reg'u-lus 79 ReHio-bo'am 27 Re'mus 67 Rheims (reemz) 200 Rhine River 94, 143 Rhodes 140,350 Rhode Island 362, 375 Rialto (re-awl' to) 221 Richard I. of England 166, 191, 208 Richard II. of England 176, 177, 178 Richard HI. of England 183 Richard, Duke of York 180, 181 Richelieu (resh'e-lu), 248, 297, 298, 326, 327 Richmond 386, 388 Rid'ley 238,239 Rienzi (re-en'ze) 225 Rio de la Plata (re'o da lah plah'tah, 368 Rio Grande (re'o grahn'da) 381, 882 Rivers, Lord 183 Rizzio (reet'se-o) 242 Roanoke Island 361, 386 Robert, Count of Flanders 207 Robert, King of France 187, 189 Robert Guiscard (ghees-kar') 223 Robespierre (ro-bes-pe-are'), 307, 308, 309 Rochelle (ro-shel') 293, 297 Rod'er-ick 151 Roger 1 224 Roger II 224 Roger Williams 362 Roland 145 Rol'lo 146,160 Roman Empire 320 Rome. . . 67, 107, 110, 124, 126, 215, 224, 289 Rom'u-lus 67 Roncesvalles (ron-ses-val'les) 145 Rosebecque (rose'bek) 199 Rose'crans, General 387 Ross, General 377 Rouen 199, 201 Roum (room) 137, 138 Roxana (rox-ah'nah) 54, 56 Ru'bi-con 95 Rndolf 1 217 Rudolf of Suabia 215 Run-ny-mede' a 168 Ru'pert, Prince 251, 252, 259, 260 Russell, Admiral 265 Russell, Lord John 277 Russell, Lord William 261 Russia 340, 351, 352, 353 Rye-House Plot 261 Rys'wick 265,301 S. Sab'a-cus 24, 29 Sacred War (Greece) 50, 51 Sad'o-wa 330 Sa-gun'tum 80 St. Albans (awl'bans) 181 St. Au-gus-tine' (-teen) 148 St. Augustine, City of. 360 St. Ber'nard of Clairvaux (dare-no') . . 208 St. He-le'na 317 St. John, Knights of 350 PAGH St. John's River 360 St. Lawrence, River and Gulf. . 360, 3(55 St. Louis 192 St. Mark , 221 St. Marks 378 St. Mary's 364 St. Patrick 165 St. Peter 224 St. Petersburg. 335, 341 St. Quen'tin, Battle of 291 Sal'a-din 153, 166, 208 Sal-a-man'ca 274 Sal'a-mis 40, 43 Sa'lem 361 Sa-ler'no 215,223, 224 Sal'icLaw 174,195,190, 347 Sa-lo'na .121 Sam'ar-cand 54 Sa-ma'ri-a 15, 28 Sam'nite War 75 Sam'nites 75 Samuel 26 San'croft . 263 San Sal-va-dor' 359, 393 San'ta An'na 381, 382, 392 Sa'por 117, 118 Saracen Empire 152, 153 Saracens 135, 144, 149, 225 Sar'a-cus 16 Sar-a-to'ga 272, 373 Sar-dan-a-pa'lus 16 Sar-din'i-a, Kingdom of 321, 344 Sar'dis 18,32,45,58 Sar'gon 15 Sas-san'i-des •. 116, 135 Saul 26, 29 Sa-van'nah 365, 373, 386, 388, 889 Sa-voy' 344, 345 Saxe Co'burg, Go'tha 278 Saxe (sax), Marshal 269 Saxon Hep'tar-chy 148 Saxons 142,147,148, 213 Say'brook 362 Scan-di-na'via 117 Schwartzenberg (shwartz' en-berg), Prince, 316 Schweitz (shwites) 219 Scinde(sind) 278 Scipio (sip'e-o), Roman Consul 80 Scipio, Lucius (Asiaticus) 83 Scipio, Pub'li-us Cor-ne'li-us (Af-ri- ca'nus), 81, 82, 83 Scotland 171, 172, 173, 235, 242, 267 Scots 112, 115, 147 Scott, General 377,382, 385 Scott, Sir Walter 276 Se-bas'tian HI. of Portugal 348 Sebastian Cab'ot 234, 359, 368 Se-bas'to-pol 279, 3-21 Sedge Moor, Battle of. 2(!2 Seine (sane) River 146 Se-ja'nus 106 Se-leu'cia (-she-ah) Ill, 115, 152 Se-leu'cus 58, 84 Se'lim 1 350 Selim II 350 Seljuk (sel'yook) Turks 137, 205 Sem'i-noles 378, 379 Sem'pach, Battle of 219 IKDEX. 417 PAGE Sem-pro'ni-us 80 Sen-nach'e-rib 15, 21, 28 Sen'e-ca 107 Sen-ti'num 75 Sep-tim'i-us Se- ve'rus 114 Serfdom in England 176, 177 Ser-to'ri-us 91 Ser'vi-a 139 Ser'vi-us Tul'li-us 68, 70 Servile War .... 91 Se-sos'tris 20 Seven Years 1 War 329, 332 Se-ve'rus, Alexander 116 Severus, Septimius 114 Seymour, Jane 237, 328 Shakes'peare 244 Shal-man-e'ser 15, 25 She'chem 27 Shelly 276 Shem 11 Shen-an-do'ah Valley 388 Sher'i-dan 273 Sheridan, General 388 Sherman, General 38S She'shonk 20 Shi'ites 150 Shi'nar 12 Ship Money 248 Shi'shak 20,29 Shrewsbury, Battle of 178 Si-be'ri-a 341 Sicilian Vespers, Massacre of... . 193, 224 Sicily, 61, 76, 77, 78, 79, 132, 193, 223, 224, .344, 345 Sicyon (sish'e-on) 38 Sidney, Al'ger-non 261 Sidney, Sir Philip 244 Si'don 52 Sigismund (sifis-mund) of Hungary, 218 Sigismund I. of Poland 333 Sigismund II. Of Poland 333 Sikhs 278 Sim'nel, Lambert 233 Simon de Mont'fort 169, 170 Sin'o-pe . 62 Si-wah' 31 Six Weeks 1 War 330 Slaves 214 Sla-vo'ni-ans 133, 214 Sles'wick 339, 340 Slote, Commodore 381 Smal'cal-de, League of 326 Smer'dis 31, 32 Smo'lensk 314,333 Smyr'na 113 So-bi-es'ki, John 328, 334, 351 Social War (Greece) 50 Social War (Italy) 89 Soc'ra-tes (-ieez) 45, 46 Sog-di-a'na 54 Solferino (sol-fa-re' no) 321, 345 Sol'i-man, Sultan of Roum 137, 207 Soliman the Magnificent 289, 350 Sol'o-mon 27, 29 So'lon 37 Somerset, Earl of 246 Sophia, grand-daughter of James I.. 267 Soulouque (soo-Iook') 395 . South America : . . 359, 366, 368, 369 PAGE South Carolina, 365, 371, 374, 375, 385, 386 South Sea Scheme. 267 Spain, 77, 80, 81, 82, 86, 91, 104, 125, 145. 151, 152, 225, 256, 265, 268, 274, 313, 346, 366, 367, 368, 378 Spanish Netherlands 336 Spanish Succession, War of . . . . 265, 301 Spanish War 86 Spar'ta. ... 36, 37, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 60 Spar'ta-cus 91, 92 Spenser 244 Sphac-te'ri-a 44 Spire 325 Spu'ri-us Cassius... 70 Spurs, Battle of 235, 287 Stafford, Earl of 261 Stan'is-las, Augustus 334, 335, 338 Stanislas of Poland 302 States General of France... 195, 285, 292, 297, 304 Steele 267 Stephen, King of England 162, 163 Stil'i-cho (-ko) 124 Stirling 171 Stock' ton, Commodore 381 Strafford, Earl of 248, 249 Stral'sund 326 Stras'burg 300, 320 Stu'art, Arabella 245 Stuart Family 245 Stuyvesant (sti've-sanf), Peter. . . 363, 364 Suabians (swa'be-ans) 213 Su'ez 21 Sul'ly, Duke of 247, 296, 297 Sum' ter, Fort 385, 389 Sumter, General 374 Sun'nah 151 Sun'nites 150 Supremacy, Act of 240 Su-rat' 247 Surrey, Earl of 237 Susa (soo'sah) 32,54, 55 Sus'sex 148 Su-war'row, Marshal 310, 335, 351 Sweden, 260, 311, 312,;314, 327, 331, 334, 337 Sweyn (swane) 158, 159 Swift 267 Switzerland 217, 219, 327, 335, 343 Syb'a-ris 61 Sylla (sU'lah) 89, 90, 91, 92, 96 Syr'a-cuse 45,79,81 Syr'i-a.... 15, 25, S4, 92, 94, 117, 118, 137, 138, 150, 205, 310, 851 Ta'bor, Mount 310 Tacitus (tas'e-tus), Emperor 120 Tacitus, the historian 110 Tad'mor 27 Tal-a-ve'ra 274 Tam'er-lane 139 Tan'a-is, Kiver 134 Tan'cred 207 Tara (tah'rah) 165 Ta-ren'tum 61, 76, 77, 207, 214, 223 Ta'rik 151 Tar'quin the Elder 68 Tarquin the Proud 68 Tar-quin'i-i (-e-i) 75 418 INDEX. PAGE Tar'ta-ry 137,222 Tau'rus Mountains 84 Taylor, General 379, 380, 381, 382 Te-cum'seh 376 Tell, William 217 Ten-nes-see' 375 Tennessee River 386, 388 Ten'ny-son 2S1 Test Act 260 Teu-ton'ic Order of Knights 331 Tewks'bu-ry 182 Tex'as 380, 381, 382, 385 Thack'e-ray 281 Thames (temz), Battle of 377 Thames River 259 Thap'sus 96, 98 Theb'a-is 22 Thebes (theebz) in Egypt 22 Thebes in Greece..., , 48, 49, 51 The-mis'to-cles (-klez) 41, 42 The'o-dore. King of Abyssinia 280 The-od'o-ric 132 The-o-do'si-us (-she-us) the Great, 123, 124 Theodosius II 131, 132 The-re'sa, Maria 269, 270, 304 Ther-mop'y-lae 40, 62 Theseus (tlw'suse) 34 Thes'sa-ly 33, 35, 50, 56, 60 Thomas, General 388 Thot'mes II 29 Thotmes III 20 Thotmes IV 20 Thrace 32, 34, 44, 59, 117, 122, 139 Thras-y-bu / lus 46 Thu-cyd'i-des (sid-) 45 Ti'ber 116 Ti-be'ri-us 104, 105, 106, 108 Tiberius of France — 201 Tiberius Gracchus 86, 87 Ticinus (te-si'nus) 80 Ti-con-de-ro'ga 373 Tig'lath Pi-le'ser 15 Tigraues (te-grah'nez) 92 Tigris River 14, 121, 131, 150, 351 Til'ly 326,327 Til'sit 312 Ti-mo'le-on 78 Ti'mour 139 Tip-pe-ca-noe' {-nod) 376 Tir-ha'kah 21 Tis-sa-pher'nes (-nez) 45 Ti'tus 109, HO Titus, Colonel 256 To-lo'sa 225 Tor'bay ... 263 Tos'tig 159 Totila (tot'e-lah) 133 Tou-lon' 309 Tou-louse' (-loos) 191, 192, 207 Tou-raine' 195 Tours (toor) 144 Tou'ton, Battle of 182 Traf-al-gar' 274 Tra'jau Ill Tras-i-me'nus 80 Tre'bi-a 80 Tren'ton 371 Triple Alliance 260 Tri-um'vir-ate 94, 99 PAGE Troyes (trwah) 179, 199, 200 Tu'dor, Edmund 232 Tudor, Henry 183, 184 Tuilleries (tweel're) 307, 318 Tul'lus Hos-til'i-us 67 Tu'nis 193,210 Turgot (toor-goO 303 Turenne (tu-ren'), Marshal 298,300 Tu'rin 266 Turkey. . . . 279, 325, 338, 342, 349, 351, 352 Tur-kis-tan' 343 Turks, Ottoman 137, 352 Turks, Seljuk 137 Tus'ca-ny 67 Tus'cu-lum 68 Ty'burn 234 Ty'ler, John 380 Tyler, Wat 176, 177 Tyn'dale, William 238 Tyne(^ra?) 249 Tyre (tire) 25, 27, 29, 53 U. Ulm 311 Um'bri-a 75,82 Union of England and Scotland 267 United Statefe 275, 366, 369 Unterwalden (oon'ter-wal-deri) 219 Ur 13 Ur'ban EL, Pope 206 Uri (oo're) 219 Uruguay (oo'roo-gwl) -. 368 U'ti-ca 25, 82, 85, 96 U'trecht, Treaty of 266, 301, 366 V. Va'lens 123 Val-en-tin'i-an 1 123 Valentinian II 123 Valentinian HI 125, 126, 147 Val-div'i-a 368 Va-le'ri-an 117, 118, 119 Van Ar'te-velde, Philip 199 VanBu'ren, Martin 380 Vane, Sir Henry 251 Van Tromp, Admiral 255 Var'ro 80 Va'rus 105 Vas'co da Gama (gah'mah) 348 Vauban (vo-bahng') 300 Veii (ve'yi) 72 Ven'a-bles, Admiral 256 Ven'e-ti 126, '220 Ven-e'tia (she-ah) 345 Ve-ne'tians (she-ans) 351 Ven'ice. . . 214, 220, 235, 286, 287, 309, 350 Venezuela (ven-e-zwa'lah) 368 Vera Cruz 382 Vergniaud (varn'yo) 308 Vermont 375 Vernon, Admiral 268 Vernon, Mount 375 Ve-ro'na 124, 214 Verrazzani (ver-rat-tsah'ne) 360 Ver-sailles' 304 Ve'rus Lucius 113 Ves-pa'si-an (she-ari) 109, 110 Vespucci, Amerigo (ves-poot'che, ah- ma-re'go, 359, 368 INDFX. 419 PAGE Ve-su'vi-us 91, 110 Vicks'burg 387 Victor Emanuel 345 "Victoria, Queen 277 Vienna (v&en'nah), 113, 316, 328, 329, 334, 340, 350, 351 Villa Franca 321 Villiers (vil'yerz), George 206 Vimeira (ve-ma' e-rah) 274 Vin-do-bo'na 113 Vin-de-li'cia (-lish'e-ah) 104 Virgil 105 Vir-gin'i-a . . 241, 360, 361, 365, 370, 386 Vir-i-a'tus 36 Vi-tel'li-us 108, 109 Vit-to'ri-a 274 Vol'e-ro, Law of 70 Vol'ga 350 Vol'sci-ans (she-ans) 71 Vol-taire' 305, 332 W. Wa'gram 313, 314, 330 WaKe'field, Battle of 181 Wales 147,162, 170 Wallace, William 171 Wal-la'chi-a (-ke-ah) 278 Wal'len-stein (stine) 326, 327 Wal'pole, Sir Robert 268 W;ri'^ing-ham, Sir Francis 240 Wal'ter the Pennyless 206 Wal'worth 177 War'beck, Perkin 233, 234 War'saw 335 Warwick (war'rik), Earl of, 180, 181, 182 Washington City, 375, 377, 385, 386, 3S7 Washington, George, 272, 370, 371, 372, 373 375 Waterloo, Battle of 275,' 317 Wayne, General 375 Wel'les-ly, Sir Arthur, (274,275, 313, 316, Wel'ling-ton, Duke of, f 317 Went'worth, Sir Thomas 247, 248 We'ser 45 Wes'sex 148 West Indies 359, 393 WestLo'cris 34 West-pha'li-a 298 Wick4iffe, John 176,178 PAGE William, Duke of Normandy 160 William I. of England (the Conqueror), 160, 189 William II. of England (Rufus), 161, 189 William III. of England, 263, 264, 265, 300, 336 William TV. of England 277 William III. of Holland 337 William the Silent 336 William and Mary 26 1 Williams, Roger 362 Wind'ham 273 Wind'sor 362 Win'kel-ried (-reed), Arnold of 219 Wolfe, General 270, 366 Wolsey, Thomas (Cardinal).. 234, 235, 236. 288 Worcester (woos'ter), Battle of.. 254, 256 Words'worth 276 Wur'tem-berg 330 Wy'att, Sir Thomas 238 Wycherly Switch' er-le) 262 X. Xan-thip'pus 79 Xen'o-phon 16, 45, 46, 47 Xerxes I. (zerx'ees) 32, 40, 42, 54 Ximenes (Jie-ma'nez) 346 York, City of 115, 121, 180, 252 York, Duke of (James).. 259, 260, 261, 363 York River 386 Young 276 Zacb/a-ry, Pope 144 Zama (za'mah) 82 Zed-e-ki'ah 14, 28 Ze/la 96 Ze'no 132 Ze-no'bi-a 119, 120 Zen'ta 328 Zinrts-ces (sez) 136 Zis'ca, John 218 Zoll'ver-ein (-ine) 333 Zo-ro-as'ter 33 Zu'rich 343 Zwingle 343, 344 54 J;! 94 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY