Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES .1 . N OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR; CALCULATED FOR THE USE OF BOTH SE.XES AT SCHOOL: IN WHICH THE PRACTICAL RULES OF THE LANGUAGE ARE CLEARLY AND DISTINCTLY LAID DOWN, AND THE SPECULATIVE DIFFICULTIES AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE AVOIDED. A NEW EDITION. BY JOHN WALKER, AUTHOR OF THE CRITICAL PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY, ELEMENTS OF ELOCUTION, &C. &C. LONDON: PRINTED FOR JOHN .WALKER, . 44, GEO. WILK1E, AND J. ROBINSON, 57, AND GEO. ROlUNSON, 25, IN PATER- NOSTER ROW ; T. CAD-ELL AND W. DAVIES, IN THE STRAND'; AND JOS. JOHNSON AND CO. JN ST. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD. 1810. Printed by S. Hamilton, Wejbridge. PREFACE THE multitude of Grammars that have appeared -since Dr. Lowth's Introduction, sufficiently show that latter grammarians have either thought that work defective, or that they could instruct their pupils better by a method of their own : arid per- haps, it must be confessed that any method, which is the produce of our own judgement, may with greater readiness be conveyed to others than the method of another person, though really preferable. Under the favour of this allowable prejudice, I have presumed to add my mite of grammatical improvement, and shall in a few words give my reasons for so hazardous an under-taking. Notwithstanding the many excellent Grammars, that have been lately produced, I conceived there was a middle class of pupils, beyond the age of childhood, and before that of maturity, to which these Grammars were not perfectly accommodated. The abridgements of, these Grammars appeared to me to be too scanty, and the others too redundant. A 2 IV PREFACE. A middle Grammar therefore seemed wanted for the middle class of pupils I have supposed ; and such a Grammar I have endeavoured to supply in a method somewhat different from my prede- cessors. - In the first place, I imagined that the catecheti- cal method was the fittest to convey instruction in every stage of science but the last. This method points out the rule more distinctly to the notice of the pupil, and gives the teacher a better opportu- nity of examining his progress ; to say nothing of the exercise it affords for improvement in reading, as the dialogue form is happily calculated to pro- mote a natural and conversation tone of pronun- ciation. In the next place, I was of opinion, that almost all our Grammars seemed to lean, without neces- sity, to an exclusion of Latin terms, and Latin forms of construction. This propensity has been observed by a judicious grammarian, who says " Most of the writers since Dr. Lowth, from a sup- " position, perhaps, that the English language hath " little concern with the Latin, seem to have de- " parted as much as possible, not only from the " rudiments, but the terms made use of in Gram- " mars of that tongue; and have chosen to put " their materials into any .form, rather than suffer PREFACE. V them to fall in with the Latin plan. In the distri- ' bution of the moods and tenses particularly, there " is a remarkable variety ; some arrange them in " one manner, some in another ; some enlarge, " while others diminish their number. In one " Grammar atenseis transposed in the same mood ; " in another, it is transplanted into a different one : " and in all, many of the technical terms are " changed for others, equally, if not more ab- " stracted and perplexing : and thus a new kind ic of grammatical language has been invented." Shaw's Grammar; Preface. From this state of the case, which appears to be a very just one, we may perceive how difficult it is toavoid extremes. Because some of the old gram- marians were too fond of the Latin terms, and Latin forms of construction, the moderns have at- tempted to exclude them altogether; and thus, by avoiding one fault, have fallen into another. ' , '. But it will be naturally demanded, of what use to an English scholar is retaining the Latin terms and forms of construction ? It may be answered, that if these terms and forms of construction are as in- telligible as any we can substitute in their stead, why shoukl we depart from the ancient and re- ceived grammatical language of Europe without deriving any advantage from the change ? If, in- A3 VI PREFACE. deed, the Latin terms and forms of construction were much more difficult than such as must be substituted- to supply their place, the "objection would be a very strong one : but this is not really the case. In the declension of nouns we must have two cases, and in that of pronouns, three. Where would be the difficulty or embarrassment in extending the cases to six, the number of them in Latin ? The answer will be, because we have no such cases in our language; and therefore why should we create them ? It may be replied, that a case or termination of a noun adds no more to its signification than a preposition prefixed to it ; the difficulty therefore of adopting these additional cases is ideal : three more cases would be as easily learned as the two or three we are obliged to adopt; and by doing so, we sp'eak the general grammatical language of all the scholars in Europe : for it must be observed, that general utility, and not philqso~ phical or abstract propriety, is the great object of grammar, as well as of language. What has been observed of the cases of nouns is applicable to the declensions. We are obliged to form nouns into classes according to their several modes of forming their plurals ; and as we have five varieties of this formation, where would be the im- propriety of calling each of these modes a declen- sion ? I greatly mistake, if putting each of these PREFACE. vil varieties in a table declined, with all their cases, will not make a better and more lasting impression, of the plurals and genitives of nouns, which are so often confounded, than the short transient way in which they are generally mentioned. The moods of verbs in Latin, except the opta- tive, have been generally retained by some of the most respectable English grammarians ; notwith- standing the strong reasons which may be brought to prove, that we have no more than one mood in English. To abolish these moods would be cer- tainly to coin our grammar anew ; but it is highly probable, that what it might gain by this in meta- physical value, it would lose in general currency. ^ It will scarcely be questioned, that for boys who are to have a Latin education, an English Grammar in the Latin form would be by far the most eligible. "But why, it will be said, should ladies be plagued with Latin terms and forms of construction ? Why ? it may again be answered, Because they dre as easily understood as any other. What difficulty do we avoid by calling the noun or substantive, a name; the adjective, an adnoun or a quality ; the verb, an affirmation ; and the indeclinable parts of speech, particles ? Are the leading state and the following state of the noun, which are very inade- quate and erroneous terms, more easily conceived yiii PREFACE, than the nominative and the accusative cases ? or is the case of the substantive or personal pronoun, when a question is asked, better apprehended by saying the leading state of the substantive or pro- noun follows tlie affirmation, instead of coming be- fore it ? One would think such egregious trifling as this could never have entered into the heads of men of sense. If these improvements then are merely visionary, I know not why ladies are to be instructed by a grammar different from that of men, any more than that they should learn composition by a different system of rhetoric. It is not pretended, however, that this adherence to the learned languages should induce us to con- form to them in all their peculiarities of construc- tion, when that of our own language is much more simple and easy. We may with great convenience and propriety adopt their cases, declensions, and moods ; we may divide our syntax into concord and government, without entering into that intricacy and caprice of construction with which these lan- guages abound : for however a foreigner, who un- derstood Latin, might be benefited by knowing what cases certain verbs, adjectives, and other parts of speech require, such rules would tend to em- barrass a native rather than instruct him, especially if he had not already made a considerable progress in grammar. PREFACE. 1* There are certain rules for construction which hold good in all languages : The verb agrees with its nominative case in number and person : when two verbs come together, the latter is in the infinitive mood : the verb To Be has the same case after it that goes before it : the relative agrees with the antecedent in gender, number, and person; and a few others. These rules, which are in all languages, and in the nature of things, are very different from that government of words peculiar to the Greek and Latin languages ; in the former of which a neuter, and sometimes a masculine or feminine substantive in the plural number, requires a verb singular ; and in the latter, not only adjec- tives, ' but adverbs and interjections govern the cases bf nouns. The case absolute in the Latin is the ablative ; in the Greek, the genitive ; and in English, the nominative. It would therefore be the height of absurdity to follow the syntax of these languages, any farther than they follow the syntax of all other languages; and in these, if we adopt the same terms, it is because they are more, universally known than any other. , I have been thus long in obviating an objection, which I know to be very popular, and likely to make a great impression upon the generality of readers ; but the most formidable objection I have to dread is the competition I place myself in with X PftJEFACE. so many excellent grammarians. I am much in- dqbted to Mr. Knowles of Liverpool, and to Mr. Shaw of Rochdale. Those who wish to see a most able, luminous, and philosophical, as well as practi- cal Grammar, must peruse Dr. Crombie,'s Ety- mology and Syntax : and I need not acquaint the Public with the merit and success of Lindley Murray's Grammar ; which seems to ha\;e super- seded every other. Indeed, when we consider the plain simple mode of instruction he has adopted, the extent of observation he has displayed, and the copious variety of illustration h$, has added, we shall not wonder that his Grammar, has been so universally applauded. If mine has any title to public attention, it may be because it is, short* ; that it adopts a somewhat different vehicle of in- struction from other Grammars ; that its parts are connected so as to explain each other by numeral references ; that the practical and speculative parts * I am of opinion that it is of the utmost importance not to engage youth too far in the niceties and intricacies of grammar. It is always a dry and disgusting subject to young minds, and, when pursued to such points as are highly abstracted, and metaphysical, tends rather to puzzle than instruct them. There is great judgement in knowing how far we can venture to teach; and too much care cannot be taken to prevent grammar, which is the torment of youtji, from becoming more tormenting than is absolutely necessary. PREFACE. XI are more distinctly marked by throwing the latter into notes, and that these notes contain some original observations, or at least such as I have never met with. How I have succeeded in my pre- tensions to novelty, and whether they ate of sufficient importance to excuse my obtruding a new Grammar on the public, must be left to that public to determine. Entered at Stationers' Hall. OUTLINES ENGLISH GRAMMAR. WHAT is Grammar ? Grammar is the art of rightly expressing our thoughts by words. Into how many parts is Grammar usually di- vided ? Into four; namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. What is Orthography ? Orthography treats of the Spelling and Pronun- ciation of words. What is Etymology ? Etymology treats of the severaj sorts of words, and of the variations to which they are subject by Declension, Comparison, and Conjugation. What is Syntax ? Syntax treats of uniting words into a connected series, so as to express the various conceptions of the mind. What is Prosody ? Prosody treats of the composition of Verse ac- cording to the laws of harmony and proportion. ORTHOGRAPHY. WHAT is Orthography ? Orthography is the method of spelling words by particularising their letters according to the established rulesof writing and pronouncing them. How many letters are there in the English lan- guage ? Twenty-six ; namely,* A, a ; B, b; C, c; D, d ; E, e; F, f; G, g; H, h ; I, i; J, j; K, k; L, 1; M, m; N, n; O, o; P, p; Q, q; R, r; S, s; T, t; U, u; V, v; W, w; X,-x; Y, y; Z, z. Of these letters six are generally called vowels, namely, #, e, i y o, tt, i/, and the rest-consonants ; and where two or more vowels are pronounced with a single impulse of the voice they are called diph- thongs; as round, boil, &c. What are the rules combining letters into syl- lables and syllables into words ? The general rules are so easy and so commonly known, that some of our Grammarians haveomitted them, as the proper province of the Spelling Book; and the critical rules are so numerous and difficult as torequire a separate volume. Those, therefore, who wish for as much satisfaction as can be ex- pected upon this subject must be referred to The Principles of English Pronunciation, prefixed to the Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Ex- positor of the English Language. * For the true alphabetical sound of thr. rirst and last letters a and 2, see the Critical Pronouncing Dictionary where they occur; and for the sound of i, u, and y, see Principles of English Pronunciation, prefixed to t!ie Dic- tionary, No. 8, 105, 171. ETYMOLOGY. How many parts of speech are there? 1. Ten : namely, Article, Noun or Substantive Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. What is an Article ? 2. An Article is a word prefixed to substantives to limit or determine their signification. How many Articles are there ? 3. Two : namely, A or An, and The. What does A or An signify ? 4. It signifies a thing in general, as 1 want a book ; that is, no book in -particular, but any book; and it is therefore called the Indefinite article. What does The signify ? 5. It signifies a thing or things in particular; as, Give me the book, or, Give me the pens ; that is, the particular book or pens understood by the person speaking and the person spoken to ; and it is there- fore called the Definite article. When is A used? 6. Before words beginning with a consonant, as, a book ; or words beginning with long u, as, a use- ful book. When is An used instead of A ? 7. Before words beginning with any vowel but long u, as, an art, an egg, an urn ; or words begin- ning with h mute, as, an honour ; or when the A is not mute if the accent be on the second syllable, as an historical account, an heroic action*, &c. * An ignorance of the real composition of u, and the want of knowing that it partook of the nature of a conso B 2 4 Outlines of English Grammar, i Is there always a substantive after an article? 8. Yes : either expressed or understood. NOUN, OR SUBSTANTIVE. What is a Noun, or Substantive? 9. A noun, or substantive, is the name of any thing. It makes sense by itself, and 1 can place the article A or The before it, as-er man, the book. How many kinds of nouns are there ? 10. Two : proper and common. What is a noun proper ? 11. A proper name ; or a name proper to one person or thing only ; as, C&sar, Alexander, the Thames, &c. What is a noun common ? 12. A common name; or a name common to many things ; as, a book, a desk, a table, &c. How man}' numbers have nouns ? 1 3. Two : the singular and the plural. What does the singular number mean ? 1 4. One : as, a pen, the apple* < What does the plural number mean ? 15. More than one; as, pens, apples. How is the plural number formed ? 16. By adding s to the singular; as, book, books; house, houses; &c. Is it always so formed ? nant, has occasioned a great diversity and uncertainty in prefixing the indefinite article An before it. This difficulty will vanish when we consider long u as equivalent in sduncl to the pronoun you, and that it has consequently the nature of a consonant; and that short u, in urn, umbrella, tec. is a pure vowel. A difficulty of a like nature respecting this article before h will be removed by attending to the accent of the word to which it is prefixed. Thus we say, a history of England, an historical account; a hero of old, an heroic action, &c. See the article An in the Critical Pronouncing Dictionary. Noun. Number. 5 17. No; when the singular ends in s, sh, ch*, or x, the plural is formed by adding es ; as-, miss, misses; brush, brushes -, peach, peaches; box, boxes; &c. How do nouns ending in y preceded by a conso- nant form their plurals ? 1 8. By changi ng the y into ies ; as, lady, ladies ; fairy, fairies, &c. except they be proper names; as, the Henrys, the Gregorys, &c. Are there not some particular nouns that deviate from this rule ? 19. Yes; the following nouns ending infoicfe, form their plural by changing theforfe into ves, as, sheaf, leaf, loof, thief, calf, half, elf, shelf, self, wolf, life, wife, knife. Beeves, the plural of beef, signifying black cattle or oxen, is always used in the plural; and staff, in certain cases, makes staves-^. ' What are the irregular nouns of our language ? 20. The most irregular nouns are those that do not form their plural by s. These, however, are but few, as, man, men; woman, women; and all words compounded of man: ox, oxen; child, chil- dren;, brefher, brothers, or brethren ; foot, feet ; * If the singular end in ch, sounded like k, the plural is formed by adding s ; as Monarch, Monarchs; Distich, Dis- tichs. f When this word was used to signify a stanza, as, to sing a staff', it was irregularly pluralised into staves; as, may be seen at large in Johnson s Dictionary : but my observation fails me, if latterly the plural of this word has not regular- ised the singular into stave. On the contrary, this word signifying a stick or support, which was formerly irregular by making the plural staves, is now sunk into the regular plural staffs, as, "Then followed the constables with their staff's;" while the long piece of wood belonging to a vessel called a pipe, still continues its irregular plural, as, "Th ship was laden with pipe staves." 6 Out tin cs of English Gramma ; -. toothy teeth; goose, geese; louse, lice; mouse,, mice ; penny, pence; and die, a cube of ivory, makes dice. Do all nouns differ in the singular and plural number ? 21. No ; some nouns are the same in both ; as, sheep, deer ; means, when it signifies cause, as, by this means, or by these means ; but in geometry, signifying the middle between two extremes, it is regular: series and species are of both numbers; when they are of the singular, a is prefixed to them*. Have all nouns both a singular and a plural number ? 22. No ; some have no singular ; as, alms, ashes, annals, bellows, bowels, cresses, entrails, lungs, scissai^s, shears, snuffers, thanks, tongs, wages, orisons, &c. Others, on the contrary, have no plu- ral ; as the names of virtues and vices; as, genero- sity, avarice; the names of metals, AS, gold, silver, copper; the names of herbs, as, mint, sage; the names of several sorts of corn or pulse, as, wheat, barley, rye. Peas, considered individually, are regular ; as three or four peas ; but considered col- lectively, as, a dish of peas, are irregular : to which we may add the names of liquids, as, wine, ale, beer, oil; but some of these, as well as the former, when they signify several sorts, are used in the plural, as, wines, oils*, &c. What are the irregular nouns from other lan- guages ? 23. Some nouns from the learned languages end- * It is an ingenious observation of Dr. Crombie's, that all things measured or weighed have no plural ; for in them not number but quantity is regarded, as, wheat, wine, oil. When we speak, however, of different kinds, we use the plural, as, the coarser wools, the finer oils. Grammar, p. 23. Noun. Gender. '/*:" 7 ing in is form their plural by changing the i intp e ; as, ellipsis, ellipses ; emphasis, emphases ; paren- thesis, parentheses*, &c. Some nouns retain the plural of their original languages, and may therefore be called foreign nouns. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Cherub, Cherubim. Crisis, Crises. Seraph, Seraphim. Diaeresis, Diaereses. Phenomenon, Phenomena. Hypothesis, Hypotheses. Automaton, Automata. Metamorphosis, Metamorphoses, Dogma, Dogmata. Axis, Axes. Miasma, Miasmata. Calx, Calces. Criterion, Criteria. Effluvium, Effluvia. Minutia, Minutiae. r Genii (attend- Animalculum, Medium, Animalcula. Media. Genius, ) ant spirits). \ Geniuses (great Erratum, Errata. {- wits). Datum, Data. Magus, Magi. Arcanum, Arcana. Radius, Radii. , Stamen, Stamina. Apex, Apices. Focus, Foci. Appendix, Appendices. Genus, Stratum, Lamina, Genera. Strata. Laminae. Index, r Indices (in Al- 3 gebra). y Indexes (of Desideratum, Desiderata. * books). Stimulus, Stimuli. Vertex, Vertices. Antithesis, Antitheses. Vortex, Voatices. Basis, Bases. Beau, Beaux. Some of these words are used only in the plural, as Ban- ditti, Delitanti, Credenda, Literati, &c. GENDER. What is the Gender of nouns ? 24. The distinction of sex. How many Genders are there ? 25. Three; themasculine, which signifies males, * I have met with metropoles for the plural of metropolis' as, "I know, indeed, there were no fixed ecclesiastical we" " tropoles in Africa, but they had civil metropoles called by " that name." Clergyman's Vade Mecwm, vol. ii. p. 18Q. 3 Outlines of English Grammar. as, a man, a boy; the feminine, which signifies females, as, a woman, a girl ; the neuter, which sig- nifies any tiling of no sex, as, a book, a yen : or something, where the sex is of no importance, as, " /Ms a pretty child.' 1 '' .Are'not some nouns of no sex sometimes con- sidered as. masculine or feminine ? 26. Yes; but metaphorically ; as, the sun, he shines ; the moon, she rises ; the ship, she sails, &c. How are the genders of nouns distinguished ? 27. The masculine and feminine are sometimes distinguished by different words ; as, man, woman; boy, girl; buck, doe, &c. The sex of nouns is sometimes marked by the addition of a pronoun before their names ; as, a he or she-goat ; a cow- calf or bull~caif; a. buck or doe-rabbit; a cock or hen-pigeon : but most frequently the epithet male or female serves to distinguish the genders of those aniinals that are less familiar to us, as, the ina'e. elephant. < .v The difference of sex is sometimes expressed by the termination of the substantive, and this either by the mere addition of ess to the masculine, as, Barou, Baroness. Poet, Poetess. Heir, Heiress, Viscount, Viscountess. Jew, Jewess. Prince, Princess. Lion, Lioness. Prior, Prioress. Shepherd, Shepherdess. Prophet, Prophetess. Patron, Patroness. Count, Countess. Peer, Peeress. Deacon, Deaconess. Or sometimes by a small alteration of the mascu- line, the better to make it coalesce with the femi- nine termination ess, as, Abbot, Abbess. Adulterer, Adultress. 4 Actor, Actress. Hunter, Huntress. Ambassador, Ambassadress. Chanter, Chantress. Governor, Governess. Elector, Electress. Protector, Protectress. Emperor, Empress. Arbiter, Arbitress. Painter, Paintress. Noun. Case. 9 D rector, Directress. Traitor, Traitress. Marquis, Marchioness. Tutor*, Tutress. Duke, Duchess. Master, Mistress. Tiger, Tigress. Votary, Votaress. Hero, for its feminine, adopts the French Heroine. In some few instances, and those chiefly in law- proceedings, the Latin termination in ix is pre- served, as Administrator, Administratrix. Testator, Testatrix, - Executor, Executrix. Director, Directrix. CASE. What are the Cases of nouns ? 2S. The cases of nouns are, either an alteration at the end of a noun, or prefixing a preposition at the beginning of it, in order to show its relation to I i . some other word. How many cases have nouns? 29. Six ; namely, the Nominative, the Genitive, the Dative,, the Accusative or Objective, the Vocative, and the Ablative. What does the Nominative case signify ? 30. The Nominative case is that in which the noun is simply mentioned ; as, a boy, a girl. What does the Genitive case mean ? 31. The Genitive case is that which implies the belonging of one thing to another: it is formed either by the preposition o/"before it, or by s with * This is the true formation of the feminine of tutor, as may appear from every word of the same form where the masculine ends in or or er, articulated by a consonant: though I own that tutoress is the most common or* thogruphy. Whipping is Virtue's governess ; Tutress of arts and sciences : It mends the gross mistakes of nature, And puts new life into dull murter. Hud. Part Q. Canto 1. B5 10 Outlines of English Grammar. an apostrophe after it : as, " The picture of my "mother; My father's house*." What does the Dative case signify ? 32. The Dative signifies the tendency to a thing, and is formed by taking to before it; as, " He is gone to London." What does the Accusative or Objective case sig- nify ? 33. The Accusative or Objective case in nouns is only known by its coming after the verb active, and receiving its impression, as, "I strike the table-" where the word table is in the accusative case, though its form is the same as the nominative: but its form in personal pronouns is different, as, " I strike him" What is the Vocative case ? 34. The Vocative case is that which calls to or invokes the object ; and generally takes O before it; as, "O king, live for ever." What is the .Ablative case ? / 35. The Ablative in Latin principally signifies taking a\vay something from the object ; but in English it may be formed by placing any of the prepositions, but of ot to, before it ; as, "I took * It may be observed, that the double genitive is an ad- vantage peculiar to our language. The Latins can only say for the 'genitive corona regis, and the French la couronne dn roi : while the English can say, either the. kings crown, or the crown of the king. Nor is this a mere idle variety ; for it not unfrequently indicates a very different relation of one thing to another. Thus, the kings picture may mean either his property or his likeness ; but, the picture of the /ting can mean only the likeness of the king. The same distinction may be observed in many other instances. Noun. Declension. 1 1 " the book from the shelf;" t( I sent the letter by "him*." Are all these cases necessary in the English language ? By no means: they are only recommended as useful ; and as contributingto unit > the grammati- cal language of English with that of the Greek and Latin. Those who find no occasion for such a union may easily pass over the four last cases, and the four last declensions ; as whatever relates to number and case in other grammars has already- been laid down. For the utility of these cases and declensions, see the Preface. DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS. What are the Declensions of nouns ? 36. The declensions of nouns are such variations as they receive from their cases or number. How many declensions are there ? 37. There are five declensions, according to the five different formations of the plural number. What is the first declension ? 38. The first declension*is that where the plural is formed by adding s only to the singular. Give an example of the first declension. * This may seem to give too great a latitude of significa- tion to the ablative case, and to render it very indefinite; but as the creation of a new c^se for every preposition would be as useless as endless, and as keeping to the Latin number has many grammatical advantages, it is presumed no great inconvenience can arise from classing so many pre- positions in the ablative case ; 'especially when we recollect the numerous relations this case stands for in Latin, as Lily's Grammar tells us, that in, with, through, for, from, by, and than, are all signs of the ablative case. 1 2 Outlines of English Grammar. THE FIRST DECLENSION. Singular. Plural. Nom. A book. Norn. Books. Gen. A book's, \vithanapos- Gen. Books', with an apos- trophe before the s, or Of trophe after the s, or Of a Book*. Booksf. Dat. To a book. Dat, To books. Accus. or Object. A book. Accus. or Object. Books, Vocat. O book. Vocat. O books. Ablat. With, from, or by a Ablat. With, from, or by Book. books. What is the second declension ? 39. The second declension is that where the sin- gular ends in the silent e after the hissing con- sonants, soft c and g ; 5 and z ; which forms its * This double explanation of the genitive is adopted to avoid the ambiguity which arises to the ear without it; as, the books leaves may mean the leaves of one, or of many books. f Most of our grammarians seem to lodk upon our geni- tive plural formed by the apostrophe to be ciuite super- fluous. It is certain that the Saxon language has no such termination to mark this case ; but if such a termination of the genitive plural tends to determine .the sense with greater precision, there is no reason why it should not be adopted. As a proof of tbft utility of the genitive plural marked by the apostrophe, we need only recur to a few common phrases. " All the ships masts were blown away; AH the trees leaves were blown off. In these and similar phrases it is only the apostrophe placed before or after the s that determines the ships and trees to be either singular or plural : in the same manner when we say The kings crowns were placed upon the table, without the apostrophe, we do not know whether the crowns belonged to one king, or to several. It is true the context will easily determine this; but it is the intention of grammar to determine the sense by the words without the necessity of recurring to what eomes before, or to what follows. - Noun. Declension. 1 3 plural by adding s only; as, page, pages ; place, place*, &c. Give an example of the second declension. SECOND DECLENSION. Singular. Plural. Norn. A page. Nom. Pages. Gen. A page's, with an apos- Gen. Page's, with an apos- trophe before the s, or Of a trophe after the s, or Of page. pages. Dat. To a page. Dat. To pages. Accus. or Object. A page. Accus. or Object. Pages. Vocat. O page. Vocat. O pages. Ablat. With, from, or by a Ablat. With, from, or by page. pages. What is the third declension ? 40. The third declension is that where the sin- gular ends in the hissing consonants ch, $h, s, x^ and 2 ; which forms its plural by adding es ; as, coach, ,coaches ; fish, fishes ; circus, circuses ; box, boxes ; buzz, buzzes. Give an example of the third declension. THIRD DECLENSION. Singular. Plural. Nom. A coach. Nom. Coaches. Gen. A coach's, with an apos- Gen. Coaches', with an trophe before the s, or Of a apostrophe after the s, or coach.' Of coaches. Dat. To a coach. Dat. To coaches.. Accus. or Object. A coach. Accus. or Object. Coaches. Vocat. O coach. ' Vocat. O coaches. Ablat. With, from, or by a Ablat. With, from, or by coach. coaches. What is the fourth declension? 41. The fourth declension is that where the sin- gular ends in j/, preceded by a consonant, which forms its plural by changing the^ into ies ; as,y?y, files i lily , lilies. ; &c. Give an example of the fourth declension. 14 Outlines of English Grammar. FOURTH DECLENSION. Singular. Plural. Norn. .A %- Norn. Flies. Gen. A fly's, with an apos- Gen. Flies, with an apos- trophe before the s, or Of trophe after the s, or Of a fly. flics. Dat. To a fly. Dat. To flies. Accus. or Object. A fly. Accus. or Object. Flies. Vocat. O fly. Vocat. O flies. Ablat. With, from, or by Ablat. With, from, or by a fly. flies. What is the fifth declension of nouns ? 42. The fifth declension is that where the singu- lar ends inforfe, and the plural in ves ; as, loaf, loaves ; knife, knives ,- &c. Give an example of the fifth declension. FIFTH DECLENSION. Singular. , Plural. Norn. A loaf. Nom. Loaves. Gen. A loafs,, with an apos- Gen. Loaves', with an apos- trophe before the s, or Of trophe after the s, or Of a loaf. loaves . - Dat. To a loaf. Dat. To loaves. Accus. orObj. A loaf. Accus. orObj. Loaves. Vocat. O loaf. Vocat. O loaves. Ablat. With, from, or by a Ablat. With, from, or by loaf. loaves*. * If there were no other reason for declining nouns in the manner here adopted, the difficulty which youth, and often grown persons, find in marking the genitive case in writing would be sufficient; as this method tends to fix the genitive in the mind, by frequently exhibiting it to the eye, and pre- vents that confusion of the genitive and plural number which we so often meet with, and this in writings not of the lowest order. How disgraceful is it to see in polite correspondence, " I am desired to send the Miss Parsons's " compliments!" where, to pass over the impropriety of Miss for Misses, we find a genitive singular for a plural; for as the singular ends in s, it ought to be pluralised by es: and the genitive should be formed by an apostrophe after the J ; as the Miss Parsonses' compliments. This gross im- propriety would, ia all probability, never have taken such Noun. Declension. 1 5 How are the irregular nouns declined? 43. As regular nouns, or those that form their plural by s, form their genitive singular by an apos- trophe before the s, and their genitive plural by an, apostrophe after the s ; so the irregular nouns form their genitive by an apostrophe before the s both in the singular and the plural ; as, a marts hat, men's hats ; a woman's cap, women's caps ; a child's plaything, the children's playthings; an ox's horn, oxen's horns ; a tooth's whiteness, the teeth's whiteness; &c. Give an example of the declension of irregular nouns. DECLENSION OF IRREGULAR NOUNS. Singular. Plural. Norn. A man. Norn. Men. Gen. A man's, with an apos- Gen. Men's, with, an apos- trophe before the s, or Of trophe before the s, or Of amah. . men. Dal. To a man. Dat. To men. Accus. or Object. A man. A ecus, or Obj. Men. Vocat. O man. Vocat. O men. Ablat. With, from, or by a Ablat. With, from, or by man. men. Is not this s as the sign of tbe genitive sometimes omitted ? 44. Yes ; in proper names singular ending in s or x ; as Ajax' strength ; Piutus' mine, &c. Or in some common nouns that have no plural ; as, for Peace' sake, &c. Omitting the s in Righteousness' sake, Goodness' sake, &c. obtains only in abstract substantives of this termination ; for we should un- questionably write and pronounce Witness's sake for the singular, and Witnesses? sake for the plural. deep rool; if the. Cases and Declensions of substantives had been exhibited to the eye in the manner here recom- mended. 16 Outlines of English Grammar. 1 Wesometimes, indeed, sed and hear Demosthenes' orations ; Socrates' letters; but because the repe- tition of the hiss is very disagreeable to the ear, we ought in these cases to use the other genitive, and say, ihe orations of Demosthenes; the tetters of Socrates, &c. ADJECTIVE*. What is an adjective ? 45. An adjective is a word that makes no sense by itself, but makes sense when joined by a sub- stantive, which it describes ; as, & good pen. So that an adjective may be defined to be a word that describes f the substantive. * It is not easy to conceive what could induce so many, acute and ingenjous grammarians to. remove the adjective from its old station after the substantive, and place it after the pronoun. If it be said that the pronoun is a sort of sub- stantive, and therefore the adjective properly comes after both noun and pronoun, it may be answered, that the per- sonal and reciprocal pronouns only can pretend to be of the nature of substantives; and that before we can explain the pronominal cdjectives, the nature of an adjective must have been already explained; not only as, the nature of an adjec- tive is better conceived by being united with the substantive, but as we cannot enter upon the first grand distinction of the pronoun into the nature of substantives and adjectives, unless the adjective be previously known. t I have differed from all our grammarians in the defi- nition of an adjective, by saying uiat it describes the sub- stantive ; but this definition will, I flatter myself, be found to be more simple and more comprehensive than any other. If Dr. Lowth's definition be correct, namely, " An adjective " is a word added to a substantive, to express its quality," what shall we call those words that express number ? Therefore to call an adjective a word descriptive of the sub- stantive, seems to take in every modification ; and if on this account it should be objected, that the Articles are modify- ing or descriptive words added to substantives ; it may be added, that these words have been ranged under the Adjec- tive by Beauze, one of the most acute grammarians of the age. Adjective. 1 7 Do adjectives ever change their termination on account of number, gender, and case, as substan- tives do ? 46. No ; they are joined without any change of termination to substantives of all genders, in all cases, and of both numbers; as, a good man, a good woman, a good book ; of a good man, of a good woman, of a good book; good men, good women, good books ; of good men, of good women, of good books, &c. > - *'-'' Do adjectives ever change their termination at all? 47. Yes; on account of comparison. What do you mean by comparison? 48. Comparison, is either extending or con- tracting the signification of the adjective, and es- timating this signification by different degrees. How, many degrees of comparison are there ? 49. Tiwee: the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. What is the positive degree ? 50. The positive degree is that in which the ad- jective is simpl} r expressed ; as, strong, brave. What is the comparative degree? 51. The comparative degree is that in which the signification of the adjective is either increased or diminished; as, stronger, braver; less strong, less brave. What is the superlative degree? 52. The superlative degree increases or di- minishes the positive to the highest or lowest de- ?ree; as, strongest, bravest ; least strong, least race. How is the comparative degree formed? 53. By adding r to the positive, if it end in silent e, as, wise, wiser ; or er, if tiie positive end in a consonant as, strong, stronger. 18 Outlines of English Grammar. How is the superlative degree formed ? 54. By adding st to the positive, if it end in silent e, as, wise, wisest ; or est, if the positive end in a consonant, as, strong, strongest. Are all adjectives thus compared ? 55. No : adjectives may be compared by prefix- ing the words more and most, and less and least, to them : as, strong, more strong, most strong : brave, less brave, least brave. Do all adjectives admit of being compared in both these ways ? 56. No : all adjectives admit of being compared by more and most, or less and least; as, fair, more fair, most fair ; or fair, less fair, least fair: but only monosyllable adjectives admit of being com- pared by er or est ; as, fair, fairer, fairest ; strong, stronger, str&ngest ; or such dissyllables as end in y, as, happy, happier, happiest ; or in le after a mute, as nob :e, nobler, nob : est ; ample, ampler, am- plest ; or such as are accented on the last syllable ; as, compete, completer, completest ; polite, politer, politest, &c. How do adjectives that end in y after a conso- nant form their comparatives and superlatives? 57 1 he same rule hoi, Is in adjectives as in sub- stantives and verbs; na.nely, wnen any of these words end in y, pr -ceded by a consonant, and take an additional sy.'able, beginning with any vowel but 2, the y is changed into i '; as, holy, holier, ho- liest ; afly^flic.s; a flier, flying, &c. According to the same rule in the other parts of speech, if the positive end in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, with the accent on the last ry liable, the rinal consonant must be doubled in the comparative and superlative ; as, hot, hotter, hottest ; flut, flatter, flattest, &c. See Participle. Are all adjectives compared in one or other of the foregoing ways? Pronoun. 19 55. No: some few are compared quite dif- ferently ; as, ^ . Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Good *, Better, Best. Bad, Worse, Worst. Little, Less, Least. Much or many, More, Most. Near, Nearer, >.*. Nearest or next. Late, Later or latter, Latest or last. In what part of a sentence is the adjective usu- ally placed ? 59. Immediately before the substantive, as a Good Man, a Good Woman, &c. Is it always so placed ? 60. No; it is sometimes placed after the sub- stantive : first, when it forms the title of a person or place ; as, Alexander the Great, Louis the Four- teenth, Arabia the Happy : secondly ; when it is followed by words that describe it ; as, A man, true to his trust ; Feed me with food convenient for me : thirdly, for the sake of greater harmony, or more emphatic expression ; as, O Grace Divine ! PRONOUNS. What is a Pronoun'? 61. A pronoun is a word put instead of a noun to prevent the too frequent repetition of it; as, Caesar conquered the Gauls, and then he conquer- * It is remarkable that these adjectives are. irregularly compared in all the languages we know, and particularly good and lad; which should seem to arise from the im- portance of these two epithets, as if they required a more marking difference than that which arises from a different termination : this is somewhat analogous to that difference of the sexes which in almost all languages is marked by different words, as, tt^anratf, Pronoun. 2 1 How do you decline the second personal pro- noun ? Singular. Plural. .66. Nom. Them. Norn. Ye or you. Gen. Thy or Of thee. Gen. Your or Of you. Dat. To thee. Dat. To you. Accus. or Obj. Thee. Accus. or Obj. You. Vocat. O thou. Vocat. O ye or O you. Ablat. With, from, or by thee. Ablat. With, from, or by you. How do you decline the third person'al pronoun of the masculine gender? Singular. Plural. 67. Nom. He. Nom. They. Gen. His or Of him Gen. Their or Of them. Dat. To him. Dat. To them. Accus. or Obj. Him. Accus. or Obj. Them. Vocat. Is wanting. Vocat. Is wanting. Ablat. With, from, or by him. Ablat. With, from, or by them. How do you decline the third personal pronoun . of the feminine gender? Singular. Plural 68. Nom. She. Nom. They. Gen. Her or Of her. Gen.- Their or Of them. Dat. To her. Dat. To them. Accus. or Obj. Her. Accus. or Obj. Them."/ Vocat. Is wanting. Vacat. Is wanting. Ablat. With, from, or by her. Ablat. With, from, orby them. How do you decline the third personal pronoun of the neuter gender? ' Singular. Plural. 69. Nom. It. Nom. They. Gen. It or Of It's. Gen. Their or Of them. Dat. To her. Dat. To them. Accus. or Obj. - It. Accus. or Obj. Them. Vocat. Is wanting. Vocat. Is wanting. Ablat. With, from, or by it. Ablat. With, from, orby them. however, is a matter of some dispute among grammarians, I have given these pronouns both- ways, and leave it to the teacher's choice to prefer which he pleases. . 22 Outlines of English Grammar. POSSESSITE PRONOUNS. What are the Possessive pronouns ? 70. The possessive pronouns are personal ad- jectives, or such adjectives as describe some pro- perty belonging to personal pronouns. How many possessive pronouns are there ? 71. As many as there are personal pronouns ; that is, every personal pronoun has a possessive pronoun which corresponds to it. How does this appear ? 72. By exhibiting them together in the follow- ing scheme. Personal Pronouns. Adj. Possessives. Suls. Possessives. Singular. I I -my mine. 2 Thou thy thine. f He. Mas. his his. 3 -I She. Fern. her- . hers. We Plural. cur ( They. Mas. \ They Fern tTfnw Nftiit. What is the distinction between adjective and substantive possessives ? 73. Adjective possessives are those which are used before the substantive, as, This is my hat : Substantive possessives are those which are used without a following substantive, as, This hat is mine. Hi* is the same, whether we use it with or without the substantive ; as, This is his hat; or, This hat is his. Its is never used substantively ; for thougi' we can say. These are its qualities, we cannot say, These qualities are its. Are not mine and thine, though substantive pos- sessives, sometimes used as adjectives ? as, mine eyes, thine arm, &c. Pronoun. 23 74. Yes; but improperly: they are indulged in poetry for the sake of sound and solemnity ; but in prose they have been long disused. What are the Reciprocal Pronouns ? 75. Those where self is added to some of the possessive, and some of the oblique cases of the personal pronoun ; as, myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself t itself; ourselves, yourselves^ them- selves. These are of the nature of substantives, but, like which and. what, cannot be declined in the genitive by s, with an apostrophe. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. What are Relative Pronouns ? 76. Relative pronouns are such as relate to an antecedent, and unite the latter part of the sentence to the former ; and therefore ought to be, and sometimes are, called Conjunctive Pronouns. Whirh are the relative pronouns? 17. Who, which, what, and that. Are they declinable ? 78. Who, like nouns, is declined with two geni- tives ; whose or of whom. Which and what may be declined with the genitive formed by oj ; but that, as a relative, is wholly undeclinable. How do you decline the relative who ? Singular. -x Plural. 79. Nom. Who- Gen. Whose or Of whom. Dat. To whom. ]^ The same. Accus. or Obj. Whom. Vocat. Is wantinar. Ablat. With, from, or by whom. J How do you decline the relative which ? Singular. "j Plural. 80. Nom. Which. Gen. Of which. Dat. To which. ^-The same. Accus. or Obj. Which. Vocat. Is wanting. Ablat. W ith, from, or by which. 24 Outlines of English Grammar. How do you decline the relative what ? Singular. -\ Plural. 81. Norn. What. Gen. Of what. .1 Dat. To what. ^ The same. Accus. or Obj. What. Vocat. Is wanting. Ablat. With, from, or by what. J Of what gender, number, and person, are the relative pronouns ? 82. Who is of both numbers, of the masculine and feminine genders, and of all rational persons. - Which is of both numbers, of the neuter gender, and of all irrational persons. What is a compound relative including its ante- cedent, and is equivalent ,to that which or those which ; it is of both numbers, all genders, and all persons. That is of both numbers, all genders, and all persons. Is which never applied to rational persons? 83. When which is used interrogatively, or is put before the person to whom it relates, it is ap- plied to rational persons as well as things ; as " Which is the lady you mean ?" " Which man " sings best ?" How do you know when that is a relative pro- noun ? 84. By trying to change it into who or which ; thus, "the master that taught me," I can change into " the master who taught me," and "the books "thatyou sent," into"the books whichyou sent;" when I cannot do this, the word that is either a demonstrative pronoun, or a conjunction. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. What are Demonstrative Pronouns ? 85. Demonstrative pronouns are such as point out any particular persons or things. Pronoun. 25 86. Which are the demonstrative pronouns? This and that. Are they declinable ? 87. Yes ; as they stand in the place of substan- tives, they are, like them, declinable, except in the genitive case, by s with an apostrophe. How do you decline the demonstrative pronoun Ths? Singular. Plural. 88. Nom. This. Nom. These. Gen. Of this. Gen. Of these. Dat. To thi s. Dat. To these. Accus. orObj. This. Accus. orObj. These. Vocat. Is wanting. Vocat. Is wanting. Ablat. With, from, orby this. Ablat. With, from, or by these. How do you decline the demonstrative pronoun That? Singular. Plural. 8Q. Nom. That. Nom. Those. Gen. Of that. ' Gen. Of those. Dat. To that. Dat. To those. Accus. or Obj. That. Accus. orObj. Those. Vocat. Is wanting. Vocat. Is wanting. AhJat. With, from, or by that. Ablat. With,from,orbythose. DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. What are Distributive Pronouns ? 90. Distributive pronouns are so called because they denote the persons or things that make up a number, as taken singly and separately. Which are the distributive pronouns ? 91. Each, every, either, and neither. Of what gender, number, and person, afre the distributive pronouns? 92. They are of all genders and persons, are only of the singular number ; as, " Each has his "share;" "Every man gives something; " " Either of them has enough for himself j" " Neither is a proper man for a friend." c 26 Outlines of English Grammar. *t Do not these pronouns, like the possessive, the relative, and the demonstrative, suppose some sub- stantive or personal pronoun either expressed or understood ? 93. All pronouns but the personal and recipro- cal have the nature of adjectives, and are joined to some substantive or personal pronoun either expressed or understood : expressed ; as, " I sent " her servant ;" ""He saw that man ;" "'I have " read the book which you lent me." Understood : " This (book) is mine ;" " Each (man) has his "share;" ( . ( Either (man) has enough for him- " self;" " Neither (person) is to blame ;" " Who " steals my purse steals trash;" that is, he who steals rhy purse steals trash. THE VERB. What is a Verb ? - 94. A verb is a word that signifies to be ; as, / am : to do ; as, / strike : or to suffer ; as, / am struck. How many kinds of verbs are there ? 95. Three ; active, passive, and s neuter. What is an active verb ? ' 96. An active verb signifies action, and such action as. passes over to some object ; as, / strike the table ; and is therefore called transitive. What is a passive verb * ? * A most ridiculous singularity has crejit into our lan- guage in the signification of the word passion. One would suppose, by its general appropriation to the passion of anger, that this passion was trie strongest of al! passions, and that therefore it was so called by Way of eminence. It is true, the effects of anger are, like the rest of the passions, of an active nature; but the cause of it, like that of the rest, is an impression made on the mind by some object Which occasions a kind of suffering. To denominate causes by their eflecij is often proper in rhetoric and poetry ; but Verb. 27 97. A passive verb signifies passion, suffering, or the receiving qf an impression ; as^ lam struck'. What is a neuter verb?. 98. A neuter verb signifies either being, as, / am ; a state or condition of being, as, I sit, I stand; or such action as does not pass over to another ob- ject, as, / walk, I run ; and is therefore called intransitive. What are the properties of a verb ? 99. Mood, tense, number, and person. What is a mood ? 100. A mood is a certain mode * or manner of being, doing, or suffering. How many moods are there ? 101. Five; namely, the infinitive, the indica- tive, the imperative, the potential,' and the sub- junctive. What is the infinitive mood ? 1 02. Theinfi niti ve mood expresses being, doing, or suffering, in the largest and most unlimited sense ; and is known by the preposition to before it ; as, to love, Why is it called the infinitive mood ? in didactic works and plain prose, nothing can be so inappli- cable. If we were to tell a Frenchman that such a man was in a passion, he would ask, Quellc passion, Monsieur? and if you explain it farther to him, he would say, Eh! Monsieur, vous voudriez dire quit est en col ere. In conse- qHence of this vulgar application of the word, a passionate man means an angry man; while the most awful and im- portant fact in Christianity, the passion of our Saviour, is in direct opposition to-such a sense. * An affectation of critical precision has made several of our grammarians call this property of the verb a mode, con- trary to the appellation formerly given it of mood. - It is certain that mode and mood are radically the same, by t the latter is more specific than the former ; meaning a mode of the mind ; and therefore more applicable to its grammatical usage. c2 23 Outlines of English Grammar. 103. Because it is infinite; that is, it is not limited or circumscribed by number or person. What is the indicative mood ? 104. The indicative mood indicates, declares, or affirms ; as, 1 strike ; or asks a question ; as, Do I strike ? What is the imperative mood ? 105. The imperative mood is the mood of com- manding or bidding ; as, Read your Grammar ; Let me go. toij What is the potential mood ? 106. The potential mood is the mood of power, and expresses liberty, necessity, or duty : it is formed by prefixing the auxiliary verbs, way, might, can, could, would, should, or must; as, I may, might, -can, could, would, should, or must strike. What is the subjunctive mood ? 10T. The subjunctive mood is so called because it requires another verb to be subjoined in order to form complete sense. It has general Jy a con- junction prefixed to it; as, If he go, he will cer- tainly lose his l>fe. W hat is the tense of a verb ? 108. A tense is the time in which any thing exists, acts, or suffers. How many tenses are there* ? * An accurate and philosophical definition and arrange- ment of the tenses, is one of the most abstruse and meta- physical parts of grammar. Those who wish to see the subject excellently handled may consult Dr. Crombie's Etymology and Syntax. Without entering into this thoiny path, in which youth can never be expected to follow, it may not be improper to obviate a difficulty which is apt to arise in young minds ; namely, how the imperfect tense can be called imperfect, when the time it intimates is more per- fectly passed, than that of the perfect tense itself. This difficulty may be solved by telling them that the tense is called imperfect, not because the time is imperfectly passed, Verb. 29 109. There are six tenses or times ; namely, the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the foretelling future imperfect, the commanding future imperfect; and the future perfect tense. >^ What is the present tense ? HO. The present tense signifies the present time ; as, / dine , / sup. What is the imperfect tense ? 111. The imperfect tense signifies an action, passion, or event imperfectly passed, at a time perfectly passed ? as, / supped last night at eleven o'clock. What is the perfect tense ? 112. The perfect tense signifies an action, pas- sion, or event at a time perfectly passed, but at no particular time ; and it may be called the pass- ed time extending to the present j as, / have finished my supper. What is the- pluperfect tense ? 113. The pluperfect tense signifies an action, passion, or event perfectly passed, at some time perfectly passed ; as, / had finished my supper last night at ten o'clock. What is the foretelling future imperfect tense ? 114. The foretelling future imperfect tense signifies simply foretelling the time to come ; as, I shall dine at five ; You will sup at ten. What is the command ing future imperfect tense? 115. The commanding future imperfect tense implies the commanding or orderingof some action, passion, or event to come to pass ; as, I will dine to-day at four ; You shall sup to night at nine. reckoning from the present, but because the action at a passed time is imperfect, or not completely finished. Thuj when I say,' " I supped at eleven o'clock last uight," though the time is now passed, the action at that hour was imperfect, incomplete, or unfinished. 30 Outlines of English Grammar. What is the future perfect tense? ; ."*, 116. The future perfect tense signifies the time to come as passed, before some other time to come be passed ; as, J* f shall have (lined to-day before six o'clock ; Thou wilt have supptd to-night before eleven. How many numbers haye verbs ? 117. Two; singular and plural; as, He reads, They read. How many persons have verbs ? 118. Three; singular and plural ; as, /for the first person, thou for the second, he, she, and it, for the third person singular we for the first, ye or you for the second, and they for the third person plural. How are the moods and tenses formed ? 119. By the means of auxiliary verbs. How many auxiliary verbs are there ? 120., Nine. .s-^- Which are the auxiliary verbs ? 121. To have, to be, to do, shall, will, may, can, let, and must. Have the auxiliary verbs any conjugation? that is, have they any moods, tenses, or persons? 122. Yes. How do you conjugate the auxiliary verbs ? 123. Some of the auxiliary verbs have a present and a passed time ; as, to have, to be, to do. Some have an absolute and a conditional form ; as, shall, will, may, and ccin; and some have only a present tense; as /eand must. How do you conjugate To Have as an auxi- liary verb ? INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tertse. Singular. Plural. v --. J$4. I have. We have. Thou hast. Ye 'or you have. He hath or has. They have. Verb. 31 Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. Plural , I had. We had. Thou hadst. Ye or you had.*" He had. They had. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. If I have. If we have. If thou have. If ye or you have. I f he have. If they have. Pretwimperfect Tense* Singular. Plural. If I had. If we had. If thou had. If ye or you had If he had. If they had. How do you conjugate To,Be as an auxiliary verb ? | INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular Plural. 125. I am. We are. Thou art. Ye or you are. He is. They are. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I was. We were. Thou wast. Ye or you were.. He was. They were SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. If I be. If we be. If thou be. .If ye or you be. If he be. If they be. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I f I were. If we were. If thou were. If ye or you were. If he were. If they were. 2 Outlines of English Grammar. How do you conjugate Do as an auxiliary verb? Sin&ular. t96. I do Thou dost. He doth or docs. Singular. I did. Thou didst. He did. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. ' Plural We do. Ye or you do. They do. Preterimperfect Tense. Plural We did. Ye or you did. They you did. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. If I do. If we do. If thou do. If he do. If ye or you do. If they do. '^' : Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. Plural Ifldkl. If we did. If thou did. If he did. If ye or you did If they did How do you conjugate Shall, Witt, May, and Can? SHALL. Absolute Form. Singular, 187. I shall. Thou shalt. lie shall. Plural We shall. Ye or you shall. They shall. Conditional Form. Singular. Plural I should. 'VY We should. Thou shouldst. ' Ye or you should. He should. They should. Verb. 3! WILL. Absolute Form. Singular. Plural. I will. We will. Thou wik. Ye or you will. He will. They will. Conditional Form. Singular. Plural. I would. We would. Thou wouldst. Ye or you would. He would. They would. MAY. Absolute Form Singular. Plural. , I may. We may. Thou mayst. Ye or you may. He may. They may. Conditional Form. Singular. Plural. I might. We might. Thou mightst. Ye or you might. He might. T* hey might. CAN. Absolute Form. Singular. Plural. I can. We can. Thou canst. Ye or you can. He can. They can. Conditional Form. Singular. Plural. I could. We could. Thou couldst. Ye or you could. He could. They could. How do you conjugate the auxiliary verbs Let and Must ? 128. Let and must have no variation. Let, as an auxiliary verb, has always the sense of permit or admit. As a principal verb, it sometimes signi- fies to stop or hinder ; as, " Wherefore do you let " the people from their work ?" (Bible). In this c 5 34 Outlines : press event only ; but Will you go f imports in- tention, and Shall f go? refers to the will of another : but again, He shall go ; and Shallhego f Verb. 2* both imply will, expressing or referring to a com- mand*. 132. In addition to these directions for the use of shall and will, Dr. Crombie-has judiciously ob-' served, that " When the second or third persons tf are represented as subjects of their own expres- " sions or their own thoughts, shall foretells as in " the first person ; thus, ' He says he shall be a " ( loser by this bargain ;' ' Do you suppose you How do you conjugate the active verb To Have as a principal verb ? To Have. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 133. I have. We have. Thou hast. Ye or you have. He hath or has. They have. * This intricacy of the future tense in our language, which, as far K as I know, is not the case in any other lan- guage in. the world, reminds me of an observation I have heard from Dr. Johnson ; that a child of six years old bred in England shall never mistake these distinctions; whil men of education in Scotland or Ireland shall often find themslves at a loss about them. f- As a corroboration of Dr. Crombie's remark, it may be observed, that when the second or third person is repre- sented as the subject of his own thought or expression, will promises as in the first person ; as, " He says he will ' certainly wait on you." " You say that you will cer- ' tainly come." Hence we may infer the propriety of that lelicate use of shall instead of will in our best authors-. ' The division of guilt is like to that of matter ; though k ' may be separated into infinite portions, every portion ' shall have the whole essence of matter in it, and consist * of as -many parts as the whole did before it was divided." Addison, Spect. No. 507. Thus we see it is the foretelling or the commanding sense of will and shall that determines their usage in the different persons, and not their being in different persons that determines their sense. 36 Outlines of English Grammar. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I had. We had. Thou hadst. Ye or you had. He had. They had. Pretcrperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1 have had. We have had. Thou hast had. Ye or you have had. He hath or has had. They have had. Preterpluperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I had had. ' We had had. Thou hadst had. Ye or you had had. He had had. They had had. The Foretelling Future Imperfect Tense *. Singular. Plural. I shall have. We shall have. - Thou wilt have. Ye or you will have. .* He will have. They will have. The Commanding Future Imperfect Tense, Singular,. Plural. I will have. We will have. Thou shalt have. Ye or you shall have. He shall have. They shall have. The Foretelling Future Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I shall have had. We shall have had. Thou wilt have had. Ye or you will have had. / He will have had. They will have had. * This distinction of the future tense into the foretelling and the commanding seems absolutely necessary when we consider the different significations of shall and will in the different persons of the future imperfect tense, and the titter incompatibility of these signs in the same persons of the fnture perfect tense. The moment we hear 1 will have had, we find the impropriety of combining it with / shall have had; and, perhaps, separating this tense in the manner here adopted may be a means of preventing foreigners and provincials from confounding these two auxiliaries, and men of sense from becoming the jest of fools. Verb. 37 IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. Plural. Let me have. Let us have. Have thou, or do thou have. Have ye or you, or do ye or you have. Let him have * . Let 1 them have. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. I may, can, or must have. Thou mayst, canst, or must have. He may, can, or must have. Plural. We may, can, or must have. Ye or you may, can, or must have. They may, can, or must have. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. I might, could, would, or should have, Thou mightst, couldst, wouhlst, or shouldst have. He might, could, would, or should have, Plural. We might, could, would, or should have. Ye or you might, could, would, or should have. They might, could, would, or should have; Preterperfect Tense. Singular. I may, can, or must have had. Thou mayst, canst, or must have had. He may, can, or must have had. Plural. We may, can, or must have had. Ye or you may, can, or must have had. They may, can, or must have had. * As the imperative mood always addresses a person or per- sons present, the third person, which is either distant, or ab- sent, cannot be addressed ; and therefore the second person must always be understood ; as, " Let thou him have,' or in other words, " Permit thou him to have," where the verb have is in the infinitive mood, without the sign to before it accord- ing to the general rule. 38 Outlines of English Grammar. Pretcrpluperfect Tense. Singular. I might, could, would, should, or must have had. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst, or must have had. He might, could, would, should, or must have had. Plural We might, could, would, should, or must have had. Ye or you might, could, would, should, or must have had. They might, could, would, should, or must have had. SUEJITNCTIVE MOOD *. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. I f I have. I f we have. If thou have. If ye or you have If Ke have. If they have. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. If I had. If we had. If thou had. If ye or you had. If he had. If they had. Preterperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. If I have nad. If we have had. If thou have had. If ye or you have had. If he have had. If they have had. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, To have. - Perfect, To have had. PARTICIPLES. Present, Having. Perfect, Had. Compound Perfect, Having had. * Grammarians differ widely with respect to the nature and extent of this model :" they are pretty uniform in acknowledging its existence in the verb to Ic. I have given the three first tenses of this verb rather as they exist in some respectable au- thors, than as they form any rule for present usage. Milton, in Adam's Morning Hymn, says " And, if the night " Have gather'd aught of evil or CGnceal'd, " Disperse it, su new light dispels the dark." And in the New Testament we find-" If she have been the " wife of one husband." v V! Verb. 39 How do you conjugate the verb To Be as a prin- cipal verb ? To Be. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. ) 34. 1 am. We are. ; >' Thou art. Ye or you are. He is. They are. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I was. We were. Thou wast. Ye or you were. He was. They were. '-- ., Pre^terperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I have been. We have been. Thou hast been. Ye or you have been. He has been. They nave been. Preterpluperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I had been. We had been. Thou hadst been. Ye or you had been. He had been. They had been. The Foretelling Future Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. J shall be. We shall be. Thou wjlt be. Ye or you will be. He will be. They will be. The Commanding Future Imperfect Te~nse. Singular. Plural. I will be. . We will be. Thou shult be. Ye or you shall be. Ik- shall be. They shall be. Future Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I shall have be,en. We shall have.been. Thu wilt have been, Ye or you will have been. He will have been. They will have been. 40 , Outlines of English Grammar. IMPERATIVE MOOD.' , Singular. Plural. Let me be. Let us be. Be thou, or do thou be. Bi> ye or you, or do ye or you be. Let him be. Let them be. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. I may, can, or'niust be. We may, can, or must be. . Thou mayst, canst, or must be. Ye oryou may, can, or must be. He may, can, or must be. They may, can, or must be. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. I might, could, would, or snould be. TKbu mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be. He might, could, would, or should be. Plural. We might, could, would, or should be. Ye or you might, could, would, ot should be. They might, could, would, or should be. Preterperfect Tense. Singular. I may, can, or must have been. Thou mayst, canst, or must have been. He may, can, or must have been. Plural. We may, can, or must have been. Ye oryou may, can, or must have been. They may, can, or must have been. Preterplu perfect Tense. Singular. I might, could, would, should, or must have been. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst, or must have been. He might, could, would, should, or must have been. Plural, We might, could, would, should, or must have been. Ye or you might, could, would, should, or must have been. They might, could, would, should, or must have been. Verb. -M SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. If I be. If we be. If thou be. IF ye or you be! If he be. If they be. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. If I were. If we were. If thou were. If ye or you were. If he were. If they were. Pjreterperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. If I have been. If we have been. If thou have been. If ye or you have been. If he have been. If they have been. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, To be. Perfect, To have been. PARTICIPLES. Present. Being. Perfect, Been. Compound Perfect, Having been. How do you conjugate the active verb To Do as a principal verb ? To Do. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. , Plural. 135. I do. We do. Thou dost. Ye or you do. He doth or does. They do. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I did. We did. , Thou didst. Ye or you did. He did* They did. Preterperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I have done. We have done. Thou hast done. Ye or you have done, lie hath or lias done. They have done. 42 Outlines of English Grammar. Preterpluperfect Tense. Singular. . Plural. I had done. We had done. Thou hadst done. Ye or you had done. He had done. They had done. Foretelling Future Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I shall do. We shall do Thou wilt do. Ye or you will do. He will do. They will do. Commanding Future Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I will do. . We will do. Thou shalt do. Ye or you shall do. He shall do. ' V They shall do. Future Perfect Tense. V Singular. ' . Plural. J shall have hone. We shall have done. Thou wilt have done. Ye or you will have done He will have done. They will have done. IMPERATIVE MOOD. - ; ' * Singular. Plural. Let me do. Let us do. Do thou, or do thou do. Do yeor you,or doyeoryoudo. Let him do. Let them do. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular* Plural. I may, can, or must do. We may, can, or must do. Thou mayst, canst, or must do. Ye or you may, can, or must do. He may, can, or must do. They may, can, or must do. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. I might, could, would, or should do. Thou mightst, coiildst, wouldst, or shouldst do. He might, could, would, or should do. - 4 Plural. We might, could, would, or should do. Ye or you might, could, would, or should do. They might, could, would, or should do. , . Verb. 43 Preterperfect Tense. Singular. I may, can, or must have done. Thou mayst, canst, or must have done. He may, can, or must have done. Plural. We may, can, or must have done. Ye or you may, can, or must bave done. They may, can, or must have done. Preterpluperfect Tense. Singular. I might, could, would, or should have done. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have done. He might, could, would, or should have done. Plural. We might, could, would, or should have done. Ye or you might, coukl, would, or should have done. They might, could, would, or should have done. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, To dp. . I Perfect, To have done. PARTICIPLES. Present, Doing. Perfect, Done, Compound Perfect, Having done. How do you conjugal^ the active verb To Calif To Call. INDICATIVE, MOOD. / Present Tense. Singular. Plural.* 136. I call. We call. Thou callest. Ye or you call. He calkth or calls. They call. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I called. We called. Thou calkdst. < Ye or you called, lie called. They called. 44 Outlines of English Grammar. Preterperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I have called We have called. Thoi) hast called. Ye or you have called. He has called. They nave called. Preterpluperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I had called. We had called. Thou hadst called. Ye or you had called. He had called. They had called. Foretelling Future Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I shall call. We shall call. Thou wilt call. Ye or you will call. He will call. They will call. Commanding Future Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I will call. We will call. Thou shall call. Ye or you shall call. He shall call. They shall call. Foretelling Future Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I shall have called. We shall have called. Thou will have called. Ye or you will have called. He will have called. They will have called. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. Plural. Let me call. Let us call. Call thou, or do thou call. Callyeoryou.ordoyeoryoucall. Let him call. Lei them call. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. I may, can, or must call. We may, can, or must call. Thou mayst, canst, or must Ye or you may, can, or must call. call. He may, can, or roust call. They may, can, or must call. Verb. 45 Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. ' I might, could, would, or should call. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst call. He might, could, would, or should call. Plural. We might, could, would, or should call. Ye or you might, could, would, or should call. They might, could, would, or should call. Preterperfect Tense. Singular. I may, can, or must have called. Thou mayst, canst, or must hare called. He may, can, or must have called. Plural. We may, can, or must have called. Ye or you may, can, or must have called. - They may, can, or must have called. Preterpluperfect Tense. Singular. I might, could, would, should, or must have called. Thou mightst, could^t, woulclst, shouldst, or must have called. He might, could, would, should, or nmst have called. Plural. We might, could, would, should, or must have called. Ye or you might, could, would, should, or must have called. They might, could, would, should, or must have called. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. Ifl call. If we call. If thou call. If ye or you call. If he call. If they call. Preterimperfect Tense Singular. Plural. If I called. If we called. If thou called. If ye or you called. If he called. If they called. Preterperfect Tense. , Singular. Plural. It I have culled. If we have called. If thou have called. If ye or you have called. If he have called. If they have called. 46 . Outlines of English Grammar. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, To call. Perfect, To have called* PARTICIPLES. Present, Calling, Perfect, Called. Compound Perfect t Having called. How do you conjugate the passive verb To Called? INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 137.1 am called. We are called. Thou art called. . Ye or you are called; He is called. ' They are called. Preterimperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I was called. We were called. Thou wast called. , Ye or you were called. He was called. They were called. Preterperfect Tense. Singular Plural. I have been called. We have been called. Thou hast been called. Ye or you have been called. He has been called. They nave been called.'" Preterpluperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. , I had been called. We had been called. Thou hadst been called. Ye or you had been called. He had beeft called. 'They had been called. Foretelling future Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural.' I shall be called. We shall be called. Thou wilt be called. Ye or you will be called. He will be called. They will, be called. Commanding Future Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. N I will be called. We will be called. Thou shalt be called. Ye or you shall be called. He shall be called. '.-,-' They shall be called. Verb. 47 Foretelling Future Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I shall have been called. We 'shall have been called. Thou wilt have been called. Ye or you will have been called. He will have called. They will have been called. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. Plural. Let me be called. Let us be called. Be thou called, or do thou be Be ye'or you called, or do ye called. or you be called. Let them be called. Let them be called. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. I may, can, or must be called. Thou mayst, canst, or must be called. He may, can, or must be called. Plural. We may, can, or must be called. "Ye or you may, can, or must be called. They may, can, or must be called. Preterim perfect Tense. Singular. I might, could, would, or should be called. Thou mightst, couldst, wouklst, or shouldst be called. He might, could, 'won Id, or should be called. Plural. We might, could, would, or should be called. Ye or you might, could, wouM, or should be called. They might, could, would, or should be called. Preterpcrfect Tense. Singiflar. I may, can, or must have been called. Thou mayst, canst, or must have been called. Hejnay, can, or must. have been called. Plural. We may, can, or must have been called. Ye or you may, can, or must have been called. They may, can, or must have been called. 48 Outlines of English Grammar. Prcterpluperfect Tense. Singular, I might, could, would, or should have been called. Thoiunightst,couldst,wouldst, or bhouldst have been calif d. He might, could would, or should have been called. Plural. We might, could, would, or should have been called. Ye or you might, could, would, or should have been called. They "might, could, would, or should have been called. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. If I be 1 called. If we be called. If thou be called. If ye or you be called. If he be called. I f they be called. Preterimperfect Tense 1 . Singular. Plural. If I were called. If we were called. .If thou were called. If ye or you were called. If he were called. If they were called. Prcterperfect' Tense. Singular. Plural, If I have been called. If we have been called. If thou have been called. If ye or you have been called. If he have been called. If they have been called. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, To be called. Perfect, To have called. PARTICIPLES. Present, Being called. Perfect, Been called. Compound Perfect, Having been 'called. Is there not a common appellation by which grammarians use to distinguish the active and the passive verb ? 138. Yes ; they sometimes call the former the active voice, and the latter the passive voice. Is there not another form of the verb distinct from these two ? Verb* 49 139. Yes; where the active participle is united to the verb to be : as the verb in this form exhibits the action as actually performing, it may not im- properly be called the actual voice. Give an example of a verb in this voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 140- I am calling. We are calling. Thou art calling. Ye or you are calling. He is calling. They are calling. And thus the verb in this form may be conjugated through all the moods and tenses. IRREGULAR VERBS. What is an Irregular Verb ? 141. A verb is irregular either when its preterim- perf ect tense or its participle passive does not end in ed, Which are the irregular verbs ? 142. They are enumerated in all our Grammars, and are variously classed according to the different conceptions of different grammarians. How many kinds of irregular verbs are there ? 143. Two; namely, those which have the pre- sent tense, the preterim perfect tense, and the par- ticiple passive alike ; as cast, cost, cut, &c. ; 'and those which have either the preterim perfect tense, or the passive participle, irregular; as, show, showed, shown ; crow, crew, crowed. Are there no other kinds of irregular verbs ? % 144. None but what come under one or other of these descriptions*. * Dr. Lowth, and after him several other grammarians, have given us a very imperfect and confused idea of what they'call contracted verbs; such' as, snatchi, checkt, inapt, utixt, dwelt, and past, hi snatched checked, snapped, mixed, ladled, and paused. To these are added, those that end ia D 50 Outlines of English Grammar. Are all verbs decidedly either regular or irre- gular ? /, m, and w, or p, after a diphthong, which either shorten the diphthong, or change it into a single vowel ; and instead of ed, take t only for the preterite ; as, dealt, dreamt, meant, felt, slept, crept : and these are said to be considered not as irre- gular, but contracted only. Now nothing can be clearer than that verbs of a very different kind are Tiere huddled to- gether as of the same. Snatched, checked, snapped, mixed, and passed, are not irregular at all ; if they are ever written snatcht, checlct, snapt, mjxl, and fast, jit is from pure igno- rance of analogy, and not considering that if they were written with ed, unless we were to pronounce it as a distinct syllable, contrary to the most settled usage of the language, the pronunciation, from the very nature of the letters, must he the same. It is very diiTerent with dwelled: here, as a liquid, and not a sharp mute, ends the verb, d might be pro- nounced without going into t just as well as in fell'd, the participle of toj'i // (to cut down trees). Here then we find custom has detrrmined an irregularity, which cannot be al- tered, without violence to the language; dwell may be truly called an irregular verb, and dwelt the preterite and par- ticiple. 1 he same may be observed of deal, dream, mean, ff?l, trerp, sleep, and creep. It is certain we can pronounce ri after the four first of. these words, as well as in sealed, screamed, cleaned, and reeled ; but custom has not only annexed t to the preterite of these verbs, but h*s changed the long diphthongal sound into a short one; they are therefore doubly irregular. Weej>, sleep, and creep, would not have required t to form their preterites any more than peeped, and steepe d ; but cus- tom, which has shortened the diphthong in the former words, very naturally annexed / as the simplest method of conveying the sound. The only two words which occasion some doubt about classing them are, to learn and to spell. The vulgar (who are no contemptible guides on this occasion) pronounce them in the preterite learnt and spelt ; but as n and / will readily admit of d 'after them, it seems more correct to fa- vour a tendency to regularity, both in writing and speaking, which the literary world has given into, by spelling them learned and spelled, and pronouncing them icarn'd and spell'd. Thus earned, the preterite of to earn, has been re- covered from the vulgar earnt t and made a perfect rhyme to discerned. Verb. 51 1 45. No : some are used both in the regular and irregular form ; as, I awake, I awoke, or I awaked ; or, I have awoke, or, I have awaked : the irregular form seems proper when the verb is neuter, and the regular when it is active : that is, when I ceased from sleeping, it is / awoke; when I aroused another from sleep, it is I awaked him. What are the irregular verbs of the first class ? 146. Those that have the present time, the pre- terite, and the participle, alike ; as the following* : Present. Preterite. Participle. Burst, burst, burst. Cast, cast, cast. Cost, cut, cost. Cut, cut; cut. Hit, hit, hit. Hurt,. hurt, hurt. Knit, knit, knit. Split, split, split. Let (to permit), let, let. Put, put. put. Rid (to disencumber), rid, rid. Set, s&t, set. Shed, shed, shed. Shred, shred, shred. Shut, shut, shut. Slit, slit, slit. Spit (to cast out spittle), spit, spit. Spread, spred, spread. Thrust, thrust, thrust. * There cannot be a greater imperfection - in language than verbs of this kind ; for though the participle is per- fectly distinguished by have prefixed, the preterite is not af all distinguished from the present, so that it depends en- tirely on the sense of the sentence whether we shall under- stand it as present or passed. It may be observed however, that these verbs in the second person singular of the imper- fect tense take cd befcr : the st ; as, / cast, or did cant ; Thou castedst, or didst cast : for if this were not the case, this tense would not only be confounded with the present, but th second person of the tense also with the first and third. D '2 52 Outlines of English Grammar. Which are irregular verbs of the second class ? 147. Those that have either the imperfect tense, or the passive participle, irregular, as the follow- ing*: Present. Preterite. Participle. Abide, abode, abode. Am, was, been. Arise, arose, arisen. Awake (145), awoke or awaked, awoke or awaked. Bea r (to Iringfortli ) , bare or bore, born . Bear (to carry), bore, borne. Beat, beat, beaten or beat. Begin, began, begun. . Bend, bent, bent. Bereave, bereft or bereaved, bereft or bereaved. Beseech, besought or be- besought or be- seeched, seeched. * It may not, perhaps, be improper to observe, that some verbs, which a century ago were irregular both in the pre- terite and participle, nave dropped the old participle in en, and adopted the preterite instead of it, which, in my opinion,' is a considerable improvement of the language; as rode in- stead of ridden; strove instead of striven, &c. Dr. Lowth, whom I criticise with great deference and regret, seems to lament this growing usage, by which ihe form of the passed time is confounded with that of the participle; but if we reflect that the auxiliary verb have, in / have rode, distin- guishes the participle from the passed time, just as much as if it had been I have ridden, we shall have but little occasion to regret the change, since it preserves to us a well-sound- ing word, in the room of one which in pronunciation (ndd'n) has a syllable without a vowel, and wounds the ear by a cluster of consonants. So far therefore from re- gretting the change, I wish it had prevailed more generally ; and that the words spoke, Iroke, and wrote, were adopted as participles in writing, as they are generally in conversation, instead of spoken, broken, and written. The same objection from ill sound does not lie against to know, to see, and others, where there is no , clashing of consonants in the participle. Nor can I agree with Dr. Lowth, that using drank for the participle drunk is to be looked upon as a corruption of the language. Verb. Present. Preterite. Participle. Bid, bade, bad, or bid, bid or bidden. Bide, bode, bode. Bind, bound, bound. Bite, bit, bit or bitten. Bleed, bled, bled. Bless*, blest or blessed, blest or blessed. Blow, blew, blown. Break, broke or brake (a), broken or broke. Breell, bred, bred. Bring, brought, brought. Build, built, built. Buy, bought, bought. Catch, caughtorcatched(6)>caught or catched. (a) Brake is almost obsolete, and used only on religious occasions ; and broken seems rapidly falling into disuse. (b) Cntched, though sanctioned by Pope ? " There, so the Fates ordain'd, one Christmas tide " My good old lady catch' d a cold and dy'd/' seems not to be generally adopted ; and as the contracted re- gular pronunciation is a very harsh one, it were to be wished it were banished conversation as well as writing. * Placing this verb among the irregulars, as Mr. Knowles of Liverpool, a very good grammarian, has done, arises from-a very blnmeable practice of spelling the imperfect tense and the participle according to the pronunciation, and a con- fused idea of" the different pronunciation when a verb or par- ticiple, and when a participial adjective. In the first case, though it ought alvvaVs to be written blessed, it is always pro- nounced in one syllable, as if 'written blest; as, "He blest "them, and departed:" an it in the second case, it ought always to be written and pronounced in, two syllables j. as, " Our blessed Lord ;" " This is a blessed day," &c. Pope has followed the common orthography of his time *' Blest in thy genius, in thy love too blest," where the participle blest, which is always pronounced in one .syllable, might as well have been written blessed, since it is uniformly pronounced so, in the same manner as we pro- nounce the preterites and participles of the words to class, (a tlrcatt, and to press, which would be grossly mis-spoiled if written dust, dreil, ami prett. 54 Outlines of English Grammar. Present. Preterite. Parliciplt. Chide. chid, chid or chidden (c). Choosf, chose, chosen. ( 'leave (to split}, clove or cleft, cleft or cloven. Clin:;-, clung, clung. Clothe, clothed or clad (?), clotiicd or clad. Come, came, come. Crow, crew, . crowded. Creep, crept, . crept. Dare (to ventive)(e} , durst or dared, dared. Deal, dealt, dealt. Die, died, dead. Dig, dug or digged (/") dug or digged. Do, did, done. Draw, drew, drawn. Drink, drank (g), drank or drunk Drive, drove, driven. Dwell, dwelt (/<), dwelt. Jblat, ate (z) or eat, v eat or eaten. (c) Chidden is grown very old, and it would be no mis- fortune to the language to find it extinct. (d) Clad seems retiring to poetry and solemn occasions. (e) Dare, without an auxiliary verb, never takes to after it ; as, " If I dare trust you; but when used with an auxiliary, it requires to ; as, 1 " 1 should not dare to provoke " him." When this verb signifies to challenge, it is regular ; as, " He dared him to the combat." (f) Digged. The regular form of this verb should never be used. (g} Drank. From the disagreeable idea excited by the participle drunk, drank has been long in polite usage adopted instead of it. ' ' : * i (h) Dwelt. See note, p. 50. (i) Ate. Many good writers and speakers have endea- voured to preserve the irregular form of this preterite ; but they have not yet succeeded. I think those, however, who do preserve it may be ranked among the more correct gram- marians. There .are few good speakers who do not distin- guish the preterite, though written eat, by a shorter pronun- ciation, as if written et. 'This is doing something to answer the present necessity, but brings along with it an anomaly of the first magnitude, like that in the verb 'read. (See Critical Pronouncing Dictionary under the word Bowl.) .As to the participle eaten, like several other of these partici- ples of the same termination, it- seems to be losing ground, Verb. 55 Present, Preterite. Participle. Fall, fell, fallen. Feed, fed, fed. Feel, feltf*;, felt. Fight, fought, fought. Find, found, found. Flee (l) t fled, -fled. Fling, flung, flung. Fly, flew, flown. Forsake, forsook, forsaken or for- sook (m). Freeze, froze, frozen. Get, got, got or gotten (n). Gild, gilt or gilded, gilt or gilded. Give, gave, given. Go, went, gone. Grave, graved, graven or graved . Grind, ground, ground. Grow, grew, grown. Have, had. had. and yielding to eat ; and as this isa better sound, and is secured in its tense by the auxiliary verb, the change is not much 10 be regretted. (k) See note, page 50. (I) Flee. This verb, signifying to run away, is entangled in meaning with the verb to fly (to move by the aid of wings). 'Jojiee, in the present tense, is now obsolete, or used only in solemn language : for upon the sight of two armies fighting, when one of them runs away, we should not say tncyjiec, but they^/fy or are flying; but in the passed time we should say the sn&yjled, not the armyjlew. Thus we sec to Jit/ is used in a metaphorical^ sense in the present time of this verb, but in no other. (m) Forsook. Milton has availed himself of the licence of his art (an art as apt to corrupt grammar as it is to raise and adorn language) to use the preterite of this verb for the participle : -" unsphere " The spirit of Plato to unfold <( What worlds and what vast regions hold " Th' immortal mind that hathjbrsook " Her mansion in this fleshly nook." Pcnseroso. (n) Gotten. This participle is quite obsolete, in this verb ; and Jbrgotten, the participle of forget, is yielding every day to the preterite./(>r#0/. See note, page 5a. 55 Outlines of English Grammar. Present. Preteritr. Participle. Hang, hunger handed (o), hung or hanged. Have, had, hud. Hoar, heard (p), hfeard. Heave, hove or heaved, hou: or heaved. Hew, hewed, hewn or hewed. Hide, hid, hid or hidden (q). Hold, held, held or holden. Keep, kcpti kept. Know, knew, known. i^ade, laded, laden. , Lay (to place), laid (r), laid.. Lie (to repose), lay (s), lain. (o) Hanged. This verb seems to be used regularly only when it signifies to execute by hanging ; as, The coat, the hat, and the cloak, were hung up; but the dog, the thief, or the murderer, were hanged. Knowlcs. . (p) Heard. Some speakers, who aim at being correct, pronounce the preterite and passed tense of this verb with the diphthong as long as in hear ; but this is contrary to the .best visage : and to make this pronunciation agreeable to analogy, these words ought to be written keared. (yj Hidden. This participle, like many others, has ceased as a verb, and gone entirely into the participial adjective: as, hidden treasures, a drunken man, &c. (r) Laid. This word, as well as paid and said, may be called orthographically irregular ; for there is no reason for spelling them in this manner that would not entitle us to make the same alteration in the preterites of pray, sway, play, &c. by spelling them praid, swaid, plaid, &c. This irregularity is inexcusable : but much more inexcusable is trfe irregularity of the next verb. (s) Lie. This neuter verb, signifying to place the body in a recumbent posture, has undergone a wonderful change within these forty years. If our grandfathers had heard us substitute the active verb lay, to place, for the present tense of the neuter verb lie, they would have blushed for our ig- norance of grammar. Had not this substitution commen- ced with the vulgar, one should have thought it aros^ from a delicacy of avoiding the sound of a word whic h is so odious to the polite worm; but wh^n it may be traced from the lowest speakers to the lowest writers, from newspapers ,to pamphlets, from pamphlets to speeches in Parlia- ment, where we often near the papers are now laying on tlir ffil-le\. when this is the case, though this alteration did not be-in with good writers and speakers from the false deli- Verb. 61 Present. Preterite. Participle. Load, ' . loaded, loaded or laden. Lose, lost, lost. Make, made, made. Meet, met, met. Mow, mowed, mowed or mown. Pass (/), passed or past, priced or past. Pay, paid (M), paid. Quit, quit or quitted, quit or quitted. Read, read (10), read. cacy above mentioned, we may fairly conclude it has, for this reason, been encouraged, and received by them, or it never could have been so generally adopted. The preterite of this verb being the same as the present of the other, may have contributed to this confusion ; so that the impropriety seems to be now almost incurable. (t) Pass. This word, like the word bless, has been placed among the irregulars by Mr. Knowles of Liverpool, and from a similar mistake ; that of confounding the participle with, the preposition. This word, when a preposition signifying beyond ; as, "It is past the hour ;" " The evil is past cure ;" should always be written in the contracted way as it is pro- nounced ; but when an adjective or a participle, should - always be written in -two syllable;, though pronounced in one ; as, " Passed pleasures are sometimes present pain :" " The music of Carrol was like the remembrance of joys "that are pmscd; pleasing and melancholy to the soul." Ossian. This I know is contrary to usage ; but usage, in this cas>e, is contrary to good sense, arid the settled analogy of the language. Lindley . Murray has judiciously omitted this and the verb Hess as irregular. See J3less, page 53, and Principles of English Pronunciation, No. 358, 35Q, &c. pre- fixed to the Critical Pronouncing Dictionary. (u) See note on lay. (w) Read. A feeling of the inconvenience of having the preterite the same word as the present tense (see page 51), has induced us to give a short sound to the diphthong in the former, to distinguish it from the other ; this, however, is but a bungling way of remedying the imperfection of the language, and contrary to its real interests. (See 'Critical Pronouncing Dictionary under the word Bowl.) Other critics, and those of the first rank, have^ndeavoured to spell .the preterite red : this would be a radical cure for the evil without any bad consequences to etymology, or any incon- ' venience rising from, its coincidence with red, the colour. 53 Outlines of English Grammar. Present. Preterite. Participle. Reave, reft or reaved, reft or reaved. Rend, rent, rent. Ride, rodcf.r^, rode, rid, or ridden. Ring, rang or rung, rung. Kise, rose, risen . Rive, rived, rived or riven. Run, ran, run. Saw, sawed, sawed or sawn. Sav, said (y), said. Seek, sought, sought. Sell, sold, sold. Send, sent, sent. Sew, sewed, sewed or sewn. Shake, shook (z), shook or shaken. Shape, Shave, shaped (na), shaved (bb), shaped or shapen. shaved or shaven. Shear, sheared, shorn. Shine, shone or shined, shone or shined. Show, showed, shown. Shoe, shod, ' shod. Shrink, shrunk, shrunk. Sint;, sung or sang, sung. Sink, sunk or- sank, i sunk. Sit, sat *, sat. Slay, slew, slain. Sleep, Slide, slept (cc), slid (dd), slept, slid or slidden. Sline, slung, slung. Slink, slunk, slunk. Smite, smote (ce), smote or smitten. This emendation, however, has not been received, while many others, though not so important, have met with ap- probation. . (y} See page 52. (II) See page 52. (if) See the.note on laid, page 56. (cc) See page 50. (z) See note MI, page 55. (dd) See page 52. (au) See page 52." (ee) See page '52. * Sat. The preterite of this verb is sometimes grossly mistaken for the active verb to set; and we frequently hear in those oracles of correctness, the newspapers, that on such a day a lady was led to the altar of Hymen, and that after' the ceremony the bride and bridegroom sat out in a post-chaise together. Verb. 59 Present. Sow (seed), Speak, Speed, Spend, Spill, Spin, Spring, Stand, Steal, Stick, Sting, Stink, Stride, Strike, String, Strive, Strow or strew, Swear, Sweat, Swell, Swim, Swing, Take, Teach, Tear, Tell, Think, Thrive, Preterite. sowed, spoke or spake, sped, spent, spilt or spilled, spun or span, sprung or sprang, stood, stole, stuck, stung, > stunk, strode, struck, strung, strove, strowcd or strewed, swore, sweated or swet, swelled, swam or swum, swung, took, taught, tore, told, thought, throve or thrived. Throw, threw, Tread, trod, Wax (to increase), waxed, Wear, wore, Weave, wove or weaved, Weep, Win, Wind, wept, won, .wound, Participle. sown or sowed, spoken or spoke (ff) sped, spent. spilt or spilled, spun, sprung, stood. stole or stolen (gg)~ stuck, stung, stunk, strode or stridden (hh). struck or stricken fit). strung. strove or striven (kk) strowed, or strewed, or strown. sworn. sweated or swet. swelled or swollen, swum, swung, taken, taught. torn, told, thought, throve, thrived, or thriven (II). thrown, trod or trodden, waxed or waxen, worn, wove, woven, or weaved. wept.* See page 50. won. wound. (Jf) See page 52. (ge) See page 52. (lih) Seepage 52. (ii) See page 62. (kk) See page 52. (It) Seepage 52, 60 Outlines of English Grammar. Present. Preterite. 1'articiple. Worked, worked or wrought, worked or wrought. Wrmg, wrung, wrung. Write, wrote, written or wrote (mm). From this view of the irregular verbs, we may perceive how great a tendency they h"ave to he- come regular, wherever the irregular sound is un- couth or unpleasant to the ear. We may observe likewise, that the irregular form is generally dedicated to poetry and solemn occasions, and the regular to prose and familiar: and that nothing but reading good authors, polite conversation, and good taste, will direct us to make use of one form in preference to the other. It may be worth no- tice, however, that if we are in doubt which form to use, the irregular will be the safest and most correct. DEFECTIVE VERBS. What are Defective Verbs ? 148. Defective verbs are so called, because they are deficient in some of their moods and tenses. W T hich are the defective verbs ? 14S>. The principal of them are these : Present. Imperfect. Participle. Beware. Can, could. May, might. Must. Ought, ought. Quoth, Shall, quoth, should. -Weet, wot. Will, would. L Wit, wist. (mm} Written, See page 52. Participle. 61 PARTICIPLE. What is a Participle ? 150. .A. participle is a word that participates or partakes of the nature of a verb and an adjective ; as, " a tried friend ;" " a singing bird ;" where tried is both the imperfect tense and the participle passive of the verb to try ; and at the same time it describes the substantive/nV?zd, which shows it to bean adjective (45). In the same manner, the word singing is the present participle of the verb to sing ; and at the same time, like an adjective, it describes the substantive bird. How are the participles formed ? 1.5 L They are formed from the verb. When the verb ends in silent c, this e is omitted before the participial terminations ing and ed ; as, loving^ loved : when the verb ends in any other letter, ing and ed are annexed ; as, to land, landing t landed; to nidi, inciting, melted, &c. Is not the last consonant of the verb sometimes doubled in forming the participle ? 1 52. Yes : when the verb ends in a single con- sonant, preceded by a single vowel, and the accent is on the last syllable, then, upon taking the par- ticipial termination ing or ed, the consonant is doubled; as, allot, allotting, allotted: but when- the accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant is not doubled; as, to ballot, balloting, balloted, &c. But when the letter / ends the word, it is doubled whether the accent be on the last syllable or not; as, to level, levelling, levelled, leveller; duel, duelling, duellist ; victual, victualling', vic- tualler, &c. Words of one syllable, therefore, al- ways having the accent, double the consonant ; as. fat, fatted, fatting ; beg, begging, begged, &c. Do not some participles of the present tense ad- mit of a before them ? *L 62 Outlines of English Grammar. 153. In some few phrases a is put before the par- ticiple of the present tense, when preceded by the verbs to oome, to go, to fall, to set, to run, to burst out ; as, " to come a begging ;" " to go a hunt- ing ;" " to fall a crying ;" " to burst out a laugh- ing:" but it must be carefully noted, that this a, which is a corruption of the preposition on, must never be used after the verb to be, or any other verbs, except those above mentioned : therefore " He is a hunting; " She is a singing," &c. are inadmissible *. * Nothing can be so vulgar and childish as to prefix this letter where it is not to be used ; and as it is impossible to avoid using it in some cases, there seems to be a necessity of drawing the line as distinctly as possible between the proper and improper \isage of it. It seems highly probable, as Dr. Johnson and Dr. Lowth have observed, that this a is a contraction of the prepositions at or on, arid that the carelessness of colloquial pronunciation has left us only the shadow of the original. It has ever been my opinion, that on rather than at was the origin of this a ; and that the indistinctness witVi which it was pronounced, reduced it to the most indefinite of all our sounds, the un- accented a. (See Principles of English Pronunciation pre- fixed to the Pronouncing Dictionary, 70, 88, 54,7.) Hence the common orthography, What's o'clock ? for ff fiat is on the clock ? or Wliat hour is on the clock ? (88) and if I am not much mistaken, all those phrases where a occurs will be better resolved by substituting on than at. To walk a-foot is now universally corrected To walk on foot ; and Stand a-tip- toe, as Shakspeare has it, to Stand on tiptoe ; but if we were to trust our ears only, we should be inclined to say, To ride a-horselack , as the vulgar constantly do, instead of To ride on horseback, as it ought to be ; which shows how much the ear is regulated by the eye. But the greatest difficulty is, to know when to use it be- fore a participle of the present tense, and when not j and till we have better rules, let us suppose the followiug were adopted. Jt is never to be used after the verb to be; as, He is a Adverbs. 63 ADVERBS. What is an adverb ? 154. An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, " He reads " well:' 1 '' " It is extremely cold ;" " You run very " swiftly-. Are not adverbs sometimes compared like ad- jectives ? 155. Yes; as, Far, farther, farthest; Soon, sooner, soonest ; Wisely, more wisely, most wisely &c. writing ; He is a swimming*, &c. but He is writing ; He in swimming, &c. The only verbs after which it may be used seem to be these five ; namely, to/ go, to come, to fall, to set, to run ; as, To go a hunting, to come a begging, to fall a crying, to set a going, to run a gadding : to which we may add the peculiar phrases, To burst out a laughing, and To burst out a crying,: these seem to be the boundaries of this prepositive a, and such boundaries as cannot be extended without the grossest vulgarity. But when the participle of the present tense begins with a vowel, and the a, as in the case of the Article, would oc- casion an hiatus, then it should seem proper to restore the original preposition on ; as, It has set my teeth on aching ; tike is- gone on airing ; He is gone on angling ; She is gone on earing (gathering up the ears of corn) ; To set on itching ; To fall on ogling, Hcc. These phrases are indeed uncouth, and are not recommended ; but I am riot of opinion that all such phrases should be excluded from the language. A free pen will occasionally find a use for. every one of them, especially in poetry; and if we can but reduce them to grammatical construction, and define their just limits, we strengthen and enrich the language by preserving them. There is a pecu- liar force in idiomatic phrases, which is always weakened by altering them to such as are more general : thus if instead of saying, Her tongue was set a going, we say, Her tongue was pnt in motion, we lose all the force and poignancy of the ex- pression. * By faith, Jacob, when he was a dying, blessed both the sons of Joseph. Hebrews, xi. v. 21. 6-t Outlines of English Grammar. }' not an adverb be expressed by some other parts of speech ? 156., YesVall adverbs may be resolved into a preposition and a substantive; as, far, " at a " distance;" soon, "in a rapid manner;" wisely, " in a wise manner, &c. Are not adverbs sometimes used as conjunctions ? 157. ^ es; adverbs are sometimes of the nature of conjunctions, and are frequently used as such; as, " I wrote it as well as I could :" where the first as is a pure adverb, and the second an adverbial conjunction. How many kinds of adverbs are there ? 158. From the definition of an adverb which has been given, it is evident that there must be as many adverbs or adverbial phrases as there are modes of describing verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs : it therefore seems useless to enumerate so many of them as we see most of our grammarians have done. It may be sufficient to observe, that the same word may be a substantive, an adjective, or an adverb, according to its signification in the sentence: thus, " Thejirst man who came in was your father :" here the wot A first is an adjective, as it describes the substantive man. " Of all the company your fa- " ther came \i\first:" here the word first is an adverb, as it describes the verb came in. " Much tl may be said on both sides :" here much means the great quantity of reasoning, talking, or saying, that may be used on both sides; and therefore much must be considered as a substantive. Are there not several phrases equivalent to an adverb ? 159. Yes; besides such adverbs as consist of one ' word only, there are several phrases which do the office of an adverb, and are therefore called adver- bial phrases ; as, " He acted in the best way pos- Preposition. 65 < ; sible." Here, in the best way possible, as it de- scribes the verb acted, may be called an adverbial phrase. PREPOSITION. What is a preposition ? 160. Prepositions are words or particles, placed before nouns or personal pronouns, to show the re- lation they have to other words : and it is their being generally placed before these words that gives them their name. What is the most distinguishing characteristic of prepositions? 161. Prepositions may be called the circum-} stances of nouns; for wherever there is apreposition, there is always some noun or personal pronoun to which it relates, except when placed before verbs in the infinitive mood. As adjectives, therefore, express the qualities of substantives; and adverbs express the qualities of verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs ; so prepositions express the circumstances of nouns or pronouns ; as, " He went to London j" " I camefrom him," &c. How may we know apreposition from an adverb or a conjunction ? 162. By placing the word before a personal pro- noun in the oblique case : if it make sense with the pronoun, it is a preposition; if not, it is an adverb or a conjunction : for example ; the word from co- alesces or makes sense with him, them, it, &c. as, from him, from them, Sec. The word far, which is an adverb, will not coalesce or make sense with him, her, &c. In the same manner, the word if will not coalesce or make sense with these oblique cases ; and as it does not describe any verb, it can- not be an adverb, and therefore if must be a con- junction. 66 Outlines of English Grammar. How many prepositions are there ? 163. Their number is not exactly settled. Lind- ley Murray says, the principal prepositions are thirty; Mr. Knowles of Liverpool, thirty-six; Ward of Beverly reckons forty-six ; and the Rev. Mr. Shaw of Rochdale, fifty-three. This being the most numerous list, I shall copy it : abovcj below, into, till, about, beneath, instead of, to, according to, beside, near, toward, afore, , besides, nigh, towards, after, between, of, under, against, betwixt, off, underneath^ among, beyond, on, until, amongst, fy; over, unto, amidst, concerning, out of up, around, down, since, upon,. at, for, through, with, because of, from, thorough, within,. before, in, throughout, without. behind, Are not prepositions sometimes used as adverbs ? 164. Yes ; but it is by ellipsis, a substantive or pronoun being always understood; as, " He went " before" and his servant " followed after:" that is, " He went before his servant, and his servant " followed after him." Are not prepositions sometimes used as con- junctions? 165. Yes ) besides, when it comes before a sub- stantive or a pronoun, and governs it, is a prepo- sition; as, " There were many more in company " besides them ;" but when it only begins a sen- tence or a member of a sentence, and is not fol- lowed by a substantive or a pronoun, but merely shows connexion with something that goes before; it is then a conjunction ; as, " Besides; you know not while you here attend, " Th' unworthy fate of your unhappy friend." Dry den. Conjunctions. 67 But in this use of the word we may plainly perceive that it is a preposition, with the word or words it governs understood ; besides implying besides the things which have been remarked : and thus it has the nature of a conjunction. But when this word implies no succeeding substantive or pronoun, it is an adverb ; as, " Outlaws and robbers who break " faith with all the world besides, must keep faith " among themselves." Locke. Lindley Murray has judiciously observed, that the prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and several others, sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered ; as, " They had their reward soon " after ;" " He died not long before ;" "He dwells " above :" but if the nouns time and place be added, they will lose their adverbial form; as, " He " died not long before that time," &p. - ( .- ' , CONJUNCTIONS. at are Conjunctions ? 166. Conjunctions are words that join wo-ids, sentences, or members of sentences, together, in such a pnanner as to show their connexion with, or dependence upon, one another ; as, "/andj/ow " write," &c. ; " but he plays, though, he ought " also to be writing." How many conjunctions are there ? 1 67. These, like the prepositions, are variously enumerated by various grammarians. Lindley Murray reckons twenty ; Ward of Beverly, thirty- eight ; Knowles of Liverpool, forty -three; Shaw of Rochdale, thirty-four. I shall give the largest list, t,hat the reader may see them all : albeit, as, either, lest, again, because, except, likewise, also, but, for, moreover, although, else, however, .neither, and, eke, if, nor, 68 Outlines of English Grammar. I .or, s;ivc, than, wherefore, otlierwisc, saving, that, whether, still, seeing, thereupon, whereupon, since, though, unless, yet. so, therefore., without, Are these words always used as conjunctions ? 168. No : some of them are sometimes used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions. When is a conjunction used as an adverb ? 169. When now and then mean time only ; as, " The hour is now come ;" " He then set off for ft London ;" these words are adverbs : when they mean no particular time; as, " Then cried they all "again, saying, Not this man, but Barabbas; " now Barabbas was a robber ;" " If all this be so, " then man has a natural freedom" (Locke) ; ' here these words express an inference that forms a con- nexion between one part of the sentence and the other, and may be properly called conjunctions. When is a conjunction used as a preposition ? 170. When for means the cause or end for which' any thing is done; as, " The Sabbath was made ''for man, not man for the Sabbath," it is a pre- position ; but when it means the reason of some- thing advanced before; as " Old husbandmen I at Sabinum know, " Who for another year dig, plow, and sow ; *' For never any man was yet so old, " But hop'd his life one winter more would hold." J)cnham. for, in this sense, is a conjunction. INTERJECTION. What are Interjections? 111. Interjections are words that express some passion or emotion of the mind; as, alas ! oh J hush ! They are called interjections, because they are thrown ir between the parts of a sentence with- Interjection. 69 4 out affecting the construction of it : they are a kind pf natural effusion of sound to express the emotions of the speaker. Is not the interjection Oh sometimes confound- ed with 0, the sign of the vocative case ? 172. Yes ; before a noun or pronoun, this ex- clamation ought always to be considered as the sign of the vocative case, and to be written singly O ; as, " O King ! live for ever!" but when it is detached from the word, and implies an emotion of mind, it ought to be written Oh ! as, " Oh ! what a wretch and peasant slave am I !" This distinction^ though a very obvious one, is scarcely ever attended to. 70 Outlines of English Grammar. SYNTAX. WHAT is Syntax ? 173. Syntax or Construction is that connexion or arrangement of words which shows their de- pendence on each other for sense. Of what does syntax consist ? 174*. Of concord and government. What is concord ? 175. Concord is the agreement of one word with another, in person, case, gender, and number. What is government ? 176. Government is that power which one part of speech has over another, so as to compel it to be in some number, case, mood, or tense. How many concords are there ? 177. Four: The first between the nominative case and the verb; The second between the substantive and the adjective ; The third between the antecedent and the relative ; The fourth between two substantives. What is the first'concord ? 178. The first concord shows the agreement be- tween the nominative case and the verb in number and person : as, / write, thou art taught, the ship sails, we sing ; where /, a pronoun of the first per- son and singular number, requires write, which is the verb of the same number and person. Thou, Syntax. 7 1 which is the second person and singular number, agrees with the same number and person of the verb, art taught ; the ship, of the singular number and 'third person, requires the verb sails to be of same number and person ; and we, the first person plural, agrees with the first person and plural num- ber of the verb sing. This may be called the first rule of the concord between the nominative case and the verb. Must every nominative be either a personal pro- noun or a substantive? 179. No ; a relative pronoun may be a nomina- tive to a verb ; as, " The master who taught me " was a learned man ;" " The horse which won " the race was my horse;" " The book that was " sent me I have read ;" where who, which, and that, are equally nominatives to the succeeding verbs. Are there no other nominatives besides nouns and pronouns? 180. Yes ; sometimes the infinitive mood, or the clause or clauses of asentence, may be the nomina- tive to the verb ; as, " To play is pleasant, but to " study is more prudent ;" " To rise early, and go " to bed betimes, is good for the health." Must every nominative case have a verb with which it agrees in number and person? 181. Every one, except when it is followed by a participle of the present tense, eitherexpressed or understood; as, " The king coming, the enemy " fled :" * The sermon finished, the congregation '* dispersed ;" that is, the sermon being finished, &c. This is called the case absolute, and is similiar to the ablative absolute in Latin. Is the nominative case always expressed ? 182. No; it is frequently understood, particu- larly in the imperative mood ; as, " Read thy 72 Outlines of English Grammar. " book;" that is, " Read thou thy book:" tl Attend to my directions ;" that is, " Attend " thou to my directions :" where thou, understood, is the nominative case to read and attend. What is the second rule of this concord ? 183. Nouns singular, connected by conjunctions copulative, cither expressed or understood, require a verb in the plural number ; as, l< Peter, James, " and John, were chosen apostles:" or omitting the conjunction; "Confucius, Socrates, Plato, *' were famous philosophers ; yet they could not " reform the world." But or and nor being dis- junctive conjunctions, do not unite singulars into a plural, but preserve each singular distinct, and so require a verb singular : as, " Town or country is " equally agreeable to me." Do all nouns in the singular number require a verb singular? 184. No; nounsof multitudeorcollective nouns, as they are called, when they convey rather a plural than a singular idea, may have a verb plural ; as, ** The people were much dissatisfied ;" " The con- ** gregation were highly pleased." THE SECOND CONCORD. What are the rules of the Second Concord? 185. Every adjective must agree with its sub- stantive in case, gender, and number; that is, what- ever case, gender, or number the substantive is in, the same case, gender, and number must the adjec- tive be in. Explain this rule by examples. 186. As English adjectives have no terminations to distinguish their cases, genders, or numbers, as in other languages, they must necessarily agree with their substantives in these respects (see page 46). The same may be observed of the pronominal ad- Syntax. 73 jectives, which do not alter their termination with the case, gender, ornumberofthe substantives with which they are joined ; as, My pen, my pens ; of my pen, of my pens ; my father y my mother ; of my father and mother, &c. Is there no exception to this rule ? 187. Yes; the demonstrative pronouns, thisand, that, which are real adjectives, make these and those in the plural, without any regard to case or gender; as, This man, these men; that man, those men ; this woman, these women ? of this man, of these men, &c. (87). Do possessive pronouns ever vary their form ? 188. Yes; when the substantive is previously expressed or understood, my becomes mine, her, hers, &c.; as, " This book ismine, or this is mine," where the possessive becomes a real substantive (see page 22). Mine arm and mine eyes, which were always ungrammatical, and admitted only for the sake of sound, are now confined to poetry and solemn language. THE THIRD CONCORD. What are the rules of the Third Concord ? 189. As relatives, like adjectives, are of both numbers and of all genders, they must necessarily agree with their antecedents in both these respects; as, " I who was here ; thou who wast here ; we who were here ; the man who was here; the women who were here," &c. But aswho corresponds to ratipnal persons only, it cannot be in concord with a neuter noun or pronoun. Which, when used interroga- tively, as, " Which is the man you mean ?" or, coming immediately before a noun, as, " He was " generous to a man ; which man proved ungrate- " ful :" here which is applied to rational persons j 74- Outlines of English Grammar. but in other cases, it is applied toil-rational persons or things only. 1 'hut corresponds equally with ra- tional persons, irrational persons or things ; as, " The man that came; the horses that came; the " books that came," &c. (82). THE FOURTH CONCORD. . What is the first rule of the Fourth Concord ? 190. When two substantives, signifying the same person or thing, come together, they are said to be in apposition, and are in the same number, person, gender, and case ; as, " Cato the Censor, " and Senecathe Philosopher, were the ornaments " of the age in which they lived ;" where we may observe, that the censor and the philosopher areonly added to Cato and Seneca in order the more exactly to distinguish them, and are therefore very pro- perly considered as being in the same case. GOVERNMENT. What is the first rule for the Government of Words ? 191. When two substantives, signifying dif- ferent things, come together, one of them governs the other in the genitive case; as, "Cato the Censor t( lived before Cato of Utica ;" where we may observe, that Cato and Censor, signifying the same thing, are in the same case ; but that Cato and Utica, signifying different things, are in different "cases ; that is, in order to show their connexion by belonging to each other without a sameness, one of them is in the genitive case. Is not the word that governs another in the geni- tive case sometimes omitted ? Syntax. 75 192. Yes; as, St. Paul's, St. James's; that is, St. PauPs Church, St. James's Palace. This omis- sion is frequent, both in conversation and writing: tnus, " I called at the bookseller's ; 1 have been at " my father's ;" that is, " I called at the book- > All these verbs require verbs after them, in the infinitive mood, but without the sign ftTbe- fore it. When dare, signifies to defy or challenge, it is an active regular verb ; and requires the sign to before an infinitive dependent verb j as, *' I " dared him to fight with me." How far does this irregularity extend ? 206. Only to active or neuter verbs : for all these verbs, when made passive, require the preposition to before the following verb j as, *' He was seen to "go;" " He was permitted to be heard to speak 80 Outlines of English Grammar. " in his own defence 3" " He was bid to be upon " his guard," &c. Is not a verb in the infinitive mood sometimes placed alone without being followed by another verb ? 207. Yes; but in this case there is a considera- ble ellipsis to be supplied ; as, " To tell you the " truth, 1 never inquired." These two members, as they here stand, are grammatically independent on each other: to connect them, therefore, we must supply some such words as that I may ; as, " That 1 may tell you the truth, I never inquired." The verb in this situation may be called the verb absolute. THE GOVERNMENT OF PARTICIPLES. What is the government of Participles ? 208. As participles partake of the nature of sub- stantives, adjectives, or verbs (see page 61), their government is like each of these parts of speech re- spectively. The active participle, in the phrase, " a good painting " is a substantive ; in " a. paint - f< ing brush," it is an adjective; and in " I was " painting him," it is a verb. The passive par- ticiple is either an adjective or a verb: in " the " painted chamber," it is an adjective; in " I have " painted the chamber," it is a verb. When the letter a. is to be used before the present participle, as, " He is gone a hunting," &c. see page 62 in the note. Does not the present participle sometimes per- form the office of a substantive and a verb at the same time ? 209. It was by some grammarians supposed to do so; but later writers on grammar have exploded that opinion : they say, when it has the article a or the before it, it ought to be considered as a sub'stan- .' ,: Syntax. 81. tive, and that the substantive that follows it ought to be in the genitive case, and take of before it; as, " The middle station of life seems to be the most " advantageously situated for the gaining ofwis- " dom 5" but when the participle is preceded by a preposition only, it must be considered as a verb, and govern the succeeding noun or pronoun in the accusative or objective case : an instance of both these rules we find quoted from Mr. Addison by Dr. Lowth. " Poverty turns our thoughts too "much upon the supplying of our wants, and " riches upon enjoying our superfluities.' 1 '' Spect. N.o. 464. Where we may observe, that it might with equal propriety have been, " Poverty turns "our thoughts too much upon supplying our "wants, and riches upon the enjoying of our su-> " perfluities ;" but that neither of these phrases would have been right if the article the without the preposition of, or the preposition of without the article the,, had been used, in the manner follow- ing : " Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon " the supplying our wants, and riches upon enjoy- " ing of our superfluities." Is it only the article a or the before it which shows that the participle is a substantive ? 210. No; any substantive in the genitive case, or any pronoun possessive equivalent to such a substantive, does the same; as, " Much will depend " on the rule's being observed. His neglecting the " rule was the cause of his error :" where we may observe, that the genitive of rule is governed by the real substantive included in the compound participle being observed ; and the possessive his or of him is governed by the participle and its regimen, neglect- ing the rule. This will be more easily conceived if we consider the participle as the actual state of any thing : thus, being in love, is a state of loving; E 5 $2 Outlines of English Grammar. and if we add the word state to the participle in the foregoing phrases, we shall find the genitive of the substantive rule and the pronoun his or of him are governed by the state that follows them ; as, " Much will depend on the rule's observed state," or u on the observed state of the rule;" f( His <{ state of neglecting the rule," or " the state of *' neglecting the rule of him, was the cause of his *' error." This solution of these phrases is un- doubtedly uncouth, and can never be used ; but it sufficiently shows, that, according to the laws of concordance, the substantive involved in the par- ticiple and its regimen governs the preceding sub- stantive in the genitive case. Is the substantive or pronoun preceding the par- ticiple always governed by it in 'the genitive case ? 211. No; when the substantive is put abso- lutely, and does not govern a following verb, it re- Hiains independent on the participle, and is called the nominative absolute ; as, (181), " The painter *' being entirely confined to that part of time he has ** chosen, the picture comprises but very few inci- ** dents." Here the painter governs no verb, as the verb comprises, which follows, is governed by picture ; but when the substantive preceding the participle governs a subsequent verb, it then loses its absoluteness, and is like every other nominative, as, " The painter being entirely x confined to that " part of time which he has chosen, cannot exhibit " various stages of the same action," wh&re we see the painter governs the verb can. But in the sen- tence, " The painter's being entirely confined to " that part of time which he has chosen, deprives " him of the power of exhibiting various stages of " the same action :" in this sentence, if we inquire the nominative ease by asking what deprives the painter of the power of exhibiting various stages of Syntax. 83 the same action, we shall find it to be the confine- ment of the painter to that part of time which he has chosen; and this state of things belonging to the painter governs it in the genitive case, and forms the compound nominative to the verb de- prives. Is the substantive which is placed before the par- ticiple always to be considered as in the case ab- solute? 212. No y this substantive may become the nomi- native to a following verb, and then it loses its ab- soluteness, as it does in any other situation : thus, " The candidate being chosen, the people carried " him in triumph." Here the candidate is in the absolute case, as there is no grammatical connexion between this word and any other in the second member of the sentence ; but in the following sen- tence, " The candidate being chosen, was carried " in triumph by the people;" here the candidate is the nominative to the verb was carried, and there- fore it is not in the case absolute. Many writers, however, apprehending the nominative in this latter sentence, as well as in the former, to be put abso- lutely, often insert another nominative to the verb, and say, "The candidate being chosen, he was " carried in triumph by the people." The error of this last sentence is, that there are two nomi- natives used where one would have been suffi- cient, and consequently that he is redundant., Is there not a greater error than this committed in the construction of the substantive and partici- ple? 213. Yes; in such phrases as the following.: '' The candidate being chosen was owing to the " influence of party." Here the governing part of the nominative agreeing with the verb was owing, and considered as being the effect of party, may be 84 Outlines of English Grammar. deemed a substantive governing candidate in the genitive case; as, " The candidate's being chosen " was owing to the influence of party ;" which may be resolved into the other genitive; as, "The " being chosen of the candidate was owing to the *' influence of party." This phrase is essentially different from that where the nominative before the participle governs a succeeding verb ; as, t( The * ( candidate being chosen, was carried in triumph " by the people." Here the candidate is the governing part of the nominative ; being chosen is an adverbial circumstance only, and concurring with the nominative to govern the verb was carried; but if we wished to express being chosen as the cause of a subsequent effect, it becomes a sub- stantive governing candidate in the genitive case ; as, " The candidate's being chosen by so small a " majority was what most irritated the opposite " party ;" where we find being chosen by so small d majority is the ruling part of the nominative; and the whole compound nominative might be truly, though uncouthly, expressed, by saying, " The " being chosen by so small a majority of the can- " didate, was what most irritated the opposite " party." By all which we see, that if the par- ticiple and the words following it are either a cause or an effect, the preceding substantive or pronoun is in the genitive case : but if the participle is only a circumstance of this noun or pronoun, each of them may be considered as a nominative case go- verning some subsequent verb. As this error in construing the substantive, though real, is not very obvious ; and as it seems to argue a want of know- ing the principlesof Syntax, itappeared todemand a more particular consideration than Jias hitherto been given to it by the generality of grammarians ; especially as it is not unfrequently met with in Syntax. 85 writers much above the vulgar*. See Dr. Crom- bie's Etymology and Syntax,, page 213. THE GOVERNMENT OF ADVERBS. What is the Government of Adverbs? 214. Adverbs have neither concord nor govern- ment. Is it not of some importance how adverbs are placed in a sentence ? 215. Yes; but their position is so various, and frequently of so little consequence, that I wish to refer my readers for instances to othe*r grammars. There are two words, only and alone, which very materially influence the sense of a sentence accord- ing to their place in it : thus it is commonly said, " I only spoke three words," when the intention of the speaker manifestly requires, " I spoke only " three words." The world alone as manifestly alters the sense according to its position in the fol- lowing passage of Pope : " Nor God alone in the still calm we find ; " He mounts the storm, and walks upon the wind." Essay on Man. According to the pause we make before or after alone in the first line, the sense may be either, " we not only find God in the still calm, but some- " thing else ;" or, " we do not find God in the * " We shall therefore content ourselves with congratu- " lating the nation upon the hollow and perfidious neutrality " of Spain being at length brought to a determination. ' (Morn. Post, Jan. 26, ISO. 1 ).) It ought to have been, Upon the neutrality of Spain's being at length brought, &c. " One congregation (you nave said) you can name where " great offence was given by a person kneeling at her prayers." (Towgood's Dissent, &c. page 155.) It ought to have been, by a persons kneeling at her prayers. 96 Outlines of English Grammar. " still calm only, but in the storm likewise," which is the true sense of the poet. What is decided by the pause in this passage, must in prose have been decided by the position of the word alone ; as, " We do not find God in the still calm alone, but t( in the storm." Is not the adverb no sometimes used improperly instead of not ? 216. Yes; as in the phrases, "I cannot tell ** whether he will write or no ,-" " I am not sure " whether he will go or no ;" where we find no used instead of not, as, " I cannot tell whether he " will write or not;" that is, whether he will write or not write, &c. Is not the adverb not sometimes used improperly with another negative ? 217. Yes; as, " I do not choose to eat none ;" which, as two negatives make an affirmative, may imply that I do choose to eat some. CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. What is the Construction of Prepositions ? 218. Prepositions govern nouns or pronouns in the oblique caes ; as, " I never dreamt o/"war ;" " He went to London ;" " He came/row France;** " I bought it of him, and he sold it afterwards to " me, but it was taken/rom us." Is not the preposition sometimes separated from the noun it governs? 219. Very frequently; as, " Horace is an author " icfiom I am much delighted with" instead of, " Horace is an author with whom I am much de- " lighted." ' ' This is an idiom," says Dr. Lowth, " which our language is strongly inclined to : it " prevails in common conversation, and suits very " well with the familiar style in writing ; but the " placing of the preposition before the relative is Syntax. 81 " more graceful, as well as more perspicuous ; and <{ agrees much better with the solemn and elevated " style." Int. to E. Grammar, p. 164. Are not prepositions frequently understood be- fore pronouns and substantives ? 220. Yes ; the prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly before the pronoun ; as, " Give " me the book;" "Get me some paper," that is, " Give to me the book," or, " Give the book to "me;" "Get for me some paper," or,- "Get " some paper for me;" and almost always after the adjective like; as, "He is like his father;'* " She is like her mother ;" that is, " He is like to " his father," &c. Has not the preposition sometimes the nature of an adverb ? 221. Yes ; when it is subjoined to a verb so as to form a part of it ; as, "To rise up against oppres- " sion ;" where we see up describes the verb to rise like an adverb ; and this compound verb adopts the preposition against to govern the noun oppression. In the same manner, when it comes after a verb, and is not followed by any word which it governs, it is - an aclverb ; as, " I went up to him ; but when it governs the following word it is a prepo- sition; as, " I went up stairs to tell him," &c. where the word up. governs the noun stairs, and is therefore a preposition. THE CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. What is the Construction of Conjunctions ? 222. Conjunctions do not, like prepositions, go- vern cases ; nor, in the opinion of our acutestgram- marians, do they govern the subjunctive mood, un- l ess the conjunctions prefixed to the verbs imply contingency, doubt, or uncertainty : when they i mply no doubt, the indicative mood is used j as 86 Outlines of English Grammar. (speaking of otw blessed Saviour), "Though he " was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor." 2 Cor. viii. 9. When the conjunction implies doubt, the subjunctive or conditional mood is used ; as, " Though he fall, he shall not be utterly cast " down." Psalm xxxvii. 24. In the same man- ner, if Isay, " If I were a king (meaning, as I am t( notj, yet I would not be proud :" here ^requires were, the subjunctive mood of the verb to be. On the other hand, if I say, "Though he was a king " (as he really was), yet was he humble and hu- " mane :" here the conjunction though implying no doubt, the indicative mood is the proper form of . the verb. Are there not-some conjunctions that necessarily require the subjunctive mood ? 223. Yes; the conjunctions that and lest fol-. lowing a command always govern the subjunctive mood ; as, " The first of God's commandments is, "that thou love him above all his creatures;'' " Let him who stands take heed lest he jail :" and sometimes after a solemn entreaty ; as, "I be- t( seech thee that thou excuse me ;" " It is or- " dered, that no member come into the society in " boots," Donotsome conjunctions,' used in the beginning of a sentence, require others in a subsequent mem- ber to correspond to them ? 224. Yes; as, Although yet, or nevertheless, as, " Although he diexl as man, yet, or nevertheless, "did he rise again immortal." Whether or,- as, " Whether therefore we live or die, we are the "Lord's." Rom. 14. Either or ; " Either na- " ture's Author suffers, or the universal fabric is " dissolving." Neither nor ; " Neither life nor " death can separate us from God." Nor nor ; - V Syntax. 83 ? 1 laws divine nor human stopp'd my way." As as; "His hair was as white as snow." Rev. c. i. 14. As so ; " As we live so we die." So as; " Live so as to be ready to die." So that -, "Let *' us live so y that death may never surprise us." , Are not some conjunctions used as prepo- sitions? ^ 225. Yes ; the word than, called a comparative- conjunction, is a remarkable instance of this double character ; its principal use is certainly as a con^ j unction ; but it would be in vain to deny its frequent use as a preposition ; thus, a man who has served several masters may say of the last, " I have " served more masters than Awn." A hungry man may say, " I can eat more than that loaf ';" where than governs that loaf in the oblique case, as it does in the following sentence, the pronoun us ; "The " companions of Ulysses said among themselves, " This Polypheme will eat more than us. 1 " This double useof the word than will sometimes pro- duce an obscurity which will require us to supply the words understood in order to determine the sense: thus, " He writes better than 7" (that is, than I write) ; " He sees farther than 7" means than I see} ; "He sees farther than me," ini^ plies that he sees beyond me ; " He loves them, "more than we" (that is, than we love them) } " He loves them more than us" (that is, than he loves us) , " He is beloved by them more -than we" (that is, than we are beloved by them) ; " He is " more beloved by them than it's 1 " 1 (that is, than he is beloved by us). Is there iiot a remarkably improper usage of the word than ? 226. Yes ; where it is made use of as a prepo- sition to govern the relative who, when the tense Sh - Sr ^,^ - > -^ 50 Outlines of. English Grammar. necessarily requires it to be a conjunction: as, " Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned ;"" "BeeJzebubjf/mw whom, Satan except,none higher "sat ;" where we find, if we supply the antecedent pronoun, it will be in the nominative case ; " Al- " fred, a greater king than //ewas, never reigned ;" Beelzebub, except Satan, none higher sat than Is not the word but sometimes used as a prepo- sition ? 227. It should seem so by the phrases we fre- quently hear like the following : " None were left " in the room but him ;" " All the guests came at " the appointed time but //z'w." Here, if we con- sider but as a conjunction, \ve onght to use he in- stead of him ; but this will require the assistance of an ellipsis, ^scarcely ever occurring in -y other part of grammar^; as, ^None were left in the "room, but he* was left in the room;" "All '* the guests came at the appointed time ? but he , ?' came not at the appointed time." This ellipsis is too forced and circuitous to be adopted without necessity ; and the best way to avoid it will be to consider but like than, used sometimes as a prepo- sition, and sometimes as a conjunction. But, in the foregoing instances, is equivalent to except or ex- cepting : if the first, the word is in the imperative mood, and governs the pronoun him ; as, " None " were left in the room except thou him :" if the second, it must be construed absolutely ; as, " None were left in the room, thou excepting him" This seems to be the most" natural resolution of the phrase; and it may be added, that if we are in doubt whether a word, is an adverb, a preposition, or a conjunction (for there is no doubt about the other parts of speech), the best way to resolve this doubt will be to translate the word, as it were, into 9 <*' *^~ : i '**'* , / 1. ' *<- >/*"< Syntax. 9 1 another as synonymous as possible ; and if we know to what part of speech one of these words belongs, we may be sure the other is the same : thus in the following passage from Shakspeare " Hcav'n doth with us as we with torches do, " Not light them for themselves ; for if our virtues " Did not go forth of us, 't were all alike " As if we had them not." Measure for Measure. Here, in the place of the wordybr, may be substi- tuted the word because, which is clearly a conjunc- tion, and therefore determines the wordybr to be one also. Are not the disjunctive conjunction or and the negative nor frequently confounded? 228. Yes ; because two negatives, when they re- late to the same subject, make an affirmative ; as, they not perceive the evil plight " In which they were." That is, they di$ perceive it : this has induced some grammarians to avoid nor, and substitute or when the subjects of negation are different ; as, " Neither capable of pleasing the understanding or "the imagination." (Addison.) Where if nor had been used instead of or, as the negations fall upon different subjects, no affirmation would have been created, and the conjunction neither would have been followed by its natural correlative nor; as either is by or. Does not the conjunction copulative couple like cases \Jhjf 22y. Yes ; as, " The master taught him and me " to write ;" " He and she were of the same age.'* Is there not a very common ellipsis of the con- junction that? 230. Yes} too common ; as, " I told you I "would go;" "I desired he would stay;" for, 92 Outlines of English Grammar. " I told you that I would go ;" " I desired that he "would stay." This is the most general ellipsis in our language. It is tolerable in conversation and epistolary writing, butshould be sparingly indulged in other compositions. The French never use this ellipsis. &{*? ' - / INTERJECTIONS. What is the construction of Interjections ? 23 1. Interjections have no government of cases. Ah, woe is me/ is an elliptical expression for,, Ah t woe is to me I ' ELLIPSIS, '!.-; What is Ellipsis? 232. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words which the construction requires to be sup- plied, though omitting them acids to the force and elegance of the sentence. There are few sentences that are not in some degree elliptical ; nor can syn- tax be perfectly understood, or parsing perfectly practised, without a particular attention to thi$ figure of grammar. In what instances is the article omitted ? 233. " The bow and arrows were broken ;" that is, " The bow and the arrows were broken." In what instance is the substantive omitted ? 234.. '* It is better to receive than to do an in- "jury :" that is, " It is better to receive an injury tf than to do an injury." In what instance is the adjective omitted ? 235. "^-Miicjhi rain and snow feH in March ; 1? that is, "Much rain and muck snow fell in. March." In what instance is the relative omitted? Ellipsis. 9$ i */**/ 4 y^-v. 236. The book you bought is imperfect ;" that is, " The book which you bought is imperfect.'* In what instance is the verb omitted ? 237. " He is taller than I;" that is, " He is " taller than I am" In what instance is the participle omitted ? 238. " For only in destroying I find ease , " To my relentless thoughts, and he destroyed, (C all this will soon " Follow." (Milton. ) That is, " He being de- " stroyed." " Solomon was of this mind, and I make no " doubt but he made as wise and true proverbs as "any body has done since: He only excepted who " was a much greater and wiser man than Solo- " mon :" that is, " He only being excepted." In what instance is the adverb omitted ? 239. " He speaks and writes well ;" that is, " He speaks well and writes well." In what instance is the preposition omitted ? 240. " I gave it your brother and sister;" that is, " I gave it to your brother and to your sister." In what instance is the conjunction omitted? 241. The conjunction copulative is omitted, where Caesar, giving an account of his military ex- pedition, says, " I came, I saw, I conquered," in- stead of saying, " I came, and I saw, and I con- (< quered." The casual conjunction that is omitted in the common phrase," I fear it comes too much " from the heart ;" that is, " I fear that it comes " too much from the heart." Spect, No. 322. Is not a considerable part of a sentence some- times omitted ? 242. Yes ; sometimes by substituting the auxi- liary verbs; as, " He minds not his lesson as you " do;" that is, " He minds not his lesson, as you ** do mind your lesson." Sometimes by presuming 94 Outlines of English Grammar. the nominative case and its whole regimen to be understood; as, " Nature has given to animals one " time to act, and another to rest;" instead of sav- ing, " Nature nas given to animals one time to act, " and Nature has given to animals another time to " rest." OBSERVATIONS PREPARATORY TO PARSING. i . EVERY sentence, or every proposition forming sense, must have a nominative case and a finite verb, either expressed or understood ; conse- quently Every nominative case must have a finite verb either expressed or understood. Expressed ; as, "I write." Understood; as, "He writes better than "I;" that is, than I do, or than 1 write ; where the verb do or write is understood. Every finite verb must have a nominative case, either expressed or understood. Expressed ; as, " I read." Understood; as, " Read slowly;" that is, Read thou, or do thou read slowly, where the nominative thou is understood. Every adjective must have a substantive with which it corresponds, either expressed or under- stood. Expressed ; as, " Great men sometimes " do little actions." Understood ; as, " The vir- " tuous are sometimes oppressed;" that is, the substantive persons, understood. Every substantiveorpronoun must either govern /A or be governed : that is, it must either be in the nominative or in an oblique case. Every relative must have an antecedent either expressed or understood. Expressed ; as, " The Parsing. 95 tc master who taught me was a learned man,'* where the master is the antecedent to the relative who. Understood; as, "Who sprung from kings, " shall know less joy than I;" that is", " He who " sprung from kings," &c. where he is the antece- dent understood. Every article relates to some substantive either expressed or understood. Expressed : as, " A man, " the pen." Understood ; as, " The oftener I read " Milton, the better I like him ;" means, t{ The " more times I read Milton, with the greater plea- 11 sure I like him:" for as an adverb may always be resolved into a preposition and a substantive, the article the, which comes before the adverb, belongs to the substantive which is involved in it. Every preposition governs a personal pronoun, or some substantive, or some word standing for a substantive, in an oblique case, except to before a verb in the infinitive mood ; as, " By listening to " flatterers his mind became corrupted," where the action of listening, expressed by the parti- ciple, is governed by the preposition by. PARSING. WHAT is Parsing ? Parsing is analysing a sentence into its com- ponent parts, and showing their nature, connexion, and mutual dependence on each other. Rule 1. Every finite verb agrees with its nomi- native case in number and person. The boy writes well. What do you do first ? Find out the finite verb. 96 Outlines of English Grammar. Which is that ? Writes. Is it an active, a passive, or a neuter verb ? Active. Why? Because I can place a personal pronoun after it in the accusative or objective case ; as, " I write " it;" or I can change it into a verb passive ; as, *' It is written." What mood is it in ? The indicative mood. Why? Because the indicative mood simply affirms or declares a thing ; as, / write ; or asks a question, as Do I write? (104). What tense ? The present tense. Is it regular or irregular? Irregular. Why? Because either its preterimperfect tense or its participle passive does not end in cd. (141). What do you do next ? Find out the nominative case. How do you do that ? By asking the question who or what ; as, " Who " writes well ?" Answer, " The boy." What part of speech is boy ? A substantive common. What is a substantive common ? A common name, or a name common to many things. (12). How do you decline it ? Nom. The boy ; Gen. The boy's, with an apostrophe before the s, orOf theboy,&c. &c. (38). How do the nominative and the verb agree ? In number and person. (178). Parsing. What number is the .nominative ? Singular. What person ? The third. By what rule ? All substantives are of the third person, and all other nominatives except / and Thou. (180.) Show the agreement between the nominative and the verb in number and person, by conju- gating the present tense of the verb to write. I write ,- Thou writest ; He, she, or it, writes ; We write ; Ye or you write ; They write. What part of speech is well ? An adverb. Why ? Because it describes the verb writes^ (154.) What part of speech is the ? The definite article. What does the definite article signify ? It signifies a thing or things in particular. (5.) The Offender was properly punished. What do you do first ? Find out the finite verb. Which is that? Was. Is was an auxiliary or a principal verb ? An auxiliary verb. (130.) What verb does it help ? The verb punished. What verb is the verb was punished ? A passive verb. Why? Because it signifies passion, suffering, or the receiving of an impression. (97.) How is a passive verb formed ? 98 Outlines of English Grammar. By adding the passive participle to some part of the verb to be. What mood is the verb in ? The indicative mood. (104.) What tense ? The preterimperfect tense. ,(111.) What is the infinitive mood ? To be punished. Is it regular or irregular ? Regular. Why? Because either its preterimperfect tense or its passive participle ends in ed. (141.) What do you do next ? Find out the nominative case. How do you do that ? N By asking the question who or what. Ask the question. Who was punished ? Ttye offender. How do the nominative case and the verb agree ? In number and person. (178.) What number is the nominative ? Singular. What person ? The third. By what rule ? All substantives and all nominatives are of the third person, except / and Thou. What number is the verb ? The singular. What person ? The third. Prove thatthenominativecase and the verbagree in numberand person by conjugatingtbepreterim- perfect tense indicative mood of the passive verb to be punished. Parsing. 9* " / was punished, thou wast punished" &c. What part of speech is properly ? An adverb. Why? Because it describes the verb (1 54) ; as, " How " was he punished ?" Answer, properly. What part of speech is the ? The definite article. What does the definite article signify ? It signifies a thing or things in particular. (5.) He sat in the highest Seat. What do you do first ? Find out the finite verb. Which is that? Sat. Is it an active, a passive, or a neuter verb ? Neuter. Why? Because I cannot place a personal pronoun after it in the objective case ; as, " I sit him, I sit her ;*' nor can I change it into a verb passive ; as, " I am " sat, What mood ? The indicative. (104.) What tense ? The prete rim perfect. (111.) What is the infinitive mood ? To sit. Is it regular or irregular ? Irregular. Why? Because its preterimperfect tense and its par- ticiple passive do not end in ed. (141.) What do you do next? Find out the nominative case. F2 J 00 Outlines of English Grammar. < > How do you do that ? By. asking the question who or what ; as, " Wh* " sat in the highest seat ?" " He" What part of speech is he ? A personal pronoun. What person ? The third. What gender ? The masculine 'What number ? The singular What case ? The nominative. How do you decline it ? "Nom. He; Gen. Of him; Dat. To him," &c. (67.) What verb does it govern ? The verb sat. How do the nominative and the verb agree ? In number and person. (178.) What number is the nominative ? The singular. What person ? The third. What number is the verb ? The singular. What person ? The third. Prove that the nominative case and the verb agree in -number and person by conjugating, in the indicative mood, the preterimperrect tense of the neuter verb to sit. ** I sat, thou satst, he sat," Me. What part of speech is in ? A preposition. What part of speech is tfye ? . definite article. Parsing. 101 What part of speech is highest f An adjective. In what degree of comparison ? The superlative. (52.) What part of speech is seat ? A substantive. In what case ? The ablative. (35.) What is it governed by ? The preposition in. By what rule ? All prepositions but of and to govern an, abla- tive case. (35.) RULE 9 . When no nominative comes between th* Relative and the verb, the Relative is the Nomi- native to the verb. The Master who taught me was a learned Man. What do you do first ? Find out the first finite verb. Which is that ? Taught. Is it an active, a passive, or a neuter verb ? An active verb. Why? Because I can place a personal pronoun afteritin the accusative or objective case ; as, " I taught *' A/W;" or I change it into a verb passive ; as", " He is taught." What mood ? The indicative. What tense ? The preterimperfect. What is the infinitive mood ? To teach. Is it regular or irregular ? Irregular. 102 Outlines of English Grammar. Why? Because either its preterimperfcet tense or its participle passive docs not end in ed. (141.) What do you do next ? Find out the nominativfe case. Which is that ? The relative who *. By what rule ? When no nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is the nominative to the verb. Which is the antecedent to the relative ? The master. How do the antecedent and the relative agree? In gender, number, and person. Of what gender is the antecedent? The masculine. Of what number ? The singular. Of what person ? The third. By what rule ? All substantives and all nominatives, except / and Thou, are of the third person/ Of what gender is the relative ? The masculine. Of what number ? The singular. Of what person ? The third. By what rule ? The relative who is of all genders, both numbers, and all rational persons. (82.) * When the relative is the nominative to the verb, the nominative cannot be found out by asking the question who ? or what ? Parsing. '*i^? 103 How do the relative as a nominative case and the verb agree ? In number and person. What number is the nominative ? The singular. What person ? The third. What number is the verb ? Singular. What person ? The third. Prove the agreement between the nominative and the verb, by conjugating the indicative mood preterimperfect tense of the active verb to teach. " I taught, thoutaughtest" Me. The rest of the sentence may be parsed as those members gone before. RULE 3. When a nominative Case comes between the Relative and the Verb, the Relative is governed either by the Verb, or by some Preposition or Sub- stantive belonging to it. The Man whom I saw was your Friend. What do you do first ? Find out the finite verb. Which is that ? Saw. Is it active, passive, or neuter ? Active. Why? Because I can place a personal pronoun after it in the accusative or objective case ; as, " I saw " him, I saw her," Kc. Is it regular or irregular ? Irregular. 104 Outlines of English Grammar. Why? Because either its preterimperfect tense, or its participle passive, does not end in ed. What do you do next ? Find out the nominative case. How do you do that? By asking the question who or what. Ask the question. Whom who saw ? whom I saw ; as / answers the question, it is the nominative case. Decline it. Nom. /,- Gen. Of me ; Dat. Tome ; Accusative or Objective, Me; Vocat. is wanting ; Ablat. With t from, or by me. (65.) How do the nominatire and the verb agree ? In number and person. What number is the nominative ? Singular. What person ? The first. Prove it by conjugating the indicative mood preterimperfect tense of the 'verb To see. I saw, tlwu sawest, he saw, &c. What part of speech is whom ? A pronoun relative. (79.) Which is the antecedent ? ,Man. How do the antecedent and the relative agree ? In gender, number, and person. (8y.) What gender is the antecedent ? The masculine. What number ? The singular. What person ? The third. By what rule ? ..Relatives are of both numbers, and all genders ; Parsing. ' 105 who, of all rational persons ; which, of all irrational persons ; and that, of all persons, rational or irra- tional. (82.) What case is the relative in ? The accusative or objective". What is it governed by.? By the active verb See. (195.) The- rest of the sentence, The man was your friend, as those members that have been parsed before, RULE 4. Active or transitive Verbs govern an accusative or objective Case. I teach him. Which is the finite verb ? (tench.) Is it active, passive, or, neuter? (active.} Why? (96.) What part of speech is him ? (62.) What case is it in? (6J;) and why? (178.) RULE 5. See, hear, J 'eel, &c. are followed by Verbs in the infinitive Mood without the Sign to. (205.) I saw him go. Which is the finite verb ? (saw.} Is it active, .passive, or neuter ? (active.}' Why ? (96.) Which is the nominative case ? (I.) How do the nominative case and the verb agree? (178.) What part of speech is him ? (62 ;) and what is it governed by ? (saw.} Wliat part of speech is go ? What mood I (the infinitive.} By what rule has it not the sign to before it? (20*.) 106 Outlines of English Grammar. RULE 6. The Verb to be, in whatever Mood or Tense, has the same Case after it that goes be- fore it. 1 am he. Which is the finite verb? (am.) Which the nominative case ? (1.) How do they agree? (178.) Prove their agreement by conjugating the present tense of the verb to be. ( 134.) What part of speech is he? What case? (67), and by what rule ? (201.) You took it to be me. Which is the finite verb ? (took.) Is it active, passive, or neuter, and why ? Which is the nomina- tive ? (you.) How do the nominative and the verb agree ? What part of speech is it ? What case ? (the accusative or objective.) By what is it go- verned? (by the active verb took.) What part of speech is to be? (The infinitive mood of the sub- stantive verb.) What part of speech is me? (a pronoun.) What case is it in ? (the accusative or objective.) Why ? because the pronoun it, that goes before it, is in the same case. (201.) RULE 7. Sometimes the infinitive Mood, or a Part of a Sentence, forms the nominative Case to the Verb. To err is human. Which is the finite verb ? (is.) Is it auxiliary or principal? (130.) If principal, why? Is it active, passive, or neuter, and why ? (203.) What mood, tense, number, and person ? Is it regular or irregular, and why? (141.) Why is the infinitive to trr the nominative case? Because it answers to the question who or what ; as, What is human? Parsing. 107 Answer, To err. By what rule does it agree with the verb in number and person? (178.) What part of speech is human ? An adjective, agreeing with the infinitive, which, as a nominative case, forms a substantive, signifying the state of being in error. \ Let each Man answer for himself. What is the finite verb? (let.) Isitan auxiliary or a principal verb ? (auxiliary.) (128.) What verb does it help ? (answer.) What mood ? (the imperative.) What is the nominative case ? (thou understood.) What case is man in ? The accusative or objective ; that is, the same case as he would have been in, in the phrase, Let him answer for himself. What part of speech is answer? (verb.) What mood ? (infini- tive.) By what rule ? (205.) RULE 8. When a nominative Case comes before a Participle of the present Tense either expressed or understood, and is independent on the rest of the Sentence, not governing a subsequent Verb, it is catted the Case Absolute. " The sermon ended, the congregation dispersed." Here the present participle is understood. " The sermon being ended, the congregation dispersed." Here the nominative sermon is grammatically in- dependent on the rest of the sentence. Read thy Book. Find out the verb. What mood, tense, number and person, and what the infinitive mood ? Regular or irregular, and why ? What the nominative case ? 108 Outlines of English Grammar. What part of speech ? Decline it. Of what num- ber and person are the nominative and verb ? Show their agreement by conjugating the imperative mood of the active verb to read. Of what part of speech is thy ? In what case is book, and wh^? {18-L, 211, 212.) EXERCISES OF BAD ENGLISH. I am not sure that exercises of bad English are useful to youth of the junior classes. Pupils of this description ought, in my opinion, to see nothing upon paper but what is perfectly correct ; when they are thoroughly accustomed to what is so, such exercises may be necessary to detect any lurking impropriety that may huve stolen into the habit ; but to give them exercises in bad English in the earlier stages of grammar, would be to risk the dan- ger of evil communication. The utility of theseex- ercises therefore mustdepend much on thejudge- ment of the teacher, and, in my judgement, for pu- pils advanced in grammar, a better method cannot be conceived than is found in Lindley Murray's Exer- cises and Key. In these, the faults and corrections, by being separated, and placed in different books, areYiappily calculated to 'set the mind of the pupil at work to discover the error by the rule ; and by this discovery, to fix the rule more permanently in the memory. Agreeably to my purposed brevity, x l have noticed but a few of these errors ; and those I have noticed are chiefly extracted from a meri- torious, but much neglected grammar, published a few years ago by Lewis Brittain, and sold by Keating and Browne, Duke Street, Grosvenor Square. I have, indeed, received so much ad- vantage from this short but comprehensive per- formance, that I thought it incumbent on me to make this acknowledgement of my obligations it* author. ' Common Errors in Construction. 109 COMMON ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. Errors occasioned by Verbs not agreeing with their Nominatives in Person. Says I ; for Said j, or I said. Thinks I ; for Thought I. Methoughts ; for Methought (inelegant), or Thought I. I see him yesterday, for I saw him, is almost too gross a vulgarism to deserve notice. Confusion of the personal Pronouns Thou and You. Thou and you, used promiscuously in a discourse, and referred to the same person, are improper; as, " You grieved at my distress, thou friend siu- " cere." Pope. '' The Relative of the first Person is improperly fol- lowed by aVerb in the third Person ; as, "/am the Lord; that spreadeth (who spread) * the earth by myself" Isaiah, xliv. 24. The re- lative that is referred to /, not to the Lord: as af- terwards appears from the pronoun myseljTand the sense is. / who spread am the LordT. Disareements between the Nominative andits Verb* " The mechanism of clocks and watches were " (was) totally unknown." Hume. "As any of these three qualifications are (is) " most conspicuous and prevailing." Addison. These inaccuracies are very common, as in these phrases the ear is seduced by the plural genitive to annex a verb plural, and so to neglect the noinina^ live in the singular. 110 Outlines of English Grammar. Singulars after the disjunctive Particles. Either thou, or he is, in the wrong ; that is, either thou art, or he is, in the wrong ; but the verb agrees in person with the latter pronoun he. Two nouns singular, connected by the prepo- sition with, may sometimes be followed by the plural number : but if the objective case after with be no- wise concerned noragent in the phrase, the singular number should succeed ; as, "Christ, with three " chosen apostles, enters into his agony." CASES. Nominative improperly omitted. " The calm in which he was born and lasted " (which lasted) so long." Clarendon. 11 These we have extracted from Paulus Jovius, " and are (they are) the same," &c. Pope. " Whose own example strengthens all his laws, " And is (who is) himself the great sublime he draws." Idem. Examples of mistaken Cases. /Y A ' ^ "Him whom (who) ; ye pretend; reigns in " heaven." Adventurer. Who ought to be the nominative to reigns, and ye pretend, means, asye pretend. " Whom (who) do men say that I am *" Matt. xvi.'l3. Whom cannot here be governed by the verb say, but must be governed by am ; and agree with/, thus: Men say that / am, who ? " It can't be me" (I). Swift. " It is not him (he whom) they blame ;" or, " He is not the man whom they blame." This is a very common inaccuracy, which may Common Errors in Construction. , ; be avoided by reflecting that the verb to be must - y ' r t- ,2^ have the same case after it that comes before ft ; as -fit, therefore, is in the nominative, the following 4,//i pronoun must be in the nominative also ; that is, he and notTww. This inaccuracy arises from sup- posing him is governed by blame; whereas blame governs the relative whom, understood. Error from omitting the Verb to one nominative Case, and by inserting another Nominative not necessary. " Which rule, if it had been observed, a neigh- " bouring prince would," &c. Atterbury. Here the nominative, which rule, is defrauded of its government by the pronoun //gliding be- tween itself and the verb . it should be, If this. rule had been observed, &c. " The measure of destroying Somerset, who, " though many of his actions were very excep- " tionable, yet he (superfluous) still Consulted the " good of the people." Goldsmith's History of Edward VI. No Substantive or Pronoun can be both in the nomi- native and the uccusative or objective Case at the " Why do ye that which is not lawful to do on " the Sabbath days?" Here we see whichis both the nominative to is and the objective to the active verb do. The impropriety of this construction will Be more apparent, if for do we substitute strike ; for that, the personal pronoun he. % " Why strike ye hinrwhomis not lawful to strike " on the Sabbath days ?" In this sentence we find the verb is without anorwinative case: forthoughan infinitive mood and its regimen may be anominative 1 1 2 Outlines of English Grammar. case to a verb, when it comes before the verb; as, " Why strike ye him, whom to strike, or to strike " whom, is not lawful on the Sabbath days r" yet when this infinitive comesafter theverb, theneuter pronoun// must be placed before it, to show that, in this case, it is to be considered merely as an in- finitive mood, and not either as a nominative or an objective case : strike, therefore, governs whom ac- cording to the general rule, as the nominative it- ought to come between the relative and the verb. ' " Why strike ye him, whom it is not lawful to. " strike on the Sabbath days P" J " Why do ye that which it is not lawful to do " on the Sabbath days ?" On the contrary, if we considerwAw:^ as a nomi- native, and make the same change of words as m the last explanation ; namely, ' Why strike ye " him, who is not lawful to strike on the Sabbath t( days?" the meaningof the sentence is confused ; and a change is made from a passive to an active sense : that is, who is to strike, instead of whom is to be struck ; and consequently the passive pro- noun whom (if I may call it so) is to be adopted, and it inserted before the verb for the same rea- son, as in the last example. The same observations will hold good in ex- plaining a similar sentence from the same part of Scripture, Luke, vi. 4 : " The shew-bread, " which is not lawful to eat bat for the priests "alone." In this phrase the relative ichichis the nominative to , and at the same time is governed by the active verb to eat, and this inconsistent go- vernment confuses the sense : for if vye consider which as a nominative, it implies that it is not law- ful for the shew-bread to eat, instead of the priests, to eat the s.hew-bread; and if we consider which as. an. objective case, the verb is has no nominative,, Punctuation. 113 and iV, as in the former example, must be adopted before the verb, as its nominative, in order to form sense : " The shew-bread, which it.is not lawful " to eat, but for the priests alone.'* PUNCTUATION. This appendage to grammar has been considered by few writers more maturely than by myself. For the truth of this assertion, I may appeal to Elements of Elocution and Rhetorical Grammar. As it re- lates to pronunciation, I have shown its radical de- ficiency, and how sometimes it tends rather to mis- lead the reader than to assist him ; but as it con- duces to regulate and preserve the sense of compo- sition, it is in a tolerably perfect state. I shall therefore give a concise idea of visible punctuation, and refer the reader for audible punctuation, or that punctuation which is calculated for regulat- ing the voice in reading, to a perusal of Element* of Elocution and Rhetorical Grammar. What is punctuation ? Punctuation is the art of distinguishing by cer- tain marks the several component parts of a sen- tence, the end of a sentence, and the differentkinds of sentences of which a discourse is composed. What are the principal marks made use of for this purpose ? The Comma, the Semicolon, the Colon, and the Period. How are they expressed in writing ? The comma The Semicolon The Colon The Period pressed in writing r ? (: >is marked thus< \ 114 Outlines of English Grammar. And those marks which distinguish sentences, The Interrogation ~\ r ? The Exclamation Vis thus marked ) ! The Parenthesis 3 J () What are the pauses said to be annexed to these points? The pause at a Comma while we can count one ; That at a Semicolon while we can count two; That at a Colon while we can count four ; and That at a Period while we can count eight. The Interrogation and Exclamation points are said to be indefinite as to their quantity of time, and to maikan elevation of voice; and the Paren- thesis, to mark a moderate depression of the voice with a pause greater than the Comma. I forbear any remarks upon these rules, as the nature of the pauses, the inflexion, elevation, and depression of the voice belong rather to Elocution and Rhetoric than to Grammar. What is the use of the Comma ? As Dr. Lowth tells us a simplesentence consists but of one subject or nominative case and one finite verb, and therefore admits of no pause ; so a com- pound sentence, consisting of two or more subjects or finite verbs, admits of a pause after each mem- ber. In every sentence therefore, as many sub- jects or as many finite verbs as there are, either expressed or implied, so many distinctions there may be ; as, My hopes, fears, joys, pains, all centre in you. The case is the same when several ad- juncts affect the subject of the verb ; as, A good, wise, learned man, is an ornament to the common- wealth : or where several adverbs or adverbial circumstances affect the verb ; as, He behaved himself modestly, prudently, virtuously. For as mapy such adjuncts as there are, so many several members does the sentence contain ; and they are <.* r " Punctuation. 115 to bfe distinguished from each other, as much as several subjects or finite verbs. }\'~'f Is there no exception to this rule ? The exception to this rule is, where these sub- jects or adjuncts are united by a conjunction ; as, The imagination and the judgement do not always agree ; A man never becomes learned without studying constantly and methodically. In these cases the comma between the subjects and the ad- juncts is omitted. Are there not some sentences, where thesubjects, verbs, or adjuncts, are understood, which require the same punctuation as if they were expressed ? Yes; there are some kinds of sentences which, though seemingly simple, are nevertheless of the compound kind, and really contain several subjects, verbs, or adjuncts. Thus in tbf sentences, con- taining what is calledthe nomm^n'e absolute; as, Physicians, the disease once discovered, think the cure half wrought ; where the disease once dis- covered is equivalent to when the cause of the dis- ease is once discovered. So in those sentences where nouns are added by apposition ; as, The Scots, a hardy people, endured it all. So also in those where vocative cases occur ; as, This, my friend, you must allow me. The first of these ex- amples is equivalent tOj The Scots endured it all; and. The Scots, who are a hardy people, endured it all; and the last, to, This you must allow me; and, This my friend must allow me. In short, whatever circumstance comes between the nomi- native case and the verb, and between the verb and its regimen, or what it governs, must be separated from them by a comma. What is the use of the Semicolon ? When a sentence can be divided into two or more members, which members are again divisible' 1 1 Outlines of English Grammar. into members more simple, the former are to be separated by a semicolon ; as, " But as the passion "for admiration, Avhen it works according to rea- *' son, improves the beautiful part of our species in *' every thing that is laudable ; so nothing is more " destructive to th,emwhen itis governedby vanity " and folly." Must we use the semicolon, only when acommi has been inserted before ? No ; we may use it where the foregoing mem- ber is perfectly simple ; as, " Green is the most *' refreshing colour to the eye ; therefore Provi- " dence has made it the common dress of Nature." In these examples we see the semicolon embraces two uses : one, which shows the complexity of the member to which it is annexed ; and the other, the incompleteness of the sense. What is the use of the Colon ? The colon, like the semicolon, sometimes marks the complexity of the preceding member, and sometimes a completion of the sense, though not of the sentence. These different usages will be exemplified in the following sentences : " As we perceive the shadow to have moved " along the dial, but did not perceive it moving; " and it appears that the grass has grown, though 11 nobody eversawitgrow : so theadvanceswe make " in knowledge, as they consist of such insensible " steps, are only perceivable by the distance." In this sentence we find the punctuation is go- verned by the complexity of its members ; and the middle of it, before any sense isformed, is marked by the colon, to show it is more compounded than the preceding member: but in the following sen- tence the completion ofthesense only is marked by the colon : ** The Augustan age was so eminent for Punctuation. in *' good poets, that they have served as models to " all others : yet it did not produce any good tragic "poets." These very different usages of this point have produced very great uncertainty in punctuation,, and frustrated all the endeavours of grammarians, to make it a rule for regulating the voice in read- ing. Some very correct writers make use of the period where others make use of the colon ; nor are the boundaries of these two points easily marked. Those who wish to see this subject treated in the most masterly manner, .must con- sult Buffier's Grammaire Fran$oise. What is the use of the note of Interrogation ? The note of interrogation is used to show that a question is asked ; as, " What day of the month " is this?" It likewise distinguishes a question from a sentence in the imperative mood ; as, " Do " you return ? What is the use of the Parenthesis ? A parenthesis is a sentence inserted in the body of another sentence to illustrate its meaning ; but is neither necessary to the sense, nor at all affects the construction. It is said to mark a moderate depression of the voice, with a pause greater than the comma ; as in the following sentence : " When " they were both turned of forty (an age in which, " according to Mr. Cowley, there is no dallying *' with life), they determined to retire, and pass " the remainder of their days in the country.'^ Spectator, No. 123. What is the use of the Exclamation ? This note, like the interrogation point, serves to distinguish a question from a strong emotion of mind ; as, expressing our gratitude for a favour received, we may cry out with rapture : " What " have you done for me !" or we may use the very 1 1 8 Outlines of English Grammar. same words contemptuously to inquire, " What " have you done for me?" intimating that nothing has been done. The very different import of these sentences, as they are differently pointed, suffi- ciently shows the utility of the note of exclamation. With respect to the tone of voice, said by our grammarians to be annexed to it, the reader is requested to peruse the Rhetorical Grammar for consistent and practical ideas of this, and all the rest of the points. / PROSODY. 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Ciesar,cHm Hirlio, Sec. - 7 (> Catullus, Tilnillus, './ Propcrtius - - - j Cicero, et Auctor Ithetoricoruinail llcronniuni ; cum. Clavi (12 Tom.) - - - - :$ I'.i <) Ciccronis OH'icia - - X <> : Select* Oratiom-s - 0. f> Epistoltu (3 Tom.) I I Claudianus - 05 (' Cornelius Nepos et Pomponins Mela - - O :* (i Floras et Patcrculus - . - ... 040 Horatius - 4 .<> .! liveniJis, Pcrsius, Sulpitia, hu;. 2 h Livius (o Tom.) - - J 10 t Lucanus, cww* t\ Maii Svpplemtiibi - - 6 ti Lucretius - - - - - . . 4 ( Maitialis - - - - - - - - o (i c> Ovidius (3 Tom.) - - - o IK Ph;-drus, P. Syrus, Cutoiiis Disiu-iu!, &<;. - 2 (> IMiuitns (3 Tom.) Hi (i Plinii Fpistohu et Panc Yiirus - - - ({ (\ (Jintilianu9, de Inslitutiouc Orat<.ri.