//JA ///// ^?^^ 7' ioi^^/7^ LIBRARY OF THE University of California. GIFT OF .- Class M- .0O\A^ Digitized by tine Internet Archive in 2007 witin funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation r' littp://www.archive.org/details/farmersmeclianicsOOcourrich N. .i ^f^ THE •University OF m » Vs/ THE FARMERS' AND MECHANICS' MAlSrUAL. WITH MANY VALUABLE TABLES FOR MACHINISTS, MANUFACTURERS, MER- CHANTS, BUILDERS, ENGINEERS, MASONS, PAINTERS, PLUMBERS, GARDENERS, ACCOUNTANTS, ETC., BY W. S. COURTNEY. )•- BBVISKD AND ENLARQKD BY GEOKGE E. WARING, Jr., AUTHOR OF " ELEMENTS OF AQRlCCLTtrKK," " DRAINING FOR PROFIT AND FOB HEALTH,'" "EARTH closets: HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO USE THEM," AND FOBMEBLY AGRICULTURAL ENGINEER OF THE CENTBAL PABE, NEW TOBK. TWO HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS. SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION. ^ OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK : E. B. TREAT & CO., 654 BEOADWAY; C. W. LTLLEY, Chicago, III. ; A. H. HUBBARD, Phila., Pa. ; H. H. BANCROFT, San Francisco, Cal. 1869. ERBATA. PAGE 79. 10th line from top of page. 80. Ist 87. 6th 87. 7th 87. 7th 88. 3d 88. 23d H'^.'^r " ' .should read 298 303 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by E. B. TREAT «fe Co., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern ♦ District of New York. Banford, Ciuhing & Co., Printers, 644 & 646 Brokdway, New Tork.;. PREFACE There are few persons, no matter what their calling or their education, who do not occasionally find themselves at a loss for information of the commonest kind, on any of the subjects pertaining to the practical arts of daily life — knowl- edge which was, perhaps, familiar to them in their school- boy days, but which has been forgotten or become obscured through the lapse of years. For example, how few persons can tell, without consulting books, the cubic inches contained in a bushel, the square yards in an acre, or how to measure the contents of a corn crib, or gauge a cistern. Nor is the inability to do so any reflection upon either their native capacity or their education. It is simply impossible to carry all these things in the memory so as to apply them when occasion requires. Hence the necessity for " Hand-Books," '^ Mechanics' Assistants," " Pocket Companions," &c. Besides the labor involved in the almost daily necessity of calculating arithmetical, mensural, and other results, and the constant liability to error to which even the competent scholar is subject, the time required in the process, in this age, when time has emphatically acquired a money value, is no inconsiderable desideratum. Hence the necessity for " Keady Reckoners," " Pocket Accountants," " Calculators' Assistants," &c. 195064 VUl PREFACE. In presenting this volume, a chief aim of the author was so to combine the Manual with the Reckoner, as to furnish the inquirer, in brief, w^ith all the necessary rules and data and the elementary facts and axioms relating to almost every branch of industrial science, and particularly that of agri- culture, and, at the same time, whenever it was possible, to compute and tabulate the results for him in the same con- nection. Hence he will find in the ensuing pages the axio- matical or elementary propositions, the data^ the standards, the units, &c., of almost every useful and practical art with which the farmer may have to deal, clearly stated, together with their simplest rules, illustrated by examples and solu- tions, and, wherever it w^as practicable, the arithmetical re- sults calculated and tabularized. Those who consult this book must remember that it is not a work of recipes^ prescriptions^ or of directions and advice as to the best mode of conducting any or all the various operations pertaining to agriculture, &c. But they will bear in mind that the subjects of which this book treats are, for the most part, facts and Jlgures—Si&siiYed analyses and demonstrations — about which there can be no dispute. The design was to produce a work of substantial and endur- ing value, and of universal application and use — something in the sphere of agriculture corresponding to Haswell in Engineering, or Fairbairn in Mechanics. How far the author's labors have tended to that end remains to be tested by experience. He is sanguine of their ultimate fruition. So vast is the domain of agriculture, that there are few of the mechanic arts of which the farmer does not require some information, and which he is often compelled to seek through many books and journals. He is, in a certain sense, encyclopediac in his science and use. Hence many subjects PREFACE. IX upon which he may require elementary knowledge and the assistance of computations may have escaped the vigilance of the author. When a friend first suggested to the author the design of such a work, the latter had no adequate conception of the labor involved in such an undertaking. Although many of the tables were supplied or compiled from other authors, yet the labor involved in those he himself calculated and ar- ranged was prodigious. Besides, the composition or type- setting of the matter was of the most tedious, diiiicult, and expensive kind, so that the volume of matter included within the covers would seem to bear no just proportion to the price the publisher is obliged to charge for it. Books much larger, and of many more pages of the ordinary composition, can be afibrded at a much less cost. Withal, however, the author commends it to the favorable regard of those to whom it is addressed. TO THE PEACTIOAL READER Having been long engaged in the various occupations into which a life of combined farming and engineering is quite sure to lead any man of a practical turn of mind, I look back with regret on the days wasted in making long calculations to decide some simple question of size, or form, or quantity. Many a long day have I hunted through alcoves full of practical hand-books at the Astor Library, — scouring now the field of Agriculture, now of Mechanics, and now of Hydraulics, — often disappointed in my search, and compelled to go home and work far into the night, pursuing, through the long lanes of square and cube roots, the phantom of some every-day question of the discharge of water through pipes, the strength of material, or the resistance in ploughing. I have always found less assistance than I had a right to expect from works written with the professed object of telling me what I wanted to know. After hunting them through, I have generally come to the conclusion that they contain almost everything except what I am looking for. Xll TO THE rRACTICAL READER. Certainly all that I have hitherto seen have been sadly in- complete. Finally, I quite accidentally became acquainted with Mr. Courtney's Manual, and I found it much more nearly what it professes to be than any book that I had hitherto seen, for, although he very modestly complains of its incomplete- ness, it is undoubtedly much more thorough and accurate than are most works of its class. The idea occurred to me, that by bringing my experience in the use of such books to bear upon the completion and amendment of Mr. Courtney's work, I might render a good service to the thousands who have almost daily occasion to consult a book of this character ; — and in some degree make up for the loss that the community sustained in his death, although I cannot hope to bring to the task either the patience or the experience that constituted his great merit as a compiler. It would be presumption to claim that, even in its en- larged and corrected condition, this book is complete, and all that could be desired, for there are more subjects of quite general interest to farmers and mechanics than could be properly catalogued in a book of this size. All that is claimed is, that so far as it goes it is correct ; and that it goes as far, and in as many directions, as is compatible with its size and purpose. The importance of having such a book as this always at one's elbow is very much greater than would at first sight be supposed by one who has not known the convenience of it. TO THE PRACTICAL READER. Xlll How often, in farming, do we wish that we could know, on the spot, how to estimate the weight of hay in various conditions in the mow ; the weight of cattle by measure- ment ; the capacity of a grain bin ; the weight of a piece of timber, or of a load of manure ; the distance apart to which to set trees or plants in order to get a certain number within a certain space ; tlie size of an irregular field. How often in mechanics do we need to know the strength and measurement of masonry ; the contents of cisterns and small vessels ; the area of circles ; the quality of cements ; the power value of fuel ; the weight of bar iron, or of lead pipe ; the fusing heat of metals ; the strength of materials ; or the board measure of scantling. And, worst of all, how sadly we accustom ourselves to get along without knowing these things ! How much we lose by guessing instead of knowing ! The object of this book is to put it within the power of every practical man to knoio these details ; — to leave less to guessing, and to enable him to guide his daily operations by the light of positive knowledge. If it accomplishes this purpose, neither Mr. Courtney nor I will have worked in vain. In addition to the many tables and statements of valu- able facts with which the book abounds, I have thought it advisable to review very carefully all of its " agricultural " matter, and to add what I could, in the space allowed to me, that might be of interest to those farmers who care to look a little beyond the mere question of dollars and cents XIV TO THE PRACTICAL READER. in farming, and of value to those who belie v^e (as, happily, a yearly increasing number do believe) that the road to surer and greater profit lies through the door that Science and Common Sense — the guardian angels of Agriculture — hold open to them. It has not been possible to do much in this direction, for the subject is a very extended one, but I think that many a young farmer, if he will consider well the principles that are laid down under the headings of " Plants," '' Soils," and " Manures," will at least feel a desire to learn more of the simple truths which lie at the foundation of his practice. I am sure, also, that it is not too much to say, that a careful study of the directions and the reasons for Tile- Draining will richly repay any occupier of cold, wet land for the purchase of the book. This is a subject which, in this country at least, is still in the very early infancy of its progress. Not one acre in ten thousand of the land that it would pay well to drain in the best manner, has yet felt the benefit of the operation ; and not one farmer in a thousand has the faintest conception of the fact, — a fact that ample experience, here and in Europe, has fully demonstrated, — that he can no more afford to farm an undrained heavy soil, than a carpenter can afiford to work with a dull tool. I have introduced another novelty into the work, under the head of " The Dry Earth System." This is a bantling that has raised its head within a very few yeai's, and is only now coming to be recognized at its full value ; but it is TO THE PRACTICAL READER. XV ushered before our attention with all the force tliat con- sideration of decency, health, and economy can lend ; and the most thoughtful attention is asked for its claims. It is really the coming Reform, and promises more for civiliza- tion, and for national prosperity, than any improvement that has yet been brought to the notice of the public. To sum up, then : this book is offered as containing more that has been proven by long use to be of value ; more that it is most necessary for every farmer and mechanic to know ; and more ofpromising novelty, than any other that has ever been presented to the farmers and mechanics of America. It is complete in every particular in which it is possible for such a book to be complete, and, in addition to this, it is sufficiently suggestive in many other respects to induce its readers to read more, to think more, to experiment more, and to become more intelligent and more successful in the management of their business, as well as really happier and wiser men. If it should be thought that I claim too much for a single Hand- Book, which is mainly filled with dry details con- cerning the measurement of boards, and the spacing of trees in an orchard, I trust that I shall at least not be condemned as an enthusiast until the reader has taken the trouble to examine carefully what I have to say, and to consider well to what better things the helping hand of I^ature may lead him if he has the wisdom to heed its beckonings. Geo. E. Waring, Jr. Ogden Farm, Newport, R. I., September, BNeBAVINGS. • nST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAQB 1. Harvest Time .Frontispiece 2. Illustrating Seasons, Longitude, &c . . . 19-22 2. 2. 1. Circular Measure .... ... 23, 24 Measure of Time . . . 25-30 Pendulums 31 1. li Weather 34 2. u Windmills ... 35, 36 14. « Measurement of Land . . . 43-46 1. 3. Government Land Measure 50 Measurement of Hay . . . 61-56 2. il " " Corn in the Crib . . . . . . 57-59 1. u " " Grain in Granaries. 60 1. c " " Timber 61 1. (( " " Wood 62 1. 2. il " " Round Timber 64 Gauging of Casks ... 79, 80 3. 2. 3. (( u Capacity of Wagon Beds ... 82, 83 False Balances ... 84, 85 Cisterns . . . 86-92 1. u Hydraulics 97 3. (( Hydraulic Ram. ... 102-109 1. 2. " Press 110 Fuel ... 115-124 1. (( Fences 125 1. « Hedges 133 1. 1. « Horse Power. 137 Ploughing 141 2. (( Freighting Vessels ... 142-144 25. u United States Money ... 145-148 16. u English Money ... 149-151 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ENQEAVIKaB. 12. Illustrating Avoirdupois Weight. 5 6 5 6 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 4, 2 2 24, Troy " Apothecaries' " Liquid Measure Dry " Square " Long " Cubic " Metric System of "Weights and Measures Specific Gravity Corn and Pork Life and Increase of Animals The Age of Animals " Computed Weight of Cattle " Food of Animals Lightning Rods Weight of Square and Rolled Iron Masonry Mechanical Powers — Inclined Plane .... " " Wedge " ' " Screw " " Pulley Mathematical Definitions Manures Tile Draining Butter and Cheese Steaming Food for Stock G-ardening for Market Steam Ploughing . PAOa 152-154 156, 157 158, 159 160, 161 162-164 165 167 170, 171 177 183 196 197 201-205 209-211 212-215 250 273 276 282 286 288 290 292-295 327 363-372 400 414-423 428 448 211 COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS. @., At. ^0., Account. ^., Cents. ^ Number. Am't., Amount. Ass'd., Assorted. Bal, Balance. BbL, Barrel. Blk., Black. Cons't., Consignment. Dft., Draft. Disc't., Discount. E. K, Errors excepted. Expa, Expenses. FoL, Folio. Fwd., Forwarded. Fr't., Freight. Inst., This month. Int., Interest. Mdse., Merchandise. Mo., Month. Net, Without discount No., Number. Pay't, Payment. Pk'gs., Packages. Per or pr., By. Prem., Premium. Prox., Next month. Ps., Pieces. Sunds., Sundries. Ult, Last month. EXPLANATION OF ARITHMETICAL CHARACTERS USED IN THIS BOOK. = Equal ; as 12 inches = 1 foot, or 4x5=20. -j- Pltis or more ; signifies addition, as 3-|-5-f-7=15. — Minus or less ; signifies subtraction, as 12—4=8. X Multiplied by ; signifies multiplication, as 8x7=56. -j- Divided by ; signifies division, as, 56-t-8=7. : :: : Proportion ; as 2 : 4 :: 8 : 16 ; that is, as 2 is to 4 so is 8 to 16. y Prefixed to a number denotes that the square root of that number is required, as, V36=6. " V Prefixed to a number denotes that the cube root of that number is re- quired, as, ' v'27=3. * Added to a number signifies that the number is to be squared, as 4* means that 4 is to be multiplied by 4. " Added to a number signifies that the number is to be cubed, as, 4* means 4 x 4 x 4=64. . Decimal point, when prefixed to a number signified that that number has an unit (1) for its denominator, as . 1 is jV, • 2 is 1%, . 12 is i^oitj ■ 125 is o Signifies degrees : ' minutes, and " seconds. "^^A R OF THE UNIVERSITY OF SEASONS, LONlGITUDE, &g. Spring. Autumn. Winter. To reduce longitude to time. The English count their degrees of longitude east and west from Greenwich, which, owing to our early depend- ence upon the mother country for books and science, became extensively adopted in this country, and still prevails to a considerable extent, especially in our nautical charts, and 20 works on navigation. But by an act of Congress, passed some thirty years ago, the meridian of Washington was established as the point of departure, and accordingly our maps, charts, &c., have since been adapted to that meridian. The sun passes over a degree of longitude in 4 minutes — the 360° in 24 hours. Thus, when we travel west, or on a line with the sun, our watch is four minutes fast for every 60 geographical miles we travel. If we travel east, or on a hue with the sun, it is four minutes slow for every degree we travel. Hence, when it is noon at Greenwich, that is, when the sun is on the meridian there, if we multi- ply Y4°, the longitude of New York west from Greenwich, by 4, and subtract the result from 12 o'clock M., it will give the corresponding time at Kew York. Thus, 74° x 4=296 minutes, which, divided by 60, gives 4 hours and 56 minutes for the sun to travel from Greenwich to New York. Subtracting this from 12 o'clock (the Greenwich time) gives 7 o'clock and 4 minutes A.M. as the corresponding time at New York. So also by reverse, when it is noon at New York, it is 4 hours and 66 minutes past noon at Greenwich. Hence results the following Rule. — Multiply the number of degrees, minutes, and seconds west or east of the giv^en meridian by 4, reduce the product to hours, &c., and for west longitude subtract SEASONS, LONGITUDE, ETC. 21 from 12 hours, and for east longitude add to 12 hours {i. e., so many hours past 12), and the result will be the corre- sponding time. Example. — Required the time at longitude 50° 31' west, corresponding to noon at Greenwich ? Solution.— 50° 31^x4=3 hours 22 min. 4 sec— 12=8 h. 37 min. 56 sec. A.M. Ans. Note. — Time is both apparent and 'mean. The sun is on the meridian at 12 o'clock on four days only in the year. It is sometimes as much as 16J minutes before or after 12 Avhen its shadow strikes the noon mark on the sun- dial. This is occasioned by the irregular motion of the earth on its axis and the inclination of its poles. This is called apparent time. Mean time is determined by the equation of these irregularities for every day in the year, and is noted in all good almanacs. ' The latter is the true or correct time. The foregoing rule is applicable to either. When you buy an almanac, buy one that expresses on each calendar page the m^ean time when the sun reaches the meridian, or the shadow the noon-mark on the dial, and set your time-piece fast or slow as indicated in the almanac. To ascertain the len0h of the day amd night. At any time in the year, add 12 hours to the time of the sun's setting and from the sum subtract the time of rising 22 SEASONS, LONGITUDE, ETC. for the length of the day. Subtract the time of setting from 12 hom-6, and to the remainder add the time of rising the next morning for the length of the night. This rule is true of either apparent or mean time. il21i ^^ -J wm m. ^GHI Z-' - -:^^^2_AJ^2Ss^^^?'^'^ ^^ CIECULAK OR A:N'GULAII MEASURE. This Measure is used to measure angles or the arcs of circles. It is used in astronomy, geography, navigation, and surveying, and for calculating differences of time. 60 seconds ('^) make 60 minutes " 30 degrees " 90 degrees " Table. 1 minute, 1 degree, 1 sign, 1 quadrant, 1 right angle, circumference or circle marked ' v\ Slg. quad, r. a. cir. l4X^^ 4r quadrants or 12 signs " Notes. — 1. The greatest dis- tance across a circle is called its diameter. The distance around it is called its circum- A/^ ^^^^^ ference. Any part of the cir- H cumference is called an arc. "Q 2. If any circumference, whether large or small, be di- vided into 360 equal arcs, each arc is called a degree. The 24 dKCULAK OR ANGULAR MEASURE. degree is divided into 60 minutes, and the minute into 60 seconds. The length of a degree, minute, or second, de- pends on the size of the circle. If the size of the circle is increased or decreased, the length of the degree, minute, or second is also increased or decreased. 3. The greatest circumference of the earth's surface is about 24,930 miles ; 1° of that circumference is one 360tli of 24,930 miles, which is 69^^ miles. 4. A geographical or nautical mile is equal to 1' of the earth's greatest circumference, which is found to be a little more than one statute mile and 49 rods. 5. Latitude is measured north or south from the equator on any meridian, and is expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds ; thus, 43° 17' 31^' north lat. denotes a position 43° 17' 31'' north from the equator. 6. The linear extent of a degree of longitude depends upon the latitude, and diminishes as the latitude increases ; thus, at latitude 10° its extent is 359640 feet ; at lat. 40° it is 280106 feet ; and at lat. 80° it is only 63612 feet. MEASUEE OF TIME. Time is the measure of duration. 60 seconds (sec.) 60 minutes 24 hours 7 days 4 weeks 2 days, or 30 days Table. make 1 minute, " 1 Lour, 1 day, 1 week, 1 month. u marked min. h. da. " wk. u mo. 26 MEASURE OF TIME. 365 days, or 52 weeks 1 day make 1 year, marked yr. | 12 calendar months ^ 100 years " 1 century, " C. Tbe calendar year is divided as follows : Season. Months. N 0. of days. Abbreviations. i 1. January Winter ] ^ ^ , ^ { 2. February 31 28 or 29 Jan. Feb. 3. March 31 Mar. Spring 4. April 5. May 30 31 Apr. 6. June 30 Jun. Summer - r. July 31 1 8. August 31 Aug. r 9. September 30 Sept. Autumn i 10. October 31 Oct. [ll. November 30 Nov. Winter 12. December 31 '<. Dec. 365 or 36( Notes.— 1. The exact length of the solai ' year is 365 days i 6 h. 48 min. 49 sec. ; but, for convenience, it : is reckoned 11 min. 11 sec. more than this, or 365 da. 6 h. = 365i days. This J day in four years makes 1 day, which every fourth year (called Bissextile or leap y ear) is added to the shortest month, giving it 29 days. The numbers de- MEASURE OF TIME. 27 noting leap years are exactly divisible by 4 ; as, 1856, 1860, 1864 ; except years whose number can be divided without a remainder by 100, but not by 400. 2. Owing to an error in the Julian calendar, it was de- creed by the British Government that the day following the second day of September, 1752, should be called the fourteenth day of September, or that 11 days should be stricken from the calendar. 3. Time, previous to this decree, is called Old Style (O. S.), and since, Ifew Style (N. S.). Russia still reckons time by the Old Style, hence their dates are 12 days behind ours. 4. In most business transactions 30 days are called a month, and 52 weeks a year. 5. The centuries are numbered from the commencement of the Christian era ; the months from the commencement of the year; the days from the commencement of the month ; and the hours from the commencement of the day (12 o'clock, midnight), and from mid-day or noon. a.m. denotes time before noon, m., at noon, and p.m., after noon. Thus, 9 o'clock a.m.. May 23, 1860, is the end of the ninth hour of the 23d day of the fifth month of the 60th year of the 19th century. 6. A decade is a period of 10 years. 7. The Lunar Cycle, or Golden Number, is a period of 19 years, after which the changes of the moon return on the same davs of the month. ^ OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MEASURE OF TIME. 8. The 8olar Cycle is a period of 28 years, when the days of the week again return to the same days of the month. To find the golden number or lunar cycle. Rule. — Add 1 to the given year ; divide the smn by 19, and the remainder is the golden number. Example. — What is the golden number for 1857? Solution. — 1857 + 1-^19=97, rem. 15. Ans. Note. — If remain, it will be 19. Hence, in 1861, the changes of the moon occur on the same days ot the month they did in 1842, 1823, 1804, &c. Table showing the number of days frwn any day in one month to the same day in any other. FROM January. . . February . . March April May June July August.. . . September. October . . , November. December . i 1 1 1 1^ June. July. fcb p < 1 i "A 365 81 59 90 120 151 181 212 243 273 304 334 3«i5 28 59 89 1201 150 181 212 242 273 306 337 865 31 61 92 122 153 184 214 245 275 306 334 365 30 61 91 122 153 183 214 245 276 304 835 365 31 61 92 123 153 184 214 245 273 304 334 365 30 61 92 122 153 184 215 243 274 3('4 335; 365 31 62 92 123 153 184 212 243 273 804 884 365 31 61 92 122 153 181 21v 242 273 304 334 365 30 61 92 123 151 282 211 248 273 304 335 365 31 61 92 120 151 181 212 242 273 304 334 365 31 61 90 121 151 182 212 243 274 304 335 334 303 275 244 214 183 153 122 91 61 30 366 Explanation. — Find, in the left-hand column, the month from any day of which you wish to compute the number of days to the same day in any other month, and follow the line along until under the latter, and you have the IklEASURE OF TIME. 29 required number of days. Thus, from the 12th of April to the 12th of October, is 183 days ; from the 7th of March to the 7th of June, 92 days. ; Table for finding the number of days het/ween two dates — n^w method. Jan. ' 1 Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 335 32 60 91 121 152 182 213 244 274 305 ! 2 33 61 92 122 153 183 214 245 275 306 336 3 34 62 93 123 154 184 215 246 276 307 337 4 35 63 94 124 155 185 216 247 277 308 338 5 36 64 95 125 156 186 217 248 278 309 339 6 37 65 96 126 157 187 218 249 279 310 340 7 38 66 97 127 158 188 219 250 280 311 341 8 39 67 98 128 159 189 220 251 281 312 342 9 40 68 99 129 160 190 221 252 282 313 343 10 41 69 100 130 161 191 222 253 283 814 344 11 42 70 101 131 162 192 223 254 284 315 345 12 43 71 102 132 163 193 224 255 285 316 346 13 44 72 103 133 164 194 225 256 286 317 347 14 45 73 104 134 165 195 226 257 287 318 348 15 46 74 105 135 166 196 227 258 288 319 349 16 47 75 106 136 167 197 228 259 289 320 350 17 48 76 107 i:^,7 168 198 229 260 290 321 351 18 49 77 108 138 169 199 230 261 291 322 352 19 50 78 109 139 170 200 231 262 292 323 353 20 51 79 110 140 171 201 232 263 293 324 354 21 52 80 111 141 172 202 2:^3 264 294 325 355 22 53 81 112 142 173 2(13 234 265 295 326 356 23 54 82 113 143 174 204 235 266 296 327 357 24 55 83 114 144 175 205 236 267 297 328 358 25 56 84 115 145 176 206 2.37 268 298 329 369 26 57 85 116 146 177 207 288 269 299 330 360 27 58 86 117 147 178 208 239 270 300 331 361 28 59 87 118 148 179 209 240 271 301 832 362 29 88 119 149 180 210 241 272 302 333 363 30 89 120 150 181 211 242 273 803 334 364 31 90 151 212 243 304 365 Note.— To find! rom the above table the number of days between two c ates. we give the following — 30 MEASURE OF TIME. E.ULE. — I. When the dates are in the same year, subtract the number of days of the earlier date from the number of days of the later date; the result will be the number of days required. II. When the dates are in consecutive years, subtract the number of days of the earlier date from 365, and add to the remainder the number of days of the later date ; the result will be the number of days required. When the year is a leap year, add one day to the result. PENDULUMS. The vibrations of pendulums are as the square roots of their lengths. The length of one that will vibrate seconds in New York, at the level of the sea, is 39.1013 inches. To jmd the length of a pendulum for any given number of vibrations per minute. Rule. — As the number of vibrations given is to the square root of 39.1013 inches, so is 60 to the square root of the length of the pendulum required. Example. — What is the length of a pendulum that will make 50 vibrations per minute ? 32 PENDULUMS. Solution.— 50 : 6.25 (the sq. root of 39.1013):: 60 : 7.5, then 7.5'^= 56.25 inches. Ans. To find the number of vibrations per minute^ the length of the pendulum being given. Rule. — As the square root of the length of the pendu- lum is to 60, so is the square root of 39.1013 to the number of vibrations required. Example.— How many vibrations will a pendulum 64 inches long make in a minute % Solution. — 8 (square root of 64) : 60 : : 6.25 (sq. root of 39.1013) : 46.875 vibrations. Ans. Table showing the planets^ comparative size, <&c., in the solar system. NAMES. Mean Diame- ter. Mean dis- tance from the Sun. Revolu- tion ar'd the Sun. Revolu- tion on axis. Ill Size— the Earth being 111 Thb Spn Mercury Venus Miles 883.246 3,224 7,687 7,912 2,180 4,189 89,170 79,042 35,112 41,600 Miles. 36,814,000 68,787 eOU 95,103,000 95,103,000 144,9(18,000 494,797,000 907,162,000 1,824,290 0!iO 2,854.000,000 yrs. days ::: ss ... 224 1 ... 1 ... 1 £2! 11 215 29 167 84 6 164 2:6 d. h. m. 25 9 69 1 6 .. 23 21 . . 23 56 '11 7 43 1 37 .. 9 tt .. 10 29 1 13 33 Miles. 1*827 1.338 1,1S8 38 921 496 368 259 208 1,412,921.100 0.053 0.909 1.000 0.020 0.125 1,456.000 771. OW 80.000 143.000 0.252 1.120 0.92o 1.000 0.615 0.948 0.2S8 0.138 0.242 0.140 infin. 6.680 1.911 The Earth TheMom Mars 1.000 1.000 0.431 0.037 Saturn. ,,a», .... O.Oll Uranus Neptune 0.003 0.001 THE WEATHER. The following table, and the accompanying remarks, originally formed by Dr. Herschel, and approved with some alterations by the experienced Dr. Adam Clarke, are ' the result of many years' close observation ; the whole being on a due consideration of the attraction of the sun and moon, in their several positions respecting the earth, and will, by inspection, show the observer what kind of weather will most prohably follow the entrance of the moon into any of its quarters — so probably, indeed, that it has seldom been found to fail. Table, for telling the weather through all the lunations of each year forever. TIME OF CHANGB. raska FortArbuckle Ind Ter Fort Be knap Texas ® S.d Ull 'i\ %-oi ■§ atk the he eet % SS-2 1 Long West Green Ele\ above el of II 27030' 80O20' 30 730-20 62-98 25 55 80 20 20 74-75 24 32 8i 48 10 76-51 47-65 26 38 82 02 50 75-04 62-26 28 82 28 20 71-92 55-47 28 01 82 80 71-48 40-22 29 30 82 28 60? 70-09 29 10 82 10 50 70- 29 07 83 03 35 69-60 48 50 29 35 83 50 70-20 30 18 87 27 20 68-74 66-98 30 14 88 20 66-88 31 12 88 02 200? 65-84 63-50 30 10 89 38 10 69-86 7192 30 08 89 51 20 69-25 60 "63 29 57 90 10 69-86 50 90 30 26 91 78 41 68-14 62 10 31 33 93 32 80? 66-34 45-85 34 95 33 300? 61-69 51-08 24 14 96 38 645 62-21 41-66 35 23 94 29 460 60-02 42 10 34 47 95 10 560 60-81 36-46 37 45 94 35 1000? 54-50 42-12 38 28 90 15 472 55-46 37-83 38 40 90 05 450 54-51 41-95 39 05 84 29 500 55-26 42 20 82 58 580 47-25 30-07 42 55 82 23 598 46-29 32-62 45 51 84 32 728 40-65 23-87 41 52 87 35 591 46-75 46 30 84 43 600 40-37 31-35 47 30 88 620 41- 44 30 88 05 620 44-49 34-66 43 31 89 28 770? 44-80 27-49 43 05 91 642 47-63 31-40 41 30 90 40 528 50-31 43 92 700? 45-50 39-74 41 32 93 38 780 49-74 26-56 46 19 94 19 1130 39-30 29-48 44 53 93 10 820 44-64 25-43 39 21 94 44 896 52-78 30-29 41 30 95 48 1250 49-28 40 38 98 57 2360 47-67 27.98 42 12 104 47 4519 50 0(i 19-98 34 27 97 09 1000? 60-83 30-57 33 08 98 48 1600? 63-99 22- 42 AVERAGE TEMPERATURE AND FALL OF RAIN. Table continued. Namv o* Place of Observation. Fort Worth, Texas Phantom Hill, Texas „ Fort Chadbourne, Texas, c Fort Graham. Texas o . . . . o . JFort Gates, Texas Fort Croghan, Texas. o . . . San Antonio. Texas Fort Merrill, Texas. Fort Ewell, Texas „ Corpus Christi. Texas . . . . o Fort Brown, Texas ^ o Ringgold Barracks, Texas Fort Mcintosh, Texas Fort Duncan^ Eagle Pass, Texas. . . Fort Inge. Texas „ c Fort Lincoln. Texas. » ......... o . . Fort Clark, Texas Fort Fillmore, New Mexico ....... Fort Webster, New Mexico Fort Conrad, New Mexico. Albuquerque. New Mexico. Cebolleta and Laguna, New Mexico Santa Fe', New Mexico. . . „ Las Vegas, New Mexico. . . . „ Fort Union, New Mexico Fort Massachusetts, New Mexico . „ . Fort Defiance New Mexico. Fort Yuma, California San Diego, California Posts Del ChJno and Jurupa, Cal'a. Monterey California Fort Miller, California San Francisco. California Benicia Barracks. California Sacramento, California Fort Reading, California Fort Humboldt, California Fort Jones. California Fort Orford, California Fort Vancouver. Oregon Fort Dalles, Oregon Fort Steilacoom. Washington Ter . . Astoria Oregon Great Salt Lake, Utah ® Sxj ^ 3 m 32O40' 97025' 32 30 99 45 31 38 100 40 31 66 97 26 31 26 97 49 30 40 98 31 29 25 98 25 28 17 ^^ 28 05 98 57 27 47 97 27 25 54 97 26 26 23 99 02 27 31 99 21 28 42 100 30 29 09 99 07 29 22 99 33 29 17 100 25 32 13 106 42 32 48 108 04 33 34 107 09 35 06 106 38 35 03 107 14 35 41 106 02 35 35 105 16 35 54 104 57 87 32 105 23 35 44 109 15 32 43 114 36 32 42 117 14 34 117 25 36 36 121 52 37 119 40 37 48 122 26 38 03 122 08 38 33 121 20 40 30 122 05 40 46 124 09 41 36 122 52 42 44 124 29 45 40 122 30 45 36 120 55 47 10 122 25 40 11 123 48 40 46 112 06 "S5 55 wg 1100? 2300? 2120 900? 1000? 1000? 600 150? 200 20 50 200? 400 800 845 900? 1000 3937 6350 4576 5032 6000 6846 6418 6670 8365 7200? 120 150 10005 140 402 150 64 50 674 50 2570 50 50 350 300? 5U 4351 ii 630 54 52 23 53-24 ^11 ss-sa « S fl 40-86 17-22 31-88 40-68 36-56 33-77 30-82 33 65 20 95 18 66 22 20 27 99 20 58 21 80 9 28 8 79 6 76 9 42 12 05 19 83 19 24 19 24 20 54 16 64 3 24 10 43 13 77 12 20 24 51 23 59 16 62 21 32 29 02 16 77 16 77 68 52 45 50 14.32 51 75 MEASUREMENT OF LAND. Every farmer should know the contents, in acres, of each of his fields, meadows, and lots, to ascertain which he should have a rod measure, a light stiff pole, just 16^ feet long, with division marks on it of a yard each, making 6^ yards. Provided with this measure, and proceeding according to the following rules, he can ascertain the area in acres of each of his fields, lots, &c. u MEASUREMENT OF LAND. Where the field is a square, a j^arallelogram, a rhombus, or a rhomboid. Rhomboid. Square. Parallelogram. Rhombus. HuLE. — Multiply the length in rods by the breadth in rods, and divide the product by 160, and the quotient will be the number of acres. Example. — What is the area in acres of a field of 30 rods long by 28 rods wide. Solution. — 30x28=840-^160=5 acres and 40 rods, or 5 J acres. Ans. Where the field is triangular. Rule. — Multiply the base or longest side, in rods, by the perpendicular height {i.e., the greatest width), in rods, and divide half the product by 160, and the quotient will be the number of acres. Example. — What is the area in acres of a triangular field, the base of which is 60 rods long, and its perpendA- cular height 28 rods ? Solution.— 60 x 28=1680-^.2=840-^160=5 acres and 40 rods, or 5J acres. Ans. MEASUREMENT OF LAND. 45 When the field is a trapezium or a trapezoid. y Trapezium. Trapezoid. Rule. — Divide it diagonally by a line running from one extreme corner to the other, which will cut the field into two triangles ; then proceed with each as in the fore- going rule, and add the areas of the two triangles together. The product will be the number of acres. Where the field is an irregular polygon. EuLE. — Draw diagonals to divide the field into tri- angles; find the area of each separately, and the sum of the whole will be the number of acres. Note. — There are very few fields or lots which cannot be measured by cutting them into triangles, and proceed- ing by the above rule. In fact, all straight-sided fields can be so measured. 46 MEASUREMENT OF LAND. Whe7'e the field is long^ and the sides crooked and irregular. Rule. — Take the breadth in rods in a number of places, at equal distances apart ; add them, and divide the sum by the number of breadths for the mean average or breadth ; then multiply that by the length in rods and divide the product by 160, and the quotient will be the number of acres. Example. — What is the area in acres of a long irregular- sided field, the length of which is 80 rods, and its breadths at 10 rods apart are as follows, viz. : 8, 10, 11, 9, 8, 7, 9, 10 rods ? Solution. — 8 + 10 + 11 + 9 + 84-7 + 9 + 10 = 72 -?- 8 = 9 rods mean breadth; then 9 x 80 =720 -r 160 =4 acres and 80 rods, or ^\ acres. Ans. Where the field is long, and the sides and ends crooked and irregular. MEASUREMENT OF LAND. 47 Rule. — Find the mean breadth in rods by the foreg-oinij rule, and proceed in like manner to find the mean length in rods ; then multiply the mean length by the mean breadth, and divide the product by 160, and tlie quotient will be the number of acres. Example. — What is the area in acres of a field of irre- gular sides and ends, the various breadths of which are as follows, viz. : 9, 6, 7, 8, 10 and 8 rods, and the lengths as follows, viz. : 50, 40, 30 and 40 rods ? Solution.— 9 -|-64-74-8-^10-f8 = 48-^6 = 8 rods mean breadth. 50 + 40 + 30 + 40 = 160 -^ 4 = 40 rods mean length. Then 40 x 8^=320-^160=2 acres. Ans. Where the field is a circle. Rule. — Take the diameter in rods, and find the area of the circle in the table of circles on page , and divide it b}' 160, and the quotient will be the number of acres. Example. — What is the area in acres of a circular field 22 rods in diameter? Solution. — 380, area of circle, -f- 160 =2 acres and 80 rods, or 2|^ acres. Ans. An acre of land is contained in a plot, 3 by 53| rods 7 by 22f rods 10 by 16 rods 4 by 40 " 8 by 20 " 11 by 14-X " 5 by 32 '' 9 by 17^ " 12 bV 13 1 " 6by26t '' 12 rods 10 feet and 8^ inches square make an acre. 48 MEASUREMENT OF LAND. It is often desirable, for experimental and other pur- poses, for a farmer to lay off small portions of his ground. To enable him to do so, we have compiled the following : Table, showing the square feet and the feet square of the fractions of an acre. Fractions of an acre. Square feet. Feet square. Fractions of an acre. Square feet. Feet square. .1- 1 I) i i 2722^ 5455 10890 14520 52i 73f 104i 12U 1 2 21780 43560 87150 1471 208 418 • Table, showing the nuinher of hills or jplants on an acre of land, for any distam.ce apart, from 10 inches to 6 feet — the lateral and longitudinal distances heing unequal. 10 in. 12 in. 15 in. 18 in. 20 in. 2 ft. 2Jft. 3 ft. .3i ft. 4 ft. 4ift. 5 ft. 5ift. 6ft._ 10 in. 62726 12 " .52272 43560 ' 1.5 " 41817 34848 27878 18 " 20 " 34848 29040 2.3232 26136 20908 19360 17424 1.5681 2 feet 261.36 21780 17424 14520 1.3068 10890 2i " 20908 17424 139.39 11616 104.54 8712 6969 .3 " 17424 14520 11616 9680 8712 7260 5808 4^40 3i " 149.3,5 12446 9953 8297 7467 62231 4976 4148 3565 4 " 1.3068 10890 8712 7260 6534 5445 4.356 3630 3111 2722 4i " 11616 9680 7744 64.53 5808 48401 3872 3226 2767 2420 2151 5 " mi.54 8712 6969 5808 5227 4:356; .3484 2904 2489 2178 1936 1742 5i " 9504 7920 6.336 5280 4752 39()0 3168 2640 226;3 1980 1760 1584 1440 6* " 8712 7260 5808 4840 4:i56 36.30 2904 2420 2074 1865 1613 1452 1^320 1210 Explanation. — Find the distance between jour plants or hills the widest way in the left hand column, then trace the line in which it stands to the right, until it intersects the column headed by the number that expresses the dis- tance of the narrow way, where you will find the number sought. MEASUREMENT OF LAND. 49 ExAMPi/K. — The rows of corn in a corn-iield are 5J feet apart, and the plants 20 inches apart, in drill or hill ; re- quired, the number of hills or plants in an acre ? Solution. — Find 5 J feet (the distance of the rows apart), in the left hand column, then trace the line along unto the column headed by 20 inches (the distance of the plants or hills apart), and you have 4752. Ans. Table, showing the number of plants^ hills, a?' trees con- tained in an acre at equal distances apart, from 3 inches tip to (J6 feet. Distance apart. No. of plants. 8 inches by 3 inches 696,9G0 4 " by 4 " 392,040 6 ** by 6 " 174,240 9 *' by 9 " 77,440 1 foot by I foot 43,560 IJ feet by IJ feet 19,360 2 " by Ifoot 21,780 2 " by 2 feet 10,890 2J '' by 2^ " . C,960 3 ♦' by 1 foot 14,520 3 " by 2 feet 7,260 3 " by 3 " 4,840 3J " by3J " 3,555 4 " by Ifoot 10,890 4 " by 2 feet 5,445 4 •' by 3 " 8,63J 4 " by 4 " 2,722 4J •' bj4J " 2,151 6 '• by Ifoot 8,712 5 " by 2 feet 4,356 5 " by3 " 2,904 5 'by 4 " 2,178 5 •• by 6 « 1,742 6i " by 6J " 1,417 Distance apart. No. of plants. 6 feet by 6 feet 1.210 H " by 6^ " 1.031 7 ♦• by7 " 881 8 *' by 8 " 680 9 " bv9 " 637 10 " by 10 " 435 11 '• by 11 '* 360 12 " by 12 ♦♦ 302 13 " by 13 " 257 14 " by 14 " 222 15 ♦' by 15 " 193 16 ♦' byl6 " 170 16J " by 16A" 160 17 " by 17 " 160 18 " byl8 *' 134 J9 " by 19 " 120 20 " by 20 *' 108 25 '♦ by 25 •* 69 30 " by 30 " 48 83 *' by33 " 40 40 " by 40 " 27 60 " bySO •♦ 17 60 " by 60 " 12 66 " by66 " 10 GOYEKKMENT LAND MEASUKE. A township is 6 miles square, and contains 36 sections, or 23,040 acres. A section is 1 mile square, and contains 640 acres. A quarter-section is half a mile square, and contains 160 acres. A half quarter-section is half a mile long, almost uni- versally north and south, and one-fourth of a mile wide, and contains 80 acres. A quarter quarter-section is one-fourth of a mile square, and contains 40 acres. It is the smallest sized tract, except fractions, sold by the government. MEASUREMENT OF HAY. There is no accurate mode of measuring hay but by weighing it. This, on account of its bulk and character, is very difficult, unless it is baled or otherwise compacted. This difficulty has led farmers to estimate the weight by the bulk or cubic contents, a mode which, from the nature of the commodity, is only approximately correct. Some kinds of hay are light, while others are heavy, theiV equal bulks varying in weight. But for all ordinary farming purposes of estimating the amount of hay in meadows, mows, and stacks, the following rules will be found sufficient. 62 MEASUREMENT OF HAY. As nearly as can be ascertained, 10 cubic yards of aver- age meadow hay, in windrows, make a ton. When well settled in mows or stacks, 5 cubic yards make a ton. When taken out of mows or old stacks, and loaded on wagons, 8 cubic yards make a ton. Eleven or twelve cubic yards of clover, when dry, make a ton. To find the nuniber of tons of meadow hay raked into windrovjs. KuLE. — Multiply the length of the windrow in yards by the width in yards, and tliat product by the height in yards, and divide by 10; the quotient will be the number of tons in the windrow. Example. — How many tons of hay in a windrow 40 yards long by 2 wide and 2 high ? Solution.— 40 x 2 x 2=160-^-10=16. Ans. To finfid the number of tons of hay in a mow. Rule. — Multiply the length in yards by the height in yards, and that by the width in yards, and divide the pro- duct by 5 ; the quotient w^ill be the number of tons. Exa:^ple. — How many tons of well-settled hay in a mow 10 yards long by 6 wide and 8 high ? Solution.— 10 x 6 x 8=480-^6=96 tons. Ans, MEASUREMENT OF HAY. 53 To jmd the number of tons of hay in old stacks. Rule. — Find the area in square yards of the base in the table of the areas of circles on page , or by the rule given on page ; then multiply the area of the base by half the altitude of the stack in yards, and divide the pro- duct by 5 ; the quotient will be the number of tons. Example. — How many tons of hay in a circular stack, whose diameter at the base is 8 j^ards, and height 9 yards ? Solution. — 50.265, area of base in sq. yards, x 4^, half the altitude, =226.192^5=45.238 tons. A7is. To fold the number of tons hi long square stacks. Rule. — Multiply the length in yards by the width in yards, and that by half the altitude in yards, and divide the product by 5 ; the quotient will be the number of tons. Example. — How many tons of hay in a square stack 10 yards long, 5 wide, and 9 high ? Solution. — 10 x 5 x 4^=225-^-5=45 tons. Ans. 54 MEASUREMENT OF HAY. To find the number of tons of hay when taken out of mows or old staer ton of 2000 lbs. Rule. — Multiply the number of pounds of hay (coal, or anything else which is bought and sold by the ton) by one half the price per ton, pointing off three figures from the right hand ; the remaining figures will be the price of the hay (or any article by the ton). Example. — What will be the cost of 658 lbs. of hay, at $7.50 per ton ? Solution.— $7.50 divided by 2 equals $3.75, by which multiply the number of pounds, thus : 658 $3.75 3290 4606 1974 $2.4611750. Ans. 56 MEASUREMENT OF HAY Note. — The principle in this rule is the same as in interest— dividing the price by two gives us the price of half a ton, or 1000 lbs. ; and pointing off three figures to the right is dividing by 1000. A truss of hay, new, is 60 lbs. ; old, 56 lbs. ; straw, 40 lbs. A load of hay is 36 trusses. A hale of hay is 300 lbs. TO MEASURE^ CORX ON THE COR IN ORIRS. When the crib is equilateral. Rule. — Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in inches, and that again by the height in inches, and divide the product by 2748 (the number of cubic inches in a heaped bushel), and the quotient will be the number of heaped bushels of ears. Take two-thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled corn. Example. — Required the number of bushels of shelled corn contained in a crib of ears, 15 feet long by 5 feet wide and 10 feet high ? Solution. — 180 in., length, x60 in., width, xl20 in., 58 CORN IN CRIBS. heiglit,=1296000-^2748=471.6 heaped bushels, f of which is 314.6 bushels shelled. Ans. Note. — The above rule assumes that three heaping half bushels of ears make one struck bushel of shelled corn. This proportion has been adopted upon the authority of the major part of our best agricultural journals. Never- theless, some journals claim that two heaping bushels of ears to one of shelled corn is a more correct proportion, and it is the custom in many parts of the country to buy and sell at that rate. Of course, much will depend upon the kind of corn, the shape of the ear, the size of the cob, &c. Some samples are to be found, three heaping half bushels of which will even overrun one bushel shelled ; while others again are to be found, two bushels of which will fall short of one bushel shelled. Every farmer must judge for himself, from the sample on hand, whether to allow one and a half or two bushels ears to one of shelled corn. In either case, it is only an approximate measurement, but sufficient for all ordinary purposes of estimation. The only true way of measuring all such products is by weight. When the crib is fiared at the sides. Rule. — Multiply half the sum of the top and bottom widths in inches by the perpendicular height in inches, and that again by the length in inches, and divide the pro- duct by 2748, and the quotient will be the number of heaped bushels of ears. Take two-thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled corn. COKN IN CRIBS. 59 Example. — Required, the number of bushels of shelled corn contained in a crib of ears 4 feet wide at the bottom, 8 feet at the top, 10 feet in perpendicular height, and 15 feet long ? Solution. — iS inches, bottom width, -f 96 inches, top width, = 144-T-2=:72xl20 inches perpendicular height, x 180 inches length,=1555200-^2748=565.9 bus. ears, | of which is 377.28 bus. shelled corn. Ans. Note. — A barrel of corn is 5 bushels shelled. By this latter measure crops are estimated, and corn bought and sold throughout most of the Southern and Western States. At New Orleans a barrel of corn is a flour-barrel full of ears. In some parts of the West, it is common to count 100 ears to the busheL MEASUREMENT OF GRAIN IN GRANARIES. To find the nmnher of bushels of grain in a gi^anary. KuLE. — Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in inches, and that again by the depth in inches, and divide the product by 2150 (the number of cubic inches in a bushel), and for heaped bushels by 2748, and the quotient will be the answer. Example. — Given a granary 9 feet long by 4 wide and 6 deep. How many bushels will it contain ? Solution. — 108 inches length, x 48 inches width, x 72 in. depth,=373248-f-2150= 173.65 bus. An.^. MEASUKEMENT OF TIMBER. The unit of board measure is a superficial foot 1 inch thick. Besides inch-boards, plank and scantling are usually bought and sold by board measure. Round, sawed, or hewn timber is bought and sold by the cubic foot. Pine and spruce spars, from 10 to 4|- inches in diameter inclusive, are measured by taking the diameter, clear of bark, at one-third of their length from the large end. Spars are usually purchased by the inch diameter; all under 4 inches are considered foles. 62 BOARD MEASURE. Spnice spars of 7 inches and less, should have 5 feet in length for every inch in diameter. WOOD MEASURE. To ascertain the contents or nuraber of cords in a given pile of wood. EuLE. — Multiply the length by the width, and that pro- duct by the height, which will give you the number of cubic feet. Divide that product by 128, and the quotient will be the number of cords. A pile of wood 4 feet wide, and 4 feet high, and 8 feet long, contains 1 cord ; and a cord foot is 1 foot in length of such a pile, thus : ^^ 8 FT LONG BOARD MEASURE. To ascertain the cmitents (board ^neasnre) of hoards, scantling, and planTc. liuLE. — ^Multiply the breadth in inches by the thickness in inches, and that by the length in feet, and divide the product by 12, and the quotient will be the contents. BOARD MEASURE. Ins. 0>rf>-*-wwwi>=t^tst-'.^J-' * ©bobbbobbobcboboobbbbooooboo Cr00rf»>OC»^O00>f^OCBtf-O004-O0C»f^O004^OQr.rf>'OC0^O • t^tOi— •>— OOOtCOOOOO-J-^-^OSCSCCCnt^^i-CCCOtCbOJOi— •>-> c bbbb^bbbbbo— 'bbc^oi-'ocibocrb'-bbop Otrfi.i;».iiWlOfcOH-H-000«OOOQO-J-5CJ05CnWrf>.tf».WCOtCtO — o: © b b b b b b b c- b b o b b b b b b c b b b b b o b b o 00>005©CT>03:00500SOC:w cr. 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Expj.ANATiON. — First find the widtli in inches in the left hand column, and tlie length in feet at the heads of the other columns ; then trace tlie two until they meet, and the figures so found will express the contents in feet and inches. ROUND TIMBER. Round timber when squared is estimated to lose one- fifth ; hence a ton of round timber is said to contain only 40 cubic feet. Sawed lumber, as joists, plank, and scantlings, are now generally bought and sold by hoard measure. The dimen- sions of a foot of board measure is 1 foot long, 1 ft. wide, and 1 inch thick. SQUARE TIMBER. 65 To measure round timber. EuLE. — Take the girth in inches at both the large and small ends, add them, and divide their smn by two for the mean girth ; then multiply the length in feet by the square of one-fourth of the mean girth in inches, divide the product by 144, and the quotient will be the contents in cubic feet. Example. — What are the cubic contents of a round log 12 feet long, 54 inches girth at the large end, and 34 at the small end ] Solution. — 54 4-34= 88-^ 2=44 inches, mean girth. Then 12 length x 121 inches (the square of \ mean girth) =1452-7- 144= 10 J^ cubic feet. Atis. SQUARE TIMBER. To measure square timber. Rule. — Multiply the breadth in inches by the depth in inches, and that by the length in feet, and divide the pro- duct by 144, and the quotient will be the contents in cubic feet. Example. — What is the cubic contents of a square log 12 feet long by 20 inches broad and 18 deep ? Solution. — 20 x 18 = 360 x 12 = 4320 -^ 144 = 30 cubic feet. Ans. (ye PLANK MEASURE. PLANK MEASURE. Table, showi/ng the contents {hoard raeasxire) of planks of various dimensions. uHz t-r— COOOOOOiOlOsOOOr-lrHi— (C^40il(M00C0C0C0-*itiTfii0»0OOCr) ,-^ ^j , ^^H,— Ir-lT— li— li— It— II— l^^i— (rHi— I.— It— IT— IrHi-Hi— l -O"'':=co'^ lOCOr— l-^t^OCOilCC5C<»lOGOT— l-^t-OCOCD t^t-i>.OOOOa005050SCsOOOT— It— l'-<0»CMCOtO OOi— (-"titOt^CMOOO^^COSOCn •M«0000^'3«^CJSC<|iOt-OtO.t^t-.l^000000O5O>O»0iOOOr-(T-(T-lT-(CO «000'-iC0»000OC^Ot— cri(M"*iC05^^CC ■« CO^ CO o r— o oT-* b- 05 f-l C<1 -*'tC OJT— iCO«ni>-05i— (•^;C00O(Mrf|p-O5f-HC0«Ob»0i(M-<*«0C0OJ'^=OOUO<>J"^'»200l'l-*=JO>X;0»ti'«OOOCr50«0«OCO«0!£>i;Ct»t^l:^t^t-C»OOQOQOOOOS05CiO>05000 -^000500 --• Ti '-«.-' -' • ^'•^'^^'-'^'-''-^^^'•^'- '' -'^^— '— — "-'^(MOJ _i ^ C3 -MCOO-^OO— i»OOiCO:00-*CO<>)»oa5COt:^r-lTf<00(M«OOCOt^ 05S0iOOrH'--fl«Ot-.t-t-0000OSO50i rZ"^^^^ 00 C^CO 05 CO «>• O -^OO-— tiO0C(?-««od5COeD O -^ t^ t— 1 rjH 00 SM ir2~(^ OOCnOSO»OOOr-ir-i(Mt^005£J«505eO«OOCOt-.0'*t..--.T*--^'^t-'— «"*t»rr'^'~^^""^t~*^""^QOT— I --^ 00 <-^ tH ooooooososOiOOO — '^'— <'^''^<^'^^'^"*"^"^o»r5^oco:otct^^- ^-Oco^^OcO';oo5COCDos'^alOO^G^•oco(^J^ooOI— ("<*ioo i-< -^ti t- O "^ I?- t-Q00000O>O5OSO>OOOTH— 1<— i(^0«C>eocD •>*£-0<:0=JSCTiC.t~OOOOOOOOa5(3iO>000'-l»-lr-tC5(?)"*CO'^-*t^O CO CC OS (M t~t^t^l:«00C»C0050iC:i05OOO— ^^OJC^(MC*»0 0«OI-t-t^QOC»QOCOC50505C»OOOOT-l^^(M(M<>J(MCOCOCOCO'«4l «o«o«Dt~t-t-t^cooooDQooia-. osoooo22;3S?qc5SScococo OOCOco«ot-t-t-lr-QOOOOOOOo:05SSoOOO^i-iT^S(M^oooco»or-o <>r-^ "^ 5 !:^ lOOOOSOSO CO «ot,t^t^t^t-OOOOOOXO»a>050 0500000;^^ 2>— icOicr^Oi — coict— Oi-^cOurjr~0'>i'^*-cQ005^-^«300 O ■>' -^ «£ "* »OtOOkO5O.t-.G0000000G0Oi050i0iO5OOOO "JI^OS — 00»0t>»01-^f0-^ti«000O'N>'^«O00O'>flC0iOt—Oi-^e0'*t^01 •«T-*-^u:j«o»oioic«o«D«oeo«ot>.i>.t-»>'Xr-ooooooooooooo50;i350sa» 0^-^mt^C5 — '>J'>*;OQ005^HCOOeOOOO'^»CO'C»^OiO<>5"*'^OOC5r-t ■^•^•^TpTjH>OOiO»0»0>0«C«0«0«oeOt>»l~— t~l-^t-t-000000Q00O0OO5 csO'MCO'nr^coo— 'coio«oooo5— +i5CCOo:0'>ico-* COTj0»0>0«0«OSO«C«Ot^t^l>>t-t»t^OOCOQOOO ic to -t. cr. — c^?oioi-~occys— 'n»~-coo--cC»o»0'0»oeo«o«o«oeoso«ot-t— t-t-t' -^OCDt-oooOT— •c^ico-^ir'sot^oooso— ''^'»co•^lO«^^-oooiO-^co (M01(M)COIOIOCOCO?OCOCOCOCO-^->+i'rt<-!tH ■^-^'■^-i^-*Ttl»0»0»0 81^2 11^<{Z 91 ^qz ei^qz n^qg si^qz zi^qg l^MIl 92^^qlt es^qfi t^^qli ZZ^<\H zzMh iz^qfi oz^qli 6i^qli i^n ii^qli 9i^q!i 9i^qli si^qk ZI'^ll XlMIl oi^qli •Sao{ PLANK MEASURE. 67 Table continued. zi^qlz I OC^l0l>>OiMl0t-OC<»i0lr-O(Mi0b-O(M»0l>.O«OOt*t-t-t»OOOOOOOOC00305050000r-tr-Hr-(^C.C^t-:r4i:-«t-^t^Jie0OTt)i:00'^ooOOS(MiO zi^q!z t-CC000000O50505O=:O^'-H-.t-C00000G00S05CS0SajOOOOrH^^t-H Ti^qfz '"tiiOOtOOOOCO^COb-t-t-t-.t^OOOOCOOOQOasOOSOSOOOOO oiMf-?; ^ Tfi '^^ .a lO o ic lO -o -^ --^ •-:: ^ --c t^ t^ t- 1— •- 00 00 00 X x- ST. :^ 05 a: OS 82 ^q z .— ( ^ — — .^r— — I—I — -H,— (I— 1— (,-^^^,-(— .,— tr-l 55 3>»C<|!M'MC*«>'— ^o^?ct^•^1:oo■*ooco^- tg^qz 8ZMS -M-o-i^^t^ — .r:oseocoO'*oocv3?oa:cOt^t-iiOO>^— l>J01COJOC''5-<*-fTtJ»ocol--o 0005CS0iO£-^ — ^CooOOr-.-<-^7M'^^'^^c>:l-^^o-=f<-*T^.i0.fT.C500r-l(MCMCOCO'i C<1 -M -M -^1 - r -M oa -.1 -^1 ->! >ci -VI 'M is^qs » .— 1 O .-M t^ ^ CO 00 "^ O^ '^ OS -Tjl o »0 w 'O "< ^ r-( l^ :^^ l^ cvj ao -^ Cv)CCC0Ttl'^»0t0O^|>.t-00000i05O'^.-H:^.00000105OO,-l'-HrMCMC0C0-— iCOO'i. OiOC5-«*l--t-COOOCX305CiOOT-l,-l'M(MCOCOTtlrt* r-i,—(r-t-f-HCOOiOC5'^ OrH-.(>>(MCOCOCOT^'>3'OOOCr)£-t^OOOOOOC5asOO.-l.-l(MCMCvirO ,-H_|,_l^rf,^,—(_(_(,-t,^.— I,—!.— l.—l—^.—.r-(,— (,—(.— |r-('>JCl(M (N'M 11 ^q g Cvi50Oi00iC0t-C-r-i;0O^C»C0t-rHOO'* O00vj|>.— . OO.-lr-l-^(M(MC0C0'«;*<'*'^t0»0«3«2t:-t-t^00000S0SOOOrHr-.^ 91^8 ?OC:S-q'00'M500TtlCO(MiOO'*00(M';00-^00Oir 91 ^qg OOSOiOOOrHi— ICqC.r-('*00.-iiOXr-l 0000O50505OOO'— •.— irHCO»^«O--Oxr-|>.l>.G0 gi^qg 00.-l^OO^'*OOr-tTti|:-,-(Tt(t-OCOt-OCOCOOOOOC5SvjCOC5(MiOO» I»OOG00005050>OOOt— li— lr-IC.OCOCOOSCMlOOO^'<*OOOi-li-li-l(M(N(M^^-cco40l-l^|^^QOM'0«<^3ooco ''J^'tltOlO'OCOb-OOOOOSOiOrHr-KMC^ICOCO-rtHiOiOCOCOIr-OOCOOSOSO ,_i_.,^_,,_Hr-^-j^Hi— ir-i— «(^^(^q(^a(^^'^J(^^(^^(^l<^1l^J|^^(^^c-J00C0Cl«0O'^rHt>.C0C0'*O>Oi— It— cot— ooooosoo^— <<>ic4lM(MCv)!MCvl(>lCJ(MC^ dz^.C<100COOO-*C5'^0«0'— i«b5M coeo-<*<'*iO>o «o;ot-t-oooic:iOO'-'*OS'*000>OOy50 (MCOCO'*-.!j.00000>OiOOrHi— l(M(MCO'r(4'^iO«^'X>:St— ^^^-^^^^^^_Hr-(f^^,-lrH(MC.t— 00C0050»OO'-JC^ zz^<\h 1 OOCi'^iOOCOr— (Mt-1— l«OOtOO'^OSCOOOC-*ac T-l.-lT-((MCIC.(MeO^»OCJ5^00(Mt-^«DOmOSCOI- OO^T-H (N(MC0C0'^T^"<:H»0i0=Oy5t-t>.t-00000SC»OO'-l'^'-'— I,—!.— It— I^H^^.— I.— •»-<^H'-'i— 1.— Ii-^i— •.— Ii— 1— "rHi— lr-IC^SOIM30(M(M(M o^^qf z Gi^<\h 1 ^^2§5S3SSS2S25SS§§S§SS22i22ii 81AtS ' §^^22iSS§SSSS§22isSS§§SSS2!SS§ ilM^o , ooooojC5000-H^r^cq^c^coeocO'*'^'*«o«oo«22'^l;:'~*22 9i^q!2 j Ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-ocot-oco OOOOOOOSO»05000--'-<-^<>t=^C^rOCOCC-*'>*l'*uO«0««=OCO_OC0;oasC0i205'Nl»0!X)i— t-*t— O-^t— OCOiOOSCvl ^i^qh ocooci^oi-OMsooic^r-x)-'^t-ocN'£5oo — ;5;i-oc222!v? GiMh 1030OC0C005— '-^^C OS-d .Ot— OC0O00rH'*?00?C3(?5i?1Cl(?aCOCOMCCCOOOCOCOOOCO'>:4H'*'<*<'*'*'*'*'#^Tt<0»OiO I'LANK MEASURE. 69 Table continued. 91 ^q^ 1 OOCOOS-^OSOOlOi— (CO.— it^C.COQOCiOOS'>!t<05»00»Of— l«Oi-Ht>.(M00 ei^qt 1 SvJCMCOCOTTTT 0.0'-OOl-l-OOGO«OiOOrH^CM4-^ — '^J•^J^>l'^.^-^J(^^-^^c<^'^^'>^c^J|^3'>^ os^qts 6c^qfs ^r-c4C^!>icirjcocoeo:ocococoa:coco?o^Tj<^^';jS-^^ c^sicqs^oj(rqcococoroio^=o^co?^?o?:^^^5^ 82^qfc <;0'<*GOrO— 'Osl^^^-^-TMOOOWS -p OiO--IC^3>^CO'5'iOCOCOI>.OOCSOi-l.-H!MCO-«*<»0 OCCit^OOOiO=.-iCs> r-l'^llC0-^«0OCOt^Q0CX,05Or-^,-,C0r^'*^i0-.0lr-t-.000i ^^^cvi(>asc^'^J^c<«c^4C43J:^^>^<^l3>^cocOco«MIO:o^ocococo tz^qfs OOifSC^OS^OCOOt^--^.— 'OClO:^■^OiCO^OOl--■^.— lOOioCMOS-^iCOdt^-rti C0t>:0000CSOT-I^C^CCC0-*O«^«0t-Q000OTOo2?3g^2^fr^ ^^^^rH(^^(^^(^^(^l(^^(^^<^^(^^(^^(^^(^^(^^(^^(^^coo^coeococo^MMM sz^qfs coot-G030cftOO — (M-'*01:^M05CO-MC-. 0IG'00'<*0--oc<|coco ^'-^'-^^— ''-"— '^--^-Hc-':) — t^iOO'X)'-Ht-C<100 f0ro-«*oi0;oeor^i>.cooo3500»— r-i'>s'MCOco-*'*'r'cocob-.t^OOQO si^qfs •-=-:;^'Mt^^t^COOOCOOO':t>OS-«^Ci»rjOiOO--C — COS»r0C0-*rt<'+'''"i0C0--0r--.b-t'-C000O3sOO'--— <-^'>J«»C:l>.'r5(MO»^»0'NlOt^»OCOOt-.r2-NI = QOC0050'— — C^ICOrti-^OCOt^h-OOCiOOi— iC5C5-~OJOOw^i-'oou3c:ocooi^'* cOt-GCQOCi£;— ' — CJ'>JCOT><«^u^«0 ,— i,-(,-Hi— l-^(^^'^^e^^(^^!^^(^^c<^cn»0"-Cb-t-C00iajO — .— "'^acoeO'^iO — <,-Hi— 1,— lr-(i— ICJ(M4(MS>qC0C0C0C0C0C0CCC0 93 ^q 8 9ZMS OiOCOCOt-QOJOOSO^— '^-MCOS^-tHOiCCOCOt^OOQCOiOO— < — Csl ^2^q8 ^'5^'^•^^S^'^=^'*'®^'^'<»'*'-'^<^<»'*•==c>'^■«oo-*oco(^^ •^lOiCCOCOb-OOCOCSOiOr- ii— i(MC3lx:^t-'»--OCC>!:C'aC)OO^I-JC^wTO«rfi.rf».tO I A y>ir 1 7 (*i» «D W 00tCa>>-'0-00lO'^e^Of>-000J^1l-'asOt;^tOC0^tCJ: I ^ "J ^ ' cccocoto^ol^^l^o^^^o^o^^abo^^5bC)^ol^D»^SI^D^^l--•»-•^--'^--'h-'^-*►-'l--^»--^h-» i |s3C5O*».00lOO5O rf^ 00 to OS O >f^OOtOCT>04^00t>SCaOtf>.ootNao>0 *;s. I ^ »-'/ -^o t^r-COCO00^CN5bCitOtNDtOtOtOtOI>5t>0t>3tOl>0lN3N0t--i»-«l-'»--i|--t*»-»f>.WtOtOi— '00«OCDC»~-»~J050iU» I J. "U^ 1 Q \i^ ^/^ — ^ ■^^' 1.^ ^>_ 1 'Wl -^rf 1-w 'W^ -^^ WW — ■ 7^ \f^ «.-w s," >—^ WV >^» ^^ F^ ^ ^^ W V^^ I WWCOCA3WWWCCK)N0batOtOt>DK>fcOK>tCtCtCbOtOtO»->t-i|-J(-i|-i|— I I ►*^«r».CjOtOt>Si--OOeOOOOO"^C5C5 0i*>.rf».COfcOrN3>— 'OOC000C0--IC5OS I 4 by 20 COOOW&OCOCOCOCOtOCCtOtON5l>5tONDtOtOtOh»tOtObObO>-'>-'l-'t-'»-» I 050iC^tfi.CCtsDtOH-00«OOOOO^OiOtWtfi-tCCOrsSh-l-iOOOOOO^TC5 I A 'k-o- 91 »f». -^I O W Ci C O IsS OtQQi— '>»»-'^OCOO^COtOCnCP*-'rf>^-ot>3botoNDhoto»s5bor>ototoi-'t-*i-'h-' i ~^«oiv5a»— I ocrtooo 4i-^JorNoo»^iocoo»oo CO CO to CO CO •— CO CO CX) -^ CO C5 CO CO QO O CO CO CO CJt CO CO CO CO CO to -J o to CO CO to to — O CD «0 rfi. -~« CO ►-< tOtOtOtCfcOlOtOtOtOtCbOt-' 00"^050iOirf^COCOt>at— 'OCD' rf^OjQOi— 'COCrtOOOtO=" "-4COI 4 by 23 *- CO GS CO O bc CO CO 00 ^ 4^ 05 CO CO OS OS oo o CO CO CO 0» 4i>. CO lO rf*- OJ CO CO CO CO ts3 to I— ' CO 00 O ts5 rf». totototototototototvotcto eoooOO~COtOr— O OSOOOt04».OSTooiN34i>Cr500 lO w- O CO 1 o to I 4 by 24 ^» 00 ►^ CO © CO o to CO CO ( 00 ~^ I CO C" ■ CO CO CO CO 4a>. CO ro — to CO en --I »;^»(>.k<^4;>.»f^rf^C0COCCCO Oi > N 05 "^"^ * ' '^ ^'^ ^'*' ^"^^ *^ o toco COCOtOfcOtOtOtOlOtOtObOtO OOC000-^05tnCJ»>Ji.C0t0l— ' oo O I— ' 000^~J00OtOC0Cn-.»f^rf^COCOCCCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOtOtOtOI>StObOtOtOtOtOtO I tOt-'OCOCOOO--40SCrtkUOOt>3tOH-OC000^1'0»OSO»rf!>^COtOI-'0 I AYixr 9fi o^o^-^cDo>-'Cot^Crt^JQocot-'tocoCrtos• <-< Csl c^ CM 214 238 278 32 860 420 456 501 566 606 688 750 821 873 9U 25 123] 52 17' 3 223 248 289 83 3 375 438 475 522 589 631 717 781 856 910 952 o ,_^ CI CO ~^5 »o t~ 00 OS o r-i CM CO ■*^ CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO "rt* ■^ -^ '^ 1 n a g g i g g d a g a a g g a e3 e3 cS s3 cj ro ce e3 c8 e8 o3 a •^ • fH h4 p s S p Q P P P P P P P 'fi P 10 411 444 460 490 500 547 577 644 669 70(1 752 ! 795 840 872 u 451 448 506 539 550 602 634 708 734 770 82^ 874 924 959 12 493 532 552 588 600 657 692 772 801 840 902 954 1007 1046 13 534 676 698 637 650 712 750 836 868 910 97^ 1033 1091 1135 14 575 622 644 686 700 766 807 901 934 980 1052 1113 J 175 1222 15 616 666 690 735 750 821 865 965 1001 1050 112S 1192 1259 1309 16 657 710 736 784 800 876 923 1029 1068 1120 1204 1272 1343 1396 17 698 755 782 832 850 931 980 1094 1134 1190 127S 1351 1427 1485 18 739 799 828 88^ . 900 985 1038 1158 1201 1260 1354 1431 1611 1571 19 780 843 874 931 950] L040 1096 1222 1268- 1330 143C 1510 1695 1658 20 821 888 920 98C 1000] L095 1152 1287 1335 L400 1505 1590 1679 1745 21 863 932 966 102« 1050] L150 1210 22 904 976 1012 mi UlOO 1204 1268 23 945 1021 1058 112' '1150 1259 1322 24 98fi 1065 1104 117( 3 1200 1314 1380 1 25 1027 1109 1150)122^ ) 12501 1369 1438 i 1 ' ' i Explanation. — Find the length of the log in feet in the left hand column, and its mean diameter in inches (found by adding the two end diameters, and dividing their sum by two) at the heads of the other columns, and trace them 72 SCANTLING MEASURE. until tliejmeet, and the figures so found will express the num- ber of feet board measure of inch-boards the log will furnish. SCANTLING MEASURE. Table, sJiowincj the contents (board measure) of scantling of various dimensions. Cp ci- 1— ' te to 00 t^ 00 rf>- 00 »*>. 00 rf»> 00 ^K 00 rfi- 00 rf». 00 t^ 00 tf^ QD rf^ Oirf^*>.f^c»ootobOH-'i-'0 to *-< w Oi05050505Ci05aJOC50>asC5C50i bOl— •)— 1|— 'h- 't— •!— '1— •!— 'l-'t— 1)— >|— •)— >i— 'I—I OOOOQO^C:iO!:J^^^rf>.W^Ot^^^-00«00000~^Ci05U1rf>i-^*^COI^^fcO^-»0 t. ^ it^OO tt^ CO rf^ 00 rf-. 00 hf>. 00 >f>. 00 >;4>00 rfs. 00 rfi>' 00 OiHf^WtOf— C>O«O00^0itnCn4>.Wt>:'H-OO<:000^0sCnC;x4>-C0t0l-'O tah*^050oi— ' to»*!^C50ot-' tcrf^-ciooi— ' bs >(^ o> cc >-' tctf».o>oot-^ O o o o o to en 0«000-J05Cn4^tOtOl-'0'iSOO-*C5aitf^Wts,H-OCOOO-»C5Crttf».COtOI-' tc 05 COWCCWCObStCfcONOtCbSbObOI-'t-il-'l-'^-'i-'t-'i-'l-' V.t0tCr-O«0000i0x>f>.00lC>— «OOO^C5wT4i>.tOl-'0«000~ffc.fc0h^ to 00 00(4*. Q04>. oorf»- oot*i. ootf^r- CO t(^ CO >t^ oorfi. oohf^ oe»f» »^tU.;tkrfk.tOWCOWCOO3C0l>5l>3bCtOt>3tCl— '1— •*-*)— >l— II— 11— I to aj005C5C5050i 05CiOC5C*CSO»OS OOOCiCnWH-OOOOSOiCCH-OOOCrsOiiiOH-OQOOSOiCOh-OOOCJCrxCOl-' to o »4- 00 >fi. 00 (*>. 00 rf>. 00 rf>. 00 »#>. 00 >f^ 00 rf». 00 ►fi'-OO t^i. 00 SCANTLING MEASURE. 73 Table continued. oSoo^^C^^Wt>3»-'©«0(»^OiCr«rf».CObOH- O«000-^O5CrttfwC0t0l-« 51 tn en Oi k)^ h?> *- rf'- *- *- CC W W (W CC to tC t>S fcO to to ►- K- t-' (-■ ^- c;io3H-k«o~^cnt^toooc'Oi(+i.coH-i:D"-iO'CotwOOO~. rf^-to — tc-'^o^wH- to i^ OS 00 I--' tOrf^OSOOt— tOtf^OSOOl-' tOt*>.C500i— tOrf».O500t-' o o o o o to cocototototatototototoi-'t-'H-t->i-'i-'»-*t->i->i-' h-'0«0(X~<05Cnrfi.tOI-'CeOQO' 1 ►- U- 1— I-- «o o 00 c» ^ •^ 05 *os c;» 'c« 4>> 'rfi«. to CO to to I-' U' I-* I— o o to 0\ W CO CO to CC W 03 to fcO to to bC to to to H- t-* ^ I-' (-■ K-" t-» I-* -viosmcctoi-'Ooo'-JosOTtAJtoi-'Ooo -aasoitcto*— ooo^05t«ootoi-' to OS OS to «0 Oi CO to j^l^rfi.tOCOt0tO00t0tOtOtOtOtObOtOtOK-(— 't— it-«l— '»— •(— ' tctooeo-aosmcotooo-^os^f^coH-'Oo^csrf^toi-'ooo'^Oxtfk.fcoi-' Orfi-I^Ott-'CS ^^-00tO«OCOl-•rf»-t-'Ol OS(-'-atO00t0«Orf».t-'<>I-ios O t-' O t- O I-- to •3' trt^l*i^rf^»;i>.tf».tfk.tOtOtOCOOOCOtO*OtOtOtObOI-'»-'l-'H->l-'i-i O000S0«Wi--O000S^ 00 'rf». 00 If*. 00 * Ij!>^ 00 " rf^ 00 * ►f^ 00 ' !*». 00 to CO C7«C7»0>Cnrf».>t^>*^rf^tfi.COCOCOCCCOtOtOtOtOI>OtOi-'l-'>-i|-«t-' OStf^tSOOOCStTltOt-'CO^TCncoi-iOCOCShf'-tCOOOCSCrtCOI-'O^OttOH-' to to c« OS 00 «o 1-' to CO Crt OS 00 «o H- to to tn OS 00 CO H-i to CO C;^ OS 00 «o 1-' ososcncnC;«0>4^»f>^)^tototototobOtotototO)—ii—'t— >)—•)— 1 t0O000S>f^t0O^tnC0h-«5--J0xC0(-'«O-^CrttoO000Srf^t0O000>rf>^t0 to OSCnrf».COtOt— I t— 'I— i.COtO»-» ►— '»— '^OOO-^OsC^irf^COfcOl-* 050sos05Cnc™ptc^C;»tf».i*>.rfxrf>.cotocototototototot-'i-»i-'K-' 00O5h+i->— '«0-i.t0 to «005tO^~^>^ «DClltOg^C0 00rf».l— i-.05COH-'00>f«"t-'«00>fcoi-«^If>. -^-i-^ososcscsa>c;tc;ttnt^ *>-rf^*>.corocotototototoi— 'i— 'i— 'h- o. too-^tntoo-^tntoo-^c^Ttoo-icrtbco-^cJtEoo-^oitoo-aotfco to 1— ' to O50S0SO5 050SOSOS050SOSOSOSOSOS bOtOtOtOI-'H-l-'h-'l-'i-'h-l-'l-iH-l-'i-'t-- tOI-'^-OOQOQO~lasC7tO»rfk.COtOtOH-'OeOOOO>— • o^ooo-^osC^t^totoi— 'oc;«tf>.cctOp— 'O«ooo«^cotot— ' to 74 SCANTLING MEASURE. Table continued. ir-^ 03W 50C5W «o osoio ccoseo CCC5«0 wosco toos«o ;, Oi to 0501S0 COCiO COOiCO CCCiSO tooco WOCO QO en tc tC C5 CO 00 05 Crt CC t-J SCANTLING MEASURE. Table continued. 75 1 i 1 1 II (X)^ OCfi- 00 4^ 00»*>- Cn^ 00rf>. OOfI*. oorf^ oo»*>. oo*>. 00 ^ ~1 ^ OS CS CS Oi C7» C C;" 0> >^ »*». 4s^ >f». Ca3 CO CO to to tC bO t-» i-i w (_* 0-S«OOSrf».H-00050iOOOCnti©^^. 00 ^f>. 00 >f>. 00 rf^ 00 4=" 00 ►fi^ 00 >f>. 00 *^ 00 tf^QO «o00ocoo--i-M"oicsC'»o»c;»tf^>^>;!».cocococctct5tNOH-»— '1— ' O^»f>-r-00Cnt0C0 0JCCO^»*>»'-'00mK)OCSC0O^4-^00C«tC«00SC0 *-< us ocD;».»*>.>f>^cocowbCit*fca^t-'^ OOStOOCSCOOOSCCOOiOOOOSCrfOOsCOOOSCCOOSCOOOsCOOOtO (—1 o 00 »*k. 00 ►*;>> 00 rf^ 00 »*>> 00 i+i- 00 >f>. OD rf^ 00 >*^ 00 >f». 00 rf>. ^000«OCC>OOOCQO-^^OS05C5CnCr'0»tf^h*».»f^C«COlsDlOtCb-l-'>-' 005l>»«5 0i^Qt*'0>^COyDCStOOOO»»-'~^ri^005COCOCneCOO*>.»-»-^CO O ►f^ 00 >f^ 00 >f>. 00 rf'' 00 tf>. 00 >f>. 00 rf». 00 ►*«. 00 rf»» 00 4^00 tO^-i-iOOO'««0000000~^«^0>OSCSC7»Cn4».>*>.*>.COtOfcOtCt«3l-'^ OO>t000>f».OO»t000rf».O0ib000tf^O0SK)00i*>.OOSt0004>i.O0StCl00>^ to ososC^^c«c?«o^-•^f>.4>.^*».►^i.coo^c«oocol^^^a^cn^ol^Sl-'l-'»-'•-•l-» t0O000»»*».|>3O^C!iC«>— ^mC0»-'«C>~^Cnt>3O000S»f>'tCO00CS>*^t0 oj en rf^ CO to H- H-- 1-- «> 00 ■^ OS oi rffc. ctf to •-- H- ►- o 00 ^ OS en ►*>. CO to •-' •^•>a-io>osc50>cnC7ic:»o»>ffc.»;^>^rf>i.cocotocototototo»— 't— '1— '1— » OitOO~aOTtoO~400>a>OC50>CSOSCiCS 000000'^'^-5-50JCSC5C7«0»C;it;^h*>^rf».»^COC«COtOtOtOtO»-'l-'h-» ~J»4i-l-'00e^tOO^tf'-— QOC^tO«OOiCOO^OitO«OOSCOO~**«.l-'OOU»tO -1 0» ~1 OO CO — i-i h- to CO tf>. en C5 ^ QO «0 K- ►— H-i to CO *^ en CS -4 00 «0 1-' •— 0«0«0(;DOOOOOO-a-3-JasOSC»OiCnO»rf».4»-t*«'COCOCCtON5tC»i-iH-i-« wO5C0Oc;C0OC5C0OCiC0OO5CCOC5CCOO5C0O0iC0OCJC0O0iC0 en 00 00 hf>. 00 4^ 00 rf^ 00)^ 00 4^ 00 »^ 00 rf>. 00 »^ 00 rf^ 00)^ ■ ^000«0«0«00000'^-aCTs05asC?»C?»(*ii.rfi^>|ii.COCOCOtOfcOl-'l-'t-' tOOOCni*-->IWOa5tOQOCrtH-^COOO:itOOOO»(-'^COOOStOOOO»H-^00 en en «0 CO 05 «0 CO 05 «0 CO OS «0 CO OS «0 CO OS «0 CO OS «> CO OS CO 76 SCANTLING MEASURE. Table continued. 1 1 i i 1 1 t ! i i COtOtOfcOtClCfcCtOtOtCltO^I-'l-'h-'l-il-'t-'l-' !"'»-' ft 1 1 i i j 1 j 1 1 i 1 o o o o o 05 t— ' t— ' 05a>05C50io?oo>o>a>CiojC5C50s t>3»— — OOOOOQOOOQO->^^OSOSOSCrtO»rf».rfi.t*>i.WCOtCtCfcCl-'H- o i tCK-H-' — OC«OSOOOOOOO^-^C505CJt»iOtrf^*^»KCOCOtCtOtC(-'f— H- o — o 00 »f>> QO »f>- 00 ri^ 00 »^ 00 M^ OO ff>. 00 If^ 00 4^00 >f^ 00 »f^00 ^t^^^a5^c5oa,oot«3t*^ix)rf>.oowoo&o^t*^ut^'JiOitCt>0»— ^-OOO«00000-1050SC^Crt»4i.if»^C0 05t0tC»— !-• Orf^«D*'OOWOOlO-JI>iC;i-'asOtnO*^X>4^00COOOtO"^CCCi^OSOO» 00 00 00 tJi. 00 >*- 00 rf^ 00 rf^ 00 rf- 00 rf». 00 rf^ 00 rfi. 00 tfi^ 00 >Ji> Oo-aO:CSinwTrf».COWt>:'tCi-'000«000^-1010sCnt^rfai.WCCt>3^t-i O4».00i>iC5O*'00l-^CV = *.00t>305Ohf>^00tCC5OH^»t0Ci^4>"00K)0» 00 cr oSoo^^aiOi^^*'WtNSt>3^CO«OOCOO-?C5CiOirf=-4».CCtCts3i-' 00 o tfi. 00 rf^ 00 ^00 »<=- 00 *>00 rf- 00 rf^ 00 rf^OO rf-00 rf^OO oSooOO^C535ot!^4^tOt>3tC — 0000000.iOlCitCI-i tSoiCOtOCr.OObSO'OO — i;i00-*i+»^0Dr-4»>^^*^-aOrf».^OW^Oi0C?S 05eO WC>«0 C0330 wovso cco»«o wo»«o woso woso 1 — SCANTLING MEASURE. 77 Table continued. Feet Long. 9 by 10 9 by 11 10 by 10 10 by 11 10 by 12 11 by 11 11 by 12 1 7.6 8.3 8.4 9.2 10. 10.1 11. 2 15 16.6 16.8 18.4 20. 20.2 22. 3 22.6 24.9 25. 27.6 30. 30.3 33. 4 30. 33. 33.4 36.8 40. 40.4 44. 5 37.6 41.3 41.8 45.10 50. 50.5 55. 6 45. 49.6 50. 55. 60. 60.6 ^^. 7 52.6 57.9 58.4 64.2 70. 70.7 77. 8 60. 66. 66.8 73.4 80. 80.8 88. 9 67.6 74.3 75. 82.6 90. 90.9 99. 10 75. 82.6 83.4 91.8 100. 100.10 110. 11 82.6 90.9 91.8 100.10 no. 110.11 121. 12 90. 99. 100. 110. 120. 121. 132. 13 97.6 107.3 108.4 119.2 130. 131.1 143. 14 105. 115.6 116.8 128.4 140. 141.2 154. 15 112.6 123.9 125. 137.6 150. 151.3 165. 16 120. 132. 133.4 146.8 160. 161.4 176. 17 127.6 140.3 141.8 155 . 10 170. 171.5 187. 18 135. 148.6 150. 165. 180. 181.6 198. 19 142.6 156.9 158.4 174.2 190. 191.7 209. 20 150. 165. 166.8 183.4 200. 201.8 220. 21 157.6 173.3 175. 192.6 210. 211.9 231. 22 165. 181.6 183.4 201.8 220. 221.10 242. 23 172.6 189.9 191.8 210.10 230. 231.11 253. 24 180. 198. 200. 220. 240. 242. 264. 25 187.6 206.3 208.4 229.2 250. 252.1 275. 26 195. 214.6 216.8 238.4 260. 262.2 286. 27 202.6 222.9 225. 247.6 270. 272.3 297. 28 210. 231. 233.4 256.8 280. 282.4 308. 29 217.6 239.3 241.8 265.10 290. 292.5 319. 30 226. «.47.6 250. 275. 300. 302 . 6 330. Explanation. — Find the length in feet in the left banc I column, and the dimensions of the sides in inches at the head of the other cohimn, and underneath the latter and opposite the length will be found the contents in feet and inches board measure. CASK-GAUGING. Casks are usually comprised under the following figures, viz. : 1. The middle frustum of a spheroid. 2. The middle frustum of a parabolic spindle. 3. The two equal frustums of a paraboloid. 4. The two equal frustums of a cone. Their contents can be computed by the rules for ascer- taining the contents of these figures. But in almost all ordinary casks the hilge or swell from CASK-GAUGING. 79 the hung to the head (not from head to head) is so small, that they are, with scarcely an appreciable difference in the results, usually regarded as the two equal frustums of a cone, and are very accurately gauged by three dimensions, as follows : To find the contents of a cask hy three dimensions. EuLE. — Add the bung and head diameters in inches, and divide them by 2 for the mean diameter ; find the area of the mean diameter in the table of the areas of circles on page and multiply it by the length of the cask in inches ; then divide the product by 231 (the cubic inches in a gallon), and the quotient will be the number of gal- lons the cask contains. Example. — What are the contents in gallons of a cask, the Ining diameter of which is 22 inches, the head diameter 20 inches, and the length 32 inches ? Solution. — 22 + 20=42-^2=21, mean diameter: then 346.36, area of mean diameter, x 32=11083.52-231 = 47.98 gallons. Ans. When the cask is much bilged or rounded from the bung to the head, a more accurate way is to gauge by four dimensions, as follows : To find the contents of a cask hy four dimensions. Rule. — Add the head and bung diameters in inches, and the diameter taken in inches in the middle between the bung and head, and divide their sum by 3 for the mean diameter ; find the area of the mean diameter in the table 80 CASK-GAUGIA^G. of the areas of circles on page and multiply it by the length of the cask in inches and divide the product by 231 (the cubic inches in a gallon), and the quotient will be the contents of the cask in gallons. Example. — What are the contents in gallons of a cask, the bung diameter of which is 24 inches, the middle dia- meter 20 inches, the head diameter 16 inches, and its length 40 inches ? Solution.— 24 + 20 + 16 = 60 — 3 — 20, mean diameter : thdn 314.16, area of mean diameter, x40 inches, length = 12566.40-^231 = 54.4 galls. Am, CAPACITY OF BOXES. A box 24 inches by 16 inches square, and 28 inches deep, will contain a barrel (5 bushels). A box 24 inches square and 14 inches deep, will contain half a barrel. A box 26 inches by 15.2 inches square, and 8 inches deep, will contain one bushel. A box 12 inches by 11.2 inches square, and 3 inches deep, will contain half a bushel. A box 8 inches by 8.4 inches square, and 8 inches deep, will contain one peck. A box 8 inches by 8 inches square, and 4.2 inches deep. will contain one gallon. A box 7 inches by 4 inches square, and 4.8 inches deep. will contain half a gallon. A box 4 inches by 4 inches square, and 4.1 inches deep, will contain one quart. 4* CAPACITY OF WAGON-BEDS. Wagon-Beds. In most of the Eastern and many of the Western cities all market-men and traders, who make use of their wagon-beds as measures, are required to have them gauged and their capacity stamped on them by an oflScer appointed for that purpose. The wagon-makers in the country should stamp the contents in bushels on each bed they make before it leaves the shop. Should it be neglected, the following rule wdll enable every farmer to measure the contents in bushels of his wagon-bed for himself: To find the contents of wagon-'beds. Rule. — If the opposite sides are parallel, multiply the length inside in inches, by the breadth inside in inches, and that again by the depth inside in inches, and divide CAPACITY OF WAGON-BEDS. 83 the product by 2150.42 (the number of cubic inches in a bushel), and the quotient will be the capacity in bushels. Example. — What is the capacity of a wagon-bed 10 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 15 inches deep ? Solution. — 120 inches, length, x 48 inches, width, x 15 inches, depth, =86400-^-2150.42=40 bushels. Ans. KuLE 2. — Should the head and tail boards, or either of them, be set in bevelling, add the top and bottom Jengths together and divide by 2 for the mean length, and proceed by the foregoing rule. Should the sides be sloping, add the top and bottom widths, and divide by 2 for the mean width, and proceed by the foregoing rule. Should the contents be required in cubic feet, divide the product by 1728 (the number of cubic inches in a cubic foot), instead of 2154.42, and the quotient will be the con- tents in cubic feet. FALSE BALANCES. To detect false halances^ scales^ c&e. Rule. — After weighing the article transpose the weight and the article weighed, and if the latter is too light the weight will preponderate; if too heavy the article will preponderate. To find the true weight. Rule. — After transposing them as above, find the addi- tional weight that will produce an equilibrium : weigh it with the article by the same balances: multiply the two false weights thus found, together, and the square root of the product will be the true weight. Example. — An article weighs 7 lbs. by a false balance : transposed it is found too light^ and requires an additional weight to produce a counterpoise: this additional weight is found by the same balances to have a false weight of 9^ lbs. What is the true weight of the article ? FALSE BALANCES. 85 Solution. — 9| x 7=64, the square root of which is 8 lbs., the weight, uins. Example 2.— An article weighs 7 lbs. : transposed it is found too heavy, weighing only 5| lbs. by the same scales. What is the true weight ? Solution. — 7 x 5-^=36, the square root of which is 6 lbs., the true weight. A7is. Note. — In the 1st example the additional weight is added to the article to produce the equilibrium : in the second example the deficiency is taken from the weight to produce the counterpoise. CISTEKNS. To find the nmaher of gallons in square or ohlong squa/re cisterns. Rule. — Multiply the length in inches by the width in inches, and that by the depth in inches, and divide the pro- duct by 231. The quotient will be the number of gallons. Example. — Given, a cistern 6 feet long by 3 feet wide and 4 feet deep ; how many gallons will it contain ? Solution. — 72 inches, length, x 36 inches, width, x48 inches, depth, = 124416-^ 231 =538.69 galls. Ans. To fi/nd tJie number of gallons in triangular cisterns. d Rule. — Multiply the base a h m inches, by the perpen- dicular height c din inches, and half that sum by the depth in inches, and divide the product by 231. The quotient will be the number of gallons. Example. — Given, a triangular cistern 8 feet at the base or longest side, Y feet in perpendicular height, 4 feet deep. How many gallons will it contain ? CISTERNS. 87 Solution.— 96 inches, base, x 84, perpendicular height in inches,-r2=4032x48, depth in inches, = 112896 -^231 =488.72 galls. Ans, To find the number of gallons in circular cisterns. KuLE.— Find the area of the circle in square inches, in the table of the '' Areas of Circles," on page or by the rule given on page Then multiply the area by the depth in inches, and divide the product by 231. The quo- tient will be the number of gallons. Example. — Given, a cistern 8 feet in diameter by 6 feet deep. How many gallons will it contain ? Solution. — Area, the diameter being 96 inches 7238. 2 Multiplied by 60 in. , the depth, gives 43429. 20 Divided by 231 , cubic in. in a gall. , ' ' 1 880. gall. Ans. Table, showing the contents of circular cisterns from 1 foot to 25 feet in diameter^ for each 10 inches in depth. DIAMETER. 1 2 3 H 4 H 5 gallons. 4.896 11.016 19.583 30.545 44.064 59.980 78.333 99.116 122.400 148.546 176.253 206.855 239.906 diameter. 8 ^ 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 20 25 GALLONS. 271.072 313.340 353.735 396.573 441.861 489.600 592.400 705. 827.450 959.613 1101.610 1958.421 3059.934 88 CISTERNS. To find the number of gallons in tub-shaped cisterns. Rule.— Find the cubes of the top and bottom diameters in inches, by means of the table on page divide the difference between those cubes by the difference of the diameters in inches, and multiply this quotient by .7854, and again by \ of the depth in inches, and divide the pro- duct by 231. The quotient will be the number of gallons. Example. — Given, a tub-shaped cistern of a top diameter of 10 feet, a bottom diameter of 8 feet, and 6 feet deep. How many gallons will it contain % Solution.— Cube of 120 inches, the top diameter, 1728000 96 " " bottom " 884736 Difference between cubes of diameters, 843264 Divided by 24, difference of diameters, gives .35136 Multiplied by .7854, gives 27595.8144 ' ' again by 24,^ the depth in inches, gives 662299 . 5456 Divided by 231, cubic inches in a gallon, gives 2867.09 galls. Am. EuLE 2. — Add the top and bottom diameters in inches and divide by 2 for the mean diameter. Find the area in square inches of the mean diameter by means of the table on page or by the rule given on page Multiply the area by the depth in inches, and divide the product by 231, and the quotient will be the number of gallons. Example. — What are the contents in gallons of a cistern 8 feet diameter at the top, 6 feet at the bottom, and 4 feet deep ? CISTERNS. 89 Solution. — 96 inches -f 72 inches = 168-7-2=84 inches, mean diameter; then 5541.77, area of mean diameter, x 48 inches, depth,=266004.96-^ 231 = 1151.63 gallons. Ans. ISToTE. — The quantity of water whicli falls upon most farm buildings is sufficient to afford an ample supply for the domestic animals of the farm, when other supplies fail, were cisterns large enough to hold it provided. The aver- age amount of rain that fails in the latitude of the Northern States during the year, is about 3 feet per year, or 3 inches per month. Every inch in depth that falls upon a roof yields 2 barrels for each ten feet square, and 72 barrels a year are yielded by 3 feet of rain. A barn 30 by 40 feet supplies annually from its roof 864 barrels, which is more than 2 barrels per day, the year round. The size of cisterns should vary according to their in- tended use. If they are to furnish a daily supply of water, they need not be so large as for saving supplies against summer and droughts. The size of the cistern in dailf/ use need not exceed that of a body of water on the whole roof of the building, 7 inches deep, or two months' greatest fall of rain. Cisterns intended to save the water to draw from in time of drought, should be about three times as large. ' To ascertain, the size of cisterns adapted to roofs^ i&c. Rule. — Multiply the length of the roof in inches by the breadth in inches, and that by the depth of the fall of rain required to be saved, and divide the product by 231, and 90 CISTERNS. the quotient will be the number of gallons. Divide the number of gallons by 31^, and it will give the number of barrels. Example, — What must be the capacity of a cistern to contain the water running from a roof 40 feet long by 30 wide, for 2 months : estimated fall of rain 7 inches ? Solution. — 480 inches, length, x 360 inches, width, x 7 inches, depth of rain, =1909600-231 = 82661 galls. Ans. Note. — To ascertain the necessary dimensions of a cis- tern large enough to contain 8266f gallons, consult the foregoing table. It will there be found that a cistern 13 feet in diameter contains 827 gallons for each 10 inches in depth. To give the cistern 10 times that depth, or 100 inches (S^ feet) will make it contain 8270 gallons. Hence a cistern 13 feet in diameter, and 8^ feet deep, will be large enough. To further aid the inquirer in ascertaining the requisite diameters of cisterns for the above purposes, we subjoin an additional Table, showing the contents of circular cisterns in barrels for each foot in depth. 5 feet 4.66 6 " 6.74 7 " 9.13 8 " 11.93 9 " 15.10 10 '^ 18.65 ClSTEitN6. 91 . The above cut represents the sectional view of a filtered cistern, with a brick wall partition in the middle and the box of charcoal and sand at the bottom, with alternate layers of each. The pipe at the left leads from the roof, and the one at the right connects with tlie pump. With this style of cistern properly constructed, no one need be in want of pure wholesome water. To construct a filtering cistern to furnish pure water for domestic use. Rule. — Divide the cistern into two equal compartments by a wall of brick or stone, open at the bottom to the height of about six inches, and water-tight thence to the top. Let one compartment bo for receiving the water, and the other for containing it when filtered and ready for use. Put alternate layers, 6 inches deep, of gravel, sand, 92 CISTERNS. and pounded charcoal at the bottom of the former, and sand and gravel at the bottom of the latter. The former will receive the water from the pipe, and it will rise filtered in the latter. Another Mode. — Divide the cistera as above by a double open wall of stone or brick, with an interspace of about six inches between the walls. Fill the interspace with sand and pounded charcoal. Let one compartment receive the water, and it will pass through the filter into the other ready for use. HYDKAULICS. The science of hydraidics treats of the motion of non- elastic fluids ; hydrodynamics, of the force of that motion ; and hydrostatics, of the pressure, weight, and equilibrium. THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF HYDRAULICS, &c. 1. Descending water is governed bj the same laws as falling bodies. 2. Water will fall 1 foot in ^ of a second, 4 feet in ^ a second, and 9 feet in f of a second, and so on in the same ratio. 3. The velocity of a fluid propelled through an orifice by a head of water in a cistern or reservoir, is the same that a body would acquire by falling perpendicularly through a space equal to that between the top of the head and the centre of the opening, le>^OTE. — In the same ratio, it will raise 2 gallons 80 feet per minute, or 1 gallon 160 feet per minute, and so on. The following working results of water rams now in actual use, will enable the inquirer to ascertain the elevat- ing capacity of springs, with various falls and volume of water. The rams used are " Rumsey & Co.'s Premium Hydraulic Rams," Seneca Falls, N. Y. 1. — Fall from surface of water in spring to ram 4 feet. Length of supply pipe, inside diameter 1 inch 60 " Volume of water discharged by spring in 10 minutes 25 gallons. Length of discharging pipe, inner diameter | inch, curved in three places to a semicircle ISO feet. Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 19 Discharged every ten minutes 3;^ gallons. 2.— Fall from surface of water in spring to ram 10 feet. Length of supply pipe, inside diameter li inches 40 " Volume of water discharged by spring per minute 20 gallons. Length of discharging pipe, i inch inside diameter. 50 rods. Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 85 feet. Discharged per minute ^i gallons. THE HYDRAULIC RAM. 107 3 — Fall from surface of water in spring to ram 8J feet. Length of supply pipe, inside diameter 1 ^ inches 30 *' Volume of water discharged by spring not given. Length of discharging pipe inside diameter ^ inch 30 roda. Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 35 feet. Discharged a constant stream ^ inch diameter. 4. — Fall from surface of water in spring , 12 feet. Length of supply pipe, inside diameter 1 j inches 32 " Volume of water discharged by spring not given. Length of discharging pipe, inside diameter | inch 14 rods. Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern at barn. ... 35 feet. Discharged a constant stream ^ inch diameter, at barn, afford- ing more than a supply for 62 head of cattle. 5. — Fall from surface of water in spring to ram 9 feet. Length of supply pipe, inside diameter one inch 50 " Volume of water discharged by spring not given. Length of discharging pipe inside diameter -J inch 100 feet. Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 35 ♦' Discharges a constant stream, ^ inch diameter, into a cistern at house and after supplying water for the domestic use of a large family, passes off to the cattle yard 20 rods further, affording an abundant supply for a large herd of cattle. 6.— Fall from surface of water in spring to ram 8 feet. Length of supply pipe, inside diameter 1 5 inches not given. Volume of water dischaiged by spring *• Length of discharging pipe, ^ inch inside diameter 70 rods. Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 80 feet. Delivers a good supply of running water at house and barn, sufficient for all necessary purposes. 7. — Fall of water from surface of spring to ram 10 feet. Length of supply pipe, inside diameter Ih inches not given. Volume of water discharged by spring. ' «« Length of discharging pipe. ^ inch inside diameter 76 rods. Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern IIG f^e*". Delivers a constant stream of ^ inch diameter. 8.— Fall from surface of spring to ram 61 feet. Length of supply pipe, inside diameter 1^ inches 60 rods.* Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 60 feet. Discharges sufficient water in barn yard to supply 80 head of cattle. 9.— Fall from surface of spring to ram 9 feet. Size of supply pipe, inside diameter 2 inches, length not given. Length of discharging pipe, mside diameter | inch 150 rods. Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 130 feet. Delivers an abundant supply of water for house, barn, barn-yard and hog-pen. 108 THE HYDRAULIC RAM. 10. — Fall from surface of dam to ram Y feet. Length and size of supply pipe not given. Volume of water discharged by stream " Length of discharging pipe, (size not given) 126 rods. Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 75 feet. Discharges 25 barrels of water in 24 hours. 11. — Fall from spring to ram 11 feet. Size of supply pipe, 2 inches calibre ; length 42 " Length of discharging pipe, i inch calibre 75 rods. Elevation of discharging pipe from ram to cistern 98 feet. Discharges over 80 barrels of water per day. Note. — The size, strength, and weight of the supply and discharging pipes must be in proportion to the head or pressure on them. They are proportioned and adjusted to the capacity of the ram by the manufacturer, and are gen- erally sold with the machine. When a very large supply of water is required for manu- facturing or other purposes, and a stream of sufficient vol- ume and fall is obtained, it is better to set two or three rams of a smaller size, all playing into one discharging pipe, than to set one large ram. If one ram becomes dis- abled, the others supply the demand. Should the fall and volume of one stream or spring not supply enough water, and at the required elevation, and there be other springs near by, set a ram in each, all meet- ing in one discharging pipe. Their combined power will increase the elevation and the quantity raised. The pipes can be so laid, and the ram so set, as to pro- tect them from the frost during the winter. The fall of one spring or strearn may be used to raise the water of another and better spring or stream, whose own fall is not sufficient. THE HYDRAULIC RAM. 109 Mr. H. L. Emery, of Albany, in a communication to the Counti'y Gentleman^ says : " The result of a water ram is calculated upon the principle that a pound of force will raise a pound of water an equal height, and a less quantity to a greater height, which height is limited only by the strength of the pipes themselves. " To enable any one to select the size ram it is necessary to compute the elevation to be overcome, and the greatest amount of fall which can be conveniently obtained, and divide the first by the last, and the quotient will be the proportion of the water (passing through the drive-pipe) which will be raised ; first, however, deducting for waste of power and friction say \ of the amount ; thus, with ten feet fall and one hundred feet elevation, one-tenth of the water would be raised, if there were no friction or loss; but deducting, say one-quarter for loss, and 7J gallons for each 100 gallons would be raised, all the balance of the water being required or wasted to accomplish this result." THE HYDKAULIC PRESS. The Hydraulic or Hydrostatic Press is a machine by which a small force may be made to exert a great pressure. Its construction may be understood by the above cut. Two metallic cylinders, A and B, of different sizes, are joined together by a tube K. In the small cylinder there is a piston p which can be moved up and down by the handle THE HYDRAULIC PRESS. Ill M. In the large cylinder there is also a piston P, having at its upper end a large iron plate, which moves freely up and down in a strong frame-work Q. Between the iron plate and the top of this framework the body to be pressed is placed. Now, when the small piston is raised, the cylinder A is filled with water drawn from the reservoir H, below, and when it is pushed down this water is forced into the large cylinder through the pipe K. There is a valve in this tube which prevents the water from returning, so that each stroke of the small piston pushes an additional quantity of water into the large cylinder. By this means the large piston is pushed up against the body to be pressed. To cal- culate the pressure exerted by the large piston we must remember that the force acting upon the piston in A, will be exerted upon every equal amount of surface in B. To illustrate this : suppose the area of the large piston to be 10 times the area of the small one ; then one pound at A will produce a pressure of ten pounds at P. The handle M in- creases the advantage still more, according to the principle of the lever to be explained in a future chapter. By in- creasing the size of the large cylinder, and diminishing the size of the small one, the pressure exerted by a given power will be increased proportionately. The weight of a man's hand might thus be made to lift a ship with all its cargo. The only limit to the increase of power would be the strength of the material of which the machine is made. WEIGHT OF LEAD PIPE. Table, showing the weight of lead jpi^e jper ya/rd, from \ to 4i\ incJies diameter. Diameter. Weight in lbs. oz. \ inch « (< medium 3 strong 4 light 3 medium 4 strong 5 extra strong 6 6 light 5 medium 6 6 strong 7 8 extra strong 8 4 " light 5 light 6 4 medium 8 strong 9 12 extra strong 10 8 " light..... 6 14 light 8 6 medium 10 5 strong 12 4 extra light 8 5 light.. 9 12 medium 11 strong 12 extra strong 8 .14 10 Weight Iti lbs. oz. \\ inch extra light 9 " " light 13 *' •* medium 15 8 " '* strong 19 If ** medium 16 " *♦ strong 20 2 " light 16 12 " " medium 20 " " strong 23 ^ " light 25 " *' medium 30 " " strong 35 3 ♦' light 30 '* " medium 35 ** " strong 44 ?^ ** medium 45 " ** strong 54 " ** extra strong 70 4 *' waste, light 15 14 medium 21 strong 26 4^ " " light 17 4 medium 24 strong 29 Yery light pipe. 1 lb. U " 2 " f inch 3 lbs. 6 1 " 6 " 10 U " 6 " 14 \ inch * " i " % " Note. — Should the pipe be sold by the pound, multiply the price per lb. by the weight per yard in the above table, and it will give the price per yard. FUEL. The following table, abridged from Browne's Sylva Americana^ will be found valuable to housekeepers in aid- ing them to form an estimate of the comparative value of fire woods in a seasoned state ^ or when burnt to charcoal. Table, showing the Comparative Values of Fire Woods, Shellbark Hickory, Common Walnut, White Oak Thick Shellbark Hickory, . White Ash, Scrub Oak, Witch Hazel Apple Tree, Red Oak, B ack Gum, Black Walnut, White Beech, Black Birch Yellow Oak, Sugar Maple, , Sassafras, , White Elm, , Holly, Wild Cherry, Yellow Pine, Sycamore, or Buttonwood Chestnut, , Spanish Oak, Poplar, , Butternut, White Birch, Jersey Pine, Pitch Pine, . . White Pine Lombardy Poplar, o ■§ o l| g 3 go O 5 % la a o fl ii 0-3 00 5 M ^ ta &4 M 1.000 4469 .625 82.89 1172 36 .949 4241 .637 33.52 1070 32 .855 3821 .401 21.10 826 39 .829 3705 .509 26.78 848 32 .722 3450 .547 28.78 888 31 .747 3339 .392 20.63 774 38 .784 3505 .368 19.36 750 39 .697 3115 .445 2;.. 41 779 33 .728 3255 .400 21.05 630 30 .703 3142 .400 21.05 696 33 .681 3044 .418 22.00 687 31 .724 3233 .618 27.26 635 23 .697 3115 .428 22.52 604 27 .653 2919 .295 15.52 631 41 .644 2878 .431 22.68 617 27 .618 2762 .427 22.47 624 28 .680 2592 .357 18.79 644 34 .602 2691 .374 19.68 613 31 .597 2668 .411 21.63 579 27 .551 2463 .333 17.52 585 o3 .535 2391 .374 19.68 564 29 .522 2333 .379 19.94 690 30 .548 2449 .362 19.05 562 30 .563 2516 .383 20.15 549 27 .567 2534 .237 12 47 527 42 .530 2369 .364 19.15 450 24 .478 2137 .385 20.26 632 26 .426 1904 .298 15.68 510 33 .418 5868 .293 15.42 455 30 .397 1774 .245 12.89 444 84 1-1 100 95 81 81 77 73 72 70 69 67 65 65 63 60 60 59 68 67 65 64 62 62 52 62 51 48 48 43 42 40 114: FUEL. Note. — It will be remarked that shellbark hickory is made the standard in the above table, not only of the fuel but also of the specific gravity, the value and specific gravity of the other woods being determined by the pro- portion they severally , bear to this standard. The table has a further use, namely, to determine the price that should be paid per cord for other woods, taking the price paid for shellbark hickory as the standard. For instance, should shellbark be selling for $6.00 per cord, white oak is worth $4.86 ; for, as 100, the value of shellbark, : $6.00, its price, :: 81, the value of white oak, : $4.86, its price; and other kinds in the same proportion. A cord of wood is 128 cubic feet; the sticks or billets are cut 4 feet long and piled 4 feet high and 4 feet wide ; 8 feet in length making a cord. The wood-cutter has a measure of two feet marked on his axe handle with which he measures the length of each stick, making due allowance for the carf, or the bevel of the cut. All fuel should, however, be sold by weight. When the weights of difierent woods are equal, that which contains the most hydrogen will, during combustion, give out the greatest amount of heat. Hence, pine is pre- ferable to oak, and bituminous to anthracite coal. "When wood is used as fuel it should be thoroughly dried, as in its green and ordinary state it contains 25 per cent, of water ; the heat to evaporate which is necessarily lost. To kiln-dry it adds 12 per cent, to its value over seasoned wood. FUEL. 115 Coal Mining in Pennsylvania. Table, showing the weights per cvMc foot of the different kinds of Coal. Designation. Weight in lbs. Designation. Weight in lbs. Anthracite, 50 to 55 Bituminous 45 to 55 Cumberland, 63 Virginia, (bitum.) 49 Western, (bitum.) 47 English, " 50 Charcoal, (hard wood) 18 J do. (soft or pine wood). . . 18 Note. — Soft coals are usually purchased at the rate of 28 bushels of 5 pecks each, to a ton of 43.56 cubic feet. Anthracite, 20 bushels to the ton To prepare charcoal. Charcoal is prepared by clearing off the top soil from a circular space of the required dimensions, and piling bil- 116 FUEL. lets of wood in it into a pyramidal heap, with several spiracles or flues formed through the pile. Chips and brushwood are put into those below, and the whole is so constructed as to kindle through in a very short time. It must then be covered all over with clay or earth beaten close, leaving openings at all the spiracles or flues. The pile is then ignited, and carefully watched and kept from bursting into a flame, by instantly closing the flues should such happen. Whenever the white watery smoke issuing from the flues is observed to be succeeded by a thin, blue, and transparent smoke, the holes must be immediately stopped ; this being the indication that all the watery vapor is gone, and the burning of the true coaly matter com- mencing. Thus a strong red heat is raised throughout the whole mass, and all the volatile matters are dissipated by it, and nothing now remains but the charcoal. The holes being all stopped in succession as this change of the smoke is observed, tlie fire goes out for want of air. The pile is now allowed to cool, which requires many days, for char- coal being a very bad conductor of heat, the pile long remains red hot in the centre, and if opened in this state would instantly burn with great fury. Even when it is opened, the heat retained by some of the larger pieces often ignites it, to guard against which water should be provided to instantly extinguish it when observed. PROPERTIES OF CHARCOAL. Although charcoal is so combustible, it is, in some re- FUEL. 117 spects, a very unchangeable substance, resisting the action of a great variety of other substances upon it. Hence posts are often charred before being put into the ground. Grain has been found in the excavations at Herculaneum, which was charred at the time of the destruction of that city, eighteen Jiundred years ago, and yet the shape is perfectly preserved, so that you can distinguish between the different kinds of grain. While charcoal is itself so unchangeable, it preserves other substances from change. Hence meat and vegetables are packed in charcoal for long voyages, and the water is kept in casks which are charred on the inside. Tainted meat can be made sweet by being covered w^ith it. Foul and stagnant water can be deprived of its bad taste by being filtered through it. Charcoal is a great decolorizer. Ale and porter filtered through it are deprived of their color, and sugar-refiners decolorize their brown syrups by means of charcoal, and thus make white sugar. Animal charcoal, or bone-black, is the best for such pur- poses, although only one-tenth of it is really charcoal, the other nine-tenths being the mineral portion of the bone. Charcoal will absorb, of some gases, from eighty to ninety times its own bulk. As every point of its surface is a point of attraction, it is supposed to account for the enor- mous accumulation of gases in the spaces of the charcoal. But this accounts for it only in part. There must be some peculiar power in the charcoal to change, in some way, the condition of a gas of which it absorbs ninety times its own bulk. — Hooker. 118 FUEL. I^OTES.— The best quality of charcoal is made from oak, maple, beech, and chestnut. Wood will furnish, when properly charred, about 20 per cent, of coal. A bushel of coal from hard wood weighs 30 lbs. A bushel of coal from pine weighs 29 lbs. Table, showing the number of parts of charcoal afforded hy 100 parts of different kinds of wood. •^oods. Parts charcoal. Color. Lignum Yit^ afforded 26.8 Grayish. Mahogany " 25.4 Brown. Laburnum " 24.5 Velvet black. Chestnut " 23.2 Glossy black. Oak " 22.6 Black. Black beech " 21.4 Fine black. ll^^Wy " 19.9 Dull black. Sycamore " 19.7 Fine black. Walnut " 20.6 Du b ack. Beech " 19-9 ^^^^ black. Maple " 19.9 Dull black. Norway Pine " 19.2 Shmmg black. Y[xa " 19.2 Fine black. Sallow " H-^ i'^?^ ^^f ^• ^gl^ " 17.9 Shmmg black. ;Bij.(.h " 1T.4 Velvet black. Scottish Pine " 1^.4: Brownish. COKE. Sixty bushels ot Newcastle lump coal, will make 92 bushels of coke. Sixty bushels of Newcastle slack, or fine coal, will make i 85 bushels of coke. FUEL. 119 Sixty bushels Pictou or Yirginia Coal, will made 75 bushels coke of an inferior quality compared with the above. A bushel of the best coke weighs 32 lbs. Tlie production of coke by weight is about |- that of coal. Coal furnishes 60 to 70 per cent, of coke by weight. 1 lb. of coke will evaporate in a common locomotive boiler 7^- lbs. of water at 212° into steam. Table, showing the weights^ evaporative powers per weight, hulk and chxiracter of Fiiel, DESIGNATION. Bituminous. Cumberland max., " min , Blossburgh, Midlothian screened, . . . '* average, Newcastle, Pictou, Pittsburgh, Sydney, Liverpool Clover Hi.l Cannelton, la., Scotch, Anthracite. Peach Mountain, Forest Improv ment^. . . Beaver Meadows, No. 5, . Lackawanna Beaver Meadows, Ko. 3, . Lehigh, Coke. Natural Virginia, Midlothian, Cumberland, Wood. Dry Pine wood, 1.3:3 1.337 1.3-4 1.283 1.294 1.257 1.318 1.252 1.338 1.2G2 1.285 1.273 1.519 1.4G4 1.477 I .554 1.421 I.CIO 1.590 1.323 52.92 54.29 53.05 45.72 54.04 60.82 49.25 46.81 47.44 47.88 45.49 47. f 5 61.09 53.79 53.66 56.19 48.89 54.93 55.32 4G.G4 32.70 31.57 20.01 10.7 9.44 9.72 8.94 8.29 8.66 8.41 8.20 7.99 7.84 7.67 7.34 6.95 ^0.11 0.06 9.^8 9.79 9.21 8.93 8.47 8.63 8.99 4.69 £0 S ^i1 573.3 532.3 622.6 438.4 461.6 453.9 478.7 384.1 386.1 411.2 359.3 360. 369.1 581.3 577.3 572.9 493. 526.5 515.4 407.9 282.5 284. 98.6 •Si 2.13 4.53 3.40 3.33 8.82 3.14 6.13 .94 2.25 1.86 3.86 1.64 5.63 3.03 .81 .60 1.24 1.01 1.08 5.31 10.51 3.55 'I 42.3 41.2 42.2 49. 41.4 44 45. 47 8 47.2 46.7 49.2 47. 48.8 41.6 41.7 39.8 45.8 40.7 40.5 48.3 68.5 70.9 106.6 Prof. W R Johnson. 120 FUEL. N^. B. — The above are the extreme eiFects ; for practical use let a deduction of ^ be made from the above. Combustible matter of fuel. The quantity of combustible matter of fuel, if the weight and other circumstances be equal, may be learnt from the ashes, or residuum, left after the combustion. For example, good Newcastle coal contains a greater portion of combus- tible matter than I^ova Scotia coal, and leaves behind a smaller amount of earthy and incombustible substance. The heating power, and consequent value, of different kinds of fuel, is affected by this circumstance, though by no means dependent on it. The fitness of fuel for various purposes is furthermore affected by the facility with which it gives off a part of its combustible matter in the form of vapor or gas, which, being burnt in that state, produces flame. For example, the bituminous coals abound in volatile matter, which, when ignited, supports a powerful blaze. On the other hand, the Lehigh and Rhode Island coals are destitute of bitumen, and yield but little flame. It is from similar causes that dry pine wood produces a powerful blaze, while its charcoal yields comparatively little. A blaze is of great service where heat is required to be applied to an extensive surface, as in reverberating furnaces, ovens, glass-houses, ''5 24 9 Two do., or Sequin, 1762, 1 59 1 Three do., or Oncetta, 1818 2 49 NaTHBRLANDS — Gold Lion, or Fourteen Florin Piece 6 04 6 Ten Florin Piece, 1820 , 4 01 9 144 RELATIVE MINT VALUE OF FOREIGN COINS, Names of Coins. f etc. m Paema.— Quadruple Pistole, (double in proportion) « . . . . 16 62 8 Pistole, or Doppia, 1787, 4 19 4 do. do., 1796 4 13 6 Maria Theresa, 1818 3 86 1 PiERMONT.— Pistole, coined since 1785, (J in proportion) 6 41 1 Sequin, (^ in proportion) 2 28 Carlino, coined since 1785, (J in proportion) 27 34 Piece of Twenty Francs, called Marengo 3 66 4 Poland.— Ducat 2 27 5 PoaTUQAL. — Dobraon 32 70 & Dobra 17 30 1 Johannes 17 06 4 Moidore, (^ in proportion) 6 55 7 Piece of 16 Testoons. or 1600 Rees 2 12 1 Old Crusado, of 400 Eees 85 5 New do., 480 do 63 5 Milree, coined in 1775 78 Prussia.— Ducat, 1748 2 27 9 Ducat, 1787 2 26 7 Frederick, double, 1769 7 95 6 do. do. 1800 7 95 1 do. single, 1778 3 99 7 do. do. 1800 3 97 5 EoMB —Sequin, coined since 1760 2 25 1 Scudo of Republic 15 81 1 Russia.- Ducat, 1796 2 29 7 Ducat, 1763 2 26 7 Gold Ruble, 1756 96 T do. 1799 73 7 Gold Poltin, 1777 36 5 Imperial, 1801 7 82 9 Half do., 1801 3 93 3 Sardinia.— Carlino, (half in proportion) 9 47 2 Saxony.— Ducat, 1784 . 2 26 7 Ducat, 1797 2 27 9 Augustus, 1754 3 92 6 do., 1784 3 97 4 Sicily.— Ounce, 1761 2 50 4 Double Ounce, 1758 5 04 4 Spain.— Doubloon, 1772, (double and fractions in proportion) 16 02 8 Doubloon 16 53 5 Pistole 3 88 4 Coronilla, Gold Dollar, or Vintem, 1801 93 3 Sweden.— Ducat 2 23 5 Switzerland. — Pistole of Helvetic Republic, 1800 4 66 Treves.— Ducat 2 26 7 Turkey. — Sequin Fonducili, or Constantinople, 1773 1 86 8 do., 1789 184 8 Half Misseir, 1818 52 1 Sequin Fonducili 1 83 Yeermeerblekblek 3 02 8 Tuscany — Zechino, or Sequin 2 31 8 Ruspone of the kingdom of Etruria 6 93 8 Venice. Zechino, or Sequin, (fractions in proportion) 2 31 WiRTEMBURQ.— Carolin 4 89 8 Ducat 2 23 6 Zurich.— Ducat, (double and half in proportion) 2 26 T UNITED STATES OR FEDERAL MONEY. stamping Coin at the Unitefl States Mint. Money is value, or the representative of value, used for the purposes of exchange. In different countries, at dif- ferent times, various articles have been used for money, such as oxen, pieces of leather stamped, shells, wampum, iron, nails, &c. Gold and silver, at present, are used almost exclusively for money. They are called precious metals. Paper money is a substitute for coin. Uncoined gold and silver is called 'hxtUion. Coin is a piece of metal of known weight used for money, the value of which is stamped on it. 146 UNITED STATES OK FEDERAL MONEY. Currency is the money of circulation. Tokens are coins whose intrinsic value is below that assigned tliem by law. Such coins are said to be coins in hillion. United States or Federal money is a decimal currency. Table. 10 mills (m.) 1 cent ct. 10 cents 1 dime d. 100 mills. 10 dimes 1 dollar $ 1000 '• 100 cents. 10 dollars 1 eagle E. 10000 " 1000 cents 100 dimes. Coins.— The gold coins are the dovhle-eagle, eagle, half- eagle, quarter-eagle, three-dollar piece, and dollar. Notes.— 1. The fifty-dollar piece is not a legal coin. The UNITED STATES OK FEDERAL MONEY, 147 copper half-cent is no longer coined. The mill is not a coin. I 2. Gold coins contain 9 parts of gold and 1 part of an alloy of silver and copper. 3. The silver coins are the dollar^ half-dollar^ quarter' dollar^ dime^ half -dime ^ and three-cent jpiece. 4. Silver coins contain 9 parts silver and 1 part cop- per, except the three-cent piece, which is 3 parts silver and 1 part copper. 5. The nickel coins are the cent^ the new three-cent^ and new fve-cent pieces. 148 UNITED STATES OK FEDERAL MONEY. 6. The nickel cent contains 88 parts copper and 12 parts nickel. 7. The copper coins are the cent and two-cent j[deces. 8. The two-cent and cent pieces are made of nickel and copper. The term dollar is supposed to be derived from the German " thaler," pronounced td-ler. The term dime means ten. cent a hundred, and rniU a thousand. The origin of the dollar-mark is uncertain ; some think it the combination of U. S., others that it is an imitation of the dollars and scroll on the " pillar-dollar." 1 eagle (gold) weighs 258 troy grains. 1 dollar (silver) " 412.5 " 1 cent (copper) " 168 " 23.2 grains of pure gold=$1.00. Gold coin of the United States, prior to 1834, like that of England, =88. 8 cents per dwt. By act of Congress of 1834, its value was made 94.8 cents per dwt. The old United States Eagle, coined previous to 1834, is worth $10.66-8. ENGLISH MONEY. English or Sterling Money is the currency of Great Britain. * Table. 4 farthings (far. or qr.) make 1 penny, marked d. 12 pence s. 20 shillings " 1 shilling, " " 1 pound or sovereign, £, sov. 21 shillings " 1 guinea, marked guin. Coins. — The gold coins are the sovereign (£1), and the lialf-sovereign (10s.). The silver coins are the crown (5s.), the half-crown (2s. ^^>j, the florin (2s.), the shilling (12d.), sixpe7iny-piece (6d.), and threepenny-piece (3d.). 150 ENGLISH MONEY. The bronze coins are the penny, half -penny, SLud farthing. Fartliings are generally written as fractions of a penny, thus: 1 far.=^d. ; 2 far.=:| or i; 3 far.=:|. Canadian currency is decimal, and the denominations are the same as Federal money. The franc is the unit of the French decimal currency, and is worth centimes. ENGLISH MONEY. 151 ,186. The denominations are francs and Notes.— 1. The s^nnbol £ stands for the Latin word lihra^ a pound ; s. for solidus, a shilling ; d, for denarius, a penny ; qr. for quadrans, a quarter. 2. The term sterlifig is supposed to be derived from Easterling, a name formerly given to the early German traders. 3. The term farthing is derived from " four things," de- noting the divisions on the old English penny. AYOIEDUPOIS WEIGHT. P ^ mtMkI Avoirdupois weight is used for all ordinary purposes. Tablk. 16 drams (dr.) 16 oz. 25 lb. 4 qr. 20 ewt. 100 lb. 1 ounce, marked oz. 1 pound, " lb. i 1 quarter, " qr. 1 hundredweight, " cwt. 1 ton, u ip 1 cental, " c. i AVOLBDUPOIS WEIGHT. 153 T. cwt. qr. lb. 1=20=80=2000 1= 4= 100 1= 25 lb. oz. dr. gr.* 1 = 16=256=7000 1= 16=437^ 1 = 27H Notes. — 1. The gross ton of 2240 lbs. was formerly in common use, but is now seldom used except at the United States Custom House and at the Pennsylvania coal mines. 2. Butter is usually packed for market in pails or firkins, which hold from 50 to lOU pounds. 3. The term avoirdupois is derived from the French " avoir du poids," meaning goods of weight. Cwt. is formed from arley-corus I inch, 1 foot, 1 yard, 1 rod, 1 furlong. 12 inches 3 ft. H yd. 40 rd. 8 fur. 1 mile. marked ft. '' yd. " rd. " fur. " mi. Scale of Comparison. mi. fur. rod. yd. 1 = 8=320=1760 lz= 40= 220 1 = 1 H= ft. in. 5280 =63360 660 = 7920 16J= 198 = 3 = 36 1 = 12 SURVEYORS' MEASURE. Gimter's chain is used by land surveyors. It is 4 rods or 66 feet long, and contains 100 links. 1 Table. 25 links (li.) 1 rod, rd. 4 rods 1 chain, ch. 80 chains 1 mile, mi. Table of i Miscellaneous Linear Measure. 3 inches 4 inches 9 inches 3 feet 3.28 feet 6 feet 1 880 fathoms 3 geographical 60 " 69J statute 1 palm. 1 ^ o r> rl S Used in measuring the height of horses I nana. ^attheshouWer. 1 span. 1 pace or step. ! 1 metre. j 1 fathom. ^^ ^ . . .^, . f ^ ., V Used m measuring depths at sea. i 1 mile. ) t miles 1 league. ^ j a j 1 degree. ^ Ollongi^ude m the equator. Note. — A hair' s breadth is the 48th part of an inch. A ship's cable , is a chain, usually about 120 fathoms or 720 feet long, ] lence the term " cable length " in nautical language denotes about that distance. Notes. — 1. A knot is a nautical or geographical mile. Thus, the phrase, " thirteen knots an hour," means thirteen |j geographical miles an hour. jj ii CLOTH MEASURE. 169 2. 1 English mile equals 5280 feet, and 1 nautical, or geographical mile, equals 6086 feet. 3. The geographic mile equals about 1.15 English miles; the German short mile, about 3.9 English miles ; the Ger- man long mile, about 5.75 English miles ; the Prussian mile about 4.7 English miles ; the Spanish common league, about 4.2 miles ; and the Spanish judicial league about 2.6 miles. 4. Measures of length were at first derived from the dif- ferent parts of the body, as the finger^ Jiand, the span^ or the length of the thumb and middle finger extended ; ciibit, or the length of the forearm ; and ihefcUhoniy or the length of the two arms extended. CLOTH MEASURE. Cloth measure is used by merchants in the sale of cloth, ribbons, laces, &c. Table. 2 sixteenths (16th) 1 eighth, marked 8th, ^ yd. 2 eighths 1 quarter, " 9.^-) i yd- 2 quarters 1 half, '' hlf., ^ yd. 4 quarters or 2 halves 1 yard, " yd. Note. — The old system of measuring cloth is not now used. By it each yard is divided into 4 quarters, and each quarter into 4 nails, a nail being ^\ inches. 3 quarters make a Flemish ell, 5 quarters an English ell, and 6 quarters a French ell. 8 CUBIC MEASITKE. Table. 1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) 27 cubic feet 40 cubic ft. of round timber or 50 cubic feet of hewn timber 16 cubic feet 8 cord feet or ) 128 cubic feet f 24| cubic feet 1 cubic foot, I cubic .yard, marked cu. ft. cu. yd. 1 ton or load, a- T. 1 cord foot, >( cd. ft. 1 cord of wood, *' Cd. i perch or ) 1 < stone, or >• a Pch. ( masonry. ) Cubic measure is used in estimating the contents of solids ; as wood, stone, capacity of cisterns, &c. USSSi CUBIC MEASURK 171 Cubic inch, Cubic foot. Cubic yaxd. To f/rid the cubic contents of any solid hody. Rule. — Multiply the length by the breadth, and that pro- duct by the thickness. Notes. — 1. A load of earth contains a cubic yard, and weighs about 3250 lbs. 2. Railway and transportation companies estimate light freight by the number of cubic feet it occupies ; l)ut heavy freight is estimated by weight. 3. A pile of wood 4 feet wide, 4 feet high, and 8 feet long, contains 1 cord ; and a cord foot is 1 foot in length of such a pile. 4. A perch of stone or masonry is 16J feet long, 1^ feet wide, and 1 foot high, and contains 24f cubic feet. 5. A brick is usually 8 inches long, 4 inches wide, and 2 inches thick ; hence 27 bricks make a cubic foot. 6. Joiners, painters, and masons make no allowance for windows, dooi-s, &c. Masons make no allowance for the corners of the walls of houses or of cellars. The size of a 172 CUBIC MEASURE. cellar is estimated by the measurement of the outside of the wall. Ton weight and ton measure.~K ton of hay, or any other coarse bulky article usually sold by that measure, is 20 gross hundreds, that is 2240 lbs. But in many places it has become the custom to count only 2000 lbs. for a ton. In freighting ships, 42 cubic feet are allowed to a ton ; in the measurement of timber, 40 solid feet if round, and 50 if square make a ton. THE METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.* The metric system of weights and measures had its origin in France during the Revohition in the year 1790. The fol- lowing year a commission of scientific men was appointed by the government to select an appropriate unit, and as the result of their investigations the ten-millionth part of the earth's quadrant was chosen and called a Metre. To deter- mine the unit of weight a cube of pure water at its greatest density, each edge of which is one-hundredth of a metre, was taken and called a Gramme (anglicized gram). The mul- tiples and subdivisions were made to correspond to the deci- mal scale, hence its great simplicity. This system was declared obligatory in France after Nov. 2, 1801 ; but no penalty was attached to non-conformity until after Jan. 1, 1841. The system has since been adopted wholly or in part by Spain, Belgium, Portugal, Holland, Great Britain, Greece, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Mexico, Guatemala, Venezuela, Ecuador, IT. S. of Columbia, Brazil, Chili, San Salvador, and the Argentine Republic. In 1866 * The followiug article on the Metric System of Weights and Measures was prepared for this work by S. A. Felter, A.M., author of a well-known series of mathematical text-books. 174 METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Congress authorized the metric system in the United States by passing the following bill : — AN ACT TO AUTHORIZE THE USE OF THE METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Be it ermcted hy the Senate and House of Representatwes of the United States of America in Congress assembled^ That from and after the passage of this act, it shall be law- ful throughout the United States of America to employ the weights and measures of the metric system ; and no contract or dealing, or pleading in any court, shall be deemed invalid or liable to objection, because the weights or measures ex- pressed or referred to therein are weights or measures of the metric system. Sec. 2. — And he it further enacted^ That the tables in the schedule hereto annexed, shall be recognized in the construc- tion of contracts, and in all legal proceedings, as establish- ing, in terms of the weights and measures now in use in the United States, the equivalents of the weights and measures expressed therein in terms of the metric system ; and said tables may be lawfully used for computing, determining, and expressing, in customary weights aud measures, the weights and measures of the metric system. The utility of the metric system commends itself, even at a glance, and hence it becomes important that all should become acquainted with it. It will doubtless soon come in- to general use to the exclusion of all other systems of weight and measure. The following is a brief and condensed view METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 175 of the system, so clear and simple that a child can under- stand it : — The Metric System of weights and measures is formed upon the decimal scale, and has for its base an invariable unit derived from nature, and called a Metre ; and upon this unit all the units of weight and measure are based. The Metre is the ten-millionth part of the distance from the equator to the pole ; and is the principal unit of linear measure. T7ie Are is a square whose side is ten metres. It is the principal unit of superficial measure. The Stere is a cube whose edge is a metre. It is the prin- cipal unit of solid or cubic measure. TJie Litre is a cube whose edge is the tenth of a metre. It is the principal unit of all measures of capacity. The Gram is the weight of a cube of pure water at its greatest density, whose edge is the hundredth part of a metre. A litre of water weighs 1,000 grams. It is the prin- cipal unit of weight. The names of the derivative denominations are formed by joining a Latin or Greek prefix to the principal units. There are seven of these prefixes, derived as follows; i MiLLi, from Millesimus, a thousandth. Latin. I Centi, from Ce7itesimus, a hundredth. ( Deci, from Decimus, a tenth. 1 176 METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. ' ' Deca, ten. Greek. - Hecto, from Hecaton^ one hundred. ; Kilo, from Chilioi^ one thousand. \ ^ Myria, from Myrim., ten tlwusand. \ The formation of the tables can be seen at a glance by | the following : — 11 MilU >l ^ -] 1 Centi Deci - Mepre. \ Are.-^ - Litre. j - Gram. Deca - Stere. Hecto Kilo j- Myria - ' . Names. Pkonunciation. Abr. mm. Names. Pronunciation. ABR. MiUimetre Mill'-e-mee'-ter Hectostere Hec'-to-steer hs. 1 Centimetre Sent'-e-mee'-ter cm. Kilostere Kill'-o-steer ks. 1 Decimetre Metre Des'-e-mee'-ter Mee'-ter dm. m. Myriastere Mir' -e-a-steer Mill'-e-li'-ter mys. 1 ml. I Millilitre Decametre Dek'-a-mee'-ter dkm Centilitre Sent'-e-li'-ter cl. 1 Hectometre Hec'-to-mee'-ter hm. Decilitre Des'-e-li'-ter dL 1 Kilometre Kill'-o-mee'-ter km. Litre Li'-ter /. ' Myriametre Mir'-e-a-mee'-ter myrn. Decalitre Dek'-a-li'-ter dkl. ' Milliare MiU'-e-are ma. Hectolitre Hec'-to-li'-ter hi. Centiare Sent'-e-are ca. Kilolitre Kill'-o-li'-ter U. ; Deciare Are Des'-e-are Are da. a. Myrialitre Mir'-e-a-li'-ter Mill'-e-gram myl. mg. \ Milligram Decare Dek'-are dka. (Centigram Sent' -e -gram eg. 1 Hectare Hec'-tare ha. Decigram Des'-e-gram dg. 1 Kilare Kill'-are ka. Gram Gram 9- ' Myriaro Mir'-e-are mya. Decagram Dek'-a-gram dkg. Millistere MiU'-e-steer ms. Hectogram 3ec -to-gram hg. \ Centistere Sent' -e -steer cs. Kilogram iill'-o-gram kg. Decistere Des'-e-steer ds. Myriagram Mir' -e-a-gram myg. ' Stere Steer s. Quintal Quin'-tal q. 1 Decastere Dek'-a-steer dks. Tonneau run '-no ^- , i * The a in deca and myria, and the in hecto and kilo are dropped when prefixed to Are. METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 177 LINEAR MEASURE. Illustration* Note. — By the accompany- ing illustration it will be seen that one-tenth of a metre, or ten centimetres, equals about 3|| in., or a trifle short of 4 in. This measure, as well as the other measures and weights, is written as whole numbers and decimals. The decimal point is placed at the right of the unit ; thus, 4.167 m. may be written 416.7 cm. To make a metric rule, cut a piece of wood, paper, or tape, 39| in. long. Divide it into ten equal parts, and each part into ten other equal parts ; each of these parts is 1 centimetre. Divide each centimetre into ten equal parts, and each part is a mil- limetre. The diameter of the nickel live cent piece of 1866 is 2 centimstres^ and its weight is 5 grams. The Centimetre is the unit generally used for measure- 8*' o Q> 00 CO 5 nil nil 4 nil nil CO 5 nil nil III! Nil — CO ~ ca Z_ r^ ITS METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. nients less than a metre. For its length in coniinon measure see illustration. The Metre is the unit commonly used by artisans. It equals 3 ft. 3f in. (nearly). The Kihmietre is the unit commonly used by surveyors in measuring distances. Its length is 198 rd. 13 ft. 10 in. Table.* Full. 10 millimetres = 10 centimetres = 10 decimetres =: 10 metres = 10 decametres = 10 hectometres = 1 centimetre. 1 decimetre. 1 Melre. 1 decametre. 1 hectometre. 1 kilometre. 10 kilometres = 1 myriametre. Contracted. 10 millimetres = 1 centimetre. 100 centimetres = 1 metre. loo metres = 1 kilometre. SQUARE MEASURE. The square Metre is the unit commonly used by artisans in specifying surfaces of small extent. It contains about 10 sq. ft. 110 sq. in. The Are is the unit commonly used to express quantities less than the hectare. 100 ares make one hectare. The Hectare is the unit commonly used by surveyors * Note. — The unit of each table is divided into ten equal parts, designated by prefixing deci (tenth) ; as, deczgram. The tenths are divided into ten other equal parts, designated by prefixing c&nti (hundredth) ; as, centi^am. The hujidredths are subdivided in the same manner, and are designated by prefix- ing 7mlli (thousandth) ; as, milligram. The contracted table is the most con- venient for common use. METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 179 in estimating the contents of land. It contains 2.471 acres. Table. FiiU. Contracted. 10 milliares = 1 centiare. 10 centiares = 1 declare. 10 deciares = 1 Are. 10 ares = 1 decare. 10 decares = 1 hectare. 10 hectares = 1 kilare. 10 kUares = 1 myriare. 100 sq. millimetres =1 sq. centimetre. 100 sq. centimetres = 1 sq. decimetre. 100 sq. decimetres =1 sq. metre. 100 sq. metres =\ are. 100 ares =\ hectare. CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. T/ie euhic Metre or Stere is the unit commonly used by engineers in estimating the solid contents of embankments, cellars, walls, a/'^6' each of the following articles of diet. Designation. Solid matter. Water. Designation. Solid matter. Water. Wheat 87 87 86 8() S6 86 74 51 29 27 26 26 25 25 13 13 14 14 14 14 26 49 71 73 74 74 75 75 Pork.. 24 21 20 19 18 16 13 13 13 13 8 7 5 3 76 Peas Codfish . 79 Rice Blood 80 Beans Trout . 81 Rye ADDles 82 Corn Pears 84 Oatmeal Carrots Beets 87 Wheat bread 87 Mutton Milk 87 Chicken Oysters 87 Lean Beef Cabbage . .... 92 Eggs Turnips 93 Veal Water Melon Cucumber 95 Potatoes 97 WEIGHTS OF GRAIN, SEEDS, &C. 189 WEIGHTS OF GRAIN, SEEDS, &c. Table, showing the weight of grain, seeds, ikc.^jper hushel, as established by the Legislatures of the following States. The letter m indicates sold by measure. AKTICLES. Wheat, lbs Rye, Corn, Oats, » . Barley, Buckwheat, Clover seed, Timothy seed,. Flax seed, Hemp seed, ... Biue-grass seed, Apples, dried,., Peaches, dried, . Coarse salt, Fine salt, Potatoes, , Peas, Beans, Castor Beans, . . Onions, Corn Meal , Mineral Coal, . . 60160 565G 50,56 32;32 48147 48 64 4-2 56 56 85 50 62 60 56 56 35 48 52 60 45 56 44 14 28 24 28i33 50 50 60 60 46 57 60 3 \4 60 60 5656 56156 33! 30 48;48 52 50 60 60 64 55 60 60 5656 56'52 32m 46 m 46m ;m m m 60 To reduce cubic feet to busliels, struck measure, divide the cubic feet by 56 and multiply by 45. 190 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF CERTAIN CROPS. PEOPOETION OF ALCOHOL IN LIQUOKS. Table, showing the jpTQjportion of alcohol in 100 jx^rtSy ecbch^ of the following liquors. Designation. Parts in 100, Scotch Whiskey 54.32 Irish Whiskey 53. 9 Rum 53. G8 Brandv 63.39 Gia 51.6 Port.... 22.9 Madeira 22.27 Currant 20.55 Teneriffe 19.79 Designation. Parts in 100. Sherry 19.17 Claret 15.1 Champagne 13.8 Gooseberry 11.84 Elder 8.79 Ale 6.87 Porter 4.2 Cider 9.8 to 5.2 Prof. Brandt. NUTKITIYE YALUE OF CEETAIN CROPS. If we suppose an acre to yield the following quantities of the usually cultivated crops, the weight of dry starch and gum, of gluten, albumen, casein, &c., of oil or fat, and of saline matter, reaped in each crop, will be represented nearly by the following numbers : — DESIGKATIOM. Wheat Barley Oats Peas Beans Indian Corn.. Potatoes Turnips Wheat Straw. Meadow Hay. Clover Hay. . Cabbage . . . . iba. 1500 1800 2100 1600 1600 1800 12 tons 27000 30 ' 2 ' 20 ' 6700U 3000 3400 45i)0 45000 n 2-25 270 420 130 160 100 1080 1340 1500 1020 1120 430 825 1080 1-50 800 640 1260 4800 6000 900 lc60 1800 2300 a . |.a 180 230 300 380 420 220 510 lOOO 40 240 420 1300 Oil. 45 50 100 i>4 40 130 45 200 80 120 200 130 30 50 75 48 50 30 240 450 150 220 400 600 Johnston QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIEED. 191 Note. — From the above table it appears that the acre which, by cropping with wheat, would yield a given weight of starch, sugar, and gum, would, when cropped with bar- ley or oats, yield one-fourth more of these substances — with potatoes, about four times as much, and with turnips eight times the same quantity. In other words, the piece of ground which, when sown with wheat, will maintain one man, would support one and a quarter if sown with barley or oats, four with potatoes, and eight with turnips — in so far as the nutritive power of these crops depends on the star oh, sugar^ a/nd gum they contain. PEECENTAGE OF OIL IN SEEDS, GRAIN, &o. Oil per cent, in dAff event seeds ^ grain ^ &c. Oil per cent. Linseed 11 to 22 say 17 Hempseed 14 " 25 " 19 Rapeseed. 40 " 70 " 55 White mustard 36 " 38 " 37 Sweet almond. ... 40 " 54 " 47 Bitter almond 28" 46 " 37 Turnip seed 40 " 50 " 45 Wheat flour 2 " 4 " 3 Barley 2 " 3 '' 2^ Oil per cent. Oats 5 to 8 say 6i Indian com 5 " 9 " 7 Wheat bran, 3 " 5 " 4 Potatoes, turnips, and cabbage i^ Wheat-straw. 2 " 3| " 3 Oat-straw ' 4 Meadow hay 2" 5 " 3| Clover hay 3 " 5 " 5 QUANTITIES OF SEED REQUIRED TO THE ACRE, &o. Table, showing the guantity of garden seeds requirea to plant a given space. Designation. Space and quantity of seeds. Asparagus |1 oz. produces 1000 plants, and requires a bed 12 ft sq. " Roots. .1000 plant a bed 4 feet wide 225 feet long. Eng. Dwarf Beans. 1 quart plants from 100 to l/)0 feet of row. French " P " " 250 or 350 feet of row. Beans, pole, largeil " " 100 hills. *' " small! 1 " " 300 hiUs. or 260 feet of row. 192 QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED. Designation. Beets Broccoli and Kale Cabbage. Cauliflower Carrot Celery Cucumber Egg Plant . . . . Endive Leek Lettuce Melon Nasturtium. . . Onion Okra Parsley Parsnip Peppers Peas Pumpkin Radish Salsify Spinage Squash Tomato Turnip Water Melon, Space and quantity of seeds. 10 lbs. to the acre ; 1 oz plants 150 feet of row. I oz. plants 2,500 plants, and requires 40 sq. ft. of ground. Early sorts same as brocoli, and require 60 feq. ft. ground. The same as cabbage. I oz. to 15u of row. 1 oz. gives 7000 plants, and requires 8 sq. feet of ground. I oa. for 150 hills. I oz. sows a bed 1 G feet square. 1 oz. gives 2000 plants. I oz. gives 3000 plants, and requires 80 feet of ground. I oz. gives 20(10 plants, and requires 60 feet of ground. I oz. ♦' 7000 " and requires seed bed of 120 feet. I oz. for 120 hills. I oz. BOWS 25 feet of row. loz. " 200 " " I oz. " 200 " '♦ loz. " 200 " *• loz. " 250 •' " I oz. gives 2500 plants. 1 quart sows 120 feet of row. I oz. to 50 hills. 1 oz. to 100 feet. 1 oz. to 150 feet of row. 1 oz. to 200 feet of row, I oz. to 75 hills. I oz gives 2500 plants, requiring seed bed of 80 feet. I oz. to 2000 feet. 1 oz. to 50 hills. Table, showing the quantity of seed Designation. Quantity of seed. Wheat lJto2 bush, Barley l| to 2^ Oats 2 to 4 Rye 1 to 2 Buckwheat. f to 1^ Millet 1 tolj Corn 1 to 2 Beans 2 to 3 Peas 2 J to 3 J Hemp 1 to l| Flax ito2 Rice 2 to 2 J required to the acre. Designation. Quantity of seed. Broom Corn 1 to 1^ bush. Potatoes 15 to 20 Timothy 12 to 24 quarts Mustard 8 to 20 " Herd Grass 12 to 16 ** Flat Turnip 2 to 3 lbs. Red Clover 10 to 16 " White Clover 3 to 4 " BlueGraFs 10 to 15 '* Orchard Grass 20 to 30 " Carrots 4 to 5 " Parsnips G to 8 '* Table, showing the quantity per acre when planted in rows or driUs. Broom Corn 1 to 1 J bush. Beans H to 2 Peas U to 2 Onions 4 to 5 lbs. Carrots 2 to 2^ " Parsnips 4 to 5 " Beets 4 to 6 " PROPORTIONS OF WEIGHT TO BULK. 193 DEPTH OF SOWING WHEAT. Wheat may be sowed too sliallow as well as too deep. Tlie depth must vary with the soil. A tliinner covering is required in a close, thick, heavy soil, than in one light, gravelly, and sandy. Experiments, made with wheat give the following results : — Seeds sown to the u depth u u of il 1 nch t( u it (( u 11 Appeared above gronnd in 11 days. 12 " 18 " 20 '• 21 " 22 " 23 " No. that of plants came up. i all U 41 2 t 8 i 1 i (( (( 3 4 (t (( 5 U (( 6 PROPORTIONS OF WEIGHT TO BULK. Table, showing the weight per cubic foot of various sub- stances, and the mtmher of cubic feet required to make a ton of each. Material. LUs. per cubic II. Cub. leet pen...,. -Malerial. Lbs. per cubic n. Cob. ieel per toil. METALS, naaf- TroM 454 485 490 549 557 .524 709 654 456 1203 439 1218 848 198 165 165 171 151 130 , 120 174 125 4.9;3 4.62 4.6 4.08 4.02 4.0:3 3.15 4.9 5. 2.64 11. 13.5 13.5 13.1 14.8 17. 18.7 12.8 18. STONE, ETC. Glass Sand 180 95 167 48 46 35 44 57 52 45 70 43 ;^ 46 62.5 64.5 .07529 .a3689 15. 57. .59. 12 44 23 .56 Steel Slate 13.4 Copper cast WOOD. Ash nonnpr WTontrht 46 Brass Beach 48.7 Lead Cedar 64 Silver Elm 51. Tin Mahogany, Spanish Oak, English 39.3 add 43. Zinc White Oak, American Live Oak 49. Platinum 32 IMne, Pitch .51.6 Wiite Lead '• Yellow 59 " White 66. STONE, ETC. Poplar 48. MISCELLANEOUS. Water, fresh .salt ;35.8 Marble 34.8 Air* Steamt Sand Stone Cork 149.? Chalk Olive oil 39.a Clay Tallow * At the level of the sea. t Not imder pressnre. CORN— pore:. According to the Patent Office Reports, and the results of numerous experiments, 1 bushel of corn weighing 56 lbs. will produce 10|- lbs. of pork. Throwing off ^ to come at the net weight, gives 8f lbs. of pork as the product of 1 bushel of corn, or 1 lb. of pork as the product of 6f lbs. of corn. 3f lbs. of cooked corn-meal makes 1 lb. of pork. Assuming that it requires 6f lbs. of corn to make 1 lb. of pork (exclusive of the labor of feeding and taking care of hogs), the relation which the price of corn bears to that of pork is exhibited in the following Table, showing the price of pork per lb. at different prices per bushel for corn. Com per baah. Pork per pound. Com per bush. Pork per pound. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. 12i .... 1.50 38 4.52 15 U8 40 4.16 17 2 42 5. 20 2.38 . . 45 5.35 22 2.62 50 "^.95 25 2.96 55 6.54 30 3.5Y 60 T.14 33 3.92 65 •7.74 35 4. 70 8.57 By reversing the above table we have the price of corn per bushel at different prices per lb. for pork. The use of the above table is obvious. For example, should corn be CORN POKK, 195 selling for 50 cents per bushel and pork for only 5 cents per lb., it would be most profitable to sell the corn ; but should corn be selling for 40 cents per bushel and pork for 6 cents per lb., it would be most profitable to reduce the corn to pork, and sell the latter. To Jmd the price of pork per lb,, taking tJie price of com per hushd as the datum. Rule. — Divide the price of a bushel of corn by 8.40 (the number of lbs. of pork produced by a bushel of com), and the quotient will be the answer. Example. — When corn is 20 cents per bushel, what should be the price of pork per lb. ? Solution.— 20.00 cents, ^8.40 lbs., =2.38 cents. Ans. To find the price of corn per bushel, taking the price of pork per lb. as the datum. Rule. — Multiply the price of a lb. of pork by 8.40 (the number of lbs. of pork produced by a bushel of com), and the product will be the answer. Example. — What should be the price of corn per bushel when pork is selling at 4J cents per lb. Solution. — 4.50 cents, x 8.40 lbs., =37.8 cents. Ans. Note. — The foregoing table and rules must not be taken as invariably correct. It requires but little reflection to satisfy the farmer that the proportions and results exhibited by them must be influenced by many conditions and causes, such as the sample of corn used, the constitution and breed 196 COKN — PORK. as well as the age of the animal, its condition, powers of di gestion, habits, health, &c. The very nature of the subject precludes the possibility of exactly defining the results and [)roportions. At best we can only have some general^ aver- aye results and rules. The foregoing is deemed a safe gen- oral average. LIFE AND INCREASE OF ANIMALS. To keep liens in winter. Provide — \. A comfortable roost ; 2. Plenty of sand, gravel and ashes, dry^ to play in ; 3. A box of lime ; 4. Boiled meat, chopped fine, every two or three days ; 198 LIFE AND INCKEASE OF ANIMALS. 5. Corn and oats, which will be best if boiled tender ; 6. All the crumbs and potato parings ; 7. Water, neither cold nor blood-warm. This treatment has proved quite successful in a great many cases where the formula has been strictly adhered to, and hens which without it gave no eggs, with it immediately laid one each, on an average, every two days. Table, showing the period of reproduction and gestation of domestic animals. DESIGNATION. Proper age for reproduc- tion. *^ 4 years. 6 " 3 " 3 " 2 " 2 " 1 " 1 " 2 '' 2 " 4 " 5 •■ 2 " 2 " 1 •* 1 «• 6 months 6 " 6 " Period of the power of re- production in years. 10 to 12 12 to 15 10 to 14 8 to 10 6 7 6 6 6 5 10 to 12 12 to 15 8 8 to 9 8 10 9 5 to 6 9 to 10 5 to 6 5 to 6 5 to 6 3 to 5 No. of Fe- males for one Male. PERIOD or GI Shortest pe- riod, days. E8TATI0K AKD Mean peri- od, days. IKCU^TION Longest pe- riod, days. 419 321 161 143 163 391 335 63 66 35 24 30 32 33 20 30 25 45 Mare, stallion Cow Bull, Ewe Ram Sow, Boar, 20 to 30 30 to 40 40 to 50 6 to 10 20 to 40 5 to 6 30 12 to 15 322 240 146 109 150 366 281 55 48 20 19 24 28 27 16 25 20 40 347 283 154 115 156 380 308 60 50 28 21 26 30 30 18 28 23 42 She Goat, He Goat, She Ass, He Ass She Buffalo, . . Bitch, Dog She Cat, He Cat, Doe Rabbit... Buck Rabbit,. (Jock Hen Turkey, Duck, Goose, . • Pigeon, Pea Hen Guinea Hen,. Swan, LIFE AND INCREASE OF ANIMALS. 109 Growth and life of animals. Man grows for 20 years, and lives 90 or 100 years. II The Camel " 8 " 40 The Horse " 5 " 25 '« The Ox " 4 ♦* 15 to 20 " The Lion " 4 '♦ 20 The Dog " 2 " 12 to 14 " The ('at " 1^ " 9 or 10 '* The Hare " 1 - 8 The Guinea pig 7 months. and lives 6 or 7 " 11 A Table showing at one view ) when Forty Weeks {the period of gestation in a cow) will expire^ from any day through- out the year. 1 Jan. Oct. Keb. Kov. March Dec April Jan. May. Feb. June. March. 1 8 1 1 6 1 6 1 5 1 8 2 9 2 9 2 7 2 7 2 6 2 9 3 10 3 10 3 8 3 8 3 7 3 10 4 11 4 11 4 9 4 9 4 8 4 11 5 12 6 12 5 10 5 10 5 9 5 12 6 13 6 13 6 11 6 11 6 10 6 13 7 14 7 14 7 12 7 12 7 11 7 14 8 15 8 15 8 J3 8 13 8 12 8 15 9 16 9 16 9 14 9 14 9 13 9 16 1 10 17 10 17 10 15 10 15 10 14 10 17 11 18 11 18 11 16 11 16 11 15 11 18 12 19 12 19 12 17 12 17 12 16 12 19 13 20 13 20 13 18 13 18 13 17 13 20 14 21 14 21 14 19 14 19 14 18 14 21 1 15 22 15 22 15 20 15 20 15 19 15 22 1 16 23 16 28 16 21 16 21 16 20 16 23 1 17 24 17 24 17 22 17 22 17 21 17 24 18 23 18 25 18 23 18 23 18 22 18 25 1 19 26 19 26 19 24 19 24 19 23 19 26 20 27 20 27 20 25 20 25 20 24 20 27 21 28 21 28 21 26 21 23 21 25 21 28 22 29 22 29 22 27 22 27 22 26 22 29 23 30 23 30 23 28 23 28 23 27 23 30 24 31 Dec. 24 29 24 29 24 28 24 31 Nov 24 1 25 30 25 30 March April. 25 1 25 1 25 2 26 31 26 31 25 1 26 2 26 3 Jan. Feb 26 2 26 2 27 3 27 4 27 1 27 1 27 3 27 3 28 4 28 5 28 2 28 2 28 4 28 4 1 29 5 29 6 29 3 29 3 29 5 29 5 i 30 6 30 4 30 4 30 6 30 6 1 31 7 31 5 31 7 31 7 ! 200 LIFE AND INCREASE OF ANIMALS. Table continued. July. April. Aug. May. Sept. June. Oct. July. Nov. Aug Dec. Sept 7 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 7 2 8 2 9 2 9 2 9 2 9 2 8 3 9 3 10 3 10 3 10 3 10 3 9 4 10 4 11 4 11 4 11 4 11 4 10 5 11 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 5 11 G 12 6 13 6 13 6 13 6 13 6 12 7 13 7 14 7 14 7 14 7 14 7 13 8 14 8 15 8 15 8 15 8 15 8 14 9 15 9 16 9 16 9 16 9 16 9 15 10 1() 10 17 10 17 10 17 .10 17 10 16 11 17 11 18 11 18 11 18 11 18 11 17 12 IS 12 19 12 19 12 19 12 19 12 18 13 19 13 20 13 2'» 13 20 13 20 13 19 14 20 14 21 14 21 14 21 14 21 14 20 15 21 15 22 15 22 15 22 15 22 15 21 16 2-' 16 23 16 23 16 23 16 23 16 22 17 t\\ 17 24 17 24 17 24 17 24 17 23 18 24 18 25 18 25 18 25 18 25 18 24 19 25 19 26 19 26 19 26 19 26 19 25 20 26 20 27 20 27 20 27 20 27 20 26 21 27 21 28 21 28 21 28 21 28 21 27 22 28 22 29 22 29 22 29 22 29 22 28 23 29 23 30 23 30 23 30 23 30 23 29 24 30 24 31 July. 24 31 24 31 24 30 May. June. 24 1 Aug. Sept. Oct. 25 1 25 1 25 2 25 1 25 1 25 1 26 2 26 2 26 3 26 2 26 2 26 2 27 3 27 3 27 4 27 3 27 3 27 3 28 4 28 4 28 5 28 4 28 4 28 4 29 6 29 5 29 6 29 5 29 5 29 5 30 6 30 6 30 7 30 6 30 6 30 6 31 7 31 7 31 7 31 7 Growth and life of animals. AGE OF ANIMALS. To jv)\d the age of a horse. The colt is born with 12 grinders. When 4 front teeth have made their appearance the colt is 12 days old, and when the next 4 appear it is four weeks old. When the corner teeth appear it is eight months old, and when the latter have attained the height of the front teeth it is a year old. The two year old colt has the kernel (the dark sub- stance in the middle of the tooth's crown) ground or worn out of all the front teeth. In the third year the middle front teeth are being shifted, and when three years old these are su])stituted for the horse teeth. In the fourth year the next 4 are shifted, and in the fifth year the corner teeth are shifted. In the sixth year the kernel is worn out of the middle front teeth, and the bridle teeth have now attained their full growth. At seven years a hook has been formed on the corner teeth of the upper jaw : the kernel of the teeth next at the middle is worn out, and the bridle teeth begin to wear off. At eight years of age the kernel is worn out of all the lower front teeth, and begins to decrease in the middle up- per fronts. In the ninth year the kernel lia's wholly disap- peared from the upper middle front teeth, the hook on the corner teeth has increased in size, and the bridle teeth loose 9* 202 AGE OF ANIMALS. their point. In the tenth year the kernel has worn out of the teetli next to the middle fronts of the upper jaw, and in the eleventh year the kernel has entirely disappeared from the corner teeth of the same jaw. At twelve years the crowns of all the front teeth in the lower jaw have become triangular, and the bridle teeth are much worn down. As the horse advances in age the gums shrink away from the teeth, which appear long and narrow, and the kernels become changed into darkish points. Gray hairs increase in the forehead and the chin becomes angular. A modification of the foregoing, much more scientific or systematic, and probably quite as reliable, is the classifica- tion of Pessina, a distinguished veterinary surgeon of Ger- many. Its principles may be distinctly understood by reference to the accompaning cuts, A, B, C, and D. A, represents the corner tooth of a young horse ; the oth- FiG. A. er nippers' vary very little from this one in their construc- tion and form.' The top of the tooth is long from side to side, and the ex- treme lower end is long from front to rear. The manner in AGE OF ANIMALS. 203 which the shape changes as we go farther down the tooth is represented in tigure B, where cross sections at different sections are shown. Fig. B. The horse's tooth is worn away by nse, and its upper sur- face assumes the form of these different sections consecu- tively, according to the extent to which it has been worn off*. Of course, this only forms a general rule by which to judge of the age of a horse. Cribbiters, horses feeding chiefly on very old dry hay, and oats mixed with grit, and horses which are continually gnawing their mangers, will have their teeth worn away faster than will those which are fed on grass and moistened, cut, and ground feed, and which keep their teeth to themselves when they are not eating. Pessina's table of indications of age is correct for the average of horses, and in all cases is sufficiently so for gen- eral purposes. We quote the following frorn Herbert's hints to horse- keepers : — '' At jime years the corners are up even with the other teeth; the mark is entirely w 3 a 1*1 6 i fes pi © s £«5 Sc| ± i fe<£ ■Sal ^i ^i be < -1 «2 o 38 60 < a q2 At birth. 4893 1264 28.15 34 1772 30.24 ~68 772 37 12.43 1 3629 274 « 35 1737 35 28.22 69 735 37 (C 2 3355 188 i( 36 1702 35 (( 70 698 37 10.06 3 3167 132 <( 87 1667 35 a 71 601 37 « 4 3035 84 <( 38 1632 35 72 624 37 (i 6 2951 68 40.87 39 1597 85 (( 73 687 37 it 6 2893 65 <( 40 15G2 35 26.04 74 649 37 n 7 2838 47 <( 41 1527 35 (( 75 511 37 7.83 8 2791 40 << 42 1492 35 60 1018 27 15.43 94 23 7 tt 27 2076 38 (t 61 991 27 <( 95 16 6 1.62 28 2038 38 it 62 964 27 it 96 10 5 it 29 2000 38 (i 63 937 27 n 97 6 3 tt 30 1962 38 30.24 64 910 27 ii 98 2 1 It 31 1924 38 >( 65 883 37 12.43 99 1 1 tt 32 1886 38 (( 66 846 37 (( 33 1848 88 «< 67 809 37 (( The above table, originally compiled by Dr. Wiggleworth, of New England, after many years of careful observation and statistical research, exhibits the average yearly decrease HUMAN LIFE. 217 of life out of a given number born, and the expectation of reaching a certain age deduced from that decrease as the datum. Among the many similar tables that have been constructed, it is perhaps the most accurate. It received the cautious scrutiny and revision of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, and was adopted by it {see Easterbrook m. Hojpgood^ 10 Mass. Rejports^ 313) as the rule in estimating the value of life estates. Explanation. — Opposite the age of the individual, under the column headed " Expectation of Life, &c.," will.be found the additional number of years he may reasonably expect to live. Thus a man 40 years of age may reasonably expect to live 26.04 years longer. For the purpose of comparison with observations in Eu- rope, St. Maur's Table is subjoined, taken from observa- tions in Paris and the country around it. St. Maue's Table. Of 24,000 bom IT, 540 attain to 15,162 14,177 13,477 12,968 12,562 12,255 12,015 11,861 11,405 10,909 10,259 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "10 " 15 "20 "25 years. 9,544 attain to 30 years. 8,770 " ■ " ■ ' 7,729 7,008 6,197 5,375 4,564 3,450 2,544 1,507 807 291 "35 "40 "45 " 50 "55 "60 "65 "70 "75 " 80 "85 10 218 COMPOUND INTEREST. 103 attain to 90 years. 71 63 47 40 33 Explanation. 91 92 93 94 95 18 16 8 6 or 7 23 attain to 96 years. u 9Y u " 98 " " 99 '' " 100 ii -To ascertain by the above table what probability there is that a man of a given age will attain to any other age, make the number opposite the latter age the numerator and the number opposite the former age the denominator, and the fraction will express the probability sought for. Example. — What probability is there that a man of 30 will attain the age of 70 years ? Solution.— Opposite 70 find 2,544= 318 " 30 " 9,544=1193 Ans, That is to say, he has 318 chances out of 1193 of living to 70. COMPOUND INTEREST. Table, showing iJie amount of $1 for any number of years froin 1 to 24, at 5 and ^ jper cent.^ compound interest. Years. 6 per cent 6 per cent Ye&ra. 5 per cent 6 per cent 1 1.05 1.06 13 1.88564 2.13292 2 1.1025 1.1236 14 1.97993 2.26090 3 1.15763 1.19101 15 1.07892 2.39655 4 1.21550 1.26247 16 1.18287 2.64035 6 1.27628 1.33822 17 1.29201 2.69277 6 1.34009 1.41851 18 1.40661 2.85433 7 1.40710 1.50363 19 1.52695 3.02559 8 1.47745 1.59384 20 1.65329 3.20713 9 1.55132 1.68947 21 1.78596 3.39956 10 1.62889 1.79084 22 1.92526 3.60353 11 1.71033 1.89829 23 1.07152 3.81974 12 J 1.79585 1.01219 24 1.22509 4.04893 ANNUITIES. 219 Explanation. — Opposite the number of years in the column under the rate per cent., will be found the amount of $1, with the compound interest included for the time given. Should the amount of any given sum with the compound interest at a given rate per cent, for a given time be required, multiply the amount found in the column un- der the given rate per cent., and opposite the given time, by the sum at interest so given, and tlie product will be the answer. Example. — What will be the amount of $150 at compound interest at the rate of 5 per cent, for 10 years'? Solution.— 1.62889 x 150=$24:4:.33.35. Ans. ANNUITIES. Table, showing the present worth qf $1 annuity/ at 6 and 6 per cent, compound interest for any number of yea/rs from 1 to 34. Year. 6 per cent. 6 per cent. Years. 5 per cent. 6 per cent. 1 0.95238 0.94339 18 11.68958 10.82760 2 1.85941 1.83339 19 12.08532 11.15811 3 2.72325 2.67;.01 20 12.46221 11.46992 4 3.54695 3.46510 21 12.82115 11.76407 5 4.32948 4.21236 22 13.16300 12.04158 6 5.07569 4.91732 23 13.48807 12.30338 7 5.78(j37 5.58238 24 13.79864 12.55035 8 6.46321 6.20979 25 14.09394 12.78335 9 7. 107^2 6.80169 26 14.37518 13.00316 10 7.72173 7.36>*08 27 14.64303 13.21053 11 8.30641 7.88G87 28 14.89813 13.40616 12 8.86325 8.38381 29 15.14107 13.59072 13 9.39357 8.85.68 30 15.37245 13.76483 14 9.898G4 9.2949S 31 15.59281 13.92908 15 10.379f)() 9.71225 32 15.80268 14.08398 16 10.83777 10.10589 33 16.00255 14.22917 17 11.27407 10.47726 34 16.19290 14.36613 For explanation and example see Compound Interest above. 220 INTEREST TABLE. I o *_ s « s CO A cc CO o o £- 00 CD i>- q q IS CO o CO lO O OS r-l CO r-t (M CO oo CO CO CO OS cc oo CO CO Xr- 00 cDXr- CD ir^ 1 o o CO OS oq C 00 q q XT' 00 CO i- q q CO ir- 00 05 9 9 rH 1-1 xr- CO l-H CO CO CD CO iO o »o »o X^- rH rH xr- >«* CO OS cc o> CO 00 cc CO 1 o o o CO CO 9^ ^ o q q o o oq r- 00 9 9 11 O CM O CM lg CO o O lO iO Xr- CO CO o o (M CO q q O xr- CO 99 »0 CM 9 9 OOO 99 sS cc •«*• i.-- 00 ,:? tM q q CO CO 9 9 r~ OS 9 9 CM (M 9 9 CO x^- CM (M 9 9 ii o io CO CO 9 9 CO OS CO cc 9 9 x-oo- CO Xr- 9 9 © PN io IT- 00 99 O i^ 9 9 9 9 9 9 CO CD 9 9 i2^ o o x> OS o o cc OS fli 9? CO CO oq II 11 XT- OS 99 OS O 9 9 O CM rH rH 9 9 9 9 CO CO 9 9 O X:- 9 9 o o QK) CO CO oo Wi 11 00 Oi OS rH SB r-^ CM o o CM Tf o o CO CD o o X:- r- ( CM CO o o l» §1 (M CO OO CO -«J< »0 IO CO xr- O O o o Xr- 00 O O o o 00 o o o O CM 9 9 CM Tt< o o cc x^ CM CM O' o ;9 ii CO CO o o »0 CO o o X> 00 o o o o 00 OS OS O O O O CM 9 9 O CO CM CM O O WJ §1 9§ tM CO 99 o o S8 9 9 lO CO o o o o 9 9 xr- C30 o o 9 9 Ii 00 o is Xr- OS 9 9 ^ §§ fM 3^ o o q q CO CO o o 9 9 o o rfH lO iO o 99 lO CD o o 9 9 CD xr- 99 ii CO CO o o M o§ II .-H (M o o o o (M (M o o O' o (M CO o o CO CO is o O o o ii o c^ 9 9 9) §i §1 r-( (M O O O O CM (M o o o o O O o o CM CO o o o o CO CC g§ cc cc CO tJI xr- oo 88 11 oS II §§ §§ o o o o rH (M o o o o rH ^ o o o o CM (M o o o o U €& N "S^ M ^ MS ^ i* QC ^ INTEREST TABLE. 221 8S O I— 1 CO »o O CC O 00 O CO (?4d CO CJ 00 (N CO i:- X- r-^ CO rH CO 1-H (^i CO CO 00 :■-. OS CO 00 CO 00 CO CO CO x:^ O CO 8^ CO o' CO o CO OS CO "<*< co' oi s 1 it! all 11 til Pi |1 If! II iff m tiiil ill nm fe CO O GO JO O xr- 00 cot- CO (>J CO i:- CO 35 o x^- O CO X:- r-t CO CO I-H CO I-H t-H CO CO CO JO CO JO c o JO X>; M CO OS 00 00 CO 00 CO CO o ,o O 00 jo' jo' CO x:- cdx:^ 00 CO ^^ CO OS 11 ir- 00 OS o ' .-4 q?? §8 c; JO CO »o r-5 r-H lg coS 8§ JO CO '"J^ JO co' Xr^ 8g JO xr- x> oo' o «o CO (M CO (M JO CO ir- 00 CO £- O CO CO OS qq xr- -* 8^ ii CO JO i- rH ei CO 8S O CO CO CO CO C-1 CO CO icj CO* XT- 00 coxr- coxr- «o'x> •0 Tl| CO r-( XT- CO I-H JO 00 c:s o^ OS CO 00 q q gs o c O xr- *^ 00 C- CO O CO 00 OS gg OS q o X-- O CO O CO O CO q '^. Co' CO CO co' 8S q q C CO O CO q °° JO JO CO 05 CO 00 00 CO r-H CO O CO O 00 JO o QO 00 JO O XT- 00 CO X:- q ^ o »o JO x:- J> 00 CO CO CO X:- 00 OS X> -rt* CO -«i< CO OS t-H I-I O x:- O .-1 »0 OS co' d CO OS CO 00 00 00 CO CO Xr- rH «0 CO r-l 00 O CO O CO C<1 0| J> r-l ^cSS £0 CO CO (M CO (M JO CO CO Xr- xr- 00 CO i- q ^ CO CO o zo o CO o CO CO co' o CO CO CO - § 3 co' ci 8S •-4 1— 1 CO CO CO o 1-t I-H I— 1 I-H O CO ^^ CO Ol CO X:- X:- I-H CO CO o o C JO CO so CO OS CO CO CO CO xr- CO coxr- «o .t- o x> 82 CO CO 00 JO CO JO S4: CO OS O 00 o o X:- 00 CO t- o o 00 oi q q IS X>- CO rH CO IS gg l-> T-H co-os CO 00 CO CO O CO C 00 JO JO x:- * CO xr- CO X- CO CO CO x:- 00 OS JO C C JO CO CM JO CO q q £- 00 O CO CO OS §2 X:- -* l§ CO CO CO o t- I-H CO I-H CO CO 8S CO CO CO x:- CO ■* o o 00 00 8§ O (M (M JO 00 OS O O CO OS OS o O T-l JO (M O 00 o o • O CO 88 O JO 82 O X:- o <-< O CO o o 8S 8S JO lO W OS CO o: S<1 Oi O 00 CO 00 oq x:- 00 8S JO x> 00 OS o o %t ii CO OS x> CO rH CO gS5 o q §§ CO OS o o X:- -* -* JO o o CO !M >o CO o o gg oo X- 00 8S CO CO CO JO 8S5 Cd CO CO CO CO OS Mr- r- i-H q q SS5 q q JO OS O lO JO T-. CO rt< O O O xr- o o JO * JO o o o c IS gg 8S? CO CO 0 OS O CO CO x:- Eh ^2; o i Ah o H ! n i ^ 1 S5 O a M 00 T— 1 CO 1 i-tr-,N4 3«x-*4o;:5'MCO->*<0> 1 ^— TsicocO'^'^roo -^ 1 rH,-|iM(MWjC0-rhO>0«C>>J^-t<^=y5'OOC0-M00 1 r-H r^ 1^4 (M rO -^ Tj< O O 3i 1 i-lr-ICTj^OC£) 1 r-l— ■->J(>l?0M'^lO»O 00 1 I-lr-l(^^c^lco^^-*'>^o•o— '«c — t^'^^oocooo'*! 1 rH,-lC 1 o^i-H(Mc^ieocOTj<^«30oo.^oiO-ioO 1 T— (»-<(M-l(M(MCCC0'O-;*Q00JJ0O 1 ,— i^-^c^l(M. 1 O^i-Hr-lC^IC^lCqCOCOCCb-CrCOO O.CO tC OS CO 1 T-H^H.— iiMcNc»ec •■o 1 Oi-li-li-l(MCO'*t^OeO«OOS Tt< O.-lr-lr-I^CqCOCqC^COiOOO-^CO'iOOS'-^Tjib- '-H .— -- ^ cq CO cJCs4(MCvJiOt-OC4Cti«030'-ltOiOb-05^ o OOi-HrHrHi-lrH«flCC«O«Cit-a0OiC5C0 '* OO:SOOOF-trHi-lr-(C M OCOOOOOOOrH—i F-IC<«CCt'.000iOOOOOOOOOO i-t(MCO-*vO»2 o - o S C3 o ^^:2 he o «c "*^ i2 ;=3 o '^ III d -»-• fH 2 ® ,o d-^ S d d5 -^ g a o o °* '"' ^ 5«H d ^2 ® 3 2 ;5 d ^ ^ d^ •Ti ^ o *rv-d H _ <1> ^^,d INTEREST. 223 Ph XI ►^ o H H Ph O n H O a H » < CO ^ .-l,-((M0O>COOO«0O ,-l.-i(MC<«COCO"*"niO OS ©r-trH(MC^eOM-*-«Jr*«00 1— I'-r- tTsJCMOOeO-*-^ Oi-'r-i»"*Q0fOt-i— i?o-^>r: ^, -v, ^ ^ ^ ^ CM 'M Or-lnn(M(M(MCOCOTt.'*»(M«5 0-;rt;oocaj(Mu:(00Cjl OO Oi— ti— tf— li— (C^c^(MeOCC«00»(M»000>— ir*^r- 1 -^ ^^^^cococo lO 1 OOr-trHf-H^COCOCOCOiOOOOeOiOl^OCOiO "' ^^ ^ ^ (M coco Tt< OO'^^rH^COCOCOCOOt-OSCO-^COOS^OO M 00^.-li-l-— -^C2 :o 1 ooooor-t.-ii-H»-*i-ieoco-*»o«>t-ooo40 o OOOOOO"— "i— tf— tf-tCOCOCO-^OtOt-t-QO M* 1 ooooooo^r-i^rH-Mcoco'«f«o«cunou av ^.MCO^O^r-OOCOOOOOOOOOg 1 o >>,« ■+^ ,£5 d a> O S S o § a§ w 2 a ;5 o H aj:2 a 224 TABLE OF WAGES. m o cq Ph O w H o :^ PL, O o o o -^ o pq EH s ^ 1 s v. »-(ff>jcoco-^»o«o«ot-t-QOo>ojOi— i-^c^icceo-'^iours^ch-. r-(r-tC^MeO'<*'<*<»0«0<01>.OOC»0>010>-ti-HCV|Cf^»OiMOOOiOCO^OOCO'*COOSt^U3(MO «» f-ti-ic«o«ocoi:^oooso5asoo — (Mcocccc^o ^1-lc<^<^lccco-*'*oo«^t-i>^«coo50500r-^^c^(^^cOTJ^ eo oooooooooooooooooooooooooo «0000«00»00»OwiOOiOOOOOO»OOiOOOO»00 «» r-I^CasOO.-H^i>>i «o — <£> o CO C<1 CO CO '*' "* «o »00«0«Ot:^t^Q000050»00 ^• C-l-*-^00--CO«OC»0 TtOiOOS?Ot--HCOOTiHCOCOt^^iOO <» rHT-IC>IC* I 00 t» I— I lO 05 CO i^ O •* T-icoc.l'»a000O5 I — CO C!lH'^'*iOO«0«OCO«Ot-t-t-00 rHr-Hi— l»-iCO CNCOCO«CO30'^'r»i ^•^«040>£5«0«0 «0«0t- 4» cooc5CO«:iOCCO'!j-icoy=oooco«r: i>.o0»0>0»0«> ^ OOJt— r^^OiO-^-^SOlMCOT-lOCSOOCOb-COCO ■-t<-«^C0C0i-H-^O r-icou5t^osT-ico»r;t^os--co«:iccoooco-*«Doooco-*?oooo rH,-lr-i^^COCOCOC0 — eoeo-^^iOsob-coc*' TABLE OF WAGES. 225 Table continued. $18. $19. $20. $21. $22. $23. $24. $25. 1 .69 .73 .77 .81 .84 .88 .92 .96 2 1.38 1.46 1.54 1.62 1.70 1.77 1.84 1.92 3 2.08 2.19 2.31 2.42 2.54 2.65 2.74 2.88 4 2.77 2.92 3.08 3.23 3.38 ^;.54 3.70 3.85 6 3.46 3.65 3.85 4.04 4.24 4.42 4.62 4.81 6 4.15 4.38 4.62 4.85 5.08 5.31 5.54 5.77 7 4.85 5.12 5.38 5.65 5.92 6.19 6.46 6.73 8 5.54 5.85 6.16 6.46 6.76 7.08 7.38 7.69 9 6.23 6.58 6.92 ^.69 7.27 7.62 7.96 8.30 8.65 10 6.92 7.31 8.08 8.46 8.85 9.24 9.62 11 7.62 8.04 8.46 8.88 9.30 9.73 10.16 10.58 12 8.31 8.77 9.23 9.69 10.16 10.62 11.08 11.54 13 9.00 9.50 10.00 10.50 11.00 11.50 12.00 12.50 14 9.69 10.23 10.77 11.31 11.84 12.38 12.92 13.46 15 10.38 10.96 11.54 12.12 12.70 13.27 13.84 14.42 16 11.08 11.69 12.31 12.92 13.54 14.15 14.74 15.38 17 11.77 12.42 13.08 13.73 14.38 15.04 15.70 16.35 18 12.46 13.15 13.85 14.54 15.24 15.92 16.62 17.31 19 13.15 13.88 14.62 15.35 16.08 16.81 17.54 18.27 20 13.85 14.62 15.38 16.15 16.92 17.69 18.46 19.23 21 14.54 15.35 16.16 16.96 17.76 18.58 19.38 20.19 22 15.23 16.08 16.92 17.77 18.62 19.46 20 . 30 21.15 23 15.92 16.81 17.69 18.58 19.46 20.35 21.24 2i.ll 24 16.62 17.54 18.46 19.38 20.30 21.23 22.16 23.08 25 17.31 18.27 19.23 20.19 21.16 22 12 23.08 24.04 26 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 22.00 23 00 24.00 25.00 Explanation. — The c olumn on the left hand of the tabl( a shows the number of days : and the rate per month is seen at the top of the page. Example. — To iind the amount of 19 days' work, at $11 per month : find 19 in the column of days ; then move to tlie right, on the same line, till you come under $11 (rate per month), and you find $8.04 — the answer. In all cases, the amount will be found directly under the price per month, and at the right of the given time. In this table, the wages are cast at 26 working days per 10* 226 TABLE OF WAGES. month. For a fraction of a day, take an equal part of the amount for one day, and for rates less than $3 per month, half what is shown for twice the amount. Should it be desired to ascertain the wages per day for any given sum per month above $25, it can be done by adding to or doubling the above amounts. Thus for $30 per month, take 20 and 10 in the above table and add them ; for $37 per month, take 20 and 10 and 7, and add them ; for $50, take 25 and double it; for $75 per month, take 25 and triple it, &c. KEEPING ACCOLINTS. Blank account books, designed for keeping simple ledger accounts, are generally of two kinds, viz. : Those in which the Dr. and 6V. sides of the account are on the same page, and those in which they are on opposite pages. We give below samples of each, with the mode of keeping the account. Page 72 WILLIAM WILSON. I>r. Cr. Jan. 12 To 18 bus. potatoes, at 60 cts *♦ 20! " 1 ton hay. at $8 " 25i By cash on account Feb. 7 j To 1 yoke steers sold you this day . . . . " 15 By 2000 feet pine boards, at $10. m.. . " 20 To 30 bus. oats, at 30 cts Mar. 6i "40 •* corn, at 50 cts , April 3J By 1 pair boots for Sjm " lOj '• 50 lbs. sugar, at 8 cts May 12; " 10 ' coffee at 15 cts June 7j To 3 cords wood, at $2 50 •' 20| By ca«h on account July 1 j By balance of account charged below . July 1 1 To balance of account $9 00 8 00 80 GO 9 00 20 00 7 50 1H3 60 44 00 $ 10 00 20 00 4 00 4 Oi) 1 50 60 00 44 00 .^3 50 Page 72. WM. WILSON. Dr. 1 1861. Jan. 12 To 18 bus. po'atoes at 50 cts $9 00 '' 20 T.) 1 ton hay. at $8 8 GO Feb. 7 To 1 yoke steers, sold you this day 80 00 " 20 To 30 bus oats, at SU cts 9 00 Mar. 5 To 40 bus. corn, at 50 cts 20 00 June 7 To 3 cords wood, at $2 50 7 50 )3:i 5t July 1 To balance of act.. . 44 00 WM WILSON. Page 73. Cr. 186 L Jan. 25 Feb'y 15 April 3 " 10 May 12 June 20 July 1 By cash on account . By 2000 feet pine boards, at $10 M By 1 pair boots for Sam By 50 lbs. sugar, at 8 cts By 10 lbs. coffee, at 1 5 cts By c ish on account. By balance of acct charged $10 00 20 00 4 00 4 00 1 50 50 00 44 00 133 50 228 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. FoTtn of a Bill of the foregoing. WILLIAM WILSON, Dr. 1861. In Account with THOMAS BUNN, Or. January 12, To 18 bus. potatoes, at 50 cts $9 00 ^' 20, " 1 ton hay, at $8 8 00 February 7, " 1 yoke steers 80 00 '' 20, " 30 bus. oats, at 30 cts 9 00 March 5, " 40 bus. corn, at 50 cts 20 00 June 7, " 3 cords wood, at $2 50 7 50 1861 Cr. $133 50 January 25, By cash on account $10 00 Feb'y 15, " 2000 ft. lumber, at $10 M 20 00 April 3, '^ 1 pair boots for Sam .... 4 00 '' 10, " 50 lbs. sugar, at 8 cts. ... 4 00 May 12, " 10 lbs. coffee, at 15 cts. . 150 June 20, " cash on account 50 00 89 50 July 1, To balance $44 00 Note. — Since the whole science of book-keeping rests upon charges and credits^ if you, once for all, get what is a charge and what is a credit clearly fixed in your mind, and fully understand when you ought to charge and when you ought to credit, you will have little difiiculty in keeping your accounts straight, simple, and satisfactory. When you let your neighbor, or he with whom you deal, have anything from you, it is a charge against him, and you must charge him with it on the debit side of the account ; but whenever you receive anything from him, it is a credit^ and you must credit him with it on the credit side of the KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 229 account. Thus you " charge " for what you give, and "credit" for what you receive. He with whom you deal does likewise — charging you with what he gives you, and crediting you with what he receives from you. Hence his charges against you will correspond with your credits to him, and his credits to you will correspond with your charges against him. In like manner, should it be desired to keep an account with a certain field, or meadow, or cow, the name is entered at the top of the page and in the index, just as an in- dividual's, and what you give to it, the labor it costs you, &c., you charge to it, and what it yields you you credit to it. In this w^ay a farmer can keep an account with each of his fields or altogether, with each of his cows or with the herd, with each of his pigs or altogether, with each of his sheep or with the whole flock, &c. The word " To " prefixed to an entry indicates a charge or debit ; the word " By " indicates a credit. Each entry should be made on the day the transaction took place. The account should be cast and balanced at least once every six months, and if not settled the balance brought down, as above, when the account may be continued. BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. Book-keeping by double entry is that form of keeping accounts in which two entries are made in the Ledojer for 230 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. every one in the Day-Book ; one a charge, or dehit^ and the other a credit. Thus you not only charge the party who receives from you, but you credit that department of your business from which, whatever it is, is received. You keep an account with as many different departments of your business as jou deem necessary. A farmer might keep an account with his herd, with wheat, rye, corn, grass, hay, and other crops, or different fields, separately or toge- ther, under the head of " Farm." Where the time required can be spared, we think it desirable to keep accounts by double entry with every department of a business, down to a very minute detail, because where books are kept by this system, you can turn to any account and ascertain at a glance its condition ; that is, how much money you have spent on it, and how much it has returned you, and what balance is for or against it. The books necessary to be used in keeping accounts by this system are two, the Day- Book and Ledger. A tliird, called a Journal, is sometimes used intermediary between the Day-Book and Ledger ; but we consider it much more trouble than benefit, and therefore think best entirely to dispense with it. The Day-Book is ruled with two dollar and cent columns on the right hand side, and one column on the lefl hand side, in which the page of the Ledger is entered when the account is transferred to the Ledger. The Ledger is generally ruled, as in the example given below ; the name of the account is written across the top of KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 231 the page, and if the transactious will probably be numerous other pages following may be reserved to continue the ac- count upon when the first page is full. It is customary with a person keeping books by this me- thod to have an account with '' Cash," with his family, and if he takes and gives notes, with " Bills Receivable," and '* Bills Payable." We will give below a sample of transac- tions entered in the Day- Book and carried to the Ledger. If I sold, October 1st, to John Brown, twenty bushels of apples, at 75 cents per bushel, and was to deliver them to him for $1, and on October 5th, bought of him five barrels of flour, for family use, at $4 per barrel, which he was to deliver gratis, my entries in the Day-Book would be as follows, sup- posing I kept accounts with the departments mentioned : — Page 1. Centerville, Oct. Ist, 1861. JOHN BROWN, Dr. Sold him 20 bus. apples, at 75 cts per bus. $16 00 Cartage 1 00 Cr. ORCHARD, I'EAMING Oct. 5. FAMILY EXPENSE. Dr. Bought of John Brown. 5 bbls. flour, at $4 per bbl. Ct. JOHN BROWN 16 20 00 00 1500 100 20 00 Dr. The Ledger accounts of the above would be as follows : — Pages. Cr. JOHN BROWN. 1861. October 1861 16 00 Oct. 5 20 00 232 KEEPENG ACCOUNTS. Dr. TEAMING. Page 7. Cr, — 1861 1 ! Oct. 5 1 100 Page 6. Dr. ORCHARD Or, 1861. Oct. 1 1 1 15 00 Page 10. Dr, FAMILY EXPENSE. Or. 1861 1 1 1 Oct. 5 1 2C 00 1 \ 1 In the Day-Book, in the right hand dollar and cent col- umn, the credits are entered ; in the left hand, the debits, as shown. In the Ledger, the half of the page to the left of the centre is devoted to debits ; to the right, to credits. The column to the left of the dollar and cent column in the Ledger is where the page of the Day-l^ook from which the entry is taken is noted. The form which we have given above is, perhaps, the simplest in which books can be kept by double entry, conse- quently the best. Ko difficulty will be experienced in this system of keeping books, after one has already fixed in his mind what is a charge or debit, and what is a credit, as ex- plained above. Some remarks may not, however, be unne- J KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 333 cessary in this connection, to show what to credit and wha,t to charge, under certain circumstances. If you give a man a note for the balance of his account, you debit his account and credit Bills Payable. When you pay the note, you debit Bills Payable and credit Cash. If you receive a note for balance of account, you credit the man's account and debit Bills Receivable. When the note is paid, you credit Bills Receivable and debit Cash. In tlie first entry in the above example, it may be well to say, you do not give credit to the man who drives the wagon, or to the wagon for its use. These are legitimate charges against Teaming. At the proper time you credit the man his wages, and charge or debit Teaming for it (or that portion of his time in which he has been engaged teaming), &c. Some businesses require an Interest account to be kept ; of course, from our previous remarks, any one who finds- it necessary will see the proper way to keep it. It is necessary, in connection with the Day-Book and Ledger, to keep a Cash-Book and Bill-Books, where a person does a credit business. The Cash-Book, to keep a record of the receipts and disbursements of cash, which should be balanced every night (if any cash has been spent or receiv- ed during the day), and the money counted ; the balance on hand and the balance shown by the book should correspond ; if they do not, something has been omitted. If you have on hand more than the balance calls for, you have received money which has not been entered on the debit side of the 234 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. account. If you liave too little, jou have spent money for which the account has not been credited. The Bill-Books are to keep a record of notes received and notes paid out. The Bills Payable book records the follow- ing facts : The date of the note, the time it is to run, the date of falling due, to whom it was given, in whose favor it was made, and the amount it was made for. The Bills Receivable book records: Who made the note, in whose favor it was made, how long it has to run, when it is due, and the amount it is for. When notes are paid or received, these facts should, of course, be properly noted in the Day- Book. When accounts are first opened it is best to take an in- ventory of property of all kinds on hand, charging each department with which you intend to keep an account with that portion which it requires, and crediting an account for the same which shall represent all your " Stock in Trade." This account is usually called '^ Stock." Then, at the time you wish to close up your accounts to ascertain your profits and losses, you take another inventory, and give your de- partmental accounts credit for what property they have on hand, charging the general stock account for the same ; the balance of this account {i. e., the difference between the footing of the debit and credit columns) then shows how much more or less property you have on hand than when you commenced business. If the credit side exceeds the debit, of course you have more property ; and if the debit KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 235 exceeds the credit, of course you have less than when you began. Then the balance of each departmental account (all proper charges having been entered, and its share of prop- erty on hand credited) will show how much it has made or lost. These balances are then usually carried to a general account, called *' Profit and Loss ; " those having a credit balance are charged that amount, and Profit and Loss is credited ; and those having a debit balance are credited that amount, and Profit and Loss is charged for it. This being done with the Departmental accounts and the General Stock accounts, with the Cash accounts, and the Bills Payable and Bills Receivable accounts, and Profit and Loss having been also charged for bad debts — and the parties owing them having been credited therefor — the balance of that account shows the Profit and Loss of the business. Some parties do not credit the accounts of persons who owe bad debts, and charge Profit and Loss ; but, after making up the Profit and Loss account, draw it oft' on a sheet of paper, and account for them there. Others open an account called " Suspense," to which they credit the amount of the several bad debts (specifying them in the Day-Book), and charge Profit and Loss. This method prevents the accounts of bad debtors appearing closed on your Ledger. After you have made up your books as directed, it is best to make a balance sheet, which will show at a glance what departments have made money, what lost, who owes you, and who you owe. After this, the several departments should be charged back again 236 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. with the property with which they are to commence the next year's business, and the stock account credited therefor, and you are ready to begin again. Trial balances of the Ledger should be made, say monthly. To make a trial balance, you foot up all the columns of figures in your Ledger, draw oft* the debits on one side of a sheet and add them together, and the credits on the other side of the sheet and add them together. If the footings of the debit and credit columns thus obtained are the same, or, in other words, balance, your Ledger balances and is all right ; but if they do not balance but differ, your Ledger is in error, and you must go over it and find where the mistake is. , Of course there must be no entry made in your Ledger, unless it is also made in your Day-Book. The wording of the Day-Book must be as simple as possible and express all the facts. Some book-keepers, when they enter from the Day-Book into the Ledger, write in the Ledger between the date col- umn and the column of the Day-Book page the name of the account in the Ledger which receives the corresponding entry or entries ; thus, in the entry above given they would write thus : — Dr. JOHN BROWN. Or. 1861. Oct. 1 To Orchard, ! " Teaming, I 111861. 15 00' Oct. lloOii By Familj Expenses 20 00 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 237 This we think of no advantage, and it increases the labor and trouble. When you render a bill from the account, you must necessarily turn to the Day-Book to ascertain the particulars, and the mere page of the Day-Book is sufficient for this purpose. The less accounts are complicated the easier they are kept, and the less liable are mistakes to be made. No erasures, scratching out, or interlineations should be suffered. If a wrong entry be made, or an entry made wrongly, let it be explained by a counter entry on the other side of the account, or overscored in such a manner that the mistake can be seen. All erasures, blotting out, scratch- ing, &c., tend to throw suspicion upon the honesty of the account. Books of '' Original Entries " are only an aid of the memory, and he who keeps them should be able to swear that the entries were made on the day they purport to have been. He may not be able to recollect the various entries, but if it was his invariable custom to make them on the day of the transaction, they stand in place of his memory — they are not, however, evidence of the delivery of the goods. Form of a Receipt in full. New York, July 1st, 1861. Eeceived of Thomas Brown the sum of forty-four dollars, in full of all accounts up to this date. $44 00. William Wilson. 238 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. FoTtn of a Check. $150 00. New York, July 1st, 1861. Please pay William Wilson, or order, one hundred and fifty dollars, and charge to the account of Thomas Anderson. To the Southold Savings Bank. Form of a Due-Bill. New York, July 1st, 1861. Due William Wilson, or. order, on settlement this day, one hundred and fifty dollars. $150 00. Thomas Anderson. Form of a Promissory Note. New York, July 1st, 1861. Four months afterdate I promise to pay William Wilson, or order, one hundred. and fifty dollars ; value received. $150 00. Thomas Anderson. Another form. New York, July 1st, 1861. On the 1st day of April next, I promise to pay William Wil- son, or order, one hundred and fifty dollars ; value received. $150 00. Thomas Anderson. Form of a Promissory Note with Surety, New York, July 1st, 1861. Sixty days after date, we, or either of us, promise to pay William Wilson, or order, one hundred and fifty dollars ? value received. Thomas Anderson, (Principal.) $150 00. John Jones, (Surety.) KEKPINU ACCOUNTS. 239 Form of o> Draft or Bill of Exchange. $150 00. Buffalo, July 1st, 1861. Ten days after sight, pay William Wilson, or order, one hundred and fifty dollars, value received, and charge the same to account of Yours, &c., Thomas Anderson. To William Allen, New York. Notes. — A due-bill bears interest from its date ; a prom- issory note not until after it is due, unless so expressed on its face. Negotiabilh'y. — The words, " or order,'^ '* or bearer," are necessary to make a check, a due-bill, a promissory note, a bill of exchange, &c., negotiable ; that is, to enable the holder of it to trade and pass it to another. When the words " or bearer" are introduced, the instru- ment may then pass from hand to hand, like a bank-bill, without endorsement ; but when the words " or order " are used, the instrument must be endorsed by the original holder of it. Endorsement. — Endorsing a note is writing your name across the back of it. Endorsements are of two kinds, an endorsement in blank or general endorsement, and a special endorsement. An endorsement in blank is the original holder's sinaply writing his name across the back of it. The succeeding holders of it may or may not, also, endorse it. If each or 240 KEEPING ACCOUNTS. any of them do, they also become severally bound for its payment. A special endorsement is made by writing across the back of it, before endorsing it, tlie words, " Pay to the order of [name of party to whom it is passed]," which limits the payment of it to that party, or his orders, and so forth. AocEFiANCE.; — When a draft or bill of exchange is made upon a third party (as in the above form), the latter is not in any way bound by it until he accepts it, which he does when it is presented to him for acceptance, by writing across the face of it the word " accepted^'' with the date, and sign- ing his name thereunder. He is then a party to the bill, and bound for its payment at maturity. Protest. — Protest is the notice required by law to be given to the endorsers of promissory notes, and the makers and endorsers of bills of exchange, of their dishonor, that is, of their non-acceptance or non-payment. If the drawee, or person to whom a bill of exchange is directed, refuses to accept it on presentation, notice must be immediately given to the maker of it. If he accepts it, and afterwards fails to pay it at maturity, notice must immediately be given to the maker. If the maker of a promissory note fails to pay it at ma- turity, notice must immediately be given to all the en- dorsers. A check is a draft at sight, and if not paid, must be protested. KEEPENQ ACCOUNTS. 241 It is a general rule that all guaroMtors of commercial pa- per must be immediately notified of its dishonor. It is, of course, not necessary to protest a due-bill, or a promissory note, which is still held by the person to whom it was originally given. When a note is made payable " on demand^'' it is neces- sary to make a demand before it will bear interest or can be sued for. U. S. BONDS. Interest is calculated on U. S. bonds and on the public debt at 365 days to the year, and is due semi-annually. In England interest is calculated in the same way, and the legal rate is 5 per cent. By Five-Twenties is meant the 6 per cent, gold-bearing bonds of the United States, which are to mature in 20 years, but which the Government, by giving due notice, can pay in gold any time after ^ve years from the date of issue. The old five- twenties were the first issued. They bear date May 1, 1862, and are redeemable after May 1, 1867, and payable May 1, 1882. The new "five-twenties" were issued Nov. 1, 1864, July 1, 1865, and Nov. 1, 1865. By Ten-Forties is meant the 5 per cent, gold-bearing bonds which are to mature in 40 years, but which may be paid by the Government at any time after 10 years. By Seven-Thirties is meant a currency loan, which ma- tures in 3 years, at which time they may be changed for the five-twenty 7 per cent, bonds, bearing interest in gold. The name is derived from the rate of interest, it being 7.3 per cent. The "First series" bear date Aug. 15,1864. The " Second series " bear date June 15, 1865, and are converti- ble June 15, 1868. The " Third series " bear date July 5, 1865. On this issue the Government reserves the right to RELATIVE VALUE OF GOLD AND CUREENCY. 243 pay the interest at 6 per cent, in gold, instead of 7.30 per cent, in currency. By Six per cents, of '81 is meant the 6 per cent, gold- bearing bonds which cannot be redeemed by Government, except by purchase, until after maturity. EELATIYE YALUE OF GOLD AKD CURKENCY. To ascertain the value in gold of a " greenback " dollar or Kational currency, at the different quotations of gold : Rule. — Divide $1 by the quoted value of $1 in gold ; the result will be the value of a dollar in currency. Example. — When gold is 33 per cent, premium what is the value of $1 in currency % $1.00-r-$1.33=.7522. Note. — In the following table the decimals are carried to mills and tenths of a mill. Table, showing the greenhaxik value of $1 at the different quotations of gold. When gold is at .01 pr. ct. prem. a greenback dollar is worth . .99 .02 9803 .03 9708 .04 9615 .05 9523 .06 9433 .07 9355 .08 9259 .09 9174 .10 909 .11 9009 .12 pr. ct. prem. a greenback dollar is worth.. .8929 .13 885 .14 8771 .15 8695 .16 862 .17 8564 .18 8474 .19 8403 .20 8333 .21 8264 .22 8279 244 ENGLISH BONDS AND CONSOLS. .23 pr. ct. prem. a greenback .37 pr. ct. prem. a greenback dollar is worth . .813 dollar is worth. . .7308 .24 8064 .38 7246 .25 80 .39 7194 .26 7928 .40 7142 .27 7874 .41 7092 .28 7812 .42 7042 .29 7751 .43 6993 .30 7692 .44 6944 .31 7633 .45 6896 .32 7575 .46 6849 .33 7522 .47 2162 ' .34... „ 7462 .48 6758 1 .35 7409 .49 6716 i .36 7353 .50 6666 Note. — The highest quotation of gold at the 'New York Stock Exchange during the war was 285, July 11th, 1864. A dollar currency was then worth 35 cents. Gold in Eich- mond, Ya., reached 4400, Feb. 4th, 1865. A dollar in Con- federate currency was worth .02:J-, cents. EKGLISH BONDS AND CONSOLS. Exchequer Bills are English bonds, similar to those of the U. S. The rates of interest vary from 5 to 3 per cent., and whiy the Government pays the interest, it cannot be re- quired to refund the principal. ^ Consols are several English securities consolidated by act of Parliament. The rate of interest is 3 per cent. buying and selling stocks. STOCK QUOTATIONS. 245 A Broker is a person who executes orders for those who are not members of the exchange. A Jobber deals in stock on his own account. A " stag," or " outsider," is a broker who is not a member of the ex- change. A Bull is one who buys stock to be delivered to him at a future time, with the intention of selling it, in the mean- time, at a higher price before he is obliged to receive it. A Bear is one who sells stock that he does not own, to be delivered at a future date, hoping in the meantime to buy it at a less price. A " lame duck " is one who is unable to fulhl his contracts, and hence is expelled from the exchange. " Selling Short " is applied to sales of stock which the seller does not own, deliverable at a future time, generally not exceeding 60 days. The hears usually "sell short." The buyer pays interest for over 3 days. ''Seller's Option" gives the seller the privilege of deliv- ering the stock at any time before the time specified for de- livery. " Buyer's Option " gives the purchaser the privilege of claiming the delivery of the stock at any time before the time specified for delivery. STOCK QUOTATIONS. Frmn N. Y. Herald. Sales. 12000 Am. G \AZ]4 $12000 ecold at 43>^ per cent, premium. 12000 U S 6's '81 cou 112 y -I ^^^000 U. S. 6 per cent, coupon bonds, matur- ( ing 1881, at 12^ per cent, premium. 10000 U. S. 5-20 Reg. '62 104>^ U. S. 5-20 Registered Bonds isued in 1862. 246 SUCCESS m business. 40000 Tr'y. N. 7-30 2d s 107 ] ^""onrsYries ^^' ^* '^'^ ^^"^ ''^''^* ^^""^'^ '^''' ( 100 Shares of New York Central RE,. 7 per 100 K Y. Gen. Ts, '65-'76 120 < cent, bonds issued in 1865, and maturing in I 1876. 500 Hud. R. Ts 1st M 101 Hudson K 7 per cent, first mortgage bonds. OHA ^^ 4t o^ -M- a w in< (Hudson R. 7 per cent, second mortgage sink- ^"^ ^dM.S.J?.. 1U4 -j ingfund. ■snr v -D-a o /I'c m 3x J Erie RR. sold at 2 days' credit at 51 X cents 100 E. RR.^ds... 51^ -j per dollar. 100 " b 5 w n 51-1 ^"® "^^* ^° ^^ delivered before 5 days with- ) out notice. 1000 C. and Am. 6's, *89 108>^X%8ErT.A.X^. M. WELLS, Electrician, 112 Broadway, N. Y. LIGHTKmG-EODS. The humid gases, generated by the heating and sweating of the hay, which immediately follows its accumulation in closely-packed masses, offers a strong attraction to elec- tricity, just at the time when it is most abundant. It is an object of peculiar importance to the farmer to guard his buildings, at such times, with properly constructed light- ning-rods ; and they are a cheap mode of insurance against fire from this cause, as the expense is trifling and the security great. As an example of the more elaborate style of rods, we show in the accompanying cut the manner in which Otis' Patent Lightning-Kods have been applied to the New York Btate Arsenal. To construct a lightning-rod. Take round or square soft iron f of an inch in diameter, in pieces of convenient length ; connect the pieces by split- ting one end and flattening and inserting the other, and fasten with a rivet or screw, so tliat the rod preserves its uniform thickness throughout. Or, the pieces may be con- nected in a more perfect manner, although not often so con- venient, by having a male screw cutron one end of the pieces and a female screw on the other, and simply screwing them together as the rod is raised; care being taken that the 252 LIGHTNING-RODS. pieces are brought in contact at the outer edge, so as to form a united surface. If a square rod is used, notch the corners with a single downward stroke of a cold chisel, at in- tervals of two or three inches. No part of the rod should be painted, as its efficiency would be greatly impaired. Let the upper extremity consist of one iinely drawn point of copper or silver, or well gilded iron, to prevent rusting. Let the lower part of the rod, at the surface of the ground, terminate in two or three flattened divergent branches, lead- ing several feet outwardly from the building, and buried at a depth which reaches perpetual moisture, in a bed of char- coal. Attach the rod to the building by clasps protruding three or four inches and containing glass rings or funnels for the rod to pass through. The rod must not touch the building nor the iron clasps, but only the glass ; because, the latter being a non-conductor of electricity, in the event of the rods being struck by lightning, the charge is conducted harmlessly to the ground, having no point of contact with a conductor by which it might be led into the building. Upon reaching the top of the building the rod should be conducted to the centre of the ridge, and the end should then be raised to a height equal to one-half of the distance to the end of the ridge. If the roof is irregular in height, of course judg- ment must be used in fixing the point where the end of the rod rises above the roof, bearing in mind this important consideration — that the rod protects objects at twice the distance of its height above any point in a line perpendicu- lar to its upper termination. LIGHTNING-RODS. 253 The conducting power of bodies is in the ratio of their surfaces. Hence a bundle of wires, ribbons, or tubes of metal, are more efficient than an equal quantity of solid, round, or square rods. The conductors of electricity in the order of their power are, copper, silver, gold, iron, tin, lead, zinc, platinum, char- coal, black lead, strong acids, soot and lampblack, metallic ores, metallic oxides, dilute acids, saline solutions, animal fluids, sea-water, fresh water, ice, living vegetables, living animals, flame, smoke, vapor and humid gases, salts, rarified air, dry earth and massive minerals. The non-conductors in their order are, shellac, amber, resins, sulphur, wax, asphaltum, glass, all vitrified bodies, raw silk, bleached silk, dyed silk, wool, hair, feathers, dry paper, parchment and leather, baked wood and dry vegeta- bles. The question of the utility of lightning-rods is not clearly decided ; and certainly very grave doubts exist as to the use- fulness of the various complicated patent devices which are hawked about the country, under the sanction of splendid testimonials. Dr. Franklin's theory was, — and he claimed to have proved it by having drawn the electricity harmlessly from a cloud over his kite-string, — that the value of the lightning-rod consists, not in its ability to receive shocks, but in the fact that it taps the surcharged clouds and conveys the electricity quietly to the earth. 254 LIGHTNING-RODS. Based upon this theory, there has recently been advanced an idea that seems sensible. It is to substitute a piece of galvanized telegraph wire for the kite-string, a pointed rod of iron at the top of the building for the kite, and another rod driven into the ground for the key in Dr. Franklin's hand. The iron at the top should project five or six feet above the roof, and if tlie ridge-pole is more than twenty feet long, there should be two or more of these, all to be con- nected with each other and with the rod in the ground by simple wire. This plan has the great merit of being cheap and within the reach of all — and, so far as anything is actually known of the subject, is as good as the more elaborate and expen- sive ones. PEESSURE OF EARTH AGAINST WALLS. To find the pressure of the difierent kinds of earths, filling, &G., against walls, it is necessary first to ascertain the line or angle of rupture, or natural slope, the earth would assume but for the resistance of the wall. This natural slope differs with the different kinds of earths. Assuming that the earth is level with the top of the wall, the line of rupture for the different kinds of earths, filling, &c., will be as follows : — A bank of vegetable earth will rupture on the surface at a distance from the top of the wall of three-fifths the height of the wall. A bank of sand will rupture at two-thirds the height of the wall. A bank of unhewn stone, at one-seventh the height of the wall. A bank of ruhhle at two-fifths the height of the wall. A bank of hrick, with a bank of vegetable earth behind it, will rupture at a distance of about one-sixth the height of the wall. A bank of clay, well rammed, will rupture at a distance of three-sixteenths the height of the wall. The strongest horizontal stress against the wall is at half the angle which the natural slope makes with it ; hence : 256 PKESSUKE OF EARTH AGAINST WALLS. The greatest pressure for a bank of vegetable earth will be at three- tenths the height of the wall from the bottom. For a bank of sand, at one-third the height of the wall. For a bank of rubble, at one-fifth the height of the wall. For a bank of unhewn stone, at one-fourteenth the height of the wall. For a bank of brich, at one-twelfth the height of the wall. For a bank of clay, at three-thirty-seconds the height of the wall. "Walls should therefore be built proportionably strong to these heights to sustain the different pressures. If the bank is liable to be saturated with water the wall should be doubled in strength. FRACTIONS— DECIMALS. A fraction is one or more parts of a unit, and is ex- pressed b,y fractional characters, thus, J, J, f ; or by deci- mals, thus, .5, .25, .75. When expressed by fractional characters, the upper jSgure is called the numerator^ because it numbers or gives value to the fraction, by showing how many parts of the whole number into which the unit is divided is taken ; and the lower figure is called the denominator, because it names the number of parts into which the unit is divided. Thus, f means that the unit is divided into 8 parts, and that 3 out of the 8 are taken, &c. "When expressed by a decimal, the decimal number shows that so many parts of the unit are taken, the unit itself being impliedly divided into as many parts as will corres- pond with the decimal number, and still retain its ratio to it. Thus, .5 means -f^, .25 means y^^, .125 means \%\, &c. To reduce fractions to decimals. Divide the numerator by the denominator, adding cyphers as required. Example. — What are the decimals of J, |, and -g- ? Solution.— 10-^2=.5, 300-r-4=.75, 7000~8=.875. Ans. To add decimals. Add as in common addition, setting the whole numbers 258 FRACTIONS —DECIMALS. or integers directly under each other from the decimal point to the left, and the decimals from the decimal point to the right, as in the following example : — 12.75 24.027 14.5 16.1278 67.4048 To subtract dedmals. Set the whole numbers and decimals under each other, as directed above, and proceed as in common subtraction, as in the following example : — 75.15 28.875 46.275 To multiply decimals. Set the figures and multiply as in common multiplication, and point off in the product as many decimals as there are decimal places in the multiplier and multiplicand, as in the following example : — 23.25 22.15 11625 2325 4650 4650 514.9875 FRACTIONS DECTMALg J. 259 To divide decimals. Proceed as in common division, and point off to the right in the quotient as many ( decimals as the decimal places in the dividend exceed the decimal places in the divisor, as in | the following example :— . 2.48] 129.952 [52.4 124 5 95 4 96 Useful decimals. i^ .0625 1 .3334- ^ .11114- i i-h) .125 1 .6664- 4 .2222-f iV .1875 ^ .2 4(1) .3338-1- i (i^) .25 T^ .3125 §^ .4 .44444- f .6 .5555-h f (A) .376 tV .4376 i 1 .8 .14284- |(f) .6666-f- .77774- A .6625 f .28564- f .8888-i- ^ .42854- tV .1 f (1^) .625 .67124- fb- (*) .2 ft .6875 4 .71414- ^ .3 tV'*^ -.8?- ^ .86694- iVCl) .4 in .7 1 (H) -875 A .9 ft .9376 FACTS ABOUT FEINTING AND BOOK- MAKING. The following are the different styles of type ordvaarily used in hooh-printing : — PICA. Springs are weakened by use, but recover their strengtli if laid by. SMALL PICA. Metals have five degrees of lustre — splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering, and dull. LONG PRIMER. The hardness of metals is as follows : Iron, Platinum, Copper, Silver, Gold, Tin, Lead. BOURGEOIS. A fall of 1-10 of an inch a mile will produce a current in rivers. BREVIER. Melted snow produces about 1-8 of its bulk of water. MINION. Silica is the basis of the mineral world, and carbon of the organized. NONPAREIL. Sound passes in water at a velocity of 4708 feet per second, and in air 1100 feet, at a tem- perature of 33°. AGATE. At the depth of 45 feet, the temperature of the earth is uniform throughout the year. PEARL. The weight of a cubic foot of air is 527.04 grains, or 1 205 ounces, avoirdupois. Note. — Diamond is smaller than pearl — Emerald still smaller. FACTS ABOUT PRINTING AND BOOK-MAKING. 261 We do not apologize for giving the above and the few following facts about printing, because that art has become so universally used bv all classes that it is of practical impor- tance to disseminate information in regard to it. The specimens given above are called Roman ; CAPI- TALS and SMALL CAPITALS bcloug legitimately with this style. Italics are cast to accompany it, to give emphasis to certain parts of the matter being composed, or set up. Italic figures and small capitals of italic are not made. Many other styles of type, such as Black Letter, Script, Church Text, Clarendon, Title, Ionic, Full Face, &c., are cast, and are ordinarily used to display certain lines in Job Printing, and are consequently called job type. Printers generally charge for the setting of type, or, as they technically term it, the composition of matter, by the number of ems it contains. An em is the square of the body of the type ; they measure the matter composed by multiplying the number of ems or lines it is in length by the number of ems or lines it is in width. Nonpareil is half the size in body of Pica, consequently 4 ems of Konpareil equal 1 of Pica. Agate is half Small Pica. Pearl is half Long Primer. In 1 square inch there are 36 ems Pica. " 50 " Small Pica. " 56J " Long Primer. " 72J " Bourgeois. u " " 87 " Brevier. " " 113f " Minion. 262 FACTS ABOUT PKINTESTG AND BOOK-MAKING. In 1 square inch there are 144 ems Nonpareil. " " " 200|- '' Agate. " " " 225 " Pearl. That is according to the type in the office where this book is printed ; different founders vary the sizes of type slightly, so that the above is not a perfectly accurate guide in measur- ing the number of ems in a page or book ; still it is sufficiently so to give a very close approximation to what any printer would measure. In using the above to calculate in ems the contents of a page or book, be particular to calculate square inches, not inches square. The price of type-setting in New York varies with the different printers. Generally the price for book composition is from 80c. to $1.00 per 1000 ems. Much figure-work is charged extra, so also is an extra charge made where a very narrow column is set. Pearl is charged extra on account of its smallness. The price given is for plain matter. Pressworh is charged for by the token, which is 250 im- pressions of the press. Prices vary so much per token, ac- cording to the quality of the work and the number of im- pressions, that it is next to impossible to give an idea of it that will benefit the reader. Plain book-work, in editions of 1000 to 2000 copies, is charged usually at 50c. to $1.00 per token. SIZES OF BOOKS. The various sizes of books were named from the number of folds that were made of a sheet of paper 19 inches by 24, FACTS ABOUT PRINTING AND BOOK-MAKING. 263 which, at the time the sizes of books acquired their names, was the largest sheet manufactured. Thus, a sheet of that size folded once, making 2 leaves or 4 pages, was called a folio volume ; folded twice, making 4 leaves or 8 pages, was called a quarto volume ; folded four times, making 8 leaves or 16 pages, was called an octavo; folded six times, making 12 leaves or 24 pages, was called a duodecimo, &c. They are written thus : 2fo., 4to, 8vo, 16mo, &g. Afterwards, when the sheets came to be manufactured larger, books continued to be designated as above, but were distinguished from the above sizes by giving the new sheets names, and prefixing the name of the sheet to the above. Thus, a sheet 22 inches by 28 was called " Koyal," and hence books printed on it were called royal folio, royal quarto, royal octavo, &g. Table, showing the number of lea/ves and pages from the folding of a sheet. Folds. Leaves. Pages. 2fo 1 2 4 4to 2 4 8 8vo 4 8 16 12mo 6 12 24 16mo 8 16 32 18mo 9 18 36 24mo 12 24 48 32mo 16 82 64 IToTE, — The foldings, leaves, and pages ol the royal sheet, &c., are the same as the above, but the sheet being larger of course the leaves and pages are larger. STKENGTH OF MATERIALS. Tensile strength. Tensile strength is the amount of cohesion existing be- tween the atoms of a mass, or the tenacity with which the fibres or particles of a body resist separation. The tensile strength of a body is therefore in proportion to the number of its fibres, or to the area of its section. Table, showing the weight in lbs. necessary to tear asunder one square inch of the follovnng substances. METALS. Designation. Copper, wrought. ♦' cast " wire . ... Gold, cast Iron, '* Iron Wire ** best bar . ... ** medium bar. " inferior " . Lead Platinum wire , . . Silver, cast Steel Tin, block Zinc, cast Wt. in lbs. 34,000 19,000 61,200 20,000 27,000 103,000 72,000 60,000 30,000 880 53,000 40,000 120,000 5,000 3,500 42,000 Designation. Ash Beach Birch Box Cedar Chesnut Cypress Elm Fir, strongest " American Lig. vitse Locust ^ Mahogany Maple Oak, American, white . ' ' seasoned Pino, Pitch Poplar Sycamore Walnut Willow Wtinlbs. 16,000 11,500 15,000 20,000 11,400 10,500 6,000 13,400 12,000 8,800 11.800 20,600 21,000 10,500 U,500 13,600 12,000 7,000 13,000 7,800 13,000 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 265 I'o find the tensile strength, EuLE. — Multiply the area of the transverse section in inches, by the weight given in the preceding table, and the product will be the strength in lbs. Example. — What is the tensile strength of a seasoned white oak scantling 2 inches by 3 ? Solution. — 2x3=6, area of transverse section, x 13,600 = 81,600 lbs. Am. Example Second. — What is the tensile strength of a round poplar stick 3 inches in diameter ? Solution. — Y.068, area of circle ((cide table of the areas of circles), x 7,000=49,476 lbs. Ans. Example Third. — What is the tensile strength of the best bar iron, 2 inches broad by 1 inch thick ? Solution.— 2x1=2, area of transverse section, x 72,000 =144,000 lbs. Ans. Note. — The above gives the maximum tensile strength of the materials, or the utmost strain they are capable of sus- taining when drawn lengthwise. But it is to be borne in mind that the practical value is about one-fourth of the above. 12 ^^^ STRENGTH OF MATEKIAT,i=i. Table, showing the strength of iron wire rope and hempen cable. Circumference of 1 circumference of Hemp Breaking weight Wire Eope Trade Rope, of equal strength, in tons of 2,000 ia incbes. Number. In inches. lb.. 6.02 1 15J 74. 6.20 2 65. 6.44 3 13 54. 4.90 4 12 43.6 Fine Wire,.. , 4.50 3.91 6 6 ''A 35. 27.2 3.86 7 8 iiO.2 2.98 8 7 16. 2.56 9 6 11.4 2.45 10 6 8.64 4.45 11 lOf 36. 4.00 12 10 30. 3.63 13 H 25. 3.26 14 Sir 20. 2.98 15 1\ 6 16. 2.68 16 12.3 2.40 17 6^ 8.8 2.12 18 6 7.6 Coarse Wire, 1.9 19 4.75 5.8 1.63 20 4. 4.09 1.63 21 3.3 2.83 1.31 22 2.80 2.13 1.23 23 2.46 1.65 1.11 24 2.2 1.38 0.94 25 2.04 1.03 0.88 26 1.75 0.81 I 0.78 1 27 1.50 0.6 6 J. A. Roebling, C. K STRENGTH OF CABLES, ROPES, AND HAWSERS. To find the strength of cables. KuLE. — Multiply the square of the circumference in inches by 120, and the product is the weight in lbs. the cable will bear with safety. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, 26T Example. — What weight will a cable 6 inches in circum- ference bear with safety ? Solution. — 6'=36 x 120^:4320 lbs. Ans. To find the strength of ropes cmd hawsers, EuLE. — Multiply the square of the circumference in inches by 200, and it gives the weight in lbs. the rope will bear with safety. Table, showing lohat weight a hemp rope will hear with safetoj. Circumference. lbs. Circumference. lbs. Circumference. lbs. 1 200 ^ 2450. 6 7200. 1 312.6 3} 2812.5 6J 7812.5 1 450. 4 3200. 6^ 8450. If 612.5 41 3612.6 6* 9112.5 2 800. 4^ 4050. 7 9800. 2\ 1012.5 ^1 4512.6 7i 10512.5 1\ 1250. 5 6000. 7, 11250. 1512.5 tl 5512.5 7 ■ 12012.5 3 1800. 6050. 8 12800. 3} 2112.5 5| 6612.5 STRENGTH OF METAL AND WOODEN RODS. A rod having an area of the 1000th part of a square inch, made of the following materials, will sustain weights as fol- lows ; — Designation. Lbs, Cast steel 134 Best wrought iron YO Cast iron. " 19 Copper 19 Platinum 16 Silver 11 Gold 9 Designation. Lbs. Tin 6 Lead 2 Oak 12 ]^each 12|- Ash 14 White Pine 11 268 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. HEMPEN CORDS. Hempen cords when twisted will support the following weights to the square inch of their section : — Diameter. Lbs. i to 1 inch 8746 1 to 3 inches 6800 Diameter. Lbs. 3 to 5 inches 5345 5 to 7 inches 4860 Note. — A square inch of hemp fibres will support a Aveight of 9200 lbs. Tlie maximmn strength of a good hemp rope is 6400 lbs. to the square inch. \t^ practical value not more than one- half this strain. Before breaking it stretches from \ to \^ and its diameter diminishes from \ to \. The strength of manilla is about \ that of hemp. White ropes are \ more durable. LATERAL OR TRANSVERSE STRENGTH. Table, showing the transverse strength of thnher^ 1 foot long and 1 inch square : Weight suspended from one end. Materials. Breaking weight. Greatest deflec- Welg't borne with Value for gener'l use. Lbs. LbB. tioQ. InctieB. safety. Lbs. White oak, seasoned 240. 9. 196. 40. Chesnut, 170. 1.8 115. 65. Yellow pine, " 150. 1.7 100. 62. White " " 135. 1.4 95. 64. Ash, 175. 2.4 105. 77. Hickory, 270. 8. 200. 60. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 269 Table, showing the transverse strength of iron — square har^ 2 inches hy 12 inches lOng : Weight susjpended from one end. Material. Cast iron Breaking weight, Lbs. 6781 Weight borne safelj Lbs. 4000 Value. 400 Value for Kene- r&l use. 290 Bound, 3 inches diameter hy 12 inches long jpended from end. Weight sus- Material. Cast iron, Breaking weight, Lba. 12000 Weight borne with safety. Lba. 8000 Value. 240 Value for general use Note. — The strength of a projecting beam is only one- fourth of what it would be if supported at both ends, and only one-sixth of what it would be if fixed at both ends. The former is to the latter as 2 is to 3. To fimd the transverse strength when the har or heam is fixed at one end and the load applied at the other. Rule. — Multiply the value in the preceding table by the , breadth, and square of the depth in inches, and divide the product by the length in feet. The quotient will be the weight in lbs. Example. — What weight will a seasoned white oak beam 4 inches square and projecting 36 inches sustain ? Solution. — 4x4" x 40 =2560 -^ 3 feet, projection, =853J lbs. Ans. Example 2d. — ^What weight will a cast iron bar 2 inches square and projecting 4 feet sustain ? Solution.— 2 x 2' x 400=3200^4=800 lbs. Ans. 270 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Note. — ^When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout its length the result must be doubled. When the har or heam is fixed at hoth ends amd the weight apjplied in the middle. Rule. — Multiply the vahie in the preceding table by six times the breadth, and the square of the depth in inches, and divide the product by the length in feet. Example. — What weight will an ash beam 8 inches deep by 10 broad and 10 feet long sustain in the middle, when fixed at the ends ? Solution.— 77 x 60 x 8'=295680-^10=:29568 lbs. Ans. Example 2d. — What weight will a cast iron bar 2 inches square and 4 feet long support, when applied in the middle, the ends being fixed ? Solution.— 400 x 12, six times breadth, x 2''=19200-t-4= 4800 lbs. Ans. Note. — When the weight is equally distributed along its entire length, the above results must be doubled. Wlien the har or heam is sv/pported at hoth ends o/nd the weight applied in the middle. Rule. — Multiply the value in the preceding table by the square of the depth, and four times the breadth in inches, and divide the product by the length in feet. Example. — What weight will a white pine beam 8 inches broad by 6 deep and 6 feet long carry when applied in the middle, the ends being supported ? STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 271 Solution.— 64 x6'x 32=24576-f-6=4129+lbs. Ans. Example 2d. — What weight will a cast iron bar 2 inches square and 60 inches between the supports carry ? Solution.— 400x2' x8=12800-=-5 feet =2560 lbs. Ans. Table, showing the resistance of materials to crashing. Designation. WOODS. Ash Beech, well seasoned, Birch, " " ( edar, Elder , Elm, well seasoned, Fir. (spruce,) , Mahogany, Oak , Pine, pitch •' yellow, Poplar, Sycamore, highly seasoned, Walnut, , Willow, METALa Brass, y^ellow , Iron, cast * ' bar " boilerplate MINERALS. Brick, common, '» fire, , Brickwork, Chalk Granite Crushing weight per square inch. In lbs. 8,683 19.363 11,663 5,863 9.973 10.331 6 819 8.198 5.982 6.790 5 445 5.124 12,101 7,227 6,128 10.304 98.000 4'i:000 32,000 800 1,700 612 334 11,000 In tons of 2 00 lbs. 4.3 9.6 6.8 2.9 4.9 6.1 3.4 4.09 2.9 3.3 2.7 2.6 6. 3.6 3.06 6.15 49. 20. 16. 0.40 C.85 0.306 0.16 6.50 STRENGTH OF ICE. Ice 2 inches thick will bear men on foot. " 4 " " " " horseback. RV^ 'K>^ «e -rue. 272 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Ice 6 inches thick will bear cattle and teams with light loads. " 8 " " " teams with heavy loads. ^' 10 " " will sustain a pressure of 1000 lbs. per square foot. This supposes the ice to be sound throughout its whole thickness, without "snow-ice." WEIGHT OF SQUAEE EOLLED IKOK From -^ inch to 12 inches, and 1 yoot in length. Str,o in inches. Weight ia pounds. .013 .053 .118 .211 .475 .845 1.320 1.901 2.688 3.380 4.278 6.280 6.390 7.604 8.926 10.352 11.883 Size in inches. Weight in pounds. 13.520 15.263 17.112 19.066 21.120 23.292 25.560 27.939 30.416 33.010 35.704 38.503 41.408 44.418 47.534 50.756 64.084 67.517 61.055 Size in inches. 4. 1 4.1 4. 1 tl 6. 6.^ n 6. 1 6:1 6. 1 7. 7} Weight in pounds. 64.700 68.448 72.305 76.264 80.333 84. 48 'J 88.784 93.168 97.657 102.240 106.953 111.756 116.671 121.664 132.040 142.816 164.012 165.632 177.672 Size in inches, 8-i 9.i 9. 1 10. lO.J 10. i 10. 1 il. 11. J 11.^ 11. i 12. Weight in pounds. 190.136 203.024 216.336 230.068 244.220 258.800 273.792 289.220 305.056 321.332 337.920 355.136 372.672 390.628 408.9^0 427.812 447.024 466.684 486.656 12* 274 WEIGHT OF SQUARE ROLLED IRON. Example. — What is the weight of a bar of rolled iron 1^ inches square and 12 inches long? In column 1st find 1^, and opposite to it is 7.604 pounds, which is 7 lbs. and -^-^ of a lb. If the lesser denomina- tion of ounces is required, the result is obtained as follows : Multiply the remainder by 16, pointing off the decimals as in multiplication of decimals, and the figures remaining on the left of the point indicate the number of ounces. Thus, -j^QgV of a lb. = .604 16 9.664 ounces. The weight, then, is 7 lbs. 9.y<^Yir ounces. If the weight for less than a foot in length was required, the readiest operation is this : Example. — What is the weight of a bar 6 J inches square and 9|- inches long ? In column 5th, opposite to 6 J, is 132.040, which is the weight for a foot in length. 6J^xl2 inches =132.040 6. a isi = 66.020 3. u isi of 6= 33.010 ■i u isi of 3= 6.5016 •i u isi ofh= 2.7508 9.} 108.,^ftMr WEIGHT OF ROUND ROLLED IRON. From \ inch to 12 inches diameter^ and 1 foot in length. Diamet'r In inches ■h Weight In pounds. 010 .041 .093 .165 .373 .663 1.043 1.493 2.032 2.654 3.360 4.172 6.019 5.972 7.010 8.128 9.333 10.616 Diamet'r in inches Waieht in pounds. 11.988 13,440 14.975 16.688 18.293 20.076 21.944 23.888 25.926 28.040 30.240 32.512 34.886 37.332 39.864 42.464 45.174 47.952 50.815 Diamet'r in inches 4.i 4. 1 4-1 5. 5-1 5.i 5:1 5. 1 5.1 5. 1 6. 6-1 6.f 7. Weight in pounds. 53.760 56.788 69.900 63.094 66.752 69.731 73.172 76.700 80.304 84.001 87.776 91 . 634 95.652 103.704 112.160 120.960 130.048 139.544 149.328 Diamet'r In inches I.* 8.i 8.1 8. 1 9. 9.i 9.i 9.1 10. 10. i 10. i 10. 1 11. 11. i 11. 11. 12. Weight la pounds. 159.456 169.856 180.696 191.808 203.260 215.040 227.152 239.600 252.376 266 . 288 278.924 282.988 306.800 321.216 336.004 351.104 366.636 382.208 The application of this table is precisely similar to that of the preceding one. MASONEY. A perch of stone is 24.75 cubic feet ; when built in the wall, 22 cubic feet make 1 perch, 2| cubic feet being allowed for the mortar and filling. Three pecks, of lime and four bushels of sand to a perch of wall. To find the number of perches of stone in walls. KuLE. — Multiply the length in feet by the height in feet, and that by the thickness in feet, and divide the product by 22, and the quotient will be the number of perches of stone in the wall. MASONBY. 277 Example. — How many perches of stone contained in a wall 40 feet long, 20 feet high, and 18 inches thick ? Solution. — iO feet, length, x 20 ft., height, x IJ feet, thick,=12004-22=54:.54: perches. Am. Note. — To find the number of perches of masonry, divide the product, as above, by 24.75, instead of 22. BricJc-worlc. The dimensions of common bricks are from 7f to 8 inches long, by 41 wide, and 2|- thick. Front bricks are 8 J inches long, by 4^ wide, and 2|- thick. The usual size of fire bricks is 9i inches long, by 41 wide, by 2-8- thick. Twenty common bricks to a cubic foot when laid ; 15 common bricks to a foot of 8-inch wall when laid. To find the number of coinmon hricks in a wall. Rule. — Multiply the length of the wall in feet by the height in feet, and that by its thickness in feet, and that again by 20, and the product will be the number of bricks in the wall. Example. — How many common bricks in a wall 40 feet long by 20 feet high and 12 inches thick ? Solution. — 40 ft., length, x 20 ft., height, x 1 ft., thick, X 20=16000. Ans. Note. — For walls 8 ins. thick, multiply the length in feet by the height in feet, and that by 15, and the product will be the number of bricks in the wall. 278 MASONRY. When the wall is perforated by doors and windows, or other openings, find the sum of their cubic feet by severally multiplying their lengths and widths and thicknesses in feet together, and deducting the whole from the cubic contents of the wall, including the openings, before multiplying by 20 or 16, as above. Laths. Laths are li to \\ inches wide by 4 feet long, are usually set \ inch apart, and a bundle contains 100. THE MECHAISriCAL POWEKS. The mechanical powers are three in number, namely : the LEVER, the inclined plane, and the pulley. The wheel and the axle is a revolving lever ; the wedge is a dovhle inclined plane, and the screw is a revolvmg inclined plane. THE LEVER. To Jmd the length of the longest a/rm of the lever ; the weight to he raised^ the power to he applied^ and the length of the shortest arm of the lever heing given. KuLE. — Multiply the weight by its distance from the fal- crum and divide the product by the power, and the quotient is the distance from the fulcrum the power must be applied, or, the longest arm of the lever. Example. — Given, a weight of 900 lbs., distant 2 feet from the fulcrum, to be raised by a force or power of Y5 lbs. ; re- quired, the length of the longest arm of the lever. Solution. — 900 lbs., the weight, x 2 feet, distance from fulcrum, =1 800 -^ 75 lbs., the power,=24 feet. Ans. To find the length of the sJwrtest arm of the lever ; the weight to he raised, the power to he applied, amd the length of the longest a/i^m of the lever heing given. 280 THE MECHAinOAL POWERS. EuLE. — Multiply the power by its distance from the ful- crum, and divide the product by the weight, and the quo- tient is the distance the weight must be placed from the fulcrum, or, the shortest arm of the lever. Example. — ^What distance must a weight of 800 lbs. be placed from the fulcrum, to be raised by a power of 150 lbs. placed 8 feet from the fulcrum ? Solution. — 150 lbs., the power, x 96 inches, its distance from the fulcrum, = 14400 -r- 800 lbs., the weight, =18 inches. Ans. To find the power required to raise a given weight / the distances of the weight and the power from the fulcrum heing given. Kule. — Multiply the weight by its distance from the ful- crum and divide the product by the distance of the power from the fulcrum. Example. — What power will raise a weight of 600 lbs. 20 inches from the fulcrum, applied 8 feet from the ful- crum % Solution. — 600 lbs., weight, x 20 inches, distance of weight from fulcrum, =12000-^96 inches, distance of power from fulcrum, =125 lbs. Ans. To fi/nd the weighty at a gi/ven distance from the fulcrum, a gi/ven power at a given distance from the fulcrum will raise. Rule. — Multiply the power by its distance from the ful- THE MECHANICAL POWERS. 281 crum and divide the product by the distance of the weight from the fulcrum. Example. — What weight will a power of 250 lbs. 10 feet from the fulcrum raise, the weight placed 20 inches from the fulcrum ? Solution. — 250 lbs., the power, x 120 inches, its distance from the fulcrum, =30000 -^20 inches, distance of weight from fulcrum, =1500 lbs. Ans. The GENERAL RULE, therefore, for ascertaining the rela- tion of power to weight in a lever, is : the power applied, multiplied by its distance from the fulcrum, is equal to the weight multiplied by its distance from the fulcrum. The pressure upon the fulcrum equals the sum of the weight and power. IsToTE. — It must be remembered that, according to the foregoing rules and examples, the weight and force are made by the introduction of the lever to equal or balance each other. Hence, to get at their practical value, we must either shorten the short arm, or lengthen the long arm of the lever, add to the power, or deduct from the weight, to such an extent as each may judge for himself expedient under the circumstances. 282 THE MECHANICAL POWERS. THE INCLINED PLANE. To find the power or force required to raise a> given weight up cm inclined plane of a given length amd height. KuLE. — As the length of the plane is to its height, so is the weight to the power. Example. — Required the power necessary to raise 1500 lbs. up an inclined plane 20 feet long and 8 feet high ? Solution.— As 20 : 8 : : 1500 : 600 lbs. Ans. To find the height of an inclined plane wJien its length and hose are given. EuLE.— Subtract the square of the base from the square of the length, and the square root of the remainder is the height. Example. — Given an inclined plane, the length of which is 40 feet and base 38 : required, its height ? Solution.— 1600, square of length, — 1444, square of base, = |/ 156 = 12.49 feet. Ans. To find the length when its hose and height are given. THE MECHANICAL POWERS. 283 Rule. — Add the squares of the height and the base, and the square root of their sum will be the length. Example. — ^What is the length of an inclined plane the base of which is 20 feet and its height 12 ? Solution. — 400, square of base, + 144, square of height, = 4, 544 = 23.32 feet. A7is, To find the hose when the length and height are given. Rule. — Subtract the square of the height from the square of the length, and the square root of the remainder will be the base. Example. — ^What is the base of an inclined plane, whose height is 10 feet, and length 25 ? Solution. — 625, square of length, — 100, square of height, = / 525 = 22.91 feet. Ans, To fim,d the 'pressure of a weight on an inclined plane when raised hy its equivalent power. Rule. — As the length is to the weight, so is the base to the pressure. Example. — What is the pressure of 1000 lbs. on an in- clined plane, the length of which is 80 feet and the base 70 ? Solution.— 80 feet, length, : 1000 lbs., :: 70 feet, base, : 875 lbs. Ans. Notes. — When the line of direction of the power is par- allel to the plane, the power is least and the pressure least. 284 THE MECHAJ^flCAL POWEES. When the power does not run parallel to the plane, draw a line perpendicular to the direction of the power's action from the end of the base line (at the back of the plane), and the intersection of this line on the length will determine the length and height of the base. THE WHEEL AND THE AXLE. The power multiplied by the radius of the wheel is equal to the weight multiplied by the radius of the axle. As the radius of the wheel is to the radius of the axle, so is the effect to the power. To find the weight a given tractile force or jpower will move on a wheel and axle of given radii, EuLE. — Multiply the tractile or drawing force by the radius of the wheel, and divide the product by the radius of the axle. Example. — What weight will a tractile force of 250 lbs. draw on a wheel (or wheels) of a radius of 3 feet : radius of axle 4 inches ? Solution. — 250 lbs., tractile force, x 36 inches, radius of wheel, = 9000^-4 inches, radius of axle, = 2250 lbs. An^. Tofim^d the tractile force required to move a gwen weight on a wheel and axle of given radii. THE MECHANICAL POWERS. 285 Rule. — Multiply the weight by the radius of the axle and divide the product by the radius of the wheel. Example. — Required, the tractile force necessary to draw 2000 lbs. on a wheel of 2J feet radius, and axle of 3 inches radius ? SoLimoN. — 2000 lbs., weight, x 3 inches, radius of axle, = 6000 -f- 30 inches, radius of wheel, = 200 lbs. Ans. To find the radius required for a wheel to move a given weight hy a given force on a given radius of axle. Rule. — Multiply the weight by the radius of the axle and divide the product by the force. Example. — What radius must a wheel have, the radius of whose axle is 4 inches, to move a weight of 1320 lbs. by a force of 220 lbs ? Solution. — 1320 lbs., weight, x 4 inches, radius of axle, = 5280 H-220 lbs., tractile force, = 24 inches. Ans. To find the radius of an axle required to move a given weight hy a given force, on a wheel of a given radices. Rule. — Multiply the force by the radius of the wheel and divide the product by the weight. Example. — A weight of 1200 lbs. is to be moved on a wheel of 4 feet radius by a force of 150 lbs. : What must be the radius of the axle ? Solution. — 150 lbs., force, x 48 inches, radius of wheel, = Y200 -H 1200 lbs. = 6 inches. Ans. 286 THE MECHANICAL POWERS. Note. — It will be observed that, according to the above rules, illustrated by the foregoing examples, the power or force of traction and the weight or load are equivalents ; that is to say, the one is, by the interposition of the wheel and axle, made to counterpoise the other. To find their eo^y practical value ^ deduct J from the weight, or add ^ to the tractile force. THE WEDGE. To Jmd the force necessary to sepa/rate two bodies from one another in a direction parallel to the hack of the wedge. Rule. — As the length of the wedge is to half its back, so is the resistance to the force. Example. — The length of the back of a double wedge is 6 inches, and its length through the middle 12 inches. Re- quired, the force necessary to separate a substance having a resistance of 200 lbs. ? THE MECHANICAL POWEKS. 287 Solution. — 12 inches, length, : 3 inches, back, : : 200 lbs., resistance, : 50 lbs. Ans. To jmd the requisite force when only one of the bodies is movable. Rule. — As the length of the wedge is to its back, so is the resistance to the force. Example. — What power applied to the back of a wedge will raise a weight of 20,000 lbs.; the wedge being 6 inches deep and 100 long on its base ? Solution. — 100 inches, length, : 6 inches, depth, :: 20,- 000 lbs., weight, : 1200 lbs. Ans. Note. — The power of the wedge increases as its length increases, or as the thickness of its back decreases. 288 THE MECHANICAL POWERS. THE SCREW. The screw is a revolving inclined plane, or an inclined plane wound round a cylinder. Hence, when its length and its pitch, or height, are ascertained, the same rules that govern the inclined plane apply to the screw. To find the length of the inclined plane of a screw. KuLE. — Add the square of the circumference of the screw to the square of the pitch, or distance between the threads, and take the square root of the same, which will be the length of the plane. The height is the distance between the consecutive threads. THE MECHANICAL POWERS. 289 Example. — What is the length of the inclined plane of a screw of 12 inches circumference and 1 inch pitch ? Solution.— 12" + r =145 and 4/145=12.04159 inches. Ans. ]^ote. — It will be observed that the length of the plane as given in the above example is the length of only one turning of the screw, or the length of once round the circumference, which, in ascertaining the power of a screw, is all that is necessary to be known of the length. The entire length of the plane and the entire height of the screw have nothing to do with its power. A single section, comprising one revolution of the plane or the cylinder, is enough. To find the power required to raise a given weight hy means of a screw of given dimensions, KuLE. — As the length of the inclined plane is to the pitch, or height of it, so is the weight to the power. Example. — What is the power requisite to raise 9000 lbs. by a screw 15 inclies circumference, and 1 J inches pitch ? Solution.— 15^ + 1 J''=227i and 4/227^=15.62 inches, length, then 15.62 inches, length, : IJ- inches, pitch, : : 9000 lbs., weight, : 864.27 lbs. Ans. Note. — When a wheel or capstan is applied to turn the screw, the length of the lever is the radius of the circle described by the handle of the wheel or capstan bar, and half the diameter of the screw is the radius of the axle. When the screw is turned by a wheel, a crank, or capstan, 1*3 290 THE MECHANICAL POWERS. find the power of the wheel, crank, or capstan by means of the rules given under " The Wheel and the Axle," and de- duct the force thus acquired from the force necessary to drive the screw in raising the weight alone. The remainder is the force required to raise the weight by the combined power of the screw and the lever. THE PULLEY. When only one cord or rope is used. To find the force necessary to raise a gwen weight hy means of a pulley of a given number of sheaves^ (&c. Rule. — Divide the weight to be raised by the number of parts of the rope engaged in supporting the lower or mov- able block. THE MECHANICAL POWERS. 291 Example. — What is the force required to raise 600 lbs. by means of a lower block containing six sheaves : rope fastened to the upper block ? Solution.— 2x6=12; then, 600-rl2=501bs. Ans. Example 2d. — What force when the rope is fastened to the lower block ? Solution.— 6 x 2 + 1=13 ; then 600+13=46.16 lbs. Ans, When more than one rope is used. In a Spanish Burton^ where there are two ropes, two movable pulleys, and one fixed and one stationary pulley, with the ends of one rope fastened to the support and upper movable pulley, and the. ends of oe other fastened to the lower block and the powder, the weight is to the power as 5 to 1. In one where the ends of one rope are fastened to the support and "the power, and the ends of the other to the lower and upper blocks, the weight is to the power as 4 to 1. DEFINITIONS OF MATHEMATICAL FOEMS. ^*®- *• Parallel Lines are everywhere equally distant ; as, A B and C D. An Angle is the difference of direc- tion between two lines which meet ; as, A D E. The point of meeting is called the vertex of the angle, and when _ the angle is named the letter at the vertex is placed second ; as, C D E. A Right Angle is formed when a straight line meeting another makes two equal angles ; as, A D C and C D B. An Acute Angle is one less than a right angle ; as, E B D, Fig. 3. An Obtuse Angle * is one greater ^ than a right angle ; as, A D E, Fig. 4. A Surface has two dimensions — length and breadth. A Triangle is a figure having three sides ; as, A B C, Fig. 5. FIG. 5. Tj^^ Altitude of a triangle is the per- pendicular distance of the vertex from the line of the base ; as, B C is the altitude of the triangle ABC, Fig. 5. A Right- Angle Triangle is a triangle having aright angle ; * As the right angle contains 90°, it follows that the acute angle contains less, and the obtuse angle more, than 90°. B DEFINITIONS OF MATHEMATICAL FORMS. 293 Fig. \ 6. FtG. 7. as, A C B, Fig. 5. The side opposite the right angle is called the hypothenuse ; as, A B. A Parallelogram is a four-sided fig- ure whose opposite sides are parallel; as, Fig. 6. A Rectangle is a parallelogram whose angles are right angles; as. Fig. T. A Square is a rectangle the sides of which fiq. s. are equal. Fig. 8. ^ • — 1^ A Trapezoid is a four-sided figure having but two of its sides parallel ; as, A B C D, Fig. 9. The Altitude of a Parallelogram, a Rectangle, a Square or a Trapezoid is the perpendicular distance between the base and the line of the parallel side opposite the base ; as, E F, Fig. 9. A Circle is a plane surface bounded by a line, every point of which is equally distant from a point called the centre ; as, A B C D, Fig. 10. The Circumference of a circle is the line by which it is bounded ; as, A B C D, Fig. 10. The Diameter of a circle is a straight line passing through the centre and terminating in the circumference ; as, D E B, Fig. 10. The Radius of a circle is the distance from the centre to the circumference : as, E F. Fig. 9. F \IL7 294 DEFINITIONS OF MATHEMATICAL FORMS. Fig. 11, Pig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. K) Fig. 17. Fig. 18. A Solid has three dimensions — ^length, breadth, and thickness ; as, Fig. 11. A Prism is a solid whose sides are paral- lelograms, and whose ends are equal and similar ; as. Fig. 12. When the ends of a prism are triangular, it is called a triangular prism j as. Fig. 12. When the ends of a prism are square, it is called a square prism / as, Fig. 13. When the ends of a prism are hexagonal,, it is called a hexagonal prism ; as. Fig. 14. When the ends of a prism are circular, it is called a cylinder ;^ as. Fig. 15. When all the sides of a rectangular prism are square, it is called a cube / as. Fig. 16. A Pyramid is a solid, the base of which is a plane rectilinear figure, and having sides which are triangles whose vertices meet at a point at the top called the vertex of the pyramid. Fig. IT. The Altitude of a pyramid or a cone is the perpendicular distance from the vertex to the plane of the base ; as, Fig. 17. A Cone is a solid, the base of which is ?. circle, and which tapers uniformly to a point at the top called a vertex. Ym. 18. A cylinder is a regular polygon, or prism, with an infinite number of sides. DEFINITIONS OF MATHEMATICAL FORMS. 295 A Frustum of a pyramid or a cone is the |)art that remains after cutting off the top bj a plane parallel to the base. Fig. 19 represents the frustum of a pyramid. Fig. 20 represents the frustum of a cone. An Ellijpse is a plane curve such that the sums to6. If about its mi- nor diameter the spheroid is called dblale. Fig. 23 represents 2i prolate spheroid. Fig. 24: represents an oUate spheroid. Fig. 19 Fig. 20. Fig. 21. ®' Fig. 22. CIRCLES. To find the circumference of a circle. Rule 1. — Multiply the diameter by 3.1416, and the pro- duct will be the circumference. Rule 2. — Or, as 7 is to 22 so is the diameter to the cir- cumference. Example. — What is the circumference of a circle whose diameter is 25 ? Solution.— 25x3.1416=78.54. Ans, By Rule 2.-7: 22::25 : 78.5. Ans. To find the dimneter of a circle. Rule 1. — Divide the circumference by 3.1416, and the quotient will be the diameter. Rule 2. — Or, as 22 is to 7, so is the circumference to the diameter. Example. — What is the diameter of a circle whose cir- cumference is 69.11 ? Solution.— 69.11-^3.1416=22. Ans. By Rule 2.-22 : 7:: 69.11 : 22. Ans. To fmd the area of a circle. Rule 1. — Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, or the square of the circumference by .07958, and the pro- duct will be the area. CIRCLES. 297 EuLE 2. — Or, multiply half the circumference by half the diameter. Rule 3. — Or, as 14 is to 11, so is the square of the diam- eter to the area. RuLc 4. — Or, as 88 is to 7, so is the square of the circum- ference to the area. To find the side of an equal sqioare containing the same area as a given circle. EuLE. — Take the square root of the area, which will be the side of the equal square. Tofi/nd the solidity of a sphere. EuLE. — Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236, and the product is the solidity. EXPLANATION AND TSE OF THE FOLLOWING TABLE. In the left hand column will be found the diameter of the circle; in the next column to the right will be found its corresponding circumference ; in the third to the right will be found the area, and in the right hand column will be found the length of the side of an equal square containing the same area. Example. — What is the side of a square having the same area as a circle of 64J inches diameter ? Solution. — Find 64^ in the left-hand column, and oppo- site it to the right, under the heading " Side of Equal Square,'' will be found 57.101, the length of the side. Ans. 13* 298 CmOLES. Table, showing the Areas of Circles and the Sides of thei/r equivalent Squa/res^ from 1 to 100. Side of Side of Di&m. Circum. Area. equal square. Diam. Circum. Area. equal square. " .3926 .01227 .110 Ill" 36.91 108.43 10.413 .7854 .04908 .221 12 37.69 113.09 10.634 1 1.570 .1963 .443 12^ 38.48 117.85 10.856 I 2.356 .4417 .663 12i 39.27 122.71 11.077 1 3.141 .7854 .886 12f 40.05 127.67 11.299 3.927 1.227 1.107 13 40.84 132.73 11.520 4.712 1.767 1.329 13i 41.62 137.88 11.742 If 6.497 2.404 1.550 13| 13f 42.41 143.13 11.9164 2 6.283 3.141 1.772 43.19 148.48 12.185 11 7.068 3.976 1.994 14 43.98 153.93 12.407 7.854 4.908 2.215 U\ 44.76 159.48 12.628 r 8.639 5.939 2.437 14i 45.56 165.13 12.850 9.424 7.068 2.658 14| 46.33 • 170.87 13.071 il 10.21 8.295 2.880 15 47.12 176.71 13.293 10.99 9.621 3.101 15^ 47.90 182.65 13.514 !* 11.78 11.044 3.323 M 48.69 188.69 13.736 12.56 12.566 3.544 J5f 49.48 194.82 13.958 4i 4 13.35 14.186 3.766 16 50.26 201 06 14.179 14.13 15.904 8.988 16i 61.05 207.39 14.401 4| 14.92 17.720 4.209 16i 61.83 213.82 14.622 5 15.70 19.635 4.431 16| 62.62 220.35 14.844 '4 16.49 21.647 4.652 17 53.40 226.98 15.065 17.27 23.768 4.874 17i 54.19 233.70 15.287 4 18.06 25.967 6.095 17A 64.97 240.52 15 508 6* 18.84 28.274 5.317 17| 55.76 247.45 16.730 6| 19.63 30.679 5.538 18 56.64 254.46 15.952 20.42 33.183 5.760 18i 67.33 261.58 16.173 21.20 35.784 6.982 18i 58.11 268.80 16.395 7 21.99 38.484 6.203 18| 58.90 276.11 16.616 7i 22.77 41.282 6.425 19 69.69 283.52 16.838 7i 23.56 44.178 6.646 194 60.47 291.03 17.053 7| 24.34 47.173 6.868 \^ 61.26 298.64 17.281 8 25.13 50.266 7.089 m 62.04 306.35 17.602 si 25.91 63.456 7.311 20 62.83 314.16 17.724 26.70 66.745 7.532 20i 63.61 322.06. 17.946 ?^ 27.48 60.131 7.754 20i 64.40 330.06 18.167 28.27 63.617 7.976 20f 66.18 338.16 18.389 10 29.05 67.200 8.197 21 66.97 346.36 18.610 29.84 70.882 8.419 211 66.75 354.65 18.832 30.63 74.662 8.640 2l| 67.64 363.05 19.053 31.41 78.539 8.862 21| 68.32 371.54 19.275 10^ lOf 11 32.20 82.516 9.083 22 69.11 380.13 19.496 32.98 86.590 9.305 221 69. 9U 388.82 19.718 33.77 90.762 9.526 22| 70.68 397.60 19.940 34.55 95.033 9.748 22| 71.47 406.49 20.161 , 111 35.34 99.402 9.970 23 72.25 416.47 20.383 36.12 103.86 ' 10.191 2'6\ 73.04 424.55 20.604 CIRCLES 299 Diam. Circum. 1% 73.82 74.61 24 75.39 24|r 76.18 2^ 76.96 m 77.75 25 78.54 25} 79.32 25i 80.10 25^ 80.89 26 81.68 26} 82.46 26} 83.25 26f 84.03 27 84.82 27} 85 . 60 27i 86.39 27f 87.17 28 87.96 28} 88.75 28* 89.53 28f 90.32 29 91.10 29} 91.89 29* 92.67 29f 93.46 '60 94.24 30} 95.03 30* 95.81 30^ 96.60 31 97.38 31} 98.17 3U 98.97 31^ 99.74 32 100.0 32} 101.3 32* 102.1 32^ 102.8 33 103.6 33} 104.4 33* 105.2 33f 106. 34 106.8 34} 107.5 34* 108.3 34f 109.1 35 109.9 35} 110.7 35* 35| 111.5 112.3 433.73 443.01 452.39 461.86 471.43 481.10 490.87 500.74 510.70 520.77 630.93 541.18 551.54 562.00 572.55 588.20 593.95 604.80 615.75 626.79 637.94 649.18 660.52 671.95 683.49 695.12 706.86 718.69 730.61 742.64 754.76 766.99 779.31 791.73 804.24 816.86 829.57 842 . 39 855.30 868.30 881.41 894.61 907.92 921.32 934.82 948.41 962.11 975.90 989.80 1003.7 tiide of equal square. 20.826 21.047 21.269 21.491 21.712 21.934 22.155 22.377 22.598 22.820 23.041 23.263 23.485 23.706 23.928 24.149 24.371 24.592 24.814 25 . 035 25.257 25.479 25.700 25.922 26.144 26.365 26 . 586 26.808 27.029 27.251 27.473 27.694 27.916 28.187 28.359 28.580 28.802 29.023 29 . 245 29.467 29.688 29.910 30.131 30.353 30.574 30.796 31.017 31.239 31.461 31.682 Side of Diam. Circqin. Area equal square 36 113. 1017,8 31.904 .36} 113.8 1032.0 32.125 36* 114.6 1046.3 32.347 36| 115.4 1060.7 32.568 37 116.2 1075.2 32.790 37} 117. 1089.7 33.011 37* 117.8 1104.4 33.233 37} 118.6 1119.2 33.455 38 119.3 1134.1 33.676 38} 120.1 1149.0 33.898 38| 120.9 1164.1 34.119 38f 121.7 1179.3 34.341 39 122.5 1194.5 34.562 39} 123.3 1209.9 34.784 39* 39f 124. 1225.4 35.005 124.8 1240.9 35.227 40 125.6 1256.6 35.449 40} 126.4 1272.3 35.670 40* 127.2 1288.2 35.892 40| 128. 1304.2 36.113 41* 128.8 1320.2 36.335 41} 129.5 1336.4 36.556 4H 130.3 1352.6 36.778 41f 131.1 1369.0 36.999 42 131.9 1385.4 37.221 42} 132.7 1401.9 h7.443 4-4 138.5 1418.6 37.664 42f 134.3 1435 . 3 37.886 43 135. 1452.2 38.107 43} 135.8 1469.1 38 329 43t 136.6 1486.1 38.550 43j 137.4 1503.3 38.772 44 138.2 1520.5 38.993 44} 139. 1537.8 39.215 44^ 139.8 1555.2 39.437 44 1 140.5 1572.8 39.658 45 141 . 3 1590.4 39.880 45\ 142.1 1608.1 40.101 45| 142.9 1625.9 40.323 45f 143.7 1643.8 40.554 46 144.5 1661.9 40.766 46} 145.2 1680.0 40.987 46* 146. 1698.2 41.209 46| 146.8 1716.5 41.431 47 147.6 1734.9 41.652 47} 148.4 1753.4 41.874 47| 149.2 1772.0 42.095 47 f 150. 1790.7 42.817 48 150.7 1809.5 42.538 48} 151.5 1828.4 42.760 300 CIRCLES. Side of Side of i Diam. 48J Clrcum. 152.3 Area. equal square. Diam. Circum. Area. equal square. 1847.4 42.982 61 191.6 2922.4 54.059 48f 153.1 1866.5 43.203 61J 192.4 2946.4 54.281 49 153.9 1885.7 43.425 61^ 193.2 2970.5 64.502 49i 154.7 1905. 43.646 61f 193.9 2994.7 54.724 49* 49| 155.5 1924.4 43.868 62 194.7 3019.0 54.946 156.2 1943.9 44.089 62 J 195.5 3043.4 55.167 ' 50 157. 1963.5 44.311 62i 196.3 3067.9 55.389 50^ 157.8 1983.1 44.532 62f 197.1 3192.5 55.610 50^ 158.6 2002.9 44.754 63 197.9 3117.2 55.832 i 50f 159.4 2022.8 44.976 631 198.7 3142.0 56.053 1 51 160.2 2042.8 45.197 6H 199.4 3166.9 56.275 ! 61i 161. 2062.9 45.419 63f 200.2 3191.9 56.496 1 5H 161.7 2083.0 45.640 64 201. 3216.9 56.718 51f 162.5 2103.3 45 . 862 641 201.8 3242.1 56.940 •; 52 163.3 2123.7 46.083 6H 202.6 3267.4 57.161 521 164.1 2144.1 46.305 64f 203.4 3292.8 57.383 52| 164.9 2164.7 46.526 65 204.2 3318.3 57.604 1 52f 165.7 2185.4 46.748 651 204.9 3343.8 57.826 63 166.5 2206.1 46.970 65A 205.7 3369.5 58.047 1 531 167.2 2227.0 47.191 65f 206.5 3396.3 58.269 53A 168. 2248.0 47.413 66 207.3 3421.2 58.490 53| 168.8 2269.0 47.634 66} 208.1 3447.1 58.712 54 169.6 2290.2 47.856 66* 208.9 3473.2 58.934 54J 170.4 2311.4 48.077 66| 209.7 3499.3 59.155 54* 54f 171.2 2332.8 48.299 67 210.4 3525 . 6 59.377 172. 2354.2 48.520 67| 211.2 3552 . 59.598 55 172.7 2375.8 48.742 67! 212. 3578.4 59.820 554 173.5 2397.4 48.964 67f 212.8 3605.0 60.041 55J 174.3 2419.2 49.185 68 213.6 3631 . 6 60.263 55! 175.1 2441.0 49.407 681 214.4 3658.4 60.484 56 175.9 2463.0 49.628 68| 215.1 3685.2 60.706 '■ 56i 176.7 2485.0 49.850 68f 2U.9 3712.2 60.928 56^ 177.5 2507.1 50.071 69 216.7 3739.2 61.149 56f 178.2 2529.4 50.293 691 217.5 3766.4 61.371 57 179. U551.7 50.514 69J 218.3 3793.6 61.592 57^ 179.8 2574.1 50.736 69f 219.1 3821.0 61.814 57i 57f 180.6 2596.7 50.9.58 70 219.9 3848.4 62.035 181.4 2619.3 51.179 70| 220.6 3875 . 9 62.257 58 182 . 2 2642.0 51.401 70| 221.4 3903.6 62.478 681 182.9 2664.9 51.622 70| 222.2 3931.3 62.700 58,. 58| 183.7 2687.8 51.844 71* 223. 3959.2 62.922 184.5 2710.8 62.065 71^ 223.8 3987.1 63.143 59* 185.3 2733.9 52.287 '^4 224.6 4015.1 63.365 69i 186.1 2757.1 52.608 71-1 225.4 4043 2 63.586 ' 69 186.9 2780.5 52.730 72 226.1 4071.5 63.808 69 187.7 2803.9 52.952 721 226.9 4099.8 64.029 ; 60 188.4 2827.4 63.173 72J 227.7 4128.2 64.251 ; 60i 189.2 2851.0 53.395 72f 228 5 4156.7 64.473 60A 60| 190. 2874.7 53.616 73 229.3 4185.3 64.694 190.8 2898.6 53.838 73i 230.1 4214.1 64.916 1 CIRCLES. 301 Side of Side of Diam. 73i Circum. 230.9 Area. 4242.9 equal square. Diam. 86 Circum. Area. equal square. 65.137 270.1 5808.8 76.215 73| 231.6 4271.8 65.359 86J 270.9 5842.6 76.437 74 232.4 4300.8 65.580 86^ 271.7 5876.6 76.658 74| 233.2 4329.9 65.802 86| 272.5 5910.5 76.880 74i 234. 4359.1 66.023 87' 273.3 5944.6 77.101 in 75 234.8 4388.4 66.245 87^ 274.1 5978.9 77.323 235.6 4417.8 66.467 87| 274.8 6013.2 77.544 75^ 75| 236.4 4447.3 66.688 87f 275.6 6047.6 77.766 I 237.1 4476.9 66.910 88 276.4 6082.1 77.987 75f 237.9 4506.6 67.191 88^ 277.2 6116.7 78.209 '■■ 76 238.7 4536.4 67.353 88J 88f 278. 6151.4 78.431 : 76^ 76| 239.5 4566.3 67.574 278.8 6186.2 78.652 240.3 4596.3 67.796 89 279.6 6221.1 78.874 < 76| 241.1 4626.4 68.017 89J- 280.3 6256.1 79.095 77 241.9 4656.6 68.239 89* 281.1 6291.2 79.317 ^ 771 242.6 4686.9 68.461 89f 281.9 6326.4 79.538 77i 77| 243.4 4717.3 68.682 90 282.7 6361.7 79.760 ■ 244.2 4747.7 68.904 901 283.5 6397 . 1 79.981 ^ 78 245. 4778.3 69.125 90^ 284.3 6432.6 80.203 781 245.8 4809.0 69.347 904 285.1 6468.2 80.425 78i 246.6 4839.8 69.568 91 285.8 6503.8 80.646 78f 79 247.4 4870.7 69.790 91J 286.6 6539.6 80.868 .1; 248.1 4901 . 6 70.011 9U 287.4 6575.6 81.089 J 791 248.9 4932.7 70.233 9 If 288.2 6611.5 81.311 f 79i 249.7 4963.9 70.455 92 289. 6647.6 81.532 79f 250.5 4995.1 70.676 921 289.8 6683.8 81.754 80 251.3 5026.5 70.898 92^ 290.5 6720.0 81.975 801 252.1 6058.0 71.119 92f 291.3 6756.4 82.197 80A 252.8 5089.5 71.341 93 292.1 6792.9 82.419 80f 253.6 5121.2 71.562 931 292.9 6829.4 82.640 81 254.4 5158.0 71.784 93^ 293.7 6866.1 82.862 8U 255.2 5184.8 72.005 93| 294.5 6902.9 83.083 84 256. 5216.8 72.227 94 295.3 6939.7 83.305 81f 82 256.8 5248.8 72.449 941 296. 6776.7 83.526 257.6 5281.0 72.670 94^ 94f 296.8 7013.8 83.748 \ 82i 258.3 5313.2 72.892 297.6 7050.9 83.970 \ 82i 25s9.1 5345.6 73.113 95 298.4 7088.2 84.191 s 82f 259.9 6378.0 73.335 951 299.2 7122.5 84.413 ■1 83 260.7 5410.6 73.566 95^ 300. 7163.0 84.634 j 831 261.5 5443.2 73.778 95f 300.8 7200.5 84.856 83* 262.3 5476.0 73.999 96 301.5 7238.2 85.077 ; 83i 263.1 5508.8 74.221 961 302.2 7275.9 85.299 ;■ 84^ 263.8 5541.7 74.443 96^ 303.1 7313.8 85.520 841 264.6 5574.8 74.664 96| 303.9 7351.7 85.742 84* 265.4 5607.9 74.886 97 304.7 7389.8 85.964 m 266.2 5641.1 75.107 971 305.5 7427.9 86.185 85 267. 5674.5 75.329 97| 306.3 7466.2 86.407 851 267.8 5707.9 75.550 97f 307. 7504.5 86.628 85^ 268.6 5741.4 75.772 98 307.8 7542.9 86 . 850 85| 269.3 5775.0 75.993 98^ 308.6 7581.6 87.071 . 302 CIRCLES. Side of Side of Diam. Circum. Area. equal square. Diam. Circum. Area. equal square. 98;^ 309.4 7620.1 87.293 on 312.5 7775.6 88.179 98a 310.2 7658.8 87.514 99f 313.3 7814.7 88.401 99 311. 7697.7 87.736 100 314.1 7853.9 88.622 99i 311.8 7736.6 87.958 To find^ hy means of the Tahle^ the square or circle that will contain the area of a hoard or surface of given length am^d width. Rule. — Find the area of the board or surface by multi- plying its width by its length, and in the columns opposite the area thus found, headed respectively " Diam.^'' " Cir- m^m.," and " Side of Equal Square^'' will be found the dimensions of the circle and square that contains the area. Example. — What is the side of a square, and what the diameter and circumference of a circle, that will contain the same area as a board that is 22 inches wide by 12 feet long \ Solution. — 22 inches, width, x 144 inches, length, = 3168 square inches, area of board : Then, in the table, opposite the area of 3166.9 (the nearest number to 3168) under the columns headed respectively "Diam.," "Circum.," and "Side of Equal Square," will be found 63^ inches, diame- ter, 109.4 inches, circumference, and 56.275 inches, side of square. Ans. SQUAEES, CUBES, AND KOOTS. Table of Sq^cares, Cubes, and Square and Cube Boots, of all numbers from 1 to 1000. No. Square, Cube. 1 1 1 2 4 8 3 9 27 4 6 64 6 26 125 6 36 216 7 49 343 h 64 612 9 81 729 10 100 1000 n 121 1331 12 144 1728 13 169 2197 14 196 2744 15 225 3375 Ifi 256 4096 17 289 4913 18 324 5832 19 361 6859 20 400 8000 21 441 9261 22 484 10648 23 529 12167 24 576 13824 25 626 15626 26 676 17576 27 729 19683 2R 784 21952 29 841 24389 30 900 27000 31 961 29791 32 1024 32768 33 1089 35937 34 1156 39304 35 1226 42875 3fi 1296 46656 37 1369 60653 38 1444 64872 39 1621 69319 40 1600 64000 41 1681 68921 42 1764 74088 43 1849 79507 44 1936 85184 45 2025 91126 46 2116 97336 47 2209 103823 48 2304 110592 49 2401 117649 60 2600 125000 51 2601 132651 62 270* 140608 63 28091 148877 Sq. Root, Cu. Root. No. Square 1.414213 1.73;J050 2. 2. 2. 2.645751 2.828427 3. 3.162277 3.316624 3.464101 3.605551 3.741657 3.872983 4 4.123105 4.242640 4. 4.472136 4.682575 4.690415 4.7958.S1 4.898979 5. 6.099019 6.196152 5.291502 6.385164 6.477225 6.667764 6.656854 5.744562 6.830951 6.916079 6. 6.082762 6.164414 6.244998 6.324555 6.403124 6.480740 6.657438 6.633249 6.782330 6.865654 6.928203 7. 7.071067 7.141428 7.211102 7.280109 1. 1.259921 1.442250 1.587401 1.709976 1.817121 1.912933 2. 2.080084 2.154435 2.223980 2.289428 2.351336 2.410142 2.466212 2.519842 2.671282 2.620741 2.668402 2.714418 2.758923 2.802039 2.843867 2.884499 2.924018 2.962496 3. 3.036589 3.072317 3.107232 3.141381 3.174802 3.207534 3.239612 3.271066 3.301927 3.332222 3.361975 3.391211 3.419952 3.448217 3.476027 3.503398 3.530348 3.556893 3.583048 3.608826 3.634241 3.684031 3.708430 3.732511 3.756286 67 Cube. 2916 3025 3136 3249 3364 3481 3600 3721 3844 3969 4096 4226 4350 4489 4624 4761 4900 5041 6184 6329 5476 6625 6776 6929 6084 6241 6400 6561 6724 6889 7056 7225 7396 7569 7744 7921 8100 8281 9026 9216 9409 9604 9801 10000 10201 10404 10609 10816 11026 11236 167464 166375 175616 186193 195112 205379 216000 226981 Sq. Root. Cu. Root. 250047 262144 274626 287496 300763 314432 328509 343000 357911 373248 389017 405224 421875 438976 456633 474652 612000 531441 551368 571787 692704 614125 668603 681472 729000 753571 778688 804357 857375 884736 912673 941192 970299 1000000 1030301 1061208 1092727 1124864 1157625 1191016 7 348469 7.416198 7.483314 7.549834 7.615773 7.681146 7.745966 7.810249 7.87400*7 7.937253 8. 8.062257 8.124038 8.186362 8.246211 8.306623 8.366600 8.426149 8.485281 8.544003 8.602325 8.660264 8.717797 8.774964 8.831760 8.888194 8.944271 9. 9.055385 9.110433 9.165151 9.219544 9.273618 9.327379 9.486833 9.539392 9.591663 9.746794 9.797969 9.84S857 9.899494 9.949874 10. 10.049875 10.099504 10.148891 10.198039 10.246960 10.295630 3.779763 3.802953 3.825862 3.848501 3.870877 3.914867 3.936497 3.957892 3.979067 4. 4.020726 4.041240 4.061648 4.081686 4.101566 4.121285 4.140818 4.160168 4.179339 4.198336 4.217163 4,236824 4.254321 4 272669 4.290841 4.308870 4.326749 4.344481 4.362071 4.379519 4.396830 3.414005 4.431047 4.447960 4.464745 4.481401 4.497942 4.614357 4.530655 4.546836 4.562903 4.677857 4.594701 4.610436 4.626065 4.641589 4.667010 4.672330 4.687548 4.702669 4.717694 4.732624 * 304: .SQUARES, CUBES, ANt) ROOTS. No. 107 -Square Cube. Sq. Root, Cu. Root. No. 172 Square. Cube. .^q . Koot. Cu. Koot. 11449 1225043 10.344080 4.747459 29584 5088448 13.114877 5.561298 108 11*564 1259712 10.392304 4.762203 173 29929 5177717 13.152946 5.572054 109 11881 1295U29 10.440306 3.776856 174 30276 5268024 13.190906 5.582770 110 12100 1331000 10.488088 4.791420 175 30625 5359375 13.228756 5.593445 111 12321 1367631 10.535653 4.805896 176 30976 5451776 13 266499 6. (=04079 112 12544 1404928 10.583005 4.820284 177 31329 5545233 13.304134 5.614673 113 12769 1442897 10.630145 4.834588 178 31«84 5639752 13.341664 5.625226 114 12996 1481544 10.677078 4.848808 179 32 41 6735839 13.379088 6.635741 115 13225 1520875 10.723805 4.862944 180 32400 5832000 13.416407 6.646216 116 13456 1560896 10.770329 4.876999 181 32761 592974] 13.453624 5.656652 117 13689 1601613 10.816653 4.890973 182 33124 6028568 13.490737 6.667051 118 13924 1643032 10.862780 4.904868 183 3 489 6128487 13 627749 5.677411 119 14161 1685159 10.908712 4.918685 1^4 33856 6229504 13.564660 5.687734 120 14400 1728000 10.954451 4.932424 185 34^25 6331625 13.601470 6.698019 121 14641 1771561 11 4.946088 186 34596 6434856 13.638181 5.708267 122 14884 1815848 11.045361 4.959675 187 34969 6539203 13.674794 5.718479 123 15129 1860867 11.090536 4.973190 1S8 35344 6644672 13.711309 5.728654 124 15376 1906624 11.135528 4 986631 189 35721 6751269 13.747:27 5.738794 125 15625 1953125 11.180339 5. 190 36100 6859000 13.784048 5.748897 126 15876 2000376 11.224972 6.013298 191 36481 6967871 13.820275 5.758965 127 16129 2048383 11,269427 5.026526 192 36864 7077888 13.8564u6 5.768998 128 16384 2097152 11.313708 5.039684 193 37249 7189057 13.892444 6.778996 129 16641 2146H89 11.357816 5,052774 194 37636 7301384 13.928388 5.788960 130 16900 2197000 11 401754 5.065797 195 38(;25 7414875 13.964240 5.798890 131 1716! 2248091 11.445522 5.078753 196 38416 7529536 14. 5,808786 132 17424 2299968 11.489125 5.091643 197 38809 7645373 I4.03b668 5.818648 133 17689 2352637 11.532562 5.104469 198 39204 7762392 14.071247 5.828476 134 17956 2406104 11.575836 5.117230 199 39601 7880599 14.106736 6.838272 135 18225 2460373 11.618950 5.129928 200 40000 8OOCO00 14.142135 5.848035 136 18496 2515456 11.661903 5.142563 201 40401 812060! 14.177446 5.857766 137 18769 2571353 11,704699 5.155137 202 40804 8242408 14.212670 5.867464 138 19044 2628072 11.747344 5.167649 203 41209 8365427 14.247806 5.877130 139 19321 2685619 11.789826 5.180101 204 41616 8489664 14.282856 5.886765 140 19600 2744000 11.832159 5.192494 205 42025 8615125 14.317821 6.896368 141 19881 2803221 11 874342 6.204828 2(J6 42436 8741816 14.352700 5.906941 142 20164 2863288 11.916375 5.217103 207 42849 8869743 14.387494 6.915481 143 20449 2924-Z07 11.958260 5.229321 208 43264 8998912 14.422205 5.924991 144 20736 2985984 12. 5.241482 209 43681 9123329 14.456832 5.934473 145 21025 3048625 12.041594 5.253588 210 44100 9261000 14.491376 6.943911 146 21316 3112136 12.083046 5.265637 211 44521 9393931 14.525839 6. 953341 147 21609 3176523 12.124355 5.277632 212 44944 9528128 14.560219 5.962731 148 21904 3241792 12.165525 5.289572 213 45369 9663597 14.594519 6.972091 149 22201 3307949 12.206555 5.301459 214 45796 9800344 14.628738 6.981426 150 22500 3375000 12.247448 5.313293 215 46225 9938375 14,662878 6.990727 151 22801 3442951 12 288205 5.325074 216 46656 10077696 14.696938 6. 152 23104 3511808 12.328828 5.336803 217 47089 10218313 14.730919 6.009244 153 23409 3581577 12.369316 5.348481 218 47624 10360232 14.764823 6.018463 154 23716 3652264 12.409673 5.360108 219 47961 10503459 14.798648 6.027660 155 24025 3723875 12.449899 5.371685 220 48400 10648000 14.832397 6. 036811 156 24336 3796416 12 489996 5.383231 221 48841 10793861 14.866068 6.045943 157 24649 3869893 12.529964 5.394690 222 49284 10941048 14.899664 6.055048 158 24964 3944312 12.569805 5.406120 223 49729 11089567 14.933184 6.064126 159 25281 4019679 12.609520 5.417501 224 :C176 11239424 14.966629 6.073177 160 2o600 4096000 12.649110 5.428835 225 50625 11390625 15. 6.082201 161 25921 4173281 12.688577 5.440122 226 51076 11543176 16.033296 6.091199 )62 26244 425152S 12.727922 5 451362 227 61529 11697083 15.066519 6.100170 163 26569 4330747 12.767145 5.462556 228 51984 11852352 15.099668 6.109115 164 26896 4410944 12.806248 5.473703 229 52441 12008989 15.132746 6.118032 165 27225 4492125 12.845232 5.484806 5.495865 230 52900 12167C0U 15.165750 6.126925 166 27556 4574296 12.884098 231 53361 12326391 15.198684 6.135792 167 27889 4757463 12.922848 5.506879 232 53824 12487168 15.231546 6.114634 168 28224 4741632 12.961481 5.517848 233 64289 12649337 15.264337 6.153449 169 28561 4826809 13. 6.528775 234 54756 12812904 15.297058 6.162239 170 28900 4913000 13.038404 5.539658 235 55225 12977875 15.329709 6.171005 171 29241 5000211 13.076696 5.550499 236 55690 13144256 15.362291 6.179747 SQUARES, CUBES, AND ROOTS. 305 No. (Square. 239 2-10 241 242 243 244 246 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 t:74 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 28"! 285 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 56169 56644 57121 57600 58081 58564 59049 59536 60025 60516 61009 61504 62001 62500 63C01 63504 64009 6451 65025 65fi36 66564 67081 67600 68121 68644 69169 70225 70757 71289 718^4 72361 72900 73441 73984 74529 75076 75625 76176 76729 77284 77841 78400 78961 79524 Cube. 80656 81225 81796 82369 82944 83521 84100 84681 85264 85849 86436 87025 87616 88209 88804 89401 90(00 13312053 13481272 13661919 13824000 13997521 14172488 14348907 14526784 14706125 14886936 15069223 15252992 16438249 15625000 15813251 16003008 16194277 16387064 16581375 16777216 16974593 17173512 17373979 1757600 17779581 17984728 18191447 18399744 18609625 18821096 19034163 19248832 19465109 196830L0 1990251 20123648 20346417 20570824 20796875 21024576 2126393K 21484952 21717639 21952000 22188041 22425768 22665187 22906301 231491-25 23393656 23639903 23887872 24137569 24389000 24642171 24897088 25153757 25412184 25672375 25934336 2619807a 26463592 26730899 27000000 27270901 Sq. Root, Cu. Root. 15.394804 15.42724!i 15 459624 15.491933 15.524174 15.556349 15.588457 15.620499 15.652475 15.684387 15.716233 15.748015 15.779733 15.811388 15.842979 15.87450 15.905973 15.937377 15.968719 16 16.031219 16.062378 16.093476 16.124515 16.155494 16.186414 16.217274 16.248076 16.27882 16.309506 16.340i34 16.370705 16.401219 16.431676 16.46207: 16.492422 16.522711 16.552945 16.583124 16.613247 16.643317 16.673332 16.703293 16.733200 16.763054 16.792855 16.822603 16.852299 16.881943 16.911534 16.941074 16.970562 17. 17.029386 17.058722 17.08800' 17.117242 17.146428 17.175564 17.204650 17. -'3J 17.262676 17.291616 17.3205 17.349361 6.188463 6.197154 6.205821 6.214464 6.223083 6.231678 6.240251 6.248800 6.257324 6.265826 6.274304 6.i82760 6.291194 6.299f04 6.307992 6.316359 6.324704 6.333025 6.3413-.^5 6.349602 6.357859 6.374310 6.3825C4 6.390676 6.398827 6.406958 6.415068 6.423157 6.431226 6.439275 6.44730.'! 6.455314 6.463304 6.471274 6.479224 6.487153 6.495064 6.602956 6.610829 6.518684 6 826519 6.534335 6.542132 6.549911 6.857672 6.665415 6.573139 6.580844 6.588531 6.596202 6.603854 6.611488 6.619106 6.626705 6.634287 6.641851 6.649399 6.656930 6.664443 6.6T1940 6.679419 6.686S82 No. Square. 6.701768 331 332 333 334 336 336 33 33 33fe 340 34' 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 35i 3?>o 354 35.^ 356 357 35>- 359 S60 91204 91809 92416 93026 93636 94249 96481 96100 96721 97344 97969 99225 99856 100489 101124 101761 102400 103042 103684 104329 104976 l056-'5 106276 106929 107584 108241 108900 109561 110224 110889 111556 112225 112896 113669 114244 114921 115600 116281 116964 117649 118336 11902f) 119716 120409 121104 121801 122500 123201 123904 124609 125316 126025 126736 12?449 128164 128881 129600 130321 131044 131 132496 133225 133956 Cube. 27643608 27818127 28094464 2-372625 28662616 28934440 29218112 29503629 29791000 30080231 30371328 30664297 30959144 31255876 31554496 318550 32157432 32461759 32768f00 3307M61 33386248 34012224 34328125 34645976 34965783 36287562 35611289 35937000 36264691 36926037 37259704 37698375 879330; 38272753 38614472 38968219 39304000 39651821 40001688 40363607 40707684 41063625 41421736 41781923 42144192 42508549 42875000 43243651 43614208 439869 44361864 44738875 45118016 45499293 45882712 46268279 46656000 47046881 47437928 47832147 48228544 48627126 49027896 Sq. Root. Cu. Root. 17.378147 17.406896 17.435595 17.464249 17.492855 17.521415 17.549928 17.678396 17.606816 17.635192 17.663621 17.691806 17.720045 17.748239 17.776388 17.804 17.832554 17.860571 17.888543 17.916472 17.944358 17.972200 18. 18.027756 18.055470 18.083141 18.110770 18.138357 18.165902 18.193406 18.220867 18.248287 18.275666 18 30300n 18.330302 18.377559 18.384776 18.411952 18.439088 18.466185 18.493242 18.620-.59 18.547237 18.574175 18.601075 18.627936 18.654758 18.681541 18.70? 18.734994 18.761663 18.788294 18.814887 18.841443 18.867962 18.894443 18.92088 18.947295 18.973666 19. 19.026297 19.05'^558 19.078784 19.104973 19.131126 6.709172 6.716569 6.723850 9.731316 6.738665 6.745997 6.753313 6.760614 6.767899 6.775168 6.782422 6.789661 6.796884 6.804091 6.811284 6 818461 6.825624 6.832771 6.83990:i 6.847021 6.8541V4 6.86-211 6.868284 6.876343 6.882388 6 88P4I9 6.896435 6.903436 6. 91 04-. 3 6.917396 6.924355 6.9313C0 6.938232 6.945449 6.952053 6.958943 6.965819 6.972682 6.979632 6.986369 6.993491 7. 7.006796 7.013579 7.020349 7. 0271 06 7.033850 7.040581 7.047208 7.0?4003 7.060696 7.067376 7.074043 7.080698 7.087341 7.093970 7.100588 7.107193 7.113786 7.12C367 7.126935 7.133492 7.140037 7.146669 7.153090 306 SQUAEES, CUBES, AND ROOTS. No. Square. 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 4.0 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 480 .431 134689 335424 136161 137641 138384 139129 139876 140625 141376 142129 142884 143641 144400 145161 145924 146689 147456 148225 148996 149769 150544 151321 152100 152881 153664 154449 155236 156025 156816 157609 158404 159201 160000 160 161604 162409 1632:6 164025 164836 165649 166464 167281 168100 168921 169744 170569 171396 172225 173056 173889 174724 175561 176400 177241 Hi 178929 179776 180625 181476 18232! 183184 184041 184900 185761 Cube. 49430863 50243409 60653000 51064811 51478848 61895117 52313624 52734375 58157376 63582633 64010162 64439939 64872000 65306341 55742968 66181887 66623104 67066625 67512466 67960603 68411072 69319000 69776471 60698467 61162984 61629876 62570773 63044792 63521199 64000000 64481201 6496480S 65450827 65939264 66430125 66923416 67419143 67911312 68417929 68921000 69426531 Sq, Root, Cu. Root 70444997 70957944 71473375 71991296 72f>1171c 730346:S2 73560059 7408800(i 74618461 75151448 75686967 76226024 7<)765625 77308776 77854483 7840275-^ 78953589 79507000 80062991 19.157244 19.18332e 19. 20937-.^ 19.235384 19.261360 19.287301 19.313207 19.339079 19.364916 19.390719 19.416487 19.442222 19.467922 19.493588 19.519221 19.644820 19.570385 19.595917 19.62141^ 19.646882 19.672315 19.697715 19.723082 19.748417 19.773719 19.79S989 19.824227 19.849432 19.874606 19.899748 19 924858 19.949937 19.974984 20. 20.024984 20.049937 20.074859 20.099751 20.124611 20.149441 20.174241 20.199009 20.223748 20.248456 20.273134 20.297783 20.322401 20.3469!i9 20.37154h 20.39607*5 20.420577 20.445048 20.469489 20.493901 20.518284 20.542638 20.566963 20 591260 20.615528 20.639767 20.663978 20.688160 20.712315 20.736441 20.760539 7.159599 7.16C095 7.172680 7.179064 185516 191966 198405 204832 211247 217652 224045 230427 236797 243156 7.249504 7.255841 7.262167 .268482 .274786 .281079 .287362 7 7 7 7 7 7 7.306143 7.312383 7.318611 7.324829 7.331037 337234 343420 349596 355762 361917 368063 374198 380322 386437 7.392542 7.398636 7.404720 7.410794 No. Square. 416859 422914 428958 434993 441018 447033 453039 7.459036 7.465022 7.47^999 7.476966 7.482924 7.488872 7.494810 7.500740 7.512571 7.518473 7.524365 7.530248 7.536121 7.541986 7.547841 7.653688 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 44o 444 44b 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 45£ 456 457 45e 459 460 461 462 46S 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 47; 474 475 476 477 478 4' 480 481 482 483 484 485 48t: 487 488 48fe 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 186624 187489 188356 189226 190096 191844 192721 193600 194481 195364 19^249 197136 19802^ 198916 199809 200704 201601 202500 20340 204304 2052 9 206106 207(125 20793 208849 209764 210681 211600 2125-/ 1 213444 214369 215296 216225 217156 218089 219024 219961 220900 221841 222784 223729 224676 225625 226576 227529 2284^4 229441 230400 231361 232324 233289 234256 235225 236196 23 n 238144 239121 24010f 241081 242064 243049 244036 24502=i 2460i6 Cube. 80621568 8 1^2737 8174650 1 8--^312875 82881856 83453453 84027672 84604519 85184000 86766121 86938307 87528384 88121125 88716536 89314623 89915392 90518849 91125000 91733851 92345408 929.=.9677 93576664 94196375 94818816 95443993 96071912 96702579 97336000 97972181 98611128 99-252847 99897344 100544625 101194696 101847563 102503232 103161709 103823n0O 104487111 105154048 105823817 106496424 107171875 107850176 108531333 109215352 10990:^239 110592000 111284641 111980168 112678587 113379904 114084125 114791256 11550^303 116214272 116930 117649000 118370771 119095488 119823157 120553784 12 '287375 1:^2023936 Sq. Root.( Cu. Root. 20 7846" 9 0.808651 20.832666 20.856653 20.880613 20 . 804545 20.928449 20.962326 20.976i77 21. 21.023796 21.047565 21.071307 21.095025 2l.ll87r- 21.142374 2l.l»i6010 21.189620 21. 213'. 03 21.236760 21 . 260291 21.283796 21.30727fc •21 . 330729 21.354166 21.377558 21.400934 21. 424. 85 21.447610 21.470910 21.494186 21.617434 21.540659 21.563858 21.587(33 21.C10182 21.633307 n . 656407 21.679483 21 . 702634 21.725561 21.748563 21.77i641 21 . 794494 21 . 817424 21 840c29 21.863211 21.88606!" 21 . 908902 21.931712 21.964498 21.977261 22. 22.022716 r2. 045407 22. 0680 -.6 22.09072x 22.113344 22.135943 22.158519 181073 22.203603 22.226110 22.248.^96 ,ia.2710&7 7.559525 7 .'663i-3 7.571173 7.6769S4 7.68--786 7 588579 7.594363 7.600138 7.605905 7.611662 7.617411 7.623151 7 . 628883 7.634606 7.640321 7.646027 7.651725 7.657414 7.663094 7.668766 7 674430 680085 685732 691371 697002 7026J4 708238 713844 719442 7.725032 7.730614 7.736187 7.741753 7.747310 7.752860 7.758402 7.763936 7.769462 7.774980 7.780490 7.785992 7.791487 7.796974 7.802453 7.807925 7.813389 7.818845 7.824294 7.829735 7.835168 7.84C594 7.846013 851424 856828 862224 867613 872994 878368 883734 7.889094 7.894446 7.899791 7.905129 7.910460 7.915784 SQUABES, CTJBES, AND BOOTS. 307 No. Square. Cube. Sq. Root, Cu. Root. No. Square. Cube. Sq. Root. Cu. Root 407 247009 122763473 .2.293496 7.921100 562 31584^ 177 043-/8 23.706639 8.252371 498 248004 12350599 i 22.315913 7.92641J8 66o 316969 178453547 23.727621 8.257-268 499 249001 1-^4251499 22.338307 7.931710 664 318096 179408144 23.743684 8.262149 600 250000 126000000 22.360679 7.937006 565 319225 1803621-25 23.769728 8.267029 601 2.1001 125751 50 1 22.333029 7.94^^293 666 820356 181321496 23.79J764 8.27i903 602 2)2)04 126508i08 22. 40535 ti 7.947573 667 321489 182-/842b3 23.811761 8.276772 603 233009 127263527 2.427601 7.952847 56b 322624 183250432 i3. 832750 8.281635 604 254016 128024064 22.449d44 7.958114 56i^ 323761 184220009 23 853720 8.286493 605 255025 128787625 .;2. 47-2205 7.963374 57t 32490 185193000 23.874672 8.291344 601 256036 129554216 22.494443 7 9686.7 571 32604 186169411 23.895606 8.296190 807 257049 130 ;23343 22.516»)60 7.973873 572 327184 187149248 23.916521 8.301030 608 25S064 131098512 22.638855 7.979112 573 32832< 188132517 23.937418 8.306865 609 259081 131872229 i2. 5610-28 7.984344 574 329476 189119224 23.958-297 8.310694 610 260100 132651000 22.583179 7.989569 575 330625 190109375 23.979157 8.815517 611 261121 li3432S31 22 . 605309 7.994788 576 331776 191102976 24. 8.320335 612 2o2l4t 134217? 28 •22.627417 8. 577 332929 192100033 4.0i0824 8.3-25147 613 263189 135005697 22. 6495 J3 8-005205 57fe 334084 193100552 24.041630 8.329954 614 2 U196 135796744 i2. 671568 8.010403 579 336241 194104539 -24.062418 8.334755 615 265225 136590875 22. 69^611 8.015595 580 33640C 19511-2000 :4. 083189 8.339551 6ie 26i256 137338098 ;2. 715633 8 0-20779 5-1 337 561 196122941 ;4. 103941 8.344341 617 267289 H81S8413 22.737634 8.0-25957 582 338724 197137368 i4. 124676 8.349125 618 268324 138991832 22.759613 8.0311-29 58o 33988;- 198155287 24.145;i92 8.353904 619 269391 139798 559 i2. 781571 8.036293 584 341036 199176704 4.166091 8.368678 620 2704 )» 1403J8J00 J2 803508 8.041451 635 342-22 20 .201625 24.186773 8.363446 621 271441 141 123761 22 . 825424 8.046633 58'' 34339t 201230056 .4.207436 8.368-209 622 272484 14223S64S ;2. 84731 9 8.031748 587 34456^ 202262003 24.223082 8.372966 62 i 273529 143055667 22.86919', 8.056886 58^ 345744 203297472 24.248711 8.377718 624 274576 I4387782i :2 . 891046 8.062018 f.8y 3469-2 204336469 24.269322 8.382465 625 275625 144703125 22.912878 8.067143 690 3t810( 206379030 4.289915 8.387206 62o 276376 145531678 2 i. 934689 8.072262 591 34928 20f4'26071 4,310491 8.391942 627 277729 146333183 22.95648U 8.077374 692 350464 207474688 24.331050 8.396673 528 278784 147197352 22.978260 8.08248) 69. 35164i 208527857 24.351591 8.401338 623 279341 14803o889 ;3. 8.087579 594 35233- 209084584 24.372115 8.406118 630 2309J0 143877003 J3. 021723 8 032672 59. 354025 210644875 4 3926-21 8.410832 631 281981 143721231 23.043437 8.097 758 69. 3.552 U 211708736 .4.4lfalll 8 415641 532 283024 150588763 2 3.065125 8.10-2838 597 35640.^ 212776173 -24.4S3583 8 420245 633 284030 15L413437 i3. 086792 8.107912 69^ 35760 i 213847192 i4 4540b8 8.424944 634 285Uti 152273304 i 3. 10344 8.1 1-29 <0 599 358801 214921799 4.474476 8.4-29638 535 236225 153130375 23.130067 8.118041 600 36000 216000000 4.494897 8.434327 636 2372i)d 153990658 23.151673 8.1-23091 601 361-201 217081801 ■24.516301 8.439009 637 238389 154834153 23.173260 8.1-28144 eo^ 362404 218167^08 4.535688 8.443687 633 289444 153720 -72 :3. 194827 8.133186 60o 363809 2 9256227 24.5560=.8 8.448360 639 290)21 156 .90813 i3. 21 6373 8.138-223 to^ 3648 U 2203488^4 24.576411 8.453027 640 291^00 157434)00 23.237903 8.143253 6 5 3860-25 221445125 4.596747 8.467689 641 2)268 1 158340421 23.2594Jn 8.148-278 6 > 367 -i3' 222346016 4.617067 8.462347 642 293764 159220033 •23.28 ;893 8.153293 (07 368449 223648543 24.»37370 8.466999 643 234843 160103007 J3. 302360 8. 15830 1 60- 369664 224756712 24.65765)1 8.471647 644 2)593i 180933184 i3.3-233.t7 8.163303 60- 370881 2-/5866529 24.677925 8.476289 645 237 125 16187862) •23 345-23. 8.168303 6.0 37210( 226981000 2 4.698178 8.480926 646 293116 162771336 3. 3 8684 J 8.173302 6ii 37332 228099131 24.718414 8 436657 647 299209 163 67323 :3. 383031 8.178^89 61- 37 54. 2^922f>928 24.733633 8.490184 648 30J304 164.66592 3.4)9393 8.183269 61o 37576 230346397 24.758836 8.494806 649 301401 165489149 2 3.430749 8 188244 61-i 376996 231475644 2 4. 7 790-2^3 8.499423 650 302500 16837 000 3.4>2078 8.19.'.-212 610 37822 232608375 4.799193 8.604034 651 303101 16723415 1 :3. 4733*^9 8 198175 61' 379456 233744896 21.819347 8.608641 652 80.704 168196638 23.4946*0 8 203131 6i7 380689 234885113 4.839484 8.613243 653 3058)9 169112377 3.51595. 8.208032 618 381924 2360-290 2 4.859605 8.517840 654 306 >li 17003146 L J3. 637204 8.2130.:7 611 38316 217176859 24.8797U 8.522432 655 30<02) 170953S75 23.653438 8. 21796 i 6i0 38470' 23 328000 24 899799 8.6-27018 656 309136 171879816 2 {.57965. 8. •2-22898 6/1 3856 1 239483081 : 4. 919871 8.631600 657 800249 17280^693 23. 6003 t 7 8.2-7825 622 388384 240641843 24,9399 7 8.636177 658 8a3-i4 1737411 2 3.62-20-23 8.23 748 6io 38812^- 241801384 4.969367 8.540749 659 M248 174676^79 23. 6431 H> 8.237661 624 89937) 24-2970624 24.979992 8.645317 660 813600 176616»00 !3. 66431' 8.242570 C2 1 39062 2441406.6 6. 8.t4987» 661 »14721 I7e6&i»48i 23.68643b 8.:247474 62v 1 391871 246314^76 -6.019992 8.&6448T 308 SQUARES, CUBES, AND K00T8. t 1 No. Square. Cube. Sq. Root, Cu. Root No. 3quare. Cube. Sq. Root. Cu. Root *627 393129 246491883 25.039968 8.558990 692 478864 331373888 26.305892 8 846085 62^ 394384 247673152 25.069928 8.563537 69o 4862404 8.815 59 750 562.0 421875000 27. 386 i 27 9.085603 68t 4.-0596 322S^88^6 26.191601 8.819447 761 6640. 1 423564751 •27.404379 9.089639 687 471969 324242703 26.21 684 8.8 3730 752 66660 J 42-V259008 27.422618 9.093672 68!" 473344 32566067 2 6.22^754 8.828009 7oo 5670.)<< 426957777 27 440<*45 9.097701 68S 474721 327082769 26. 48809 8.832285 754 6fi851f 4286-^10^4 27.4590(0 9.101726 69C 47rt10 32 -(509000 6.267861 8.836666 766 67002.- 430368875 •27.47726? 9.10574& »91 477481 829939371 26.286«(78 8.840822 766 57l53t 4o2081216 27.496464 9. 109766 SQTJAEES , CFBEg , AND ROOTS. 309 No. Square. Cube. Sq. Root, Cu. Root. No. 822 Square. Cube. Sq. Root. Cu. Root. 757 573049 433798093 27.61363C 9.113781 675684 660412248 28.67054-' 9.367505 758 574564 435519612 27.531799 9.117793 82> 677329 657441767 28.687976 9.371302 759 576081 437245479 27.549954 9.121801 824 678976 559476224 28.706400 9.375096 760 577600 438976000 27.568097 9.125805 8-:5 680625 561515625 28.72-2810 9.878887 761 679121 440711031 27.586228 9.129806 826 682z76 563559976 28.740215 9.372676 162 580644 442450728 27.604347 9.133803 827 68392t- 665609283 ^8. 75760: 9.386460 763 582169 444194947 27.622*54 9 137797 828 68o.')84 567663o52 28.774989 9.390241 764 583696 445913744 27.640549 9.141788 829 687241 5h9722789 28.792360 9.394020 765 585225 447697125 27.658633 9.145774 830 688901 6717S7000 28.809720 9.397796 766 686756 449455096 27.676705 9.149757 831 690561 573866191 28.827070 9.401.%9 767 688289 461217663 27.694764 9.153737 83. 692224 575930368 28.844410 9.405338 768 589824 462984832 27.712812 9.157713 833 693889 57800^537 28.861739 9.409105 769 591361 454756609 27.730849 9.161686 834 695556 680093704 28.879058 9.412869 770 692900 456533000 27.748873 9.1656f6 835 697225 582182875 :8. 8963 66 9.416630 771 694441 458314011 27.766886 9.169622 836 69889t 684277056 28.913664 9.420387 772 595984 460099648 27.7848-8 9.173580 837 700569 586376253 28.93095'. 9.424141 773 597529 4618^9917 27.802877 9.177544 838 702244 588480472 i8. 948229 9.427893 774 599076 463684824 27.820855 9.181500 839 703921 5905S9719 28.965496 9.431642 775 600625 465484375 27.838821 9.185452 840 705600 692701000 28.982763 9.435388 776 602176 467288576 27.856776 9.189401 841 707281 694825321 29. 9.439130 777 603729 469097433 27.874719 9.193347 842 708964 5969476S8 29.017236 9.442870 778 605284 470910962 27.892651 9.197289 843 710649 699077107 29.034462 9.446607 779 606841 472729139 27.910571 9.201228 844 71233fi 601211584 29.051678 9.4f034l 780 60S400 474552J00 27.928480 9.205164 845 714025 603351126 29.068883 9.454071 781 609961 476379541 27.946377 9.209096 846 715716 605495736 29.086079 9.457799 782 611524 478211768 i7. 964262 9.21302O 847 717409 607645423 29.103264 9.461524 783 613089 480348687 27.982137 9.216950 848 719104 609S00192 •29.120439 9.465247 784 614656 481890304 28. 9.220872 849 72080. 611960049 29.1376 4 9.468966 785 616225 413736025 28.017851 9.22471^1 850 722500 614126(00 29.164769 9.472682 786 617796 485587656 28.035691 9.228706 851 724 20 i 616295051 29.171904 9.476395 787 619369 487443403 28.0636-0 9.232618 852 7259U4 618470208 29.189039 9.480106 788 620944 489303872 28.071337 9.237527 853 727609 620650477 29.206163 9.483813 789 622521 491169069 28.089143 9.240433 854 72931H 622S36864 29 22327» 9.487618 790 624100 493039000 28. 106938 9.244336 856 731026 625026276 29.24038a 9.491219 791 625681 494913671 28.12472-2 9.2482:i4 866 73273b 627222016 29.257477 9.494918 792 627264 496793' 188 28.142494 9.252130 857 734446 629422793 29.274562 9.498614 793 628849 498677257 28.160255 9.256022 8 8 736164 631628712 •29.291637 9.602307 794 630436 600n66184 28.178005 8.259911 859 737881 633839779 29.30870. 9.606998 796 632025 502459875 28.196744 9.263797 860 739600 636056. 00 29.325756 9.609685 796 633616 604358336 28.213472 9.267679 861 741321 638277381 •29.342801 9.513369 797 636209 606261573 28.231188 9.271559 862 743044 640503928 29.359836 9.517061 79y 636804 608169592 2S. 248893 9.275435 863 744769 642735647 •29.376861 9.520730 799 638401 610i)82399 28.266588 9.279b08 864 746496 644972544 29.393876 9.624406 800 640000 61200GOOO 28.284271 9 283177 866 748225 647214626 29.410882 9.628079 801 641601 613922401 28.301943 9.287044 866 74995t 649461896 -9.427877 9.631749 80-2 643204 615849608 28.319604 9.290907 867 761689 651714363 ■29.444863 9.636417 803 644809 617781627 28.337254 9.294767 868 753424 653972032 •29.461839 9.539081 804 646416 619718464 28.354893 9.298623 869 765161 656234909 29.478805 9.642743 806 648025 621660125 28.372521 9.302477 870 766900 658503000 29.495762 9.646402 806 649636 623606616 28.390139 9.306327 871 758641 660776311 29.612709 9.560058 807 651249 625557943 28.407745 9.310175 872 760384 663054848 •29.629646 9.663712 808 652864 527514112 28.425340 9.314019 873 762129 665338617 29 646573 9.557363 809 654481 529475129 28.442925 9 317859 874 76387^ 667627624 29.663491 9.661010 810 656100 531441000 28.460498 9.321697 875 765625 669921875 29.580398 9.564655 811 657721 533411731 28.478061 9.325532 876 76737 t 672221376 •29.697297 9.668297 812 659344 535387328 28.495613 9. 32936 i 877 769129 674526133 29.614185 9.571937 813 660969 537366797 28.513154 9.333191 878 770884 676836152 29.631064 9.576574 814 662596 639353144 28.530685 9.337016 879 772641 679151439 29.647932 9.579208 815 664225 641343375 28.648204 9.340838 880 774400 681472000 29.664793 9.582839 816 665H56 643338496 28.865713 9.3446.-7 881 776161 683797841 •29.681644 9.686468 817 667489 645338513 28.683211 9.348473 882 777924 686128968 29.698484 9 590093 818 669124 547343432 28.600699 9.352285 883 779689 688465387 •29.715315 9.593716 819 6. 0761 649353259 28 618176 9.356095 884 781456 690807104 •29.732137 9.697337 820 672400 551368000 28.635642 9,359901 885 783225 393154125 •29.748949 9. 600954 821 674041[ 663387661 28.663097 9.363704 886 78499C 695506456 29.765762 9.604569 310 SQUARES, CUBES, AND ROOTS. No. Square. Cube. Sq. Root, Cu. Root. No. Square. Cube. Sq. Root. Cu. Root. 887 786769 697864103 29.782546 9.608181 944 891136 84123V384 30.724583 9.809736 888 78854- 700227072 29.79932S 9.611791 94/ 8930-^6 8439086-6 30.7408r2 9.813198 889 79032 7025»5369 29. 8161 OB 9.615397 94( 894916 846690536 30.757113 9.816669 890 792100 7^4969000 29 832867 9.619001 947 89680. 849278123 SO 773365 9 820117 89 793881 707347971 29.849623 9.622603 948 898704 861971392 to. 789608 9.823572 892 795664 7v>9732288 29.866369 9.626201 949 900601 864670349 30.805843 9.827026 893 79744f 712 21957 29.88310 9.629797 95( 902500 85737500) 30.822070 9.830475 89-1 79923r 714616984 29.899832 9.6333' 951 904401 860085361 30.838287 9.833923 895 801026 716917375 29.9166^0 9.636981 9 2 906304 862801408 30.854497 9.837369 89e 802816 719323136 29.933259 9.640-69 953 908209 866523177 30.870698 9 840812 897 804609 721734273 29.9499is8 9.644154 9.i4 910116 8682506H4 30.88^890 9.844253 8> 806404 724150792 i9. 96664* 9.647736 966 91202- 870983875 30.903074 9 847692 899 80820: 726572699 29.983328 9.651316 95^ 913936 873722816 cO 919^49 9.851128 900 810000 7290000 0. 9.654893 957 916H49 8764o749.3 30.93S416 9.854561 901 8118a4 731432701 30.016662 9.6.^8468 958 917764 879217912 30.96157 9.857992 902 813604 733870808 JO. 03331 4 9.66.040 959 919681 88197407 9 30.967725 9.861421 90.3 815-lOt 736314327 ■.0.049968 9.665609 96t 921600 884736010 30.983866 9.864848 904 817216 738763264 30.066592 9.669176 961 92352 887603681 31. 9. 868 ..72 905 819025 7412170-^5 iO. 083217 9.672740 962 92544 J 890277128 31.016124 9.871694 906 820836 743677416 {0.099833 9.676301 9ob| 927369 893056347 31.03^241 9.875113 907 822641' 746142643 30.116440 9.679860 96' 92929' 895841S44 31.048349 9.878630 908 82446- 748613312 !0. 133038 9.683416 96f. 93122.' 8986321 25 31.064449 9.881946 909 826281 751089429 30.149b26 9.686970 966 9331 5f 901428696 31.080540 9.885357 910 828101 763571000 30.16o206 9.690521 967 935089 904231063 31.096623 9.888767 911 82992 i 766058031 30.182776 9.694069 968 937024 907039232 31.112698 9.892174 91- 831744 758550528 30.1993b7 9.697615 96' 938961 909853209 .31.128764 9.895580 913 833-6' 761048497 30.215889 9.701158 9,0 94090( 9126731 00 31.14482^ 9.898983 914 83c39 763551944 30.2324o2 9.704698 971 942 S41 915498611 31.160872 9.902383 915 837225 76 060S75 30.248966 9.708236 971 944784 91833f048 31.178914 9 905781 916 839056 7685; 5:96 30.265491 9.711772 973 946725 9211(7317 31 192947 9.909177 917 84( 889 771095213 30.282007 9.715305 974 948676 924(10424 31.208973 9.912571 918 84272^ 773620632 <0. 298514 9.7 8835 97.^ 95062.^ 926859375 31.22.990 9.915962 919 84456 776151?)59 30.31501 9.72.363 976 95257f 929714176 31.240998 9.919351 920 846406 778688000 30.331.501 9.725888 977 954529 932574833 31.256999 9.922738 9.-1 84824. 781229961 30.347981 9.72941C 97 > 9564M 935441352 3 1.27 '^991 9.926r.2 9Vi2 850 84 783777448 30.364452 9.7329cO 979 95844; 938313739 31.288975 9.929504 92a 851929 7863 0467 30.380915 9.736448 9-6 96640! 9411920U) 31.304951 9.9:^2883 9J4 F637 6 788889024 30.397368 9.739963 98 962361 944076141 .31.320919 9.93(261 92t 855625 791463126 iO. 413812 9.743475 98-. 964324 946966168 31.336879 9.939636 9-K 857476 794022776 30.4.0248 9.746985 983 9662^9 94986:087 31.352HS0 9.943(09 9r, 85932i^ 796597983 30.446674 9 750493 984 9:i8256 952763904 31.368774 9.940379 928 861184 799178752 30.4fi309. 9 753998 9S; 970225 95567162=) U. 384709 9.949747 929 863041 801765689 30.479501 9.757500 986 972196 9 85852r6 31.400636 9.953113 930 864901 804357000 0.4969(11 9.761000 987 974169 961504803 31.416^56 9.956477 931 866761 8(16954491 .30.512292 9.764497 988 976144 964430272 31.432467 9.969839 93-^ 86«62' 80'.>557568 30.528675 9.767992 989 978121 967361669 31.448370 9.963198 933 870489 812166237 30.646048 9 771484 99 98010C 970299000 31.464265 9.966554 934 872356 814780504 .30.561413 9 774974 991 98 -OS] 973242^71 31.480152 9.969909 935 87422i 817400376 30.577769 9.778461 99. 98406 976191488 31.496031 9.973262 93r 876096 820025866 30.594117 9.782946 99 986049 979146657 31.511902 9.976612 937 87796! 82265695 i 0.6104 6 9.785428 994 988031 982107784 31.627765 9.979959 938 879844 825293672 30.626785 9.788908 9':»5 990025 985074875 ;a.54362( 9.983304 939 8817-2 82793019 30.643106 9.792386 99^ 99 01- 983047936 31.559467 9.986648 »4l, 883600 830584000 30.659419 9.795861 997 99400v^ 991026973 31.576H06 9.989990 941 88548 83323762'. 30.675723 9.799333 998 996004 994011992 31.591138 9.993328 942 887364 836896888 aO. 6920 18 9.802803 999 9980)1 997; 02999 31.606961 9.996665 943 889249 838561807 30.708306 9. 806271 1000 lOOOOOO lOOOOOOOOO 31.622776 10. THE SOIL. The soil is made up of decomposed rocks and decayed or decaying organic matter. The proportion of organic mat- ter is small — not averaorino^ in fertile soils more than five per cent. All of the rest of the soil is of a mineral origin, and has at some period formed a part of the rocky crust of the earth. By the action of air, and heat, and frost, and the friction of running and falling water, and the movement of rocks and stones in moving water, these substances have been suf- ficiently pulverized to form the foundation material of our present soil. During uncounted ages these processes have been going on, and they are still active; and, in addition to these, the chemical changes which result from the exposure of pul- verized mineral matter to the action of air and moisture, and the successive growth and decay of plants, have oper- ated, and are still operating, to ripen the soil to our uses. In the early ages, when perhaps the compositiftn of the atmosphere was different from what it is now (and when the soil was surely very different), only plants of a low order, such as are now extinct, could grow at all. These absorbed certain matters from the atmosphere, and, on their decay, gave them to the soil, — thus helping to fit it for the growth 312 THE SOIL. of a higher order of plants, which were in time succeeded by others, and those by others, until, finally, the changes eiFected in the soil by the action of the chemical forces, and by the deposit of vegetable matter, have enabled it to pro- duce the vegetation required for the uses of man. Classification of soils. Some soils were formed mainly of the rocks on which they now lie — as those of the granite region of New England — and these take their names from these rocks, as granitio soil, limestone soil, sandstone soil, &c. Others have been formed by the deposit, by means of great floods, or the gradual silting of rivers. The latter of these (as the flat lands of the Mississippi Yalley) are called alluvial soils ; and the former (comprising those soils of varied composition in which occur clay, gravel, boulders, &c.) are called diluvial soils. Another classification, which is much more definite, is the following : — 1. Pure Clay consists of about 60 per cent, of silica and 40 per cent, of alumina and oxide of iron, usually chemi- cally combined. 2. Strongest Clay Soil consists of pure clay, mixed with 5 to 15 per cent, of silicious sand. 3. Clay Loam consists of pure clay, mixed with 15 to 30 per cent, of fine sand. 4. Loamy Soil deposits from 30 to 60 per cent, of sand. THE SOIL. 313 5. Sandy Loam deposits from 60 to 90 per cent, of sand. 6. Sandy Soil contains no more than 10 per cent, of pure clay. To analyze the above soils with a view to classifying them. Rule. — Weigh a portion of the soil and spread it thinly on writing paper, and dry it for an hour or two in an oven, the heat of which is not great enough to discolor the paper — the loss of weight is the quantity o^ water it contained. Weigh and then boil another equal portion, and when thoroughly incorporated with the water, pour it into a vessel, and allow the sandy parts to deposit until the fine clay is also beginning to settle ; then pour off the water, collect the sand, dry as before, and again weigh, which will give the per cent, of sand it contained. The above classification and analysis of soils have refer- ence only to the water, clay, and sand which they contain, while lime is also an important constituent, of which they are rarely entirely destitute. This gives rise to a further classification. 7. Marly Soil is one in which the proportion of lime is more than 5, and not over 20 per cent, of the whole weight. 8. Calcareous Soil, in which the lime exceeds 20 per cent. To analyze marly and calcareous soils, with a view to their classification as above. EuLE. — ^Mix 100 grains of the dry soil with half a pint 14 314 THE SOIL. of water, and add half a wine-glassful of muriatic acid ; stir it thoroughly during the day, and let it stand and settle over night. Pour oif the clear liquid in the morning, and again fill the vessel with water and stir thoroughly, and when clear again pour it oif; dry the soil and weigh it. The loss is the quantity of lime the soil contained. If it exceeds 5 o:rs., class as a marly soil ^ if mare than 20 grs., class as a calcareoics soil, 9. Vegetable Moulds, which are of various kinds, con- taining from 15 to 60 or 70 per cent, of organic matter. To analyze vegetable moulds^ with a view to their classifi- cation as above. E-uLE. — Dry the soil well in an oven, and weigh it ; then heat it to a dull redness, over a lamp or bright fire, until the combustible matter is burned away and evaporated. Again weigh it, and the loss is the quantity of organic matter it contained. Besides the foregoing ingredients, every soil must contain more or less of all the elements which enter into the com- position of vegetation. They must hold, in a form adapted to its growth and support, silex^ alumina^ carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime, potash, soda, magnesia, sulphur, phos- phorus, oxide of iron, manganese, chlorine, and, probably, iodine. They are called the '' inorganic or earthy parts of soil," and constitute from one-half of one per cent, to over ten per cent, of all vegetables. Their analysis is too diffi- THE SOIL. 315 cult and complicated to be attempted by any but a practical agricultural chemist. The value of soil analysis, even when made by the most careful and skilful chemists, is practically very little. The quantity of matter which is capable of affording food to plants is so very small, in proportion to the whole bulk of the soil, even in those of the most fertile character, that it is questionable whether a sample to be analyzed could be so carefully prepared as to represent the average character of the whole field. Then, again, if we were to procure a cor- rect analysis of a very fertile soil, and then were to crop it for a series of years without manure until it refused to pro- duce paying crops, and were to have it analyzed again, it is not likely that the chemist would detect any change in its composition. In like manner, if we were to add to it 500 lbs. to the acre of bone dust, — enough to make it produce abundantly, — analysis would fail to detect the small quantity of phosphate of lime that we had added in the bones. Another argument against the value of the analysis of the soil, and a very strong one, is found in the fact that the fer- tility of the soil depends less on the quamtity of plant food that it contains than on its condition. The roots of plants cannot feed on the inside of a pebble ; they can only apply their pumps to its surface and take in so much of what is there exposed as can be dissolved in the moisture which goes to form their sap. IS'either can roots travel about in the soil ; they grow into certain places, and there they remain. 316 THE SOIL. If an inch away from them there is a mass of rich food, they cannot make use of it — save by sending out new shoots to embrace it — but must remain content with the poorer tract in which they lie. Consequently, the uniform distribution- of the plant food, its solubility^ and its exposure on the sur- faces of the particles of the soil are quite as important as its quantity. Chemical analysis teaches us none of those things — at least it does not teach them so definitely as we would need to know them to be able to make any practical use of its assistance. In addition to these, fertile soils must also contain carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, which are called the organic parts of soils, from their great preponderance in vegetables and animals, of which they constitute from 90 to over 99 per cent. General results of analytical examinations of soils. 1. A due admixture of organic matter is favorable to the fertility of a soil. 2. This organic matter is the more valuable in proportion to the quantity of nitrogen it holds in combination. 3. The mineral part of the soil must contain all those substances which are met with in the ash of the plant, and in such a state of chemical combination that the roots of plants can readily take them up in the requisite propor- tions. THE SOIL. 317 Taijle, showing the comjposition^ in 1000 parts, of different kinds of soil. CONSTITUENTS. Fertile without manure. Fertile with manure. Very Barren. Organic matter, 97. 60. 40. Silica, 648. 833. 758. Alumina, 67. 61. 101. Lime, 59. 18. 4. Magnesia, 8. 8. 1. Oxide of Iron, 61. 30. 91. *' of Manganese, 1. 3. trace Potash, 2. trace .... Soda, 4. ... Chlorine, 2. Sulphuric Acid, 2. 1. .... Phosphoric •' 4. 2. .... Carbonic *♦ 40. 4. Loss, 16. .... 6. Note. — The soil designated " fertile without manure " has been cultivated sixty years without manuring, yielding abundant crops. The soil designated " fertile with manure " has been cultivated over forty years, yielding good crops with ordinary manuring; while that designated "very bar- ren " could scarcely be made to yield anything by the greatest manuring and most careful cultivation. The following is an analysis of three specimens of verv fertile soils, made by Sprengel : — Soil near Ostcrbruch. Silica. Quartz, Sand, and Silicates 84.510 Alumina 6.435 Oxides of Iron 2.395 Oxides of Manganese 0.450 Lime 0.740 Magnesia 0.525 Potash and Soda extracted by water 0.009 Phosphoric Acid 0.120 Sulphuric Acid 9.046 Chlorine in common Salt 0.006 Humic Acid 0.780 Insoluble Humus 2.995 Organic matters containing Xitrogen 0.960 "Water 0.029 From the banks of the Weser, near Hoya. near AVeserbe. 71.849 83.318 9.350 3.085 5.410 5.840 0.925 0.620 0.987 0.720 0.245 0.120 0.007 0.005 0.131 0.065 0.174 0.025 0.002 0.006 1.270 0.800 .550 4.126 2.000 1.220 0.100 0.150 318 THE SOIL. The above had remained a long time in pasture, and the second was remarkable for the fattening qualities of its grass when fed to cattle. The following are arable lands of great fertility : — From Ohio. Soil Soil from Moravia. Soil. Subsoil. from Belgium. Silica and fine Sand ..77.209 87.143 94.261 64.517 Alumina 8.514 6.666 1.376 4.810 Oxides of Iron 6.592 2.220 2.336 8.816 Oxide of Manganese 1.520 0.360 1.200 0.800 Lime 0.927 0.564 ^-^^^ ^Lime^ ^'^^'^ Magnesia 1.160 0.312 0.310 ^^^^f 10.361 Potash, chiefly combined with *=" Silica 0.140 0.120) j 0.100 Soda, ditto 0.640 0.025 f ^'"^^^ ( 0.013 Phosphoric Acid, combined with Lime and Ox. of Iron . . 0.651 0.060 trace 1.221 Sulphuric Acid and Gypsum.. 0.011 0.027 0.034 0.009 Chlorine in common Salt 0.010 0.036 trace 0.003 Carbonic Acid united to the Lime 0.080 Humic Acid 0.978 1.304 0.447 Insoluble Humus 0.540 1.072 Organic Substances containing Nitrogen 1.108 LOll " Of these soils, the first had been cropped for 160 years successively, without either manure or naked fallow. The second was a virgin soil, and celebrated for its fertility. The third had been unmanured for twelve years, during the last nine of which it had been cropped with beans, barley, potatoes, winter barley and red clover, clover, winter barley, wheat, oats, naked fallow." — Johnston, Depth of soil — its importance. If 50 be assumed as the value of a given soil when it is six inches deep, its value when of different depths will be as follows : — THE ROIL. 319 If 3 inches deep, it is worth 38 ( If 8 inches deep, it is worth 58 4 " " •' " 42 9 " " " " 62 5 " " " " 46 ! 10 " '• " " 66 « " " " " 50 i 11 " " " " 10 7 " " " " 54 I 12 " " " " 14: Hence each farmer may make an estimate for himself, with regard to every variety of his soil, whether the cost of increasing its depth will equal or exceed its value after the task is performed. This, of course, supposes that the soil is of the same quality throughout its whole depth, and it refers only to its chemi- cal composition. Thei^ are other considerations which make the depth of the soil more important even than the above table will indicate. If a soil is equally rich through- out its whole depth, it would be of more than double value if of double depth ; for its ability to withstand drought, and its great capacity to absorb the water of heavy rains (with- out being made too wet) would made it better, irrespective of the elements of fertility that it might contain. Then again, some soils which are of apparently no value may be made quite fertile by being ploughed a little deeper than has been done. Table, showing the weight per cuhio foot of the different hinds of earth. Loose earth or sand 95 lbs. Common soil 124 " Strong soU 127 " Chalk 174 " Clay 135 lbs. Clay and stones 160 " Brick 126 " IToTE. — 23 cubic feet of sand, 18 cubic feet of earth, or 17 cubic feet of clay, make a ton. Eighteen cubic feet of 320 EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. gravel or earth, before digging, make 27 cubic feet when dug. As a rough estimate, it may be stated that an acre of or- dinary soil weighs 100 tons for every inch of its depth. EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. Each crop taken from a field exhausts the soil to the ex- tent of the inorganic or earthy substances that are found in the totality of the crop removed. Unless, therefore, these elements are returned to the soil in some shape it gradually loses its fertility, and finally refuses to produce altogether. Hence the necessity for manuring, irrigating, or resting the soil, that it may again, by accumulating these elements, re- cover its fertility. By returning a crop in toto to the soil, by ploughing it in or leaving it to decay and mingle again with it, it accumulates in mass and grows in fertility, not by the substances thus returned to it, but by fertilizing ele- ments gathered in or combined from the atmosphere, by rains and dews descending on it, and by capillary attraction from beneath. By knowing the composition of the subtracted crops and the added manures, the farmer can keep a debit and credit account with his fields, which will be sufficiently accurate to enable him always to keep his land improving. To enable him to ascertain approximately what his various crops remove from the soil, we introduce the following tables, &c. To EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 321 50 887 15 90 50 378 21 77 58 447 15 40 58 434 23 23 53 389J H 70 64 367 22 40 54 390 4 Johnston. 51 ascertain what will replace this subtraction, let him consult the section on manures. Table, showing the organic substances removed from the soil in 1000 lbs. each of the following crops when perfectly dry. Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Ash. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Hay 458 Red Clover Hay 474 Potatoes 440 Wheat- 461 Wheat straw 484 Oats 507 Oat-straw 501 !N"oTE. — Of all the vegetable productions which are gath- ered as food for man or beast in their dry state — Carbon forms nearly one-half by weight. Oxygen rather more than one-third. Hydrogen little more than five per cent. Nitrogen from \\ to ^per cent. Earthy matter from 1 to 20 per cent. Table, showvng the quantity of inorganic mMter removed from the soil in 1000 lbs. each of the following crops in their ordinary state of dinjness. lbs. "Wheat about 20 Wheat-straw. Barley Barley-straw Oats Oat-straw Rye Rye-straw Indian Corn Indian Corn stalk, &c. lbs. Beans about 30 Peas " 30 Pea-straw ♦' 50 Meadow Hay " 50 to 100 Clover Hay " 90 Rye-grass Hay. " 95 Potatoes " 8 to 15 Turnips " 5 to 8 Carrots " 15 to 20 14* Johnston, 322 EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. Table, showing tJie quantity and kinds of inorganic matter removed from the soil in 1000 lbs. each of the following crops. A i a a 3 1 ■«! .S u a i n a •c 2. 1 o « H a •Si a. •ji yA a ■< ta tZJ f^ a O o M Wheat— Grain 2.25 2.40 96 0.90 2f5 4. CO 0.50 0.40 0.10 trace 11.77 Straw 0.20 0.29 2.40 0.32 0.90 28.70 0.37 1.70 0.30 35.18 Barley— Grain 2.78 2.90 ).06 1.80 0.25 11.82 .59 2.10 0.19 trace 23.49 Straw 1.80 0.48 6.54 0.76 1.46 38.66 1.18 1.60 0.70 o.n 0.20 62.42 Oati— Grain 1.60 1.3^ 0.86 0.67 0.14 19. 7t 0.35 0.70 0.10 0.40 25.80 '* Straw 8.70 0.02 1.52 0.22 0.06 45 88 0.79 0.12 0.05 0.02 0.02 57.40 Rye— Grain. 5.32 0.S2 * 0.11 1.22 1.78 0.44 0.12 0.24' 1.64 0.23 1.70 0.46 0.51 09 0.17 0.4: 0.34 10.40 " Straw 0.25 22.97 27.93 Fieldl Bean Bean j Straw 4. If) 8.16 1.65 1.P8 0.34 1.26 0.89 2.92 0.41 21.36 16.66 0.5C 6.24 2.09 0.1'> 2.20 0.34 2.26 0.80 COT 0.05 31.21 FieldlPea Pea J Straw 8.10 7.39 0.58 1.36 0.20 4.10 0.53 1.90 0.38 0.10 24.64 2.35 4.028 2.334 27.30 .33) 3.42 .324 0.60 .051- 9.96 .034 3.37 .540 2.40 .401 0.04 .160 0.2C .032 0.07 49.71 ■'°'»'<«{C:.:::::: 8.284 8.19 .0£ 12 97 1.70 .04 4.94 .42 1.97 .60 .02 30.84 T"n"p».{Lr»;::::: 2.38R 1.048 .752 .254 .036 .388 .801 .367 .239 .032 6.30^ 3.23 2.'2-.' 6.20 .59 .03 1.-28 2.5-.' .98 .87 .17 18.09 3 533 .922 .702 657 .468 .3S4 .270 .039 .024 .137 .102 .270 .192 .514 .100 .070 .178 .033 .005 .060 ? 6.619 Parsnips 2.079 4.180 Rye Grass 8.81 3.94 7.34 0.90 31 27.71' 3.53 0.25 0.06 52.86 Red Clover •,. 19.95 5.ti9 27.80 3.33 0.14 3.61 4.47 6. 57 3.62 74.78 White CI over ;a.05 6.79 33.48 3.05 1.9it 14.73 3.53 5.06 2.11 0.63 91.32 Lucern 13.40 e.ir 4S.3' 3.48 0.30 3.30 4.04 13.07 3.18 O.SO 95 62 Sainfoin 20.57 4.S7 2'. 95 2.88 0.66 \ 6.00 3.41 9. IP l..'^7 » 69.67 Sprengel. !N"oTE. — In the foregoing table, the grain, beans, peas, straw, and hay, are estimated after they have been dried in the air; the roots as they have been taken from the field. The potato loses in drying 69 per cent, of water ; the turnip 91 ; the carrot 87 ; the turnip-leaf 86 ; the carrot-leaf, pars- nip, and parsnip-leaf, each 81 ; and the cabbage 93. Besides the organic elements present in each of the above crops, and which form about 97 per cent, of the entire dried weight of each, it is not only necessary that all the above * Included in potash. EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 323 morgcmic substances should exist in the soil, but that they be also found in a form adapted to the wants of the grow- ing crop. Analysis of the Ash of the Hop, showing the elements it removes from the soil. In 100 parts there are of Vine & Blossom. Silica 13.24 Ciiloride of Sodium. . . 7.73 " Potassium. 3.77 Soda 0.13 Potash 21.49 Lime 34.79 Blossom. 2L05 25.18 15.98 Vine & Blossom. Blossom. iia 4.09 5.77 Sulphuric Acid 4.63 5.41 Phosphoric " 6..34 9.08 Phosphate of Iron 3.79 7.45 Chloride of Potassium. 1.67 Alumina a trace 32i EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. The following tables, extracted from Waring's Elements of Agriculture, will be found convenient for ordinary com- putations : — Amount of iTwrgomic Matter 'removed from the soil hy ten hushels of grain^ c&c., and hy the straw ^ c&c, required in th eir production — estimated- in pounds : Wheat. 1200 lbs. Wheat Straw. Rye. 1620 lbs. Rye Straw. Potash 2.86 1.04 .34 1.46 .08 .03 6.01 .14 8.97 .12 4.84 2.76 .94 4.20 2.22 .79 47.16 2.51 1.33 .56 1.18 .15 .11 5.64 .05 11 34 Soda 20 Lime 5 91 Magnesia 1 58 Oxide of Iron .88 Sulphuric Acid .05 Phosphoric Acid ' 2 49 Chlorine 30 Silica 42.25 Pounds carried off 12 72 m 66 Com. 1620 lbs. Corn stalks. Oats. 700 lbs. Oat straw. Potash 2.78 .12 1.52 4.52 .06 6.84 19.83 6.02 4.74 .57 .36 12.15 1.33 19.16 1.69 .39 .64 .02 .66 2.80 .02 .18 12.08 Soda Lime 3.39 Magnesia 1.59 Oxide of Iron .78 Sulphuric Acid 1.41 Phosphoric Acid 1.07 Chlorine 1.36 Silica 20.32 Pounds carried off 9 71 6i 42 EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 325 Potash Soda Lime Magnesia Oxide of Iron Sulphuric Acid Phosphoric Acid.. Chlorine , Sihca Pounds carried ofiF. Buck Wheat. Barley. 660 bbls. Barley Straw. 1.01 1.90 2.57 2.13 1.18 .23 .•78 .96 3.88 1.20 1.00 1.31 .14 .20 .90 .25 .01 .66 5.40 5 35 1.25 01 .40 .09 3.90 28.80 - 14 40 2000 lbs. Flax. 11.78 11.82 11.85 9.38 7.32 3.19 13.05 2.90 25.11 100 Beans, 1120 lbs. Bean Straw. Field Peas. 1366 lbs. Pea Straw. Potash 5.54 1.83 98.98 .28 .10 .16 7.80 .13 .18 36.28 1.09 13.60 4.55 .20 .64 5.00 1.74 4.90 5.90 1.40 .81 1.30 .15 64 5.50 .23 .7 3.78 Soda Lime 43.93 Magnesin 5.50 Oxide of Iron 1.40 Sulphuric Acid 5.43 Phosphoric Acid 3.86 Chlorine .08 Silica 16.02 Pounds carried oft'. ... 17 68 16 80 ITon Turnips. 635 lbs. Turnip Tops. 1 Ton Potatoes. 2000 Ibe. Red Clover. Potash Soda Lime Magnesia Oxide of Iron .... Sulphuric Acid. . . . Phosphoric Acid. . . Chlorine Silica Pounds carried off 7.14 .86 2.31 .91 .23 2.30 1.29 .61 1.36 4.34 .84 8.61 .48 .13 1.81 1.31 2.35 .13 27.82 .93 1.03 2.63 .26 6.81 6.25 2 13 2.14 31.41 8.34 43.77 5.25 .23 7.05 10.28 6.86 6.81 17 15 50 118 326 EXHAUSTION OF SOILS. 2000 lbs. Meadow Hay. 2000 lbs. Cabbage. Water 9-10 Potash 18.11 1.35 22.95 6.75 1.69 2.70 5.97 2.59 37.89 5 25 Soda 9 20 Lime 9 45 Magnesia 2 70 Oxide of Iron 25 Sulphuric Acid 9 60 Pliosphoric Acid , . 5.60 Chlorine 2 60 Sihca... 35 Pounds carried oflF 100 45 MANURES. In order to restore to the soil the mattei*s which have been taken from it by the removal of its produce, as well as to add to its power to produce — to make it richer, or to keep it from growing poorer — we make use of what are known as manures. This term is a very comprehensive one, and is taken to mean all substances — whatever their character or origin — which will have the effect of causing a larger gi'owth of vegetation. Manures may be either mechcmical or chemical in their 328 MANURES. mode of action, or they may partake of both of these cha° racters. For instance, barn-yard manure is both mechanical and chemical in its effect. By reason of its bulk and its coarseness it loosens the soil and makes it more porous when mixed with it ; when it is used as a top-dressing it shades the ground, and protects it in a measure against the effect of frost and of too great heat ; being a very active absorbent of moisture, it modifies the effect of drought; its decomposition produces heat, and raises the temperature of the soil. All of these are Tnechanical effects. On the other hand, it affords to the roots of plants sub- stances which enter directly into their structures, as chemical constituents ; it also yields various acids, alkalies, and salts which enter into combination with the constituent parts of the soil, and — in one way or another — make them more available as plant food. These are chemical effects. The use of Manures. In the use of manures the farmer should be guided not only by the effect that will be produced on the immediate crop — although this is, of course, the first consideration — but quite as much by the condition in which the soil will be left for the production of future crops. Unless he does this he may find that, while he has reaped a temporary benefit, he has inflicted a lasting injury on his fields. It will be remembered that in our account of the soil it MANURES. 329 was shown that the amount of mineral plant food that is actually present in the soil in an available form is extremely limited. In a state of nature, our fields would produce only such crops as could be fed by the small amount of this plant food which is rendered available from year to year, and there would be no diminution of production. On the contrary, the decay of the crop of one year would probably add to the supply available for the next year. The removal of the Gi'ojp hy man^ not the production of a crop which on decay returns its elements to the soil, is what impoverishes — is what makes the use of manure vitally necessary on all but virgin lands. The larger the crop — provided it decays on, the land — the more the fertility of the soil is increased. The larger the crop — provided it is removed from the land — the more the fertility of the soil is diminished. If the crop is made larger by the use of manure, and is removed from the land, the manure has caused a larger amount of mineral plant food to be taken away. But if the manure itself contains the full equivalent of what enters into the crop, and so makes up for its drain upon the soil, there will be no impoverishment. If, on the other hand, the manure does not contain the equivalent of the ash-constitu- ents of the crop, but has only stimulated it to take an extra supply from the soil, the injury is obvious. In some cases, a soil that will produce 10 bushels of wheat without manure will produce 25 bushels if dressed with 100 330 MANURES. lbs. of sulphate of ammonia. The extra 15 bushels con- tain about 18 lbs. of mineral matter more, wliich was sup- plied by the manure, and this is equal to one and a half year's supply for the natural crop of the land. The effect of this sort of farming is that the soil is made to produce more than it can afford to in one year, and has its supply of mineral plant food exhausted to the detriment of its future productiveness. Twenty years ago, the wheat lands of Delaware, which had been producing very small crops, were made, by the use of very small doses of Peruvian guano, to double, triple, even quadruple their yield. The farmers were immensely elated. They had found a sort of philosopher's stone, and a few years would make their fortune. Alas for their hopes — a very few years demonstrated the fact that the guano had been a curse rather than a blessing. Their lands were poorer than ever, and even largely increased doses of the specific were powerless to bring them up even to their old stan- dard. Had the wheat and straw been consumed on the farm, and all of their mineral constituents returned to the soil, the guano would have been a means of great permanent improvement. Or, had the same increase of production been effected by the use of a manure containing the full equivalent of what the crop was to take from the soil, the impoverishment of the land would have been prevented. MANURES. 331 The foregoing is intended to convey the fundamental ideas which we should bear in mind in deciding what manures we are to use, and in what quantity. It is quite impossible to establish any set of rules which shall be an exact guide for all cases, but the following are always a safe guide : — 1. Apply in the manure the full quantity of the different ash ingredients of the crops that will he produced hefore manure will he applied again. 2. Procure from abroad manure containing the full quantity of the different ash ingredients of all produce sold from the farm^ am.d allow none to he wasted at home. A close adherence to these two rules, accompanied by good cultivation, and the draining of such land as needs draining, will make any farmer rich who exercises ordi- nary judgment and prudence in the management of his affairs. To speak with scientific accuracy, it is not necessary to return quite all that the crops take away. The processes by which soils were originally formed being still in operation, there is a constant fresh development of plant-food in the ground, and this will, in greater or less degree, compensate for the loss by the removal of crops. Practically, however, it is best to place this development of fresh matter to the account of improvement, and, by making up the full amount of all removals, to make sure that the land is constantly growing better instead of worse. As want of space forbids a more full discussion of the 332 MAinjRES. established theories concerning the use of manure, the atten- tion of the reader is called to the following : — Classification and description of jnoMures, Manures naturally divide themselves into such as are of mineral, of vegetable, and of animal origin. Mineral manures are such as originate from various mineral substances, such as lime, which is the product of limestone, marble, chalk, or marl, after the carbonic acid has been expelled by an intense heat ; marls, which are composed of carbonate of lime, mixed with clay, sand, or loam; shell sand, calcareous sand, green sand marl, gyp- sum, phosphate of lime, salt, and salts of various kinds, &c. Vegetable manures are such as are produced from de- composed vegetable matters, which also contain some of the inorganic or mineral substances. Animal ma/nures consist chiefly of the flesh, blood, bones, horns, and hair of sea and land animals, and of the solid and liquid excrements of land animals and birds, and also con- tain some of the inorganic or mineral matters. A7ialysis of Fish Guano. Water expelled by 212° heat. . 8.06 Sand 0.33 OU 2.40 Organic Matter 50.72 Super-Phosphate of Lime 9.85 Sulphate of Lime, Hydrated. . . 19.62 Sulphate of Magnesia O.Vl " Potash 2.05 Soda 2.42 Chloride of Sodium 1.12 Sulphate of Ammonia. 2.72 Dr. Apjohn. MANURES. 333 50. 11 Analysis of Peruvian, Gucmo, In every 100 parts there are of Organic Matter, containing Nitrogen, including Urate of Ammonia, and J capable of affording from 8 to 1*7 per cent of Ammonia, by slow >• change in the soil ) Water . . Phosphate of Lime 25 . Ammonia, Phosphate of Magnesia, Phosphate of Ammonia and Oxa- ) , „ late of Ammonia, containing from 4 to 9 per cent, of Ammonia ) Silicious matter from the crops of birds 1 . Dr. Ure. Another analysis. Water 13.09 Organic Matter, containing Ammonia 53.1'7 Common Salt and Sulphate of Soda 4.63 Carbonate of Lime 4.18 Phosphate of Lime and Magnesia 23,54 Silicious Matter or Sand 1.39 Johnston. Professor S. W. Johnson publishes the following table : — Analysis of Peruvian Guano. Water Organic Matter Ammonia, potential.... " actual Phosphoric Acid soluble in water Phosphoric Acid insoluble in water , Sand, &c., insoluble in acids Phosphate of Lime, ) equivalent to total Y A v. Phosphoric Acid . ) 66.32 5.82 8.93 4.69 10.05 1.69 65.18 5.95 9.08 3.64 10.50 1.52 21 . 28 II. 12.63 52.27 16.03 15.19 12.70 51.46 15.98 14.08 2.45 2.66 31.69 IIL 68.00j68.70 17.8618.85 ly. 59.46 16.32 Analysis of Bolivian Guano. Water 6.91 Organic Matter containing Ammonia 55.52 Common Salt and Sulphate of Soda 6.31 Carbonate of Lime '^-87 Phosphate of Lime and Magnesia 25.68 Silicious Matter or Sand 1.71 Johnston. 334 MANURES. Note. — The guano of the Lobos Islands is from 25 to 33 per cent, less valuable than the above. How to select a good article of guano. 1. The drier the better — there is less water to pay for and transport. 2. The lighter the color the better — it is the less com- pletely dissolved. 3. If it has not a strong ammoniacal smell, it ought to give off such a smell when a spoonful of it is mixed with a spoonful of slaked lime in a wine-glass. 4. When put into a tumbler with water and stirred well, and the water and fine matter poured off, it ought to leave but little sand or stones. 5. When heated to redness over a fire or bright flame, until the animal matter is burned away, the ash should nearly all dissolve in dilute muriatic acid. 6. In looking at the printed analysis (which almost all dealers furnish), see that the per cent, of water is small ; that the organic matter containing ammonia approaches to 50 or 60 per cent. ; that the phosphates do not exceed 20 per cent., and the common salt and sulphate of soda do not ex- ceed 5 or 6 per cent. — Johnston. How to Apply Guano. — From 200 to 500 lbs. per acre is a proper dressing, the largest quantity being required for the more sterile soils. Mix it tlioroughly for a few days with five times its bulk of vegetable mould or loam and some MANURES. 335 charcoal or gypsum, after breaking the himps and sifting in alternate layers. Avoid the use of ashes or lime, as they tend to expel the ammonia. Keep it under cover, beyond the reach of water or rains, until used. It may then be scattered broadcast upon meadows or grain, or placed near the seeds or young plants in the hill. Analysis of hone {crushed) manure. In 100 parts, there are of Lime 55.5 Phosphate of Magnesia 2. Soda and Common Salt 2.5 Carbonate of Lime 3.75 Fluoride of Calcium 3. Gelatine (the substance of liorn) 33.25 Table, showing tlie comparative value of anhnal manures^ with farm-yard manitre as the standard. 100 lbs. farm-yard manure is equal to 125 lbs. solid excrements of the cow. 73 ' .1 91 ' ' liquid 16 ' 1 u 98 ' ' mixed 54 ' 1 (i 36 ' ( (( 64 ' ( (( cow. 3 lbs. Dry Flesh. horse. 5 " Pigeon's Dung. cow. 15 " Liquid Blood. horse. 4 " Dry Blood. cow. 3 " Feathers. horse. 3 " Cow Hair. sheep. 3 " Horn Shavings. pig- H " Dry Woollen Rags. Johnston. Note. — The most powerful substances in the above table, viz., dry woollen rags, horn shavings, cow hair, feathers, &c., hold little or no water, and contain the fertilizing elements of the others in very compact forms. They show less im- 'mediate sensible effect upon the crop than the others, because, being so dry and compact, they are long decomposing, but continue to evolve fertilizing matter long after the softer and more fluid manures have spent their force. 336 MANURES. Decomposed vegetables as manure. The charaGteristic distinction between animal and vege- table manures lies in the fact of the former containing a much larger proportion of nitrogen than the latter. There are two grounds upon which the relative values of different vegetable substances as manures may be estimated. First ^ from the quantity and kind of inorganic matter they contain. Second, from the proportion of nitrogen present in each. Table, showing the relative values of decomposed vegetables as ma/nures, from, the inorganic matter they contain. Inorganic Matter, lbs. lbs. 1 ton Wheat Straw ma Oat Hay Barley " Pea Bean " Eye Dry Potato-tops Dry Turnip-tops Rape Cake Malt Dust Dried Seaweed .100 to 180 .100 to 200 .100 to 120 .100 to 110 .100 to 130 . 50 to 100 .400 .370 .120 .180 .560 Johnston. Table, showing the relative values of decomposed vegetables as manures, from the nitrogen they contain. 100 lbs. of farm-yard manure is equal to 130 lbs. Wheat Straw Manure. 150 ' Oat 180 ' Barley " 85 ' B'kwh't " 45 ' Pea 50 ' Wheat Chaff 80 ' Green Grass 75 ' Potato Tops 80 lbs. Fresh Seaweed Ms 20 ' Dried 26 ' Bran of Wheat or Corn 13 ' Malt Dust 8 ' Rape Cake 250 ' Pine Sawdust 180 ' Oak 25 ' Coal Soot Manure. MANURES. 337 Notes. — The immediate effect of vegetable manures in hastening the growth of plants is dependent, in a great measure, upon the quantity of nitrogen they contain, which is given off chiefly in the form of ammonia during their decay in the soil, and may be nearly exhausted in a single season. Their p&rmanent effect and value is to be estimated by the quantity and quality of inorganic matter they contain, or ash they leave when burned, and may not be exhausted for several years. Besides inorganic matters and nitrogen, there are other ingredients in vegetable manures which are necessary to the sustenance and growth of plants. Each of the elements present in decayed or decaying plants is capable either of ministering to, or preparing food for such as are still alive. All refuse vegetable or animal matter on a farm, such as straw, leaves, vegetable tops, chips, sawdust, ashes, dead animals, bones, horns, hoofs, entrails, &c., &c., should be carefully saved and composted, or otherwise made into manure for the use of the farm. Analysis of a TnoMwre heap in the conditimi usually ap- plied to the field. Fresh. Water 64.96 Organic Matter 24.71 Inorganic Salts 10.33 Dried at 212«». Carbon 37.40 Hydrogen 5.27 Oxygen 25.52 Nitrogen 1.76 Ashes (inorganic matter) 30.05 15 338 MANURES. Inorganic 'matters. Soluble in Muriatic Add. Smca 27.01 Phosphate of Lime 7.11 " Magnesia. 2.26 " Iron 4.68 Carbonate of Lime. ....... 9.34 " Magnesia 1.63 Sand 30.99 Carbon 83 Alkali and loss 3.14 86.99 Soluble in Water. Potash 3.22 Soda 2.73 Lime 0.34 Magnesia 0.26 Sulphuric Acid 3.27 Chlorine.... 3.15 Silica f 0.04 13.01 86.99 Richardson. lOO.ou Analysis of other sjpeGimiens of fresh farm-ya/rd manures. Farm yard Manure From Kent. Farm-yard Manure From Surrey. Per centage of Ash 9.2 9.6 Silica . 7U.79 3.32 0.92 6.90 0.56 1.43 2.04 1.53 1.89 1.58 trace 90.96 71.32 Potash 5.14 Soda 1.68 Lime 12.32 0.82 Common Salt 1.22 Phosphate of Iron ..•• 2.03 ' ' Alumina . ...• 2.54 1.67 Phosphoric Acid ••• 1.27 Manganese . . . . , 99.91 Allen Sf Oreenhill. Composition of fresh farm-yard manure (composed of horse, pig, and cow dung, about fourteen days old). Analysis made November 3, 1854, by Dr. Augustus Yoelcker, Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Agricul- tural College, Cirencester, England : — MANURES. 339 Water , 66.17 * Soluble organic matter 2.48 Soluble inorganic matter (ash) — Soluble silica (silicic acid) 237 Phosphate of lime 299 Lime 066 Magnesia Oil Potash 573 Chloride of sodium 030 Carbonic acid and loss 218 1.54 f Insoluble organic matter 25.76 Insoluble inorganic matter (ash) — Soluble silica ( ^.^.^.^ ^^.^ ) 967 Insoluble silica ( f 561 Oxide of iron, alumina, with phosphates. .596 (Containing phosphoric acid, .178) (Equal to bone earth, .386) Lime 1.120 Magnesia 143 Potash 099 Soda 019 Sulphuric acid 061 Carbonic acid and loss 484 4.05 100.00 * Containing nitrogen 149 Equal to ammonia .181 ■f Containing nitrogen 494 Equal to ammonia -599 The whole manure contains ammonia in a free state 034 " •' " « in the form of salts 088 340 MANURES. According to this analysis one ton (2000 lbs.) farm-yard manure contains — Soluble silica (silicic acid) 24 lbs. Ammonia (actual or potential). lof Phosphate of lime ^^ro Lime ^^tV Magnesia S^ Potash 13J Soda If Common salt -j^ Sulphuric acid 2J Water 1323f Woody fibre, &c 579 Of course no two samples of farm-yard manure are ex- actly of the same composition. That analyzed by Dr. Yoelcker was selected with much care, as representing a fair average. GREEN SAND MARL (oF NEW JERSEY). Protoxide of iron 15.5 Alumina 6.9 Lime 5.3 Magnesia 1.6 Potash 4.8 Soluble silica 32.4 Insoluble silica and sand 19.8 Sulphuric acid 6 Phosphoric acid 1-3 Water 8.0 Carbonic acid, &c ^-^ 100.0 MANTJEES. 341 This is an average of three analyses copied from Prof. Geo. H. Cook's Eeport of the Geology of New Jersey. According to this estimate one ton (2000 lbs.) of green sand marl contains — Lime 106 lbs. Maocnesia 32 " Potash Soluble silicic acid. 648 lbs. Sulphuric acid 12 " Phosphoric acid* ... 26 " To give a better idea of the formation and composition of stable manure, the following is copied from " Waring's Elements of Agriculture " : — "digestion and its prodijcts. " Let us suppose that we have a fall-grown ox, which is not increasing in any of his parts, but only consumes food to keep up his respiration, and to supply the natural wastes of his body. To this ox we will feed a ton of hay which contains organic matter, with and without nitrogen, and soluble and insoluble earthy substances. Now let us try to follow the food through its changes in the animal, and see what becomes of it. Liebig compares the consumption of food by animals to the imperfect burning of wood in a stove, where a portion of the fuel is resolved into gases and ashes (that is, it is completely burned), and another portion, which is not thoroughly burned, passes off as soot. In the animal action in question, the food undergoes changes which are similar to this burning of wood. A part of the food is digested and taken up by the blood, * Equal to phosphate of lime 56^ lbs. 342 MANURES. while another portion remains undigested, and passes the bowels as solid dung — corresponding to the soot of combus- tion. This part of the dung, then, we see is merely so much of the food as passes through the system without being materially changed. Its nature is easily understood. It contains organic and mineral matters in nearly the con- dition in which they existed in the hay. They have been rendered finer and softer, but their chemical character (their composition) is not materially altered. The dung also contains small quantities of nitrogenous matter, which has leaked out, as it were, from the stomach and intestines. The digested food, however, undergoes further changes which affect its character, and it escapes from the body in three ways — i. €., through the lungs and skin, through the bladder, and through the bowels. It will be recollected from the first section of this book, p. 20, that the carbon in the blood of animals unites with the oxygen of the air drawn into the lungs, and is thrown off in the breath as carbonic acid. The hydrogen and oxygen unite to form a part of the water which constitutes the moisture of the breath. " That portion of the atmospheric part of the hay which has been taken up by the blood of the ox, and which does not contain nitrogen, is emitted through the lungs. It con- sists, as will be recollected, of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen, and these assume, in respiration, the forjn of carbonic acid and water. MAi^UKES. 343 " The atmospheric matter of the digested hay, in the blood, which does contain nitrogen, goes to the bladder^ where it assumes the form of urea — a constituent of urine or liquid manure. " We have now disposed of the imperfectly digested food (the dung), and of the atmospheric matter which was taken up by the blood. All that remains to be examined is the earthy matter in the blood, which would have become ashes if the hay had been burned. The readily soluble part of this earthy matter passes into the bladder, and forms the earthy parts of urine. The more insoluble part passes the bowels, in connection with the dung. " If any of the food taken up by the blood is not returned as above stated, it goes to form fat, muscle, hair, bones, or some other part of the animal; and as he is not growing (not increasing in weight), an equivalent amount of the body of the animal goes to the manure to take the place of the part retained.* " We now have our subject in a form to be readily under- stood. We learn that when food is given to animals it is not pttt out of existence, but is merely changed in form / and that in the impurities of the breath we have a large portion of those parts of tlie food which plants obtain from air and from water ; while the solid and liquid excrements * This account of digestion is not, perhaps, strictly accurate in a physiological point of view, but it is sufficiently so to give an elementary understanding of the character of excrement as manure. 34:4 MANURES. contain all that was taken by the plants from the soil and from manures. " The Solid Dung contains the undigested parts of the food, the more insoluble parts of the ash, and the nitro- genous matters which have escaped from the digestive organs. " The Liquid Manure contains the nitrogenous parts of the digested food, and the soluble parts of the ash. " The Breath contains those parts of the fully digested food which contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but no nitrogen^ or at least a very inconsiderable quantity of it." LIQUID MANURE. We believe there is no system of enriching the land for small gardens, with a view to perfection of crops, so triily economical and so easily available as that of using liquid manure. We occasionally hear of a gardener, or an ama- teur grower of some special plant or crop, that has practised enriching with liquids, but it is only occasionally ; yet the result of every record is in its favor, and a searching inquiry into any extra production of fruit, flower, or plant almost invariably gives watering with liquid manure as the cause. There is in almost every family a waste of liquids, which usu- ally go into the sewer or drain, or possibly upon the road, where they are of no avail, but if saved by being conduct- ed to a tank, would enrich the entire garden spot of vege- MANURES. 345 tables, small fruits, furnisli stimulus to the rose and other flower borders, and keep the grass-plot green and fresh even in the hottest and driest weather of midsummer. The use of a little plaster (gypsum) occasionally, thrown in and around the tank, would always keep it sweet and clean. By the use and practice of liquid manuring no delay need ever occur in planting-time because of the manure not being on hand, or not being in a sufficiently rotted condition ; but planting could proceed, and the application of manure be made at leisure. — Horticulturist, Value of liquid manures. The urine voided from a cow during one year contains 900 lbs. solid matter, and compared with Peruvian guano at $60 per ton is worth $20. It will manure \\ acres of land, and is more valuable than its dung, in the ratio, by bulk, of 7 to 6, and in intrinsic value as 2 to 1. — Dana. The Urine of the Cow contains of water 92.6 per cent. " " Horse " " 94. " " " Sheep " " 96. " " '' Hog " *' 92.6 " " " Human " " 93.3 " The remainder is composed of salts and rich food for vegetables. — Sprengel. Poudrette and Urate. Poudrette is the name given to the human excrement after being mixed with charcoal dust or charred peat, to disinfect it of its effluvia, and when dried becomes con- venient for use or transportation. Urate is the name given to urine after mixing with it \ 15* 346 MANURES. or -1- of its weight of ground gypsum, and allowing it to stand several days. The urine combines with a portion of the ammonia, after which the liquid is poured off an"a the remainder dried. — Allen. Analysis of night soil. The excrement of a healthy man yielded in 1000 parts — Water 733. Albumen 9. Bile 9. Mucilage, fat, and animal matter . 1 67. Saline matters 12. Undecomposed food TO. Man's urine yielded in 1000 parts — Water 933. Urea 30.1 Uric acid 1 . Free acetic acid, lactate of \ ammonia, and animal mat- >■ 17.1 ter ) Mucus of the bladder 3.3 Sulphate of potash 3. 1 " soda 3.2 Phosphate of ammonia " soda ..... Sal ammoniac Common salt Phosphate of lime and magne- sia, with a trace of silica and fluoride of calcium — 1.6 2.9 1.5 4.5 1.1 1000. Berzelius. Urea is a solid product of urine, and gives in 100 parts — Carbon 19.99 I Hydrogen 6.65 Oxygen 26.63 | Nitrogen 46 65 Prout. THE DEY EARTH SYSTEM. It has long been a difficult problem to decide in what way to dispose of human excrement so as to make use of its invaluable ingredients as manure, and, at the same time, to a^'oid the ofiensiveness which attends its management in China and Japan, and in all countries where it is habitually applied to the soil. This problem has at last found a satisfactory solution in the invention of the Rev. Henry Moule, Yicar of Fording- ton, Dorsetshire, England. This invention is based on the power of common soil, when dried and sifted, to absorb, not only the moisture of human excrement, but its odor as well. This power of absorbing odors is due to both the clay and the decomposed organic matter in the soil. It was first discovered, or at least first satisfactorily explained, by Prof. Way, chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, whose interesting experiments on the subject are detailed in the Society's Journal. It is odd that this easy means of arresting the offensive exhalations of human excrement was not long ago generally adopted. We have a practical illustration of this use of earth in the case of animals of the feline race, whose de- jections are extremely offensive. They turn and carefully cover these with earth. In the adhesion of the world to many ot the tenets of the Mosaic law, it is strange that we have overlooked the sound advice given in the 12th and 348 MANURES THE DRY EARTH SYSTEM. 13th verses of the xxiii. chap, of Deut., where we read, " Thou shalt have a place also without the camp whither thou shalt go forth abroad ; and thou shalt have a paddle upon thy weapon ; and it shall be when thou shalt ease thy- self abroad, thou shalt dig therewith and shalt turn back and cover that which conieth from thee." Mr. Moule's invention is susceptible of many modifications. The apparatus which he has devised, and which is coming into quite general use in England, especially in detached country houses and cottages, where there is no supply of water for water-closets, consists of a hopper-shaped reservoir behind and above the ordinary water-closet seatf or holding the supply of dry earth, — this forms a back ; a water-tight vessel or vault under the seat ; and a mechanical arrangement for measuring out the proper quantity of earth (about a pint and a half) and throwing it forward u]3on the evacuation, which it entirely covers while it absorbs all the moisture. This apparatus is simple, inexpensive, not liable to get out of order, and cannot be obstructed by frost. A modification of the same, still more simple, cheap, and equally eifective, though much less convenient, consists of a tub or box (filled with dry earth) at the side of the seat, and a common tin scoop with which to throw the earth upon the deposit. This plan is being generally adopted in the prisons and workhouses of England and the British colonies. In fact, any vessel containing two inches or more of sifted, dry earth, and a second vessel containing a supply MANURES — THE DRY EARTH SYSTEM. 349 of earth and a scoop or cup with which to handle it, will answer a good purpose on emergency, and will enable the poorest person not merely to mitigate but to absolutely overcome the most offensive accompaniment of sickness.* While this invention offers relief from untold misery and annoyance to all w^ho cannot conveniently establish water- closets in their houses, its agricultural importance makes it especially interesting to farmers. It is a fact too well known to need discussion in our lim- ited space, that of all manures none are at once so powerful and so well adapted to the growth of all crops as " night- soil," or human excrement, though its highly offensive character has generally prevented its use, and has associated with it an idea of degradation. In most parts of the coun- try farm-hands would leave their places rather than to have anything to do with the stuff; and where it is commonly used, it is made a nuisance to wide neighborhoods. By the aid of the dry earth system every real and fan- cied objection to its use is done away with. The mixed earth and " soil," when dried and pulverized, are absolutely without other smell than that of freshly turned earth ; and, although every atom of fertilizing matter has been retained in a most available form, there is nothing by w^hich, from either appearance or odor, its character could be suspected. The most remarkable part of the whole matter is, that * For more particular information on this subject, the reader is referred to a pamphlet entitled " Earth Closets, how to make and how to use them," pub- lished by the N. Y. Tribune Association. 350 MANURES THE DRY EARTH SYSTEM. when the ordure is once decomposed and (by sifting) inti- mately mixed with the earth, it has the same quality as any other decomposed organic matter, i. e.^ it acts as a deodori- zer. Consequently, the same earth (by drying and sifting) may be used over and over again, always (at least up to the eighth or tenth time of using) being inodorous and as good a disinfectant as fresh earth ; therefore the quantity of earth which it is necessary to prepare and store need not be very large, and it may be made so rich as to be equal to Peru- vian guano in its effect on vegetation. In short, in the opinion of the writer, who has had per- sonal experience in the use of the apparatus, in '^ sickness and in health,'' the adoption of the dry earth system is " the coming: reform." Table, showing the comparative increase of corn hy different fertilizers. QUANTITY OF FERTILIZER. No Manure 500 lbs Superphosphate of Lime 3,690 " Guano 4 300 " Superphosphate Lime & 640 lbs. Guano 6; 320 " Guano and 640 lbs. dissolved Bones 6 1 1040 ** Guano & 400 lbs. Superphosphate Lime 7! 16 loads Stable Manure . .. 8|32 " '^ ' ' & 200 bus. leached Ashes . . " & 640 lbs. Super P Lime. . '• & 320 lbs Guano & 1320 ibs I Superphosphate Lime . 12 1 Hog manure from 108 bus. corn 9il6 10116 11132 5 .3 28 46 50A 58^ 51 74f 35| 42| 44 49^ 60 43 18 22J 30 23 4Gf $ 12 50 19 00 25 10 18 40 38 60 6 00 14|!32 00 12 00"- 17 80« 16 80« 16 20 bus qrts. 14 6 6| 8 6f 15 14f 22| 28 30 Only the mcrease over the experiments T and 8 with stable manure alone. MANURES. 351 All tables showing the comparative effect of different manures are of very problematical value. There are so many circumstances and conditions of soil, climate, expo- sure, moisture, previous treatment of the land, &c., &c. — all of which affect, more or less strongly, the amount of the crop — that it is never possible (in the light of our still imperfect knowledge concerning the growth of plants, and their relations to the soil) to decide how far any increase or decrease may be due to the manure used, and how far to other causes. Table, showing the effect produced upon the quantity of the crop ly equcd quantities of different manures applied to the same soil^ sown with an equal quantity of the same seed. Keturn in bushels from each bushel of seed. Manure applied. \Vheat. Barlej'. Oats. Rye. Blood 14 16 12J 14 Night-soil 13 14i 13^ Sheep-dung 12 16 14 13 Horse-dung 10 13 14 11 Pigeon-dung 10 12 9 Cow-dung 7 11 16 9 Yeo:etable manure 3 7 13 6 Without manure ... 4 5 4 Moisture absorbed by different manures. 1000 parts horse-dung, dried in a temperature of 100° Fahrenheit, absorbed by exposure to the air at a temperature of 62° Fahrenheit, moisture, parts 145 1000 parts cow-dung, under same circumstances, '' 130 352 MANURES. 1000 parts pig-dung, under the same circumstances,parts 120 | u sheep-dung, " " a ii 81 u pigeon-dung, " " '• ii 50 u rich alluvial soil, '* u ii 14 u fresh tanners' bark, " u a 115 (.(. putrified " " a ii 145 ii refuse marine salt, " a • i 49J ii soot, " a a 36 ii burnt claj, " a i< 29 ii coal ashes, " ii (« 14 ii lime, " ii -' 11 ii sediment from salt-pans. a (( 10 ii crushed rock-salt, a- ii 10 ii gjpsum. a ii 9 ii chalk. a ii 4 Table, showing the nuinber of loads of manure and the 1 number of heajys to each load required- to each acre, the | heaps at given distances apart. 5§* NUMBER OF HEAPS IN A LOAD. 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 7 8 1 9 , 10 3 538 269 179 134 1U8 89i 77 67 60 54 3i 395 168 132 99 79 66 66J 49 i 44 39^ 4 203 151 101 75^ 60^ 60i 43| 37| 331 30i ^ 239 120 79^ 60 47| 39| 34i 30 26i 24 5 194 97 64J 48^ 38| 32^ 26f 27| 24^ 2H 19J ^ 160 80 53^ 40 32 22f 20 17| 16 6 131 67 44| 33J 281 24| 27 22i 19i 16| 15 13J 6i 115 67i 381 23 19 16J 14i 12| 11? 7 99 49i 33 19| 161 14 12^ 11 10 7i 86 43 28| 2^ 17i 14^ 12i lOf H 8* 8 75J 37| 25i 19 15f 12A Hi 10| H 8 7i 8J 67 33^ 22^ ]6f 13* 9i H 7 6| 9 60 30 20 15 12 10 8i 7 • 6| 6 H 53^ 26t 18 13^ 10| 9 7| 6 6 b\ 10 48i 24i 16^ 12 n 8 7 6 H 4| '1 MANURES. 353 Explanation. — In the left hand column are placed the dis- tances of the rows and the heaps in each row {i. e., the dis- tances between the heaps in each direction), and at the top of the columns will be noticed the number of heaps intended to be made of each load; the point where the two meet gives the number of loads per acre which will be required for that purpose. Example 1. — Required the number of loads necessary to manure an acre, dividing each load into six heaps, and pla- cing them 4|- yards apart ? Solution. — In the left hand column find 4|- (the distance of the heaps apart), and opposite it to the right, under 6 (the number of heaps in each load), will be found 39f. Ans. ExA^iPLE 2. — A farmer has a field containing 5^ acres, over which he wishes to spread 82 loads of manure. Now, 82 divided by 5 J gives 15 loads per acre, and by referring to the table it will be seen that the desired object can be at- tained by making 4 heaps of each load, and placing them 9 yards apart, or by 9 heaps at 6 yards apart, as may be thought most advisable. Notes. — A cubic foot of half- rotten stable manure will weigh 56 lbs. ; if coarse or dry, 48 lbs. A load of manure is about 36 cubic feet, and of the first quality will weigh 2016 lbs. ; of the second, 1728 lbs. Eight loads of the first kind spread over an acre will give 354 AKTIFICIAL MANURES. 108 lbs. to each square rod, and about 3^ lbs. to each square yard. Five loads will give 63 lbs. to each square rod. To find the number of loads of manure required to the acre^ for a given number of lbs. j)er square foot. Rule. — Multiply 43560 (the number of square feet in an acre) by the number of lbs. you wish to spread on each square foot, and divide the product by 2016, and the quo- tient will be the number of loads required. Example. — Required, the number of loads of manure to cover a 2-acre field, giving 2 lbs. of manure to each square foot? Solution.— 43560 x 2 x 2 = 174240-^-2016 = 86.4 loads. Ans, ARTIFICIAL MANURES. It is a self-evident truth that if we sell, we must buy, or we must be content to see our stock on hand reduced. This principle applies nowhere else with more force than to the stock of mineral plant-food in the soil. This is, after all, our " stock in trade " — ammonia, carbonic acid, and wa- ter ; — the sources of nearly ninety-nine-hundredths of our crops we can draw from the floating capital of the world, and, except in the case of ammonia, we need give ourselves but little trouble about them. With the mineral matters, however, the case is very different. Some of them, it is true, ARTIFICIAL MANURES. 355 are so abundant and so universally distributed that tbey do not demand much attention ; but some others, on the other hand, have been distributed by nature with so sparing a hand, that our constant care should be given to keeping our supply of them undiminished. They exist only in the soil ; the winds cannot waft them to us, nor do they come, as am- monia does, in every summer shower. They are the hard currency of our banking system, and our business will always be limited by the amount we have in our vaults, and by the promptness with which we make good their loss when we have put them in circulation. This fact has created a demand for artificial manures, the theory of whose production is, that the phosphate of lime which has found its way into the bones of animals, and has thus become, for the moment, unavailable to the farmer, shall be returned by some process which shall convert refuse bones into manure, or that it shall be replaced from some other source, as from the phosphatic guanos from which superphosphate of lime is largely made; and that potash, lime, &c., shall be collected, in the form of ashes," &c., &c., and returned to the soil. If all the artificial manures that have been put into the market had been honestly made, the demand for them would have been much greater even than it now is. But the fact that their composition can be ascertained only by careful chemical analysis, which farmers are incom- petent to make, has led to no end of fraud, and one never 356 ARTIFICIAL MANURES. knows, in purchasing a ton of superphosphate, poudrette, guano, &c., whether he is or is not paying for half a ton of coal-ashes or other worthless dirt. The consequence of this has been that many farmers have bought a little superphos- phate as an experiment, have found no beneficial result from its use, and so have given it up as a bad job and pronounced the whole system of artificial manuring a swindle. The example of each man has had its efiect on his neighbors, and there is, consequently, a wide-spread belief that all artificial manures are humbugs. At the same time, there are so many who do fully under- stand the value of these fertilizers, and whose land absolutely needs their aid, that the manufacture and sale of such as are of established good quality has reached enormous pro- portions. On farms where large stocks of cattle are fed, and for lands which are enriched by the raising of clover as a green crop, the necessity for the use of foreign manures is much less than where the crops are mainly sold off, and no recupera- tive process (such as the use of green crops) is adopted. There is, in all fertile lands, a large reserve stock of min- eral plant-food which is not yet in a proper condition to be taken up by roots, and if the cropping is not too severe — the produce being mainly consumed at home, and the ma- nure economically used, or the frequent use of green crop manuring being resorted to — the gradual development, in an available form, of these mineral matters will maintain AKTIFICIAL MANURES. 357 the land in a fair state of fertility for a very long time, and here the use of mineral manures is less obvious than in other cases. It is a fallacy, however, to suppose that these lands do not need mineral manuring. By the system pursued, we are simply drawing on the capital stock, and, sooner or later, we shall touch bottom. It all looks fair enough now, but at some future day we or our successors must pay the penalty of our improvidence by finding that the land will no longer produce good crops without the use of more purchased ma- nure than can profitably be applied to them. The only safe rule (the only honest course, when we con- sider the fact that we are only life-tenants of our farms, and are in duty bound to leave them, unimpaired if not improved, to those who are to come after us) is to bring back on to the farm, every year, as much of the more valuable elements of vegetable ashes as we have sold off from it, whether in meat milk, grain, or hay. In this way only can we be sure that our land and our crops will each year improve. The great deficiency of our older soils is in the items of phosphoric acid and potash. (Lime is more often needed as an agent for the development of matters already contained in the soil than as a direct food for plants.) Wliile ammonia has been classed among the non-essential elements of manure, its action as a stimulant is so remark- able that it is, commercially considered, the most valuable of all. 358 AKTIFICIAL MANURES. Professor S. W. Johnson of the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale College — the highest authority in America — gives the following as the analysis of the best SujperjpJwsjphate of Lime that ever came under his examination : — Analysis of Majpes^ Improved Superphosphate of Lime. Mannfactiire of 1852. Water 4.54 Organic and volatile matter 22.96 Sand and matters insoluble in acids 1.48 Soluble phosphoric acid 10.65 Insoluble " " 10.17 Ammonia 2.78 Phosphate of lime equivalent to phosphoric acid. . . . 45.11 The following is also from Johnson : — Analysis of Coe's Superphosphate. Manufacture of 1856. Water, organic and volatile matters 38.02 Sand and matters insoluble in acids 3.37 Soluble phosphoric acid 3.84 Insoluble " " 17.84 Ammonia 3.04 Phosphate of lime, equivalent to phosphoric acid . . . 46.47 Johnson also gives the following analysis of hoTie-ash^ or the residue of burnt bones : — Analysis of Deburg^s Bone Meal. Water 3.04 Organic and volatile matters, mostly charcoal 2.07 Sand and insoluble matters 11.19 ARTIFICIAL MANURES. 359 Lime 42.17 Phosphoric Acid 35.42 Carbonic " 1.23 Magnesia and sulphuric acid, with undetermined matters 4.88 100.00 Also the following : — Analysis of Bone Dust. Water , 8.75 Organic matter 27.25 Sana 5.37 Earthy phosphates 45.32 Carbonate of lime and loss 13.31 100.00 Ammonia 2.98 Also the following : — Analysis of Fish Guano, or the refuse of Fish Oil Works. Water 9.67 Organic (animal) matter ■ 67.78 Sand 2.05 Lime 3.76 Soluble phosphoric acid , . . . . 3.38 Insoluble " " 81 Ammonia yielded by animal matter 8.36 Purchasers of manures will find the following table — taken 360 ARTIFICIAL MANURES. from Jndd's Agricultural Annual for 1868 — of great value, as affording a good general guide in determining the value of manure by the use of an analysis : — Prices of Standard Fertilizers, and a Standard for Prices. The prices of some of the standard fertilizers offered in the New York market simply as such, in December, 1867,^ are as follows:— Peruvian Guano, in quantities of 60 tons, per long ton, (gold) $60.00 do do in smaller quantities the price varies with the premi- um on gold; with gold at 35 per cent, prem., per 2000 lbs 85.00 Baker's or Jarvis' Island Guano — a phosphatic Guano from the S. Paci- fic Ocean, which should contain equivalent to 60 to 70 per cent, of bone phosphate of lime, per 2000 lbs 45.00 Superphosphate of Hme, per 2000 lbs 55.00 Bone, fine ground, in 250 lb. bbls., per 2000 lbs 45.00 Flour of bone, per 2000 lbs 60.00 Fine floated bone, per 2000 lbs 65.00 Fish manure, dry and finely ground, per 2000 lbs 45.00 do unground, per 2000 lbs 30.00 Gypsum or plaster, sold in quantities of Y bbls., per bbl. (260 lbs). . . 1.15 Shell lime, in bulk, per bushel 10 do per bbl 1.50 Sulphuric acid of 66 degrees, (oil of vitriol) per lb 2fc. do do of 60 degrees, (pan acid) 2Jc. Carboys containing about 160 lbs. of this acid cost $3 each, and may be returned when empty. The following table was prepared by John B. Laws, of Rothampstead, England. The money values of the manure resulting from feeding the several substances are based on 1 ARTIFICIAL MANURES. 361 the English (gold) prices of manure ; they would be consi- derably higher here, but this does not affect their relatwe value. Average Composition^ per cent, and per ton, of various kinds of Agricultural Produce, dsc. PER CENT. LBS. PER (LONG) TON. 11 S? 1 i'^ -g'S ^ 25 ii i 1 2 11 1 CS •rt It i B o a a It ft 1 o 1^ . Ill 4. 1 ! 2 OS o f H H Ph P-i '^ H H Ej fH '^ ]. Linseed cake 88.0 7.00 4.92 1.65 4.75 1,971 156.8 110.2 37.0 106.4 19.72 2. Cotton-seed cake 89.0 8.00 7.00 3.12 6.50 1,994 179.2 156.8 70.0 145.6 27.86 3. Rape cake 89.0 8.00 5.75 1.76 5.00 1,994 179.2 128.8 39.4 112.0 21.01 4. Linseed 90.0 4.00 3.38 1.37 3.80 2,016 89.6 75.7 30.7 85.1 15.65 5. Beans 84.0 3.00 2.20 1.27 4.00 1,882 67.2 49.3 28.4 89.6 15.75 6. Peas 84.5 2.40 1.84 0.96 3.40 1,893 53.8 41.2 21.5 76.2 13.38 7, Tares 84.0 2.00 1.63 0.66 4.20 1,892 44.8 36.5 14.8 94.1 16.75 8. Lentils 88.0 3.00 1.89 0.96 4.30 1,971 67.2 42.3 21.5 96.3 16.51 9. Malt dust 94.0 8.50 5.23 2.12 4.20 2,106 190.4 117.1 47.5 94.1 18.21 10. Locust beans.... 11. Indian meal 85.0 88.0 1.75 1.30 *i".i3" 6.*35 1.25 1.80 1,904 1,971 39.2 29.1 28.0 40.3 4.81 6.65 ■"25 ".3 '7!8 12. Wheat 85.0 1.70 1.87 0.50 1.80 1,904 38.1 42.0 11.2 40.3 7.08 13. Barley 84.0 2.20 1.35 0.55 1.65 1,882 49.3 30.2 12.3 37.0 6.S2 14. Malt 95.0 2.60 1.60 0.65 1.70 2,128 58.2 35.8 14.6 38.1 6.65 15. Oats 86.0 2.85 1.17 0.50 2.00 i;926 63.8 26.2 11.2 44.8 7.70 16. Fine pollard* 86.0 5.60 6.44 1.46 2.60 1,926 125.4 144.2 32.7 58.2 13.53 17. Coarse pollardt 86.0 6.20 7.52 1.49 2.58 1,926 138.9 168.4 33.4 57.8 14.36 18. Wheat bran 86.0 6.60 7.95 1.45 2.55 1,926 147.8 178.1 32.5 57.1 14.59 19. Clover hay 84.0 7.50 1.25 1.30 2.50 1,882 168.0 28.0 29.1 56.0 9.64 20. Meadow hay 84.0 6.00 0.88 1.50 1.50 1,882 134.4 19.7 33.6 33.6 6.43 21. Bean straw. 82.5 5.55 0.90 1.11 0.90 1,848 124.3 20.2 24.9 20.2 3.87 22. Pea straw 82.0 5.95 0.85 0.89 1,&37 133.3 19.0 19.9 20.2 3.74 23. Wheat straw 84.0 5.00 0.55 0.65 oieo 1,882 112.0 12.3 14.6 13.4 2.68 24. Barley straw 85.0 4.50 0.37 0.63 0.50 1,904 100.8 8.3 14.1 11.2 2.25 25. Oat straw 83.0 5.50 0.48 0.93 0.60 1,859 123.2 10.7 20.8 13.4 2.90 26. Mangel wurzel 12.5 1.00 0.09 0.25 0.25 280 22.4 2.0 5.6 5.6 1.07 27. Swedish turnips 11.0 0.68 0.13 0.18 0.22 246 13.4 2.9 4.0 4.6 0.91 28. Common turnips 8.0 0.68 0.11 0.29 0.18 179 15.2 2.5 6.5 4.0 0.86 29. Potatoes 24.0 1.00 0.32 0.43 0.35 537 22.4 7.2 9.6 7.8 1.50 30. Carrots 13.5 0.70 0.13 0.23 0.20 302 15.7 2.9 5.1 4.5 0.80 31. Parsnips 15.0 1.00' 0.42 Jo. 3610. 22 '336 I 22.4' 9.4 8.1 4.9 1.14 * Jlidd lings, CanieUe. t Shipstnff. 16 TILE DRAINING. * I have preferred to head this article as I have, rather than to say simply " draining " or " under-draining," because I believe in the use of tiles under all circumstances when it is possible to procure them, and because the making of stone drains is understood by every farmer who lives in a region that is blessed with wet land and stone. At the same time, I would not be thought to undervalue the usefulness of stone drains. Neither the stone nor the tile has any influence, in itself, on the fertility of the soil. Any material by the use of which we can make a passage- way through the soil will make a perfectly good drain, as long as it keeps tlie ^passage open. The question is to be decided simply by the consideration of cost and durability ; and here the tiles have an immense advantage. In the first place, they are very much cheaper than stone ; and in the second, the drain which they make is very much more likely to be permanent. It will, I am aware, strike many farmers whose land is encumbered with stones, as a singular proposition that it is cheaper to pay twenty-five or thirty dollars per acre for tiles, when there are stones on the place that it would be an ad- vantage to get rid of. But it is a fact, nevertheless. The TILE DRAINING. 363 cost of collecting the stones, of breaking (or selecting them) to a proper size, of laying them in the drain, and of pro- tecting them from the rattling down of loose dirt among them, and from the burrowing down of field-mice, is very great, and in addition to this we have to calculate the cost of digging the very much wider ditch that is required for their use. To drain land in the best manner there are required about sixty rods of drain four feet deep, and fifty cents a rod for the above items (which is the utmost that tile should cost) would not pay one-half of the actual cost of stones, if we calculate the labor of teams and men at anything approach- ing their full value. As to durability. A tile drain, when properly laid, is pack- ed closely in the most compact subsoil within our reach, has its joints (which are very close) encased in an earthen collar, is closed at its upper end by a flat stone against the tile, and its outlet secured by a grating. No dirt can get in to stop it up, and no vermin can use it for a camping ground. The only thing (except in rare instances the roots of trees) that can enter it at all is the water that it is intended to carry away. Of course I speak of a tile drain that is made of good materials and is made in a proper manner. It is very easy to make a drain that will not be worth the cost of the tiles, not worth anything ; and many such drains are made by careless or ignorant people, who, seeing their uselessness, 364 TILE DRAINING. are loud in the praise of stone drains, and never want to see another draining tile so long as they live. A good tile-drain, made of good clay and well burnt, properly laid on a uniform descent, and having a good out- let^ is practically as permanent as the earth in which it is imbedded. And now, how to make such a drain. It would take much more than the few pages that can be here devoted to the subject to tell. All that my space will allow me to do is to give a few general rules and directions, which will suf- fice to enable a farmer to understandingly decide for himself whether he will make his drains of stones or of tiles ; and a few arguments which may convince him that he cannot afford to let his wet land go undrained. The draining tile is made in several forms, known as the " round," the " sole," and the " horse-shoe." The last men- tioned represents the first step that was taken in advance of the use of stones, and it has long been condemned as an in- ferior article by all who have had experience in the use of the other kinds. The sole-tile, which has an egg-shaped ori- fice, and has a flat side to lie upon, is theoretically very good, and is really very good, only not the best. The flat side is a delusion, for the reason that it generally is not fiat^ being very liable to be warped out of shape in the burning, while the uneven drying of the clay before it is burnt, or the friction of the die through which it is moulded, is very apt to so distort its shape as to make it difiicult to make a good joint. TILE DRATNESTG. 365 The round tile, if well made, is much better, is practically perfect. A tile does not need a flat side to lie upon, for in nine cases out of ten the bottom of the ditch is not flat, and as soon as each piece is put in its place, and while it is held there by the tile-layer, a second man covers it sufficiently to hold it firmly. The smaller sizes have collars or rings to fit them, and these keep the joints " in line " and prevent loose dirt from rattling into the wider openings. Another great ad- vantage of the round tiles is that, if they don't fit each other as they are first laid, they can be turned over until the slight inequalities of the two ends will correspond. All of the larger tile makers now make the round tiles, and most of them make them very well. A machine in- vented by Mr. Tifl'any (of the Crosmann Clay and Manufac- turing Company, Woodbridge, I^ew Jersey) moulds the tiles more smoothly, and presses them harder, than any other yet brought into use. Mr. C. W. Boynton, of Woodbridge, however, seems to have brought more real talent to the manufacture of tiles than any one else who has under- taken the business, and his pipes are probably the best now made, inasmuch as they are two feet long — twice the usual length — and are supplied with connecting pieces for admit- ting lateral drains into the main trunk lines. Heretofore it has been the custom to pick a hole in the side of the tile of the main drain, and to bring the end of the lateral against it, closing the irregular openings by covering them with bits of broken tile or small stones ; and it was nice work to 366 TILE DKAINmG. avoid breaking the pipe, and at the same time to make the joint so accurately as to neither retard the flow nor to admit earth from the filling. Boynton's pipes, which are shown in the accompanying cuts, have a branch piece nicely fitted to the side of the pipe that is to form a part of the main, the branch forming a part of the lateral. On the end of this branch a collar may be placed to receive the end of the lateral, making as good a joint at the junction as at any other part of the drain. Before this improvement was made, it was often neces- sary, where a tile came into the main, to make a silt-basin to catch any silt that might be deposited by the more slug- gish flow of the water at that point. By its aid these silt- basins may be, in nearly all cases, dispensed with, as the lateral enters in an oblique direction, and the velocity of its flow will be imparted to that of the main. Fig. 1. Fie. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 1 shows the round tile ; Fig. 2, the collar ; Fig. 3, the manner of laying these ; Fig. 4, the connecting joint of the TILE DRAINING. 367 main with a branch to receive the lateral ; and Fig. 5 the Fig. 4. manner of laying the tiles at the junction of a lateral drain with the main. Fig. 5. Rules to he observed in making Tile Drai/ns : — 1. Every drain (unless there is some special reason to the contrary) should run directly down the steepest de- scent of the land — not obliquely, but straight down the hill. 2. Wherever possible, the drains should be four feet deep, especially when the subsoil is a stiff clay hard-pan. 3. When the drains are four feet deep, they should be forty feet apart. If only three feet deep, they should be only twenty feet apart ; and if more than four feet, they may safely be placed at greater distances than forty feet. 568 TILE DRAINING. 4. The rate of fall or inclination of a drain should not de- crease as it approaches the outlet. It may be increased as much as is convenient. The rule is, to keep the water run- ning faster and faster, rather than slower and slower, as it gets on in the drain. 5. The outlet should always be clear and free — never, if it can possibly be avoided, so "arranged as to be obstructed by mud or dead water. 6. The tiles should have no porous material of any kind over them, but should be imbedded (and firmly packed) in the closest clay that is accessible. Y. In digging the ditch, always commence at the lower end and work toward the top ; in laying the tiles, commence at the upper end, and continue toward the outlet. 8. Never have tiles laid by the piece (or rod), but al- ways by the day, and by the most faithful and careful man that can be found ; if possible, do it yourself, and remem- ber that the golden rule of draining is that, as the weakest link of a chain is the measure of its strength^ so is the worst laid tile of a drain the measure of its goodness."^ If the drains are laid at distances of forty feet it will take just about one thousand feet of tiles to drain an acre. As to the sizes of tiles required, it will make a difference whether the fall is rapid or slight ; but under all ordinary circumstances, where there are no springs to be disposed of, only the natural drainage of the land itself (its accumulated * Talpa, or the Chronicles of a Clay Farm. TILE DRAINING. 369 rain-fall), the first 1500 feet in length, whether it be a single drain or several laterals, may be made of the smallest sized tiles {1^ inch). Beyond this amount and up to 5000 feet, 2-inch tiles will suffice. From 5000 to 10,000 feet use 3- inch, and from 10,000 to 20,000 feet use 4:-inch. These sizes would not suffice for the immediate removal of all the water of a A'ery heavy rain-fall, but it is to be re- membered that before the water can get to the tiles it must filter slowly through four feet of soil, and could reach the drain but slowly, were it ever so large. Then again, it is not important that the water of a heavy rain be removed within an hour of its falling ; it does no harm to have it settle slowly away, so long as it really does settle away, and does not stand to be evaporated from the surface, nor to flow off over it ; and it is desirable that the drains should occasionally run "more than full," so that a strong flow of water may wash out any obstructions that may have accu- mulated in them. The questimi should not he so much hoio large a Ule is necessary to carry the water, as how large a tile will the %oater {after heavy rains) he ahle to flush and keej> clean. In the foregoing, I have simply stated rules and principles which have been proven by long experience to be correct. The evidences of their truth and reliability, and the argu- ments on wliich they are founded, could not be set forth in tlie limited space which has been allowed for the subject in this book. The object here is to set forth rules and to give 16* 370 TILE DRAINING. Fig. 6. Tools used in laying drain tile. TILE DBAINING. 371 directions. Those who are desirous of investigating reasons will find them stated in other works which are devoted to the fuller discussion of the various topics here touched upon. The ditches are usually dug, in this country, with the or- dinary pick, spade, and shovel, with the single addition of a narrow scoop to work in the narrow bottoms of the drains. Such a scoop may be made by cutting a common, round- pointed, long-handled shovel down to a width of four or five inches. In Europe, where much more extensive operations of drainage are carried on than are known in this country, sets of tools especially adapted for all the dififerent operations are used. One set of these is shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 7. The position of the workman in cutting a narrow ditch 372 TILE DRAINING. for a tile, or rather in finishing the bottom of the ditch with the scoop, is shown in Fig. 7. Fig. a The manner of securing the outlet so as to keep out ver- Fro, 9. min, and, at the same time, to prevent the earth from caving in about the end of the drain, is shown in Fig. 8. WHY SHOULD LAND BE DRAINED? 373 The manner in which draining tiles are moulded from moist clay may be learned from Fig. 9, whicli represents a strong wooden box filled with clay, which, by the pressure of a lever, is forced out through holes which have the shape of the outside of the tile. A plug stands in the middle of each hole (supported from within, so that the clay can en- tirely surround it as it comes out), which makes the bore of the tile. WHY SHOULD LAND BE DRAINED? There is one condition of soil that is the most favorable for the growth of nearly all agricultural plants — that is a condition of porousness, moisture, warmth, and aeration. The roots of plants need to be in a darh place, to be sur- rounded hy moisture (this is very different from being soaked in water), and to be sufficiently supplied with air. There are other conditions of fertility, such as richness in plant-food, &c., which, although of the utmost impor- tance, are apart from our present subject. What we have now to do with is the mechanical state of the soil, as dis- tinguished from its chemical composition and action — that is to say, with its moisture, its temperature, the ease with which roots can penetrate it in search of nutriment, and the opportimity for the admission of atmospheric air to their vicinity. The effects of drainage on the chemical constitution of the soil, and on the chemical action of its ingredients as 374 WHY SHOULD LAND BE DRAINED? affecting vegetation, i& very great : but it is not necessary to the strength of the argument that they should be detailed here, and their sufficient discussion would require too much space. Moisture. By the moisture of the soil we mean a condition resem- bling that of a sponge which has been dipped in water and then lifted out and allowed to drain. While in the water it was saturated — that is, all of its pores were filled with water — but on being removed the water all runs out from its pores, except the small amount that adheres (by capillary attraction) to its substance. In like manner the undrained soil, after a heavy rain, is saturated. All of the spaces between its particles are filled with water. After draining, this water all passes away, except the small amount which adheres to the surfaces of the particles, and that which fills the more minute pores of these particles. There is enough water in the soil in this condition to supply the demands of plants ; but there is not — as there was before draining — so much as to interfere with their healthy growth. Not the least beneficial effect of draining is that which is the result of the admission of air to its lower and cooler parts, causing a deposit of moisture in dry weather, which is sufficient to supply the needs of vegetation, and to greatly mitigate, if it does not even entirely overcome, the effects of drought. WHY SHOULD LAND BE DRAINED? 375 That land should be made damper by being made more diy, that under-draining should be one of the best pre- ventives of the ill effects of drought — this is the apparently anomalous proposition on wliich one of the strongest argu- ments in favor of draining is based. When we see a field baked to the consistence of a brick, gaping open in wide cracks, and covered with a stunted growth of parched and thirsty plants, it seems hard to be- lieve that the simple laying of hollow tiles, four feet deep, in the dried-up mass, would do anything at all toward the improvement of its condition ; for the present season it would not, but for the next it would, and for every season thereafter, and in increasing degree, so long as the tiles continued to act as effective drainage. The baking and cracking, and the unfertile condition of the soil are the result of a previous condition of entire satu- ration. Clay cannot be moulded into bricks, nor can it be dried into lumps unless it is first made soaking wet. Dry, or only damp clay, once made fine, can never again be made lumpy, unless it is first made thoroughly wet, and is pressed together while in its wet condition. Neither can a consi- derable heap of pulverized clay, kept covered from the rain, but exposed to the sun and air, ever become even apparently dry, except within a few inches of its surface. After under-draining has had time to bring the soil, to a depth of two or three feet, to a thoroughly drained condition, it will equally prevent it from being baked into lumps, or 376 WHY SHOULD LAND BE DRAINED? from becoming, for any considerable depth below the sur- face, too dry for the purposes of vegetation. In the first place, the water of heavy spring rains, instead of lying soaking in the soil until the rapid drying of summer bakes it into coherent lumps, settles away and leaves the clay, within a few hours after the rain ceases, and before rapid evaporation commences, too much dried to crack into lumps. The other direct efibct of under-draining is to remove from below, water which, if not so removed, would be eva- porated from the surface. The formation of a crust on the surface of the ground is in direct proportion to the quantity of water that is removed by evaporation, and the crust constitutes a barrier against the admission of air. Consequently the larger the quantity of water that is removed by the drains, the smaller is the obstacle offered to the entrance of air. The more constantly the lower parts of the soil are relieved from ex- cess of water and supplied with air, the more deeply will roots descend ; and the more frequently will the air in the lower soil be changed, the easier its communication with the atmosphere. On these two principles depends the immunity from drought which under-draining helps us to secure. In dry weather the soil gets its moisture from the deposit of dew, on the surface during the night, and on the surfaces of the particles of the lower soil constantly, day and night. WHY SHOULD LAND BE DRAINED? 377 Teinperature. The temperature of the soil is a matter of the utmost consequence. Seeds cannot germinate, and plants cannot grow without there being a certain amount of heat in the soil, and there is no means by which this heat is so much and so constantly reduced as by the evaporation of water from its surface. In proportion as we remove by the means of under-draining the water which would, if not so removed, remain to be evaporated, we allow the soil to attain a higher temperature, and so to become more productive. The penetration of roots. In a soil that is usually too wet, the roots of plants con- iine their operations to the few inches of dry soil at the surface, as they will not push into a cold, compact, wet sub- soil. Draining removes the water from the subsoil, allows it to become sweet and warm and loose, and fit for the entrance of roots, which are thereby enabled to seek farther for a greater quantity and a greater variety of food. The circulation of air. Atmospheric air, if not absolutely necessary to the life and action of the roots of plants, greatly favors their growth and their absorption of food. Aside from its direct supply of carbonic acid to the feeding parts of the roots, it brings moisture to the soil by which they are surrounded, and aids in preparing its nutrient constituents for assimilation. KOTATIOlSr OF CROPS. The experience of practical farmers very early demon- strated the necessity for adopting a system of changes in the crops grown on the same soil. Thus, we find in the writings of Columella, Yarro, Theophrastus, and others who in ancient times wrote on the subject of agriculture, distinct rules laid down as to the course of cultivation to be pur- sued in order to prevent the exhaustion of the soil, or, rather, to prevent it from failing to produce a particular crop so long as it was fertile for anything, and to enable it to make full use of whatever manures were applied to it. In more modern times, the reasons why rotations are ne- cessary have been, in a measure, explained by the aid of chemistry, but we have not materially improved on the jpractice of those who cultivated the soil 2000 years ago. The various crops appropriate different elements from the soil, or the same elements in different proportions. Of course, by raising the same crop year after year from the same field, its quantity and quality not only yearly deterior- ate, but the soil becomes exhausted of the special ingredi- ents which go to support the growth of tliat particular product, while it accumulates the elements especially adapted to some other crop. KOTATION OF CROPS. 379 The principle on which rotations are based may be readi- ly understood from the following illustration : — What are known as the root crops contain, in their ashes, a very large proportion of potash. The average amount of this substance contained in the ash of potatoes, turnips, beets, and caiTots, is fully fifty per cent, of the whole ; that is, they contain as much of this single ingredient as of all the other mineral ingredients combined. Wheat, rye, oats, and barley, on the other hand, contain an average of only twenty-fi/ve per cent.^ or only one-half as much of this as of all the other ingredients. If we examine their content of phosphoric acid^ however, we shall find the case quite difierent. For instance, the four root crops above named contain an average of only about thirteen per cent, of this element, while the four grain crops contain an average of about thirty-seven per ceiit. Again, lime forms but about three per cent, of the ash of most root crops, while it exists in clover and most of the fodder plants to the extent of about thirty-fi/oe per cent, of their ash. If we were to follow through the whole range of the mineral constituents of our crops, we should find similar variations in the amounts appropriated by the different plants which are commonly grown on our fields. Kow, suppose that on a field of average quality we find that wheat or some other grain grows to advantage. Stimu- 380 ROTATION OF CROPS. lated by the profits of the cultivation of this grain, we con- tinue to grow it year after year, without intermission. The result is that — sooner or later, often within two or three years — we lind the yield steadily diminishing. One reason for this is that we have been constantly robbing the soil of undue amounts of phosphoric acid, and (without rendering it unfertile for some other ci'ops, such as potatoes) we have seriously impaired its capacity for the production of wheat. If, instead of raising wheat the second year, we had raised potatoes, or clover, or some plant of an entirely different character from wheat, we should have drawn more evenly on all of the resources of the land, and should have post- poned the exhaustion of its stock of available phosphoric acid. Here then comes in play, also, another element which it is necessary for the farmer to consider, namely : — there are constantly going on in the soil (which may be considered a natural chemical laboratory) certain cliemical and mechani- cal processes, whose effect is to continually set free from other combinations and prepare for the use of plants the various minerals which constitute their ashes. Therefore, if we bring a grain crop into the rotation only once in four, five, or six years, the simple action of these processes will, in the intervening time, set free enough phosphoric acid for a second crop. Soils difier, not only in their composition, but in the rapidity with which their elements are set free ; consequently we find some soils on which the same crop may ROTATION OF CROPS. 381 safely be tried every second or third year, and others on which we must allow a much longer interval. The same rule that applies to the soil holds good also with regard to manures. These almost always contain various matters which go to feed plants, and we must study to so arrange our crops as to make profitable use of all that they can yield ; and, if they are of a sort to need time and the action of the chemical and mechanical influence of the at- mosphere and of the soil for the complete development of all of their constituents, we must adjust our crops, so far as possible, to take up these constituents as they are prepared for use. The foregoing is the basis of the chemical theory of rota- tions. In addition to this, we must consider the influence exerted on the soil by the roots which are left in the ground when the crop is removed. This element of the influence which plants exert on plants which are to follow them in the same soil is especially important in the case of clover, which is so active in its fertilizing effect, that it may be assumed that we have overcome our great difficulty in bringing up a poor soil when we have enabled it to grow a good crop of clover. One especial virtue of this plant is that it sends its roots far into the subsoil, and thus appropriates, by means of its vigo- rous feeding powers, useful materials which were out of the reach of the roots of plants of other species. These materials are deposited in the substance of the plant, and (on its decay 382 ROTATION OF CROPS. wlien ploughed in, or on the decay of its roots when these alone are left in the soil) they are presented to the new crop in a most acceptable form. The raising of other green crops to be ploughed in for manure, is advantageous for the same reasons. Two most valuable accessions to the rotation of crops will be found in the root crops, and in green forage crops to be either cured for winter use or fed to animals kept on the " soiling " system. To these crops the richest animal ma- nures may be profitably applied, and, while they will make a most luxuriant growth, they will ^' draw the fire " of the manure, and leave the land in the best condition for the growth of grain crops. Copeland says :* " When it was discovered that roots of all kinds were not only good food, but the best food for cattle, those farmers who believed in the discovery cultivated roots, and found, not only that their value as food was inestimable, but that, with a given expenditure in manure and labor, roots gave a larger return in value than any other crop. This was the turning point, the rising tide-wave of improv- ing agriculture. The new crop was an improvement in every respect. It restored fertility better than the fallow, gave an immense amount of fodder, and insured a corre- sponding increase in manure, from the greater number of cattle which could be fed from the farm. " Under the old system — the same pursued in New Eng- * Country Life, page 435. ROTATION OF CROPS. 383 land at the present day — there was a large and a small white crop, one large yield of hay, then smaller and smaller, then good pasture, then poor. This rotation gave a change from better to worse. The new practice demonstrated that there need be no " worse." It showed that a root crop should follow the sod and should be followed by grain ; that again by grain or grass and clover ; that by pasture and roots. At first it was made a point that a white crop should never be taken two years in succession, and after going through roots and grass it was found, on returning to the white crop, that the ground was so much richer than before, that a number of bushels was taken previously unheard of in the neigh- borhood." Liebig says :* " The succession of crops in rotation is al- ways made dependent upon the cereals ; the preceding crops are selected of such a kind that their cultivation will not injure, but rather improve the succeeding corn crop. The selection of the particular kind, however, is always governed by the condition of the soil. In a field abounding in stalk and leaf constituents, it is often found useful to have wheat preceded by tobacco or rape, rye by turnips or potatoes, since these plants, by drawing from the soil a large amount of leaf and stalk constituents, serve to restore a more suitable proportion between the straw and corn constituents for the future cereal crop, and, at the same time, to diminish in the arable soil those conditions which favor the growth of weeds. * The Natural Laws of Husbandry, page 227. 384 ROTATION OF CROPS, Prof. James F. W. Johnston says :* " Two practical rules are suggested by the fact that different plants require differ- ent substances to abound in a soil in which they shall be capable of flourishing. "1. To grow alternately as many different classes or families of plants as possible, repeating each class at the greatest convenient distance of time. In this country (England) we grow, chiefly, root crops — corn plants refined for seed — leguminous plants, sometimes for seed (peas and beans), and sometimes for h^y or fodder (clover and tares), and grasses ; and these in alternate years. " Every four, five, or six years, therefore, the same class of plants comes round again, and a demand is made upon the soil for the same kinds of food in the same proportion. ***** ^ perfect rotation would include all those classes of plants which the soil, climate, and other circum- stances allow to be cultivated with a profit. " 2. A second rule is, to repeat the same species of plants at the greatest convenient distance of time, -x- * * * * " Instead, therefore, of a constant repetition of the turnip every four yeai-s, theory says, make the carrot or the potato take its place now and then, and instead of perpetual clover, let tares, or peas, or beans occasionally succeed to your crops of corn.f * Agricultural Chemistry, page 498. f " Corn, iu English agricultural writing, is a general term corresponding to our grain.^^ ROTATION OF CROPS. 385 " The land loves a change of crop because it is better prepared with that food which the new crop will relish than with such as the plant it has long fed before continues to require. ''It is for this reason that new species of crop or new varieties, when first introduced, succeed remarkably for a time, and give great and encouraging returns. * * * * *' It is constant variety of crops which, with rich manu- ring, makes our market gardens so productive, and it is the possibility of growing in the fields many different crops in succession that gives the fertility of a garden to parts of Italy, Flanders, and China." The rotation to be adopted may be best selected by each farmer for himself — keeping in mind the foregoing principles — with reference to his soil, his market, his climate, the price and supply of labor in his neighborhood, and the ex- tent to which he can accumulate manure. The rotation which the writer has adopted for his own farm is the following : — First year : — Indian corn, on sod land, manured the pre- vious autumn with the entire accumulation of manure in the barn cellar, then ploughed and left in the rough furrow for the fullest exposure to frost, harrowing thoroughly before planting time. After the crop is taken oif in the fall, the land to be ploughed and again left in the rough furrow to winter. 17 386 ROTATION OF CROPS. Second year : — Roots, the ground being properly divided between carrots, mangel wurzel, turnips, and parsnips. For this crop the land is cross-ploughed in the spring, dressed with one-half of the winter's accumulation of manure in the cellar, and from 100 to 250 lbs. of superphosphate of lime, both sowed broadcast on the furrow and thoroughly harrowed in. Third year : — Green forage crops for " soiling " cattle — mainly oats and Indian corn in successive sowings. These crops receive the balance of the winter's manure, and a good portion of the land is cleared off in time for winter rye to be sown. Fourth year : — The winter rye is cut green, very early in the season, for " soiling " the cattle, and on the land not occupied with it a crop of green fodder is grown that can be got off by August 1st. In the early autumn the land to be sown to wheat, and seeded down with timothy and clover. Fifth year : — The grain harvested and the growth of grass and clover left on the land. Sixth year : — Two cuttings of hay to be taken off, and the land to be manured and ploughed in the fall for the suc- ceeding crop of corn, with which the rotation recommences. PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF MILK, BUTTER, &c. Composition of Milk in 1000 pa/rts. Water 840 Casein 40 Milk-sugar 45 Butter, or oil.. 40 Phosphate of lime 17 Phosphate of magnesia 4 Chloride of potassium 9 Common salt 2 Free soda 3 1000 Note. — Milk is heavier than water in the proportion of 103 to 100. The rapidity with which cream rises to the surface de- pends upon the temperature to which it is exposed. New milk^ set aside^ will cream in 36 hrs. if the temperature of the air is 50° Fahrenheit. 24 " " " « 55° u 18 to 20 " " " " 68° " 10 to 12 " " " " 77° " At a temperature of 34° to 37°, it maj be kept two to 388 PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF MILK, BUTTER, &C. three weeks without throwing up any noticeable amount of cream. Cream contains the greater part of the fatty matter of the milk, a small portion of the curd, and considerable water. Good cream, when skilfully churned, will yield about one-fourth of its. weight of butter. The temperature at which milk can be churned most eco- nomically is 65° Fahrenheit. The temperature at which cream can be churned most economically is at 58° Fahrenheit. Butter contains more or less of all the ingredients of the milk. Essentially it consists of the fat of milk mixed with about one-eighth of its weight of water, a small quantity of casein or curd (cheesy matter), and of saline matter. The casein seldom exceeds two per cent, of the whole weight. 1l\\q fat of butter^ w^hen solidified by pressing out the oil, is identical with the solid fat of the human body. The oil of butter is a peculiar kind of fat not hitherto detected in any other substance. These two ingredients vary considerably with different samples ; hence the different degrees of hardness which dif- ferent samples present. The solid fat abounds more in winter ; the liquid fat more in summer. They are in about the following proportions in 100 parts : — Summer. Winter. Solid fat 40 65 Oil of butter 60 35 PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF MILK, BUTTER, &C. 389 The main cause of butter becoming rancid is the chemi- cal decomposition which the casein or curd it contains un- dergoes by exposure to the air. This chemical change in the cheesy matter may be prevented — 1st, By thoroughly washing and salting before the cheesy matter has had time to become altered by exposure to tlie air ; 2d, By taking care that any water that may remain in or around the butter be kept perfectly saturated with salt ; 3d, By carefully excluding the air from the vessel in which the butter is packed. About half a pound of the best Ashton salt is used to 10 pounds of butter. Milk contains a peculiar kind of sugar called milk-sugar, which, being highly soluble in water, passes off in the whey and goes to fatten pigs. In some countries it is extracted and made an article of commerce. The main cause of milk becoming sour is the chemical change which this sugar undergoes, without fermentation *and therefore without loss, into an acid called lactic acid. This lactic acid is the cause of the curdling of the milk, which may be hastened by hastening the change of the milk- sugar into lactic acid by the addition of any other acid, such as vmegar or rennet. Pure casein is nearly insoluble in pure water, either by boiling or otherwise. By adding, however, a little soda to the water, it dissolves and returns to its milky condition % 390 PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF MILK, BUTTER, &C. when, by adding some more milk-sugar (or lactic acid), it again curdles. The milk of nearly all animals contains the same ingredi- ents. The best known varieties consist nearly of — Woman. Cow. Ass. Goat. Ewe. Casein 1.5 4.5 1.8 4.1 4.5 Butter 3.6 3.1 0.1 3.3 4.2 Milk-sugar.... 6.5 4.8 6.1 5.3 5.0 Saline matter.. 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.7 Water 87.9 87.0 91.7 86.7 85.6 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. The butter and cheese producing quality of milk is shown by the following Table. 100 lbs. milk contains about 3 lbs. pure butter. 100 lbs. " " " 7.8 lbs. " cheese. 100 lbs. " averages " 3.5 lbs. common butter. 100 lbs. " " " 11.7 lbs. " cheese 100 lbs. skim-milk yields " 13.5 lbs. skim-milk " 1 qt. wine measure weighs 35 oz. 1 qt. milk " " 41 oz. The milk of different cows varies much in richness. We have known one from 65 lbs. of whose milk were made 64 oz. of butter. A full milk cheese contains about 33 per cent, of water, and a skim-milk cheese about 60 per cent. Butter at 50 cents per pound will yield about as much profit as cheese at 15 cents, making no allowance for the value of skim-milk over whey. BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKING. The Butter Dairy. — The quality of butter doubtlessly depends more upon the manufacture than upon all other causes combined, yet it is true that the cows, the grass or food, and the water, have much to do with the delicacy of its flavor and richness of its color. It is a notorious fact that eight-tenths of the butter that is sold in the market brings from five io fifteen cents per pound less than it would have done had it been properly manufactured. Factory cheese for the same reason brings from three to eight cents per pound more than dairy. It costs no morS to make a good article than an inferior one, and when this fact is fully ap- preciated, thousands of dollars will be saved annually to the dairyman farmer. Milk-room. — The best milk-room is one through which a stream of pure spring water flows, and a reservoir under the " pan rack " is very desirable. When this cannot be had, select a room or building on the north side of the house, through which fresh air can freely circulate. If a cellar is chosen, it should be dry and thoroughly ventilated by large latticed windows and doors. No decaying vegeta- bles should be allowed to remain in it, as the milk and cream easily become tainted. Close and damp cellars are 392 BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKING. entirely unfitted for a milk-room, and should not be used. The temperature of the milk-room should be as uniform as possible, ranging from 55° to 65°. When the weather is cold, a fire should be kept in a stove on which a basin of pure water is placed, to prevent the air from becoming so dry as to form a crust on the cream, "When too warm the temperature can be reduced by hanging wet linen sheets near the doors and windows, the lower edges of which dip into a vessel of water. Cleanliness. — In every department of butter-making the utmost cleanliness should be observed. Milk and cream rapidly absorb noxious gases, and are especially affected by the acids and gases which arise from the decomposition of sour milk or cream. Every utensil used in connection with the dairy should be scalded every time used in boiling water, in which, occasionally, a small piece of bicarbonate of soda has been dissolved. All traces of milk or cream accidently spilled on the floor should be carefully removed. Setting ths Milk. — As soon as the milk is drawn from the cow it should be strained into the setting pans, to a depth of not over two inches. The complete raising of the cream, especially in warm weather, is thus greatly facilitated. In summer the temperature of the milk should be reduced as soon as possible to about 62°. Powdered ice put into the pail before straining is best ; setting the pail in cold spring or well-water for a few minutes will answer. A small piece of crystallized soda about the size of a common acorn, UNWt.^ BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKING. 393 dissolved in a little water, put into each pail of milk before straining, to correct the acidity as it is formed, will increase the quantity of cream, and improve the quality of the but- ter. Milk, if kept at the proper temperature, need not stand over thirty-six hours. If the cream does not rise in that time, the quality of the butter will be impaired by the for- mation of a bitter acid, which gives to the butter a dis- agreeable flavor. In winter the quantity of cream will be increased, and its quality improved, by bringing the milk to a temperature of about 120° before setting. Cream. — As soon as the cream is taken from the milk it should be placed in stone jars or tin pails and set in a cool place. Sprinkle a small handful of fine salt over the top of the cream, and let it stand until churned. Should there be any milk at the bottom of the jar it should be sepa- rated from the cream, for the cheesy particles of the sour milk become mixed with the butter during the process of churning, and give it the white cheesy appearance which is sometimes observed when the butter " comes white." The cheese decomposes upon exposure to the air, and renders the butter rancid. Such butter should never be packed with the good, for it will surely spoil the whole ; " a little leaven will leaven the whole lump." Churning. — The proper temperature at which to churn cream is from 55° to 60°, and care should be taken that the cream be " washed down " so that all will orranulate at the same time. When the butter " has come " to the size of 17* 394 BUTl^ER AND CHEESE-MAKING. peas, draw or pour off the buttermilk, and pour into the churn a pail of cool water, and thoroughly " gather " by the aid of the " dasher " the butter into a compact mass ; after which remove it to the butter-bowl. It should be again washed until the water is free from the least trace of milki- ness, and then salted. Use the best Ashton salt, and if free from water one-half pound of salt is sufficient for 10 pounds of butter. Common salt should never be used, for it con- tains impurities which injure the butter. The cheapest salt in this case is certainly not the most economical. While the salt is being worked in, if too soft let it stand in a cool place not over three or four hours, then work again and pack. While working, absorb all the moisture from the butter with a sponge covered by a linen cloth, previously moistened in cold water, and continue to work until all the brine is absorbed. ]^o milky brine * should be allowed to remain in the butter, for it decomposes and injures it. During the process of working the temperature of the butter should not be higher than 55° or 58°. When it becomes warmer than this it looses its waxy, granular appearance, and becomes sticky and greasy. When the salt is not thoroughly worked in, the butter will have a streaked or marbled appearance. Paching. — Place no undissolved salt in the bottom of the * "We have known those who would not work the brine out of the butter "because," say they, "it will weigh less ;" mistaken shrewdness, to gain a penny they lose a pound. That it is necessary to leave brine in the butter to " keep it " is a great mistake. BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKLNG. 395 tub or pail, unless covered with a cloth so the butter cannot come in contact with it. If this caution is not observed when sold, four or five pounds of butter is thus rendered conriparatively w^orthless. Never pack a poor " churning " with the good butter, thinking it will not be found out. The sale of many a good firkin of butter is spoiled by a few pounds of poor butter becoming rancid in the centre or bot- tom, wdiich taints the w^hole package. If there is any but- ter that is even suspicious put it by itself. Select neat pails, tubs, or firkins made of white oak, and cleanse them by placing in each about a pound of the common bicarbonate of soda, and then filling with boiling w^ater, letting the water remain for twenty-four hours. Great care should be used in cleansing pails that are to be re-filled,* as they are usually bedaubed to a greater or less extent with rancid butter. A neglect of this precaution w^ill often cause great loss. Butter until the first of June should be packed in pails or tubs and shipped as soon as made. This butter will keep sweet only a short time. As soon as the weather becomes too warm to ship w^ithout risk, pack in firkins, being careful to exclude the air as far as possible while packing. When the firkin is filled to within an inch of the top, dissolve tw^o tablespoonfuls of white coffee sugar, and a piece of saltpetre about the size of a common bean, in sufficient strong brine to cover the butter and * Pails or tubs after being once used, if properly cleansed, are preferable to new ones. 396 BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKING. exclude the air. Place it in a cool dry cellar, and do not disturb it until ready to be shipped. In the fall the butter should be packed in pails or tubs and sold as fresh butter. An air-tight butter pail or tub is very desirable for ship- ping spring and fall butter. Test of good hutter. — Good butter should have a granular, waxy consistency, and a rich yellow color, except in the winter and spring, when the color is of a pale yellow or nearly white. When cut it should not soil the polished blade of the knife, and the cut surfaces should be free from a dewy appearance. The taste and smell should be entirely free from the slightest trace of rancidity, for if not, however good otherwise, when exposed to the air for a few days it will become almost worthless. The flavor of butter is various, generally depending upon the season, the water, the food of the cows, &c. The preference is merely a matter of choice. If butter upon being cut or repacked is covered with small drops of milky brine, it shows that it has not been sufficiently washed and worked, and although sweet it will not remain so if exposed to the air. When opened for use it should be immediately covered with a strong brine. When it is sticky or greasy, it shows that it was too warm while being churned and worked, or has been over- heated since. Such butter is rancid, or will become so as soon as opened. Setting-pan. — To insure a perfect separation of the cream from the milk a setting-pan has been successfully used in BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKLNG. 397 England. It consists of a large tin pan about four inches deep, holding from four to six pails of milk. It may either set on a table or float in a reservoir of running spring water. Where running water is not to be had, the proper tempera- ture may be obtained by the dripping of melting ice. At one end is a tube covered with a line strainer to prevent the escape of the cream, through which the milk is to be drawn off, leaving the cream in the pan. All the cream may be secured by rinsing the pan in a little warm water. The Cheese Dairy. — The superiority of factory cheese is entirely due to the great care exercised in its manufacture. But little cheese is now made by private dairies, for it can be better and more economically manufactured at the factory. With proper management it is more profitable for those who do not live near a cheese factory to make butter, unless they provide themselves with all the necessary apparatus. Rich Cheese. — The richness of cheese varies in propor- tion to the amount of the butter that remains entangled in the curd. The following brief directions are from a practi- cal cheesemaker: — •' When two milkings are united, strain the evening's milk and cool by means of pieces of ice dropped into the pails before straining. In the morning take off all the cream, mix it with twice the quantity of new milk. Add warm water enough to raise it to the temperature of 98°. Hub annatto through a silk cloth sufficient to make the curd the color of rich cream. Into this put rennet sufficient tO' 398 BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKING. curd in 35 minutes. Stir the whole into the milk pre- viously raised to the temperature of 85°. The milk should be warmed by means of a pail of hot water set into it, but never bj putting it over the fire, for the least burning of the milk will spoil the cheese. While the curd is setting, cover with a cloth to prevent the surface from cooling. The method of cutting, scalding, and pressing depends upon the varieties of cheese to be manufactured. About ^ of a pound of the best Ashton salt is sufficient for 20 lbs. of curd. Care should be taken that the whey be entirely expressed." The different varieties of cheese come to market under the names of Chedder, Cheshire, and Gloucester. These are English cheese. The Dunlop cheese is from Scotland. The Dutch cheese is made in the north of Holland. The Parmesan cheese is made in Italy. Factory cheese is the best manufactured in this country, some of it being equal to the English. The private dairy cheese is of every grade and quality, from the richest Chedder to that made of skim-milk. TheririometeT . — In the butter and cheese dairy the ther- mometer should be a constant companion. Those who trust to sensations are not aware how easily they may be deceived. Let a person put one hand in cold water, the other into warm, then both into another vessel, and it will feel warm to one hand and cold to the other. The only certain guide is the thermometer ; its cost is but a trifle, it will save many dollars annually. BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKING. 399 Ice-house. — Next in importance to the thermometer is the ice-house. Many farmers say "I can't afford it." They should say " I can't afford to be without it." It will save three times its cost every year. The method of build- ing the following is so simple, and involves so trifling an expense that no man need have an excuse. Select a place on the north side of some building ; lay a floor twelve feet square on scantlings, one foot from the ground. Set firmly in the ground, near each corner, two posts, from four to six inches square, and about eight or ten feet long. When the weather becomes cold, place on the floor saw-dust, tan-bark, or rye-straw, to the depth of eight or ten inches. On the top, place another floor of the same size, putting a curb inside the posts to keep the filling be- tween the floors in its place. Next make a curb ten feet square and six inches deep, and fasten the corners with common gate-hooks. On a cold day place the curb on the centre of the floor, put in two inches of tan-bark, and dash water over the bottom until it forms a coat of ice that will not leak. Fill the curb with water and let it stand until frozen solid. With boiling water thaw the curb loose, raise it to the top of the frozen mass, fill and freeze as before. Continue so doing until the mass is of the desired height. Place boards on the inside of the posts, and fill the space with tan-bark or rye-straw ; nail boards on the outside of the posts and fill the space w4th rye-straw ; cover the top with tan-bark to the depth of ten inches. Over the whole 400 BUTTER AND CHEESE-MAKING. put a roof, to shield from tlie sun and rain. Cut and take the ice from the top. Ice can be thus kept the entire season. If a stream of running water can be turned into the curb, the labor of filling will be much lessened. SOILi:f^G CATTLE. This is a rather unmeaning expression, and its origin is no more clear than is the fitness of its application ; still it has come into such general use that it is now too late to change it. It is applied to the feeding of cattle in yards or in sta- bles, with grass or other green fodder, cut and hauled to them. This practice is very rapidly growing in favor in all localities where land is very high priced, where manure is largely used, where the finer class of animals are kept, and where for any reason it is desired to keep a large stock on a small place. It is the best foundation of what is called High Fai'ining. It has been found by experiment that if a field bearing luxuriant grass or clover is divided into two equal parts, one half being used as pasture and the crop of the other being cut and fed in the stable as often as it grows to a suf- ficient height, this latter half will support, for the same time, four times as many animals of equal weight as will the depastured portion ; and while the usual^ allowance of pasture land is at the rate of two acres for each cow, tlie allowance of land in soiling, where the system is practised in the best manner, is at the rate of only one-half of an acre £br each cow. 402 SOILING CATTLE. Of course, this would not hold good on ordinary land which had been in no way prepared for the practice, but after one or two years' preparation by judicious use of the manure made by the animals fed, and by the aid of proper management, any fair land will support, on the sys- tem of soiling, four times as much stock as if they grazed upon it constantly and voided upon it all of their manure. It was for a long time questioned, and very naturally too, whether cattle would remain in good health if they were deprived of the exercise which they necessarily take in getting their own food in the fields ; but ample experi- ence has proved that, if they are allowed good yards in which to exercise for a short time, once or twice a day, they keep in better condition and are less liable to disease than when they are exposed to the various changes of the weather in the fields. It is also sometimes objected that this treatment is an unnatural or an artificial one. To this the reply is that our domestic animals are artificial productions. In nature we see no working oxen, and no cows give during the whole year a tenth part of the quantity of milk that cows have been forced to give in a state of domestication. With the writer, the soiling of cattle is not a matter of theory. He has adopted the system on his own farm, and has sufficient evidence in his own practice of its substantial advantages. Perhaps the most practical way to give an idea of the SOILING CATTLE. 403 manner in which stock is managed under the soiling system will be to describe the operations as there carried out.^ The farmf comprises sixty acres, lying in a nearly square body, and all in one field. Adjoining the main farm there is a small field in which to pasture calves during their first summer only, but it is not intended that the older animals shall ever feed except in their stalls. In the centre of the farm there is an enclosure of about four acres, within which are concentrated all of the farm buildings ; outside of this there is nothing to interfere with cultivation — no interior fences, rocks, nor trees. The barn-yards occupy two acres of what was formerly an apple-orchard, and in the middle of this stands the barn (40 ft. X 100 ft.). This has a cellar under the whole for the accumulation of manure, and (one corner of it) for the storage of roots. The main floor — the whole extent of the building — is occupied by two rows of stalls, the animals facing a cen- tral passage-way, through the entire length of which there runs a railway with a car, for distributing the food. The next floor above is used for the storage of hay and grain and of implements, and for the cutting and steaming of food in winter. Each floor and the cellar can be entered by loaded teams. On the cattle floor there is a system of water-troughs which are constantly supplied from a tank on the floor * To make this description more complete, a few iraprovemeuts wliich are contemplated for the coming year are spoken of as though now in operation, f Ogden Farm, Newport, R. I. 404 SOILING CATTLE. above, which is filled by a wind-mill, from a running spring. By this means water is always kept within reach every animal. The floor is divided into four principal parts, separated from each other by bars which run (one on each side of the barn) from the rear of the stalls to the wall ; and each of these divisions has its own door, communicating with a yard nearly half an acre in size, surrounded by a four-foot stone wall, and sufliciently shaded by the remains of the former orchard. Each set of animals has its own quarters and its own ample exercising ground, so that all danger from over-crowding is avoided. They are turned out for exercise in pleasant weather at 8 A.M. and at 2 p.m., and are kept out (by closing the doors) for about two hours each time. If the doors are left open they return to their stalls almost immediately. Being abundantly fed, they show no disposition to move about, and I am satisfied that they give more milk and keep in better condition than if they were allowed the best pasture without shelter, even in the summer time. Five times a day they are given as much green fodder as they will eat. This is cut in the field, loaded on to a cart, and hauled to the upper floor of the barn, where it is dumped through a trap-door into the car, by which it is carried to the stalls. The manure is dropped through an open slat- floor, and through scuttles, into the cellar, whence it is drawn in wagons directly to the field, having been well SOILmG CA^rTLE. 405 worked over by hogs while in the cellar. Thus it will be seen that the labor of attending to a large stock of cattle is reduced to the lowest possible amount. ARRANGEMENT OF CROPS FOR SOILING. The amount of land that it is necessary to appropriate for the supply of fodder for each animal must, of course, depend on the quality of the land and on the degree to which its productiveness is forced. Under all ordinary circumstances, one-half acre of land, in good heart and in good tilth, should be allowed for each full-grown milch cow of the oj'dinary breeds (more for short- horns), but, under high cultivation, this will allow a consider- able amount of the produce to be cut for winter use. The regular soiling crops are the following : — Winter Rye, Cabbages, Oats, Clover, Grass, and Indian corn. Many other crops are available, such as Hungarian grass or millet, wheat, Jerusalem artichoke, sainfoin, &c., but the foregoing are the regular dependence of American far- mei-s, and are the best for common use. The best essay that has yet been written in this country 406 SOILING CATTLE. on the subject of " soiling " was prepared for the Massachu- setts Agricultural Society by the Hon. Josiah Quincy, and was published in the Journal of that Society for 1820. His recommendation is as follows : — "1. As early in April as the state of the land will permit, which is usually between the 5th and the 10th, on properly prepared land, sow oats at the rate of four bushels to the acre. " 2. About the 20th of the same month, sow oats or barley, at the same rate per acre, in like quantity and proportions. " 3. Early in May, sow, in like manner, either of the above grains. " 4. Between the 10th and the 15th of May, sow Indian corn (the flat Southern being the best) in drills, three bush- els to the acre, in like quantity and proportions. " 5. About the 25th of May sow corn in like quantity and proportions. " 6. About the 5th of June repeat the sowing of corn. " 7. After the last-mentioned sowing, barley should be sown in the above-mentioned quantity and proportions, in succession, on the 15th and 25th of June, and on the 1st of, or early in July ; barley being the best qualified to resist the early frosts." Mr. Quincy depended on the mowing of the best of his grass land to carry his stock through the month of June, or from the earliest pasturing season to the 1st of July, SOILING CATTLE. 407 when lie expected his first sowing of oats to be ready for the scythe. After the first killing frost, he depended on the tops of about twelve acres of root crops, for the use of fifteen cows. The plan which I have adopted is a modification of the above, and is as follows (for twelve cows) : — 1. Early in the autumn sow three acres of winter rye, to be cut from May 15tli to June 15th. 2. Early in April, three acres oats, to be cut from June 15th to July 1st. 3. Late in April, two acres oats or barley, to be cut from July 1st to July 15th. 4. Early in May, two acres oats or barley, to be cut from July 15tli to August 10th. 5. Middle of May, two acres corn, to be cut from August 10th to September 1st. 6. Middle of June, the three acres from which rye has been cut to be sown with corn, to be cut from September 1st until September 20th. 7. Early in July, the first three acres sown with oats to be resown with barley, to be cut from September 20th until the harvest of roots and cabbages furnishes a stock of green refuse, which will suffice until winter feeding commences. This is an allowance of twelve acres for twelve cows, and assumes that the latter end of the season will be helped out by root tops, &c. The reason for appropriating so much land 408 SOILING CATTLE. is that the soil is not yet in sufficiently good condition to in- sure an ample supply from a much smaller area. In a season of extraordinary drought the whole of the product may be consumed, but in any ordinary year a very large part of it would be in excess, to be cured and stored for winter use, and to furnish a supply of dry food, with which occasion- ally to alternate with the fresh fodder, to prevent the too great relaxation of the bowels which a free use of succulent food sometimes causes. In September three acres of the four comprising Nos. 4 and 5 should be sown with winter rye for the following spring's use, and the rotation should follow in regular order. If all of the manure made in the soiling season were to be used on these twelve acres year after year, I am satisfied that they might be made in time to support, during the whole of the usual pasturing season, thirty milch cows, or ^ve cows for each two acres. In my own case, as one of my reasons for adopting the system of soiling has been that it is the best help in bring- ing up a worn-out farm, I shall each year raise my forage on fresh land, so as to give the whole place the benefit of the treatment. Of course, a rule which will apply in one region may not be the best for another, and each farmer must decide for himself the extent to which he can profitably adopt the sys- tem on his farm, and also what crops will best accomplish the desired end in his own case. SOILING CATTLE. 409 Where it is desirable to plough as little as possible, clover and grass may with advantage enter much more largely into the arrangement. Two general principles, however, may be stated as appli- cable to all of the more temperate regions of our Northern States — 1. The earliest abundant food will be secured by the use of winter rye. 2. The best and most abundant food for the later summer and earlier autimin time will be secured by the use of Indian corn. ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR OF SOILING. Mr. Quincy states the following as the leading advan- tages of this system : — " 1st. The saving of land. " 2d. The saving of fencing, " 3d. The economizing of food. ^ " 4th. The better condition and greater comfort of the cattle. " 5th. The greater product of milk. " 6th. The attainment of manure." On the subject of the 3d item — the economy of food — he says : " There are six ways by which beasts destroy the ar- ticle destined for their food — 1. By eating ; 2. By walking ; 3. By dunging ; 4. By staling ; 5. By lying down ; 6. By 18 410 SOILING CATTLE. breathing on it. Of these six, the first only is useful. All the others are wasteful." The other points he elucidates with equal force, but at too great length for full quotation here. The statement made above that a milch cow may be kept during the ordinary pasturing season upon the produce of one-half acre of land; while of land of the same character at least two acres would be necessary on the pasturage system, is sufiicient to illustrate the saving of land. Yet this state- ment, which will be supported by the testimony of all who practise the system on land of good quality, is far below the estimate of many who have had a lifelong experience of soiling, in Europe. Some of them place the proportion in favor of soiling as high as 1 to 7. Of course the amount of stock which may be fed from the produce of a single acre depends very much on the manner in which that acre is cultivated, and the question of the cost of labor must determine whether it is or is not profitable to force the production beyond a given extent. As to fencing, it is only necessary to remind nearly every farmer of his own experience of the first cost of building, and of the yearly cost of repairing the fences of his own farm, and to say that by the soiling system, when completely carried out, all interior fences may arid should he entirely dispensed with. Add to the question of expense, the fact that useless head- lands and their nurseries of noxious weeds are got rid of. SOILING CATTLE. 411 and that the plough can be driven, if desired, straight through from one side of the farm to the other, and the argument needs no re-enforcement. Concerning the condition of the cattle, the following is stated by Quincj : — " One writer asserts that he has kept a large herd for several years in this way, and during the whole time ' he never had an animal essentially sick, had never one die, and had never one miscarry.' " The general result of the experience of hundreds of farmers in Europe, and of considerable experience in America, is, that cattle are really better off' in every way, under the protection of the soiling barn, with its ample and regularly supplied food, and with the advantage of daily currying and exer- cise, than when left to shift for themselves exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather. The quantity of milk may never be so large as it is du- ring the flush weeks of June, when the cows are gorging their maiden appetites on rich grass ; but the consumption of food from the first of May to the first of November (and consequently the yield of milk) will be much greater. " Last, but by no means the least," the question of manure asserts its claim to the fullest consideration. Were it not for this item of the calculation the arguments in favor of soiling would lose more than half their force. The immense superiority, both in quality and evenness of distribution over the soil, of manure which is made and kept under cover, over that which is dropped at random on pas- 412 SOILING CATTLE. ture fields ; and the advantage of being able to apply it when we please, where we please, and in such quantities as we please, are too well known to all who have to use ma- nure to produce paying crops, for any argument on the sub- ject to be necessary. There is no way in which so much manure of such excellent quality can be landed on the farm without a far greater outlay of money than is necessary to pay for all the labor required for ploughing, sowing, " tend- ing," cutting, and hauling the food, and for currying and feeding the animals under the most complete soiling man- agement. Of course the manure argument does not hold (nor is the system of soiling to be recommended) for those districts of the West where the laughing harvest follows the tickling- hoe ; where straw is burned in the fields, and barns are moved to get away from the accumulated manure. But for the older settled countries of the East and South (and for the future West— the West with its " inexhaustible fertil- ity " exhausted) it does hold, and with such force that as population grows more dense— and farmers more wise — it alone, even if there were no other advantage in the system, must in time compel the rapid increase of the practice of soiling. STEAMIKGTOOD FOR STOCK. A more recent improvement than ''soiling" in the keep- ing of cattle, on farms where it is important to make every pound of food tell with the fullest effect in the production of meat, muscle, or milk (and on what farm is this not im- portant?), is the steaming of food in winter. Although this practice has been the subject of much less experiment than soiling, and is, consequently, less generally recognized as worthy of adoption, enough is known of its advantages, both by experience and from theory, to make its brief discussion necessary to the completeness of this book. During the past year I have investigated the subject with some thoroughness, and have determined to adopt it on my own farm ; and I can hardly do better than to give here some account of my investigations, in order that my readers may decide for themselves the soundness of my reasons for the determination. My serious attention was first called to the matter by an article in the Report of the Department of Agriculture for 1865, written by Mr. E. W. Stewart of Korth Evans, I^. Y. He therein details his own experience of ten years in steam- ing food for a large stock of cattle and horses, gives a suc- cinct statement of the reasons why steaming is beneficial, 416 STEAMING FOOD FOR STOCK. and sustains his own opinion by the concurrent testimony of other practical farmers who have found the practice bene- ficial. The following are the results of the operation as stated by Mr. Stewart :— "1. It renders mouldy hay, straw, and corn-stalks per- fectly sweet and palatable. Animals seem to relish straw taken from a stack which has been wet and badly damaged for ordinary use ; and even in any condition, except ' dry rot,' steaming will restore its sweetness. When keeping a large stock, we have often purchased stacks of straw which would have been worthless for feeding in the ordinary w^ay, and have been able to detect no difference, after steaming, in the smell or the relish with which it was eaten. " 2. It diffuses the odor of the bran, corn-meal, oil-meal, carrots, or whatever is mixed with the feed, through the whole mass ; and thus it may cheaply be flavored to suit the animal. "3. It softens the tough fibre of the dry corn-stalk, rye- straw, and other hard material, rendering it almost like green succulent food, and easily masticated and digested by the animal. "4. It renders beans and peas agreeable food to horses, as well as other animals, and thus enables the feeder to com- bine more nitrogenous food in the diet of his animals. *' 5. It enables the feeder to turn everything raised into STEAMING FOOD FOR STOCK. 417 food for his stock, without lessening the value of his manure. Indeed, the manure made from steamed food decomposes more readily, and is therefore more valuable than vi^hen used in a fresh state. Manure made from steamed food is always ready for use, and is regarded by those who have used it as much more valuable, for the same bulk, than that made from uncooked food. " 6. We have found it to cure incipient heaves in horses ; and horses having a cough for several months at pasture, have been cured in two weeks on steamed food. It has a remarkable effect on horses with a sudden cold and in con- stipation. Horses fed upon it seem much less liable to dis- ease ; in fact, in this respect, it seems to have all the good qualities of grass, the natural food of animals. " 7. It produces a marked difference in the appearance of the animal, at once causing the coat to become smooth and of brighter color — regulates the digestion, makes the animal more contented and satisfied, enables fattening stock to eat their food with less labor (and consequently requires less to keep up the animal heat), gives working animals time to eat all that is necessary for them in the intervals of labor ; and this is of much importance, especially with horses. It also enables the feeder to fatten animals in one-third less time. " 8. It saves at least one-third of the food. We have found two bushels of cut and cooked hay to satisfy cows as well as three bushels of uncooked hay, and the manure in the case of the uncooked hay contained much more fibrous 18* 418 STB AMINO FOOD FOR STOCK. matter unutilized by tlie animal. This is more particularly the case with horses." Other publications on the subject fully confirm Mr. Stew- art's estimate, and we commend his essay, which is accessi- ble to all, to the careful attention of every feeder of farm stock. In January (1868) I visited the farm of Messrs. S. & D. Wells, at Wethersfield, Conn., for the purpose of examining their cow stable and its fixtures. The leading features of this establishment are a constant water-supply, and apparatus for cutting and steaming food.''^ The latter was introduced at a cost of about $500. It com- prises a three-horse steam-engine of very simple construction, a tubular boiler of sufficient capacity to run the engine, a strong power stalk-cutter, and a chest for steaming food. There were about thirty cows in the stable. They receive steamed food morning and night, and dry hay at noon. The steamed food consists of hay of poor quality, straw, or corn- stalks, cut to short lengths, sprinkled until thoroughly wet, and then dusted with bran or meal, and steamed for about two hours. The engine has power enough to cut in a couple of hours * The water is brought from a Hving spring and flows through galvanized iron pipes which form the connections between the bottoms of small iron troughs standing at the head of the partitions which divide each pair of stalls. The last trough overflows through a pipe near its top, and the water wells up to the level of this overflow in each trough of the series. By this simple arrange- ment, a constantly changing supply of water is kept always in front of the cattle. STEAMING FOOD FOR STOCK. 419 a supply sufficient for the whole week, and enough is steamed at one charge to last for three or four days. Steam is made only twice in each week (once for cutting and steaming, and once for steaming only), and then only for a short time. The steaming box is about four feet square and eight feet high. The materials are put into the box from the floor above that of which the cow stable is an extension, and are re- moved through a door in one of its sides on the feeding floor. Elevated a short distance above the bottom, there is a false bottom perforated with many holes. The steam is let in be- low this, and is thus allowed to rise evenly through the the whole mass. The box is made of two thicknesses of one-inch, matched spruce boards (one set running up and down, and the other across). The doors are not made with any very great care to prevent the escape of steam, nor does it seem to be con- sidered necessary to do more than to have the box strong enough to hold its burden of wet fodder. The Messrs. Wells find that Mr. Stewart's opinion — given above — is, in all essential particulars, sustained by the re- sults of their experience. They think that steaming adds one-half to the feeding value of fodder. It was what I saw on their farm, more than anything else, which caused me to decide on adopting the system in my own practice. My apparatus is not yet completed, and I cannot, therefore, speak on the subject with the authority of a successful experimenter ; but from all that I can learn, I 420 STEAMING FOOD FOR STOCK. am satisfied that the advantages of steaming have hardly been overrated. The theory of the process (in a nutshell) is this : Cattle and horses in a state of nature live the year round on succu- lent green herbage. When the cold weather begins to cut short the supply in the more northern latitudes, they migrate toward the south. Man steps in and keeps them in the colder climate. He substitutes dried grass for fresh grass. Steaming will, in a great measure, restore hay to the condi- tion of green grass. Also, many constituents of hay, straw, &c., are insoluble and indigestible. By the action of heat and moisture they become soluble, or at least are reduced to a condition in which they are easily available to the digest- ive organs of animals. Starch-grains, according to the best authorities, are coated with a layer or cuticle which resists — to a great extent — the action of the juices of the stomach, while its interior parts, could they be directly exposed, would readily be assimilated ; therefore, as heat causes the interior of the grains to swell and burst their coating, ex- posing themselves on the surface, as the interior parts of a kernel of corn do in " popping," the process of steaming (or any cooking) makes the starchy part of food more readily available. Examinations of the droppings of animals fed on cooked and uncooked food furnish results which confirm the fore- going opinion. Carefully conducted experiments on animals of equal STEAMING FOOD FOK STOCK. 421 weight, and of like condition in all respects, invariably show that those which are fed on cooked food take on fat, and form bone and muscle more rapidly than those which get only raw food. If, after a certain time, the food is changed — the cooked being given to the animal that has been receiv- ing the uncooked, and vice versa — the rapidity of growth will change too. The trial has often been made, and the result has been invariably the same. In fact, in all of the essays and opinions on the subject of cooking food for domestic animals, in this country and in Europe, I have failed to find the first one that is not decid- edly favorable. Steaming^ of course, is valuable only because it is a means of cooking, and the arguments in its favor bear equally on the subject ot hoiling. Steaming is rapidly coming into use because of its greater convenience and economy. How to make a Steaming Apparatus. — Any device by which steam may be generated under a very slight pressure — barely sufficient to cause it to penetrate the mass to be cooked — and conducted to the vessel in which the steaming is to be done, will accomplish the desired purpose ; but, of course, the more convenient the arrangement, and the less the waste of steam (whether by condensation or otherwise), the more economically the process may be performed, as to both time and fuel. Mr. Stewart suggests a plan w^iich, from its cheapness, will answer a good purpose where the stock to be cooked 422 STEAMING FOOD FOli STOCK. for is small, or where it is desired to ex[)eriment on a small scale. It is a box made of well jointed 2 inch pine, seven or eight feet long, and about two and a half feet wide, with a bottom of No. 16 sheet iron, nailed securely on to the lower edge of the sides and ends, and turned up a little outside of them — say half an inch. This box has a false bottom, of wood or iron, placed about three inches above the fast bot- tom, and perforated w^ith many small lioles, and a closely- fitting cover over the top. I It stands on brick walls which do not come quite so far I out as the wooden sides of the box. At one end of the i ' chamber enclosed by these walls there is a wood fire-place, ' and from the other end a chimney rises. The space between the bottom and the false bottom is partly filled with water, cut hay mixed wath meal or bran is put in the box above the false bottom, the cover is closed, and the fire is started. The steam rises through the per- forations in the false bottom, and cooks the mass above it. A much more complete apparatus for steaming, and in large practice a more economical one, comprises a boiler for generating the steam, a box in which to place the food, and a wooden, or well protected steam-pipe to connect the two. The box should have a perforated false bottom, and the steam should be introduced beneath this, so that it may diffuse itself uniformly through the mass. STEAMING FOOD FOK STOCK. 423 The boiler majj of course, be of any pattern that will secure the economical generation of steam. A discarded engine-boiler will answer every purpose if it is strong enough to bear a pressure of, say, five or ten pounds to the inch — a slight pressure being necessary to force the steam through the mass of hay. D. R. Prindle's Agricultural Boiler, which is shown in the accompanying cut, is admirably adapted for this use. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. ' Prindle's Agricultural Steamer and Cauldron (shown in Figs. 1 and 2) is the invention of Mr. D. E. Prindle, of East Bethany, New York, and is largely manufactured by Messrs. Savery & Co. of Philadelphia. Its popularity seems to be rapidly increasing, and there is no question that it is the best steaming apparatus for the use 424 STEAMING FOOD FOB STOCK. of all farmers who do not employ steam-engines that has yet been invented. It consists of a cauldron set over a furnace arranged to burn either wood or coal, and furnished with a dome which fits closely over it and is keyed down so as to make a steam-joint It is provided with a test-cock to show when it needs the addition of water, a safety-valve which is also a vacuum valve, a funnel for filling, and one or more pipes to convey the steam to the cooking-boxes. Aside from its use in steaming fodder for cattle, it may be Uftcd to heat water to scald hogs, or for other purposes, to warm buildings, to cook roots or meal for hogs or grain for fowls, and for a variety of other purposes for which hot air, hot water, or steam are useful. For farm use, especially when constant steam is not re- quired, Prindle's steamer is much better than an engine- boiler, as it works only at a very low pressure, and is conse- quently quite safe, and is much cheaper when we consider the cost of setting up the larger engine-boiler, and its more expensive transportation. Full particulars concerning the Prindle steamer may be obtained by application to the inventor. I have not determined, in my own case, what power to adopt for the cutting of my long fodder. The question is about evenly balanced between a small steam-engine, a wind- mill, and a railway horse-power, for final use ; but as the first cost w^ill be less, I shall commence with the horse-power STEAMING FOOD FOR STOCK 425 belonging to a threshing machine, and a Prindle boiler, changing to one, the engine or mill, at a futm-e day, if it seems desirable. It is hardly prudent to make any positive calculations in advance of actual experiment, but I anticipate — and I base my calculations on a very careful survey of the whole field — a saving of about /br^y jper cent, in the cost of feeding my stock, over the present system of feeding only the best hay uncut. A part of the saving will be due to the more digestible condition of the food, and a part to the fact that a much cheaper quality of hay, or straw, or corn-stalks can be largely used. A saving of very much less than this, when from thirty to forty liead are to be provided for, will be enough to make a fair profit on the business. The various uses for which steam can be adapted seems to be but little understood by the masses. Fear of explo- sions, scalding, &c., as well as want of knowledge of its great advantages, has thus far prevented its general intro- duction. The want of a perfectly safe and easily managed low pressure apparatus with which to accomplish all the require- ments of domestic use, has also been a great drawback. The great advantages of cooking, heating, boiling, &c., by steam, are obvious when it is remembered that it can be done with much less water and fuel, requiring but little care of the operator, and using wooden vessels (if desired) of any' kind, size, or shape (a great desideratum). By its use there 426 STEAMING FOOD FOR STOCK. is no re-filling of hettles (the ordinary mode) to get a desired quantity ; no constant watching or stirring, or removal of the substance while hot, to prevent burning ; no cleaning of kettles for every separate job, which can be done by steam. By the use of this powerful agent, large quantities may be boiled or steamed, or several vessels (if need be) treated at the same time ; and when desirable, the steam can be con- veyed in pipes or logs to some little distance, using proper care in protecting tlie same from condensation ; thus avoid- ing, many times, danger from fire, and accommodating itself to all the various purposes of domestic economy, as well as in the manufacturing of many articles or compounds, when danger from burning or explosion is so common. By steam the clothes may be boiled at any point in the barrel or tub ; the bath-tub may be warmed in an adjoining room ; the farm or stock-feeder could easily cook in quantities at a time, or scald his hogs, steam his barrels, &c., &c. We believe that when a cheap, simple, and perfectly safe apparatus is once introduced, that the subject (as it deserves) will receive much more attention, as by steam all classes might as easily be benefited. ADVANTAGES OF COOKED FOOD. The American Agriculturist for January, 1860, says: " Experiments made by C. M. Clay, of Kentucky, showed that one bushel of dry corn made 5 lbs. 10 oz. of pork ; of boiled corn, 14 lbs. 7 oz., and boiled meal, 16 to 18 lbs." STEAMING FOOD FOR STOCK. 427 MoHorCs Cydopcedia of Agriculture (than whicli there is 110 higher authority in Europe) says : " As to steaming food for cattle, there is abundant experience to recommend it. The process of cooking renders sohible that which would otherwise be imperfectly digested. It removes, in some cases, what would otherwise be unwliolesome ; and it renders savory what would otherwise be distasteful." Loudon'' s Encydojpmiia of Agriculture remarks : " Un- less food be thoroughly deprived of its vegetative powers before it enters the stomach, the whole nourishment which it is capable of affording cannot be derived from it. The most effectual mode of destroying the living principle is by the application of lieat^ by steaming or boiling." The Society of Shakers, at Lebanon, N. Y., famous for pork-raising, say: "For fattening animals, swine particu- larly, we consider three of cooked equal to four of raw meal." GAEDENING FOR MARKET. AYhile market-gardening', as a systematic business, is quite distinct from farming, there is no farmer who lives near a town who may not make the raising of certain crops on a small scale very profitable. Success in this branch of the business of the farmer requires that the land to be devo- ted to its prosecution he dry, warmly situated, with a good exposure, and rich and again rich. The amount of manure which may be profitahly applied to land intended for the growth of market vegetables has hardly any limit. One hundred cartloads of good horse GARDKNIXG FOR MARKET. 429 manure to an acre, evei^y year^ will pay more profit than will fifty loads ; and I am inclined to believe that even two hundred loads would pay better still. The cultivation of vegetables entails, in any case, a heavy outlay for labor, seed, expenses of marketing, &c., and these are about the same (except in the matter of marketing) for a light as for a heavy crop — it takes a certain amount of produce to pay the cost, and up to this point there is no profit. Beyond this point, except the cost of the manure, it is nearly all profit, and the more we can stimulate exces- sive production the more rapidly will the ratio of profits increase over the expenses. No farmer can hope to become really successful in raising vegetables for market until he is prepared to expend — in- cluding the value of the manure used — at least $300 annu- ally on every acre of his garden land. With this outlay, if his soil is good and well placed, and his market is a good one, and if he is the right m.anfor the business , he ought to make a clear profit of $500 per acre. The character of the market should be well understood. If there is a manufacturing town near by, or any town hav- ing a population which includes a large proportion of labor- ing people, the case is a simple one. It should be well understood that it does not pay (at least so far as gardening is concerned) to feed the rich. They are like the black sheep of the flock, that don't eat so much as the white ones — there are not so many of them, and, as 430 GARDENING FOR MARKET. another reason, tliej do not eat so largely of coarse vege- tables. A hearty Irish laborer, with a stout hardworking wife and a table full of healthy children, will use up cabba- ges and turnips in a way to delight the heart of a gardener ; and the atmosphere of a manufacturing town will evapo- rate a farmer's load of these vegetables as the sun dries up the morning mists. To any one who is disposed to venture an acre or two in gardening, no better service can be done than to recommend him to read Peter Henderson's " Gardening for Profit," wherein are laid down precise rules for the management of every department of the business. We have here only space to give a few practical hints which will be chiefly of use to fanners who propose to de- vote a portion of their time to the simpler kind of garden- ing. It may be given as a general rule, that the only crops that it will pay i\\q fanner to raise, in his market garden, are beets, cabbages (early and late), sweet corn, cucumbers, onions (rare-ripes), parsnips, radishes, spinach, and tomatoes. The size, arrangement, and equipment of the garden. — We will suppose a farmer to be about to embark in this busi- ness, and that he is willing to invest in it a capital of one thousand dollars. Of course the same general rules will apply for a more or less extensive operation. He should select two acres of light dry land (if he has it, and if not he should -thoroughly underdrain it), if possible with an exposure to GARDENING FOR MARKET. 431 the east or south. If it is sheltered from the north and west by an orchard or by other trees, so much the better. The land may be more economically arranged if it lies in about a square body, and should be fenced on the north and west sides with a tight board fence six or eight feet high. A fence of the latter height, made in the best manner, of pine boards, capped with a spruce rail, will cost in the vicinity of New York about $200 for 600 running feet. This fence should set close to the ground, so that the wind cannot draw under it, and it will have the effect of very materially modifying the climate, and enabling the growing of much earlier vegetables. Close in the northwest corner he should then set up two parallel rows of hemlock boards, nailed to 2x3 stakes, driv- en into the ground. The back line of boarding should be 12 inches high, parallel to the fence and three feet distant from it. The other row should be 8 inches high, parallel to and 6 feet and 2 inches distant from the first, outside meas- urement. Both to be 187 feet long, with boards to close up the ends, and the ground enclosed by them should be spaded and manured. This is the " cold frame," which is to be covered by 50 sashes, each 3 feet 9 inches wide by 6 feet 2h inches long, having four rows of glass, each containing nine 8x10 lights set lengthwise across the space — the rails being ten inches apart. The sashes to be made of If inch stuff and strengthened by a flat rod of iron (1 inch by ^ inch) let in flush on the under side and screwed fast to the bars 432 GARDENING FOR MARKET. and rails, across the middle of the sash. It is best to make the sashes in the best manner, as they are a very im- portant part of the permanent stock in trade of the garden. They will cost, at an outside price, $250. The ground of the garden should be deeply ploughed and subsoiled in July or August, and if the weeds that grow upon it are likely to ripen their seeds, they should be mow- ed down late in the fall. Before winter sets in, the largest amount of horse manure that can be bought for $200, de- livered, should be spread upon the surface, and left exposed to the rain and melting snow of the winter. About the middle of September, sow in a well-prepared seed-bed in an old garden, twelve ounces of the seed of Jer- sey Wakefield cabbage, and four ounces of Fottler's Im- proved Brunswick. At about the same time sow on three feet of one end of the cold frame, one ounce of black-seeded butter lettuce, and one ounce of early-curled Simpson lettuce, giving to each about nine square feet. These are to remain where they are sown during the winter. The cabbage plants will be large enough to transplant about six weeks from the time of sowing, when they are to be " pricked out " in the cold frame two inches apart each way, which will give about 800 plants to a sash. These plants should be well watered, and sprinkled with a light coating of air-slaked lime. They will need to be protected by the glass until they are firmly rooted (the sashes being tilted up at the back to give them air whenever the sun is on them), and on frosty nights, GAitDENLNG FOK MARKET. 433 and they should be gradually accustomed to the cold air, so that they may be able to withstand the hard freezing that they will get in the winter; all through the winter they should have air whenever the frost is thawed from the under side of the glass, and on fine days the sashes should be strip- ped off from them altogether. The end where the lettuce plants are standing should have less air, and should have the protection at night of an old carpet thrown over the sash. Directly in front of the cold frame there should be a second frame made of exactly the same size and character. This should be filled with straw, leaves, or other rubbish which will keep it from freezing, and about the last of Feb- ruary or the first of March its covering should be removed and about three inches of well-rotted manure should be dug into it — not too deeply. The lettuce plants are now to be transplanted to this frame, at distances of six and a-half or seven inches each way (about seventy plants to a sash), and covered by the sashes which may now be taken entirely from the hardened cabbage plants. If light board shutters have been provided to cover the cabbages during severe storms, it will be better, but they will stand any amount of hardship after their winter's training. The lettuce plants should have plenty of air during fine weather (and some air whenever it is not freezing), should be abundantly watered if the season is dry, and should be forced by as much heat as can be given them without depriving them of air. They will be ready for market about the middle of May, when lettuce 19 4:34: GAUDENING FOR MARKET. usually sells in towns (not in the larger cities) for from 8c. to 12c. per head. During the latter part of April, plant sixty tlii*ee-inch pots with half a dozen seeds each of White Spine cucum- ber, and set them in a warm light room in the house. By the time the lettuce is sold off these will be sturdy plants, and they should be thinned to three in each pot. Isow dig holes a foot deep, and a foot in diameter, at intervals of three feet in the lettuce frame, and fill them with very thoroughly rotted and rich compost, covering it with a little soil. On each of these plant the contents of a pot, without disturbing the roots of the plants, and cover closely with the sashes. Give a little air in the middle of the day, but cover close from 4 p.m. until 10 a.m., and during all chilly weather ; water copiously, and uncover to all w^arm rains. By the latter part of June the picking will commence (at from 5c. to 30c. each), and it may be continued as long as the price is not less than Ic. each. This crop is more un- certain and varying in its results than lettuce, but it usually pays well, and is very inexpensive. Now let us sum up the probable income of 50 sashes, managed as directed above : — 35,000 cabbage plants, at $10 $350 3,500 lettuces, at 8c 280 Cucumbers (from $25 to $100), say 50 $680 This is earned with a srnall investment, and the labor is GARDENING FOE MARKET. 435 mainly done in tlie fall and winter, when other work is slack : and it has the great advantage of coming in early, when there is a demand for ready money to pay for labor, ifcc. Five hundred tomato plants maybe started in the kitchen window, or in a small hot-bed, and by the middle of April they may be pricked out in one end of the lettuce frame. As early in May as the danger of frosts has passed, they should be set out at intervals of fifteen inches along the foot of the fence on the north and west sides of the field, to be trained up against it (tacked fast), and kept trimmed to single stems. At a height of six feet they should be pinched off and their growth kept close. They should be planted in a very rich soil, and well watered. They can hardly fail to produce early crops, and ought to sell for $75 to $100. Now we come to the management of the field crops. If we could only raise cabbages year after year on the same land, our business would be a very simple one. We might take two crops yearly (an early and a late one) of the most profitable and easily raised vegetable on our list. But, unfortunately, one crop in two years is all we can reasonably hope for, as the " club-foot" will surely attack an immediately succeeding crop on the same ground, and our best plan is to arrange to grow as man}^ cabbages as we safely can — making this point our constant aim — and to occupy the land as profitably as possible the rest of the time. Therefore, the field should be divided into two equal parts. 436 GARDENING FOR MARKET. one side being prepared for cabbages and the other for such other crops as will not interfere with the growth of cab- bages the next year. The first operation is the preparation of the ground for early cabbages, for whic.li we devote a space of about one acre. The manure which was spread in the fall should be lightly ploughed in — not deep enough to turn up the old sod — and a thousand pounds of Peruvian guano, two thousand pounds of fish guano, or fifteen hundred pounds of bone- dust, should be evenly sown over the ground, and thoroughly harrowed in. Either of these manures will cost about $40. As early as it is possible to get the ground into proper con- dition, as described above, the cabbage plants in the cold frame should be set out, in rows two feet apart, and about 16 inches apart in the rows. It will probably be best to plant three-fourths of the piece with the Jersey Wakefield, and the remainder with the Brunswick, which will begin to be fit for market at about the time when the Wakefield is all sold. This amount of land will receive about 15,000 plants, leaving about 20,000 plants to be sold from the frame. If the value of cold frame plants is understood in the vicinity, they will be readily taken up at $10 per thousand. If there is a good summer market for lettuce, the Early Curled Simpson may be set out between the rows of cabbage, when it will grow to a marketable size before the whole GAKDENESTG FOR MARKET. 437 ground will be required by the main crop. In the neigh- borhood of small towns this will not be worth while, as there is but little demand for lettuce after June 1st. As soon as the cabbages are planted — and this may be done even so early as in March, if the weather is fine — the other half of the garden should be manured and prepared in the same manner, and planted with beets, onions, pars- nips, spinach, and radishes ; the first four in about equal proportions, and in the following manner ; — Beets (of the Bassano and the early turnip-rooted blood variety) should be very thickly planted in rows 18 inches apart — thickly, because the early frosts «nay cut off a part of the crop — and when they are fairly up, they should be singled out to intervals of about 4 inches in the rows. The onions should be " sets " raised the previous year. These may usually be bought for from $6 to $10 per bushel, according to size — the smallest bearing the highest price. They should be set in rows 9 inches apart, and at intervals of 3 inches in the rows, being firmly pressed down in the bottom of the line made by the marker. Every seventh row should be omitted to leave room to walk among the crop, and the sets should be entirely covered by raking the beds evenly over. Onions raised from the seed are rather a farm than a gar- den crop, and will not pay to raise on land so expensively manured as that under consideration. Onions raised from " sets " are called Bare Eijpes^ and 438 GARDENma FOR MARKET. they always meet a ready sale in any market where there is a market for any vegetables. Still, as it is considerable work to tie them, it w^ill be best not to raise more than one- quarter of an acre of them. Parsnips should be planted early in May on well pre- pared (deeply loosened) ground, in rows 27 inches apart, the seed being strewn thickly in the rows, and the plants finally thinned to intervals of six inches. The reason for putting the row^s so wide asunder is that it enables us to cultivate the crop with the horse-hoe at a time when labor can be ill spared for hand-hoeing. Spinach. — This crop, the first year, must be planted in the spring ; by planting very early, on ground so heavily manured, it will be in market ahead of green peas, and will bring a good price, but after these are plenty it can hardly be sold at any price. The cultivation of this crop is extremely simple. The seeds are sown pretty thickly (say 10 lbs. per acre) in rows about 12 or 14 inches apart, and the land kept clean until it is large enough to cut. For all subsequent years, spinach should be planted about September 15th, on the ground from which the Brunswick cabbage has been taken, this being first well manured with animal manure. It will require (above the latitude of New York) a light covering of seaweed, leaves, or straw during winter. Coming very early into market, it often brings four dollars a barrel. Radishes are a stolen crop, and, to a limited extent, they GARDENING FOR MARKET. 439 may be very profitably grown. It is best to raise both the long scarlet and the short top turnip-rooted varieties — the former for common trade, and the latter for those who are more choice in their taste, the proportion of each being regulated according to the character of the market. The seed may be sown, rather thinly, with a seed drill between the rows of beets. No cultivation is needed. The seed is the only cost except the preparation for market, and this need be applied only to so much as there is a sale for ; the rest can be simply cut out with a push hoe, before the beets will require the whole ground. We have now provided for the planting of all the land, and will need to commence promptly to use the hoes, of which at least two should be kept going incessantly until the crops are all firmly established, and are able to hold their own against weeds. In fact, at no time during the growth of the crops, until they are too large to be worked among without injury, should weeds be allowed to grow at all. If they once get started so that there must be a fight to get rid of them, we may as well say good-bye to all hope of profit, for they will require more labor than it will be pleasant to pay for, and the crops will be materially injured by them. If, on the other hand, every foot of the land be lightly hoed over (or even raked with a light iron rake until it becomes too hard) once a week, there will be no weeds to kill, and the plants themselves will be sufiiciently benefited by the operation to pay the cost. 440 GARDENING FOR MARKET. Harvesting the crops ^ and preparing them for market. The first sales will be of radishes and spinach. Long radishes are pulled, and tied in bunches, and then thrown into water. In a few minutes they are taken out by the tops, laid against a board which stands sloping into the water, and there washed clean with a wisp-broom. The round radishes grow at the top of the ground, and so little dirt adheres to them that they only require to be soaked for a few minutes and then shaken in the water. Spinach is simply cut off at the top of the root and packed (dry) in barrels — 40 lbs. being a barrel. It is the easiest of all the crops, except cabbages, to prepare for market. Parsnips are, as every farmer knows, either left in the ground until spring, or taken up in the fall and stored like any other roots. Beets are pulled when about half grown; the outside leaves torn off so as to leave only enough to hold them by securely, the roots washed clean, and tied in bunches of four or five, according to the varying custom of different markets. Onions (rare-ripes) are pulled when the bulb has a diameter of three-quarters of an inch or thereabouts — the larger the better — and, after the removal of the dead skin, are tied in bunches of ^yq or ten. For the New York market, they must be washed. For Eastern markets this is not necessary. It is quite an addition to the cost of preparation. Cabbages (the early sorts) are simply cut off near the GAEDENING FOE MARKET. 441 ground, with nearly all tlieir leaves, and, if they are to be shipped, are packed in barrels or crockery-crates. They will stand a good deal of rough treatment. Prices of Early Vegetables. — On this subject but little can be said that will be a criterion for different localities, ex- cept that in nearly all of the smaller towns they sell for from 50 to 100 per cent, above the New York quotations. The cause of this anomalous condition is that these towns are nearly always supplied with early vegetables from the larger cities. Probably the following may be taken as a fair average of prices in towns of from 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, during a series of years : — Cabbages, 8 cents each. Onions (rare-ripes), 50 cents per dozen finches of five each. Beets, 75 cents per dozen bunches of five each. Radishes, 30 cents per dozen bunches of about ten each. Spinach, $1.50 per barrel. Second Crops.— Wq have now cleared all of the land ex- cept that which is occupied by the parsnips. This produces but one crop during the season, and we have not very much more to expect from the use of the land. Our profit must have come mainly from the early crops. Still, enough may be expected to make a fair return for the labor of cultivation, and for the use of the land and manure, and the land needs to be cultivated for its own sake. The gardeners about the 19* 44:2 GARDENING FOR MARKET. large cities, having a market for everything green that they can raise during the whole year, and for some crops, such as celery and salsify, which meet with no sale in small places, find their second crops very profitable ; but, in our case, the chances are that we must be content with small returns from this source. We are debarred from raising rutabagas, or French tur- nips, and late cabbages, for the reason that these cannot follow our crop of cabbages, and if they were made to fol- low any of the other crops they would injure the land for the growth of early cabbages the next year. Celery is a good crop for land that is in good condition, but it is hardly worth raising for small markets. Horseradish^ sweet herhs, mangel wurzel, sweet corn^ and common turnips are about the only safe reliance. Of these, the first is the most profitable, as it finds a ready sale among the pickle-makers in cities. Concerning its cultiva- tion, the following is copied from an article furnished by Peter Henderson for the Report of the Agricultural Depart- ment for 1865 : — " The culture is very simple, and so far very profitable. The plants or sets used are the pieces broken off from the main root in its preparation for market. These are cut into lengths of about six inches, and are from one-quarter to one- half inch m diameter. They are planted letween the rows of cabbage or cauliflower as soon as these crops are planted in th^ -Spring, and about the same distance apart between GARDENING FOR MARKET. 443 the plants. The set or root is planted perpendicularly, three inches under the surface. There is no danger in planting the sets thus deep, for horseradish is particularly tenacious of life, and will start and push through the soil even if planted much deeper. The motive in planting it under the surface is to delay its starting, so as not to interfere with the cabbage crop, which may close over it without any injury whatever to the horseradish. It sometimes happens, however, either from planting too near the surface, or by the sets being very strong, that the horseradish grows so strongly as to interfere seriously with the cabbage crop. In such cases it must be cut off by the hoe, and this will not injure it in the slightest degree. We have often had to hoe it off twice before the cabbage crop was ready. It will be borne in mind that it is the root only of this crop that is wanted, and that, being grown mostly in the late summer and fall months, the removal of the leaves in June, or July even, does not in any way affect the crop. " As soon as the cabbages have been cut off the stumps are dug up, and the ground deeply hoed, so as to encourage the growth of the horseradish crop. This rarely requires to be done more than once, the rapid growth of the leaves smother- ing all weeds. It attains its full growth of root by the end of October, when it may be dug up ; but, being an entirely hardy plant, we usually defer lifting it until all our more tender vegetables are secured, so that the time of digging it up is usually in November and December. It is then placed 444 GARDENING FOR MARKET. in pits adjacent to the vegetable house, so that it cau be got at conveniently, and trimmed during leisure time in winter. Its preparation for market is very simple, being merely trimming off the small roots (which are kept for next season's planting), washing, by rinsing them around in a large tub ; weighing — for it is all sold by weight — and packing in bar- rels. " The average weight per acre is four tons, and for the past five years it has sold for $200 per ton, or $800 per acre. During March of last year it sold as high as $250 per ton. I have always considered it the most safe and profitable crop of our gardens." Whether these results could be obtained if the production of horseradish were largely increased, it is impossible to say ; but there is no doubt that its cultivation will remain fairly remunerative. Sweet herbs are a safe crop to raise, even at a distance from market, as they can be dried and stowed away in a loft until the leisure time of winter allows them to be bunched and packed for shipment. Henderson estimates the average yield per acre at $500. The varieties usually grown for commercial purposes are thyme, sage, summer savory, and sweet marjoram. The cultivation of all of these is precisely the same. The plants are raised from seed sown in April in a very fine and rich seed-bed, and they are planted out in the field, at any time after they are large enough up to the last of July, GARDEXIXG FOR MARKET. 445 in rows about 12 inches apart, and at somewhat less than this distance in the row. They should be kept free from weeds until they cover the ground. At this stage each alternate row should be cut out, after which the crop will spread and occupy the whole ground again, and in very favorable seasons it will sometimes close up after alternate rows have been taken out a second time. Mangel-wurzel (or field beet) is a safe crop for the far- mer to raise, inasmuch as it is the best of allfthe roots for cattle food ; and, in rich ground, it produces enormously, while it does not interfere with the growth of cabbages the following year. For a second crop the plants should be raised from seed planted very early in May, and it should be set out at dis- tances of 30 inches by 15 inches. It is a perfectly safe and easy crop to transplant, if care be only taken not to attempt the operation until the roots are at least as thick as the little finger. The distances recommended as the best ones at which to set the plants are larger than are usual in this country, but on land so rich as that under consideration, the leaves will cover the whole space, and the roots will grow to an enor- mous size, giving a larger yield than if more thickly set out. Sweet corn is a fair crop to raise for market, but its cul- tivation is so well understood by all that it is only necessary to say here that it should follow the spinach and the onions, which are the first out of the ground in June. 446 GABDENING FOR MARKET. Common turnips are the poorest paying of all the arti- cles recommended for a second crop, but they are also raised with very little trouble, and as the seed may be sown at any time in July, they are often available to follow the last removed of the first crops, except the Brunswick cab- bages, and these will not usually be cleared off in time to prepare the ground for anything but spinach for the follow- ing spring. Profits. — This is hardly a safe subject for estimate; so much depends on the land, the situation, the man, and the market, that one will gain where another would lose, and the ratio of profits will vary from zero to an almost fabulous amount. However, under any favorable circumstances, a man tolerably well qualified for the business, provided lie will use manure with what he may thinh a wasteful ha/nd^ might expect about the results of the following table, for an average of ten years.* Expenses :— Rent and taxes, say $30 Interest on cost of improvements and tools, say on $800, at 7 per cent , 56 Wear and tear 100 Manure (2 acres) 160 Labor (equal to two men for the whole year) 1000 Seeds and plants 50 Total $1,396 * The first year, the outlay for manure will be more, and, owing to the crude condition of the soil, the returns will be less. GARDENING FOK MAEKET. Eeceipts : — From use of 50 sashes, as per previous estimate 447 $680 00 112 50 800 00 500 00 225 00 250 00 100 00 150 00 100 00 100 00 25 00 100 00 25 00 From 450 tomato vines on the fences (say 25c. each) 1 acre 10 000 cabbages at 8c 3 tons horseradish (2d crop) J acre beets, 300 dozen bunches at 75c. ^ " onions, 500 dozen bunches at 50c. J " spinach, 50 barrels, at $2 ^ " parsnips, 200 bushels at 75c Eadishes from among beets and cab- ba^fes. sav 1 Qf>rp «;"wppt hprbs ^2d oroD^ J " sweet corn (2d crop) J- '* mangel-wurzel, say 250 bushels at40c 4- *' com.moii tumiDS Total Deduct expenses Net profits Of course there are chances that the profits less than the above amount, but there are chances that they will greatly exceed it. 12,487 50 1,396 00 11,091 50 5 will be much at least equal STEAM CULTIYATIOK For many years it has been a dream of American inven- tors to devise ' some means by which a locomotive steam- engine could be made to take the place of the team in ploughing. Thus far, although some of the devices have been made to work tolerably well, none of them have achieved such suc- cess as to commend them to general use. It has fallen to the lot of England to make the first appli- cation of steam to ploughing that has been so decidedly successful as to come into very general use. They have abandoned the idea of making the steam-engine travel at the front of the plough, and place it on one of the headlands, broadside to its work, an " anchor " standing opposite to it on the other side of the field. Under the engine there is a horizontal windlass, five feet in diameter, and a similar windlass is attached to the anchor. A steel wire rope passes around these two windlasses, its ends being fastened to the carriage to which the ploughs are suspended, and which forms a link in the endless chain. The windlass under the engine is so arranged that it clasps the rope firmly on those parts where its pulling force is exerted, and lets go as the rope leaves it in its movement toward the anchor. llhli!Vf|,I|W^^^^^^^^ Ilii 3! im» IIP, ii'i STEAM CULTIVATION. 451 The ploughs are set in '' gangs " on a tilting frame. One end of the frame carries right hand, and the other end left hand ploughs. The ploughman sits on the end of the frame which is " in work," and guides the carriage by means of a steering wheel. His weight holds the end on which he sits down to its work, and tilts the other end up, so that its ploughs are in the air. If the width of the field is consider- able, " rope porters " or guiding wheels keep the rope from running on the ground, and thus save power and prevent wear and tear. The ploughs being ready to commence their work at the side of the field next to the engine, this is set in motion and the ploughs are drawn toward the anchor ; when they arrive at the anchor side of the field, the ploughman changes his seat to the other end of the frame, and the engine is re- versed, drawing the ploughs toward it ; and in this manner they are moved back and forth until the whole length of the field is ploughed. They are then moved to the ends of the headlands and these are ploughed. The engine is a locomotive, and advances along the head- land so as to be always opposite its work, and the anchor is moved at the pleasure of the operator, by the action of its windlass. The ploughs are used in all cases where there is a sod or a long stubble to be turned under, but fallow land is culti- vated by the substitution of long-toothed grubbers, which work at a greater depth. 452 STEAM CULTIVATION. The construction of the steam ploughing apparatus, and its mode of operation, are sliown in the illustrations which accompany this article. Among the advantages claimed for it are the following : — 1. Greater rapidity of work, allowing land to be speedily prepared for the crop while in the proper condition, thus greatly lessening the danger that planting will be delayed by rains. 2. Cheapness of work — the cost (in England) being re- duced from about $5 per acre, the cost with horses, to about $1.25, the cost with the steam apparatus. 3. Improved condition of the land. 4. Better drainage. 5. Greater activity in the performance of all the work of the farm. Concerning rapidity of work, it may be stated that a 14-horse engine set will plough from 9 to 12 acres per day, and do the work better (deeper) than it can possibly be done with any ordinary farm team. At the Annual Show of the Eoyal Agricultural Society at Bury St. Edmonds, in 1867, Fowler's cultivator smashed up light stubble-land at the rate of 50 acres per day of 10 hours, and did the work at a cost of about 25c. per acre, including all charges for fuel, wear and tear, and attendance. Anything which places it in the power of the farmer to prepare his land for planting at so rapid a rate as even 8 STEAM CULTIVATION". 453 acres per day, must do much to free him from the annoyance of frequent delays from wet weather at a time when it is im- portant that everything proceed rapidly. The comparative cost of cultivation, when done by steam instead of horses, is, of course, dependent on circumstances. On small farms, and for use in small fields of irregular shape, the cost of maintaining an expensive set of machinery, and the time lost in moving from one field to another, would more than make up for any saving in tlie actual cost of the work. On farms having 250 acres of land under the plough, and having few fields of less than 10 acres, the saving in cost of work would be very great. This saving of cost, however, is of minor consequence as compared mth the other advantages of steam cultivation. The improved condition of the land, including its better drainage, is the great argument in favor of the process. The movement of the ploughs is nearly twice as rapid as that of the horse-plough, and the furrow, instead of simply being turned over, is thrown from the mould-board so rapidly that it is much more thoroughly pulverized. As the furrows are all laid in one direction, there are no dead furrows left when the work is done. In the ordinary ploughing of an acre of land it receives 350,000 foot-marks per acre, one-half of these being upon the earth at the bottom of the furrows, which in time becomes compacted to an almost water-tight condition. In steam ploughing, the land is not touched by a hoof, and when (as is often the case) all the operations of 454 STEAM CULTIVATION. harrowing, rolling, and seed-drilling are done by steam, it is left in a condition most favorable to the growth of the crop, and to the rapid subsidence of water of rains — assuming that the land is either naturally or artificially under-drained. Not the least benefit of steam cultivation (accompanied by the use of the steam-engine for threshing, grinding, fod- der-cutting, &c.) is found in the greater activity which is im- parted to all the business of the farm. The same dift'erence, but in less marked degree, is to be observed in the use of horses instead of oxen. The motive power sets the time of the whole establish- ment, and as the use of oxen leads to a slow, drawling, list- less habit, so steam gives an activity and bustle to every- thing which makes wages and board tell with better efiect on the year's performances. In the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, for 1867, there is a very elaborate report of the results of the exami- nations of the committees which had been appointed " to inquire into the results of steam cultivation in use by 135 farmers and stock companies in England." The following are some of the conclusions at which they arrived : — " In nearly all the cases reported it will be seen that the expenses of cultivation are very much reduced, and yet that a larger amount of produce is said to have been realized. "Not only are the operations themselves better done, quicker done, less expensively done, but all kindred and col- STEAM CULTIVATION. 455 lateral movements have had imparted to them a speed and ' whirr ' characteristic of steam ; men acquire the habit of doing the day's work in the day, and of not leaving it for the morrow. The day's labor, too, on a steam farm repre- sents more work with less distress to the physical frame of the laborer, and better remuneration. Steam is working a revolution — slightly manifested as yet, so that we can only speak of tendencies in farm practice, and in the character of the rural population. They are being trained for the era of machinery in agriculture. " In most cases an increase of produce, in some instances as much as 8 bushels per acre (of wheat), has resulted from steam cultivation. " We may state as our general conclusion that steam tackle, w^hether of Fowler, Howard, Smith, or other makers, is now so far perfected and settled in form and details, that it may be classed among old-established, standard farm machinery, and no longer among the novelties of the day. " We find, as the result of experience, that which we already anticipated theoretically, viz., that the increased depth of surface and the absence of pressure greatly increase the absorbing powers of the soil, and consequently assist the action of the drains. " Mr. Wm. Smith, of Woolston, England, was one of the pioneers of steam cultivation, and is still one of its most zealous advocates. A short time ago he extended an invi- tation to all who were interested in the subject to visit his 456 STEAM CULTIVATION. farm and witness the operation of his tackle, and to see its effect. He communicates to a London paper the substance of the statements he made to his visitors, and from this I extract the foUowiug, as serving to illustrate the complete- ness with which the system has been tried and found satis factory : — " You must see that these fields are not only heavy ciay, but hilly and uneven, and the face of them shows that they are well drained as well as well cultivated. " This field. No. 3, on which you stand, together with No. 2, through which you have passed, and No. 1 (light land), which I will hereafter show you, contain 32 acres, and were smashed by steam-power on the 31st of August, and the 1st, 2d, and 3d of September, at the following cost : — Labor £3 14 Coal 1 12 Oil 2 6 Interest on money, and wear and tear 2 9 6 £7 18 00 Or 4:S. 9d. per acre (about $1.15). " Now I will let you know what the operations and cost of seed-beds have been on these four fields under steam culture for 14 years, taking those on field No. 3 to repre- sent the lot : — " 10 steam-power smashings, 2 ridgings and subsoilings STEAM CULTIVATION. 457 by steam-power, 2 cultivatiiigs and drillings at one operation, each by steam-power ; 1 cross cultivating by steam-power, 1 cross cultivating and seeding at one operation by steam- power, 7 horse cultivatings, 1 horse subsoiling, 1 ridge ploughing by horses. The total cost of these operations has been £6.11.9, or 9^. 5d. per acre as the average cost of a seed- bed, exclusive of planting or drilling, except those planted by steam-power. " The cropping on No. 3 during that period has been 1 of peas, 2 of barley, 5 of beans, 5 of wheat, and 1 of Swedes. "The average yearly produce under steam culture has been, on these four fields, quite 14 bushels per acre more than it had been under horse culture. " Now let us look into the working of the tackle since the 5th of October last. (3n that day I started it on No. 4 (heavy land), 10 acres, ridging and subsoiling it for beans. It was finished on the 6th at 4.10 p.m. The depth of work is 9 inches ; the consumption of coal 1 ton ; and the pres- sure on the engine 60 lbs. " We then shifted the tackle nearly half a mile to No. 1 (heavy land), 8 acres, and we finished that field at 12.15 P.M. on the 8th. Depth of work 10 inches ; consumption of coal 16 cwt. ; pressure on the engine 65 lbs. " We then shifted the tackle a quarter of a mile to No. 3 (light land, part 1), 5 acres, and finished it on the 9th at 12.20 P.M. Depth of work 10 inches ; consumption of coal 9 cwt. ; pressure on engine 60 lbs. 20 458 STEAM CULTIVATION. '* We tlieii shifted the tackle a mile to No. 6 (hght land) 14 acres, working all day on the 10th (the 11th was Siin- daj), working again all day on the 12th, and we finished on ;:he 13th at 8.40 a.m. Depth of work 11 inches ; consump- tion of coal 29 cwt. ; pressure on engine 65 lbs. " We then shifted the tackle more than a mile to No. 3 (light land, part 2), 6 acres, and finished it on the 14th at 11.50 A.M. Depth of work 10 inches; consumption of coal 10 cwt. ; pressure on engine 60 lbs. " Wg then shifted the tackle to where it now stands, on No. 4 (light land), for you to see it at work. * -X- -Sf * ->& vv * * * * * " It is not a set of new-fangled tackle, got up for the pur- pose of racing, for the common portable engine has done 10 years' hard work. It has done, in addition to my plough- ing, a lot of threshing and grinding, yet it is in capital trim. The cost of repairs has been but a 'mere trifle. " The windlass has had 10 years' work. In 1858 it did 55 acres for the late Prince Consort, on the Flemish farm, Windsor, and I have worked it on my farm ever since. " I have worked the rope 7 years. The first year it got out several times. At one or other of the splices it pulls in two ; indeed it has not, during these 9 days' work, gone through a day without a break ; therefore the men have had the mending of the ropes to do as well as the ridging and subsoiling. * * * * " My average quantity of work per day is much greater, STEAM CULTIVATION. 459 and my average consumption of coal per acre is much less, than it has ever been before. This is mainly due to my land having been deeply worked so many times before. '' The sum total of all this evidence proves plainly that the Woolston system of applying steam-power to the cultiva- tion of the soil gives clean dress and cheap seed-beds, and that fancy tackle is not needed on show^ days. The boy that you see working the implement is only 14 years old. lie has done all my work this year, and well too. The Avork is before you to speak for itself." It is found, for use in neighborhoods where the farms are small, that it is the best plan to form joint-stock com- panies to own and operate the tackle — hiring it out by the day or by the acre, and giving the precedence to stock- holders. This plan would work the best among the smaller farmers of our Eastern States — but at the West, where the proprietorships are larger, it will be most advantageous to have the apparatus, with its engine to do other work, at- tached to the farm. It is sometimes objected that much of the land in this country is too rough and too stony for the steam-plough ever to gain a foothold. The same objection was made twenty years ago to the use of the mowing machine in New Eng- land, and there is every reason to suppose that when the advantages of the steam-plough are once fully realized, even the hillsides of Vermont will smile under its influence. HOUSE PAINTING. The following receipts and directions are condensed from a practical English work on the art of house painting. The}^ are principally designed for the inexperienced and those who, living at a distance from cities, have great diffi- culty in obtaining first-class workmen. To make the work satisfactory, it is very necessary for the workman to have very olean all the vessels, brushes, and cans he may require in the course of his work, such as the vari- ous paints, pots, or vessels in which he mixes or from which he uses his colors. These are sometimes bought at the shops, handsomely made of stout tin, and such are easily kept clean, and save their expense in color, which is readily brushed down their smooth sides. He will also require a marble slab and muller, to grind the finer colors used in painting. Sometimes a small cast-iron mill is useful not only to grind colors, but to pass the tinted color through, so that it may be more thoroughly mixed. It is presumed the workman wiU know what brushes he will require, according to the work he has in hand. In preparing to paint a good dwelling, after having ob- tained the necessary colors and brushes, see that you have a few pounds of good pumice stone, a quire or two of assorted Band paper, to smooth the inequalities in the work ; some HOUSE PAINTING. 461 twenty pounds of puttj, to stop up after the first coat in every part of the house ; a sufficiency of fine slaked lime, and a proper number of large and small vessels, to mix the colors in and use it from ; a few pounds of soaked glue, &q. If the wood- work be new, and no w^all work required, you will go over it carefully with a small brush, and some of the glue size, colored with red lead, covering what knots and stains may appear in the wood, after which the priming coat of almost all oil, and good white lead, tinted with Indian red, should be evenly brushed over the work ; and, as soon as dry, the putty knife and putty should follow, to stop all the cracks and nail holes. Then should follow the second coat, with a little spirits of turpentine in the oil, and the color slightly tinged with blue black. This is generally thought sufficient for the attic and third stories. But the rest of the house is usually finished with old ground white lead, thinned with spirits of turpentine. The roof, if cov- ered with tin, should be painted once in three years. There are many diflferent methods in use. Some paint with raw oil, dry Spanish brown and a little red lead, to dry it, for fear of a rain ; others, with Spanish brown, more red lead, and half whale oil with the linseed oil ; others use yellow ochre and black, mixed in the same oils ; others use a roof paint, made by boiling paint skins in whale oil, and carefully straining them while warm, reserving the remaining skins, to stop the leaks around chimneys and dormer windows. This last mentioned paint is probably 462 HOUSE PAINTING. serviceable from its elasticity. In the country, many paint their roofs and out-buildings in the same way, using some- times Venetian red from its brightness. Many complaints are continually made that white lead, and colors composed thereof, do not endure, and are quickly beaten off by exposure to the sun and rain. This difficulty occurs as much from the manner of using the paint as from its quality. As this occurs in outside work, it is to be at- tributed, first, to the condition of the work to be painted, being generally in such a state as to absorb the oil from the first coat, thereby leaving it in a dusty state, and liable to be washed of by the first rain. This can be guarded against, only by filling the old work, in painting two thin coats over it, one upon the other, as soon as dry ; and fin- ishing it with one thicker coat, to protect it and shed the rain. A fourth coat, if the immediate expense is not heeded, will repay its cost in additional service and beauty. The white lead can be procured of any requisite quality at the color stores. It is thought that the best article is the most economical, as it works out with more ease, and repays the difference of cost in its appearance. Linseed oil is also better for having due age, for the same reasons as the white lead, working with softness and advantage after parting with the water which is generally combined with new oil. The quality and fineness of the white lead used adds materially to the work, and that which is well ground, and MIXING PAINTS. 463 has such mellowness from age as will cause it to work smoothly under the brush, in connection with good linseed oil, will certainly repay any reasonable additional cost. The first coats should always be mixed with clear linseed oil ; the fourth coat may be used with boiled oil and one-quarter part spirits of turpentine. Putty is best purchased at a good color store, where you can depend upon its being made of good dry whitening and linseed oil. It should be carefully and freely used after the work has had one coat of paint, for the fresh paint holds the putty very firmly. Harmony of Colors. — Red looks well with blacks, whites, or yellows. Blues harmonize with whites and yel- lows. Greens, with whites, black or yellow. Gold, with blacks or browns. White appears well with any color. Purple, pink and white, &c., &c. MIXING PAINTS. A Beautiful White Paint. — For inside work, which ceases to smell, and dries in a few hours. Add one pound of frankincense to two quarts of spirits of turpentine; dissolve it over a clear fire, strain it, and bottle it for use ; then add one pint of this mixture to four pints of bleached linseed oil, shake them well together, grind white lead in spirits of turpentine, and strain it, then add sufficient of the lead to make it proper for painting ; if too thick in using. 464 MIXING PAINTS. thin with turpentine, it being suitable for the best internal work on account of its superiority and expense. For a Pure White Paint. — ^Nut oil is the best ; if lin- seed oil is used, add one-third of turpentine. To Mix Common White Paint. — Mix or grind white lead in linseed oil to the consistency of paste, add turpen- tine in the proportion of one quart to a gallon of oil ; but these proportions must be varied according to circumstances. Remember to strain your color for the better sorts of work. If the work is exposed to the sun, use more turpentine for the ground color to prevent its blistering. For Knotting. — Mix white or read lead powder in strong glue size and apply it warm. Common Flesh Color. — Stain your white lead with red lead, and mix with oil and turps. Fine Flesh Color. — Is composed of white lead, lake and vermilion. A Beautifhl Color for Carriages, &c. — ^Mix carmine lake with black japan. Cream Color. — This is a mixture of chrome yellow, the best English Venetian red, white lead, and red lead, in oil. Pearl Gray. — White lead, with equal portions of Prus- sian blue and lampblack, mix with oil and turps. Fa-wTi Color. — Grind some burnt and raw terra sienna very fine. Two or three pounds of this is sufficient to stain MIXING PAINTS. 465 white lead for a large building. This color is of a superior shade, and very excellent for inside work. Blue. — Grind Prussian blue in turps ; other blue very fine in linseed oil, and mix it with white paint to the tint required. Buflf: — This is a mixture of French yellow, chrome yel- low and white lead, tinged with a little Yenetian red, oil and turps. Stra-w. — A mixture of chrome yellow and white lead, oil and turps. Drab. — Eaw and burnt umber and white lead, with a lit- tle Yenetian red, linseed oil and turps. Another. — Burnt umber and white lead, with a little Yenetian red, oil and turps, as before. Steel. — Mix white lead, Prussian blue, fine lake and ver- digris, in such proportions as to produce the required color. Purple. — White lead, Prussian blue and vermilion, or lake, with oil and turps. Violet. — Is composed of vermilion, mixed with blue- black, and a little white. French Gray. — White lead and Prussian blue, tinged with vermilion ; and for the last coat substitute carmine for the vermilion. Mix with oil and turps. Silver. — Use white lead, indigo, and a small portion of blue-black, as the shade may require. 466 MIXING PALNTS. Gold. — Mix Naples yellow or patent yellow with a small quantity of orange chrome and a little Spanish white. Dark Chestnut. — Mix red ochre and black. Use yellow ochre when you require to lighten the color, in oil. Salmon. — ^White lead, tinged with the best English Yen- etian red, oil and turps. Peach Blossom. — White lead, tinged with orpiment ; mixed with oil and turps. Drab. — White lead with a little Prussian blue and French yellow, linseed oil and turps. Another. — White lead, with a little French yellow and lamp-black, linseed oil and turps. Another. — ^White lead with a little chrome green and blue- black. Lead. — This is a mixture of lamp-black and white lead, with a little litharge. Chocolate. — Mix lamp-black and Venetian red with a little red lead, or litharge, to harden the color and give a dr^ang quality. The colors must be ground, and mixed with boiled oil and a little turps. Dark Red, for Common Purposes. — Mix English Yene- tian red in boiled oil with a little red lead and litharge, to give a drying quality. Orange. — Mix red lead and French yellow with linseed oil and turps, or use deep chrome yellow. Bright Yello-w for Floors, &c. — White lead and linseed oil, mixed with some French yellow, and a little chrome MIXING PAINTS. 467 yellow to brighten it ; some red lead, burnt white vitriol and litharge added to give it a very drying quality. This color mixed with equal parts of boiled oil and turpentine, and used very thin. Dark Yellow. — Mix French yellow in boiled oil, adding to it a little red lead and litharge, to give the paint a drying quality. Light Yellow.— This is a mixture of French yellow, chrome yellow and white lead, with oil and turps. Another. — French yellow, white lead, and red lead. Another. — Grind raw terra sienna in turps and linseed oil ; mix with white lead. If the color is required of a warmer cast, add a little burnt terra sienna ground in turps. Olive Green. — A suitable, cheap, and handsome color for outside work, such as doors, carts, wagons, &c. Grind separately Prussian blue and French yellow in boiled oil, then mix to the tint required with a little burnt white vitriol to act as a drier. Another. — Black and blue mixed with yellow, in such quantities as to obtain the colors or shades required. For distemper, use indigo and yellow pink mixed with whiting or white lead powder. Another. — This is a mixture of Prussian blue, French yellow, a small portion of Turkey umber, and a little burnt vitriol. Ground the same way. Another^ in oil. — ^Mix Prussian blue and chrome yellow. Grind the same. Another shade. — ^A mix- ture of Prussian blue and French yellow, with a small 468 MIXING PAINTS. quantity of white lead and Turkey umber and burnt white vitriol. Grind the same. Light Green. — WJiite mixed with verdigris. A variety of shades may be obtained by using blue and yellow with white lead. Grass Green. — Yellow mixed with verdigris. Another. — Mix one pound of verdigris with two pounds of white lead. Walnut oil is the best for this purpose. Invisible Green, for outside work.— Mix lamp-black and French yellow, with burnt white vitriol. These colors mix in boiled oil. Burnt vitriol is the best drier for greens, as it is powerful and colorless, and consequently will not injure the color. To Paint a Bronze. — Grind good black with chrome yellow and boiled oil ; apply it with a brush, and when nearly dry use the bronze powder at certain parts and the edges also ; the effect will be a brassy hue. A Good Imitation of Gold. — ^Mix white lead, chrome yellow, and burnt sienna, until the proper shade is obtained. Tar Paint for Fences, Roofs, &c. — Common tar mixed with whiting. Venetian red or French yellow, according to the color required. This should be warmed in a large iron kettle in the open air, and applied with a large paint- ing-brush. It is an excellent preservative of the wood, and looks well for rough work. Paint Driers. — Litharge. — This is a useful drier, and MIXING PAINTS. 46& may be used in all kinds of paints, except greens and very delicate colors. White Vitriol or Copperas. — This turns into water, especially when used in black paints ; and is almost useless for any color till the water of crystallization is evaporated, and then it becomes a powerful drier, and may be used for every delicate color, as it is perfectly trans- parent ; but when used in its raw state in white paint, has the effect of turning it yellow. Sugar of Lead, — This is a very useful and transparent drier, not so powerful as white vitriol, but it may be used with it to advantage. Milk Paint for In-door Work. — The quantity for one hundred square feet : — One quart of skimmed milk, three ounces of lime, two ounces of linseed or poppy oil, one pound and a half of Spanish white or whiting. Put the lime into a clean bucket, add sufficient of the milk to slake the lime, add the oil a few drops at a time, stirring the mixture with a flat stick till the whole of the oil is incorpo- rated in the mass ; then add the remainder of the milk, and afterwards the Spanish white or whiting, finely pow- dered, and sifted gently over the mixture by degrees. Curded milk will do for the purpose, but it must not be sour. One coat of this will do for ceilings and staircases in general ; two coats or more for new wood. Where color is required, you may use powdered umber, ochres, chromes, greens, blues, pinks, &c., &c., ground in milk. For particu- lar work, strain the color through a hair sieve. Lime White-wash. — ^Lime whitewash is made from lime 470 MIXING PAINTS. well slaked. Dissolve two pounds and a half of alum in boiling water, and add it to every pailful of whitewash. Lime whitewash should be used very thin, and when it is sufficiently bound on the wall by means of alum, two thin coats will cover the work better ; this may be used for the first coat, thinned with water. Most whitewashers apply their wash too thick, and do not mix a proportionate quan- tity of alum to bind it, consequently the operation of the brush rubs off the first coat in various parts and leaves an uneven surface, and the original smooth surface of the wall is entirely destroyed. Italian Marble. — This looks bold, and is well adapted for columns, &c., and is easy to imitate. The ground a light buff. For the graining colors, prepare a rich, warm buff, made in the following manner : Mix stiff in boiled oil white lead and good stone ochre, and tinge with vermilion, then grind some burnt terra sienna very fine in burnt oil, and put it into another pot ; mix some pure white stiff in oil, and keep this separate. Thin these colors with tur- pentine, have ready a brush for the buff, and another for the terra sienna. Proceed to work as follows : Take the brush intended for the buff moderately full of color, and dab it on freely and carefully in different patches, some of them larger than others, and varying them as much as pos- sible. When these are laid on, take the other brush and fill in with the terra sienna the spaces between ; as soon as this is done, take a dry duster or softener and blend the MIXING PAINTS. 471 edges together, making it appear as soft as possible. Pro- ceed in this manner till the whole is finished, then take a hair pencil and draw a few thin white veins over the work, varying them as much as is necessary ; take another pencil for the terra sienna, and run a few thin lines intermixing with the whole ; varnish when dry. To Imitate Granite. — For the ground color, stain your white lead to a light lead color, with lamp-black and a little rose-pink. Throw on black spots with a graniting machine, a pale red, and fill up with white a little before the ground is dry. A Cheap Oak Varnish. — Two quarts of boiled oil, one and a half pound of litharge, three quarters of a pound of gum shellac, one ounce of gum. All boiled together, and stirred up till dissolved, then take off the fire and add two quarts of turps. When settled, strain into a bottle and cork for use. Common Oil Varnish. — Take one gallon of quick drying oil, two pounds of resin, and one quart of turpentine ; put the resin with the drying oil into a varnish kettle, and let it dissolve in a gentle heat ; take it from the fire and gradually pour in the spirits of turpentine. If too thick add more of the turpentine. Transparent Varnish for Pictures.— Take the white of four eggs and two ounces of loaf sugar ; beat them up in lime water to the proper consistency for varnishing. 472 MTXE^a PAINTS. For Varnishing on Wood, Unpainted. — Quarter of a pint of wood naphtha, quarter of a pint of spirits of wine, four ounces of benzoin, four ounces of orange shellac, added all together. K not thick enough with those ingredients for jour purpose, add more of the gums benzoin and shellac. Waterproof Varnish, for Linen or Calico. — One pint of turpentine, one and a half pint of linseed oil, seven ounces of litharge, one ounce of sugar of lead. Strain it, apply it with a brush, and dry it in the sun or in a warm place. Instructions. — Oil of turpentine deadens the color of paints ; varnishes, copal, &c., brighten the color. SOLDERS AND OEMBINTS. 4:73 SOLDEKS. For lead solder. — Melt 1 part block tin,, and when fused, add 2 parts of lead. Use resin with it. For tm solder. — Melt 4 parts of pewter, 1 part of tin, and 1 part bismuth together. Use resin with it. CEMENTS. Glue. — Melt 1 lb. glue in 2 quarts warm water. For a glue that will resist the action of water, boil 1 lb. of glue in 2 quarts of skimmed milk. Pulverized chalk added to glue strengthens it. Soft cement. — For boilers, steam-pipes, &c. : 4 parts red or white lead, ground in oil, with 2 or 3 parts iron filings. Hard cement. — Mix iron borings or filings with salt water, then add a small quantity of sal ammoniac with water. Hydraulic cement — for cisterns, sewers, cellars, pipes, &c., is purchased by the barrel, which contains 300 lbs. Dry cement — which will resist the weather equal to marble, is made of 2 parts sifted ashes, 3 parts clay, and 1 part sand, mixed with oil, and appKed while soft. Brown mortar y,f or mas(mry, hrich-worh, (&c. Mix 1 part lime, 2 parts sand, a small quantity of hair with water. CONTENTS A.LPHABETIC ALLY ARRANGED. A. _ PAGE AocouNTS, Keeping of 227 Accounts by single entry, with examples 22V " double " " " 229 Form of bill of sundries 231 " receipt in full 237 " check 238 " due-bill 238 " promissory note 238 " " " with surety 238 " draft or bill of exchange 239 Explanation of all the above 240 Alcohol, Proportion of, in Liquors 190 Angular Measure, Illustrated 23 Animals, Life and Increase of 197 Table, showing the period of reproduction and gestation of domes- tic animals and fowls 198 Table, showing when forty weeks (the period of gestation in a cow) will expire, from any day throughout the year 199 G-rowth and life of animals 199 476 CONTENTS. VAOS Animals, Age of, Illustrated 201 To find the age of a horse 201 " " « " " cattle , 206 " " " " " sheep 208 " " " " " goats 208 Animals, Food of, Illustrated 212 Table, showing the comparative difference between good hay and other food for stock — being the results of experiments 212 Table, showing the comparative difference between good hay and other food for stock — being the mean between experiment and theory 213 Table, showing the quantity of food different animals require per day to each 100 lbs of their live weight. 213 Table, showing the daily food required by the ox 214 Table, showing the effects produced by an equal quantity of dif- ferent kinds of substances as food for sheep 215 Animals, Computed Weight of 209 Annuities 219 Table, showing the amount of $1 for any nunaber of years from 1 to 24, at 5 and 6 per cent, compound interest 219 Table, showing the present worth of $1 annuity at 5 and 6 per cent, compound interest for any number of years from 1 to 34, 218 Apothecaries' Weight, table 158 " fluid measure, table 156 Arithmetical Characters, Explanation of 14 Artificial Manures 357 Avoirdupois Weight, table 152 CX)NTENTS. 477 PAOS Balances, false, Illustrated 84 To detect false balances 84 To find tlie true weight 84 Board Fence (see fences) 125 Board Measure 62 Books, Sizes of (see printing) 260 Bonds— TJ. S. Bonds 242 Boxes, Capacity of 81 Brick-work (see masonry) 276 Butter, Properties and Composition of 387 Butter and Cheese-Making 391 The butter dairy 391 The milk room 391 Cleanliness 392 Setting the milk 392 Cream-churning 393 Packing for market 394 Test of good butter. 396 The cheese dairy 397 Quality of cheese 397 To construct an ice-house for the dairy 399 Analysis of butter 390 €. Capacity of Boxes 81 " Wagon-Beds, Illustrated 82 Cask-gauging, Illustrated 78 4:78 CONTENTS. PAOK To find the contents of a cask by three dimensions 79 u « ii u li a u £qj^ « tj2 Cattle, Soiling : 401 Cattle, to find the Age of 206 Cattle, Computed Weight of, Illustrated 209 Table, showing the compute weight of cattle from their girth, &c. 211 Cements 473 Glue 473 Soft cement 473 Hard cement 473 HydrauUc cement 473 Dry cement 473 Brown mortar for masonry, brickwork, &c 473 Circles 296 To find the circumference of a circle 296 " " diameter " 296 « " area " 296 To find the side of an equal square containing the same area as a given circle 297 To find the solidity of a sphere 297 Table, showing the areas of circles and the sides of their equal squares, fi-om 1 to 100 298 To find, by means of the table, the square or circle that will con- tain the area of a board or surface of given length and width. 302 CmouLAR Measure, Illustrated 23 Cisterns, Illustrated 86 To find the number of gallons in square or oblong cisterns 86 CONTENTS. 479 PAGB To find the number of gallons in triangular cisterns 86 " " " " circular " 87 Table, showing the contents of circular cisterns from 1 foot to 25 feet in diameter for each 10 inches in depth 87 To find the number of gallons in tub-shaped cisterns 88 To ascertain the size of cisterns adapted to roofs 89 Table, showing the contents of circular cisterns in barrels for each foot in depth 90 To construct filtering cisterns to furnish pure water for domestic use 91 Charcoal, to prepare 115 Cheese Dairy (see butter and cheese) 397 Cloth Measure, table. , 169 Coke 118 Commercial Abbreviations 18 Compound Interest, table of 218 Contents 475 Corn on the Cob in Cribs, to measure, Illustrated 57 When the crib is equilateral 57 When the crib is flared at the sides 58 Corn, relation of Pork to 194 Table, showing price of pork per lb. at diiOferent prices per bushel for corn 194 To find the price of pork, the price of corn being given 195 To find the price of corn, the price of pork being given 195 Crops, Rotation of 378 Rotation of field crops 385 480 OONTBMTB. PAes Eotation of garden crops 386 Chemical theory of rotation ^ 381 Crops, Nutritive "Value of 190 Cubic Measure, table 171 To find the cubic contents of any solid body 171 Cubes and Cube Eoots, table of, from 1 to 1000 303 Cultivation, Steam, Illustrated 450 Decimals — Fractions 257 To reduce fractions to decimals 257 To add decimals 257 To subtract decimals 258 To multiply decimals 258 To divide decimals 259 Table of useful decimals 259 Decrease and Expectation of Human Life 216 Table, showing the decrement and expectation of human life. . . 216 Table of St. Maur 217 Definitions of Mathematical Forms 292 Parallel Lines 292 An Angle 292 A Eight Angle 292 An Acute Angle 292 An Obtuse Angle 292 A Surface 292 A Triangle 292 The Altitude 292 CONTENTS. 481 PAOB A Eight Angle Triangle 293 A Parallelogram 293 A Rectangle 293 A Square 293 A Trapezoid 293 The Altitude 293 A Circle 293 The Circumference 293 The Diameter 293 The Radius 293 A Solid 294 A Prism 294 Triangular Prism 294 ' Hexagonal Prism 294 Cylinder 294 Cube 294 A Pyramid 294 The Altitude. 294 A Cone 294 A Frustum 295 An Ellipse 295 ASphere 295 A Spheroid 295 Depth of sowing Wheat 193 Diet, Solid Matter and Water in Articles of 198 Table, showing the proportion of solid matter and water in 100 parts each of various articles of diet 198 482 CONTENTS. , pAas Draining Tile 362 How to make a drain 364 Different kinds of tile used 364 Boynton's improvement in making tile 365 Rules to be observed in making tile drains 367 Size and quantity of tile required to the acre 368 Tools used in laying drain tile 370 How to make drain tile, Illustrated 373 Why should land be drained 373 The effects of drainage 374 Dry Measure, table 162 E. Earth, Pressure of, against Walls 255 English Money, table 149 " Gold and silver coin 149 " Copper coin 150 Canadian currency 150 Exhaustion of Soils (see soils, exhaustion of) 320 Expectation and Decrease of Human Life 216 Table, showing the decrement and expectation of human life. . . 216 St. Maur's Table 217 F. False Balances, Illustrated 84 To detect false balances 84 To find the true weight 84 Fences and Fencing, Illustrated 125 CONTENTS. 483 PAGB Eail fence 126 Table, showing the number of rails, stakes, and riders required for each 10 rods of fence 127 Post and rail fence 128 Table, showing the number of posts and rails required for each 10 rods of post and rail fence 128 Post and board fence 128 To find the number of feet of boards required for each rod of post and board fence 129 To find the number of posts required for a given length of post and board fence 129 Penoes, Hedge (see hedge plants) 130 Fences, Wire 134 Pood of Animals (see animals, food of), Illustrated 212 Pood for Stock, Steaming 415 Practions (see decimals) 257 Table of useful decimals 259 Freights, By-laws of N. Y. Chamber of Commerce 442 PUEL 113 Table, showing the comparative values of fire woods 113 Table, showing the weights per cubic foot of difierent kinds of coal 115 Properties of charcoal 116 To prepare charcoal 115 Table, showing the number of parts of charcoal afforded by 100 parts of different kinds of wood 118 Coke 118 484 CONTENTS. PAGS Table, showing the weight, evaporative powers for weight, bulk, and character of fuel 119 Combustible matter of fuel 120 Table, showing the heating power of different combustibles 121 Table, showing the effects of heat upon certain bodies 121 Table, showing the relative value of different fuels by weight. . . 121 Table, showing the number of gallons of water which may be lifted to various heights by the consumption of 112 lbs. of coal 122 Table, showing the price of parts of a cord of wood at given rates per cord 123 G. GrARDEN SeEDS, QUANTITT OF, TO PLANT, &C 192 GrARDENING FOR MaRKET 428 Size, arrangement, and equipment of the garden 430 Construction and care of the hot-bed 432 Profits of the same 434 Management of field crops 435 Vegetables best adapted for market 437 Harvesting the crops 440 Prices of early vegetables 441 Profits of the business 446 GrAUGiNG, Cask, Illustrated 78 GrLUE, TO MELT AND APPLY 473 GrOATS, TO FIND THB AGE OF 208 GrOVERNMENT LaND MeASURE 50 GrRAiN, MEAsr"JKi«NT OF, IN GRANARIES, Illustrated 60 CONTENTS. 485 PAOB GrRAiN, Weight op, as established by the Legislatures of the diflfer- ent States 189 GrRAIN, PER CENT. OF OiL IN 191 G-RAIN, QUANTITY OP, TO SOW PER ACRE, &C 192 G-RAViTY, Specipio, Illustrated 182 To find the specific gravity of a body 183 " " " " " " " lighter than water 183 To reduce the gravity of a body to its weight in lbs. per cubic foot 184 Table, showing the specific gravity of various bodies 185 To find the weight of a cubic foot of substance, the specific grav- ity being given . . ; 185 To find the number of cubic feet in any irregular body 186 Table, showing the weight of a cubic foot of diflferent substances 187 0. Hat, Measurement op, Illustrated 51 To find the number of tons of hay raked into windrows 52 " " " " " " in a mow 52 " " " " " "in old stacks 53 " " " " " " in long, square stacks 53 " " " " " " when taken out of old mows or stacks 54 Table, showing the price per cwt. of hay at given prices per ton 54 An easy mode of ascertaining the value of a given number of lbs. of hay at a given price per ton of 2000 lbs 55 Heat, Effects of, on different Bodies 121 Heating inclosed Air 122 486 CONTENTS. PAGE Heating by Steam-pipe 123 Hedge Plants 130 Directions for setting and trimming 131 To preserve plants during the winter 131 Setting evergreens 131 Osage orange 132 Honey locust 132 Buck thorn 132 Privit 132 Hawthorn 133 Norway spruce 133 Arbor vitae 133 Hemlock 133 Hop, Analysis of, Illustrated 323 Horse Power. Illustrated 136 Horse Power, origin and definition of. 139 Table, showing the labor one horse is able to perform at different rates of speed on canals, railroads, and turnpikes 140 Table, showing how much one team and plough will perform in a day in acres and tenths 141 Draught of a horse 136 Power of the horse when aided by horse-mill 136 Travel per day of the horse 136 Burden of the horse 136 Endurance of the horse 139 To compute the power of a waterfall 139 <* «* " " of a steam-engine 140 CONTENTS. 487 PAGB To find the age of the horse 201 Food of the horse 213 House Painting 460 Human Strength 135 Hydraulics, Illustrated 93 The fundamental laws of hydraulics, &c 93 To find the velocity of a stream issuing from a head of water. . . 95 To find the head, the velocity being given : 96 To find the quantity of water that will issue from an opening, the dimensions of the opening and the head being given 96 To find the velocity of currents in ditches, sluices, brooks or rivers 97 To find the volume of water discharged by drains, sluices, brooks, &c., of given dimensions, in a given time 98 To find the velocity of water running through pipes 98 To find the quantity of water discharged through pipes 99 To find the pressure of a fluid on the bottom of a vessel, cistern, or reservoir 100 To find the pressure on the side of a vessel 100 Hydraulic Ram, the. Illustrated 103 To ascertain the quantity of water and the height to which it may be elevated by a given fall and volume of water 105 Working results of water rams now in use 106 Hydraulic Press, the, Illustrated. 110 Ice House, to construct an 399 Ice, Strength of 271 488 CONTENTS. PAGE Illustrations, List op 17 Inclined Plane, Illustrated 282 Interest, Simple 218 Interest, Compound 218 Table of simple interest at 7 per cent, for each day to a month, from $1 to $100 222 Table of simple interest at 6 per cent, for each day to a month, from $1 to $100. 224 Table, showing the interest of $1 to $5,000 from 1 day to 2000 days, at 6 or 7 per cent 220 Iron, weight of square rolled, Illustrated 273 " " " ROUND " 275 K. Keeping Accounts (see accounts, keeping of) 227 By single entry, with examples 227 By double entry, with examples 229 Land, Measurement of, Illustrated 43 When the field is a square, a parallelogram, a rhombus, or a rhom- boid 44 When the field is triangular 44 When the field is a trapezium or trapezoid 45 When the field is an irregular polygon 45 When the field is long and the sides crooked and irregular 46 When the field is long and the sides and ends crooked.and irregular 46 When the field is a circle 47 CONTENTS. 489 PAGS Plots containing an acre 47 Table, showing the square feet and the feet square of the fractions of an acre 48 Table, showing the number of hills or plants on an acre, for any distance apart, from 10 inches to 6 feet — the lateral and longi- tudinal distances being unequal 48 Table, showing the number of plants, hills, or trees contained in an acre at equal distances apart, from 3 inches up to 66 feet. . 49 Land Measure, Government 50 Laths, size of, number in a bundle, &c 279 Latitude 24 Lead Pipe, weight of 112 Table, showing the weight of lead pipe per yard from i to 4-i- inches diameter 112 Table, showing the weight of very light lead pipe 112 Lever, the. Illustrated 279 Life and Increase of Animals, Illustrated 197 Table, showing the period of reproduction and gestation of ani- mals and fowls 198 Table, showing when forty weeks (the period of gestation in a cow) will expire from any day throughout the year 199 G-rowth and life of animals 199 Life, Decrease and Expectation of 216 Table, showing the decrement and expectation of life 216 Table of St. Maur 217 Lightning Rods, Illustrated 251 To construct a lightning-rod 251 490 CONTENTS. PA6B Conductors of electricity 253 Non-conductors 253 Dr. Franklin's theory 253 Liquors, proportion of Alcohol in 190 List of Illustrations 17 Logs reduced to Inch-board Measure 70 Table, showing the number of feet (board measure) of inch boards contained in round saw-logs of various dimensions. . . 71 Longitude (see seasons, &c.), Illustrated 19 Long Measure, table 167 M. Manures 327 The use of manures 328 Kules in deciding what manures should be used 331 Classification of manures 332 Mineral manures 332 Vegetable manures 332 Animal manures 332 Analysis of fish-guano 332 Analysis of Peruvian guano 333 Analysis of BoUvian guano 333 How to select a good article of guano 334 How to apply guano 334 Analysis of bone (crushed) manure 335 Table, showing the comparative value of animal manures, with fiarm-yard manure as the standard 335 CONTENTS. 491 PAOK vegetables as manures 336 Distinction between animal and vegetable manures 336 Table, showing the relative values of decomposed vegetables as manures from the inorganic matter they contain 336 Table, showing the relative value of decomposed vegetables as manures from the nitrogen they contain 336 Analysis of a manure-heap in the condition usually applied to the field 337 Analysis of other specimens of fresh farm-yard manure 338 Analysis of green sand marl (of New Jersey) 340 " Digestion and its products " '341 Yalue of liquid manures 344 Poudrette and urate 345 Analysis of night-soil 346 The dry earth system 347 Invention of Rev. Mr. Moule 347 To construct earth closets and their use 348 Table, showing the eflfect produced on the quantity of the crop by equal quantities of diifferent manures applied to the same soil 351 Table, showing the comparative increase of corn by different fertilizers 350 Moisture absorbed by different manures 351 Table, showing the number of loads of manure and the number of heaps to each load required to each acre, the heaps at given distances apart 352 Weight of manure per cubic foot 353 492 CONTENTS. PAOS Load of manure, how mucli it is 353 To find the number of loads of manure required to the acre for a given number of lbs. per square foot 354 Manures, Artificial 354 Analysis of Mape's improved superphosphate of lime 358 Analysis of Coe's superphosphate 358 Analysis of Deburg's bone meal 358 Analysis of bone dust 359 Analysis of fish guano 359 Prices of standard fertilizers > 360 Average composition per cent, and per ton of various agricultural products 361 Marking Goods 247 Market, Gardening for 446 Masonry, Illustrated 276 To find the number of perches in stone walls 276 Brick-work 277 Dimensions of bricks 277 To find the number of bricks in a wall 277 Laths 278 Materials, Strength of 264 Tensile strength 264 Table, showing the weight in lbs. necessary to tear asunder one square inch of various materials 264 To find the tensile strength 265 Table, showing the strength of iron- wire rope and hempen cable 266 To find the strength of cables 266 CONTENTS. 493 PAGE To find the strength of ropes and hawsers 267 Table, showing what weight hemp rope will bear with safety . . . 267 Strength of metal and wooden rods 267 Hempen cords 268 Lateral or transverse strength 268 Table, showing the transverse strength of timber 268 Tables, showing the transverse strength of iron 269 To find the transverse strength when the bar or beam is fixed at one end, and the load applied at the other 269 When the bar or beam is fixed at both ends and the weight apphed in the middle 270 When the bar or beam is supported at both ends, and the weight applied in the middle 270 Table, showing the resistance of materials to crushing 271 Strength of ice 271 Mathematical Forms, Definitions of, Illustrated 292 Measurement of Land (see land, measurement of). Illustrated 43 " Hay (see hay, measurement of), Illustrated 51 " Grain in Q-ranaries, Illustrated 60 " Timber (see timber measurement). Illustrated ... 61 Measures and Weights, tables of U. S. (see weights and mea- sures) 145 ! Measures of Capacity compared : 163 Tables of English weights and measures 163 Mechanical Powers, Illustrated 279 The lever, Illustrated 279 The inclined plane, Illustrated 282 494 CONTENTS. PAOH The wheel and the axle 284 The wedge, Illustrated 286 The screw, Illustrated 288 The pulley, Illustrated , 290 Metals, fusing heat of 121 Metric System of Weights and Measures 173 " " origin and history of. 173 " " countries that have adopted the 173 " " act of Congress authorizing 174 " " formation of tables 176 " " table of hnear measure 177 " " table of square measure 178 " " table of cubic or sohd measure 179 " " table of dry and liquid measure 179 " " table of weights 180 " " table of angles 181 " " tables of equivalents 181 Milk, Properties and Composition of 387 Analysis of milk 387 Table, showing the effects of various degrees of heat in making new milk cream 387 Analysis of the milk of different animals 390 Miscellaneous Weights 153 Mixing Paints 460 Money (see United States Money) 145 Mortar, brown, for Masonry, Brick-work, &c 463 CONTENTS. 495 N. PAOK Nutritive value of certain Crops 190 Table, showing the nutritive value of certain crops 190 o. Oil, per cent, in dififerent seeds, grain, &c 191 Table, showing the per cent, of oil in different seeds, grain, &c.. . 191 Osage Orange — hedge plants 130 P. Painting 460 House painting 460 Mixing paints 463 A beautiful white paint 463 A pure white paint 464 Common white paint 464 For knotting 464 Common flesh color 464 Fine flesh color 464 A beautiful color for carriages 464 Cream color • • 464 Pearl gray 464 Fawn color 464 Blue 465 Buff 465 Straw -^65 Drab ^^^ Steel 465 496 CONTENTS. PAGE Purple 465 Violet 465 French gray 465 Silver 465 Gold • 465 Dark chestnut 466 Salmon 466 Peach blossom 466 Drab 466 Lead 466 Chocolate 466 Dark red 466 Orange 466 Bright yell9w 466 Dark yellow 467 Light yellow. 467 OUve green 467 Light green 467 Grass green 468 Invisible green 468 Bronze 468 Imitation of gold 468 Tar paint 468 Paint driers 468 Milk paint. 469 Lime whitewash 469 Italian marble 470 CONTENTS. 497 PAOB Imitation granite 471 Oak varnish 471 Oil varnisli 471 Varnish for pictures 471 Varnish for unpainted wood 472 Waterproof varnish for cloth, &c 472 Pendulums (see time, seasons, &c.), Illustrated 31 Plank Measure 62 Table, showing the contents (board measure) of planks of various dimensions 67 Plants (see hedge plants) 130 Pork, relation of Corn to 194 Table, showing the price of pork per lb., at diflferent prices per bushel for corn 194 To find the price of pork per lb., the price of corn being given . . 195 To find the price of corn, the price of pork being given 195 Post and Rail Fence (see fences), Illustrated .' 128 Post and Board " (see fences) 128 Powers, the Mechanical, Illustrat,ed 279 Practical Reader, to the 11 Preface 7 Pressure of Earth against Walls 255 Printing, facts about 260 The different types used in book printing 260 The number of ems made by different type 261 Press-work 262 Sizes of books 262 498 CONTENTS. PAGE Table, showing the number of leaves and pages from the folding of a sheet 263 Properties and Composition of Milk, Butter, &c 387 Proportion of Alcohol in Liquors 190 " Weight to Bulk of various Substances 193 Pulley, the. Illustrated , 290 R. Rail Fence, Illustrated 126 Rain, average fall of (see temperature and average fall of rain).. 67 Relative value of Gold and Currency 243 Table, showing the greenback value of $1 at the different quota- tions of gold 243 Highest quotation of gold in New York during the civil war. . 244 " " " " Richmond " " " " .. 244 English bonds and consols, explanation of. 244 " Selling Short," explanation of 245 " Seller's Option," •' " 245 " Buyer's Option," " " 245 Stock Quotations, " " 246 " Bull," commercial definition of 245 " Bear," " " « 245 " Stag," " « « 245 Rods, Lightning 251 To construct a lightning-rod ....*. 251 Roots, Square and Cube, table of 303 CONTENTS. 499 PAOB Rotation of Crops 378 " field crops 385 " garden crops , 386 s. Scantling Measure 72 Table, showing the contents (board measure) of scantling of various dimensions 72 Screw, the, Illustrated 288 Seasons, Time, &c. (see time), Illustrated 19 Seeds, weight of, as established by the Legislatures of the different States 189 Seeds, oil per cent, in 191 " quantity of, to sow or plant per acre, &c 192 Sheep, to find the age of 208 Soiling Cattle 401 Experiments by the author 402 Arrangement of crops for soiling 405 Arguments in favor of soihng : 409 Soils, Exhaustion of 320 Table, showing the organic substances removed from the soil in 1000 lbs. each of the various crops 321 Table, showing the inorganic matter removed from the soil in 1000 lbs. each of the various crops 321 Table, showing the Mnds of inorganic matter removed from the soil in 1000 lbs, each of the various crops 322 500 CONTENTS. PAOB Analysis of the hop, showing the elements it removes from the soil 323 Table, showing amount of inorganic matter removed from the soil by ten bushels of grain 324 Soils 311 Classification of soils 312 To analyze soils 313 Q-eneral results of analytical examinations of soils 316 Table, showing the composition in 1000 parts of diflferent soils. . . 317 Analytic table of three very fertile soils 317 Analytic table of arable lands of great fertility 318 Depth of soil — its importance 318 Table, showing the weight per cubic foot of the different kinds of earth 319 Solders 473 Lead solder 473 Tin solder 473 Solid Matter and Water in articles of Diet 188 Table, showing the proportion of solid matter and water in 100 parts each of the various articles of diet 188 Specific GtRAVity (see gravity), Illustrated 182 Square Measure, table 165 Squares and Square Roots, table of, from 1 to 1000 303 Steaming Food for Stock 415 Report of the Department of Agriculture ■ 416 How to make a steaming apparatus 421 Prindle's Agricultural Steamer and Cauldron (Illustrated) 423 CONTENTS. 501 PAGB Advantages of cooked food 425 Steam Cultivation, Illustrated 450 Advantages claimed 452 Report of the Royal Agricultural Society 455 Stock, Steaming Food for 415 Stock Quotations 246 Strength, Human 135 Strength of Materials (see materials, strength of) 264 Success in Business 246 Short credits 246 Small profits 246 Economy in expense 247 Marking goods 247 Surveyors' Measure, table 168 T. Tempkrature and fall of Rain, average of 37 Table, showing the average temperature of the four seasons at points on the Pacific and Atlantic coasts, and the interior of this continent , 37 Periodical rains, region of. 38 Frequent rains, " 39 Scanty rains, " 39 Table, showing the latitude and longitude, the elevation above the level of the sea, the mean annual temperature, and the average fall of rain in various places in the United States 49 Tile Draining (see draining) 362 602 CONTENTS. PAGE Timber, Measurement of, Illustrated 61 Board measure 62 To ascertain the contents (board measure) of boards, scantling, and plank 62 Table, showing the contents of inch boards from 6 inches to 30 broad, and from 4 to 24 feet long 63 Square timber 65 To measure square timber 65 Plank measure 62 Table, showing the contents (board measure) of planks of various dimensions 67 Eound and square timber 64 To measure round timber. Illustrated 65 Logs reduced to inch-board measure 70 Table, showing the number of feet (board measure) of inch boards contained in round saw-logs of various dimensions. ... 71 Time, Seasons, &c., Illustrated 19 To reduce longitude to time 19 Time, apparent and mean 21 To ascertain the length of the day and night 21 Pendulums, Illustrated 31 To find the length of a pendulum for a given number of vibra- tions per minute 31 To find the vibrations per minute, the length of the pendulum being given • 32 Measure of time, table. Illustrated 26 Division of the calendar year 26 CONTENTS. 603 PAOB Old Style (0. S.) and new style (N. S.) 27 Decade, what period it is.. 27 Century, " " " 27 Lunar Cycle, what it is 27 Golden Number, what it is 27 Solar Cycle, what it is 28 To find the lunar cycle or golden number 28 Table, showing the number of days from any day in the month to the same day in any other 28 Table, finding the number of days between two dates 29 Table, showing the planets, &c., in the solar system 27 Distance of the planets, and size compared with the earth 32 u. United States Bonds, explanation of. 242 Five-Twenties 242 Ten-Forties 242 Seven-Thirties 242 Sixper cents, of '81 243 United States Monet, table 145 " " Gold coin 146 " " Silver coin 147 " " Copper coin 148 Alloy of Gold and Silver 147 V. Velocity, table of 188 ^MUMiliidb 604 CONTENTS. PAGE Wages 224 Table of wages at $3 to $25 per month of 26 working days 224 Wagon-beds, Capacity of, Illustrated 82 'I'o find the contents of wagon-beds 82 Walls, pressure of Earth against 255 Water Ram, Illustrated 103 Weather 33 Table, for telling the weather through all the lunations of the year 33 Wedge, the. Illustrated 286 Weights and Measures, tables of U. S., Illustrated 145 Long measure 167 Hair's breadth 168 Gunter's chain 168 Ropes and cables 168 G-eographical and nautical measure 169 Miscellaneous long measures ! 168 Measures of circles 23 Measures of surfaces 165 Land measure 43 Paper measure 263 Liquid measure 160 Standard gallon measure 161 Dry measure 162 Standard bushel measure 162 Imperial or British bushel 163 Miscellaneous dry measures 163 CONTENTS. 505 PASS Measure of weights, avoirdupois 153 Troy weight 156 Troy weight reduced to avoirdupois 157 Diamond measure 157 Measure of time 25 Measure of value 145 Standard of gold and silver 148 Miscellaneous weights and measures , 153 Heaping measure 163 Barrel measure 153 Ton weight and ton measure 172 A sack of wool 155 A pack of wool 155 A truss of hay 56 A load of hay 56 A bale of hay 56 A firkin of butter 155 A bale of cotton 155 Weight, Compute, of Cattle, Illustrated 209 Weight op Lead Pipe 112 Weights of Grain, Seeds, &o 189 Table, showing the weight of grain, seeds, &c., as established by the Legislatures of the different States 189 Weight of Square Kolled Iron 273 Table, showing the weight of square rolled iron from ^ inch to 12 inches, and 1 foot long 273 Weight of Round Rolled Iron 275 506 CONTENTS. PAQB Table, showing the weight of round rolled iron from ^ inch to 12 inches diameter and 1 foot long 276 Weight, proportion of, to bulk of various substances 193 Table, showing the weight per cubic foot of various substances, and the number of cubic feet required to make a ton of each.. 193 Wheat, depth of Sowing 193 Wheel and Axle 284 Whitewash 469 Wind 35 Table, showing the force and velocity of wind 36 To find the force of wind acting against a surface 35 Wire Fences 134 Wood Measure, Illustrated 62 To ascertain the number of cords in a given pile of wood 62 ,, OF THE UjMIVERSfTY OF Prom Bishop SCOTT, of the M. E. Church. I am glad you are about to bring out an unabridged edition of Conybeare and Howson's great book, '' The Life, Times and Travels of St. Paul." I have been acquainted with it for several years, and regard it as the most precious treasure of uninspired literature that the lover of Biblical knowledge can possess. Let it fly on the wings of favoring breezes, and become the familiar household friend in every family in the land. I wish you great success in your noble Christian enterprise. Odessa, Del., December 25th, 1868. Prom T. W. WOOLSEY, D.D. LL.D., President of Yale College. Conybeare and Howson's work has such a permanent acknowledged value that nothing need be said in commendation of it. The more it is diffused the better. I should regard the original work as far better than the most skillfully executed abridgment. Yale College, December 23rd, 1868. Prom Rev. HENRY WARD BEECHER, Pastor of Plymouth Congregational Church, Brooklyn. I have used Conybeare and Howson's '' Life and Epistles of St. Paul" ever since the first publication, and with ever increasing interest and benefit. Good for all Clergymen. It would be a mistake to suppose the volume less well suited to a layman's library. I can conscientiously recommend the work for every intelligent Christian household and library. Brooklyn, December 19th, 1868. Prom Rev, PHILIP SCHAPP, D.D., Church Historian and Editor '■'■hangers Commentary .^^ As a complete biography of the Great Apostle of the Gentiles for the general reader, the well-known work of Conybeare and Howson has no superior in English literature. It is full of reliable and well digested information in an elegant and pleasing style, and breathes a devout and truly Christian spirit. New York, December 15th, 1868. Prom Rev. W. ADAMS, D.D., Pastor of Madison Square Presbyterian Church. I am happy to hear that you propose to publish an edition of the " Life and Epistles of St. Paul," by Conybeare and IIowson, unabridged, with all its valuable maps and illustrations, yet in a single volume, and at a reduced price. The work itself 1 have always regarded as one of the most interesting and instructive of modern times. It fortifies the evidences of Christianity by showing its relations to geography, history and monumental testimonies. It gives wonderful freshness and life to the perufial of the Book of the Acts and the Holy Epistles. It would he injustice to the authors, and to their subject^ to attempt any abridgment of such a work. An edition wiihin the reach of general readers, with no diminution of contents, must prove, in my judgment, of yreat service to letters and religion. New York, December 17th, 18t8. Prom Rev. H. D. NORTE ROP, Pastor of the West 2Sd Street Presbyterian Church. Dr Boardman's endorsement of this work cannot be considered too emphatic. All who examine it must admit that it is a valuable contribution to our theological litera- ture. It is clear, concise, comprehensive — ,just such a book as ought to be read and studied, and one ' f the books that it pays to buy. New York, December 19ih, 1868. Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1868 by E. B. Tbfat & Co. in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United btatts lor the Southern District of New York. A Book of Great Value to Old and Young. JUST ISSUED. OF FACTS AND FIGURES. Historical, Documentary, Statistical and Political. From the Foundation of the Government to the Present Time. 1 VOL., 408 PAGES, I2M0. COMPILED FROM OFFICIAL SOURCES. Much labor and care has been spent in the preparation of this work, and it is now offered to the public in the belief that it is, as its title purports, a ready Hand-book of facts and figures, bearing upon all the important matters per- taining to our National History. Thus : If you wish to know the spirit which actuated our forefathers during the seven years war of the Revolution, by turning to its pages you will find it, in the language of the immortal Declaration of Independence, culminating in the con- federation of the Colonies, the adoption of the Federal Constitution, with various amendments to the present time. If you want to know the origin and history of the emblem of our nation- ality, The Stars and Stripes you will find full particulars in an article written ex- pressly for this book, by the distinguished historian, J. T. Headley. In its pag'cs are found the following important documents. The Nullifica- tion Proclamation to South Carolina, which made President Jackson so famous. The Monroe Doctrine, and the Neutrality Laws of the United States. It contains all the important slavery documents which have agitated the country for the past half century ; viz, the various Fugitive Slave Bills, Statis- tics of Slavery during our colonial history, the Missouri Compromise Act, the Dred Scott Decision, Slave Population in 1860, the Constitutional Amendments, Abolishing Slavery, &c., and following these may be found Washington's First Inaugural and Farewell Address. If you wish to know the important acts of the late President Lincoln, you will here find the first call for troops to put down the Rebellion, with a table of the various calls ; the Blockading Proclamation, the Emancipation Proclamation, his first and last Inaugural, '* with malice toward none, with charity for all,^^ &c. If you wish to know the popular and electoral vote of each candidate for the Presidency of the different political parties, you have in concise form the figures from Washington, down to 1868. If you wish to know the number of killed and wounded in putting down the Rebellion, you here have the official figures of the Provost Marshal General, also the number of troops furnished by each State during the war. It contains a chronology of important events of the war with statistics of over eleven hundred battles and skirmishes of the war, with the loss on each side ac far as known. It contains a complete table from official sources of the prizes cap- tured and vessels destroyed by our navy, in violation of the Blockade, also a full list of Union vessels captured or destroyed by Rebel Privateers. In its pages may be found the Civil Rights Bill, the Freedmen s Bureau Bill, the Bankrupt Act, the Tenure of Office Bill, the various Reconstruction measures of Congress, with numerous State papers and statistical matter, that should be familiar to all. MEN AND WOMEN WANTED EVERYWHERE IN THE SALE OF THIS WORK. Price, $ To Agents, 9 Ver Doz. $ Per Hundred. SENT POST PAID UPON BECKIPT OK K.KTAIL PRICK. E. B. TEEAT & CO., Publishers, 654 Broadway, N. T. UNIVERSIT' OF CATJFOENTA TJPT7ABY BLRKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Rooks not returned on time are subject to a fine of 50c per volume Ster the third day overdue, increasing to $1 00 per^olume after the sixth day.. 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