Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/commercialindustOOmacfrich COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY A TEXT BOOK FOR SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND PRIVATE • REFERENCE BY JOHN J. MACFARLANE, A.M. LIBRARIAN OF THE PHILADELPHIA COMMERCIAL MUSEUM EDITED BY EDWIN HEBDEN, A.M. PRINCIPAL GROUP A BALTIMORE PUBLIC SCHOOLS SADLER-ROWE COMPANY. EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHERS BALTIMORE, MD. H? \0^ _^3 COPYRIGHTED IQOI SADLER-ROWE COMPANY WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY PRESS BALTIMORE . PREFACE. The rapid expansion of the foreigfn trade and the increasing domestic commerce of the United States have made it necessary for the business man to inform himself as to the kind, quantity and value of the various natural and manufactured products that are bought and sold in the markets of the world. It is also desirable for him to know why certain countries have controlled certain lines of trade in the past and whether present conditions are such that he may compete successfully in the world's neutral markets. The author is daily called upon to answer questions coming from students, teachers and business men bearing upon such topics touch- ing the industry and commerce of the world. In the preparation of this book it is assumed that the student already has a fair knowledge of political and physical geography. Commodities are first treated separately following the classification given in the United States Government reports. The processes of manufacture of some of the more important articles are incidentally given in order to aid in understanding any peculiarities in them affecting the course of trade. The countries in each continent are next considered in the order of their importance to the trade of the United States. The physical and other conditions affecting trade are also considered as well as the weights and measures, the currency, and the languages in use in each country. Trade routes, government revenues, aids to commerce, instruments of exchange, and the metric system, and their effect upon commerce are treated in separate chapters. Statistics are used only to the extent necessary to show the rela- tive importance of the various commodities and different countries engaged in the world's trade. For United States imports and exports those of the fiscal years ending June 30 are given, as these are the only periods for which complete statistics are published. For the other 92380 countries the statistics g-iven are in most cases for calendar years. In all cases round numbers are g^iven. More complete statistics are collected in an appendix which will be revised from time to time. It is also intended that the student shall draw largely from the reports issued by the United States Gov- ernment in the preparation of his class room exercises, thus keeping" the book ''always up to date." Charts are freely interspersed through- out the book, graphically showing the progress of trade and also the relative importance of various countries in the trade in certain com- modities. Charts, simple in form, have been adopted in order that the stu- dent may be encouraged to construct original charts on similar forms whicii are to be furnished. In the production maps only those regions of commercial importance are indicated. Maps showing- the promi- nent commercial features of each country are also g^iven. From the list of supplementary publications gfiven in the appendix it will be seen that teachers can have at their command without cost a vast storehouse of commercial and industrial information. When collections of products can be obtained or commercial museums visited they will be found important adjuncts to the study of com- mercial and industrial geography. The author is greatly indebted to Mr. Edwin Hebden for the valu- able advice and assistance given him in the editing of the work and in adapting it to the present day requirements of the school room, and also to Mr. H. M. Rowe for many helpful sug-gestions and criticisms. Free use has been made of government reports, especially of the Monthly Summary of Finance and Commerce of the United States and the monographs published in them prepared by Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department. The works of English gfeographers such as Herbertson, Keltic, Meiklejohn, Bartholomew and Chisolm, and American geographers as Gannett, Shaler, Davis, Tarr and others, the Mineral Industries by Rothwell and the Cyclopedia of Commerce, and Cyclopedia of Common Things have been freely used. The Author. Contents. Page. PREFACE iii INTRODUCTION: Relation of Commerce and Industry to Geography i Natural Forces: Motions of the Earth 2 Atmosphere 3 Weight of— Barometric Pressure •. . . . 3 Temperature — Isotherms 4 Motion — Winds 5 Permanent: — Trades, Doldrums, Westerlies 5 Periodic: — Monsoons, Land and Sea Breeze 6 Irregular: — Sirocco, Solano, Chinook, Khamsin, Simoon. . 7 Moisture — Rainfall 8 Climatic Regions: Tropical, Sub-tropical, Warm Temperate, Cool Temperate, Sub- arctic 9 Animal Life 10 Progress of Man's Industries:— Hunting, Fishing, Pastoral, Agricultural, Manufacturing 10 International Date Line 13 Standard Time 14 U. S. Weather Bureau 15 Part I. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. INTRODUCTION 19 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE: Food Products of Vegetable Origin: Cereals: — BreadstufTs 21 Wheat 21 Maize, or Indian Corn ,26 Oats 29 Barley 3° Rye • 31 Buckwheat 3i Other Cereals:— Rice, Millet 3^ V Food Products of Vegetable Origin— Con tifiued. Page. Fruits and Nuts: Fruits: — Apples, Prunes, Grapes, Raisins, Currants, Bananas, Oranges, Lemons, Limes, Citrons, Dates, Figs, Pineapples. . 34 Nuts:— Almonds, Cocoanuts, Chestnuts, Brazilnuts 38 Vegetables ' 39 Farinaceous Foods 41 Spices and Condiments 42 Stimulants 43 Aromatip, or Non-Alcoholic Stimulants: Coffee 43 Tea 46 Cocoa. . . . • 50 Mate. 51 Alcoholic Stimulants: Wine 52 Distilled Spirits: Alcohol, Brandy, Rum, Whiskey 54 Malt Liquors: — Beer 55 Narcotics: Tobacco 59 Opium 62 Hops ' 63 Sugar: Cane Sugar, or Sucrose:— Sugar Cane, Beet Root, Maple, Sorghum, Palm 64 Glucose, or Grape Sugar 66 Molasses and Sirup 71 Food Products of Animal Origin: Live Stock: Cattle, Sheep, Hogs 71 Provisions: Beef Products— Hog Products, Mutton, Oleomargarine 75 Dairy Products— Milk, Butter, Cheese yy Poultry— Eggs 80 Raw Materials of Vegetable Origin: Textile Fibres 81 Surface Fibres : Cotton 81 Bast Fibres : t/ Flax, Hemp, Jute, Ramie 85 Structural Fibres : Manila Hemp, Sisal Hemp 89 vi Raw Materials of Vegetable Origin — Continued. Page. Vegetgible Oils, Oil Seeds, and Oil Cakes 90 Fixed, or Expressed, Oils : Olive, Linseed, Palm, Cocoanut, Peanut, Cottonseed, Corn 90 Essential, or Volatile, Oils: Lavender, Bergamot, Attar of Roses, Peppermint, Turpen- tine 95 Gums, Gum-Resins, Resins, and Rubbers : Gums — Arabic, Senegal, Tragacanth 96 Gum-Resins — Myrrh, Frankincense, Benzoin, Assafoetida. . . 96 Resins— Rosin, Pitch, Copal, Kauri-gum 97 Rubbers — Caoutchouc, Gutta-Percha 97 Dye-Stuffs: Dye-woods — Logwood, Fustic, Brazil-wood, Quercitron. . . . loi Other Dye-stuffs— -Indigo, Madder, Annatto 102 Tanning Materials: Barks— Oak, Hemlock, Wattle 103 Fruits — Valonia, Myrobolans, Divi-divi 103 Leaves — Sumac 104 Extracts — Cutch, Gambler 104 Galls — Nutgalls 104 Raw Materials of Animal Origin : Wool 104 Silk 109 Hides and Skins 113 Bones, Horn, Hoofs, Hair, Bristles. 114 Fur 116 Feathers 117 Ivory 118 PRODUCTS OF FOREST: Woods — Hard, Soft 121 PRODUCTS OF FISHERIES: Fish, Oysters 124 MINERAL PRODUCTS: Metallic: Iron and Steel 129 Gold 134 Silver 137 Copper 138 Lead, Zinc 140 vii MINERAL FRODUCTS-Confinued. Page. Aluminum, Mercury, Manganese, Antimony, Arsenic, Tin, Nickel, Platinum, Bismuth 141 Non-Metallic: Coal and Coke I44 Petroleum 151 Asphalt, Ozocerite 155 Structural Minerals: Stone, Clay, Cement 156 Abrasives: 158 Minor Products: Plumbago, or Graphite, Salt, Sulphur, Precious Stones, Asbestos, Mica. ' 160 PRODUCTS OF MANUFACTURE: Textiles: Cotton Manufactures 165 Woolen Manufactures 170 Silk Manufactures 172 Linen Manufactures 174 Iron and Steel 174 Leather 180 Chemicals: Drugs and Medicines 183 Commercial Chemicals 184 Fertilizers 186 Paper 189 Pottery 192 Glassware 194 Part 1 1. The climate and other physical conditions affecting the commercial progress of different countries, and their production, industries and commerce. By countries: ^ The United States: Its industrial and commercial progress, internal commerce and foreign trade Europe: United Kingdom Germany viii Europe — Continued. Page. France Netherlands Belgium Italy • Spain Denmark /Switzerland • . . Austria-Hungary Russia Sweden and Norway Other European Countries North America: British North America Mexico Cuba British West Indies Central America Puerto Rico Other West Indies Asia: British East Indies Japan China Dutch East Indies , Asiatic Russia . . , Turkey in Asia . Other Asia . , South America: Brazil Argentina Chile Venezuela Colombia Other South America Oceania: British Australasia . . Hawaii Philippine Islands . . Other Oceania . . Afkica: Page. British Africa Egypt Other Africa Part III. Power used in manufacturing— Animal, water, steam, electricity, etc. . Transportation — By means of animals, canals, ocean vessels, railroads, etc Communication — By mail, cable, telegraph and telephone Government revenues from commerce — Tariffs, internal revenue, etc. . . Government aids to commerce — Consular service, consular reports, depart- mental reports and investigations, subsidies Fairs, expositions, commercial museums, etc Instruments of exchange — Money, drafts, credits, etc The metric system — What it is, where it is used, and how its use would benefit foreign trade This edition is only the first part OF the complete book. For contents of second half see Parts II and III above. A sufficient number of the second HALF WILL BE BOUND SEPARATELY FOR THE USE OF THOSE WHO HAVE PURCHASED THE FIRST PART. ThE BOOK WILL THERE- AFTER BE BOUND IN ONE VOLUME. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. THE WORKING SCHEME. This work is intended to be something more than an illustrated essay on the subjects treated. It is intended rather as a working guide to the student in his investigation of the ever changing conditions of commercial geography, the purpose being to so train him as an investi- gator that he may group and analyse correctly the information given in the annual Government Reports touching the various subjects treated, from which as a business man he must glean his information. To accomplish this result four distinct methods of illustration have been adopted, which present most graphically the history and present status of the commercial and industrial commodities of the world, as follows : 1 Outline Maps showing regions and areas of production and con- sumption. See illustration, p. 22. 2 The Rectangular Chart to show proportionate production of commodities in the various countries of the world. See illustration, p. 23. 3 The Rectangular Line Chart to show the volumes of trade in the various commodities. See illustrations, pp. 25 and 45. 4 The Straight Line Chart to show per capita consumption in the various countries. See illustration, p. 46. ALWAYS UP TO DATE. It is intended that each pupil shall reproduce and continue similar charts, maps, etc., from information taken from the annual Government Reports bearing on the various subjects, on blanks to be provided, thus supplying a practical laboratory method in the gathering and assimila- tion of the various changes which are continually taking place in the production, value and trade importance of the various commodities, thus keeping the subject-matter "always up to date." Blank charts and maps will be supplied to teachers or schools by the publishers in any quantities desired. A Teacher's Syllabus, containing outlines for class work and instruction, with full directions for the use of the various Government Reports and documents in the preparation of supplementary charts, maps, drills and exercises, listed in the Appendix, will be supplied by the publishers to teachers who use this work as the regular text-book in their classes. The issue of the last half of this book has been delayed to include the figures of the 1900 Census. It will be ready early in the fall. SADLER-ROWE COMPANY, BALTIMORE, MD. REFERENCE BOOKS. A list of valuable Reference Books is given in the Appendix. Schools desiring to secure collections of products should correspond with the publishers of this book. COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. INTRODUCTION. Relation of Commerce and Industry to Geography. Natural Forces. Commercial and Industrial Geography treats of the numerous com- modities produced in the different parts of the world accessible to man ; whether they are found in a natural state and converted to the use of man, or cultivated and grown by his aid, or manufactured and changed in form or composition so as to be fitted for his use. It also treats of the markets for such commodities and their transportation. All pro- ductions of whatever kind come originally from the earth, but they are widely diverse in its different portions. While the soil and climate of one section may give an abundance of natural products, another may possess the water power necessary to work up these products, or a third may be most favorably located for their distribution. Natural conditions therefore determine in a great degree our productions and industries, and the routes for their transportation. Hence this branch of geography must take into consideration some of the physical features of the earth, its climates and seasons, conditions which determine markets and routes of travel, and the means for fixing their location; all as tending to make the earth useful to man and enable him to live upon it. Commercial Geography regards the world purely from a com- mercial and industrial standpoint. In this sense the Mississippi river is interesting, not because it is one of the longest rivers in the world, rising in Minnesota, and with its large tributaries serving«to drain its 2 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. great valley, but because it penetrates far into the interior of the conti- nent and is used by man as the natural channel by which a large portion of the products of the vast western prairies may be sent to other parts of the world to feed their teeming population. The Appalachian mountains are interesting, not because geologically they are the oldest range on the continent, but because on their slopes cattle and sheep may feed and timber grow, and in their interior iron and coal abound. This branch of geography, then, considers rivers as channels of trade, the ocean as the highway of (commerce, countries as producers or consumers. The diversity of climate, seasons, and regional conditions depends primarily upon the relation of the earth to the sun. Although the earth is distant about ninety-five million miles from the sun, never- theless all life on the earth is dependent upon the light and heat of the sun. Nor are the light and heat equally distributed and of equal effect on all parts of the earth at all times ; but by reason of the incli- nation of the earth's axis, its daily rotation thereon, and its annual journey around the sun, we have the great regions or zones of heat and cold, the succession of day and night, and the changes of the seasons. Even these are by no means absolutely exact in location, degree of intensity, or duration ; for, again owing to the effect of the sun on the land, on the water, and on the atmosphere, and to the daily rotation of the earth, the atmosphere is set in motion occasioning winds which drive our ships and still further distribute moisture and heat and cold, tides are affected, great movements of the waters arise — those currents of the ocean so important to the commerce of the world and powerful in their climatic effects — all acting and reacting one upon another. It will not be amiss, therefore, to review very briefly* some of these important factors for the better appreciation of their effects upon the productions of the earth and in their usefulness to man. The earth is nearly spherical in form. Its axis is inclined 23^° toward the plane of its orbit and always points to the North Star. It has two motions, the daily and the yearly motion. The daily motion *It is presumed in this book that the student has a fair working knowledge of Physical, Mathematical and Political Geography, and that he will make frequent references thereto as occasion demand's. COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY, 3 is the rotation of the earth on its axis from west to east once every twenty-four hours. Besides the succession of day and night, the deflec- tion of the trade winds in the equatorial region results from this motion. The annual motion is the revolution of the earth in its orbit once in 365 }4 days. The orbit, or ecliptic as it is also called, is the path in which the earth moves in its journey around the sun. As the earth's axis does not change the direction of its inclination, the earth in its annual revolution must present itself in different posi- tions toward the sun as it reaches different parts of its orbit, and thus receives the sun's rays directly and more or less obliquely on different parts of the surface at different times during the year. This produces not only the change of the seasons, but it also causes the regions of calms and of heavy daily rains in the tropical belt to move north and south with the sun. The earth is entirely surrounded by an envelope of gases called the atmosphere, or air. When the atmosphere moves along the sur- face of the earth we feel it in motion and speak of it as the wind; but when the air is warmed by the sun's heat, like everything else in nature it expands, becomes less heavy, bulk for bulk, and therefore rises directly from the earth's surface. This upward motion is not felt and we have calms. It is thus readily seen that the region of calms will be at or near that part of the earth's surface receiving the direct rays of the sun. (See Fig. 5.) The air is an actual substance and has weight. The height of the air, at the bottom of which we live, has been estimated at from one hundred to two hundred miles. The air, like all other gases, is elastic, and because of its weight the lower layers are denser than those above them. The weight of the air resting on any specified surface produces atmospheric pressure ; this at the sea level is about fifteen pounds to a square inch, or a ton per square foot; but the density of the air is continually changing, owing to heat and moisture, so that the weight or pressure constantly varies. The pressure of the air is measured by an instrument called a barometer. (Fig. 2.) The simplest form con- sists of a glass tube over thirty inches long, sealed at one end and then filled with mercury. The tube is inverted with the open end dipping into a cup of mercury, and the column sinks in the tube 4 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. leaving: a vacuum at the top till the pressure or weig-ht of the atmos- phere equals the weig-ht of the mercury in the tube. A graduated scale for determining the height of the column is attached. At the sea level the column is thirty inches long and weighs at the rate of fifteen pounds per square inch of base. When the air is cold and dry it is denser and heavier and the mercury stands higher in the tube ; when the air is warm and dry it expands, becomes less dense and therefore lighter and the mercury is lower ; and when it is moist and warm the air is the lightest and the barometer is the lowest. Consequently when the barometer falls rapidly it indicates that the air has rapidly changed to a less dense state, is lighter and is rising- from the surface. To supply its place the cooler, heavier air must rush in and a high wind results. Thus the barometer enables the mariner, the farmer, and all others to foresee the coming storm hours in advance to the great saving of property and often of life itself. The barometer may also be used to determine the height of mountains, the air becoming lighter as we ascend — the barometer falls one inch for every one thousand feet of ascent. The temperature of the air at any particular place depends upon — (a.) The inclination of the sun's rays. The nearer vertical the rays are the greater the heat, hence the intense heat of the tropical regions, (b.) The length of the day or the time the sun is above the horizon. The hottest region is not at the equator, where the days are twelve hours long, but FIG. 2. ^^ some point north or south where the days are still longer. In latitudes where the days and nights are very unequal in length, the land is subject to great changes of temperature. (c.) The elevation above the sea level. Highlands and mountain summits have low temperatures. There is a fall of one degree Fahren- heit for every 333 feet of ascent — at least up to an elevation of 5280 feet. The actual distribution of temperature throughout the earth has been obtained from thermometric observations. Lines drawn around the globe connecting all places which have the same temperature throughout the year or any part of the year are called Isotherms. These lines do not correspond with the parallels of COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. 5 latitude. The first map (Fig. 3) shows those places having the same averag-e temperature in January, the second (Fig. 4) in July. In the first map it will be seen that New York, 40° north, and Iceland, 62° north, both have an average of 32° Fahrenheit, while Lisbon, which is also 40° north, has a temperature of 50° Fahrenheit. The hottest region of the globe is the equatorial, the coldest the polar. As the air is hottest near the equator it is ever expanding and rising and flowing toward the poles, and the cold air from the poles is FIG 3. constantly flowing toward the equator to supply its place. If the earth were fixed, the winds would always blow directly north and south, but as the earth moves from west to east and more rapidly at the equator than at thirty degrees of latitude, the winds coming from the north become northeast winds and those coming from the south become south- east winds. Winds may be classed as permanent, periodic and irregular. The permanent winds are the Trades, the Doldrums, and the' Wester- lies. The Trade Winds are the most constant winds on the globe and 6 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. are known as the Northeast and Southeast Trades. They blow in the same direction all the year round over the surface of the ocean. The region of Trades begins about 28° north and south latitude and they blow toward the equator. The Doldrums, or zone of calms, lies between 3° and 10° north latitude. The larger oceans in the southern hemisphere make the southeast Trades stronger than the northeast and this pushes the region of calms north of the equator. The Doldrums alter, their place as the sun moves north or south and have a perpetual downpour of rain which is accompanied by terrible thunder storms. The Westerlies are found north or south of thirty degrees latitude. North of the equator the prevalent wind is the warm southwest ; south of the equator it is the warm northwest. These Westerlies blow on an average of two out of every thr^e days during the year. Periodic Winds : The chief periodic winds are the Monsoons, the best examples of which are found in the Indian ocean. The air over COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. 7 the immense plateaus of Asia becomes greatly heated and rarefied dur- ing the summer and deflects the northwest Trades from the Indian ocean, producing the southwest Monsoon which blows from May to September. The northwest Monsoon, which is properly the usual trade wind, blows from October to April. Land and Sea Breeze: During the day in tropical climates the shores of continents and islands become much warmer than the sea. This causes an ascending current of air over the land, and a sea breeze FIG. 5. results. During the night the shores cool more rapidly than the sea and a land breeze springs up. The change is gradual — a calm inter- venes between the two breezes. Irregular Winds : To this class belong winds having local names, such as the Sirocco in Italy and the Solano in Spain, which are caused by the hot winds from the Sahara blowing upon these countries. In the northwestern part of the United States there is a similar wind known as the Chinook which, when the snow is on the ground, sometimes melts 1 8 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. it in a few hours and leaves a dry surface. The Klhamsin (meaning fifty) is a sand wind in Egypt, so called because it blows for fifty days. In Syria a similar wind is called a Simoon. Moisture of the Air : An invisible vapor is constantly rising from all masses of water and other wet surfaces. It is diffused through the air and is carried over the globe by winds. The large water surface of the earth assures a constant supply of water vapor for the atmosphere. Humidity is the state of the air with respect to the vapor it holds. Tt is said to be high or low as the air is damp or dry. The capacity of the air for vapor varies directly with its temperature. Air which is saturated with moisture is said to be at the dew point. On cooling below the temperature of the dew point precipitation occurs — the vapor becoming visible in the form of dew or rain, while below 32° Fahr. frost, snow, or hail appears. There is a greater rainfall over land than at sea. More rain falls in mountainous regions than in level areas. Mountain chains act as condensers of vapor, driving the warm moisture-bearing winds high up into colder strata of air. The greatest amount of rain falls in the belt of equatorial calms ; this is called the zone of constant precipita- tion. Within the tropics all the rain of the year falls in the summer months, when the sun is at the zenith. In this region at the hottest part of the day there is generally a heavy rain accompanied by terrific storms of thunder and lightning. The quantity decreases but the num- ber of rainy days increases as we pass from the equator to the poles. There is a rainless belt in the eastern hemisphere north of the Tropic of Cancer. In this region are the deserts of Sahara, Arabia, Northern India, and Gobi. The barrenness of this belt is due to the dry trade winds blowing over the greater part of it. The character of a country depends largely on the amount of rain it receives. The most favorable rainfall is 40 to 80 inches ; this occurs in eastern America and western Europe. In desert regions the rainfall is less than 12 inches, while irrigation is required in countries receiving less than 18 inches of rain per year. On the other hand, in some parts of the tropical regions vegetation is so luxuriant as to make agricul- ture impossible, the annual rainfall being 100 inches. COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. 9 Climatic Regions: The number and variety of plants found in the different parts of the world are dependent on several causes, the princi- pal of which are soil and climate. Soil depends upon the char- acter of the rocks deposited by glaciers in the past and also the nature of the rocks at present in the locality. These are mixed up with organic matter which comes from decayed animal or vegetable substances. Climate, which includes heat and moisture, depends not only upon the latitude, but also upon elevation above the sea, nearness to the ocean, direction of winds, location of mountain chains with reference to pre- vailing winds, and the nature of the soil. The warmer and moister a climate is, the more numerous and varied are the plants which it sup- ports. It is the amount of heat prevailing during the growing and ripening period that is most important, and not the average annual temperature. The division of the earth mathematically into Frigid, Temper- ate, and Torrid zones is too loose to be of much use. The lands north of the equator are generally divided into six plant zones. The tropical zone stretches from o° to 23°. This is the region of palms and bananas, and the chief products are rice, coffee, sugar, cocoa, spices, jute, hemp, coir and india-rubber. In this region are found the Selvas of the Amazon. The sub-tropical region extends from 23° to 34° north and south. It is the region of myrtles and laurels. The chief products are cotton, tea, tobacco, opium, dates, oranges, and lemons. The warm temperate zone extends from 34° to 45°. It is the region of evergreens like olives and oleanders. The chief products are maize, wheat, silk, beets, olives, figs, oranges, lemons, nuts, and wine. The cool temperate zone extends from 45° to 58°. It is the region of deciduous trees, such as beeches, oaks, limes, and elms. The chief products are wheat, oats, barley, rye, beans, potatoes, apples, pears, wine, and hops. The sub-arctic zone extends from 67° to 90°. It is the region of Alpine shrubs. As the thermometer falls one degree for every three hundred feet we ascend, the same zones may be found one above the 10 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY, Other where the land rises to great heig^hts within the tropics. In the Andes and Himalayas as we ascend we find the same succession of plants as from the equator to the pole. Animal Life. Animals are affected by climate, but as they can move about they are not so immediately dependent upon it as plants. In the warmer parts of the earth are found the larger animals like the elephant and giraffe, the most powerful beasts of prey like the lion and tiger, the most highly colored birds, and the most poisonous serpents. Fur-bearing animals are found in the arctic regions. Cattle, sheep, swine, and horses are the most useful animals to man either for food or service and are found in the largest numbers in the temperate zone. The progress of man has been largely dependent on the geographi- cal and physical conditions surrounding him. His ability to move from place to place and his inventive genius have enabled him to overcome many of the drawbacks to his advancement arising from his surround- ings. The earlier forms of industries among men were probably hunting and fishing. These are still the only ones carried on to any great extent in the Tundras, or frozen deserts of northern Siberia. In many other parts of- the earth they constitute the principal occupation of a part of the community. In Siberia and Canada many are engaged in hunting fur-bearing animals, and game is hunted for pleasure or profit in many other places. Fishing forms the principal occupation of hundreds of thousands of men in Europe and America at the present time. Hunting and fishing communities subsist by destroying the supplies of nature, but once they begin to raise domestic animals or to till the soil they become producers of wealth. Pastoral life, or the raising of domestic animals, develops in the regions where the supply of grass is abundant. The herdsman's life ranks higher than the hunter's. Flocks and herds produce young and thus increase the wealth of the owner. He is compelled to wander from place to place for new pastures, but the accumulation of tents, rugs, raiment, and flocks, all give him the idea of property. These generally belong to COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOG the head of the family. The herdsman's Hfe is less precarious than that of the hunter, but droughts and plagues sometimes destroy his herds. Herdsmen are found in the steppes of Asia, the savannas of Central Africa, and the South African steppes. Many Europeans follow this life on the plains of North and South America, but in a more scientific manner. Agriculture is the tilling and working of the soil, and does not exist to any great extent except in settled communities. It is most easily carried on in tropical lands ; the simplest form is when all that is necessary to do is to plant a cutting in the ground and to return for the crop in six months as is done in parts of Africa and South America. Once seeds like rice, maize, and millet are planted, a decided advance is made. In temperate climates agriculture is carried on in the clearings of forest lands and on some of the steppe lands. Here the idea of property and a fixed home is more fully developed and the various needs of an agricultural community bring about a division of labor, the merchant and the trader are found useful, and villages and towns are formed. The difficulties arising from the pursuit of agriculture in temperate climates have developed in the people inhabiting them characteristics which have made them the strongest and most virile nations in the world. The lowest stage of an agricultural country is that in which it produces and exports agricultural products only. This is the case in the Congo Free State, in northern Brazil, and in some of our southern and western states. The highest stage is where the manufacturing industries are able not only to supply in many lines the wants of their own people but also to export large quantities of manufactured goods to other countries. This is the condition of England, Germany, France and some other countries of Europe, and also that of the United States. No country, not even the most highly developed, manufactures all that is necessary to supply its demands. We find cotton goods and iron manufactures in the list of imports as well as exports of Great Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, and the United States. Many countries of Europe have increased their manufacturing industries to such an extent that more than one half of their exports consist of 13 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY manufactured goods, and a large percentage of their imports consists of food products and raw materials. Y£Aff or oot-LA ffs 50 00 /OOOO /5O0O £0000 -\ /830 /960 1 \ /8¥0 £750 IB50 3800 ■ JB60 7^00 7870 /0500 /880 /^500 /690 /6800 /SOO a/000 ^ ^ ■ ^ ^ ^ YEAR Of DOiiy^^S 500O /OOOO tsooo £OdOO 1 FIG. 6.— PROGRESS OF THE WORLD'S COMMERCE. 1830 TO 1900. In the struggle for existence man has arisen through the hunting, fishing, pastoral, and agricultural stages until he has reached that of a manufacturing nation, and while each and all of these stages may be found to exist to-day in most of the countries of the world, still those nations which have highly developed manufactures are in the van of progress. The development of various countries into distinct manufacturing nations has been the result of causes arising in the last century and a half. Prior to 1800 the large factories and manufacturing plants, which have taken the place of home labor by hand, were not known. These were brought into existence as a result of the introduction of the spin- ning jenny, the steam engine, and other mechanical appliances. In this way manufacturing communities produce more than they can find a market for in their own locality, and they are compelled to seek other markets. Commerce or foreign trade as it exists to-day is largely the result of manufactures, and without foreign trade most of the nations of the world would find it impossible to maintain their present state. At the end of the eighteenth century there was no foreign trade such as we now have. Each nation was to a large extent self-dependent and supplied most of its own wants in the way of food and clothing. Luxuries constituted the most important part of the imports of a conn- COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. 13 try. The great increase in foreign trade is shown in Fig. 6. In 1870 it was five times, and in 1900 over ten times as much as in 1830. The total commerce of the world in 1900 is estimated at about twenty-one billions of dollars in value. The trade with the United Kingdom con- stitutes one fifth, and that with the United States and Germany each one tenth of the total foreign trade of the world. The chief foreign trade of the great commercial nations is with each other and not with outlying communities. The efforts of the manufacturing nations of the world to secure a larger share of the trade of Asia, Africa, and South America are evidences that we are about entering a new era of international trade when division of labor will become the rule among the nations as it has heretofore been the rule among communities and individuals. The United States with its bountiful supply of food products and its greater production of coal, iron, and cotton than any other nation of the world, is well equipped to secure a constantly increasing share of the world's trade. Further development will produce the purely commercial, or car- rying nation, and the banking nation. Great Britain to-day acts in the capacity of carrier and banker for most of the trade of the world, and will probably continue to do so for many years to come. International Date Line. Every place on the surface of the earth moves through 360° in twenty-four hours, or 15° in one hour. New York is 75° west from London: when it is noon in London it is seven o'clock A. M. in New York. The man who lives in London sees the sun rise earlier than the man who lives in New York, and the man who lives in New York sees the sun rise earlier than the man who lives in San Francisco. If any one travel around the earth from east to west he will gain a day ; if another travel from west to east he will lose a day, and if these travelers meet half w^ay round there will be a day's difference in their dates. The line where this difference of time is adjusted is called the International Date Line. It is an imaginary line extending north and south through the Pacific ocean and generally conforming to the i8oth meridian of east and west longitude. This is the time boundary 14 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY, between places agreed upon by those who come from the east and those who come from the west. When it is the first day of the month east of the hne it is the last day of the preceding month west of the line. 100 r30 140 160 lao 160 140 130 ICO FIG. 7.— INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE. Standard Time. In order to avoid the constant change of time attendant upon change of longitude the railroad companies of the United States and Canada have agreed to make a change of one hour in their time for every fifteen degrees of longitude, giving the same time to all places within these limits. This is called Standard Time. By this system the United States and Canada are divided into five sections or time belts, the Intercolonial, the Eastern, the Central, the Mountain, and the COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. 15 Pacific. Each of these is fifteen degrees wide, that is, it extends through fifteen degrees of longitude, seven and one half of which is east and seven and one half of which is west of the meridian adopted as the central line. The central lines, beginning with the Intercolonial, are 60°, 75°, 90°, 105°, and 120° west longitude. .10 00 IS / aM \ / "'^-r/-'' / \ / \ 11 ij'^ev / y^ / DIVISIONS / OFSIAHMRD TIME lU . Z k - 1 m' T' U-Ai ■^\- Ni Ms i / — I ' ItO. \ O/TLA J ■V. Tcr. V r i % ^ \ FIG. 8. A Pittsburg. B Wheeling, i Buffalo. 2 Kenova. 3 W. Clifton Forge. 4 Bristol, s Salis- bury. 6 Asheville. 7 Atlanta. 8 Charleston, g Long Pine. 10 Alliance. 11 North Platte 12 Holyoke. 13 Phillipsburg. 14 Oakley. 15 Hosington. 16 Hope. 17 Huntington. iSOgden 19 Mojave. 20 El Paso. The U. S. Weather Bureau. The United States Weather Bureau, organized more than thirty years ago under the War Department and re-organized in 1891 as a bureau of the Department of Agriculture, has for its object the pre- paration and distribution of daily weather forecasts. (In addition to the regular daily forecasts special warnings are given for: High winds, dangerous to navigation. 16 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. Cold waves and killing frosts, dangerous to growing crops. Excessive rainfall and conditions likely to produce floods along the river basins.) Reports of weather conditions in all parts of the country from 3100 observers, paid and voluntary, who send to Washington, twice a day, telegraphic reports of the conditions prevailing where they are located. As this information is secured it is noted and a map con- structed showing the weather prevailing in all parts of the country. FIG. 9.— WEATHER MAP. (See fig. 9). vWhen a storm is once formed it usually traveis m an easterly direction at a rate that can be estimated with a fair degree of accuracy.^ fft is thus possible to foretell with a reasonable amount of certainty, thirty-six hours in advance, any changes in the weather which may be expected. / These reports are sent from Washington by telegraph to the various stations and are then published from these points. Following the report a map is mailed for the section of the country covered by the report. COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. 17 I tn addition to the printed reports which are sent to newspapers and pubUc places, the forecasts are indicated by a series of flag^s dis- played in a prominent place. ^ (Fair weather is foretold by a square white flag-,}f^ain by a square blue flag-j (changfe in temperature by a white triang-ular fla§:)-above the square flag- for higher, and below it for lower temperature. Storms are indicated by a red flag with a black centre; the direction of the winds by pennants — white for westerly and red for easterly winds, — north winds when over the other, south winds when under. (See fig. lo.) U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WEATHER BUREAU. Explanation of Flag Signals. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. Fair W«ath«r. Rain or Snow. or snow Temperature. Cold Wavs. , FIG. 10. Interpretation of Displays. No. I, alone, indicates fair weather, stationary temperature. No. 2, alone, indicates rain or snow, stationary temperature. No. 3, alone, indicates local rain or snow, stationary temperature. No. I, with No. 4 above it, indicates fair weather, warmer. No. I, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather, colder. No. 2, with No. 4 above it, indicates rain or snow, warmer. No. 2, with No. 4 below it, indicates rain or snow, colder. No. 3, with No. 4 above it, indicates local rain or snow, warmer. No. 3, with No. 4 below it, indicates local rain or snow, colder. COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GEOGRAPHY. Part I. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. INTRODUCTION. I Commerce is dependent on the fact that no civiHzed community- produces or can produce all the various commodities necessary to satisfy its wantsN rCountries and communities specially adapted to agricultural pur- suits produce a surplus of food products and raw materials, and there- fore engage but little in manufacture), i Other countries and communi- ties possessing superior facilities for manufacturing naturally make this their chief occupation and, therefore, find it necessary, or more profit- able, to purchase raw materials and food products from other places.^ In this way the transfer or interchange of productions arises between different places, and this is commerce. pommerce, then, (is the exchange of surplus products of one com- munity for those of anothe^. (^VVhen the exchange of goods takes place between different parts of the same country, it is known as domestic commerce or home trade. / In the United States the trade between the different states is sometimes called inter-state commerce^ Colonial commerce is the trade between a country and its colonies. ^ Foreign commerce or foreign trade is the exchange of goods between different nations. Domestic commerce is the most important in the United States. Colonial commerce is more important in the United Kingdom and Holland than in any other country. Every civilized country finds it necessary to purchase, bring in, import from other countries a portion of the food products, raw materials, or manufactured products required to supply its wants ; and similarly a portion of the products of its industries must be sold, sent COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. 9 6 7 6 5 4 3 2 9I;92l93 94 95;96:97i98!90 00 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 i /" f.i- /\ / r i V --. J / 1 ^^- r-> *v- -^ , ■ >•-% "s- ^' 1 i i |- - out, exported to other countries to supply their wants, uhe foreign commerce of a country thus separates into two branches, its imports and its exports?^ Exports are goods sent out of a country.) Imports are ^oods brought in, or received from another country.) Foreign commerce is greatest in manufacturing countries Hke the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States and France. Commercial Geography treats of the exchange of commodities between different countries or parts of countries and the conditions affecting their production, consumption, and transportation. All articles of commerce are either natural products or manufactured products. (Natural products are those which are still in their natural form or those which have had very little change made in them as the result of the labor of man.^ Manufactured products are those which have been changed from their natural conditiqn by more or less complicated processes, j It is impossible in thl^s work to treat of all the commodities which enter into the foreign commerce of the world; generally those are considered which are important to the foreign trade of the United States. TUe statistics of the imports and exports of the United States furnish us with the best guide to determine which these are, and the classification of exports adopted by the United States government is followed in this book as the most convenient not only for the order of treatment, but also for ready and satisfactory reference to the reports and other documents of the government. We shall therefore treat this subject under the following heads: 1st — The products of Agriculture, 2d — The products of Forests, 3d — The products of Fisheries, 4th — The products of Mines, 5th — The products of Manufactures. The first four are all included under the head of Natural Products. FIG. 11.— AGRICULTURAL IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 1891 TO 1900. IN HUNDREDS OF MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. Imports. Exports. WHEAT. 21 THE PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. The products of agriculture averaged during the last five years about sixty-six per cent of the value of the total exports and fifty-one per cent of the total imports of the United States. They may be divided according to their uses into I. Food Products; II. Raw and partly manufactured articles for use in manufactures and other purposes. These may again be sub-divided into (a) those of vegetable origin, (b) those of animal origin. Seventy-two per cent of the value of agri- cultural exports is of vegetable origin and twenty-eight per cent is of animal origin, and about the same percentages of agricultural imports are of vegetable and animal origin. FOOD PRODUCTS OF VEGETABLE ORIGIN. 1 Cereals, 2 Fruits and Nuts, 3 Vegetables , 4- Minor Farinaceous Foods, 5 Spices and Condiments^ 6 Stimulants, 7 Narcotics, 8 Sugar Pla?its. jCereals include, (a) Breadstuffs, (b) Other cereals. Breadstuffs as given in the United States statistics average about one ^ fifth of the total exports of the United States, and include (i) wheat and wheat flour, (2) corn, cornmeal, (3) oats, oat-meal, (4) bar- l^y^ (5) buckwheat, (6) rye, (7) prepared forms of these for use as table food. WHEAT. (j'rom a commercial standpoint wheat is the most important of the cereals. ] It is known to have been cultivated from the remotest antiquity, for we read of it under the name of corn as an article of commerce in Egypt in the days of Joseph and in Rome in the days of Caesar. Wheat was unknown in America at the time of its discovery, but now the United States alone raises over one fifth of the world's crop. The last fifty years have been marked by the cultivation of wheat in manv places formerly occupied by hunters and herdsmen. The most important of these are the prairies of the western states. 23 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. h Light clays and heavy loams are the best soils for wheat, but for commercial as well as agricultural success climate is an all controlling condition.] Wheat is normally a winter annual. In climates with the winters so cold that all vegetable growth is suspended, we have two distinct classes or varieties known as winter and spring wheats. (^California, Egypt, Northern Africa and similar countries rank high in the production of this cereal,] while the sunny climate of the whole FIG. 1 2.— THE WHEAT AREA OF THE WORLD. United States south and west of New England is favorable for its growth. There is a great difference in the average yield of wheat in bushels per acre in the different countries as will be seen in the following table showing the yield in bushels per acre : Denmark 41.8 England 29.1 New Zealand 25.5 Norway 25.1 Germany 23.2 Belgium 21.5 Holland 21.5 France 19.4 Hungary 18.6 Roumania 18.5 Austria 16.3 Poland 16.2 WHEAT. 23 Canada i5-5 Argentina i3-0 Italy 12.1 United States 12.0 Austrajfasia lo.o India 9.2 Russia 8.6 Algeria 7.5 South Australia 7.0 y- h It will be seen from the above that Denm ark has the highest yield j)er ag re and that the densely populated countries in the northwest of Europe come next. This is due to the fact that they have a systeni ^ of agriculture that has been undergoing improvement for generations, in which the use of fertilizers and intensive culture play an important part. The low average of South Australia is due to the lack of rain- fall although the quality of the grain is h'gh because of the warm and sunny climate. The low average of Russia is due to the lack of deep ploughing and the backward state of civilization. While the average in the United States is only twelve bushels to an acre, in a number of states like Maine, Vermont, Montana, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, and Washington it is over twenty bushels to an acre. Of the world's wheat crop of 1900 amounting to more than fig- i3.-world's total production of . . 1^1 -ii- c-i 1 wheat IN 1899. 2 586 000 000 BUSHELS. two and one halt billions of bush- „ , ., t or ^--^.^.^^ Each square = K of 1%. els, one hah was grown in Europe ^ and about one fifth in the United States. (In Europe the largest wheat producing countries are Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom.^ Qn the United States wheat is grown in every state. \ Each of the following states produced over twenty million bushels irr 1900: Kansas, Minnesota, California, Wash- ington, Nebraska, Texas, Iowar~Pennsylvania, and South Dakota. Outside ot Europe and the United States, British India, Canada, Ar- gentina, Australasia and Northern Africa are the largest wheat pro- ducers. i i 1 ' "~ — -^ ^ 1 1 ! ^ ff A N c £ 1 t __p_ 1 u N /|r B s \t A T e 5 IT » ^ Y 1 A us T /P 1 A S P ^ 1 N i i T H £ " 1 N D, A c U N r f £ s f? u s s 1 A ff u m\a \n / A 1 i \ AR\5£ MTI m 6 B p M A N ^ A \U s t\/? \A LI\A i ''^ u-^\%\% J>1^L ! S 1 \B s\PU A ^ 24 PROD UCTS OF A GRICUL TURE. Wheat is the most sustaining of cereals and is the chief food grain of the Caucasian race which consists mainly of the people of Europe, the United States, British America, the white inhabitants of South America, Africa and Australasia. CWheat is also beginning to be used more generally in such rice-eating countries as India, China, and JapanJ Its increased use is due to the quality of bread made from the flour ; yet it is not a century since wheaten bread was a rarity in England, and it is still looked upon as a luxury among many of the poorer inhabitants of the continent of Europe. The rapid extension of commerce and the increase of population in the larger manufacturing centres of Europe have resulted in an increased consumption per capita and a decrease in the ability to supply the demand, so that they are compelled to draw their supplies from other countries. Q'he United States is not only the largest producer of wheat among the nations of the world but it is also the largest exporter] In 1900 one hundred million bushels of wheat and over eighteen and one-half mil- lion barrels of flour, equivalent to eighty-three million bushels of wheat, were exported, the total value being $141 000 000. Of the wheat exported over ninety per cent went to Europe — the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany taking the largest amounts. \\\. will be seen that the demand is largest from the countries in the north- west of Europe, and that this demand has not been supplied by the United States alone, i The wheat fields of Russia, the Danubian countries, Australia, Argentina^J:^dik, and Egypt have been brought into connection with Londo^^iii^ Liverpool, and production and exportation have largely increaseciin those countries. fThe tendency in the United States has been to export as much wheat as possible in the form of flour, since this has the ^ advantage of employing our millers and not those of foreign countries. The United States produces over eight million tons of flour annually in about six- teen thousand flour mills. ^Minneapolis is the largest flour centre in the world. Jfeungarian flour is the chief competitor in the European markets) In 1880 the United States exported six million, and in igoo nearly nineteen million barrels oi flour. In 1900 two thirds of this was exported to European countries, the United Kingdom alone taking over one half. While the countries south of the United States took very WHEA T. 160 m 120 '00 9/\9293m 35 96157 ^8\93\00 120 1 i 1 1 'A i ^ 1 7 1 A j / \l 50 60 ¥0 10 1 J 80 k" "*■• s> /l- '">- '\ \ in the production of wheat, consist in c heapness of land , in being well v supplied with the means of transportation at a low rate both by rail and by water, in having the most improved methods of loading and unloading grain, and in having an intelligent farming class, capable of making use of the latest improvements in agricultural machinery and implements.J The peasants of India make use of primi- tive methods of agriculture and those of Russia are almost as backward. In Argentina and Australia, elevators are not in general use and it is but seldom that the grain is properly stored to protect it even from rain. As a consequence they are compielled to sell at once regardless of price. PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. In the United States as facilities for transportation have improved the wheat centre has moved westward. There has been a large decrease in the number of acres devoted to wheat-raising east of the Mississippi River. More than one half of the wheat acreage of the United States at present is in the Missouri valley including the states of Iowa, Min- nesota, Missouri, Kansas, North and South Dakota, and Oklahoma. The demand for wheat and flour is growing faster than its production. In the past new wheat fields have been developed to supply the demand, but the increase of the bread-eating population of the world is more rapid than that of the wheat areas, and it is believed that in two or three decades there will not be sufficient wheat to supply the demand. MAIZE, OR INDIAN CORN. Maize, or Indian corn is the most important cereal grown in the United States)and in the fiscal year 1900 exceeded wheat in the quantity FIG. 15.— REGIONS OF CORN PRODUCTION. "and value of its export. It derived its name, Indian Corn, from the fact that the Europeans found the Indian cultivating it when they first arrived in America. In many places other cereals are given the name of corn ; for instance, wheat is called corn in England, in Scotland oats, on the continent of Europe rye, and in some other countries barley, all are known by this name. (The climate best suited for maize is one MAIZE. 27 with a summer four and one half to seven months long, without frost, the middle portion hot both day and night, sunny skies, and sufficient rain to supply the demand of a rapidly growing and luxuriant crop and falling at such intervals as to best provide sufficient moisture without ever making the soil actually wet.^ (['he average yield of maize m the entire United States is twenty- five bushels to the acre, about double that of wheat.^ In some of the states the average yield is thirty and forty bushels per acre. The world's crop of corn in igoo amounted to over two and three fourths billion bushels, of which about two billion bushels were grown in the United States. The chief maize-producing countries outside of the United States are in order of amount, Mexico, Austria-Hungary, Itah, Argentina, Russia, Egypt, France, Roumania, Servia, Canada, Australasia, Spain, Portugal, India, and Algeria. In the United States over eighty million acres are given up to maize, or corn, a territory greater than that of the whole of Great Britain and more than that given to the cultivation of all other cereals. (Corn is culti- vated in every state of the United States!^ The principal corn states are, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Indiana, and Ohio?) The first three raised over two hundred million bushels each and the next four over one hundred mil- lion bushels each in 1900, so that their combined crops amounted to nearly two thirds of that of the whole United States. Very little is produced in the New England States or the States west of the one hundredth meridian. vThe consumption of corn is mainly as a food for animals> and especially for fattening stock for market.] The bulk of the crop is used i ! \ "" r- \ ■"" ~" t 1 i 1 1 1 \u Af t T £ D s T A T £ S 1 . i FPANCE M SIX , c RUSSIA A usm ,A ' T\A\L Y £GY PT T/fIR \ ' 1 i 5I3E RIA \ i -^ • AjiGmT/ m \ C OUNTRI £5 i FIG. 16.— WORLD'S TOTAL PRODUCTION OF CORN IN 1 899, 2 733 000 000 BUSHELS. Each square — }ioi^%. 28 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. for the latter purpose. The farmer in this way is able to turn a cheap crop for which he cannot find a market, into one for which there is a great demand. \ Corn is used as food for human beings mainly in the countries producing it?) /In Mexico they make a flat cake called the tor- tilla which is eaten warm.-^ Corn products are also largely used as a food in Central and South America!! In Italy and Roumania it is made into a pudding called polenta, and. under various names it is used in other countries of Southern Europe, and is almost the exclusive food of the Egyptian fellah. In the United States it is an important food crop and in the form of sweet corn, corn meal, corn flour, and hominy, it is used to make a great variety of dishes. Corn bread made of the meal is a popular diet in the Southern States. Among the countries of Northern Europe where we find the greatest market for corn. Great Britain is the only one in which it is used to any extent as a food for human beings. On account of the climate of Europe corn fails to reach its full maturity, and therefore it is not possible to develop as high a food value in the grain as is done in the United States. This largely accounts for their failure to use it as a human food. While it may not possess as much nutritive value as wheat, it is much superior in this respect to rye and barley which are so largely used in continental Europe as a food for man. / The principal countries exporting corn are the United States, Canada, Roumania, Italy, Russia, Egypt, and Argentina, and like wheat it finds its market largely in the manufacturing countries of north- western Europe.j The United Kingdom is at present the best market for corn and corn products from the United States. In many con- tinental countries there is a heavy tariff on corn and corn products which prevents their introduction. The total value of exports of corn from the United States in 1900 was $85 000 000, of which 90% was sent to Europe ; the United King- dom, Germany, Netherlands, Denmark, Belgium and F>ance being the principal purchasers. Of the corn meal exported the United Kingdom bought nearly one half. The uses of corn are numerous and varied. In addition to food products, starch, glucose, syrup, and corn oil are also made from corn. Besides its great consumption as a food for cattle, large quantities of OATS. 29 m 175 /50 125 100 75 SO 35 9/\92 93 9¥\55\96\97^ 98>99\00 200 176 150 125 m 75 50 25 1 1 4 V i 1/ \/: ) 1 . \ \ i i y \y k n i rt/i i i i 1 1 i corn are used in the distillation of corn whiskey, alcohol, spirits, and beer. Cellulose is made from the stalks, and a substitute for rubber from corn oil. At the Paris Exposition there was a corn kitchen in which this cereal was prepared in various forms as a viand and distri- buted free in order to demonstrate to Europeans its suitability and excellence as a food for man and what tasty dishes can be made from it. The object of this was to popularize it and in this way increase the demand for corn products from the United States. Millions of people in both Europe and the Orient desire a cheaper food contain- ing- a sufBcient quantity of nutritive ele- ments to support life. As corn meets these requirements, if Europeans can only be induced to use it as a food, the influ- ence upon the welfare of the farmers of^ the United States will be very great. The corn crop of the United States in igoo was fifty per cent more in '"'G- quantity and twenty per cent greater in value than all the other cereals grown in the United States, and if a demand were created for it the area of its cultivation would be greatly increased. While the export of corn is only about ten per cent of the crop, it is steadily increasing and, as soon as European countries which are dependent on us for their food supplies acquire a taste for it and use it in the place of the m.ore expensive grains, it is destined to be the most valuable export crop among the cereals. OATS. Oats, the next most important cereal, thrives best in a cooler and moister climate than wheat requires ; and although it is cultivated to a considerable extent in many parts of the wheat area, it is grown as a leading crop in the region to the north of that area as well as in its higher altitudes. The world's crop of oats is greater than that of any other cereal of the temperate zone and amounts to about three billion bushels annually. Of this enormous quantity Europe produces about two thirds. 17.— CORN EXPORTS FOR UNITED STATES, 1 891 TO 1 900. IN MILLIONS OF BUSHELS. 30 PROD UCTS OF A GRICUL TURK. Russia alone leading- all European countries with about twenty-eig-ht per cent of the world's entire crop as her share. Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, and the United Kingdom are also large producers of this cereal. In the countries of north-western Europe where the climate is very moist by reason of the moisture-laden winds from the Gulf Stream and the Ocean, oats is the largfest of all their crops. In the United States oats appears among the crops in every state, and in the aggregate about twenty-five per cent of the world's produc- tion is raised in this country. In 1900 Illinois, Iowa, Wiscon- sin, Indiana, New York, Minne- sota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Pennsylvania were the largest oat-raising states, all of which excepting Pennsylvaniaand New York are located in the north central part of the Mississippi valley and in the prairie region. The average yield in the United States is thirty bushels to the acre. Canada and Siber'a also grow large crops of this grain. Oats is used as a food for man especially in Scotland and Ireland in the form of oatmeal porridge and oat cake, but its principal use is as a food for horses, it having been proved to be the best grain for that purpose. The value of the oats exported from the United States in 1900 was $12 000000, an increase over 1899 although 40% less than in 1898. Practically all the oatmeal exported is sent to Europe. ^ - U N 1 T £ D S T A T £ 5 R u s 5 / /f ^ ff A N c E 0\T\H £ ^ 6 £ff MA NY c U\N\f fi/ ^ S U w TE Wmpo M i i 1 A U S\T /? / >• c A N A D A - ■"■T""""!'"^ _ ^ FIG. 18.— WORLD'S TOTAL PRODUCTION Oh OATS IN 1899. 3 212 000 000 BUSHELS. Each square = K ot i % . BARLEY. Barley is by some considered the most ancient of grains. It can be cultivated over a wider range of latitude than any other cereal. It is occasionally found north of the Arctic Circle and may also be found R YE—B UCK WHEA T. 3 1 near the equator, although it reaches its greatest perfection in the temperate zone. It is used as a food to some extent, but its principal use is to make beer and whisky. For this reason it is largely grown in England and Germany. The world's crop in igoo amounted to about nine hundred million bushels of which Europe produced nearly eighty per cent. Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, United States, and the United Kingdom are the largest producers. The principal ex- porting country is Russia. The value of the exports of barley from the United States in 1900 amounted to $11 000000 and this was exported mainly to Europe, the United Kingdom taking one half of it. Cali- fornia raised more barley in 1900 than any other state, or nearly twenty five per cent of the crop in the United States. The other important barley states were Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Kansas and New York. RYE. Rye grows where it is too cold for wdieat and often on soils that will raise no other grain. It seems to thrive best in poor localities. Rye is the chief food of the peasants of Germany, Russia, and some other parts of the continent of Europe. The total production of this cereal in 1900 was nearly one and a half billion bushels. About ninety four per cent of the whole crop is grown in Europe, and of this Russia raises more than fifty per cent and Germany twenty per cent. The United States produces only about twenty-three million bushels and exports one tenth of it, principally to countries of northern Europe. BUCKWHEAT. Buckwheat produces a grain that is very nutritious and the plant is frequently grown to be plowed under in order to improve the soil. On the continent of Europe it is cultivated chiefly in Russia and France. In the United States, New York and Pennsylvania produce two thirds of the crop. It is used in the United States to make buckwheat cakes. The small amount exported is sent to the continent of Europe. According to the United States statistics. Bread-stuffs include in addition to the items already mentioned: (i) Bran, the outer coat- ing of wdieat, which is used as a food for cattle, and the exports of 82 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. which go mainly to Europe, (2) Preparations of table food of which more than one half is sent to Great Britain, and (3) Bread and tiscuit exported chiefly to the West Indies and countries south of the Uniced States. Of the entire amount of breadstuffs exported from the United States in 1900, eighty per cent was sold to Europe, fifty per cent being purchased by the United Kingdom. The grain of the west is brought to the interior shipping points of Chicago, Milwaukee, Duluth, Minneapolis, and St. Louis, and from these points it is forwarded by rail or water to New York, Baltimore, Boston, Philadelphia, and Newport News, from which ports it is sent in ships to foreign countries. From lake ports it may come to Buffalo and by way of the Erie Canal to New York. Large quantities of wheat from the Pacific coast are sent around Cape Horn to Europe. New Orleans and the Gulf ports take part of the grain of the south- west to Europe and some grain goes by way of Welland canal to Mon- treal and thence to Europe, a new style of vessel called the whaleback being used largely in this trade. The transportation of grain is greatly facilitated by the elevators or granaries used for the storage of grain both at interior and seaboard shipping points. They are usually built by the side of railroads and on wharves or docks and contain great grain bins holding thousands of bushels of wheat. The grain is carried to the top of the elevator by small scoops, called buckets, fastened to a belt. When it is taken out it is run through pipes to cars or ships which carry it to other markets. The lack of these facilities in other grain-producing countries increases the cost of transportation, and although their farm labor is cheaper, they are not able to sell their grain at a profit in European markets for less than the price asked for American grain. Other Cereals: RICE. Rice is the most important of cereals from the standpoint of the number of people consuming it, the area devoted to its cultivation, and the amount annually produced. It is eaten by more than one half of the human race and forms the staple food of more than one third of them. It requires plenty of heat and moisture and is well suited to mon- RICE. 33 soon areas and,the deltas of rivers where it is possible to flood the nelds at the proper time. The fields are carefully levelled and intersected by canals and trenches by which the water can be introduced or drawn off. The growth of rice is very rapid — sometimes several inches in twenty-four hours when under water. The fields must be kept clear of weeds, which is very difficult when they are flooded. It grows from one to six feet high and is cut when ripe like wheat or other grain. After being threshed and winnowed, it is called "paddy" or ''rough rice." This is the rice with the inner covering still attached. This inner covering is generally broken off by machinery and large quanti- ties of paddy are exported to Europe where, by their improved machinery, they are able to separate this more cheaply than in the countries producing it. Rice is cultivated more extensively in the densely populated low- lands of eastern Asia. We find it in China, Japan, India (Bengal, Madras, and Burma), Ceylon, Siam, and Farther India; in the Philip- pines, Hawaii, and other Pacific islands ; in Italy ; in Egypt and in other parts of Africa ; in Mexico, Brazil, and a few of the southern states of the United States. China is probably the largest rice-producing coun- try in the world. In Bengal the annual crop is about fifty billion pounds, in Japan thirteen billion, in Italy one billion, and in the United States one hundred and thirty million. Rice is not as important commercially as some other grains because it is so largely consumed in the countries in which it is pro- duced. The rice-exporting countries are China and India (Burma, the least densely populated of all of the rice-growing countries, being a large exporter of rice), Japan, Siam, Straits Settlements, Hawaii, Egypt, and Italy. The United Kingdom, Germany, and the Nether- lands import large quantities in the form of paddy, and then export it in the form of whole rice, broken rice, and rice meal or flour. A small amount is exported from the United States. In the United States rice is used more as a luxury than as a staple food. About one half of the rice used is imported and the balance is raised in a few of the southern states, Louisiana and Texas producing about three fourths of it. Of the many varieties, that from South Carolina and from Burma is considered the best. 34 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. Of the rice imported into the United States, China, Japan, Hawaii, and Italy furnish sixty per cent, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Netherlands about forty per cent. This last is an example of a country exporting large quantities of an article it does not produce, some of it in the very form in which it came from the country of origin. MILLET. The millets are important both as forage plants and as a source of food for man. In nearly all parts of the world they take a prominent place among forage crops, and they are used as the principal food of over two hundred millions of people. Millet is raised on between thirty-five and forty million acres in India. Japan alone uses about thirty-five million bushels of seed each year for human food. Corea, China, and other Asiatic countries also raise enormous quantities for' this purpose. Fruits and Nuts. The fruits are one of the important vegetable food products entering into the foreign trade of different countries. Those grown in tropical or sub-tropical climates are in great demand in Northern Europe and in the United States. The value of the fruits imported into the United States is about twice that of those exported from it. Of the exports apples are the most important. Of the green, or ripe, apples exported in 1900 about ninety per cent was sold to Europe, the United Kingdom taking seventy per cent. But few of the numer- ous varieties found in the United States are suitable for export. Large quantities of apples are also shipped from Canada, the continent of Europe, and Australia to the United Kingdom, which, although an apple-growing country, is not able to supply its own needs in this line. Of the dried apples exported from the United States ninety-five per cent are sold to Europe, Germany importing more than one third of them. Evaporated apples are most in demand in Europe. These are generally prepared by the Alden, or hot blast, process which has revolutionized the dried fruit industry in the United States. Its effect is to remove the water from the fruit rapidly and convert a portion of FRUITS AND NUTS. 85 their starch into sugar without any great change in their flavor or appearance. They have also the advantage of retaining their quaUty for years. Notwithstanding attempted discriminations against them by foreign governments, the wholesomeness and cheapness of American dried apples have resulted in increasing consumption abroad. Prunes, or djjed.^hHPs, are largely produced in Germany, France, / Spain, and Turkey, but the importation of them into the United States has decreased owing to the large production of this fruit in California, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. The production of prunes in these States is sufficient to supply the bulk of the home demand and to enable the United States to export over $i 500 000 worth. The Netherlands, Germany, United Kingdom, and France are the largest buyers. While grapes may be found in all the vine-growing regions from fifty five degrees north to thirty eight degrees south, they are exported to any great extent only from those parts of countries which do not produce a grape suitable for wine-making. The countries exporting grapes are Spain, Portugal, and France. Those imported into the United States come mainly from Almeria, a province in Spain, and are a meaty grape known in the market as "Malaga" grapes. The large grape-producing regions of the United States are in New York, Ohio, Missouri and California, although grapes are also raised for market in many other states. Raisins are dried grapes, and they are an article of export princi- pally from Spain and Asia Minor, whence most raisins imported into the United States come. The United States formerly imported large quantities of raisins, but now the home demand is almost entirely supplied by the raisin grape grown in California. Currants are the small seedless raisins of Greece. Their importa- tion fell off greatly in 1895 after the duty was imposed on them, but it is now nearly as great as it was prior to that time. The currant vine has only been successfully cultivated in the neighborhood of the Gulf of Corinth, whence its name. Greece furnishes those imported into the United States. Of the total exports of fruit from the United States in 1900, thirty per cent was canned, and about two thirds of these canned 86 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE, fruits were sent to the United Kingdom. About twenty five per cent of the exports is classed under the head of ''all other green, ripe and dried fruit." These are sent principally to Canada, Northern Europe, Australasia, and Africa, and consist of dried and fresh apricots, peaches, and prunes, and fresh peaches, plums, pears, and other fruits from California. Of the tropical fruits imported the most important is the banana. The "banana is grown in most of the tropical countries of the world. It requires practically no cultivation. It sends up new stems from its root stock every year, which grow very rapidly. In less than a year the young trees or stems are loaded with fruit, and, after bearing their crop, the stems die off. It is one of the most prolific of plants, — the same space that would produce thirty pounds of wheat or one hundred pounds of potatoes, would grow four thousand pounds of bananas. It has twenty five times more nutritive value than wheat bread. It thus becomes one of the most important food products of the tropics. Bananas intended for exportation are generally gathered green, but they acquire the golden or red tint which marks maturity on the vessel or after their arrival at the place of destination. Banana flour and evaporated bananas are becoming items of commerce and will overcome the difficulties of keeping the fruit long enough to reach northern markets. The United States imported nearly $6000000 worth of bananas in 1900, which was about one third in value of all the fruit imported. The West Indies and the Central American States each furnished about forty per cent and Colombia about seventeen per cent of those imported into the United States. Bananas are cultivated to a very small extent in Florida and California. The citrus fruits, including the orange, the lemon, the lime, and the citron after which they are named, rank next in importance to the bananas among the imported fruits of the United States. The orange (Citrus aurantium) is the fruit of a tree about the size of a small apple tree, which has white flowers and bears fruit about six months after blossoming. It is found in the countries of southern Asia, southern Europe, northern Africa, Mexico, West Indies and Brazil. In the United States it is grown in the Gulf States and in California. The northern states of Europe receive their supplies FRUITS AND NUTS. 37 from Brazil, Spain, Italy and northern Africa. Of those imported into the United States twenty per cent comes from Italy, sixty per cent from the West Indies. Fine oranges are raised in Florida and California and a large part of the demand for them in the United States is supplied by these two states. The orange trees in the Gulf States are occasionally so much injured by frost as to destroy nearly the entire crop. The lemon (Citrus limonum) is the fruit of a tree like the orange. It is cultivated around the Mediterranean and in the West Indies, but the Mediterranean countries are the principal source of supply for northern Europe and the United States. About $4000000 worth of lemons are imported into the United States annually, of which about ninety five per cent comes from Italy. Lemon juice is largely exported from Sicily. Fifteen hundred lemons yield about twenty six gallons of raw juice, and twenty five hundred lemons about the same quan- tity of concentrated juice. About $100000 worth of lemon, orange, and lime juice, and about $25 000 worth of orange peel are imported into the United States. There is a regular market for orange peel in Amsterdam where large quantities are bought and sold. Limes (Citrus limetta) are raised mainly in the West Indies and are valuable for the juice obtained from them. Citron (Citrus medica) is a species of lemon with a thick rind which furnishes the candied peel of commerce. Greece and Italy export large quantities. Dates are the fruit of the date palm, which is quite a tall tree and has a crown of forty to eighty leaves. It is found in northern Africa, Arabia, Asia Minor, Russia, and India. The fruit is used largely as a food by the inhabitants of these countries, but it enters into commerce as a dried fruit. The United States imports about $400000 worth annually, of which seventy five per cent is purchased from the United Kingdom and ten per cent from Asiatic Turkey. Those imported from the United Kingdom come originally from Asiatic and African countries. The choicer kinds come loose and the more common kinds come pressed into a cake or mass. Figs are cultivated mainly in the countries bordering on the Medi- terranean, The tree is sometimes fifteen to eighteen feet high, but 88 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. generally it is only a shrub/^ Figs are now grown in California in large quantities. They are eaten fresh in the countries of origin, but are known to commerce only as dried fruits. The average annual imports into the United States amount to about $500000 of which seventy six per cent comes from Turkey (chiefly from Smyrna) and twenty one per cent from the United Kingdom, being re-exports of Asiatic figs. Pineapples are cultivated in nearly all tropical countries, but they are exported mainly from the West Indies. They are cultivated in Florida and in California. The imports into the United States from the West Indies amount to about $500 000 annually. Fruits preserved in brandy and sugar are imported into the United States from France, the United Kingdom, and Spain. Preserved fruits form an important item in the trade of these countries, and are sent by them to every quarter of the globe. Nuts as food products are not as important a factor of commerce as fruits. They are however of great value and form a large part of the food of the natives in countries where they are grown. The nuts of the world would sustain more than twice the inhabitants of the earth if all other food supplies were cut off. There are very few nuts exported from the United States and the importation of nuts is not very large. Almonds are grown largely in countries bordering on the Mediter- ranean Sea. They look something like a peach but are hard and green and juiceless. There are two kinds, the sweet almond used in confectionery and dessert and for making oil, and the bitter almond used for flavoring by the confectioner and for making oil. The best of the sweet almonds are the Jordan, imported without shells from Malaga; the Valencia are imported with shells. Almonds are also successfully cultivated in California, where they raise about two thirds of the annual consumption of the United States. In 1900 about six million pounds were imported of which about one half came from Spain, one fourth from Italy, and about one fifth from France. Cocoanuts are the fruit of the cocoanut palm. This tree grows to a height of more than one hundred feet and has fifteen or twenty 11 UNlVt-KOi I • n VEGETABLES. ^ ■■■" "^ ^ 39 large leaves near the top under which hang the bunches of nuts. They form the staff of life in many of the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans where they are native. Those imported into the United States are mainly from the West Indies, Central America and Colombia. They are also grown in Florida and California. The sale of the Florida cocoanut amounts to about $300 000 annually, or about one half of that of imported cocoanuts. Chestnuts form a large part of the food of the people of southern Europe. They are eaten raw, boiled, roasted, or ground into meal and made into pudding. There are large forests of chestnut trees in France, Spain, and Italy. The nuts are large and sweeter than the ordinary American chestnut ; the finest kinds are called Marons. Large quantities of chestnuts are exported from Spain, Italy, and France to the United Kingdom, and some to the United States. Brazilnuts are grown chiefly in the Brazilian forests and exported mainly from Para. The nuts are enclosed in a large woody capsule, from twelve to twenty growing in a single capsule. The United States imports about $400 000 worth annually for use in confectionery. About $700 000 worth of filberts and walnuts are imported mainly from European countries. Vegetables. Vegetables are of much importance in the foreign trade of Euro- pean countries, but they do not enter so largely into that of the United States. The total United States trade in them amounts to about $5 000 000 annually and is about equally divided between imports and exports. Common Peas are generally grown in the cooler parts of the tem- perate zones ; the exporting countries are United States, Canada, Russia, Netherlands, and Germany. The finest canned green peas are exported from France. Beans are grown mainly in the warmer parts of the temperate zone and are exported in large quantities to northern Europe from coun- tries bordering on the Mediterranean sea. The United Kingdom 40 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. imports annually about $7000000 worth of beans and peas mainly from European countries. Chick peas are an important article of food and trade in the Medi- terranean countries and in India. They form one of the chief articles of food in Spain, and large quantities are exported to Spanish- Ameri- can countries. When roasted they are said to sustain life longer than almost any other food in like quantities. For this reason they hold an important place in the caravan trade of north Africa. Their great value arises from the fact that they supply nitrogenous elements of food which cannot be obtained from fruits and grains. Soya-beans are grown and consumed almost entirely in China and Japan. Mexican beans, or frijole, are pinkish brown turning to chocolate color when cooked. They are consumed in large quantities in Mexico and other Latin-American countries and enter largely into the trade. Potatoes were originally from America, growing wild in Chile. Their name is a misnomer; it was given to them because of their resemblance to the sweet-potato (Batata convolvulus). They do not belong to this family, but to that of the nightshade order of plants (Solanum tuberosum). Although white potatoes are of Ameri- can origin they are frequently called Irish potatoes. They were cul- tivated in Ireland earlier than in any other European country. Prus- sian farmers did not cultivate them until they were compelled to do so by Frederic II of Prussia, but Germany is today the largest pro- ducer and consumer of potatoes. In Ireland potatoes with fish con- stitute the main food of the poorer and middle classes. The largest potato producing countries according to amount are Germany, Russia, France, Austria, United Kingdom, and the United States. In the United States New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Wisconsin, and Michigan are the leading states in the value of the production of this vegetable. Ireland and Germany produce and consume more per capita than any other coun- tries. All the continental countries of northwestern Europe export potatoes, Germany and France leading. The Channel Islands, the Canaries, and Malta furnish the early potatoes for the United Kingdom, and the Bermudas for the United States. FARINACEOUS FOODS. 41 The chief value of the potato as food is due to the starch and, to a less extent, to its potash salts also. It cannot be relied on alone as a food sufficient to sustain life. Starch and sugar are manufactured from potatoes, and in Germany and in northern Frar :e large quan- tities of potatoes are consumed in the manufacture of alcohol. Early Bermuda onions constitute more than one half of those imported into the United States. Pickles and sauces come mainly from the United Kingdom, and prepared or preserved vegetables from France. Canned vegetables exported from this country go mainly to the United Kingdom, and of all other vegetables, including pickles and sauces, more than one half are shipped to the United Kingdom and Canada. 11 Minor Farinaceous Foods. The minor farinaceous foods, like arrow-root, tapioca, and sago, are important food products in some of the tropical countries and are exported from them in large quantities. The arrow-root plant is a native of the West Indies and other tropical countries of America. It has tuberous roots which are grated and after repeated washing dried in the sun; this makes the arrow- root of commerce which is used as a nutritive diet for invalids and children. Manioc is a widely used edible root ; it is the staple food in some parts of Central and South America and Africa. In the West Indies it is called cassava. It is also largely grown in the central African and the East Indian countries. The roots contain a poisonous juice, which is extracted or rendered harmless by repeated washings before it is used as food. This dried or grated root is called farinha in South America and is the tapioca used in this country for making puddings. It is exported largely from Brazil, Africa, and the East Indies. Sago is obtained from the soft interior of several species of palms ; this interior has very little woody fibre, but is composed almost entirely of starch. This pith is put into large tubs of water and the starch or sago powder settles to the bottom of the vessel. The sago palm 42 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. grows in China, Japan, and the East Indies. Large quantities of sago are exported from Singapore. Spices and Condiments. Black pepper is obtained from the fruit of a cHmbing shrub (Piper nigrum). When it is deprived of its outer coating by washing, it gives the white pepper of commerce. It is chiefly grown in the East Indies and is exported in large quantities to Europe and the United States, Nearly one half of the spices imported into the United States consists of black and white pepper. Chillies, or capsicum, are pods containing a number of small white seeds. They are sometimes imported dry and form the basis of cay- enne, or red pepper. Immense quantities are used by the people of India, Africa, West Indies, and Mexico. Cinnamon is of two kinds, the true cinnamon grown in Ceylon, and the false cinnamon, or cassia, largely grown in China, of which six times as much is imported into the United States as there is of the true. Cinnamon is the inner bark of an aromatic plant of the laurel family, the younger twigs making the best. Cloves are thfc dried unexpanded flower buds of the clove tree, one of the myrtle family. It is a native of the Moluccas and the Spice Islands, but it is also grown in the East and West Indies and in Africa. When perfect they are dark, strongly fragrant and the ball on the top is unbroken. The United States is said to be the largest consumer of cloves. Pimento, sometimes called allspice from its supposed combination of the flavors of a number of spices, is the dried unripe fruit of the pimento tree, one of the myrtles. It is indigenous to the West Indies and comes mainly from Jamaica. Its large use is due to its being cheaper than other spices. The fruit of the nutmeg tree is very much like a small peach. It contains a single seed the kernel, or nucleus of which forms the nutmeg of commerce, while its fleshy envelope is the mace of com- merce. It comes mainly from the Banda Islands, although it is cul- COFFEE, 48 tivated to some extent in the East and West Indies, Brazil, and French Guiana. Ginger is the dried root either scraped or unscraped of a reed-Hke plant grown in the East and West Indies, China, and largely in Mala- bar. It is one of the most important members of the spice family, ranking next to pepper in the quantity produced and consumed. Jamaica ginger is considered the best. Ginger is also imported in a candied state. Stimulants. Stimulants may be divided into aromatic which are directly pre- pared by infusion, and alcoholic or those prepared by fermentation. The former owe their stimulating qualities to the presence of alkaloids. They are coffee, tea, cocoa, and mate. In the process of fermentation whereby alcoholic stimulants are obtained, alcohol is generated, and this gives them their characteristic stimulating properties. Aromatic Stimulants. COFFEE. Coffee (Coff ea arabica) consists of the beans, or seeds, of the coffee tree, which is a native of Arabia. It would naturally grow to about twenty five feet in height, but under cultivation is kept down by pruning to six or eight feet in order that the berries may be easily reached. The coffee tree can be cultivated between 36° north and 30° south latitude, or where the temperature does not fall below 55° F. The most favor- able climate is where the temperature ranges from 60° to 80° in the shade and where there is rain every month in the year with a total annual rainfall of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty inches. The best soil for coffee is that called red soil, the redder the better. Virgin soils are preferred, the trees and the undergrowth being burnt over so as to destroy any injurious insects that might exist in the soil. The coffee berries when ripe are scarlet red and are very much like cherries. These berries are all pulped, that is, they are placed in a machine which removes the outer covering without injuring the berries. They are then cured or exposed to the sun for about a week, great care being taken that they are not exposed to rain or dew. For this 44 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. purpose they often use large flat wagons which are pushed under cover of a shed at night or on the least sign of the approach of rain. They are next hulled, or peeled. This consists in removing the two skins which cover the beans, the outer or parchment skin and the inner known as the white or silver skin. This process requires expensive machinery and is generally done in the coffee works in the larger towns. After this they are winnowed, graded, and sorted both accord- ing to quality and size. The beans are then put up in bags of one hundred and thirty two pounds, or an arroba, each and shipped mostly FIG. 19.— SHOWING REGIONS OF PRODUCTION ■■ AND CONSUMPTION |l||||l|l| OF COFFEE. to Europe and North America. The sorting and grading of coffee is a most important factor in determining the value of the coffee in the markets of the world. From the same crop various grades are obtained according to the color and size of the beans. The best berry is the Mocha grown in Yemen, Arabia. It is small, dark, and yellow. Honduras and Puerto Rico coffees rank high. Rio coffee is divided into five grades and some of the best Rio and Venezuela coffees are sold under the name of Mocha. The world's coffee crop for 1899-1900 was about fifteen million bags, of which more than two thirds was Brazilian coffee ; Central America, Venezuela, Java, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Ceylon, British West Indies, Arabia, and Africa followed in order of amounts. The prin- COFFEE. 45 "■ "" n "^ ■^ ~~ ~~ 1 ^ ■"" " - ■" "1 r ~ 1 5 e A Z / L i i 1 1 i Vt r/v £ Z\U ^ ^ A C E N T\R r* ^ ./ >* V A i A M £ fi \ 1 ^c >« 1 \ \ M £ X / k o HA/T/ oiw^ f ^^ ^r >?/ £5 '■ 1 1 i i ! i -_ FIG. 20.— WORLD'S TOTAL PRODUCTION OF COF- FEE. IN 1900, 15 285 000 BAGS, 60 KILOS EACH (1 KILO = 2.204 LBS.). Each square = % oi i^g. cipal coffee markets are — in Europe; London, Havre, the Dutch ports, Antwerp, Trieste, Bordeaux, and Marseilles, — in the United States; New York, Baltimore, New Orleans, and San Francisco. Ninety per cent of the im- ports of the United States are via New York. More than one half of all the American coffees are exported to the United States, while the greater part of those of Asia and Africa are sent to Europe. Santos ships more coffee than any other port, Rio being second and Batavia third. Three fourths of all the coffee imported by the United States comes from Brazil and nineteen per cent from other American countries. Asia and Africa furnish only about five per cent of our imports. Since 1890 the quantity of coffee imported into the United States has increased fifty seven per cent — from five hundred to seven hundred and eighty five million pounds, while the value of the quantity imported has decreased thirty three per cent, or from seventy eight to fifty two million dollars. The over- production of coffee has reduced the price of it from twenty p.q. 21 .-.mports of coffee into the united tents to six and a half cents per states. 1 874-1 900. pound. The tree when it once Quantity in millions of pounds. Value in millions '■ of dollars. begins to bear, continues to do Quantity. Value. 960 9Z0 880 6W 800 760 7Z0 680 6f0 600 560 520 ¥80 7V75W85\S0 31 92 33 3 i I \ 1 i \r \ _ \ 55 50 ¥5 320 I ; '^ K / \ \ i — 46 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. so for years, so that the production of coffee cannot be limited or regu- lated so easily as that of wheat or cotton. This reduction of price renders the coffee-producing states less able to purchase the goods of other countries and has resulted in a considerable reduction in the value of their imports from manufacturing nations. Coffee is used in almost all civilized countries and its production and consumption are increasing. The United States consumes nearly as much as all other non coffee-producing countries combined. The annual per capita consumption of coffee of some of the more promi- nent countries is shown in the following chart : tmreo ff/N6DOM .K ^^y .99 AUSTRIA HUNGARY *.04 GEPMANy f.6Z UN/TfD s TA res /0.79 FIG. 22.— PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE IN POUNDS FOR 1900> The roasted and ground root of the chicory is much used as an adulterant of coffee. In 1897 seventeen million pounds were imported, but since a duty has been placed on it the amount imported has de- creased to two million pounds in 1900. It comes from Germany, Bel- gium, and the United Kingdom. Large quantities are also produced in the United States. TEA. Tea in a commercial sense is the prepared leaves of the Thea chinensis, or tea plant. It belongs to the same family of plants as the camellia. In a wild state it is bushy, ranging in height from ten to twenty feet, often assuming the proportions of a small tree. Under cultivation it is kept by frequent prunings at from three to five feet in height. Cultivation has produced marked varieties. "Thea verdis" is a large hardy growing shrub with spreading branches and leaves one to two inches long. It thrives without protection in the open air in winter and yields the bulk of the green teas of commerce. 'Thea bohea" is a much smaller variety having smaller leaves. It is more tender and prolific than the green variety and will not endure nearly as cold a climate. It yields the black teas of commerce. Both the TEA. 47 green and the black teas, however, can be made from either variety of these plants. The quality of the tea depends on exactness as to the time of picking it; the delay of a single day beyond the proper time often changes the choicest leaves into an inferior grade. The picking is done almost entirely by girls. The preparation of tea for market consists in the evaporating, fer- menting, sunning, firing, and rolling the leaves. The leaves intended FIG. 23.— SHOWING REGIONS OF PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF TEA. for black tea go through the same process as those intended for green teas, except that they are evaporated and fermented for a much longer time and are not kept in motion and fanned as constantly; there is, therefore, less sap left in them. Green teas are of two styles, rolled and twisted, and each of these is sorted into two sizes or grades by means of sieves. The varieties of green and black teas are endless. Tea leaves intended for export are sent to the tea factories .where all the moisture is taken out by "firing" them in great iron bowls set in ovens. It is packed in chests lined with thin sheet lead and with 48 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. paper made of mulberry bark. Full chests contain three fourths hun- dredweight, half chests half that amount. The original home of the tea plant is believed to be Assam in India. Lying just outside of the tropics this state has an abundant and regular rainfall with a moist and steamy atmosphere. This is fol- lowed by a cool, dry season in which the plant rests and ripens after growth, so that it is readily seen why the tea plant reaches its highest development in Assam. China is, however, the largest producer of tea, and it is also extensively cultivated in Japan and India. Outside of these countries the two most important developments of tea pro- duction have been on the islands of Ceylon and Java, both of which lie, as -to longitude, in what may be called the tea belt and about equidistant from the equator — one north and the other south of it. In these islands the existence of high mountains, heavy rainfalls, and climates forcing continuous growth have made the produc-' tion of tea commercially suc- cessful. Cultivation of tea has also been attempted in Natal, Mauri- tius, the Straits Settlements, the Caucasus, Johore, Azores, Brazil and in some of our Southern States, but so far none of them can be con- sidered commercially successful. Almost the entire amount of tea pro- duced is raised within an area of forty degrees of latitude by sixty degrees of longitude, and almost all the consumption is also confined to strictly geographical limits. Tea is used as a beverage by more than one half the people of the world. Besides the people of tea-producing countries themselves, the tea drinkers are mainly the people of the United Kingdom and of the British Colonies, the people of Russia, and those of the United - c H / A/ A C £ Y L N t i N / N o / A J A p A •y A V A_ FIG. 24.— EXPORTS OF TEA IN 1900 FROM Pho DUCING COUNTRIES. TOTAL. 578 000 000 LBS. Each square = K of i^. TEA. 49 States of America. The world's consumption of tea outside of the countries in which it is grown may be taken to be about five hundred milHon pounds per annum, and including the cost of transportation it may be valued at $85 000 000. About ninety per cent of the tea ex- ported from Asia is consumed by English speaking people. South of the equator the tea drinkers are not numerous, being mainly in Aus- CANADA 4. 4 ' FIG. 25.— PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF TEA IN 1900. tralia and South Africa, but in Australia the consumption is eight pounds per capita annually. North of the equator in the non tea- producing countries, the main consumption is north of forty degrees. In the United States and Canada, and some portions of Europe and Asia, and along the north of Africa, green or unfermented teas from Japan and China with a pale pungent infusion are preferred. The fur- ther north the consumer lives, the more he seems to require of the black fermented teas of India, Ceylon, and China with the dark, thick, heavy liquor its infusion produces. Great Britain and Ireland take nearly one half of all the tea exported from Asia, Russia takes nearly one fifth, and the United States about one seventh. The importance of the China trade in tea brought into existence in former years a class of fast sailing vessels known as "China Clip- pers," and there was always keen competition as to which should reach London first, as a high price was paid for the first shipment. At that time their route was around the Cape of Good Hope. In 1866 three vessels leaving Foochow the same day, arrived at the docks of London ninety nine days afterwards within a few hours of each other. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 changed the course of trade. Steam- ers with great power and speed were built and the run has been made from Woosung, China, to London in twenty eight days. Formerly 60 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. most of the tea trade was centered in London and the tea was distrib- uted from there to other countries. Now the United States obtains its tea also by way of the Pacific coast ports, though a portion comes via Suez Canal direct to New York. The extensive Russian trade is still carried on chiefly overland by caravan, and partly by river and railroad. This trade is next in volume to that going to London. The greater portion of the tea for this trade is put up in compressed tablets containing about two pounds, called "brick tea." These tablets are put into baskets and sent by camel caravans from Tientsin through Manchuria to Siberia. Russian, or caravan tea, is the best and most expensive tea in Europe, and is superior to that sent over sea from Canton to Odessa for the Russian trade. As the Siberian Railroad progresses, more and more of this trade will reach Russia via railroad. The tea imported into the United States is almost entirely from China and Japan, the larger portion being from China. Pacific coast seaports are gradually securing a larger share of the trade. In Eng- land, India and Ceylon teas have largely supplanted Chinese teas, more than four fifths of the British imports being from these countries. The value of the eighty four million pounds of tea imported into the United States in the year 1900 was $10 558 000. COCOA. Cacao, commercially known as cocoa, consists of the seed of the cacao tree, which is found in the West Indies, southern Mexico, Cen- tral America, in the northern states of South America, in West Africa, and in the East Indies. The fruit is about six to nine inches long and about one half as wide. It contains twenty to forty seeds about the size of almonds, known as ''cocoa beans," inclosed in a green, fleshy pulp. In preparing them for market the fruit is first fermented for about a week in a heap with green leaves in order to separate the pulp from the beans. These are then dried in the sun much in the same manner as coffee beans ; they are then bruised and winnowed or cleared of husks. The husks are the "cocoa shells" and the broken beans the "cocoa nibs" of commerce, the latter being the purest form in which MATE. 51 it comes. Cacao butter, which does not become rancid when kept, constitutes about one half the weight of the bean, but this is generally removed in preparing cocoa powder or chocolate. Chocolate is a paste made from the seeds of the cacao tree sweetened and sometimes fla- vored with vanilla. Cocoa was known to Europe before either coffee or tea, and is preferred to any other beverage in Spain, where the per capita con- sumption is six or seven times that of any other non-producing coun- try. France ranks next as a consumer of cocoa or chocolate. The United States imported forty one million pounds of crude cocoa leaves and shells valued at $5 600 000 in 1900, which was double that imported in 1890. Of this nearly one third came from British West Indies : — Ecuador, Dutch Guiana, Brazil, Cuba, Haiti, Colombia, and Venezuela following in order of amounts, imported into the United States. Of prepared cocoa one million pounds were imported mainly from the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. The manu- facture of chocolate is carried on in France on the most extensive scale. There are several well known manufacturers in the United States who make the finest chocolate in the market. About twelve million pounds of chocolate are consumed annually in the United States. In 1900, about one million pounds were imported, more than one half of which came from Germany, MATE. Mate, or Paraguay tea, is a large article of commerce in South America and efforts are being made to introduce it into the United States and Europe. It is a species of holly. The leaves while still on the branches are roasted over a wood fire and beaten, producing a green powder and broken leaves, which is the mate of commerce. It is infused in boiling water and produces a beverage which is very refreshing and restorative to the human frame after great fatigue. About two hundred and fifty million pounds are consumed annually, mainly in Paraguay, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay, and the province of Parana, Brazil, 52 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. Alcoholic Stimulants. Of the alcoholic stimulants the most important from a commercial standpoint is that obtained from the fruit of the vine. The vine is found in most of the countries of the earth from 51° N. to 46° S. lati- tude, but it is not possible in all grape-growing districts to produce a wine good for commercial purposes. WINE. Wine may be said to be largfely a European product, since of the world's total production of over three billion g^allons annually, France produces 28 per cent, Italy 23^ per cent, Spain iy}4 per cent ; it is produced in lesser amounts also in Roumania, Turkey, Russia, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Servia, and other Eu- ropean countries. It is also produced in the United States, Brazil, Algeria, Australia, and iCape Colony. In the United States the principal wine-pro- ducing states are California, New York, Ohio, Indiana, •Michigan, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, Ar- kansas, and Missouri. In making wine the grapes are gathered in baskets and emptied into tubs having a hole in the bottom. The grapes are crushed by men treading on them and the juice runs through to a large vat below. When the vat is nearly full the juice is left to ferment. As the sugar ferments, carbonic acid gas bubbles up to the surface, and alcohol is formed from the sugar in the juice. After fermentation ceases the temperature of the liquor decreases. When it is cold it is drawn off through a tap near the bottom of the vat into casks. In "" - — n ^T" "" F /f A N c s ^ 5 p A / Ui_ ■ 1 / r- A I Y 1 ! R 1/ M A ^ / '\A 7U ff/r er A L 6 £ \P / A P Off TU 6A L j a UL GA a, A »| . 1 1 FIG. 26.— WORLD'S TOTAL PRODUCTION OF WINE IN 1899. 3 305 000 000 GALLONS. One h\oz\E N -_ i oemAR !L '1 M. FIG. 27 .—WORLD' S TOTAL PRODUCTION OF BEER IN 1899. 4 950 000 000 GALLONS. Each square = ^ of i^. Per Capita Consumption. The kind of alcoholic drinks consumed by the inhabitants of a country is largely determined by its climate. Wine has been called PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION. fit bottled sunshine, and it is not strange to find it the national drink of the Latin countries bordering on the shores of the sunny Mediter- ranean. The per capita consumption of wine is shown in the fol- lowing chart : WINE O.S. U.K. S HOLLAND tS Ca/X ^^ eCLGIUM S eeffMANY A. AUS TP/A 2.6 • fOfjTUCAL S ITALY 20. I " r/fANCC ■ 2tf.3 m FIG. 28.— PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF WINE IN 1900. Beer is the national drink of peoples of Teutonic origin living in generally colder and more northern climates than those of wine- drinking countries. The following chart shows the per capita con- sumption of beer: BEER fi$ Gals. «,« * S.3 » ^1^ 9.9 - 10.9 m Sl^/TZCRLANO fS. 4 os/^/^A»/f 20.6 ^____^^_^^____ 27. f G£fir^A/\IV UNITED f-> .. .y -' ..\ A rw " f Vi V \ / _ L ' \ ^ • are the largest buyers of leaf tobacco from the United States. Qf the stems and trimmings exported almost all are sent to Germany and Netherlands. Very few cigars are exported, but cigarettes to the value of $2 000 ooo are sold abroad mainly to China, India, Japan, Australia, and British Africa; and about the same value of plug tobacco. The United Kingdom is the largest importer of tobacco; it purchased in 1900 about $24 000 000 worth of tobacco and its manufactures, of which more than 90 per cent was from the United States. The United States imported leaf tobacco to the value of $13000000 in 1900, of which nearly one half was wrapper tobacco and fig. 30. -tobacco and mfrs. of more than one half was filler tobacco. Of the tobacco suitable for wrappers 88% 'came from Netherlands ; a large part of this came originally from the Dutch colo- nies of Java and Sumatra. Of tobacco suitable for fillers 90% came from Cuba, being largely used in our own manufacture of Havana cigars. In Austria, France, Spain, Italy, and Japan, the manufacture of tobacco is a government monopoly, no one else being allowed to manufacture it. In all countries tobacco is heavily taxed and is a large source of revenue. In the United States the imported tobaccos paid more duty IMPORTS AND EXPORTS, 1891- 1900, IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. - Exports. Imports. *" RUSSIA TOBACCO 2.71 - 3.2^- 3.77 - 7.23 7.70 1.67 2.05 2.52 3.00 6.75 3.70 ^.37 &^2 Ihi ITAL^ n uwreo K/NGooM n *" SP/MN It ^ Siv£roc/\/ » *" CANADA 5 rSAA/CC n "" AUSTRALAS/A n ^ GCffMANY n "" SWir^£RLA/\/0 S BELG/OM >y ^ AUSTR/A <5 0£A//^ARH ft "■ UNITED STATES S TURKEY i> //OILA/VD " FIR. ai— PFR CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF TOBACCO, 1900, 63 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. in 1900 than their invoiced value, or about $14000000. The domest tobacco paid internal revenue taxes amounting to over $59000000 in 1900. The per capita consumption of tobacco is largest in Holland, being nearly 7 pounds. In India it is used by all classes and both sexes, and the same is true in China where girls of six or seven years of age smoke it regularly. OPIUM. Opium is the dried juice of the white poppy (Papaver somni- ferum). The plant grows to three or four feet in height and produces a round seed vessel about the size of a small apple. The juice is obtained by scratching this capsule and the operation may be repeated six or seven times during a season. The hardened juice is carefully picked off after each puncturing. Opium is chiefly used as a narcotic. It may be taken in the form of pills, as is usual in Mohammedan countries like Turkey and Persia; or in the form of tinctures or solu- tions like laudanum and morphia, which is the method used by persons who become addicted to its use in Christian countries; or it may be smoked in small pipes as in China and other oriental countries. The narcotic principle is morphia, solutions of which are used in medicine to alleviate pain. The collection of opium forms an important industry in Asiatic Turkey, Persia, northern India, Egypt, and China. That exported from Smyrna in Asiatic Turkey is the finest, the bulk of which is exported to the United States. India is the country in which it is an important commercial product. It is cultivated mainly in Patna, Benares, and Malwa, whence it is exported in round balls mainly to China. The government holds a monopoly of buying from the growers, paying them $1.25 a pound ; and as twenty five pounds can be raised on an acre, this is a good investment for the farmer. The Indian govern- ment secures an annual revenue varying from $10 000 000 to $25 000- 000 from opium. China consumes more than any other country most of it being smoked, which is the least harmful method of using it. The import HOPS— SUGAR plants) into China from India amounts in value to about $27 000 000 annually j but as the plant is being largely cultivated in China, the amount imported is gradually lessening. The use of opium was originally forced on China in order to make a market for the Indian product. In 1900 crude, or unmanufactured opium to the value of more than a million dollars was imported into the United States, nearly all of which came either directly or indirectly from Turkey and was used mainly for medical purposes and also about $1 000 000 worth of opium for smoking from China. When first taken in small quantities it ex- hilarates and is used for this purpose instead of wines and liquors. It acts as a stimulant enabling those using it to 'endure great fatigue. The narcotic and sedative influences are after effects resulting from the collapse of the system. In the hands of the physician its uses are unlimited ; its abuses by humanity cause ruin. HOPS. Hops may be called the English narcotic. They are the seed- bearing greenish flowers of the hopvine containing lupuline which is a powdery substance about one sixth of the weight of the flowers. Their principal use is in the manufacture of beer and ale. They give to beer the bitter, aromatic flavor and also its narcotic, or soporific effect. The hopvine is extensively cultivated in England, Germany, and Austria and to a less extent in Belgium, Holland, France, and Russia. England and Germany raise more than one half of the world's produc- tion. In the United States the hop-producing states are California, Oregon, Washington, New York, and Wisconsin ; and while this coun- try imported in 1900 over two million pounds of hops mainly from Germany, it exported twelve million pounds, nearly all to Great Britain. Sugar Plants. Sugar affects a larger portion of the human race than any other commercial product. This arises from the fact that it is found more or less in all plants and is known to all countries civilized and uncivilized. 64 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. The two most important kinds of sugar entering into commerce are cane sugar, or sucrose, and grape sugar, or glucose. // CANE SUGAR. Cane sugar is so called because it is obtained largely from the juice of the sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), a plant belonging like the cereals to the grass family. The plant looks very much like Indian corn and is grown entirely for the juice and not for the seeds. It is probably a native of eastern Asia, but it is cultivated in nearly all tropi- cal and sub-tropical countries. It is sometimes grown in localities with an average temperature of sixty to sixty five degrees Fahr., but the best results are obtained where the average temperature is from seventy five to eighty five degrees. This same kind of sugar, sucrose, is also obtained from the sugar beet, from the sap of the sugar maple tree, from sorghum, and from several species of palms. Sugar Cane Sugar: When the sugar canes are ripe they are cut down close to the ground, the tops and leaves are cut off, and the canes are sent to the sugar mill which is generally on the plantation. At the mill the canes are crushed between rollers and the fluid thus squeezed out is collected ; the crushed cane, or bagasse, is afterwards used as fuel. If allowed to stand, the juice is liable to ferment owing to impurities; it is therefore passed through strainers at once into iron or copper kettles where it is heated to one hundred and fifty degrees Fahr. At this time a little slacked lime is added, after which it is brought to the boiling point and the impurities which rise to the surface are carefully removed. The purified juice is then boiled in vacuum pans until it is sufficiently concerttrated, when it is run off into large open pans to crystallize. The crystals form into a solid mass and are known as muscovado, or raw sugar; the non-crystallizable portion is known as molasses. The separation of the molasses from the sugar is now effected by machines called centrifugals which accomplish in a few minutes what formerly required days. After the molasses has been extracted, the raw sugar is sent to the refineries which are generally located in northern United States and in England. Beet Root Sugar: More than one half the sugar entering into the commerce of the w^orld is obtained from the sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) SUGAR. 65 of which there are several varieties cultivated. These beets contain from ten to twelve per cent of sucrose. Beet sugar first appeared as a commercial product about the beginning of the nineteenth century; now it is the principal source of supply for sugar in all the countries of continental Europe. The beet roots are washed and are then generally rasped into a pulp by machinery. This rasped pulp is put into bags and i the juice expressed by means of a hydraulic press. Good beets contain ninety six per cent of juice of which twelve per cent is sucrose, or cane sugar. The juice is sometimes extracted by centrifugals and some- : times by a method called the ''diffusion process" in which the beets are sliced into thin shavings and exposed to the action of water; this method is sometimes adopted with sugar cane. The further processes with the beets are similar to those adopted with the sugar cane. Sugar Refining: When the raw sugar is brought to the refinery it is first dissolved in water and the solution boiled with white of tgg or serum of blood to purify it. Sugar refineries are generally high buildings and in them the sugar is pumped up to the highest floor into pans heated by steam. Lime is put into it and it is allowed to run through bags made of cloth to the next floor where it runs into cylinders containing bone-black to take out the color. Passing down to the next floor it is boiled again in vacuum pans to take out all the moisture, when the sugar crystallizes perfectly white. When it is drained into moulds it becomes loaf sugar ; when the sirup is separated from the sugar by the centrifugals which whirl it rapidly round, it is called granulated sugar. The sirup is sold under the name of sugar-house sirup. Maple sugar is derived from the sap of sugar maple trees grown in Canada and in some parts of the United States; especially Ver- mont, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, where there are immense numbers of sugar maple trees, the product coming into the market being about five thousand tons. The sugar produced has a peculiar and agreeable flavor which is destroyed by refining, when it becomes ordinary cane sugar. It is used mainly as a sirup and in the form of candy. Sorghum sugar is obtained from the Chinese sugar grass, or sor- ghum millet. It is largely cultivated in northern India, China, and Japan, as well as in the United States. Its cultivation has been more 66 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE. successful in the Central and Western States than in the other parts of the United States. Owing to the difficulty of making sugar from it, the bulk of the product is used in the form of sirup of which about twenty five million g-allons annually are made in the United States. Palm Sugar is obtained from several palms grown in India, but very little of it is exported. GLUCOSE. Glucose, or grape sugar, is so called from the abundance of it in grapes, about ten to fifteen per cent. The sirup may be refined the same as cane sugar but is too costly for ordinary use. The glucose of commerce is made mainly from starch obtained from corn, and it can be made from almost any woody fibre, or cellulose, by the action of acids. The process of manufacture is to separate the starch from the corn by soaking, grinding, straining, and settling, and then converting the starch into sugar by the action of dilute sulphuric acid. This acid is afterward removed by chalk after clarifying, and the liquid thus produced is concentrated in vacuum pans and decolorized with bone-black. Grape sugar has about two thirds the sweetening power of cane sugar. The quantity of corn annually consumed in the manufacture of glucose is about forty million bushels. The exportation of glucose from the United States in 1900 amounted in value to $3 600- 000, or over four times that of 1890, nearly all of which was sold to Great Britain. Commercially the important sugars are those made from the sugar cane and the sugar beet. It will be seen from Fig. 32 that the total production of sugar entering into the commerce of the world has been more than trebled since 1870. The, production of cane sugar is nearly double what it was in 1870, while beet-root sugar is five and one half times as much. In the same period the wholesale price has been reduced from five cents to two and one e 7 6 5 5 2 1 f0\50\60\70 80 so 00 ■" 8 7 6 5 V 3 2 1 1 - , f / ~ 1 ^ ' y y k' r ■r^"' S'^ V- ,. ,^ ' \ _ FIG. 32.— COMPARATIVE PROGRESS OF PRODUCTION OF CANE AND BEET SUGAR, AND TOTAL SUGAR PRODUCTION, ENTERING INTO COMM ERCE FROM 1 840 TO 1 900, IN THOUSANDS OF TONS. Cane. — . — . — . —Beet. Total. SUGAR, 67 "~ "^ ~~ J A V A D £ \m'aP AR A 1 £ gy\pt A NT IL\L£ s c a B A B ff A Z / L M A u R / T f u 5 ! i H A W A 1 / u N / T £ D ST A T £ s ~ ...... - - 9 c H £ R O U^N T R / E ^ PWfPTp P ERp 1 -Yy,;\co Tff in\id\ad _ J 1 FIG. 33. -WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF CANE SUGAR IN 1900. 2 850 000 TONS (NOT INCLUDING INDIA). One block = K of i^. half cents per pound. The sur- plus sugar of the countries rais- ing sugar cane would not supply the amount imported into the United States. India produces more sugar than any other coun- try, but its product of two mill- ion two hundred thousand tons in 1900 is not included in Fig. 33 because it does not enter into the commerce of the world. Java is the next in im- portance, exporting over six hundred thousand tons. Beet sugar is supplied almost entirely by continental Europe. The quantity of beet sugar produced in igoo is shown in Fig. 34. The consumption of sugar in Europe and the United States is steadily gaining. The amount per capita by countries for the year 1900 is shown in Fig. 35. The United States and Great Britain each imports on the average about $100000000 worth of sugar annually. In 1900 the United States imported over four billion pounds of which seven hundred million pounds were beet sugar. The cane sugar came mainly from Java, Hawaii, Cuba, British West Indies, British Guiana, Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico, Eevot Brazil Peru and the fig. 34.-world'S total production of beet xLgypi, jDrdzii, jreru, ana tne sugar in 1 900, 5 950 000 tons. Philippines. Beet sugar came One block = k of i^. J "~" s £ ff M A N Y \ " B £ L 6 ' u M i m HIT H£/f UMfS F ff A N c £ \T H £ R c\o U N T\R / as ^ , A U S T f? / A R U 5 S / A ._.. \ 68 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE principally from Germany and Austria, and some trom Belg^ium and Russia. The transfer of the production of sugar from the planta- tions of the tropics to the farms of the temperate zone has produced results that no one could have foreseen. The lowering of the price caused by the enormous increase in production of beet sugar impover- ished the sugar planters of the tropics. In Cuba and the Philippines this brought on a revolution owing to their inability to pay the taxes imposed by Spain. This finally produced the Spanish-American war which caused Spain to lose her possessions in America and Asia, and changed the relation of the United States to them. The British West Indies are also seriously injured by the price of sugar and have dis- cussed the advisability of becoming a part of the United States. f?U55IA 13.9 pof?ru6Ai. Ml AUSrff/A 17.6 6eL6/UM S3.0 NCTMeffLANDS 3¥.3 FffANCE ^^^ js,d SWEDEN S> NOffWAY ¥a6 D£NMARH ¥6.7 SWITZERLAND ^^^ 52.0 65.Z UNIT£D HINGDOM ^^^ ■ St.f FIG. 35.— PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF SUGAR IN POUNDS FOR 1900. The contest between beet sugar and cane sugar for the markets oi the world will continue for many years to come. The United States, as the largest consumer and importer of sugar and also as a country capable of becoming the greatest producer of beet sugar in the world, will, by the policy it adopts on the subject, determine largely the future welfare of sugar producing countries. In Java,. Hawaii, Cuba, and other favorably situated countries the average amount of sugar obtained from an acre planted with sugar cane is double that obtained in Ger- many and other countries from an acre planted with sugar beets. The cost of production of a ton of sugar in tropical countries is five to seven dollars less than in European countries. Sugar cane growers have the advantage of ease of cultivation, richness of production, and low price of labor. Sugar beet growers have the advantage of a dense population SUGAR. 6d consuming not only a large part of the sugar, but also the refuse material which is used as cattle food. In addition, the superior methods and machinery used in the manufacture of beet sugar and the abun- dance of capital in the immediate neighborhood ready for investment are also in its favor. The main reason for the success of beet sugar is the aid given by European governments in the form of bounties in order to encourage its cultivation. These bounties were formerly so arranged as to act as a premium for an improvement in the sugar producing qualities of the beet as well as to increase the quantity produced. The effect has been that the production in Germany alone has increased from i86 ooo tons in 1870 to i 844000 tons in 1899, and the percentage of sugar in the beets from 8.28% in 1870 to 13% in 1899. The bounty is generally paid on the sugar exported and the result has been to increase the price of sugar to the home consumer by the amount of the bounty while enabling the manufacturer to supply the foreign markets at a lower rate than he would otherwise be able to do. To prevent these bounty aided sugars from competing unfairly with the domestic sugar, the United States has imposed countervailing duties. All sugar imported from foreign countries must pay a tariff of 1.5 to 1.95 cents per pound. Sugar coming from countries which give a bounty must pay the amount of this bounty in addition to the ordi- nary tariff. The bounties paid vary from ^ to ^ cents a pound in Germany and Austria, to ^ to 9-10 cents a pound in France and other European countries. Germany and Austria, because of the lower boun- ties, were the countries from which the United States imported most of its beet sugar in 1900. The United States consumed over 2 200 000 tons of sugar in 1900, of which about one eighth was produced within our own borders, about one seventh was beet sugar imported from Europe, and the remainder was from countries producing sugar from sugar cane. The duties collected on sugar in 1900 amounted to $57000000, or one fourth of all the duties received from imported goods. In the United States the beet sugar industry has been successful in a number of states, the pfesent production amounting to over one hundred thousand tons; California, Nebraska, Utah, Michigan, Min- 70 PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE, nesota, Missouri, and New York, all have beet sugar factories in opera- tion. In California there are four factories which consume one thou- sand tons of beets a day, one which consumes two thousand tons, and the largest beet sugar factory in the world which consumes three thou- sand tons of beets and produces four hundred and fifty tons of sugar daily. The beet thrives in temperate climates which in the United States cover a large area. It does best in regions with plenty of sunshine and FIG. 36.— SHOWING WHERE BEET SUGAR MAY BE GROWN IN THE UNITED STATES; ALSO THE JULY ISOTHERM OF 71°; ALSO WHERE CANE SUGAR IS GROWN. where the average temperature in June, July, and August is about 70° F. This isothermal line has been determined by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture and is shown in the map. Dr. Wiley the chemist of the department gives one hundred miles on each side of this Hne as the sugar beet area, but experience has shown that it extends beyond this. The map indicates in a general way the area in which soils and climate can be found suitable to the successful raising of sugar beets. As will be seen the sugar cane belt is small in comparison with the sugar beet belt. A policy of encouragement of sugar beet cultivation would in thirty years result in a crop sufficient to supply all the needs LIVE STOCK. 71 of the United States, even if the per capita consumption of sugar doubled itself as it has done in the last thirty years. The effect of such a policy would be disastrous to the present sugar-producing countries both in the tropics and in Europe, and would create financial and com- mercial disturbances greater than those produced by the bounty-aided sugars of Europe. In the farming communities if beet sugar factories were established, the diversified interests naturally gathering around such a centre would give a larger home market for all other farm products. Molasses is the drippings obtained during the manufacture of raw sugar. Sirup is the drainage obtained during the manufacture of refined sugar. Owing to improved processes of refining very little sirup is obtained in that way. Many of the sirups in the market are manu- factured from glucose and are claimed to be as nutritious and healthful as refined sugar sirup although not so sweet. Of the $2 000 000 worth of molasses and sirup exported from the United States, sixty five per cent is sold to Great Britain. FOOD PRODUCTS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. Live Stock. Cattle — Sheep — Hogs. The distribution of domestic animals throughout the world is determined by the distribution of the grass lands. The raising of flocks and herds has been carried on for ages by the pastoral tribes of the steppes of Asia. On the treeless plains of North America, in the valley of the Orinoco and the Plata, in Australia and Africa, the same industry is carried on by the descendants of Europeans. Most countries raise enough horses, cattle, sheep, and goats to supply their own needs. It is mainly in the manufacturing countries of Europe that the consumption of animal products is greater than their production. While some of the domestic animals are used as beasts of burden others are raised mainly to provide food and clothing. Among those used as beasts of burden are the reindeer in the tundras of the north, the horse, the mule, and the ox in temperate climates, and the camel in the desert regions. The horse is the most universally distributed of all 72 FOOD PRODUCTS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. these animals and without it herdsman and ranchman could not raise such large flocks and herds. In the most complete statistics attainable the total number of horses is given as sixty four millions of which nearly one third, or twenty one millions, are in Russia, fourteen millions in the United States, and four and one half millions in Argentina. The world's supply of meat products is obtainable mainly from cattle, sheep, swine, and gloats. Cattle are sometimes distinguished from horses, sheep, and goats by calling them neat cattle. Cattle: There are over three hundred million cattle in the world, of which the United States has the largest number or forty two millions. Other large cattle-raising nations are Russia, India, Argentina, Ger- many, Austria-Hungary, France, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Uruguay. FIG. 37.— MEAT PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. Beef »!»i Mutton 'W/M/I/M. Mutton and Beef Cattle are raised not only to supply meat but also for the produc- tion of milk, butter, and cheese. In the United States there are sixteen million milch cows raised entirely for dairy purposes. There has been a fairly constant increase and distribution of these animals over all parts of the country ; the chief cause for this is to be found in the local demand for milk. New York, Missouri, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Penn- sylvania raise the largest number of milch cows. In some countries where the facilities for transportation are poor, cattle are sometimes PROVISIONS. 73 raised mainly for their hides. This is the case in Colombia, Argentina, and Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil. Live cattle are exported Irom the United States, Canada, and Argentina. Ninety one per cent of those exported from the United States is sold to Great Britain and amount to about two thirds of the total imports of cattle into that country. Canada and Argentina supply the remainder. Sheep : There are over six hundred million sheep in the world ; of these Australia has over one hundred millions, Argentina eighty mil- lions, Russia forty eight millions. United States forty millions. Sheep are raised largely for their wool, mutton not entering so largely into the foreign trade in meats as either beef or pork. Live sheep are exported from Argentina, the United States, and Canada ; Argentina exports the largest number. Hogs: The United States raised thirty nine million swine in 1900 which is more than any other nation in the world. Germany, Russia, and Austria raised each about ten millions, France six and one half millions. Great Britain three and one half millions, and the Danubian states j;hree and one half millions. Live hogs are very sel- dom exported. While fruits and cereals constitute the bulk of the food consumed in the world, meat products form an important part of the food supply in many countries. The largest per capita consumption of meat is naturally found in the meat-exporting countries like Australia, the United States, Canada, and Denmark. After them come the manufac- turing countries of northwestern Europe. In most of these the con- sumption of meat is greater than the production and therefore the bulk of the foreign trade in meats is to supply the demand in these countries. Provisions. The United States classifies all meat products under the head of provisions, which includes beef, pork, mutton, dairy products, etc. The total exports of provisions during the fiscal year 1900 amounted to over $180000000, being exceeded in the value of the amount exported by breadstuffs and raw cotton only. The United States is the largest con- tributor to the world's meat supply ; its exports of these products exceed 74 FOOD PRODUCTS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. those 01 any other nation. This is largely due to the fact that the greater part of the United States is adapted to the production of corn. Cattle and hogs not only consume corn but they condense and trans- form it into less than one fifth of its bulk. This lessens the cost of transportation and enables the farmer to raise them profitably thou- sands of miles from the final markets. The hogs of the United States consume about one third of the entire corn crop, or eight hundred million bushels. Owing to the cheapness of transportation the area of hog-raising has extended westward. Formerly it moved from the Eastern States to Ohio and Indiana ; it has since moved further west to Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska. Swine are raised to a larger extent in the United States than in any other country in the world. In other countries corn is not, as here, the main food. In Canada peas are largely used and this is the reason why Canadian bacon sells higher in London than American bacon. In Servia, Roumania, and some other countries, swine are raised largely in the forests and subsist chiefly on acorns and roots. The increase of swine throughout the West is largely due to the development of the packing industry which is the wholesale curing and packing of hogs. It is also associated with the slaughtering, dressing, and shipping of cattle and sheep, but so far as packing is concerned it chiefly affects swine. The tendency of the packing industry is to locate as near as possible to where the hogs are raised. The largest packing centres are Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, St. Louis, Indianapolis, St. Joseph, Milwaukee, and Cincinnati. The introduction of refrigerating processes and the advances made in the methods of chilling meats have allowed the packing to be continued during the summer months, thus providing fresh hog-meat for the market all the year round. The area in which cattle raised mainly for production of beef are found, has moved rapidly westward. This is due to the fact that their products are so readily transportable. More than one half of the beef cattle of the United States are found in Texas, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and Wyoming. Immense herds are raised in these 'states lying in the great grazing region of the far west. Later they are driven or transported to the corn-growing sections where they are fattened, and shipped by rail to the chief meat-packing centres at PROVISIONS. 75 Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, and St. Jose wnere mey are slaughtered and sent to the Atlantic seaboard in refrigerated cars, and shipped abroad in vessels having ice chambers. Many are sent all the way to the Eastern States where, after being fattened, they are sent to the local markets. Sheep have not increased as rapidly in the United States as cattle and hogs. In the east they have decreased. The mountain states of the west have now more than one half of all the sheep in the United States, Very little mutton is exported from the United States, the European markets being supplied mainly from Australia and Argentina. Aus- tralia exported over four million frozen carcasses of mutton in 1900. New Zealand leads in the export of frozen mutton, and Queensland in the export of beef. Argentina exported two million frozen wethers. These are carried to European markets in ships containing ice chambers which are kept below freezing point. The following table gives an idea of the export trade in meat products of the United States for the year 1900 : BEEF PRODUCTS. HOG PRODUCTS. Canned beef $5 233 000 Ham $20 414 000 Fresh beef 29 643 000 Bacon 38 975 000 Salted beef 2 697 000 Pork 10 169 000 Tallow 4 398 000 Lard 41 939 000 Great Britain buys nearly all the fresh beef, three fifths of the canned beef, three sevenths of the salted beef, and one half of the tal- low, exported from the United States. Continental Europe is next in importance followed by the West Indies and South America. Africa, on account of the war, imported twice as much canned beef in 1900 as it did in the previous year. The United Kingdom bought eighty per cent of the bacon and ham, over one half of the pork, and one third of the lard, exported from the United States. Germany also imported about one third of the lard. Pork products find a better market in continental Europe than beef products. Outside of Europe, the West Indies and South America are the largest buyers of pork products. A comparison of the trade of 1900 with that of 1891 shows that there has been a •^e FOOD PRODUCTS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. falling off in the exports of canned goods, although a valuable market has been developed in British Africa. In salted and pickled beef there has also been a falling off. The export of fresh beef has doubled and that of hams trebled since 1891. The United Kingdom w 38 36 3f 3Z 65 70\75 80 8i}B5\90 57 9z^m Ts 5? ^ 5B P "oo — /26 //9 //2 /oi 98 91 8V 77 70 63 56 is 65 7075 To 8/ « 90 57 92 93 9hs SdJ57l58;5S 00 "■ 126 IIS III 105 98 9/ &¥ 77 70 i3 S6 49 ; ■ / 38 36 3f- 3Z 30 28 26 Z¥ Z2 20 18 16 /f / A 1 I -^ ■ / r \ \ r- / /■ A 1 / \ / /\ L, Z8 26 2V- zz 20 /8 16 / \ ^ 'N 1/ { ^ ■1 1 >^ ■ I j \/ / 1 V A '\ J ,' ' *. 2 ^ yV / j >' X. / ) I \ • ^ >' +-f*- ^♦- >r , fj V, J5 Z8 21 /¥ 7 ! ■ v' r . *, '\t .-* " 3 3S za Zl IV 7 ' / V J L»" •\ /' 't. rr" /O 8 6 \. V '*, 10 8 6 \ If k" VI ' T\ ' ■< r •A. ''' ^/ > s J V ; ^J^ -K ,- - 4 i' i u L- __j _J J L _j -»• ^.,-.. -^• -1- -4- - _ FIG. 38— EXPORTS OF BEEF AND DAIRY PRODUCTS FROM THE UNITED STATES, 1865-1900, IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. Beef. Dairy Products. FIGo39.— EXPORTS OF BACON AND HAM, PORK, LARD AND TOTAL HOG PRODUCTS FROM THE UNITED STATES, 1865-1900, IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. 1 Total. 3+ + + + + Lard. 2 Bacon and Ham. i • Pork is the greatest meat market in the world; the imports of killed meat amounted to $i8o coo ooo in 1900 which was sixty per cent more than the total exports of killed meat from the United States. A study of this market shows what countries compete with the United States for this trade. Imports of principal meat products into the United Kingdom : Bacon. . > . $58 000 000, United States 60^; Canada g/A ■: T u R H £ y\ csntpAi as/a 1 \/rAiy \ u R U 6 0\A Y G\£. R M\A \N\Y\ 1 N D >\A A U 3 T R / \A - T H E fi c u N \T R 1 £ S • -_ ^ 1 \ \ 1 The world's total supply of wool in igoo is estimated at 2 685 000 000 pounds. The countries producingf over 100 000 000 pounds are given in the following chart : Only three of these coun- tries produce mainly for export, namely Australasia, Argentina, and South Africa. Their popu- lation is so sparse that they can- not consume the wool they pro- duce. In only one part of the world is the number of sheep increasing, namely, the river Plata region including Argen- tina and Uruguay. In Europe and the United States the multi- plication of small farms and the increased profits arising from cattle-raising tend to reduce the ratio of sheep to population. Since 1874 the United Kingdom has decreased 33 p. c, from 11 30 to 750 sheep per thousand of popula- tion; Germany 65 p. c, from 580 to 200; and the United States 37 p. c, from 795 to 500. The climate best suited for raising sheep for wool is one that is dry and equable, and free from extreme cold. The countries bordering on the Mediterranean have such a climate, and it was in this region that the merino sheep originated. This sheep produces fine wool in all parts of the world in which it can be raised. It was first known in Algeria and was introduced into Spain in the fourteenth century. In the seventeenth century Spanish wools were the finest, but owing to neglect they deteriorated, and Saxony into which the merino was introduced became celebrated for its "Electoral wool." Silesian wool also from the merino ranks high. In the middle ages wool was the most valuable export from Eng- land. Down to the introduction of cotton spinning, the wool industry was the most important for English trade, and it is now second only to FIG. 48.— WORLD'S TOTAL WOOL PRODUCTION IN 1900 2 685 105 01 3 POUNDS. Each square=J< of i i. 108 RAW MATERIALS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. cotton in importance among the imports and exports of textile products. London is still the greatest wool market of the world ; about one fourth of the world's wool is imported into England and about one eighth exported from it. Of the six hundred and fifty nine million pounds of wool imported, nearly two thirds is from Australasia, thirteen per cent from South Africa, five per cent from India, and four per cent from South America and France. Nearly one half of this foreign wool is re-exported to Germany, France, Belgium, and the United States. Germany obtains its wool from Argentina, Australasia, Cape Colony, Great Britain, Belgium, and Russia. France obtains its wool mainly from Argentina, Australasia, England, Uruguay, Algeria, and Turkey. Eighty per cent of the Australian wool is sent to Great Britain. Ninety per cent of Argentina wool is sent to France, Germany, and Belgium. Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, Wellington, Buenos Ayres, and Cape Town have all become im- portant wool ports exporting to all parts of the world. In 1900 the United States imported one hundred and fifty five million pounds of wool; of this amount thirty seven million ■pounds were first class, or short staple wools from Australasia, Argentina, and re-exported wools from Great Britain; twelve million pounds were second class, or long staple wools, mainly from Great Britain, Can- ada, and Continental Europe ; and one hundred and five million pounds were third class, or carpet wools, from China, United King- dom, France, Germany, and other European countries. South America, and Australasia. There are no sheep native of the United States. The first sheep 3vere brought to Jamestown in 1609. The first merino sheep were sent 40)50:60i70 75 80;85 90 91 i92:93i94:95 M 97 98 93 00 01 02 ^0 _. .... ' - ? 300 R -tt, ^ .' ; \f ^ /^ ^ \ • /> 280 V V; • uo 1 Zifl 220 100 180 . f ^ y ; \ 80 60 40 10 *'/ SO 60 40 I / >^ » / ^ ^ J Jf o- ! FIG. 49.- IMPORl OF DOl UNITED STATES PROD rS OF WOOL 1840-1 900 -LARS. Prnrliiptinn UCTION AND IN MILLIONS II up or ts UNIVERSITY I to the United States in 1802 by the American minister in Madrid. The wool production of the United States increased rapidly until a few years ago, and the same is true of the importation. There have been twenty six changes in the tariff since 1816; it was highest in 1867 and continued to 1883. In 1893 wool was for the first time put upon the free list; in 1897 a tariff was again put on it. In 1895 production reached its maximum — 309 000 000 pounds. In 1897 importation reached its maximum — 350000000 pounds, caused by a rushing in of wool to avoid the payment of duties under the new tariff. The seeming conflict between the interests of the farmers and the manufacturers has caused the changes in the wool tariff to be more frequent than in any other line of goods. The largest wool producing states in 1900 were Montana, Wyom- ing, Idaho, Oregon, New Mexico, Ohio, Texas, Utah, California, and Colorado. This is on the basis of washed and unwashed wool. The average weight of a fleece in the United States is 6.46 pounds, ranging from four pounds in some of the Southern States to eight pounds in Kansas, Nebraska, Washington, and Oregon. The merino sheep pre- vails in western New York, Ohio, Michigan, western Pennsylvania, Texas, and in the Rocky Mountain and the Pacific States. The English breeds, Leicesters, Cotswolds, and Lincolns, are found almost entirely in the South except in Texas. The ranch flocks which are based on Mexican breeds are the chief sources of carpet wools ; the coarse kinds of wool from all grades of sheep also belong to this class. SILK. Silk is the fibre, or thread, spun by the silk-worm. This insect is the caterpillar of a kind of moth, Bombyx mori, which feeds on the leaves of mulberry trees. The eggs which the silk worm lays, are about as large as a mustard seed and are fastened in place by a sticky gum. Each female lays from three hundred to seven hundred eggs. These, if kept in a cool dry place, can be preserved for a long time and are exported in quantities from silk-producing countries. When hatched the attendant places the caterpillar on mulberry leaves of which it eats greedily ; after five weeks it stops eating, and spins its cocoon which is made of silk from its own body. The outside of the cocoon is covered 110 J^AlV MATERIALS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN, with floss silk. The thread is all in one piece and about a thousand feet long. The cocoons are taken from the twigs to which they had been fastened, and thrown into hot water before the moth begins to eat its own way out. This is called choking and kills the moth inside. The outer floss covering is then opened and the cocoon with the fine silk around it is slipped out. When these cocoons are to be unwound they are put into a basin of warm water which softens the gum or sticky substance and the end of each single thread separated. As -the thread of a single cocoon is too fine for use in spinning, the threads of several cocoons are united in reeling off the fibre. For fine silk five or six cocoons are used; for coarse, twelve to twenty. The silk thus obtained is of a white or a bright yellow color ; it is made up into hanks and forms the raw cultivated silk of commerce. The other parts of the cocoons, all the spoiled cocoons, arid waste and broken fibres are, after going through many processes, spun like flax or cotton, making what is called waste or spun silk. These waste materials un- der the name of husk knubs are imported by silk-manu- facturing countries to be made into silk goods. Co- coons are also exported; but as one hundred pounds of cocoon make nine pounds of raw silk, the lat- ter is the more common form for export. Both the silk worm and its food plant, the white mulberry tree, are native products of Eastern Asia. China was the cradle of silk in an early age and the Celestials prohibited the exportation of raw silk or of silk-worm eggs under penalty of death. Japan, India, and western FIG. 50.— SHOWING REGIONS PRODUCING RAW SILK. SILK. Ill countries gradually developed seri-culture. At the present time the world's production of silk amounts to over 35 000 000 pounds, of which China produces 41.6 per cent, Japan 20.7, Italy 20, France 3.8, Australia 1.8, Spain 5, and the Levant 10. In China there are but two ports from which silk is exported — Shanghai and Canton — a large part from the latter coming by way of Hong Kong. The best silk comes from the steam filatures of Shanghai. Tussah silk, which is a wild-silk, comes by way of Chefoo to Shanghai and also from India. Silk in the form of cocoons is brought from the interior to the seaports where it is reeled. For- merly China produced silk mainly for home consumption. The silk-manufacturing industry in China was almost destroyed by the introduction of cotton- raising among their people, as it furnished a cheaper clothing, but the demand for raw silk in west- ern countries has given the silk- raising industry in China a new life. Japan is the next largest producer of silk both for home consump- tion and for export. Yokohama is the principal silk port. India's silk industry has fallen off from what it was formerly. Persia, The Trans- Caucasus, Asia Minor, Syria, Russia, and Hungary are all silk-raising countries. In Europe, Italy is the largest producer. The great plains of Lombardy, Piedmont, and Venetia are largely devoted to the growing of mulberry trees for silk culture. France formerly exceeded Italy in the production of silk, producing 37 p. c. of the world's product, but the ravages of disease almost destroyed its silk industry. Pasteur dis- covered that by the microscope it was possible to determine which moths would lay healthy eggs, and in this way checked the spread of disease. The valley of the Rhone is now the main silk district of France. Attempts have been made to raise the silk-worm in the United ^ - n — " " "1 1 1 ■ C MM N A r A. U 5 T R 1 ^ / ^ D / A 1 T A L Y . 1 — ! J A P A N 1 F\R A N C £ SPAIN L £ V A N T - _ 1 _ _ _ FIG. 52.— WORLD'S TOTAL RAW SILK SUPPLY IN 1900 34 455 000 POUNDS. Each square=5i of lii. 113 /^AlV MATERIALS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. States and in Australia, and small amounts of silk have been produced ; but so much of the work must be done by manual labor, which is expen- sive in these countries, that it has not met with the success that has attended it in countries with the same climate where labor is cheaper. The United States and France each consumed in 1900 about one third of the world's production of silk. The quantity of silk consumed by the United States was a little more than that of France but the pro- ductions of the French manufacturers were much more valuable than that of the United States. The countries furnishing silk to the United States, and their quantities, are as follows : Japan 4 765 000 pounds $19 688 000 China 3 854 000 pounds 12 171 000 Italy 2 217 CXDO pounds 10 816 000 France 356 000 pounds i 607 cxxD Other countries . . 67 000 pounds 267 000 /a f6 84 es^eeia/moams/ W33 94 95S6\$7 9»9900 1—1 "^ "" w Iff w 38 36 n to 38 36 i T f N fl \ .' !\ 1 32 30 i h • .. J, 32 30 \ V .:■ ,', 1 \ / A \ /; / i6 . 1 / \ \i V- ■^1 j 16 2f IZ 10 18 16 ._. / \ v \i ,^i A \ V ,..._ .-_ iO (8 16 y M , J \ Y ^ ^ V f ■ V 1 i ■^ l ^ L-' J - - i 1 U FIG. 51.— IMPORTS OF SILK AND SILK MANUFAC- TURES INTO THE UNITED STATES 1 884-1 900 MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. Silk Manufactures. Raw Silk. 1 1 259 000 pounds $44 549 000 In 1875 the United States imported only about one million one hundred thousand pounds. The great development of silk- manufacturing has made the United States the largest im- porter of raw silk in the world. This country imports about a million and a half pounds of waste silk and nearly two million pounds of spun silk, and a small quantity of cocoons. France im- ports largely of raw silk from China, Italy, Japan, Turkey, and Russia. Cocoons are imported from Russia, Italy, and Turkey, and from Oriental countries. Eggs attached to cards are exported from Japan to Italy. HIDES AND SKINS. 113 Spiders' web has been spun into silk, also the cocoons of other moths, some of which subsist on the leaves of the oak and of other trees than the mulberry. Artificial silk is made by various chemical processes from wood cellulose, but not in sufficient amount to be of any menace to the natural silk industry. HIDES AND SKINS. Hides and skins form an important part of the commerce of the world. They are classified into: 1st. Hides, the skins of the largest animals like horned cattle and horses. 2d. Kips, the skins of small or yearling cattle. 3d. Skins, the skins of smaller animals like sheep, goats, seals, etc. The domestic animals furnish the largest supply of hides and skins, although the great majority of mammals whose skins are not used for furs contribute more or less. When the hides enter into the trade they are known as : 1st. Raw or green hides — the condition in which they leave the slaughter-house. 2d. Salted hides — which may be either dry or wet salted, having been seasoned with salt or other substance to prevent them from putrefying. 3d. Tanned or cured hides. The great leather manufac- turing countries all import large quantities of hides and skins notwithstanding the fact that their home production is large. The United States imported $57000000 worth of hides and skins in 1900, of which over one third was goat-skins, one third was hides of cattle, and the remainder consisted of buffalo, calf, sheep, 60 i7 54 40 9C j9l 92 193194 95 9G 97 98 99; 00 01 i 1 t 9 1 57 54 ]/ 10 45 42 33 3e 33 30 27 V, 1/ 45 |/ 39 36 / 2 . 1 ' / «' ^ A - A V , 17 24 21 18 13 12 9 y n \ / I \ ' i / 3 - 1 \ \ / f' 15 11 p- V / v' / / -^ ^ ^'> f . r \y /*- r^ ^ _ _ _ _^ FIG. 53.— UNITED STATES IMPORTS OF HIDES AND SKINS. TOTAL. GOATSKINS, AND ALL OTHERS 1890-1900 IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. 1 Total. 3 All Others. 3_ Goat Skins. 114 RA W MATERIALS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. and other hides and skins. The United Kingdom, Germany, and France, each imported about one half as much as the United States. In Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil and parts of Argentina, Uruguay, and Mexico, as well as in India, Russia, and some other large hide- exporting countries, cattle are frequently raised largely for the profit to be made out of their hides. Goats are also raised mainly for their skins. The supply of hides exported to the manufacturing centres of Europe and the United States come principally from India, China, Straits Settlements, Russia, South America, and South Africa, as well as from other European countries. The supply of goat skins comes principally from Russia, Turkey, Italy, Mexico, Brazil, Arabia India, Algeria, and Morocco. BONES. Bones enter largely into commerce for manufacturing purposes. The larger bones are made into knife and fork handles, combs, tooth and nail brushes ; the smaller ones into buttons and other small articles. When bones are boiled in a weak acid, gelatine is obtained which is used by dyers and finishers of fustians and velveteens. When bones are burned in a closed vessel, animal charcoal is obtained which is used in refining sugar. Phosphorus used in lucifer matches, and super- phosphate of lime used as a fertilizer are also obtained from bones. Bones are exported in large quantities from Russia, India, Argen- tina, Uruguay, Brazil, and other cattle-raising countries. The United Kingdom, Germany, France, and the United States all import large quantities of bones. The first three import about $2 000 000 worth each, the United States about $1 000 000 worth, mainly from Argentina and Uruguay. This country also has a large supply from the cattle regions of the west. The largest part of the bones imported is used in the manufacture of fertilizers. HORN. Horn is different from bone. The antlers on a stag are bone and not horn and are shed every year. The horns used in manufacturing are those of the ox, cow, bison, sheep, goat, and antelope. Most horns have a bony core which is gotten out by soaking them in water for five or six weeks ; the finest gelatine is made out of the pith. The tips of HOOFS-HAIR. llo the horns are soHd and are sawed off and made into umbrella and knife handles. The hollow part is softened by boiling; it is then slit open with a knife, spread out flat and pressed between iron plates. These layers may be very thin and are pressed in heated moulds and given any shape desired. In this way knife and fork handles, buttons, etc., are made from horn. For making combs horn is pressed lightly, other- wise the teeth would be too brittle. Horn is easily colored to look like tortoise shell. Horns are exported largely from India, Africa, South America, Russia, and other countries into the United States, United . Kingdom, and the manufacturing centres of continental Europe. II HOOFS. I Hoofs are the horny coverings of the feet of horses, oxen, cows, Sleep, and goats. The hoofs of cattle are used to make combs, buttons, etc. The hoofs of horses, oxen, etc., are made into glue. Prussian blue for dyeing calicoes is also obtained from hoofs. If the hoofs are pure white they have a high value, as they can be sent to China to be made into jewelry. HAIR. Human hair is exported from Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and China. $500 000 worth is sent from China annually, Marseilles being the principal market for it. Light hair is obtained from Germany ; dark hair from Belgium, France, Italy, and Spain. The hair cut from a young girl's head will weigh from one to one and three fourths pounds. Hair twenty five inches long brings the best prices ; shorter lengths are less valuable. The price is from one to twenty dollars per pound according to the demand of fashion. France imports about $500000 worth of human hair; the United States about $174000 worth. It is used for jewelry and other objects as well as for wigs, curls, and chignons. Horse hair is exported from Russia, China, Argentina, and Ger- many; cattle hair from European countries, Argentina and Australia. Cattle hair is used for mixing mortar and for upholstering ; horse hair is used for stuffing mattresses, and the longer hair is woven into a cloth which is used for covering for sofas, chairs, etc., and is known as horse- hair cloth. The United States imported about $2 500 000 worth of hair in 1900 of which 49 per cent was horse hair, 116 J^AIV MATERIALS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. BRISTLES. Bristles are a useful animal fibre obtained from the stiflf glossy hairs of the wild boar and the hog. These hairs are from three to ten inches in length and are used in the manufacture of brushes. Improved breeds of hogs do not have this long hair so that American hog bristles have very little value. Bristles are black, brown, gray, yellow, and white. The most valuable are the silvery white ones which are called "lilies" and are used for shaving brushes and tooth brushes. They are exported mainly from Russia, China, and Germany. The United Kingdom imports about $3 000 000 worth and the United States over $2 000 000 worth. FUR. Fur is the name given to the soft fine hair next to the skin of fur- bearing animals and under the hair which is longer and coarser. Furs are obtained from a great variety of animals, but principally from the carnivora or flesh-eating animals, like the tiger, fox, and ermine, or from the rodentia or gnawing animals, like the rabbit, squirrel, and hare. Fur is one of the best non-conductors of heat and is therefore the most comfortable clothing in cold countries, but large quantities of fancy furs are imported into countries with a temperate climate where they are used more for ornamentation than for warmth. All furs are either felted or dressed, the former or staple furs are used in the manufacture of hats, and the latter or fancy furs are used for articles of clothing. The skins are called peltries before being dressed ; when the long hairs have been pulled out of them, they are called furs. The felting or staple furs are obtained from such animals as the hare, rabbit, and beaver. The fancy furs are obtained from the fox, ermine, sable, seal, and similar animals. The most numerous skins coming into the market, which are sold by millions, are those of squir- rels from Siberia, of rabbits from Australia and Europe, of hares from Europe and Asia, nutria from South America, and muskrat from North America. The largest skins are those of the bear from Europe, Asia, and America, of the lion from Africa, and of the tiger from India. The most valuable are the ermine from Russia, Siberia, Norway and Sweden, the silver fox from Siberia and British America, the marten from Europe and America, the sable from Russia and Siberia, the FEATHERS. lit chinchilla from Chile and Peru, the sea otter and the fur seal from the North Pacific. The fur seal is found on the Pribilof Islands in the territory of Alaska. The North American furs go to New York although most of the Hudson Bay Company's furs go to London. The Siberian furs find a market in Nijni-Novgorod. London and Leipzic are the great fur markets of the world, and there one can find furs from every quarter of the globe. The United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the United States all import large quantities of furs. The United Kingdom exports about $7 GOO GOO worth of furs, of which over one half is sent to the United States. The United States in 1900 exported $4 500 000 worth of skins and furs, and imported $6 600 000 worth ; it also imported over $5 GGO GGO worth of manufactured fur, a large part of which had been previously exported as skins. Formerly seal skins were all sent to London to be dressed but now many of them are dressed in this country. FEATHERS. Feathers are the light portions of the wings and plumage of birds. Commercially they are divided into two classes : bed feathers and orna mental feathers. The best bed feathers are obtained from the goose, whose feathers are softer, more springy, and warmer than other feathers. Turkey, hen, and duck feathers are used for cheap beds. Eider down feathers are used mainly for covers of beds ; they are obtained on the rocky coasts of northwest Europe from the nests of the eider duck which rob their own breasts to line the nests for their young. Ornamental feathers are obtained from the ostrich, heron, bird of paradise, and numerous other birds. The ostrich is a native of the sandy deserts of Africa and Arabia, but they have been domesti- cated in South Africa and to some extent in northern Africa. The male bird is glossy black with white plumes in wings and tails. Ostrich plumes are the most highly prized, especially the white ones. The ex- ports of ostrich feathers from South Africa amount to nearly $5 000 000 annually, and from northern Africa to about one fourth of this amount. Ostrich farms have also been introduced into Argentina which exported nearly two hundred thousand pounds of feathers in 1899. In California 118 RA W MATERIALS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. and Florida a few farms have been started but they are not yet impor- tant commercially. The United States imports annually about $2 000 000 worth of ornamental feathers of which about one half are ostrich feathers in a crude state from Africa direct or via United Kingdom and one half other ornamental feathers dressed or in bird form mainly from France and Germany, with smaller amounts from Mexico, Brazil, and Venez- uela. The United Kingdom imports annually about 12000 cwts. of ornamental feathers, valued at $8 000 000, of which about one half are ostrich feathers. France imports ornamental feathers to the value of $7000000, and exports about $8000000 worth annually. Nearly $2 000 000 worth of artificial feathers and flowers are annually imported into the United States mostly from France and Germany. IVORY. Ivory is the hard white substance which forms the tusks of the elephant, the teeth of the hippopotamus and the walrus, and the horn of the narwhal. Elephants' tusks are the most highly esteemed, those from Africa being considered the best. The tusks of the elephant sometimes weigh from fifty to seventy pounds and average over twenty pounds. The heavier tusks are worth considerably more per pound than the lighter ones. Ivory is also found in Siberia where it is obtained from the dead mammoths, or elephants, in the frozen soil in which they have been entombed for thousands of years. Thousands of ele- phants are killed annually in the interior of Africa for their tusks alone. The tusks are brought to the coasts and to interior trading towns by the natives or by caravans across the desert. The greatest part of the ivory imported into Europe comes from Africa; the principal markets for ivory are London and Antwerp. British India and Ceylon furnish a comparatively small amount. Zan- zibar, Mozambique, Congo Free State, Cape Colony, Egypt, and other African coast countries all export ivory to a greater or less extent. London imports annually $2 000 000 worth of ivory mainly African. Antwerp imports about $1 000 000 worth mainly from Congo Free State. Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands and the United States import less amounts direct, and also import from United Kingdom and IVORY. 119 Belgium. Of the $800 000 worth imported by the United States about one fourth only comes direct from Africa. Seventy five per cent of the world's ivory is consumed in Europe, about ten per cent in the United States, and ten per cent in India. Knife handles, piano keys, billiard balls, and combs are manu- factured from ivory largely in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and France. Large quantities of ivory are used in various kinds of manufactures in India. Vegetable ivory is the fruit or seed of a dwarf palm found in Ecuador and United States of Colombia. The white albumen they contain is used by turners and others to make buttons and other small fancy articles. Large quantities of it are exported from Ecuador and 'Colombia to the United States and Europe. The United States im- ported nearly $250 000 worth in 1900. PRODUCTS OF FORESTS. Forests cover about ten per cent of the earth's landed area. One fourth of Europe is forest area; of the United States almost thirty seven per cent. The countries possessed of the largest forests are Canada, Russia, United States, Brazil, India, Sweden, Germany, Aus- tria, and France ; of these the United States, Canada, Russia, Sweden and Norway, and Austria are the great wood-exporting countries. The United Kingdom is the largest wood-importing country, the imports amounting to more than $100000000 annually. France, Germany, Spain, and some other European countries, also the L'J'nited States, import large quantities of wood. France with only eighteen per cent of forest area, must import largely ; Germany has twenty six per cent of forest land and the excess of wood imports over its exports is very small. Austria whose forests cover thirty per cent of its area, is a large exporter of wood. The forest areas of the United States amount to about five hundred million acres, seven tenths of which are on the Atlantic side, one tenth on the Pacific, and one tenth on the Rocky Mountains. The prairie states have scarcely four per cent of the forest area. 120 PRODUCTS OF FORESTS. The world's consumption of wood amounts to about thirty biUion cubic feet a year, of which about one half is used for fire wood and the balance for building and other purposes. Three fourths of the wood consumed in Russia is used for fuel, while in the United States only one third of the wood is used for that purpose. The demands of national welfare now require the preservation of forests as a means of husbanding the atmospheric moisture and the resources of the soil. While the theory that forests attract moisture and thereby cause rain is no longer accepted, it is positively known that MAP jA»i/^fh ifiJtriiuf'On ^fon^ia/i^ FIG. 54.-SHOWING FOREST LAND AND LUMBER REGIONS OF THE UNITED sVaTES. the trees prevent the too rapid evaporation of moisture from the soil, and impede the surface flow of the rain falling on it. This permits a much larger part of the water to be absorbed by the soil where it is held by the roots and thereby prevented from washing through and leeching out the elements necessary to vegetable growth, which means in this connection continued forest growth. It is estimated that twenty five per cent of the land area carefully and scientifically cultivated as forests, is required to supply the local demands in countries with a dense popu- lation. The cutting of lumber is rapidly denuding the forests of the United States, Canada, Sweden, and northern Russia because there is no systematic method adopted for the conservation of the forests. The three nations most advanced in forestry are France, Germany and Austria, and India. Forestry is being developed in the United States after the methods already so successful in Europe and India. In the United States and Canada arbor days have been appointed to encourage the planting of trees. In the United States woods are divided into hard woods and soft woods. Under the term soft woods are included all trees whose leaves consist of spines ; under the term hard wood those having broad leaves whether deciduous or evergreen. The principal hard woods entering into export trade are walnut, cherry, poplar or white wood, cotton- wood, oak, cypress, chestnut, gum, hickory. Other hard woods are ash, birch, elm, and beech. On the Pacific Coast hard woods are rare, the principal growths being conifers of the pine and fir character and of extraordinary development. Besides the gigantic red woods various spruces, firs, cedars, and hemlocks form the valuable supplies. In the Rocky Mountains no hard woods of commercial value occur ; the woods are mainly spruces, firs, and pines. The Southern States contain in their more southern section large areas exclusively of pine forests with cypress in the bottom lands, the northern portions are covered with hard woods, and the intervening region with a mixture of both. The Northern States are mostly occupied by hard wood growths with coni- fers intermixed, as the spruce forests of the New England States. Commercially the timber of the Southern States is the most important as more than Jialf the export of wood from the United States is from the South, the Pacific Coast being next in importance. The Lake region has the largest output of lumber, but owing to the great number of furniture and vehicle industries in or near that locality, large quanti- ties of wood are consumed near the source of the raw materials. About forty billion feet board measure, are cut in the United States every year, of which thirty billions are pine, spruce, and hemlock ; three bilHons oak ; and seven billions other hard wood. Of this, thirteen .billions come from the Lake region, ten billions from the Southern States, six billions from the New England and North Atlantic States, five billions from the Central States, four billions from the Pacific 122 PRODUCTS OF FORESTS. States, and two billions from the Mountain States. The lumber of com- i merce is obtained principally from the firs and pines. It is exported in the form of logs, deals, planks, boards, shooks or staves, and shingles. / / The imports of wood amounted to about $15000000 in 1900, of which two thirds came from Canada and one sixth consisted of mate- rials which do not grow in the United States. Central America, Mexico, the West Indies, and South America furnish the mahogany, rosewood, and other cabinet woods. The exports of wood amounted to $39 000 000 in 1900. Of the lumber, sawed and hewed logs amounted to $6 000 000. The United Kingdom took one half and other Europe one third of the lumber. Boards, deals, and planks amounted to $17000- 000; Europe took one half, the United Kingdom about one fourth. Other important mar- kets are Mexico, Cuba and other West Indies, Argentina and other South American countries, Australia, Hawaii and Africa. In many of these countries, like Australia and Argentina, they j have abundance of wood but it is not suitable for building pur- poses as in Australia; or, if suitable, it cannot be brought to the populous centers as conven- The great shipping ports are New Baltimore, New Orleans, Puget so 48 M ^ 8? 87|88 89 30 91 92 93134 95 96 97 98:99lqp 01 [02 •o? 18 7 / 46 / 42 40 38 / 42 40 38 36 34 31 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 / n /S J { 32 30 > / '\ V r^ f^ -/ i ^ 21 20 I \ / h v^ "% J ' ?■ ^ K / \ ' .~ \ i i^ yf fr- *f> 00 75 60 if^- " i 1 yi i \ * i — -1 - \ ' i FIG. 61.— GOLD AND SILVER PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD 1863 TO 1899 IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS . Gold, Silver. 186 MINERAL PRODUCTS. Gold has been from a very early period used in the manufacture of show utensils and ornaments and as a medium of exchange. Not all the gold mined in any year enters into the coinage of the commer- cial world ; about twenty five per cent is used in the arts and in making gold leaf for gilding. In making gold leaf it is hammered so thin that two hundred thousand leaves would only make an inch thick. It is also used largely in dentistry and in the manufacture of jewelry. Gold when pure is nearly as soft as lead; it is therefore mixed with silver, copper, and other materials in order to make it available for use in coinage and in the manufacture of various articles of jewelry and ornament. The world's production of gold has trebled in the last fifteen years. In 1899 it was valued at $313000000; in 1900, owing to the war in South Africa, which cut off the ?P-°^°l°i\ I supply from the Transvaal mines, the production amounted to only $256000000 in value. The three great gold-producing countries are the Transvaal, the United States, and Australia; next in importance are Canada and Russia. Other important gold-producing countries are British India, Mexico, China, the Guianas, Colombia, Hungary,*^ Brazil, Chile, Japan, Korea, and Rhodesia. In 1900 the value of the United States production was $78 000 000 ; of Australasia $73 000 000 ; of Canada $28- 000000, one fifth of which was from the Yukon region; of Russia $23 000 000, including gold from the Siberian mines ; British India $9 000 000 ; Mexico $8 ooo 000. The Transvaal mines when once they are again in full operation will probably produce $100000000 worth annually, and at this time (1901) they nearly all lie within an area of one hundred square miles. 30 95 80 75 70 65 60 55 6368 73 / ., P-' ^ f V r V ^ ^ fT ^ 1 ■ ,' l^ ■OH rO- -0- J,. *»^ -0.--0 ' .... 30 25 20 IS to 5 i i ... "■ / ^ " ~ _ __ — -J ■ _ FIG. 62 -GOLD AND SILVER PRODUCTION OF THE UNITED STATES 1863 TO 1899 IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. Gold. Silver. SILVER. \^ .x^qS*^ 1^'J' Prior to 1837 gold-mining in this country was carried on almost entirely in the South, but after the discovery of gold in California in 1848 that state became the mining centre. Now Colorado mines one third of all the gold produced in the United States, California being second and Alaska third in the value of the product. All the other Rocky Mountain and Pacific States also produce gold ; some is obtained from auriferous quartz and gold-bearing gravels, and large quantities are obtained from the silver mines. In Australasia, West Australia produced one third of the gold of 1900; Victoria, Queensland, New South Wales, and New Zealand also produce large quantities SILVER. Silver is not often found in a pure state. The silver of commerce is obtained from the silver sulphide and chloride ores, and from the sulphide of lead which usually has silver in it, also as a by-product in zinc, copper, and gold mining. The ores of silver are roasted and then crushed to powder by machinery, and mercury or quicksilver is mixed with it. This unites with the silver in the powder and forms a pasty mass called amalgam. This is then placed in closed iron vessels and heated to 270° when the mercury passes ofif through a pipe as vapor, leaving the mass of silver. Gold ores are sometimes treated in the same way. Silver is the next in importance to gold for use in the arts ; it is also used for coinage, about one sixth of the production being used for this purpose. It is largely used for table ware the tarnished appearance of which sometimes seen is due to the presence of sulphurous gases. Like gold it is too soft for these purposes unless hardened ISy mixture with copper or other metals. Enormous quantities of silver-plated ware are made by depositing a thin coat of silver on some cheaper metal. Nitrate of silver and chloride of silver are used largely in photography. The world's production of silver in 1900 amounted to $112 000 000 in value at the mines. The ,United States produced $36 000 000 worth, Mexico $34000000 worth. Other important silver-producing coun- tries are Australasia, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Germany, Spain, and Canada. In the United States, Nevada was formerly the great silver-mining state; in 1877 the Comstock lode produced $21 000000 worth of silver 188 MINERAL PRODUCTS. and $14 000 000 worth of gold. Colorado now produces one third of the output of the United States, followed by Montana, Utah, and Idaho in the order named. Refiners in the United States also produced from foreign ores and bullion $28000000 worth of silver; ninety five per cent of this ore was from Mexico. The precious metals of the United States are nearly all found in the Sierra and Rocky Mountains, the Black Hills being the only im- portant exception. In South America they are found also in the west in the Andean countries. COPPER. Copper was probably the first metal employed by man. It is found native in strings, grains, plates, or masses. It is also obtained from various ores, such as the oxides of copper and the sulphide of copper. Malachite found in Siberia and elsewhere is a green carbonate of copper. Gold and silver are often found associated with it, and these often make its mining profitable where without them it would not be. Copper has great malleability and ductility and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. Combined with zinc it makes the alloy brass, com- bined with tin it makes bronze, gun-metal, and bell-metal. Large quantities of wire are made from it. Its most important present use is in electricity as a conduc- tor of electric currents. 3 United States. In j^oQ the world's pro- duction of copper amounted to four hundred and eighty thou- sand tons of which the United States produced two hundred and sixty eight thousand tons, Spain sixty three thousand tons, Japan, Chile, Germany, Australasia, and Mexico each from twenty to thirty thousand tons. In the United States, Montana, Ari- do 85 M\87 88 13 30 ir 32 3Z]p¥:35m^l 3833 00 01 oim 1 fi 1 «0 Hi / f'SC / Jjt / m / m V / 32S ISO ^ J «5 wo m no Ui 100 175 150 as wo 75 r^ y * ^fr ■°' f "O 3 y f f , r ro- V / i ... i -U J u FIG. 63. -COPPER PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD, OF THE UNITED STATES AND OF OTHER COUNTRIES, 1 880 TO 1 900, IN THOUSANDS OF TONS. r World. 2_ . _ . _ . Other Countries. COPPER. 18© zona and Michigan produce the largest quantities. The Anaconda mine in Montana is the most productive in the world and at the present time the ore sometimes occurs in veins ten feet in width in granite. In Arizona the deposits consist of oxidized ore. The Calumet and Hecla is the most productive mine in the Lake Superior region and employs five thousand men to work it. There it is found in masses sometimes weighing from three to six hundred tons. While copper deposits are widely distributed, all the actively working mines in the world would not cover an area of five hundred square miles. There has been a steady increase in the demand for copper which so far has been met by the increase in production, — from one hundred and fifty thousand tons in 1880 to nearly five hundred thousand tons in 1900. If this demand continues to increase, it can only be met by the discovery of new mines in Australasia or some other little explored region, or by using the low grade ores which cannot now be profitably worked. The United States is the principal exporting country and exported one hundred and fifty thousand tons, or over $57 000 000 worth in 1900. Most of it was in the form of pigs, ingots, and bars, very little ore being exported. Spain exported nine hundred thousand tons of very low grade ores valued at $6 000 000. Germany, Japan, Chile, Australasia, and Mexico are the other important exporting countries. American refiners handle ore "and matte, or smelted copper, from Canada and Mexico and even from Australasia and Japan, the refined product being re-exported. The reason of this is the high state of perfection to which the electrolytic process is carried on in this country. The metal is cast from the converter into bars of convenient size which are suspended in a vat filled with a solution of copper sulphate ; on both sides of the bar is a thin plate of copper. A current of electricity is then passed through the solution, under the action of which the unrefined copper is dissolved atom by atom carried across to the plate of pure copper and then deposited as refined metal. The impurities consisting of sil- ver and gold fall to the floor and when melted into bullion sell for many times the cost of the operation. In 1900 fifty-eight per cent of the production of the United States was sent to foreign countries. Nearlv all the domestic copper exported goes to Europe; France, Germany, and the United Kingdom are the largest purchasers. Nearly all Ameri- 140 MINERAL PRODUCTS. can copper is exported from New York and Baltimore as the two largest refineries are located in these cities. The world's price, how- ever, is fixed at Boston, that city being the home office of the directory of the great copper companies in this country. In 1899 the United Kingdom imported two hundred and seven thoifand tons of ore, or regulus, and sixty four thousand tons of imwrought copper. • The United States imported thirty six thousand tons of ore, or regulus, and forty thousand tons of unwrought copper, altogether valued at $15 000000. LEAD. Most lead is obtained from the sulphide of lead, or galena. This is frequently found associated with sulpate of zinc, or zinc blende, forming the zinc-lead ores. Silver is also often found with lead and this makes the mining of it profitable when it would not yield sufficient return by itself. Galena often occurs in the form of crystals. Lead is readily cut with a knife; it is malleable and can be made into sheets. It is largely used for water pipes and tanks. Pewter and solder are com- posed of lead and tin ; type metal is made of lead and antimony. Arsenic is mixed v/ith lead in making shot and bullets to harden it. Over $10000000 worth of white lead for painters' use is made annually in the United States. Litharge, or yellow lead oxide, is used in glass mak- ing. The world's output of lead in 1899 was seven hundred and eighty- two thousand tons, of which the United States produced over one fourth, Spain one fourth, Germany one sixth, Mexico one tenth. Spain exports more lead than all other countries. The United Kingdom im- ports more than any other country and is followed by the United States and France. The imports of the United States are mostly from Mexico. ZINC. Zinc is generally obtained from sphalerite, or blende, sulphide of zinc. Zinc blende usually occurs with galena. Crude metallic zinc is known in the market as spelter. Zinc is not easily corroded. It is deposited in thin layers on iron to make the galvanized iron of commerce. Zinc white, used as a substitute for white lead, is made by heating the zinc in the air when it becomes oxide of zinc. Brass AL UMINUM-MERCUR Y. 141 and white metal are both compounds of zinc with copper. Germany, Belgium, and the United States are the largest producers of metallic zinc. In the United States the largest zinc mines are in the Joplin district in southwest Missouri and extending into Kansas. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, South and West Virginia supply the eastern works, while the Joplin district supplies the western. The zinc oxide produced in the United States is over $3 000 000 in value. The exports of zinc and oxide amount to over $1 500 000. ALUMINUM. Aluminum is the most abundant metal and the third most common element. It is found in ordinary earths and clay and in rocks like feld- spar, mica, and granite, these being in the main silicates of alumina. Its extraction from these however is unprofitable. It was formerly obtained chiefly from cryolite found in the west of Greenland. Its principal source at present is bauxite found mainly in France, the United States, Italy, and United Kingdom. The United States, Switzerland, France and United Kingdom are the largest producers of aluminum. The production of the United States amounted to over $2 000 000 in value in 1900. It is the lightest metal in common use and is malleable and ductile. It is used where light weight and strength are desired. Racing boats and steam launches have been made out of it, also toys, ornaments, and culinary utensils. Aluminum wire is also being used for conducting electric power. Fifty years ago aluminum sold for ninety dollars a pound, now it can be obtained for thirty cents a pound and bids fair to take the place of copper in elec- trical work and for many other purposes during the next ten years. MERCURY. Mercury is obtained mainly from its sulphide, cinnabar. Its liquid form, quicksilver, is familiar from its use in thermometers, and barometers. It is heavier than iron and will remain in a liquid state at a temperature above forty degrees below zero. The world's total production is only four thousand tons. Spain, the United States, Austria, and Italy are the principal producing countries. The Almaden mines in Spain, and the New Almaden and other mines in California are the principal sources of supply. The United States exports one 142 MINERAL PRODUCTS. half the mercury it produces. The most important use of quicksilver is in the extraction of gold and silver by amalgamation. It is also used in the manufacture of chlorine and caustic soda electrolitically. In the form of calomel it has been used as a medicine for a long time. MANGANESE. Manganese is obtained principally from its oxides and is found associated with iron, zinc, or silver. It is always used in the form of an alloy. The largest producing countries are Russia, the United States, and Spain. In the United States, New Jersey, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Colorado produce the largest amount. In 1900 the United States imported over three hundred and thirty-three thousand tons which was more than the total consumption in 1899. Manganese is used to color glass and pottery. The black oxide is used in the manufacture of bleaching powder. Nearly nine tenths of all manganese is used in the iron industries. Spiegel-eisen con- taining less than twenty five per cent, and ferro manganese containing more than twenty five per cent, are used in the manufacture of steel to restore the carbon and produce other important effects. ANTIMONY. Antimony occurs very rarely ; it is obtained largely from the sul- phides. France, Hungary, Italy, Mexico are the largest producers. In 1900 the United States imported three thousand tons of ore and eighteen hundred tons of regulus, which was more than the total pro- duction of the United States in that year. Antimony imparts hardness to lead and tin. Britannia metal is tin and antimony. Type metal is lead and antimony ARSENIC. Arsenic is a rare metal ; the United Kingdom and Germany are the principal producers. The glass trade and paris-green makers consume large quantities. The white arsenic of the druggist is the oxide of the metal. It is also used for colormg wall paper and other purposes. TIN-NICKEL. 143 TIN. Tin is the only important metal not found in the United States in paying quantities. The tin mines of Cornwall, England, which have been worked for over two thousand years, were formerly the only source of supply. The Straits Settlements mines in the state of Perak in the Malay Peninsula within an area of twenty square miles produced sixty two per cent of the world's product of seventy four thousand tons in 1899. The mines of Banka and Billiton, two islands opposite Perak, produce eighteen per cent; English and Bolivian mines follow next in amount of tin produced. In 1900 the United States imported nearly $20000000 worth of tin in bars, blocks, and pigs, of which $10 000 000 was from the East Indies and $7 000 000 from the United Kingdom. The manufacture of tin plate, which is so useful in the manufacture of tin-ware and tin cans, consists in coating iron with tin to exclude air and prevent the iron from rusting. The United States imported $35000000 worth of tin plate in 1891 and only $5000000 worth in 1900, which, however, was nearly double the value and forty per cent more in quantity than the amount imported in 1899, notwith- standing the fact that three times more tin plate was manufactured in the United States than was imported. The United Kingdom is the only country in Europe exporting tin to any amount. Of the two hun- dred and fifty-six thousand tons of tin plate exported by the United Kingdom, the United States purchased one fourth. NICKEL. Nickel is generally found associated with cobalt. The principal mines are in New Caledonia and Canada. The great output of nickel in this country is from the ores imported from Canada. The chief producing mines in the United States are in Missouri. Nickel is used in the manufacture of cheap jewelry, in coinage, and in the manufacture of German silver. Nickel plating also consumes large quantities of this metal. The other important use is in the manufacture of nickel steel used for armor plate and for the shafts and other parts of machin- ery. By the addition of four per cent of nickel to steel its toughness and tensile strength are increased very much. 144 MINERAL PRODUCTS. PLATINUM. Platinum is generally found in gold-bearing gravels; only one hundred and seventy-five and one half ounces were found in the United States in 1900. The main supply comes from the Siberian side of the Ural mountains. Australia and Colombia also furnish small quantities. Platinum is very ductile and malleable, not affected by acids and melts at 1750° C. It is used in the manufacture of crucibles and in dentistry, but incandescent electric lamps use the largest part of the present supply. The United States imports nearly eight thousand pounds of platinum valued at $1 770 000, mostly from the United King- dom, Germany, and France. BISMUTH. Bismuth is a rare metal used as an alloy. It is found in Saxony, also in Peru and in Australia. It is used for coloring porcelain and also in certain forms as a cosmetic and a medicine. As an alloy it is used to increase the fusibility of certain metals. About $225 000 worth was imported in 1900 mainly from England. Non-Metallic Mineral Products. COAL. Coal has been formed from the vast quantities of vegetable matter which accumulated in various geological periods. The largest deposits were formed in the carboniferous age, when vegetation was most luxu- riant. This vegetaj^le matter rotted and settled for ages and, under the combined influences of heat, moisture, and pressure, became the great beds of coal which are found in nearly every quarter of the globe. Coal is composed of carbon, volatile matter, sulphur, and ash. The energy and, therefore, the value of coal is in the combined carbon and volatile matters which it contains. The heating power is obtained mainly from the carbon and the flame from the hydrogen of the volatile matter. Coal passes through various stages in its progress from vege- table matter to hard coal. In its transformation the moisture is first driven out, then the volatile matter, until finally it consists of over COAL. 145 ninety per cent of carbon. Peat, which is found in many parts of the globe and used as a fuel in Ireland, Holland, and other countries, is not valued as a fuel when coal is available, as it has very little carbon. Graphite, another form of product of carbon, may be mentioned here in passing, although it has none of the uses of coal as a fuel. It is found in commercial quantities in Rhode Island and some other places in this country as well as in other countries, and contains ninety nine per cent pure carbon. That of Rhode Island is used chiefly to FIG. 64.— COAL PRODUCING AREAS OF THE UNITED STATES. make stove polish, while other deposits furnish the graphite used in the manufacture of lead pencils.— [See Plumbago.] There are two broad classifications of coal which are subdivided according to the amount of carbon or volatile matter they contain. Anthracite, or hard coal, contains little volatile matter, not more than four per cent, but it is high in carbon. It is clean, ignites with diffi- culty, burns with a short flame without smoke, but gives an intense, concentrated heat. Bituminous, or soft coal, contains a large amount of volatile matter varying from eighteen to thirty six per cent ; it is easily broken, ignites eavJy with long reddish flame, and gives off con- 146 MINERAL PRODUCTS. siderable smoke with heat that is diffused over the mass. Anthracite coals are divided into red ash and white ash coals from the color of the ashes. Bituminous coals are also divided into steaming, gas, and coking coals, sometimes called semi-bituminous and bituminous. Good steaming coals do not contain more than eighteen per cent of volatile matter, while gas coals sometimes contain more than twice as much. An example of the proportions of the carbon and volatile matter is given in the table below : 2'^ as S« •3 c • Wi •" ..."TD Xi i" ill < to ti gl^E c i (U 4; Ph M 8u in oU e-i u Carbon 6.49 59- 78. 87. 89.50 Volatile matter 13.84 3540 18. 3.60 .40 Sulphur .60 •50 ■6s .80 Ash .78 4.00 3.00 5-90 9.00 Moisture 78.89 I.CX) •50 2.85 •30 •99 .01 The largest coal areas are found in the United States and China, each having over two hundred thousand square miles. India has thirty five thousand, Russia twenty seven thousand, the Unit- ed Kingdom nine thousand, Ger- many three thousand six hun- dred, France eighteen hundred, 'and Belgium eight hundred square miles of coal area. Coal is also found in all other Euro- pean countries, and in Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Nova Scotia, Mexico, and South America. The coal-producing countries do not, however, fol- low in the same order as the above. The superior facilities FIG. 65.— WORLD'S TOTAL COAL PRODUCTION IN r^^ f ^^„o«^^^4-o4.:^« ^^'^' t ^ 1899 797 062 775 SHORT TONS. ^^^ transportation arismg from ■ . -1 ^ . "" ■. U N / T £ D 5 T A T £ 5 - - . ..... 1 1 ' ..... i. u N / T £ D M / N & D M * i i 6 £ ^ M A N V 1 . AU6 TR /Ar h (//\ V6. AR Y i i \b E L \G 1 \U\M\ F ff A >v c £ 1 1 RVS5/A \ \ - -J U L. L jimR COVf^TRIES L- COAL. 147 nearness of its coal basins to the sea as wen as the existence of iron ore near the coal mines which has brought about the wonderful devel- opment of its manufactures, made Great Britain for many years the greatest coal-producing nation in the world. The world's production of coal is increasing rapidly. In 1899 it was seven hundred and ninety seven million tons — more than nine times what it was in 1850. Pennsylvania produced more coal in 1899 than the whole world did fifty years ago. The United States which has long been the greatest consumer of coal, with its two hundred and fifty three million tons in 1899 became the greatest producer of coal. The United Kingdom produced two hundred and forty six million tons, and Germany one hundred and forty nine million tons. These three are the great coal-producing nations ; following these are Austria-Hungary, France, and Belgium. All other nations of the world produce less than five per cent of the total production. The United Kingdom ex- ported more than forty one mil- lion tons of coal in 1899, which is more than the combined exports of coal from all other nations. France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Sweden, are the largest coal- importing countries. Most of the coal entering into foreign com- merce is bituminous, which is the coal chiefly used by ocean steamers and in the manufacturing industries throughout the world. Large quantities are stored at convenient points along the lines of ocean travel, called coaling ports, and steamers stopping at these points supply themselves with coal. Bituminous coal is cheaper at the mines in the United States than in the United Kingdom, and in some cases cheaper 170 €& 70 75iao 85190 31 91 33:3+ ?.^, 96:37^98 93;00 01 010304 J 70 r" i ..... ^ 1 1 Zj _« 2 lis 110 / 110 135 18O |G5 \50 135 liO lOS 90 75 60 « 30 \S / r ^^ ^ r / / V. r iBO / y ^ ^^ Its 150 135 110 105 90 75 60 45 SO IS . / / / f 1 J 3 / / >• ir' ■^ 0^ / " ^* / r y ^ 1 ■-/ /: 5 •* -/ ^ ...- - '^ .0- -0 4 - ^ ^•='=" ^ o' ! _ FIG. 66.— COAL PRODUCTION PRINCIPAL COUN- TRIES 1868-1900 IN MILLIONS OF SHORT TONS. 1 United States. 3 United Kingdom. 3— — Germany. i— France. 5 Austria. 148 MINERAL PRODUCTS. f. o. b. at Atlantic ports, but the high rates for ocean freight has made the cost of American coal for export greater than that of the English in foreign markets. Coal is mentioned in the Bible and by Aristotle. It was used in Britain before Caesar's invasion and has been used in China for cen- turies. Coal was first used for manufacturing purposes in England in 1612, but it was not until the nineteenth century that its rapid increase of production took place. The first coal used in the United States was in Richmond, Virginia, in 1650. Anthracite was discovered in Penn- sylvania in 1766, but it was not until the War of 181 2 had cut off other sources of supply that its value as coal became generally known. In the United States there are six coal basins, the largest extending from the Alleghany mountains to the Missouri river and south from the Lakes to the mouth of the Ohio river. This basin would cover half of Europe. The anthracite coal is obtained mainly from an area of four hundred and eighty square miles in the middle and eastern parts of Pennsylvania in districts known as the Lehigh, the Wyoming, and the Schuylkill valleys. The value of the fifty four million tons produced in this region is $88000000 at the mines, which is more than the value of the product of all the gold mines in the United States. Anthracite coal, because of the absence of smoke, is largely used as a domestic coal and on locomotives of passenger trains. Large quantities are also used in the manufacturing industries which are located so as to obtain it as cheaply as bituminous coal. The anthracite mines are almost entirely owned by the railroad corporations, and the transportation of coal forms an important part of their traffic. New York, Philadelphia, and Buffalo are the great distributing points, and the railroads from the anthracite coal regions to these points are knowHj as the * 'anthracite coal roads." About one hundred and ninety three million tons of bituminous coal, valued at $167000000 at the mines, was produced in the Unite( States duing 1899. While anthracite coal occurs very rarely outside of Pennsylvania, bituminous coal is found in most of the states of the United States. It is also the principal coal found in United Kingdom and in Germany, France, Belgium, and other countries. In the United COAL. 143 States, Pennsylvania is the largest producer of bituminous coal, fol- lowed by Illinois, West Virginia, Ohio, Alabama, Indiana, Iowa, Ken- tucky, Missouri, and other states. The first four states produce about three fourths of all the coal produced in the United States. In the bituminous regions the coal mines are not so universally owned by the railroads. The ports for export are Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New- port News. The railroads connecting these points with the bituminous region are sometimes called the ''bituminous coal roads." Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Chicago are all important interior ports for the bituminous coals. The extraordinary demand for coal in the various industries of Europe caused the price of coal to rise to such a point in 1899 and 1900 that it was possible to export American coal at a lower price than that demanded by English miners. As a result of this high price Russia, France, Italy, Germany, Belgium, and even England itself bought American bituminous coal. This has had the effect of introducing American Coal to European manufacturers, and acquainting American coal-mining companies with European methods of doing business. This will in time result in an increase of the exports of bituminous coal from this country. .The exports of coal from the United States have been heretofore mainly to Canada, Mexico, and the West Indies ; Canada alone taking eighty per cent, of which about one fifth has been anthracite and about four fifths bituminous. In 1900 the exports amounted to nearly $20000000 in value, and consisted of 7 188000 tons as against 3 640 655 tons in 1896. Europe purchased from United States $573 946 as against $53 169 in 1896. The United States imported nearly $5 000- 000 worth, mainly from British Columbia and Nova Scotia. Coal is found in layers or seams in what are called the coal meas- ures ; these with the rocks under them, which are generally limestone or old red sandstone, are called coal formations. If the coal seam is level and aboye the water line, the coal is taken out by a drift about eight feet wide cut into the coal itself. When other rocks have to be cut through to reach the coal, it is called tunneling. When the coal has to be reached by cutting a perpendicular opening, this is called a shaft and is generally twelve feet in width. Shafts in the bituminous regions of the United States are generally under four hundred feet in 150 MINERAL PRODUCTS. depth ; in the anthracite region they are sometimes two thousand feet, and in Europe some of the mines are even deeper than this. The coal seams underground are sometimes cut for long distances and have the appearance of streets in an underground city. The coal is raised to the surface and then sent to the breakers to be prepared for market. These breakers have bars at different distances apart so as to separate the various sizes of coal needed for its several purposes. The slate or rocky matter found with the coal is generally picked out of the coal by breaker boys or by machinery. Lump coal passes over bars seven inches apart, steamboat five inches, furnace three and one half inches, ^%'g two and five eighths, stove two inches, nut one and one eighth inches, pea three fourths of an inch, and buckwheat one half inch. The coal mines of England, Germany, France, and Belgium are gradually becoming more expensive to work, as the shafts are sunk deeper; and while it will take many years to exhaust them, it will not be many decades until the cost of mining will be so great in such coun- tries as to make it cheaper to buy their coal, as they do their cotton and wheat, from the United States. The fact that the United States has for some years produced more iron than Great Britain and now more coal, will bring about a change in the direction of the world's trade greater than any that has yet taken place. Some of the by-products of coal are valuable factors in the trade of different countries and in the development of our own country. Large quantities of coal are manufactured into briquettes by mixinj the coal with a small quantity of pasty pitch or coal tar and pressing it by machinery into whatever size or shape is needed. This mak: it more convenient for transportation. Large quantities of coal art exported in this form from Cardiff and other European coal centres. Coke is made in large quantities both in this country and in Euroj from, bituminous coal. In European countries where anthracite is not found, coke is used to obtain a fuel high in carbon. Another product from bituminous coal is illuminating gas. A ton of coal produces ten thousand cubic feet of gas, and gives as a by-product fifteen hun- dred pounds of coke, besides ammonia and other by-products. Coke is ^:he fixed carbon and inorganic ash of bituminous coal from which the volatile elements have been expelled by roasting in a closed chamber PETROLEUM. 151 with or without the introduction of air. Because of its high percentage of carbon and the absence of impurities, coke, Hke anthracite coal, is useful as a fuel in the manufacture of iron. The United Kingdom pro- duced over twenty five million, and the United States over nineteen million tons of coke in 1900. The United Kingdom exported about one million tons and the United States about three hundred thousand tons valued at $1 200 000, principally to Canada and Mexico. Germany exported over two million and Belgium over one million tons in 1900. Pennsylvania produces two thirds of the coke made in the United States, the best coking coals being found in Pennsylvania, West Vir- ginia, and Alabama, Connellsville coke being the best known. There is a great waste of valuable by-products by the ordinary methods. By use of the by-product ovens, coal-tar and ammonia are obtained by distillation of the gas. Sulphate of ammonia is used as a fertilizer and takes the place of other fertilizing materials which are imported from other countries. In 1900 nearly five hundred thousand tons of sulphate of ammonia was produced, valued at $26000000 The United Kingdom and Germany manufactured over two thirds of it. Coal-tar is used in the manufacture of aniline and other coal-tar dyes for which there is a large demand. PETROLEUM. Petroleum or rock oil is obtained from beds of porous rock, gen- erally sandstones and conglomerates, although it is sometimes found in shales and limestones. Petroleum is generally believed to have been formed by the decomposition of organic matter both vegetable and animal. In some places it rises to the surface of the ground but it is generally obtained by boring deep holes, called wells, into the earth. In order to bore to the great depths sometimes required, derricks are erected to hold the long steel drilling tools often weighing several tons. Steam engines are used to obtain the power necessary to raise and drop the heavy drills until the hole is bored down to the oil-bearing rocks which are frequently over two thousand feet from the surface. When they do not flow freely, a nitro-glycerine torpedo is put down into the well and exploded by dropping a stone or other heavy object upon it. The oil then rushes forth sometimes at the rate of thousands of barrels 152 MINERAL PRODUCTS. a day, one in Texas In 1900 giving twenty five thousand barrels a day. In some wells the oil flows freely, being forced out probably by the natural gas which is frequently associated with it; in others the oil must be pumped out. Petroleum as it comes out of the well, is some- times thick and such oils are best for use as fuel ; at other times it* is light, when it is best suited for the manufacture of illuminating oils. The base is often parafline, but sometimes as in California it is asphalt. Petroleum was used in ancient times in Italy and Greece to burn in lamps and as a medicine. It was also known in India and Persia from the very earliest period. The Indians in the oil region laid cloths on the ground and soaked it up for use as a medicine. It was supposed to be good for rheumatism and sore throat. It was not until after Drake bored the first well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859, that it became of importance commercially. The discovery of a method of refining it and the invention of chimneys by which the refined oil could be burned in lamps without smoking, increased the demand for it. The growth of the world's petroleum industry has kept pace with the pro- gress of mankind to a greater extent than that of any other natural product, and steadily continues to add to the wealth and comfort of mankind in every quarter of the globe. The search for petroleum is constantly carried on in every country, and hardly a year passes without discoveries of new oil-producing regions. In 1899 ninety five per cent of the world's output of petroleum was obtained in Russia and the United States. Other important producing countries are Galicia, Sumatra, Canada, Roumania, Java, Japan, and Peru. Russia produced two thousand five hundred and nineteen million gallons and the United States two thousand four hundred and sixteen million gallons ; the next largest producer, Galicia, only eighty four million gallons. The Russian oil when distilled only produced twenty three per cent of refined oil, or five hundred and seventy nine million gallons in 1899, while the United States oil produced eighty five per cent, or two thousand and fifty nine million gallons. This is due to the difference in the composition of the crude petroleum in the United States. In Russia the oil regions are found on both sides of the Trans Caucasus from the Crimea to the Caspian Sea. Baku on the Caspian is the richest region, more free-flowing wells being found there than PETROLEUM. 153 anywhere else in the world. The oil is transported to Batoum and Poti on the Black Sea by tank cars (a pipe line is under construction to carry the oil part of the distance), and to the Volga by tank steamers. Oil is also shipped by pipe line to Novarassik through fifty miles of pipe line from the oil wells in that district. In Russia, on account of the composition of the crude oil, the main object is the production of fuel in residuum, called atatki, to the neglect of illuminating grades. Locomotives, steamboats, and most of the manufacturing industries obtain their fuel from this source; coal is there used only for domestic purposes and by blacksmiths. The fuel oil pays for the crude petroleum, and the value of the refined oil less the cost of distilling is the net profit. Crude petroleum is exported for refining to other countries, although a number of Tefineries are also found in thi?- region. The Texas oil is also a fuel oil and English coal inter- ests are already alarmed for fear that the substitution of this oil for coal will greatly injure their export trade. The oil industry of the United States is of much greater magnitude than that of any other country. In 1900 the production Each square = % of \i. amounted to twenty six hundred and fifty miUion gallons valued at $75 000 000, being greater in quantity and value than in any other pre- vious year, and more than double that of Russia in value. Of this fifty seven per cent came from the Appalachian region in New York, Penn- sylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio ; thirty three per cent from the Lima field in Indiana and Ohio ; and five per cent from the California field. The development of the oil industries in the United States has introduced many economies in the means of transportation. Formerly oil-tank cars brought most of the products to the refiners on the i ^ i R u s S 1 A u N 1 T E D s T A T E s 1 V ..„ i OTHEF » A U S T R 1 A _ SI, MATRJ ^ _ CbuNTR ES FIG. 67.— WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN 1900. 5 200 000 000 GALLONS. 154 MINERAL PRODUCTS. Atlantic coast, but now pipe lines from the oil regions in the east carry the oil to New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and other points where the refineries are situated and where the oil can be sent abroad in tank steamers or in tin cans. From the Lima field, pipe lines carry it to Chicago, Cleveland, and Cincinnati. Not only is . our home demand supplied but in 1900 nearly a billion gallons, or over 40% of the total product of the United States, was exported. Of this amount about seventy five per cent is illuminat- ing oil, twelve per cent crude mineral oils, seven per cent lubricating oils, and two per cent naphtha and benzine. The amount of illuminat- ing oil exported from the United States is about equal to the world's entire production outside of the United States. It can thus be seen how important to the United States is the trade in petroleum ; its export in 1900 amounted to over $75 000 000 in value. Amer- ican petroleum is carried in cans on the backs of camels in the deserts of Africa, on the backs of mules in South America, and in wheelbarrows through the streets of Pekin. Petroleum can be seen lighting the tents of the Hindoo on the highest habitable part of the Himalayas, and dis- placing olive oil as an illuminant even in the olive oil factories of Italy. Sixty six per cent of the exports of petroleum from the United States is sent to Europe, the United Kingdom taking twenty per cent, Germany fifteen per cent. Asia, China, Japan, and India together, take eighteen per cent. South America takes eight per cent and Aus- tralia four per cent. Russia's export trade amounts in value to less than one third that of the United States. In Asia and, to some extent, in Europe, Russia competes with the United States, but the 6065 70175 80 8590 91 92j 93, 94 95^96,97 98 99 MiOl ^0205 "T r "■" ■■ "ZZt- .Z-^-n J L CR « _4_ _i_ ./_f.X^--4- - •• - 56 ^ ^^ /v y v_^ . 52 ^ i / 2SsH-^^^ . - -..48 * 7, jT - .-_ . . 44 AT I ■ . -A. ..-4-- . • ..-T 40 ,. I jt ^ _ .J .. . — - - - ? c ,, . ,..J..,/1./|. J . —f-. 28 ^ — +-■ T|-// ^~- T'-flt, UL>'^-'--i3 ! , ^ -^-f -1-y : ^ ^ - - ;- - - r 2: ^ I '■' h-i^ J ■■ \ _ \ rrz " "■ - - 8 ; y-- 7 n t - r~- J ^^- ^ r r- ' ^ FIG. 68.— PETROLEUM — UNITED STATES AND RUSSIA PRODUCTION. AND UNITED STATES EXPORTS IN MILLIONS OF BARRELS. 1 United States Product. 2 United States Exports. 3 Russian Product. PETROLEUM. 155 better character of the American oil still gives it the advantage where quality is considered. The discovery of new oil-producing regions would naturally interfere with the trade of the United States by their ability to supply the local demand, if it were not that the world's demand for petroleum increases more than its supply. By distillation various products are obtained from petroleum and pass off as vapor in the following order, — gasoline, used for making gas and mixing with coal gas; naphtha, which is highly inflammable, used in making oilcloth and cleaning clothes and kid gloves ; benzine, or benzole, used as a solvent in the india rubber business and also in making paints and varnishes. Kerosene is the ordinary illuminating oil. This is required in many places to stand a certain test of heat with- out igniting. The standard in most of the United States is 140° F. Headlight oil stands a higher test than kerosene and is so called because it is used in the headlights of locomotives. After all these are dis- tilled a residuum remains from which paraffine or paraffine wax is obtained. This is used in the manufacture of candles, water proof cloths, and for other purposes. From this is also obtained by refining many oils used for lubricating purposes. Vaseline is obtained by skim- ming a substance from the surface of the oil while it is being refined, and then purifying it. Some of these products enter largely into com- merce. In 1900 the United States exported $8000000 worth of par- affine and paraffine wax almost entirely to Europe. (Paraffine is also obtained by distillation from coal shales in European countries.) Natural gas is frequently found associated with petroleum, and although very little of it enters into foreign commerce, it is of great value in developing manufacturing industries in localities near enough to be supplied by it with fuel. Western Pennsylvania and New York, northwestern Ohio and eastern Indiana contain the richest gas fielcfean the United States. Some is also obtained in Kentucky, West Virginia, Kansas, and California. It is used for heating, cooking, in the manu- facture of glass, and in certain processes of the iron and steel industry, but it is not a good illuminant. It is brought from the wells to the manufacturing towns through pipes. Asphalt: — Asphaltic rocks consisting of bituminous limestone or sandstone and other forms, are found in California, Utah, and other 166 MINERAL PRODUCTS. states of the United States, and in many European countries. The richest deposits, however, have heretofore been found on the island of Trinidad. About one hundred and forty thousand tons were exported from this island in 1900 of which seventy per cent was sent to the United States ; the remainder went to Europe. Seven eighths of this was taken from the pitch lake. A similar pitch lake at Bermudez, Venezuela, ten times the size of the Trinidad lake and purer in the proportion of 97 to 56, is now being worked. The principal use of this substance is in the manufacture of asphalt for mixing with other sub- stances in laying street pavement. Asphaltum can be made artificially, and is the basis of petroleum in California. Ozocerite, or mineral wax, is found in Galicia, and in Utah ; it is a solid paraffine with some benzine and naphtha. It is an altered form of petroleum deprived of a large part of its volatile ingredients. It is used as a substitute for beeswax and as an insulator in electricity. Non-Metallic Structural Minerals. The non-metallic structural minerals are stone, cement, and clay. Stone includes granite, limestone, sandstone, and slate, and the value of their annual product in the United States is about $50 000 000. STONE. Granite is a rock composed of quartz, mica, and feldspar. Com- mercially it includes all the igneous rocks suitable for use in the same way as granite proper. In 1899 the annual production of granite in the United States was valued at $11 000000, of which sixty per cent was used for structural purposes of all kinds, twenty-five per cent for the maintenance of highways, and fifteen per cent for monuments and cemetery purposes. Massachusetts leads in the value of this product, which amounts to about one half that of the entire country. Limestone is a carbonate of lime of which about $15 000 000 worth was used for building purposes in the United States in 1899. When it is susceptible of polish and has a texture and color suitable for orna- mental work it is known as marble. The largest part of the $4 000 000 worth of marble produced annually in the United States comes from Vermont. The iron furnaces use about $3 000 000 worth of limestone STONE. 157 for flux. Limestone is also used in the making of cement, of lime for plaster, for fertilizers, and in making roads. Sandstone is mainly employed for structural purposes, brownstone and bluestone being among the best known varieties. The output in 1900 was about $6 000 000 in value. Stone has been more largely in demand during recent years because of the interest taken in the construction of macadam and tel- ford roads throughout the United States. These products rarely enter into foreign trade, being mainly used within a few hundred miles of the quarries from which they are obtained. Aberdeen granite is exported from Scotland. Marble to the amount of $80 000 in value is exported annually from the United States, of which over three fourths is Ver- mont marble sold to Canada. Italy exports about $3 000 000 worth of marble annually. The finest, which is used mainly by sculptors, is the Carrara marble from quarries which have been worked since the days of the Caesars. The United States imports about $800 000 worth of marble, nearly eighty five per cent of which comes from Italy, Slate is formed by the alteration of clay strata giving to it a new structure, developed at right angles to the direction of pressure, called slaty cleavage. The most extensive slate quarries in the world are found in north Wales. The output of English slate quarries is about $8 000 000 annually. That of the United States about $3 000 000. The United Kingdom and the United States each export about $1 000 000 worth annually, the larger part of the British going to Germany, and of the United States to Great Britain. Australia is the second largest purchaser from both countries. Pennsylvania produces about sixty per cent, and Vermont and New York about twenty three per cent of the slate produced in the United States. CLAY. Clay is one of the most useful and abundant of mineral substances. Its base is the mineral kaolin composed of alumina, silica, and water, combined chemically in the proportion of one of alumina to two of each of the others. Its important properties are its plasticity, the durability of its forms when burnt, and its ability to withstand high temperatures. 158 MINERAL PRODUCTS. The coarser kinds of clay are used in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, and sewer pipe, and the finer in the manufacture of white ware, china, and porcelain of which we shall treat later. The value of the brick clay made in the United States in 1900 was $12000000. The value of the bricks made in the United States in 1899 was as follows : Common builder's brick $37 000 000 Hard building brick 3 000 000 Fire brick 5 000 000 Paving brick 5 000 000 The greatest number of building bricks are made in the more densely populated states. Pennsylvania leads in fire brick, Ohio in paving brick. These products do not enter largely into commerce but are manufactured for local uses in most countries. The United States exported over $500000 worth of bricks in 1900, of which four fifths were fire brick. CEMENT. By mixing burned limestone, or lime, with sand and water a plaster is produced which upon drying hardens to form a cement, the ordinary material used for plaster. Cements which have the power of setting and hardening under water are called hydraulic or Portland cements. They are either a natural or artificial mixture of carbonate of lime and clay heated to a high temperature and then ground to powder. In 1900 the output of Portland cement in the United States was valued at about $12000000, and of natural hydrauHc cement $4000000. Penn- sylvania produced about one half the former and New York about one half the latter. The United States imported about $3 250 000 worth of cement of which one half was from Germany and one fourth from Belgium. Germany exported over $5 000 000 worth, United Kingdom $3 500 000 worth, and Belgium $3 200 000. Abrasives. Abrasive materials are sometimes used In the form of powders and sometimes in the form of stones. Sand is used in scouring marble and other stones. Diamond dust is used for sawing and polishing very ABRASIVES, 159 hard rocks and metals. About $600000 worth was imported in 1900 principally from France and England. Corundum and emery are oxides of aluminum and are used in the powdered form for polishing granite and other rocks. Emery powder is sometimes stuck on paper or cloth and used for polishing purposes. Emery or corundum wheels are artificially made from the powder and are used for grinding pur- poses. About $148 000 worth were exported mainly to Germany and the United Kingdom. Corundum is supplied to the United States from the mines of Georgia and North Carolina, the output in 1899 being about $150000 in value. About $160000 worth of crude emery is im- ported, almost entirely from Turkey in Asia, which is the principal source of the world's supply. Infusorial earth is a silicious formation found in the accumulated beds of the remains of certain shells and plants. It is used for polishing metals and glass and in the manufacture of dynamite and in glazing works. The principal source of supply in the United States is found in Maryland; it is also found in California, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and in different parts of Europe. A very small amount is imported. Grindstones are obtained from the Berean grit sandstones of Ohio and Michigan, and come into the market in circular form. The value of the United States output in 1900 was $675 000. They are used for grinding and for giving edge to tools. Buhrstones are square blocks of white stone a number of which are put together to form millstones. The demand for them is decreas- ing owing to the adoption of the roller process in grinding grain. The finest variety is obtained from the Paris basin in France ; about $20 000 worth was imported in 1900. Oilstones and whetstones are chiefly of domestic production. Whetstones called scythestones are supplied to the United States by New England and some are exported to Europe. Of oilstones the out- put in 1900 was valued at about $200 000. These are of finer texture than the whetstones and are used for sharpening fine tools. The finest variety is the Arkansas oilstone some of which is exported to Europe. The Turkish oilstone is the main supply for the finest varieties in Europe; about $200000 worth is imported from Europe. 160 MINERAL PRODUCTS. Of carborundum an artificial product the United States production in 1900 was $240 cxx), and of garnets for abrasive purposes aboni $80000, the latter from the Adirondacks, New York, and from Chester county, Pennsylvania. /y PLUMBAGO. i Plumbago, or graphite, from which the ''black lead" of leadj pencils is made, is also used as a lubricant because of its "soapy" char- acter; and mixed with clay, it is used in the manufacture of crucibles because it can withstand great heat without injury. The principal source of supply is Ceylon which exports about eighty thousand tons annually, more than all the rest of the world produces. Austria is the next largest producing country followed by Germany. The United States produced about seven hundred tons of crystallized, and about three hundred tons of the amorphous graphite. The former is obtained from the mines near Ticonderoga, New York, and some mines in east- ern Pennsylvania. The amorphous is obtained in Rhode Island and is used mainly in the manufacture of stove blacking. The United States imported twenty-one thousand tons of graphite in 1900, the most of which was from Ceylon. SALT. The salt of commerce is slightly impure sodium chloride. It is obtained by evaporation from sea water and other natural brines, and by mining from natural beds. This latter is called rock salt. Rock salt is the source of supply in Russia, United Kingdom, Austria, and in Kansas and Louisiana in the United States. Brine is the source of sup- ply in France, Portugal, Italy, Central and South America, and in Cali- fornia, Michigan, and New York. The United States, Russia, United Kingdom, Germany, India, and France are the largest producing coun- tries, while New York, Michigan, and Kansas are the largest producing states. The United Kingdom exports over $2 000 000 worth, of which nearly one half is sent to British India. The United States imports about $600 000 worth. While India produces a large amount of salt it also imports a large amount ; this is due to the fact that most of its peo- ple are vegetarians and need large quantities of salt. The annual reve- nue from salt in India is $29 000 000. Salt appears to be essential to the SULPHUR— PRECIOUS STONES. 161 life of man and of the higher animals and is the only solid mineral sub- stance used as human food. Salt is used for a food preservative and for the manufacture of sodium carbonate which enters into the manufacture of soap and glass ; it is also used in the manufacture of chlorine used in bleaching, and of hydrochloric and muriatic acids used in the arts. SULPHUR. Sulphur is of value because of its being found in combination with silver, lead, zinc, and antimony, in the form of sulphides. It is obtained from pyrites (sulphide of iron), from the waste of calcium sulphide in alkali works, and from native sulphur. The principal sup- ply of native sulphur comes from the Lipari Islands, Sicily, where it is of volcanic origin. It is also obtained in native form in Utah and Nevada; the 19CX) output of the United States amounted to about $100 000 in value. Nearly $3 000 000 worth of native sulphur was im- ported into the United States in 1900, almost entirely from Italy. While there is abundance of pyrites in the United States, over $1 000 000 worth was imported. In 1900, $700000 worth was produced in Vir- ginia, Massachusetts, and New York to supply the increased demand for sulphuric acid. Sulphur is also used for the manufacture of matches and gunpowder. PRECIOUS STONES. Diamonds come principally from South Africa, Brazil, and India. Dver $20 000 000 worth annually are exported from Cape Colony. The most famous diamond mines are at Kimberly in South Africa. Dia- monds are rarely found in the United States. The principal diamond markets are London, Amsterdam, and Antwerp where the rough dia- monds are cut. The United States imported over $11000000 worth in 1900, of which about one third were for the use of miners, glaziers, and engravers, also for jewels in watches, about two thirds were for use as personal adornment. They came principally from England and the Netherlands. Other precious stones to the amount of $3 000 000 were imported mainly from England. Emeralds are obtained from Colombia and New South Wales; rubies and sapphires from India and Siam; opals from Australia; turquoise from California and Australia. 163 MANUFACTURES. I ASBESTOS. i Asbestos, a silicate of magnesium, is a fibrous mineral. It is incombustible and is therefore used when fireproof qualities are required in the manufacture of fireproof paper, cloth, fireproof paints, \ and coverings for pipes and boilers. Only eleven hundred tons, worth j $15000, were produced in the United States in 1900; over $200000 worth were imported from Canada, which produced about 23 000 tons. I LITHOGRAPHIC STONE. I Lithographic stone is a grey or creamish limestone having a fine grain, found at Solenhofen in Bavaria. It can be drawn on either with crayon or pen and ink. Nitric acid is then applied and this eats into the stone where there is no ink, leaving the lines of the drawing projected a little ; after it has become dry, it is ready to be printed from. About ' $78000 worth was imported in 1900 mainly from Germany. MICA. Mica is one of the most common minerals. It is most valuable commercially when found in large quantities in the form of sheets. These are either transparent or semi-transparent, and are used in stove doors, to make chimneys for incandescent gas lamps, and in parts of electrical apparatus. Ground mica is used as a lubricant for car wheels and to produce a spangled effect on wall paper. The scrap product is also used as an insulating medium for electrical apparatus and in boiler and pipe coverings. When ground it is used as an absorbent of nitro- glycerin. MANUFACTURES. INTRODUCTION. The most important manufacturing districts are found in Europe and the United States. The value of the output of the manufacturing industries of the United States is greater than that of any other two nations ; the United Kingdom, Germany and France follow in order ofj manufactured products. The United States also consumes more manu factured goods than any other nation and is therefore the best market] in the world for them. For a long time the manufacturers of the United States devoted their energies to supplying the needs of their home mar- kets while other nations were securing a foothold in foreign markets,! EXPORTS OF MANUFACTURED GOODS. 168 As time rolled on the industry and inventive genius of the people of the United States, together with the cheaper coal and iron enabled this country to produce in many lines of manufactured goods more than it could consume. Owing to the enforced economies introduced from 1894-97 as a result of the crisis of 1893 the American manufacturer learned how to produce his goods cheap enough to sell them in foreign markets and this caused a rapid increase in the exports of manufactured products. The United States while only at the beginning of the devel- opment of this trade is increasing it at a more rapid rate than any of its rivals. In 1900 the value of exports of domestic merchandise from the ■■■ ■ — ■ - — - ■■ - - ■ ■■ — 1 6 I8S0 1890 1835 1900 101 151 163 43Z Ids ^* ^^^^^ ^* ^" mmm ^^ ^^ ^™ ^™ ^ 1881 1890 1695 1900 578 400 358 375 — \ — ^^ ^^ 1 ^^ ^_ ^ ^" " ™ |[[" L "3 ^" ^^ u /sea 18 90 1899 471 519 5'\5 675 ■ ■ yy "" "1" "" 2 -5 ™ J* ■" ^B ™^ ■3L 1880 l«90 1695 1900 370 11 13 S5\ 1 144 ^^ ^^ 1 ™ ^g^ ^ ^ *** " ^ ^ " " " ^ ^ 1 1 — ^ ^ ■"i: ^ ^ ■i ^m ^ *" "* ** ^" ** ^* ^* ^* ^* ^* ^* ^* ^* ^* ^* FIG. 69.— EXPORTS OF MANUFACTURES IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. United States was greater than that of any other nation. The value of the exports of mamifactiired goods, however, was less than one half of the United Kingdom and two thirds that of Germany. As will be seen from figure 69 the increase in the value of manufac' tured goods exported in 1900 over that of 1890 was nearly twice as much for the United States as for the other three great manufacturing nations combined. Until the last few years this country imported more manufactured goods than it exported. The great variety of manufactured goods entering into foreign commerce makes it impossible to consider or even enumerate them all. In addition to those already considered in connection with the raw 164 MAN UFA CTURES, 525 500 475 t50 fi5 +00 3/5 isa his JOG lis WO IXS 100 (7i 150 100 80 83 8+ 8S 86 87 88 89 90 91 91 33:3+ 35 96 97 '98 99 00 01 HT 500 . f> «5 / / 37J- 350 315 300 175 150 US 100 ns ISO US too ST. ,>? i f ?. V '^ '■. / n >/ > t \ J ?•■ \ ,"- y 'v '«/ f i - «' y V / J tf^ f^ ■^ i ^ ip^ ^ ^ •»■ [^ -1 ..._. - FIG. 70. -UNITED STATES IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF MANUFACTURES IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. Exports. Imports. materials from which they are made, there are a number of other manu- factured goods, which, because of their importance, will be treated separately under the head of manufactures and classified as follows : I. Textiles, 2. Iron and Steel, 3. Leather, 4. Chemi- cals and Fertilizers, 5. Paper, 6. Pottery, 7. Glassware. Textiles. Textiles including cotton, woolen, silk and other goods made from fibres, enter more largely into commerce than any other class of manufactured goods. The value of the ex- ports of textiles from the United Kingdom is about $500 000 000 annually, or nearly one half of all its exports of manufactures, and the value imported into the United States amounts to about $120000000, or about one third of all the im- ports of manufactured goods. Of these the most important is cotton. The development of the cotton and wool manufacturing indus- tries of the United States was attended with great difficulties. During colonial times the importation of machinery was prohibited, so that the colonists were compelled to wear homespun clothing or else to import finer grades from England. The English went so far as to seize brass models of Arkwright's machine, which were about to be shipped to Tench Coxe at Philadelphia, the father of American cotton culture. Samuel Slater who built the first Arkwright mill in this country in 1789 at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, did so without models or patterns, depending entirely on his recollection of those he had seen in England. Lowell who built the large carpet manufasturing mills named after him, did so without being able to secure patterns of the English looms, and he succeeded in making improvements on what he had seen in England which were afterwards copied in the English mills. The first COTTON. 165 great advance in these industries was made during the period the Embargo Act was in effect and during the war of 1812, when it was difficult to obtain foreign goods, and domestic 'manufacturing industry rapidly developed. At the close of the war the English merchants flooded the market with their goods sending over $100000000 worth in one year, and the financial ruin of nearly every textile mill owner in the United States followed. Since that time tariffs have generally pro- tected these industries, and to-day they are able to supply most of the home demand for cotton and woolen goods and to compete in some grades of cotton goods, with England, in the markets of the world. Bleaching and dyeing are important branches of the textile industry. Textile fabrics are bleached in order to get rid of the natural color, rendering them white, or nearly so, and free from im- purities. This was formerly accomplished by exposing them to the sun, but now powerful chemicals are used for this purpose. Chlorine in the form of bleaching powder is used to bleach the vegetable fibres, cotton, flax, and hemp ; and sulphuric acid to bleach the animal fibres, silk and wool. When the cotton is intended for thread it is bleached in the yarn, when for cloth used to make piece goods it is bleached in the cloth. The various colors which textile fabrics have are obtained by the use of various dyes. The artificial dyes such as coal tar colors are most generally used, although indigo and logwood are also used. Wool and silk can be dyed by simply dipping them in a boiling solution of the dye ; cotton and linen are harder to dye. In some cases the colors cannot be made fast except with the aid of mordants. The dyeing may be done either in the yarn or in the piece according to the nature of the finished cloth. Printed goods are made by the use of blocks or copper cylinders on which the pattern is engraved, the white cloth passing under them and taking the impression; a different cylinder being used for each color. COTTON MANUFACTURES. At a very early period the spinning and weaving of cotton into materials for clothing was almost universal in India and China. In Europe,— Venice, Spain and the Netherlands,— had all developed cot- 166 MANUFACTURES. ton industries before England, although the latter held a monopoly of the industry during most of the nineteenth century. On the last day of the last year of the sixteenth century Elizabeth chartered the East India Company. As a result of this the bright colored chintzes and other cotton goods from India soon took the place of the more homely woolen and linen goods among the wealthier classes. In time the spinning and weaving industries of England were almost destroyed, so that a law was passed forbidding the importation of cotton goods from India. As this failed to stop it, the English textile workers after some years had elapsed, began to imitate the cotton goods of India. The implements in use at that time and, for many years afterward, were the ancient distaff and spindle and the more recent spinning wheel. With these only one thread at a time was produced. Kaye invented the fly shuttle by which the hand loom, also an ancient textile imple- ment, was able to weave the yarn faster than it could be supplied. Har- greaves invented the spinning jenny for cotton spinning, by which a number of threads could be spun at a time. Some idea of the process of spinning will make the object of the different inventions clearer. The cotton or wool in the mill is relieved of its packed or knotted condition in the cylinders called openers. These pull the hair or fibres apart and separate them as far as possible. They are then passed through rollers having sharp teeth which pick out the dirt and leaves, leaving pure, soft, white laps of cotton or wool. These laps are passed on to the carding machine where they are run through rollers which are covered with fine steel wire points stuck on leather or other material called cards. As the lap passes through them, they pull the tangled hairs apart and make them all lie in one direction, and when they come out they are in the form of a loose untwisted rope of cotton or wool about an inch thick, called a sliver. The water frame, so called because water power was used, was invented by Arkwright in 1769. It is also known as the throstle. This machine takes the slivers and draws them through a series of pairs of rollers, each pair in advance of the others and moving at different rates of speed. The sliver is twisted finer and finer until it is about the size of a thick twine. Two of these are then joined together and again passed through the machinery and twisted until the roving, as it is called, is a thread of the required fine- COTTON. f/^ ^\^^^ / 167 less. From the last roller the roving Is reived o^^^«pools, called pindles, by the mule spinner, or mule jenny, invented by Crompton n 1779, which takes the place of the spinning-wheel. It had a frame ong enough to carry hundreds of spindles, which it wound at one time. This gave plenty of yarn and the trouble then was that the weavers ould not weave the yarn fast enough on their hand looms. Cartwright in 1785 invented the power loom. In this the threads, vlien they come from the jenny, were wound upon beams or rollers of lie width of the cloth to be made, and these were the long threads vliich form the warp. The filling, or short threads, were wound upon j()1)bins. These, held in shuttles, were thrown from one side of the ooni to the other, by which means the thread was carried back and forth hrough the long threads at a rapid rate — about one hundred and fifty times a minute. The spinners and weavers were thus able to use up ill the cotton and there was danger of the supply running short. In 1793, Whitney's cotton gin created a revolution in the cotton- raising industry in America, and enabled the cotton fields of the United States to supply the demand and to take away from India the supremacy in the cotton i^arkets of the world. In 1830, Roberts invented the self-acting mule, which was a great advance on Cromp- ton's. Owing to the scarcity of labor, occasioned by the civil war in 1861-65, American spinners were forced to look for some means of operating with less skilled labor. The ring spindle was then invented and increased the number of revolutions from five thousand to ten thousand. As a result of these inventions and many other minor ones, one an to-day can produce as much cotton yarn or cloth as a thousand men could produce one hundred years ago. Yarn is the name given to the thread prepared for weaving as distinguished from sewing thread. It varies in the material from which it is made and also in the fineness to which it is spun. In order that uni- formity may be obtained a pound of the material is taken as the standard and this is divided into hanks or cuts. One of these hanks of linen yarn contains three hundred yards, of cotton yarn eight hun- dred and forty yards, and of woolen yarn sixteen hundred yards. The number of hanks in a pound gives the number of the yarn as 25's, 40's, L 168 MANUFA CTURES. etc. The finer the yarn the higher the number. Cotton of whi( musHn is made can be spun as fine as 700's. Cotton yam has beel spun up to number 10 000, or ten thousand hanks each eight hundre and forty yards long from one pound of cotton, or over four thousar miles in length. The mills of the United States and the United Kingdom each con sume about one fourth of the world's cotton crop ; continental Europ one third, and India one tenth. Of the one hundred million spindles in the cotton mills of the world, about forty four per cent are in United ' i "" U N 1 T E D S T A T E s u N 1 T E D K « N G D M BtL 6I(|M SWED :n 1 JN D 1 A i } J A P A N i i 1 ro" NT«IES G E R M A N Y 1 1 i . A US T R 1 A i ' * r' ^!S 's 1 A ' 1 • ! 1 F R A N c E 1 T A!L Y swimRUNo CA NA DA i 1 i ISiPiAiMNi Mil - ^ "^ n ^ ^ ' — r ■ ^ i ■ u N 1 T E D K 1 N G D M i 1 . \ ^ 1 1" .^:^ SWiT ZERLAND BEILGIUM S P A 1 N . u N 1 T E D S T A T E s CA^^ADA ME^IC0| FRANCE 1 ' 1 G E R M A:NIY! i 1 1 i ^ X' i ^ i M M 1 1 .1 i ! \ ! R USS; 1 lAj 1 [ ! ; \ lEiA ST: MiNlDlllEiSl i 1 CHINA J A:P A:N| i i lAiUiSiTiRi 1 iA FIG. 71. -WORLD'S COTTON CONSUMPTION 14 400 000 BALES. Each square = K of isi. FIG. 72.— WORLD'S COTTON SPINDLES 102 800 000. Each square = ^ of \ f » j A / f ' ?\ / ■T\ 1 X V i ^ />, ....... ^ / J ■^ r* ' \. -\, V. .^ •0 — FIG. 7 5.— UNITED STATES IMPORTS AND EX- PORTS OF STEEL MANUFACTURES, IN MIL- LIONS OF DOLLARS. Imports. Exports. IRON AND STEEL, 177 was sold to the United Kingdom, Germany, and Australia. In these two lines of goods the exports of the United States are nearly equal to those of the United Kingdom. Of pipes and fittings about $7 000- 000 worth was exported, more than one third of which was sold to Europe, the United Kingdom being the largest buyer. The United States exports more wire than any other country. Agricultural coun- tries are the largest buyers — Australia, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, and British Africa purchasing three fourths of it. The United States ex- ports large quantities of structural iron. United Kingdom, Canada, Mexico, India, and Japan take about one half of it. Belgium is the larg- est exporter of this class of iron. Germany exports more wire nails than any other nation and has almost a monopoly of the export trade in needles. In some lines of export trade such as rails, wire, and struc- tural iron the United States bids fair to hold the leading place. In Germany the iron business is carried on largely by syndicates, which control the sale of the output of any industry, while in the United States large trusts have been formed. The object of both is to find a market abroad for their surplus products, and this can be more readily done by means of one general agency than by a number of firms competing for the trade. The United States Steel Company, made up of a number of large iron companies, is the largest manufacturing corporation of the world and at present controls more than two fifths of the world's output of iron and steel. What effect on the prices of the manufactures of iron and steel these large accumu- lations of capital will have, the future only can determine. In the past a rise in the price of pig iron has always been followed by good times and a fall in the price has been followed by hard times. It is claimed by some that these large corporations will be able to tide over the hard times and prevent the recurring crises which in the past have produced so much misery and suffering by throwing out of work hundreds of thousands of men and women. If such should be the case they might be looked upon as the result of the natural evolution of business methods which their organizers claim them to be and not, as asserted by pthers, detrimental to the interests of the community at large. It is not more than seventy five years since the exportation of machinery was prohibited in England and now the United Kingdom 178 MANUFA CTURRS. is the largest exporter of machinery in the world. At one time English artisans skilled in the production of machinery were forbidden to go abroad to exercise their trade, and any that did, were looked upon as having betrayed the interests of their native land and were made to suffer for it by the confiscation of their property. The trade in machin- ery has, however, increased rapidly in the last fifty years and the amount of the export trade in it is a good indication of the position which a country holds among the nations of the world. The value of the machinery, including agricultural, exported in 1900 amounted to $100 000 000 from the United Kingdom, $70 000 000 from the United States, and $48 000 000 from Germany. In all these nations the exports of machinery are greater than the imports. France and Austria import twice as much as they export. Italy and Spain are rapidly increasing their exports of machinery and will soon be able to join the family of machinery exporting nations. Russia, owing to the vast undeveloped resources of the country, is, as might natur- ally be expected, the largest im- porter of machinery, implements, and rolling stock. India is also a large importer of machinery. The United Kingdom leads in the exports of textile machin- ery, their value in 1900 being $31 000000, of which European countries bought two thirds. In- dia, the United States, and Japan were the largest purchasers out- side of Europe. Most of the w^'^ 87:88 89 30191 32J93 17 35:96^97138 99 ;» 01 01 03.04 9i 90 85 80 7i 70 30 — t . .^._.- / / |— r 1^ / A s. A s/ / A / 70 1 V / t(j , / V SS 50 re — / JO -• / / ^ / / / +0 35 50 25 20 ;: s J ' 50 -i > / 9 « ^ r ■ ._.. lie •- / / ^ ^ H i ., fp ^1 ^ y ^ A- JO- Jo _ "■ i5 3 ■g^ ■o' ^ ■o.^ -0- mm FIG. 7 6. — EXPORTS OF MACHINERY OF UNITED STATES. UNITED KINGDOM, GERMANY AND FRANCE IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. (Agricultural machinery not included in U. S.) United States. Germany. United Kingdom. — — France. textile machinery made in the United States finds a market at home. Germany's textile machinery is bought mainly by France, Austria, and Russia. The United States exports of agricultural implements, mainly machinery, in 1900 amounted to $16 000 000 and is more than that of all IRON AND STEEL 179 the other exporting countries cunibined. Abuut sixty two per cent of these goods is exported to Europe, chiefly to Germany, France, United Kingdom, and Russia. Outside of Europe, Canada, Argentina, Aus- traha, and Mexico are the largest buyers. United Kingdom sell mainly to Europe and South America, and Germany largely to Russia. Agri- cultural machinery has not been in use much more than fifty years and yet to-day by its means all the ploughing, cultivating, seeding, and harvesting on a thousand acre farm can be done by steam in less time than one acre could formerly have been done. Mining machinery is not separately classified in the United States statistics ; it includes among other things, electrical machinery, pumps, and engines. South Africa, before the war, imported $10000000 worth, a large part of which came from the United States. In electrical machinery the United States sur- passes all other countries in the value of the exports. Europe buys most of it, the United Kingdom being the largest cus- tomer. Americans excel in the manufacture of metal-working Jmachines and machine tools. Nearly all of the $7000000 worth exported goes to Europe, the United Kingdom and Ger- many taking over sixty per cent of it. Printing presses exported from the United States are sold mainly to the United Kingdom and her colonies. Of the $2- 600000 worth of typewriters exported in sold to Europe. Of the three thousand 18 17 /6 \S ? Is 80i85 90 9? 92 'sz 94 95 96 97 IF s? 00 01 02 03]^ ^ 14 12 II - 13 12 II 10 3 8 7 6 S 4 5 1 1 - i y / p ; r J /^ - "t' ._ /"%> U^ J i / 1 J - ^ J ^ _ ^ _ ^ FIG. 77.— UNITED STATES EXPORTS OF AGRI- CULTURAL IMPLEMENTS (MAINLY MACHIN- ERY) IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. 1900 eighty per cent was locomotives manufactured in the United States in 1900, over seven per cent valued at $5 500 000 was exported. Russia, United Kingdom, Mexico, Canada, France, India, China, Japan, South America, and Australia are the largest pur- chasers. The United Kingdom exported fifty per cent more than the United States. In 1900 about $4 500 000 worth of sewing machines 180 MANUFACTURES. was exported of which the United Kingdom and Germany imported more than one half. Leather. In many countries skins were used for clothing long before any of the textile fabrics were in general use. The manufacture of leather was probably one of the earliest industries. The value of the imports and exports of the raw materials and the manufactures made from them is only exceeded by that of textiles and that of iron and steel. When hides, or skins, are brought to the tanner they are first cleansed by soaking in water, and the adhering flesh is scraped off with knives. They are then put into vats containing lime or some similar substance having the effect of loosening the hair so that it can be readily scraped off. After the skins have been thus cleaned they are generally put into vats with some of the various tanning materials or solutions which, acting on the gelatine in the hides, form leather. Oak and hemlock bark are used largely in the manufacture of sole leather. The tanned hides are dressed or curried to improve the compactness of the texture and to give a better appearance to the leather. Upper leathers are softened by the use of fats and oils, and blackened with lampblack. Calf and kid leathers for gloves go through a process, called tawing, to soften them. For this purpose alum and other salts are used. For the finer grades a paste made of flour and the yolks of eggs is often used ; many factories consume million of eggs a year in this process. Twenty years ago glazed kid and fine calf leathers were obtained almost entirely from France. By what is known as chrome tannage, which is really a curing process, a finer grade of leather is now made in the United States. This leather is said to be water proof as it can be washed in water without injury. The bichromate of potash causes the pores of the skin to contract. Chrome leathers are used for light footwear of black glazed kid or colored calf. While the skins of most mammals are converted into leather those of cattle, goats, sheep, and horses are most generally used. Heavy leathers are made from the hides of bulls and oxen, that of cows giving an inferior leather. A soft leather for boots and shoes is obtained from calves hides. Horse hides are used largely in saddlery. The best LEATHER. 181 saddles are made from pigskin. Genuine morocco, so called because it first came from that country, is made from goat skins. Kid gloves are made from the skins of kids and lambs ; most of the so called dog- skin gloves are made from lamb skins. Russian leather owes its pecu- liar odor to the Russian birch or the oil made from it with which it is tanned. The process is now used in the United States, the secret of it having been discovered by a minister to Russia from the United States, who had formerly been a tanner. Patent leather is made by covering the leather with a paste of linseed oil and lampblack and then varnishing it. Enamelled leather used for carriages is the same thing with a thinner coat of varnish. ^ The great leather manufacturing nations are the United States, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. In 19CX) the value of the exports of leather from the United States and France was $21 000000 each, from Germany $17 500 000, and from the United Kingdom $7500000. The United States imports about one third as much leather as it exports. These con- sist mainly of morocco skins from United Kingdom and In- dia, and upper leather from Ger- many, United Kingdom and France. The exports of sole leather from the United States are about one half the value of upper leather. Seventy five per cent of the sole leather and sixty six per cent of the upper leather is sold to the United Kingdom, and about eleven per cent of the sole and twenty two per cent of the upper leather to other European countries. Canada, Australia, Japan, and Brazil are the next largest buyers. The United King- dom, while ranking low as an exporter of leather, imports more leather than all the other large manufacturing countries. Of the 18 17 ;6 15 i4 13 /I II 10 9 8 7 5 4 3 1 8+ 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 93 96 97 98 99 00 01 F 05 - - f I - 1 - i 1 J IK fi r « <\ A , \ V S>- --_. J .If 6 3 ' <«r^ ■'" -^ _ ! FIG. 79.— UNITED STATES CHEMICAL IMPORTS AND EXPORTS 1870-1900 IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS, NOT INCLUDING FERTILIZERS. Imports. Exports. m cultivated over $500000 184 MANUFACTURES. Camphor in commerce is the volatile oil obtained by distilling the wood of the camphor tree with water. This tree is found in China, Japan, Borneo, and Formosa. The world's consumption is estimated at ten million four hundred thousand pounds per annum of which about one half comes from the island of Formosa. The United States imports about $500000 worth of crude camphor mainly from Japan. It is used in medicine, also as an insecticide to protect woolen clothing, and with guncotton in the manufacture of celluloid, and in the manu- facture of high explosives. Licorice is a native of Italy and southern Europe. It is used largely as a medicine. It is also used to sweeten tobacco and to give body and a sweet taste to porter and Scotch ale. The United States imported $1 667 000 worth in 1900, two thirds of which came from Turkey in Asia, and one fourth from Russia on the Black Sea. Vanilla beans are the product of a plant found mainly in the damp woods of southern Mexico ; it is also cultivated in Brazil, Madagascar, and Java. It was formerly used as a medicine, but is now principally used for flavoring confectionery, liquors, tobacco, and perfumery. The United States imported over $1 200 000 worth in 1900, about two thirds of which came from Mexico. Ginseng is the most popular medicine in China, where it is believed to insure immunity from disease and to prolong life itself. Over $800000 worth were exported from the United States to China, the American variety being imported in large quantities. Medicines patent and proprietary were exported to the value of nearly $3 000 000 in 1900 of which the United Kingdom alone purchased over one third. MATERIALS FOR USE IN MANUFACTURES. Of the many materials used in manufactures, coal tar products are of considerable importance: among these are solid blocks of carbolic acid ; saccharin, an intensely sweet substance ; oil of mirbane, used in the manufacture of soap ; anthracin, the basis of alizarin, used as a sub- stitute for indigo ; and aniline, the basis of coal tar colors and dyes. In 1900 Germany exported $18 000000 worth of these coal tar colors and the United States imported $5 000 000 worth all of which could be made in this country from the waste prodwct of gas and coke manufactures. MATERIALS FOR USE IN, 185 Algols are deposited in the fermentation of wine and are used in the manufacture of tartaric acid. Tartaric acid is used as a mordant in the manufacture of textiles, also in baking powders and effervescing drinks. The United States imported over $2 300 000 worth mainly from France and Italy. Glycerine is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of soap and candles. It is used for a variety of purposes, such as preserving fruit, making copying inks, to add to wood pulp to keep the paper soft and as a glue or dressing of muslins. When treated with a solution of nitric acid or a strong solution of sulphuric and nitric acids, it is converted into nitro glycerine which is used in the manufacture of dynamite and other explosives. The United States imported over $2 100 000 worth in 1900, mainly from United Kingdom and France, the great soap-manufacturing countries. Chloride of lime is a white powder used for bleaching textiles and paper pulp. The bleaching constituent dissolves in about ten parts of water while the excess of lime is undissolved. Its value is manifested only on the addition of an acid. It is prepared by the absorption of chlorine gas by lime. Over $1 400000 worth was imported in 1900, mainly from the United Kingdom. Soda ash, formerly obtained from sea weed, is now obtained from common salt. It is produced in immense quantities, and consumed in soap and glass manufactures and in bleaching. There has been a steady increase in demand and supply. Over $600000 worth was imported in 1900, almost entirely from the United Kingdom. Iodine is obtained from sea weed and from crude nitre from Chile ; it is used in photography and in pharmacy. Of the $1 400000 worth imported in 1900, Chile furnished the bulk. Sulphate of copper, of which the United States exports over $2 000 000 worth, is obtained in large quantities as a by-product in silver refining. It is largely used in bronzing iron, in dyeing and printing, in electric batteries, and in the amalgamation process of refin- ing silver, and, under the name of bluestone, it is used by farmers to kill fungoid growths in gardens. Acetate of lime, of which over $700000 worth was exported in IQOO to Belgium, Germany, and the United Kingdom, is a by-product 186 MANUFACTURES. in the manufacture of wood alcohol, and is used In making acetic acid and other chemicals. Nitrate of potassium, or potassium saltpetre, is found in Spain, Hungary, Egypt, and India; also in Ceylon and some parts of South America. It is used in the manufacture of gunpowder, in glass making, and as a fertilizer. The three great Commercial Acids are sulphuric, nitric, and hydro- chloric, of which several hundred tons a day are consumed. Sulphuric acid is obtained from iron pyrites; nitric acid from Chile saltpetre acted on by sulphuric acid; and hydrochloric, or muriatic acid, from salt acted on by sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is used in the manu- facture of soda and wood pulp; nitric acid to make nitro glycerine; and muriatic acid in making bleaching powders. These are all made in sufficient quantities in this country to supply the demand. FERTILIZERS. The most important elements necessary for the building up of plants supplied by fertilizers are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Nitrogen develops the growth of the stem and leaves. Potash is essen- tial in the formation of starch in leaves and fruit. Phosphoric acid aids in the nutrition of plants and in the assimilating of other useful elements. It is formed largely in the seeds of plants, and without its presence in the soil the plant will not come to maturity. Lime is used to improve the mechanical conditions of the soil and to cure sourness. These elements may be obtained from a great variety of substances, some of which enter largely into the foreign trade of various nations. Nitrate of soda, nitrogenous guano, sulphate of ammonia, and organic nitrogenous manures, such as dried blood and fish oflfal, are the principal sources of nitrogen. These need to be combined with about three times as much phosphate. Phosphatic rocks, phosphatic guano, slag, and the super phosphates made from them, are the principal sources of phosphoric acid. Potash may be obtained from wood ashes, but the bulk of the supplies for agricultural purposes is obtained from potassic salts, such as muriate of potash and sulphate of potash. Nitrate of soda, or Chile saltpetre, is obtained from the deserts of Atacama and Tarapaca near Iquique, Chile. The deposits are found FERTILIZER. 187 under the surface of a vast desert plain which at one time was covered by the ocean. The ore is in layers two to four feet thick and about twenty feet below the surface. When refined, the nitrates are in solid form, about ninety per cent pure nitrate. About one million four hundred thousand tons were exported from Chile in 1900, mainly to United Kingdom and Gerrnany. Germany consumes about one third of it. United Kingdom and France together about another third. The United States imported about one hundred and eighty-four thousand tons worth $5 000 000. Sulphate of ammonia is formed from waste material produced in the manufacture of illuminating gas and coke. The world's consump- tion amounts to about five hundred thousand tons annually worth $26000000, the United King- dom and Germany being the largest producers. The United States imports about $400000 worth. Nitrog^enous guanos are found in dry regions like Peru. Dried blood is obtained from the slaughter houses, and fish offal from the fish oil factories and in the United States also from the menhaden fisheries. A billion fish making over four hundred thousand tons are sometimes caught in one season for use as fertilizers. Rock phosphates are mineral phosphates of sedimentary origin and are obtained mainly from the United States, France, Algeria, Tunis, Belgium, and many other places in a crystalline form called apatite, or non-crystalline phosphorite. Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee are the largest producing states. Florida alone produces more than any foreign country. Algeria and Tunis, being near the consuming countries, influence the price of American phosphates. The high grade of Florida phosphate makes it in great demand in Germany. 9 8 7 70 7S 80 85190:91 191 ^93194195 % 97:98 99 00 01 02 w 0*:0i 9 8 7 6 5 j 1 ■ 1 ! i /> f 1 5 4 3 1 1 ! 1 A 1 / ^ L i 1 / V A/ i i / ^ --r- / 3 1 1 i 1 i 1 — f j i 1 1 i 1 i y / i 1 i / ; j ij \ J^\ i , X\i ! 1 i ' ! __, _ _ _ ^ FIG. 80.— UNITED STATES EXPORTS OF FER- TILIZERS IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. 188 MANUFACTURES. Phosphate guanos are obtained from the carcasses and dung- of birds deposited on the islands in the Pacific Ocean, Caribean Sea, and other tropical waters. Slag is the refuse product of iron furnaces using ores containing phosphorus and is used largely in Germany and United Kingdom on account of its cheapness. All of these as well as bones are used for the manufacture of super-phosphates. They are all phosphates of lime, and by the addition of the proper amount of sul- phuric acid, a mass is formed which is ground and sold as super-phos- phate. One ton of phosphate makes about four thousand pounds of the mixture'. The world's production of phosphate amounts to over three million tons, over one half of which is made in the United States. Of the super-phosphate the United States manufactures one third and France one fifth. The United States exported over $6 ooo ooo worth of crude phosphate in 1900, of which Germany purchased forty per cent, United Kingdom and Holland being the next largest buyers. Phosphates are supposed to be formed from the fossil dung or car- casses of innumerable water fowl. They sometimes occur as river de- posits and at others as land deposits, but chemically they are the same. Dredges are used to obtain them out of the river bottoms and the land deposits are mined or dug out. It is afterwards washed to free it from other impurities, and kilned to free it from moisture. It occurs in nodules from an ounce to a ton in weight, and in beds varying from a few inches to fifty feet in thickness. In Florida it also occurs in the form of pebbles and water worn grains. Potash may be obtained from the ashes of all plants, but the bulk of the world's supply for agricultural purposes is obtained from the potassic salts manufactured at Strassfurt, Germany. These deposits are found in Central Germany in the provinces of Hanover and Saxony, where they form a deposit of over one thousand feet in thickness. The raw salts are concentrated and converted into potash fertilizers, muriate of potash and sulphate of potash containing the largest per- centage of potash. In 1900 the United States imported over $2 700 000 worth of these from Germany. Germany consumes more commercial fertilizer than any other country, France is second; United Kingdom, PAPER. 189 I)elgium, Holland, and other European countries also consume large amounts. The United States, in proportion to the area cultivated, does not consume as great a quantity of artificial fertilizers as European countries, but their use is steadily increasing. Paper. The ancients did not have such paper as is now in common use. They made a kind of paper from the inner bark of a reed-like plant, called the papyrus, from which our word paper comes. The strips of this bark were laid side by side slightly overlapping and then pressed, the juices of the plant causing them to stick together. The word "library" from Latin "liber" a bark, and book from the Anglo-Saxon "boc" for beech, show that the barks of trees were used for similar purposes by our European ancestors. The Chinese were the first to make paper from pulp ; they used the wood of the cotton plant. The knowledge of this method first reached Europe through the Arabs. Cotton and linen rags, old paper, straw, and esparto grass and other substances were for a long time the only sources of supply of paper- making materials. The spread of education and the exciting events of the last fifty years created a demand for news and led to the rapid growth of the newspaper, and the growth of literary taste led to the development of book-making. Paper makers were not able to supply the demand for paper and this led to the invention of wood pulp for use in the manufacture of paper. Wood pulp besides being used in the manufacture of paper is now made into so many things that it may be said that there is nothing which cannot be made out of paper. Grease-proof paper for wrapping butter, fire-proof paper used in the interior of cars and war ships, car wheels, water mains where cast iron would oxidize, steam pipes, window panes in which the paper is made translucent by chemical processes and used where the constant vibra- tion of the building would break glass, clothing, water proofs, are among the articles made from it; it is also spun into fabrics for the manufacture of tablecloths, etc. A paper axe has been made with an edge hard enough for use in cutting. In making paper from rags and other similar materials, they are chopped and the dust blown out of them ; they are then boiled in water with soda and lime, and put into 190 MANUFACTURES. a pulp machine in which the rags are washed clean, bleached white, and beaten into pulp. Coloring for colored paper is added to the pulp, clay is added to make it heavier and smoother, and at present casein, formerly glue, for sizing is added to harden the surface of the paper, otherwise the ink would run on it just as it does on blotting paper. Wood pulp may be made mechanically or chemically. The mechan- ical pulp process was the first invented. It consists in grinding the wood pulp and there is no separation of the cellulose from impurities by chemical processes. The cheaper grades of paper are made from it and are used for newspaper and other cheap publications. The Sunday edi- tion of one of the large newspapers, like the New York World, con- sumes the product of fifty cords of wood. There are two chemical pro- cesses : First, the sulphite process, in which the wood is chopped up and put into a digester with sulphite of lime. This separates the impurities from the cellulose fibre. After washing and bleaching it is made into a sheet like blotting paper for ease of transportation, and run over a heated cylinder which dries out the moisture. This is used in making the finest grades of paper. Second, the soda process, which is made in the same way only caustic soda is used. Spruce is the principal wood used in the sulphite process, but in the soda process a great variety of woods are used. The use of wood pulp has changed the source of supply for the materials used in the manufacture of paper. Instead of being depen- dent on rags and paper from densely populated countries, they now obtain what they need from the forests of Norway, Sweden, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Canada, and the United States. Many kinds of woods are used, but the spruces and balsams which are found in Maine and other parts of the United States, are considered the best for fine papers. Canada has at present the largest known sources of supply; it could furnish a million tons annually for fifty years, and as thirty years is sufficient time for the trees to grow large enough, they could keep up the supply permanently. Beach, maple, and other kinds suitable for wood pulp can be found abundantly in the United States. The chief paper-manufacturing countries are the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Austria, and Belgium. The chief PAPER. 191 exporting countries of paper are Germany, France, United Kingdom, United States, Austria, and Belgium. Tlie United States is now the greatest producer of paper in the world, but the export trade in paper is not so large as in some other countries because the home demands have increased more rapidly than the manufacturers were able to sup- ply them. The value of the exports of paper from the United States in 1900 was over $6 000 000 or more than five times as much as it was in 1890. The United Kingdom is the largest purchaser of American paper, and its colonies, Australia and Canada, are next in importance, followed by Japan. Germany exports mainly to other European countries; it has also a large trade with Argentina, Brazil, and Japan. Belgium exports almost entirely to other European countries and also to Argentina, Brazil, and the Dutch East In- dies. Algeria and Brazil outside of Europe are the most impor- tant markets for French paper. Austria sends large quantities of paper to India and Egypt as well as to other European countries. The United Kingdom's largest customers are Australia, Africa, India, France, and the United States. The first paper mill in the United States was established by William Rittenhouse in 1690 at Germantown, Philadelphia, on Paper Mill Run, a small stream flowing into the Wissahickon. Holyoke, Massachusetts, is the greatest paper centre in the world, turning out two hundred tons a day. There are over a thousand paper mills in the United States and their total product amounts to about three million five hundred thousand tons annually, valued at over $150 000000. New York leads in the amount FIG. 81.— UNITED STATES PAPER EXPORTS- MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. 192 MANUFACTURES, of wood pulp paper, followed by Maine and Wisconsin ; Massachusetts in the value of output with $25 000 000, followed by New York with nearly the same amount and Maine, Wisconsin and Pennsylvania with $iO(X)0 000 worth each. Pottery. Pottery is known under the name of earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain or chinaware ; the first two are made from an infusible earthy mixture which remains opaque after it comes out of the kiln, while porcelain is made from a fusible earthy mixture combined with an infusible one which becomes semi-vitrified and translucent in the kiln. Earthenware is soft and porous and in this condition it is used in the manufacture of flowerpots. When it is to be made into fine table- ware it is covered with a thick glass varnish, called glaze, which fills the pores, giving it a smooth glassy appearance. It is known by vari- ous names derived from the places where the different kinds were once made, as Faience from Faenza, Italy, Majolica from the island of Ma- jorca, and Delft from a town in Holland where a certain kind of blue- ware was first made. Stoneware differs from earthenware in having the clay melted together so as to be no longer porous. It is a hard, close grained pottery. Porcelain, or chinaware as it is sometimes called because it came first from China, is the finest kind of pottery. It is hard and fine grained and so thin that light shines through it. Various kinds of clay are used in the manufacture of the different kinds of pottery. Alumina from the clays and silica from the sands are the principal substances. In the manufacture of hard porcelain potash is used, of soft porcelain soda, and of stoneware baryta. Iron is injurious causing the clay to fuse during baking. In making the common kinds of pottery the clay and other substances are ground up in a mill with water to make a paste. In the finer grades they are mixed dry and water is added, making a fine thin paste called "slip." This is strained until it is the proper thickness for moulding in which state it is formed into the various shapes required on a potter's wheel or over plaster moulds. These are dried in a drying room and after- ward baked in a kiln or oven for a day and a half. The fire is allowed POTTERY. 193 to go out and the pieces are cooled gradually. In this state they are called ''biscuit ware." The glaze is then put on. For earthenware this is made out of white clay and ground quartz, feldspar, or other substances, mixed with water so as to make a white liquid. Each piece is dipped into this glaze and placed on a shelf or bench. The water sinks into the pores and a film of glaze is left on the outside. The pieces are then baked in a glaze kiln which melts the glaze and spreads it evenly over the surface. Painting or decoration is put on the biscuit, the colors being under the glaze are durable. Porcelain is made from the paste of a very fine white clay, or kaolin, mixed with other substances. When cooled after baking the first time, the pieces are dipped in a different kind of glaze from that used in earthenware. This when heated in the kiln, forms a glassy surface so thin and clear that light will shine through it. Porcelain is sometimes painted in the biscuit and sometimes outside the glaze. The paints are made of colored glass ground fine and mixed with oil of turpentine and put on with brushes; the pieces are afterwards put in the kiln to be fired again. Pottery is an ancient art which has existed in some form among almost all the earlier nations. Many of its methods have come down to the modern world from the Egyptians and Phoenicians through Greece and Rome. The Arabs brought the art into Spain where Ma- jolica was made. Palissy, a French painter, discovered the secret of the manufacture, of Majolica ware and introduced it into France. Delft was made in Holland about the same time and from there its manu- facture spread to England. Wedgwood developed a number of new kinds of pottery and laid the foundations of the English pottery trade. In America after many vicissitudes this industry has grown so, that now most of the pottery used in the United States is of home manu- facture. Trenton, N. J., Liverpool, Ohio, and other places make large quantities of all kinds of ware. Porcelain originally came from China and Japan. In 171 1 Bot- tiger of Saxony accidentally discovered that a clay at Meissen near Dresden was suitable for the manufacture of porcelain. It was not long until the secret became known in Vienna and kaolin suitable 194 MAN UFA CTURES. for porcelain was found elsewhere in Europe. Factories for the manu- facture of porcelain were started at Vienna, Munich, Sevres, and in towns in Staffordshire, England. The products of these have been so improved that to-day Sevres vases and Dresden china are the finest kind of art work and are equal to those made in China. In the United States fine porcelain is made at Trenton, N. J., Greenpoint, N. Y., and other places. The United Kingdom, Germany, France, Austria, and the United States are the largest pottery-manu- facturing countries. The United Kingdom and Germany each export over $9 ooo ooo worth annually France $6000000, and Austria $4 000 000. The United States imported about $8 500 000 worth in 1900, of which about $1 000- 000 worth was undecorated and came principally from the United Kingdom ; $7 000 000 worth was decorated of which thirty six per cent was imported from France, thirty per cent from the United Kingdom and eighteen per cent from Germany. Most of Ger- many's exports are sent to other European countries. Nearly one third of the chinaware exported to foreign countries from the United Kingdom is sent to the United States, while the United Kingdom, United States, and Germany are the largest purchasers of French china. Glassware. Glass is made from silica, which is obtained from sand and sand- stone, rock crystal, and flint. It is one of the most abundant sub- stances found in nature. This is combined with soda, potash, alumina, lime, oxide of lead, or other substances. The best white quartz sand is found in Massachusetts and some of it is exported for the manufacture of fine crystal glass. Alumina and lime are used to harden the glass, 10 9 70 75 80 85 so 3) 92 93 9+1951^ 97 98 99 00 01 02 Tz 04 W 10 3 8 7 6 5 4 5 1 /N s y 1 ■ A / \ / \ / p f i / f 7 6 5 J > f \i i / / v \> f / y y ^ a -i /> J y V »» J 3 1 j 1 __ FIG 82 —UNITED STATES IMPORTS OF EARTHEN, STONE AND CHINA WARE IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS, GLASS. 195 and oxide of lead is used to give it lustre and high refractive power. The different substances are carefully sifted and mixed together before nielting. This mixture is called ''frit" or ''batch" and is melted in pots in a furnace. The pots are made of annealed clay. In making plate glass the molten material is poured on a casting table, made of iron and perfectly flat, with long strips of metal on the side to regulate the thickness of the glass and to prevent the molten material from running over. A roller resting on the strips is passed over the liquid glass. When cool enough it is put into an annealing oven to cool gradually. Pressed glass is made by placing it w^ile in a molten state in moulds and pressing it into the desired shape. In this way large quantities of glassware can be made quickly and cheaply. Glassware and window glass are also made by using a blowing tube made of iron. It is covered with wood to protect the hands of the workmen from the heat and is about five feet long. A mass of viscid glass from the melting pot is taken up on the end of the tube and is inflated by blowing through the tube. It is shaped, cut, joined with other pieces of glass and decorated while in a heated condition until it las assumed the desired shape. In making ordinary window glass a long hollow cylinder is formed which is cut open and sent to the flattening room where the heat causes it to open wider and it is flattened out by the workman with a wooden polisher. Glass made in this way is called sheet or cylinder glass. Another method of making flat sheets is to transfer the hollow ball, after it has been blown out, to the end of an iron rod. An opening is then made at the opposite end and the glass twirled around until it opens out into a flat sheet with a bull's eye in the middle. This is called crown glass. Flint glass is used in the manufacture of cut glass. It is cut with a wheel turned by a treadle. Stained glass differs from painted glass ; it is made by painting the glass in the same way as porcelain and then heating it again. Colored glass is made by mixing oxides of different metals with the original materials. i\ll kinds of glass have to be annealed or go through some other process to enable them to stand ordinary usage. Annealing consists in cooling them off slowly and equally. Siemens has by his method of hardening glass made it possi- 194 MAN UFA CrURES. for porcelain was found elsewhere in Europe. Factories for the manu- facture of porcelain were started at Vienna, Munich, Sevres, and in towns in Staffordshire, England. The products of these have been so improved that to-day Sevres vases and Dresden china are the finest kind of art work and are equal to those made in China. In the United States fine porcelain is made at Trenton, N. J., Greenpoint, N. Y., and other places. The United Kingdom, Germany, France, Austria, and the United States are the largest pottery-manu- facturing countries. The United Kingdom and Germany each export over $9 ooo ooo worth annually France $6000000, and Austria $4000000. The United States imported about $8 500 000 worth in 1900, of which about $1 000- 000 worth was undecorated and came principally from the United Kingdom ; $7 000 000 worth was decorated of which thirty six per cent was imported from France, thirty per cent from the United Kingdom and eighteen per cent from Germany. Most of Ger- many's exports are sent to other European countries. Nearly one third of the chinaware exported to foreign countries from the United Kingdom is sent to the United States, while the United Kingdom, United States, and Germany are the largest purchasers of French china. 70 JS 80 85|90|9I 92 93|9f 95i96|97 'bb 99 OOJOI 02,03 04105 '« / \ , , , . , 10 A / \ . /\\ \ V o f \\ \ J- ':::i::::^ 1 / iW \ / ' i/ " J/ 1 r i / '" ^ 6 6 ^^\^f - ■ - b 4 "^ 1 4 4 1 i . ^ r ? 1 L 1 ! ^-i"_, 1 ■_! r^i. , . .... ^ n "■ i 1 FIG 82 —UNITED STATES IMPORTS OF EARTHEN, STONE AND CHINA WARE IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS. Glassware. Glass is made from silica, which is obtained from sand and sand- stone, rock crystal, and flint. It is one of the most abundant sub- stances found in nature. This is combined with soda, potash, alumina, lime, oxide of lead, or other substances. The best white quartz sand is found in Massachusetts and some of it is exported for the manufacture of fine crystal glass. Alumina and lime are used to harden the glass, GLASS. 195 and oxide of lead is used to give it lustre and high refractive power. The different substances are carefully sifted and mixed together before njelting. This mixture is called "frit" or ''batch" and is melted in pots in a furnace. The pots are made of annealed clay. In making plate glass the molten material is poured on a casting table, made of iron and perfectly flat, with long strips of metal on the side to regulate the thickness of the glass and to prevent the molten material from running over. A roller resting on the strips is passed over the liquid glass. When cool enough it is put into an annealing oven to cool gradually. Pressed glass is made by placing it while in a molten state in moulds and pressing it into the desired shape. In this way large quantities of glassware can be made quickly and cheaply. Glassware and window glass are also made by using a blowing tube made of iron. It is covered with wood to protect the hands of the workmen from the heat and is about five feet long. A mass of viscid glass from the melting pot is taken up on the end of the tube and is inflated by blowing through the tube. It is shaped, cut, joined with other pieces of glass and decorated while in a heated condition until it has assumed the desired shape. In making ordinary window glass a long hollow cylinder is formed which is cut open and sent to the flattening room where the heat causes it to open wider and it is flattened out by the workman with a wooden polisher. Glass made in this w^ay is called sheet or cylinder glass. Another method of making flat sheets is to transfer the hollow ball, after it has been blown out, to the end of an iron rod. An opening is then made at the opposite end and the glass twirled around until it opens out into a flat sheet with a bull's eye in the middle. This is called crown glass. Flint glass is used in the manufacture of cut glass. It is cut with a wheel turned by a treadle. Stained glass differs from painted glass ; it is made by painting the glass in the same way as porcelain and then heating it again. Colored glass is made by mixing oxides of different metals with the original materials. All kinds of glass have to be annealed or go through some other process to enable them to stand ordinary usage. Annealing consists in cooling them off slowly and equally. Siemens has by his method of hardening glass made it possi- 196 MANUFACTURES. ble to manufacture glass hard enough to be used for railway sleepers and grindstones. The manufacture of glass is, like that of pottery, an ancient art. Its finer forms were introduced into Greece and Rome by the Phoeni- cians who no doubt learned the art from the Egyptians. Belgium, Austria, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States are all large glass manufacturing countries. With the exception of the United States they are all large exporters of glass and glassware. The United Kingdom is the largest importer of glass- ware, the value of the imports in 1900 being three times that of the United States. Of the $5 000 000 worth imported by the latter, win- dow glass unpolished is imported from Belgium and polished from Germany. Bottles are supplied by France and Germany, and plate ^lass by Belgium, England, France and Germany. Glass is made in many parts of the United States, sand of good quality suitable for its manufacture being found in many places. Natural gas regions are centres for its manufacture because of the advantages derived from the use of gas as a fuel. Pennsylvania is the largest glass manufacturing state; a greater number of glass factories are situated in Western Pennsylvania than in any other locality in the United States. Ohio, New Jersey, Indiana also have large glass industries. Other lines of raw materials and manufactures will be treated of in connection with the localities in which they are produced. APPENDIX. SUPPLEMENTARY PUBLICATIONS. The following documents are published by the Government and furnished free of cost. They can be secured by application to the various departments or through the members of Congress. They should be secured by teachers in sufficient numbers to fully meet the wants of students in the preparation of the supplementary work required in connection with this text as outlined in the Teacher's Syllabus. DEPARTMENT OF STATE. Monthly Consular Reports, containing recentcommercial information. Commercial Relations of the United States, 2 vols., giving a good idea of foreign trade. Prepared by Hon. Frederic Emory. Special Consular Reports, treating on special articles. TREASURY DEPARTMENT. Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance of the United States, containing monthly statistics of the trade of the United States and monographs on different products, as cotton, coal, etc., and countries, as Africa, Asia, etc., and on the Internal Commerce of the United States. Annual Report of Commerce and Navigation of the United States, giving full statistics of the trade of the United States for ten years by articles and by countries. Statistical Abstract, containing a brief review of all Government Statistics relat- ing to internal and foreign commerce. The above Statistical Reports are prepared by Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics. INTERIOR DEPARTMENT. Mineral Resources of the United States, containing a complete account of mineral resources of the United States compared with other countries. Published by the Geological Survey. 198 APPENDIX. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture, containing articles on the various agricultural products of the world. Publications of the various departments containing information on the subject to which they are devoted: Weather Bureau. Division of Forestry, Hon. Giflford Pinchot, Forester. Section of Foreign Markets, F. H. Hitchcock, Chief. Division of Statistics, John Hyde, Statistician. Crop Reporter, containing monthly review of condition of crops in the United States and other parts of the world. Bureau of American Republics — Monthly Bulletin and Monographs on different Latin American countries. Report of the Industrial Commission. Report of Interstate Commerce Commission. United States Census Reports. Annual Report of Fisheries Commission. In different States reports of mines and other industries are given as — New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, etc. The following are not published by the Government. Statesman's Yearbook. New York. (Highest authority.) The International Geography. Mill. New York. Stanford's Compendium of Geography. London. Carpenter's Geographical Readers. New York. Shaler. United States of America. New York, Mulhall. Dictionary of Statistics, New York. Mulhall. Industries and Wealth of Nations.- New York, International Yearbook. New York. Mayo-Smith. Statistics and Economics. New York. Rothwell. Mineral Industry. New York. Yeat's Manuals of Commerce. London. De Colange. The American Encyclopedia of Commerce. Boston. Die Landbauzonen der Aussertropischen Lander. Berlin. Herbertson. Earth and Man. London. 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East Indies East Indie Kong . . . • B Oceania. ine Islands ia c OS _ 1— 1 "rt u < > (V u China British Dutch French Hong ] Japan Korea Persia (5 c75cn N rt O coco ^ APPENDIX. 201 < y S2 < O w u w :^ S o u CO CO .00C3 . . .o o rvi^H OJ Ci 'OQO''OiO''" GO GO .i>t>...OiCO... s O c^ 1> 00 Tj- O t- T^H ' ' o CO t- • cs • -oj ... lO ,-H -* _ ^ ^ ^lo CO C/2 H^ l-H ' ■ ' 'OO ' ' ' o H "w «^ . ..... tH O X U ha- ^^^ ^^^'^^ ^ ^'^^_j^^ ^^^ ooo ^ w OOOOOOOOOOOOOOCiO^ '^C)0 Q • o oooo ooo oooooo OO o .ooo o "cS 10000Clt-100^0ST-io:ii>^OTOO lOOCO CO o THJ>Oi>CCT-;i>tot-i-lGOQOOOciOt^ '(©coos o H C300t>iO^OiOT-fi>c:iCOcOC5COOiOCi C005i-i o »0 lO Ci CO O C3 "* N O CO C3 O l-H J> tH JO " J> i> «o CO i> rH O 00 . CQ 00 O t-OOCOlOO .-^lO . . . o ^>: »o io io«o^t>io -^in o O O £>COCO»C10 . tH CO . , . 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WOOL AND COTTON, UNITED STATES. ^15 Wool. Cotton, Production. Imports. Production. Exports. Millions of Pounds. Millions of Bales. 1840 35.8 9.8 1850 52.5 18 6 2.2 1.5 1860 60.2 26 2 4.8 3.7 1806 155.0 71.2 2.2 1.5 1870 162.0 49.2 3 1 21 1875 181.0 54 9 3.8 26 1880 232.5 128.1 5.7 38 1885 308.0 70.5 5 7. 3.9 1890 276.0 105.4 7.2 4.9 1891 285.0 294.0 129.3 148.6 8.6 9.0 5 7 1893 5.8 1893 303.1 172.4 6.6 4.3 1894 298 55.1 7.5 5.2 1895 309.7 206.0 9.8 6.7 1896 272.4 230 9 7.1 4.6 1897 259.1 350.8 8.7 5.9 1898 266.7 272.1 132 7 76 7 11.2 112 75 1899 7.3 1900 288.6 155.9 9.4 5.9 WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF WOOL AND SILK (1900). Millions of Pounds. United Kingdom Russia France Spain Germany . . . . Austria-Hungary Italy ....... Portugal . . . . Sweden-Norway Switzerland . . . Turkey, etc. . . . United States . . Canada Mexico Argentina . . . Chili Brazil Wool. 140.2 361.1 103 6 102.6 49 5 64.3 21.4 13.4 8.2 *67.5 288.6 12.0 5.0 370.0 7.5 1.5 Silk. Uruguay . . . Venezuela . . Russia (Asia) British India . Turkey (Asia) Central Asia . China .... Australasia Algeria and Tunis Egypt British So. Africa Japan Levant .... Other Total Wool. 96.0 15.0 60.0 85.0 33.0 46.0 35.0 510.0 30.4 30 100 55 3 2 685.1 Silk. 14.3 7.1 3.4 34.4 316 APPENDIX. MINERAL PRODUCTS. [899 OR Latest Available Statistics. Thousands of Tons. United States United Kingdom Germany and Luxemburg . France Belgium Austria Russia Sweden Spain Italy Canada Japan Cuba . . . , Greece Algeria India New South Wales Iron Ore. 25 000 14 177 17 990 4 731 217 3 400 4 107 2 303 9 234 201 68 27 368 485 474 43 Pig Iron. 13 621 9 305 8 142 2 567 1036 1427 2 222 532 296 8 94 58 Steel. 10 640 5 000 6 290 1554 729 880 1494 265 123 95 22 Coal. 230 839 220 085 135 824 32 356 21917 37 786 12 862 236 2 742 341 4 077 5 647 17 4136 4 597 APPENDIX. 217 •uoijonpojj . . . O i-H CC T-J -^^ O (N O i> lO 00 CQ ^ c^ . . . 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CQ Ci •/CUBUIjar) C0GO»CO00OOO05C500T^0000e0i-irt< tH C5* oi CQ* 00* 00* ^* •<*■ T}^ •^' ^* Tt< ^* \d LC* CD CD* t- 00* 00* •iuop3ui;5j pajiufi OS UO 00 t- Tj^ O iro OS 00 CS T*< i> OS Tt< t- CO i> CD 00 c: JO CO* O* <> i> e>' i>* C-^ 00* t-* i> CO CD {>' i>* oo* 00* 00 OS* 00 •S3JB1S pajtuQ O O O 00 O CD -^ -^^ CO C'J O? 1-* 1-i CD -^ O CD t- CD }> 1-J GQ* oi 00 ->*" O CD CD* i> OS* 00 OS fr-" CD* OS* 00* OS tH* CO* 00* OCOiiOOOCO}>OOOSOi-iOIOOTtOOOSO ■ J> i> i> GO 00 00 00 00 00 OS OS OS OS OS OS OS OS OS OS o OOOOODOOOOOOQOOOOOOC. OOOOQOOOOOOOOOOOOOCS 218 APPENDIX. GOLD AND SILVER PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD AND OF THE UNITED STATES. Millions of Dollars. United States. World. Gold. Silver. Gold. Silver. 1863 40.0 8.8 122.9 47.6 1868 48.0 12.3 129,6 57.0 1873 36.0 35.8 96.2 82.1 1878 51.2 40.2 119.0 84.5 1883 30.0 39.6 95.3 98.9 1888 33.1 32.8 43.0 46.7 110.1 123.4 102.1 1889 112.4 1890 32 8 57.2 118.8 131 9 1891 33.1 57.6 130.6 135.5 1892 33.0 55.5 146.6 133.4 1893 35.9 46.8 157.4 129.1 1894 39.5 31.4 181.1 104.4 1895 46.6 36.4 198.7 109.5 1896 53 39.6 202.2 105 8 1897 57.3 32.3 236.0 96.2 1898 64.4 32.1 286.5 102.2 1899 71.0 32.8 306.5 100.3 1900 78.1 36.5 255.9 112.2 PRICES 1868 1870 1873 1875 1880 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 Steel Rails. Pittsburg. 158.50 106.75 120.50 68.75 67.50 28.50 34.50 37.08 29.83 29.25 31.75 Foundry Pig, Philadelphia. 39.25 33.25 42.75 25.50 28.50 18.00 18.71 20.92 18.88 17.75 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 Steel Rails. Pittsburg. 29.92 30.00 28.12 24.00 24 33 28.00 18.75 17.62 28.12 31.00 Foundry Pic. Philadelphia. 17.52 15.75 14.52 12.66 13.10 12.95 12.10 11.66 19.36 15.40 APPENDIX. 219 MACHINERY TRADE. Millions of Dollars. United States. United Kingdom. Germany. France. Date. S u5 CO a . ■ E 1—1 1 X I 1 1 a X a E 1— 1 o a X W L885 ..... L886 .9 1.2 19 2.0 2.4 2.8 27 2.8 33 1.4 1.6 28 1.2 1.8 1.6 35 7.9 7.2 7.8 8.7 11.2 14 2 16 3 16.2 15 8 15.1 17.2 21.6 29.4 34.0 44.2 55 4 13 >^ u a, a5oLU '^^^. "> MAY 23 M3 LD 21-100m-12,'46(A20l2sl6)4120 r'C Ub777 3^^80 Hr/oz7 AI3 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY